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U.S. Forest Service 
Research Paper_ INT-5 
q 1963, 


a, 
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FOREST FIRES IN ALASKA , 


by 


Charles E. Hardy and James W. Franks 


Yor 
INTERMOUNTAIN. PoRET AND RANGE EXPERIMENT STATION 
, Forest Service, 
U.S. Department of Agriculture 
Sp. Ogden, Utah, 
Joseph F. Pechanec, Director 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 


The authors are indebted to a large number of people who assisted in furnishing information, 
data, and suggestions for this publication. Roger R. Robinson, State Director, Bureau of Land Manage- 
ment, Alaska, and his assistants rendered an especially fine service in furnishing background infor- 
mation, facilitating collection of technical information and data, supplying fire reports and pertinent 
data from official files, and making it possible for the fire behavior teams to go to fires and collect 
valuable information. Clarence Watson, Climatologist for the U.S. Weather Bureau in Anchorage, gave 
the authors information on climate and weather beyond that which was readily available in printed 
form. The several members of the fire behavior teams, with minimum supervision and under adverse 
and, at times, dangerous conditions, performed a very creditable job of collecting fire behavior and 
weather information on going fires. Six Montana State University forestry students exhibited consider- 
able interest and initiative while performing the laborious task of compiling and analyzing data and 
in constructing preliminary graphs. DeLynn Colvert, Forest Service Draftsman, reflected his interest 
and understanding of the problems in his artwork and graphic representations. To all of these and 


many more, the authors are most grateful. 


GES Heandwawak 


CONTENTS 


Page 

CCIE H oT eet ed Dail B68 8 oY 6 UEC 0 0 ee oe ee 1 
| Eby oLorstevop ecg] ol Ksjad Sebi] 0) ees (0) «eee eee ee eB ane ere ne Eee eee eee 1 
Miterabubetlvevte wa sisters ee eels a8 a2 2s se atest c cadena Seas teneee 1 
SECU aba ETA SS ae Rep ee eee 3 
@hapter 2:-- Vialuestat Stakes «ic iieh Gesell ence ete eet 9 
ADSL AERESOUTCOS 22sec 25 Sy ve cs bec cde da deces eeesegapacsceececesezececeanensbel 9 
Fish and Wildlife Resources ....................2.221....----:e¢ecce-eeeeceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees 11 
J REVS) oh 9 Weel 8 e165 8 YG. = le ee oe ee Nr Peer 11 
ERY UIT e9d 8221 0 «eta a pe er a le 11 
Recreational “ReESOUPCES \.....<..........--..00.c.se.-secenena-ceagepssedecccsscnenececaceesuceecsese 13 
JAS ETW CU G2 5 2h hs NP a aR eo oe 15 
NINE WSN GS) 0 6 Fs se oe ae ee 16 
\UISYES LO nas ey ac tp el Pe 17 
Assessment of Damages .................-.22...--.2..00--20ccceeeeceeeeeceeeeneeecenteeeeeeteceeees 19 
Chapter 3 - Geography and Climate —.....22...220220.20.22ceeeeeeeeteeeceeeeeeeeeeee es 21 
Bhysicals GO@srap iyo -222-<sisc 025. cocs sete ccccusbecetsssic ac dctestacdcencccidecucteteteestiesixesss 21 
South asta one cee foe ok tet Nee Ps ose 8 cathe rye re oe 21 
G@opper River alley 2.2 2.2. feces cece cas cadseneddeseeusuanaldeeliccenesteate 21 
okra eee ess oe a cadence dhs tacaele aac 24 

| 5H STO) Mas] Fe hips eae re 21 
WeSC Cribs seect act nce cS i ee oo, Jvc deacatvedencaceiddeiee sls tentey Sener 2.2808 22 
PA CHIC SIT AINA Oxi co oes sce basacnc Lesa egvasdedsdasuechadaeeesUicseletecacdececcs-eose 22, 
VG RRET A OVRCH SF: 551 0 EAS oe oS i ee el ee 22 
(CUTE YS) Sa CaN 8 he 22 
Zone of Dominant Maritime Influence ...........0.......20. 220. -eee eee eee eee 23 
Piranisitione HONG tes ioe at ae ie eg ohn te ft 2 Se 23 
Dominant Continental Zone 2...-.22:2....c.--ce-ce-e-eececeee,enceeecaeceesneececenee-- 24 
IAS GEG (Oe ALG) 0 Bagge ari Re eo 25 
Weather Factors That Affect Fire Behavior and Control .................... 25 
JES RSSICON (0561 da Nc ae en 25 
“RESTO 6; 21 0 ee i ee 27 

| ELSES BOYS REN ce le 28 
Relatives: Murmaidity: 2.28.08 .22.cicce.cceacccaeneceeesec cos cevessceseocecncdasceccheeasectueds 28 
Wengthvor Daylight. ecco csecechoeceee tl celecale lace oeteecceeeescdue. 28 
DLT Cheer start erie oe seers nee i Dh as ope eee 29 
Sey Conditions 25 * a ces eo ee eo cll ae 30 
Significance of Deviations From Normal _......................--.---.... a2 
(OOF OY Ey ger On 8 Co) <n cc 35 
JA) El BY =*ST oh 8 (0) 0 a 35 
ISHUAS) cara Re 8”. CN ye 35 
ConGinmtty es kee se ee I 35 
Cover Vype- Classification: 22.05. <sicn ccc cced case soc socceeceseocdcctececeeeeccseet cn. 36 
Early Stages in Forest Succession 20000220 ooeocoeeeee eo eee eee 36 
Secondary Stages in Forest Succession eee SH 
Climax Oreste Pa ese! even Meh a ee 37 


CONTENTS — Continued 


Page 

Chapter 5.- Fire-Danger Rating ’=.2.2-25 == ee 41 
Use: of Fire-Weather Information: 22-2) eee 41 
Seasonal ‘Trends in Fire’ Weather 2.22 222 eee 44 
Diurnal Fluctuation of Fire-Weather Factors ................222.-.--:ee-1000000+- 44 
Chapter'6'- ‘Fire Statistics :..2. 2 ee ee ee eee 49 
Historical 22% Brae ee Te 49 
Comparative:Statistics 2.2.03 2 a ee eee 49 
Interior Alaska, With Continental United States _..............02.002...... 49 
Interior Alaska, With Southeastern Alaska ...................0000...22-..---- 59 
Within ‘Interior Alaska\: 20's 25, See ee ere 59 
Chapter: 7.=. Fire CasevHistories =. os Se eee 69 
eal yisire x <2 cet a 2 ee a 69 
Murphy Dome. Pirée).. 0203 ee ee ee eee 70 
Kenai Toake: Wire) 2.22 sie Sa eS ee ae 70 
Colorado. Creek th ire 0 ee 73 
Lake 606" Hire 252 or ES ee ree oe Ce ee 76 
Stony (Rivers Pure mri se Se eee ee ce ee 78 
Huggins Island@“W=10: Hire 2 ee Ee ee ee 78 
SUNITA Ty 2s Se a aise i ea ete aN hee ce 81 
@hapter.8\=Fire: Control, 22.2.8 ee ee 83 
Hire: Control Organization, 4425.04. ae eee 83 
Presuippressions 6-2-0 os Serle ee ee 83 
Detection: 2. 2:1s< sete cee et on ws Ss Noe aie & nee 86 
SUppression),..... [sisi 2) ee ER ee pee Soe a Re eee 89 
Fire:as a. Management "Tool ..:3-:.5 2.20. ee Gee eee 93 
IRETCTENCES i288. oe 2 oes a cede al LON a OIE RA a a 97 
J 3A) 0) 0) 000 |b. Giana yee Se MRS GA: i Te can A ety ced tee ie 101 


CHAPTER 1 
INTRODUCTION 


PURPOSE OF THIS PUBLICATION 


Alaska has long been thought of as an area 
to be exploited rather than developed. Only 
recently have the advantages of managing a 
continuous resource gained much support. Even 
as late as the end of World War II the official 
feeling towards the timber supply in Interior 
Alaska was pretty clearly indicated in the follow- 
ing quotation from a United States Department 
of Interior report, (USDI 1945): ‘It seems reason- 
able to suppose that little of the interior timber 
will ever come into the general timber-products 
markets though birch trees of the best quality 
are suitable for cabinet making... .”’ 


The term, “‘Interior Alaska,’ describes that 
portion of the State which lies west of the 141st 
meridian except for the rugged south coast east 
of the Kenai Range on the Kenai peninsula. Most 
land south and east of this line is managed by 
the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Forest Serv- 
ice in the form of three National Forests. All the 
rest of the State, some 360,000 square miles, is 
protected by the U.S. Department of Interior's 
Bureau of Land Management; 225 million acres 
require active fire protection. The 1950-1958 
average annual loss from fire is 1.1 million 
acres; however, this varies from 37,000 to more 
than 5 million acres in individual years. Some 
administrators hope that knowledge gained 
through research and development will increase 
our effectiveness in combating fire and lead to a 
reduction of the annual loss to one-tenth of this 
tremendous amount. 


This publication was written to serve two 
audiences: The first consists of those who are 
interested in the fire protection problems but 
who do not already have knowledge of the over- 
all geography, climate, economic values, and 
the fire control ‘picture’; the second audience 
is made up of practicing foresters who wish to 
gain specific information based on fire weather, 
behavior, statistics, and control data for fire re- 
search, fire control planning, and fire suppres- 
sion purposes. Interior Alaska has a great many 
resources that deserve a much higher level of 


protection than they have been receiving. In 
order to protect a land adequately, much knowl- 
edge must be had about the enemy— in this 
case, fire.The geography and climate of the area 
are described here in terms of their significance 
to fire control. Analysis of climate, fire behavior, 
and fire statistics over the past several years 
should help establish normals against which 
future fire seasons and fire control actions can be 
measured; also, it may help shape the type and 
size of fire detection and control organization 
deemed necessary to protect the resources to an 
extent commensurate with their values. For those 
who wish to delve into statistics,.the appendix 
contains the basic information from which most 
of the charts and tables in this report were de- 
rived, 


The authors wish to point out that it is not 
their intent to draw major conclusions from the 
information presented nor to set forth a compre- 
hensive research program, but to put under one 
cover the major facets of wild fires in Interior 
Alaska. Researchers can utilize the information 
in this publication for formulating research pro- 
grams; resource managers should find this ma- 
terial beneficial in fulfilling their fire control 
planning and suppression responsibilities. 


The bulk of the statistical information is for 
the period 1950 through 1958; however, a few 
references as late as 1961 do occur. Some items 
of information were gleaned from conversations 
and general listening and reading; such informa- 
tion cannot easily be referenced nor substantiat- 
ed, and can even be erroneous. The authors have 
attempted to minimize these sources and they 
do apologize if misleading information still re- 
mains in the text. 


LITERATURE REVIEW 


Literature pertinent to forest fire control in 
Interior Alaska is scarce. Most of the available 
references that bear on some facet of fire re- 
search and control are specifically referred to in 
appropriate chapters. However, some publica- 
tions that may have only general application 
to the problems at hand are mentioned here. 


Aboriginal and white man share jointly the 
responsibility for the tremendous burned areas in 
Interior Alaska. Aboriginal man had no easy 
way of starting a fire; so when he once had one 
burning, he was loath to put it out. Extinguishing 
a fire also was quite a chore as tools were very 
primitive and much hard work was required. 
Early man had many uses for fire, the more 
prevalent being communication by smoke signals, 
hunting by driving game into pockets or into the 
water by setting fires, fighting hostile tribes by 
advancing firelines, and combating insect pests; 
in fact, it has been said that mosquitoes are the 
cause of more forest fires than any other one 
thing. Clearing the forest for easier travel and 
obtaining dry fuel wood were other common 
reasons for setting fires (Lutz 1959). 


The white man set fires for many of the 
same reasons as the aboriginals, but he also 
had reasons of his own: to accelerate growth of 
grass for livestock, to clear crop land, to see 
rock surfaces better when prospecting, to remove 
vegetative cover for strip mining, to clear road 
and railroad rights-of-way, and just to see fire 
burn. Carelessness and indifference by both 
aboriginal and white man have resulted in keep- 
ing timberland from progressing to climax status. 


The militarily strategic location of Alaska, 
and the Nation's reliance upon air defense have 
prompted a large number of meteorological re- 
search projects during the past decade or more. 
Information gathered for forecasters particularly 
interests fire research personnel because of the 
wealth of data on air circulation, winds, pressure 
distribution, and storm patterns, as described by 
Arctic Weather Central, 11th Weather Squadron 
(1950); U.S. Weather Bureau, Climate and Crop 
Weather Division (1943); and Elmendorf Fore- 
cast Center Headquarters (1953). Use of the cold 
polar lows, as studied by Reed and Tank (1956) 
is important to fire-weather forecasting, particu- 
larly in predicting the effect of upper lows as 
summer storms move along the fringe of the 
Arctic land mass. Reed's work (1958, 1959) 
points up the importance of atmospheric influ- 
ence on the whole fire season and on individual 
fires. 


This Nation has a large inventory of wood 
for lumber and fiber products. By 1975 the de- 
mand will come close to the available supply; 


by 2000 the demand will far exceed the supply 
unless better forestry practices are employed or 
vast new sources of timber are found. Three- 
fourths of the commercial forest land in the 
United States is privately owned, and 86 percent 
of the ownership is in tracts of 100 acres or less. 
The anticipated rate of gross national product 
increase, and likewise timber demands, is 
greater than the population increase because the 
standard of living is expected to increase. At 
present there is no excess of commercial forest 
lands; less will be available in the future upon 
which to grow a greater amount of timber (U.S. 
Forest Service 1958). 


Protection of the Alaskan forests from fire 
is an essential feature of all future planning. 
Protection and management of our extensive 
present and potential timber resource of Interior 
Alaska may provide that extra wood and fiber 
necessary to get us ‘over the hump.” 


Interior Alaskan forest resources are now 
being carefully surveyed by photographic tech- 
niques. The major problem is determining the 
potential timber type on formerly forested land 
and also differentiating between land that is 
capable of producing industrial wood and land 
that is not. Lutz and Caporaso (1958) consider 
forest land classification indicators from two pri- 
mary standpoints — vegetation and topographic 
situations. The completed survey and map proj- 
ect may serve as a basis for broad-scale fuel 
type classification. 


When speaking of wildlife population and 
distribution and forest cover, Alaska has been 
referred to as a continuum of edge. ‘‘The forest 
wildlife of Alaska is truly more a product of the 
edge, transition types, forest line, and timber 
line than of specific forest types . . . the ranges 
of various species of wildlife are neither distinct 
nor constant for forest type’ (Nelson 1960, p. 
461). The 2-million-acre Kenai National Moose 
Range, managed by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries 
and Wildlife, becomes one of silvicultural manip- 
ulations to retard the succession from birch- 
aspen to climax spruce stands, and to convert 
mature forests of both types by mechanical, 
chemical, and controlled burning methods into 
young hardwood growth essential for maximum 
production of browse, The story of reindeer dif- 
fers from that of the multitude of other game 


species in that the reindeer is an introduced 
species (as are bison at Big Delta and elk on 
Afognak Island). Some 1,300 head were trans- 
planted from Siberia during the period 1890- 
1902. The number increased to 1 million by 
1936, but dwindled to 26,000 by 1950. Ten 
years later the herd had made a modest increase 
to about 38,000. During this long period over- 
grazing and fire caused serious deterioration of 
reindeer feeding sites; recovery of this lichen 
range, under close protection, may require 20 to 
40 years (Heintzleman 1936; Zumwalt 1960; 
Palmer and Rouse 1945). 


Objectives of fire research and fire control 
management in much of Canada are similar to 
those for Interior Alaska. Canada is divided into 
13 protective zones, within which acceptable 
average annual burning rates have been calcu- 
lated for experimental, recreational, productive 
and nonproductive forest areas, and for non- 
forested areas. Twenty-eight productive forest 
types are recognized. The burned area objectives 
take into account values requiring protection and 
factors that affect the difficulty of protection 
(Beall 1949). 


Fire research personnel in Canada are 
studying many phases of fire behavior and con- 
trol. Proposed expansion of programs along the 
following lines will complement anticipated re- 
search in Interior Alaska: study of fuel burning 
potentials, fuel type classification, drought index 
tables, improved detection methods, air and 
ground application of improved retardants, and 
an integral economic study of fire suppression 
efforts in Canada (Besley 1959). 


One might assume that in older established 
countries like Sweden, where the economy of the 
Nation has leaned heavily on its timber supply, 
the fire control organization would be highly 
developed and efficient; but this is not neces- 
sarily true. Methods and even concepts of fire 
control must change with times. The Swedes 
have found that it is difficult to compare data 
spread over a several-year period when knowl- 
edge and accuracy are much better at the end 
than at the beginning of the period (Stromdahl 
1956 and 1959). Much the same is true for the 
data analyzed and presented in this publication. 


SUMMARY 
Interior Alaska’s forest resources have 
great potential value — a fact that received little 
recognition until after World War Il. One million 


acres out of the 225 million acres protected burn 
over annually. Too little is known about the 
special fire problem in high latitude northern 
forests. Analysis of climate, fire behavior, and 
fire statistics over the past several years should 
help establish normals against which future fire 
seasons and fire control actions can be meas- 
ured; also, it may help shape the type and size 
of fire detection and control organization deemed 
necessary to protect the resources to an extent 
commensurate with their values. 


Lutz and Uggla are recognized leaders in 
research pertaining to the fire ecology of high 
latitude forested areas, and have contributed 
substantially to a better understanding of the 
forest fire situation in Interior Alaska. The im- 
portance of Alaska to national defense prompted 
the military services to sponsor extensive meteor- 
ological and climatological research. Some of 
their work involved studies of weather circula- 
tion patterns that affect not only Interior Alaska 
but the entire continent. The resume’ of literature 
in this publication by no means accounts for the 
total amount of material written on matters that 
affect forest fire research and control in Interior 
Alaska, but it does indicate the type of work 
that has been done. 


The predicted increase in U.S. population 
will impose a terrific strain on the supply of wood 
products by the year 2000 according to recent 
studies. The large volumes of wood fiber ma- 
terial available in Interior Alaska will be needed 
to help meet the demands by that time. Forty 
million acres of commercial forest land contain 
180 billion board feet of wood and yield, at 
present, an estimated net growth of 4 billion 
board feet. Much of this commercial forest land 
is capable of producing more than 10,000 board 
feet of timber per acre. 


Commercial use of fish and wildlife is a 
$100 million industry; it can ill afford fire-caused 
stream siltation with its resultant reduction of 
oxygen and plant life. Expenditures by sports- 
men and recreationists now exceed $20 million 
per year; tourists like to see forests of green 


trees, not snags or retrogressed sites. The serv- 
ices industry likewise benefits from contented 
tourists. The well-being of the wildlife resource 
depends upon healthy forest environment under 
adequate protection. A period of 40 to 100 years 
is often required for caribou and reindeer range 
to recover from fire. Fur quality is much reduced 
in burned-over country. Many of the Nation's 
duck and geese originate in Alaska; destruction 
of their eggs and nesting grounds reduces the 
hunting potential in the western half of the 
United States. 


Mining operations, still important in Alaska, 
must have a constant flow of water, with neither 
flooding nor drought, for their ventures to be 
economically successful. Interested potential in- 
vestors tend to shy away from establishing busi- 
ness or industry where a continuous source of 
raw material cannot be reasonably assured and 
protected. Well-cared-for watersheds are neces- 
sary for all resource development and mainte- 
nance. Aircraft use for defense, profit, or pleas- 
ure requires smoke-free skies. Airborne fire con- 
trol operations in particular cannot succeed when 
the sky is full of smoke. 


No reliable means of determining intangible 
loss from fire has yet been developed. Even the 
full impact of fire on tangible assets of timber, 
forage, and improvements is sometimes difficult 
to ascertain. Research and development must be 
aimed at establishing and maintaining standards 
of fire control commensurate with the needs for 
industrial, recreational, and personal security. 


Alaska’s 586,000 square miles make it by 
far the largest State in the Union. Geographi- 
cally, the peninsula of Alaska varies from a 
southern coastline of precipitous ice-packed 
mountains, to vast flood plains along the Bering 
Sea, to extensive interior valleys separated by 
rolling hills. The State can be divided by geo- 
graphic formations into seven distinct divisions. 
Southeastern Alaska Jies along the coast south- 
east of longitude 141° W. to the end of American 
ownership south of Ketchikan. The Alaska Range 
separates Cook Inlet, Copper River, and South 
Coast Divisions from the others and confines 
them to the maritime climatic influence. West 
Central and Bristol Bay Divisions are made up of 
hills and broad flood plains and open out onto 
the Bering Sea. The Brooks Range separates the 


Arctic Drainage Division from the rest of the 
State. The broad valleys of the landlocked In- 
terior Basin embrace most of the Yukon, the up- 
per Kuskokwim, and the Tanana River drainages. 


The movement of high and low pressure 
systems over the northern Pacific and the Alaskan 
mainland areas influences the climatic conditions 
experienced in the several climatic regions of 
Alaska. Summertime heating of the land surface 
of the interior under the influence of long days 
causes a relatively low pressure while pressure 
builds up over the cool waters of the North Pa- 
cific. As a result, weather becomes warm, some- 
times hot, with occasional rains. Climatically, 
the State is divided into four general zones: the 
Maritime Zone consists of the coastline from 
southeastern Alaska through the Aleutian penin- 
sula; the arc farther inland, but extending along 
the Bering Sea, constitutes the Transition Zone; 
the great Interior Basin is called the Continental 
Zone because of its definite continental climatic 
characteristics; and the Arctic Drainage Zone is 
one of dominant Arctic influences. 


Climate of the Maritime Zone is character- 
ized by small variations in summer temperature, 
high humidities, high fog frequency, consider- 
able cloudiness, and abundant precipitation. The 
Transition Zone receives considerably less pre- 
cipitation than the Maritime Zone. Thunder- 
storms are common in the Copper River portion. 
Winds in this zone are generally light, but locally 
strong and erratic. The Continental Zone is set 
apart from the others by topographic barriers. 
Summertime temperatures may reach into the 
high 90's; annual precipitation in some localities 
is as little as 6 inches. The Arctic Zone is not 
important to fire control activity. Precipitation 
and temperature are both low. Average wind- 
speeds, however, are relatively high. The sun's 
rays in this extremely high latitude cause little 
surface heating. 


Data from 18 weather stations throughout 
Interior Alaska were analyzed for the period 
1950-58 to determine the weather regimes under 
which fires burn and control action is taken. 
Precipitation generally decreases from the south 
to the north and increases from April through 
August. Average afternoon temperatures in- 


crease and relative humidities decrease from the. 


Anchorage area northward towards the Fair- 


banks-Fort Yukon area, causing fuels to become 
progressively drier. Humidities are lower in May 
and June than in July and August. The length 
of day increases with latitude; Fort Yukon has 
nearly a month of continuous daylight. As ex- 
pected, winds in the afternoon are stronger than 
those in the morning; winds in May are stronger 
than those in July. Proximity to glaciers lying in 
long, deep canyons tends to increase the force 
and irregularity of windspeed and direction. 
Cloud ceilings are generally above 1,000 feet 
during May to early July, but become lower 
more frequently during the rest of the summer. 
Smoke and haze become increasingly detriment- 
al to firefighting activities after the end of June. 
Permafrost is more than 1,000 feet thick in the 
extreme north of the State but is nonexistent in 
the southern portion; the thick layer of mosses 
and lichens insulates the soil and retards its 
thawing; roots remain cold late into the spring 
and tend to delay the start of vegetative growth; 
the resultant late dormancy may cause fuels to 
remain dry much later into the early summer 
than one might normally expect. 


Since Alaska has no fuel type classification 
system, fire behavior is described according to 
its relative violence in various general cover 
types. As in continental United States, fire be- 
comes more active when it travels through finely 
divided fuels. Mosses, lichens, and spruce 
branches extending to the ground provide a 
nearly unlimited path of fine fuels through which 
fires may advance. Each of several major cover 
types presents various fire behavior possibilities. 
Birch, aspen, and cottonwood stands do not 
normally carry fire rapidly. Increase in the 
spread rate of fire is closely associated with in- 
creased ratio of spruce to hardwoods. Rate of 
spread is most rapid in black spruce because of 
the combined horizontal and vertical continuity 
of fuel in this cover type. Light burns do not 
often cause severe type retrogression, but severe 
single burns or repeated mild burns do. An 
empirical table groups expected rates of fire 
spread in major cover types into fire classes. 


Fire-danger rating was not used in Interior 
Alaska prior to 1956, nor were there any data 
available from which to develop a suitable sys- 
tem. The need for a guide to help fire control 
officers do a more competent fire management 
job led to establishment of the Intermountain 


System in Interior Alaska. Use of this system 
has accomplished two objectives: (1) to serve as 
a fire management guide, and (2) to obtain re- 
search data to be used in improving fire-danger 
rating techniques and in making local modifica- 
tions to a national uniform system. Fire-weather 
factors are not as severe as those in continental 
United States, but rates of spread in Interior 
Alaska may approach those known to occur in 
many of the more southerly States. The diurnal 
fluctuation of fire-danger rating factors is less in 
Interior Alaska than in northern Idaho; this indi- 
cates that perhaps extended periods of moder- 
ately severe weather produce the same condi- 
tions in terms of fire behavior as a short number 
of hours of very severe weather. Establishing 
fire-weather stations and using information from 
them was a long step forward, but the 14 sta- 
tions in operation by 1960 were still grossly in- 
adequate for intensive fire control management 
purposes. Measurements from these stations in- 
dicate that burning indexes are highest in May 
and June; in Montana and Idaho they are high- 
est in July and August. These burning indexes, 
along with climatological information, show why 
the greatest fire load is in May and June. 


Forest fires have burned in Interior Alaska 
from time immemorial. Until recent years, nearly 
all fires in the State were thought to have been 
man caused. Analysis of all fires reported dur- 
ing the 9-year period 1950-58 revealed much 
valuable information. Individual fire reports 
show that lightning causes about one-fourth of 
all fires and that these lightning fires account 
for three-fourths of the acreage burned. Sixty- 
two percent of all public domain land protected 
by the Bureau of Land Management is in Alaska, 
or 27 percent of all land under organized protec- 
tion in the entire United States. Reports show 
that on the average 253 fires burn 1.1 million 
acres annually, with an average area per fire of 
4,400 acres. This is compared to 99,848 fires 
burning 3 million acres, or 30 acres burned per 
fire, on all other land under protection in the 
rest of the United States. The number of reported 
fires per million acres protected is 1.1 in Interior 
Alaska compared to 168 in the rest of the United 
States. 


Records indicate that if a fire in Interior 
Alaska is not controlled while its area is less 
than 300 acres, it may and often does spread 


to several thousand or even to several hundred 
thousand acres. Seventy-four percent of all fires 
in Interior Alaska burn in the highly flammable 
spruce and tundra types. The final size of a 
lightning fire averages 10 times the size of a 
man-caused fire primarily because lightning fires 
are common in the Interior Basin, but detection 
and access are both difficult. During the period 
of analysis 33 percent of lightning fires and 9 
percent of man-caused fires never receive any 
control action. These figures include many fires 
extinguished by nature before action could be 
taken; also, action is not taken on fires on pri- 
vate or entry land unless real danger to adjacent 
public lands develops. Fires on which no action 
was taken account for 35 percent of acreage 
burned by lightning fires and 68 percent of acre- 
age burned by man-caused fires. Eighty percent 
of all lightning fires occur in June and July; but 
73 percent of the acreage burned by these light- 
ning fires is burned in June. Fifty-seven percent 
of man-caused fires occur in May and June; but 
70 percent of all acreage burned by these man- 
caused fires is burned in May. In general, as 
the total number of fires increases, the number of 
Class E fires (more than 300 acres) also increases, 
and the number of Class A fires (less than one- 
fourth acre) decreases; early overloading of a 
small suppression force may account in part for 
this. 


Most man-caused fires occur near popula- 
tion centers, as would be expected. More than a 
usual number of reported lightning fires also 
burns in a somewhat similar pattern; the distri- 
bution will no doubt appear different when 
better detection and reporting procedures are 
developed. 


Southeastern Alaska has not been treated 
in this analysis because fire conditions there are 
not as critical as in the Interior. An average of 
26 fires — virtually all man-caused — occurs 
annually in southeastern Alaska and burns about 
638 acres, or 25 acres per fire, compared to 4,400 
acres per fire in Interior Alaska. However, the 
fire potential in southeastern Alaska is increas- 
ing as logging activity increases. 


Virtually no specific data were available 
describing the behavior of wildfires in Alaska 
prior to 1958. During 1958 and 1959, fire be- 
havior teams collected data on the fireline from 


19 fires. The teams measured rates of spread, 
weather factors, and fuel variations, and ob- 
served their interrelationships. The primary ques- 
tion to be solved was, “Why do fires in Interior 
Alaska get so large so fast?’’ The most probable 
explanation of the behavior of seven of these 
fires is briefly summarized below: 


1. Healy: High winds resulting from topo- 
graphic features. 


2. Murphy Dome: Broken topography, high 
burning index, thunderstorms, and atmospheric 
instability. 


3. Kenai Lake: Steep topography causing 
diurnal wind reversals; frontal movement pass- 
ing over area. 


4. Colorado Creek: Highest burning in- 
dexes of all fires studied; topography altered 
winds. 


5. Lake 606: Strong winds, thunderstorm 
downdrafts. 


6. Stony River: Unbroken horizontal fuel 
continuity; frontal movement. 


7. Huggins Island W-10: Rough topog- 
raphy; variable and gusty surface winds due to 
atmospheric instability. 


Data from these fires indicate that nearly 
all extreme behavior can be explained qualita- 
tively but not quantitatively at present. Impor- 
tant problems in fire control are: (1) forecasting 
fire-weather conditions, (2) predetermining fire 
behavior, and (3) determining the influence of 
different fuels on rate of spread under various 
weather regimes. 


Organized forest fire control in Interior 
Alaska began in 1939 with an appropriation of 
$37,500. The high potential value of the timber 
resource is now receiving more nearly adequate 
recognition; but even so, a comparison of the fire 
control organization in Interior Alaska with that 
of Region 1 of the U.S. Forest Service (Montana, 
northern Idaho, northeastern Washington, and 
northwestern South Dakota) reveals there is still 
a long way to go before an adequate fire con- 
trol organization is achieved. The Bureau of 
Land Management in Interior Alaska protects 
seven times as much area, has one-fourth as 
many fires, and fights them with 11 percent 


as many regular fire personnel as Region 1. 
Alaska has only 8 percent as many people per 
square mile to draw upon for fighting fires in 
its vast, inaccessible territory. The annual burned 
area is 250 times as large as that in Region 1, 
or 36 times as great per million acres protected. 


Major operational bases and warehouse 
facilities located at Anchorage and Fairbanks are 
augmented by several district centers and guard 
stations. Since the source of supply of many 
basic firefighting needs is many thousands of 
miles away from these two cities and economical 
delivery of them is very slow, successful dis- 
patching of men and equipment is dependent 
upon close planning many months in advance. A 
highly reliable communication system is manda- 
tory for operating such a widely spread fire con- 
trol system. Radio equipment is being updated 
and the system expanded. Firefighting crews 
are hard to find, but crews of native Indians and 
Eskimos from small villages have proved to be 
excellent firefighters. Some tools and equipment 
commonly used elsewhere in the United States 
can be used effectively in Interior Alaska, but 
specially developed tools are needed to obtain 
maximum performance from the few available 
firefighters. Use of heavy fireline equipment is 
limited to dry slopes near roads. 


Aircraft, both government and private, are 
being used increasingly for detection, transporta- 
tion of personnel, smokejumping, supply, recon- 
naissance, application of retardants, and general 
administration. Use of helicopters is closely co- 
ordinated with other air and ground attack pro- 
cedures. Foot travel is impossible over much of 
Interior Alaska because of bogs, meandering 
rivers, lakes, uneven terrain, and long distances. 


Early detection of fires is a major problem 
since no fixed lookouts exist in Interior Alaska, 
and aerial patrol consists of one World War II 
pursuit-type airplane and intermittent use of 
other smaller craft during critical periods. Re- 
ports from commercial and military aircraft help, 
but since large areas are seen only occasionally, 
many fires cover hundreds of acres before being 
discovered and other fires are never seen until 
they have become extinguished from natural 
circumstances. Procedures must be developed 
for detecting, tracking, and reporting thunder- 


storms since they are responsible for three- 
fourths of the total area burned annually. 


Attack time is being shortened by dropping 
retardants from planes and immediately follow- 
ing them by smokejumpers. Helicopters and 
ground forces are quickly moved in so that 
jumpers can return to base to become available 
for new fires. Forty-four percent of all reported 
fires start farther than 100 miles from head- 
quarters. Speeding up of detection will pay off 
well by reducing the size of fires and the cost of 
suppression. Size class of fires increases as the 
length of time between discovery and control 
increases. Small fires are controlled within 2 
hours from attack; but nearly half of all fires that 
cover more than 300 acres require more than 3 
days to control. In the spruce type, 70 percent 
of small fires are only smoldering when at- 
tacked, whereas 47 percent of large fires are 
crowning at time of attack. The increasing vio- 
lence of fires as their size increases again illus- 
trates the need for early discovery and attack. 


Total cost of fire protection in 1958 was 
1.01 cents per acre as compared to 0.80 cent per 
acre on land in other States protected by the 
Bureau of Land Management; but Interior 
Alaska's burned area on 225 million protected 
acres averaged nearly seven times that for other 
States on 138 million protected acres for the 
period of 1950-58. The long-term goal of an- 
nual allowable burn is a maximum of 100,000 
acres. 


Several methods for using fire in disposing 
of land-clearing debris have been studied and 
some guides developed, but none have been 
found completely suitable for universal adop- 
tion. As yet untapped are means for fully using 
fire as an effective tool in attaining forest man- 
agement objectives. Research in economics, 
forestry, and fire control operations is critically 
needed to help strike a balance between the 
strength of detection, presuppression, and sup- 
pression, and the most favorable overall cost of 
protection. In fire control planning and suppres- 
sion, the primary factors that influence fire size 
and difficulty of control — weather, fuels, and 
topography — must at all times be kept in the 
forefront; no fire protection plan can be complete 
without incorporating the probable effect of 
these major influences. 


CHAPTER 2 
VALUES AT STAKE 


TIMBER RESOURCES 


Volumes have been published during the 
past few years describing the population explo- 
sion in the United States and showing how it 
will increase demands for all types of manufac- 
tured products. The demand for and the avail- 
able supply of wood products during the next 40 
or more years will have to be reckoned with now 
if a balance is to be obtained. 


The recent Timber Resource Review empha- 
sizes the fact that national demands can be met 
only if better and more ingenious forestry prac- 
tices are instituted and utilization is made of 
large volumes of wood not presently usable or 
available. 


Statements in the Timber Resource Review 
repeatedly note that the trend during the first 
half of the 20th century has been from a pre- 
dominantly lumber consumption economy toward 
a pulpwood consumption economy. During the 
last half century, total consumption of lumber 
(boards, dimension stock, etc.) has not changed, 
but the population increase has about halved 
the per capita use. On the other hand, total 
pulpwood consumption has increased about 
twelvefold, causing a per capita consumption 
increase of about sixfold. 


One way to help insure adequate timber 
supplies for the United States through the next 
50 years is to increase utilization of a vast tract 
of forest land hitherto virtually untapped; name- 
ly, Interior Alaska. Timber resources of Interior 
Alaska were not included either in the statistical 
summaries or in analytical discussions in the 
Timber Resource Review because accurate infor- 
mation was almost nonexistent. Out of approxi- 
mately 300 million acres of Interior Alaska land 
administered by the Bureau of Land Manage- 
ment, 120 million acres is forested; one-third of 
this forested land, or 40 million acres, is con- 
sidered to be of commercial quality. Of this, 4 
million acres or 10 percent is presently consid- 
ered accessible from towns, roads, or railroads. 

Many persons believe that Interior forests 
are slow-growing, stunted Arctic stands that 
have little or no value. Taylor (1956) has shown 
that this is not so. The estimated annual net 


growth of 20 cubic feet per acre can be increased 
considerably under good management. Well- 
protected managed stands should produce 3,900 
cubic feet, or 15,500 board feet, of timber per 
acre at a rotation age of 160 years; this indicates 
a.good margin of operability, since stands of 
3,000 cubic feet in Maine and 1,500 cubic feet 
in Finland are now supporting pulp industries.! 
Canada has built a major pulp industry upon 
the same species of white spruce that grows in 
Interior Alaska. The timber economy of northern 
European countries is based upon small diameter 
spruce and hardwood forests growing under 
much the same conditions as exist in Interior 
Alaska. Perhaps when many of the present 
economic problems of labor, power, accessibil- 
ity, and distance to market can be solved, a 
thriving pulp industry can be built upon this vast 
store of timber. 


Interior Alaska holds many attractions for 
an increased wood fiber industry. Timberlands 
in large blocks no longer exist in mainland 
United States. The timber in Alaska's interior 
probably will have little value on the export 
lumber market because of high costs and low 
lumber grades, but Alaska's pulp can sell profit- 
ably on the world markets. Southeastern Alaska 
has already benefited by the establishment of 
two pulpmills since 1954. 


Any proposal to increase productivity must 
be accompanied by a plan to increase protection 
of the investment. History and personal observa- 
tions indicate that 80 percent of the forest land 
in Interior Alaska has been burned over some- 
time during the past 70 years. No large business 
concern can afford to invest 25 to 50 million dol- 
lars in a pulpmill without reasonable assurance 
that the raw material will be protected and kept 
available during the long number of years the 
mill must operate. Today, fire is a major danger 
to pulp stands, and one fire can wipe out many 
years’ backlog of raw material required for oper- 
ating a multimillion-dollar mill.” 


1More recent plot data indicate 140 years is a better suited 
rotation age, and an optimum volume per acre would be 
somewhere between 10,000 and 15,000 board feet. 

2The cost of one mill proposed for Alaska will be five times 
the price the United States paid for Alaska in 1867. 


Figure 1. — Typical small sawmill, Circle. 


Extensive stand of Alaskan timber. 


Figure 2. 


10 


FISH AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES® 


The full value of the wildlife resource to the 
residents of Alaska is greater than is immedi- 
ately apparent. Wildlife plays an important part 
in the economy of Alaska as judged by the 
criteria of money, recreational use, time, employ- 
ment, and social welfare. The value of fish 
shipped from Alaska since its acquisition has re- 
paid its original purchase price of $7,200,000 
more than 300-fold; the value of furs, 30 times 
over. During 1957, some 59,510 persons spent 
$17,018,500 to purchase hunting and fishing 
licenses; they spent 981,800 man-days enjoying 
their sport. In 1958, tourists spent $18,165,000 
in Alaska. If one-fourth of that amount was at- 
tracted by wildlife, $4.5 million was expended 
for the enjoyment of the wildlife. 


The four basic industries, numbers of per- 
sons employed, and the raw value of products 
in dollars for fiscal year 1957 were: 


Persons Raw 

Industry employed value 
Fish and Wildlife - 60,000 $ 90,115,739 
Agriculture 750 4,231,134 
Forestry 500 6,914,000 
Mining 1,991 23,408,000 


$124,668,873 


FISHING RESOURCE 


Of the 60,000 persons employed in some 
business related to fish and wildlife, nearly 
24,000, or 40 percent, were engaged in com- 
mercial fishing. Salmon is the primary commer- 
cial species. The entire packing industry depends 
upon a successful spawn and healthy, thriving 
young fish that return to the sea to complete 
their life cycle. 


Fire-damaged watersheds deteriorate 
through the action of the natural elements. Soil 
becomes unstable, and overland flow following 
heavy precipitation washes it into streams; the 
combined effect of oxygen reduction and destruc- 
tion of streambed algae and other necessary 
minute food sources by scouring can render fish 
habitat untenable. 


3Most of the statistical information for this section was 
obtained from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Buckley 
1957). 


11 


Any destroyed streambed ruins not only the 
current year's salmon spawn, but also eliminates 
proper grounds for spawning during the next 
several years. Rebuilding a depleted salmon 
population takes many years, even after a 
stream is again conditioned for proper spawn- 
ing. Any decline in fish population reduces 
the catch for the cannery and the income to both 
the industry and the State. 


USFS 


Figure 3. —— Salmon thrive best in waters from stable 
watersheds. 


WILDLIFE RESOURCE 


The annual recreational value of Alaska's 
wildlife runs into substantial figures. Expendi- 
tures by residents of Alaska amount to 59 per- 
cent of the $21 million spent, including an esti- 
mate of $4.5 million worth of esthetic value. 


Some of the most important nesting grounds 
for wild ducks and geese are in Interior Alaska, 
especially along the lower Yukon River. Since 
these nesting grounds support vast numbers of 
migratory fowl that use the Pacific and mountain 


Figure 4. — Sport fishing is a major attraction. 


id 


Ah 


it. 


Sons) 


w- ¥ : 
P “tap! 


i? 
oe 


Figure 5. — Big-game hunting nets meat, sport, and revenue. 


12 


flyways, bird hunters throughout central and 
western United States depend upon their well- 
being. Fires destroy the protective covering; they 
burn nests and eggs and often kill fledglings 
and even adults. Although specific data are not 
available, fires along the lower Yukon River in 
the disastrous season of 1957 must have caused 
tremendous losses of eggs, fledglings, moulting 
ducks, and even mature birds. 


Forest fires damage wildlife habitat, but 
repeated burns destroy it completely. At least 
10 years is required for vegetation and cover to 
reappear in quantities and form sufficient to ac- 
commodate furbearing animals. From 40 to 
more than 100 years may be required for a 
caribou and reindeer lichen range to regain its 
optimum carrying capacity. Uggla (1958a) drew 
similar conclusions after intensive ecological 
studies in Sweden. Three hundred years may 
elapse before the more palatable and valuable, 
but least common, species recover to a point 
where they can be safely grazed. 


Some animal species, for instance the mar- 
ten, leave the country permanently after their 
habitat has been destroyed by fire. Furbearers 
appear to produce poorer quality pelts if they 
live in burned areas. The Hudson Bay Company 
pays premium prices for furs that were trapped 
in unburned country. 


RECREATIONAL RESOURCES 

Recreation is a rapidly growing major in- 
dustry in Alaska. It probably will produce an 
annual income of $100 million to Alaska within 
the next few years. Tourists come in increasing 
numbers every year; and they come earlier and 
stay later than formerly. They come primarily to 
see the country and enjoy the beauties of nature 
— the mountains, forests and rivers, and the 


novelty of glaciers and unfamiliar species of 
wildlife. 


The map showing frequency of man-caused 
fires (fig. 57) shows why many tourists are ex- 
tremely disappointed in what they see along the 
primary highways and along the Alaska Rail- 
road route. Frequency of these fires is highest 
along major travel routes. Some have resulted 
from carelessness and some from road construc- 
tion activities. Prevention and control of fires 
in these areas are imperative so that the country 
can reestablish itself to timber. 


Recreational value should by no means be 
considered as confined to the tourist trade. On 
weekends and holidays and during vacations, 
Alaskan families fill the roads as they drive to 
the woods, the lakes, or the numerous picnic and 
fishing spots. An average family thinks nothing 
of getting into the car, or even airplane, and 
traveling hundreds of miles on a weekend just 


USFS & WLS 


Figure 6. — Nesting grounds need protection. 


13 


BLM 


eee nae 


ie: 


USFS 


Figure 7. — Picnicking, boating, and spectacular scenery attract recreationists. 


14 


to enjoy the scenic beauties of the State. People 
live in Alaska not only to earn their livelihood, 
but because they are enthusiastic lovers of the 
outdoors; so they are vitally interested in the 
maintenance and enhancement of the outdoor 
recreation resource. 


Fire damage to recreational facilities cannot 
be estimated accurately in dollars. The fisher- 
man, the hunter, the camper, and the picnicker 
all suffer in an intangible personal way. Only 
rough estimates can be made to determine how 
much more traffic would occur if all the land 
were productive and beautiful. Many categories 
of business are affected by both the short-term 
and long-term results of fire. A few of these are: 
lodging, food, and automotive repair services; 
aircraft charter and guide business; and photo- 
graphic and sporting goods merchants. 


MINING 


Mining has been one of the three major in- 
dustries in Alaska for the last 7 decades. Gold 
stimulated rapid development of mining in the 
late 1800's and early 1900's. Most gold mining 
in western and Interior Alaska is placer mining, 
and is completely dependent upon water to 
process gravel and remove the minerals. High 
costs of production have seriously reduced vol- 
ume of the mining industry, but it still is far 
from being eliminated; in 1957, mining was 
second high in economic value to the State — 
wildlife was first (Buckley 1957). 


Placer mining requires removal of over- 
burden and gravels down to bedrock in order to 
make the mineral-bearing strata accessible to 
shovels, dozers, draglines, and other equipment. 
Preparation of an area, including the cutting of 
bedrock drains and digging of holes prior to 
actual mining, is extremely expensive. Floods, 
always a threat to mining operations, may fill 
the cuts and cause loss of equipment, work, and 
time during the short field season which runs 
usually from early June until late September. 


Mining operations often produce silting, 
which damages rivers and smaller streams. 
Mining may also be detrimental to stability of 
individual watersheds. Forest fires can cause 
any such potentially serious situation to become 
disastrous. 


15 


Figure 8.— Commercial recreation area near Fairbanks. 


Oil and gas production is at the threshold 
of becoming big business. Much of the current 
exploration, well drilling, and pipeline construc- 
tion is in timbered country. Protection from large 
fires is imperative for the safety of workmen as 
well as for the large investments. Income to the 
State from oil and gas leases is already sub- 
stantial. By law, the State receives 90 percent 
of the Federal revenue, which for the first half 
of 1959 amounted to $4-1/3 million. 


. : ee : 
eee 


Figure 9. — Gold mining operation, near Fairbanks. 


Figure 10. — Alaska’s first commercial oil well. 


WATERSHEDS 


Wherever located, an undamaged water- 
shed performs the same useful function: it catches 
rain or snow and allows the water to percolate 
into the soil; thus, it controls streamflow in an 
orderly fashion. A good watershed slows the 
flow of water into streams during the spring and 
early summer. It also acts as a storage basin and 
allows water to flow into streams slowly during 
the season when precipitation is low. 


Many effects of fire on characteristics of 
soils and watersheds ond on species distribution 
are similar to what is expected in more southerly 
States. Interior Alaskan soils are generally shal- 
Fine-textured soils become poorly aerated 
and cooled; organic matter tends to remain unin- 


low. 


corporated in the mineral soil and to rest on the 
soil as a mantle. The moss and lichen cover is 
a good insulator in the summer; its removal 
causes a lowering of the permafrost level. 
Though fire may not alter soil texture and struc- 
ture, it does reduce the infiltration rate and in- 


crease overland flow. 


Not all ecological effects of uncontrolled 
fire are detrimental to the environment. Thermal 
effects on soil temperature are generally favor- 
able, as are the chemical changes. Nutrients that 


16 


are normally locked up on the cold forest floor 
are liberated for assimilation by new plant 
growth. 


Interior Alaska has one watershed feature 
that exists nowhere else in the United States: 
permafrost. Changes in permafrost resulting 
from forest fires are discussed further in chapter 
3. Briefly, fire destroys the moss insulation and 
permits warm air and solar radiation to melt the 
permafrost. The earth on slopes often moves or 
sags, trees fall over, and the water table drops. 
Evaporation excessively dries the soil surface 
after the permafrost level has been lowered; this 
in turn defeats efforts at revegetation. 


USFS 


Figure 11. — This accelerated erosion started after surface 


vegetation was burned; near Fairbanks. 


"USFS 
Figure 12. —— Irrigated farmlands depend on productive 
watersheds; near Fairbanks. 


USE OF AIRCRAFT 


Alaskans are the most airminded people 
in the world. On a per capita basis, they own 
more aircraft and fly more people and freight 
than any other population group. Airlines must 
fulfill definitely scheduled flights; people depend 
upon these flights to run on schedule so that they 
can carry on necessary business. The State has 
numerous charter aircraft companies, and an 
astounding number of private aircraft operates 
in the State. Some are used for pleasure, but 
many are for business. These private planes 
also must be able to fly when the need exists 
so that their operators and owners can perform 
their business. An article in a recent issue of the 
Alaska Sportsman (1961, p. 27) stated, ‘There 
are an estimated 900 private planes in Anchor- 
age, 200 commercial aircraft, 300 private sea- 
planes, and 50 commercial seaplanes. An esti- 
mated 35 helicopters also register out of busy 
Anchorage airports.’ When large fires occur, 
the atmosphere becomes so smoked up that com- 
mercial and private flying becomes nearly im- 
possible. 


Aircraft are essential to many firefighting 
activities — detection, patrol, chemical attack, 
smokejumping, crew transportation, helicopter 
use, and servicing of fire crews. Grounding these 
planes on account of reduced visibility due to 
smoke sharply pyramids the fire problem. In 
1957, smoke covered the entire Interior with such 
a thick layer that virtually no aircraft operated 
for days at a time. The only exception was that 
a few Bureau of Land Management planes were 
permitted to fly as an emergency measure to 
service firefighting crews. 


Location gives this State extremely strategic 
importance in the defense of the rest of the 
United States. Since aircraft are a major military 
tool, planes dare not be grounded because of 
smoke-filled air. 


17 


2), See : d mo Jt ee * 

3 : Sig : > mrad ig: a < eee eo aie, es 
é . ‘ : exe , v 
yee CN CS NO asp a woe ae 


oS MILT 
new 


Figure 13. —- Defense communication outposts must be pro- 
tected from forest fires. 


USFS 


Figure 14. — A small portion of the Anchorage float plane 
basin. 


ro" a 


ae x : ao, ae = = - a = == 4 

dee be ee es Se Se 2 > - 
Figure 16. — Alaskans travel on wings. \ 
‘ 18 


ASSESSMENT OF DAMAGES 


No uniformly acceptable method for assign- 
ing monetary values to damage by wildfire has 
ever been developed. Most fire control agencies 
use empirical formulas for estimating losses of 
such tangible items as timber, forage, and im- 
provements. But there is no reliable means of 
estimating losses of such intangible values as 
watershed, wildlife, recreation, and _ potential 
industry. The final evaluation also depends on 
several controlling factors such as severity of 
burn, weather and fuel conditions at the time of 
burn, topography, and even the time of year. 


The Battelle Institute states in the conclu- 
sion and recommendations of its report on the 
cooperative forest fire control problem that no 
statistically supportable method is now avail- 
able for evaluating the impact of fire on natural 
resources, and that further studies on the conse- 
quences of wildfire to watersheds, including 
downstream effects, should be encouraged 
(Swager, Fetterman, and Jenkins 1958). 


The annual reports of the Director of the 
Bureau of Land Management show assigned 
estimated damage from wildfire. For the years 
1950-58 the average estimated dollar value of 
damage amounted to approximately 10 cents 
per acre in Alaska compared to 8.6 cents per 
acre for all other land protected by BLM person- 
nel. 


Three questions arise: (1) How realistic are 
the present damage estimates? (2) By how much 
would damage be reduced if the expenditure 
for protection were doubled or even quadrupled? 
(3) How much research is warranted to help 
bring these two figures into a proper economic 
relationship, bearing in mind the values at stake 
discussed earlier in this chapter? 


19 


Table 44 lists three categories of tangible 
damage — timber, reproduction, and forage. 
Since the money value of timber and reproduc- 
tion in Interior Alaska is now only a potential 
one, the value assigned to destroyed timber can 
also be only potential. Persons concerned with 
developing an assured future supply of wood 
and fiber know that it is necessary to protect 
the present crop, but without adequately devel- 
oped procedures they cannot prove it in actual 
dollars and cents. 


Values for immediate loss of forage can be 
computed within reasonable limits of accuracy. A 
more difficult task is estimating the impact on 
animals that have to graze on other ranges and 
the hardship on local residents when the game 
or reindeer that they depend upon for food move 
out of their area. 


Losses of homes, farm property, and busi- 
ness establishments are both tragic and costly 
to owners. Computation of monetary loss from 
such misfortunes, however, is rather simple since 
accepted methods of damage appraisal have 
been used for many years and are available for 
that class of property. 


No one knows how much employment and 
revenue may be lost because interested poten- 
tial investors tend to shy away from establishing 
businesses or industries in an area where a con- 
tinuing source of raw material cannot be reason- 
ably assured. This problem certainly exists or 
will exist in the near future for the wood fiber 
Research and de- 
velopment must aim at establishing and main- 


industry in Interior Alaska. 


taining standards of fire control commensurate 
with the need for industrial security. 


BLM 


— ee 


EI AO, Sty 


BLM 


Figure 18. — More than money was destroyed here, near Fairbanks. 


20 


CHAPTER 3 
GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE 


From a fire control standpoint Alaska, like 
most western States, has some portions that are 
considered easy, some moderate, and some criti- 
cal. What makes one area easy and another criti- 
cal? Usually considered pertinent to this ques- 
tion are the following factors: (1) The geographic 
arrangement of the land in relation to elevations 
and general weather patterns, (2) climatic con- 
ditions, which are generally influenced by the 
geographic pattern, (3) weather patterns on a 
local and short-term basis, and (4) fuels, as in- 
fluenced by all the above factors. Fuels are dealt 
with in a separate chapter (ch. 4). The first two 
factors are described in rather general terms to 
help set the stage for more specific information 
that follows in the remainder of the publication. 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 


Alaska is by far the largest of the 50 States 
—a vast expanse of land lying north of the Pa- 
cific Ocean, separated from the larger land mass 
of Siberia to the west by Bering Strait and joined 
along the 141st meridian on the east to Yukon 
Territory, Canada. Alaska contains 586,400 
square miles (375,296,000 acres); about one-third 
of this acreage is in the Interior Basin. Geo- 
graphically, Alaska is divided into seven areas 
— South Coast, Copper River Valley, Cook Inlet, 
Bristol Bay, West Central, Arctic Drainage, and 
the Interior Basin as drawn in figure 19. 


SOUTH COAST 


The Aleutian Islands and Southern and 
Southeastern Coastal Areas combine to form a 
1,500-mile crescent-shaped coastline; at some 
points it is 120 miles in depth. At its eastern 
extremity this area is mountainous, cut by a 
great number of tidewater bays, sounds, inlets, 
and fiords. Huge glaciers descend the mountain 
passes and often flank these shoreline indenta- 
tions. Mountaintops are above 5,000 feet and 
several rise to heights of 10,000 to 15,000 feet. 
The precipitous slopes of the mountains from 
Kodiak Island eastward are mostly clothed to 
heights of 1,000 to 3,000 feet by dense stands 
of spruce, hemlock, and some cedar. The Alaska 
Peninsula and adjacent islands southward from 
Kodiak Island are devoid of forests, but are cov- 
ered with luxuriant growth of native grasses. 


21 


About half of southeastern Alaska consists of 
islands. Prince of Wales Island — the largest 
— is 140 miles long by 40 miles wide. The 
largest fresh-water streams in the area are the 
Stikine and Taku Rivers, which rise in British 
Columbia. 


COPPER RIVER VALLEY 


Copper River Valley is surrounded by four 
mountain ranges varying in height from 4,600 
to 17,000 feet. The Alaska Range forms the north 
boundary, St. Elias the east, Chugach the south, 
and the Talkeetna Range the west. Copper River 
Valley is nearly 120 miles long and up to 50 
miles wide. Icefields and glaciers are the main 
sources of water for the Copper River. The basin 
is a high plain with elevations as great as 
2,500 feet above sea level. This valley is dotted 
with numerous lakes surrounded by stands of 
spruce and birch timber. Many areas within the 
valley are covered by dense stands of native 
grass and tundra species. 


COOK INLET 


Cook Inlet Division embraces most of the 
Kenai Peninsula, the famous Matanuska Valley, 
and the delta of the Susitna River. It is bordered 
by the Alaska Range, and the Talkeetna and 
Kenai Mountains. Elevation of the valley floor 
varies from sea level to about 2,500 feet. Vege- 
tation varies from rather luxuriant grasses and 
some spruce and hardwoods on the Kenai Penin- 
sula to heavy stands of spruce and some very 
fine birch in the central and northern portions of 
the Division. 


BRISTOL BAY 


Bristol Bay Division, nearly 500 miles long 
by 180 miles wide, drains into the Bering Sea. 
The Kuskokwim River is the largest river that 
drains this area. 


The coastal and valley portion is undulating 
to rolling; its elevation varies from sea level to 
nearly 2,000 feet. It is studded with hundreds 
of lakes and potholes. On the northwest the 
zone is bordered by the Kuskokwim Mountains 
and on the south and east by the Aleutian Range. 
These mountains vary from foothills to precipi- 
tous peaks nearly 9,000 feet high. 


The land is clothed with dense growths of 
tundra and native grass species, but island- 
fashion stands of spruce and birch timber are 
scattered over it. 


WEST CENTRAL 


West Central Division embraces an area 
480 miles by 300 miles with a coastline cut by 
scores of bays into which several rivers and 
creeks flow. The large delta formed from residue 
carried by the Yukon and Kuskokwim Rivers, 
which pass through more than 350 miles of this 
area, contains a myriad of lakes and bogs. 


The topography of this large land mass 
generally consists of low flat muskeg bogs and 
undulating hills, varying in height from near sea 
level to 1,400 feet. 
of the Seward Peninsula is mountainous and has 
peaks rising to 3,800 feet. 


ARCTIC DRAINAGE 


However, the southern half 


Arctic Drainage Division comprises all of the 
area north of the Brooks Range Divide, the 
Kotzebue Sound Area, and the Kobuk and No- 
atak Rivers. Three-fourths of the 1,200-mile 
shoreline is north of the Arctic Circle. The Kotze- 
bue Sound Area is a low tideland delta sur- 
rounded by gently rolling hills. Most of the land 
up to 3,000 feet elevation is covered by moss, 
lichens, brush, and grass, but some dense stands 
of spruce occupy the most favorable edaphic 
sites. The arctic slope is a high, rolling plateau, 
gradually lowering to near sea level, where it is 
dotted by numerous lakes, muskeg bogs, and 
rivers. The Meade, Chipp, Colville, and Canning 
Rivers have their sources in the plateau area of 
the Endicott Mountains and flow northward into 
the Arctic Ocean. 


INTERIOR BASIN 


Interior Basin embraces most of the Yukon 
River drainage and the upper portion of the 
Kuskokwim Valley. The Endicott and Philip Smith 
Mountains, a part of the Brooks Range, delineate 
the northern limits of the area; between these 
and the Alaska Range lies the drainage basin of 
the great Yukon River. The Alaska Range is 
composed of peaks more than 10,000 feet above 
sea level, including North America’s highest 
peak, 20,300-foot Mount McKinley. 


Major features of the Interior Basin Division 


22 


are the Yukon Flats on and near the Arctic Circle 
and the adjacent mountains with elevations up to 
6,000 feet. The Tanana River Valley, with an 
area of about 24,000 square miles, lies north of 
the Alaska Range, whose glaciers supply most of 
the southern tributaries of the river. The upper 
half of the valley is rough and broken, while the 
lower portion has considerable level and gently 
rolling country; some of it in the vicinity of 
Fairbanks is adapted to agriculture. The upper 
portion of the large Kuskokwim River Valley is 
dotted by lakes and lesser rivers, many of which 
are often bordered by timber stands to varying 
widths. The intervening area is covered by 
mosses, brush species, and native grasses. The 
elevation of much of the valley area varies from 
near sea level to only 2,300 feet. 


CLIMATE 


Climatically, Alaska is a land of dramatic 
contrasts. Annette, near Ketchikan, in southeast 
Alaska receives 97 inches of precipitation and 
the temperatures may fall between 1° and 86° F. 
But at Fort Yukon on the Arctic Circle, only 6, 
inches of precipitation falls and the temperature 
varies from —75° to 100° F. Information in this 
chapter is confined chiefly to summertime condi- 
tions within Interior Alaska. 


The movement of these high and low pres- 
(p. 4) brings different climatic 
conditions through the State. Variation in tem- 
perature, air moisture, precipitation, and the 
geographic distribution of these factors is im- 
portant to fire control, particularly during spring 
and summer seasons (Kincer 1941). 


sure regimes 


Watson's (1959) study of Alaska climate 
divides the State into four major zones (fig. 20) 
that are actually consolidations of the seven geo- 
graphic divisions outlined in figure 19: 


1. Zone of dominant maritime influence. 
2. Transition zone. 
3. Dominant continental zone. 


4. Arctic drainage zone. 


Isolines of figures 21 through 27 show the 
variation of precipitation during the spring and 


summer months and the normal annual total. - 


The reader should refer to these while studying 
the ensuing climatic descriptions. 


} 
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ait 

fer penne 

) oan BN 

i Li oan 

fe pushes 

} \ 

} 

/ 

| a 
an OF 

} 

| pwiaw 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES, SCALE 1; 250000. AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


1954 


oo aso ues 


DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


LEGEND 


@ CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 
mm OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
# DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 
& GUARD STATION 
=== PRIMARY HIGHWAY 
= GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS 

SOURCE: U.S. WEATHER BUREAU. 


CLIMATES OF THE STATES, 
ALASKA. NO. 60-49 


Sai ath 


yaaa 
S SD St a 
he SPST Th 


Figure 19 


{ 
{ 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES. SCALE 1: 250.000. AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


1954 


San 
hace DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


— LEGEND 


@ CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 
® OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
# DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 
% GUARD STATION 
=== PRIMARY HIGHWAY 
ee ON ie Lee ew ee = GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS 
ak eo 


@t FORT YU 1S) oat eS es { SOURCE: U.S. WEATHER BUREAU. 


: Sees CLIMATES OF THE STATES, 
ae : BS Ne ALASKA. NO. 60- 49 


we O ® 


Dees. 


ES 


@a/a 


Caw 5 ,. 

NA a ea 

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2, 


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. ER AS ” 
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Figure 19 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR } 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY } 


ALASKA | 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES, SCALE 1.250 000, AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES. 


DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


_ LEGEND 
CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION We 
OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 
GUARD STATION 

=== PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


—— CLIMATOLOGICAL ZONES 
SOURCE U.S. WEATHER BUREAU. 
CLIMATES OF THE STATES, 
ALASKA. NO. 60-49 


Figure 20 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAI CE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES. SCALE 1: 250 000. AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


1954 


DATUM. IS MEAW SEA LEVEL 


— LEGEND 


@ CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 
™ = =OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 


& DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 


®% GUARD STATION 
he 7 ae BY re foe == PRIMARY HIGHWAY 
eRe ae Tigo MSS oe Se ——CLIMATOLOGICAL ZONES 
Pease noe) = a ae 5 et Wane OR rg. eee | SOURCE’ U.S. WEATHER BUREAU. 
yp sp aie CE ee 7 ae eee! CLIMATES OF THE STATES, 
Pict § eR sale : sy : \ ad ALASKA, NO. 60-49 
Lea ee 


& @LA E MINCHUMINA (oy 


& PALME 
@* ANCHORAGE 
EE? sagpre 
au me Hey 


Uf 4 
FEM 
xe. 
Gy 


On 


wid 
UA 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES. SCALE 1: 250.000, AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


nvlavit \ DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 
LEGEND 

| : @ CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 

OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 

ae DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 

| (och Oa GUARD STATION 

| ie == PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


——— NORMAL PRECIPITATION PATTERN, 
APRIL 

se SOURCE: U.S. WEATHER BUREAU. 

Velie CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA, 

| : Kote ALASKA, 1958. 


rN 
= an \ 


as 
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A “Prvew 


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FASO oa 
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| Figure 21 


i i ; \ : UNITED STATES 
L LS i ‘ ; : : es DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR 
BAU UE ORI \ : — . GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES. SCALE 1; 250.000, AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


1954 


100. 150 MILES 


150 KILOMETERS 


DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


LEGEND 


CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 
OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 
GUARD STATION 
pipe ‘ === PRIMARY HIGHWAY 
i Af ¢ Ste ‘ . Sees 
oe so Sot Bo ; —— NORMAL PRECIPITATION PATTERN, 
Peas a < APRIL 
PRS R SOURCE: U.S. WEATHER BUREAU. 


CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA, 
ALASKA, 1958. 


aoe 


ppl se 4 
GIS 
1@ BIG DELTA ha 
ee BUFFALO CENTER 
eto 16 LAS Shr Soh 
ey MING! nae Noo Maa yi 
: : Cire, 


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TANACRO 
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Figure 21 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES, SCALE 1; 250000. AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


1954 


100 _1gp Mites 


150 KILOMETERS 


DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


LEGEND 


@ CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 

mm OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
#& DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 

® GUARD STATION 
s=== PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


MAY 
SOURCE: U.S WEATHER BUREAU. 
CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA, 
ALASKA, 1958 


Levant Rive 


wee 
Shee, 


Figure 22 


| 
| 
| 


WA 


f 


al 


“FORT YUKON | on 
~~ Sf 


we 


yy CENTRAL $2 
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a? ya 
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BUFFALO CENTER 
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: MMIT RR SEED OY GN 
RATH ‘i Pet Soehes ie ae. , 


at be i 4 
ALLEN FR i 
Pelee 


Vv eax 
SPAA 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILEO FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES. SCALE 1: 250.000, AND OTHER OFFICIAL- SOURCES 


1954 


eee 


150 KILOMETERS, 


DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


— LEGEND 


CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA: STATION 


OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 
GUARD STATION 

=== PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


MAY 


SOURCE: U.S WEATHER BUREAU. 
CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA, 
ALASKA, /958. 


Ve, 


} BS See 
Barn en we “ 
Pons PH os Me 


Figure 22 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES. SCALE 1, 250.000. AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


1954 


DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


LEGEND 


CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 
OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
a DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 

| Peay 2 ; GUARD. STATION 

| be aa == PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


| \ — NORMAL PRECIPITATION PATTERN, 
| | Veen 4 JUNE 
emer, SOURCE: U.S. WEATHER BUREAU, 
CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA, 
‘ : ALASKA, 1958 


pret % 


ca 


Figure 23 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES, SCALE |; 250.000, AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


100 __150 MILES 


150 KILOMETERS, 
—— 


Seu 
Aula DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


“| LEGEND 


CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION ] 
OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 
GUARD. STATION 

=== PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


EATER a 
RT YUKON 213 met 
SNe ty 


SOURCE: U.S. WEATHER BUREAU, 
CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA, 
ALASKA, 1958. 


ib 


beddte 
LAKE 


~MINCHUM 


N 


Wi OTe, 


Figure 23 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES. SCALE 1; 250.000. AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


1954 


150 MILES, 


150 KILOMETERS 


DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 
LEGEND 
@ CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 
% OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
#& DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 
% GUARD STATION 
=== PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


—— NORMAL PRECIPITATION PATTERN, 
JULY 
SOURCE: U.S. WEATHER BUREAU, 
CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA, 
ALASKA, 1958 


N 


Fe ARAL SOE cero 
: aN Kae DPSEMRTN ram ane ie 


Figure 24 


Pra, 
am if 


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MMI 


ts 


ss 
yt AHEL 


LKANS 


fi. 


HOMER 46 


power 


re 


ipanin? 


Na pureosn ant 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES, SCALE 1; 250000, AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


1954 


180 MILES 


150 KILOMETERS. 


DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEWEL 


LEGEND 


@ CLIMATOLOGICAL. DATA STATION 

m OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
& DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 

2% GUARD STATION 
m= PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


——— NORMAL PRECIPITATION PATTERN, 
JULY 
SOURCE: U.S. WEATHER BUREAU, 
CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA, 
ALASKA, 1958 


Figure 24 


Jeasenn 


— LEGEND 
@ CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 

m OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
# DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 

& GUARD STATION 

seme PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES, SCALE 1: 250000, AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


150 MILES, 
= 


50 KILOMETERS 


DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


—— NORMAL PRECIPITATION PATTERN, 
AUGUST. 
SOURCE: U.S. WEATHER BUREAU, 
CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA, 
ALASKA, 1958 


f is 
[ecto Landing 


(gs 


e. ees, ean 
Ia BOR, s 


Figure 25 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES. SCALE 1.250 0C0. AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


1954 


‘so autes 


$0 KILOMETERS 


savik 
Awan DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


LEGEND 


CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 
OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 
GUARD STATION 

meme PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


a) 
a ROE see? a 
a Xi 4 S \ i =——— NORMAL PRECIPITATION PATTERN, 
@ & FORT YUKON tS Ow eee we AUGUST. 
+e SF a , SOURCE® U.S. WEATHER BUREAU, 
CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA, 
ALASKA, 1958 


h, 


Figure 25 


ae ze 
icra = 
\ 
Iv \ sane 007" 
| 
A ‘ 
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Jeno 
\ 
\. \ 
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\ aS v 
4 NF e i 
a y 
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4, x 
a E 
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4 
6 
bg a 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECUNNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES, SCALE 1; 250 000. AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


_— LEGEND 
@ CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 
™@ OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
4& DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE — 
% GUARD STATION 
== PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


—— NORMAL PRECIPITATION PATTERN, 
APRIL. THROUGH AUGUST. 
SOURCE: U.S. WEATHER BUREAU, 
CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA, 
ALASKA, 1958. 


fe AB 


SH PIS 


Figure 26 


NV 


i 
ge 
f TSO. 


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¢ = A aid SD ip Puy ¥ZH 
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2 Net Pie ge 
fey Ay fa FAIRBANKS 
Ree 
A 


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to @ LAKE MINC 


Psy 


AA RG 


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ab 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECUNNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES, SCALE |: 250.000, ANO OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


1954 


150 MILES 
St 


150 KILOMETERS 
= 


DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


LEGEND 


® CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 

™ OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
& DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 

& GUARD STATION 
mmm== PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


=——— NORMAL PRECIPITATION PATTERN, 
APRIL THROUGH AUGUST. 
SOURCE: U.S. WEATHER BUREAU, 
CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA, 
ALASKA, 1958 


7 


goo, i 
ip rp 
RN cen" ae ie 


Figure 26 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ay ALASKA 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES. SCALE 1; 250 000. AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES , 


wh \ 
Ania" \ DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


LEGEND 
[ @ CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 
® OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
#& DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 
& GUARD STATION 
== PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


—— NORMAL PRECIPITATION PATTERN, 
ANNUAL 
SOURCE: U.S, WEATHER BUREAU, 
CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA, 
ALASKA, 1958. 


Le 


E. vai Ce See . Me : A 
ox eR SiO Fei Soe 


| Figure 27 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES, SCALE 1, 250.000, AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES . 


1954 
% 150 MILES 
= == 


0 


DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


LEGEND 


@ CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 

® OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
& DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 

hk GUARD STATION 


Pha Gh teen mane : eae == PRIMARY HIGHWAY 
Piae en gies | 
aS, ‘ 

/goars 


—— NORMAL PRECIPITATION PATTERN, 
ANNUAL. 
SOURCE: U.S, WEATHER BUREAU, 
CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA, 
ALASKA, 1958. 


ye 
BIG DELTA 


py By 
LO 
&GLENNALLEN “Fp 


Eek bg 
RAK 


@ GULKAN 


Figure 27 


ZONE OF DOMINANT MARITIME INFLUENCE 


Ruggedness of the topography in this zone 
markedly affects local climatic conditions. It 
produces great differences in temperature and 
precipitation in local areas that are not very far 
apart. 


Climatic conditions at individual locations in 
this zone are characterized by small variations 
in temperature, high humidities, high fog fre- 
quency, considerable cloudiness, and abundant 
precipitation. 


Extremes of temperature are quite localized 
and usually of short duration. The warmest tem- 
peratures usually come in late July or in August. 
Throughout the Maritime Zone only about one 
station in 15 reaches or exceeds 90° F. The mean 
temperature during these months is near the mid- 
fifties. 


Temperature changes between seasons are 
gradual; the length of the growing season varies 
considerably from one year to another. The 
average freeze-free period varies from 120 days 
in the north to 150 days in the south. Freeze- 
free periods within any given locality vary within 
wide limits. 


The overflow of cold air from intense high 
pressure cells over the mainland interior produces 
downslope winds that attain destructively high 
speeds at times. Because of its exposure to the 
open sea, the entire Maritime Zone is vulnerable 
to strong winds associated with intense cyclonic 
circulations that frequent these northern ocean 
areas. Throughout the coastal area the rugged 
terrain produces extremely localized wind con- 
ditions. 


Precipitation ranges from about 25 inches 
annually in the northwest portion to 221 inches 
in the southeast. The steep terrain, rising out of 
the sea, creates topographic inducement for the 
high rates of precipitation along the northern 
Gulf Coast. 


Visibility is usually low because of cloudy 
and foggy weather. Fog, usually the advective 
type, occurs frequently during the summer over 
the Aleutians and often drifts eastward to blan- 
ket the western Gulf Coast. 


23 


TRANSITION ZONE 


The change from a maritime to a semicon- 
tinental climate characterizes the Transition Zone. 
This change is rather abrupt along the boundary 
between the South Coast and Copper River Divi- 
sions because of the sharp ridge of mountains 
along this boundary. The Bristol Bay and West 
Central portions have a gradual climatic transi- 
tion since moisture-laden air moving toward the 
interior meets no formidable mountain barriers. 
Typical maritime features become less prominent 
farther inland: temperature varies more mark- 
edly; humidities are lower; cloudiness declines; 
and precipitation totals recede. 


The Copper River Basin has extremely cold 
winters, but maximum temperatures reach 90° 
to 95° F. in summer. This climatic feature of the 
Copper River Basin indicates that its weather pat- 
tern approaches that of the Continental Zone. 
In areas more directly affected by maritime in- 
fluences, extreme hiahs range around the mid- 


eighties. 


The average freeze-free season varies from 
52 to 132 days. The 169-day freeze-free period 
recorded at Homer one year was exceptional. 


Precipitation in the Transition Zone markedly 
decreases from the high averages in the Mari- 
time Zone. A drastic reduction in precipitation 
in the Copper River Valley and land westward 
to the upper Matanuska Valley is caused by the 
configuration of the sheltering Chugach Range. 
Thunderstorms are common in the Copper River 
area during the summer. 


Precipitation generally ranges from 10 to 
about 30 inches. A few local areas receive heavy 
precipitation (75 to 80 inches) because south- 
easterly winds resulting from low pressure cen- 
tered near the Alaska Peninsula are hardly af- 
fected by sheltering terrain. In contrast, the 
Kenai Range shelters the western Kenai Penin- 
sula from the southeasterly winds, and the total 
precipitation there is comparable to that in Mata- 
nuska Valley (15 inches at Palmer). On the more 
exposed southern tip, annual totals average 25 
to 40 inches. 


The Aleutian low pressure cell is usually 
weak in early spring; hence, April has the least 
precipitation of any month of the year at prac- 
tically all points over the zone except the Copper 
River portion. Precipitation increases markedly 
over the mainland beginning in late June. The 
low tends to move northward across the Bering 
Sea and brings a rather persistent southwesterly 
flow into the Interior. During August cloudy, 
rainy weather predominates and the _ interior 
points of the West Central portion receive meas- 
urable precipitation on 4 days out of 5. The 
westward drift of the low becomes pronounced 
in late November or early December, and pre- 
cipitation declines rather sharply over most of 
the Transition Zone. 


The permafrost area varies with summer 
warmth and winter cold, but it extends south- 
ward well into the northern portions of this zone. 
It is present from the northern slopes of the 
Wrangell Mountains through the Glennallen and 
Holy Cross areas, along the inland borders of 
Cook Inlet, Bristol Bay, and West Central por- 
tions. The amount of continuity is shown in 
figure 28. 


Over the Copper River and Cook Inlet por- 
tions, winds are usually light, chiefly because of 
the sheltering by nearby mountain ridges. Strong, 
localized winds develop in some areas as the 
result of downslope drainage. Most frequent ob- 
servations of these winds have been in the lower 
Matanuska and Knik River Valleys, mostly dur- 
ing the winter. These strong winds may persist 
for days when even slightly reinforced by flow 
patterns usually associated with low pressure 
systems centered near Kodiak Island or the Gulf 
of Alaska. Certain areas of the Bristol Bay and 
West Central portions are relatively unsheltered 
and are frequented by strong winds that often 
extend their effectiveness well into the interior. 


DOMINANT CONTINENTAL ZONE 


Two major factors contribute to the typical 
continental climate: (1) the area's remoteness 
from the open sea, and (2) mountain barriers 
that prevent inland movement of marine air. 


The Interior Basin experiences great sea- 
sonal temperature extremes: Maximum tempera- 


24 


tures reach or exceed 90° F. almost every sum- 
mer. Fort Yukon and Eagle have daily maximum 
readings averaging 70° to 75° F. during July 
and August. Prolonged daylight in early June 
through late July contributes strongly in main- 
taining high temperatures. 
above the horizon continuously for about 1 
month at Fort Yukon beginning about June 5. 
During this season, the average diurnal tempera- 
ture change is about 30° F.; however, ranges of 
only 10 degrees have been recorded. 


The sun remains 


The Interior Basin has recorded the highest 
and lowest readings for all of Alaska. Tempera- 
tures at Fort Yukon have ranged from a high of 
100° F. to a low of —75° F. Combined with its 
counterpart in Canada's Northwest Territory, the 
Interior Basin records provide a classic example 
of the northern hemisphere continental climate. 


Terminal dates of the freeze-free season 
(mid-May to late August) can be depended on 
as a result of the sharp rise in spring tempera- 
tures and an equally sharp decline in the fall. 


Permafrost underlies the soil in most of the 
Interior Basin in spite of the warm summertime 
temperatures. Ground temperatures remain 
rather cool except for a shallow surface layer. 
Gradual thawing of the permafrost during the 
summer allows ice-cold water to permeate the 
soil layers immediately above it. The cooling 
effect, when extended to the soil mantle utilized 
in vegetal growth, slows seasonal production of 


vegetation. 


The Interior Basin is almost surrounded by a 
high ridge of mountains; their sheltering effect 
is @ primary cause for the light precipitation (6 
to 14 inches) in this area. Most of it falls in June 
and July, but occasionally some occurs in Aug- 
ust. Average monthly rainfall during these 
months totals close to 2 inches — slightly less 
than averages for the growing season over the 
central and western parts of the Dakotas. Total 
summer precipitation may vary widely within 
relatively short distances chiefly because shower- 
type precipitation predominates. In local areas 
thunderstorms may occur on several consecutive 
days. 


ger OO 


awied™ 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES. SCALE 1; 250 000. AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


1954 


DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


LEGEND 
CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 
OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 
GUARD STATION 
=== PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


seers PERMAFROST DISTRIBUTION 
SOURCE: HOPKINS ET AL (1/955) 


Figure 28 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES, SCALE 1: 250 000. AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 
1954 


0 = Oo 50 100 sso mies 


50 100 150 KILOMETERS 
— <== 


SN 
Loa DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


_ LEGEND 
@ CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 
m = =OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
& DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 
&% GUARD STATION 
s=== PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


AUD 
ioe ON Det Lien 
Re xy ® -BETTLES a 


sere PERMAFROST DISTRIBUTION 
SOURCE’ HOPKINS ET AL (1955) 


J 
4 Na 


Apa 
seal Se BIG DELTA Be 


we id 
2 PA RNACROSS 


- cLERINALLEN 


i Ae b 
: oe Yi Cm Mp 


Aaa | sos 
RE rd 
Ny Bie 
Sea OE TRA 
a ® ILIAMNA p } 
hi Ske 
sae 


a Ra Si 
Ww ay 


ce: 


Figure 28 


Si tee a ree On = — SS 
= — = Te i = = = Se hn ee ae 
tems air tee —— — OOO ee ——————— 


ARCTIC ZONE 


Climatic conditions of the Arctic Zone are 
Unique and contrast sharply with conditions in 
other zones. 


The effectiveness of the Brooks Range in 
influencing the climate of the land area to the 
north has not been definitely established, al- 
though the Range is a topographic barrier. 


Variations in temperature here are confined 
to narrower limits than in the Interior Basin. 
Extremely low temperatures in this zone range 
between —45° and —60° F. Seldom do maxi- 
mum temperatures reach 80°F. Even during the 
prolonged period of continual daylight, the sun's 
rays reach the earth's surface at such low angles 
that they cause little surface warming. 


Mean hourly windspeeds in summer aver- 
age from 11 to 15 miles per hour. Maximum 
summertime windspeed has reached 52 miles 
per hour at Point Barrow. 


Average annual precipitation for this zone 
is from 5 to 10 inches, although 16 inches occurs 
near Cape Lisburne. Annual snowfall totals 
average about 50 inches east of Cape Lisburne 
and from the Arctic Coast to the Brooks Range. 
Kotzebue experiences the warmest average tem- 
peratures and consequently receives a smaller 
ratio of snowfall to total precipitation than 
the remaining portion of the zone. The low 
moisture-carrying capacity of the colder air that 
prevails over the area accounts for this zone's 
having such light precipitation. 


The average freeze-free period contrasts 
with that in other zones; it ranges from 65 days 
in the Shungnak area to just short of 90 days at 
Kotzebue. The coastal area north of the Brooks 
Range has minimum readings averaging near or 
below freezing for all months of the year; vege- 
tal growth is limited to those species that can 
endure the vicissitudes of this rigorous climate. 


WEATHER FACTORS THAT AFFECT FIRE 
BEHAVIOR AND CONTROL 


Weather conditions are highly important to 
ignition and spread of wildfire. The amount and 
frequency of precipitation, air temperature, air 
moisture, and air movement combine to produce 


29 


the dryness and consequently the flammability 
of fuels. Other atmospheric conditions also 
strongly influence behavior of a going fire. For 
example, a thunderstorm not only starts light- 
ning fires, but its presence may often cause er- 
ratic winds that blow the fire out of control. 


To interpret the normal weather patterns at 
various places and at different times of day, 
month, and year, weather records from 18 sta- 
tions have been analyzed for the period 1950- 
58.4 Observations taken from these 18 stations 
sample the climates experienced in their respec- 
tive climatic zones (fig. 20). The individual sta- 
tions are widely separated and only represent 
the heterogeneity of climes experienced in the 
State. The recorded data show the normal con- 
ditions that can be expected; however, local or 
temporary weather situations are often abnor- 
mally worse. 


PRECIPITATION 


Precipitation varies widely throughout the 
State, but generally decreases from south to 
north (figs. 26 and 27). Successive east-west 
mountain ranges prevent moist maritime air 
from reaching interior regions. 


Great variation in summer rainfall is indi- 
cated by the records at representative weather 
stations in the Interior Basin, West Central, and 
Cook Inlet climatic divisions. (See table 1 and 
figs. 21 through 25). 


The combination of time of year with 
amount of precipitation that falls then is an im- 
portant factor influencing fire behavior. The 
length of time between summer rains has an 
important bearing on the amount of growth and 
the degree of curing in the herbaceous species; 
duration of these periods likewise affects the 
moisture content of dead material. Long periods 
of dry weather hasten the curing date of herba- 
ceous vegetation, and thus extend the period of 
high flammability. 


Table 2 indicates distribution of rainfall 
among the 4 summer months and the ratio of 


this season's precipitation to the annual total. 


4Summary of the analyses appears in the appendix and is 
highlighted in this chapter. 


Table 1. — Variation in summer precipitation 


Weather 
station May 
Normal Max. Min. 

Anchorage O51 2:00! 70:02 
(Cook Inlet) 

Bethel 89 2.50 .02 
(West Central) 

Fairbanks Agee 275 .O7 
(Interior Basin) 

McGrath 94 1.98 .34 


(Interior Basin) 


Growing conditions early in the season de- 
pend upon fall and winter moisture because too 
little precipitation falls early enough in the spring 
to promote plant growth. A deficiency of winter 
precipitation or early loss of snowpack may indi- 
cate the possibility of early periods of high 
flammability; in addition, this set of circum- 
stances can cause deeper than normal drying 
of ground fuels which so often means a greater 
resistance to control of fires. For 
most reporting stations, the monthly precipita- 
tion increases during the summer. Less than 20 
percent of the normal annual precipitation falls 
between April and June. Only a few interior 
stations report more than 35 percent of their 


than usual 


Month 

June July 
Normal Max. Min. Normal Max. Min. 
0.89 2.94 0.03 1255583) 2 5 OLY, 
1.20 2.48 .30 DiI2DOWS395 49 
IES/eeeSra2 P| 1hO2Qe FAl24' .40 
2.06 4.36 42 DSO NTS 76 


annual precipitation during the period generally 
considered the growing season. 

The amount of moisture that falls in any 
single storm period is important to fire control. 
The frequency of moisture occurrence affects the 
flammability of the vegetative materials and the 
rate of buildup of fire season severity. Rainfall 
intensities greater than 0.25 inch in any one day 
occur but seldom (table 3). Virtually no precipi- 
tation falls on three-fourths of the days in May. 
At very few stations did more than 0.26 inch of 
precipitation occur on one or more days during 
May. During April, the weather is even drier. 
In May and June both frequency and intensity 
of rainfall gradually increase. 


Table 2.—Percent of normal annual precipitation, April through July 
(Av. 1950-58) 


Weather Month 

station April May June 
Anchorage 2.8 3.6 6.2 
Bethel 3.0 4.9 6.5 
Fairbanks 2.4 6.2 les 
Fort Yukon 2.6 4.9 10.9 
Galena as: 4.3 11.6 
McGrath 2.6 4.9 10.8 
Northway 3.1 6.3 17.6 


26 


Seasonal 


Tayi ge reco ae 

Inches 
10.9 23.5 14.27 
12.6 27.0 18.17 
16.1 36.2 11.92 
14.8 Sore 6.52 
18.6 35.8 14.55 
2 30.4 19.13 
25.6 52.6 11.34 


| 
| 
|| 
| 
t 
} 
i] 


Table 3.—Rainfall intensity classes by number of days per month 
(Av. 1950-58) 


Weather Month 
station May June July 
Normal 0.0- 0.01- Normal 0.0- 0.01- Normal 0.0- 0.01- 
ppt. trace 0.25 0.26+ ppt. trace 0.25 0.26-+ ppt. trace 0.25 0.26+ 
Anchorage 0.51 26.6 4.0 0.3 0.89 21.3 7.9 0.8 1.55 18.9 9.4 2.7 
Bethel 89 18.6 9.6 8 1.20 18.1 10.8 11 2.29 15.5 13.0 2.4 
Fairbanks 74 25.2 5.3 5 87 207 7.8 1.5 1.92 16.3 8.6 ya) 
Fort Yukon 32 28.0 2.8 2 aA 23.8 5.7 5 96 25.3 5.4 3 
Galena .63 24.5 6.1 4 1.69 21.4 Ti. 9 2.69 19.4 9.4 22 
McGrath 94 23.8 6.5 7 2.06 19.6 9.1 1.3 2.32 17.8 9.8 3.4 
Northway 72 23.0 6.9 1] 2.00 19.5 8.7 1.8 2.89 18.4 10.6 2.0 
Fort Yukon receives slightly less than 2 radiation and the surrounding air mass. Both 
inches of rainfall during the May-July period; exposure and arrangement of fuel particles bear 
77 days are rain free, and more than one-fourth on the actual temperature the fuel attains. Air 
inch will fall on only 1 day during the 3 months. temperature also affects the rate of moisture loss 
TEMPERATURE following a period of wetting by rain or dew. 
Observation and knowledge of air tempera- Temperatures are higher in the Interior Basin 
ture are important in studying fire behavior. than in any other zone. Nowhere do they stay 
Their main value lies in the relation between above 80° F. for extended periods (table 4), but 
temperature and its effects on equilibrium mois- the sustained level over a period of 18 hours 
ture content and on ambient air stability condi- decidedly affects fuel moisture and fuel tempera- 
tions. Fuel temperature is affected by solar ture. 


Table 4.—Average daily air temperature classes (degrees F.) by number of days 
in each temperature class per month 
(Av. 1950-58) 


Weather Month 
station June July 
30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 

Anchorage 0.1 572 15:9 TAS) 1.2 0.1 0) ies 14.9 L221 2.6 0.1 
Bethel 4) 9.8 12.4 5.8 ileal 0 ) 4.7 16.8 7.6 1.8 mi! 
Fairbanks Pp) 2.3 8.9 les) 6.1 12 0) 126 9.0 11.6 720 1.8 
Fort Yukon 3 3.0 8.6 11.4 6.3 4 2 1.4 Zl 123 8.4 1.6 
Galena 2 3.2 11.4 10.6 4.1 5 0 1.4 11.9 11.3 5.4 1.0 
McGrath a5 4.3 1L.3 929. 3.5 a5} 7] 2.8 1320 9.8 4.2 Tal 
Northway ES 5.2 10.5 10.2 335 23 al 322 10.9 10.8 5.3 of 

Afternoon temperature affects the plans for bility. More days have higher afternoon tem- 


control of fires. As the long day progresses, 
fuel moistures reach or approach equilibrium 
moisture content. This in turn increases flamma- 


peratures at Fairbanks than at Anchorage (table 
5). This fact may be directly related to the greater 
fire problem in the Fairbanks area. 


Table 5.—3:00 p.m. temperature classes (degrees F.) by number of days 
per month 
(Av. 1950-58) 


Weather 
station June 
30-49 50-69 
Anchorage 1.0 257. 
Fairbanks 0 M6 
PERMAFROST 


Permafrost consists of organic and soil ma- 
terial that remains frozen year round. Regional 
climatic differences result in variation of perma- 
frost thickness from more than 1,000 feet in 
northern Alaska to permafrost-free terrain in 
southen Alaska (fig. 28). Precipitation (through 
ground water), temperature, and insulation ma- 
terial affect the presence and depth of perma- 
frost. Permafrost, in return, somewhat influences 
local temperature and considerably influences 
the supply of usable ground water. 


Because of their active water movement, 
streams generally are underlain by deeper and 
wider unfrozen areas than are lakes; coarse, 
permeable sand or gravel is more likely to be 
free of permafrost than is impermeable silt. 
Abundant unfrozen zones at shallow depth can 
be expected in mountainous areas, especially on 
south slopes. The most favorable sites for for- 
mation or preservation of permafrost in moun- 
tain areas are on north slopes and beneath poor- 
ly drained surfaces on broad interfluves and 
valley bottoms (Hopkins, et al. 1955). Table 33 
shows the time of season by which the ground 
is thawed to various depths. 


Permafrost affects vegetation in several 
ways that bear on fire behavior and conse- 
quences. The cold soil above the permafrost 
layer inhibits growth and delays the ‘‘greening- 
up’ of plants in the spring to the extent that 
much dry material is available for burning early 
in the fire season. Roots tend to grow laterally 
and above the frozen layer. When fire passes 
through a stand of timber and consumes the 
organic mantle, tree roots have nothing left to 
cling to; thereafter, even light winds can blow 
down large areas of trees that otherwise would 
have survived the fire. 


28 


Month 
July 
70-89 30-49 50-69 70-89 
3:3 0 24.7 6.3 
1389 0) 15.0 16.0 


The presence of permafrost often misleads 
firefighters. Frozen organic matter thaws and 
dries out when a fireline trench exposes it to 
open air; this permits a smoldering fire to escape 
across the once safe zone. 


RELATIVE HUMIDITY 


Air moisture is generally thought of in terms 
of relative humidity. In Interior Alaska, humidi- 
ties in May and June are lower than in July, 
and considerably lower than in August (tables 
6 and 25). This situation is the reverse of what 
is usual in most of the western United States. 


Air moisture affects burning conditions 
mainly by varying the fuel moisture content. 
Most fine fuels are sensitive to changes in air 
moisture and follow the humidity pattern rather 
closely. In heavier fuels, moisture content 
changes more slowly since a much smaller per- 
centage of the total volume is exposed for rapid 


transfer of moisture. 


LENGTH OF DAYLIGHT 


Both air and fuels receive heat by solar 
radiation. The prolonged hours of daylight and 
sunshine contribute to maintaining fairly high 
temperatures. Lengthening or shortening of day- 
light at a given latitude follows the change in 
the meridian angle of the sun. Surface tempera- 
tures are higher in the summer than in the winter 
not only because the sun shines longer, but be- 
cause it shines more directly, and therefore, more 
intensely on the earth's surface. This potential 
worsening of fire-weather conditions is some- 
what balanced by the fact that the amount of 
radiant energy received on any surface area de- 
creases ads we move from tropical to northern 
latitudes because of the lowering angle of inci- 
dence of solar radiation. 


Table 6.—3:00 p.m. relative humidity classes (in percent) by number of days 


per month 
(Av. 1950-58) 


Weather 
station May 
30- 

<30 49 50+ 
Anchorage Tal? 36:9) 13:0 
Bethel ae -O100 24e1 
Fairbanks 6:7 17.6 6.6 
Fort Yukon led) “16:95 258 
Galena 3:3) 13.9 71318 
McGrath ZO V6.9. 175 
Northway 52 11520; S058 


Table 7 compares the number of hours of 
daylight for stations at three latitudes: Fort 
Yukon (lat. 66°35'N.), Anchorage (lat. 61°10'N.), 
and Missoula, Montana (lat. 46°55'N.). 


Table 7.—Duration of daylight 


Location 

Date Fort Yukon Anchorage Missoula 
Hrs. Min. Hrs. Min. Hrs. Min. 

May 1 17 30 16 i] 14 25 
1] 18 52 17 06 14 53 

21 20 22 17 57 15 18 
June 1 DD A 18° Ag la "738 
11 24 00 19 13 18 _ 50 

2) 24.00 19 - 25 1a 7 53 
July 1 24-00 1 is VS! eo) 
1] 22 18 18 47 15 38 

21 207)" ".311 18. = .06 15>. 19 


The length of day or duration of possible 
sunshine is much greater at higher latitudes — a 
maximum of 5 hours greater at Fort Yukon than 
at Missoula, Montana. Missoula, however, re- 
ceives more intense heating because the sun's 
rays are more nearly perpendicular to the earth's 
surface when the sun is at its zenith. This in turn 
often dries out fuels more than does the longer 
period of lower maximum temperatures farther 
north. 


Month 
June July 
30- 30- 
<30 49 50+ <30 49 50+ 
0.6 10.0 19.4 0.2 62 24.6 % 
4 60 23.6 0) 44 26.6 
521 16:0. 8.9 3.5 12:3. “15.2 
ho 187° 10:3 Zo Nom 147 
3:2, 12:9 13.8 Ie 2:3 Aco 
29 P1338. 13:3 1.0 11.1 18.9 
52 15.2 Wee Dez Noel “Se 
WIND 
Wind influences the behavior of a fire. 


29 


High windspeed may cause a fire to jump bar- 
riers and travel in the crowns of trees, or to spot 
ahead of the main fire front. Wind combined 
with topography can cause erratic and violent 
fire behavior. 


As should be expected, afternoon winds 
usually are stronger than morning winds. Weath- 
er records indicate that Bethel is windier than 
most places, as the 0 to 7 miles-per-hour speed 
appears on very few days, but the 8 to 12 and 
13 to 18 miles-per-hour range is high for morn- 
ing readings and at least average for afternoon 
readings. Fort Yukon follows the same general 
trend. In May, many stations record the 13 to 18 
miles-per-hour range on more days than in June 
or July (table 8); this indicates that winds in- 
fluence fire behavior more in May than in other 
months. 


Many factors influence the direction of air- 
flow at any specific place. Geographic location 
determines whether maritime or continental air- 
flow affects a given area. Topography can cur- 
tail, accentuate, or change the surface direction 
of a prevailing wind. Winds of unusually high 
velocity that blow out of mountain canyons are 
generally associated with glaciers lying in these 


Table 8.—9:00 a.m. and 3:00 p.m. wind velocity classes (in miles per hour) by 


number of days per month 
(Av. 1950-58) 


Wind velocity classes, miles per hour 


Weather 0-7 8-12 13-18 19-24 2 Dict 
station 9 AM 3 PM 9AM 3PM 9AM 3PM 9AM 3PM 9AM 3PM 
May 
Anchorage 19.2 7.0 8.1 13.6 3.1 Tit 0.6 1.6 0.1 0.1 
Bethel 9.5 4.5 12.0 1322 7.8 10.8 1.6 2.3 Hl] 2. 
Fairbanks 20.3 13.9 7.1 10.0 3.3 6.1 3 9 0 Al 
Ft. Yukon 9.8 7.8 eZ, 13.4 7.9 8.1 1.6 1.3 0 4 
Galena 13.4 10.5 Hii 11.4 5.8 73 7, 1.6 0 2. 
McGrath 20.0 1351 9.2 12.9 1.8 4.6 0 2 0 2 
Northway 15.4 11.1 11.8 12.3 317 7.2 1 4 0 0 
June 
Anchorage 20.3 11.6 8.0 12.4 1.6 4.6 i 1.4 0 0 
Bethel 8.1 7.2 14.5 13.4 6.6 8.6 7, 8 al 0 
Fairbanks 19.7 13.3 6.7 10.5 BH 5.1 A 1.0 J zl 
Ft. Yukon 12.6 7.8 9.2 13.7 6.7 6.3 1.4 1.8 J 4 
Galena 15.2 11.6 8.8 10.8 4.9 57 8 1.6 £ 3 
McGrath 20.2 15.7 72 9.2 2.6 4.8 0 3 0 0 
Northway 15.3 10.0 10.2 1331 3.9 6.3 6 7 0 0 
July 
Anchorage PVes2) 15.6 Teli 11.0 123 32%, Al of 0 (0) 
Bethel 12.0 8.5 11.8 12.6 6.2 8.2 9 1.6 J 4) 
Fairbanks 23.3 15.7 6.3 10.5 123 4.6 a] 2 0 0 
Ft. Yukon 14.8 9.6 9.3 12.2 5.4 6.8 1.4 2.1 él 3 
Galena 18.2 14.0 6.6 O75 4.9 4.8 Ae) Ded. 4 oS) 
McGrath 22.8 16.8 6.3 10.8 haces ie 0 2 0 0 
Northway 17.9 14.8 9.4 11.2 3.6 4.6 1 A 0 0 
canyons. Taku winds, Knik winds, Delta River portant to a fire control officer. Appendix tables 


winds, and Summit winds are well-known ex- 
amples of this phenomenon. Occurrence of such 
winds can usually be predicted by alert fore- 
casters. Table 9 shows the variations between 
reporting stations on the frequency of changes 
in wind direction during the month. Of interest 
is the shifting from month to month of predomi- 
nant wind direction at the same location. These 
observations can be valuable in long-range fire 
control planning. The extremely small number 
of samples recorded below presents the proba- 
bility that even though two reporting stations 
have similar characteristics the intervening area 
may vary greatly from them. 


SKY CONDITIONS 


Sky conditions have a multiple influence on 
behavior and control of forest fires. Some gen- 
eral knowledge of what to expect in various 
places and at different times of the season is im- 


30 


29 through 32 summarize in detail the available 
information on the amount of cloud cover, types 
of weather (predominant moisture forms), visi- 
bility distances, and ceiling heights. 


The amount or extent of cloud cover and the 
prevalent weather type greatly affect fire be- 
havior and the flammability of fuels. Increased 
density of clouds and smoke reduces the pene- 
tration of sun rays, and allows only a portion of 
their heat concentration to reach the earth's sur- 
face. It also reduces the radiational heat escap- 
ing from the earth's surface. The combined ef- 
fect reduces the diurnal temperature fluctuation. 
Rapid changes of surface temperature resulting 
from intermittent shading by clouds may cause 
troublesome changes in wind direction and ve- 
locity. On one-half to two-thirds of the days 
during the fire season, three-fourths of the sky 
is covered by some type of clouds. This is equal- 


Table 9.—3:00 p.m. wind direction classes by number of days per month 
(Av. 1950-58) 


Weather 

station N NE E 
Anchorage ‘1.6 0.8 O7 
Bethel 3.9 1.6 4.5 
Fairbanks 2.6 4.4 3.9 
Fort Yukon Tel 14.0 2.0 
Galena 73 2.8 5.6 
McGrath 4.7 Af 5.4 
Northway 3.0 “7 2.6 
Anchorage 2.6 0.4 0.1 
Bethel 2.6 2a 2.3 
Fairbanks 1s 7; 2.8 1.9 
Fort Yukon 1.2 8.3 1.0 
Galena 32 les 2.6 
McGrath 37. De; 3.1 
Northway 3.9 12 14 
Anchorage! 3.3 1.0 0.2 
Bethel 2.4 2a 1.7 
Fairbanks! 1.3 2] 1.4 
Fort Yukon 8 5a] el 
Galena Did 8 1.5 
McGrath 2.6 1.7 1.6 
Northway 3.0 1.8 2.4 


TSix days’ records missing. 


ly true for inland and coastal areas. The amount 
or extent of cover gradually increases from April 
through August. 


The interior of Alaska experiences few days 
during May through July when the ceiling is 
lower than 1,000 feet. More often the ceiling 
height is greater than 10,000 feet. During Au- 
gust, when there is more rainfall, the ceiling is 
lower and visibility is materially reduced. 


Both smoke and haze affect surface weather 
somewhat but not nearly as much as they affect 
fire control activities. Reduced visibility makes fire 


detection more difficult. Most interior stations 


Wind direction 


SE 


31 


S SW W NW Calm 
May 

9.0 PIP 6.6 4.9 Os 
6.1 210) 2.1 6.6 6 
4.] 5:5 3.8 2.8 lead 
1.] af 4.4 1.0 0 
ys 3.4 2.1 2.0 2:3 
4.4 4.6 See 4.0 4 
2a, 3h 4.2 9.8 1.6 
June 

5:13 oe2 9.0 6.3 “0:2 
7.0 4.7 Df: 5.9 4 
310 gE 6.3 DY, 2.0 
1.6 7.0 8.3 1.6 .O 
De, 7.8 32 4.] oie) 
6.7 5.1 3.3 <P ies 
2:1 2.4 The 8.2 3 
July 

320 3.8 8.7 7.4 0.8 
Sh) 52 3.0 522 ae 
3.6 6.0 8.6 2.4 220 
Dal 8.7 9.7 Dee al 
4.1 75 4.0 S58 5.9 
829. 56 3.4 31 Ie) 
1.8 2.8 4.8 10.1 De. 


report some visibility reduction in June due to 
smoke haze; the effect is greater after July 1. 


Thunderstorms present a double danger. 
First, they cause lightning fires. Second, the 
presence of a fully developed cell may cause 
high velocity downdraft winds that often make 
fires behave erratically and burn out of control 
in almost any direction. Available thunderstorm 
data were inadequate for useful analysis, since 
routine weather records indicate only thunder 
that is actually heard by the observer, and thus 
encompasses an area with a radius of a very 
few miles. 


SIGNIFICANCE OF DEVIATIONS FROM NORMAL 


The preceding discussion shows what is 
considered the normal expectancy for local cli- 
matic conditions. A firm knowledge of the nor- 
mal situation is vital to intelligent planning and 
strategy for fire control. Knowledge of devia- 
tions from the normal is also extremely impor- 
tant. If the strength of the attack organization 
is to be based on average bad conditions, then 
the extent of variation of present conditions from 
the normal must be known within some given 
limit of accuracy. It is not logical to build up a 
fire control force strong enough to handle the 
worst season; neither is it logical to build one 
only strong enough to handle a normal season. 


Weather conditions during two recent fire 
seasons — 1950 and 1957 — are considered 
critical. Deficient precipitation, stronger-than- 
average winds, low levels of air moisture, and 
abundance of dry lightning storms all increased 
the incidence and affected the behavior of fires. 
This buildup in fire load, of course, very soon 
taxed beyond breaking point the ability of the 
fire control forces to cope with the immediate fire 
situation. 


1950.—The year 1950 was one of the driest 
recorded. Precipitation was below normal over 
the entire Interior. The lowest annual precipita- 
tation measured in Alaska that year (at Fort 
Yukon) was 3.83 inches, about 55 percent of 
normal. Large forest fires in that area occurred 
from early spring until fall. More than 2 million 
acres of forest land were burned by 224 fires 
that summer. This was one of the worst fire 
Seasons experienced since the beginning of or- 
ganized protection in the State. (In the first years 
of organized firefighting, 1940 and 1941, 4.5 
and 3.6 million acres, respectively, were burned; 
records for these years are sketchy.) 


Many new weather and fire records were 
established in 1950. Stations over most of the 
State reported above normal temperatures for 
March and April. Drought persisted in the Yukon 
and southern valley regions from January 
through September. A forest fire between the 
Chandalar and Porcupine Rivers in the Fort Yukon 
area burned 246,000 acres in the month of June; 
if spread over the whole month this would mean 
burning more than 13 square miles each day. 


32 


Figure 29. — High velocity down-canyon winds are often 
associated with glaciers. Matanuska Glacier. 


The many dry thunderstorms from June through 
August caused a serious outbreak of fires each 
month in both the Yukon and southern valley 
regions; temperatures remained above normal at 
many stations in these regions. Some relief from 
the drought came in October, yet precipitation 
reported by many stations was still below 
normal. 


1957.—As the 1957 season progressed, 
weather conditions approached the critical point. 
April's maximum temperatures climbed to new 
records at many stations. Above-normal read- 
ings continued through May; record highs were 
reached in the Kenai Peninsula. June tempera- 
tures were the highest ever in a wide belt ex- 
tending from the northern Arctic Coast through 
the central mainland on to the Alaskan Penin- 
sula. 


Temperatures dropped to near normal over 
most of the State during July, but rose to ab- 
normally high levels again in August. Warming 
trends continued at most points into September; 
Fairbanks registered a record high of 84° F. 


As a rule, above-normal temperatures indi- 
cate airflow associated with above-normal pre- 
cipitation. However, this year vast areas of the 
State experienced temperatures well above nor- 
mal but received relatively light precipitation. The 
driest area was in Alaska's interior, where the 
precipitation total remained consistently below 
normal month after month. 


Tanana Valley experienced the most persis- 
tent drought on record during the growing sea- 
son; total precipitation from February through 
May totaled less than 50 percent of normal. The 
only other growing season with comparable de- 
ficiencies was 1950. A slight break came about 
June 20, but the month's total was only 40 per- 
cent of normal. The drought continued through 
August and September; precipitation was only 
about 20 percent of normal in the Fairbanks 
area. 


More than 5 million acres burned this year, 
a total far exceeding that of any other year of 
record; this was 2% times the area burned in 
1950. 


33 


Comments.—On all forest and range lands 
the severe fire seasons are usually the years of 
more critical weather. Fire-weather and _ fire- 
danger rating records show this relation well. 
Years with dry springs followed by dry summers 
almost always have many large fires. Alaska 
is no different from other States in that respect. 
Observation of weather patterns and associated 
fire history reveals that in Alaska the weather 
does not always get hot and dry and stay that 
way as some may think. Further research and 
analysis will help produce guides whereby build- 
up of critical fire seasons can be more easily 
recognized; of importance too, use of such guides 
will assist prediction of conditions which are not 
critical. 


st 
ise) 


CHAPTER 4 
FUELS 


In forest fire language, ‘‘fuel'’ refers to any 
material that may burn if it is ignited — grass, 
needles, tree trunks, logs, muskeg, peat, or even 
coal. It may be either dead or living. Fuel is 
thought of in two ways: (1) as represented by 
species or species groups (cover or timber type), 
or (2) as represented by fuel types. Within a 
cover type, e.g., white spruce-paper birch, fire 
behavior is estimated according to how fast it 
travels and how easily it can be controlled in an 
average stand. A fuel type occupies an area in 
which the vegetative material is classified ac- 
cording to how fast fire will spread in it and how 
easily the fire can be controlled, regardless of 
the cover type. Fire control men prefer to use 
the fuel type classification system as it is both 
more precise and more flexible. 


To date, no fuel type classification system 
has been established for Alaska. The cover type 
classifications used and the relation of each type 
to fire are described in this chapter. 


FUEL DESCRIPTION 
SIZE 


The initial advance of any forest fire is 
usually through such fine fuels as grass, moss, 
or dry leaves. Heavy fuels, such as down logs, 
may slow the advance of a fire by being a bar- 
rier between the flame and the fine fuels ahead 
of it. Moisture content of large fuels does not 
fluctuate with temperature and humidity as fast 
as that of fine fuels. In general, the ratio of 
surface area to volume determines how rapidly 
the moisture content of a fuel fluctuates with 
the change in such weather factors as tempera- 
ture and humidity. This ratio is much higher in 
a blade of grass than in a limb or a log. 


Mosses, lichens, and grass, in combination 
or separately, are found throughout the vegetal 
range of Alaska. ‘'Moss'' is a loosely used term; 
as a general term it includes many species of 
lichens, which are at least as fine as the moss 
species and probably more flammable. Moss 
grows nearly everywhere that any vegetation 
grows, and is an extremely finely divided fuel. 
A slight rise in temperature, a decrease in rela- 


39 


tive humidity, and a spark are all that are 
needed to ignite it. The influence of heat radia- 
tion is similarly more rapid on ignition of moss 
than on other fuels. 


The prevailing fuel types through which an 
initial fire front advances in Alaska may be 
made up of finer fuel particles and these may 
have a higher rate-of-spread classification than 
an average fuel type in most other States. 


CONTINUITY 


Within the vegetative zone, Alaska has a 
nearly continuous expanse of ground fuels. 
Mosses, grasses, and lichens are found in some 
combination everywhere except on rivers, lakes, 
or barren areas. In most other localities in the 
United States, horizontal continuity is broken by 
such factors as bare soil under brush stands, 
roads, or cultivated lands. Needles under a well- 
pruned timber stand support a much slower rate 
of spread than does moss. 


Crown fires in Alaska are not unusual; the 
nature of the timber stands presents an excellent 
opportunity for crowning to occur. Cover type 
descriptions point out the fact that the climax 
spruce stands, both white and black, are typi- 
cally close-grown with branches drooping to the 
ground. The branches often support a heavy 
growth of beard lichens, which adds greatly to 
the amount of fine fuel that carries fire upward. 
These conditions complete the pattern of com- 
plete horizontal and vertical continuity simulta- 
neously. In other words, if a fire gets under a 
stand of spruce timber, the chances are excel- 
lent that it will climb the tree, and, if much wind 
is present, will spread from tree to tree through 
the crowns. 


This situation is intensified by the fact that 
spruce needles easily become detached when 
heated and ignited, and float ahead to acceler- 
ate the already rapid spread. In a spruce-birch 
stand, the highly flammable birch bark further 
intensifies the tendency for a fire to spread 
rapidly through the crowns; decadent and over- 
mature birch trees are particularly dangerous. 


COVER TYPE CLASSIFICATION 


The following descriptions of cover types 
closely follow those of Lutz (1956), but the rela- 
tion between the cover type and actual fire be- 
havior within the type is derived primarily from 
Robinson. 


EARLY STAGES IN FOREST SUCCESSION 


Paper birch (Betula papyrifera). — This 
species generally forms even-aged stands. With- 
in 80 years white spruce often becomes promi- 
nent as an understory component. By 120 years 
the spruce begins to dominate the stand. Barring 
major disturbances, the stand eventually be- 
comes a white spruce-paper birch forest. Fire 
tends to perpetuate the birch but reduce the 
spruce. Birch is typically found over millions of 
acres as codominant with spruce. The birch tends 
to open up and have fairly heavy ground cover. 
Birch stands seldom sustain fire unless some 
spruce is in mixture with it. Once started, how- 
ever, fires burn readily in stands containing birch 
because of the oily, highly flammable bark, 
which permits flames to race up the trees into 


the crowns and send sparks and chunks of 
bark ahead. 


. 


Bk 


y 


\ 


Yes 


ava 


Figure 30. — Lichens promote crowning. 


Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides). — 
The history of an aspen stand is very similar to 
that of paper birch. On excessively dry south 
and west slopes, aspen may persist indefinitely. 


36 


Aspen is relatively short lived, living from 80 to 
100 years; it serves primarily as a nurse crop 
for white spruce. Aspen is seldom found in any 
extensive areas as codominant with spruce. It 
tends to have a shallow, clean ground cover, 
and prunes itself quite rapidly. For this reason, 
aspen stands are typically more fire resistant 
than other types. 


h aye say? ‘ 


RIG GH ee - 
n Wr Hf a? . 


Figure 32. — Vertical continuity of fuel. 


Balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera). — 
This species forms essentially pure stands on re- 
cently deposited alluvium. (Northern black cot- 
tonwood is considered a part of this general 
type.) Following fires, balsam poplar may in- 
vade upland areas beside large streams. It may 
occupy flood plains indefinitely if they frequently 
receive new deposits of silt. However, on stable 
sites white spruce gradually gains dominance. 
As small trees the poplars are subject to fire 
damage, but above 30 feet in height they be- 
come well pruned and are progressively less 
susceptible to fire damage; as a bottomland type 
it does not comprise a true fire hazard. 


Willow-alder (Salix spp.-Alnus spp.). — 
Such a complex is not necessarily related to the 
early stages of succession, but it is included with 
the other hardwood stands. Willow is found 
along banks of rivers and intermittent streams 
and extends to the treeless plains of the Arctic. 
Alder is found along rivers and at brush lines on 
mountain slopes. These two species do not tend 
to carry fire unless extremely dry weather prevails 
and high winds are blowing. When they do 
burn, they burn hot and thus increase the resis- 
tance to control. 


SECONDARY STAGES IN FOREST SUCCESSION 


White spruce-paper birch (Picea glauca- 
Betula papyrifera.). — This type is more ad- 
vanced than either the paper birch or quaking 
aspen types. It may develop immediately after 
fires or it may result from gradual entry of white 
spruce into an originally paper birch stand. Bar- 
ring disturbance, a pure relatively open spruce 
stand will result. Fire tends to perpetuate the 
birch but reduce the spruce. The horizontal and 
vertical continuity of fuel, accompanied by the 
flammable birch bark, causes this type to be 
very susceptible to high rates of fire advance, 
both along the ground and into and through 
the tree crowns. 


White spruce-quaking aspen. — Develop- 
ment of this type is analogous to that of the 
white spruce-paper birch type except that aspen 
dies out rapidly at about 60 years, while birch 
will remain for 100 to 130 years. The aspen is 
reestablished easily after a fire, chiefly because 
of its capacity to produce root suckers. 


37 


CLIMAX FORESTS 


White spruce (Picea glauca).—White spruce 
becomes climax on well-drained land. Young 
stands are usually even-aged, but may become 
uneven-aged with maturity. White spruce fol- 
lowing immediately after a fire tends to be 
dense, but if it develops as a replacement of 
aspen, birch, or poplar it is likely to be relatively 
open. It is probably longer lived than other trees 
in Interior Alaska; ages up to 300 years are not 
uncommon. An occasional tree may attain a 28- 
inch diameter and a height of 90 feet. However, 
an average-sized tree would be more nearly 14 
inches in diameter and 70 to 80 feet in height. 


Single, light surface fires do not destroy the 
stand but create openings for the invasion of 
hardwood species. Repeated severe fires may 
cause an area to become essentially treeless, 
supporting only herbaceous or shrub communi- 
ties, sometimes developing into an aspen or 


birch stand. Revegetation following fire is 
rapid; bare areas are rarely seen. The out- 
standing effects of fires are that (1) most 


amounts of existing timber are destroyed and 
(2) the subclimax types (principally quaking as- 
pen and paper birch) are, at least temporarily, 
greatly increased at the expense of the white 
spruce type. 


In a white spruce stand the trees have 
heavy, narrow crowns extending to the ground, 
except trees in mature stands may often have 
the lower limbs pruned. On dry slopes and in 
the higher benchlands, white spruce tends to be- 
come an open woodland type of growth, where 
shorter height, broader crowns, and branches 
extending to the ground tend to persist through 
maturity. In open stands grass, dwarf birch, 
Laborador tea, and sedges are typical, as is a 
heavy continuous ground cover of moss. In dense 
stands, moss may be heavy along with needles, 
branchwood, and species of Vaccinium. 


Black spruce (Picea mariana).—Black spruce 
can be termed a physiographic climax. It grows 
on poorly drained areas in relatively flat valley 
bottoms, on flat to gently rolling land, and on 
cold slopes having a northern exposure. It forms 
pure stands of usually small, slow-growing trees. 
Permafrost is often found at depths of only 12 


, spruce 


1 


small spruce understory 


A, aspen stand; B, 


Ecological succession from aspen to pure white spruce stand 


Figure 33. 


; D, aspen is nearly eliminated. 


has become dominant 


38 


to 18 inches. Without fire this spruce is self- 
perpetuating both by layering and seeding. Even 
after a single intense fire it usually regenerates; 
but if fires are repeated often, the area may be- 
come a treeless community supporting 
Reentry of black 
spruce may then be very slow. The trees are 
short, small in diameter, and have full-length, 
narrow crowns. On excessively dry valley bot- 
toms or low benchlands, black spruce tends to 
grow in extensive areas of dense thicket type 
stands 20 to 30 feet high, and be so dense that 
human penetration is impossible. With its typi- 
cal moss ground cover, a black spruce site is an 


explosive fire type. Most of the excessive rates 


sage- 
rush-grass, or low shrubs. 


of spread recorded on going fires occurred in 
black spruce stands (ch. 7). 


Grass.—Grass, a typical flash fuel, is found 
throughout Alaska from valley bottom to ridge- 
tops and in unbroken continuity from small 
patches to single areas of hundreds of square 
miles. Grasses and sedges are an integral part 
of all muskeg types. In southwestern Alaska 
grasslands Calamagrostis may be 6 to 8 feet 
high with a 12- to 15-inch surface accumulation 
of down grass, or ‘rough.’ Fire spread in 
Alaskan grasses is similar to that elsewhere. 
Winterkilled grass burns at a flash rate of spread 
in spring before new growth occurs. In late fall 
after killing frosts, the spread rate again in- 
creases. 


Muskeg.—Muskeg denotes a poorly drained 
site regardless of where it occurs topographically. 
It carries an association of heavy sphagnum 
mosses, tussocks of sedges, grass, various heath 
plants, brush, and black spruce; minor surfaces 
or better drained ridges within a muskeg may 
carry birch or white spruce. The term ‘‘muskeg’’ 
is also used to include swamps or bogs contain- 
ing hundreds of potholes, sloughs, or lakes. 
Wherever subsurface drainage is blocked, a mus- 
keg association develops even on moderate 
slopes and ridgetops. 
muskeg 


As an ecological term, 
is limited generally to peat-forming 
vegetation in Alaska and northwestern Canada. 


Moss found in muskegs may be from several 
inches to several feet deep carrying recognizable 
plant structure to those depths (peat does not). 
The moss and lichen types comprise a specific 
and difficult fire problem because their flashy 


39 


ih Baggy”: 
oo] 


8. ty REO % 
Montes 


Figure 34. — Small black spruce stand near Gulkena. 


Figure 35. — Typical grass type on lower Kenai Peninsula. 


characteristics contribute to rapid surface spread, 
and their organic mass requires extensive dig- 
ging in order to stop or extinguish the deep, 
slow-burning fires. Drought conditions such as 
those in 1957 and 1958 may cause extreme dry- 
ness of moss ground cover to depths of several 
feet. 


Tundra.—The tundras mark the limit Si 
arborescent vegetation; they consist of black 
mucky soil with a generally frozen subsoil, but 
support a dense growth of mosses, lichens, and 
dwarf turflike herbs and shrubs. The treeless 
area in the Bering Sea and Arctic littorals is 
largely covered by tundra. 


Peat and muck.—Peat material can be clas- 
sified as woody, fibrous, or sedimentary; the 
type depends upon the degree of decomposition 
and the method of its accumulation. Muck is any 
peat material, altered by such features as aera- 
tion, drainage, or micro-organism action or culti- 
vation that causes so great a decomposition that 
its original botanical character is no longer evi- 
dent. These types are not particularly pertinent 
to fire control except that they may hold smolder- 
ing fire for a long time. Quenching a fire in them 
is extremely difficult because the materials 
smolder similarly to punk or rotten wood. 


FUEL TYPE CLASSIFICATION 


Formal fuel type mapping or classification 
has not been done in Interior Alaska. However, 
through experience and observation of the man- 
ner in which different types of fuels burn under 
various conditions of slope and aspect, Robinson 
prepared a preliminary rate-of-spread classifi- 
cation for Alaskan fuel types. Table 10 shows 
generally the relative speed at which fires ignite 
and burn in the major fuel types. 


Figure 36. —- Tundra type, Steese Highway. 


Table 10.—Rate-of-spread classifications for Alaskan fuel types’ 


FUcIMtype Valley bottom Benchland Slopes Ridastope 
Wet Dry Wet Dry Southerly Northerly 

White spruce or 

birch-spruce M H H E E H E 
White birch or 

birch-aspen M H H E E H E 
Black spruce H E H E-F E-F H H 
Aspen M M M M H M M-H 
Cottonwood L M L M M M 
Willow-alder M M M H H M M 
Grass E F F F F F iF 
Muskeg M H H E F H E 
Tundra M H H E E-F H E-F 


'Rate of spread: 


Based on Bl of 40: 


40 


L=low, M=medium, H=high, E=extreme, F=flash. 


3 m.p.h. wind; 30 percent relative humidity; severity index 8; today’s slat moisture content 6 percent. 


CHAPTER 5 
FIRE-DANGER RATING 


USE OF FIRE-WEATHER INFORMATION 


Fire-danger rating techniques have been 
used widely in National Forests and other protec- 
tion organizations for more than 20 years. Each 
general region has developed its own system of 
integrating into meters or tables the primary 
factors that influence the start and spread of 
fires. 


Prior to 1956, Interior Alaska had no formal 
system of fire-danger rating, and thus no basis 
upon which to build a fire-danger rating system. 
Fire control officers relied upon their personal 
judgment and experience to estimate the effect 
of the fire weather for the current day and for 
the previous several days on preparedness and 
suppression activities. The younger men in the 
expanding fire control organization needed a re- 
liable guide upon which to base their decisions. 


The Intermountain fire-danger rating sys- 
tem was introduced in 1956 without any modifi- 
cations as an interim measure in order (1) to 
interpret weather information in an orderly fash- 
ion for use in fire control work, and (2) to ob- 
tain research data during the period of the sys- 
tem's operation for eventual incorporation into a 
better system, which would be designed in ac- 
cordance with local conditions (Hardy and 
Brackebusch 1959). 


After using the Intermountain system for 
2 years, experienced observers noted that the 
burning index meter did not react to actual field 
changes as fast as was necessary. Appalachian 
slats were then substituted for the half-inch dow- 
els (fig. 38) that comprise the fuel moisture in- 
put to the Model 8 meter. This change permitted 
the burning index to react faster, more in keep- 
ing with the rapid changes in the fire-carrying 
characteristics of the finely divided, high surface- 
area-to-volume Alaskan fuels. 


Information from the Model 8 meter can be 
used satisfactorily by referring to the rate-of- 
spread computations shown in table 11 (Barrows 
1951; Fahnestock 1951). For Alaskan fuels and 
burning conditions, however, the perimeter in- 


41 


crease figures can be only approximate and rela- 
tive until data from local research make possible 
a more reliable revision. 


To explain the above statement: fires 
burned through black spruce stands in Interior 
Alaska at a rate of 120 to 600 chains per hour 
when the burning index was between 28 and 
37,5 while in southern Idaho fires burned through 
cheatgrass stands at a rate of 142 to 248 chains 
per hour when the burning index was between 
78 and 93.6 


By 1960, 14 fire-weather stations were op- 
erating throughout Interior Alaska. No great 
increase in the number of stations is likely in the 
near future because of the limited number of 
personnel available. Reliable observers, located 
near centers of use, with access to adequate 
long-distance communications are as necessary 
as proper locations and well-maintained instru- 
ments (Hardy, Syverson, Dieterich 1955). 


The following tabulation compares the num- 
ber of stations and areas involved Interior 
Alaska and Region 1 of the U.S. Forest Service.” 


in 


Region 1, 

Alaska USFS 

Number of stations 14 175 

Total area 

involved (acres) 225,000,000 32,000,000 
Average area per 

station (acres) 18,750,000 182,857 

Area ratio ] 100 


Even with the large number of stations in 
Region 1, the personnel are continually endeav- 
oring to interpret fire weather from a permanent 
fire-weather station to specific sites on going 


5With half-inch sticks, or 33 and 59 with slats. 


6Traylor, R. E. Processed report of a study of eight fires in 
southern Idaho, 1959; on file at Northern Forest Fire Labora- 
tory, Missoula, Montana. (Burning index based on half-inch 
sticks.) 


7Montana, northern Idaho, northeastern Washington, and 
northwestern South Dakota. 


Table 11.—Average initial rate of spread' according to fuel type, slope steepness, and burning index 
at site of fire? 


Fuel rate of Slope 


Burning index 


spread type steepness? 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100 
Percent Perimeter increase (chains per hour) 
Low 0-10 0) ] ] 4 1 ] 2 2 2 3 4 
11-25 0) ] ] ] 2 2 3 3 4 6 
26-50 ] ] 2 2 3 3 4 4 6 8 
51-75 ] 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 9 13 
Over 75 2 3 4 5 6 Vf 8 10 15 20 
Medium 0-10 0) ] ] ] 2 2 2 3 4 5 
IJE25 ] ] ] 2 2 3 3 4 6 W/ 
26-50 ] 2 2 3 3 4 5 6 8 10 
51-75 2 3 3 4 5 6 yf 9 13 16 
Over 75 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 15 20 P25) 
High 0-10 6) ] 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 12 
11-25 ] ] 3 4 6 7 9 1] 13 7 
26-50 2 2 4 6 8 10 12 16 18 24 
51-75 3 3 6 9 13 16 19 25 28 38 
Over 75 4 6) 10 15 20 25 30 40 45 60 
Extreme 0-10 ] 3 4 5 6 8 10 13 16 19 
11-25 ] 4 6 Uf 9 1] 14 19 22 27 
26-50 2 6 8 10 12 16 20 26 32 38 
§1-75 3 9 13 16 19 25 32 4] 50 60 
Over 75 5 15 20 25 30 40 50 65 80 95 
Flash 0-10 ] 5 12 15 19 24 30 37 46 SV/ 
11-25 ] 7, 17 21 27 34 42 By) 65 81 
26-50 2 10 24 30 38 48 60 74 92 114 
51-75 3 16 38 48 60 76 95 Melz4 146 181 
Over 75 5 25 60 75 95 120 150 185 230 285 


lAverage initial rate of spread refers to perimeter increase 
be anticipated during the first 4 to 5 hours. 


2Table based upon study of 2,955 fires in National Forests, R-1, 


have been estimated. 


3General descriptions used in slope descriptions are: Level, 
Steep, 51-75 percent; Very steep, over 75 percent. 


fires or prescribed burns (Barrows 1951). It will 
never be possible to have such an intensive 
coverage of fire-weather stations in Alaska be- 
cause of the sparse settlement, lack of perma- 
nent personnel, and lower order of resource 
utilization. However, for purposes not requiring 
daily measurement, recording weather stations 
may soon be used to fill in gaps at important 
locations. 


between discovery of fire and first attack. This rate of spread may 


0-10 


42 


1936-44. Values for very high and very low burning index 


percent; Gentle, 11-25 percent; Moderate, 26-50 percent; 


Data collected from the present system of 
fire-weather stations in Alaska have assisted re- 
search personnel in understanding the general 
fire-weather complex that characterizes Alaska’s 
interior. Fire-weather information presented in 
this publication was obtained from two sources: 
fire-weather stations and actual fire data. Use 
of the system by fire control personnel has en- 
abled them to understand the trend of fire- 


weather conditions during the summer much ditions according to cumulative moisture content 


better than they could previously. One example and current burning index. Such a table facili- 
of such use is evidenced in table 12, which was tates wiser use of equipment and manpower in 
devised by fire control officers in Interior Alaska organizing both fire preparation and fire sup- 
to indicate progressively worsening burning con- pression activities. 


Table 12.—Burning condition classes 


| Cumulative 


Adjective Briay uel Severity Burning index Burning 
description Crater index Intermountain2 Alaska! condition 
Percent Class 

Low 85 + 0-2 1- 20 1-15 1 
| Moderate 71-84 3 21-35 16-25 2 
| Average 48-70 4-5 36- 50 26-35 3 
| High 36-47 6 51- 70 36-50 4 
| Extreme 0-35 7-10 71-100 Sillee 5 


1Based on moisture content of Appalachian slats. 
2Based on moisture content of half-inch dowel sticks. 


USFS 


Figure 38. — Appalachian slats (left) and half-inch dowel 
sticks (right). 


SEASONAL TRENDS IN FIRE WEATHER 


Perhaps the reason for the greater-than-ex- 
pected rate of spread of fire in black spruce is 
due to the fuel itself; perhaps it is due to the 
method of determining burning index; or per- 
haps it is due to a weather-length @f day com- 
plex. The reader should note that such weather 
factors as relative humidity, fuel moisture, and 
air temperature, do not approach the normally 
expected critical points reached in such States 
as Montana and Idaho. 


The percent of total frequency of each meas- 
ured fire-weather factor during the 1958 season 
is shown in figure 39 — relative humidity, wind 
velocity, fuel moisture (both stick and slat), and 
the resultant burning indexes. An overall pattern 


becomes apparent that all factors, except wind, 
have an increasing percent of occurrences on the 
severe side of the line according to this order of 
stations: Anchorage, Fort Yukon, Priest River Ex- 
perimental Forest, and Fort Howes. 


Generally speaking, burning indexes are 
slightly higher in Interior Alaska in May and 
June than in July and August. The reverse is 
true for Montana and northern Idaho (table 13 
and fig. 40). Statistics on fire occurrence and 
burned area follow the same trend as the burn- 
ing index data (refer to figs. 54 and 55). As a 
point of interest, the fire season at the other 
edge of the United States (Arizona and New 
Mexico) also reaches its peak by mid-July, then 
begins tapering off. 


Table 13.—Percent of total frequency of burning index by general classes, 
May-August, 1956-58 


Weather ie cane Month Annual! 
station gees May June July August ppt. 
21- 21- 21- 21- 
AO 40 + 40 40+ 40 40+ 40 40+ Inches 
Anchorage Stick 48 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 16.23 
Slat 60 7 62 0 27 2 42 0 
Fort Yukon Stick 69 6 62 22 60 13 50 0 5.61 
Slat 39 61 43 49 64 23 75 1] 
Priest River Stick 58 3 46 1 53 30 33 Al 39.45 
(Idaho) Slat 0 0 47 26 33 58 27 55 
Fort Howes Stick 39 33 32 22 43 50 19 70 10.47 
(Montana) 


DIURNAL FLUCTUATION OF FIRE-WEATHER 
FACTORS 


Analysis of fire case histories (ch. 7) revealed 
some interesting information about involving the 
diurnal fluctuation of fire-weather factors. The 
extreme length of daylight in northern latitudes 
does not cause relative humidity, temperature, or 
fuel moisture to approach the danger point, as 
had been supposed previously. Also, the varia- 
tion of each factor from the most severe observa- 
tion (usually at 1600) during a 24-hour period is 
far less than at locations such as Priest River 
Experimental Forest (fig. 41). 


Ad 


Perhaps extended periods of moderate 
weather produce comparable conditions in terms 
of fire behavior as a short number of hours of 
severe weather (see ch. 3). The flat curves of 
figure 42 indicate that the extended daylight 
period in Alaska does not give fuels much time 
in which to cool off and absorb moisture. They 
also indicate that the spread of fire can con- 
tinue night and day at a relatively uniform rate; 
fire-weather factors at night do not become mild 
enough for a fire to “lay down" as it usually 
does in southerly latitudes. 


SOURCE- FIRE-WEATHER RECORDS, AVERAGE SUNE-AUGUST 1958 


FIRE-WEATHER FACTOR FREQUENCY 


RELATIVE 
HUMIDITY 
% 
WIND 
VELOCITY 
MPH 


£ MONTANA 


M. /DAHO 


ANCHORAGE FORTVUKON PRIEST RIVER FORT HOWES 
fl 
| 


FR & & 
AINFNOFASS T4LOL FO 


% 


FUEL 
MOISTURE 


HALF INCH STICKS 
APPALACHIAN SLATS 


lanoal 
SNAG 
SNS 


oc 


beara 


Figure 39 


45 


BURNING INDEX FREQUENCY 


SOURCE: FIRE-WEATHER RECOROS, AVERAGE 19$6 -1958 
HALF /NCH STICK 


APPALACHIAN SLAT —vssnnesnes ABOVE AV B/. 
BURNING 
JUNE INDEX SULY 


PRIEST RIVER 


Tr) 


erneenerrrene 

TE] |eceauerecaeene 
renueeseeceney 
senesneserese 
EUutercer 


(N.104HO) 


| 


FT HOWES 


(£ MONT) 


60 $0 40 30 20 


10 10 


FREQUENCY OF BURNING INDEX, PERCENT 


20 30 40 50 0 


Figure 40 
; 46 


DURATION OF EQUAL FLUCTUATION 
F FIRE-DANGER RATING FACTORS 


PRIEST RIVER 


INTERIOR ALASKA 
NORTHERN /OAHO 


INTERIOR ALASKA 


HALF /NCH $7/CK SLAT MOISTURE 
MOISTURE VARIES 2% VARIES 2% 
2400 2400 


TEMPERATURE RELATIVE HUMID/T¥ 
VARIES 10°F VARIES 10 7 


Figure 41 
47 


| DIURNAL FLUCTUATION OF FIRE WEATHER | 


FUEL MOISTURE PERCENT 
3 +10 , 
. a 
S + 8 Eo ~ | 
Ry es | x 
N +4 = N/DAHO STICK 0+ ys a 4 


(ee be tla a eee 
[AiR TEMPERATURE | 


N 
= 
S 
Ve 
S ~20 
ee (er fies me ied eel ein cl eels ey 
mm ae (Om | Vania |e A a AL alee to 
kane 
Ss 
ETE RELATIVE HUMIDITY & DEWPOINT 
S iS peal 
NS Stes ~ ALASKA R/ —— 
N 760 M/IDAHO R/H-—-— __| =| 
S \ ALASHALD Pine AG 
S 7 
é + 40 —— ‘ | | 
~N \ / 
< \ / 
Q \ 
< egree aes oy, 
Srateceuussacdescasta sobs oncesecroen besconscscnesepreecouenee. ie een eeereeree| f 
Ql ea | ree cs 
iekaates BURNING /NOEX 
5 Oe ——— = 
=) Esp ea | [SS 
S -20 ae | Po Wes 
S soneconeeee Sane ae ALASKA-ST/CK Sins ~ K 
L730 = t -$LAT ——— 
gp oe N.IDAHO STICK +77: 


HOUR 0400 0800 1200 1600 2000 2400 


_ Figure 42 
48 


CHAPTER 6 
FIRE STATISTICS 


HISTORICAL 


Forest fires have burned in Interior Alaska 
for many centuries; their causes were the same 
as for fires over the rest of the North American 
continent both then and today — lightning and 
man. The forests themselves tell the history of 
the earliest fires; early explorers and other trav- 
elers continue the record until modern times. 


Fires in the earliest times were doubtless 
caused by both lightning and Indians, with the 
greater percentage probably caused by the In- 
dians. The extent of man-caused destruction 
spiraled upward with the discovery of gold in 
1898 in the Klondike country. During single bad 
years, fires burned over several million acres. 
Railroad and highway construction led to some 
of the largest fires in the history of the State 
(Lutz 1959). 


Ever since the gold rush days, an estimated 
annual average of 1 million acres has burned 
over in Interior Alaska. Scanning of early reports 
reveals that some of the worst fire years, prior 
to the beginning of methodical recordkeeping in 
1940, were 1898, 1903, 1913, 1915, and 1923. 
The fact that apparent burned acreage has not 
been reduced in recent years can be attributed to 
better reporting and recording procedures. In 
earlier days many large burns were never seen, 
or at least never reported; so probably the 
burned area was much greater than suspected. 
Even in Sweden, where forests have been man- 
aged and protected for centuries, the number of 
fires reported annually increased from 400 to 
1,100 during the recent 15-year period of 1944 
to 1958 (Stromdahl 1959). The increased accur- 
acy in fire reporting in Sweden may explain the 
apparent decrease of lightning fires from 50 
percent to 10 percent of the total. 


Ideas about the general cause of fires in 
Interior Alaska have gradually changed. Heintz- 
leman (1936) stated, ‘Fires in Alaska are almost 
wholly man-caused (lightning being a negligible 
factor)... '' Also, the Alaska Fire Control Serv- 
ice Annual Report for 1940 stated that there were 
no lightning-caused fires in Interior Alaska 
(Robinson 1960). Evidence now on hand shows 


49 


that these statements were in error; they were 
made before there was any organized fire pro- 
tection force or even reporting procedure. Fires 
that actually were started by lightning were 
attributed to trappers, miners, and natives. One- 
fourth of all fires between 1950 and 1958 were 
reported as lightning-caused, and they accounted 
for three-fourths of the total acreage burned. 


COMPARATIVE STATISTICS 


The available data on Alaska forest fires 
from 1950 through 1958 present a vivid picture 
of the Alaska fire problem, especially when they 
are compared with data on forest fires in the 
other States during the same period.® Tabulated 
data are given in the Appendix (tables 34 
through 43) but the conclusions based on these 
data are presented in the pages immediately 
following. The Alaska fire problem can be best 
visualized and understood by direct comparison 
of pertinent data about separate but related 
phases of the problem. 


INTERIOR ALASKA, WITH CONTINENTAL 
UNITED STATES 


Area Protected 


The Bureau of Land Management is respon- 
sible for protection of 93 percent of forest land in 
Alaska. In the other States, responsibility for 
protection is shared by many agencies and as- 
sociations. All public domain land in the United 
States is protected by the Bureau of Land Man- 
agement; 62 percent of this is in Alaska. This 
amounts to 27 percent of all land under organ- 
ized fire protection in the entire United States 
(higz-43), 


Areo Burned 


Total area of forest land burned annually 
in Alaska averages about 1.1] 
while the total acreage burned annually on lands 


million acres, 


8The information presented in this chapter and in chapter 
8 is confined to the years 1950 through 1958 since data 
prior to that year are incomplete and less accurate. Even so, 
records of the last few years, especially 1957 and 1958, are 
considerably more reliable than those between 1950 and 
1956. Tests of statistical significance for several of the tables 
indicated poor correlation; thus all tables based upon analysis 
of individual fire reports should be accepted chiefly for the 
general information they contain. 


managed by all agencies in the other States is 
slightly more than 3 million. The area burned 
per fire in Alaska averages some 4,400 acres, 
whereas, on lands protected by all agencies in 
other States, the area burned averages only 30 
acres per fire (fig. 43). 


Number of Fires 


The number of reported fires in Interior 
Alaska is only 1.1 per million acres protected, 
while for all protected land in the other States 
the number is 168 (fig 44). The low number of 
tires per unit area protected is in sharp contrast 
to the acreage burned per fire as noted in the 
preceding paragraph. 


Severe and Light Fire Seasons 


Number of fires—I!In comparing numbers 
of fires between severe and light seasons, we 
note that each protection group faces comparable 
difficulties. In numbers of fires, Alaska shows a 
ratio of 3 fires in a heavy season to 1 in a light 
season, whereas in other States this ratio is 
about 2 to 1 (fig. 45). Also, at least for the period 
of record, both the severest and the lightest sea- 
sons in Alaska were not the same years as the 
severest and lightest seasons in other States. 


Acreage burned.—tThe difference between 
acreage burned in severe and light years in 
Alaska is far greater than the difference in acre- 
age burned in severe and light years in other 
States. The ratios are approximately 135 to 1 
and 5 to 1, respectively. In Interior Alaska the 
greatest number of fires is 1.6 times normal and 
the area burned is 4.6 times normal, as opposed 
to 1.3 and 2.2 for all protected land in the other 
States (fig. 45). The data indicate that an over- 
load of fires causes more destruction in Alaska 
than in the other States. 


The area burned per fire is another indica- 
tor of the greater damage encountered in In- 
terior Alaska than in other States when fire- 
weather conditions become critical. In Interior 
Aiaska a fire may then become 3 times as large 
as in a normal year and 62 times as large as in 
an easy year. Suppression forces on protected 
land in other States have been fortunate in hav- 
ing sufficient strength to confine the ratio to 1.2 
and 2.8, respectively (fig. 46). The percent of 
fires that exceeds Class B size — 10 acres — in 
worst, normal, and easy years does not vary 


50 


greatly between areas (fig. 47); the great differ- 
ence comes in the size of the fires that do exceed 
10 acres, as noted above. 


Number of Fires by Specific Cause 


Lightning causes 24 percent of all fires in 
Alaska and 35 percent in the other States. A 
year-by-year record, however, indicates that the 
apparent ratio of lightning fires to others in 
Alaska is gradually increasing; this is probably 
a result of more accurate reporting procedures. 
Campfires cause 27 percent of all fires requiring 
suppression action in Alaska, but only 4 percent 
in other States. Also, in Alaska 21 percent of the 
wildland fires are caused by debris burning com- 
pared to 14 percent in the other States (fig. 48). 
This indicates the same type of activity in Alaska 
that occurred in Montana and northern Idaho in 
the late 1920's and early 1930's when consider- 
able land was being cleared. 


Number of Fires by Size Class 


A greater percentage of fires is of Class A 
size [one-fourth acre or less) on Interior Alaska 
lands than on lands protected by the Bureau of 
Land Management in the other States — 42 
percent compared to 19 percent, respectively. 
Both Alaska and other States show a larger per- 
centage of Class E fires (larger than 300 acres) 
than Class D (100-300 acres). Records indicate 
that if a fire is not controlled by the time it 
reaches 300 acres in size, it may not be con- 
trolled until it reaches several hundred or even 
several thousand acres (fig. 49). 


Number of Fires per Miliion Acres Protected 


Fire occurrence per million acres protected 
in Interior Alaska is low compared to that in 
other States protected by BLM; an average of 
only 1 fire per million acres occurs annually on 
Alaskan land while nearly 5 fires per million 
acres occur on other BLM lands (fig. 50). This 
occurrence ratio contrasts strikingly to the aver- 
age acreage burned per fire: 4,400 acres in In- 
terior Alaska versus 267 acres on other BLM 
lands (fig. 46). 


Area Burned According to Fuel Type 


The rate-of-spread and resistance-to-control 
characteristics of fires in Interior Alaskan vege- 
tation is described in reference to cover types 
instead of fuel types, as explained in chapter 4. 


AREA PROTECT ED 
AREA "BURNED 


AVERAGE 1950-1958 


Ls oe 
| areal eee SLM, OTHER ALL AGENCIES 
| STATES OTHER STATES 
| \ 
. 
| G 
| x 
6 
S 
ans S 
: . 
S4 
x 
ta $s = 
= AREA BURNED 
kop N 2 PER FIRE 
© x 
v 400 1 
< 300 
\ AREA BURNED 
S 200 PER YEAR 
AN ; 
100 


AREA 
PROTECTED 


Figure 43 
pil 


NUMBER OF FIRES 


AVERAGE 1950 - 1958 


Legend 


SLM BLM ALL AGENCIES 
ALASKA OTHER STATES OTHER STATES 


52 
seer 


THER FIRES 
AWN | 


o> 
tote 


“te $8 os 
Bo 
ecetoten 


SRR 


ROK 


11 4.6 168.0 
192 49 W848 “acess PROTECTED 


Figure 44 
52 


NUMBER OF FIRES. “ORS7 _ . season 
ACRES BURNED ° Zasiés7° ° 1950-19568 


NUMBER _OF FIRES 
1S \\ 


NY norma! 


KA —sdOTHER STATES. ~— OTHER STATES 


BLM BLM ALL AGENCIES 
9 
WY pee ARLA 
« 7 BURNED 956 
EL 
> 6) 
S74 
x 3 
iS 2 
/ 
OTHER STATES OTHER STATES 
BLM BLM ALL AGENCIES 


Figure 45 
53 


AREA BURNED 
PER FIRE 


AVERAGE 1950 -/958 


etatat 


nore” 


Sx 
Sees 


962 NORMAL 
1958 


Figure 46 
54 


PERCEN TF 


100 


80 


PERCENT OF FIRES 
EXCEEDING {0 ACRES 


AVERAGE 1950-1958 


1980 & 192 
NORMAL 


195 WG 


=) WORMAL 


1986 


ALASKA OTHER STATES || OTHER STATES 
BLM BLM ALL AGENCIES 


Figure 47 
5D 


FIRES 


BLM ALASKA 


— = 


= 


Wa 


1950 — 1958 
] BLM OTHER 
FAILROAD 
N Fe 


== = ooceee 


LNDIARY | LUMBERING 


cok| ok a 


INC. 


BY SPECIFIC CAUSE 


AVERAGE 


AL lilalditaldidla 9% | 


Padilla AND PERCENT OF 


il HH ort Serhieres s HEPES 


YlW0da  HHH@@@@@E@~PEX@YT MEC@M J 


came S 


Reefs SSS GS BS S S = 8 
ees: Oe Se ooo 


SIININ iNiodse 


Figure 48 
; 56 


S958 


a 
i § 
<i 
>) 
ad 
N 
Sy 
aS 


AVERAGE 1950 


nf 
nd 
Te 
LL 
S 
4 
Ld 
tO 
= 
> 
2 


| SLM, ALASKA 


S 
N 
S 
: 
8 


200 


WMA. 


Md a 


Te — cotta 


Se NOs 


Figure 49 


57 


aq 
= 
al 
S 
S? ce 
o™ 
read 
a 

os 
oe < 
as 
25 
= =_ 
= 
ce 
Vat 
| ae 


AVERAGE 1950-1958 


BLM, ALASKA 


| BLM, OTHER 


MMMM 


Mon 


HHY@H@_ CM TUM 


iti’ 
LLL hey 


x 
e2gessggsssssss Ga 


YSIGW/7?N 


Figure 50 


58 


The cover types in Alaska do not correspond to 
those in continental United States; therefore, no 
valid comparison of area burned can be made 
without modifying some terminology. In conti- 
nental United States rate of spread is greatest in 
grass fuels. A large share of the lands protected 
by the Bureau of Land Management in continen- 
tal United States is covered with grass; the next 
largest acreage is brushland. In Interior Alaska, 
grassland comprises a small percent of the total 
acreage; much of that is on the Kenai peninsula 
where lightning incidence is very low, accessibil- 
ity is relatively good, and fire danger seldom be- 
comes critical. 


Tundra and related fuels are not included 
on fire reports; fires in tundra are arbitrarily 
classed in the ‘‘Other'’ fuel type category. Rate 
of spread in this complex is as great as, if not 
greater than, rate of spread in the grass type. 
The information in figure 51 would be more re- 
alistic if most of the BLM Alaska acreage that is 
now listed in ‘Other’ fuels were placed in the 
Grass’ category. 


Seventy-four percent of the acreage burned 
in Interior Alaska is in forest or tundralike fuels. 
Eighty-eight percent of the acreage burned on 
other BLM protected lands is in brush and grass 
fuels. Forty percent of the acreage burned in 
Interior Alaska is in forest fuels, compared with 
only 7 percent on other BLM protected land. A 
relatively greater strength-of-attack force is 
needed for controlling fires in forested land. 


INTERIOR ALASKA, WITH SOUTHEASTERN 
ALASKA 


Up to this point all of the statistics have 
referred only to Interior Alaska. The differences 
in weather factors and fire loads between the 
two sections of the State make this understand- 
able. The brief tabulation below compares the 
Precipitation patterns of Interior Alaska with 
those of southeastern Alaska; it reveals two 
entirely different climatic situations. Interior 
Alaska has been termed ‘‘the green desert,’ but 


southeastern Alaska approaches a rain forest 
condition. 


Interior Normal annual Southeastern Normal annual 
stations precipitation stations precipitation 
Inches Inches 
Fort Yukon 6.54 Seward 68.08 
Fairbanks Ua ey Juneau 90.25 
Anchorage 14.27 Sitka 96.33 
Bethel 18.17 Ketchikan 1593 


59 


Past fire records place nearly all the Alaska 
fire incidence and burned area within the Interior 
(table 14). 


Abundance of precipitation in the southeast 
accounts for the heavy stands of Sitka spruce 
and western hemlock timber. Much of it is 
overmature: this indicates relative freedom from 
tire. But many stands in southeastern Alaska do 
show evidence of fire in their age and species 
composition. 


Fire potential in the southeast increases as 
timber is cut. Large volumes of logging slash 
accumulate and expose the ground surface to 
insolation and rapid drying; this encourages 
growth of flammable grass and annual weeds. 
The number of people in and near the woods 


also increases as utilization increases. 


The most urgent task is to reduce the 
annual burned area in Interior Alaska from 
the present 1,119,130 acres. However, the fire 
potential in the southeastern section must be 
realized; collection of certain elements of back- 
ground information there will be of value to any 
fire research program that may ultimately be 
established. 


WITHIN INTERIOR ALASKA 
Lightning and Man-Caused Fires 


Only 24 percent of all forest fires in Alaska 
are lightning caused, while 76 percent of the 
acreage burned is due to lightning fires (fig. 52). 
Inadequate storm detection and difficult acces- 
sibility contribute to the high area-to-incidence 
ratio. Probably the greatest fire control chal- 
lenge is to reduce the acreage of lightning fires 
to approach the incidence percentage. Early de- 
tection and fast attack facilities will help bring 
the acreage burned into line with the number of 
fires. 


Fires on Which No Suppression Action Was Taken 


Several interesting but often confusing sta- 
tistics result from comparing the group of fires 
on which suppression action was taken with the 
group that burned completely unrestricted. Al- 
ready mentioned is the fact that control action 
cannot be taken on some fires because: (1) they 
are physically inaccessible; (2) they are so large 
when discovered that no reasonable force of 
men could stop them (economically inaccessible); 
(3) limited manpower makes it imperative to 


TWOUSAND ACRES 


AREA BURNED 


BY FUEL TYPE 


AVERAGE 1950-1958 


771328 
RQ Qa” 


BLM ALASKA 


BLM OTHER 


_ Figure 51 
60 


NUMBER AREA BURNED 


200 900 
175 Me 800 
Qe 150 S 700 
Wp XX 600 
~Q Q 500 
ss 100 = ; 
D 75 SH 300 
— S 
50 Q 
NN 200 
25 \ 100 


NUMBER OF FIRES 
AND AREA BURNED 


BY GENERAL CAUSE 


Table 14.—Fire statistics, Interior versus Southeastern Alaska 


Lightning Man-caused Total 
Interior Southeast Interior Southeast Interior Southeast 
Number Acres Number Acres Number Acres Number Acres Number Acres Number Acres 
1940-49 200 no data 1 o+ 938 nodata 292 1,649 1,138 12,411,076 293 1,649 
1950-58 546 7,665,726 3 1 1,734 2,406,442 234 5,738 2,280 10,072,168 237 52739 
1950-58 Av. 61 851,747 0.3 o+ 193 267 ,382 26 638 253 IANS NSO 26 638 
Source: Southeast: National Forest Fire Reports, USDA, Forest Service. 


Interior: Annual Reports of the Director (Statistical Appendix). 


choose between fires when many start during a 
short period; and (4) under a general smoke pall 
some fires burn without being detected. 


Thirty-three percent of all lightning fires are 
never attacked, while only 9 percent of man- 
caused fires are not; however, the actual number 
of no-action fires per year is about the same for 
both general causes. This 9 percent accounts for 
68 percent of the area burned by man-caused 
fires. 


A lightning fire usually is 10 times the size 
of a man-caused fire; but an average no-action 
lightning fire is only 1% times the size of a 
no-action man-caused fire. Many lightning fires 
are held down in early stages by such elements 
of moderate weather as clouds, high humidity, 
and precipitation; this is not often true for man- 


caused fires. Table 15 and figure 53 contain the 
specific information for the above discussion. 


Why an average no-action lightning fire is 
only slightly larger than an action lightning fire 
can lead to many conjectures. A partial explana- 
tion can be: (1) the more potentially dangerous 
fires are attacked first; (2) action not taken be- 
cause known barriers may restrict the fires to 
small size; and (3) initial attack on some action 
fires occurs after they have beceme too large to 
control; they are subsequently abandoned — 
hence, large acreages appear on the action fire 
side of the ledger that otherwise would have 
been charged against no-action fires. The per- 
centage of lightning fires upon which no action 
was taken has been materially reduced since 
1956. 


Table 15.—Fires receiving suppression action 


Type of fire eee ae Total area burned ete ren 
Acres Percent Acres Ratio 

Lightning No action 20 303,214 15,161 

Action 4] 549,574 13,404 

Total 61 852,788 76 13,980 10 
Man-caused No action 17 181,514 10,677 

Action 176 84,828 482 

Total 193 266,342 24 1,380 ] 
Total 254 1,119,130 4,406 


Monthly Variation in Fire Frequency and Size 


Lightning fires——Virtually no lightning fires 
occur before mid-May or after the end of August. 
Eighty-eight percent of all lightning fires start 
during June and July. Class D fires are a very 
small percentage of the total number of lightning 


fires in any one month, but the number of Class 
E fires is consistently greater than that for any 
other class (fig. 54). 


Man-caused fires——The frequency pattern 
for man-caused fires deviates considerably from 
that of the lightning fire (fig. 54). For nearly all 


NUMBER OF FIRES AND ACREAGE BURNED 


BASED ON WHETHER 
SUPPRESSION ACTION WAS TAKEN 


AVERAGE 1950-1958 


ACTION Fee=| [___] Wo ACTION 


NUMBER 


400 


: 
SS 
Se 
Q 
i 
< 
SQ 
. 


ACTION 


NO ACTION 


Figure 53 
63 


MONTHLY VARIATION 
IN SIZE CLASS OF FIRES 


AVERAGE” ~1950 279 5E 


ae Ol Ee Ba | 
CLASS Lael Gs 3 me 


PERCENT LIGHTNING oe eae ae 
20 


sides ia Oto ote ike 10 


a 


SI [WE] 
| 
| (eT 


3 [SEASON| 61 FIRES 


—orecenr  MAN-CAUSED ee AVERAGE WUMBER | 


Pee ee 10 20 30 40 50 60 
| Ee, APRIL 
ale Sees eerey eS] 
| et 
JUNE 
Y | JULY 
AUGUST 
m= _ SLPT. 
SN 
A NOV. 
Pee 
sae 192 FIRES 
ee ET ee ed 
Figure 54 


of the season the greatest percentage of the fires 
caused by man is Class A. Fifty-seven percent of 
the fires occur in May and June — a month 
earlier than for lightning fires; land-clearing op- 
erations are a major reason for this early peak- 
load. Only a few fires occur in October and 
November, but a larger percentage of them 
reaches Class E size because the entire detection 
and control force has been drastically reduced 
by this time. 


Acreage burned.—The record of actual acre- 
age burned in each month (fig. 55) shows clearly 
that the small number of Class E fires during 
May, June, and July accounts for most of the 
total amount. Seventy-three percent of all acre- 
age burned by lightning fires occurs in June. 
Seventy percent of all acreage burned by man- 
caused fires occurs in May. Lightning fires con- 
tinue to burn much larger acreages in July than 
do man-caused fires; in fact, July lightning fires 
burn almost the same acreage as man-caused 
fires do in May. 


Yearly Variation in Fire Frequency and Size 


For the 9-season period studied, the gener- 
alization could be made that as the total number 
of fires increased, the number of Class E fires 
also increased, and the number of Class A fires 
decreased. This relationship is partly due to 
overloading of the fire control organization and 
partly due to many fires reaching such large size 
that no effective suppression action could be 
taken. The percentage of the Class B, C, and D 
fires does not vary greatly from year to year; 
the main difference in percentage is between 
Class A and Class E fires (fig. 56). The area- 
burned-per-fire record for 1957 — the worst year 
— and 1955 — the easiest year (fig. 46) — falls 
within this number-size class relationship. 


Distribution of Fires 


Fire control strategy cannot be planned 
properly without first knowing where and when 
fires are most likely to occur. Bases must be 
established and personnel deployed and shifted 
according to this knowledge. Data from the anal- 


ysis of fires from 1950 through 1958 were insuf- 
ficient to make detailed occurrence isograms for 
individual years or for separate size classes; 
however, figures 57 and 58 show the number of 
man-caused fires and lightning fires per million 
acres for this period. 


Most man-caused fires burn near population 
centers and along the primary highways connect- 
ing these principal cities (fig. 57). Exceptions to 
this general rule are such towns as Tanana and 
Fort Yukon. No roads go near these towns, but 
in Alaska they are still centers of population or 
distribution points. 


Distribution of lightning fires (fig. 58) ap- 
pears somewhat similar to that for man-caused 
fires in respect to their apparent concentrations 
near the larger towns and along the primary 
highways—particularly around Fairbanks, Tana- 
cross, and the connecting road. Other apparent 
centers of lightning fire frequency are near Kot- 
zebue, Galena, McGrath, and between Eagle 
and Central along the Canadian border. The 
scatter of fires was so great that this table at 
best could show only an approximation. 


If complete detection coverage were pos- 
sible, the lightning fire isogram might appear 
considerably different. Over the past many 
years, detection and reporting have been almost 
entirely by such volunteers as airplane pilots, 
travelers, local residents, and miners. We now 
know that many lightning fires occur in areas 
for which the isogram indicates a low frequency. 
Some of these fires burn large areas, and some 
may combine with other fires and appear as 
only one for reporting purposes. Others burn 
and die out without being reported. Many fires 
do not spread beyond a very small size, and 
their existence is never known. Better detection 
and better reporting methods will no doubt 
change the pattern of the lightning fire isogram 
during the next few years. More information 
pertaining to fire distribution according to size 
class and distance from headquarters appears 
in chapter 8. 


THOUSAND ACRES 


600 


550 


RN 
S 


rs 
Ss 


bs 
8 


ASS) 
Ss 
Ss 


tS 
s 


ACREAGE BURNED BY MONTH 
LIGHTNING AND MAW-CAUSED HIRES 


AVERAGE 1950-1958 


[AREA BURNED 


—- LIGHTNING FIRES 


—— —MAN-CAUSED FIRES 
TOTAL FIRES 


% Of AREA BURNED 


L/GHTM/NG FIRES 


( MAN-CAUSED FIRES 


[-] 7O7AL FIRES 


APRIL 


Figure 55 
66 


YEARLY VARIATION 
IN SIZE CLASS OF FIRES 


AVERAGE 1950-1958 


NUMBER 


Ss 


1950 


952 


£8 NS! 


956 


1950 | 
ITE a 
a 


1956 


ee 


> 
> 
x 
a 
Maa) 


100 200 300 400 500 


be 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES. SCALE 1, 250 000. AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


LEGEND 


CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 
OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 
GUARD STATION 

=== PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


MAN-CAUSED FIRES PER MILLION 
AGRES, ALL SIZE CLASSES 
AVERAGE 1950-1958 


Figure 57 


rm" ~ 
* 
=. J os 
, : 
I 
+ 
RS 
z 
. _ 
: aa 
f i 
us - 
- = i> = 
> i ~ 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES, SCALE | 250.000, AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


1954 
149 MILES 
—— 


150 KILOMETERS 


DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


— LEGEND 


5 SU ONL gm i hs (Vane ern \ Se ® CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 
PAY ot GBT area 5 es z med AAV En PSAP POSH Ove 


m= =OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 


& DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 
& GUARD STATION 
mm=—= PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


MAN-CAUSED FIRES PER MILLION 
ACRES, ALL SIZE CLASSES, 


AVERAGE /950-/958 


B34 { 
Cee ey 


We 
Nye 


fot 2 ene MINCH 
yf or A ET; z } 
: ; Ae aA res 
@ SUM ay ee " 


Rt 


eet 


‘tie: 4® fires 


etree is oe 
®\ NAKNEK 


= ee ear 
ee ASCE 


fig ‘ ie 
ale Bes \ 
ng aT, ) 
he aah ae 
WO NATIT me a 


Figure 57 


“ 
7 


. 
| 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES. SCALE |. 250 000, AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES. 


150 MILES 


} aioe DATUM IS MEAly SEA LeveL 

> LEGEND 

bh @ CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 
Nice OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 

as Oi Be DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 

ee) GUARD STATION 

| ie == PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


ACRES. AVERAGE NUMBER PER 
YEAR; ALL SIZE CLASSES. 


Pye sy FIRES PER MILLION 
1950 - 1958 


ON 
q Boe 
veh es Le 


Figure 58 


on 


At 


e 


i 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES, SCALE 1: 250000, AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


1954 


50 150 MILES 
=r = 


£0 > 150 NILOMETERS 
= = 


Scan 
aan DATUM IS MEAN) SEA LEVEL 


— LEGEND 


CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 
OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 
GUARD STATION 

s==== PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


Bye FIRES PER MILLION 


ACRES, AVERAGE NUMBER PER 
YEAR, ALL SIZE CLASSES. 


1950 - 1/958 


MINA 


Zz 


CGRATH Beet a ae Oh 


& GJANNALLEN 


ae a5 id 
7 


7. 3 ea = 
5 ny y ay, 
“7 C. 
oe wy boi 
(4. Meas es 
Z 
7 


a ee ‘ LP = 
" & SKILA 4 Princo fs. 
2%, 5 hain ra “et * a: 
Aig (aE BY aint? [GG money ht 
+f @ ILIAMNA >). MoE cia 


Figure 58 


CHAPTER 7 
FIRE CASE HISTORIES 


Why do fires in Interior Alaska get so large 
so fast? What is the actual rate of perimeter and 
forward spread? What weather factors are as- 
sociated with various rates of spread? And, is 
the rate of spread significantly different between 
fuel types? 


Preliminary investigation of research needs 
showed an almost complete lack of recorded 
data in the form of weather, fuels, or behavior 
that would aid in answering these questions. 
In 1958 a case history study of fires in Interior 
Alaska was started. During that and the follow- 
ing year, two 2-man teams, equipped with port- 
able fire-weather stations (fig. 59), gathered 
data from 19 fires; case histories of seven are 
presented here (fig. 60). 


Figure 59. — Portable fire-weather station. 


69 


The most valuable data were collected dur- 
ing the free-burning period before control action 
altered the spread rate of the fires. Thus, data 
for several of the fires cover a period of only a 
few hours, even though the fires may have 
spread for a much longer time. Results of this 
study indicate that nearly all extreme behavior 
can be explained qualitatively but not quantita- 
tively. 


HEALY FIRE 


The Healy fire burned 40,320 acres because 
of continual high winds. Healy is on the lee side 
of a major pass in the Alaska Range, between 
the Anchorage-Susitna River area and the Ne- 
nana River-Fairbanks area. Prevailing winds 
augment night downslope winds and override 
daytime upslope wind tendencies. Nonuniform 
topography downwind may also have caused 
erratic local winds and eddies. 


The fire originated in a coal seam that had 
been smouldering for several years. At the time 
of discovery, midafternoon on July 4, 1958, it 
covered 50 acres. By 2300 it had increased to 
100 acres, and was burning on steep, rocky 
terrain covered with black spruce, brush, and 
dense grass. 


Excerpts from the narrative report of the fire 
indicate the influence of the continual high winds 
in thwarting early control: 


The wind made it almost impos- 
sible to do anything for about the first 
two weeks of the fire... 34 of the 
time men on the ground couldn't keep 
ahead of the fire... 


After five inches of rain and four 
days since the last smoke, we felt rea- 
sonably safe and left the Healy wind 
tunnel. 


Weather and behavior records collected by 
the team after its arrival on July 8 showed that 
the major runs occurred on July 9, 10, and 11, 
although relative humidity was rarely below 50 
percent and burning index was around 20. The 
worst burning condition prevailed on July 26 
(32 percent relative humidity, burning index 44); 


however, since control was near there was no 
appreciable spread. One topographic feature 
hampering control of the fire was a bald moun- 
tain that caused the fire to split and form two 
heads. A note at the July 8/2200 reading indi- 
cates an interesting general wind situation: “The 
smoke is still being carried away by the fast 
surface winds, but as it reaches the flat country 
at the base of the mountain the smoke rises and 
forms huge cloud formations." 


The fire was declared under control 
August 1. 


on 


MURPHY DOME FIRE 


No single factor can be pinpointed as the 
major cause of this fire that scorched 13,300 
acres. Broken topography to the lee of a broad 
valley, cumulus clouds and even thunderstorms 
in the vicinity, and high burning indexes all 
contributed at various times. This lightning fire 
started on July 2, 1958, and covered 3 acres at 
discovery time the next morning. When initial 
attack forces arrived 5 hours later, it was at 500 
acres, and by evening was 1,500 acres. The 
primary fuel at first attack was heavy black 
spruce, with a light understory of grass, brush, 
and deadwood. The fire burned through some 
birch and aspen stands, and near the top of 
Murphy Dome raced through a gradually thin- 
ning tundra cover. 


Weather records show that either towering 
cumulus or mature thunderhead clouds were in 
the vicinity whenever the fire made a big run — 
a rather good indication of unstable air and 
downdraft conditions. The highest burning in- 
dexes (66 and 58) fell on the 2 days during 
which the greatest spread occurred — July 5 and 
13) 


Several features of topography apparently 
affected the erratic behavior of this: fire. The 
wind directions recorded at the fire differ from 
those recorded at Fairbanks. Winds coming 
across the broad Tanana valley on both the west- 
ern and southern sides of the fire area were 
broken by the mountains in which the fire 
burned. The northeast-southwest flowing Gold- 
stream Creek and its steep tributaries further 
complicated the consistency of airflow. The 
whole topographic complex made it nearly im- 
possible to predict the path of the fire. 


The fire was declared controlled on July 21. 


70 


KENAI LAKE FIRE 


Extremely steep and long, narrow canyons 
converging at the head of the lake cause strong 
winds that exhibit daily reversals in direction; 
3,278 acres was burned on this fire, primarily as 
a result of these winds. Local night drafts could 
have been quite gusty and strong and from al- 
most any direction during the time of the fire's 
rapid advance. The burning index, recorded at 
the lower end of Kenai Lake, climbed to 57 on 
the day of origin; this is critical for coastal 
Alaska. 


Clearing fires from homestead preparation 
and right-of-way construction have caused hun- 
dreds of acres of forest land to go up in smoke 
over the past 5 decades. A right-of-way clear- 
ing fire in National Forest land along Kenai Lake 
was very small when discovered and first at- 
tacked on June 10, 1959. The point of origin 
was in a stand of white spruce where consider- 
able moss was present; both the rate of spread 
and resistance to control were rated as high. By 
evening of June 13, the fire covered about 2,000 
acres, extending along Kenai Lake for 7 miles 
and up a 75-percent slope for a mile or more. 
The major part of the fire burned in good quality 
black spruce timber. The fire had pretty well run 
out of fuel on the upper reaches of this steep 
mountainside, but it was burning at both the 
left and right ends. The condition of the fire 
at this time can best be described by quoting 
from the fire-behavior team's report: 


... the fire was burning at about 
120 chains per The fire was 
crowning in mostly black spruce timber 
with a northeast wind blowing at 10 
miles per hour behind it. There were 
small spruce needles falling all over 


hour. 


the ground as far as 2 miles ahead of 
the fire... 


At 0800 on June 14, the 39 percent relative 
humidity and the 9 percent fuel moisture indi- 
cated afternoon burning conditions would be 
unusually bad. However, the fire made no par- 
Fair weather cumulus clouds 
were overhead from before 1600 until after 
1800. At 1730 the wind shifted from a prevail- 
ing northeast direction to southwest, with a 
considerable increase in velocity. Line was lost 
at both ends of the fire and along the lakeshore 


ticular big gains. 


COMPILED FROM 
TOPOGRAPHIC SER! 


LEGEND 


=== PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


OLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
ALE 1.250.000. AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 
OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 
GUARD STATION 


FIRES ON WHICH SPECIAL 
STUDIES WERE MADE 


} we a 
Oy : 
Dae SPAETH re 


su 


Figure 60 


Barrow.) > 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALASKA 


MAP E 


COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE? 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES, SCALE 1: 250.000, AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


1954 


180 MILES 


pale DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


_ LEGEND 
® CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION. 
% OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
# DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 
2% GUARD STATION 

eos == PRIMARY HIGHWAY 
¥ ge! oe Me oud AY Ase ae. ‘ MW) FIRES ON WHICH SPECIAL 

Ar We i ne ON ee. 


STUDIES WERE MADE 


Nt # dh he 
* vs 


BRGY 4 iy MUD 
gee, ’ 


RE 
bs 4 tay 
Ra 


o yerson \ 


y 5 BUFFALO CENTER #) 

Ra aS Hy, SLRS 
sn WL MAE 
en Wide, “F TANACROSS 
he yy VSN TAN 


3 i, 
Para Dy SAE = 
Bk iis 


BE WesWe 
ANCHORAGE /” 


“YP SKILAK LAKE 
EIS Mapes eea 
LA2>, tf, : fs % 


{ 
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A N ee 

@# HOMER 

See 
RES tb 


AGG 


= SSR = s 
© NAKNEK WY 


Figure 60 


ea g -eameaige yi 


ay, 


nana A i. i 
featge: Gerrneee | Lp e we OR 


athe 


S| isi ae ee 

4 es rete D» 
i (\ 
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if , LLeep 
| Ss a | i.) 6S hea » 
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a RSA 


2 P = A rr LO 
O/ 
f/f [i © 
SCALE 1: 250,000 


0 


Figure 61. — Healy fire vicinity. 


71 


SCALE 1:250000 


O 5 MILES 


mest Meer 


Figure 63. — Kenai Lake fire 1 year after it burned. 


road, and many summer homes in the Snug 
Harbor vicinity were endangered. The fire be- 
came extremely active for a short while but 
slowed down as soon as the wind slackened. 
The wind shift on the fire may have been caused 
by a major shift in pressure patterns aloft; evi- 
dence for this might be the disappearance of 
small cumulus clouds from the area. A special 
fire-weather forecast could possibly have warned 
the fireboss that such a situation might occur. 


This was the last significant advance of the 
fire; it was declared under control 2 days later. 


COLORADO CREEK FIRE 


Brisk winds, highly flammable fuels, steep 
topography, and unprecedented critica! fire 
weather all contributed to the difficulties of pre- 
dicting fire behavior and of taking adequate 
control measures on this 6,000-acre fire. 


This fire is thought to have been set by an 
incendiarist on June 17, 1959. By early morning 
on June 18, 100 acres of muskeg had burned and 
burning was intense on each of the 3 days fol- 
lowing ignition. Such critical fire-weather factors 
as those listed below were never before re- 
corded in Interior Alaska: 


USFS 
Fuel Moisture Relative 
Date Stick Slat Temperature humidity 
Percent Degrees F. Percent 
June 18 Tf, 2.4 86 24 
19 6.9 YA 19 
20 Fal 1.6 83 21 


On June 18, a brisk gusty wind began by 
0700 and persisted throughout the day. Before 
1300, surface winds carried the smoke away 
near the surface; but after that time the column 
rose rapidly to extreme heights. Fair weather 
cumulus were present from 1300 on. By 1400 
the fire was racing through muskeg at the rate 
of 60-chains-per-hour forward travel. Fast 
spread continued for about 2 hours. 


On the morning of June 19 the sky was 
clear and wind speeded up to a maximum of 8 
miles per hour. The fire jumped the control line 
and headed out at a rate of approximately 400 
chains per hour. Black spruce became part of 
the fuel at the fire's head. The smoke column 
rose for several hundred feet, then flowed with 
the upper wind; however, as the day went on, 
the fire slowed down and the smoke column 
tended to toadstool; at this time the cirrus and 


SCALE 1:250 000 


Figure 64. — Kenai Lake fire vicinity. 


74 


5 MILES 


SCALE 1:250 000 
75 


igure 65. — Colorado Creek fire vicinity 


fair weather cumulus clouds did not appear to 
have much movement. 


June 20 was another bad day. Altocumulus 
castellatus clouds (often a forerunner of thunder- 
storms and unstable air) were noticed from mid- 
night until about 0900, but no cumulus develop- 
ment beyond fair weather stage followed. At 
0800 altocumulus lenticularis appeared and the 
wind increased. At 1100 the fire jumped a wide 
control line and raced up a 90-percent slope 
through a black spruce stand at a rate of 140 
chains per hour. After it burned out the large 
patch of black spruce it crept slowly in the sur- 
rounding birch stand. This midday action was 
the last period of rapid spread; the fire was de- 
clared under control by midafternoon June 23. 


The entire 3-day period of record was char- 
acterized by temperatures about 10° F. above 
normal. Wind direction was predominantly from 
northeast on June 18, east on June 19, south- 
east on June 20, and east again on June 21. 
Average cloud cover was 0.7. Gusty winds 
caused some of the rapid advances by whipping 
backfires across the control lines. Presence of 
lenticular clouds on June 20 indicated high 
winds aloft. These, coupled with the combina- 
tion of the local general wind direction of south- 
east and the normal ofternoon tendency of wind 
to flow up-canyon in the side draws, may have 
helped the fire take advantage of local highly 
flammable fuel concentrations and race through 
these at unexpected times. 


LAKE 606 FIRE 


Thunderstorm downdrafts were the appar- 
ent causes for short separate periods of vicious 
behavior of this fire, which burned over 1,400 
acres. 


The Lake 606 fire was thought to have been _ 


started by lightning on June 19, 1959. It was 
discovered the afternoon of June 20 by patrol 
plane and was estimated to cover 30 acres. 
Initial attack forces arrived in the early morning 
of June 21 and soon found two fires totaling 
100 acres; these burned together at 1400. 


Thunderheads persisted in the vicinity dur- 
ing that afternoon. Fuel moisture of the sticks 
and slats was 10 and 7 percent, respectively; 
maximum temperature was 76, and the lowest 


relative humidity was 44 percent. Wind was 


76 


from the north or northeast except at 1600 and 


1700, when it came from the southwest with 


increased gustiness and velocity, up to 25 miles 
per hour. 


The fire-behavior team mentioned it was 
difficult at this time to tell which end of the fire 
was the head and which was the rear. To quote 
their 1600 report: 


About 1530 lots of unusual things 
started happening. The wind was very 
variable. It could sometimes change di- 
rection completely and sometimes it 
was at a standstill. There were some 
whirlwinds all along the fire line... 
The smoke was rising fast and ex- 
tremely high, becoming a part of a big 
toadstool directly overhead. It was im- 
possible to determine atmospheric 
conditions from where we were be- 
cause of the smoke. We did hear 
thunder in the SE. 


At 1700 the report continued: 


Between 1600 and 1700 we had a 
very unusual big blowup on the fire. 
The smoke was rising extremely high 
and forming a big toadstool directly 
over the fire. The fire was completely 
out of control, burning at rate of about 
4 chains per minute (240 chains per 
hour). It only burned about 30 minutes 
at this rate. At 1640 it began to rain 
and about 1715 the wind began to let 
up. At the two places on the fire where 
most of the activity was taking place 
there was small black spruce and lots 
of brush. The fire was sweeping through 
the trees and leaving the tundra and 
grass to burn later. At 1645 lightning 
appeared in the SE. 


Rain stopped the fire at 1,400 acres. 


Atmospheric instability and thunderhead 
downdrafts probably contributed heavily to the 
extreme behavior of the fire. Black spruce also 
appeared to be very conducive to crown fire 
behavior. 


Fires behaving as this one did can easily 
become “‘killers.’’ To prevent such possible tragic 
events a better understanding of the ‘‘whys’’ 
must be learned, supervisory personnel on fires 


Figure 66. — Lake 606 fire vicinity. 


C6 


must be trained to anticipate such behavior, and 
more reliable methods for prediction must be 
developed. 


STONY RIVER FIRE 


Unobstructed horizontal continuity of fuels 
had much to do with the rapid advance of this 
fire. Unexpected shift of wind direction and ve- 
locity could have resulted from mature cumulus 
clouds, but few were noted; possible passage of 
a frontal movement could also have contributed 
to the large final area of 8,000 acres. 


The lightning fire started on June 22, 1959, 
and by the next afternoon it had spread to an 
estimated 5,000 acres. 


The country was flat to rolling; surface 
weather conditions gave no outward indication 
of bad fire weather. The wind varied from 5 to 
12 miles per hour and was gusty; but even so, 
the smoke column rose rapidly and formed a 
towering cumulus cloud. A change in the gen- 
eral atmospheric situation may have influenced a 
shift of wind at 1330 from northerly to southerly; 
the wind aloft caused crowning and a spread 
rate of 18 chains per hour. Towering cumulus 
clouds that were observed at 1315 could also 
have caused the wind shift and resultant fast 
spread. From 1550 until nearly midnight the 
surface wind blew from the west, but the clouds 
came from the southwest. In 9 hours’ time the 
wind swung around clockwise about 270°. The 
greatest spread rate was 33 chains per hour at 
about 1700. 


No extreme behavior occurred on June 24. 


The fire spread both to the north and the 
south on June 25. Mature thunderheads devel- 
oped by 0800 and persisted until noon, when 
only fair weather cumulus were reported. A 
trace of precipitation fell during each 2-hour 
period from 0800 through 1400; this indicated 
that thunderheads may have been present later 
into the day than the record showed. Winds 
were steady to gusty from 4 to 10 miles per hour 
from the northwest pushing the fire to the south, 
but at 1600 the wind shifted to a southwesterly 
direction and caused trouble on the north end of 
the fire. The smoke column first rose lazily and 
spread out gradually, but after 0900 the surface 
wind carried the smoke away before it rose. 
Locally unstable atmospheric conditions may 


78 


have accounted for most of the high rates of 
spread; fuel moisture, relative humidity, and 
burning index were mild all day. After June 25, 
the fire spread very little. 


Coupled with a variety of weather condi- 
tions, the fuels — primarily black spruce — were 
capable of carrying the flame front with ease. 
The relatively flat rolling country with few ob- 
structions also permitted the fire to travel un- 
hindered. 


From the limited information collected, it is 
hard to know whether the wind shifts were of 
local or general nature; however, upper air 
soundings at Bethel, 175 miles southwest of the 
fire, indicated a general southwesterly flow of 
air that was convectively stable at 1400 on June 
24, in neutral equilibrium at 0200 on June 25; 
but at 1400 on June 25, layers of air were be- 
coming convectively unstable. 

The final area was 8,000 acres, about 5,000 
acres of which burned on June 23. 


HUGGINS ISLAND W-10 FIRE 


Three major runs were observed on this fire. 
Steep slopes and heavy black spruce fuels were 
associated with all three. Brisk winds acceler- 
ated one of the runs, and thunderstorm cells in- 
fluenced another. The fire was lightning caused 
on June 19, 1959, attacked on June 24 when it 
was already 4,500 acres, and abandoned on 
July 1. It finally burned out at an estimated 
size of 50,000 acres. 


During June 25, both towering cumulus 
and altocumulus lenticularis clouds were present; 
some precipitation fell at 1630. 


At about 2000 the fire, which had been 
crawling through tundra, reached a black spruce 
stand on a 7/5-percent slope and raced through it 
at about 90 chains per hour; the average spread 
for a whole hour was 45 chains. There was no 
special note of increased or erratic wind; no cu- 
mulus clouds were present; but the smoke column 
changed from rising lazily and spreading out, 
This 
change in the smoke column characteristic may 


to being carried away by surface winds. 


have been an important clue to the sudden rapid 
spread of the fire, but the changes in slope and 
fuel type were also pertinent to the cause. There 
might also have been a topographic influence on 
local wind flow at that time of day. 


| SCALE 1:250000 


Figure 67. — Stony River fire vicinity. 


79 


fe 
A 
= 
: : 
oO 3 
wo 
N 5 
Coen a 53 
Lu C 
=) 
< 
©O 
7) 


On the morning of June 26, after a change 
from steady, light northeasterly wind to a vari- 
able wind, and under moderate fire-weather and 
clear-sky conditions, the fire began crowning at 
80 chains per hour up a 75-percent slope con- 
taining black spruce. At 1000 all the weather 
conditions worsened, many dust devils occurred, 
cumulus clouds began to form, the smoke column 
rose rapidly and high, but the fire slowed to 20 
chains per hour on a 35-percent slope, still in 
black spruce. The wind was now from the north 
and continued there all day. The fire continued 
to advance but not with extreme behavior char- 
acteristics. 


At 1600, however, to quote the fire-be- 
havior report, ‘A whole north-south wall of flame 
is moving west over a ridge at a fantastic rate 
— possibly a good 5 miles per hour. No warn- 
ing — the whole ' mile of flame started within 
3 minutes.'’ The smoke column continued to rise 
for some distance, then toadstooled. There had 
been no noticeable weather, fuel, or topographic 
change (21- to 50-percent slope) to cause this 
erratic behavior; nowever, the 1800 observation 
mentions fully mature thunderheads with virga 
in the vicinity. Maximum wind velocity at the 
weather station, though, was only 11 miles per 
hour. At 1930 the wind shifted from north to 
southeast, the fire subsided and remained quiet 
during the night. The fire was now about 13,000 
acres in size. 


Since the available firefighting crew was 
so small and the extended period of fire weather 
was so adverse, the fire was finally abandoned 
in late evening on July 1. More complete 
weather observations and intensive study of the 
atmospheric conditions might have led to a 
better explanation of the fire's rapid spread. 


SUMMARY 


Topography to windward of the Healy fire 
forms a saddle through which wind velocities 
are usually greatly increased. This fact is the 
major reason for the fast spread and difficult 
control of the fire. 


The broken topographic complex on the lee 
side of a broad flat valley, high burning index, 
thunderstorms, and instability all contributed to 
the irregular and difficult time for predicting be- 
havior of tne Murphy Dome fire. One day the 


81 


fire spread for several hours at a rate of 40 
chains per hour. 


Topography surrounding the Kenai Lake fire 
vicinity is extremely rugged and consists, in part, 
of steep canyons converging on the upper end 
of the lake. The resultant strong diurnal winds 
reverse their direction in morning and evening; 
altered atmospheric conditions also violently af- 
fect the wind pattern. The diurnal effect caused 
serious trouble on one day, and a front moving 
through caused considerable loss of line on an- 
other day. 


The worst fire weather of all the fires re- 
ported here occurred on the Colorado Creek fire. 
The brisk winds that were altered by steep to- 
pography, highly flammable fuels, and generally 
critical fire weather all contributed to the dif- 
ficulty of predicting fire behavior and taking ap- 
propriate control measures. A spread of 140 
chains per hour in black spruce was recorded 
for a brief period. 


The initial run of the Lake 606 fire was 
caused by strong winds. The greatest spread, 
however, was apparently caused by thunder- 
storm downdrafts and unstable atmospheric con- 
ditions. 


Constant rapid spread of the Stony River fire 
was aided by unbroken horizontal fuel continuity 
and relatively unstable air associated with a 
frontal activity which changed the wind direction 
a total of 270 degrees. The fire traveled at a 
rate of 33 chains per hour at times. 


Thunderstorm downdrafts may have caused 
a %y-mile section of the Huggins Island W-10 
fire to advance briefly at a rate of 320 to 400 
chains per hour. A local wind-topography-black 
spruce fuel situation may have caused another 
rapid advance of 45 to 90 chains per hour. A 
wind switch accompanied by local instability 
accounted for still another advance rate of 80 
chains per hour. Rough topography, variable and 
gusty surface winds, evidence of high winds 
aloft, and local atmospheric instability all con- 
tributed to periods of extreme fire behavior. 

From these case histories very few specific 
conclusions can be drawn. However, for the 
first time some systematic measure was made of 
the weather, topography, and fuel conditions 
during actual free-burning periods of wild fires 


in Interior Alaska. The results point up these 
things: (1) Most wildfire activity can be measured 
and explained; (2) more sophisticated methods 
will in the future add quantitative information 


82 


to the predominantly qualitative data recorded 
in this study; and (3) the groundwork has been 
laid for answering the four questions at the be- 
ginning of this chapter. 


CHAPTER 8 
FIRE CONTROL 


Timber losses have approximately balanced 
timber growth in unexploited Interior Alaska. 
Future demand to harvest part of the crop each 
year will require an increase in net growth to re- 
place this removal. Besides, the national econ- 
omy will demand a continuing increase in the 
future allowable cut. 


How much should be spent to protect this 
important resource? Where is the breaking point 
between the ratio of loss and damage versus the 
cost of protection? No economic study has been 
made to ascertain just how much Alaska is 
worth in terms of what should be spent to pro- 
tect it. Helmers (1960, p. 470) states, “Fires are 
so much a part of the summer scene that there 
is also the psychological problem of getting pub- 
lic recognition of the economical losses due to 
fire.’ A close review of the history of our re- 
source protection effort and a good look at 
long-range needs show the necessity to materi- 
ally reduce forest fire damage in Alaska. 


Until July 1939, organized forest fire con- 
trol in Alaska was nonexistent. Then the terri- 
tory received $37,500 to establish the Alaska 
Fire Control Service. Early efforts were confined 
to suppression of man-caused fires within sur- 
face striking distance of Anchorage and Fair- 
banks. 


Throughout development of an _ effective 
firefighting force, several major problems have 
persisted. The vast area and the contrastingly 
small, concentrated population have made early 
detection difficult; the lack of access to remote 
forest and range lands compounds the logistics 
of reaching fires and supplying crews. As tourist 
numbers increase, so does 
caused fires. 


incidence of man- 
An increasing awareness of the 
values at stake and of the need for better pro- 
tection has mandated the fire control organiza- 
tion to use every means available to reduce the 
losses (Robinson 1960). 


Since inception of the Alaska Fire Control 
Service, great strides have been made toward 
control of the major portion of forest fires in 
Alaska. Begun under the old General Land Of- 
fice, the fire control organization is now oper- 
ated as an integral part of the Bureau of Land 


83 


Management, which has responsibilities for pro- 
tection and management for more than 95 per- 
cent of the State's area. Protection of much of 
this land will remain the responsibility of the 
Bureau of Land Management for years to come 
even though the State will, within 25 years, as- 
sume title to more than 100 million acres. 


In 1955 the Bureau of Land Management 
developed a comprehensive forestry program for 
Interior Alaska. The four major management 
objectives are: (1) multiple use management of 
the entire forest resource complex rather than 
timber management alone, (2) water resource 
protection and development, (3) increased utili- 
zation and development of the present timber 
resource, and (4) protection of the public's vested 
interest in the forest and range resources in 
Alaska from destruction or damage from fire, 
insects, None of the first three 
management objectives can be met with confi- 
dence until the fire protection organization can 
assure, within reasonable limits, a continuing 
forest cover. Robinson (1960) proposed a goal 
of not more than 100,000 acres of burned area 
per year. Basic barriers to early detection, at- 
tack, and control of fires must be identified and 
overcome. 


FIRE CONTROL ORGANIZATION 
PRESUPPRESSION 


Regardless of the severity of any one fire 
season, a well-developed fire control organiza- 
tion containing basic personnel and equipment 
must be ready to handle an average bad season. 
Perhaps the job confronting fire control personnel 
for Interior Alaska can best be described by 
comparing it with another fire control group, 
Region 1 of the U.S. Forest Service: 


and disease. 


Interior Alaska 


Region 1] Interior Alaska compared to 
uses | BLM Region | 

Acres protected 32,000,000 225,000,000 7 times 
Acres. burned 4,467 1,119,130 250 times 
Number of fires 1,069 254 25 percent 
Number of fires per 33 11 3 percent 

million acres 
Fire personnel, man-years? 348 38 11 percent 
Number people per 4.9 4 8 percent 

square mile 

}Montana, northern Idaho, northwest South Dakota, and 


northeast Washington. 
2Regularly assigned positions including fire control aids. 


Bases and Warehousing 


Major operational bases and warehousing 
facilities are at Anchorage and Fairbanks, the 
only two cities capable of furnishing manpower, 
food, equipment, supplies, and services neces- 
sary for launching and supporting fire crews in 
the field. These are augmented by a few sec- 
ondary permanently manned bases located at 
strategic support centers. In addition, several 
fireguard stations, manned seasonally, are situ- 
ated from Skilak Lake on the Kenai Peninsula 
northward to Fort Yukon just north of the Arctic 
Circle. 


The long time required to deliver many 
supplies (retardant chemicals for instance) makes 
it imperative to anticipate such needs as long as 
one season ahead of expected use. 


Most equipment, tools, and supplies are 
packaged and stored in six-man units — a 
Grumman Goose load of firefighters. Develop- 
ment of new tools and equipment for fighting 
fires in the Alaskan fuel complex has lagged 
seriously. Dozers, tankers, and pumpers are used 
where available and where topography and soil 
along the fireline permit. Shovels and pulaskis 
are the old standbys for handtool work. New 
hand and power tools are urgently needed to 
help offset the relative scarcity of personnel, the 
difficulty of terrain, and the remoteness that 
gives fires such a headstart. 


Dispatching 


Most dispatching of men, equipment, and 
materials is handled at Anchorage and Fair- 
banks. Nearly all smokejumping and a major 
part of retardant chemical attack operations are 
controlled from Fairbanks. Dispatching involves 
considerable advance planning, preparation, and 
training. Even pilots of the contract retardant 
planes require orientation and training by the 
dispatcher staff. All aircraft use is controlled by 
the dispatcher and chief pilot in order to attain 
greatest value from each plane. 


Effective dispatching depends upon a highly 
reliable communications system. Trunkline tele- 
phone service is excellent, but is limited to the 
large cities and to a few places of habitation 
along the main highways. All other communica- 
tions are by radio. Airplanes need the most 
complex set of equipment as pilots depend on 


84 


radio for navigation and safety as well as for 
tight control on fire missions. All stations and 
a large share of vehicles are radio-equipped: 
VHF-FM for air-ground work; VHF-FM and HF- 
AM for vehicle and station use. 


Deployment of men and equipment during 
the fire season must be based upon information 
about fire occurrence. Since a large percentage 
of man-caused fires occurs in May and early 
June, men, tankers, dozers, and other ground 
equipment are aimed at control of fires near 
habitation centers and areas of agricultural de- 
velopment. Later, all the aircraft — whether for 
patrol, smokejumping, chemical attack, or sup- 
ply — must be in constant readiness to attack 
lightning fires anywhere in the State. 


Manpower 


The supply of manpower in Alaska is small, 
and the distribution in respect to recruiting fire- 
fighters is poor. Even though Alaska’s popula- 
tion has increased fourfold in the past 40 years, 
the 1960 census records a total of only 226,167 
persons (four-fifths the population of Nevada). 
The tabulation below shows the uneven distribu- 
tion of people; only about 100,000 persons re- 
side outside of the Anchorage and Fairbanks 
vicinities, and many of these are in the southeast 
coastal area. 


Climatic Geographic Approximate 
division division population 
Maritime zone Southeast, South Coast, 56,000 
Aleutians 
Transition zone Copper River, Cook Inlet, 106,000 
Bristol Bay, West Central 
(includes Anchorage) 
Continental Interior Basin 49,000 
(includes Fairbanks) 
Arctic zone Arctic Drainage 15,000 


A small part of the regular fire control per- 
sonnel are year-round employees, but most of 
the fire dispatching and overhead employees are 
seasonal. Most of them enter duty in April or 
May and remain until September. They are the 
well-trained nucleus that leads the attack on 
fires throughout the summer. 


The actual firefighters come from two 
sources — Indian villages and the open labor 
market. The natives and Eskimos are excellent 
firefighters. Their villages are sufficiently scat- 


BLM B BLM 


ic USFS 


Figure 69. — Base facilities: A, fire headquarters, Fairbanks; B, smokejumper center, Fairbanks; C, dispatch room, Fairbanks; D, 
McGrath station; E, Skilak Lake guard station. 


85 


tered so that groups are often close to fires and 
can be recruited rapidly for early attack. They 
learn quickly and fit well into fireline organiza- 
tion. Also, they are physically able to stand 
backbreaking work for many days at a time. 
The pickup firefighters from the open labor 
market are of similar caliber to those found 
anywhere else; however, a few of them do re- 
turn season after season and become topnotch 
workers. 


Successful in western United States since 
World War Il days, smokejumping began in In- 
terior Alaska in 1959 with 16 jumpers. Setting 
up a smokejumper center in Fairbanks was a 
major undertaking. Everything from a loft-dor- 
mitory building to sewing machines, from ac- 
quiring a DC-3 to modifying the doors of a Grum- 
man Goose had to be done to make the jumper 
force effective. Retraining dispatchers in new 
procedures and transportation methods was also 
necessary. Well-executed presuppression work 
in this new phase of fire control paid off when 
the actual suppression load began to increase. 

Transportation 


Of Alaska's 5,000 miles of highway, 3,000 
are blacktopped, 2,000 are graveled. 
access roads go into homesteads, mining prop- 
erty, and recreational sites, but the actual mile- 
age of these roads is very small. However, since 
most man-caused fires are along the highways 
or on homesteads (fig. 57), a far greater number 
of trucks, pickups, and tankers is used than one 
would suspect by looking at road data alone. 


Private 


Aircraft are the hard core of the firefighting 
attack force. As one official put it, ‘The possibil- 
ity for successful fire control started the day we 
These 
short-field amphibious planes can land on small 
lakes or sloughs close to fires; hence they are 
constantly used for patrolling, servicing and sup- 
plying, making initial and reinforcing attacks, 
and for smokejumping. Single engine, 4-place 
planes are kept busy on patrol, scouting, in- 
spection, and administrative use. A Douglas C-47 
(DC-3) is used primarily for smokejumpers; but it 
can also move equipment, supplies, and non- 
jumping firefighters. A P-51 fighter plane carries 
the observer for long-range detection and scout- 
ing; it is also used as lead plane for chemical 
retardant attack. 


received our three Grumman Gooses."' 


86 


Charter and contract planes carry all the 
overload while the fire season is in full swing. 
At the peak of the season, one sees the usual 
assortment of larger chemical retardant applica- 
tion planes, several makes of helicopters, and 
both wheel and float type planes of the single 
engine, 4-place category. The numerous Alaskan 
commercial airlines furnish much of the heavier 
point-to-point hauling. 


When fire conditions become critical and 
commercial equipment is no longer available, 
the military forces contribute many hours of fly- 
ing. Heavy point-to-point hauling is done by 


planes in the C-123 class; helicopters —- even 
the large double-rotor type — often do yeoman 
duty during crucial times. 

DETECTION? 


The critical need for early detection of fires 
has been emphasized several times. A small 
crew can usually (not always by any means) 
handle a fire if they can attack before it begins 
to take over its own destiny. Prior to about 
1957, aerial detection was limited for a practical 
reason: The attack force was not large enough 
to act on more than a small percentage of the 
fires; so there was no point in detecting all the 
fires that did start. The advent of retardants and 
smokejumpers now makes early detection of all 
fires imperative if these two new weapons are 
to be of maximum value. 


All the means of detection credited above 
are somewhat haphazard, and at best are a 
poor substitute for a continuous, trained detec- 
tion organization. The Bureau of Land Manage- 
ment has, since 1959, chartered a P-51, Mustang 
fighter plane to follow in the wake of thunder- 
storms in order to locate possible resultant fires. 
This procedure has helped early detection of 
many fires, but it has certain serious drawbacks: 
One plane cannot adequately patrol 150 million 
(the area of Montana and Idaho com- 
bined); an observer cannot locate all small fires 


acres 
from a fast-moving, high-flying plane; accurate 


9Statistical analysis of time elapsed between origin of fires 
and their discovery proved unsuccessful because too many data 
were lacking on the fire reports. Only about one-third of the 
large (Class E) fires could be used; this fact presumably in- 
fluenced the results to show that longer lags in discovery 
time did not result in larger fires. The question will have to 
remain a matter of conjecture until factual data are collected 
on the behavior of free-burning fires: from the time of origin. 


Cc USFS 


Figure 70. — Transportation: A, foot travel is slow, often impossible; B, loading a Goose for fire run; C, air supply — Goose to 
small float plane. 


87 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ATe ALASKA 


| ete ce MAP E 


COMPILED FR VEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC E1:2 AND OTHER OFFICIAL SOURCES 


we tes 
oie tah) : DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 


LEGEND 


vA CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 
Nowe OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
(fee DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 

oe eg GUARD STATION 

ee === PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


ae AREA OBSERVED BY 
: COMMERCIAL AIRLINES 


GREEN 1 -/0 FLIGHTS PER WEEK 
Mg eo BROWN 11-20 FLIGHTS PER WEEK 
RED MORE THAN 20 FLIGHTS PER WEEK 


SOURCE: /959 AIRLINE SCHEDULES 


AB ye STS 


STOR SP DP AATI Tem coe ae 


Figure 71 


uy 


“w 


1 


ay 


on 


KILAK LAKE 2 


ai 


Fo 
ae 


UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


= ALASKA 


See MAP E 


aN COMPILED FROM THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALASKA RECONNAISSANCE 
TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES, SCALE 1: 250 000, AND OTKER OFFICIAL SOURCES. 


— 1954 
\ On Serine eraser” 
\ ano \ ‘ DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 
ee _ LEGEND 
wl \ se ® CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA STATION 


w® OPERATIONS AREA HEADQUARTERS 
# DISTRICT FIRE CONTROL OFFICE 

e. $ &® GUARD STATION 

een =— PRIMARY HIGHWAY 


eS AREA OBSERVED BY 
\ - COMMERCIAL AIRLINES 


GREEN 4-10 FLIGHTS PER WEEK 
ak BROWN 11-20 FLIGHTS PER WEEK 
RED MORE THAN 20 FLIGHTS PER WEEK 


SOURCE 


1959 AIRLINE SCHEDULES 


pry? 


6-93 


~ et Le se nluureyh at Mt BE Het Per RL, 


1f 


z ts : 


a 2 5 SS ES — —— — 
REET ee er ee ee teenies OO DLL AAA ALAA LL SS 


Figure 72. — Early detection of this small lightning fire will 
contribute to rapid control. 


description and location of current thunderstorm 
cells or systems is not yet feasible; and, because 
of its speed such a plane is often diverted from 
its primary detection mission to be used for re- 
connaissance of going fires and for lead plane 
duties on retardant chemical attacks. The lighter 
planes which are also used occasionally for pa- 
trol are dispatched to lead plane duty whenever 
possible to permit the P-51 to continue its recon- 
naissance work. 


Recent advances in development of elec- 
tronic devices may make it possible to provide 
a reliable system for tracking storms, locating 
fires, and mapping going fires. Certain types 
of radar can identify mature thunderstorm cells. 
Sferics receivers are being developed to further 
determine whether an electrical disturbance is 
present (Battan 1959). Airborne infrared map- 
ping devices are now being investigated for use 
in the actual locating and mapping of fires 
(Hirsch 1962). 


SUPPRESSION 


Preparation for an expected bad fire season 
in Interior Alaska is a tremendous job, but it 
must be done thoroughly so that the subsequent 
suppression effort will be adequate. 


Method of Attack 


Fire control tactics in Interior Alaska are 


similar to those used elsewhere. Logistically, at- 


89 


tack on fires accessible to motor vehicles is rela- 
tively simple. Initial attack on fires hundreds of 
miles from the source of supply requires ingenuity 
and wise use of every facility feasible. Except 
for longer time and distances involved, the fol- 
lowing procedure follows closely those used in 
other States: As soon as a fire is reported, the 
dispatcher sends chemical retardant planes. At 
the same time he dispatches smokejumpers. 
Then, ground forces are sent to reinforce and re- 
lieve jumpers. Their travel may be by land plane 
to a small field, thence by amphibious plane to 
a body of water near the fire, and possibly by 
helicopter to the fireline. Subsequent loads of 
chemicals for tactical support are often ordered 
when conditions indicate the need. 


As an example of the effectiveness of this 
type of rapid attack, some 1959 statistics follow: 
Of all fires upon which retardant was dropped, 
35 percent was within 50 miles of the base, 43 
percent between 50 and 100 miles, and 22 per- 
cent between 100 and 200 miles; an average of 
seven loads was dropped on each fire by planes 
traveling a mean one-way distance of 85 miles. 
The application of chemical checked the fires’ 
spread to an extent that firefighters controlled 85 
percent of them at the same size class as when 
the retardant was applied. 


Smokejumpers in 1959 traveled as far as 
472 miles to reach fires, but the average distance 
was 250 miles. Jumpers controlled 36 fires with 
an average force of five men per fire, and con- 
trolled 94 percent of them within the same size 
class as when attacked. 


Distance Traveled to Fires 


Analysis of individual fire reports showed 
only the following general relationships between 
distance traveled according to final fire size, and 
whether action was taken: Fifty-six percent of all 
reported fires occurred within 100 miles of head- 
quarters. Sixty percent of action fires occurred 
within 100 miles compared to only 20 percent of 
those on which no action was taken. Only 12 
percent of action fires occurred at distances 
greater than 200 miles compared with 39 per- 
cent for no-action fires. One-third of the fires 
larger than 300 acres are farther than 200 miles 
away from headquarters. More than two-thirds 
are farther than 100 miles away. This situation 
will always prevail simply because it takes 


Table 16.—Percent of fires controlled within each class of time lapse from 
initial attack by final size class 


(Av. 1950-58) 


Final 

size Time lapse (hours) 

class 0-1 1-2 2-3 3-6 6-12 12-24 24-48 48-72 72+ 

Percent 

A 73 12 5 8 1 0 

B 31 WA 13 16 8 8 4 1 2 

(é 1] 8 9 23 19 12 8 3 7 

D 3 5 13 10 22 16 13 5 13 

E 1 1 2 5 11 11 16 12 4l 

Av. 30 11 9 14 10 8 6 3 9 

TLess than 1.0 percent. 

longer to go greater distances. But when greater Time From Attack to Control 
distance from headquarters is coupled with Table 16 based on records of 986 fires con- 
longer time between fire origin and detection, firms what one would expect to be the relation 


between the length of time required to control 
a fire and the final size of the fire; namely, the 
longer it takes to bring a fire under control, the 
pay its way. larger the final acreage will be. 


only larger fires yet can be expected. Again re- 


duction of detection time would far more than 


Figure 73. — Such large fires are difficult and expensive to control. 


90 


Figure 74. — Aerial fire attack: A, smokejumpers drop on Christian Village fire, 1960; thin diagonal line in upper right is strip of 
retardant; B, timely jumper attack may assure early control. 


91 


Figure 75. — Fighting fires: A, handline construction is still the mainstay; B, 


92 


military eauipment assists in emergencies. 


The number of extra-period fires measures 
two things — effectiveness of the fire control 
organization, and severity of the fire season. An 
extra-period fire is one not controlled by 10 A.M. 
of the day following discovery. The BLM fire re- 
port data allowed only the following approxi- 
mation to be attained: a fire not controlled with- 
in 24 hours from initial attack. With this in 
mind, the figures comparing Interior Alaska 
(1950-58) with Region 1, USFS (1954-60) are re- 
markably close. 


Ratio of extra-period fires to 


Size of fire total number of fires 
Interior Region ] 
Alaska USFS 
Percent 
10 acres or less 4 6 
More than 10 acres 36 35 


However, if the Alaska data were based on 


the time between discovery and control, the per- 
centage of extra-period fires, for the larger fires 
at least, would certainly be much greater in 
Alaska. 


Forward Behavior of Fires at Time of Attack 


The importance of early attack is illustrated 
in table 17. Usually fires with large final size 
are more violent in behavior at time of attack 
than small ones. Outstanding extremes in the 
spruce type are indicated by the fact that 70 per- 
cent of Class A fires are smoldering when at- 
tacked, but 47 percent of Class E fires are crown- 
ing when attacked. If fires could be reached 
while still small and before they start to run, the 
total control effort would be considerably les- 
sened, as would also the loss and damage. That 
goal can never be completely reached, as some 
fires may begin running and crowning almost 
immediately after they start; however, this infor- 
mation about behavior must be kept in mind as 
an important factor in both fire control planning 
and dispatching. 


Table 17.— Forward behavior of fires in spruce type at time of initial attack 


by percent within each behavior class and by size classes 


(Av. 1950-58) 


Final 

size Behavior 

class Smoldering Creeping Running Spotting Crowning 
Percent 

A 70 Si] 12 25 7. 

B 19 39 4] 25 17 

C 18 22 19 19 

D 5 5 12 10 

E ve 20 19 47 


FIRE AS A MANAGEMENT TOOL 


Use of fire in forest management is at times 
a controversial issue, but many protection and 
silvicultural objectives that could not be attained 
economically by any other means are being 
achieved through proper use of fire. Helmers 
(1960, p. 467) states, primarily in reference to 
southeastern Alaska, but possibly for many 


parts of Interior Alaska: 


93 


The possibility that fire can be 
used for silvicultural purposes is pure 
conjecture at this time. However, there 
is a need for reduction in slash volumes 
to reduce the physical impediment to 
regeneration as well as to reduce the 
fire danger in newly regenerated cut- 
ting. The seedbeds in cutover areas can 
be improved to advantage. These fac- 
tors alone make controlled use of fire 
a tool worth investigation. 


Figure 76. — Use of fire: A, slash hazard, Kenai Peninsula; B, timber resource suffers from poor planning; C, example of current 


practice of windrowing slash resulting from land-clearing operations. 


94 


Lutz (1960) recognizes that fire properly 
used can, even in boreal forests, become a valu- 
able silvicultural tool. He does not believe that 
the present forester or wildlife manager has suf- 
ficient knowledge *’ . to enable him to use 
prescribed burning on anything more than a 
purely experimental basis. There is a great oppor- 
tunity and need for research on this problem’ 
(p. 460). He also proposes investigating the use 
of fire to manipulate the position of the perma- 
frost table for silvicultural benefit. 


Ecological research performed within boreal 
forests in Sweden indicates results similar to 
those in Interior Alaska. Uggla (1958a), in com- 
paring the effects of controlled fires and wildfire, 
states that controlled burns on slightly moist 
ground is the most efficient method of activating 
humus materials for natural seedbed prepara- 
tion. He further states, ‘A feeble forest fire, on 
not too dry raw humus ground, can be compared 


Sp) 


with a controlled burning, but on poor, dry soils, 
uncontrolled forest fires can have devastating 
effects. . . . On such soils the activating effects 
of the fire soon disappear. Since also the addi- 
tion of litter will be very inconsiderable for a 
long time, degeneration of the forest soil often 
results’ (p. 5). 


Prescribed burning techniques for safe and 
effective land clearing in the Fairbanks area 
were explored by Johnson (1958, 1959) and 
Gettinger and Johnson (1959); they found it 
quite feasible to obtain a good clear burn with- 
out endangering the surrounding woods, but 
only if certain sound practices were pursued. 


As yet untapped are means for fully using 
fire as an effective tool in furthering forest 
management objectives. Research in fire and 
silviculture should aid in determining when and 
how fire should be used and when it should not 


be used. 


REFERENCES 


Anonymous. 


1961. City on top of the world. Pt. 2. In Anchorage ‘Everybody flies." Alaska Sportsman 27 (2): 
25-34. 


1961. The world almanac and book of facts. 896 pp. New York: New York World Telegram 
and Sun. 


Arctic Weather Central, 11th Weather Squadron. 


1950. *Climate, weather and flying conditions of Alaska and eastern Siberia. Elmendorf AFB 
Proj. 12B-1, 52 pp., illus. 


Barrows, J. S. 


1951. Fire behavior in Northern Rocky Mountain forests. U.S. Forest Serv. North. Rocky Mtn. 
Forest and Range Expt. Sta. Station Paper 29, 103 pp., illus. 


Battan, Louis J. 
1959. Radar meteorology. 161 pp., illus. Chicago 37: Univ. of Chicago press. 


Beall, H. W. 


1949. An outline of forest fire protection standards. Canada, Dept. North. Affairs and Natl. Re- 
sources Forestry Branch, pp. 82-106, illus. (Reprinted from Forestry Chron. 25 (2), 1949.) 


Besley, Lowell. 


1959. A preliminary national program of forest fire research for Canada. Canad. Pulp and 
Paper Assoc. Woodlands Sec. Ann. Meeting Index No. 1902 (F-3), 8 pp. 


Buckley, John L. 
1957. Wildlife in the economy of Alaska. Alaska Univ. Biol. Paper 1, (Revised), 33 pp., illus. 


Bureau of Land Management. 
1955. *Forestry Program for Alaska. U.S. Dept. Int., 89 pp., illus. 


Dachnowski-Stokes, A. P. 
1941. Peat resources in Alaska. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bul. 769, 84 pp., illus. 


Elmendorf Forecast Center Headquarters. 


1953. *Local forecasting studies. (For 7 Alaskan and Canadian stations). USWB, USAF, and 
USN station forecasting staffs for Elmendorf Forecast Center Headquarters. 


Fahnestock, George R. 


1951. Correction of burning index for the effects of altitude, aspect, and time of day. U.S. Forest 
Serv. North. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Expt. Sta. Res. Note 100, 15 pp. 


Gettinger, Henry, and Johnson, P. R. 
1959. *The Gettinger burns. U.S. Dept. Agr., ASC office, College, Alaska, 8 pp. 


Hardy, Charles E., and Brackebusch, Arthur P. 


1959. The Intermountain fire-danger rating system. Soc. Amer. Foresters Proc. 1959: 133-137, 
illus. 


*Address requests for copies to the originating office. 


Ti 


Hardy, Charles E., Syverson, Charles E., and Dieterich, John H. 
1955. Fire weather and fire danger station handbook. U.S. Forest Serv. Intermountain Forest and 
Range Expt. Sta. Misc. Pub. 3, 84 pp., illus. 


Hayes, G. Lloyd. 
1941. Influence of altitude and aspect on daily variations in factors of forest-fire danger. U.S. 
Dept. Agr. Cir. 591,38) pp., illus: 


Heintzleman, B. Frank. 
1936. Western range. Alaska. U.S. Senate Doc. 199, 74th Congress, pp. 581-598, illus. 


1960. Alaska — modern pioneering. Jour. Forestry 58: 435-436. 


Helmers, A. E. 
1960. Alaska forestry — a research frontier. Jour. Forestry 58: 465-471, illus. 


Hirsch, Stanley N. 
1962. *Possible application of electronic devices to forest fire detection. U.S. Forest Serv. Inter- 
mountain Forest and Range Expt. Sta. Res. Note 91, 8 pp. 


Hopkins, David M., Karlstrom, Thor N. V., and others. 
1955. Permafrost and ground water in Alaska. Geological Survey Prof. Paper 264-F., pp. 113-146, 
illus. Washington: U.S. Govt. Printing Office. 


Johnson, P. R. 
1958. *The Bouton burn. U.S. Dept. Agr., ASC office, College, Alaska, 3 pp. 


1959. *The Bushley burn. U.S. Dept. Agr., ASC office, College, Alaska, 3 pp. 


Kincer, J. B. 
1941. Supplemental climatic notes for Alaska. Climate and man, p. 1214. 1248 pp., illus. U.S. 
Govt. Printing Office. 


Lutz, Harold J. 
1956. Ecological effects of forest fires in the interior of Alaska. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bul. 1133, 
121 pp:, illus: 


1959. Aboriginal man and white man as historical causes of fires in the boreal forest, with partic- 
ular reference to Alaska. Yale Univ. School of Forestry Bul. 65. 49 pp. 


1960. Fire as an ecological factor in the boreal forest of Alaska. Jour. Forestry 58: 454-460, illus. 


, and Caporaso, A. P. 
1958. *Indicators of forest land classes in air-photo interpretation of the Alaskan Interior. U. S. 
Forest Serv. Alaska Forest Res. Center Sta. Paper 10, 31 pp., illus. 


Nelson, Urban C. 
1960. The forest-wildlife resources of Alaska. Jour. Forestry 58: 461-464, illus. 


98 


Palmer, Lawrence J., and Rouse, Charles H. 


1945. Study of the Alaska tundra with reference to its reactions to reindeer and other grazing 


U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv. Res. Rpt. 10, 48 pp., illus. 


Pomeroy, Kenneth B. 
1959. An AFA fire plan for Alaska. Amer. Forests 65 (9) 12-13, 55, illus. 


Reed, Richard J. 


1956. *Miscellaneous studies of polar vortices. Wash. Univ. Dept. Met. and Climatol. Occas. Rpt. 


App. illus. 


1958. *Synoptic studies in Arctic meteorology. Wash. Univ. Dept. Met. and Climatol. Occas. Rpt. 


9, 64 pp., illus. 


1959. *Arctic weather analysis and forecasting. Wash. Univ. Dept. Met. and Climatol. Occas. Rpt. 
pat sop., illus: 


Rhode, Clarence J., and Barker, Will. 
1953. Alaska's fish and wildlife. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv. Cir. 17, 60 pp., illus. 


Robinson, R. R. 

1960. Forest and range fire control in Alaska. Jour. Forestry 58: 448-453, illus. 
Rowe, J. S. 

1959: 


Forest regions of Canada. Canada, Dept. North. Affairs and Natl. Res. Forestry Branch 
Bul. 123, 71 pp., illus. Ottawa: The Queens Printer and Controller of Stationery. 


Stromdahl, Ingvar. 


1956. *Statens brandinspektions verksamhet. The Govt. Insp. Fire Serv. Inform. Recommendations 


1956: 13, 68 pp., Stockholm, Sweden. (In Swedish. Eng. summary, p. 68.) 


1959. *Rikssbogsbrandstatistiken 1958 och en tillbakablick pa dren 1944-1958. Natl. Insp. Fire 


Serv. Inform. Recommendations 1959: 11, 12 pp., Stockholm, Sweden. (In Swedish. Eng. 
summary, pp. 11-12.) 


Swager, W. L., Fetterman, L. G., and Jenkins, F. M. 


1958. A study of the cooperative forest-fire-control problem. Battelle Memorial Institute summary 


report to U.S. Forest Serv. 16 pp., illus. Columbus 1, Ohio. 


Taylor, Raymond F. 


1956. A world geography of forest resources. Ch. 6. Alaska, pp. 115-125, illus. New York: Ronald 
Press Co. 
Uggla, Evald. 
1958a. Ecological effects of fire on north Swedish forest. Uppsala Univ. Inst. Plant ecology, 18 pp., 
illus. Uppsala: Almqvist and Wiksells Boktryckeri AB. 
1958b. 


Skogsbrandfalt i Muddus National Park. Uppsala Univ. Acta Phytogeogr. Suec. 41, 109 


pp., illus. Uppsala: Almqvist and Wiksells Boktryckeri AB. (In Swedish. Eng. summary, 
pp..99- 109.) 


99 


U.S. Department of the Interior. 
1945. Alaska. USDI Division of Territories and Island Possessions, 65 pp., illus. 


U.S. Forest Service. 
1958. Timber resources for America's future. Separate |. A summary of the timber resources. U.S. 
Dept. Agr., Forest Serv. Forest Resource Rpt. 14, 109 pp., illus. 


U.S. Weather Bureau, Climate and Crop Weather Division. 
1943. Climatic atlas for Alaska. U.S. Weather Inform. Branch Hdars. A.A.F. Rpt. 444, 229 pp., 


illus. 
Watson, C. E. 
1959. Climates of the states — Alaska. USWB Climatography of the United States 60-49, 24 pp., 
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Zumwalt, Eugene V. 
1960. The Alaska public domain. Jour. Forestry 58: 443-447, illus. 


100 


APPENDIX 


Division Tables 
Climatological Statistics —.......0000000... 18-33 
Pure statistics, 200) .22).. ee Mees ee 34-43 
Damage Statistics... 2 shee 44-46 
Fire Control Statistics -...............0..00.0..... 47-55 


101 


Per 


Table 18.--Monthly and annual normal precipitation 


Aree niu a Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 
Interior Basin | 
Bettles 0.73 0.39 0.88 0.37 1.05 28 alae 3.09 2.25 1.44 0.69 01.57 
Big Delta 58 a6 4 .28 64 2.31 2.99 1.98 1.43 200) 29 Pxets) 
Fairbanks 99 Avil uDd8 29 74 Teor. 1.92 2.26 dae 92 63 00 
Fort Yukon 08 04 .28 ait, 32 awa 96 L628 OL BO 41 AER} 
Galena af alt 81 74 oli 63 1.69 2.69 2.84 2.4 .6 .6 6 
Lake Minchumina 2/ 
McGrath 1.14 ES 98 49 94 2.06 2.52 3.63 2.41 1.67 109: 25 
Northway «62 04 22 00 (2 2.00 2.89 ale He akenls} 49 06 Ol 
Summit aRs(eay 1.33 1.32 54 .98 QO 3.38 3.37 3.35 1.89 1.43 ast) 
Tanana 81 59 .58 26 ne) L.268 2.39 A509. 2995 05 .63 SO 
Arctic Drainage 
Kotzebue 47 32 Beat A 06 00 49 ARR ten) 195 94 358 43 OO 


West Central 


Bethel .90 .82 .92 755 .89 1320 2.29 4.02 S201) Us75 97 .85 
Unalakleet 2/ 


Cook Inlet 
Anchorage .76 58 . 60 .40 BOIL .89 255 2.56 lei Ala esti 1.00 84 
Homer 2.59 1.40 1.64 1.535 1:00 OY 1.66 2.89 2.79 3.74 2/55 2.76 


Bristol Bay 
Tliamna 1.20 290) 1.33 TOI, 35 1.54 
Naknek 94 1.24 ak sate) 280 228 oe. 


-80 5.03 3.99 3.20 1.50 1.88 
-l10 4.14 3.49 2.73 1.30 Ted 


GW 


Copper River 
Gulkana ate] 42 SOT nel -Al alee) Ane Oi 2.15 74 -66 a a) 


ay Data for Sept.-Dec. not given in climatological summary, but obtained through correspondence. 
2/ Not sufficient records to establish a mean precipitation. 


Source: U. S. Weather Bureau, Climatological Data, Annual Summary, 1958. 


103 


Table 19.--Percent of normal annual precipitation for the period March through August 


nee Month Total precipitation 
March April May June July Aug. March - August Annual 
Interior Basin Percent Inches Inches 
Bettles 6.3 Za0)  Wleo 8.4 9.8 22 zal Siaul 7.94 14.01 
Big Delta Pres) 2.4 5.5 19.59 PAT TO, 13.4 8.54 163 
Fairbanks 4.9 224 6x2 ANS) Gia! 19.0 60.1 fikG Ib, 82 
Ft. Yukon 4.3 256 459 TORS 14.8 OG heal 6.72 6.52 
Galena bral 136 - 4.5 qa 6 18.6 TOIE5 60.4 5 1H 14.52 
Lake Minchumina No record 
McGrath Byeak Pee CUB, HORS ee ale LOO 654.5 10.42 19.13 
Northway aL a) Bele —S\c.6) 17.6 PO o(5} 16.0 TOMS Mass) 11.34 
Summit 59 2.4 4.5 9.6 1b) 3 aE yee BAS Te Ae 2 22.25 
Tanana 4.2 AGS) Sig) Oe 17.4 21.0 59/50 Srl USS TS) 
Arctic Drainage 
Kotzebue 3.3 AnD 245i. Saal Ke) 52 24.3 Gl 4.93 8.02 
West Central 
Bethel Dye! 3.0 4.9 Gab 126 PPM 54.2 9.85 ilge}s IL7/ 
Unalakleet No record 
Cook Inlet 
Anchorage 4.2 2.8" OiaG 6.2 AOS) fp) 45.6 Gaol! UARAT 
Homer 6.5 52.0) 4:0 4.2 6.6 11.4 38.0 9.59 eORee 
Bristol Bay 
Tliamna De 5.9) sone 6.0 LORY AE) 50-7 25306 25.78 
Naknek 52 SOU D6 6.6 Aor 18.0 Eats) ALEXA 05} Pe ( 


Copper River 
Gulkana One PAGu 2.10 HOW 18.01! 16.0 Oifecull 5 dLy/ tal 740) 


a NE 


Source: United States Weather Bureau, Climatological Data, Annual Summary, 1958. 


104 


Table 20.--Departure from 9-year average precipitation by number of days per month in 


each intensity class 


ANCHORAGE. 
Precipitation in hundredths of an inch 
o1- 10- 26- 50- 1.00- 
ie} Tr. 09 25 49 99 1.99 2.00+ 
April 
Total 20 9 1 [e) (e) 
Dep. from Av. ay 250: -2.7 -.9 ou -.1 
May 
Total 16 12 3 0 [) [) 
Dep. from Av. ee ee -.4 -.6 -.3 -.1 
June 
Total 12) 5 8 4 [) 1 
Dep. from Av. -2.4 -1.9 2.9 ney} -.5 oT 
July 
Total 8 12 id 3 BE 
Dep. from Av. -4.6 5.7 9 -.3 eden -.4 -.2 
August 
Total 15 10 2 2 es [°) 
Dep. from Av. 4.0 3.9 -5.2 -1.5 0 -1.1 -.1 
FAIRBANKS 
April 
Total 26 3 a (e) 
Dep. from Av. 4.3 -2.7 -1.4 -.2 
Mey 
Total 16 § 2! (0) 
Dep. from Av. -1.1 -.1 8 9 -.4 -.1 
June 
Total 15 7 [e) (0) at [) 
Dep. from Av. 2rover 2 Lea, -2.3 oa ey -8 -.2 
July 
Total 13 2 10 3 ee 1 (°) 
Dep. from Av. -1.1 -4.2 4.0 4 1.0 ie} -1 
August 
Total 17 5 5 3 1 0 
Dep. from Av. 5.9 -2.5 -3.2 -.4 ot -.4 -.1 
GALENA 
April 
Total 19 6 2. 1 2 
Dep. from Av. 1.2 -1.0 -2.5 5 1.8 
May 
Total 19 10 2 (0) (0) (0) 
Dep. from Av. 4.3 2 -2.5 -1.6 -.3 -.1 
June 
Totel 11 7 8 3 (e) 1 
Dep. from Av. -3.7 2.2 alfa -.4 6: mae 
July 
Total 12 10 5 2 2 (0) 
Dep. from Av. -1.0 3.6 -1.3 -1.1 4 -.6 
August 
Total 10 6 5 5 5 ie} 
Dep. from Av. 156% =78 2.1 -1.0 3.8 -1.5 
HOMER 
April 
Total 16 6 4 [e) 3 [e) 1 
Dep. from Av. 1.8 -.9 -1.4 -2.3 2.1 -.2 rh 
Mey 
Total 13 SEE 5 2 ie) 0 
Dep. from Av. -1.3 2.3 -1.0 46 -.5 -.2 
June 
Total 13 5 4 a (0) 
Dep. from Av. -2.1 -.4 1 1.8 rH f <1 
July 
Total 10 9 10 1 z 
Dep. from Av. -6.6 5.0 4.4 -2.4 ie) 4 
August 
Total 18 4 3 4 10) 0 
Dep. from Av. 4.0 +3 -3.0 8 -.4 -1.5 -.2 
NORTHWAY 
April 
Total 23 6 at [e) [e) 
Dep. from Av. 3.0 -.7 =1.9 -.2 ne 
May 
Totel ahh 8 9 3 ie} 10) 
Dep. from Av. -4.9 9 4.5 6 -.9 -~.2 
June 
Total 16 uf 4 3 [e) 
Dep. from Av. 4.2) =06 -1.8 1 -1.0 -.8 
July 
Total 1 8 6 5 3 2 
Dep. from Av. -4,.8 1.4 -1.0 1.4 tbe / -.3 2.6 
August 
Total 16 8 6 1 [e) (e) 
Dep. from Av. 4,3 ied -1.8 -1.7 -1.4 eta 


1950 


BIG DELTA 
Precipitation in hundredths of an inch 
O1- 10- 26- 50- 1.00- 
ie} “vat 09 25 49 99 1599) 2,.00+ 
April 
Total 25 2 3 [°) 
Dep. from Av. 3.8 -3.4 -.2 -.2 
May 
Total att 1 5 cl 1 (o) 
Dep. from Av. -2.8 1.5 1.5 -.4 5 2 -.1 
June 
Total 20 2 6 1 se 0 fe) 
Dep. from Av. 5.3 -3.8 } Paley} -.2 -.6 4 
July 
Total 14 4 A 2 at 3 [e) 
Dep. from Av. -.3 -1.5 4 3 -.8 2.0 -.1 
August 
Total 16 4 4 4 1 2 
Dep. from Av. 2.4 -2.0 -2.0 1.5 -1.1 2 
FT. YUKON 
April 
Total 25 2 3 te) (o) 
Dep. from Av. 129 25: BE -.4 - 
May 
Total 20 6 5 (e) (e) 
Dep. from Av. -2.8 8 2.6: -.4 - 
June 
Total 25 1 4 (e) (0) le) 
Dep. from Av. 4.8 -2.6 --7 -1.0 - -.2 
July 
Total 23 5 3 (o) (o) 
Dep. from Av. 2.0 7 EN! yeedienk kaa 
August 
Total 20 9 1 (e) 1 
Dep. from Av. 2.5 3.4 -3.9 -1.6 c Epa 
GULKANA 
April 
Total QT 2 1 (0) 
Dep. from Av. 4.6 -2.2 -1.6 -.8 
May 
Total 17 «14 (°) (°) [e) 
Dep. from Av. -2.3 6.6 -3.5 -.5 - 
June 
Total 16 ue 2 5 [e) (0) 
Dep. from Av. -.2 1.8 -3.1 2.2 -.2 
July 
Total 14 3 8 3 3 (°) 
Dep. from Av. 1.5 2 6 3 z -.8 -.1 
August 
Total 19 v 3 BF 1 [o) 
Dep. from Av. 5.6 2,0 -4,8 -1.9 - -.0 
McGRATH 
April 
Totell/ 19 5 2 3 [0 [e) 
Dep. from Av. 7 -1.3 -1.9 30) - -.2 
May 
Total altg Tt 5 2 0 (0) 
Dep. from Av. 1.9 -1.7 a4 3 - -.2 
June 
Total 9 2 6 2 
Dep. from Av. -1.0 6 -3,9 2.8 1.4 -.4 nig 
July 
Total 9 8 4 4 6 [e) (o) 
Dep. from Av. =2.0° 1.9 -3.0 2) 3.4 -.6 -.2 
August 
Total 10 3 9 3 4 2 [e) 
Dep. from Av. 2.4 -1.3 3 -2.8 ee 3 -.1 


See footnote at end of table. 


105 


Table 20.--Departure from 9-year average precipitation by number of deys per month in each intensity cless--Continued 


1953 


EEE EEE 


ANCHORAGE: 
Precipitation in hundredths of an inoh 
o1- 10- 26- 50- 1.00- 
i) oy og 25 49 EE 1.99 2.00+ 
April 
Total 1606#ll 2 1 [*) [*) 
Dep. from Av. -2.2 4.0 -1.7 od -.1 -.1 
Mey 
Total 15 bE 2 2 af 0 
Dep. from Av. -.8 ae -1.4 1.4 at -.1 
June 
Total 17 6 3 (e) (e) 
Dep. from Av. 2-62. -.9 -1.1 2 -.5 -.3 
July 
Total 15 8 5 1 2 (o) ) 
Dep. from Av. CY a bey -1.1 -2.3 -.1 -.4 -.2 
August 
Total 8 3 7 5 5 3 0 
Dep. from Av. -3.0 -3.1 -.2 1.5 3.0 1.9 -.1 
FAIRBANKS 
April 
Total 24 5 1 fe) 
Dep. from Av. 220) =e me -.2 
May 
Total 15 6 3) [e) ak (e) 
Dep. from Av. -2.1 -2.1 4.8 -1.1 6 -.1 
June 
Total 11 a2 3 2 1 [°) 1 
Dep. fron Av. -1.5 3.8 2.5 -.3 -.1 -.2 8 
July 
Total 17 4 4 5 ak (e) (+) 
Dep. from Av. 2.9 -2.2 -2.0 2.4 i) -1.0 -.1 
August 
Totel 8 9 9: 3 1 ) ae 
Dep. from Av. -3.1 1.5 8 -.4 one -.4 9 
GALENA 
April 
Total 17 #10 3 {+} fe) 
Dep. from Av. -.8 3.0 1.5 -.5 -.2 
Mey 
Total 12 ll & 3 (e) 1 
Dep. from Av. -2.7 1.2 -.5 1.4 -.3 oe) 
June 
Total 12 8 5 3 i fe) it 
Dep. from Av. -2.7 1.3 -.8 LoL -6 -.4 9 
July 
Total 18 6 5 1 1 0 
Dep. from Av. 5.0 -.4 -1.3 -2.1 6 -.6 
August 
Total 2 abe 8 5 z 4 
Dep. from Av. -6.4 4.2 oi) -1.0 -.2 2.5 


June 
Total 17 8 3 (e) 2 fe) 
Dep. from Av pet em Ef) -1.9 -2.2 wil, 1 
July 
Total 23 5 2 aE (o) () 
Dep. from Av 6.4 1.0 -3.6 -2.4 -1.0 -.4 
August 
Total 12 3 4 4 3 
Dep. from Av. -2.0 -.7 -1.0 -8 1.6 15. -.2 
NORTHWAY 
April 
Totell/ 9 ? 3 
Dep. from Av 1.0 3 nL 


See footnote at end of table. 


106 


BIG DELTA 
Precipitation in hundredths of an inch 
O1- 10- 26- 50-  12.00- 
o Tr. 09 25 49 EE 2.99 2.00+ 
April 
Totel 22 { 1 (e) 
Dep. from Av. -8 2.6 =-2.2 -.2 


ee 
2 


Totel 12 6 9 1 1 [) 

Dep. from Av. -7.8 .5 5.5 -6 a) 8 -.2 
June 

Total 14 3 7 3 2 [s) 1 

Dep. from Av. -.7 -2.8 aS) 8 8 -.6 6 
July 

Total 16 4 7 1 2 zi [e) 

Dep. from Av. Wot. 15. 4 -.7 a ie) -.1 
August 

Total 10 7 9 1 4 [e) 

Dep. from Av. -3.6 1.0 3.0 -1.5 19 -.8 

FI. YUKON 
April 

Total 28 1 1 te) ) 

Dep. from Av. 4.9 -2.5 -1.9 =c4 5 =e! : 
May 

Total 26 4 1 () [) 

Dep. from Av. 3.2 -1.2 -1.4 -.4 -.2 = 
June 

Total 21 2 4 2 1 

Dep. from Av. -8 -1.6 -.7 1.0 BY f -.2 
July 

Total 20 i 9 L [e) 

Dep. from Av -1.0 -3.3 5.3 -.7 -.3 
August 

Totel 19 5 4 1 2 [*) 

Dep. from Av. 1.5 -.6 -.9 -.6 one -.1 

GULXANA 
April 

Total 24 3 2 1 

Dep. from Av. 1.6 -1.2 -.6 2c 
May 

Total 18 9 4 (e) [e) 

Dep. from Av. -1.3 1.6 oh) -.5 -.3 
June 

Total 14 5 8 3 fe) 

Dep. from Av -2.2 -.2 2.9 2 5 -.2 
July 

Total 17 6 2 5 1 () [e) 

Dep. from Av. DES se jock -5.4 2.2 meh -.8 -.1 
Augus? 

Total 8 at ThE 2 2 1 

Dep. from Av. -5.4 2.0 3.2 -.9 if 4 

McGRATH 
April 

Total 18 6 5 i () 

Dep. from Av --3 -.3 Leb -.1 -.2 -.2 
May 

Totel 7 14 4 al 1 

Dep. from Av. -8.1 5.3 -.8 2.3 5 8 
June 

Total i 8 z 1 te) 

Dep. from Av. -2.0 1.4 2% -2.2 -.6 6 -.3 


Total 16 5 6 1 fe) fe) 

Dep. from Av. 4.3 -1.1 -1.0 -2 -1.6 -.6 -.2 
August 

Totel 4 3 12 5 2 5 fe) 

Dep. from Av. -3.6 -1.3 3.3 -.8 -.8 3.3 -.1 


Table 20.--Departure from 9-year average recipitation by number of days per month in each intensit. olass~-Continued 


ANCHORAGE: 
Preoipitation in hundredths of an inoh 
ol 10- 26- 50- 1.00- 
ie) Tr. 09 25 49 99 1.99 2.00+ 
April 
Total 25 4 aL 1°} ie} 
Dep. from Av. 6.8 -3.0 -2.7 =i9) -.1 -.1 
May 
Total Leo 4 [e) (0) [e) 
Dep. from Av. Lee) =. 8: .6 -.6 -.3 = 
June 
Total 15 9 2 3 1 
Dep. from Av. acy Ak -3,1 ne 5 
July 
Total 12 6 7 3 3 (0) [°) 
Dep. from Av. -.6 -.3 at) -.3 9 -.4 -.2 
August 
Total 12 6 6 4 2 1 [°) 
Dep. from Av. 1.0 -.1 -1.2 “5 0 -.1 ph 
FAIRBANKS 
April 
Total 22 8 [¢) (0) 
Dep. from Av. 1d “2.95 -2.4 -.2 
May 
Total 24 4 2 1 [e) 
Dep. from Av. 6.9 -4,1 -2.2 -.1 -.4 -1 
June 
Total 14 8 2 3 3 (e) [e) 
Dep. from Av. POM =e. -3.5 Ate anet:) -.2 -.2 
July 
Total 13 6 4 5 a 1 1 
Dep. from Av. -l.1 -.2 -2.0 2.4 0 0 19 
August 
Total 9 10. 9: 3 [e) [e) 
Dep. from Av. -2.1 2.5 8 -.4 -.3 -.4 -.1 
GALENA 
April 
Total 23 4 2 ah [e) 
Dep. from Av. §.2 -3.0 2.5 =o: -.2 
May 
Total al it 3 (0) (o) () 
Dep. from Av. 6.3 -2.8 -1.5 -1.6 -.3 -.1 
June 
Total 21 2 4 2 al (0) 0 
Dep. from Av. 6.3 -4.7 -1.8 el +6 -.4 -.1 
July 
Total 10 10 3 3 4 1 
Dep. from Av. 3.0 3.6 -3.3 -.1 2.4 4 
August 
Total 8 ¥e 6 9 BE (e) 
Dep. from Av. -.4 .2 -1.1 3.0 -.2 =1.5 
HOMER . 
April 
Total 23 6 1 [e) [e) () [e) 
Dep. from Av. 8.8 -.9 -4.4 -2.3 -.9 -.2 -.1 
May 
Total 15 9 5 2 (o) 0 
Dep. from Av. orl, ¥O. -1.0 ait =.9 -.2 
June 
Total 18 10 1 1 (e) ie} 
Dep. from Av. 2.9 3.6 -3.9 -1.2 -1.3 --1 
July 
Total 17 3 5 5 ak 
Dep. from Av. +4 -1.0 -.6 1.6 ie} -.4 
August 
Total 14 3 4 3 3 4 
Dep. from Av. 10} -.7 -2.0 -.2 6 2.5 2 
NORTHWAY 
April 
Total 18 9 3 (6) [s) 
Dep. from Av. -2.0 2.3 ee -.2 ~.2 
May 
Total 19 We a to) 3 a 
Dep. from Av. 3.1 -.1 -3.5 -2.4 cyt 8 
June 
Total ye 9, 8 4 1 Z 
Dep. from Av. -4.9 1.4 22 plea} 0 AS 
July 
Total fae eal 10 2 1 o) 
Dep. from Av. -4.8 4.4 3.0 -1.6 -.3 -.3 -.4 
Total ay g 6 6 (e) 
Dep. from Av. 5.3 -1.3 -1.8 ie} Sl! 


1954 


BIG DELTA 
Preoipitation in hundredths of an inch 
ol 10- 26- 50- 1.00- 
0 Tre 09 25 49 99 1.99 2.00+ 
April 
Total 19 Hf 4 (e) 
Dep. from Av. -2.2 1.6 8 -.2 
May 
Total ay 4 2 3 ak (e) ie) 
Dep. from Av. 1.2 -1.5 -1.5 1.6 a] -.2 =a 
June 
Total 13 8 4 1 2 1 1 
Dep. from Av. -1.7 2.2 -1.1 -1.2 A) 4 +6 
July 
Total 12 5 10 ay 2 eT (o) 
Dep. from Av. -2.3 -.5 3.4 -.7 :2 (0) =k 
August 
Total 16 at 3 3 2 [e) 
Dep. from Av. 2.4 1,0 -3.0 5 =a -.8 
FT. YUKON 
April 
Total 27 2 1 i) (o) 
Dep. from Av. 3.9 -1.5 mie -.4 -.1 


May 


Total 28 1 2 [e) [o) 
Dep. from Av. 5.2 -4.2 -.4 4 -.2 
June 
Total Lv, 4 8 1 [e) [e) 
Dep. from Av. -3.2 4 3.3 0 -.3 -.2 
July 
Total 15 6 3 6 1 
Dep. from Av. -6.0 1.7 -.7 4.3 eH e 
August 
Total 17’ 3 9 [°) 2 [e) 
Dep. from Av. -.5 -2.6 4.1 -1.6 if Phe 
GULKANA 
April 
Total 30 (0) (0) (e) 
Dep. from Av. 7.6 -4.2 -2.6 -.8 
May 
Total 19 6 5 (e) al 
Dep. from Av. -.3 -1.4 1.5 -.5 7 
June 
Total 18 4 5 a 1 () 
Dep. from Av. 1.8 -1.2 ae -.8 5 2 
July 
Total 14 2 10 1 4 (0) 0 
Dep. from Av. -1.5 -.9 2.6 -1.8 230) -.8 -.1 
August 
Total 16 3 7 4 tt (°) 
Dep. from Av. 2.6 -2.0 -.8 pepal, -.3 -.6 
McGRATH 
April 
Total 20 6 3 a (e) [) 
Dep. from Av. a Rey Geri) -.9 -.1 mies -.2 
May 
Total 26 1 3 7 [o) [°) 
Dep. from Av. 10.9 -7.7 -1.8 EPH 6 -.5 -.2 
June 
Total 2 9 2 5 5 ar (e) 
Dep. from Av. 2.0 -.6 -3.9 1.8 4 6 -.3 
July 
Total 10 8 6 [e) 4 3 (e) 
Dep. from Av. -1.7 1.9 -1.0 -2.8 1.4 2.4 -.2 
August 
Total ay 4 7 3 5 1 [e) 
Dep. from Av. 3.4 -.3 Sete -2.8 2.2 -.7 =e 


See footnote at end of table. 


107 


Table 20.--Deperture from 9-year average precipitation by number of deys per month in each intensity cless--Continued 


ANCHORAGE 
Precipitation in hundredths of an inch 
o1- 10- 26- 50- 1.00- 
ire og 25 49 99 99 


2.00+ 


Mey. 
Total 23 id 1 (e) 
Dep. from Av. 7.2 -3.8 -2.4 -.6 -.3 cat 
June 
Total 23 2 2 3 0 
Dep. from Av. 8.6 -4.9 -3.1 or 5 3 
July 
Totel 16 3 5 6 1 
Dep. from Av. 3.4 -3.3 -1.1 2.7 -1.1 --4 .2 
August 
Total 16 2 8 3 a! uf (e) 
Dep. from Av. 5.0 -4.1 -8 ==9 -1.0 -.1 Seal 
FAIRBANKS 
April 
Total a1 a 5 (e) 
Dep. from Av. --7 -1.7 2.6 -.2 
May 
Total 19 8 4 (0) 0) 0 
Dep. from Av. L.9 --.2 -.2 -1.1 -.4 -.1 
June 
Total 20 5 5 [o) [e) (e) ie) 
Dep. from Av. 7.5 -3.2 5 -2.3 -1.1 2 me 
July 
Total 14 12 4 1 (e) [e) 0 
Dep. from Av. -.1 5.8 -2.0 -1.6 -1.0 -1.0 -.1 
August 
Total 16 6 8 at, [e) fe) 
Dep. from Av. 4.9 -1.5 -.2 -2.4 -.3 4 -.1 
GALENA 
April 
Total 20 5 5 [*) [°) 
Dep. from Av. 2.2 -2.0 “B) -.5 -.2 
May 
Total 20 5 2 3 i 
Dep. from Av. 5.3 -4.8 2.5 1.4 7 al 
June 
Total 25 2 3 (e) i) 0 (e) 
Dep. from Av. 10.3 -4.7 -2.8 ag, -.4 -.4 -.1 
July 
TotalL/ 19 5 4 2 5 ie) 
Dep. from Av. 6.0 -1.4 -2.35 -1.1 1.4 6 
August 
Total 10 af 6 ) ul 
Dep. from Av. 1.6 ee el 1.0) -1.2 -.5 
HOMER 
April 
Totel aby 7 2 3 1 0 
Dep. from Av. 2.8 out -3.4 aide 1 -.2 ml 
Mey 
Total 19 8 2 2 Ce) ) 
Dep. from Av. 457 net 4.0: anf -.5 -.2 
June 
Total 26 2 FS (e) [o) 
Dep. from Av. 10.9 -4.4 -2.9 -2.2 -1.3 at 
July 
Total 17. ) 6 6 1 1 
Dep. from Av. 4 -4.0 4 2.6 0 6 


Total 19 1 5 (e) 5 0 al 
Dep. from Av. 5.0 -2.7 -1.0 -3.2 2.6 -1.5 8 
NORTHWAY 
April 
Total 17 8 & zh ) 
Dep. from Av. -3.0 1.35 Pe 8 -.2 
Mey 
Total 15 5 ff 3 1 (e) 
Dep. from Av. -.9 -2.1 2.5 -6 1 2 
June 
Total 12 5 6 3 3 1 
Dep. from Av 1 -2.6 2 aL 2.0 2 
July 
Total 14 3 9 i 3 af () 
Dep. from Av 2.2 -3.6 2.0 -2.6 1.7 7 -.4 


August 


Totel Data missing 


1957 


Precipitation in hundredths of en inch 


O1- 10- 26- 50- 2.00- 
i} Tr. og 25 49 39 2.99 2.00+ 
April 
Total 19 5 6 (+) 
Dep. from Av. -2.2 4 2.8 -.2 


Total 23 6 2 fo) (+) Q 
Dep. from Av. 3.2 5 -1.5 -1.4 -.5 -.2 -.1 
June 
Total 18 6 2 3 z [e) (e) 
Dep. from Av. 3.3 ae) -3.1 8 -.2 -.6 -.4 
July 
Total 16 4 1h 1 2 z (+) 
Dep. from Av. 1.7 -1.5 4 -.7 > ie) =. 
August 
Total 18 4 1 2 af 
Dep. from Av. 4. -2.0 -1.5 -.1 2 
April 
Totel 26 3 Q 1 (+) 
Dep. fron Av 2.9. =-.5 -2.9 6 --1 
Mey 
Total 2s 5 2 1 
Dep. from Av. BC se: 4 6 a 
June 
Total 23 5 fe) () ie) 
Dep. from Av. 2.8 -1.6 -3 -1.0 a) -.2 
July 
Totel 7 2 1 
Dep. from Av Carte -1.7 -.7 -.3 
August 
Total 22 6 (e) i (e) 
Dep. from Av. 4.5 4 -2.9 -1.6 -.3 -.1 
GULKANA 
April 
Total 22 4 4 (e) 
Dep. fron Av. -.4 -.2 1.4 -.8 
May 
Total 18 8 4 1 
Dep. from Av. -1.3 -6 -5 ee] 3 
June 
Total 16 4 5 Q 
Dep. from Av. --2 -1.2 -.1 2.2 -.5 -.2 
July 
Totel 17 1 io) 4 2 1 0 
Dep. from Av. 1.5 -1.9 1.4 rhe -5 a -.1 
August 
Total 22 3 3 3 () (e) 
Dep. from Av. 8.6 -2.0 -4.8 aul -1.3 -.6 
McGRATH 
April 
Total 21 4 5 ° 0 () 
Dep. from Av. 2.7 -2.3 meat -1.1 Lane -.2 


Total 19 5 4 2 2 [°) 
Dep. from Av. 3.9 -3.7 -.8 5 25) -.2 
June 
Total 19 6 3 2 [°} (e) 
Dep. from Av. 9.0 -3.6 -2.9 -1.2 6 -.4 -.3 
July 
Total 1¢ 8 6 3 () [e) fe) 
Dep. from Av. 2.3 1.9 -1.0 2 -2.6 -.6 -.2 


Augus® 
Total ‘70 8 6 ie) ie) ie) 


Dep. from Av. -.6 5.7 -.7 “2 -2.8 -1. 


See footnote at end of teble. 


108. 


Table 20.--Departure from 9-year average precipitation by number of days per month in each intensity class--Continued 


1958 


ANCHORAGE 
Precipitation in hundredths of an inch 
O1- 10- 26- 50- 1.00- 
1°) irs 09 25 49 99 1,99 2.004 
April 
Total 22 3 4 a 0 
Dep. from Av. 3.8 -4.0 3 oll ou -.1 
May 
Total ne 8 7 3 1 
Dep. from Av. -3.8 -2.8 3.6 2.4 He =.1 
June 
Total 15 4 iG 2 2 
Dep. from Av. 6 -2.9 1.9 -.8 =25) Lot 
July 
Total 8 9 2 3 2 1 
Dep. from Av. -4.6 -.3 a9; -1.3 ae 1.6 8 
August 
Total 12 5 ai () [e) 
Dep. from Av. 1.0 -.1 -.2 1.5 -1.0 Eales -.1 
FAIRBANKS 
a April 
Total al 7 2 (0) 
Dep. from Av. mille dso: -.4 -.2 
May 
Total 18 9 2 1 ae 
Dep. from Av. 9 9 -2.2 -.1 6 -.1 
June 
Total ll 10 4 3 2 {0} 
Dep. from Av. -i.5 1.8 -1.5 7 cI -.2 -.2 
July 
Total 13 10 5 al nb a6 0) 
Dep. from Av. -l.1 3.8 -1.0 -1.6 ie} 0 a 
August 
Total 9 12 8 2 () fe) 
Dep. from Av. -2.1 4.5 -.2 -1.4 -.3 -.4 ay 
GALENA 
April 
Total 19 6 5 [s) [o) 
Dep. from Av. 1.2 -1.0 -5 -.5 -.2 
May 
Total 12 rat 6 2 
Dep. from Av. -2.7 1.2 1.5 4 -.3 -.1 
June 
Total 9 4 12 3 BE a 0 
Dep. from Av. -5.7 -2.7 6.2 Y.1 6 6 =e 
July 
Total Data missing 
Dep. from Av. 
August 
Total Data missing 
Dep. from Av. 
HOMER 
April 
Total LT 4 4 5 (0) ie) 
Dep. from Av. 2.8 -2.9 —1.4 2.7 -.9 -.2 and 
May 
Total 8 8 12 2 al 
Dep. from Av. -6.3 -.7 6.0 w6 5 -.2 
June 
Total ah 9 4 5 i) 
Dep. from Av. -4.1 2.6 -.9 2.8 -.3 -.1 
July 
Total 14 3 6 5 2 a 
Dep. from Av. -2.6 -1.0 A 1.6 1.0: 6 
August 
Total 12 4 8 5 ie} 2 1°} 
Dep. from Av. -2.0 3 2.0 1.8 -2.4 5 -.2 
NORTHWAY 
April 
Total 26 2 ay (e) aT, 
Dep. from Av. 6.0 -4.7 Abr} -.2 8 
May 
Total 16 T 4 3 a 
Dep. from Av. at S. -.5 -6 1 -.2 
June 
Total 23 1 4 J [e) 
Dep. from Av. 11.1 -6.6 -1.8 -.9 -1.0 -.8 
July 
Total 13 9 ak 1 1 
Dep. from Av. 1.2 6 2.0 -2.6 -.3 rt -.4 
August 
Total 14 6 5 2 3 1 
Dep. from Av. 2.3 -1.3 -2.8 -.7 1.6 9 


1/ Discrepancy 


BIG DELTA 
Precipitation in hundredths of an inch 
O1- 10- 26- 50- 1.00- 
0 Tr. o9 25 49 99 17.99: 2,00+ 
April 
Total 24 5 1 0 
Dep. from Av. 2.8 -.4 -2.2 -.2 
May 
Total 23 a a 0 0 0 
Dep. from Av. Sead -2.5 -1.4 -.5 -.2 a. 
June 
Total Ey, 6 5 if 1 () (e) 
Dep. from Av. 2.3 4 -.1 -1.2 -.2 -.6 -.4 
July 
Total 15 11 2 2 0 a [e) 
Dep. from Av. wii, 9 Die'0! -4.6 3 -1.8 0 =i 
August 
Total 15 Td 2 2 0 x 
Dep. from Av. L4 5,0 -4.0 -.5 -2.1 2 
FT. YUKON 
April 
Total 20 7 2 x 0 
Dep. from Av. -3.1 3.5 -.9 6 -.1 
Mey 
Total al 6 3 1 
Dep. from Av. -1.8 8 a6 6 -.2 
June 
Total 22 2 4 2 
Dep. from Av. 1.8 -1.6 -.7 1.0 -.3 -.2 
July 
Total al 6 1 2 ab 
Dep. from Av. ce) 1.7 -2.7 13 ot 
August 
Total 18 6 3 2 2 
Dep. from Av. aa 14 -1.9 A at: -.1 
GULKANA 
wipril 
Total ne} 10 1 () 
Dep. from Av. -3.4 5.8 -1.6 -.8 
May 
Total 13 13 3 2 () 
Dep. from Av. -6.3 5.6 -.5 1.5) -.3 
June 
Total 22 4 3 ph 0 
Dep. from Av. 5.8 -1.2 -2.1 -1.8 5 -.2 
July 
Total 14 4 8 3 1 a 
Dep. from Av. -1.5 1.1 6 2 -.5 2 1 
August 
Total Le 4 T 2 3 a 
Dep. from Av. -6 -1.0 -.8 -.9 eT 4 
McGRATH 
April 
Total 20 8 1 (0) at [e) 
Dep. from Av. 1.7 1:7 -2:9 <-1.2 28 -.2 
May 
Total 12 10 8 ai [e) 
Dep. from Av. -3.1 1.3 3.2 -.7 -.5 -.2 
June 
Total 6 9 10 5 (e) (e) 
Dep. from Av. -4,0 -.6 4.1 1.8 -.6 -.4 -.3 
July 
Total 8 6 10 5 (e) 2 i) 
Dep. from Av. -3.7 Ay 3.0 2.2 -2.6 1.4 2 


Total 6 2 12 6 4 mn, te) 
Dep. from Av. -1.6 -2.3 3.3 2 1.2 -.7 -.1 


in basic data. 


109 


Teble 21. --Monthly precipitation and departure from normal 


Avon January February March April May June July August September October November December Total 


De Ant _De Amt De Amt Dep Amt De Amt De 


Interior Basin 
Big Delta 1.13 -64 .06 -.15 .69 -44 .07 -.28 .71 -00 .61 -1.82 3.37 -21 2.27 241 +43 -.88 -69 -29 .53 
Fairbanks 2.00 : . . . : -86 -.56 2.50 -60 1.17 -1.00 -51 -.95 -51 -.36 .99 
Fort Yukon -68 +26 .06 -.35 .27 -.05 .07 -.19 .13 -.32 .07 -.73 .06 -.94 -32 -.91 -62 -.09 -50 -.14 .48 


-.-78 7.03 -1.17 
-1.85 5.08 -1.50 
-3.10 -65 -2.79 


w 
v 
iv) 
i) 
oO 
1 
nm 
oO 
on 
i) 
' 
ry 
> 
° 
a 
' 
ie) 
@ 
o 
i) 
1 
w 
o 


Galena deh -63 .12 -.63 .18 -.63 .80 -66 .12 -1.33 1.88 -64 1.07 -1.60 2.58 -.25 1.87 31 -26 -.36 .33 -2.33 6.45 -1.58 

McGrath 1.80 .68 .07 -1.23 .03 -1.11 .67 .28 .52 -.51 4.36 2.44 2.84 .46 2.82 -.76 2.13 -.29 .44 -1.42 .51 -2.40 11.21 1.77 

Northway -98 .38 .04 -.38 .11 -.15 .03 -.37 .99 .30 .58 -1.42 4.83 1.94 .39 -1.83 .54 -.90 .23 -.31 .31 -2.72 6.82 -.95 
Cook Inlet 

Anchorage -83 -.01 Tr -.67 .29 -.26 .04 -.37 .10 -.40 1.90 1.20 .97 -.66 .92 -1.68 1.07 -1.51 .52 -1.66 .26 -.78 1.71 .86 8.61 -5.94 3.93 -1.98 

Homer -71 -1.98 .16 -1.41 1.08 -.77 2.75 1.48 .50 -.64 1.40 -38 1.02 -.74 1.34 -1.78 2.63 -2.84 2.36 -1.57 .08 -2.32 1.44 -1.37 15.47 -13.56 7.01 -.94 
Copper River 

Gulkana -86 -.03 .39 -.04 Tr -.45 .06 -.37 Tr --47 .81 -.42 2.81 -70 53 -1.33 1.75 hy f 44 -.42 .87 -22 -73 -.23 9.25 -2.67 4.21 -1.59 


Interior Basin 


Big Delta -04 -.34 .30 14 416 =-.18 .04 =-.24 1.81 1:17 2.67 362.05 -.94 1.77 -21 -63 -.80 -3L -.19 .03 -.26 -18 -.15 9.99 -1.64 8.34 -14 
Fairbanks +12 -.87 .27 -.24 .20 -.38 .01 -.28 .64 -.10 1.85 -48.1.37 -.55 2.97 Aiph alee gibt -1l -.81 Tr -.63 -13° -.37 8.99 -2.93 6.84 -26 
Fort Yukon -19 -.19 .22 -.12 .12 -.16 .01 -.16 .02 -.30 1.00 -29 .66 -.30 1.16 -.12 89 -06 -45 -.12 .20 -.21 -67 -38 5.59 -.93 2.85 -.59 
Galena -10 -.67 1.03 722 .20 -.54 .11 -.07 1.38 -75 2.15 46 .69 -2.00 4.02 1.18 1.10 -1.27 -34 -.30 .21 -.43 -35 -.27 11.68 -2.94 8.35 -32 
McGrath +27 -.87 .97 -.18 .18 -.80 .24 -.25 1.98 1.04 1.12 -.941.15 -1.17 5.86 2.23 1.86 -.55 .33 -1.34 .21 -.88 .61 -.64 14.78 -4.35 10.35 -91 
Northway -07 -.54 .06 -.28 .12 -.10 .11 -.24 1.35 -63 4.00 2.00 1.24 -1.65 2.12 -31 -95 -.23 -41 -.08 .07 -.29 -24 -.13 10.74 -.60 8.82 1.05 
Cook Inlet 
Anchorage -20 -.56 .48 -.10 .21 -.39 .15 -.25 .76 -25 .57 -.32 1.14 -.41 5.06 2.50 1.85 -.86 -81 -1.06 .11 -.89 1.11 -27 12.45 -1.82 7.68 1.77 
Homer -98 -1.41 3.57 2.17 .21 -1.43 1.49 -16 2.04 1.04 .74 -.33 .16 -1.50 4.81 1.92 2.43 -.36 3.62 -08 2.74 -19 2.20 -.56 25.19 -.03 9.24 1.29 
Copper River 
Gulkana -18 -.61 .62 20 «4.47 -10 .18 -.03 .18 -.23 .72 -.47 1.09 -1.03 2.08 -21 21.39 -.74 -Tl -.03 .15 -.51 -92 -13 8.69 -3.01 4.25 -1.55 
1954 
Interior Basin F 
Big Delta 48 -10 .05 -.11 .20 -.14 .13 -.15 1.15 -51 3.37 1.06 2.06 -.93 1.49 -.49 2.06 -63 -58 -.12 .19 -.10 -31 -.02 11.87 -24 .8.20 -00 
Fairbanks -55 -.44 .21 -.30 .60 -.02 Tr -.29  .17 -.57 1.78 41 3.22 1.30 -84 -1.42 1.82 -61 708 -.84 .42 -.21 -48 -.02 10.17 -1.75 6.01 -.83 
Fort Yukon -58 =20) 27,7 -=.0%) 1.28 -00 .0l -.16 .10 -.22 .41 -.30 1.26 -30 92 -.36 OHH teak -41 -.16 .84 43 -79 -50 6.64 -12 2.70 -.74 
Galena -19 -.58 .18 -.63 .35 -.39 .23 -05 .09 -.54 .95 -.74 2.81 -12 1.79 -1.05 1.87 -.50 -41 -.25 1.45 -.19 -44 -.18 9.76 -4.86 5.87 -2.16 
McGrath -63 -.51 .28 -.87 1.04 -06 .29 -.20 .34 -.60 1.83 -.23 4.73 2.41 5.22 -.41 3.59 1.18 -73 -.94 1.85 -76 1.43 -18 19.96 -83 10.41 -97 
Northway -16 -.45 .15 -.19 .18 -.04 .14 -.21 1.52 -80 1.71 -.29 1.21 -1.68 -60 -1.21 -90 -.28 eel =.28 219° -.17; +51 14 7.48 -3.86 5.18 -2.59 
Cook Inlet 
Anchorage -56 -.20 .18 -.40 .97 -37 .03 -.37 .15 -.36 .91 -02 2.08 53 2.13 -.43 1.66 -1.05 2.02 -15 .93 -.07 1.00 -16 12.62 -1.65 5.30 --61 
Homer P.129=2.27 676: —.64° 1.93 -29' .O1 -1.32 .43 --.57 :26 -.81 1.90 -24 4.13 1.24 1.47 -1.32 4.63 -89 2.44 -.11 1.34 -1.42 20.42 -4.60 6.73 -1.22 
Copper River 
Gulkana -33  -.46 .52 -10 .22 -.15 .00 -.21 .39 -.02 .69 -.50 1.94 -.18 1.48 -.39 1.75 -.38 -86 -12 .61 -.05 84 -05 9.63 -2.07 4.50 -1.30 
1957 
Interior Basin 
Big Delta 1.35 -97 1.33 1.17 .46 -12 .11 -.17 .03 -.61 1.05 -1.26 1.92 -1.07 1.65 -.33 -T2 -.71 -63 =1300 09) —-20 i. 06! -23 9.90 -1.73 4.76 -3.44 
Fairbanks 192 +93 £56 -05 .15 -.43 .08 -.21 .07 -.67 .21 -1.16 .40 -1.52 -40 -1.86 -47 -.74 -7T4 -.18 .30 -.33 -25 -.25 5.55 -6.37 1.16 -5.68 
Fort Yukon 56 -18 .38 704 .22 -.06 .13 -.04 .23 -.09 .22 -.49 .27 -.69 -38 -.90 -58 -.23 -45\.-.12) (.49 -08 -26 -.03 4.17 -2.35 1.23 -2.21 
Gelena 1.10 -53 2.79 -.02 .49 -.25 .17 -.01 .73 -10 .18 -1.51 1.40 -1.29 2.14 -.70 1.76 -.61 1.00 -36 1.63 a «49 -.13 11.88 -2.74 4.62 -3.41 
McGrath 3.67 2.53 1.11 -.04 .72 -.26 .19 -.30 .82 -.12 .42 -1.64 .79 -1.53 1.21 -2.42 2.17 -.24 1.43 -.24 1.53 44 -53 -.72 14.59 -4.54 3.43 6.01 
Northway +43 -.18 .47 215.29 -O7 .43 -08 1.21 49 2.12 12 2.51 -.38 Missing data 23T -O1 43 -06 
Cook Inlet = 
Anchorage 1.36 -60 .67 -09 .20 -.40 .01 -.39 .02 -.49 .56 -.33 1.64 -09 2.02 -.54 3.21 -50 +93 -.94 1.51 ol -56 -.48 12.49 -1.78 4.25 -1.66 
Homer -94 -1.45 .83 -.57 .42 -1.22 .76 -.57 .37 -.63 .09 -.98 2.26 -60 3.04 -15 4.30 1.51 3.63 -.11 6.00 3.45 2.35 -.41 24.99 --23 6.52 -1.43 
Copper River 
Gulkana -51 -.28 .49 .0O7 .09 -.28 .11 -.10 .42 -01 1.04 -.15 2.67 -55 -66 -1.21 3.41 1.28 1.56 362" 351 -=-15 41 -.38 11.88 -18 4.90 -.90 
1958 
Interior Basin 
Big Delta -38 -.03 .06 -.10 .36 -02  .0Ol -.27 .08 -.56 .79 -1.52 1.07 -1.92 -96 -1.02 -75 -.68 -90 -40 .44 15 -25 -.08 6.02 -5.61 2.91 -5.29 
Fairbanks -31 -.68 .07 -.44 .24 -.34 .09 -.20 .57 -.171.01 -.36 1.42 -.50 -61 -1.65 46 -.75 -84 -.08 .40 -.23 -41 -.09 6.43 -5.49 3.70 -3.14 
Fort Yukon -68 -30 .07 -.27 .26 -.02 .15 -.02 .17 -.15 .39 -.32 .82 -.14 .97 -.31 -22 -.59 1.22 -65 1.17 -76 34 -05 6.46 -.06 2.50 -.94 
Galena -80 205 .21 -.60 .59 -.15 .11 -.07 .47 -.16 1.69 00 3.53 -84 2.46 -.38 Missing data 8.26 -23 
McGrath -36 -.78 .18 -.97 .64 -.34 .32 -.17 .44 -.50 1.10 -.96 2.88 -56 3.73 -10 2.95 54 -81 -.86 .68 -.41 -17 -1.08 14.26 -4.87 8.47 -.97 
Northwey -20 -.41 .18 -.16 .16 -.06 .43 -08 .76 -04 .51 -1.49 1.47 -1.42 2.94 1.13 1.07 -.11 1.05 -56 .32 -.04 +23 -.14 9.32 -2.02 6.11 -1.66 
Cook Inlet 
Anchorage 1.05 229 07. -.52 219: =.42 <25 =.25 1.05 -54 2.19 1.30 4.44 2.89 1.67 -.89 1.351 -1.40 1.93 -06 1.41 41 +54 -.30 16.10 1.83 9.60 3.69 
Homer 3.74 1.35 .48 -.92 1.69 -05 .86 -.45 1.12 -12 1.12 -05 2.48 -82 2.89 -00 2.37 -.42 2.08 -1.66 4.72 2.17 1.05 -1.71 24.62 -.60 8.49 -54 
Copper River 
Gulkana 1.02 .23 .24 -.18 .33 -.04 .01 -.20 .33 -.08 .29 -.90 1.73 -.39 2.02 .15 1.10 -1.03 1.66 .92 .84 .18 .87 .08 10.44 -1.26 4.38 -1.42 


SS EE 


Source: USWB Climatological Data, Alaska Annual Summary, for the years mentioned. 


110 


Table 22.--Precipitation intensity classes, according to frequency of occurrence by decades of the month 


1950-58) 


(Av. 


BETHEL 
Time 
of 


ANCHORAGE 


Time 


Precipitation in hundredths of an inch 


Precipitation in hundredths of an inch 


1,0- 


-50- 
+99 


+26- 


.10- 
225 
April 


-O1- 
09 


1.0- 
1.99 


«50- 
eee) 


-26- 


.10- 
«25 
April 

0.1 


-O1- 


of 
Month 


2.0+ 


+49 


Drs 


Month ie} 


2.0+ 


249 


-09 


Tr. 


0 


3.3 2.0 


2.2 


4.6 
3,9 
S.1 
16 


1-10 

11-20 
21-30 
Total 


0.1 


2.0; 220 
3.0 


5,8 


1-10 
11-20 


21-30 


0.1 


5.8 
6.6 
18.2 


mil 


2. 5.4 


25 


2.0 1.0 


8225855 


Total 


Ma. 


May 
=2 


1-10 
11-20 


21-31 
Total 


1-10 528 126 13 


11-20 
21-31 


0.1 


ne 


8.6 6.8 


12.0 


wl 


15.8 10.8 3.4 6 


Total 


June 


June 
+6 
12 


2.8 2.4 
3.3 2,0 
2.4 2.6 
8.5 7.0 


eye 
3.0 


3 


1-10 

11-20 
21-30 
Total 


ol 
el 


2.7 1.35 


5.4 
4,4 
4.6 
14.4 


1-10 

11-20 
21-30 
Total 


1.9 2.0 
2.9) 1.8 


8 


9 


9.6 


July 


July 
9 


1-10 
11-20 


21-31 


4.3 2.0 1.9 


1-10 


tral TAC} 
2.1 4.2 


625 G92 


Bie) 
260 


O.1 


11-20 4.1 2.3 1.8 
4.2 2.0 2.4 
12 


21-31 
Total 


0.2 


9.35 


Total 


6.3 6.1 


6 


August 
puso) 


August 


1.0 


2.3 3.6 


alal 
2.4 


1-10 
11-20 


21-31 
Total 


1.7 2.4 


3.7 


1-10 


ca 


lieey iia 


11-20 


21-31 
Total 


1.2 
4.7 


1.8 


2.5 2.4 
6eteTse 


2.4 
11.0 


5.9 


i417. 


3.5 


BIG DELTA 


Time 
of 


BETTLES 
Time 
of 


Precipitation in hundredths of an inch 


Precipitation in hundredths of an inch 


1.0- 
1.99 


-10- -26- .50- 
«99 


225 
April 


.O1- 


1.0- 


-50- 
99 


-10- .26- 
+25 


April 
0.3 


.O1- 


2.0+ 


+49 


.09 


Ta 


Month 0 


2.0+ 


1.99 


49 


209 


Tre 


(e) 


Month 


1.9 1.4 


6.7 
7.4 


1-10 

11-20 
21-30 
Total 


0.1 


2.8 1.3 


5.4 
6.8 


1-10 

11-20 
21-30 
Total 


enh 


alc snlal 


Lobe 0) 
5.4 3.2 


nee 
21.2 


Meals 


+2 


6 


6.6 3,3 


19.3 


Ma, 


1-10 

11-20 
21-31 
Total 


6.9 1.4 1.2 4 


1-10 


onl 
el 


7.9 


11-20 
21-31 


a) 


2.0 1.9 


5.7 
1958 


A 


wale 
8 


3.8 1.3 


7.6 3.6 


5.2 
18.4 


Total 


June 


June 
8 
“6 


1.9 1.2 
1.6 2.0 
210, 250: 


6.8 


1-10 
11-20 


21-30 


1.3 1.0 
3.2 1.1 


6.8 


1-10 

11-20 
21-30 
Total 


4.2 


O.1 


4.4 


3.7 


el 


16.0 


July 
+3 


1-10 
11-20 


21-31 


July _ 
Hf 


1-10 

11-20 
21-31 
Total 


1.9 2.8 


4.5 


1.3 


1.8 1.8 


4:9 
16.3 


August 


August 


man 
200 
a 
iio Oo 
at 
ODD 09 
doa 
AOD 
aud 
ht 0 
St xt 
Oud 
oan 
att 
tad 
dda 
a 
ano 
anAD 
Haw 
dod 
ooo 
ada 
oot 
aw 
st xt te 
6 6 60 
od 
oan 
al 
tad 
daa 


13.6 


Total 


2.6 


3.2 


10.2 7.6 6,2 


Total 


YUKON 


Fr. 


FAIRBANKS 


Time 
of 


Precipitation in hundredths of an inch 


Time 
of 


Precipitation in hundredths of an inch 


1.0- 
109) 


.50- 
099 


-26- 
249 


.10- 
225 
April 


O.1 


.01- 
109 


1.0- 
1.99 


.50- 
+99 


+26- 


-10- 
225 


April 


.O1- 
.09 


2,0+ 


Ite 


Month fe) 


2.0+ 


+49 


Tr. 


ie) 


Month 


1.6 1.4 


6.9 


1-10 
11-20 


2.3 1.0 


1.8 


6.7 
7.4 


1-10 


2 


1.0 1.2 


7.6 


o.1 


“7 


11-20 


Ald 
fo) 
ol bed 
11D 
fat] 
a]wo 
ro) 
co) 
| 
a 
old 
mela 
ie 
jo 
Qe 
Ala 
hls 
a 
oly 
Ajo 
oly 
ld 
uu 
ola 
m]0 
tye 
do 
UIE 


Mey 


1-10 
11-20 


21-31 


May 
3 


(a =p Rae eT} 


1-10 

11-20 
21-31 
Total 


8.2 


5.9 


Q.1 


4 


§.2 2.4 


22.8 


Total 


17.1 


June 


June 


1-10 
11-20 


21-30 


2 
-8 


ZaF ae 


5.9 
eee) 


1-10 
11-20 


21-30 
Total 


O.1 


6 
x) 


otis ltset 
1.8 2.2 


6.9 
5 
20.2 


OF 


3.4 2.1 


2.2 2.5 


4 


3.7 
12.5 


Total 


1.1 


2.3 


8.2 5.5 


July 


1.3 1.6 


6.9 


1-10 
11-20 
21-31 


July 


1-10 

11-20 
21-31 
Total 


6.9 
Wise 
21.0 


yi es 


2.3 2.4 
6.2 6.0 


oe) 


4 
14.1 


Total 


1.0 


2.6 


August 


August 


1-10 
11-20 


21-31 
Total 


2) Bee 2. 
2.6 2.1 


2.1. 3.9 


3.7 
4 


1-10 
11-20 


21-31 


ath 


6 


-9 


aC Re eal 


5.3 
17.5 


2.8 
17 


Tio’ 8.2 


pal 


Total 


pO Bk 


f the month--Continued 


of occurrence by decedes of 


(Av. 1950-58) 


clesses, according to frequenc 


Table 22.--Precipitation intensit 


+ 
° 3 ct det 
a) a a . 
nol 7 
oj! oO Blio 
da fet FIO O 12 O|M AIO oO A le let 
° ° oe Aad ht Fl ae : z ale 
° aie 3 eet 3 
4 is] 
a 
aa} “4 
an 8]o m ° 
wf? alou rt et ola a to al a lw a (ol at fo m0 410 IO co 4} rt tals aril yt tt at |o 
sive herd Beara bars : a bi oe ° ry ° : ele vee siiaeprs ize Pierce) pers uw ° ‘ Be or ee aloe ‘ 
a f=) a ° ct rif =| ° 
o e We} 
a a) o 
wo; t oll ole 
4] HIS & £100 Or 
aia dale idan iInqale ja qae AA vedio iia je jeer jagai foarte I cil at ele joie alr. 
3 3 dq fa 5 [S) dq dt rt rifal J [o) et eee | 
a a 5 
lol \ et ard 4] 4 et 
ral o bl} ‘ » Ald wl be} o b] an Ald wl o bl 4 
He @rila ble riciin gleam ojo jt ritala wisi colo BE UBIS TIO glo mol girit iin ja weil Ble rj lay cif UPR rf culo Hlataol~ lo staly Bla ilo 
bere bird eee bats ati bard oyketie| se erie ele e ef Ade ce ele) | Safe eel ve eiiehete| xe eleeie|ie ene bars Booed |=4 aia fe B[vececeles ‘Blow gi ele re hat 
qo 4 w al (St) kh Arita iy Ay iS =</O Nu ist] Hid ei Ble et Ato Bhi rte S | ro) 6 A Iu Bla a alo Bla dale 
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PIA oO 4 
moO 10 Ih A fio Ah ele mo ast im culo "IO O| | 0 x10 co xt =| Im « ri] AO Olt OO] Ja @ eijrt 0 AO w@ln D9 rA}to 
cl a A rife ria rifio aa cule cla ole oat it fst rl rt aifio A rt allio al a aifeo cl ri” eifta qi ria oo a dole 
re) 
o o 
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elt tsi Mt cut AM rt fio ea fa rd tlio ey Joy a cut A 00 t9}c0 At tls at fio By fal aft a al 4 alo al al ale 
a 
o| eels uM aura an ela oO tio It cy wo] o| Ine ain I~ th cole oO © «o} O19 Ole é wd Old (Co) Hw ol 19 uO 
soe nis |ice vinte ove|ine ehatesicre iu! Gand |g Pier fi) Boker bie ° Ae se ele aiayeinye | oe ° vie bas ° cereiner [a 2 Y 
ee ee © © ©] Im 09 w]eco lo =H fie to 19 fra 19 Ht stat sts tro seat sto 1200 Io oo hla © 10190 19 10 
i a st rA ct rel et rt i 8 N bE FA NS 
3 g 
=] 4 9 alc oO let 9 Ql Oo [rt °o Art c 9 Ql oO let 2 Qlet O° let Oo rllret 4 ool on 
tg] @ B} Jo VM] g O48) g oUMlg oo e/g ot] y 9 RB) loMmly OV OM 4) q oN) a oH ely #| Joa mia oan’ 
isi i=] ett ty eat 8 Cn LL ett rat a isi eee ie ee ett ot Le Ge ent Sieh st rt ft tie et tip 
|e 94 0 Vet lo tt fo tet fo Vet lo Vet tf oO trl 44 O Vet aie Vet Alo et lo rt Ao Vet Alo ° teal Re) Trt fo 
ler Oo Sy det et cules eet let ee ae ules eet cles Ale Oo Sl tet cules ett les eet les at ley at ules m0 Sa tet et cules at le 
+ + 
° ° 4 
al a a 
< cl 
Pio ol] | oD 1o 
oo O dq fa BJO o qa fa dela FIO O rit 
wllet et ° qi °. al"! et ° 
' aa] “alt 
lO Oo 98]o o]O OD 
O}ia oO cle cust ra too 19 @fio nl(2 2) Iriel ta a rilar Ae 10 i]s © 0 wha al? ® et Vt aloe Om lo 
a f) a 2 o fa =| ° i] 
GC Lu ao 
we} o o 
mo) I wo] t wt 
@}.O ee AS & 
Aust) [ett jo MU Afro a ast A «0 co]co © 19 Ia aa] Jeo alo A cufio 0 © s/t Aa blo em 19 1O}sH cy st rt ijou Cot [oe HO mH 
g ° qi fa 4 ° fa fa dla 3 ° ra vy 
a & 
& re 
® by] » Ale ole ~p si} t det a 
g bl | et a AHO tobe bo} oD na ATO WO] ret o b>] 
vd aye gles ajo Blt raln Biriw wiry Biri ilo asa sere gto gorau lomo" pln a rij aA RIN HHO iris tla gia olin loro) Mo w alt 
8 fal qi ri to Bit rf t}co 9 =i|O [ov] ec) CV) (| (Cr = | | 9 <i] | 5 A Rl AM tit et cut 
id . p ra re 
pli 8\ ay t 
Q]ct 1 Pla o 
PIO Of fet a aif Im Oo who wo o|a0 to stir MO Ole lOO] Jo =10 ri}o 00 m|n It oO alo loo x10 ‘AO O] Jao ho I~ A Alo It 0 yl UD cule 12M Old 
tel|les ve. eee oisenrelive nireigxe| se eipaeiiue |e! ce elle fle ve] | ce atatanie |e oe ele Pest tn ered bard . siarehee] hiv 5 Beco Ro detien [a0 Tien |e 
i} dt lt A [st A a ho a alo a cut a al da alo aw rt|st AM tho rt alco Pa det the AM tlt el als a lo ac cult 
Dal °o 
° o o 
© om elo no alo Cerat ial [ad = cy «o] st I) co «9 |co fi +} lo tm co al Ceo be x19 110 daa de HH ogl Jas cre MO a] lo who rm colo io & ho 
rw Bl jue lal 2 roo A Cy cu]io a a ]o aa lo ay fa A Ct }o0 aa to elt ct} it alte EY [ro a uo ey ay 18 Joo re alt rt uo eu a cut 
a) 
wo Oo Mo MD 6 LO [> ete (ho oO oOlo It co Ot °o os old mW wo] A |e iM st O] co MA OlO 5 Oo st ayo rt st Ort eo HO OM 9} Ah& hwo 
0 0 ol> ho xt sat] tt x0 thst sot to 12 too 10 tt tt 1 xt xt 1 st who 19 1 Oo st 0 tt] =tt xf 10 wo] tt © 10 ol 10 in 10 10 tlt a ait 
q - rt cl al qt dA ca qi fa A a rt Pa 
a 
a 9 gla ° let ° Ola oO Ir od-r 2 9 Qlrt Onl 9 gle O let oO dle fa a rome) tal Aled 2 Ie oO let 
2 #8] joa mlg oyelg oye] Oo MO] on ]'g 2 P] jou mg oye ou Mm) g ou M]'g oO 4 ]'g gJo 6! loarl’d oO 4 fla IO 1] "g oul 
8. 8] lat t ott rit t oth tl4 at ide BH. st] Jat tle att alt l4 rol id aot ids Be Bf lst y we riot ida rot + ati 
Wi GV O tet A}o ' A} oO 1a] Oo 1 et Alo tet ayo Ofna ww O tet A] o let Ao lato {ret AO ae] oO rt GW O tao 1A] o [aro 1 A et] oO 
& Ol lar cules ett les et Oulet Ae alee ae les mle o sy fea et alles ct oles ee rt et OE rt ales paler O sal [at cules ett les ett Ole rit le 


112 


2.0+ 
2.0+ 


1.0- 
1.99 
1.0- 
1.99 


-50- 
99 
2 
6 
-50- 
-99 


+26- 
49 
plaae 
of 
-26- 
249 
0.1 


st 


-10- 
225 
April 
May 
June 
4 
2.6 
July 
Au 
1.3 
-10- 
+25 
April 
Ou7 
A 
2 
1.3 


5.3 
3.5 
3.1 


.O1- 
.09 
-01- 
109 


Precipitation in hundredths of an inch 
Precipitation in hundredths of an inch 


6.6 7.1 
6.4 8.8 


2.9.2.5 
8.5 7.4 
2.6 2.6 
2.9 2.4 


3.6 1.9 
9.1 6.5 
8.0 8.2 
le eece 
anf 2.0: 
2.6 1.8 
7.0 6.0 


Tr. 


ie) 
3.4 
3.7 
9.6 
2.1 
6.4 
5.3 
4.8 
5.4 
Total 15.5 


of occurrence by decades of the month--Continued 
2.5 


Total 12.6 
Total 11.0 
Total 10.0 


Time 
of 
Month 
1-10 
21-30 
1-10 
21-31 
1-10 
21-30 
1-10 
Total 
1-10 
11-20 
21-31 
Total 
SUMMIT 
Time 
of 
1-10 
11-20 
21-30 


to frequenc 
1950-58) 


(Av. 


2.0+ 
2.0+ 


1.0- 
1.99 
0.1 
el 
el 
1.0- 
1.99 


.50- 
«99 
0.1 
+50- 
Re? 


+26- 
49 
.26- 
249 


2.8 
o.1 


st 


-10- 
225 
April 
-6 
ay 
June 
1.3 
8 
LL 
3.2 
July 
-10- 
225 
April 
72 


O.1 
2.7 


5.8 


-O1- 
209 
-O1- 
209 
‘7 


Precipitation in hundredths of an inch 
Precipitation in hundredths of an inch 


2.2 lial. 
3.1 1.8 


8.7 4.8 
3.3 2.2 


Tr. 

2.7 2.1 
3.6 1.6 
9.6) “5:9 
Vea Sel 
1.4 2.3 
153° 3.3: 
ASS SBN. 
Ins 

ese 184 
2.2 

Cay) 


ie) 
(e) 


5.8 
4.8 
3.7 
2.7 
3.6 


Total 10.0 
pallet g 

YA 

3.3 

1.6 

7.6 

6.4 

7.3 

6.3 


Table 22.--Precipitation intensity classes, accordin 


Total 15.1 
NORTHWAY 
Total 20.0 


McGRATH 
Time 
of 
Month 
1-10 
21-31 
1-10 
11-20 
21-30 
1-10 
Total 
1-10 
11-20 
21-31 
Total 
Time 
of 
Month 
1-10 
11-20 
21-30 


+ 
° 
fot) 
ro) 
ol 1 D 
Ald Dod te) lO D aaa 
| ce . pe | Darter : % 
2 da ° 
i> 
3 
wt 
Cilome. 
fat] fal daa ao QUA ala on o]+ ol[2® a alu Sued bod 1c co ht 
o d da s io nu 
Pp 
a) 
ot 
K]O @ 
AM alo Ud at tot stfu Ow oi> gia uu jw ure Md Alo mt o> ao qm 
arya day Ala Pf °o Ala Addy 
oy ea d ~ 
b 2 a od b| © >) o 
3 E aa FA s]t be 3 s dq a 
=a 3 “AO Wy] A = 3 3 
maria Bydooln Blan old iB |OmerS |e g(t Uz|u ele mr {oO Blt aolo Bln dala 3B} © o]o 
dq Adal dials daa| 6 ° a 4 dale “Na dolls 
a 
P 
BA 
co Afro AM Ola Qh +} om Ala ‘jo o] [howe Oo A} tO alt oo t/q © 4 OI 
ddaujwo Aan Ae Ada} QU 2 ]00 “A ddalm jou tel be) Catinat] [red a a 
° 
o 
ra tO }~o om olo th cy st]ro he Oe] & cg) Jaenia oo +|o dt old onda onM old 
cu 6 au foo QM Aloo aa do ddA Alwo 3 eo la cy 0 wo] tld ma culo Anao 
d a dq 
OW ala Oh alo om bo x tO} et ost olo hh ro ]ro oo olo tt O]H @ dala 
Coptrale) ies Simro) bers ape [ize Htion ico ° Sieur [tae ean |e i ° a iescwis | pe sisaee 
ho Ht w}io ta mlo ro MO nr © cy]co fa two st]< KO Ht <Hio Ho t]ro Peel Coal anaao 
q q q a dq 4 dq d 
M 
Odd lomo} tel odd Oda 3 s lomo) fal Oda lomo} ta Odd OdlA 
lo Mg om) ou Ms outs o 8} jouM a lous ON Mg ound oul 
aot if. dot tlp aot ile aot ide =|s gs} Jar tle aot ile aot ile aot tle ati 
lado tad lo taco ' ado Z)AwW o taalo teat afo Va ajo Valo ta ilo 
ddale daale Adve AaAale Sila o ml ladaale aaale Aaale AAale adage 
+ 
fo} 
a 
< 
S14 2 on 
nm |< qo fA sifomay a la ala Cl tol A 
aes [pes : . Ba beret . : : : re 
° 4 ad ° % ra 
ci 3 
alt so) 
Blo o o 
aja MC foo A aura rome) a ja 1m d\+ dd ala md oly 3 
. coe ef ers ed ee : “ +| ° . 
° s ° qd ° 
Pp 
Bo} ea 
wo} t ) 
LJ o o 
(oC ed (2) at alo bh 62 ro]to ww HI) gia ual dd wlo UD old at o]o 5 
d d dq 3 ° ja Ala a 
& da Pe 
~ at o >| a & 
ta) 2 >| o st i >] s a FA © 
oS g ‘| a) “AO Ww] Q] 3 3 3 c=) 
Alt ose Bio wim Baral ajo Byxt i co [t= a2 s|[u de Siu rja Bite Ryo win 3/0 © elo 
Ajo Ala ddAyme @f a iw i) ° q a ia ala qa alt £ 
Be} 
ot un 
JP]a@ o 
Om Of hb © MI Aono sted 4]oo ‘dio Oo] Janne hu w}wo cut wlou co 82 ule lam olo 3 
dq Cyst AA. I Cu (vai) [ad od ° au a Ae ddl ddd Anant BA 
3) 
o 
ly et dt dlo KO cy coco Ot a] & +] [Om alr oarlau danlo DD A|m tr wo] 3 
angie cis) ihe ees hs aoe: lela aoe a ties £3 trae) i ah aves Brat hel hi cimken ee ike seksi be o 
uN mw AN wulo cu cy cu] Ee] jad alo cu 4 cul cu cu cufeo aaae ua Alo a 
5 
WO O|D orn ola oa o}o co cu | mm to Ia AO) KU DH] 9m Oho c©on|o 
sieceian |e. stay ees |e wieteiire ire Erased bee ° * pene) bat selene Senco |e cas 3 oH 
19 oO +h tet ola tH tt} tr ola ort KO «oO wlco ot tho ww Hho mt M]o o 
a d dq dq iat) a a qd a ° 
<x 3 
Oo Ald O|A a On|Aq = cot 9 Old Odd ome} tal Od|q Ood|A ro 
lo MMI a oasis oa als lo UM] g <|o 2] |oVlg Io NMG ou] loa mld ound a 
aot ile aot tl, eee it il 8s ss] Jatt rot ie at ile at ile aot il, 
td alo tao ta alo 'aalo <l-A HO taealo Yaalo taajo tao 1 alo 
Ia TE AAale dadale aid cules ele oS] Ja aale aAae aaale adaale aaale 


1.0 
8.2 
-6 


Temperature, degrees F. 


30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 


6.3 
8.7 
6.3 


2 
1800 11.2 
2100 
0300 14.4 
0900 


1500 13.1 
Av. 


BE 
0300 


Ti 
of 


da: 


Per month in each temperature clas: 


= 


re, degrees F. 


SS SSS SS 


(av. 1950-58) 
0.8 
Mey 


Temperatu 


6.6 


ert! 


ime 
of 
day 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 
0900 


B9 


Table 23.--Air temperature by hour of dey, and number of 
0.2 


April 
eee 
3.6 

Me: 


Temperature, degrees F. 1/ 
0.7 


SEE eee 


15.9 
16.8 


30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80 
aly et 
9.0 


ANCHORAGE 
Time 

of 

da: 

0300 

1200 10.8 
1500 

0900 


Av. 


——s te +g) 0 wom me 


oo bol DA) 19/9 feu tal =a Aft hero wo © 19 9) 
el eta tet 3 ° cal vie) fal a 
Aonm Ia ADAMO oho betOrd Aon fo 2 mow aio Ot et wl 12 M19 Ax ANNO rife 
) © © ei} me oo ato tet Ho Ore Taq wo mq alo UE om als 
0 |= 
© 
SU) Cec sired | st 1 CY 69 tA} Mh VO 1 O10 AOrRO oO flo Cal NFA Of Om oh «© th [st MUCH AIP noo0°0 19] 
{10 4 Bao Qola Hata QV O]o Ww Oro alo ® | ° Nom sat AMD et tet 4ouo ra) o 
balls Sete hilt | Aad 019 ade etic ince) ed ei ‘ 
» - rod 
wu det u 
10M OO FRR tat 10 Ob Ht ]19 SU h a tle Bala non a joes tjo gia. 910 OAH lr MID st] att 
et O M}o0 jqant er slo $000 Ole slam 9 vi] PL? I Al oaa HOOO Ala lo wwf ceo Oban wl slowar rt 
icles S]rt my Alet let ria Aetetet le @ |p | ey Va]rt la ale yet 
8, 8 rH Ee a Ed 
© 0 0 &]o am oO oO Ohh tet OD at st COD NOt OO MI aig rit rial tole Cu Dt ot Poi jm 4 ch eyo IU ia IL) bo stot & 19 of CO 
apctoaahaze| fie vakelureineiienae [ire sfelrei sien venue |e Mungo bre eu | te toe ee UW ole epcintevedieie/i Ul beta | a one ew eu le ve ee ele oe 8 6 Helos 
Or Ko 12 et et tO] st Sma ci{ro wana ait ei] oNuM rm woul Moo 0 Wb] ou wet] 10 det rit til waist 
A tells et cl Gal et g | ‘d a d i: ta | 
8 8 8 8 8 
1m UO +10 OA eet Al fo in et ON wo re Dl [a arr + ait rit DOH cule Ke P Alto i il bl & 
1 ot o]wo ia) [e) fal fo) 3 aoan orl YO) 1S) 60 110 et a mo (te) G 
4 
e2e00000 lIoe290000 eo00000 © e900000 e9090000 e0000 ooo ° jOn000 
SS90000}, essesessc. Bgeeso|; . br 1250990). g8eeecs SB88esea|. 858850). Saaeae . 
BH qe @ ils pep reais achat aA Ua Core te ft wg SoM ea ct ie pda Ed oe Pept CNH) Pa] CP | Ss RNC (Ma oO oe 
OOM et et lat COtn ANS COA AANIS file O COA nt ANS OO ret A Mat OOded ri ula COA nANI a OOn Aes Ml 
itr raat [et o ret AO OM Kil rt tt eA] +a wo [st 
3 tat ° Ama rt mo ‘le ci 
[=] 
(3) 
Ob tt M]J/t tm MO bc hah it oO AO MO MY UI ONO Ofet tO oO HO oNraD |o 
vad tet unr te fal Po Onde 490 @ 9/0 ort Oo at oe 
— 
vw |R 
oO 
nna In tt 1c loo Or ow {co 00M Olt at UOr@ fio 4m @ O}st aA O10 colo OHA H lo tm 01010 st | 
Aaa MOM @ Who OnOOt|> r4 1 2 © |x a liit Ore” WON |o ee Ws ae ce AO rt 4 Olr at Vt lo 
Ad 3 (9 Ale Ad dtet elle Arla a ele ata A 
u > q a rj 
) 
ONUMM WORNMM est PIM OM Fo H/o Or Ho © ola B Jo |i] 2 to Ofte PVOERHKOAIY ar ONnUHaD HOM DO r1o OO UO A MIO — 
Heads Slwqww0w Woawardtals slonsonale BUBB stats ales BIN OY of st rt 8]i6 od Hs Filo BQ AMM WAI Bley iw om of rly 
eet ey acted Acad alet aetna aa vo g |o|s Aaa eaet Blt taal Sia alt et ae 
wo 
o 
© MQ xt co} VOM h a lo AVM Of wOl> PHONO rly Bla} jroo oolo 19H Ot &1O O19 1 GIO lO HK I9 alo Mm OM tO Mla 
rf OY 19 olay 1 19 th st 10 colm M10 rt et to] att 10 dA wy who aM or Aad to 000M 10 MIO at ilo or faa 1 diols 
eet et eifet ae foal tl Q adet a fal et a ‘ 
rt to atrt Ome wolH io) let al |jnocooo0l|n onmonrlo 7) i) qt rit rifst 
Ot 0 A) ie) E Fa BRC SCO} Beh Ol 13 Eat rit ro} rt [av] 
ooo line0000 loeg000 la00000 2020000 o00000 2900000 
838838}. Sesaqe. S88saa|. SS0006 Ale hl |[2@S0G050].- Se0oG0|. A2S90000|. SOSOG00|. SOSSG05)}. 
10.0 oP RAaAKDSaDS SSR RC UGS CONT The pebeditey Pabst tte Gh Q4 eaters a ea | [et pees Mie iad Ue pel ets A Pa Ih SERRE ICA LO aT ES ECR RO Fc er 
eto lad Sodan ala OOM ete Ula OOrlre wld mo eal loodrn ala 9OntA AM OOrdet et lat OOdet ead let OOnAA Me 
AN et al or et 4 aa st o Hoot cl ow | 
° al med NMA IA tal 
oO 
a Pato ola AMO UO rao o fo Alka a UNDO |at tora ola At 19 9 w]o oavoh aly 
° Aor dea aot lu waar Fait ° 1 10 rt] OO oO tho ath ost [to 
a | 
r 
tO > rio I tO 19 Oho lO WORE tle sig anor jt Caan elo KU Ow CY let tt ay io wo]to tO © ef Ola 
ce el “Gago we Aqrowaly o|t ° aorw |e 9 110 O10 aot 10 19 Oly {AMO HOMm|H 
ov ~ a ldbed ll ettesttret S| 712 | ea a a aetet et etl Arta ed 
5 ” 
4 a 
tio oaln ooaanoa|n Poor oaan|on B Jos ia ADAH  JOodOr ay BUNaed arly Pra Q or a wrt Or OOM ri\st 
ao 10 Hloawaqwohs Baragcdn|d SIRE dana |i BRHwowsrle Shooraawls Blacovno lo BC 19  O xK wolay 
eget A RA AN 6 et Ae £ISi< Al dete a Blaed let las al taal lett rt tet 
Qt xt tlt ro xt st O & Oly it Ca (se) wot A AH O|D BIS) |waoun alo mo wom oh] eK Or CO xt PO] r4 OMG HH I/D ta © ofo 
ow the OM a et et wpe | ad taal Cs) et byt PALCouraegiscni cults Cy iO 1a 1S tM mt sit} ly led ate Ww 
aA A Met et g te a let cl 
1 o]co © et bl rtlet 2 Ql [a ot a © alo Uc 19 HOY a) fa (ry QI et] 
eile i E ' ONO Det HO 1 et ty tlt i) 
id 8 a rele qt 
a 
® e00000 loe90000 ee20000 loeea000 eo0000 
838838]. B8e8aK8a|. S88sass. S8s8ssi. oa, mw IGOSGRG0 Se2e0000|. SOSG0G00|. O2S0G00|; Soq0q00|. 
10 edt] baad 10 0 et] > RES C9 09 tee It tA M10 0 ri > Wid 3 9 BAYH o> Peds ic ae ba Ds Cai CYA CO ret 2 DQ 1) tle Poesia ea 
ait Nat Sonn aA ala SOntnANa OOAdM eA Mla 4 oO OOM eet Ula 9OntAAMIS OOnA et wl OOtAA Mla GOnAA Ml 


Table 23.--Air temperature by hour of day, and number of days per month in each temperature class--Continued 
(Av. 1950-58) 


GALENA GULKANA HOMER 
ae Temperature, degrees F. eae Temperature, degrees F. eee Temperature, degrees F. 
day 50-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 day 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 ‘80-89 day 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 
April April April 
0300 «6.1 2 0300 5.6 0300 16.2 12 
0900 9:50. 2.4 0900 16.0 6.0 0-4 0900 17.6 10.3 0.1 
1200 9.9 6.6 0.9 1200 11.7 13.8 9) 0.3 1200 12.0 16.7 one 
1500 10.6 7.6 Le O-c 1500 11.1 13.9 2.3 ak 1500 11.6 16.6 1.1 
1800 11.2 6.4 0) ae 1800 16.1 8.2 Bley) aah 1800 17.3 10.8 ne 
2100 (10.3 oma 3 2100 _ 14.2 a0, 2100 21.1 2.8 
Av. 925) 4.3 6 al. Av. 12.4 2 1.0 72 Av. 15.9 9.7 4 
Ma. May May 
0300 14.0 ote 1.0 0300 21.3 4.0 0300 18.4 CIBC) 
: 0900 3.8 13.4 10.3 a2 0900. 1.9) 16:1 12.0 1.0 6900) ase [25.7 4.1 
1200. 2:37 7.8 14.2 5.0 0.2 1200 7) “O20 1459 5.0 0.4 1200 6 (22.8 Hirt) o.2 
1500 2.3 T.8 12.4 1.6 =f 1500 +7 11.0 14.0 4.7 6 0.1 1500 9 23.2 6.8 el 
1800 2.8 T.9 beets B 7.0 4 1800 1.4 T659 9.8 2.6 2 1 1800 eal 26.1 2.8 
2100) 3.7. 1274 11.0 2.2 2100 10.3 16.9 2a) i) 2100 9.2 21.3 3 
Av. 439910209 1022 3.8 2. Av. 6209 1255 8.9 23S: 2 Av. 5.4 21.4 3.6 sli 
June June June 
0300 To leS6e 15.6 ae) 0300 6.9 19.1 4.0 0300 6.4 20.9 2.6 eal 
0900 zal S22 15.55 (1021 pbeat 0900 258) 1Se7. 12.1 sheet 0900 10.3 17.4 eet 0.2 
1200 1.0 CRS 13.2 ew 0.4 1200 1.3 8.8 1232. Tels 76 1200 6.4 21.0 se 4 
1500 3 TO 13.1 8-2 1.4 1500 1.3 ese] abbey) ere 1.4 1500 6.4 20.7 2.6 3 
1800 +7 Oe 13.0 yenal abee 1800 2.7 10.7 2 4.4 1.0 1800 10.0 alate 2.1 
2100 1.4 12.6 13.3 2.6 -1 2100 9.8 14.8 4.6 -8 2100 220 119532 =) 10.0" 4 
Av. 22 3.2 11.4 10.6 eat 5 Av. 122 6.2 10.0 8.5 3.6 5 Av ed 12.2 14.9 1.6 32 
July July July 
0300 6.4 22.5 2a 0300 2.0 19.2 9.8 0300 26 ele 7.3 
0900 1.0 14.0 pike ee 2.9 0900 253 10.2 U5eT 2.8 0900 9 24.0 te) Af 
1200 =2: 8.8 13.0 7.8 1.2 1200 ml 5.8 14.1 8.4 2.0 1200 EEO Crake) 8.4 ac 
1500 =e 6.2 13.0 9:0 2.6 1500 -6 6.0 12.4 8.4 3.6 1500 Bie 20.5 9.4 «4 
1800 fy 7.0 13.0 8.6 ene 1800 ee twill 13.8 6.0 2.3 1800 lal 23.2 6.7 
2100 -6 13.1 13.4 3.9 2100 4.1 18.4 29) -6 2100 7.8 22.8 4 
| Av. TFA VALO SLs 5.4 1.0 Av. aS. 4.7 9.6 10.7 4.4 13 ae AN 4 5.3 20.0 Sidi “2 
August August August 
0300 1.4 11.0 18.1 75 0300 4.7 20.1 5.3 0300 2.1 16.1 12.2 76 
0900 5.0 20.6 5.4 0900 mae cae 17.8 87.9 el 0900 -8 24.5 Diet 
1200 2.2 16.2 1152 1.4 1200 Led Love 14.1 5.6 1200 Be 21.5 952 Sak 
1500 1.4 13.2 13.9 2.4 ok 1500 12 8.8 13.8 6.2 220 1500 ELH fi 8.2 1 
1800 No) V5oe 9 114 2.4 1800 3.0 14.3 9.4 3.9 4 1800 -2 26.8 4,0 
2100 al 3.4 21.9 5.5 eal 2100 cf 11.0 16.4 2.9 2100 BC} 9.4 21.0 4 
Av. 2 4.2 17.6 8.0 1.0 Av. ee) 6.8 eee 8.2 2.56 2 Av. 4 4.4 215 4.7 
ILITAMNA KOTZEBUE LAKE MINCHUMINA 
Time Time Time 
of Temperature, degrees F. of Temperature, degrees F. of Temperature, degrees F. 
day 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-29 70-79 80-89 day 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 day 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 
April April . April 
0300 14.6 0300 2.8 0300 6.9 '0.6 
0900 16.9 5.0 (ojeae 0900 «44.4 0900 11.8 3.8 0.8 
1200 14.6 10.2 Buf 1200 (Jen 0.1 1200 11.4 9.4 V2 0.3 
1500 15.6 9.6 oT 1500 jar al 1500 10.3 10.4 2.2 4 
1800 18.4 56. mae 1800 6.9 1800 12.1 8.0 1.5 3 
2100 18.3 4 2100 4.3 2100 13.8 2.9 of 
Av. 16.4 iak 3 Av. 579) Av. 11.0: 5.8 lee 22 
May May May 
0300 23.0 5.6 0300 16.6 1.4 0300 14.4 nny} 2.0, 
0900 Meyh) 19.3 Gat O-L 0900 16.0 5.9 Wad: 0-1 0900 3.4 16.9 10.8 2.0 
1200 4.0 17.1 9.4 4 1200 15.1 8.4 1.0 +3 1200 «2.0 8.8 14.2 5.4 0.3 
1500 Say, 16.9 9.3 alexa} 1500 15.8 9.0 ihe 1 1500 1.8 7.8 14.7 6.0 ot 
1800 6.6 19.3 4.8 3 1800 16.9 Ted: “6 1 1800 216: 10.1 13.8 4.0 4 
CLOOLE LT 1258 eile 2100 (17.7 3.4 =e 2100 4.2 15.8 8.9 aE) ol 
Avewa LO. Ano .2 4.6 73 Av. 16.4 5.9 af ee Av Cs as bs BP a Wo) 3.0 22 
June June June 
0300 4.2 23.5 2.0 13 0300 11.7 13.2 4,2 ae 0300 1.3 14.1 13.0 6 
: 0900 °o 21.9 14.6 2.8 0.4 0900 9.3 12.6 6.3 are 0.4 0900 2.6 13.4 11.3 Hb 
1200 7.4 16.2 5.1 270 0.3 1200 7.1 12.8 8.0 1.8 +3 1200 1.2 G2) LS 6.6 0.3 
1500 7.1 13.8 6.8 2.0 -3 1500 5.3 12.3 10.0 Yap 3 1500 1.0 6.7 15.1 1.0 2 
1800 1 Syn Sek) 5.1 1.6 2° 1800. 6.7 11.5 oot, Penk 1800 a9) 9°89 «2825 bint ne 
2100 wo LTS 99. D7 73 2100! 8.7). V7. 8.3 1.3 2100 3.9 16.0 8.7 hea 
Av. SB MgLAS9" 116 3.6 9 12 AV. 8.1 12.3 18 1.4 2 Av. 72 4.0 11.2 10.6 3.9 a 
July July July 
0300 18.3 Ab 0300 1.0 12.0 16.7 USS 0300 ak 8.2 20.5 252 
0900 251 20.6 7.4 3 0900 -3 10.6 14.9 4.6 ak} 0900 8 1229 12:39 4.3 el 
1200 Let 15-5 nb hy) 2.8 1200 6.4 16.6 tod -8 0.1 1200 6 8.3 13,1 Tad 1.9 
1500 1S. 14.5 11.0 3.9 -3 1500 5.6 15.3 8.4 eet! 1500 3 6.3 13.0 8.4 3.0 
1800 nis) nly et) 8.2 3.3 1800 an Gre. 15.5 8.3 oS} 1800 3 8.4 1257 Tid 1.8 
2100 6.0 21.1 3.9 2100 2 7.9 17.8 5.0 al 2100 Dee LOB Le ick 
Av. 5.3 alr é-Le) Geo) nay A -l Av. ee) (Jha) 16.1 5.8 ae Av. ARE) 1270 10.8 5.1 Lez 
August August August 
0300 .6 1250 18.3 0300 BlEAE 15.6 13.6 eae 0300 1.3 13.6 15.4 at 
0900 Pe eee 5.0 ail 0900 oe 928° 18.2 2.8 0900 4.4 18.2 8.0 4 
1200 6 18.4 11.0 7.0; 1200 8.2 18.7 3.8 3 1200 ae. 13.3 aebarh 3.4 
1500 A nly (yd 11.6 Lat -1 1500 6.6 19.4 4.6 4 1500 13 11.5 13.3 4.6 +3 
1800 a 219 Tae 8 1800 ae 7.3 20.0 3.4 2 1800 258 16.1 10.3 Bint pak 
2100 ol 5.6 24.0 1.3 2100 4 ps ALS} 18.0 8 2100 2 6.6 18.0 6.2 
Av. a of +) 20.6 6.0 6 Av 4 9.9 18.0 2.6 1 Av. 3 5.0 15.4 8.4 1.8 oe 


115 


Table 25.--Air temperature by hour of day, and number of deys per month in each temperature cless--Continued 
(Av._1950-58) 


McGRATH 
Time 
of Tempsrature, degrees F. Tempsreturs, degress F. Temperature, degrees F. 
dey 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 dey 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 60-89 "950-59 60-69 70-79 0-89 
April April April 
0300 0.4 rin ee) 0-2 ONT: a 
0300 4.8 0.3 13.9 Ce 0.1 14.8 9 0.7 
1200 11.0 9 0.1 11.6 11.2 2.0 11.8 < 1.6 0.6 
1500 13.1 -6 -6 11.0 12.0 2n5, 0.2 12.0 -4 2.0 4 
1600 10.3 6 3 13.0 10.6 oe) 14.2 8 oi) oe) 
2100 2.7 2 16.3 3.0 ait 20.0 «4 .2 
7.0 aul He 12.9 7.5 a9 10.9 -0 ee) 22 
Mey Mey 
9 8 -0 500 17.2 6.6 
° at 8 8) 5.0 0200 2.9 tel 9 1 
oa 5 0.3 4 7 12.8 aheid 1200 1.3 8.4 ak 5 
9 9, -6 2 ff 11.9 ene 1500 ulext 8.2 1 5 
2 6.1 -3 .4 ti 9.0 -2 1800 2.8 11.2 9 o 
2 LB -6 9 9 1.0 2100 Wet 16.5 6 
74 10.4 3.7 22 -4 7 6.6 Bt/ Av. 5.8 10-5 3 a) 
June June June 
Si 16.4 959. -6 0300 Cr 3.0 cit 0300 1.8 17.8 10.1 3 
3.2 14.1 11.4 1.3 0900 -6 2525 2.4 0-5 0900 me 2.35 10.9 14.3 ere 0.1 
ae: 10.1 a259 5.5 0.6 1200 15.3 tine 1.6 0.2 1200 1.8 6.9 13.5 tee -6 
ot SA oes 7.4 1.2 1500 14.5 9.1 sil -6 1500 6 eOr S29 6.9 -6 
2 9.4 12.5 5.9 1.0 1800 15.35 6.2 1.3 35 2800 9 10.6 12.6 4.6 -3 
i 15.2 10.3 i 2100 1.0 13.3 1.3 -5 100 oil 8 17.6 6.5 we 
-5 4.3 3 9.9 3.5 5 7 ee 12.8 4.4 a) o2, 3 2) 10.5 10.2 3.5 -3 
Jul July guly 
0300 6 10.8 18. Eo 0300 as ig. 11.6 aE 4 16.3 
0900 4.2 19 1 os00 3.2 21.8 Beg i) 10.2 
1200 -5 8.35 4 6 i) 1200 1.0 14.0 13.1 CIB xe 5.8 
1500 7.8 3 8.1 2.8 1500 -8 12.3 12.6 4.1 ae 5.3 
1800 3 8.3 5 6.6 2.35 1800 1.4 15.8 10.4 3.3 al 9.0 
2100 1.2 15.8 at 2.4 She 21 4.2 18.8 
1 2.8 13.0 -8 4.2 ata 5.2 16.1 Ted aT -3 oul 10.9 
Au August ee ey ee Es ee es 
0300 oUF Bef 14, -6 0300 -3 12.3 17.7 at 0300 5.1 8.1 x Sal 
os00 -0 20. 5.8 0300 1.9 23.8 3.2 = 0900 Je 5.1 a 8.8 as 
1200 -2 15. 11.2 2.7 1200 ve 17.0 11.7 alary 1200 2.4 6 14.9 a5 
1500 10) 12 13.3 ergal 2 1500 4 14.8 Te) 2.8 1 1500 1.8 1 12.4 6 2 
1800 =) 15.0 BET, 2.3 L 1800 6 19.8 9.4 ee 1800 Ace -3 10.0 Shy aa} 
2100 oe = 20.6 4.0 2100 det 23.2 eit 2100 peel 12.4 6 2.9 
Av. 5 -8 16.3 7.8 1.5 i Av. aL 3.4 19.5 7.1 = Av. asa fale 1 8.2 2.8 oul 
smact TANANA UNALAKLEET 
Tine Time 2 Time 7 
of Temperature, degrees F. of Temperatures, degrees F. of Tempsreture, degrees F. 
dey 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 day 30-39 40-49° 50-59 60-69 70-79 60-89 
April April 
0.1 030 4.2 0-6 0500 «7.6 0-4 
1.6 0800 10.3 4.0 0.8 0900 11.2 2.3 
4.0 0.35 1200 10.4 7.6 2.0 0.3 1200 12.4 4.4 0.2 
4.4 -3 1500 9.6 8.8 CBU oil 1500 12.4 4.9 =e 
2.3 al 1800 12.2 5.7 1.4 2 1800 11.7 mae) 
a) 2100 10.4 2.0 ‘3 2100 10.3 -6 
rel eat AV. 9:5 4.8 aley-3 Ee Av. 10.9 2.6 eal 
= 
Mey Mey May y 
-0 :) 0300 14.8 9.9 +5 0300 16.9 7.6 za 
-2 1259 3.4 0.1 03900 4.1 10.1 TS) 2.8 0900 9.8 mS) 5.3 0.9 
O 14.9 at a, 2200 2.3 fall” S28: 7.4 0-8 1200 8.1 13.7 5.7 GE) 
6 13.7 7.4 Sth 0.1 1500 eal 6.2 1229 8.3 a. Onl: 1500 9.0 11.8 6.8 BICLe 0.2 
1800 10.0 14.2 5.2 a4 alt 1800 2.1 Hien 13.3 6.3 8 1800 10.1 11.0 7.0 9 
2100 17.7 8.9 2100 6.3 13.1 8.9 el 2100 14.2 10.7 2.6 
Av. 13.2 10.9 3.6 3 Av. 5.3 9.0 10.2 4.3 4 Av. 11.4 11.3 4.6 &) 
June June June 
0300 10.0 18.35 1.7 0300 3.1 14.5 11.2 aed mall! 0300 4.9 18.0 7.0 ape 
rey ashi eaulys 4.6 .3 0900 Usa 1222. 13:0 3.4 0900 1.6 8.8 15.6 3.6 x) 0.2 
oil 4 12.2 Tet, ait 1200 otf 7.0 1229 8.6 =8) 3200) qake 6.9 15.6 4.4 8 on! ' 
+4 6.3 12.3 8.3 2.7 1500 as) 4.8 13.4 9.2 225, Y1500) #2 6.9 15.6 5.0 1.2 oul : 
at 9.0 11.8 Ligh 1.4 1800 wt 6.4 14.8 re! 1.0 1800 1.8 7.2 16.3 3.6 1.0 1 
O29 SEB ELOSS: 2.3 ol 2100 5.0 14.4 10.8 1.8 2100 2.2 10.5 16.0 1.4 ou 
2.6 ase Ost 5.0 real Av. a) 3.5 9.3°" 12:0= 5.0 ale egw 2.2 9.7 14.4 3.0 -6 aul 
¥ July July 4 
0300 2.0 22.7 aS 0300 1.7 12.9 15.1 1.3 0300 if) 10°65) 1859 -8 
0900 9.2 -5 6.3 3 0900 Of On et As9 4.3 -1 0900 2.2 18.3 D5 x) g 
1200 4.6 5 8.8 3.1 1200 4 5.9 13.1 9.8 1.8 1200 1.2 17.6 10.4 1.8 
1500 3.6 1 10.2 4.1 0.1 1500 pel 5.0 135.1 10.0 2.8 1500 WO) AG7 Aen 1.2 , 
1800 5.1 8 7.8 3.3 1800 -3 5.8 13.9 9.0 2.0 1800 1.5 19.6 9.1 1.0 
2100 1 PAT: 1 4.1 2100 ghee sees G7/ 2.3 2100 2.8 23.5 4.7 
Av. 3 9.5 2 6.2 1.8 Av. a) 2.6 9.4 11.7 5.9 atcal Av. ote 3.2 19.3 7.6 8 
Augus® August August } 
0300 5.7 21.7 3.6 0300 3.9 14.9 10.8 arf 0300 1.3 13.1 16.3 -3 
0300 wt DANG e Set 0300 +2 5.0 16.2 9.6 0300 4.0 23.9 3.0 ol 
1200 +4 7.3 16.9 ~9 1200 ol 1.6 12.3 13.3 3.7 2200 2.3 21.3 6.8 -6 
1500 eS 6.9 16.8 1.6 1500 1.5 21.2 15.0 5.2 -5 1500 21 2182 7.0 -6 ot 
1800 .6 9.8 15.8 34 1800 2.4 13.9 12.0 Sit 1800 2.8 23.1 4.7 4 
2100F 125. 2 18t3_ 028 2100 1.1 Cae! 4.3 2100 -6 Meommeond 1.1 
Av a EE eee bee Ee Pe) -5 Av. 9 5.6 13.6 8.8 259) -1 AV. -3 5.3 21.3 3.8 5 


1/ Tempereture frequencies below 30° F. were not compiled. All stations in April and Mey, and Kotzebue in June had temperatures 
below 30° F. 


Source: United States Weather Bureau coded date. 


116 


Table 24.--Normal relative humidity according to time of day 


Percent relative humidity 
Station April May June July August 
0200 0800 1400 2000 0200 0800 1400 2000 0200 0800 1400 2000 0200 0800 1400 2000 0200 0800 1400 2000 


Galena 70 72 62 68 tae 65 51 58 76 64 49 54 82 73 59 64 85 82 65 75 


Northway 78 62 49 68 81 55 43 61 83 60 48 61 87 67 50 66 89 71 52 75 
McGrath 77 70 55 66 82 66 49 60 84 67 50 59 88 75 57 66 92 86 66 as) 
Fairbanks 74 63 47 61 tT 57 42 55 82 62 45 57 88 70 52 66 91 78 57 Giri 
Anchorage 75 67 53 67 77 64 50 63 75 68 57 65 85 74 62 72 86 78 65 he 
Naknek 1/ 86 80 64 78 86 73 58 75 88 78 59 T2 on 82 60 75 92 86 64 81 
Bethel 87 84 74 83 89 r9 64 74 90 80 64 70 93 87 69 Tele 96 93 aA 87 


SSS eee 


1/ 3 years of data only 


Source: United States Weather Bureau. Local climatological data, Alaska, 1958. 


117 


Table 25.--Relative humidity percent by hour of dey, and number of days in each temperature cless 


(av. 1950-58) 


ANCHORAGS BETHEL BETTLES 
a Relative humidity percent are Relative humidity percent pana Relative humidity percent 
day 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50 day 10-19 20-29 3-39 40-49 50/ day 10-19 20-29 3-39 40-49 50 
April April April 
0300 O22 1.3 28.6 0300 30.0 0300 0-2 0.2 29.7 
0900 +2 1.2 5.0 23.7 0900 tats EE) 03900 od, 2-9 eI.O, 
1200 +2 3.2 9.3 17.3 1200 0.2 ee) 12857, 2200 A) 4.2 24.9 
1500 6 4.3 320) 26-0 1500 eek ae oereuert) 1500 -7 4.8 24.5 
1800 ae 2.2 6.1 21.5 1800 sO ore 1800 =a 3.4 26.5 
2100 0.1 of 1.8 27.4 2100 30.0 2100 el =6 29.3 
Av. 2 19 5.4, 22.5 Av. -6 29.4 Av. -3 eatneod 0) 
May May May 
0300 Et ip He 0300 31.0 0300 0.2 -5 30.7 
0900 2 1.6 6.3 22.9 0900 onl -7 3.2 0900 6 5.2) 125.2 
1200 6 4.7 11.6 214.1 31200 0.2 8 4.4 25.6 1200 2 3.4 6.8 20.6 
1500 va 6.7 10.2 23.0 2500 x) 1.8 4.8 24.1 2500 8 3.6 7.4 19.2 
1800 sth 2.6 8.3 19.4 1600 0.2 el 8 3.4 26.6 1600 -7 3.4 6.9 20.0 
2100 eek -6 2.9) eTes 2100 1 oul <7 30.2 2100 Pt) 3.9 26.2 
Av. 4 By Simoes Av. on 26 2.3 28.0 Av. a) 2.0 5.20 23.6 
June June June 
0300 3 2ou7 0300 eee 29.9 0500 4 29.6 
0900 3 2.6) Tet 0900 -6 29.4 0900 ot a Dede eesS 
1200 ot 2E 5.6: 22-9 1200 1.3 2.4 26.3 1200 x 5.1 8.2 16.6 
1500 -6 1.6 8.4 19.4 1500 4 1.6 4.4 23.6 1500 1.8 6.2 6.4 15.6 
1800 1.6 6.4 22.0 2800 .2 8 4.1 24.9 1800 2.2 4.7 5.60" 27-5 
2100 -3 2.4 28.3 2100 -6 29,4 2100 .3 2.8 2.8 25.12 
Av. = 8 4.1 24.9 Av. aa -6 AS eae 3 Av. 8 3.3 Ey SS 
July July July 
0300 31.0 0300 31.0 03500 wt 30.9 
0900 diet 1 seoss 0900 ea. S059. 0900 T.8) 29.2 
1200 4 4.6 26.0 1200 oa 2.3 28.6 1200 2.8 6.9 21.2 
1500 ae +x) 5.3 24.6 1500 8 3.6 26.6 1500 4.6 6.3 19.0 
1800 8 4.2" 2652) 1800 8 2.8 27.4 1800 3.9 6.0 20.2 
2100 -6 30 2100 2. 30.9 2100 7 2.3 29.0 
Av. Ce leS AV. -3 nSS ier ooc) Av. 2.0 3.7 «24.9 
August August 
0300 5 Re) 0300 31.0 
0900 8 30.2 0900 31.0 0900 ot 30.9 
2200 4 ART te AS!) 2200 -2 30.8 2200 -5 2.0 28.7 
1500 cel ot 4.0 26.2 1500 mae -6 30.3 1500 -6 4.0 26.4 
1800 <2 2.6 28.2 1800 ort -7 30.2 1800 -8 TI) eS) 
2100 3 30.7 2100 31.0 2100 31.0 
Av. =o ce) Av. SS ErCOlT, Av. .3 aeeimegeo 
EIG DELTA FATREANKS Fr. YUXON 
Be Reletive humidity percent Bre Relative humidity rat Relative humidity percent 
day 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50/ day 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50 day 10-19 20-29 40-49 507 
April April 
0300 O21 0.9 29.0 0300 0.2 O=tipaekee 0500- 0.4 28.5 
0900 0.2 2.0 Tet, 20: 0900 0.2 2.4 6.23 eine 0900 4.35 25.6 
1200 O21 1.6 4.1 8.7 15.5 1200 i.e 4.3 9.7 14.8 1200 627, 2259. 
1500 1.6 4.9 8.7 14.8 1500 2.3 6.1 8.8 12.8 1500 6.9 20.2 
1800 ae 2.8 5.9) 2723) 1600 of 4.3 8.9 16.1 1800 
2100 -4 Dede Oe) 2100 4 3.2 26.3 2100 2.0 26.6 
Av. 6 2.4 5.8 2is2 Av. aie 2.9 6.5 20.1 Av. 4.1 24.6 
Mey Mey Mey 
0500 ERE 8 Azo, 28.2 0300 1.0 30.0 0300 ad. oz 1.4 29.4 
0900 1.4 Gon 8.7 13.2 0900 6 7.0 8.7 14.6 0s00 -3 2.2 7.9 20.6 
1200 ant 3.9 929 320) 8.1 1200 0.3 5.0 8.4 8.4 8.8 1200 6 5.2 10.6 14.7 
1500 cae 4.2 10.9 hoe 8.6 1500 -4 6.35 10.3 7.3 6.6 1500 2-3 6.8 10.2 12-8 
1600 2.3 8.5 6.9 13.3 1600 ii 3.7 8.8 9.4 6.4 1800 Data missin; 
2100 1.8 fe6i. 321.6 2100 -6 2.0 5.7 25.8 2100 -2 714) 5.8 
Av. 2.0 6.4 7.1L 15.5 AV. aa 2a 529 6.8 15.4 Av. -5 3.2 7.2 
June June 7 June 
0300 at -3 aL Byers 0300 -5 =9pi28.8 0300 axl z 24.9 
0900 BE) 4.3 Ted SUTST os00 od: -6 3.7 7.2 18.5 0900 Be! 3 17.6 
1200 el 2.7 6.8 8.9 25, 1200 sul 2.9. T.7 8.7 10.6 2200 < 6 13.2 
1500 ade 4.1 6.8 728) ade 1500 ef 4.4 7.9 8.1 8.9 1500 2.0 6 10.3 
1800 ae etl 5.8 7.6 14.1 1800 -4 3.0 2 729) 2455 2800 Data mis 
2100 “1 2.0 5.3 22.6 2100 Zit) 4.4 23.7 2100 a) 2 20.7 
Av. ed 1.7 4.3 6.4 17.5 Av. -2 1.8 4.8 6:2 720 Av. 4 4 17.3 
July July July 
0300 al 2 eer eosn 0300 31 0300 2) 1.30 29.5 
0900 ut 1.6 6.6 22.7 0900 ot 1.2 4.0 25 0900 @ 2.2 8.2 20.4 
1200 a6: 5.2 8.3 15.9 1200 UT 5.2 WO} faz, 2200 -6 3.3 22.0 15.1 
1500 oi 2.2 6.7 7.7 14.3 1500 .3 3.2 6.0 6.3 15 1500 Ey 4.9 10.7 14.7 
1800 ) 5.4 7.2 AGS 1800 2.2 Sse 7.0 16 2800 in, 

21200 =e 1.4 3.0 26.4 2100 -6 alte) 2200 2.2 By fa AY / 
Av. 8 S.4 Sotsepedied Av. ot ane, 3.0 4.2 22.5 Av. 2.5 7.6 20.5 
August Augus? Auguss 
5 et 1.4 29.5 0300 0500 2 «630.8 

of 4.4 25.9 0900 od a2 0300 otf 2.6) 27.7, 
-3 4.2 8.0 18.5 2200 6 Sa 6.7 1200 cal 9 8.7 21.3 
+4 5.3 iy Ak 8 2) 1500 a) 5.6 6.9 1500 = ris) 8.9 20.0 
a) 2.2 6.67 peis9 1800 1.4 6.2 1800 ta missing 
Ate 2.8 27.5 2100 2100 3 2.8\__ 28.9 
Av. 2 2.2 5.3 23.3 Av. a} 1.5 Av. 8 4.4 25.7 


118 


Table 25 ,--Relative humidity percent by hour of dey, and number of days in each temperature class-~-Continued 


(Av. 1950-58) 


GALENA GULKANA HOMER 
one Relative humidity percent pie Relative humidity percent eee Relative humidity percent 
day 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50/ day 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 507 day 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50 
April April April 
0300 30.0 0300 0.2 O.1 29.7 0300 0.2 0.4 29,4 
0900 Q-9) 8e9cL 0900 ol 3.9 2650 0900 0.1 +6 1.3 28.0 
1200 0.2 0.4 4.2 Cone 1200 0.1 2.6 9.4 17.9 1200 rr) 1.7 28.0 
1500 2 1.4 Aol | BEC 1500 6 3.2 10.0 16.2 1500 8 2.4 26.8 
1800 cee $.7 25.1 1800 2 Pt) 6.1 22.8 1800 oe aie) Lid 283 
2100 cist 6 29,3 2100 ol «3 290 2100 0.1 +8 29.1 
Av. ods a) a eta Av. 2 De 5.0 23.6 Av. 4 Ys WebNS 
Mey May Mey 
0300 1.0 30.0 0300 ile me 30.8 0300 ok 30.9 
0900 8 rapat 6.0 Cenk 0900 o.1l ott 19 9.0 19.3 0900 ol 6 30.3 
1200 0,1 ates) 6.7 Hed 15.3 1200 +2 2.6 7.0 TS. 13.3 1200 1.4 29.6 
1500 74 2.9 6.9 7.0 23.8: 1500 =< 3.8 8.0 Ti 1L.F 1500 el ol 1.0 29.8 
1800 3 2.6 5.6 Tee) 14.6 1800 se 1.4 4.9 7.38 Ue. 1800 6 30.4 
2100 4 3.3 6.2 21.2 2100 4 2.4 28.2 2100 al 30.9 
Av. ol 1.4 4.1 5.9 19.5 Av. aul 1.4 Sar, 5.7 20.4 Av. 6 30.4 
June June June 
0300 23 2907 0300 eae 29.9 0300 30.0 
0900 4 1.6 4.3 23.7 0900 2 2.6 8.3 18.9 0900 al 29.9 
1200 alt v8 4.2 9.1 14.8 1200 +2 3.4 7.4 8.7 10.3 1200 ol ot 29755) 
1500 4 Ce) 4.8 8.1 13.8 1500 ah 4.8 8.2 6.6 955 1500 el ol ad eA) 
1800 2 ad. 4.9 6.8 15.2 1800 +3 3.2 5.4 8.4 abe sy f 1800 -4 29.6 
2100 ata l oe Sate 22.0 2100 ol 1.4 4.6 23.9 2100 30.0 
Av. ol T25 cine 5.4. SL9N9, Av. “2 2.0) 4.2 6a LT Av. 7 12 29.8 
July July July 
0300 31.0 0300 31.0 0300 31.0 
0900 25 2.8 OT 0900 269? 229.7) 0900 ol 30.9 
1200 4 2.6 7.4 20.6 1200 29. 4.8 8.3 17.0 1200 +2 30.8 
1500 ney) 4.9 7.4 L755! 1500 aE 2.3 6.7 8.3 13.6 1500 a) 2 30.6 
1800 6 5.2 6.4 18.8 1800 Bae 4,4 6.6 17.8 1800 2 50.8 
2100 -6 eae, 28.2 2100 +3 2x6. 28 2100 31.0 
Av. 4 2.3 4.4 23, Av ee) 2.7 4.6 22.8 Av. ol al 30.8 
August August August 
0300 31.0 0300 31.0 0300 31.0 
0900 -8 30.2 0900 15 9ee 291: 0900 ‘ al 30.9 
1200 oi 1.0 2.8 27.1 1200 4 oe 6.1 eons, 1200 3 30.7 
1500 4 Eear 2.8 25.9 1500 9 4.6 8.1 17.4 1500 12 +2 50.6 
1800 aah 12 2.4 27.3 1800 9 2.3 4.1 23.7 1800 +1 30.9 
2100 +9 30.1 2100 sol SOT. 2100 31.0 
Av. a Hy 1.6 28.6 Av 4 as 3.4 25.7 Av al +1 50.8 
ILTAMNA KOTZEBUE LAKE MINCHUMINA 
nae Relative humidity percent pate Relative humidity percent eos Relative humidity percent 
day 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 507 day 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50 day 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50/ 
April April April 
0300 (Ober 29.9 0300 0.1 Oud 29.8 0300 0.2 0.4 29.4 
0900 0.2 On COs 0900 aids eo29 0900 Ova: me 2.) eT.0 
1200 «2 nee l 28.7 1200 30.0 1200 6 ret 5.9 21.4 
1500 ak 1.1 28.8 1500 0.2 +4 29,4 1500 +6 3.3 5.9: 20,52 
1800 Hel 29.8 1800 cal el 29.8 1800 2 2.0 7.4 20.4 
2100 ok 29.9 2100 30.0 2100 8 3.2 26.0 
Av. ml -5 29.4 Av. ra ol 29.8 Av ace 1.4 4.2 24.0 
May May May 
0300 31.0 0300 31.0 0300 eae fc} 30.0 
03900 Fk) 30.4 0900 eel ff 30.2 0900 Fi} 1.4 0 22.38 
1200 QoL eels abe} 29.0 1200 <2 8 30.0 1200 1.4 6.2 + 8.8 14.6 
1500 0.1 ee -8 ee 28.8 1500 ol 1.0: 29.9 1500 3.4 4.4 10.0 13.2 
1800 31, 12 alo} 29.7 1800 ni 30.9 1800 Oe 1.3 4.6 talpal 16.8 
2100 3 30.7 2100 31.0 2100 i) 1.6 6.2 Cea. 
Av. Bal -2 8 TRE) Av. wl A 30.5 Av. ea 3.1 6.8 20.0 
June 5 June Juns 
0300 al 299 0300 30.0 0300 is 8.4 
0900 ol ne eat 0900 4 6 29.0 03900 1.4 6.3 22.3 
1200 od ene aly 15159) 1200 a0. t 29.20 1200 2.0 5.8 8.1 14,1 
1500 elt Epa 3.9 24.9 1500 1 ar) A 292 1500 nl 2.3 T.8 6.3 13.5 
1800 oe no 2.4 26.5 1800 ade 36) 129.3 1800 -9 4.7 Ted aly (sa 
2100 me of. 29.0 2100 On eS ST 2100 cab 1.3 4.4 24,2 
Av. eal oa) 1.4 28.0 Av 2 4 29.4 Av. ae) 3.5 5.7 1959 
July July July 
0300 31.0 0300 31.0 0300 +3 30.7 
0900 ot 30.3 0900 31.0 0900 ral oe 2.8 27.4 
1200 3 ie Olmme oss 1200 8 30.2 1200 A 3.4 6.9. 2159 
1500 pe ale 2.6 PHOT 1500 1 29 30.0 1500 1.2 5.4 6.7 TSS 
1800 ohh aa) 28.1 1800 a) 30.7 1800 3 4.8 5.6 20.3 
2100 aa: 30.9 2100 al 30.9 2100 8 i eee 
Av. 3 2 29.5 Av. 4 30.6 Av. 3 2.5 4.0 24.2 
August August August 
0300 31.0 0300 31.0 0300 31.0 
0900 pe 30.9 0900 2 30.8 0900 oT 30.3 
1200 nae Ae) 30.0 1200 od iC 30.7 1200 a Seo et.o 
1500 ee Toe oT6 1500 ol a 30.8 1500 ail 9 4,4 25.6 
1800 1 6 30.3 1800 23 30.7 1800 1 2.6 28.3 
2100 al 30.9 2100 31.0 2100 we 30.8 
Av. oi 30.5 Av. al 30.9 Av. 2 1.9) (28.39 


119 


in eech tempsreture cless--Continusd 


Table 25 .--Reletive humidity percent by hour of dey, end number of days 
(Av. 1950-58) 


McGRS 
a Reletive humidity percent = Reletive humidity percent : Relative humidity percent 
dey 10-19 20-29 30-39 «40-49 50 dey 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 sO/ dey 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 507 
April April April 
0300 0.2 29.9 030) 30.0 0300 0.2 0-2 29.6 
0300 eee reel, os0o 0.6 29.4 os00 «0.2 0.2 pala 4.3 23.3 
1200 2.6 6.6 20.6 1200 0.9 2.4 26.7 1200 real 3.9 Eleil 15.9 
1500 3.2 8.2 18.3 1500 0.2 akan 2.3 26.5 1500 ai isa 4.6 10.2 14,2 
1800 oul Lr, 7.3 20.9 1800 o2 1.7 28:2 1800 Sil 3 reid 5.1 22.4 
2100 et pom Ne OT 2100 30.0 2100 al! 1.3. 28.6 
Av. a2 1.3 AY 2455 Av 4 aOR Te ve aul a oe) 5. 0meera 
Mey Mey May 
0300 -3 30:7 0500 31.0 0300 a pil 8 
03900 3 1.6 7.4 21.7 03900 oll 1.4 29.5 0300 dat -9 6.3 8.1 6 
1200 0.2 1.4 6.1 8.3 15.0 1200 4 1.3 5.3 24.0 2200 “4 3.8 6.4 7.0 4 
1500 3 2.5 TT. 32 11.5 1500 <2 thestl 5.35 24.4 1500 a) 4.9 8.3 6.7 8 
1800 pal 2.6 5.8 7.6 14.9 1200 2 4 3.0 27.4 1600 ue) 1.8 5.8 7.4 & 
2200 oH) 1.4 453. 25.1 2100 31.0 2100 ol! -5 1.9 Uf 
Av. 2 Leal 3.6 6.2 19.8 Av. 2 29 2.5 27.9 Av. 2 Als) 4.9 5.2 8 
June June June 
0300 30.0 03500 Bist 28) 0300 30.0 
os00 bal 1.6 SiG) “227. 000 che egy 0300 -6 3.2 920 Ree, 
1200 1.4 5.3 82 15.2 1200 oul 1.6 3.2 25.2 1200 at at) 8.6 7.6 11.8 
1500 1 2.8 7.0 6.8 13.5 1560 -6 9 5.6 ang. 1500 os) 2.1 8.3 7.6 11.7 
1800 oh 2.3 5.8 5.4 16.4 1800 2 alae 2.4 26.3 1800 sil om 6.5 6.8 15-9 
2200 -2 1.9 3.4 24.5 2100 oil 2929 2100 4 2) 26.7 
Ave ay 3.6 4.9 20.4 Av. 2 8 2.0 27.0 Av. pak Eo) 4.5 5.6 1879 
July Juiy July 
0300 31.0 0300 31.0 03500 () 
os00 255.) 228.7, 0900 30.8 0300 ee eG 7 
1200 ol 6.2 21.3 1200 9 27.0 1200 1.4 5.7 6 
1500 1.0 6.8 18.9 12500 a 1.4 25.0 1500 «tl 2.1 6.2 7 
1800 -8 4.7 21.4 180 ae 28.6 1800 out 1.2 3.8 Tf 
2100 real 28.3 2200 31.0 “2 2 
Av. -5 3.7 25.0 Av. -4 ey SEI -8 2.9 9 
August August August 
0300 31.0 0300 31.0 0300 31.0 
os00 -4 30.6 osoo 32.0 000 1 3.4 27.5 
1200 aif Ane} 27.4 1200 3 1.2 29.5 1200 -6 3.0 9.8 17.6 
1500 bal aa, 4.0 25.2 1500 ol 3 2.3 26.5 1500 -8 4.5 9.4 16.3 
1800 au 4 2e8. 2OTeT: 1600 -6 30.4 1800 oul, aad Ghee aor: 
2100 el 30.9 2100 31.0 2100 31.0 
Av. -5 1.7 28.8 Av. el SU) 30.2 Av. a2 1.5 4.7 24.6 
sect TANANA UNALAKLSET 
Time a sae os Tine = aie Tine 5 ArH 
ae Relative humidity percent of Relative humidity percent of Relative humidity percent 
dey 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 507 dey 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 507 dey 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 507 
April Ap April 
0500 29.9 0300 1.0 28.7 0300 0.3 IST 
0900 0.5 28.3 0900 2.8 26.8 os00 0-5 2.4 28.3 
120) at 25.9 2200 0.1 eyed 23.3 1200 -6 1.35 26.1 
1500 0-4 1.2 24.0 1500 aa 5.9 21.9 2500 4 ot) 28.7 
1600 2 27.7 1800 3.9 25.0 1800 8 29.2 
210 -35 2950 2100 1.6 28.4 2100 me 29.8 
Av. eae 4 27.6 Av. ale 78 Seas Av. on Sommrcos0 
Ney May Mey. 
0300 2 30.8 030 9 i 0300 oul of 30.6 
ogo 4 1.3 3.3 26.0 0900 at 3.2 6.2 g 0900 1.4 2.4 26.8 
1200 gl hh Lt 4.8 253.7 1200 2.7 4.8 10.6 9 1200 0-2 1.2 S.1 (26.2 
1500 a 4 3.0 5.6 22.1 1500 3 3.2 20. 8.2 -3 1500 1.9 2.2 26.3 
1800 24 2.4 4.2 24.0 1800 a) 252 4.6 8.7 ne. 1800 1.0 2.4 27.0 
2100 a eA 29%5 2100 el ue 4.2 -6 2100 1.2 29.8 
Av. 75 1.4 3.3 26.0 Av. ae 1.5 3.4 6.5 5 Av. 5 a 2:0 27.8 
June June June 
0300 30.0 0300 ol! ae 29.7 0300 ol 29.9 
os00 2 1.2 4.0 24.7 ogs00 +4 1.4 5.4 22.6 os00 6 1.2 28.2 
1200 a 1.0 2.9 5.7 .20.3 2200 1.4 6.2 Teser BOs 1200 al .4 1.1L 4728.4 
1500 oa! ae 2.9 6.0 19.8 1500 eat 2.9. 5.7 8.6 12.7 1500 8 yt) 25 
1800 rhe 2.6 4.4 21.8 1800 ese 4.2 TL 16.5 1800 oe ae 2.200 28.5 
2200 res +2 1.7 28.0 2100 a) ee 2 SBI COR: 2200 3 -4 29.3 
Av. 6 1.6 Cy Aer al Av. r.2 3.1 5.3 20.4 Av. ow! 4 a9; 28.6 
July July July 
0300 ou 30.9 0300 31.0 0300 3120 
0900 aa! 2 26 32922! 0300 2.2 28.8 0900 ne 7s 30.5 
1200 5. 1.6 3.7 25.2 1200 a) 2.9 6.0 21.8 1200 oak Bey -6 30.1 
1500 ot 3.7 4.1 22.5 1500 1.2 3.6 6.9 19.3 1500 oth & 30.5 
1800 ati 1.8 3.4 25er: 1800 on 3.3 5.3 22.2 1800 .4 30.6 
2100 TO OO at 2100 ol 2.0 29.9 2100 2 30.9 
Av. .5 1.2 2.2 27.3 Av. .5 1.6 3.6 25.5 Av. eel 35 30.6 
August August August 
0300 31.0 0300 31.0 0300 31.0 
0300 “2: 30.1 0300 30.8 0900 “2 30.8 
1200 =f 3.0 27.2 1200 ate) 28.0 1200 -3 -2 30.5 
1500 ol 2:9 (26:9 1500 5 1.6 24.7 1500 a) -1 30°65 
1800 alent 29.2 1800 4 28.5 1800 4 30.6 
2100 31.0 2100 31.0 2100: et SUES) 
Av. 74 1s 29.3 Av. ol 1.4 "29.0 Av. of 30.7 
Source: United States Weethsr Bureau coded deta. 


120 


Table 26.--Sunrise, sunset, and duration of daylight 


Fort Yukon, Alaska Anchorage , Alaska Missoula, Montana 
Date Time of Time of Duration of Time of Time of Duration of Time of Time of Duration of 
sunrise sunset daylight sunrise sunset daylight sunrise sunset daylight 
Hrs Mins Hrs Mins Hrs Mins 
Apri — 1 0456 1836 13 40 0524 1843 13 #19 0616 1905 12 49 
ital 0416 1911 14 55 0452 1910 14 18 0556 1919 13° 23 
Al. 0335 1947 16 12 0422 1935 U5. 1S 0538 1933 13755 
May 1 0255 2025 17 30 0351 2002 16 Li 0521 1946 14 25 
ata 0213 2105 18 52 0323 2029 17 06 0506 1959 14 53 
21 0128 2150 20 22 0258 2055 Jif gbit 0454 2012 alayealgs} 
June al 0033 2252 ee 19 0236 2119 18 43 0445 2023 15 68 
lak 1/SAH SAH 24 00 0222 2135 19 13 0441 2031 2:5; 350: 
21 SAH SAH 24 00 0218 2143 19 -25 0441 2034 1: 5S 
July al SAH SAH 24 00 0225 2140 9: 25 0444 2035 Algopemeny 
11 0034 2252 22 18 0240 2127 18 47 0452 2030 15 38 
21 0129 2200 20 31 0301 2107 18 06 0503 2022 a9) 
Aug. al: 0216 2115 1é 59 0329 2040 ky ental 0515 2009 14 54 
11 OL57 2034 17 37 0355 2012 16) Av 0528 1954 14 26 
21 0333 1952 16 19 0421 1942 WB. vel. 0540 1937 2S: 57 
Sept. 1 0412 1908 14 56 0448 1907 14 19 0555 1916 1S. 21: 
11 0445 1828 13 43 0514 1836 13 22 0608 1857 12 49 
21 0518 1748 12 30 0538 1804 12 26 0621 1836 Je 15 


1/ SAH - Sun above horizon all days 


Source: United States mimeographed data. 


121 


Wind direction (fron) 


jer month in each direction class 


and number of days 
Wind direction (from) 


(Av. 1950-58) 


Table 27.--Wind direction by hour of da: 


Wind direction (from) 


ANCHORAGE 


Time 
of 


Al On O rl moO 
Oi] [wr wi oO oly 


be NR DAUAARG 


Or ada 


April 


Calm 
7 
ie} 
4 
of 
6 
oO 
4 


2 WO x Ohio 
3 ND 19 19 0d 0d Oto 


FA) e]O D 4 CY DIO 


I CU 19 9 QUIto 
Sted 2 tro sti 
tO 0d 03 09 Oho 


B] Jntormandin 
iO dAA ala 


Calm 
4 
6 
8 
3 
3 
6 
3 


4 th OU OI] 
tA Segepneme ne eltre 
HAM Ol 


Yt rh OM Ir 
Yala ¥ oly 


April 


A DO Ht Ad 
aa a ol 


A) lor ww + oho 
ea 
al el 
oo00000 
esessso. 
C) BUH o A> 
a lOOHAANS 


May 


0 = CY OLO 
1 CU cy 19/19 


KO HOO WO xO 
MmMANM ANY 
Am UM Oo s/o 

unm +t cia 


balla Ib oo) 
Haoadaela 


IM 2D YD XK 
it td 3/6 
12 AO OW w\o 

at tcl 


st rd QO 12 QUI 
id wf his ahs 


L919 af 0d 03 ea] 


St QU 1 0 OJ 
wd roar 


ouronrnlt 
A © xt xt i]t 


COON ao 
Hor wow lt 


QOD Hc 


ld al 8 Fu walt 
ht OOM O|[M 
Cr) 


I CU oD «OP ]tO 


OD Kt HD DIO 
09 0d Atle 


iTpoRonaln 
9 3 A cd cd aif 


A UOMO Ort 
aa le 
OOM Ht TOD 


rHOOo oO who 


moO Ae A Old 


old ww dt tlt 


Im bt « <t D]O 
¥ 19 13.03 09 eafto 


lo OAM t O]O 
AUN NN 
rake vig 

lictletirctlet 
M22 OOO Fi}o 
AO 6D 1 09 1D HHO 


lomo} 
Bo 
io Oo 


g 
uu 


MONOD AY 


sti ad ol cifes 


Jul; 


Jul 


th OM MO @ 9 wlat 
HO st st CU CY WO) st 
MO & M9 ]00 
ON AA AMIN 
MOOMM rho 

VAAN etd 
hr OO A Ie4 

aaa wlio 


aor hala 


bla OOK © whe 


OAH wo M]I9 
(Ue ie | Ca 


I tM YM lao 


AKON OD|n 
ot wilt 


WHDOD AIG 
Ad a 63 09 ath 
OM CY oO 
noo wo olf 


Fonwt alo 


Cdaar ola 


Odin on oho 
Oa dalla 
ator a wlo 
UUUNA A Alo 


Ravin n|a 


Av. 


ts) ial 
aUuoonrhjo 
NA A ad 
IAnADMOal-4 
Ast 9 0 00 Alto 
~ 
Al 
ionqao0000 
egeeseo. 
Hao o A> 
COd AAS 


August 


st 


tc M1 Ht CULO 
to tM 9 00 ft 


HO OO 9 /xH 
OU AA allo 


wouon alr 


at 


Ir onwonls 
10 0 Ww Fro 


Ce 


t 


tir Orr} > Ico. 
16 wo tle 


i 


3 


Calm 


-8 


OOD wo vy 
AMM mm yy 


W 
3.8 


NOM an 
ht xt 10 


95.2 


ONWMO Or 


Wind direction (from) 


2.0 1.1 


1.3 15.5 


FT. YUKON 


Time 
of 
Av. 


5.6 


Ino O HY CO 
129 19.10 Or 


2.1 2.5 


mAAM Oly 
MA A OO 


2.8 


Aa oon ala 
KO Dh  M ~ ~o]c~o 


32229 
May 
3.0 4.6 


Wind direction (from) 
April 


2.6 2.7 
BIA) 
3.6 2.2 


5.1 3.3 
4.8 3.8 


9.7 94.2 


FAIRBANKS 


Time 
of 
da: 
Av. 
Av. 


4.3 
3.3 


2.8 


Calm 


3.1) 1.0 
Ss47 251 


5.1 1.4 


SW 


SE 
April 
5.5 4.4 
Ma: 
8.8 5.1 
June 


Wind direction (from) 
tLe Olena Orestes tie 0 


337 (1.6 


5.8 1.3 


-8 1.4 
1.5 2.0 


INADA OM Phe 


dq 


elidel 


UO 1919 tI 
Ww oar wlo 


I HOO Ht Ole 
Orr rooly 


lo-ownww 
WaNVANA Ae 


I~ aANote 
HAA AA 


0300 


4.0 


a 


BIG DELTA 


Time 
of 
day 
Av. 
Av. 


2.1 1.2 


co. 
it 


1.5 1.4 


13S 8.9 


Av. 


3.0 


5.5 2.9 


5.8 6.1 


1.8 1.6 


Av. 


Jul 


ooh A a\Ko 


DG aaar|K 
at 

]y <A Ot x Ox 

ANNAN IY 


12 OO MIP 
a ctrl et 


Ih 2 1 O wml 


Aad dad eld 


2 Oy Oy xt xt cD] xt 
al daa +a 
soo on n|> 
A Ht oat 
A~AORA\o 
HOndw lo 


Ko 1 O Olt 


Jul 


Jul: 


At td gl alto 


eo BO OY 9 DI 
vada ‘Ja 


Ob tt rd too 
dadddddla 


ONO dts 


“aww w0 “0 


Av. 


Ky 19 © 10 at 


OH w +10 


KO Hw xt CO lt 


0 O > 10 @/c~O 


COAX lw 
cl 3 od Fl cial 


st 


- Au 


ist 


Au 


August 
. . . 2:7 3558) 754 Sik 3 ice 
8 (3.9) 252 426 13.5 3.8 
1.6 4.8 3.2 3.6 3.1 257, 
dia, FGSE 2c) 4 6a a 2.6 
ely) Tele iSet) 42 9e oad: 4.6 
1.31163 -7.9 3.7 3 4.2 
4.6 1.5 6.4 4.4 4.1 2.4 4.2 


OOM rt rijto 

ddddeled 
WOOO Ht Ia 
rmUAN NY IC 
lO AAO welt 
it~ = Ow iD &]woO 
I~ UMM ORO 

aed Ade 


0900 


8 
A 


0200 
1500 
1700 
2000 


> 
x 


tAtahe on 
Im O99 0 


4.8 


AMeAANO 


st riaaw 6 


hr UM em 
Hanvodta 


3.2 3.1 


Wm or aw 


AUdOo@ 
do ad 


2.5 5.6 


lomoOOnt 


1 

2 

4 

3 

1. 
2.6 2.1 


Av. 


2 
7 
6 
8 
7 . 
2 
1.5 1.9 


2 
Av. 


122 


See footnotes at end of table. 


Calo 


SW 


Wind direction (from) 
SE 


da; 


1950-58) 
SW. 


SE 


(Av. 
Wind direction (from) 


GULKANA 
Tine 


Table 27.--Wind direotion by hour of day, and number of days per month in each direotion class--Continued 
of 


SW 


Wind direction (from) 
SE 


ODM OD Aw]A or ronda hat om ojo JHonmwotor ht tH Ot 
ot ad t ow Oa ato aa do} taonna lo AX AMZ OlO 
ot a a aq a 
-oaaann MA AOn MIO oon nn Aly ma Mon ala AY yo aie 
i Nd a a a a mn daa 
OOo mI moNonal”d AMaAr-HAlS hr aoanooalr om oamrlo 
° AN NG AANA N MI IAM Ae wy i|ro AANA SH Ol ANuanMala 
ON TMA AIO NDANWO HO ~estoOoN wolW Oot DOAN H/o oFManor]rn 
It OM a th Haat ola HAMenrwooly NOAM wp wld A 1 1 tm 
Aad Add Adda iat dadad a Anda 
MOM oa Ho NOAA oO tlt AARAMOr|+ DwWOt AD O/} tO t+ OM d/o 
ber] pots Hoo cat] fal) AWONMMA AO PA ela Sh Tr (ie) rF ONM AAI oad mNnNnMA Al 
“ a 0 
i a 3 3 
iS = 6 6 
ZORUNANM DIO DAOotdm vin dawgonoonr IN OAM~- ODD BIRO NUNMDMO!Y 
Raspes brs aie aifhe Sin sateie| Ne cca ie ce aes eis igeusiisstice| Se dmmen| je marae 
lonauna a tI 9 IO ANANA AYA aA Aa a AMNAAMIY 
Aout t MID DOA ADIN tat mo jo Ar OMM Old st xt <tc a 
[meme moma) (a) a st 00 0 [0 ANNA Ala a rot a i AM AAA AN 
Ow VN tt HIG NM-M +t OO nm DORA AO WOUNROW Hiv HA aot oo 
i - oy ww OUNAY HO wo a anc woman fat bed I~MA AA wD 
m2 OO © Mir mot nn ow tt Or t/a AaAtrOoONNOl!M Sto OD L/D 
DOA AA AMI tt dla bed did <t ad Na to mld 
lIoa29g000 lInsQa000 oos0000 Io2Q@000 log2o000 
essooo,. SSoo00]: IS SS000]- IOSSO000|;- SS9SOOG0|- 
ANO OD alo mOWUND A> nO AYW oO > nmAMWM Oo A> rm AWm Oo a]> 
COndAAMS COna nae COanaAde OCOn Anne OOnAAMIa 
tc OD 9 rd +OODA DA Hote ojo Aw©ounonyn WONOHE4 
OMmMNN OI wor aan WO 4 did st NAAN Orn UVA WM] 
I~ ONO WMIO WO AMMM Aw ANNAN A wr nm UVOnD MIM woonont dt 
StU NA MO] AAA AN EA NVA lO IN AM AN Ml NAA AANA 
ootr~uno UE UDA AID loa- ow o to ate AMO; jovrt mh Wolo 
HAM aw tle VGAaddavla Ida daaala dad aAnddala ddddaaala 
aAovn ono AAD ow +!]y OHOOD +> lo+* HMO Ol maoNn alo 
aAadAddala A Ao  Qi|ro to 09 Hrd tro |ro a cu ad Olu mana dja 
DAOstD O Mio tmMohr wo mio ODO VY O DID mauot tat I~ DOD N|O 
tit QU 090 CulCY eo ss fe gwonww +t tit a nS Bed PMC B el sa} 
Bi g a 3 
aloounn ola ln DOO O/H dooonrly lpQmoate Blt dtm std 
1 D AD MH Ojo Mm 9D As IPA HOODOO O|O mONNNA Aid Im UAN A Alda 
a Ada ala ddddaAla Adda Ala AAadAalA 
monrantel|a xt xt © co @ xt/co ko Hd Aw I]t In doar alo raonnM al 
ISddd ald ANN aid AMMNMAAIN Ato tN aig NMNMNANIN 
ronte Mla ONT OD HMO OWOAAND OID wndnnnm alo Oaronddthid 
oO an ald ANA NAA did a a Coat dAdnvA foal 
Ino + WO wa lOormarar|a Hthmaaoclo lamoaaala lonanoaly 
lu cu 9 CCU dadaaaala AAgddaalio awa cla IA ro 1 9 CUCU 
>| 
ma 
oeooo080 lIoacaa00 lInagg000 In DOo000 lIoac00000 
SSO000|- ISSoodO|. SSoocgo].- ISSSSG0}- ISSoooO}- 
ra MYM O Fd] > moOWn oa A> Mm Oq mo dl> mm OAUwW oO dd) > mA UMW O > 
OOnA AANA jOOnAANIS OORnAANIS OO nAANIS OOAAANIS 
OMAMNAALIO ID OUNM D | INOMNANOEI|d AYA + cuir ODN Awl 
AOMNAA tt OU N A HO mam tm nih feds ees Nol ye i - mw oOo 
No Dw 1 Ico 1AM OM oho lpomdAato loMaaaoly In 0oo Mo O!H 
Naa dala mmaaadia ou 62 6O Hin rar aa m9 ala doaaala 
auoown a/m tADOAN OID Ot ONADD UMROD Alt oO OHO VID 
Od a daaaaa Ald anannala xd Hd qufro qd ddA 
ID a tt © Jao OA LAO 2 OO — 9 O/H Mm oO MIN Oo ~lin 1p OOM M Ofrd 
ONNNA Ala Ammo mw we In Om 0 n/oO 19 wo > h {oO tot Ht 0 Oho 
IO 19 9 wlan AVA R +o lnournmtlo NOH dw oOlW NAA olw 
g g 3 3 
Nada Alea maadaa dia NAaaaw fA NAMA AAA la xt xt 0d ay co] 
at tot wlo Ko Ht OF O}O AAO tala mt ao oO o|n HMA Io 
ho tt xt xt 0] mt Hn wo ro] VU ddd I Ad eld att ro xt td tro 
lo tt OD «| txt th oO xt! ln HA MO MIO out oo ojo WW CODOA|D 
Od AANA dAadaa tio ddAadaala d daa 
rr 0 1 MD hwo Hotnnolh jo UO MD O|M HARUNO M+ OADM oO O| 
DAA ard reer aol ro Hr 0 19 Ito Aan nla mAanaaMmla 
AQ aia b cs) lu 
SSS 
holst] 
lIocca00 liog0000 iIooo000 loceg000 lona000 
ISOGOOG0}:; ISSo000].: essgeeo.: Sseeool,: esssgo. 
mOdH oO > OU oO 4} > OM wo 4]|> BUH OD d|> OUHOdl> 
SCOd AAA OOAAANISA SOAAAaIa OCGA AAMe SOddA Aaa 


Calm 
3.5 


Le ed 
2.8 2.2 
4.6 2.4 


SW 
April 
2.1 3.0 
1.4 
May 
1.7 4.6 
June 
2.1 8.6 
1.8 6.8 


SE 
August 


Wind direction (from) 


9.0 3.2 

5.4 1.4 

5.7 1.9 

2.9 2.0 
cul 

6.0 1.6 

3.6 1.3 


4.9 
3.9 
3.5 


3.3 2.6 


1.7 

2.6 7.0 

2.8 5.8 

1.6 1.6 

A) 
4 


1.5 


LAKE MINCHUMINA 


Time 
of 
1500 
Av. 
Av. 
0900 
0300 
1500 
2100 
Av. 
0300 
0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 
Av. 


8 
9 
1.2 
Eo 
“6 
a1 
3 
aT 
a9 
-6 
6 
a) 
2 
2T 
A) 


2.2 


S509 wie 
8.8 1.4 
8.8 1.4 
6.3 1.7 
6.8 2.1 


6.6 1.6 
TO: 1.6: 
Tea 9 
8.1 

9.0 2.3 
eB 221 


SW 


2.7 6.9 11.8 1.8 
Sel Oh Deal ated 
2.6 4.3 14.0 1.6 
Anle One BLO. O! nee 
SoG 95.7 (1L.0n-8 
3.9 4.4 10.0 2.0 


1.3 4.0 
Set S21. 


1.8 3.6 
1.6 3.8 
1.6 5.6 
3.4 4.7 
4.4 2.9 
3.7 3.7 


1.6 3.8 
2atiage.0 
4.2 9.4 
2rouoee 


April 
May 
June 
July 

August 

123 


SE 
6.3 4.6 


Wind direction (from) 


7.5 3.6 
7.4 3,1 
122370 
4.8 1.4 
5.5 1.7 
2.7 2.4 
1.4 3.1 
ney Aeron 
3.7 4.3 
1.2 4.6 
20) Poh 
2.6 3.3 
a es) 
6.9 4.6 
3.8 5.6 
4.2 4,7 
4.8 4.2 
5.2 4.8 


4 
ne 
8 
poe be} 


1.0 


ef) 
29. 
4 


2 
1.9 


1.8 3.1 
(a See} 
253) 379 
2.8 3.8 
2.4 3.0 
ere seal 
$.1 2.9 
2/9) ae! 
6 
2 
79 
1.8 3.4 
“4 


a 


KOTZEBUE 


Tine 
of 
1500 
0300 
0300 
0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 


2100 


Av. 
Av. 
Av. 
Av. 


3.3 
eee. 
4,7 
2.7 
1.7 
2.9 

6 
4.4 
3.0 


al 


4.0 2.8 
2.6 1.2 
5.5 1.6 
3.2 1.7 
3.9 1.5 
3.1 1.9 
4.3 2.1 


sw 
5.6 


Dainese o 


ely real 
3.0 


2.6 2.1 


2.8 4.8 
2.2 6.4 
2.0 4.8 


April 
Ma. 


August 


Wind direction (from) 
SE 


6.8 4,4 


Tl 3.5 
Tea 6.7 
6.0 6.4 
8.1 6.4 
6.6 5.4 


-8 10.8 7.2 


6 
A 


1.2.1.2 


ek Fr ia a i Sea oe 
See a} 


3.4 1.7 
1.5 


Lz 
See footnotes at end of table. 


Av. 
Av. 
Av. 
Av. 


mued 


ction class-—Contin 


wh. dir 


sach 


of deys per month in 


number 


ection by hour of day, a 


dir 


bls 27 .--Wind 


Wind direction (froc) 


Ni Cals 


from) 
Li 


@ 
SW 


ion 


Wind direc 


Calin 


Wind direction (from) 


0300 


5 
oot 


June 


i st O19 19 


G8 arial 
ie 

19 © 9 
(eee o 


mano o 


91 
1200 


~~, 
Fie alo 


ou 
a) 


1600 
2100 


oaoo00 


oom a 


Ii] 


2 
8 
o 
i) 
9 
i 
a} 


1 0 oe 1O]IO 
reat cul 
@e20000 
OO9SGG00 
2 yo O rit 
OO Art et ast 


nm (2ro=) 


ti 


Wind direc 


fron) 


ion ( 


z 


ind direc 


W 


ti 


direc 


ind 


0500 


on (froz) 


2800 


Weather Bureau coded date 


124 


254 


8-12 13-18 19-24 


April 


Wind velocity, m-.p.h. 


4-7 


BETTLES 


Time 
of 


Baz 


1950-58) 
8-12 13-18 19-24 


April 


Wind velocity, m.p-h. 


(Av. 
4-7 


9.7 


0-3 
4.1 


BETHEL 
Time 
of 
dey 

0300 


25+ 


Table 28.--Wind velocity by hour of day, and number of days per month in each velocity class 
ae 


4.2 
5.8 


8-12 13-18 19-24 
10.7 


Wind velocity, m.p.h. 
April 


4-7 


9.8 
8.3 13.9 
4.8 12.4 
ath alktyé 


ANCHORAGE 
0300 14.8 
0900 
1200 


Tine 


3.7 


0900 


to 


-0 
-8 


4, 


3.7 


May 


8 


8.1 11. 


1500 
0300 


4 
eat 


Lei 


C4 
3. 


11.0 
qas2. 
May 
pale 


3.7 11.0 


1200 
1800 
0300 
0900 
1200 


ol 
ol 


10.2 
9.3 
May 
4.3 


Cy a 
S27 


1500 

18600 

2100 12.4 
Av. 

0300 14.6 


1.6 


68 


12.0 


ito} 


a 


a) 
a9 


ape 
at 


! 


4 


ict a 


fa 


1800 
2100 


eile 


9.8 


oh 


2 
1 


2100 
Av. 


10. 8. 
5.2 


8 
a) 


8 


1800 
2100. 10.9 


6.2 


Av. 


June 
6.0 


0300 12.0 10.7 


June 
3. 


1235 


a alae 


0300 
0900 


June 

9.9 AE) a8 
8.0 
away é 


=} ral: eb 
3.2 10.9 


0300 15.8 
0900 


“ 


9 


“31200 


aleyed 


1.0 


1200 
1500 
1800 


3. 


1200 


1500 
1800 
2100 


Av. 


1.8 9.8 
4.1 


1500 
1800 


far) 


10.5 


1.0 


OST 


-6 


Sie 10.1 
8.3 


‘fear allO's 


8.2 


9.0 10.8 


0 


3. 


200° 12/59 


Av. 


ive) 


13.6 


Av. 


3. 


822 


4 


2.8 


July 
6.3 


aii 
August 


5.9 10.8 
9.7 14.0 


922 


0300 
1200 
1506 
1800 
2100 


mile 


6.2 
4. 


July 
11.8 
13.4 
August 
10.7 


See 
CR 


BEET a sllel are) 
-6 


2.4. 10.9 


al 
2:2 


1200 
1800 
2100 


0900 
Av. 


Ve 


3.8 10.7 


0300 
03900 
1200 


Fal 


2.2 
3.7 
3.7 
Sisal 


July 
ihesh 
41.2 
11.0 
8.3 
4.2 
August 


2.6 


8.4 
7.3 14.6 
Deee 11201 
3.6" 12.0 
6.4 12.0 

9.3 
922 S114 


2100 14.1 


0300 17.9 
Av. 


0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 


We 


0300 18.6 


a 


“1 1500 «6.0 


Ae) 
9 


10.2 


4.2 10.0 


2100 


ol 
el 


ae 


50 
2.1 


79 
4.0 
6.2 


5. 
8 
Heal 


6 
9 


12.9 
Cs 
aba ale as) 


-8 
6.0 14.4 


5.6 13.5 
1800" 10-9° 20). 
2100 14.7 


0900 10 
1200 
1500 

Av. 


Av. 


ct 


TE 


9 


257 


beet 


8-12 13-18 19-24 
.0 


10 


Wind velocity, m.p.-h.- 
A 


4-7 


0-3 


YUKON 


03001/3.6 11.3 


FT. 
Time 
of 
day 


25 


8-12 13-18 19-24 
ONT 


April 


Wind velocity, m.p.h. 


4-7 


7.9 


0-3 


FAIRBANKS 
0300 16.1 


Time 
of 
day 


267 
2.0 
3.2 


2 


2.2 


4.2 


8-12 13-18 19-24 
6.0 


Wind velocity, m-.p.h. 
April 


4-7 


0-3 


9.1 11.4 


fag 


BIG DELTA 


Time 
of 
0300 
0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 
2100 


day 
Av. 


0900 


8.2 


0900 14.1 
1200 


3.1 


feel 


8 


1200 
1500 
1800 


78 


6.7 
8.1 


e 


iat) 


4 


ee 


2.8 


5.7 


6.0 


8.8 


rs) 


1.6 


tice) 
6.8 


10.3 
He 

2.1 
1222 
June 


one 


al 
9.2 


1 


-2 
aR 


29 
Data missing 


Data missing 
Ae6. 125 
1.3 10.3 


1002/ 2 
Av. 
1200 
1500 
1800 
2100 
esi 


0300 
Av. 


2 
0900 


pal 
a 


1-0 
6x2 


6.0 
9.0 1. 


May 
EB 
June 


ant 


8.2 12.0 


9.0 1 


0300 13.9 10.1 


2100 
0900 
2100 


wit 
-8 
rte! 
eee 
<9 


2 
aE 
al 
af 


Oeil 
2.0 
1. 


a) 
4.0 
6.3 


6.2 


8.2 
May 
5.3 
ee 
9.9 
eh 
June 


9.5 


foal 
9.7 


7.8 


6.0 10.6 
6.7 

CRP SERA) 
Grr ore 


3.8 


2.4 
on. 226 


3.8 
5.2 


0300 
1200 
1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 


0900 


4 


3.1 15. 
1.4 11,2 


0300 
0900 


<i 


8.8 


0300 16.3 


AE) 
-6 


7.4 1.0 


6.4 14.2 
4,8. 12.6 
5.1 10.6 
Geile “AOS 
4.3 10.3 
7.0 12.3 
o22) 17 


0300 


eal 
ok 


6.7 
AE) 


9.2 
NOs 
July 


A 
Data missing 


1.3 11.4 


1500 
1800 
2100 


cal 
22 


3.1 
4.7 
3.2 


di. 


6.7 
9.9 


fee 
July 


9.3 


4.7 10.3 
tok 13.1 


0900 10.4 
1500 

1800 

2100 

Av. 


4 
-4 


4 


Wie) 
Tae 
July 


0300 10.2 13.1 


0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 

0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 


7.4 


5.5 14.9 
222; Wess 


0300 
0900 


9.9 


0900 12.6 10.7 


0300 17.7 


[e} 


29 


5.8 
6.2 
8.1 
8. 


aw 


9 
10. 


8 


1200 


ak 
3.1 
4, 


6.3 
9.3 


6-2: 212.3 
4.7 11.0 
7.8 10.9 


1200 
1500 
1800 


-6 
8 


aa 
1.0 
1.0 


7.6 14.3 
6.2 13.0 
4.9. 1158 
5.9 11.6 
6.9 14.0 
7.0 13.0 


1.6 


4. 


9.4 


9.2 
10.0 


Data missing 
3.2. 1259 
Data missing 
3.3 13.3 
2.4 1222 


1800 
2100 


Av. 
1800 


2100 
Av. 


val! 


2.2 
oe: 


10.5 
8.9 
5.4 
F272 

August 
Sat 


125 


TONS DEST 


0300 17.1 10.6 
0900 13.3 10.8 


2100. 129L_ U9. 


Av. 


Bilt 
at) 
-6 
-8 
EO 


9 3.0 
sf 
2.0 

st 
Cae 


8.7 
6.9 
TAA 
4.8 
7.0 


Au 
1/ Minor data discrepancy 


7.6 10.6 


e9e LIE. 
Gee TNT 


0300 10.9 12.8 
0900 

2100 

Av. 


et 
(oO 


25 
0.4 


4.0 


1.8 
2.2 


7.0 


8-12 13-18 19-24 
6.1 


Wind velocity, m.p-h. 
April 


ss--Continued 
0-3 4-7 


6.9 


Ire) 
7.6 


c 
7.4 
8.5 
8.7 


HOMER 

Time 

of 

0300 16.7 

0900 11.6 

2100 16.0 
10.6 

0300 18.5 

0900 

1800 


dey 


254 
0.4 
1.3 

4 

Lee) 
1.6 
a2 


0.9 
1.2 
3.1 
3.1 


2.3 
3.7 
6.0 
PE) 
3.6 
5.8 
6.1 


8-12 13-18 19-24 
April 

4.4 

4.7 

7.3 

7.6 

5.4 

6.8 


Wind velocity, m.p.h. 
June 


(Av. 1950-58) 
4-7 


7.4 

9.8 
4 

8. 


al 


8.9 

4.1 

7.6 10.3 
fea 

5.2 11. 
5. 


ine 
of 


day 
0300 11.4 10.6 


GULKANA 
0900 11.1 
1500 

1800 

2100 

0300 11.4 
2100 

Av. 


1200 


8 
-6 
x) 
.4 
1 


25 
0.4 


0.6 
1.8 
1.8 
12 


3.3 
9.5 
7.8 
ore 


.--Wind velocity by hour of day and number of days per month in each velocit 
222 


8-12 13-18 19-24 


Table 28 
April 
7.0 
Ma 
7.8 
aD: 
10.6 
June _ 
8.1 


Wind velocity, m.p-h. 


4-7 
fot 
5.8 
9.0 
7.8 
8.2 


7.3 


0-3 
6.4 
5.6 
3.6 
4.3 
4. 
6.4 


0300 11.0 
0300 12.0 
0g00 
1200 
0300 11.2 


GALENA 
Time 
of 
day 
0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 
1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 


“ 


8.8 


3.0 


.5 


a 


4.9 


1500 
1800 


3.8 


13.7 (11.3 
921 


2100 
Av. 


ait 


3.3 
Let 


on 


7.3 
3.6 


9.7 
952 
8.2 


OR 


5.2 10.2 


2100 


aa! 


7.3 6.6 11.6 
Jul 


2100 
Av. 


cil 


5.6 


0300 22.9 


“s 


a7 h ahiaat 


0300 
0900 


0300 10.6 
0900 


EQ) 


11.6 7.6 
3.1 A 
3.4 
August 


8.0 


og00 10.0 
2100 19.1 


3 


1. 
1.0 
2.1 


6.7 
4.0 
4.2 


8.7 3.6 
4. 


8.8 
Tekh 


6.6 10.2 

3.7 

62959) 8.2 
Au 


1500 
2100 


-4 
75 


4.9 
75 
St 


Ze9 
Au; 


2 
9.1 


Av. 


© 
Aan 


0300 20.4 
0900 13.4 


72 
of 


5.4 


0300 11.5 10.3 


03900 


1200 


ne 
4 


972 
9.9 


8.0 


03500 10.2 


1.0 


9.2 
3.8 


9.1 
6.9 


1800 10.3 
2100 18.9 


-2 


4.2 


Et 
8.2 


6.5 


8.8 
5.1 10.9 
TODS! 


3.9 
1800 
2100 


79 
-6 


2.2 
1.0 


5.0 


3.8 


11.4 
10.8 


“tt 
“! 


icon mledaam Lose! 


Av. 


25 
0.1 


nSTé 
2.2 


4.2 
5.0 
Toa! 


8-12 13-18 19-24 
7.0 


Wind velocity, u.p.h. 
April 


4-7 
6.8 
8.7 


1500 10.0 10.9 
1800 10.3 10.2 


LAKE MINCHUMINA 


Time 


of 
0900 14.2 


0300 17.3 


Bef 
3.1 
3.6 
ST 


3.3 


4.0 
4.2 
6 


3. 


6.4 
8 


8.1 


8-12 13-18 19-24 
7.0 


Wind velocity, m.p.h. 
April 


4-7 
6.6 


6.0 


3.8 
221: 
1.4 
1.8 


KOTZEBUE 


Time 
of 
dey 
0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 


257 
1.9 
2.2 
ded 
6 


3.8 
5.2 


il 


8.2 


8-12 13-18 .19-24 
6.8 
7.8 


Wind velocity, m.p-h. 
Apr 


4-7 
9.3 
6.2 


0-3 
ee: 
7.6 
5.2 


ILTAMNA 
Time 
of 


dey 


0300 
0900 
1200 


st 


tal 


2100 11.6 10.1 


6.8 7.4 


2.9. 


2100 
Av. 


fl 


5.8 


959 


1252 


7.8 


iam! 


6.6 


1.8 
2.1 


3.6 
6.0 


Mey 


7.8 14.7 


0900 


4 
1.3 
1.4 


aleae 


5.8 


9.6 


May _ 


alr d 


4.7 


Ma 
5.6 


10.0 


8.4 


0300 
0900 


14.1 
6.7 13.7 
8.8 11.4 


2100 10.4 12.4 


Av. 


4.6 


1200 
1560 
1800 


3.7 
2.9 


TETé 


a 


9.3 
10.7 


i} 


1200 


6.8 
6.9 


ARO s S00 ear. 6.O0n etree 7.8 


4.8 


1.8 


et 


3.1 


eT 


32 
Per 


10.1 


cae 


2.1 
Pee 
2.6 


st 


ok 
6.6 
6.8 
6.3 
Au 
6.4 
5.7 
oat) 


9.2 


te 2RHo 
2100 12.3 (11.2 


652 22.0 
8.3 12.6 
z6a2 20 


0300 16.3 9.2 
1800 10.1 10.1 


0900 
1800 
2100 
0900 11.6 
1800 12.2 


Av. 
1500 


-8 
1.2 

atl 
1.8 

-6 
1.3 
1.0 
nlai/ 
east 
2.0 
Ba) 
1.8 
Stf 
1.0 


3.0 
STE 
3.7 
4.7 
6.0 
6.8 
5.4 


8.2 
7.5 
9.0 
9.8 
9.0 
9.0 
9.2 
Et 
9.7 


7.3 
7.5 
9.8 


st 


June 
9.8 
13.3 
9.3 
10.2 
Jul 
922) 
O37, 
Au. 
8. 
9.2 


5.2 
4.2 


6.3 
7.0 
4.1 
4.9 
2.9 


4.1 
1.9 

-6 
1.2 
1-2 
1.0 

-6 


2100 
1800 
2100 
Av. 

0300 


-8 
76 


3.6 
2.2 


8.0 
10.8 
Ted 
3.4 
4.1 
8.1 


June 
8.0 
Hise 

July 

Au. 

10.3 


-5 


7.8 
4.8 


9.6 
9.5 
4.2 
92. 
5.8 
3.8 
2.8 


2100 

Av. 

Av. 

0300 11.4 
0900 

Av. 

0300 

0900 

1200 

1500 


aS 


oe} 
6.0 


ret 


6.3 


ail 


-5 


10.9 11.4 


9.8 


126 


9.0 


2.1 


-9 


5.2 


Av. 


19-24 25 
He) 


3.6 
4.6 


«1 


8.2 


8-12 13-18 
April 

4 

9. 

7.8 


Wind velocity, m.p-h. 
May 


4-7 
9.7 
a) 
8.8 
9 


8 


NORTHWAY 


Time 

of 

0300 14.7 
0300 16.0 
0900 

1200 


0900 


257 
ai 
ees 
2.4 
a 
1.5 
79 
2. 


0 
ph 


4 
Vee 


19-24 
eae 


Te 


8-12 13-18 
9), 


1950-58) 
April 


Wind velocity, m.p-h. 
May 


(ov 
4-7 
6.2 


6.6 


5.0 
4.7 


8.9 


ime 
of 
day 
1500 
1800 
2100 


Av. 


NAKNEK 


0900 
1200 
0300 
0900 


25 
0.1 


0.2 


al 
3.2 
2 


0.8 
1. 


8-12 13-18 19-24 
April 

2.8 

6.8 

8.2 

OMT. 

259. 


Table 28 .--Wind velocity by hour of day and number of days per month in each velocity class--Continued 
May 


Wind velocity, m.p-h. 


4-7 
8.0 
“6 


6.9 
6.3 12.2 

8 
953 - 10.7 
4.3 11.0 
On 7) -10.4 
4.8 10.6 


6.4 11.0 


2100 14.9 


Av. 


0-3 


McGRATH 
‘ime 

of 

day 

0300 19.3 

0900 14.1 

1200 

1500 

1800 

0300 19.3 

0900 

1200 


aw 


if 
5.0 


13.7 


6.6 
4.1 


L 
4.2 3.2 


6 
te) 


4.7 Dial 
eats 4 


1200 


ee 
10.8 


Gut 
6 


8.0 
ol 


12.8 
June 
5 
10.2 
12; 
1322. 
12. 


9.0 
9.9 
8.2 
Gay, 

a) 


4 

10.6 10.3 
74 

3.1 


3 


1278) 20:7 
5 


1800 
2100 
0300 


ie 
«9 


2.0 


Oe 
Di 
3.3 


92: 
June 
10.8 
10.2 


-6 
4.2 
5.4 


Bae 
Gin: 
3.9 
2.8 
iat) 


1800 
2100 
Av. 

0300 
0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 


pee 


3.2 


4, 
4. 
Lis 
2.6 


129) 
15S 
6.1 
June 
2.8 
Gee 
10.8 
9.2 
11.4 
6.3 
8.0 


8.8 10.4 

8.4 
856-1156 
4.4 11.3 
4.4 10.8 
9.7 12.3 
8.5 10.7 


2100F ere 1A 


1500 

1800 

0300 18.1 
0900 

1200 

1500 

1800 

2100 

Av. 


Av. 


8.8 10.4 


6.5 


Av. 


= 


Av. 


ead 


6 E 
4 -6 
4, 


5 
9 


Jul 
CPae 
Gail ee 
alale 
11.2 


6.4 


42° 20:6 
5.5 10.7 
9.2 12.6 
(28 MOeS 


0300 14.9 
0900 
1500 
1800 
2100 


fed 
4 
8 


3.2 


Jul 
12.4 


90 
6.7 
3 


5. 


920 
3.6 
2.4 
3 
6.6 10.1 
4.8 


0300 
0900 
1200 
1500 


AY) 
3.0 
3.2 
2.2 
2.0 


3.1 
6.3 
10.8 


July 
9.6 


Br1 
Deen len’, 
3.8 13.0 
4.1 14.3 


0900 12.4 10.4 


0300 18.9 
1200 
1500 
1800 


an 


or 


11.3 
7.3 


ais 4.8 13.4 al 6 
LOsnL 3.1 4 


1800 
2100 
Av. 


10.1 
6.1 


2100. 11.2. 12.5 


2574 


3.1 
st 

1.5 

1.0 


9.4 
5.0 


8-12 13-18 19-24 


10.8 
9.0 
6.2 

April 
7.0 
8.0 


Au 
Wind velocity, m.p.h. 


6 


9. 
6.8 10.5 

9.4 

4-7 


8.4 12.0 
11.7 
9.1 10.4 


6.2 
0-3 


0300 15.7 
0900 

1500 

1800 

2100) 1257 
UNALAKLEET 
Time 

of 

day 


Av. 


T 
1.0 
3 
1.2 
Sif 
1.1 


el 
ark 
2.2 


st 
6.8 
8-12 13-18 19-24 257 


Au 
10.4 
April 


Wind velocity, m.p.h. 


5.0 
6.0 
4-7 


-8 
-6 
+4 


a6) 
Seah 
of 

6.2 
0-3 


ak 
(oa 


da 
an 


See. 
5.1 


0300 5.6 
0900 «44.9 
1200 
1500 


1800 
2100 


0.1 


5 
10.0 
11. 


et 
6 


0900 
1200 
1500 
TANANA 
‘Time 
of 
day 


Av. 


pal 
aa 
a 
264 


220) 
3.0 
1.4 
aber 


8-12 13-18 19-24 


August 
April 


eit, 
3.1 
956: 
8.4 
4. 

7.0 


10.4 
Wind velocity, m.p.h. 


ae) 


CAC EEC) 
8 
10.2 
822m 10) 0 
6.6 11.1 
Jeo) LA. 
929 
4-7 


Ga tO.e. 
0-3 


0900 11.9 
1200 
1500 
2100 15.2 


0300 18.2 
1800 


Av. 
Av. 
SUMMIT 
Time 
of 
da: 


0300 14.8 
0900 


0.2 


lef 
al 


4.7 
6.6 


7.4 
9.1 


6.4 
4.4 


0300 10.1 
0900 


desis 
is 


rere) 
3.8 
wee 
as) 
cell 
3. 
1.7 


7.0 
6.8 
5.0 
6.1 
7.8 
tee. 


7.8 
tee 
Bite 
12. 
10.9 
June 
July 
10.1 


6.4 
6.7 
4, 

6.6 


3.4 
3.2 

+4 
4.0 


2 


0300 
1500 
1800 
2100 


Av. 
0300 


1 

ol 
1200 
Av. 
0900 


1.0 


“4 
1.2 
Pte 
4, 
2.0 


8.0 
oy 
Chewé 


10.2 
4.0 


13.5 
May 
10.0 
6.1 
Fae 
June 
Jul 


6. 
oe) 
re 
629 
9.3 


3.9 
a9) 
4.1 
5.8 

2100 10.4 11.7 

ol 
6.0 
5.6 
a) 


2100 13.1 411.4 


1500 

0300 18.9 
1200 

1500 

0300 18.0 
1200 16. 
1500 

1800 


Av. 
Av. 


ol 
al 
3 
el 
ol 


4.7 
3.1 


On5 
8. 
May 
6.9 
3 
June 


6.1 
6.1 
fete) 
6.6 
9.8 


at) 


8 
2.6 


Av. 

0300 13.4 
0900 

1200 

1500 

1800 

2100 

Av. 

Av. 

0300 11.1 
0900 


2100 
Av. 


5.7 


De) 


11.6 


© 


1 


Sue 


Av. 


Au 


Av. 


August 


127 


Pool allo ets) 
4.6 10.0 


0300 13.1 11.9 


0900 
1200 


el. 


United States Weather Bureau coded data. 


Source: 


0300 13. 
0900 
1200 

Av. 


Table 29 .--Amount of cloud cover by hour of day, and number of days per month in each cover class 


(Av. 1920-53) 


ANCHORAGE: BETHEL BEETLES BIG DELTA FAIRBANKS FT. YUKON 
8° cloud cover (tenths) *im° loud cover (tenths) *3"* Cloud cover (tenths) TAB Cloud cover (tenths) 73" Cloud cover (tenths) 77" Cloud cover (tenths) 
day 0-3 4-7 8-10 dey 0-3 cet 8-10 dey 0-3 4-7 8-10 day 0-3 4-7 8-10 dey 0-3 4-7 8-10 day 0-3 4-7 8-10 
April April April April April 
0300 10.8 3.0 16.2 os00. 11.4 3.2 15.2 03500 13.6 4.2 12.2 0300 12.2 4.9 12-9 0300 neve) 4.0 13.8 0500 2 21.0 
0900 8.6 3.8 ATT os00 7.0 229) S2051) os00 11.0 4.4 14.6 03900 8.7 6.0 15.5 os00 9.6 4.6 15.9 0900 5 14.0 
1200 7.8 3.3 18.9 1200 6.2 2:9) “e029 1200 11.7 3.9 14.5 2200 8.7 6.7 14.7 1200 9.8 4&4 15.1 2200 22.1 13.0 
1500 7.4 4.2 18.3 1500 6.7 prey (mee sind f 1500 11.6 4.3 14.1 2500 7.8 7-0 15.2 1500 20.6 4.2 15.3 1500 21.9 24.0 
1800 2 4.7). 18-2 1800 8.4 3.4, 91621 1800 11.4 5.3 13.2 1800 7.8 5.8 16.4 1800 9.3 4.5- 16.5 1800 11-9 23.0 
2100 9.8 3.6 16.7 2100 8.8 4.35 16.8 2100 14.3 4.7 11.0 2100 11.9 6.35 11.8 2100 12.2 4.1 13.8 2100 14.7 12.0 
Av. 8.6 3.8 17.6 Av. Bap Tssem lass Av. 12 SSaae DinoTe Av. 9:5 Glut ee4 Av. 10:6 uua<omeROs Av. Is. 12.8 
May May May. May May May 
0300 5.7 359° 22v4 0300 5.3 3.9\ 21.8 0500 10.1 5.8 15.1 500 79. we 15.9 03500 9.8 4.3 16.9 26.0 4.8 10.2 
03900 5.8 4.2 21.0 0900 5.2 S29) 2189) 0300 10.1 6.2 14.7 0900 6.9 8.2 15.9 0900 7.8 5-5 17.9. 13.1 4.8 13.0 
1200 4.9 452) 1209 1200 4.3 o59)p 22.8 2200 7.6 8.2 15.2 1200 4.8 8.4 17.8 1200 5.0 5.5 20.7 10.8 7.0 13.2 
1500 3.9 4.0 22.6 1500 4.3 3.6 25.1 1500 6.7 8.6 15.6 1500 3.6 8.2 18.9 1500 4.7 5.4 20.9 9.8 7.8 13.4 
1800 4.3 4.3 22.3 1800 4.2 4.8 22.0 1800 6.5 6.3 16.3 1800 4.4 7.0 19.6 1800 5.7 5.1 20.2 20.2 7.6 12.8 
2200 5.6 £295 2067 2100 5.7 Kye 20.2 2100 9.3 6.7 15.0 2200 7.6 162: 16.2 2100 8.0 5.9 17.2 2.3 6.9 32.8 
Av. 5.0 455.207, Av. 4.8 4.2 22.0 Av. 8.7 7.0 15.3 Av. 5.9 7.7 17.4 Av. 6.8 522 29.0 1222 6.5 12.4 
June June June June June June 
0500 4.7 4.1 21.2 0300_ 4.4 4.0 21.6 0300 ) 6.4 7 0300 5.) 6.2 18.7 0300 5.4 5.6 18.9 03500 BuIA? 6.9 12.4 
03900 3.6 4.2 22.2 03900 259) 3.4 23.7 os00 6.9 8.1 ie} 0900 6.2 5.5 18.5 0300 6.1 4.9 18.8 0900 SES 7.4- 12.7, 
1200 4.6 4.9 20.6 1200 3.4 3.2 23.5 2200 5.1 9.0 $ 1200 5.8 7.7 16.6 1200 5.2 5.8 19.1 2200 T9 9.2 287) 
1500 5.0 5.6 OTA: 1500 3.9 4.4 21.7 1500 ANG Sl Ons? 8 1500 5.2 6.7 18.1 1500 3.7 lec 19.12 1500 6.9 8.7 14.4 
1800 4.6 5.0 20.5 1800 4.4 3.6 22.0 1800 6.9 8.8 3 1800 5.0 Get ae 1800 4.6 6.6 18.9 1800 6.1 8.5 15.4 
2100 4.0 5.8 20.2 2100 4.3 Seeel. 6 2100 7.8 8.9 3 2100 4.7 8.0 17.3 2100 6.0 5.9 18.2 2100 9.2 7.6 135 
Av. 4.4 ra: Mae Av. 5.9 3.8 22.5 Av. CE eat! 8 Av. 5.3 6.8 17.9 Av. 522 6.0 18.6 Av. 8.6 8.2 13.5 
July July July = July July . July 
3500 5.7 4.7 20.7 03500 3.3 2.5 -3 0500 6.8 6.2 18.0 03500 539 5.4 19.7 0500 5.4 4.6 27.0 0300 22.4 Ce a7 
0900 5.6 4.2 21.2 0900 2.6 2.9 6 0300 5.4 5.9 19.7 0900 6.6 5.7 18.8 03900 6.6 4.3 19.9 0900 610.0 5.4 15.6 
1200 T2 4.1 Lets 1200 CT 2.3 0 2200 4.7 6.9 19.5 1200 6.35 7.2 17.3 1200 5.6 5.8 197, 1200 6.8 7.9 16.5 
1500 6.8 4.7 19.6 1500 2.6 3.2 22 1500 3.9 8.1 19:0 1500 5.9 Tals 17.6 1500 6.0 S25) S19 S7 1500 6.2 8.6 16.2 
1800 7.0 4.7 19.35 1800 4.0 3.8 2 1800 4.7 8.4 17.9 1800 6.9 6.4 17.7 1800 6.6 5.5 19.2 1600 7.4 9 2 
2100 6.2 5.0 ae 2100 4.8 3.3 9 2100 6.8 6.2 18.0 2100 5.4 7.6 18.0 2100 6.3 Sal Ey 2200 9.4 6.4 i 
Av. 6.4 4.6 20.0 Av. 3.35 3.0 aif Av. 9.4 6.9 16.7 Av 6.2 6.6 18.2 Av. 6.1 Parag.) Av. 8.7 Tae yak 
August August August August August August 
0300 4.8 5.4 22.8 0500 ene a ea 0300 5.0 5.0 21.0 0300 6.7 4.8 19.6 0300 5.2 4.5 22.6 0300, 10.4 5.6 25:0 
0900 3.8 4.4 22.8 0900 1.0 Uist FB o7, os00 4.1 3.7 23.2 0300 S27 5.6 19.8 03900 4.8 3.0 23.2 os00 8.7 5.2 17.2 
1200 4.2 4.4 22.3 1200 1.0 1:39 (28.2 1200 3.2 5.0 22.8 1200 5.8 Wet, BTS 1200 4.7 4.6 21.8 2200 6.3 9.3 25.5 
1500 4.6 5.0 21.4 1500 1.0 220) goeice 1500 2.4 6.5 22.2 1500 4.6 ttf AGG) 1500 ent 6.1 22.2 1500 5.2 9.8 16.2 
1800 4.3 3.2 21.6 1800 1.4 3.0 26.6 1800 3.8 Ten, L959. 1800 4.8 6.6 19.4 1800 3.9 9:0) 22.2 1800 5.2 8.2 17.8 
2100 5.2 4.6 21.3 2100 2.4 3.0 25.6 2100 6.5 4.8 19.9 2100 6.5 D56e 9 su 2100 4.7 Delile 2100 8.9 6.0 15.9 
Av. 4.5 4.5 22.0 Av. 15 2.4 27.2 Av. 4.1 5.4 21.5 Av. 5.6 653) 19.1 Av. 4.3 4.7 22.0 Av. 7.4 7.5 16.5 
GALENA GULKANA HOMER ILITAMNA KOTZESUE LAKE MiNCHUMINA 
ae Cloud cover (tenths) nee Cloud cover (tenths) igs Cloud cover (tenths) aa Cloud cover (tenths) aa Cloud cover (tenths) ee Cloud cover (tenths) 
day 0-3 4-7 8-10 day 0-3 4-7 8-10 day 0-35 4-7 8-10 day 0-3 4-7 8-10 day 0-5 4-7 8-10 dey 0-5 4-7 8-10 
April April April April April April 
0300 11.6 4.7 13.8 0300 14.6 4.4 11.0 0500 9n7 ovo" 1654 0500 10.7 3.9 15.4 0500 5 3.6 > 15.7 03500 12.9 3.6 25.6 
0900 9.6 4.3 16.1 0900 10.7 5.0 14.3 0900 7.8 4.1 18.1 0900 8.1 4.4 17.6 0300 ak 3.6 17.2 0900 «12.2 3.8 15.0 
1200 9.8 4.1 16.1 1200 9.0 5.6 15.4 1200 8.1 4.1 17.8 1200 352. 4.4 16.5 1200 2 3.8 16.0 21200 «610.2 4.2 15.6 
1500 9.8 4.0 16.2 1500 1-9; 4.3 17.8 1500 8.1 3.8 18.1 1500 9.6 4.4 16.0 1500 ie} 3.6 15.4 1500 8.6 4.1 27.5 
1800 10.0 4.1 15.8 1800 8.1 6.2 15.7 1800 8.5 4.8 16.9 1800 8.8 5.6 15.7 1800 atk 3.9 14.9 1800 8.7 4.2 17.2 
2100 11.0 3.3 15.7 2100 (15.9 4.5 11.8 2200 11-2 3.1 15.7 2100 10.7 4.1 25.0 2100 we 2.5 15.5 2100. 25.1 $.2 15.8 
Av. 10.3 4.1 15.6 AV. 10.7 5.0 14.5 Av. 8.9 Dooce AVA = OMNES baer 6 Oma RAY,= 7 3.5 ~«(lo.8 RY. 10.5 3:8) Los4 
Mey May May Mey May May 
0S00 8.6 5.0 17.4 0500 8.7 6.0 16.5 0500 6.3 4.1 20.6 0500 6.0 4.6 20.4 0500 9.6 3.0 18.4 0300 8.0 6.2) 2629 
0900 8.5 4.7 18.0 0300 6.3 5.8 18.9 0300 5.6 a6) 8 2029) 0900 5.5 6.2 19.4 0300 S50 4.2 ak feel 0900 8.2 5.9 16.9 
1200 6.5 6.1 18.6 1200 4. 6.4 20.4 1200 5.4 4.6 20.8 1200 5.0 Lire 18.9 1200 10.4 4.7 15.9 1200 6.2 6.2 168.6 
1500 5.4 5.6 20.0 1500 4.1 4.8 eit 1500 4.8 Soe tae 1500 5.8 6.2 19.0 1500 10.4 4.7 15.9 1500 5.35 6.9 18.7 
1800 5.6 5.7 2957) 1809 4.4 i29; | 18's7: 1800 5.3 5.0 20.7 1800 6.8 5.6 18.7 1800 22.3 3.6 15.1 1800 6.6 6.4 18.0 
2100 8.0 6.5 16.7 2100 Tet 6.8 16.6 2100 t.2 4.7 _19.1 2100 6.2 5.2 19.4 2100 RES 3.7 5 2100 9.2 4.3 17.4 
Av. 7.0 5.6 18.4 Av. Pa] 6.5 18.8 Av. 5.8 4.7 20.5 Av. 5.9 5.8 19.3 Av. 10.7 4.0 3 Av. Te 6.0 17.8 
June June June June June June 
0300 5.5 7.0 LT 0300 7.6 5.2 17.2 0500 6.35 4.6 19.1 03500 3.7 4.2 20.1 0300 6.6 378 5 0300 5.8 6.0 18.2 
os00 6.4 6.0 17.6 0900 6.7 7.3 16.0 0900 5.9 5.1 19.0 0900 5.2 4.8 20.0 0900 Kare 4.3 5 03900 6.2 529)” 2729 
1200 aS. eat) 1ok2 1200 5.6 6.2 18.2 1200 6.2 4.3 19.4 1200 4.9 5.6) 19.6 2200 8.3 4.4 +5 1200 4.8 6.8 18.4 
1500 3.8 636 19.7 1500 4.0 6.3 19.7 1500 6.2 5.4 18.5 1500 5.6 6.3 18.1 21500 97. 5.0 2 1500 3.0 G-Seo a! 
1800 3.6 6.7 19.8 1800 5.0 6.8 18.2 18600 7.35 i ea er 1800 5.6 6.8 17.7 1800 3.3 4.4 2 1800 3.4 6.4 20.1 
2100 4.6 6.8 18.4 2100 5.8 6.9 i7.3 2100 7.6 4.7__17.8 2100 4.7 7.0 18.5 2100 8.2 4.8 79 2100 4.7 5.0. 20.2 
Av. 4.8 6.5 18.7 Av. 5.8 6.4 17.8 Av. 6.6 4.9 16.5 Av 5.2 5.8 19.0 Av. 8.2 4.5 .3 Av. 4.6 6.2 19-2 
July July July July July July. 
0300 4.5 5.0 21.5 0300 8.6 4.9 17.6 0300 8.7 4.1 18.2 0300 5.8 3.9 22.3 0300 3.9 $.0 24.1 0300 4.7 19.8 
0900 4.2 5.4 21.4 0300 t.9 5.0 18.2 og900 8.2 5.2 FLT.7 os00 5.0 3.7 22.3 03900 4.2 2a, 24.77) os00 S.2 20.9 
1200 4.0 5.2 21.8 1200 6.2 6.8 18.0 1200 7.6 5.7 17.8 1200 4.3 4.8 21.9 1200 5.8 4.5 20.9 1200 4.8 20.7 
1500 4.0 Se0ne ote 1500 5.7 ices 18.2 1500 8.9 5.0 Lier 1500 5.8 5.4 19.6 1500 6.2 5.1 19.7 1500 5.4 20.7 
1800 3.4 6.2) (2154 1800 5.0 5.8 20.2 1800 8.0 5.0 17.9 1500 6.2 5.8 19.0 1800 6.1 4.4 20.5 1800 5.9 20.2 
2100 4.2 SeSim elak 2100 7.6 4.7 18.8 2100 8.8 5.5 16.8 2100 5.4 6.2 19.5 2100 6.2 Su7e 22 2100 6.0 19.7 
Av. 4.0 Sone to} Av. 6.8 5.7 18.5 av. 8.4 5.0 17.6 Av. 5.4 5 20.6 Av 5.4 he peer ote Av. $.0 20.5 
August August August August August August 
0300 4.0 3.8 3.2 0300 7.5 5.8 Lio) 0300 6.9 2.4 $2207 0300 5.35 3.0 22.7 0500 3.4 2.0 25.6 0300 $24 21-8 
0900 3.0 3.0 ie) 0900 6.8 4.6 19.7 03900 5.7 4.6 20.8 0900 2.8 4.4 235.8 0900 3.4 2.0 25.6 0900 3.3 23.8 
1200 2.4 3.0 6 1200 6.1 5.8 19.1 1200 5.4 4.4 21.1 1200 a9: 5.3 25.8 1200 5.0 CEs earl 1200 4.0 25.8 
1500 1.9 3.9 ia 1500 6.6 5.7 18.8 1500 5.0 4.8 21.2 1500 2.6 6.4 22.0 1500 3.9 4.0 23.1 2500 4.3 235.9 
1800 2.8 4.2 ie) 1800 6.1 6.1 18.8 1800 6.1 O28) ele 1800 229 6.1 22.0 1800. 4.7 3.2 23.1 1800 5.5 22.4 
2100 3.0 4.8 25.2 2100 8.2 6.2 16.6 2100 7.0 5.0 19.0 2100 3.5 5.7% 22.0 2100 4.2 3.5 4 2100 . 4.2 22.4 
Av. 2.8 3.8 74 Av. 6.8 Stinleed Av. GOmun accu COs Olen. leAMis 3.1 Seaeeas Av. a ass Av. 2 4.1 23.0 
ST EE a Ce as ee ee ee ee 


128 


Table 29.--Amount of cloud cover by hour of day, and number of days per month in each cover class--Continued 


(Av. 1950-58) 


McGRATH NAKNEK NORTHWAY SUMMIT TANANA UNALAKLEET 
ne Cloud cover (tenths) ae Cloud cover (tenths) id Cloud cover (tenths) ee Cloud cover (tenths) as Cloud cover (tenths) ane Cloud cover (tenths) 
day 0-3 ~=«4-7~SC«-10.—St—éhny 0-3 4-7 8-10 day 0-3 4-7 ~~8-10 day 0-3 4-7 ~—«8-10—S day 0-3 4-7 ~=—«8-10_—Ss day 0-3 4-7 ~—«8-10 
April April April April April April 
0300 10.7 3.6 15.8 0500 10.2 3.2 16.6 0300 8.4 4.6 IezS) 0300 11.3 4.3 14.3 0500 13.7 5.1 11.2 0300 10.4 3.4 16.1 
0900 9.6 4.6 15.9 03900 6.7 3.9 19.4 0900 8.6 4.7 16.8 0900 9.9 3.7 16.4 0900 Leo: 5.7 12.4 0900 7.8 4.4 fart, 
1200 9.7 4.2 16.1 1200 6.1 3.8 20.1 1200 7.3 5.4 17.2 1200 9.7 3.3 LTO 1200 W251 4.8 13.1 1200 8.3 5.1 16.6 
1500 8.6 5.4 16.0 1500 5.2 5.6 19.2 1500 Misc 5.5 17.6 1500 7.4 4.8 17.8 1500 10.9 4.9 14.1 1500 9.8 3.8 16.5 
1800 8.6 4.6 16.9 1800 6.9 4.4 18.7 1800 6.9 5.3 17.8 1800 8.2 5.1 16.8 1800 10.6 6.4 13.0 1800 8.9 4.1 17.2 
2100 ll.1 4.1 14.8 2100 9.8 4.6 naa 2100 EOI 4.1 15.8 2100 (10.3 4.3 15.3 2100 14.2 4.8 mete! 2100 10.8 4.6 14.7 
Av. CG 4.4 15.9 Av. 7.5 4.2 18.3 Av. 65a 4.9 17.0 Av. 9.5 4.2 16.3 Av. 12.2 5.3 12.5 Av. 9.3 4,2 16.5 
Mey _ May May May May Nay 
0300 Te Gyeat 18.7 0300 5.3 4arL -6 0300 3.8 7.0 20.2 0300 faa 3.7 = ©=620.1 0300 10.9 6.8 13.6 0300 1.9 5.1 18.0 
03900 7.8 4.2 19.0 0900 3.3 3.3 3 0900 ar 6.2 20.7 0900 Gant 4.6 19.8 0900 oe2 6.2 15.7 03900 8.7 5.0 17.3 
1206 5.4 29 Se eO il, 1200 2.35 5.4 <2 1200 2.8 S29 22'3 1200 5.3 7.6 18.0 1200 TL 7.6 16.3 1200 7.4 5.9 177 
1500 4.3 5.9 20.8 1500 2.0 4.9 sal 1500 2.3 4.7 24.0 1500 5.4 6.2 19.3 1500 5.9 8.3 16.8 1500 6.9 6.2 L7.9 
1800 5.2 5.1 20.7 1800 3.0 5.7 .3 1800 3.6 4.9 22.6 1800 6.1 6.2 18.7 1800 7.8 5.4 17.8 1800 Tol 6.2 17.7 
2100 7.5 4.4 ngs 2100 3.1 7.6 at 2100 5.0 5.6 2054 2100 eh 5.2 18.0 2100 9.0 7.4 14.6 2100 8.2 5.4 17.3 
AVA ROLC DEA CIN@LOTS & AVs; © Gs2 Sse e@2.65 AV, 3.6 Sal ebay Av. 6.4 5.6 19.0 AV. 8.0 6.9 15.8 AV. Ts See 4 
June June June June June June 
0300 5.1 AM TUSteO. 2 0300 3.3 4.3 .3 0300 3.6 Bes Nee g: 0300 4.6 3.9 21.6 0300 Tal 8.3 14.6 0300 5.3 4.6 20.1 
0900 5.3 S29F #2078 0900 O57. 4.0 3 0900 4.8 §.3 19.9 0900 4,0 3.9 22.1 0900 6.7 8.35 15.0 0900 5.4 5.6 19.0 
1200 4.1 5.1 20.8 1200 3.1 3.7 Jc) 1200 3.2 7.3 9. 1200 2.8 4.9 22.3 1200 4.8 8.2 aby Ate} 1200 5.4 6.2 18.3 
1500 3.7 4.8 21.6 1500 2:9 5.4 ith 1500 2.9: 5.0) 322.5 1500 3.3 5.8 20.9 1500 3.2 ao) 16.6 1500 5.7 6.2 18.1 
1800 3.7 5.6 20.6 1800 3.6 ae <2 1800 3.1 Del. eels 1800 3.3 6.7 20.0 1800 4.7 8.7 Gay, 1800 5.4 6.6 18.0 
2100 5.3 4.6 20.1 2100 3.8 4.9 -3 2100 ape aii eee 2100 4.2 5.3 20.4 2100 5.0 8.6 16.5 2100 5.7 5.3 19.0 
Av. 4.5 4.8 20.7 Ave 3.2 4.6 aa Av. 3.4 Soe, les Av. 37 5.1 21.2 Av. 5.2 8.7 16.1 , Av. 5.5 5.8 18.7 
July July July July July July 
0300 4.6 3.8 22.7 0300 2.8 5.0 25.2 0300 3.4 Sav) “2be8: 0300 5.7 Stay 221 0300 8.2 4.3 18.4 0300 3.3 5.7 22.0 
0900 5.9 Oe Oi 216 0900 3.3 252) 25.4 0900 4.9 6.4 19.7 0900 5.1 3.2 22.6 0900 6.2 6.4 18.3 0900 3.2 4.8 23.0 
1200 4.2 5.0) °21.8 1200 3.2 3.4 24.3 1200 4.3 6.4 20.2 1200 4.4 4.9 21.7 1200 4.7 6.8 19.6 1200 3.7 6.1 21.2 
1500 3.7 5.1 22.2 1500 2.9 4.2 23.9 1500 3.3 7.3 20.3 1500 4.1 Din ele 1500 4.2 6.0 20.8 1500 4.2 6.6 20.2 
1800 4.3 3.4 23.2 1800 3.1 5.0 22.9 1800 4.2 ber! 20.9 1800 5.0 4.0 22.0 1800 eet) fale 20.0 1800 4.1 6.0 20.9 
2100 4.3 Onfseees.0 2100 3.4 4.2 23.3 2100 4.8 5.5: 20.9 2100 6.3 3.7 20.9 2100 4.6 anek 19.3 2100 3.9 5.9.8 2152 
Av. 4.5 eee Av. 3.1 3.7 © ©624.2 Av. 4.2 6.2 20.6 Av. 5.1 4.1 21.8 Av. 5.3 6.35 19.4 Av. 3.7 5399 2ls4 
August August August August August August 
0300 Chae Onlin eae 0300 3.5 2.8 24,9 0300 4,4 4.6 22.0 0300 4.2 4.1. 22.7 0300 5.2 3.8 22.0 0300 3.0 3.1 24,9 
0900 3.0 USS 26s 0900 2.0 1.6 27.4 0900 4.6 4.8 21.6 0900 2.9 2.9 25.2 0900 3.4 Oo4. 2252 0900 2.7, O21 25.2 
1200 Zot 3.8 25.0 1200 1.4 3.6 26.0 1200 3.4 6.1 21.5 1200 2.6 4.0 24.4 1200 3.1 5.4 22.4 1200 2.4 3.4 25.1 
1500 Nist/ 3.4 (25.9 1500 pleal 4.3 25.6 1500 raph tee 2156 1500 3.0 3.1 24.9 1500 2.3 5.4 23.2 1500 2.4 3.4 25,1 
1800 3.6 3.4 24.0 1800 2.1 4.9 24,0 1800 3.2 626); £212 1800 3.1 3.7 24.2 1800 3.8 6.0 21.3 1800 2.4 3.4 25.1 
2100 4.0 3.6 23.4 2100 2.4 4.9 23.7 2100 5.2 5.9 19.9 2100 4.8 3.3 22.9 2100 6.1 4.1 20.8 2100 3.2 3.8 24,0 
Av 3.0 3.2 24.8 Av. 2:20: o.7) 2513 Av. 3.8 5.97 eels Av. 5.4 3.5 24.1 Av. 4.0 5.0 22.0 Av. ZiT 3.4 24.9 


Source: United States Weather Bureau coded data. 


129 


Table 30.--Visibility distance by hour of day, and number of deys per month in each distance class 


(Av. 1950-58) 


ANCHORAGE 
Time Visibility in miles Visibility in miles n 
of 0- 3/16 nml/o= alae oa Fil ayes abe is ° T 3 
day 1/8 _-3/8 3/4 2-1/2. 46 T+ dey i/s_-3/a__ 3/4 2-1/2 6 T+ day _if/e  -3/8 3/4 2-1/2 6 as 
April April April 
0300 Osi OL) 0.8 0.7 28.3 0300 0.2 LifimnselGeneo sO 810500: 0.4 O:Bie ea 
0900 2 fameale 28.4 0900 0.2 ney 1.3. 2.4 26.0 0900 2 8 1.0 28.0 
1200 pal RS oO, 28.6 1200 .2 28). SUG 27-45 keOo 0.1 Ail ce ies ay. 
1500 -4 = 1.0 28.6 1500 2 Pi: ene 1: ee 110, 0) au! aS noe Teen 
1800 <8) a 28.8 1800 2 aye Alar ie rare TUGeT0) 2 1.0 292m 9 
2100 comet 29.3 2100 -2. 3 9 2.1 26.5 2100 hi -8. 28.5 
ve =o! eer 28.6 Av. v1 me oie srasch Oe 2 Bose fee Sn: 
May May Mey 
0300 aa = 30.8 0300 0.3 a 2 6 79 28.6 03500 0.2 Eal = 6 23 29.6 
0900 eal 30.9 0900 pal 160, LoS 29204 0900 2 eS -7 29.8 
1200 31.0 1200 2 -7 30.1 1200 ath 2 2) 30.5 
1500 31.0 1500 ae} -7 30.0 1500 As oes 
1800 rae 30.9 1800 ls -4 30.5 1800 =i 2 SONG: 
2100 2 30.8 2100 Ail mal -6 30.2 2100 el 2 Sv s0-5 
Av. aD 30.9 Av. 1 ee “i 25 Sremeoan! wAVE al aK TSEcOLS 
June June June 
0300 (0.1 2 9 28.8 0300 2 a Bi -4. +«21-7 26.5 0300 1.6 28.4 
03900 8 29.2 0900 TEOas920 27 0900) =lget omOBsG 
1200 3 29.7 1200 4 -8 28.8 1200 .2 Sth Aca 
1500 roe yt 29.7 1500 2 -T 29.1 1500 =i, cal -8 29.0 
1800 2 (29*8 £1800) -8 29.2 1800 -4 29.6 
2100 4 29.6 2100 22 -4 29.4 2100 ok ee) 
Av 5 29.5 Av. ay Bal Papen POLO AVE 5 1.0 28.9 
July July July 
0300 a 1 Tolar esse; 0S00 enh a a Pidigg oad ress)» 0800 12 2 +2 TS vag les ed re 
0900 41.2 29.4 0900 sl: 2.1 2.7 26.1 0900 +4 TOM Lo Samet 
1200 Su 133 29.4 1200 -9° 2.0 28.1 1200 ol 2 +3 2.5 28.2 
1500 3 1.0 29.8 1500 -8 1.6 28.6 1500 -2 othe Bere Ahr 
1800 a CT: 29.8 1800 -7 1.9 28.4 1800 2 -4 2.0 28.4 
2100 als 31.6 29.0 2100 1.1 1.7 28.2 2100 5 : 2.5 27.8 
Av. zat Analy 29.4 Av. aul al Dias aoiae. tke 2 “1 -8 1.9. 28.0 
August August August 
0300 ae 72 sop rLsO 29.3 0300 ae Alien Vs 9 ase Sin e2nn | 0500; 2 a] i) 1.0 3.4 25.8 
0300 sa 152 29.4 0900 .2 4.4 3.6 22.8 0900 a +2 1.4 2.8 26.5 
1200 Ral WE.) 30.1 1200 1.6 4.2 25.2 1200 ot -7 2.0 28.2 
1500 ar 30.3 1500 -9 3.8 26.3 1500 -T 2.1 28.2 
1800 2 eal ee 30.4 1800 pla enh olsoae velle2) +2 +6 1.5 28.6 
2100 1.2 29.8 2100 zy Tec emcee wenr 2100 +8 2.0 28.2 
Av. Ba at Seng, 29.8 Av. T ms 2 22 OMROnT Av. at a al +8 2.3 27.6 
BIG DELTA FAIRBANKS FT. YUKON 
Time 3 i i Time Visibility in miles Time Visibility in miles 
of 0- = of 0- 3/i6 1/2= «1 - = of 0 3/16 je a 
day 1/8 T+ aay U/B.) 6=3/8e 23 /SUn Seo 6 T+ day 1/8 _-3/8 «3/4 2-1/2 6 T+ 
April April 
03500 0.7 0-7 28.6 0300 0.2 1.5 28.6 0300 0-2 0.9 0.6 27.3 
0300 6 1.4 28.0 0900 0-1 1.2~ 28.7 0900 6 AT COUT, 
1200 ar -4 29.2 1200 a1 -4 29.5 1200 4 1.0 28.6 
1500 13 3 29 1500 42 02958) 2500 a :7 28.9 
1800 -6 -2 29.2 1800 ait .2 29.7 18002/ a5 26) 127:9 
2100 0.1 ae) -6 29.0 2100 aul -4 29.5 22001/ 0-1 ale <9 27.3 
Av. BF 6 28.9 Av. mal 76 29.5 Av. .6 28 mooed: 
May May May 
0300 4 71 «30.5 +=0300 sos A 72 30-2 0300 .3 =7 30.0 
0900 oe 30.7 0900 te -4 30.4 0900 -6 27) M2Be 7 
1200 ae -1 30.7 1200 ',4 30.6 1200 eal =6) S0:3 
15002/ al = 30.4) 500 33) “3057 9 S500 a 230) S0EG 
1800 2 30.8 1800 -4 30.6 - 18002/ fas 500 
2100 ast +2 30.5 2100 -2 30.8 2100 -4 E2989 
Av. 5) AIS s0s6 | AVE pe 735 00LG  AVs 3 -6 29.9 
June June June 
0300 0.1 74 «29.5 0300 ae 79 29.0 0300 ou ae aeee 
0300 42: -8 29.0 0900 -7 29.3 0900 ait Pee ouaai 
1200 -8 29.2 1200 eal +3 29.6 1200 395 2981) 
1500 ol sBy eeScdem. 2500. ail ~.-)29-6) — 1500 1.0 29.0 
1800 -3 29.7 1800 +9 29.1 1800 1.4 28.6 
2100 0.1 ron eon. | 2100) 120 VON 228.8 C1O0N a 1, Qos a 
Av. Ee FOR SeotAn /AVS aa Be, ENG ale ae) 
July July July 
0300 au Bre aT 1.6 28.5 0300 0.4 ao 4 Zoe Lue eeso) SOsOUmmOnt 4 a .6 PiSMMeess. 
0900 4 -9 29.7 0900 eal 2 -9 1.8 28.0 0900 a5) a eG) 2 Opene7e5: 
1200 2 -9 29.9 1200 ak as) 2 1:0 29.4 1200 gil .2 =3 wi) 26) 128el 
1500 Bil -8 30.1 1500 cal ppt Se ers ABST aI) ql ort 2 BE) a aS 
1800 3 1.1 29.6 1800 2 $2) 1123). 29235800, 2 4 2 17 | 2877 
2100 <6 1.0 29.4 2100 2 -2 1.8 28.8 2100 “al -6 Sr Meneses PEs 
Av. 4 TLyeosl AVE at =a = Pipe Lee ice Bay 2 2 6 sey egies 
August August August 
0300 BT mal 2 77 29.9 0300 aD 4 1.3 2.1 26.9 0300 a 72 aul Some SOE 
0900 Bl <1 1.7 29.1 0900 a -8 1.1 1.6 27.4 0900 ea) 7, BOLSieer-& 
1200 aft -3 30.6 1200 is 28) U3) 929-0) 200 au al -3 1.6 28.9 
1500 or -7 30.2 1500 Fal “3 -9 29.7 1500 4 TE en ELS} 
1800 ay -3 30.6 1800 pal 22) 710) 2928718 A800 ot -6) 30.5 
2100 aa -8 30.1 2100 au Ss -8 29.8 2100 oT -2 22) 1.4 29.1 
Av. ze SSpRSONL Avis Re oa umes © Lars au = ine slg Le) 


See footnote at end of table. = 


130 


Table 30.--Visibility distance by hour of day, and number of days per month in sach distance class--Continued 


fd 7aRN-#R) 


GALENA GULKANA HOMER 
Time Visibility in miles Time Visibility in miles Time Visibility in miles 
of os S)iGomajes a = oe of 0- Sls) dje= = one of 0- 3/fl6 1/2- 1 - 3 - 
da. 1/8 -3/8 3/4 2-1/2 6 T+ day 1/8 -3/8_ 3/4 2-1/2 6 T+ day 1/8 -3/8 3/4 2-1/2 6 T+ 
April April April 
0300 0.1 0.6 1.4 eTs9 0300 0.6 0.4 29.0 0300 0.1 0.1 0.2 1.0 1.1 27.5 
0900 Ost 220° 2.2 (27.38 10900 2 2 29.6 0900 1 +3 6 1.2 27.8 
1200 =e -6  .7 28.5 1200 4 -2 29.4 1200 nal if 7 28.5 
1500 1 ne) -7 29.0 1500 2 29.8 1500 1.1 -9 28.0 
1800 7-6 «A «29,0 1800 2 -1 29.7 1800 4 9 28.7 
2100 -8 8 28.4 2100 2 4 29.4 2100 2 1 2 :7 8 28.0 
Av. 1 -6 9 28.4 Av. 3 2 29.5 Av. 1 aI a if 9 28.1 
May May May 
0300 0.1 -4 “2 30.3 0300 ar a 30.7 0300 1 e aE 4 50.2 
0900 pul Ar 3 30.4 0900 O21 ol ac 30.6 0900 4 50.5 
1200 2 .1 30.7 1200 or aa +1 30.7 +1200 1 2 30.7 
1500 le ae 30.7 1500 2 30.8 1500 al 30.9 
1800 eal “2 30.7 1800 1 30.9 1800 ok -s059 
2100 +341 30.6 = 2100 +1 30.9 2100 1 30.9 
Av. ol we. a 30.6 Av. ape eal 30.8 Av. 2 30,7 
June June June 
0300 mal ok “6:9 29 28.7 '0300'2/\021 0.3 -6 27,0 0300 2 3 at 6 2 28.9 
0900 Fede le) 28.4 0900 ol 29.9 0900 3 ppt 29.6 
1200 4 a) PASE 1200 30.0 1200 1 x) 29.6 
1500 ob 1S af 28.9, 1500 30.0 1500 +1 29.9 
1800 +2 ao) 20 28.5 1800 30.0 1800 72 29.8 
2100 wilt 728i 2859 200 30.0 2100 1 2429.5 
Av. =a 73 9 28.7 Av. a ie Oba AY. 1 L 2 29.6 
July July July 
0300 4 75 ne a) EC) 0300 ol ai a) -2 -6 29.9 0300 6 3 2 1.2 28.7 
0900 -6 Lele div6: 277 1.0900 pal 6 30.3 0900 pel 3 6 30.0 
1200 75 10 36° 328.9 _ 1200 6 30.4 1200 4 30.6 
1500 A 12) LA 28.0 1500 ol 4 30.5 1500 28 3 50.4 
1800 a 4 -6 1.5 28.4 1800 eal -7 30.2 1800 3 G6 30.1 
2100 ak -4 ne OumliG 279° 2100 ol -8 30.1 2100 Pe 3 8 29.8 
Av. 3 3 DOM 1. Se S2SL Aye ai 6 30.2 Av. 1 va 2 T 29.9) 
August August August 
0300 ear a TGP 292 0300: a 3 1 i] 3 29.8 0300 6 3 6 3 8 28.4 
0900 a 4, 1.6 28.9 0900 1 ol 3 30.5 0900 al 1 ol 1 7 29.9 
1200 me) 8 29.3 1200 eL 30.9 1200 1 1 3 30.5 
1500 5 36) 172929" “1500 av 30.9 1500 3 -4 30.3 
1800 4 .2 30.4 1800 1 30.9 1800 2 1 -6 30.1 
2100 4 1.2 29.4 2100 2 30.8 2100 a1 1 3 2 6 29.7 
Av Dam O NM: OSS ya Avis 1 =) 2 30.6 Av 1 1 2 2 -6 29.8 
_ ILIAMNA KOTZEBUE LAKE MINCHUMINA 
Time Visibility in miles Time Visibility in wiles Time Visibility in miles 
of 0- S/lG=a/ = aa he of 0- 36 Uj2-  1-- TS of 0- 3/l6wad/e= l= oa 
day 1/8 _-3/8 3/4 2-1/2 6 T+ day 1/8 _-3/8 3/4 2-1/2 6 T+ day 1/8 -3/8 3/4 2-1/2 6 T+ 
April April April 
0300 0.2 0.2 0.9 ean 26.6 0300 o.1 0.3 ONT. U2) ..2.9 24.8 0300 0.1 0.2 0.4 Ong 28.5 
0900 cal 4 at 1.3 27.4 0900 .2 2 Tak Tee 258 one, 0900 A 9 28.9 
1200 al uy -8 -9 28.1 1200 ee “2 a V8) 14 Oni 1200 ne aye 29.1 
1500 0.1 4 6 alent 27.8 1500 4 ae) 1.4 1.4 25n9 1500 a 6 29.3 
1800 ols 4 1.5 -8 27.4 1800 3 “4 a Wes ee AAS 26.6 1800 2 4 29.4 
2100 wl el -4 line 1L2ee 2720! F200 3 -6 1.7,°1.8 25.6 2100 au «2 29.0 
Av. alt ma 3 9 1.2 27.4 Av. aa 3 Bie VEAL Oy ee5c7 AV 5 ere 
May May May 
0300 ol! pl apt -8 ad 29.2 0300 A 4 no aces) 27.5 0300 0.2 alk ep ae 6 29.8 
0900 ie A 30.1 0900 ol +2 4 14 1,3 27.6 0900 4 30.6 
1200 ab ve 14 30.3 1200 -1 “ib ny pls eae) 28.5 1200 a ab 30.8 
1500 Eat 1 -3 30.5 1500 +3 72 7 29.8 1500 el 222) S07 
1800 oe sul 30.7 1800 ne +2 4 4 29.8 1800 23 30.7 
2100 ce ate 30.4 2100 eal ne 4 8 4 29.1 2100 4 30.6 
Av. pee 3 4 30.2 Av. 2: a2 4 8 a:) 28.7 Av. ok a! 30.6 
June June June 
0300 a] od i) +6 -6 28.2 0300 af aL 14 1.1.6 27.1 0300 Bia ed ao 
i 0900 oak +3 8 28.8 0900 al wa. 4 6 oT. 27.1 0900 <2 dx} 28.9 
1200 pal -3 29.6 1200 el a) de 6) 27.8) 1200 Fal nce Ore 
1500 alt Ere) 1500 ol Ae} +3 fe) 4 28.1 1500 ai} 29.4 
1800 -3 29.7 1800 4 ak +6 -6 .3 28.0 1800 12, 329.8 
2100 -6 29.4 2100 2 6 8 6: 4.7 27.1. 2200 mOLe Leone: 
Av 1 2 4 29.3 Av +3 72 5 a0 Sime e700. Av. ol Oe Son 
July : July _ July 
0300 ee 4 8 BYE 2.2 25.7 0300 4 2: oe 1.3 1.2 27.6 0300 4 ol el -3 2.1 28.0 
0900 oak “4 aR) 2.0 27.6 0900 =; ott -8 1.2 28.1 0900 i ee GABAA as sreh heal 
1200 aa 5 162 29.4 1200 ar 20 8 29.0 1200 ads el 1.0 2956. 
1500 at ia 1.1 28.7 1500 set fy 129% 29.0) 1500 a) met) oO ed! 
1800 oul 4 1.0 29.5 1800 1 pd 2 cong lat ac oer es SLCO0, +3 7 30.0 
2100 sak ak rie 8 29.3 2100 ne atk ah -8 mth 29.1 2100 al 22 all 30.0 
Av. el. al aed 8 1.4 28.4 Av. =: ol -3 -8 1.0 2seT. Av ae at Eyes almab 29.5 
August August August 
0300 at -2 3 158 3.1 2575: 0300 ae aut 3 8 2.2 27.4 0300 el 2 .6 6 29.5 
0900 1.3 Lag, 27.8 0900 re 1:0, 2.0 27.8 0900 ak ol «4 30.4 
1200 ol 2] ee 28.8 1200 onl CM erat) 27.6 1200 al. .2 6 30.1 
1500 at pak ale 1.9 27.8 1500 2 -4°1.9 28.5 1500 rae +1 30.8 
1800 “a iO) “9 1.4 28.3 1800 +4 6 1.4 28.6 1800 a ail; 30.1 
2100 eile +3 1.4 rk 28 2100 rt ale 28.8 2100 oe 30.3 
Av. aul 72 ne But} OTE. Av. 22 1 28.2 Av. ma 2 5 30.2 


* See footnote at end of table. 


131 


Table 30.--Visibility distance by hour of dey, and number of deys per month in each distance class~-Continued 


{hw 1AKN_5R) 
McGRATH NORTHWAY 
Time Visibility in miles Time Visibility in nijes 
of 0- Ey Ate ae el = oe of 0- 3/16 (-/2- = sr 
aay 1/e__-3/8 3/4 2-1/2 6 T+ 6 74. day 2/s- -3/e 3/4 e-1/2 6 T+ 
April Apri April 
0300 0.1 0-8 0-6 28.3 0300 0.2 0.2 0.4 V1 268) T25s5 ~~ 03005 Fo: 0-2 0.1 OLD -umenee 
0900 pal -8 1.1 28.0 0900 ail a Be) fete) 56ts)) 20900 =3 e835) (2826 
1200 eal P6acdy Pee 1200. 3 <8) el Bigs 27 te elec ou oid. Sth eee AES 
1500 a2 26) 1:0) ¥2s.2.- 3500 <2 we “Gia Ye7ee) 500) fin Seok: 
1800 za! 23) 8 _ 2828) = 71600. 4 are -6 27.8 1800 “1 ea <3 ed) 2982 
2100 2 PAU Gae 282) 2100 eal 3 Uae 27a 2100 a2 ae = 7 
Av. Parl SS NOM eats: Wawn ell =o iE ey preg = Ea a -6 .5 28.8 
Mey Mey Mev 
0300°—«o-2 0.1 aly atemsono, (0300, 76 ag 76 +7 2.0 26.4 0300 ee ai [6m OMmmeos2 
0900 etl <a 1.7 8-0 0900 3 12:0 29,7 0900 “2 =a) 262° $2976 
1200 et e717 30%2) 2200. eS -9 29.8 1200 Si) 953) 23056 
1500 +3 3027) 2500 <6 30s4 21500 2 30.8 
1800 -2 30.8 1800 a -4 30.5 1800 -1 30.9 
2100 <aiee DumnrcO se 2100 eat A -8 29.7 2100 -4 30.6 
Av. “lee chee, Uae ay an a cS De Omneoee: Ave -2- .5 30.3 
June June June 
0300 eal =a -3 1.0 28.5 0300 3 8 .9 1.6 2.8 23.0 0500 2 pee -1 .8 28.8 
0900 1.4 28.6 0900 +3 1.4 28.3 0900 -t .6 2913 
1200 -9 29.1 1200 den On B28R9e econ -6 29.4 
1500 -6 29.4 1500 <2) 2.0 2828) 72500 “2 que RES abet! 
1800 -8 29.2 1800 .2 -9 28.9 1800 -7 29.3 
2100 een Ben 29" Ole 2100: 5G: tle. ae) “ekey pane Eee 
Av. Senso rok Ole Ave ed ae 2 Bp wemevian kia : +6 29.5 
July July July 
0300 aa 23 a AE OWs SOT bes OSO0 LES, VEG Tae 2.5 3.4 20.9 0500 «2 +2 «1 69 29-1 
0306 re 1.0 1.1 28.7 0900 -8 3.0 27.2 0900 -4 1.5 29.5 
1200 oe 2Ad RDU SOO e ae F100 -3 1.9 28.8 1200 oi. -£ .9 29.6 
1500 <3 -3 1.4 29.0 1500 -4 1.2 29.4 1500 -6 .6 29.8 
1800 73 4.1.3 29.0 1800 -4 1.6 29.0 1800 oie n5- <on 
2100 Si 2 Ae as PE alae) ou Lisi Bo y-8) eet00) 24.8 29.8 
Av. = eS) SGN 2UMI2BTaY GAVE vs =3 aD cir be aie, diva BE -> .8 29.6 
August August August 
0300 ai 2 1.1 2.4 27.2 0300 i) 1207 aes 2.2 4.8 20.9 0500 +4 +2 5 -4  .8 28.7 
0900 val -9 2.1 27.9 0900 ail 250. 2Snyi e512) 0900 only SC 
1200 Ea (i pale ppt STPAfoYe) 13. 329" 2778) 2200 2 264 S052: 
1500 s2 des) 2955) 99500; 2S: 1222) 22775) i500 -8 30.2 
1800 -3 1.7 29.0 1800 os -8 2.1 27.8 1800 oe a es 
2100 =9 1.6. 28.5 2100 aul “5 1.5 2.6 26.7 2100 8 30.2 
Av. ar ~6ae8) webes "Avs ae = ) Vom s9ouee6rO! | Av. a aw 2 .8 29.8 
SUMOT TANANA UNALAKLEET 
Time Visibility in miles Time Visibility in miles Tine i 
of o= 3/6 —-1/2= D= 3 of 0- 3/i6 “1/2- si 3 - of o= r 3= 
day 1/8 _-3/8 3/4 2-1/2 6 TH day 1/8 -3/8 3/4 2-1/2 6 7+ day 1/8 2 6 ue 
April April 
0300 0-2 1.6 1.6 26.6 0300 Orciataimeseee6; (OS0Dmros 4 ied pNOCommeTaL 
0900 s65 isa, “i28e0° 30900 0.1 .3°* .8-~2828 0900 zu, 23 EE 1. TOTES 
1200 -8 1.0 28.2 1200 et t2°"a0) -28t7) 1200 An a AS -6 -6 28.3 
1500 0.1 1 £9) dled) 42728) 91500) at .150% p 27.9)" 91500 2 -6 -9 28.3 
1800 cB -4 1.4 28.0 1800 -4 29.6 1800 aa al suk 1.0 +5 28.5 
2100 al ESO Seer oe gelog: WULIeES APeSeG 2700 4 4 NS Ome Te9 
Av. 2 Bp dvietan Ave 720] By 29k0) Ave a 22 =D 8 78 27.9 
May Nay May 
0300 0.1 zal 3 1.4 1.4 27.4 0300 0.1 ali Tol aay mesOrL 0300 2 -5 UF Olea ONES ES) 
0s00 sil! -8 1.0 29.7 0900 sl 9828) ©3508. Voso0 2 at 2.53 «21-0 28:4 
1200 pal 4 -7 29.5 1200 tf) S0*S wt e00. = 4 -6 29.9 
1500 .9 -3 29.8 1500 «t, 22") 3057, 500 2 -8 Ser Lif 
1800 4 up 8 29.6 1800 ail! 3 30.6 1800 a) =e ae el Se AES 
2100 As eSiwed eOOVo ne LO0, eS S7S0F6) BELO: =o 2 4 -4 1 29.6 
Av. 12 18 .9 29.1 Av. S12; esi SOlS) WAWS a 22 2 S17 -6 29.2 
June June June 
0300 52 z9 76 28.5 0300 a: 72 1.4 28.5 0300 2 ES =3 Us Olea Ommeoreo 
0300 aa +3 29.6 0900 aL el or) 26st. OS00 pat ail oi 8 au ee 
1200 od! -1 29.8 1200 22) V2) $2826; 4200) ot .3 a) -6 28.2 
1500 4 29.6 1500 o£ 2577-22629) $1500) git cal 2 .3 -7 28.6 
1800 -6 29,4 1800 ol -1 > .9. 2859° 1800 cal 2 2 ah EY 
2100 2 «729.1 2100 ea! slew egto) FeTOO a2, cal 2 sf sine Bea 
Av. ze 3 29.5 «AV. ail tau dedpm 2ee6) Ave eal aa! 22 8 76 28.2 
July July July 
0300 a2: z9 6 TES Met Oro hos rD 03500 Sat, aul! 2.2 1.3 28.35 0300 zal =o soi, bri 
0300 al laa) §29%e- 90900 4 39 e822 eg BO900 <0) 6) 528-6) 
1200 -9 30.1 1200 4 -7 2.1 27.8 1200 a eS AS 
1500 at “7 302 1500 aS 9 .9 28:9 1500 aul aul -6 ESeotS 
1800 22) 91.3) “2975, 91800 -3 -6 1.7 28.4 1800 2 1 6 Pome 
2100 aut «41.6 28.9 2100 2 -6 1.6 28.6 2100 2 orf eee) 
Av. .2 a 34 1.4 28.9 Av. -3 -8 25652823 “Ave git =a) atl a bs} 
August August August 
0300 7) a7, 1.2 2.1 26.8 0300 7) 0.2 es TOjec SST Ae OSOD 53 i ys eee 
0900 a .2 1.1 29.6 0900 ail 2 -7 2.6 27.4 0900 sat Vey alge a0) 
1200 a 2 9 29.8 1200 1 -6 1.4 28.9 1200 sak cals) ES 
1500 1.1 29.9 1500 sa ta ye9te" “i500 eq) = do) gare ES 
1800 1 -2 21.1 29.6 1800 -3 30.7 1800 ail 39) eS. (Bry, 
2100 .6 2.2 28.2 2100 +1 1.3. 29.6 2100 mi aD 1.3) 1.0. 2874 
Av. a: T 4 4 29.0 Av. aul 34s) 29.0 Av. aa! 1.1 Te QS 


1/ Minor data discrepancy 


Source: United States Weather Bureau coded date. 


132 


we © 


_ 


. 
; 
} 
| 
| 
| 
| 


Fi 


Table 31.--Height of ceiling by hour of day, and number of days per month in each height class 


1950-58) 


(Av. 


BETHEL 


Time 
of 


ANCHORAGE 


Time 
of 


Ceiling in hundreds of feet 


Ceiling in hundreds of fest 


50-95 96-199 Unlin. 


30-49 


April 


30-49 50-95 


10-19 20-29 
April 


5-9 


3-4 


1-2 


0 


da: 


3.2 2.7 1.8 14.0 


3.1 


0300 
0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 
2100 


Av. 


LaST 


0.4 


0.1 


0300 
0900 


12.7 


1.8 


15.8 


0.2 


12.2: 


2.7 15.5 


8.4 


1200 


CHL 12.8 


8 


2.5 


14.6 


1.3 


1500 


13.2 


14.0 


2.0 


1800 


2.8 


i) 


uN 


13.6 


2100 
Av. 


2.2 


2.8 


14.7 


May 


May 


dh wo 
mow 
nua 
and 
moh 
© ox 
oor 
mao 
Coe-omtal] 
a st 
man 
mma 
coer) 
dtd 
sta 
+ 
dq 
° 
lomome) 
Qa90 
mad 
ood 
Ww OD 
oNd 
aad 
rod 
cu cu 
cu tt 
emomo) 
Ada 
ate 
ut 09 
~new 
too 
ad 
a 
dad 
fomome) 
foeome 
19 
ood 


9.5 
10.7 


1.7 
1.2 


1500 
1800 
2100 


Av. 


nae) 
10 


3.0 
2.9 


11.6 


1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 


6.7 


6 


13.2 


12.1 


1.8 


3.8 lz. 


3.2 


11.7 


959 


11.4 


June 


June 


Si 4.9 


3.0 


0300 
0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 


9.9 


0300 
0900 


dd 
om 


1 
4.0 


Sal 


4.6 
1.8 


1 
“2 


21.6 


7.7 . 

8.4 3.9 
3.4 
4.6 


3.1 


1.9 
1.6 


1200 
1500 
1800 


8.0 


5.9 


12.8 


4.2 


3.0 
2.7 


etek 


bess? 


9.0 


“2 


10.4 


3.5 


pie 


11.5 


1.0 


2100 
Av. 


8.0 


3.9 


eae 


8.9 4.1 11.5 


3.2 


July 


5.0 


a) 


5.2 


July 


10.5 


1.4 


1.6 


aL 


0300 
0900 


1.2 


0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 


12 Te 


2.1 


1.4 


on 


4.2 
3 


3.2 
4.2 
4.9 


4.6 


6.8 
yisou 


5.0 
3.2 


12.8 
13.1 


3.7 
3 


8.2 


3.2 


1500 
1800 
2100 


1200 
Av. 


o> 
-o 


2.4 
1.9 


8 
5.6 
4.6 


9 


2.6 
3.2 


3 


5.0 


12.2 
12.0 


2.6 


1.7 


4.0 


5.5 


4.8 


2.7 arene 


9.5 


3.2 


0 


August 


st 


Au. 


Te 


4.6 
a f 
4.2 

4 


4.6 


6.6 


5.0 
9.7 


1.4 


1.0 


0300 
0900 


1200 


8.4 


1.9 


2 
2 


0300 
0900 


3.2 


9.4 


2.7 
4.1 
3.2 


1.6 1.0 3.6 11.4 


1.0 


salt 


to 
20 


3.8 
3.8 
4.7 


4.3 
5.4 
3.8 
4.3 


1500 
1800 
2100 


Av. 


10 
212 


11.6 


1500 
1800 
2100 


1200 
Av. 


3 
5.6 
4.1 


Dee 


10.7 


3.7 
2.4 


10.8 


3.7 
4,2 


5.4 
6.2 


10.0 


ET. 


1.0 


4.1 


6.0 


10.0 


3.0 


eB he 


BIG DELTA. 


Time 
of 


BETTLES 


Time 


Ceiling in hundreds of feet 


Ceiling in hundreds of feet 


5-9 


of 
day 


30-49 


Unlin. 


96-199 


50-95 


10-19 20-29 
April 


5-9 


3-4 


50-95 


20-29 30-49 


April 


10-19 


3-4 


1-2 


(6) 


17.6 


4.8 
3.7 


3.8 


0.8 


0.2 


0300 
0900 


1200 


16.8 


6.9 


0.2 


0300 
0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 
2100 


Av. 


19.7 
19.6 


1.4 


LTA9 


2.7 


5.7 
5.0 


anak 
1.2 


1.21 


18.7 


3.1 


3.0 


1500 
1800 
2100 


Av. 


19.1 


1.0 


20 


2 
3.7 
4.0 


20.0 
18.7 


ene 
3.1 


4.7 
5.7 


1.3 


ie) 
-8 


19.0 


3.1 


nO) 


18.5 


May 


May 


15.6 


Oat 
3.1 
5.0 
5.8 


0300 
0900 


1.7 15.3 


1.9 


10.6 


0.1 


0300 
0900 


19.0 


4.2 


10 


18.0 


6.8 


1.2 


16.1 


1.0 


1200 


15.7 


eveshi 


7.4 
10.1 


o.1 


15.6 


3.7 
Lad 


1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 


13.8 


3.2 
See 
3.6 


5.9 


Lb 


9.7 
9.1 


1.9 


15.8 


1.5 


<2 


16.4 


15.6 


Av. 


June 


June 


14.4 


0300 
0900 
1200 


10.3 1.8 15.8 


1.2 
2.3 


0300 
0900 


15.5 


5.35 
4.7 


1.2 
1.3 
Tao 


1.3 


ne 


14.9 


2.6 
2.0 


8.0 


ae 


13.8 


16.0 
15 


2 
2a. 


1.1 


1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 


13.9 
14.8 


. 3.2 
1.0 . 


1.0 


1.0 


5.4 


até 


2.7 


9.5 


15 


6.2 


16c2 


2.1 


Av. 


12.5 


7.8 


Gel 


July 


Let 


0300 


14.2 


3.0 


14.4 
5 


5.0 
5.1 
5.0 


7 
5.6 


2.0) 
1.8 


0900 
1200 


13.6 
12.6 


2 
252 


7.5 
8.0 
9.1 


3.1 
4.7 


BE 
1.3 


15.6 


3.1 


1500 
1800 
2100 


15.6 
Av. 


1.8 


1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 


L622 


6.9 
8.0 


15.7 


1.3 


ce 


3.0 


12 


1.6 16.0 


9.0 


ie: 
nienk 


14.8 


14.3 


August 


August 


5.2, 
shee 


0300 
0900 


1200 


9.1 
952 
8.7 


1.3 


1.3 
1.6 


0300 


1.4 


2.2 
3.0 


6 
15.6 
13 


5.9 


4 
5.1 


abral 
1.0 


1.3 


2.0 


1500 
1800 
2100 


Av. 


3.6 
3 


7.9 
10.3 


4.8 


3.1 
1.8 


05 


12.0 
abe 


1.9 


1800 


12.3 


4.9 
4,8 


2.0 re) 


272 


10.8 


2100 
Av. 


14.0 


6.5 


1.1 


10.2 


9.9 


133 


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50-95 96-199 _Unlin. 


30-49 


Ceiling in hundreds of feet 


Time 
of 


ILTAMNA 


1950-58) 


by hour of day, and number of days per month in each height class--Continued 
(Av. 


50-95 


50-49 


20-29 


Table 31.--Height of ceilin 
10-19 


Ceiling in hundreds of fest 
5-9 


3-4 


HOMER 
Time 


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Unlio. 
14.1 
14.9 
15.9 
14.8 
12.8 
14.1 
14.2 
12.4 
14.2 
13.5 
10.0 
10.9 
ansik 
11.0 
11.8 
11,6 
ded 
5.4 
6.0 
5.6 
5.5 


96-199 
lve 
1.8 
1.6 
2.8 
1.6 
1.2 
1.8 
1.2 
1.6 
1.8 
1.5 
a0 
2.0 
252 
1.7 


50-95 
5.7 
4,2 
5.0 
Tel 
6.2 
6.7 
Te2 
7.3 
8.0 
6.0 
6.6 
6.9 
6.6 
5.8 
5.0 
5.9 
5.2 
6.7 
5.8 
6.2 
5.7 
4.6 
RE) 


4.0 
3.2 
3.1 
4.0 
4.1 
3.8 
3.6 
3.1 
4.6 
4.9 
4.3 
4.9 
5.0 
4.6 
6.6 
5.6 
4.8 
5.2 
6.7 
6.0 
6.2 
feeds 


30-49 


--Continued 

1.2 

4 
a 
2.3 
1.4 
1.7 
Cul 
4.0 
3.7 
3.8 
2.3 
3.8 
3.5 
4.7 
4.3 
6.4 
) 


April 
May 
July 

August 


5.1 
4.7 
3.9 
4.8 


June 
3.0 
QL 
2.0 
2.5 
5.2 
4.7 
4.7 


8 


Ceiling in hundreds of feet 


1.1 
2.0 
1.6 


2.3 


al 
ol 
el 
el 


0.1 
el 


UNALAKLEBT 5 


1950-58) 
Time 
of 
0300 
0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 
0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 
Av. 
0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 
Av. 
0300 
0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 
0300 
0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 


(Av. 
18.0 
Drei: 
18.7 
16.9 
18.1 
18.0 
17.8 
15.8 
16.3 
14.0 
12.3 
13.9 
16.1 
14.7 
13.9 
14.2 
11.4 
11.7 
13.0 
14.2 
13.1 
14.1 
11.3 
10.7 
nlbieeey é 
13.2 
12.3 

8.9 

9.0 

8.8 

8.3 
10,0 


2.2 
4.6 
3.2 
2.5 
3.3 
3.0 
3.4 
3.4 
1.8 
2.8 
3.1 
3.3 
3.4 
3.0 
3.4 
1.6 
2.0 
3.6 
3.4 
2.7 
2.2 
2.9 
2.6 
2.1 


50-95 
5.2 
5.1 
5.7 
4.9 
Geil: 
Tek 
8.2 
7.9 
7.0 
9.6 
9.1 
8.9 
8.6 
6.8 
6.6 
6.2 
6.4 
7.2 
8.2 
6.9 
8.4 
6.3 
7.6 
9.7 
922: 


30-49 
1.6 
3.2 
2.4 
2.0 
2.0 
4.8 
5.0 
3.4 
3.0 
4.2 
3.9 
3.8 
2.9 
2.9 
5.8 
5.2 
3.1 
3.1 
6.3 
2 
5.7 
5.2 
5.5 


20-29 


April 


1.0 
1.0 
1.0 
2.2 
2.6 
1.8 
st 
2.1 
3.4 
3.6 
2.9 
2.2 
2.7 
2.8 


May 
June 
Jul 


8 
3.0 
ele 

Au 
2.1 
3.6 


Table 31.--Height of ceiling by hour of day, and number of days per month in each height cla 
10-19 


Ceiling in hundreds of feet 


5-9 
22 
1.2 
1.0 
A 
ot 


2 


3-4 
0.1 


0.1 
Ae) 


0.1 


TANANA 
1200 
1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 
0300 
0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 
0300 
0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 
0300 
0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 
0300 
0900 
1200 
1500 
1800 
2100 
Av. 


d]jo 
eyo 


Lek: 
1.7 


3.3 
4 


4.0 
4 


1.8 


alt 


10.0 
9.2 


2.4 
2 


1.6 
2.1 


ol 


137 


United States Weather Bureau coded data. 


Source: 


Table 32.--Type of weather by time of day, and number of deys per month in each weether cless 


(Ay. 1950-58) 


BETHEL 


Time 


Weather type 


Weather type Weether type 


i Rein Snow Hail Fog Fogw/ Smoke Thunder- of Rain Snow Hail Fog Fog w/ Smoke Thunder- of Rain Snow Szcks Thunder- 
day sleet smoke haze storm Gay sleet smoke _ haze storm dey slest stoke haze storm 
April April April 

0300 pie E 2.3 0.3 0300 5.2 2.6 0300 0.2 4.6 0.8 
0900 +=1.0 2.0 0.6 0900 5.3 2.2 0900 0.2 355 1.7 
1200 1.6 1.7 0.6 1200 4.7 0.8 2200 0.2 3.3 1.2 
1500 1.2 1.6 0.2 1500 4.1 0.9 1500 0.3 29) 0.9 
1800 1.1 1.4 0.6 1800 4.3 1.0 1800 0.3 2.4 1.2 
2100 1.2 1.6 0.2 2100 3.8 1.3 2100 0.3 3.0 2.0 
Av. 1.2 1.8 «4 Av. 4.6 1.4 Av. a) 3.3 ial 
May Mey Mey 
2.8 0.2 0.2 03500 257, 2.3 1.4 0300 1.4 1.4 ii 
2.2 0.2 0.1 0300 3.0 2.6 0.7 0.2 03900 1.4 Dot 1.0 
2.4 1200 3.7 1.3 0.1 1200 1.3 0.8 0.6 
3.8 1500 4.7 0.9 0.2 1500 1.4 0.3 0.4 0.2 
3.7 1800 5.0 0.6 OLIELOTS 1800 9 0.6 0.3 
3.8 0.1 0.2 2100 Orit 0.6 2100 1.4 0.8 0.2 
Vv 3.1 -0 sat AV. 3.6 1.4 -0 4 -0 Av. 2.5 =o -6 -0 
Juns June June 
4.7 0.8 e 050 4.9 0.2 aC) 0.2 03500 2.8 0.2 0.6 0.7 oO. 
3.7 0.2 O.21 0S00 6.1 0.2 1.4 0.6 0900 2.4 0.4 0.4 
4.3 0.1 1200 5.6 0.2 0.7 0.2 1200 3-6 0.3 0.4 0.2 
3.8 0.1 0.1 1500 4.2 0.3 0.2 1500 3.2 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.2 
3.7 1800 or 0.3 0.2 2800 a LEY) 0.1 0.3 
3.7 0.2 2100 5.0 0.3 0.2 2100 1.8 0.2 0.4 
4.0 -2 -0 -0 Av. 5.2 -0 1.0 S) Av. 2.6 -O 5 4 -0 
Jul July July 
0300 5.2 1.3 0.4 0300 5.9 4.4 0.2 0.3 0300 Ont 2.3 0.1 1.8 
0900 4.9 abe 0.4 03900 4.8 3.3 0.3 0900 3.6 1.2 1.8 0.7 
1200 44.6 0.6 0.3 1200 «5.2 a7 0.3 1200 3.9 res) 2.8 
1500 Beds 0.2 0.3 0.1 1500 5.7 1.2 0.3 1500 3.21 O.4 0.21 ate) 
1800 6.3 0.2 0.4 1800 5.8 HEY) 0.4 2800 AIS) 0.7 2.0 O.2 
2100 Dic 0.6 0.4 2100 4.8 ig) 0.2 2100 2.8 1.0 2.0 0.2 
AV Lise! -6 34 -0 AV. 5.4 2au -0 a) Av. 3.2 1.0 A) 2.9 ye) 
ugus% August August 
ae 0300 «8.2 6.7 0.2 0500 5.2 3.4 0.1 0.8 
1.3 0800 «7.9 ee) 0.2 0900 5.9 2.8 0.2 0.9 
ONT 1200 6.9 3.3 oO. 0.1 1200 5.7 1.6 0.6 0.2 
0.3 1500 7.6 2.2 0.2 0.2 1500 3-9) 1.4 0.7 
0.4 0.1 1800 6.9 2.6 O.2 0.2 1800 4.4 1.2 0.9 
0.7 0.2 2100 7.6 2.6 0.2 0.2 2100 oe7 1.9 0.2 0.6 
0.8 -0 -0 AV. 7.5 3.9 ul ot -0 Av. 5.5 2.0 -0 -8 -0 
Weathsr type Weather types 
Fog Fog w/ Smoks Thunder- Snow Heil Fog Fog w/ Smoke Thunder- 
smoke haze storm Slest = smoke haze store 
April April April 
Ose u.2 ere 0.2 0 0.2 3 0.3 0500 0.2 pe) 0.2 
0900 0.1 oot 0.3 0 0.2 a 0.2 0900 0.2 2.0 0.2 
1200 0.2 1.6 0.2 1 0.3 2 1200 0.1 Onl 0.2 
1500 40.2 a2 0.1 i 0.2 0) 150 0.3 1.2 0.3 
1800 0.2 ise 0.1 1 0.3 1 1800 1.5 0.2 
2100 0.2 1.8 0.1 2 0.4 7 2100 1.8 o.4 
Av a ake oz Av == 6 Av. sa 1-8 2) 
Mey Mey Mey 
0 0.2 ene 0.4 0.2 0300 -6 0.2 
) 7 0.6 Pet 0.6 0.2 090% 7 0.2 
1200 «1.3 0.3 0.2 2.4 0.5 0.3 1200 4 0.2 
1500 a9 0.3 0.2 as 0.2 0.2 150) 2) 0.2 
1800 2.0 0.2 0.1 0.1 2.2 0.2 O32 O2F 1800 ie) 0.2 
2100 ek 0 0.2 2.9 0.3 0.2 0.2 2100 2 0.2 
Av. Lz aeE -0 2.0 -3 -0 ae 0 Av. 1S oa) 
June June June 
0300 3.6 0.2 03500 PY fi 0.35 0.4 0300 aT, 0.7 
ogs00 2.4 0.1 0.35 0900 2.6 0.2 0.35 0900 2.0 0.8 
1200 2.8 0.2 0.2 1200 «2.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 1200 1.7 0.7 
1500 3.0 0.2 0.2 0.3 1500 2.9 0.2 0.2 1500 1.6 0.8 
1800 3.6 bee g 0.2 0.6 1800 3.7 0.1 0.4 0.2 1800 2.9 0.6 
2100 2.1 0.2 0.2 2100 3.1 0.1 0.3 @.2 2100 °1.9 0.6 
Av. aE) 2 ae ea Av. 229) Su .4 oe Av. 1.8 EY, 
July July July 
0300 4.2 0.7 0.1 0.9 0300 4.6 0.3 0.3 2 2.0 0.2 at 
0900 4.1 0.3 0.6 0900 4.3 0.2 0.2 1 3.0 2.9 
1200 2.9 OL. 0.6 2200 3.7 0.1 1 0.2 2.3 0.2 2.6 
1500 3.9 0.1 0.7 1500 3.8 0.3 1 0.6 2.9 eal 2.9 
1800 3.5 0.2 xtexh 0.35 1800 ee 0.1 zl 0.2 3.3 2.4 
220 3.9 0.2 ph 0.4 2100 0.2 i 2.8 2.2 
Av 3.7 -3 0 -5 oat Av. 2 El z Sel 2.7 -0 -0 2.4 
August August? August 
0300 4.0 0.6 0.2 4.9 2.8 0.2 0.8 0300 2.4 0.3 2.6 
0900 4.0 0.2 0.4 3.6 1.3 OSL aa 0300 3.2 0.2 2.5 
1200 2.6 0.2 3.5 0.6 1.4 31200 2.8 1.4 
1500 3.2 0.2 0.4 3.7 0.3 0.8 1500 3.1 0.2 1.3 
1800 «3.1 0.2 0.2 4.2 0.2 0.9 1800 3.9 0.1 0.3 
2100 = 0.8 4.1 0.2 0.6 2200 5.8 1.2 
Av. -5 -0 1 -4 -0 4.0 =9 2 2.0 Av. 3.2 a 1.4 


138 


Table 32.--Type of weather by time of day, and number of days per month in each weather class--Continued 
(Av. 1950-58) 


GALENA 
Time 


Weather type 
of Rain Snow Hail Fog Fog w/ Smoke Thunder- 


day sleet smoke haze storm 


GULKANA 
Time 


Weather type 
of Rain Snow Hail Fog Fog w/ Smoke Thunder- 


day sleet smoke haze storm 


HOMER 

Time Weather type 

of Rain Snow Hail Fog Fog w/ Smoke Thunder- 
day sleet smoke haze storm 


April April April 
0300 0.4 4.1 (eat 0300 1.3 0.2 0300 2.4 2.2 1.0 
0900 «(0.6 3.3 0.7 0900 1.2 0900 2.6 aaa 0.9 
1200 0.4 239) 0.2 1200 0.1 aead 1200 2.9 1.8 0.3 
1500 0.6 2.4 0.21 1500 0.4 1.0 1500 3.3 2.3 0.4 
1800 OST. teil 0.2 1800 0.3 0.8 1800 2.6 1.9 0.6 
2100 0.8 Sg. 0.3 2100 0.4 0.9 2100 2.6 1.8 1.0 
Av. -6 Hh ates Av. 72 1.0 0 Av. 2.7 2.0 ole 
May May May 
0300 1.7 0.8 0.2 0300 «61.2 0.3 0.3 0300 3.2 0.7 
0900 «2.3 0.8 O/T 0900 «(1.0 0.2 0.3 0900 2.8 0.2 
1200 2.2 0.3 1200 1.1 0.2 0.2 1200 2.8 0.2 0.1 
1500 2.8 0.3 1500 nbs) 0.3 O.1 1500 4.6 0.1 
1800 2.6 0.6 1800 1.8 0.1 1800 3.3 Oo 
2100 (1.6 0.6 2100 0.9 0.2 O52: 2100 3.1 Of2 
Av. 2r2 -6 .0 Av. 1.3 ue eo .0 Av 3.3 (0) A 
June June June 
0300 «3.1 130 0.21 0300 2.0 0.6 0300 3.6 12 
0900 2.2 0.2 1.3 0900 «2.2 0.1 0900 «(3.1 0.3 
1200 3.0 1.0 0.1 1200 1.9 0.3 1200 2.9 0.3 
1500 2a 0.1 1.0 1500 2.6 0.3 1500 3.9 
1800 2.6 Os1- 051 1.3 0.1 1800 2.9 0.4 1800 2.6 0.2 
2100 1.8 1.0 0.21 2100 (1.9 Oval! 2100 3.4 0.4 
Av. 2.5 .0 oak 121 ok Av. 2c2 ene 72 Av. 3.3 iA 
July July July 
0300 3.9 0.9 nL 0300 4.4 0.1 0.8 On 0.2 0300 4.4 A) 0.2 0.21 
0900 «3.4 0.8 0.2 a) 0900 =3.6 0.4 0.1 0900 2.9 0.4 0.2 
1200 3.2 0.2 0.2 abey) 0.1 1200 2.8 0.1 0.2 0.1 1200 3.4 0.1 0.1 
1500 3.2 0.6 On1 1.8 0.1 1500 3.0 0.2 0.3 0.4 1500 3.6 0.4 0.1 
1800 4.9 0.2 Blea: 0.2 1800 63.2 0.3 0.7 1800 3.7 0.4 Ofn 
2100 3.2 0.4 art) 0.1 2100 3.8 0.2 0.3 0.1 2100 3.4 0.7 0.1 
Av. 3.6 5 el 228 pae Av. 3.5 Ae) 23 -0 2 12 Av 3.6 -6 Ae) =a 
August August August 
0300 «6.5 1.2 0.21 0300 4.1 0.1 12 0300 «3.6 2.3 
0900 6.4 1.0 0.5 0900 «3.8 0.4 0900 4.3 0.8 0.1 
1200 5.9 0.5 0.4 1200 «44.2 0.21 1200 5.4 0.6 
1500 6.1 0.2 0.4 1500 4.7 On 1500 5.0 Ole 
1800 6.0 0.2 0.2 0.1 1800 4.4 1800 4.8 0.7 
2100 5.2 0.4 0.2 2100 4.8 0.2 2100 5.4 252: 
Av. 6.0 76 73 fe) Av. 4.3 +0 BS Av 4.8 1.0 ie) 
ILTAMNA KOTZEBUE LAKE MINCHUMINA 
Time Weather type Time Weather type Time Weather type 
of Rain Snow Hail Fog Fog w/ Smoke Thunder- of Rain Snow Hail Fog Fog w/ Smoke Thunder- of Rain Snow Hail Fog Fog w/ Smoke Thunder- 
day sleet smoke haze storm day sleet smoke haze stora day sleet smoke haze storm 
April April April 
03u0 ae2 4.3 0.8 0300 0.8 5.8 2.3 0300 0.1 2.3 0.4 
0900 1.0 3.6 Tt 0900 «(0.3 4.7 anti 0.2 0900 «60.3 Die 
1200 1.4 3.0 Ont 1200 0.3 5.1 2.3 0.2 1200 0.3 age) 0.1 
1500 0.9 2.8 abso) 1500 0.6 4.9 2.1 0.1 1500 0.4 abi 
1800 ibe) 3.2 alee) 1800 0.8 4.8 ort 0.1 1800 (Oey ais lojmal 
2100 1.1 3.4 1.6 2100 (0.8 5.2 a) 0.21 2100 0.1 1.6 0.2 
Av. att 3.4 ikea Av. -6 5.1 252) Ea) Av. Be 9 22 


0300 4.6 0.8 1.3 0300 «#41.9 ea 2n9 0300 «1.6 0.8 0.8 

0900 2.8 0.7 0.7 0900 «(21.9 ryat 2:8 0900 «(1.2 0.4 0.3 

1200 etl 0.4 0.3 1200 1.8 1.0 abe) 1200 ples 0.3 Oral 0.1 

1500 3.6 0.3 0.3 1500 1.3 O29, 0.9 1500 2.0 0.4 0.3 

1800 3.3 0.3 0.2 1800 1.2 0.8 aloe 1800 «(1.3 0.4 Ona 

2100 4.7 0.2 0.7 2100 2.0 1.1 Lint 2100 _=i1.7 0.8 oat 

Av. 3.6 75 “6 Av a7 1.4 ale) Av. 1.5 “5 +3 Ae) 
June June June 

0300 4.0 1.6 O.1 0300 3.2 29: 0300 4.0 0.2 0.6 

o900- 3.8 alaal 0900 2.0 0.1 2.6 0900 «3.4 0.6 

1200 3.7 0.4 1200 «2.3 2.3 1200 2.3 0.3 

1500 3.9 0.1 0.1 1500 1.3 or) 1500 2.4 0.4 0.2 

1800 2.9 OR: 1800 1.6 alee) 1800 3.2 0.2 0.4 

2100 3.3 0.3 0.1 2100 3.0 2.4 2100 2.1 0.4 0.1 

Av. 3.6 .6 (e) (e) Av. 252 .0 2.3 Av. 2,9 .0 4 al 
July July July 

0300 3.0 4.6 0.3 0300 4.1 2.8 0.4 0300 4.4 ateul 1.4 

0900 3.8 259 0.2 0.3 0900 2:9 272 0.4 0900 2.9 0.1 1.8 

1200 3.9 OF9 Ora: 0.4 1200 2.8 1.4 0.3 1200 4.1 1.2 Oe 

1500 4.0 aby (oes 0.6 1500 3.7 0.9 0.3 1500 4.2 Ong 0.3 

1800 4.6 0.8 0.3 Oed 1800 3.8 1.0 0.4 0.1 1800 3.4 0.1 0.9 O.1 

2100 4.0 0.9. 0.3 2100 3.4 1.3 0.4 0.1 2100 4.3 0.9 0.3 

Av 3.9 a9: 1 3 (0) Av 3.4 6 4 .0 Av 3.9 2) el ol 
August August August 

0300 6.6 4.3 0.1: 0300 7.0 2.3 0.1 On 0.1 0300 5.0 0.9 0.3 Ove 

0900 «45.8 eaeA/ 0900 =5.3 2.2 (oat 0900 «4.7 0.3 0.2 

1200 5.8 1.6 Of: 1200 6.3 ples) Ore) 1200 4.3 0.4 0.2 0.21 

1500 5.6 2.0 1500 5.9 1.2 0.2 1500 3.4 0.2 0.2 

1800 5.9 2.2 1800 bt) 1.4 0.2 1800 5.1 O.1 0.2 

2100 _ (‘5.8 Cath 0.1 2100 5.3 1S 0.21 Oe: 2100 +5.2 0.2 

Av. 5.9 2.6 0 Av 5.8 ay? a) S me) Av 4.6 73 22 ee 


139 


vel (Oem lO AO oO Cy sto rast ° re 
ret oe oO aoe u elie 
ma mn 101 st De] wo m re aM Vot}et 
’ Ciera par “ ‘ ie He at ate ate fi 
(- aaq0e o i) °o OoOo000 
An sh rim 10 eth efo 
too oo aol’ 
e ec ii 
UI 
in 
w 
1] 00 rt i} LS a ela aet fw ela ra] MO rth wolo 19 oO an wa 
elite) tae . ‘ ' : abet shee : ‘ ‘oy ‘ : a ish ot boo 
Nilis ao hielo a aoo0aa oo ra) Aertel at a ilo loo 
w te 
is 4 5 
rt el 
rh " ' 
a) a oO 
f tr 
" ’ 
‘ a i YO 0 & o bh Oe vl °o rio 
in Ded fter ' oy ' : Hg 
8 Bi AM Met et et c fe) ° 
oO Flot 
| au 
“ 
\ f ea UO Pala om (s) 0 rh ef O19 wl 
a { we Shee helene ceed Wed Liner eer ene ba 
re tet a (-W-Vf-K-] aaa a ravmratl (ied rh bh bc 0 belt 
sal! da 
he i 
a ain i=) Qo [a 
a 1 ia Ol] + oO 
ne el ia a} te) cil fia) 
wy Ble or oo allay O, 
8 7 
e 
a ' 
nt 
«i oO 
0 bl be cox Baie 
- a oa °o 
a 
a 
ty 
f 4 0 ‘ ria S) 0010 
Hl d eo rl ao000 
by ae 
i 
" rl S) el rt jo rit a 
| ol °o oO ia) 2°a 
‘ ir) 
10 
% ‘ 
o] a 
19 ” 9 el elettet nia MQ O]et 
a i) aa ao oo oo alr (=) 
p <t 
tle el °o 
tr vm) ra) ‘ 
a 
« 
fa ’ 
o fl A 0 
o 1) A ela aa aa waa ew Oo) 
i [ist 
na 
” iy 
900 
| bo] aaa 
A alc wy 
BIE On 
by 
cs) rit drt eh Yet el rh det cetret Jo rl jo he 
(ome) Thea) fe) o a900 fs) rel 
° rd 
a 
Ts] 
° 
moO Olet an fa) 19:19 Ao 9 
rhe QO elfet aeo0aa a0 fa) 
oF 
el 
o 
a 
i 
ry 
10 oN) eifet het ort a a WIC 12 1 @ y bt mfio cola mae 19 Aanaow 
cn ‘ thine fy Nee Te ae | bs Seco By Harrison) toe +f ayeahvatgalipe Heatieadt oct) 
lowe) lac fal HI oo a dire Wy UA @arty oo e00FrtrF oeoorr 
8 A =i = 
el fa) 
° 


et 


ir) 


n 


oho 


219 WO} st 


eaaqaa0 
QOaoqo00q0og do]. 
na qQih © 

AOrletet 


cGRaTA 
3m: 


eaeaoaaa 
Oqaaqgagaols 
1 TW Ai OO rt 

OA et eh aw 


a all ds 


us 
o 


Table 55.--Time of season by which ground is thawed to various depths 
UW OO UO EVE LOUS. CepUns 


(Av. 1950-58) 
Eee ea A 0 


re 
oO Ww oO 
8 ad 80 in “s oO oO 
4 3B 38 n q iS 3 4 8 fe 
a 5 S o {o) » @ i a ad S isn) +2 
Date m ia fe) = Q “d a is ® 3B 6 S @B 
43 ira me} Ss G faa N tom 4 oO ial 
: u O° ~» a0 gs “d q 4? so) rt cq oO 
~ fe) is © - 8 8 fo) rs = 8 iS) 
Ey z x faa faa a fe co Me =) oO oO = 
6" Depth 
April 1 ay) 
Le x 
el ne 
May Hu: x x x x x X 
lal x me pe x 5 Xe x x ae Xe 
Pap x x x Be x x x x x x x Be 
June 1 5.0 x oe x ne x ae eth.e me X a8 x 
nal! x me x x me x De x x x x 
Pal x x a x x x x Ki x x x x 
12 Depth 


alll 
el x 
May al X x x 
akak Ne Ba x x de ae 
PAL mG Fe x me x Be De x ee x x 
June ak x x. x x x x Xe x x x x x 
abak 5 BG x x K x mt x x x x 3 
el x x x x x x x x: x mK me Be 
24" Depth 
Apia 1: 
aa 
el 
May al x 
akal x 
el x x x Xe ae x re: me x 
June al} x x ae x x x x x x x 
alae x me x x x K me x re me x 
el x X be x x x ae x x x x me x 


1/ No data for 6-inch depth. 


Source: United States Weather Bureau compilation. 


141 


Table 34.--Forest fire statistics for the United States, 1950-58 


Year Place aa Fires res ae See eee 
protected a burned Lightning Other Under acre -10 ecres OQve Wacres 
Number 
per Acres 
MM per Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- 
1 M acres Number acres Acres fire ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent 
Alaska sue! 225,000 224 1.0 2,057,817 9,186.7 27 12 197 88 94 42 46 20 84 38 
1950 Other states BLM 2 138,121 472 3.4 78,827 167.0 152 32 320 68 84 18 121 26 267 56 
Other states all epencies 573,186 104,996 183.2 3,798,464 36.2 6,491 6 98,505 94 16,215 15 50,281 48 38,500 37 
Alaska BLM 225,000 271 1.2 219,694 810.7 27 10 244 390 119 «44 Te. 27, 80 29 
1951 Other states BIM 140,111 635 4.6 124,848 196.6 203 32 432 68 103 16 182 29 350 55 
Other states all agencies 575,916 105,868 183.8 3,526,373 33.3 7,029 tf 98,839 93 15,682 15 51,630 49 38,556 36 
Alaska BLM 225,000 136 -6 73,801 542.6 11 8 125 92 76 56 32 24 28 20 
1952 Other states BLM 140, 625 637 4.6 97,223 152.6 207 32 430 68 Tinks) yale / 171 27 356 56 
Other states all agencies 581,210 127,997 220.2 6,628,093 51.8 8,012 6 119,985 94 19,109 15 63,277 49 45,611 36 
Aleska BLM 225,000 285 1.3 466,748 1,637.7 75 26 210 74 126 44 64 22 95. 33 
1953 Other states BLM 138 , 680 601 4.4 107,252 178.4 176 29 425 71 111 18 194 32 296 49 
Other states all agencies 586,220 104,595 249.0 2,851,455 27.3 8,529 8 96,067 92 19,867 19 54,883 52 29,845 29 
Alaska BLM 225 ,000 262 1.2 1,389,920 5,305.0 63 24 199 76 125 48 53 20 84 32 
1954 Other states BLM 138 ,446 567 4.1 117,347 207.0 164 29 403 71 94) “17. 171 30 302 53 
Other states all agencies 600 ,237 127,273 212.0 2,962,671 23.3 7,780 6- 119,493 94 19,988 16 79,257 55 37,028 29 
Alaska BLM 225 ,000 190 8 37,232 196.0 26 14 164. 86 105 55 42 22 43 23 
1955 Other states BLM 134,419 380 2.8 51,835 136.4 116 30 264 70 91 24 122 32 163 44 
Other states ell agencies 603,884 87,604 145.1 2,812,208 32.1 6,261 7 81,343 93 17,981 21 48,177 55 21,446 24 
Alaska BLM 225,000 225 1.0 476,542 2,118.0 63 28 162 72 88 39 59 26 78 35 
1956 Other states BLM 138 , 468 571 4.1 37,451 65.6 254 44 317 56 180 32 187 32 204 36 
Other states all agencies 607 ,032 94,338 155.4 1,985,084 21.0 11,459 12 82,879 88 21,298 23 52,067 55 20,972 22 
Alaska BLM 225,000 403 1.8 5,034,554 12,492.7 164 41 239 59 124 31 93 23 186 46 
1957 Other states BLM 138,799 827 6.0 309,212 373.9 272 33 555 67 140 17 262 32 425 51 
Other states all agencies 613,382 65,702 107.1 1,286,458 19.6 5,659 9 60,043 91 15,523 24 37,768 57 12,411 19 
Alaske BLM 225,000 284 1.3 315,860 1,112.2 90 32 194 68 98 34 80 28 106 37 
1958 Other states BLM 137 ,487 1,075 7.8 617,936 574.8 449 42 626 58 aReb Saly/ 319 30 575 53 
Other states all agencies 614,134 80,308 1350.8 1,461,367 18.2 10,828 13 69,480 87 20,816 26 44,184 55 15,308 19 
Alaska BLM 225,000 253 aaa 1,119,130 4,417.6 61 24 192 76 106 42 60 24 87 34 
Av. Other states BLM 138,351 641 4.6 171,326 267.3 221 34 419 65 122 19 192 30 327 51 
Other states all agencies 595,022 99,848 167.8 3,034,686 30.4 8,005 8 91,848 92 18,498 18 52,503 53 28.853 29 


Source: 1/ Annual Reports of the Director, BLM (Statistical Appendix). 
2/ Forest Fire Statistics. Prepared annually by the Division of Cooperative Forest Protection, Forest Service, U.S.D.A. 


142 


Table 35 .--Number of fires by cause on lands protected by Bureau of Land Management, 


1950-58 
ly, 
Year Place Cause— Total 
LI CF NS) DB I LU RR MI 
1950 Alaska 27 58 43 54 g 0 We 26 224 
Other states 152 20 ea he 40 2 Sil: i A472 
1951 Alaska aie TOT 47 fal ie 2 2 OO Pagal 
Other states 203 20 181 76 56 a 37 61 635 
1952 Alaska abie 38 16 46 6 O 4 15 136 
Other States 207 ei 188 13 52 aE 23 ie 637 
1953 Alaska 15 82 35 oul a O (6) — Al 285 
Other states 176 37 154 96 30 2 38 68 601 
1954 Alaska 63 68 49 ball 8 O 6) 23 262 
Other states 164 oe alenté 95 46 al 16 96 567 
1955 Alaska 26 163 30 25 3 () al 30 190 
Other states 116 26 19 61 34 al 18 45 380 
1956 Alaska 63 64 28 40 5 ) all 24 225 
Other states 254 Silt 49 78 46 1 28 84 Dias 
1957 Alaska 164 85 30 78 akab 2 i Sill 403 
Other states eile 20 140 97 36 2 74 186 827 
1958 Alaska 90 13 27 54 9 ) O OL 284 
Other states 449 SL 185 alae 83 2 43 15/5 ani 


Average number of fires by cause 
1950- Alaska 61 70 34 Be Hii 0.4 Oe 28 200 
1958 Other states pel 26 1356 86 47 re 34 89 641 


Percentage of fires by cause 


1950- Alaska 24 Pa als at 3 Of 1 ali) 100 
1958 Other states 35 4 21 14 7 Of 5 14 100 


aly LI - Lightning; CF - Campfires; S - Smokers; DB - Debris burning; 
I - Incendiary; LU - Lumbering; RR - Railroad; MI - Misc. 


Source: Annual Reports of the Director, BIM (Statistical Appendix). 


143 


Table 36.--Number of fires by size class on lands protected by Bureau of Land 


Year 


1950 


LISD 


1952 


1953 


1954 


1955 


1956 


1957 


1958 


1950- 
1958 


1950- 
1958 


1950- 
1958 


1950- 
1958 


Management, 1950-58 


Size Class 


lene PW eee ee ge EO 
Alaska 94 46 25 7 52 224 
Other states 84 azn 141 55 Fak 472 
Alaska 119 ile 35 14 Sil 271 
Other states 103 182 1155) 76 119 635 
Alaska 76 32 16 3 9 136 
Other states 110 alyal 184 69 103 637 
Alaska 126 64 39 at Al 285 
Other states aahal 194 HHS 52 91 601 
Alaska V25 53 31 16 a7 262 
Other states 94 albsfals 142 59 101 567 
Alaska 105 42 el 10 12 190 
Other states 91 122 79 ol Dye 380 
Alaska 88 59 40 14 24 225 
Other States 180 187 116 42 46 Al 
Alaska 124 93 64 20 102 403 
Other states 140 262 176 19 170 827 
Alaska 98 80 45 16 45 284 
Other states 181 319 eAlL 123 211 12075 
Alaska 955 5AlL 316 LS) $59 2,280 
Other states 1,094 1 teg 1,387 586 969 5,765 
Total 2,049 2,010 1,703 701 1 322 8,045 


Average number of fires by size class 


Alaska 106 60 35 13 39 253 
Other states 122 192 154 65 108 641 


Percent of fires by size class 


Alaska 42 24 14 5 15 100 

Other states 19 30 24 10 alte 100 
Number of fires per million acres protected by size class 

Alaska 0.47 0.27 OPED 0.06 (0) Say algal 

Other states 0.88 W259 al ealal 0.47 OLS 4,63 


Source: Annual Reports of the Director, BLM (Statistical Appendix). 


144 


Year 


1950 
1951 
1952 
1953 
1954 
1955 
1956 
1957 
1958 


Av. 


Table 37.--Fires according to size class by number, percent of total, and number per million acres, 1950-58 


106 


Size class 
A B Cc 

Per- Num- Per- Nun- Per- Num- 

cent ber cent ber cent ber 

of MM Num- of MM Num- of MM Num- 
total acres ber total acres ber total acres ber 
42.0 42 46 20.5 a0, 25 alae} wack 7 
43.9 soo 72 26.6 OR, 35 EES oL6 14 
bono 254 32 23.5 14 16 Ls sOT 3 
44,2 56 64 Beek ra) 39 pkay/ Aly 15 
47.7 «D6 53 20.2 224 ol 1.8 14 16 
55.3 47 42 Book ~L9 ral deel 09 10 
oh leak 09 59 26.2 26 40 LS alge} 14 
30.4 255 93 PARES} 41 64 Poish Bree} 20 
34.5 044 80 28.2 56 45 25:8 20 16 
41.9 AT 60 23.7 Aah 36 13.8 «5: 13 


D 


Per- 
cent 
of 


APATAHAUGvoAW 
. . . 
AOWArFPANWDNDLH 


ao 
° 
oO 


total acres 


1/ Based on 225 million acres protected. 


Source: 


Annual Reports of the Director, Bureau of Land Management (Statistical Appendix). 


145 


Total 
Num- 
ber 

Num- MM 
ber acres 
224 .99 
reat fal 1.20 
136 .60 
285 1.27 
262 L116 
190 .84 
225 1.00 
403 1282 
284 1.26 
253 pee lr} 


Table 38 .--Acreage burned by fuel types on lands protected by Bureau of Land Management, 
1950-58 


Vegetative cover type 


Year Place ees Total 
Forest Brush Grass Other 
1950 Alaska 568,123 1,353,693 AT ,268 88,733 A ODT Olen 
Other states 16,353 Soe De 26,921 1 78 , 827 
Ale tae Alaska 92, 791 88,589 Suis 37,002 219,694 
Other states av nle Dat 58,185 49,506 -- 124,848 
1952 Alaska 14,599 8,166 4,776 45 ,260 73,801 
Other states 8,561 56,562 32,068 32 97,223 
1953 Alaska 284,575 115,916 5,415 62,842 466,748 
Other states 17,031 46,363 35,858 -- 107,252 
1954 Alaska 354,817 333,890 84,588 616,625 1,389,920 
Other states 12,966 75,380 29,001 -- 117,347 
IES }oy5) Alaska 12,066 11,353 4,102 Oy tela 37,202 
Other states 2,702 25,489 25,610 34 51,835 
1956 Alaska 86,075 6,011 9,942 374,514 476,542 
Other states STANT 195876 (BUS 55 Sif, 4511. 
1957 Alaska 2,461,472 487,621 9,826 2,075,635 5,054,554 
Other states 9,185 ALO) Aratsw 129 , 740 -- 309,212 
1958 Alaska 204,454 28,973 11,874 1ORDD9 315,860 
Other states 18 ,849 258,527 281,183 CO Oal 617,936 
Average acreage burned by fuel type 
1950- Alaska 453,219 270 ,246 20,011 375,654 1,119,130 
1958 Other States Te, DOW 81,802 68 ,189 8,833 171,325 
Total Average 465,720 352,048 88,200 384, 487 1,290,455 
Percent of acreage burned by fuel type 
1950- Alaska 40 oA 2 34 100 
1958 Other States af 48 40 5 100 


Source: Annual Reports of the Director, Bureau of Land Management, (Statistical 
Appendix). 


146 


Table 39.--Fires by general cause according to number, acreage, and percentage, 1940-58 


Year Lightning Man-caused Total 
iyi Lf 

Nuai- Per- 2/ Per- Num-  Per- pf Eer- Num- 3/ 

ber cent Acres cent ber cent Acres— cent ber Acres— 
1940 O ) 130 100 130 4,500 ,O000 
1941 O O 116 100 116 5,645,774 
1942 ) ) Not 78 100 Not 78 452,510 
1943 40 20.6 available 154 79.4 available 194 666,773 
1944 18 -24.6 55 (ae 73 110,604 
1945 30). 42.2 41 DG (a 117,313 
1946 52 40.0 78 60.0 130 1,436,597 
1947 32) 20-1 eal LTO9 159 1,429,896 
1948 PARC AMG af 113 84.3 134 33,676 
1949 elke: 46 86.8 53 17,933 
Total PAOLO ARTA) 938 82.4 1,238 6 ee A OvG 
Av. 20 94 114 1,241,108 
1950 ile lie 0 445,595 21.6 OFT, 88.0. 1,612,222 78.4 224 AAO Ole, 
abe}oyal ele. LOK.,O 17,484 87.0 244 90.0 202,e10 92.0 e271 219,694 
1952 abe 8a. La006 19.7 125 99 59,245 80.3 136 73,801 
1953 08 UeOnO $81,143 81.6 210 Toes 85,605 18.4 285 466,748 
1954 63 24.0 (1,347,990 97.0 LOO 650 41,9380 3.0 262 1,389,920 
1955 ebm Shoat 10,467 28.1 164 86.35 Con hoo fe9 190 ST ;e008 
1956 63 28.0 446,531 93.7 162 72.0 30,011 6.3 225 476,542 
Dif, 164 °40.7 4,773,323 ° 94.8 259 DOS £61,231 Dine 403 5,034,554 
1958 COMI ies CeO,OO  leot 194 68.3 Bi ,eno ef.6 284 315,860 
Total 546 23.9.7,665,726 76.1 1,734 76.1 2,406,442 23.9 2,280 10,072,168 
Av. 61 851,748 192 267,382 253 DOS 30. 

Source: ay 1940-1945 Data from files at BLM office, Anchorage. 
1946-1958 Annual reports of the Director, BLM (Statistical Appendix). 
2/ Computed from annual fire reports on file at BLM office, Anchorage 
and from individual fire reports. 
3/ 1940-1945 Forestry Program for Alaska. 


1946-1958 Annual reports of the Director, BLM (Statistical Appendix). 


147 


Year 


1950 
1951 
1952 
1953 
1954 
1955 
1956 
1957 
1958 


Av. 


Table 40.--Percent of all fires on which no action was taken, 1950-58 


Total 1 


Number 
Balk 
27 
aay: 
75 
63 
26 
63 
64 
90 


61 


Lightning 


No action 2/ 


Number 
18 
AS 

aL 
33 
25 
ala 
31 
30 
21 


20 


67 
48 

9 
44 
40 
42 
49 
18 
25 


33 


Percent 


Total L No action & 


Number Percent 


HM 
244 
125 
210 
199 
164 
162 
259 
194 


193 


Man-caused 


Number 


anys 


20 
9 


22 


ano Pf WA 


1/ Annual Reports of the Director, Bureau of Land Management (Statistical 


Appendix). 


ey Coded IBM runs from individual fire reports. 


148 


Table 41 .--Area burned according to cause and whether or not suppression action was taken, 1950-58 


ear Lightning Man-caused Total 
Action No-action Action No-action 

Acres Percent Acres Percent Acres Percent Acres Percent Acres 
1950 0 679 ,080 33 82,313 4 1,296,424 63 2,057,817 
diay 4 6,591 3 149,391 68 54,924 25 219,694 
1952 20 40 0 47,945 65 11,064 15 73,801 
1953 209,138 45 121,354 26 130 ,256 28 6,000 1f 466,748 
1954 389 ,078 28 972 ,674 70 27,798 2 370 of 1,389,920 
1955 6,329 17 10,053 27 10,053 27 10,797 29 37,238 
1956 323,708 68 133 ,282 28 19,062 4 490 of 476,542 
L957, 3,826,261 76 150;186 alts} 201,382 4 251,728 5 5,034,554 
1958 168 ,106 53 50,671 16 95,258 30 1,820 1- 315,860 
Av. 549,574 49 303,214 rag 84,828 8 181,514 16 Ly LES51:30 


Source: Percentages from coded IBM runs from individual fire reports. 
Total acreages from Annual Reports of the Director, Bureau of Land Management (Statistical Appendix). 
Other acreages computed from above sources. 


149 


Table 42 .--Frequency of all fires for each month of the fire season by size class 
(Av. 1950-58) 


te April May Jung July August September October November Total 
Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- WNum- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Nun- Per- Num-Per- 
ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent 


Lightning fires 


A 2 14 19 8 20 10 3 8 2 50 46 9 
B il: 76 39 15 38 19 9 23 al 25 88 23 
c 4 29 59 23 50 24 6 15 119 17 
D 2 14 2T ame 16 8 2 5 1 25 47 9 
E 5 36 110 43 Te) 39 alg} 49 214 42 
Total 14 100 254 100 203 100 39 + =100 4 100 514 100 
percent per 3 49 39 8 1 

month 

Man-caused 

A 29 52 153 34 199 2T 161 55 109 69 64 56 2 22 1 14 718 49 | 
B 11 20 159 36 108 50 Te 25 21 13 2T 24 re) 22 2 29 402 27 
C T 12 80 18 48 12 22 8 Ags) 10 11 10 2 22 a 14 186 13 | 
D nl 2 21 5 14 4 13 5 2 at 1 al: 1 11 53 3 
E 8 14 32 Uf 28 Tf 24 T aE 16 10 9 2 22 3 43 118 8 
Total 56 100 445 100 397 100 292 100 158 100 TVS =LOO 9 100- 7 100 1,477 100 
percent per 4 30 27 19 1 8 1 of 

month | 

Total fires 

A 29 52 155 34 218 33 181 Sy ete 57 66 56 2 22 aL 14 764 38 
B af 20 160 35 147 23 110 22 30 5 28 24 2 22 2 29 490 25 
C dG 12 84 18 107 aly ¢ T2 14 21 ala’ alah i} 2 22 al 14 305 15 
D 1 2 23 5 41 6 29 6 4 FS 2 2 1 11 100 5 
E 8 14 3T 8 138 21 103 21 30 15 10 9 2 22 3 43 332 «17 
Total 56 100 459 100 651 100 495 100 197 100 zy -100 9 100- 7 100 15995 00) 
percent per 3 35} 33 25 10 6 of of 

month 


Source: Actual tally of all available individual fire reports (289 less than official count). 


Table 43 .--Acreage burned by months and causes, 1950-58 


Year April Mey June July August September October November Total 
Lightning 

1950 303,775 29,651 12,607 22,080 368,113 
1951 4,107 30,116 151 34,374 
1952 14,289 1,020 4 15,313 
1953 381 245,178 124,243 4,945 374,747 
1954 4,203 1,249,376 19,573 22,956 3 1,356,111 
1955 14,374 6,154 3,382 23,910 
1956 450,823 6,222 457,045 
1957 4,753 3,420,608 1,341,450 61,513 910 4,829,234 
1958 140 196,341 45 ,832 479 242,792 
Av. acres burned 34,806 624,972 183,024 12,834 101 855,737 
Percent of lightning 

fires cpl 73.0 21.4 1.5 100.0 
Percent of all fires 3.1 55.8 16.4 1.1 76.4 

Man-caused 

1950 82 1,471,808 45,888 86,474 34,942 35,758 123 14,629 1,689,704 
1951 146 97,033 4,671 55,214 26,238 2,018 185,320 
1952 270 57,251 63 127 3 TT4 58,488 
1953 2,257 22,028 20,229 43,526 367 3,594 92,001 
1954 30 17,082 1,014 750 14,932 a! 33,809 
1955 10 1,765 2,729 8,721 51 46 13,322 
1956 3435 9,047 10,106 al 19,497 
1957 4,646 3,723 193,267 110 3,574 205,320 
1958 6,754 34,361 11,289 20,406 ; 137 121 73,068 
Av. acres burned 1,031 183,260 17,316 46,503 8,545 4,614 499 1,625 263,393 
Percent of man-caused 

fires 0.4 69.6 6.6 a Ges & 3.2 Lv 0.2 0.6 100.0 
Percent of all fires On: 16.4 1.5 4.2 0.8 0.4 -0 0.2 23.6 

All fires 

Av. acres burned 1,031 218 ,065 642,287 229,527 21,379 4,715 499 1,625 1,119,130 
Percent of all fires OF 19.5 S75 20.5 ee) 0.4 -0 (oe 100.0 


Source: 


Coded IBM runs from individual fire reports, adjusted to the official totals. 


(1957 from summary sheets of Area 4). 


Totals from Annual Reports of the Director, BLM (Statistical Appendix). 


151 


Table 44 .--Estimated damage from forest fires on lands protected by Bureau of Land Management, 1950-58 


Tangible damage Intangible damages 
ee Eas Timber Brush Grass Other Boca 
1950 Alaska $3,289,979 $1,488,183 $976,367 $2,000 ,000 $7,754,529 
Other States 52,507 115,470 66,924 1,882 236,783 
1951 Alaska 425 ,420 160,000 192 , 747 10 ,000 788 ,167 
Other states 429,210 214,161 154,371 3,584 801,126 
1952 Alaska 73,472 14,538 6,728 35 ,256 129,994 
Other states 212,017 272,158 128 ,218 - 612,393 
1953 Alaska 876,571 150"955 7,424 82,902 P27, 852: 
Other states 835 ,889 214,284 191,705 1,972 1,243,850 
Timber eer Cs Forage Watershed Wildlife Reoreen 
duction tion 
1954 Alaska 990 ,534 - 500 $ 536,418 “1,331,965 $ 1,503 2,860,920 
Other states 90,881 12,601 439,467 146 , 820 8,384 - 698,153 
1955 Alaska 6,430 169 36 29,038 30 ,587 15,899 82,159 
Other states 6,962 6,399 105 ,861 408 ,878 4,865 1,102 534,067 
1956 Alaska es TOT 10 2,216 328,770 285 ,838 847 730 , 478 
Other states 55,418 e2l,Tt2 18,681 241,487 11,925 eeu! 350 ,534 
1957 Alaska 2,508,724 3,781 274,808 2,311,253 2,506,080 121,406 7,726,052 
Other states 96,178 10,133 162 , 600 3,045,114 LS LOD 515 3,0e17, 731 
1958 Alaska 403,892 2,452 58,846 355,304 312,645 307 ,997 1,441,136 
Other states 57,266 6,430 328 ,137 3,635,495 TL, OTT 4,695 3,104,000 


DS ee ee ee ee 


Source: Annual Reports of the Director, Bureau of Land Management (Statistical Appendix). 


152 


Table 45 .--Summary of damage in dollars 


(Av. 1950-58) 


Place Tangible Intangible Total Average 
Dollars $/Mil A Dollars $/Mil A Dollars $/Mil A 

Alaska $12,027,579 53,456 $10,603,708 $47,128 $22,631,287 $100 , 584 

Other states 4,305 , 700 31,201 7,602 ,937 55,094 11,908,637 86,294 

Total $16 , 333,279 $18,206,645 $34,539,924 

Average $44,995 $50,156 $ 95,151 


Source: Annual reports of the Director, BLM (Statistical Appendix). 


153 


onth and yea: 


ss b 


cl 


= 


irss in each co 


2 
z 


‘able 46 .--Number of 


T 


wo 


(av. 1950 


000' 08 


000' On 
100‘ 09! 


000' 09: 
- 100' Ov 


000' Ov 
- L00' og 


000' 08 
le ed 
jo 
»] 000' OL 


uw n 
8} ~t00"s 


00'S 
£00" 


000'T 
-TOR 


oon 
“984 


aaoy 
40 9g 


Year 


/000' ony 


000' O84} 
-100' 094} 


000' 094} 
100! ovg| 


000' ov 
~100' oa 


000' OB ¥} 
~100' OL} 


ce 


7 


+y 000‘ OT4 
~t00' S¥ 


000'S¥ 
~t00' TY 


000'T 
Lory 


oon} 
-92! 


aso] 
40 Gai 


Year, 


el rl 


rhe 


lo wan 


Mh Oh oO 019 


at 
ret 
be 
f 
=f 
al 
rt 
rh 12M 


wagon 


epren 


a 


ie 


a A A 1 


1 si 
1010 10 
oF OF 
reetet 


a 


re rt st 


1 ALI Ht 
al 


qo 
et a 


<2 
Octobe 


19 et Oe 


1956 


i) 


0 


a 


wo 


1 


oO 
i 
000! on 
LOO! OOF 


-T00' Ove 


100! Oa$ 


ul TOO! OF 


bow x 
D1 io O (19 bm 

Boe Has 18 8) 0 to f2 fp Boy 

g Cre eta A et AGe! 

A we 


3 
2 
2. 


5 
<= 
9 
a 


000' ont 4 


as) ie) 


000' 09% 


et 1] 


o00' ove] 


aeia 


000 oat anwowoa 


000' OL# 
~100' Gt 


OM" 


000' Ss 
~T00' T¥ 


ho 


900 TH a mh cia rile 1d 


“OOR FPR cy ety 


ryt 


eo 9 0c A eto oO st | 18 
~ DAP 0 cy 10 0 19 1D ea} 


19 
0b 


ene) 
10 10.10 
OOF OF 
rleted 


/000' on} 


000' ony 
~100' 094) 


000' 094 
~000' OV#} 


000' ov 
-100' 024} 


000! oz4] 
-100' O14 


000' Ot] 
-100' 94) 


000'S¥] 
-Too' TH 


000' 14} 


OO Am wo 


9 


10. 


154 


Table 47 .--Number of fires according to time from origin to discovery 


Time in hours 


oe MeO ==] 1-2 peers 3.=.6- § - 12 — 12-= 24 24 - 48 48 = 72 72+ Total 
ee Fuel type 1/ 
Saree Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other 
May 
A 24 26 8 4 3 5 5 5 3 2 iT) 3 2 1 2 ) 5 3 59 49 
B 29 28 E} 3 6 3 10 4 5 1 2 2 fe 3 L 0) 1 A265 48 
c 10 10 6 1 0 2 3 4 3 3 ie) ie) 2 4 2 1 2 eames at 
D 3 at ne ul a (0) 0) L 0 0) ab ub 2 Au a 0) ie} 1 9 6 
E 2 2 4 4 0 ie) 2 L 1 2 2 ua dl 0) 0 0) ay 1 13 11 
Total 68 67 28 15 «10 10)" 720 15 12 8 12 i, 9 9 6 1 9 1 14 141 
June 
A 3U 24 5 4 iB 7 5 8 fe oo) 615 df 6 1 4 aD 3 2 78 Bie 
B 25 & 10 is} 5 4 6 4 5 4 3 5 9 3 2 0 4 é 69 34 
c 18 4 2 3 b| 1 4 5 5 2 5 bj 2 3 1 (0) oF 1 47 24 
D if FS) a} 6) 1 0 0 2 L al 5 2 ) 4 2 (0) (0) 2 18 16 
E 1 6 ie) 1 io) af ie) 3 fe) e) al 2 0 3 0 ai e) (e) 2 peg 
Total 81 47 19 13 «416 15 =«15 22 16 10 29 Lo ST. 14 9 2 12 6 214 148 
July 
A 36 9 9 rf 4 Ee ah 4 5 1 Lz (e) 10 2 5 2 ith 1 104 28 
B 16 10 8 3 ak 3 5, 2 3 3 5 2 7 4 0 0) 5 ub 50 28 
c 6 6 3 3 2 3 9 3 al f= al 2 3 5 2 1 4 0 31 25 
D 10} 3 ah ie} 0 1 1 2 0 fe) 0 fe) 2 e) fe) O- 2 (e) 6 6 
E °. 3 6 2 4 2 7 2 0 ) 9 2 2 2 2 0 2 1 37 14 
Tctal 63 31 27 15 ll 11 33 13 2) 6 32 6 24 13 ) 3 20 3 228 101 
August 
A 13 5 5 1 5 2 d/ 2 5 2 15 1 5 2 4 1 5 2 64 18 
B 5 1 al ie) 1 1 1 2 2 alt 2 fe) 4 3 1 ie) 2 1 eg) 9 
C 1 3 1 (0) 0) 0 ie 2 0 ab e) au e 1 0 0 2 1 8 8 
D ee 0 0) (e) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 (0) io) 0 0 ie} 3 0 
BE 2 1 1 e) e) e) 1 ) e) 0 e) al 0 ) 1 al 3 ul 8 4 
Total 23 9 8 af 6 S= e L 6 7 AT 3 12 6 6 2 12 SP 02 39 
Summary 
A 103 64 ati 16 nye 16 28 19 18 8 54 otal 23 6 15 4 20 8 305 152 
B 75 47 28 11 13 Ages) Ae TRS 8s} 9 12 te ee 13 4 fe) 12 9 203 219 
(¢) 35 22 12 fd 4 6 18 14 9) 8 6 8 9 13 3) 2 13 4 114 84 
D 12 9 4 1 2 1 1 5 1 zh 6 3 5 5 3 (0) 2 3 36 28 
E 10 ale) 1 i 4 chee h0) 6 1 2 12 6 3 5 3 2 6 3 60 46 
Total 235 154 82 42 45 37 79 56 44 28 90 35 62 42 30 8 53 27 718 429 
1/ '"Spruce' type consists of Spruce, spruce-hardwood. 
'Other': Broadleaf, reproduction, brush, grass, tundra, muskeg. 


Source: Coded IBM runs from individual fire reports based on 1,149 fires. 


155 


AM 


thin each size class end 


y_witt 


z 


ype 


Fuel 
Mey 


o time from origin to discover 
(Av. 1950-58) 


res accordin, 


0 
° 
is 
A, 
”a 
be 
o 


4 


ee 
Baus 
ce 


ru 


s 


Other 


6 


able “8 .--Percent o: 


T, 
Spru 


~ 


Spruce Othe 


19 


io) 


Ort 
on 
el 


16.7 
18.2 


33.3 
15.4 


6.5 14.0 


12.2 


17.6 


oo 


Cs) 
ao 
Cos) 


aM 


10.7 


°o 


° 


7-8 


21.1 


ae) 


< 


9.2 


“I 
o 


9.2 


13.8 


39.5 


156 


» Guskeg. 


undra 


sed on 


De: 


t 


h, grass, 


brus 


» Spruce-herdwood. 


iduel fire reports 


tion, 
32 
i? 


of Spruce 
reproduc 
ind: 


fr 


runs 


my 


Broadleaf, 


‘Spruce’ type consists 
"Other': 


i/ 


Table 49.--Percent of fires according to time from origin to discovery within each time class and fuel type 


Av. 1950-58 


Time in hours 


SDE rea eee ea ee I ST ae eee Het or = 78 ae = Te Et 
size Fuel type 1/ 
class 


Spruce Other | Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other 


May 
A 35.3 38.8 28.6 30.8 30.0 50.0 25.0 33.3 25.0 25.0 58.3 42.8 22.2 nbiead 33.3 fe) 55.6 27.3 
B 42.7 41.8 32.1 23.0 60.0 30.0 50.0 26.6 41.7 i) 16.7 286) © 12272 33.4 16.7 0 alnbaak 36.4 
Cc 14.7 14.9 21.4 Teal, 0 20.0 15.0 26.7 25.0 37.5 10) (0) 2ene 44.4 33.3 100 22.2 18.1 
D 4.4 1H 0) 3.6 Tet ~ LOO) te) (0) 6.7 0 (e) 8.3 14.3 22.2 Labaalt 16.7 (0) 0 Oa 
EB pt) 3.0 14.3 30.8 ie) e) 10.0 6.7 8.3 25.0 LGR 14.3 Lee e) e) io) plalral Orel 
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 
June 
A 37.1 51.1 26.4 30.8 31.3 53.8 33.3 36.4 31.2 30.0 Dien 36.8 35.3 irae 44,4 50.0 25.0 25.0 
B 30.9 17.0 52.6 38.5 31.3 30.8 40.0 182 31.2 40.0 10.3 1528) 52.9 Alco ee. 2 (0) 33.3 37.5 
te] 22.2 8.5 10.5 23.0 31.2 at 265% ea 31.2 20.0 UTS 26.4 11.8 elea, ee 0 41.7 L20 
D 8.6 10.6 10.5 0) 6.2 0) (0) 9 6.4 10.0 17.3 10.5 0) 28 Beene (0) (0) 25.0 
E a2. 12.8 (0) Healt 0 divale 0 13.6 (0) (e) 3.4 10.5 e) 21.4 (e) 50.0 (e) (0) 
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 
July 
A 57.2 29.0 33.3 46.7 36.4 18.2 33.3 30.8 55.6 V6572-, Dsl ) 41.7 15.4 55.6 66.7 35.0 33.4 
B 25.4 S22) F-29127 20.0 eel 2fa0, 152 15.4 33.3 50.0 15.6 33.4 29.2 30.8 (0) (0) 2520 33.3 
(o} 9.5 HOSA eS 20.0 18.1 PSPS RM Se) 23.0 la aay 33.3 De 33.3 12.5 38.4 22.2 33.3 20.0 (0) 
D (0) Clark 3.7 (0) (e) Real 3.0 16.4 0 (e) (0) (0) 8.3 fe) 0 (¢) 10.0 0) 
E 1s) Plate RE 13.3 36.4 USt2) elee 15.4 0) 0 28.1 33.3 8.3 15.4 22.2 0 10.0 33.3 
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 
August 
A 56.5 55.6 62.5 100 83.3 66.7 63.6 33.4 71.4 50.0 88.2 33.4 41.7 33.3 66.7 50.0 41.6 40.0 
B 2aext De 125 (0) UG 33.3 9.1 33.3 28.6 25.0 V8 (0) 33.3 50.0 16.6 0 16.7 20.0 
Cc 4.4 22.2 12.5 0 0) 0 18.2 33.3 (0) 25.0 ie) 33.3 LG a7 L6.7, 0) (0) UG sf, 20.0 
D Sif fe) (0) (0) 0 (0) 0 fe) (0) (0) 0 (e) 8.3 0 0 0 0 0 
EB 8.7 ALTE Sal L205 e) 0) 0 901 e) e) 0 (e) 33.3 ) (e) Great 50.0 25.0 20.0 
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 
Summary 
A 43.8 41.6 32.9 38.0 39.5 43.2 35.4 33.9 42.8 28.6 60.0 29.7 OT al: 14.2 46.9 50.0 37.7 29.6 
B ols 9. 30.5 34.2 26.2 30.2 CLEA ie Ca fete) 210 31.0 32.1 13.3 18.9 36...5 31.0 18.8 (0) 22.6 33.3 
c 14.9 14.3 14.6 16.7 16.4 16:5° -22.8 25.0 21.4 28.6 627 21.7 LAS 31.0 15.6 25.0 24.6 14.9 
D 5.2 5.8 4.9 2.4 4.6 QT 1.4 8.9 2.4 S316 (ard 13,15 8.1 aisle?) 9.3 e) 3.8 Alplea? 
EB 4.2 at} 13.4 UGai7. 9.3 8.1 12.6 10.7 2.4 Tod —1S5'6 16.2 4.8 SS 9.4 25.0 11.3 pee 
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 
1/ 'Spruce' type consists of Spruce, spruce-hardwood. 
mi 'Other': Broadleaf, reproduction, brush, grass, tundra, muskeg. 


Source: Coded IBM runs from individual fire reports, based on 1,149 fires. 


157 


1 
Table 50 .--Distance to fires from headquarters at Anchorage or Fairbanks— 


(Av. 
Miles 
Size O- 101- 201- 
class 100 200 300 301 


Lightning 


A ae) 2.6 0.6 Ona 
B 3.4 4.8 alah abe 
C 3.6 ame 228 1.9 
D .9 1.9 9 eT 
Be / 207 6.7 3.8 ie 
B/9/ .8 2.4 Tea .8 
Total 14.3 235.6 10.9 fine 
Percent 26 42 iy) 13 
Action 

A 66.1 25.6 Gee 0) 

B 34.3 14.8 3.4 Let 
C alyslere Sik 3.8 9 
D 4.2 Pat aveal HLA) 
EB G5 bes 2.4 flee 
Bd aor 1.9 .9 6 
Total T2625 58.9 nifA 5D 
Percent 60 28 9 x) 

All fires 

A 66.9 mee a0 Od 
B 36.7 AKG 369 2.8 
C Tb PS5 WETS 5.0 eo 
D 4.8 3.4 1.8 el ee 
E Tals 8.8 er 2.4 
B/ ean 4.0 2.0 130 
Total T35ee Teowo 24.9 10.9 
Percent 55 30 10 5 


1950-58) 
Miles 
Size O- 101- 20i= 
class 100 200 300 300 
Other 
A 64.0 pat 6.4 ) 
B Oar ale 2.2 53) 
C IES A10) Gra ate 4 
D 3.9 1.6 9 S7/ 
EB 4.9 ail iat feat 
BA .9 TG 9 ae 
Total TAKS} SS) 48.8 14.0 SA 
Percent 64 26 8 r= 
No-action 
A 0:39 ale 70 0.8 Ora! 
B ie (35 1 suk plants 
C SS) ate ee 5 
D .6 .8 ssh abe) 
E ib Sal 3.0 2.8 absal 
B+ A Pagal deal mak 
Total 6.5 SD 7.0 Hep 
Percent 20 Al 22 ALT / 
Fires per million acres 
A 2.03 0.42 0.12 0.01 
B abil 26 OT .04 
C 47 Sal -O9 .03 
D 14 .05 -03 .03 
B 80 els .O9 04 
Bf S05 -06 .03 -O1 
Total 4.03 1.09 43 elG 
Percent 70 IBS) 8 se) 


a 


1/ According to Operations Area in which the fire occurred. 


2/ 301-10,000 acres 
3/ Over 10,000 acres 


Source: 
official count) 


158 


Occurrence maps from 2,171 individual fire reports, (109 less than 


Table 51 .--Number of fires according to time from attack to control 
(Av. 1950-58) 


Tiue in hours 


eon Ona ine CaS SEG 6 - 12 12 - 24 DA — 48 48-72 a Total 
€12z6 

t Lf 
cless Fuel type 1 


faces May 
A 16 al 4 2 1 1 1 3 22 27 
B 22 24 12 10 8 6 13 5 6 3 2 2 2 1 65 50 
c 5 4 3 4 3 5 13 10 8 5 5 il 2 1 39 30 
D 1 4 a 5 4 al al 2 1 18 3 
E al al 1 ab uf 1 2 4 4 1 2 2 a 12 10 
Total 44 49 20 16 16 15 33 19 19 i) 10 6 9 4 2 2 3 156 120 
June 
A 35 19 4 3 2 1 1 3 ul 43 26 
B 20 alt f 12 2 all 5 8 7 9 1 5 3 a 3 71 33 
Cc 4 5 2 5 4 2 abl 3 12 3 5 2 6 1 2 1 3 47 a4 
D mn 3 1 2 1 2 7 @) 3 3 al 2 3 4 3 20 eu 
E ak ab al ul 4 4 3 4 5 3 5 4 Lt 9 35 27 
Total 60 42 18 14 18 11 21 16 33 13 16 9 15 a 10 4 25 15 216 131 
July 
A 34 17 8 3 2 ay 8 1 1 1 53 23 
B 13 9 2 4 8 uy 8 5 3 2 6 5 4 3 1 3 1 56 35 
Cc nl 2 al, 4 6 4 6 4 6 1 3 2 3 1 25 19 
D ae 2 al 3 2 2 6 5 
E ab Swell 3 1 1 1 2 6 1 2 18 6 32 aye 
Total 48 28 1) 9 2u vine 25 10 10 4 17 rf 16 7 2 4 24 10 alg (2 93 
August 
A 22 4 4 1 2 2 1 29 ie 
B al al 6 2 a 6 af 3 5 3 a 24 ‘fl 
Cc al 1 1 1 4 1 1 at al 1 1 3 t) 8 
D ab al 1 1 4 (e) 
E 2 ul my al 3 2 Ti 3 
Total 25 5 ub 3 3 3 8 i, 6 2 10 4 2 1 4 ay 4 5 73 25 
Summary 
A 107 61 20 8 6 5 12 6 1 a ae L al 147 83 
B 56 51 41 18 A) 6 35 18 al 6 18 9 9 5 al; 1 6 1 216 125 
¢ abl: 11 6 alae it 12 30 L7 26 12 20 4 alk 4 3 3 6 ¥¢ 120 81 
D 1 al al 3 6 4 6 2 12 5 Hf 5 6 4 4 5 5 48 29 
E 2 2 3 4 3 8 if 7 8 16 5 10 39 17 86 51 
Total 177 124 68 42 48 40 87 46 68 31 53 26 42 19 18 nee 56 30 617 369 


1/ 'Spruce' type consists of Spruce, spruce-hardwood. 
'Other': Broadleaf, reproduction, brush, grass, tundra, muskeg. 


Source: IBM runs from individual fire reports, besed on 986 fires. 


159 


72+ 


+ 
t; 


5 


irs) o 
o Cs) 


Other 
2.0 
40.0 


4.2 
20.0 50.0 
18.8 


42.8 


Other Spruce 


hours 
7.0 
33.3 
6.2 
20.8 


ack to contro! within each size class and fue 
si 
3 


e in 


Sas 
x 


Fuel type= 


at 
Spruce Other Spruce 


tall 

el 
' 

Ko 


me from 
(Av._ 1950-58) 
20.5 
22.2 


Other 
33.3 
10.0 

9o1 


4 
16.7 33.3 
66.7 27.8 
10.0 6.4 
8.3 23.5 
3.7 
4.3 15.1 
12.5 


3 


.--Percent of fires accord: 
Uoth 
22.1 
3.8 
a SY/ 


3.7 


13.3 


Table 52 
Terk 


13.3 


-8 


12.8 
64.2 


st 


sii 


0 


rr) 
«0 


0 


© 
fav) 


oA 


100.0 


200.0 


= 


y 


Summar- 


160 


based on 986 fires. 


< 
sy 


re report: 


cast 


pruce-hardwood. 
z 


brush, grass, tundre, muskeg. 


< 


Spruce, s 
tion, 


ri 


e produc 


be 


‘ 


ists o 
M runs from individual 


ype cons 
5 


typ 


Ais 
e 
Coded I 


'Spruc 


i.8) 
a 
& 


i/ 
Source: 


Table 55..--Percent of fires according to time from attack to control within each time class and fuel type 


Time in hours 


Final 

= QO -1 12 2-3 3 - = 2 - 24 24 - 48 48 - 7 72+ 

ee 2 aL aaace 7 : 

poet Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other 
May 

A 36.4 42.8 20.0 2S 6.2 6275 350 15.8 

B 50.0 49.0 60.0 62.5 50.9 40.0 39.4 26.3 31.6 33.3 20.0 16.6 22.3 25:0 

Cc 11.4 8.2 15.0 25.0 18.8 33.3 39.4 52.6 42.1 55.6 50.0 a Baa 50.0 33.4 

D 5.0 25.0 USO. Lone 21.0 10.0 UGA 2252 33.3 

E Ome 6.7 3.0 Bio 5nd Lied, 20:0 66.7 44.4 25.0 100 100 33.3 
June 

A 58.3 A5 TPS IPOS exis Sas Eaae OF 4.8 18.8 3.0 

B 33.3 40.5 66.7 14.3 61.1 45.4 38.1 43.8 27.3 Tet SL,.2 20.0 14.3 12.0 

Cc 6.7 11.9 ab eae $5.8 22.2 18.2 52.4 18.7 36.4 2S Slice 22.3 40.0 14.3 20.0 4.0 20.0 

D 2.4 21.4 5.6 18.2 4.7 Nese elie 38.5 16.8 33.3 Gah 23.6 30.0 16.0 20.0 

EB BLESS Yical Oia: Bee, esa! 30.7 18.8 44,4 33.3 42.8 50.0 100 68.0 60.0 
July 

A 70.8 60.8 42.1 33.3 18.2 OF1s S250 a) 14.3 25.0 

B 2ilfed 32.1 BH est) 44.5 72.7 45.4 32.0 50.0 30.0 28.36, 35.2 fl. 25:0 42.8 = Pb.Q) 12.5 10.0 

Cc oat Ties 1 L 36.4 24.0 40.0 60.0 BPed 65.5 14.3 18.8 50.0 12.5 10.0 

D Or 11.8 14.3 18.8 28.6 20.0 

E niibea 9.1 12.0 LOS 200 14.3 11.8 37.4 14.3 100 75.0 60.0 
August 

A 88.0 80.0 36.4 33.3 66.7 25.0 50.0 

B 4.0 20.0 54.5 66.7 66.7 AsyeX0) 100 50.0 50.0 1D 30 Zoo 

C 4.0 Fal 33.3 33.3 40.0 260° 50.0 100 25.5 100 25.0 60.0 

D 4.0 16.7 10.0 25'./5 

E 33.3 50.0 50.0 2550 75.0 40.0 
Summary 

A 60.5 49.2 29.4 DORON eLAS5 12.5 13.8 13.0 15 3.2 aliens) 5.4 971: 

B 31.6 41.1 60.3 42.8 60.4 40.0 40.2 39.2 30.9 19.4 34.0 34.6 21.4 26.3 BYE) Se) GLOz8 3.3 

(¢] 6.2 Bi:9 8.8 26.3 14.6 30.0 34.5 37.0 38.2 38.7 37.7 15.4 26.2 2120) 163% Ofso.- LOT 23.3 

D -6 Ate} 125 7-1 12.5 10.0 6.9 4.3 17.6 16.1 13.2 19.2 14.3 2150) 2222) 8.9 16.7 

B baal 4.8 ise) 4.6 Bowed a8 22.6 13.2 30.8 38.1 26.3 55.6 54.5 69.6 56.7 

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 


1/ 'Spruce' type consists of Spruce, spruce-hardwood. 
'Other': Broadleaf, reproduction, brush, grass, tundra, muskeg. 


Source: Coded IBM runs from individual fire reports, based on 986 fires. 


161 


Table 54.--Forward behavior of fire at time of arrival by percent within each charac- 
teristic class and between size classes 


(Av. 1950-58) 


Winall Smoldering Creeping Runnin Spotting Crownin 
size 


Fuel typex/ 


uae Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce Other Spruce</ Spruce&/ 


May (159 fires) 


A 56.0 41.7 Pile6 35.0 4.0 3129 0) 0) 

B 56.0 Domo Seg 55.0 ay 25 (0) 40.9 66.7 66.7 

C 4.0 PAA) 29.7 20.0 24.0 eab 30.0 O 

D 4.0 0) Bye! O 4.0 AD 0) 4 

B O O eel 10.0 LGLO 13.6 0) DOR 
June (266 fires) 

A 60.6 60.5 24.4 24.0 ile (jamie 8.0 2 Ey5(0) eal 

B Loe lige 43.9 32.0 29.2 8.0 Te 5 18.8 

C ore 6jedls TESTS 20.0 TOD 24.0 25.0 18.8 

D 3.0 Ona 4.9 ave (0) 9.8 16.0 iD W255) 

B 4.9 Great TO) a3 ©) 24.4 44.0 25.0 46.8 
July (232 fires) 

A 80.0 40.8 SD 20.0 10.3 5S ORO 14.3 

B 9.2 AES) 38.1 44.0 48.3 PALO) O 4.8 

C Tea Boe Tegal 20.0 AO) Th 41.6 6) 14.3 

D 0) (.4 4.8 0) O 5.3 Day) 55) 

E Sill iad 14.3 16.0 Ade Tf 26.3 215) 50) asad 


August (87 fires) 


A LOD 66.7 56.3 20.0 14.3 6) O O 
B PAO AS Pade) Sal sre 40.0 42.9 20.0 100 33.9 
C PAR) 8.3 apehs 5) 40.0 42.8 60.0 O 66.7 
D 0 O O 0) 0) 20.0 ) 0 
BE O O O O 0) 0) O 10) 
Summary all months (744 fires) 
A 69.8 WyLyal 30.9 Do We 16.9 25.0 6.8 
B 19.4 25-0 39.0 PW es 41.2 Pea SD Pe 0) 16.9 
C 6.5 526 IL TCATS PUSS fare 619) PAGES) Tey af askew 
D EG Nears Healt 4.0 4.9 9.9 5 LOR 
a Gl Sell Tigee alyz35(0) 19.6 26.8 18.8 47.4 


1/ 'Spruce' type consists of Spruce, spruce-hardwood. 
"Other': Broadleaf, reproduction, brush, grass, tundra, muskeg. 

2/ Only scattered occurrences of spotting and crowning occur in the fuel type. 
‘Other' since it is composed mostly of grass, tundra, and brush. 


Source: Coded IBM runs from individual fire reports. 


162 


Table 55 .--Cost of protection by Bureau of Land Management, 1950-58— 


Year 


1950 
1951 
1952 
1953 
1954 
1955 
1956 
1957 
1958 


Av. 


Place 


Alaska 
Other states 


Cost of protection in dollars 


Pre- 


Suppression 


143,529 
194,023 
198,516 
210 ,003 
230 ,695 
247,324 
287,813 
£94,911 
$95,551 


£44,685 


Pre- 


Suppression 


66 
34 


Suppression 


6,428 
89,139 
157,946 
180 ,588 
Alo, CLS 
£59,941 
192,606 
584,000 


1,875,643 


395,783 


1950-58) 


Suppression 


60 
40 


Total 


149,951 
£83,162 
556,262 
o90 591 
506,413 
487 ,265 
440,466 
Sto Ld 


2,271,194 


640 ,491 


Total 
Cost 


62 
38 


Percent of acreage protected and total protection costs 


1/ 


Cost/acre 
(fraction of cent) 
Other 
a cee states 
ON Om 0.34 
we wale 
6 Boa 
pleii 218 
oR wg. 
Rraye el 
20 Ge 
nog . 50 
SOM .80 
Acreage 


1/ Fiscal Year Data. 


163 


Based on 225 million acres protected. 
not include contract protection costs. 


Does 


Annual Reports of the Director, BLM (Statistical Appendix), 


DPSU/63 


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