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THE TEMPLE PRIMERS

FORESTRY

Translated from the German of •

DR. ADAM SCHWAPPACH

Professor of Sylviculture at the State Forest Academy, Eberswalde
and Director of Prussian Forest Investigation

FRASER STORY

Lecturer on Forestry at the University College of

North Wales, Bangor

and Examiner in Forestry to the University of Edinburgh

and

ERIC A. NOBBS, Ph.D., B.Sc, F.H.A.S.

Agricultural Assistant, Department of Agriculture,

Cape of Good Hope, South Africa

^sam

FORESTRY

BY ^^ DR-
5CHWAPPACH

I904at 29&20'B£DFORD-STREET' L.Or7DON

All rights resernjed

PREFACE

By way of preface to this translation of Professor Schwap-
pach's Forstmssenschaft^ a word or two of explanation seems
necessary.

The author has been careful to avoid anything which is
only locally applicable, so that the matter which the book
contains is quite as suitable for British as for German readers.
Forest conditions change within Germany as they do within
our own country, but the principles — the natural laws —
governing forest practice are unalterable, being the same at
all times and in all places. This being so, the English
adaptation of a book dealing concisely with these principles
and emanating from such an able author must surely be
useful. Forestry in its economic aspect is the subject treated,
and anything peculiar to Germany or any other country is
specifically mentioned. Some portions of the original, par-
ticularly Forest History and Valuation, have been abridged ;
while those bearing on Sowing and Planting, Insects, Fungi,
and Forest Management have been somewhat extended.
The illustrations also have been added.

I must, no doubt, hold myself responsible for the book in
the form in which it is now given to English readers, but I
desire to acknowledge my indebtedness to Dr. Eric A. Nobbs,
of the Department of Agriculture, Cape of Good Hope,
who began the translation. Also to Dr. William Somerville,
of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, my thanks are
due for the helpful interest he has taken in the work.

FRASER STORY

University College of North Wales,
Bangor

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION . . . . xi

CHAP.

I. HISTORIC SKETCH OF THE DEVELOPMENT
OF FORESTRY

1. IN THE MOST REMOTE PERIODS . . . I

2. IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES . . . 4

3. FROM THE END OF THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE

MIDDLE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY . 6

4. THE TRANSITION TO PRESENT CONDITIONS . . lO

5. FOREST LITERATURE . . . . 12

II. FOREST STATISTICS

SCOPE AND ARRANGEMENT OF FOREST STATISTICS . I 3

FOREST AREA OF THE WORLD . . • I +

III. FOREST INFLUENCES

THE IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS . . . 20

FORESTRY AND LABOUR . . . . 21

INFLUENCE OF THE FOREST ON CLIMATE AND SOIL . 2 I

IV. SYLVICULTURE

SPECIES OF TREES EMPLOYED

TREE GROWTH IN RELATION TO SOIL AND SITUATION

TREE GROWTH IN RELATION TO LIGHT

PURE WOODS AND MIXED WOODS

FORMATION OF WOODS BY SOWING AND PLANTING

NATURAL REGENERATION BY SEED

NATURAL REGENERATION BY COPPICE SHOOTS .

COPPICE WITH STANDARDS

25
27

53
57
59

viii CONTENTS

CHAP.

V. TENDING OF WOODS page

WEEDING, OR PRELIMINARY THINNING . . . 6l

THINNING . . . . . 62

PRUNING . . . , . 66

VI. FOREST PROTECTION

PROTECTION AGAINST OFFENCES CAUSED BY MAN . 6^

PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE . . . 68

PROTECTION AGAINST MAMMALS AND BIRDS . . /O

PROTECTION AGAINST FOREST INSECTS . '75

PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGOID DISEASES . .88

PROTECTION AGAINST FOREST WEEDS . . •93

PROTECTION AGAINST ATMOSPHERIC INFLUENCES . 94

vii. FOREST UTILISATION

THE PROPERTIES OF TIMBER . . . 98

DEFECTS IN TIMBER . . . . lOI

THE HARVESTING OF TIMBER . . . I02

MINOR PRODUCTS OF THE FOREST . . . IO5

DISPOSAL AND SALE OF FOREST PRODUCTS . . I08

TRANSPORT OF FOREST PRODUCTS . . . IO9

VIII. FOREST MANAGEMENT

SURVEY AND DIVISION OF FORESTS . . . II4

MEASUREMENT OF FELLED AND STANDING TREES, AND

DETERMINATION OF INCREMENT . . . I16

COLLECTION OF DATA FOR WORKING PLAN . . I28

THE NORMAL FOREST . . . • I 3 I
FACTORS DETERMINING THE COURSE OF FUTURE

MANAGEMENT . . . • I 3 2

METHODS OF REGULATING THE YIELD . . '134

FOREST WORKING PLANS . . . -136

EXECUTION OF THE WORKING PLAN . . . I4O

IX. FOREST FINANCE

VALUATION AND RATE OF INTEREST . . . I4I

SALE VALUE, COST VALUE, AND EXPECTATION VALUE . 1 43

CONTENTS ix

CHAP.

X. FOREST ECONOMICS page
STATE OWNERSHIP OF FORESTS . . . I45
TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN FORESTRY . . . I47
COMMUNAL FORESTS . . . . I 50
PROTECTION FORESTS . . . . I 50
GOVERNMENT SUPERVISION OF PRIVATE AND COM-
MUNAL FORESTS . . . .152

INDEX . . . • • 155

ENGLISH BOOKS ON FORESTRY

USEFUL FOR REFERENCE

Manual of Forestry, vol. i., Schlich, "Introduction to Forestry."

„ „ „ ii. „ "Formation and Tending of Woods.

„ „ „ iii, „ "Forest Management."

„ „ „ iv. Fisher, " Forest Protection."

„ „ „ V. „ "Forest Utilisation."

Boulger, fVood.

Brown and Nisbet, The Forester.

Fernow, Economics of Forestry,

Fiirst, The ^Protection of Woodlands. Trans, by Nisbet.

Hartig, Diseases of Trees. Trans, by Somerville and Ward,
„ Timbers and honv to I^cnv them. Trans, by Somerville.

Hoppus, Timber Measurer.

Hough, Elements of Forestry.

Laslett, Timber and Timber Trees.

Nisbet, '[British Forest Trees.
„ Studies in Forestry.
„ Our Forests and Woodlands.

Ormerod, Manual of Injurious Insects.

Stone, The Timbers of Commerce.

Veitch, Manual of Conifcra.

Ward, Timber and some of its Diseases.
„ The Oak.

INTRODUCTION

It is curious that the term " forest," the general meaning of
which everyone understands, is difficult or impossible of
definition. At one time the forest signified the hunting
grounds of the sovereign. At another it was explained as
an area on which were found trees and shrubs growing wild.
The former description is no longer satisfactory, and the
latter makes no allowance for cultivated forest, nor, indeed,
for the " deer forest," which may be entirely destitute of
trees.

Game coverts are one type of forest, protection forests
for preserving the soil quite another. The park, or pleasure
ground, is different again ; and the primeval forest may be
distinct from any. Further than this, one may have tree-
growing land merging so gradually into heath or moor, or
bearing so poor a timber crop, that opinions may differ as to
where forest ends and field begins.

For our present purpose the forest may be defined as an
area wholly or partially covered with trees, the principal
object in growing the trees being the production of timber.
From the foregoing remarks it is obvious, however, that such
a definition is fir from being universally applicable.

A forest which develops under the regenerating control of
nature, without man's interference, is termed " natural,"
" virgin," or " primeval " forest. Such forests have practi-
cally disappeared from Western and Southern Europe, and
towards the east they are in many parts rapidly diminishing.
Eastern Europe — Russia particularly, but also Sweden and
the southern portion of Norway — still possesses very con-
siderable tracts of undisturbed natural forest.

xii INTRODUCTION

Until recently the practice of economic forestry was
confined to certain parts of Europe and India ; but now
Japan, Cape Colony, and the United States of America
have at least made a beginning in forest organisation. Apart
from these cases, the world's timber resources are being ex-
ploited with wanton carelessness without regard to future
needs. The treatment accorded to most of the forest regions
in the United States may be specially instanced in this
connection.

So soon as man cuts into the primeval forest and begins to
appropriate its stores, the country affected quickly undergoes
a change. It may be that the area becomes permanently the
site of fields and pastures ; too often, however, it becomes
a barren waste. When the forest is systematically handled,
the cleared ground is regenerated and further timber raised.
But, though still forest, the term " primeval " is, of course,
no longer applicable.

Any definite subdivision of a forest may be called a
" wood." Both the land and the crop of trees upon it are
included in the terms " forest " and " wood." Woods
may be intended only to beautify the landscape, or to add to
the amenity of the district, and if they really serve their
aesthetic purpose, this may be considered as an end in itself.
It does not follow, however, that a wooded area, managed
simply with a view to the production of timber on economic
lines, is necessarily unlovely. Sylviculture certainly is based
upon commercial principles, but in its results it often rivals
for beauty the much less valuable productions of the land-
scape gardener. As dealt with in this volume, forestry is the
science or art of raising trees mainly for profit. Together
with this subject are considered the methods of harvesting,
extracting, and valuing forest produce.

FORESTRY

CHAPTER I

HISTORIC SKETCH OF THE DEVELOPMENT
OF FORESTRY

I. In the Most Remote Periods

To the work of Romans, writing at the dawn of ancient
history, we are indebted for a description of several
European forest districts. But there is an unwritten history
equally eloquent in the timber of lake-dwellings and other
primitive habitations, as well as the remains found in peat
mosses. These latter tell us something of the distribution
and extent of the forests at a period still more remote than
that dealt with by historians. By searching into the origin of
the names of places also much light has been shed on this
subject. Thus we have the terminations holt (a wood es-
pecially the haunt of wild animals), toft (a grove), shan.,
scauy hurst, wood, and woot. Then many place-names are
compounded with the names of species of trees ; thus, of
British origin, derrs) (the Oak) in Londonderry ; sale (from
sahl, the Willow) in Salehurst ; and of Saxon derivation,
aec (the Oak) in Acton ; zvithig (the Willow) in Withington,
cssce (the Ash) in Ashton, Askham, and many others. ^

Evidence of this kind proves that there has been but little
change in our forest flora since very ancient times. The

^ See Flavell Edmunds' Tracer of History in the Names of Places. — Tr.

2 FORESTRY

following broad-leaved trees are indigenous in Britain : Oak,
Ash, Beech, Wych Elm, Birch, Aspen, Hazel, and Alder.
The Scots Pine and Yew appear to be the only conifers
natural to our islands. The distribution and numerical
occurrence of the trees were not quite the same as they
are now ; in Britain, the Oak, for instance, was formerly
much more common, and remains of it are found in nearly
all parts of Scotland, even in the north of the country, and
at considerable altitudes. Any alteration that has taken place
in regard to the species grown, has been brought about
principally during the last two or three hundred years.

As is well known, the forests, both in this country and
abroad, originally occupied a very much greater area than
they do at the present day. It would be wrong, however,
to imagine that in the earliest times with which history deals
Western Europe was entirely covered with uninterrupted
forest.

In order to understand the history or development of
forestry in a country, it is necessary to study to a certain
extent the social and political changes that have been
active. Some account of these, referring more particularly
to Germany, will therefore be given in the following pages.

In very early times the forests of Germany belonged
either to the king, or, communally, to all the inhabitants of
a district or settlement. For long there lay between these
claimed areas — themselves but insecurely held — wide stretches
of absolutely unowned land.

With the growth of a strong sovereignty, and with the
introduction of Christianity, the country's conditions altered
very considerably.

From the seventh century onward the great ecclesiastic
and civil magnates gradually asserted their power, and during
the course of the next few hundred years they possessed
themselves not only of the previously unclaimed land, but
also of the larger part of the national forests. Similarly they
appropriated, almost everywhere, the forests belonging to the
original free settlements, but this they did without restricting

HISTORIC SKETCH 3

the use the peasants made of them. In order to get the
value out of their extensive possessions, the owners of the
land carried on schemes of settlement in which each com-
munity was, as a rule, assigned a part of the forest for
common use.

About the year 1000 a.d. we find the forest divided as
follows : —

{a) The private property of the sovereign, or of eccle-
siastical and civil authorities.

(/^) Communal woods belonging to the original free
settlers or to communities subordinate to the lord
of the manor.

Smaller woods, privately owned, were at that time quite
the exception.

In the political economy of early times, and even in the
Middle Ages, the forest played a part of great importance.
Wood was almost the only material used for heating, lighting,
and building ; from wood also domestic utensils and agri-
cultural implements were principally made. No less important
were the other uses of the forests of those days. They
provided the animals of the chase, pasturage for cattle and
sheep, and pannage for swine.

In course of time the system of coteries or tribes gave
way somewhat. At first the social binding was necessary,
for in that capacity alone were the people able to resist their
enemies. Land possession had been practically non-existent,
for these wandering peoples had to be ready at a sign to
change their homes. But now the ownership of land be-
came more fixed, the population rapidly increased, and a
larger supply of food was demanded. This brought agri-
culture into greater prominence. The forests had become a
hindrance to agricultural development, and their clearance
was the necessary preliminary to the founding of farm holdings.

FORESTRY

2. In the Later Middle Ages

The ancient national forests suffered seriously during the
later Middle Ages owing chiefly to two causes — the impe-
cunious state of the exchequer and the growth of feudalism.
The system of communal ownership gradually decayed,
though it never disappeared.

But a new form of proprietorship now appeared — that of
the towns. These, partly at the time of their foundation,
partly during their palmy days after the end of the thirteenth
century, frequently acquired very considerable areas of wood-
land, and preserved them well.

The efforts of the greater landed proprietors continued to
be directed towards the appropriation of the lands of the
peasantry, the more so as, with the development of sovereignty,
political power was connected with territorial possession.
With the reorganisation of economic conditions and the
development of the feudal system the peasantry as a class
lost their importance. On the other hand, the continual
economic progress of the country led to a further sub-
division of the old national forests. At first this took place
between districts only, but during the thirteenth century the
old communal forests also came to be divided among the
respective owners. In both cases the feudal lords took good
care, especially if they held protective rights, to get a larger
or smaller share of the lands.

The value of forest land for agricultural purposes, and the
general prosperity of the times, caused the forests to rise
rapidly in value, so that owners of property held always
more and more tenaciously to their possessions. Following
the ancient style of bargaining, proprietors granted rights of
use for labour done. At first the contents of the forest were
held to be of small value ; little restraint was put upon the
inhabitants' interpretation of their rights, and as a result,
they often took more than they were entitled to. In course
of time this privilege developed into a demand which

HISTORIC SKETCH 5

could not be refused, and so arose that system of so-called
" servitudes," or forest rights, which still exists in many parts
of Germany.

Conversion of the forest into arable land was a common
practice far into the later Middle Ages. The particularly
rapid growth of the population during the eleventh and
twelfth centuries gave rise to a period of active forest
destruction. Favouring this was the improvement in agri-
cultural methods, which gradually spread from west to east.

Before the end of the Middle Ages it became apparent
that the destruction of the forests was endangering the
timber supply of the towns and trades dependent on the
forest for their raw material. Not unimportant also, as an
incentive for legislation, was the necessity of forests for the
purposes of the chase. Prohibitions limiting further clear-
ances were brought about, first in the more settled and, for
those early times, comparatively densely populated parts of
Germany.

In the Rheingau, restrictions were made in 1226, and
many enactments in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries laid
down laws and prescriptions for the regulation of the fellings.
These ordinances were welcomed alike by individual land-
owners and village communities. Their object was to intro-
duce methodical treatment in place of previous haphazard
utilisation of forest products, and to ensure the permanence
of the supply.

Even thus early, we find such subjects dealt with as esti-
mates of the actual requirements for timber and fuel, extent
of existing woods, supervision of work done in the forest,
regulation of grazing cattle, and similar matters.

At the same time, rules were formulated prescribing the
means whereby exhausted forest might be reproduced. The
oldest method of regeneration was the protection of young
growth which had arisen spontaneously. This led very
naturally to the preservation of seed trees whose function
was to sow the ground, and any persons destroying trees left
for this purpose were severely punished.

6 FORESTRY

The earliest effort to control utilisation so that uniformity
of forest yield might result, was made in the year 1359, ^^
Erfurt, in Germany. The forest was divided into parts, one
of which was annually cut over in rotation. Coppice shoots
restocked the area by natural means, and the falls were so
planned that a sustained yield was rendered possible.

The first mention of the formation of pine woods by
direct sowing occurs ten years later in connection with the
town forest of Niirnberg. During the fifteenth century, this
practice became general throughout South-west Germany.

3. From the end of the Middle Ages to the
middle of the Eighteenth Century

During the period from the beginning of the sixteenth to
the middle of the eighteenth century no new form of
ownership of woodlands arose, but those already existing
underwent considerable modification. More particularly the
possessions of the Crown were enormously extended. This
came about in three ways : ( i ) by the appropriation of hitherto
unclaimed land ; (2) by the secularisation of much Church
property as a consequence of the Reformation ; and (3) by
the decline of the village communal system.

Chiefly through the working of the last of these factors
the possessions of the landed nobility were increased.
During the sweeping changes in the political and social
conditions the communes had completely lost their former
status, and the Thirty Years' War gave the death-blow to
the political influence of the peasantry. The ever-increasing
power of the Crown gradually embraced the control of forests
belonging to the peasants, and with the feeling of independ-
ence gone, the latter lost also their interest in their common
property. Thus it came about that the great nobles obtained
more and more power, and managed, by various devices, to
possess themselves of the former communal forests. At first
the commoners exercised their prerogatives much as of old,
but this they did in an ever-diminishing degree.

HISTORIC SKETCH 7

Growth of the population, with the consequent increase in
the requirements for wood and other forest produce, led to
further legal enactments to prevent the destruction of forests.
In spite of these laws, reckless cutting continued to be
practised in Eastern Germany and other parts of Central
Europe up till the middle of the eighteenth century and even
later, the original object being to attract farmers to these
densely wooded but thinly peopled regions. Reaction,
in the latter part of the Middle Ages, led to restriction of
the use of forests, and this policy grew and gradually came
to be actively enforced.

It was fortunate for the fulfilling of the regulations that
the pressing need for improved forest conservation was
backed by the authority of the sovereign, so that they were
no longer mere general resolutions passed by the community.
The practical aim of these laws was to replace the exploited
woods by new ones. It was observed that the growth of
self-sown seedlings depended upon the judicious admission of
light to the forest floor. When woods of Spruce and Silver
Fir were heavily thinned for timber, this was readily seen.
The trees left standing acted as parents, producing a subse-
quent crop of trees.

In the course of the sixteenth century various improve-
ments on the former crude sylvicultural methods suggested
themselves. Amongst these may be mentioned the systematic
arrangement of the felling areas, the removal in the thinnings
not of the best but of the inferior classes of trees, the selec-
tion of good trees to produce seed, and the fostering of such
natural growth as was already present.

The devastation of the Thirty Years' War not only put a
stop to all progress, but brought about a return of the old misuse
of the forest, and this continued till the end of the seven-
teenth century. When consideration was again given to sylvi-
culture, the initiative was taken in the north-west of Germany,
more particularly in the Harz Mountains. Most of the
credit for .the revival of sound principles is due to the labours
and energy of Von Langen. The natural regeneration of

8 FORESTRY

coniferous woods had long been rendered difficult by damage
wrought in them by storms. Von Langen devised a scheme
whereby the woods were sheltered in their most critical
period by means of suitable Cutting Series.

Before the commencement of the eighteenth century
forests of broad-leaved trees were managed as coppice or
coppice with standards. But as timber of larger size came
more into request, the length of the rotation was extended.
Then came the question of regeneration, High forests being
generally raised, not from stool shoots, but from seed.

Natural regeneration by seed from deciduous trees seems
to have been almost entirely neglected up to this time. The
formation of woods by means of the natural fall of seed had
long been practised with conifers, but was only now successfully
attempted with broad-leaved trees, more especially with the
Beech. This problem was first satisfactorily solved in Hesse
about the year 1730 by giving special attention to the re-
quirements of the young plants for shelter. In 1736 the
forest ordinance of Hanau-Munzenberg — a decree regulating
the management of the forests there — prescribed that special
attention be paid to the interests of the new rather than
merely to the utilisation of the old crop. The felling was
divided into three stages — a felling for seed, a felling for
light, and a final felling. In 1764 an advance or preparatory
stage in the felling was made to precede, by a few years,
the cutting for the production of seed.

Artificial regeneration of pines and firs by sowing and
planting became general in the sixteenth century, being
first practised in South Germany. In the north, at the same
time, the ancient custom of forming groves of Oaks by
planting saplings in the neighbourhood of homesteads, was
applied to the open forest, where also the sowing of pine
cones — a method now rarely employed — was introduced.
Towards the close of the seventeenth century the planting
of Spruce was tried, though with little success ; but at the
beginning of the next century direct sowing of Spruce seed
was followed by much better results, and this method

HISTORIC SKETCH 9

came rapidly into general use both in North Germany and
in Thuringia.

The demand for timber continuing to increase, it became
compulsory, or at least highly desirable, to institute definite
plans for the regulation of the yearly fellings.

Until woods which had been recently formed became of
serviceable size, the older forest was the only source of supply,
and the object ot these early working plans was so to allocate
the annual fellings that the old forest would not be exhausted
before the younger woods were available.

Two fundamentally distinct ways of attaining this end
occur in practice. The forest may be divided into sections
of approximately equal area. The number of parts is made
to correspond to the number of years over which it is desired
to spread the fellings, and one of the sections is then felled
each year.i The alternative method is to make an estimate
of the total stock of timber, and this amount, divided by the
number of years over which its utilisation must extend, gives
the quantity that can be felled annually.^ It was some time
before it was appreciated that to this estimate might be added
a quantity representing the wood increment during the rota-
tion or lifetime of the trees.

The former of these two ways appears to be, and often is,
the simpler, and, as previously mentioned, it was the first to
be employed (in the fourteenth century). In large forests,
however, the measurement and division of the area were
beyond the skill of the times to deal with, while the nature
of the crop was too uneven to admit of the method being
successfully applied. The method of calculation by volume
was accordingly resorted to, but in its roughest form. The
earliest information on this point dates back to the middle
of the sixteenth century, and refers to the Harz and the
district of Salzkammergut, in Upper Austria.

^ See p. 134 : " Method of Periods by Area."
2 See p. 135 •• "Method of Periods by Volume,"

lo FORESTRY

4. The Transition to Present Conditions

Still further alterations in the ownership of German forest
lands occurred in the latter half of the eighteenth century.
These were brought about chiefly by the extension of public
rights, much land passing out of the possession of the nobility
to become the property of the State. The communal forests
that had escaped distribution among their joint owners, or
seizure by the overlords, were now cared for by the re-
spective townships.

The burdens on the forest in the shape of rights continued
to increase till the beginning of the nineteenth century. The
augmented value of forest products and agricultural changes
have since led to the gradual reduction of these obligations
by arrangement with the beneficiaries, though this has neces-
sitated considerable expenditure.

An important step in the progress of sylviculture was the
evolution of the so-called Selection System, introduced at
the end of the eighteenth century. By it, single trees or
small groups in the forest are chosen and felled, according as
their state of maturity suggests, and the necessity for younger
growth requires. Originally adopted for the utilisation and re-
generation of deciduous species, particularly Beech, the system
met with the commendation of those pioneers in scientific
forestry, G. L. Hartig and Heinrich von Cotta. Upon the
selection method being applied to the Scots Pine — the species
least suited to this treatment— failure resulted, which caused
a sudden reaction in favour of clear-felling with subsequent
planting. Both the selection and the clear-felling systems
have their peculiar advantages under particular circumstances ;
but the indiscriminate use of either leads naturally enough to
disappointment.

The financial crisis consequent upon the great wars at
the beginning of the nineteenth century had its effect upon
the forest. Natural regeneration by seed, being a cheap
method of restocking, rose again in favour. This period

HISTORIC SKETCH ii

passed, however, and with the return of normal financial
conditions, more intensive working became possible. The
formation of woods by planting and direct sowing was given
much attention, and many methods were evolved, the most
important of which will here receive consideration.

In the history of the tending of woods, thinnings are first
mentioned as having taken place at the beginning of the
sixteenth century. The writings of the time contain many
observations worthy of remark regarding the aim and im-
portance of this operation. But their effect upon practical
management seems to have been that the smaller timber was
removed from the older woods, and that it consisted of the
suppressed and superfluous material, while the actively growing
younger woods received no attention.

G. L. Hartig was the first to give systematic instruction
on the care of woods by means of thinning. In the early
years of the nineteenth century this important branch of
forestry developed further through the work of Spath, Cotta,
Pfeil, and Konig ; but it still made slow progress in practical
application.

This period was also marked by an advance in systems of
forest management. Annual and periodic increment, previ-
ously overlooked, was now included in calculations connected
with working plans. Experiments conducted in Thuringia
about 1750 had most important results. They consisted of
a comparative study of the volume accretion of woods of
similar character at different ages. From these investigations
it was seen that there was a very considerable diversity in
the amount of timber produced per acre at the various periods
throughout the lifetime of a wood — this being connected
with corresponding alterations in the activity of growth. It
was shown that to postpone the act of felling beyond a
certain age — dependent on species and situation — led to
serious loss of timber increment.

As has been explained, woods may be allotted to the
periods of a rotation by the taking of a like volume each
felling time, or by cutting over the trees upon an equal area.

FORESTRY

The method by means of volume had the support of G. L.
Hartig. Cotta and others, however, considered the areal
distribution preferable, but tried to combine with it an
equalisation of the return by volume as well.

In the beginning of the nineteenth century a further
method of calculating the produce was evolved. It was
based on a series of formulie representing the actual stock and
its increment in relation to the ideal or so-called " normal "
stock and increment.

5. Forest Literature

The middle of the eighteenth century marks a turning
point in the history of sylviculture. Till then forestry
had been almost unknown in literature. A few scattered
writings had previously appeared, but now there was evinced
an earnest desire on the part of foresters to bring to public
notice results of inquiry and experience.

Of the early works, that entitled Ruralimn commodorum
appeared in the year 1300. It is a scholarly compilation on
agriculture taken from the writings of Roman authors. Quaint
views upon natural history occur throughout its pages, and
forestry is occasionally referred to. Upon the invention of
printing, several editions of the book were issued and it was
translated into many languages. It inspired much of the
popular Pr<^dih?n rust'icum of Charles Estienne, which ap-
peared in 1554. Among other works of a like character, the
only one requiring mention is the Oeconomia ruralis, by Colerus,
of interest as being the first based on actual observation of
nature and direct personal experience. The book is, in this
way, a striking contrast to the pedantic efforts of all previous
writers. Sylvicultui'd ceconom'ica (1713), by Von Carlowitz,
like Evelyn's S'lha, is wholly devoted to forestry, and deals
with its subject from a practical standpoint. It contains pre-
cepts, many of which are still recognised as of fundamental
importance in sylviculture.

The first encyclopaedic work in which forest science is

FOREST STATISTICS 13

presented in systematic arrangement, emanated from a number
of professors and others interested in the subject. This
book appeared in the latter half of the eighteenth century,
but was sadly deficient in technical knowledge. In their
terminology the compilers availed themselves largely of
the works of a French author (Duhamel du Monceau).
This class of literature continued to become more involved
later in the same century, owing to a confusion of ill-under-
stood yet increasingly numerous terms.

For long a process had been working wherein the forester
gradually replaced the huntsman in the woods. These men,
giving their attention to woodcraft, were able to chronicle
their observations for the benefit of their profession. Late
faulty writings found their corrective in the literary efforts of
those more practical men.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century forestry was
still dealt with in literature as a comprehensive whole.
Thus the works of Hartig, Cotta, Hundeshagen, and Pfeil
traverse the whole range of sylvicultural science and practice.
This ceased about 1830. Writers have specialised more
since then, and have usually preferred to deal with particular
branches of the subject.

CHAPTER II
FOREST STATISTICS

Scope and Arrangement of Forest Statistics

Statistics bear very directly upon the economic problems of
forestry. If carefully gathered, they are excellent guides
for future action, being based on experience in the past or
on existing conditions. They consist of the collection and
arrangement of facts bearing on many topics, such as matters

14 FORESTRY

of profit and expenditure, forest resources, area and distribu-
tion of forest lands, imports and exports, and means of convey-
ance of timber. Subjects for statistical inquiry may, indeed,
be multiplied indefinitely ; at present, however, the records
are scanty enough even upon the subject of forest area.

Some of the European states provide fairly reliable data,
but the figures of others (Russia, Turkey, Sweden, and
Norway) leave much to be desired. For lands outside of
Europe the data are scarcely trustworthy.

Forest Area of the World

It is improbable that the world's forest area and available
timber supply have been under-estimated. It is, indeed, more
likely that the reverse is the case. Much land designated
" forest " has but a poor scrub growth upon it — portions are
even desert. A very extensive area in the United States,
for instance, is not productive, though described in the official
returns as " wooded area." Great stretches of forest in
Sweden, Canada, Australia, and other lands also come under
this category. They are forest lands, but unless prices
rise very considerably they will prove altogether unre-
munerative for exploitation, the material being much too re-
motely or unfavourably situated to warrant its extraction.
Yearly it is becoming more difficult to reach the products
of the natural forests. All the most serviceable timber is
taken first from the easily accessible areas, but this supply
becoming exhausted, lumbermen are being forced to fetch
the timber from an ever-increasing distance. The forest area
alone does not allow one to judge of a country's capabilities
for the supply of timber. The following tables are therefore
submitted with the qualification that they give only an idea
of the relative position of the countries specified.

FOREST STATISTICS

DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS

I. BRITISH

POSSESSIONS

Total

Percentage

Wooded Area.

Country.

Acres.

Land Area.

Canada

. 799,231,0001

... 38

Prince Edward Island .

510,000

Nova Scotia

4,137,000

New Brunswick .

9,450,000

Ontario

65,356,000

... 46

Quebec

74,573,000

British Columbia

182,755,000

Manitoba .

16,401,000

N.W. Territories

446,049,000

Australasia

106,037,000

Victoria

11,797,000

South Australia .

3,840,000

Queensland

40,000,000

New South Wales

19,000,000

West Australia .

20,400,000

3-2

Tasmania .

11,000,000

... 64

New Zealand

20,578,000

South Africa—

Cape Colony

519,175

Natal

30,000

0-3

Orange River

Practically treeless ... 00

Transvaal .

Not known

—

British India

. 155,000,000

II. FOI

lEIGN COUNTRIES

Percentage

Total

of Land Percentage

Wooded Area. Area under belonging

Country.

Acres.

Forest. to State.

United States

500,000,000- ...

26 ... I

Japan .

57,000,000

60 ... 30

Russia^ .

516,000,000

40 ... 61

Sweden .

48,000,000

44 ••• 27

Germany

34,490,000 ...

26 ... 33

Austria proper

23,990,000

32 ... 7

1 The timber on less than ha

If this

acreage only may I

e available. — Tr.

2 See B. E. Fernow's Economics of Forestry, 1902, p. 339.

3 See article " The Outlook of the World's Timber Supply," by Dr. W
Schlich, in ^^ Journal of the Society of Arts, March i, 1901.

FORESTRY

Percentage

Total

of Land

Percentage

Wooded Area.

Area under

belonging

Country.

Acres.

Forest.

to State.

France .

23,530,000

18 .

Hungary

22,420,000

. 28 .

. 16

Spain

20,960,000

17 .

. 84

Norway .

17,000,000

Bulgaria

10,650,000

—

Italy

10,110,000

Bosnia and Herzegovins

L 6,790,000

• 53 •

Turkey .

6,180,000

8 .

—

Roumania

5,030,000 .

. 47

Servia . . . .

2,390,000 .

—

Switzerland .

2,051,670

Greece .

2,030,000

. 16 .

Belgium

1,250,000 .

Portugal

770,000

3 •

Denmark

600,000

• 24

Holland

570,000

7 •

—

Luxembourg .

190,000

• 30 .

—

III. BRITISH ISLESi

Counties.

England —
Bedford
Berks .
Buckingham
Cambridge
Cheshire
Cornwall
Cumberland
Derby .
Devon .
Dorset .
Durham
Essex .
Gloucester
Hants .
Hereford
Hertford
Huntingdon

1 See Agricultural Returns for Great Britain, 1901,
Agricultural Statistics of Ireland, igoi, Dublin, 1902.

Total

Wooded Area.

Percentage of

Acres.

Land Area.

12,542

412

35.791

7-07

32,125

669

6,146

III

24,836

3-79

31,043

3-57

35,054

.. 361

25,760

3-94

86,050

514

37,615

604

29,469

4-53

30,860

315

58,407

7-27

125,674

... 11-93

41,957

1-Tl

24,545

606

4,714

201

London, 1902 ; and

FOREST STATISTICS

Counties.

England —
Kent .
Lancashire
Leicester
Lincoln
London
Middlesex
Monmouth
Norfolk
Northampton
Northumberland
Nottingham
Oxford .
Rutland
Shropshire
Somerset
Stafford
Suffolk .
Surrey .
Sussex .
Warwick
Westmoreland
Wilts .
Worcester
Yorkshire

England — Total

Total

Wooded Area.

Percentage of

Acres.

Land Area.

98,302

1007

41,906

14,282

2-66

43,127

2-54

367

0-49

3,656

2-45

32,733

9-37

53,870

409

28,017

4-3

49,626

.. 384

28,517

5-27

26,611

5-53

3,838

3-94

50,493

.. 585

45,650

4-4

39,191

5-55

34,771

.. 3-66

54,437

.. 11-77

124,632

• ■ 1336

21,261

.. 3-68

17,334

3-43

51,755

5-99

19,188

3-99

139,589

3-35

1,665,741

s-ii

Wales —
Anglesey
Brecon .
Cardigan
Carmarthen
Carnarvon
Denbigh
Fhnt .
Glamorgan
Merioneth
Montgomery
Pembroke
Radnor

Wales— Total

2,193
13,956

15,989
23,290

12,593
18,422
8,209
27,206
14,407

24,730
9,698

10,917
181,610

I 23

2-97
3-68

396
3-44
432

5-5

506

342

4.84

246

362

376

Total

Counties. Wooded Area.

Percentage of

Scotland— Acres.

Land Area.

Aberdeen .... 108,976

.. 851

Argyll .

48,412

.. 238

Ayr

25,725

351

Banff .

30,955

763

Berwick

15,378

523

Bute .

3.806

2-7

Caithness

952

021

Clackmannan

3,026

8-6

Dumbarton .

8,772

507

Dumfries

31.531

456

Edinburgh

12,117

501

Elgin and Moray

48,688

1577

Fife

24,130

7-43

Forfar .

3i>972

5-68

Haddington .

10,472

611

Inverness

150,929

IO-86

Kincardine .

25,795

1051

Kinross

3,258

... 5-8i

Kirkcudbright

19,285

3-31

Lanark .

21,499

... 381

Linlithgow .

5,206

676

Nairn .

12,767

1219

Orkney .

0004

Peebles .

9,477

424

Perth .

94,103

515

Renfrew

6,661

426

Ross and Cromarty

61,482

Roxburgh

16,285

... 3-8

Selkirk .

4,942

2-86

Shetland

Stirling

14,920

502

Sutherland .

19,641

146

Wigtown

7,592

241

Scotland — Total

. 878,765

451

Ireland .

309,741

British Isles

• 3,035.857

3-9

FOREST STATISTICS

County.

Area in Acres.

Gloucester

... 15,664

Gloucester

... 3,404

Gloucester

524

Monmouth

... 3,000

Hants

... 23,088

Hants

1,892

Hants

856

Hants

... 1,420

Hants

1,160

Berks

... 10,000

Cheshire

2,100

Durham

870

Kent

240

Northampton

... 1,700

Surrey-

840

Total .

. . 66,7';8

IV. AREAS UNDER WOOD IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
BELONGING TO THE CROWN 1

Name of Wood or Forest
Dean Forest
Highmeadow Woods .
Abbotswood Estate .
Tintern Estate .
New Forest
Alice Holt Woods
Woolmer Estate
Bere Woods
Parkhurst Woods
Windsor, exclusive of Great Park
Delamere Woods
Chopwell Woods
Eltham Woods .
Hazelborough and Salcey Woods
Esher Woods ....

The forest areas owned by the State form only 2-2 per
cent, of Britain's woodlands ; they are wholly situated in
England — Scotland, Ireland, and Wales being practically
without Crown woods. Much subdivided and subject to
the rights and claims of commoners, they cannot easily be
treated in a manner suitable for making them models or
typical examples of forest management — so important a
function of government forests abroad.

Barely 4 per cent, of the total area of the United King-
dom has a covering of trees, and for the most part the
existing woods have been created for no economic purpose.
It is a curious condition for a country where the climate and
soil are admirably adapted for the growth of trees, where
millions of acres of waste land and moorland invite afforesta-
tion, where the consumption of timber ^ is very great and
rapidly increasing, and where the foreign timber supply is
slowly but assuredly failing.

^ From figures supplied through the Government OfBce of Woods and
Forests, by E. Stafford Howard, c.b., Commissioner.

^ The average sum spent upon imported timber for the five years
preceding 1899 amounted to over ^^22,000,000 per annum. — Tr.

20 FORESTRY

CHAPTER III
FOREST INFLUENCES

The Importance of Forests

The importance of the forest lies chiefly in the numerous
uses to which timber is applied. But extensive woodlands
have also their significance in providing shelter and food for
certain of the domestic animals, protecting agricultural land
in their vicinity, harbouring game, preventing erosion in one
quarter and fixing drifting sand in another, in beautifying the
landscape, and giving opportunity for employment in healthy
labour. The industrial aspect is indeed of great moment,
especially at a time when depopulation of the country dis-
tricts is causing grave concern.

It seems almost unnecessary to say that timber arid fire-
wood are the most valued products of the forest. Still,
there was a time when, even in Western Europe, what we
now consider to be mere subsidiary attributes of the forest —
the animals of the chase, mast, leaf litter, etc. — were more
highly esteemed than the trees themselves. The minor pro-
ducts, as such material is called, could be easily transported,
while of timber there was positively a superabundance.

The utilisation of the crop of timber is effected very fre-
quently by the clearance of larger or smaller areas, this
operation being followed by restocking. But the stems are
also in part removed in the thinnings as is required in the
course of sylvicultural treatment, with the view of promoting
the well-being of the remainder. Timber removed in effect-
ing the regeneration of the wood or immediately before
replanting is called the chief or final yield. All the rest,
including thinnings, forms the Intermediate yield. In initiating
schemes for the working of forest lands it is customary to
expressly define the limits of these terms. The purpose they

FOREST INFLUENCES 21

serve is to make easier the regulation of the work, and de-
termine the results of past management.

Forestry and Labour

The management and protection of the forest, the harvest-
ing of the products, the transport and manufacture of the
timber, offer wide scope for remunerative labour.

The figures given in the census returns for Germany for
1895 show that 1 1 1,926 people had their chief employment,
and 47,410 their partial employment in forestry work.
Upon the former class, 240,640 family members were de-
pendent. In addition, 899,956 found their occupation in
the timber industry, and the families maintained by these
numbered 1,547,847 persons.

Forestry finds work for fewer persons, relatively, than
agriculture, there being quite a marked difference. Thus
in Germany we find that arable farming employs one man
for 10-6 acres, but forestry requires only one for 308-8 acres.^

Even the smaller by-products of the woods, such as fruits
and branchwood for burning, have their importance. In
collecting them, occupation is given to those who are physi-
cally unable for more arduous work. The value of such
incidental crops will be appreciated from the fact that on a
certain conservancy in Germany the dealers pay the gatherers,
in a good year, the sum of ioo,coo marks (;!^5jOOo) for
blaeberries alone.

Influence of the Forest on Climate and Soil

The beneficial effects of forests on the land in their
vicinity was formerly, and to some extent still is, somewhat
exaggerated, or at least sought for in a wrong direction. To
the forest was ascribed a far-reaching action in altering the
temperature, regulating precipitations, and modifying the

^ These figures refer only to persons permanently and directly en-
gaged in forest work, and do not take cognisance of the large number
temporarily employed. Forest land gives much more employment to
workmen than pastoral land.

22 FORESTRY

humidity of the atmosphere. Indeed, the impression con-
veyed by these statements was that whatever imperfection
the cHmate of the district possessed might be cured by the
establishment of forests. Thus the forest was supposed to
increase or diminish heat and cold, attract rain, or prevent
downpours and floodings as circumstances demanded!

The more careful research and exact study of recent years
have, however, shown that the climatic influence of forests
is quite inconsiderable, and that neither afforestation nor
the destruction of forests has any appreciable effect. This
may, at least, be said of the British Isles and continental
lands in North-western Europe.

The difference of the mean annual temperature without
and within the forest amounts to only about i° Fahr. In
fact, it is occasionally less than the difference which arises
between two methods of observation. Perhaps the rainfall
over the forest is slightly greater than that in the open, but
though the finest tests have been made, even this has not as
yet been clearly demonstrated. On the other hand, owing to
the rapid evaporation of rain from the crowns of the trees,
considerably less water reaches the soil in woods than in
the open country. This is especially marked in countries
like Great Britain, where a considerable portion of the
annual precipitation is in the form of showers and mist.

But the forest is not without its favourable effects by any
means. Apart from the fact that they add organic matter to
the soil, forests have a beneficial action in —

(i) Preventing direct sunlight from reaching the soil,
a condition of things associated with certain
prejudicial influences.

(2) Breaking the force of the wind.

(3) Reducing the mechanical force of very heavy rain.

(4) Binding soils apt to be carried away by flooding or

drifting.

In hilly country the prevention of erosion is, without

FOREST INFLUENCES 23

doubt, of great importance, and for fixing the light, easily
blown sand of the plains the binding action of the forest is
no less useful. The water from heavy rains, checked in its
descent by meeting first with the foliage of the trees, is better
retained in forest soil than on bare land. Under a close
cover of trees there collects a humus soil formed from the
decay of fallen leaves. Through this sponge-like soil-cover-
ing the rainwater slowly filters, and its passage is further
retarded by the stems and roots of the trees. In this way
the erosive effect of violent rains upon bare hillsides is
obviated. This is often a very serious danger, not only
because the good soil is washed away, but also on account
of lower lying fertile lands being covered by boulders,
gravel, and sand brought down in the flooded waters. An
importance must be attached to forests in such localities
quite apart from the timber they produce. The Alps
afford, perhaps, the best examples of this class of forest,
but the unchecked, wasting action of violent rains can be
clearly seen in Britain upon many hills reduced to a state of
barrenness.

In the case of shifting sands, the roots of trees, shrubs,
and wild plants, and the covering of vegetable humus formed
from dead leaves serve to bind the soil. What forest growth
has done in this matter may be clearly seen in the " Landes "
of Gascony, or along the southern shores of the Baltic.
On the other hand, and in striking contrast to these districts,
are the great arid wastes of Central Russia, which bear
such melancholy evidence to the improper handling of the
natural forest over this precarious class of land. When level
tracts of loose soil, without forest or other cover, are exposed
to the wind, sand-dunes are apt to be formed. These advance
in the direction of the prevailing wind, often invading valuable
agricultural land.

Woods, which, from their position or the nature of the
ground, exist not merely for the sake of -what they produce,
but also for the physical benefit of the area or of neighbour-
ing districts, are called Protection Forests.

24 FORESTRY

CHAPTER IV
SYLVICULTURE

In the establishment of forests the aim must always be to
produce for the given conditions the most valuable timber
crop with the least expenditure of time and money consistent
with permanently good results.

Species of Trees Employed

Of the many different kinds of trees growing in Europe,
comparatively few are capable of forming " pure " woods —
that is, woods consisting of one species only. Of this class
we have, however, among conifers the Silver Fir i^Ah'ics
pectinata\ Spruce {Picea excelsa), Scots Pine {Pinus syhestrts).
Larch (Larix etiropced), and Weymouth Pine {P'lnus strobus) ;
and of broad-leaved trees. Beech {Fagus syk'atica)^ Oak
(^Quercus pedunculata and Q. se55ilifiora\ Hornbeam {Carpinus
betultis). Ash (Fraxinus excelsior). Birch {^etiila alba, L.=
•S. verrucosa, and *S. pubescens, Ehrh.), and Alder i^Alnus
glutinosa). Various Willows also appear pure in osier beds.

The above-mentioned trees are known as " ruling " species,
the remainder are called " subordinate," being found in mixed
woods, or pure only very exceptionally.

Of the species here enumerated, five are of particular im-
portance, namely, Oak, Beech, Scots Pine, Spruce, and Silver
Fir. To the cultivation of these chief attention is directed.
All the trees just mentioned have long been grown in Northern
Europe except two — the Larch, which, occurring naturally
in the Alps, was introduced to England in the seventeenth
century (to Scotland in the eighteenth century) ; and the
Weymouth Pine, introduced during the eighteenth century.

Recently much attention has been given, particularly in
Germany, to the cultivation as forest trees of various

SYLVICULTURE 25

American and Asiatic species, several of which may in the
course of time become generally recognised as valuable
additions to the forest flora of Western Europe. From
a sylvicultural point of view, those especially deserving men-
tion are : American White Ash [Fraxim/s alba Americana),
Red Oak [Quercus rubra), Black Walnut [yuglans nigra),
Douglas Fir {Fseudotsuga Douglasii), Sitka Spruce (Picea
sitchensis or Abies Menziesii), Western Hemlock ( Tsuga
Mertensiana or Abies Albertiana), Lawson's Cypress {Cba-
nicecyparis or Cupressus Lazvsoniana), Pacific Arborvitae
( Thuya gigantea, T. Lobbi, or T. Menziesii), Bank's Pine
(Pin us Banksiana), Japanese Larch (Larix leptolepis). Great
Silver Fir {Abies grandis), Concolor White Fir {Abies
concolor).

Tree Growth in Relation to Soil and Situation

A term much used in technical forestry is " locality."
It comprehends both soil and climate — the latter being in-
fluenced by situation — as they affect tree growth. The
locality largely determines the species to grow and the
sylvicultural treatment to adopt for any given area. The
estimation of the capabilities of the locality forms, perhaps,
the chief concern of the practical forester.

Apart from the general management of the forest, the
prosperity of the trees depends upon the physical and
chemical composition of the soil, the geographical position,
the altitude, slope, and aspect of the ground.

Owing to the great number of factors collectively con-
stituting the locality, there is difficulty in determining the
importance of each individually. In selecting trees, the
general conditions that are found to prevail must overrule
opposing but non-vital considerations.

As regards the demands which trees make upon the
physical properties of the soil, the most important qualities
are depth, moisture, consistency, and permeability. A soil
of at least moderate depth, fairly fresh, and of a porous and

26 FORESTRY

friable character is suitable for all species. Oak, Beech,
Silver Fir, Ash, and Elm are, in this matter of the soil's
mechanical state, decidedly exacting. Others are not so
much so, and will grow in spite of less favourable circum-
stances. This is especially true of the Scots Pine, which
on several kinds of soil — and, indeed, where many species
could not live, such as poor sandy and peaty ground — man-
ages to grow and even thrive. The predominance of the
Scots Pine in European forests is chiefly due to this power
of adaptability. The more that agriculture extended its
boundaries — as was formerly the tendency — the more did
the forest become limited to the poorer soils, where little
else but Scots Pine could grow. This result is also in part
attributable to the harmful effect of extracting the humus
(vegetable mould) from the forest and by past faulty manage-
ment in the tending of the woods. But though Scots Pine
is an adaptable species, it must not be thought that it is
suitable to plant everywhere. On the contrary, many soils
(clays and marls) grow the fastidious Oak better than the
Pine.

The degree of depth of soil has its effect upon all species,
but many are able to accommodate themselves to situations
where the depth is deficient. Other conditions being favour-
able, Spruce and Beech will grow on shallow soils ; but Oak,
Ash, and Sweet Chestnut require considerable depth.

The quantity of moisture in the soil has a very great in-
fluence in determining the species which will grow. Upon
very dry soils occur Scots Pine, Acacia, and Birch. The
wettest situations, where water is almost stagnant, can be
occupied by only common Alder and Birch (both Bctula
verrucosa and pub esc ens).

As regards the demands made upon the mineral strength
and nourishing matter in the soil, the most exacting species
are respectively Elm, Sweet Chestnut, Ash, Oak, Sycamore,
and Silver Fir ; the least exacting. Birch and Scots Pine.

Altitude is often the deciding agent for forest vegetation.
Along with it, however, the geographical position or latitude

SYLVICULTURE 27

must be taken into account. The height above sea-level
reached by trees is to a great extent regulated by climatic
conditions — warmth particularly. The greatest altitudes are
reached by Spruce and Mountain Pine {Pin us montana) ; follow-
ing them, in order, come the Cembran Pine (Pinus cembrd)
and Mountain Alder {Alnus znridis\ Larch, Sycamore,
White Alder {Alnus incana)^ and Rowan or Mountain Ash.
Cembran Pine and Mountain Alder are practically confined
to the Alps. As failing to reach any considerable altitude
Sweet Chestnut, Poplar, Acacia, and Osier Willows may
be mentioned.

Tree Growth in Relation to Light

For the raising of woods and the management of them,
it is most necessary to understand the requirements for light
of the various trees.

A few species, especially Silver Fir and Beech, do not
demand a full degree of light in order to grow well. The
Yew tree possesses this faculty of toleration to a wonderful
extent. On the other hand, there are species for whose
growth, and life itself, much light is absolutely essential. To
this latter class belong Birch, Larch, Oak, and Scots Pine.

Trees that have been allowed to grow in free positions,
and to develop their natural character, can be judged in their
relation to light by the foliage of their crowns.

Under like conditions of shade, the twigs and crowns of
shade-bearing species are alive and healthv, while those of the
light-demanders are languishing or dead. The crowns of
the individual trees, as well as of the wood as a whole,
appear thick and close in the case of the former, but light
and open in that of the species intolerant of shade. That
shade-bearing trees can also develop to perfection in open
positions must be evident to all who have observed their
growth in any of our wooded parks.

The habit of growth characteristic of the various species,
as shown in the development of their crowns and in the

28 FORESTRY

density of the timber crop, does not generally appear till
middle age is attained. In early youth all species, even
the most light-demanding, can tolerate a certain amount of
shade. Plants in their first stages of growth are always
grateful for some protection against great heat, and the over-
rapid loss of warmth by radiation. Shade and shelter may
in this case be considered together. In the later life of our
forest trees there is no call for protection. A plentiful supply
of light then acts favourably upon the growth of all species.
The foliage becomes more luxuriant, the process of assimila-
tion is stimulated to greater activity, and an increased pro-
duction of wood results. With an accession of light, seed
production is encouraged, but takes place at the expense of
wood increment.

Thus it is that man has it in his power to accelerate the
processes of timber or seed production as he will, and advan-
tage is taken of this fact in forest practice.

The forester thins out the material which interferes with
the objects of his management. The result of his operations
is not equally marked with all species, nor, indeed, with all
trees of the same kind in one wood. Species like the Scots
Pine and Birch, which tend naturally to form thin, open
woods, when given more light and space, respond in growth
less quickly than do the shade-bearers. In all woods there
are found individual trees with their crowns so raised above
those of their neighbours that they are practically indepen-
dent of man's assistance. These are the so-called dominant
trees. On the other hand, there are stems already so hope-
lessly crippled and suppressed that interference on their
behalf would be useless. The class which really can take
advantage of a more free position is that formed by actively
growing average trees. These have the power through
crown, root, and stem quickly and energetically to increase
in size. The behaviour in regard to light is to some
extent influenced by age, and the condition of the locality in
which the wood is situated. The better the situation the
more shade are the species able to bear.

SYLVICULTURE 29

Between light-requiring and shade-enduring species the
transition is by no means sharply defined. The one class
gradually merges into the other. To the light-demanders
belong Larch, Birch, Ash, Scots Pine, and Oak ; to the
shade-bearers. Spruce, Hornbeam, Beech, and Silver Fir.
Taking only the species that are sylviculturally most im-
portant, the arrangement according to their capacity for
bearing shade is in the following order : Silver Fir, Beech,
Spruce, Oak, Scots Pine.

Pure Woods and Mixed Woods

A wood consisting of one species, with, perhaps, a few
stray specimens of other trees, is known as a pure wood. On
the other hand, when the crop is composed of several species
— usually two, but frequently more — it is said to be a mixed
wood. In mixed woods, the constituent species may be
uniformly distributed by means of single trees, or the arrange-
ment can be by lines, strips, groups, etc. Seldom are the
species found in equal numbers, one of them being usually
more or less predominant. The species composing a mixed
wood may all be planted simultaneously, or one or more may
be added at a subsequent period. A primary distinction,
then, is made between even-aged and uneven-aged mixtures.
Again, a mixture is not necessarily permanent. Frequently,
certain of the component species have only a temporary pur-
pose to fulfil. This may be either as shelter for the other
members in the mixture, or for soil protection. The former
is much employed where delicate species are raised upon
bare situations. In cases where natural shelter is absent on
exposed places, one may first plant a hardy species, such as
Scots Pine, Larch, or Birch, and under the protection thus
afforded, the permanent crop can be raised. The purpose
which the species first introduced fulfils is that of nursing the
young crop. As soon as this function is accomplished, or
the progress of the main crop is in any way threatened,
these " nurses " must be removed.

30 FORESTRY

Under-planting, or otherwise introducing species for the
purpose of protecting the soil, comes into use in the case of
older woods. When, either from natural causes or past
mismanagement, woods have become too open to shield the
soil from wind and sun, an underwood is frequently planted
in order to restore or maintain the productivity of the ground.
The desirability for this lies in the fact that under an in-
sufficient leaf-canopy, unfavourable changes occur in the con-
dition of the upper layers of the soil, resulting in retarding
the older wood's further development, and threatening to add
difficulties to the regeneration of the area. To avoid this
deterioration, shade-bearing species — usually Beech or Silver
Fir, less often Spruce — are introduced below the existing
crop.

The conspicuous merit of mixed woods consists in the
additional value and quantity of the material raised. Es-
pecially is this so when light-loving and shade-bearing species
are together in the mixture. The productive capacity of the
soil is in such cases more fully utilised than in a wood com-
posed only of light-demanders. The action of the shade-
bearing species lies in the early and complete removal of the
light-demanders' side branches, consequent on these being
killed from want of light. Cleaner and better-shaped boles
result, and the timber is enhanced in value.

Further, there is the effect upon the soil. Under the thin
canopy provided by light-demanders in their later periods,
heavy rains wash away valuable chemical substances from
light soils, while heavy clay is rendered more impervious*
Strong light upon forest soil encourages the growth of
heather, blaeberry, and so forth, which gives rise to ac-
cumulations of fibrous organic matter ; grass also springs up^
impoverishing and drying the soil. All this is prejudicial
to forest growth, and can be prevented by maintaining a
close canopy such as may be had from the association of
shade-bearing with light-demanding species.

Mixed woods are less exposed to certain dangers than
woods consisting of a single species. Against wind the

SYLVICULTURE 31

combination of deep-rooting with shallow-rooting trees is very
desirable ; for lessening the risk from forest fires a mixture of
deciduous with coniferous trees is serviceable ; insect and
fungus attacks may to a certain extent be combated in a
similar manner by interspersing species which are particularly
prone to these dangers (Scots Pine, Spruce, Larch) with the
less frequently injured broad-leaved trees. Such action is,
however, no complete protection, and mixtures that in some
ways appear to be excellent must often be renounced on
account of more weighty considerations.

Species selected for even-aged mixture must realise the
following conditions : (i) they must be suitable to the situa-
tion ; (2) they must not be too dissimilar in their rate of
growth ; and (3) they should possess different forms of root
system. Only rarely can all these requirements be satisfied,
and so it happens that instead of the best form of mixture —
that of even age, with a distribution of the species by single
trees — other means have often to be adopted in bringing the
different kinds together.

The arrangement may be made by grouping the species
suitably, or if by single trees, having them of dissimilar age.
In mixing by area in woods of even age, single rows and
narrow strips are not to be recommended. With unequal
rate of development the more slowly growing species become
suppressed, and interference through the removal of the
aggressive members — an operation often delayed too long —
generally results in making a deficient crop of badly formed
stems. The group system of mixture is that best adapted to
utilising the varying quality of the ground ; but in its adop-
tion it must be kept in mind that the larger the clum.ps,
the less likely are the other advantages of a mixture to be
realised.

Formation of Woods by Sowing and Planting

The establishment of woods may be by the spontaneous
action of nature, when the term natural regeneration is used ;

32 FORESTRY

or by the artificial introduction of plants or seeds, the general
system being known as artificial regenerat'ion.

Generally speaking, the natural means is the cheaper
method. It frequently happens, however, that artificial re-
generation is the only treatment possible or, at least, desirable.
Such is always the case when there is no old crop already on
the area to be dealt with, or when there are too few trees
capable of giving seed ; and, again, when it is wished to
change the species from that previously grown. Unfavour-
able condition of the soil or parent trees may make it
inadvisable to adopt natural reproduction.

With certain trees, particularly Spruce and Scots Pine,
natural regeneration is indeed possible, but so many diffi-
culties are connected with it, that it is usually both surer
and cheaper to completely remove the standing crop and to
replace the species artificially. In nearly all cases one must
assist natural regeneration to a greater or less extent in order
to obtain woods of the desired composition.

The artificial establishment of woods may be either by
sowing or planting. With the latter, in ordinary forest
practice, the plants are nearly always raised from seed sown
in nurseries ; but cuttings, layers, and root -suckers are
also employed. In favour of the direct sowing of forest
ground it is claimed that it approaches nature's method of
reproduction more closely, that it is usually cheaper than
planting, and that it provides a denser crop of young trees.
Planting, however, is often preferable. With it there is not
the same risk in depending upon a particular season's yield of
seed ; it gives a start in age and in power to resist many
dangers that seriously affect small plants springing from seed
directly sown in the forest. Planting is therefore clearly
indicated under difficult conditions, such as high exposed
situations, or where there is a strong growth of grass or
other herbage. For the filling of vacancies that have
occurred in recently stocked areas, plants, not seeds, are used.

If from economic grounds sylviculture is to be practised
with as small an expenditure as possible, the choice of

SYLVICULTURE 33

the method of procedure must be very carefully considered.
It is not sufficient to have regard only to the initial cost,
but the sureness and permanence of the result must also be
thought of. False economy frequently leads to very defec-
tive work in planting. This, by necessitating the repeated
and extensive filling in of blanks, makes what appeared at
first to be a cheap method of regeneration actually more
costly than had a greater sum been originally spent and an
immediately successful result obtained.

Reclamation

It may happen that before planting operations can be taken
in hand the land requires to be specially treated because of
peculiarly unfavourable conditions. Draining may be neces-
sary ; an impermeable substratum may be met with near the
surface of the soil ; shifting sands may have to be fixed, or
thick masses of vegetable matter treated.

Of the many methods of draining land, that by means of
open ditches is the only one generally applicable within the
woods. Pipe drainage is frequently made use of in forest
nurseries. The drainage of woodland is an expensive opera-
tion, and if not very cautiously carried out, much harm may
be done by it, particularly to adjoining lands. It therefore
behoves the forester to proceed with it only after very careful
consideration.

As regards an impermeable substratum, the common form
is known by the term moor-pan. It consists of a layer of
sandy material cemented by organic acids into a yellow or
brown stone-like mass of varying hardness. On exposure to
the influences of air and frost, it becomes pulverised and loses
its injurious properties. Frequent in land bearing a growth of
heather, moor-pan is found chiefly in poor sandy districts. It
occurs at various depths, and in quite thin sheets, as well as
layers as much as one foot thick. The ill effects of moor-
pan consist in preventing the roots of trees from reaching the
deeper soil, and in hindering the percolation of water into the

34 FORESTRY

subsoil in wet weather, while it stops the upward passage of
moisture in time of drought.

If an impenetrable stratum of this kind be found at a depth
that will interfere with root formation, it must be broken.
Where the conditions permit, this may be effected by subsoil
stirring — for work on a large scale, by means
of the steam plough, and for small areas by
picking (Fig. i) and trenching, so that the
soil is inverted. Owing to the great cost
of the operation, it is not usual to plough or trench
the whole ground, but to limit the work to strips
where the trees will be planted. If insufficiently
broken up, a fresh moor-pan is apt to form within a
few years, therefore the cultivation should be deep and
thorough enough to ensure complete disintegration.

Localities in which sand-dunes occur require special
attention. Before shifting sand can be planted it must
be at least temporarily fixed. This may be done by
strewing Scots Pine branches over the ground, or sods
of a convenient size can be arranged to form a partial
covering over the unstable surface. The only suitable
species to plant on inland dunes are, besides the
common Scots Pine, Pinus Banksiana and P'lnus rigida, pjQ^ j
For sea-coast sand-dunes Maritime Pine (Pinus maritima
or P. Pinaster^ has proved of great value.

Another work of reclamation is the treatment of ex-
cessive quantities of organic matter. These offer great
difficulties to afforestation. Peat mosses approaching a depth
of three feet cannot be successfully planted ; the difficulties
are too great and the expense of formation too high to be
at all in keeping with the returns. Where, upon turning
over the peat in simple digging, the mineral soil is met with,
planting may usually be carried out successfully. If, in an
old wood, leaf litter has accumulated, as it frequently does
in hollows, to an extent that would be harmful to the intro-
duction of a new crop, the excess must be disposed of before
commencing the regeneration work.

SYLVICULTURE 35

Direct Sowing: Soil Cultivation

The task of reclaiming the land having been carried out,
or happily found to be unnecessary, the forester's attention is
directed to soil preparation. This consists in rendering the
forest area suitable for the reception of seeds or plants.
Soil preparation must aim at making the conditions favour-
able for the germination of seed, or for the proper develop-
ment of young plants. It consists of, first, the removal of any
harmful soil covering ; second, the cultivation of the soil.

Should there be but a sparse growth of grass or a thin
coating of leaves or moss, the soil cover will require no
attention ; but if there be shrubs, heather, blaeberry, broom,
or rough grass, these must be disposed of by cutting, paring
the surface, or in some cases by burning.

On light soils liable to become unstable, or on slopes where
washing away of the soil is to be feared, complete removal
of the surface cover should never be resorted to ; to expose
only strips or patches of the soil is then infinitely preferable.

Soil cultivation may be accomplished through the complete
tillage of the soil — by the loosening of the surface only, or
by partial working at the spots where the plants or seeds are
to be introduced.

Complete working of the whole area is seldom practised.
It is only advisable where agricultural land is being trans-
formed into woodland. The ground, after being cultivated,
may bear agricultural crops for a few (two to four) years.
It may then be sown or lines of forest trees planted, and
between these lines the ground may still be utilised for a year
or two for the growth of crops. This cheapens the forma-
tion of the wood, and furthers its growth by the thorough
cultivation of the soil. On the other hand, the agricultural
crop extracts much of the soil's nourishing matter, so that by
taking several crops from poor land the trees suffer.

Surface loosening of the soil is effected by the use of the
grubber or cultivator, horse-hoe, harrow, hand-hoe, and rake.

The system most in vogue in well-conducted forestry is

36 FORESTRY

the thorough preparation of patches or strips of limited size.
On level ground strips are formed parallel to the longest side
of the area. On slopes, whether made with the plough or
by hand labour, they should run horizontally, following the
contour of the hill. A type of strong forest plough is shown
in Fig. 2. With hand labour the strips may be hoed,

FIG. 2. FOREST PLOUGH
(Only one "wing" (/) is shown in the figure)

dug, or trenched. The depth to which the soil is stirred
may be only a few inches as with the hoe, nine or ten
inches in digging, and in trenching considerably more
than a foot. The width of the strips varies from a few
inches up to about three feet, according as the plants are
threatened by weed growth from the unprepared ground.
The distance between the strips is regulated by the width
of the strips, and also with regard to the nature of the soil's
surface cover, the selected species' rate of growth, and the
density of the crop. Strips of a foot broad may be from
three to four feet apart.

Cultivation of the soil in patches occurs either in the form
of squares of from one to five feet on the side, or as in-
terrupted rectangular strips. It is useful chiefly in situations
where the presence of large stones and roots makes long

SYLVICULTURE 37

connected strips difficult or impossible. By its means a
species may be brought into mixture with others already on
the ground. For very broken land or peat moors, where
soil is conveyed to each planting spot at much cost, patch-
planting is the only method suitable.

As the area cultivated is less than by strips, preparation of
the soil by patches is cheaper, though not quite proportion-
ately so.

Collection of Seeds

In part, seeds can be collected in the woods locally, or
they may be obtained from a seed-merchant. The former
means is preferable in the case of those seeds which should
be sown shortly after ripening, viz. Silver Fir, Elm, Oak,
and Beech ; but Scots Pine, Spruce, Larch, and Weymouth
Pine seed must usually be bought, as the cones have to be
treated in seed-kilns.

Storing of Seeds

In the storing of seeds certain difficulties present them-
selves. The seeds of some species must be kept dry, others
moist ; a few lose their vitality if stored for a few weeks
only, others require a year or more to germinate. The method
of storage must vary with the nature of the seed. Many
seeds, including those of conifers, are stored in sacks or
barrels, in cool, airy lofts. Ash and Hornbeam seeds which
remain inactive for eighteen months can be preserved in well-
drained trenches in the soil, or they may be mixed with
damp sand and stored in boxes under cover. Acorns and
beech-nuts, when these are to be sown in spring, lie during
winter in low, closed-in sheds that have preferably earthen
floors, and there they are turned over every three weeks or so.
After being gathered, acorns and beech-nuts, previous to their
being stored, should be spread out on an airy place to a depth
of about eight inches, and daily turned until dry. They can
afterwards be mixed with sand to remain in the sheds in
heaps about one foot deep.

38 FORESTRY

Testing of Seeds

The quality of seed may be judged to some extent by
close inspection, helped b}^ the cutting open of a considerable
number. But the only reliable test is that of germination.
For finding the germinative power of seed many contrivances
have been devised, from the simple earthenware dish or
moistened blotting-paper to fairly complicated apparatus ; for
work on an extensive scale the most desirable forms of seed-
tester are those of Nobbe and Steiner. In testing, the
operator must always keep in mind that besides moisture,
seeds require for their germination a favourable degree of
warmth and a supply of fresh air.

Season for Sowing

To sow, as nature does, just when seed becomes ripe, is
not possible in the forest except in autumn and in spring ;
but in the nursery during suitable weather one can sow at
any season. Owing to the many dangers, especially mice
and birds, that beset seed lying in the ground over winter,
spring sowing is generally preferred. Still, for Silver Fir,
Oak, and Beech, autumn has much to recommend it. From
the time of inserting the seed, trapping should be proceeded
with in order to lessen the damage by mice.

Methods of Sowing

The method of sowing depends largely upon the state of
the soil and its previous cultivation. Broadcast sowing,
whereby the whole of the ground is sown, may be resorted
to, or partial sowings may be preferred — by drills, in strips,
in prepared patches, or, in the case of large seeds, by
dibbling. Broadcast sowing is best carried out by distribut-
ing the seed half in one direction, half in the other, at right
angles to the first, either by hand, as is usual, or with the
aid of a sowing machine. Machines, in the form of drill-

SYLVICULTURE 39

barrows, similar to those used in agricultural practice, are
often used for sowing Scots Pine seed, but less frequently
for the larger seeds — acorns and beech-nuts.

It is necessary to cover most seeds with soil after sowing.
The amount of covering varies according to the method of
sowing and the size of the seed. The larger the seeds, the
deeper should they be covered ; acorns are buried one to
one and a half inches deep, the seeds of conifers not more
than half an inch. Alder and Birch seeds have at most only
a little fine soil strewn over them. The rake is the imple-
ment usually employed for covering seed. With Alder and
Birch seeds, it is only necessary to roll or otherwise firm
the soil after sowing.

A ditference, which is very marked in the case of delicate
species, exists between sowing under the protection of a wood
and quite in the open. Where a position is much exposed,
a temporary protection wood may be first grown, and in
th6 shelter it afiPords seeds can be sown. For instance.
Birch may be planted, and after a few years acorns can be
inserted in intermediate lines. The system of sowing forest
seeds along with an agricultural crop may also be alluded to
as one that affords some shelter in the first year.

Planting

Direct sowing of forest ground, has many disadvantages.
Upon poor soil more young plants may spring up than can
well be nourished ; upon fertile situations other forms of
vegetation grow so quickly that tiny forest seedlings are
suppressed, or only saved after expensive measures for " clean-
ing " have been resorted to. Only the medium soils are
suitable subjects for sowing, and they must be tolerably free
from weed growth.

Owing to the rather uncertain nature of direct sowing,
the system of planting by which stock that has been raised
elsewhere is made use of, is largely practised. The young
plants come either from nurseries or they are taken as

40 FORESTRY

self-sown plants from existing woods. It usually costs less
to collect plants that have sprung up naturally and abundantly
in the woods, than to buy young stock or raise plants from
seed in a nursery. But the results are not nearly so sure
as in the latter case. The use of wild seedlings is, at any
rate, limited. Such plants are not generally employed for
establishing a wood, but for the filling in of blanks that
have occurred in a recently regenerated area they are fre-
quently found useful. Especially is this so if the plants are
lifted without loosening the earth attached to their roots.
The secret of success with such plants depends almost en-
tirely upon the treatment they receive when being lifted and
transported. In all cases only the best developed should be
selected ; ill-thriving or stunted plants must not be taken.

Apart from Willows, Poplars, and Limes, the use of
cuttings, layers, etc., hardly comes into consideration in
practical forestry, though in arboriculture many species are
thus propagated. Occasionally young plants of broad-leaved
species, particularly Oaks, are cut down to within half an
inch of the collar or root-head. Thus only root and stock are
planted, and the latter sends out coppice shoots. It is at times
a useful practice, as, for instance, when the upper portions
of young Oaks have been frozen in an unfavourable season.

The care taken in planting out forest stock cannot be too
great. It is a delicate operation, demanding the utmost caution
in the treatment of the plant. For the greater certainty
in preserving vitality, the plants are sometimes removed and
inserted into new ground, each with a clod of earth still
adhering to the roots. Such ball-plants, as they are called,
are practically undisturbed in their growth, but they are
awkward to transport, and are on this account expensive.
They require to be raised in soil which is fairly binding, and
altogether present difficulties that circumscribe their use.
So it is, that plants with naked roots are generally found
most suitable.

Bunch-planting, the insertion together of two or more
plants, is a practice now" rarely followed ; single planting

SYLVICULTURE 41

allows of more natural development, and has every advantage
over the former method.

Ordinary nursery stock comprises, apart from layers and
cuttings, seedling plants, transplants, and saplings. In Britain,
plants are called " seedlings " so long as they are not removed
from the seed-bed. They are generally from one to three
years old. Transplants, on the other hand, are small plants
that have been once or several times set out in nursery
lines ; and saplings are older transplants of deciduous species,
usually from four to nine feet high.

Forest Nurseries

Nurseries may be either of a temporary or permanent
nature. Both forms have their advantages. The former
are more simply formed, and being placed adjacent to the
area about to be planted, save distant transport. In hilly
country, plants so raised have the advantage of remaining in
the altitude and under the conditions in which they were
reared. But perhaps the greatest advantage gained by using
a nursery for only a few years is that it requires little or no
manuring, and a portion of the plants may be left upon the
ground to form a plantation after the purpose of raising nur-
sery stock has been fulfilled. The manuring of permanent
nurseries to supply materials withdrawn in the removal of
young plants, is not eifected without considerable outlay ;
but, again, such nurseries generally yield better plants under
the more intensive treatment which they receive ; the most
suitable site as regards soil, aspect, etc., may be chosen for
them, and protective measures can be more easily enforced
than is the case with shifting nurseries.

The site most suitable for a nursery is a well-sheltered
piece of ground having a gentle slope to the north or north-
east— the exposure least dangerous for frost. The soil should
be deep, fresh, friable, and as clear of stones as possible. A
sandy loam is far superior to strong clay soil. Temporary
nurseries are usually formed on newly cleared areas.

42 FORESTRY

The size of the nursery depends upon the number of trees
required, and on whether the seedlings raised are to be
set out in nursery lines once or oftener. To give an
approximate idea, the area necessary to provide three- or
four-years-old transplants must be ten times that of the seed-
beds, and for six-years-old plants, twenty times.

For temporary nurseries a lighter type of fence than is
necessary for permanent nurseries is sufficient. The latter
may have strong wooden or iron railings or hedges round them,
but usually require substantial wire-netting fences as well.

Land intended for nurseries generally requires to be
trenched to a depth of over a foot. During this operation,
all weeds and the larger roots and stones should be gathered
and removed. For light soils and on shallow land, digging
is generally all that is needed. On account of the damage
done by frost-lifting on Alder seed beds, digging is, in that
case also, more suitable than trenching. In raising Scots
Pine ball-plants from seed, the uppermost layer only of the
soil is bared, and lightly hoed or raked. Here the object
is to keep the ground as compact as possible, so that the
soil may cling to the roots when the plants are lifted.
On steep slopes it is occasionally necessary to grade or even
terrace the ground. Permanent nurseries require periodic
trenching of the soil, chiefly for the destruction of weeds.

Manures may be applied to nurseries in three forms —
{a) as farmyard dung, which is particularly good for tenacious
soils ; (b) as vegetable matter in the form of compost, leaf
mould, or as " green manuring," i.e. the growing of such
crops as lupines, vetches, or rape, with the view of digging
them into the soil to enrich it and improve its physical
qualities, (r) The land may receive a dressing of artificial
manures — basic slag, dried blood, bone meal, nitrate, kainit,
etc. These are often applied along with compost or leaf
mould.

Lupines should be mown when they commence to bloom,
and at once dug in. Farmyard and similar manures should
be buried to a depth of from eight to twelve inches, whereas

SYLVICULTURE 43

artificial manures, owing to their solubility, should be sown
broadcast over the surface and lightly raked in. Spitzenberg's
soil-mixer (" WLihlrechen ") is a very useful implement for
incorporating compost and artificial manures with the soil.

Cultivation should be carried out some considerable time
before sowing, in order that the land may settle ; otherwise
light land must be firmed by treading. A convenient arrange-
ment is to make the seed-beds four feet six inches broad, with
paths of one foot in width between them.

Sowing Seeds in the Nursery

Small light seeds (Birch, Alder, Elm) should be sown
broadcast, all others are better sown in drills. Several modes
of making the drills are practised. Two of the best imple-
ments for the purpose are the rnarkeur^ which resembles a

\ \ \ \

FIG. -X. MARKEUR

large rake, and Spitzenberg's patent drill-maker. A form
of the first of these is shown in Fig. 3. The implement is
drawn down the length of the bed, making small furrows for
the seed to lie in. The drill-maker also works excellently.
It forms the drills crosswise over the bed, and can be ad-
justed to suit any size of seed and any width between the
drills. Nothing is better than the hand for broadcast sowing

44 FORESTRY

and for distributing the larger sized seeds, but smaller seeds
can be sown more quickly and regularly
with a "seed-horn" (Fig. 4) specially
constructed for the purpose.

Protection of Seeds and
Seedlings

The seeds of conifers should be pro-
tected from birds by a coating of red
lead. One pound of red lead is suffi-
cient for ten pounds of seed. In the
mixing as little water as possible
should be used — one pint to fifteen fig. 4. seed-horn
pounds of seed. Most seeds require

at least a slight covering of fine earth after having been
sown, and the bed should be made moderately firm by light
rolling.

The season in which the seed ought to be sown depends
on when the seed ripens, but ordinarily it is in spring, at the
same time as agricultural crops are sown.

The young seedlings must be kept free from weeds, and
certain of them protected from frost and drought. Speci-
ally sensitive are the seedlings of Beech, Silver Fir, Birch,
Sycamore, Ash, and Alder. Suitable shelter is easily erected.
One form effective in keeping off birds, and reducing or
preventing damage from frost and excess of sunshine, is
shown in Fig. 5. Temporary screens made from Spruce
or other branches usually fulfil their purpose satisfactorily.
Such cover should be gradually reduced, until during dull
weather in July it is completely removed.

As protection against frost-lifting during the small plants'
first winter, particularly with slow-growing species, a sprink-
ling of pine leaves over the bed, or the laying of moss
between the rows, helps greatly.

SYLVICULTURE

Transplanting

Plants are not usually taken directly from the seed-bed
the forest, but are transplanted once or several
times in order to produce sturdy plants with
well-developed root systems. As a rule, trans-
planting is first carried out either one year or
two years after the germination of the seed,
and it is repeated when the small crowns and
roots are beginning to meet in the lines — very
often after two years. In consequence of the
shock unavoidably sustained during the trans-
planting, young plants take most of the first
year to heal their injuries, and only in the
second season make real progress in growth.
Hence, with very few exceptions, plants should
remain at least two years in the nursery
lines.

In lifting seedlings the plants should be
handled with very great care ; in this operation
the benefit is felt of having them in rows in-
stead of broadcast. The spade, fork or grape
should be inserted vertically and deeply enough,
a few inches to one side of the plants. The
spadeful of earth and plants is raised and allowed
to fall again, so that the clod may be broken.
Any system of pulling up the plants from im-
perfectly loosened soil is much to be deprecated.
After freeing the roots from the earth the
plants are collected, and small bunches of
them are placed temporarily in the soil for
protection against drying. Nothing is more
important than attention to young plants to
make certain that their rootlets be kept con-
stantly moist. Exposure of conifers to sun
and drying wind kills or seriously injures them in an
credibly short space of time.

FIG. 5

46 FORESTRY

The work of transplanting is done by means of a trench ;
small plants and all tap-rooted species may be set against the
perpendicular side of the trench, which must be made deep
enough to allow the roots to assume a vertical position. No
bending to one side or doubling up of any portion of the
roots is permissible. The plant is held in the left hand until
soil is pressed against it to keep it in its place. When a row
is thus prepared, the remainder of the soil is returned to the
trench and the plants firmed by treading with the foot.
Larger plants, and such as have a spreading root system, are
better brought into the middle of the trench, where their
roots are arranged in their natural form and the earth closely
packed about them.

Space sufficient for free growth should always be given to
nursery plants. In this connection it should be remembered
that an over-wide distance between the nursery lines does not
compensate for the crowding of the plants in the lines them-
selves— they must have room to all sides. A little additional
expenditure, which may be incurred by adopting thorough
methods, will eventually justify itself in the production of
greatly superior plants.

At the time of transplanting, any bruised roots and tap-
roots of excessive length must be cut off cleanly ; broad-
leaved species should have their crowns curtailed in proportion
to the reduction of the root system, care being taken at the
same time to improve the shape.

In transplanting " heeled-in " stock in dry weather, it is
of much advantage to dip the roots of the plants into liquid
mud. This " puddling," as it is called, gives to the delicate
rootlets and root-hairs — the true absorbents of the plant — a
protective coat which helps them to resist drying influences.

By " heeling in " is understood the covering of plants that
have been lifted until such time as they may be inserted in
the nursery or elsewhere. A trench with a slanting face is
dug, preferably in a shaded place ; plants with their roots
well puddled are laid closely along this, earth is packed
about the roots, and a second row of plants laid against the

SYLVICULTURE 47

first. When there are several rows, the last one, being to
the outside, is specially well earthed up.

In the later care of nursery stock, attention should be
given chiefly to weeding and occasional loosening of the
surface soil. It is found that keeping the upper layer of
the soil stirred is the best way of conserving the moisture
for the plants.

Packing of Plants and Arrangement in Planting

When the plants require to be transported any considerable
distance they must be well packed. Small plants are con-
veniently placed in round baskets, a layer of moss being
inserted between each layer of plants, the roots being to the
middle ; larger ones are laid on their sides upon moss and
straw, these materials also cover them, and this admits of the
package being tightly bound. Large saplings are tied in
simple bundles, only the roots being protected as a rule,
though hoops may be arranged to guard the stems. On arrival
at the place where they will be planted out, the young trees
must again be carefully heeled into trenches. As the plants
become required, they are taken out, small quantities at a
time, and brought to the planters in boxes or baskets, the
roots having moss or earth about them.

The PLANTING SEASON may be either spring or autumn.
The latter is chosen when there is fear that all the work
could not be carried out in spring, and often for trees — like
Larch — whose buds develop early.

In ARRANGEMENT, trccs may be planted irregularly or at
prescribed intervals — in the latter case, usually in rows form-
ing square or triangular figures. By the quadrilateral arrange-
ment, the space between the rows and that between the plants
in them is the same. Rows with forms other than this are
generally made so that the distance between plants is less
than that between rows, but in the equilateral triangle, the
distance between the plants in the rows is greater than
between the rows themselves.

48 FORESTRY

The GROWING SPACE of the trees in a wood or nursery-
is found by multiplying the distance between the rows by
the space between the plants in the rows. The total area
divided by this product gives the desired number of trees.

Irregular planting is resorted to in filling up vacancies in
naturally regenerated woods and on stony ground where the
distribution cannot possibly be governed by rule.

As to PLANTING DENSITY, it varies according to the object
in view. Where the desire is to produce the maximum
quantity of branchwood per acre without regard to quality of
bole, wide planting may be advisable ; but in planting for
economic purposes, fairly close stocking is necessary. The
aim should be to secure an interlacing of the crowns and
branches between five and ten years after planting. Once
this cover is produced, all the beneficial effects of competition
for space and light commence. In the struggle, lower
branches die and fall off, and length is given to the stems
in the effort of the trees to reach the light. These are the
conditions which make for long, clean timber.

The distance at which to plant must be regulated by the
poverty or fertility of the soil, whether quick-growing or
slow-growing species are to stock the ground, and whether
the intention is to use seedlings, transplants, or saplings. On
a good situation, and where rapid-growing or very large plants
are employed, the number required will be fewer than under
opposite conditions. Trees should not be planted so closely
that their vigour is interfered with, but their activity should
be directed towards increase in height rather than to lateral
development.

It will usually be found suitable to plant four-years-old
conifers at from three feet to three feet six inches apart.
Commonly the planting distance does not vary more than
from two and a half to five feet each way, when the object
is a strictly economic one.

SYLVICULTURE

Methods of Planting

In planting, the special notching spade may be used, or
the ordinary spade making an L or T notch ; but in proper
sylvicultural practice the most largely employed method is
pit-planting.

The various shapes and sizes of pits, and the means taken
to make them, depend on the age of the plants and the
character of the ground. A very good form is shown in

FIG. 6

Fig. 6. The surface sod is first skimmed off (the broad
hoe. Fig. 7, will be found useful for this), then with the
spade the upper soil is lifted to one side and the deeper soil
to the other. Kneeling before the pit thus made, the worker
takes a plant out of the receptacle, and holding it in his
left hand, with his right he gathers the better soil about the
roots. In the case of Spruce and several other trees, a small
mound, composed of a few handfuls of loosened earth, is
formed in the bottom of the pit, and the roots are arranged
("straddled") over this, allowing them freedom to strike in
all directions through the soil. The earth is gradually
brought into the pit and worked in between the roots, so
that the latter are brought into close contact with the soil.
Throughout this process the roots at different levels are each
given their natural positions until all are carefully buried.

FORESTRY

The soil is then pressed down, the rest of the earth filled
in, and the whole tramped firm.

Some form of small planting hoe may be used to assist in
gathering together the dug-out soil, and care must be taken
to set the plant at the same depth at which it stood in the
nursery. As a protection against drought, the skimmed-off
sods should be placed, inverted, upon the top of the patch
or pit.

For the preparation of the soil, which should always be
done in autumn if possible, a narrow hacking hoe (Figs. 8
and 9) may be employed. These hoes are much used in

FIG. 7

FIG. 8

FIG. 9

hilly districts where Spruce is planted, and the cultivation
need not be deep. There they do both better and cheaper
work than the spade.

Following upon skimming and cultivation of the soil, or,
indeed, without cultivation where the soil is naturally loose.

SYLVICULTURE

the " notching " or " wedge " spade comes into operation.
Fig. 10 shows one of those spades made of wood shod with
iron. For most soils, however, the iron one, with only the
handle of wood, is much better. It is narrower, and being
also heavier, it pierces the soil more easily. Especially is it
useful for the quick and efficient planting of small plants
with tap-roots, as, for example, two -years -old
seedling Oaks. As may be seen from Fig. 10,
the blade of the tool is wedge-shaped. When
plunged into the ground the tool makes a notch
or nick (Fig. 11); by pressing to and fro the
worker widens and deepens this notch, and gives
it, upon the side further from him, a vertical face.
Against this another worker places one of the
plants which he carries, holding it at the proper
depth. The notcher then drops a little soil down
into the hole in order to satisfy himself that the
roots are hanging perpendicularly, and drives the
notching spade down again about two inches back
from the plant. While thus sunk in the ground
the spade is forced to close up the bottom of the
hole by the operator drawing the handle back
towards him, then by pressing it forward again he
completely closes the notch.
Children may be employed
for inserting the plants.

It will be seen that this
operation differs from the
" notching " or " slit-plant- g
ing " so commonly adopted
for conifers in Britain. Using
the common spade, two incisions are made into the soil either
in the form of an L or a T. The corners of the sod are
raised somewhat with the spade, the plant is slipped into the
opening, the flap of sod is allowed to fall back, and by
treading with the foot the operation is finished. Roots,
which are twisted into the slit, lie horizontally and huddled

FIG. II

FIG. 10

52 FORESTRY

together. They are unable to assume a normal form until
after a lengthy period, during which time the development
of the plant is retarded. If the weather conditions be in the
least unfavourable after such planting, a great mortality ensues.
With this kind of notch planting there is a constant danger
of the roots being buried too deeply, as the depth is regulated
by the thickness of the sod.

Occasionally, on very retentive soils, it is necessary to
resort to the following practice : In autumn a sod about
twelve to sixteen inches square is lifted and turned over on
to the ground close at hand ; in spring a small plant is in-
serted in the centre of the inverted sod. This plan enables
the plant to get twice the ordinary depth of organic matter
and a more friable soil to grow in.

When it is found desirable to plant marshy land which
cannot well be drained, the soil may be raised into small
mounds, into which the young plants are placed. This method
is sometimes useful for the planting of Alder and Spruce.

A further modification of this last system is to make
trenches, from which the earth is thrown, up in flat-topped
beds where the plants may grow. This is, of course, an ex-
ceedingly expensive method, to be employed only in emergency.

In all cases the mode of planting to be adopted must be
determined by circumstances, as, for instance, the size of
plants used, the condition of the soil, the amount of weed
growth, and the cost of the operation. But the broad aim
ought to be to secure to the young plant the most favourable
conditions for growth at the minimum of expenditure. In
other words, choice should fall upon the cheapest method
that will prove effective. But efficiency is of first import-
ance, and all the costs of formation must be reckoned upon
the ultimate, not merely the initial, outlay.

Cultivation of the soil has many advantages, some of
which may be shortly stated. It enables the roots to assume
their natural position, the roots develop better, nourishing
matter in the soil is converted into a more available form, and
the physical condition of the soil is improved ; the young

SYLVICULTURE 53

plant is better able to resist drought, weed growth is re-
pressed, and, along with this, encouragement is given to the
young plant. As a result, less "beating up" is required, and
a greater regularity of crop is assured.

In propagating trees from cuttings, "slips" are usually made,
from eight to twelve inches long, from small stems or not too
slender branches of one to two years old growth. They
must be cut in the winter season— February suiting very
well — and should bear two or three healthy buds. Cuttings
are set in spring into soil prepared as for an ordinary nursery
bed ; they should be planted in such a way that only an inch
or two of stalk, bearing a bud, appears above the surface.
The earth is made very firm about them, and if the weather
be at all dry they must be attended to with water. This
system of propagation is best adapted for the raising of
Willows and Poplars.

Natural Regeneration by Seed

Without man's interference, trees reproduce themselves
either by seed or by coppice shoots. For the practical pur-
poses of the forester the latter power is confined to the
broad-leaved species.

The old method of stocking a felled area by means of
seed shed from adjoining woods is no longer practised to any
great extent. Instead, regeneration is effected by seed sown
from parent trees left standing upon the felling area itself.

For the success of this operation certain conditions are
essential : —

(i) The trees must be able to produce an abundance of
good seed.

(2) The ground must be brought into a condition

favourable to germination and the growth of
young plants.

(3) Provision should be made for suitable shelter for

the young crop.

54 FORESTRY

The first two of these conditions are secured by a series
of thinnings of increasing severity being carried out in the
old woods. There results an accession of light and warmth
which favours both the production of seed and the decom-
position of the vegetable matter covering the soil. Without
preparatory treatment the thick layer of humus that collects
under the dense shade of a close crop may prove too much
for the tender radicles of seedlings to penetrate, and unless
they can reach the mineral or true soil, the embryo plants
die as soon as they have exhausted the nourishment stored
in the seed.

The age of the wood which it is proposed to fell and re-
generate has also to be taken into consideration. Immature
woods supply no fertile seed, or an insufficient quantity of
it, while very old trees get past their best for seed pro-
duction. Moreover, the ground below such old woods is
apt to become dry, overgrown with weeds, and otherwise
unfit, not only for the reception of the seed, but also for the
development of the young plants. The limits of age within
which the natural regeneration of our common forest trees
is most certain to be successful, lie between eighty and one
hundred years, or even a greater age in the case of Oak.

In an ordinarily dense wood where only moderate thinnings
have been carried out, the process leading to reproduction is
commenced by a preparatory cutting ; about one-fifth to one-
quarter of the trees are taken, the removed material con-
sisting chiefly of the smaller stems from which good seed
cannot be expected.

The new crop is then obtained by means of a " seed-
felling," which so far reduces the number of the existing
older trees that seedlings are able to spring up and establish
themselves. This cutting should, however, preserve for the
young plants enough of the old wood to act as shelter from
frost and drought. It should remove about one-quarter to
one-third of the existing wood, the largest trees being those
that are felled. The overhead shade ought to be better main-
tained where, as on limy soils, a strong growth of grass and

SYLVICULTURE 55

weeds is feared ; and also where tender species, like Beech
and Silver Fir, are being raised, or where considerable danger
from late frost exists. Under contrary circumstances the
cutting may be a heavy one — especially when dealing with
Scots Pine and Oak.

The seed-felling is usually carried out in a year in which
the parent trees are bearing seed plentifully. With species
that only rarely have a good seed year (e.g. Beech), it is im-
portant to take full advantage of each opportunity as it
presents itself.

Where only occasional blades of grass are appearing, or
where there is a slight covering of moss with the humus
matter over the soil well decomposed, conditions may be said
to be at their best for natural regeneration. If the earlier
treatment of the wood has led to a different state of matters,
some soil preparation becomes necessary. Generally this
consists of hoeing strips about fifteen inches
wide, running in parallel lines at intervals
apart of three to four feet, in order to expose
the mineral soil, which is then able to act as
a seed-bed. For this work a broad hoe (Fig. 12) is
suitable. Harrows and the grubber or cultivator are
also frequently employed.

After the seeding is well effected, the old crop is
gradually removed according to the demands of the
young trees for more light, and as the risk from frost
becomes lessened by the greater height and strength
of the plants. It is not advisable to be too precipitate
with these subsequent fellings ; hasty removal of the 1 1|
shelter wood has too often injured and even ruined t||
promising young crops. What must also not be lost
sight of is the fact that the sheltering and seed-shed-
ding trees — particularly if they be shade-bearers that
have long been confined in crowded woods — are all
the time attaining a more profitable size by increasing fig. 12
rapidly in girth.

The appearance of the young trees gives the best indica-

56 FORESTRY

tion as to when more light is required. When the leaves
become small and have an ill-nourished look about them,
and the rate of height growth of the leading shoots is
diminished instead of increased each successive year, it is
time to take action.

With most species several cuttings for the gaining of light
take place — the first one usually in the second winter after
the trees have sown the ground. The removal of the old
crop is therefore somewhat protracted, but eventually, at a
time indicated by the growth of the young crop, a clearance
or final felling removes all the shelter trees. Occasionally,
but not commonly, a few standards are left to grow through
another rotation.

The period from the commencement of the operations to
the final removal of the older trees varies with each species,
situation, and method of working. It ranges between four
years with Scots Pine to forty years (in some cases) with
Silver Fir, but the usual time occupied is from ten to twenty
years.

Upon the removal of the last of the old crop any spots
left bare are filled up with strong plants.

The system of forming a new wood by natural seeding
as just described, is that usually applied to Beech woods, and
has been chosen as being the simplest form. The method is
capable of very considerable modification.

The regeneration fellings may be carried on in a series of
narrow strips, of which each, in order outwards from the
fully stocked portion of the forest, represents a successive
phase of the process. This plan is more commonly adopted
in the case of Silver Fir and Spruce than with Oak and
Beech, the regeneration of the latter being usually carried
out over the whole area simultaneously.

Parts of the forest, where light has gained entrance pre-
maturely, are often found to be already carrying a young
crop at the time when systematic operations are taken in
hand. In order to give uniformity to the new wood, the
trees on these spots may be somewhat repressed by allowing

SYLVICULTURE 57

the overhead or surrounding cover to become denser, or such
clumps of " advance growth " can be used as centres for
larger groups. Opportunity is sometimes taken of utilising
small clearings in a pure wood to introduce other species
either by sowing or planting, and thus to convert it gradually
into mixed forest, wherein the new species have the advan-
tage of a start. With these groups as nuclei, regeneration
proceeds in widening circles, until, after a while, the connecting
wood comes under treatment.

In the case of regeneration occurring over a whole zvood or
compartment (" Compartment System of Natural Regenera-
tion under a Shelter Wood "), the process generally extends
over a long number of years, and the method of stocking the
ground bears a resemblance to that followed in the " Selection
System." The forest is divided into a number of sections,
among which the fellings are undertaken at short intervals
(five to ten years). At each felling the largest trees, and any
that are badly misshapen, damaged, or diseased, are removed.
Attention is paid to the requirements of the young plants for
light, and the needs — as regards thinning, etc. — of trees of
all ages. In this way there are represented upon the area at
the same time nearly all stages of forest growth.

Natural Regeneration by Coppice Shoots

Broad-leaved trees have the power, varying in the different
species, of reproducing themselves through the production of
coppice shoots. These latter spring from the stool and
roots after the trees have been felled close to the ground.
Areas restocked by this means are called Coppice woods.

Certain trees (Willows, Poplars) may be cut over at some
distance from the ground, and shoots allowed to grow from
the stems and cut surfaces. Pollarding is a well-known
form of this, but is without importance sylviculturally.

The faculty of throwing up stool shoots of sufficient
vigour to be useful can be artificially assisted by paying
attention to a few matters. It is of importance that the

58 FORESTRY

trees be not too old and that the manner of felling favour
the formation of buds. Although all broad-leaved trees may-
be able to produce stool shoots, only a limited number are
thus treated in practical forestry. Formerly, more than
nowadays, Oak was raised in this manner for the sake of its
bark ; Alders and Willows in marshes are customarily
coppiced ; and upon fertile soil in the south the Sweet
Chestnut and Ash are often treated in this way.

Coppice woods, as a rule, demand a good soil ; Oak, to
give bark, requires a warm situation, and for Alders plenty of
moisture is indispensable. Consideration should be given in
practice to the fact that younger parts of trees are those
relatively most rich in ash constituents. These being removed
from coppice woods, it follows that the drain upon the
nutrient strength of the soil is greater than is the case with
close high forest, where generally the stem alone is taken.

Under this system. Oak and Ash are usually cut at fifteen
to twenty-five. Alder thirty to forty. Osiers one to two years.

As a rule, coppice is harvested in the latter part of winter
or in early spring before the buds begin to swell. Oak, for
bark, however, is taken in May and June when the sap is flow-
ing, and Alder in winter when the marshy ground on which
it grows allows of the removal of the produce over the ice.

In cutting, care must be taken to use sharp tools so that
a smooth surface on the stool may be left, and on no account
must the bark be separated from the wood.

Large Alders may require the saw, but the axe is most
commonly used.

In order to provide somewhat larger timber, a few straight,
well-grown stems are frequently kept over to another felling.

Exhausted stools should be replaced by strong saplings
from a nursery, or truncated plants may be used. In the case
of Willows and Poplars, cuttings are often inserted directly
into forest ground.

In the hilly district of Western Germany, a " catch crop "
is frequently taken just after a coppice wood has been cut over.
The surface covering and the refuse are burnt, and between

SYLVICULTURE 59

the budding stools of the trees, rye or buckwheat is sown.
Sometimes two such agricultural crops are raised before the
coppice interferes to prevent further operations of this kind.

Coppice with Standards

The system of coppice with standards is a combination of
an overwood of high forest with an underwood of coppice.
The number per acre of standards or " stores " is not fixed,
and the character of the wood varies according to whether
they or the coppice form the predominant class. In the
former case the method of management approaches that of
the high forest selection system, and in the latter, that of
even-aged coppice.

Coppice with standards has its typical form where con-
sideration is given to both classes, and where the standards
consist of light-crowned species uniformly distributed over
the area. It is then a system affording special advantages to
private proprietors, for it supplies a great variety of material
much of which is useful for estate purposes.

It makes considerable demands on the fertility of the soil,
and is really only in its proper place when upon rich, low-
lying lands which are subject to occasional inundation.
Beyond such localities the system fails to realise the volume
and monetary returns of well-managed high forest.

The overwood is recruited partly from good stool shoots,
partly from seedling or nursery stock. As the introduction
of fresh plants can be effected only after a cutting, the age
of the standards is always some multiple of the age of the
coppice. It follows, also, that the interval of years between
each even-aged class of standards corresponds to one rotation
of the coppice. At each fall of the coppice the oldest class
of standards is felled and the younger classes are inspected
carefully, with a view, chiefly, to the removal of stems, which,
from any reason— in themselves, or in their relation to the
underwood — have become objectionable.

When the standards are very numerous, it is necessary to

6o FORESTRY

choose for the underwood, species, which, besides stoohng out
well, can tolerate a certain amount of shade. The Horn-
beam, Lime, and Hazel are all very suitable for such use,
and serve the good purpose of soil-protection. Very com-
monly the harvesting of the underwood takes place each ten
to twenty years.

Practically all coniferous and broad-leaved trees occur as
standards, but amongst the most suitable are Oak, Sycamore,
Ash, Birch, and Larch. The Beech is by nature quite
unfit for this purpose.

As woods treated under this system are largely made use
of as game preserves, it is nearly always necessary to use
saplings where fresh plants have to be introduced.

CHAPTER V
TENDING OF WOODS

In the management of growing woods, attention must be
given not only to the immediate wants of a crop, but also to
the preservation of the fertility of the soil.

There is an intimate relationship between the forest and
the forest soil. The former is very much what the covering
of leaf mould makes it. Leaves, needles, and dead twigs,
cast down by the trees, form a mulch of decomposed and
decomposing organic matter. Gardeners have long recognised
the value of this mulch, or humus, as it is generally called,
and it is as precious to the forester as to the gardener. It
supplies plant food in a form pleasing to the tree, it retains
moisture in the soil and absorbs it from a damp atmosphere,
it renders a stiff soil porous, and to an over-loose soil it gives
cohesion.

Forests should both produce and protect the humus. The
maintenance of a dense cover of trees, forming a canopy

TENDING OF WOODS 6i

with their crowns, alone makes this possible. A full crop
naturally casts more leaves than a sparse one. Not only so,
but under the shelter and shade of the former a much better
kind of mould, known as " mild " humus, is formed, which
easily becomes incorporated with the mineral soil. The
preservation of this valuable product ought to be the constant
care of the forester. Its presence makes a poor soil rich ;
without it, even the best soil deteriorates. The importance
of humus and its origin must not be forgotten when con-
sidering the subject of the following pages.

Weeding-, or Preliminary Thinning

The term " weeding " is here used in its sylvicultural sense
of a preliminary thinning, and implies the act of removing,
early, material not intended to take part in the development
of the wood.

Weedings are the cuttings that take place from the time
of the formation of the wood to the stage when the lower
branches of the trees begin to fall off — a condition brought
about by keeping the young plants close together and limiting
the light to the upper portion of the crowns.

Twisted and prematurely broad-crowned trees, and species
(e.g. Birch, Aspen, and Mountain Ash) that have sprung
up from naturally sown seed or coppice, but which are not
desired, are " weeded out." Where a wood contains trees
(nurses), whose one object is to provide temporary shelter,
the opportunity is taken at this time to remove them. In
situations where the young trees are apt to suffer badly
from bending or crushing by snow, it is found serviceable to
merely take the tops from the undesirable members rather
than to at once cut them away entirely.

The financial returns from any standard trees that may
remain from the previous rotation, and which are felled during
this period of the young wood's life, ought to be credited to
the late, not to the present crop.

Weedings should be begun early, be cautiously carried out,

62 FORESTRY

and confined to the clearing away of individuals that threaten
to injure the welfare of the young wood. The fact that the
material they produce has commonly little or no value too
often leads to these preliminary thinnings being neglected.
But even neglect is greatly preferable to over-cutting, for the
taking away of many stems at this time is highly prejudicial.

Thinning

No distinction can be drawn between a late " weeding "
and an early " thinning." In the latter, as in the former,
the removal of wide-spreading, misshapen, and other objec-
tionable young trees is the chief thing aimed at. As the
process of crowding begins to have its eifect, the dead and
dying trees increase in number, and the ^^oung wood should
be relieved of these. The age at which the first thinning
should take place varies, but it may be said to range com-
monly between the twentieth and thirtieth years, though it is
often delayed still longer, as in the case of Beech, Spruce,
and Silver Fir. If the so-called thinning be properly con-
ducted— i.e. limited to the extraction of mischievous material
— nothing but the cost of the operation need deter the forester
from making it at any time, however early.- But such cut-
tings should result in increasing, not in lessening, the struggle
between the members composing the crop by freeing these
latter from the domination of a few over-assertive individuals.
The later thinnings differ somewhat in this respect, and the
final thinnings still more. The last mentioned must often
take into account the suitable preparation of the soil for the
next regeneration.

The objects of thinning, in the sylvicultural sense, may be
defined as aiming at the production of healthy, straight stems
of proportionate thickness, but free from side branches.
There is (i) the care of the better stems to be considered,
and (2) the removal of actively harmful trees and those
which have ceased to be useful. As a result of these cut-
tings, a certain amount of material is gained, but this should
not be regarded as the object of thinning.

TENDING OF WOODS 63

From the somewhat indiscriminate encouragement of the
whole wood, through the maintenance of a very close crop in
the early periods of growth, the later thinnings are devoted
more and more to the furtherance of the better trees. This
consists partly in freeing them from the encroachments of
less desirable rivals, and at the same time trees that have
recently passed into a sickly, dying, and dead condition are
taken out.

Species, locality, and the condition of the wood greatly
influence the treatment of the thinnings. It is an established
principle in forestry that one should proceed more cautiously
with young woods and with those in poor situations than
with older woods or woods on very fertile soil. Naturally
enough, trees growing under disadvantageous conditions are
more readily aifected by any violation of sylvicultural laws
than are those more happily placed. Thinning may begin
later, and should be lighter and more frequent when the
forest site is a poor one. In woods deficiently stocked —
whether this state arise from failure at the time of regenera-
tion, or through faulty treatment in the past — stems have
frequently to be left, which under better circumstances would
certainly be removed.

There is a struggle for existence in woods of proper density,
which continues throughout the life of the wood. This
struggle is chiefly amongst the crowns, which keenly compete
with each other for space and light. The competition results
from there being many more trees upon the area than can
possibly grow and survive. Only the most forward in the
race can reach the light and live ; as the light is to be had
above only, all the trees press upward in long, straight growths.
The shade of the crowns has, further, the effect of making
clean stems by* ridding the trees of their side branches, and
the condition of the soil is improved by the addition of or-
ganic matter produced by both the dead and living trees.

The influence of density is thus seen to work powerfully
in the interests of the forester. Its action should, however,
be regulated to the objects in view, and this makes it desirable

64 FORESTRY

to have certain cuttings or thinnings periodically. The fre-
quency with which thinnings should be repeated is determined
by the energy of growth shown in the wood's development ;
in young woods the interval is generally about five or six
years, and in older woods, ten years.

In order to have some sort of guide for the carrying out
of the thinnings, a division has been made classifying the
trees of a wood according to their crown development.
Two great sections may be recognised — the dominant and
the secondary trees. . To the former class belong those
which, possessing well-formed crowns, occupy the upper
position in the crop. The main mass of their foliage may
also be said to be at a fairly equal height from the ground.
The secondary trees comprise the lagging, overtopped, and
dying stems.

The boundary between the two groups is, of course, not
sharply drawn, and there is a constant process going on
whereby members are crowded out of the principal into the
inferior class. Occasionally, but more rarely, a portion of
the crop raises itself from the latter to the former rank.

Up to the present, thinning has been conducted on the
principle that the material to be removed should be looked
for only amongst the secondary class of stems, and that the
dominant trees ought not to be interfered with unless under
quite exceptional circumstances. This has been the view
held in Germany until recently, and it has obtained currency
in Britain also.

Thinnings were distinguished as of three grades : —

(i) Light thinning: the removal of dead and dying
trees.

(2) Moderate thinning : by which, in addition, the

suppressed trees are taken.

(3) Heavy thinning : when also lagging members —

i.e. those with somewhat reduced crowns that are
being pressed upon from the side by dominant
trees— are cut into.

TENDING OF WOODS 65

In all cases the practice was to maintain a complete canopy
overhead.

The new method departs from these principles in two
ways. It does not countenance the taking away of weak
and partially suppressed trees ; and secondly, it is not afraid to
attack the dominant class, nor even to interrupt the canopy,
if it be to etfect the removal of badly formed, abnormally
broad-crowned, and tall " whipping " stems for the benefit of
the remainder.

Attention to soil and wood-crop and the increase of the
total production of useful timber are the objects aimed at in
the modern system of thinning — the yield which the cuttings
give is of quite minor importance.

Instead of ordinary thinnings which remove only the
stems, which it is necessary or advisable to take for the well-
directed growth of the others, a special kind of intermediate
felling is sometimes resorted to. It is really an opening out
of the stock, and quite distinct from thinning. By it a
greater or smaller portion of the principal stems in the crop
is taken — sound, healthy, and vigorous trees are removed,
and the leaf canopy becomes permanently broken. Opera-
tions of this kind are carried out partly to encourage the
remaining stems to increased production — especially in dia-
meter growth — and partly to realise more timber from the
cuttings than is possible from regular thinnings. Occasionally
woods are thus opened out in order to introduce a new crop
under the shelter of the older trees.

A great reduction in the number of stems on the ground
has a very marked effect upon the soil. To prevent its
deterioration a soil-protection wood, generally of Beech,
Spruce, or Silver Fir, is often established. Should the
existing wood itself consist of shade-bearing species, under-
planting may be impracticable.

The desirability or otherwise of these heavy cuttings has
not yet been definitely decided. As a rule, however, the
practice of making a series of cuttings which become gradu-
ally more severe — the plan followed in the new process of

66 FORESTRY

thinning — will be found more satisfactory. The latter system
furnishes a greater aggregate production and preserves the
yield capacity of the soil better than sudden heavy fellings.

Pruning

Natural pruning is the rule in sylviculture. The crowns
of the trees in a close wood monopolise the light and compel
the lower branches to die through overshading. But there
are cases when artificial pruning is required — either to en-
hance the value of stems so treated, or to prevent young
plants being harmed by the branches of larger trees whipping
and suppressing them. Trees with strong lower branches,
left as shelter or for seed when regenerating forest ground,
are often pruned to relieve the young crop at a time when
their complete removal would be dangerous. Birch and
Aspen occurring accidentally in a rising wood may also be
severely pruned with good effect some years before being cut
over. Pruning carried out to increase the commercial value
of the timber should be restricted to the removal of dead
and the lower of the weak green branches. All trees in a
wood should not be treated in this way, but only those likely
to remain to the end of the rotation.

Care ought to be taken to remove branches with a clean,
sharp cut — flush with the stem. The only exception to the
latter rule is in the case of strong limbs belonging to shelter
trees shortly to be felled. It is then better to leave a pro-
jecting stump, in order to prevent any injury to the tree stem.
At other times such shortened branches are very objection-
able, for the cut surface heals with great difficulty; or occlusion
may fail altogether, and decay is conducted into the bole.

Ordinarily, when the pruning is done with a view to the
production of good timber, only those branches which are
under two inches in diameter should be taken. When a
larger branch is pruned from broad-leaved trees, the wound
should be painted with coal-tar or other antiseptic material.

The season for pruning is from October to February, but
preferably in the early part of winter.

FOREST PROTECTION 67

CHAPTER VI
FOREST PROTECTION

By Forest Protection is understood the preservation of
woodlands against damage caused by man and that brought
about by external natural influences, such as noxious plants,
animals, and unfavourable atmospheric phenomena. It con-
siders measures for establishing and maintaining the security
of woods and forests, so far as action is within the power
of the forest owner in his private capacity. Regulations
coming within the jurisdiction of the state belong to the
subject of Forest Laws.

Protection Against Offences Caused by Man

In safeguarding the forest against the encroachments of
man, it is of importance that all boundaries of woodlands
be properly defined by means of permanent marks. The
natural features of a district are frequently of too indefinite a
character to be useful for purposes of demarcation, though
streams, valleys, and ridges may certainly help in the task.
In the division of forests, trees are to be avoided as being of
unstable durability and apt to lead to confusion by becoming
incorporated in the forest growth. Fixed points of boundary
are mounds, fences, ditches, stones, and posts of iron, and
these may be said to include the most usual forms of artificial
landmarks.

Objects designating boundaries should be numbered where
possible, described in a special register, and have their posi-
tion exactly indicated upon plans or maps. The cost of
construction and preservation of such marks is ordinarily
borne as a mutual concern between adjoining proprietors.
The marches or boundaries should be inspected periodically,

68 FORESTRY

so that damage may be immediately repaired and any changes
noted.

Against theft of forest produce the best protection is the
maintenance of a sufficient staff of wood reeves or keepers,
along with effective penal laws. Much may also be done
by avoiding undue exposure of material under circumstances
calculated to provoke the temptation to steal. In localities
where there is an indigent population, permission can be given
for the gathering of dead, fallen wood ; or the less valuable
parts of trees and cheaper kinds of wood may be sold at
specially low rates. Happy relations are thus established
with persons whose uncontrolled entrance might be very
harmful-to the forest.

Protection against Fire

In the virgin forest, fires originate in making clearances
for agricultural land, in extending pasturages, in failing to
extinguish camp fires, etc. They are generally the result of
carelessness or wanton recklessness, the throwing down of
lighted matches, lack of proper attention to fires lighted for
the disposal of forest refuse, heather burning, and so forth.
Occasionally they can be traced to incendiarism, though
sparks from railway engines are a much more fruitful source.
Great Britain with its moist climate is not specially subject to
forest fires, but a large proportion of those which do occur
are due to the last-mentioned cause ; and it is a remarkable
fact that forest owners have as yet no proper security against
incurring the loss thus occasioned.

Forest fires are most common in March, April, and May
during dry east winds, because at that season there is much
withered grass and dead leaves, but they may also occur in
summer, especially after a long period of drought.

Young coniferous woods are those most endangered. The
soil-covering of needles and twigs is exceedingly inflammable,
and, when lighted, leads not only to its own destruction, but
generally to that of the trees as well. Mainly on account of

FOREST PROTECTION 69

Spruce occupying situations that are more moist than in the
case of Scots Pine woods, the latter species suffers more
seriously.

According to the nature of the forest fire, the following
distinctions are made : —

Surface or ground fires — the commonest form, a burning of
the litter or soil-covering of leaves, twigs, grass, etc.

Crozcn fires — so frequent and disastrous in North America.
These burn the crowns, i.e. foliage and branches ; they nearly
always originate in a surface fire.

Stem fires — of little importance, taking place usually in
single trees when hollow.

'Deep soilfires — of comparatively rare occurrence. Peaty
moorland may become ignited in this way, and burn slowly
but persistently. Practically the only measure to adopt
against it is to isolate the part on fire by cutting trenches
down to the mineral soil.

Preventive measures should aim at diminishing the risk,
and limiting the possible extent of forest fires.

A system of fire lines, that is, intersecting paths or rides,
commonly from eighteen to thirty-six feet wide, should be
arranged through the forest, so that though one division may
have to be sacrificed, the whole may not be lost. They form
the best means of restricting the area of the outbreak, and
provide points of attack against it. Marginal belts of rela-
tively non-inflammable, broad-leaved species — as Birch, Oak,
and Poplar- — ^ought to be planted where Pine woods border
upon roads and railway lines. Restrictions as to lighting fires
within the forest and the smoking of tobacco can be drawn
up — coming into effect during the dangerous seasons of the
year. Locomotives running through forests should be fitted
with means to prevent the emission of glowing cinders and
sparks, and the place and manner of supplying the engine
furnaces with fuel can be regulated.

A ground fire should be attacked from both sides simul-
taneously by beating, or rather sweeping, the edge of the
burning surface with green branches, so that it becomes

70 FORESTRY

gradually narrowed into a wedge-like shape, and ultimately
extinguished. A spadeful of earth dug hastily and thrown
over any part where the fire threatens to cross the protection
lines is found to be most efficacious.

Crown fires are customarily stopped by felling a strip of
trees along a road or fire line sufficiently far in advance
of the fire to enable the operation to be complete before the
flames reach the point selected. The trees are felled in
the direction of the fire, and, if time allow, their crowns
are cut off and removed beyond reach of sparks.

In extreme cases, it is necessary to counter-fire. . Counter-
firing, or " back-firing," as it is sometimes called, consists in
burning the woods along one of the defence lines to prevent
the fire spreading into adjoining parts. It is able to proceed
against the wind that is bringing on the main fire, owing to
the fact that there is a draught towards the centre of con-
flagration. When the counter-fire meets the main one, both
are extinguished from want of fuel.

After a fire has apparently spent itself, careful watching is
still necessary until all danger of recrudescence is past.

Young woods of conifers that have suffered severely should
be at once cleared and replanted. Dead and sickly conifers
left from a forest fire are apt to become infested with insect
enemies, particularly Hylc sinus pbi'iperda (the pine beetle).
With broad-leaved trees there is not the same cause for
haste, and it is often advisable to wait another season to
exactly ascertain the extent of the injury. Where a surface
fire has passed over an area occupied by young Oaks, and
damaged them, the plants will usually send up an abundant
stock of coppice shoots if they are at once cut over close
to the ground.

Protection against Mammals and Birds

The Mammalia harmful to woods may be considered in
the following order : {a) Domestic Grazing Animals, {b)
Game, {c) The smaller Rodents.

FOREST PROTECTION 71

Domestic grazing animals destroy the forest by nibbling
buds, shoots, and leaves, trampling upon seedlings and young
growth, loosening the soil upon steep slopes, damaging open
drains, and in other ways. The goat is the most injurious,
and where it occurs plentifully, natural reproduction of the
forest is out of the question ; sheep may be classed as coming
next to the goat in point of harmfulness ; cattle, in the forest,
do not damage trees to a very great extent, preferring grass,
if it be present ; still, both they and horses bite and tear
plants, and also injure surface roots by treading ; they are
exceedingly destructive to isolated young trees in parks. The
practice of driving pigs into woods for pannage has nearly
ceased. It is, perhaps, unfortunate, as they were more
serviceable than harmful. They certainly eat a considerable
quantity of Beech and Oak mast, and uproot some of the
weaker plants ; but on the whole their action is beneficial
through the grubbing or stirring of the soil preparing the
way for seed, and by their destruction of caterpillars and
mice.

The conclusion come to in regard to the relation of grazing
animals to the forest is that goats and sheep should be
rigorously excluded, and that cattle, horses, or pigs should be
allowed entrance only where they can do the minimum of
damage. None can be given grazing in a wood from the
time it is established by sowing or planting till the foliage is
quite beyond reach of the animals. Should it be decided to
admit a limited number of stock, adequate supervision by a
herdsman is a necessity, and it must be certain that the
legitimate food is present in sufficient quantity.

Game

The reconciliation of the game interest with sykiculture
is a difficult problem in Britain. A great number — possibly
the majority — of the woods in the country have been re-
garded merely or mainly as harbours for game. For this
end they have been created and expensively maintained ; the

72 FORESTRY

choice of the species, the severe early thinnings, the later
treatment of the open woods, the mode of conducting the
fellings, are all carried out as required by the gamekeeper
rather than the forester. No doubt, the woods have gene-
rally fulfilled their object, and so may be said to have
succeeded. Still, it is now seen that woodlands are capable
of more. They should continue to give shelter and cover to
animals of the chase, and certain plantations may always exist
exclusively for these purposes ; but the serious pursuit of
forestry should limit sport to a place subordinate to that
of timber production. The two are not incompatible : sylvi-
culturally managed woods need not be, and in reality are not,
without game ; but owing to their interests being somewhat
opposed, the kind and quantity of game must be regulated
by, and made subservient to, the well-being of the forest.

The most harmful of the animals maintained for sport is
the RABBIT. It bites and gnaws the bark of woody plants,
nibbles the young shoots of practically all species of forest
trees, and does a certain amount of harm by burrowing.
Rabbits render natural regeneration impossible, and a very
small number of them will quickly ruin any young plantation.
They will even attack and kill smooth-barked trees of a foot
or more in diameter by stripping the bark from the base
of the stems.

Fences three to four feet in height, having wire-netting of
fine mesh, buried partly in the ground and curved to the
outside to prevent the animals scraping a way through, are
some protection. But very young rabbits often get through
the meshes, and older ones jump and climb over. During
snowstorms in winter fences become hidden by accumulations
of drifted snow, and then the creatures, ravenous for food,
easily effect an entrance and do an immense amount of
damage. Ferreting is useful ; and foxes and weasels, as
natural enemies, should be protected. Trapping is a general
practice, but is not usually thorough enough ; suffocation by
poisonous fumes may well be brought to bear upon this
dreadful scourge for its extermination. Burrows within en-

FOREST PROTECTION 73

closures should be dug out. Rabbits and trees cannot exist
together, and as the female rabbit may rear four to eight
litters, each of three to eight young, in a single season, it is
obvious that to cope with the pest suppressive measures must
be very severe.

The HARE is much less injurious than the rabbit, though
the damage done is of a similar character. Hares nibble
the shoots of deciduous trees, including Larch, more than
the evergreen conifers ; they also gnaw the bark to some
extent. They are particularly troublesome in forest nurseries,
where they do a great deal of harm in little time.

Roe-deer injure young trees very seriously by browsing
on the twigs, thus crippling and cankering the plants. The
roe-buck in rubbing off the velvet from his horns does
much damage to slender stems. Curiously enough, he is
specially apt to select for this purpose any rare species that
may be interspersed throughout a crop, so that these require
special protection.

Red-deer bite off buds and tender shoots, eat forest fruits,
especially acorns and beech nuts, rub with their antlers, and,
worst of all, strip the bark from stems with their teeth. For
peeling. Spruce is preferred ; but Scots Pine, Oak, and Beech
also suffer badly. In some districts an extraordinary amount
of damage has been wrought by red-deer ; but, on the whole,
the roe-deer is more destructive. Stems injured by peeling
have a reduced timber value ; they are more liable to wind-
break and snowbreak, the weakened trees attract insect pests,
and fungi are apt to take lodgment upon the wounds.

The best protection against damage done by game is the
reduction of their number, together with the careful enclosure
of all young woods and nurseries. For the latter purpose
close wire-netting fences of sufficient height are generally
most effective. Young conifers may have their leading
shoots protected against nibbling by coating the needles with
coal-tar, but care must be taken to avoid smearing the buds.
Broad-leaved trees, saplings especially, are sometimes painted
with fetid substances from the byre or pig-sty, mixed with

74 FORESTRY

milk of lime. Individual plants of rarer species, occurring
sparsely in a young wood, can have guards provided for them
consisting of rough branches. The felling of a few young
trees in thickets frequented by red-deer is found to assist in
checking the peeling of bark.

Of the SMALLER iN'jURious RODENTS, squirrels, mice, and
voles inflict most damage.

The SQUIRREL is well known to eat and store away fruits
and seeds, and to bite off twigs for the sake of the buds on
which it feeds. It has also a partiality for birds' eggs and
young in the nest ; but its chief harmfulness, not so generally
acknowledged, is its habit of stripping the bark from trees.
In this last respect, Larch, Scots Pine, Spruce, and Birch,
about twenty years old, suffer severely. The attack, which
usually takes place in June, seems to be worse in hot summers
than in cool, wet ones. The squirrel removes the bark in
irregular strips, in broad rings, or spirals from the stem at
varying heights, but always in the crown of the tree. As a
result, the portion of stem above the wound generally dies or
is broken over by the first high wind. Very serious de-
struction has been done in this way in various parts of Britain.

In defence, squirrels ought to be greatly restricted in
numbers. Dogs trained for squirrel-hunting may be em-
ployed ; they can detect and " point," thus solving the
difficulty of tracing the agile little creatures. Combined
action should be taken by the proprietors of affected districts
in order to get rid of the troublesome pest.

Various mice cause serious damage by gnawing the bark of
young broad-leaved trees, eating acorns and beech nuts, and
wasting seed-beds in nurseries. The wood or long-tailed
field-mouse {Mus s-^hdticus) kills plants by severing the roots
just below the surface of the ground, and by gnawing the
stems.

The bank-vole {Ar-vicola glarcolus) and the common field-
vole l^Arv'icola agrcstis) do mischief similar to that of mice,
and, in addition, burrow very extensively, cutting through
roots and uprooting plants. Even more than mice, voles are

FOREST PROTECTION 75

capable of increasing alarmingly in numbers, owing to the short
gestation period of the females and the quantity produced at a
birth. Their attacks have frequently amounted to a scourge.

The water-vole i^Arvicola amphibius\ or water-rat, as it is
commonly but erroneously called, considered individually, is
the most injurious of the voles. It forms branching galleries
in the soil and bites through the thickest roots of trees.
Fortunately, it is of somewhat solitary habits.

As a preventive measure against mice, the keeping down of
grass by maintaining a full crop of trees up to the time of re-
generation is recommended. When possible, seed should be
sown in spring rather than in autumn. Drain tiles, with
poisoned baits, may be placed about ; the drain tile pre-
vents larger animals from reaching the poison, and a piece of
celery hollowed to contain phosphorus answers well as bait.
Gamekeepers, by destroying owls, kestrels, weasels, and
stoats, greatly favour the numerical increase of mice and voles.

Birds are troublesome chiefly in the forest nursery, where
the finches, sparrows, and other small birds attack seed and
the cotyledons, or first leaves, of germinated seed. Protection
is given by mixing the seed with one-tenth part by weight of
red lead, or by placing a framework such as that shown in
Fig. 5 (p. 45) over the seed-bed.

Black game {Tetrao tetr'ix) occasion some damage by
nipping out the buds, preferring Birch and Scots Pine.

Crossbills {Lox'ia sp.) attack the cones of Scots Pine and
Spruce, and eat the seeds.

Woodpeckers [Pit us sp.), especially the green species, do
a certain amount of damage.

Most birds, by destroying insects, are much more useful
than injurious.

Protection Against Forest Insects

In the insect world the forest has many enemies, some of
which do a great deal of harm. Only in comparatively few
cases are effectual remedies available. Among the most
dangerous insect pests are the following : —

76 FORESTRY

Coleoptera

Pine weevil, Hylobius abietls. The larva or grub (Fig. 1 3^)
is harmless, living upon the inner bark of the roots and stumps
of recently felled coniferous trees. The pupal (chrysalid)
stage (Fig. 13^) is passed in a chamber or depression formed
in the sap wood. Altogether the metamorphosis, from egg
to perfect insect or imago (Fig. 13^), occupies about fifteen

b c

FIG. 13. PINE WEEVIL [Hylobhis abietis)
a. Larva or grub. b. Pupa or chrysalis. c. Imago or adult.

months. The damage done by the weevils consists in gnaw-
ing small patches of bark from the stems of Scots Pine,
Spruce, and other conifers, a preference being shown for
three- to five-years-old plants.

The attack is combated with difficulty. To prevent ovi-
position, stumps and roots of conifers may be extracted ; or,
in order that young plants may not be directly at hand upon
the emergence of the weevils, the land may be allowed to lie
fallow for a few years, when the stumps will have become
old and unattractive for egg-laying. Unfortunately the soil
deteriorates if the latter plan be adopted, grass and weed
growth spring up to interfere with the process of restocking,
and there is the loss in wood increment of the non-productive
years. Such considerations may make it advisable to regene-
rate the area immediately after the felling and clearance of
the old crop, and to depend on remedial measures

The latter consist of bark traps or pit-fall trenches Small

FOREST PROTECTION 77

pieces of fresh bark from Scots Pine or Spruce (kept in place
by a stone being laid over each) are laid in lines at regular
intervals over the area. The weevils collect under these,
and are easily caught. Renewal of the bark becomes
necessary after it has lost its resinous odour. Another method
adopted in free, sandy soils is that of surrounding new planta-
tions with small trenches, about eight inches deep, having
perpendicular sides. The sluggish weevils, which prefer to
crawl rather than use their wings, fall into these narrow
cuttings, and are gathered and killed.

Smaller pine weevil, Pissodes notatus. This insect closely
resembles Hylobius abietis, but is smaller and has not the
toothed femur characteristic of the latter. The larvae live
under the bark of two- to ten-years-old Pines, which may
die in consequence. It is not so universally distributed as
the last. Remedy lies in uprooting the attacked plants and
burning them, in order to check the continuance of the
pest.

Cockchafer beetle, Melolontha vulgaris. From the date
of egg-laying to the emergence of the mature insect four years
are occupied. During nearly the whole of that long period
the grubs are busily engaged devouring the roots of young
trees, grasses, and other plants. Scots Pine and other conf-'
fers suffer more particularly. Finer roots are bitten through,
and from the larger ones the bark is eaten away. Upon the
Continent it is no uncommon experience to have large tracts
that have been carefully stocked with strong plants, turned to
barren wastes through the repeated depredations of the grubs
of this insect.

The beetle eats the leaves of broad-leaved trees, and even
the needles of Larch and Spruce, as well as the male cones
of Scots Pine. But any damage which it does is of small
importance compared to that wrought by the larva. Both in
the nursery and in the open, the grubs are greatly to be
feared, especially in countries having a hot, dry summer.

As a means of prevention, the avoidance of large clearings,
which are selected for oviposition in preference to smaller

FORESTRY

strips, is advocated, but does not prove very effective. Star-
lings and rooks are of great benefit, preying upon both the
grubs and beetles. Collection of the beetles is the surest
exterminative measure. In France and Germany, during
the " swarm month " of May, school hours are altered in
many districts to allow the children to gather the beetles
from young broad-leaved trees. In the early morning the
beetles are sluggish and easily dislodged from the leaves and
twigs. The young poles only require to be shaken with the
hand ; larger trees may be beaten with a padded mallet.
The beetles fall to the ground and the children gather them
into pails, being paid according to the quantity collected.
Broad-leaved trees — Birch frequently — are planted on the
borders of Pine woods to act as decoy-trees for the beetles.

The smaller Cockchafer, Melolontha hippocastani^ appears
along with the common one ; its life-habits are the same
except that it lives longer — four or five years — as a larva.

Pine beetle, Hyksinus {H'^lurgus) p'lniperda (Fig. 14). The

^^^

a be

FIG. 14. PINE BEETLE [Hyksijiiis piniperdo)
a. Imago. h. Larva. c. Pupa.

mature beetle is about one-sixth of an inch in length, of a
dark brown to glossy black colour, with antennae and legs
brownish red. On the wing covers, longitudinally arranged
lines of fine punctures alternate with rows of tubercles. The

FOREST PROTECTION 79

latter are absent at the hinder end of the second row, count-
ing from the suture between the elytra. The want of these
few tubercles serves to determine this insect from the less fre-
quently occurring Hylesinus minor.

Eggs are laid in March and April in felled stems and
sickly and dying trees of Scots Pine, in galleries bored under-
neath the bark. The larvas hatch out in a few weeks, and
feed between the bark and wood until about the end of June
when they pupate. In July or August the beetles appear, and
at once fly to the crowns of the Scots Pine. There they bore
straight into the pith of the youngest shoots at a distance of
about two or three inches from the terminal bud. Either
leaders or side branches may be chosen, and from the place
of entrance the insect proceeds to work its way, in the centre
of the shoot, towards the end bud. The hollowed shoots
are easily broken over by high wind, and may be found lying
under the trees, frequently in large numbers. The loss of
these often gives the tree a curious appearance, as though it
had been pruned — which, indeed, it has been, by the boring
insect. In warm localities there may be two generations in
the same year. Hibernation takes place under thick bark at
the base of older Scots Pine.

As prevention, sickly trees should be felled and barked in
May, before which time they will have attracted beetles to
lay their eggs, and the larvas will be destroyed upon exposure.
When possible. Pines felled in winter should be allowed to
lie in the forest until after the beetle's breeding season (March
and April) ; then about May they must be barked to destroy
the developing insects. If this manoeuvre be impracticable,
early removal of Pine timber and the use of trap-trees is the
best measure to adopt.

The insect is one of the commonest and most destructive
in this country.

Spruce-bark beetle, Bostr'ichus {Tomicus) typographus. Both
as beetle and larva, this insect destroys Spruce trees by tun-
nelling just below the bark. As a rule, only trees in a non-
flourishing condition, half uprooted and so forth, are selected,

8o FORESTRY

but when the beetles become very numerous they attack
perfectly healthy trees also — beginning with those round the
margins of cleared areas.

Prevention lies in the timely removal of all sickly and
wind-thrown trees, and in stripping the bark from logs left
lying in the woods over summer.

Striped conifer-boring beetle, Tomicus {Bostrichus) linea-
tus. Conifers not in full vigorous strength and felled trees are
attacked. The female beetle bores a horizontal gallery into
the wood and then, following along an annual ring, she lays
eggs both above and below, in small depressions formed for
them. The larvae eat out short galleries to the upper and
under sides of the main passage and pupate in these. The
borings render the timber useless for many purposes, and its
commercial value is thus reduced.

There is little likelihood of suffering from this pest if
reasonable care be taken in the early removal of winter-felled
timber from the woods.

Conifers felled when the sap is flowing should be immedi-
ately barked in districts where this beetle is to be feared.

Lepidoptera

Pine looper-moth, F'ldoma {Geometrd) pin'iana (Fig. 15).
From July till October the caterpillars attack the needles of
Scots Pine, preferring trees from twenty to seventy years old.
At first the needles are gnawed from the side, but later, as the
larvae gain more strength, the needles are bitten through and
the base alone is eaten. Before the approach of winter the
larvae let themselves down from the tree-tops by means of
threads, and pupate under the soil-covering. The pupa,
about half an inch in length, is at first green, but becomes
brown.

Where there is danger from this insect, the humus matter
should be searched for pupae, and if many be present, the
leaf litter must be gathered together and burned. Insect-
eating birds should be encouraged.

FOREST PROTECTION

Pine beauty or pine noctua, Trachea piniperda. The eggs
are laid along the needles of Scots Pine. The resulting
larvae feed upon the needles, and may completely defoliate
the trees. The chrysalid stage is passed in the leaf litter at
the surface of the soil. Remedial measures as recommended
in the preceding paragraph.

Pine moth, Gastropacka pini?- From eggs laid on the bark

FIG. 15. PINE LOOPER-MOTH {Fidonia piniario)
a. Female moth. b. Male moth. c. Pupa. d. Larva.

and needles of the Scots Pine come caterpillars, which gnaw
the needles. They, however, make their appearance fairly
late in the season (during August), and being at first of small
size, they do comparatively little harm at this time, and soon
seek winter quarters under the moss, needles, etc., that
obtain in pure forests. Here they remain until March of
the following year ; they then ascend to the crowns, and
resume their feeding till June, when they pupate. Attack
generally takes place when the trees are in the pole forest
stage or later.

As remedy, the ringing or girdling of the stems with tar

^ This moth is not a native of Britain.

82 FORESTRY

is effective in preventing the larvae which have hibernated in
the soil from again reaching the tree-tops. A special and
inexpensive " caterpillar-lime " is the preparation now com-
monly used ; it remains semi-liquid much longer than ordinary
tar. The bark, at about breast height up the stem, is made
smoother by rapidly scraping off the rough outside scales
from a band about two inches broad, and this it is which is
afterwards painted with the glutinous substance.

Pale tussock moth, Dass;chira (Orgyia) pudibunda. In
early summer (May and June) eggs are laid in clusters low
down on the stems of Beech, and from thence the larvae
crawl to the crowns of the trees, where they feed upon the
leaves. They descend from the trees in autumn, and pupate
in the fallen material on the ground. The protective mea-
sure by means of bands of viscous tar, suggested for the
eradication of the Pine Moth, is also applicable for this
insect. The bands, of course, must be made before the
eggs are hatched, and at a height (about nine feet) that will
ensure most of the larvae being caught.

Remedial treatment in this way is rendered fairly easy
owing to the pest being generally confined to older woods,
but it is not always necessary.

Black arches or nun moth, Llparis monacha. The ova
are deposited in small clusters between fissures in the bark,
and there they lie over winter. The young caterpillars, on
emerging in April or May, begin by feeding upon the under-
most twigs, but the attack generally ends by leaving conifers
practically destitute of needles. In feeding, the caterpillars
waste as much as they devour ; they bite needles through
about the middle, and eat only the short stump ; leaves are
nibbled only at the stalk and midrib, the rest falling to the
ground.

Pupation takes place in a cocoon loosely attached to the
stem, or about the lower branches, or upon underwood.

Few forest insects have caused so great destruction as the
Nun Moth ; Spruce and Scots Pine suffer very severely,
while Beech, Oak, and Birch do not entirely escape.

FOREST PROTECTION

Really effective means of prevention are wanting, though
in this case, again, rings of patent tar round the stems are of
much assistance. They prevent larvae, hatched from eggs
laid low down on the stems, from reaching the crowns ; and
they are even more useful in another way — the caterpillars
while young let themselves down from the tree-tops by long
spun threads, but to re-ascend they require to crawl up the
stem. The sticky band, however, intercepts their progress,
and they die in thousands below it. On the Continent this
measure has frequently been carried out on an extensive scale,
and has saved many forests. The pest invariably spreads
from quite small centres of infection, so that every effort
should be made to check an attack in its first stages. If then
neglected, it is impossible to prevent a calamity.

Oak-leaf roller moth, Tortrix znridana (Fig. 16). The

a b c

FIG. 16. OAK-LEAF ROLLER MOTH ( Tortrix viridana)
a. ^loth. b. Larva. c. Pupa.

caterpillars, which are of a dirty green colour and about half
an inch in length, appear in spring from eggs laid in the

84 FORESTRY

previous year. Oaks only are attacked, often very severely.
The leaves are bitten, at first slightly, then rolled into a tube-
like form and more thoroughly devoured. At midsummer
cocoons are formed upon the tree — either on the bark or
amongst the twigs and remnants of leaves. From the chry-
salis the winged insect escapes about three weeks later. The
trees may be practically bereft of green leaves, with a conse-
quent loss in timber production.

PiNE-sHooT TORTRix, Rctinta buol'iana. In July eggs are laid
singly on the terminal buds of young trees of the Scots Pine,
and all the stages of the insect's metamorphosis are passed
in that region. The small caterpillar bores into the terminal
bud, where it passes the winter ; next spring it pierces and
hollows out not only the leading shoot, but also most of the
surrounding whorl of lateral buds. Any of the latter which
escape, curve upward in order to take the place of the
destroyed leader. This gives a very characteristic and
objectionable twist to the stem in after-life.

Larch mining moth, Coleophora {Tinea) laricella (Fig. 17).

,^M^

FIG. 17. LARCH MINING MOTH {Cohophora laricello)

a. Moth (magnified). b. Lines to show natural size. c. Larva.
d. Larval case. e. Pupa.

The female moth lays her eggs in the needles of the Larch
in May and June. In the latter month the larvse appear,
and hollow or mine out the needles. The caterpillar, which
is very small, lives inside a case formed from a Larch needle.
In this it spends the winter, but shortly after hibernation a
larger case is demanded on account of its increased size.
The larva obtains this by attaching a second empty needle

FOREST PROTECTION

to the side of the first, thus doubhng the accommodation.
Pupation also is effected within this pecuhar covering. Young
Larches (from ten to forty years
old) are those attacked ; the par-
tially hollowed needles (Fig. i8<r),
with their flaccid yellow tips, give
the trees a very striking appearance,
as though they had suffered from
frost.

Prevention consists in planting
Larch only upon suitable situations,
where it has good and naturally
well-drained soil, with free circula-
tion of air about the crowns. Close
woods of Larch are therefore not
to be recommended. The Larch
Mining Moth is very generally asso-
ciated with the fungus which causes
Larch disease.

Hymenoptera

Pine sawfly, Lophyrus pin'i. The
female, with her saw-like ovipositor,
bores into the needles of the Scots
Pine and deposits a large number of
eggs. The caterpillars, which are
green and grow to one inch in
length, have twenty-two legs. They
feed in clusters, gnawing and totally
destroying the needles. There may
be two generations in the year.
Larvae, hatched early in the season,
pupate in June on the needles and
bark ; those of a later brood turn a. Larval cases.

1 I'j 1 .1 „•! „^ „> b. Larvae suspended by threads

to chrysalides under the soil cover- ^ Hollowed needles,
ing of leaf litter.

In young plantations the colonies of larvae may be crushed

FIG. \i
TWIG OF LARCH SHOWING
NEEDLES ATTACKED BY
LARCH MINING MOTH

FORESTRY

with the hand, but it is impossible to cope with the pest in
older woods.

Hemiptera

Spruce-gall aphis, Chermes abietis. After wintering under
scales in the bark, the so-called " mother " aphis appears in

spring. She pierces into the twigs
of the Spruce, and through irritation
thus caused a cone-like gall (Fig. 19)
arises. Here eggs are laid amongst a
woolly secretion, and the tiny aphides
coming from these suck the juices of
the gall, which, from being quite in-
significant, increases to the size of a
small pine cone. The aphides become
enclosed in the gall, where they oc-
cupy cells or chambers until full-
grown in August. At that time the
galls turn to a brown colour, and the
chambers split open, allowing the
green-fly to escape. If Larch be at
hand, some of them fly to it and de-

r posit eggs ; from these a female form is
hatched, which seeks protection under
scales of the bark during winter.
This is the " Larch aphis," Chermes
/aricis, so well known in connection
with Larch canker.

Larch aphis. With the arrival

of spring the wingless females creep

from their winter shelters, and lay

eggs on the twigs of the Larch.

The chermes from these are covered

with a white woollv down. Both

they and the parent form settle upon the needles, which

they pierce and suck, weakening them and causing them

to bend angularly. The appearance of the trees is as

FIG. 19. gall formed BY
SPRUCE-GALL APHIS

( Chermes abietis)

FOREST PROTECTION 87

though they had been sprinkled with snow. After mid-
summer, wings are acquired, and the insects spread from larch
to larch and to the spruce.

In the case of both Spruce and Larch the attack is worst
upon sickly trees, and those at the margins of woods. Where
the pest on the Larch is very persistent and the damage severe,
it is usually found that the situation is also in other ways
unsuitable for the growth of that species.

As prevention, the Larch should not be grown in pure
woods nor in close, " muggy " situations, nor on cold, damp
soil. The crowns of the trees should not be much restricted,
but be given liberty of space and air.

Young Larches in the nursery may be sprayed, by means
of one of the " Knapsack " sprayers, with paraffin emulsion.
Against the aphis on Spruce, nothing can be done in the
forest except the removal of weak trees.

Useful Forest Insects

Insects are not all harmful, on the contrary, quite a number
are most useful, performing direct service for man. But it is
the indirectly beneficial carnivorous insects that more especi-
ally interest the forester. These consist of predatory and
parasitic species living upon injurious forms. They have
repeatedly put an end to insect scourges that had got beyond
human control.

To the predatory class belong several beetles, amongst
them Calosoma sycophants, Caksoma inquisitor-, lady- birds
{Cocc'inelUdce), and tiger-beetles {Cic'indelida). As parasites,
the Ichneumon flies render good service : Microgaster nemorum
and Microgaster glomeratus lay their eggs in the body of the
Pine Moth larva. Anoinalon circumjiexum is another and
frequently occurring ichneumon, whose habits are altogether
beneficial through the killing of destructive caterpillars, and
of the true flies {Diptera), the genus Tachina supplies several
species which are very active in this direction.

FORESTRY

Protection Against Fungoid Diseases

As enemies of the forest, parasitic fungi have to be reckoned
with amongst our most dreaded pests. Trees are harmed by
other forms of plant Hfe, but by none so severely as by fungi.
They are the more to be feared because in many cases it is
practically impossible to combat, or, at least, cure, their
attacks. Only the more important pests are here considered.

The honey agaric, Agaricus melleus (Fig. 20). This

/'h

/" <rr

f^h 7-"'t'|t r'-

FIG. 20. SCOTS PINE KILLED BY " AGARICUS MELLEUS

a, b, c. Rhizomorph strands, b, c, bear sporophores, some of which are abortive.
d, (i. Cluster of sporophores arising from the mycelium in the cortex.

fungus preys upon Scots Pine, Spruce, Larch, and other
conifers, and occurs saprophytically on broad-leaved trees.

FOREST PROTECTION 89

As a parasite on conifers, it proves fatal to young and old
trees alike. The fine white mycelium between the wood and
the bark, the black rhizomorpks and the clotted mass of earth
and resin adhering to the roots and collar, serve to determine
the fungus in the absence of the yellow or honey-coloured
caps which appear in late autumn. The strong mycelial
strands or rhizomorphs extend under the surface of the
ground in search of healthy roots, which they pierce and
enter, to the destruction of the plant ; also infection is
brought about by spores from the fructifications.

Prevention : Pull up and burn infected young conifers.

Peridermtum Pint corticola. On the upper part of the
stem or in the crown of the Scots Pine a black resinous
patch, or " blister," and in June the orange-yellow sporophores
(fructifications), mark the presence of this common fungus.
The mycelium lives in the soft bast and in the region of the
cambium, which it kills. As the canker on the stem in-
creases in size, the passage of the elaborated sap is confined
more and more to the healthy side ; the sap-wood, too,
may become clogged with turpentine to such a degree that
the supply of water from the roots is interfered with, and
the portion above the canker dies in consequence. Young
trees are quickly killed by it, though often indirectly, for
they get suppressed by neighbouring trees. Older stems
are able to hold out longer against it.

Trees affected by the disease should be at once removed.

Aecidium elatinum^ a canker of the Silver Fir. Swellings
with deep cracks or fissures occur on the stems, caused by
the mycelium working in the cortex. The "witches'-broom"
of the Silver Fir is attributable to this fungus, and branches
with these curious growths should be pruned off before the
shedding of the spores in June or July. Infested stems are
rendered more liable to wind-break, and should be removed
in all cuttings as they occur.

Trametes radiciperda is the most destructive root fungus of
the Scots Pine, Weymouth Pine, and Spruce. If one tree
dies from it, others whose roots are in contact soon follow,

OO FORESTRY

and a gap in the forest crop results. This gap always tends
to increase in size owing to surrounding healthy trees being
contaminated by the diseased ones. The roots become com-
pletely decayed. Under the bark scales at the " collar " of
the tree the delicate white mycelium may be seen, and there
— often below a mossy covering — the snow-white polyporous
fructifications are borne. The latter also appear upon diseased
roots that have been laid bare ; the spores from them are
apt to be distributed upon the fur of rabbits and other
burrowing animals, thus starting new centres of infection.

In North Germany it is found that Scots Pine upon land
previously under tillage seldom escapes the ravages of this
fungus. In this country also the pest is of very frequent
occurrence.

Trametes p'lni produces a form of " ring-shake " and de-
composition of the wood. As its specific name implies, the
fungus assails Pines principally ; but it is -not confined to them
— Spruce, Larch, and Silver Fir also being subject to its
attack. The oldest class of trees are the chief sufferers,
and those under forty or fifty years old are practically free
from it. It is a "wound-parasite," I.e. it can effect an entrance
only through a wound or abrasion, such as that left by a
broken branch, which exposes the unprotected wood. In the
case of the Pine, it is only at those parts on the stem where
dead branches have left a way through the sap-wood that
the woody, bracket-like fructifications make their appearance.
In the heart-wood the mycelium delights to spread circularly
in an annual ring, causing the separation known as ring- or
cup-shake. But it may break down the woody tissue through-
out the whole duramen, spreading both upward and downward
in the stem from the place of entrance.

Prevention : As the fungus is distributed only by spores,
felling the infected trees puts an end to the trouble, and also
saves further deterioration of the timber. The breaking or
pruning away of green branches should be avoided, as wounds
thus caused provide the necessary germinating bed for the
spores. If artificial pruning be necessary, the larger wound

FOREST PROTECTION 91

surfaces should be painted with an antiseptic substance, such
as coal-tar.

Larch canker, Pezizd Will^ommii. In countries with a
moist climate, and especially in low-lying situations subject to
mist and frost, Larch is subject to this fungoid pest. The
tendency is aggravated when the species is grown in pure
woods, upon unsuitable soil, or in crowded plantations.

Somewhat oval -shaped "blisters," exudation of resin
from fissures in the bark, and the small cup-shaped asco-
phores (with their whitish borders and orange- coloured
centres) are evidence of the pest. Both the stem and
branches become cankered and bear the fructifications. The
mycelium lives in the soft bast, kills the cambium, and can
pierce to the pith along the medullary rays. The canker or
blister extends by growth around its periphery ; when its
increase is more rapid than that of the tree-stem, the latter is
encircled and killed, or the flow of sap may be so impeded
that death results. In all cases affected stems are seriously
crippled by the disease.

Amongst predisposing influences are the attacks of the
Larch Aphis {Chermes laiicls) and the Larch Mining Moth
{Coleophora laricelld).

Prevention : Careful selection of site. Avoidance of
pure woods. Thin mixture of Larch — where possible
with Beech. Where conditions are at all unfavourable to
the growth of Larch, other species should be substituted
for it.

Needle-shedding fungus, Hysterium {Lophodermium) pinastn.
Occurs to some extent upon Scots Pine of all ages, but it is
only two- to six-years-old plants that suffer severely. LTpon
the latter it comes as a dreadful scourge in some localities, for
it destroys the assimilating organs of the plants. In autumn
discoloured spots or blotches may be seen, and later the
needles turn brown and fall off. With weak plants the
disease is apt to prove fatal. It especially haunts closely
sown nursery beds, and if these be situated in the vicinity of
Pine woods the danger is intensified.

92 FORESTRY

Prevention : Spraying with Bordeaux Mixture, consisting
of sulphate of copper, lime, and water.^

Seedling fungus, Ph'^tophthora omnlvora, is the cause of
"damping off" in seedlings in the cotyledon- (seed-leaf)
stage. Beech is particularly subject to the pest, but Maples
and conifers also may be attacked. The cotyledons become
black, and die. Wet weather and close situations favour the
disease. Spores of this fungus lying in the soil, have the
faculty of maintaining their germinative power for a number
of years. It is therefore advisable to refrain for a time
from using polluted nursery ground for seed-beds, and rather
utilise it for transplants, which will not be endangered.

Various polyporus species. Polyporus vaporarius is de-
structive to Spruce and Scots Pine, converting the wood of
these trees into a mass of brown dust.

The common P. sulphureus, which gains entrance by a
wound, attacks the timber of Oaks, Poplars, Willows, and
other broad-leaved trees, causing the timber to turn brown
and dry.

P. dryddeus and P. igjiiarius are parasitic upon Oak and
other hard woods.

Oak-root fungus, Rosellinia querchm. During damp
weather, in July and August, this fungus is apt to spread very
rapidly from root to root among plants in close contact with
each other. The roots of one- and two-years-old seedling
Oaks are those which suffer. When from no apparent cause
young Oaks in seed-beds have a faded appearance, with the
leaves pale and sickly, this fungus should be suspected and
investigation made, for it is very contagious. Close inspection
reveals small black pustules upon the tap-roots of attacked
plants. Prevention of further damage consists in the prompt
removal of those infected.

Canker fungus, Nectria ditissma. Though of so frequent
occurrence upon the Beech that it has been called " beech

^ To twenty-two gallons of soft water add four pounds of copper
sulphate and eight pounds freshly slaked lime, and apply with a Knapsack
sprayer. — Tr.

FOREST PROTECTION 93

canker," Nectrta dithsima is by no means confined to that
tree, but is the common cause of canker in apple trees, Ash,
and many other broad-leaved trees.

The disease enters by a wound, and the mycelium lives in
the rind or cortex, inducing malformation and more or less
deep, unsightly, open sores.

Cankered stems should be removed in the thinnings.

Protection Against Forest Weeds

The usual definition of a weed as " a plant out of place "
is universally applicable. Under the familiar term are in-
cluded all the small growth which causes difficulty in forest
cultivation. It thus embraces various grasses, heaths, blae-
berry, bramble, raspberry, the coarser ferns, woodbine, etc.

The damage done by weeds comes under the following
heads : —

1. The roots of certain weeds give a matted surface to
the soil which may make natural regeneration impossible, and
certainly renders cultivation difficult and costly.

2. Weeds lead to an accumulation of raw humus [i.e.
vegetable matter in a dry and unassimilable form), and thus
to the diminution of the soil's productive capacity.

3. Felted fibrous roots hinder the penetration of moisture
into the soil, especially when precipitation is in a fine form.

\. Weeds impede the growth of young forest plants by
shading them, causing the air to remain for a long time moist
and stagnant about them ; they increase the danger from
frost, and frequently overlie and choke young trees.

5. They harbour injurious animals, particularly mice.

6. They are the cause of malformations, and those of
a twining habit may even strangle young trees.

The surest means of protection against weeds is by careful
management, avoiding sudden heavy thinnings, and long ex-
posure of the soil without a wood crop at the time of
regeneration, especially on the stronger classes of soil. In
affiaresting bare land, the work of soil-preparation and plant-

94 FORESTRY

ing ought to he done in a thoroughly efficient manner, even
should apparently expensive methods have to be adopted.

Protection Against Atmospheric Influences

The forest is exposed to many dangers difficult to combat,
but in respect to none is it more defenceless than against the
natural phenomena of storm, snow, frost, and drought. Yet
even in resistance to these, man has devised certain precau-
tionary measures, which, while they are not able at all times
to prevent damage being done, can frequently obviate it to
a considerable extent.

Storms. Windstorms may affect quite a limited area,
cutting out belts or strips of trees, very often only thirty or
forty yards in breadth, and leaving the rest of the forest
practically untouched ; or they may be of more general dis-
tribution. The former are erratic in the direction that they
take ; but the latter, in the west and centre of Europe, with
very few exceptions, come from the west, south-west, or
north-west. It is when gales follow immediately upon heavy
rains that have saturated the soil with water that they prove
most destructive, for the soft ground is then least able to
afford the roots support. The direct damage caused by high
wind consists in trees being " thrown," or uprooted, and in
stems being broken or snapped over at some height above the
surface of the ground. The latter form occasions the greater
loss, because the timber suffers more.

Against winds of tornado force there is no protection, and
it is fortunate that these are of extremely rare occurrence in
temperate climes. But to mitigate or to avoid calamity from
strong winds and gales, some precautionary measures are
adopted. A forest can be made more storm-firm by mixing
shallow-rooted with deep-rooted species ; trees are better
able to resist wind if regular and fairly heavy thinnings be
made, or direct shelter may be provided. A belt of trees —
the fringe of a previous wood — may be left on the sides from
which there is most fear of damage by storm. Such trees

FOREST PROTECTION 95

form a very resistant barrier to wind, having long adapted
themselves to their environment by the formation of powerful
root-fastenings. A very important measure, and one con-
stantly employed in systematic woodland management, is to
arrange the fellings into a series whereby clearings always
proceed from the east or north-east to the west or south-
west. A forest block thus treated is composed of graded
steps — the woods of different ages ; in it the oldest are found
on the east side, and the youngest on the west (see Fig. 30,

p. 138).

A shelter-belt may be produced and maintained along ex-
posed borders of woods by thinning, from youth onwards,
the fringe of say thirty to forty feet of the plantation, so that
stout, thickly branched, storm-resistant trees result. Instead
of laying bare a young wood by felling part of the forest
close beside it, from which in the past it has received pro-
tection, a severance-cutting is sometimes made. A strip of
twenty to forty yards broad is cleared from the portion that
is shortly to be utilised, in order to encourage the margin
trees of the younger wood to develop stronger root and
branch systems. When possible, severance-cuttings should be
made at right angles to the direction of the prevailing wind,
and when the woods are in the pole-forest stage of growth.

Felling operations in large even-aged forests are greatly
facilitated by these severance-cuttings.

Snow. Damp snow falling in large flakes clings to trees,
and in the case of Pine and Spruce it is apt to form one
continuous cover or layer upon the crowns of a close forest.
This, owing to its great weight, bends and breaks the trees,
the danger being increased if frost follows the snowstorm and
prolongs the period that the trees have to sustain the burden.

Evergreen conifers from twenty to sixty years old are
those which suffer most. In Germany it is found that forests
growing between 1,200 and 2,200 feet altitude are more
subject to injury than those at either greater or less elevations.

Broad-leaved forest trees are able to resist damage from
snow through being without foliage in winter ; with them

96 FORESTRY

injury is possible only when snowfall takes place unusually
early or late.

Very little can be done in defending woods against snow.
Sometimes it will be found desirable to obviate the risk by
selecting species not liable to injury ; or, instead of growing
them in pure woods, one may mix the species for which there
is fear, among resistant sorts. In the case of Scots Pine this
latter precaution is specially worthy of attention at elevations
of 600 to 1,200 feet. The Spruce may there be mixed with
the Pine in order that it may be present to fill vacancies caused
by snow-break of the latter. For the Spruce itself, this rule
hardly holds good, for it is the only species which can be
grown on a large scale in high situations of 1,300 to 3,000
feet. In such positions the lessening of damage is possible
only by the production of symmetrical, well-developed crowns
and strong growth. Careful planting, together with early and
frequent thinning, have their influence in saving the trees.
Even this treatment, however, does not prevent Spruce and
Silver Fir from losing their leaders in localities specially
subject to snow.

Against extremes of heat, drought, and cold, all rules
which tend to prevent or regulate insolation and radiation
should receive consideration. The humus covering natural
to the forest floor must be carefully conserved.

Danger from frost and drought is to be feared chiefly
during the plants' earliest youth ; natural regeneration may
therefore be necessary, for under that system the young crop
is gradually introduced under the shelter of the old. The
production of a special protection in the shape of a shelter
wood of forward growth is also applicable in extensive opera-
tions, while for work in the forest nursery, artificial shading
and covering sensitive species with branches, leaves, etc., are
of service.

Special forms of injury induced by frost and the sun's
heat are frost-crack, frost-lifting, and bark-scorching.

Frost-cracks are longitudinal fissures in the stem caused by
intense cold in winter ; starting at the bark, they reach more

FOREST PROTECTION 97

or less deeply into the wood, and may even penetrate to the
centre of the tree. Each growing season the trees make an
effort to heal the cracks ; but, as a rule, they are reopened
during the succeeding winter. " Frost-ribs " are the result
of the repeated opening and closing. This injury to the
timber, producing what is known as frost-shake, occurs most
commonly with Oak and Elm, but is met with in other
species, especially in frosty hollows.

Frost-lifting affects small plants on loose soil. It is most
common in early spring, but may occur at any time when a
very marked difference between the temperatures of day and
night brings frost and thaw alternately. Owing to crystallisa-
tion of the water present, the soil is heaved up, and seedlings
with shallow roots are raised with it ; the soil regains its
former position when mild weather sets in, but the small
plants which have been torn away from their original hold
upon the soil are not able to do so, and fall over on the
surface of the soil.

To prevent frost-lifting, avoid weeding or otherwise stirring
the surface soil of nurseries in late summer or autumn, and
provide a covering of leaves, needles, moss, or other litter
over the beds or between the plants.

Bark-scorching occurs on all species of trees which have a
smooth bark. Beech suffers most frequently, but Ash, Maple,
Sycamore, and Spruce may also be affected, when, in middle
life or as older trees, they are suddenly exposed by the
clearance of surrounding forest. Injury is generally confined
to the west side of the trees, for the hot rays of the afternoon
sun strike horizontally enough to get below the crowns. As a
result, the bark becomes excessively heated, dies, cracks, and
falls off on the side affected ; underneath the sunburned
cortex, the wood is then apt to be destroyed by a form of
dry-rot. Trees with low-branched crowns do not suffer
harm.

98 FORESTRY

CHAPTER VII
F0RE5T UTILISATION

Under Forest Utilisation are considered the harvesting, con-
version, and disposal of wood, and the transport of forest
products, so far as these actions lie within the sphere of the
forester's business. In all of the above departments, the
systems employed tend to change greatly according to time
and place ; that is to say, the uses or modes of preparation
of wood in one country may be different in another, or even
within the same country ; and the same remark applies to
the period or date of utilisation. Frequently forest products
receive partial conversion before passing out of the hands
of the forest owner, and this forms a special or independent
branch of the subject.

The Properties of Timber

Weight. The weight of wood depends upon species, age,
portion of stem being dealt with, degree of moistness, internal
form or structure, and conditions under which the timber has
been grown.

A division of our timber trees into three groups, according
to the weight of their timbers when dried, is as follows : —

Light woods, having a specific gravity of 0-55 and less :
Scots Pine, Weymouth Pine, Silver Fir, Spruce, Lime,
Poplar, Alder.

Moderate^ Jieaz'S^ having a specific gravity of 0-56 to
0-70 : Larch, Birch, Sycamore, Sweet Chestnut, Elm,
Beech.

Heavsj^ having a specific gravity over 0-70 : Acacia,
Hornbeam, Ash, Oak.

The lower portions of a stem are generally heavier than

FOREST UTILISATION 99

the middle parts, but above that again, in the crown, the
weight increases.

As a rule, the better the soil and situation, the heavier is
the timber of trees of like species and of similar age.

Distinction is made in the condition of timber, in respect
of the moisture which It contains. It is said to be " green "
when, as in the case of freshly felled trees, half of its weight
is water ; " forest-dried " timber, which has long remained in
the wood, but still contains from twenty to thirty per cent, of
moisture ; while " air-dried " timber is that which has been
long stored under cover in a dry, airy place, and contains, on
an average, ten per cent, of water.

Timbers are subject to shrinking, swelling, and warping.
Shrinkage takes place during the process of drying. As a
piece of timber parts with the water it contains, its volume
decreases ; the change is dependent on the species — hard
woods shrinking more than soft woods. It does not occur to
the same extent in all directions, but is most marked along
the annual rings, and least along the grain, i.e. lengthwise
with the vessels and wood-tibres. When the reduction in
volume proceeds unevenly cracks are produced in the timber.

If laid in water or in a damp atmosphere, wood absorbs
the moisture lost in the drying process and swells, gradually
regaining its original volume. Irregular shrinkage and swell-
ing, together with the not absolutely straight course of the
wood fibres, account for the warping of manufactured timber.
The more quickly a wood is dried, the faster does it shrink,
and the greater is the tendency to crack.

Strength. Timber has to resist strain put upon it in
different ways, but it is most important practically that it
withstand the transverse straining action, as in beams and
rafters ; and also the crushing action, as when weight is put
upon upright posts or pillars. The heavier a wood is, the
greater, as a rule, is its strength. Unsoundness and the
presence of knots or irregularity of grain affect timber most
prejudicially as regards its strength.

The order which the species take in respect to resistance

lOo FORESTRY

to transverse strain is as follows : Oak, Ash, Spruce, and
Scots Pine ; and in relation to pressure or crushing : Oak,
Beech, Acacia, Larch, Scots Pine, Spruce.

Hardness affects the working of timber chiefly in two
ways, in its cleavage (separation of the wood-fibres longi-
tudinally), and in the resistance of wood to the penetration of
the saw in the transverse direction. The straighter and
longer the fibres of the wood and the larger and more
numerous the medullary rays, the easier does a timber split
or cleave. The timber of conifers is sawn through with less
difficulty than that of broad-leaved species, and timber which
is fresh and green gives less resistance in this way than that
which is dry or frozen.

Elasticity. If wood when bent into a change of form
by the external application of force offers resistance, and
on being released, tends to resume its original shape, it
is said to have elasticity ; for example. Ash, Oak, and
Elm have this quality in a marked degree. Flexible wood
is different from this ; it retains its new shape after the
pressure is removed, but will not break as brittle timber
does. Birch, Aspen, Poplar, Spruce, and Hickory are
flexible woods.

Durability. The durability of timber depends greatly
upon the treatment it receives and the use to which it is
put. Decomposition is most active when, by frequent changes
from a wet state to a dry one, unprotected wood allows the
entrance of fungi and insects. Wood well dried and
thoroughly seasoned, or that which is completely submerged
in water, remains sound exceptionally long. Faulty venti-
lation, especially of imperfectly seasoned wood, or where
wood comes in contact with the soil, leads to rapid decay.
The lasting qualities of timber are much affected by the soil
and situation where the trees are grown ; careful choice of
species should therefore be made at the time of forming
' plantations. All that tends to the production of clean,
healthy trees favours the durability of the timber.

The preservation of timber can be brought about by treat-

FOREST UTILISATION loi

ing it with antiseptic substances, such as carboKneum, sulphate
of copper, corrosive sublimate, or creosote. As a rule,
heavy woods are also durable, but Beech, which quickly
decays on exposure to the weather, forms an exception.

Heating power. There is at present no satisfactory measure
for testing heat-values. The calorimeter, which is used for
the purpose, is not of practical utility, for it does not take
sufficiently into account the quick development of heat by
coniferous woods compared to the slow, equal fire of Beech
wood burning with little smoke.

Defects in Timber

The more important of the fungoid diseases causing decay
in wood have already been mentioned. Of other defects, one
deserving notice, as affecting sound wood, is the reddening or
^^ false heartzcood^^ of Beech. This discolouration in the
neighbourhood of a wound, very often at a broken branch, is
due to a change in the construction of the cells, and is an
effort to prevent the entrance of spore-containing water into
the tree. The timber is rendered unfit for many purposes.

The blueJiess sometimes seen in summer on coniferous
timber that has lain long without drying sufficiently is caused
by a fungus, Ceratostoma pUiferum. According to the most
recent investigations, it appears that this is only a blemish as
regards appearance, and that it does not in any way harm the
timber's strength, weight, or other qualities.

Of defects occurring in sound wood, the following are
those of most consequence : —

Heart-shake cracks, or rents proceeding from the pith
radially, are generally the result of rapid drying of the
timber. Frost-rib and frost-crack have been dealt with in
a previous paragraph under "frost." Ring-shake is a separa-
tion of the tissues along the line of an annual ring. It may
be caused by a sudden acceleration in the growth of a tree,
when, for instance, a Silver Fir which has long been kept
under shade is suddenly given full liberty of light.

Abnormal direction of fibres. Common forms of this are

102

FORESTRY

spiral grozvth, zcaz'y icood, and bu?Ts. In the first of these the
direction of the fibres is spiral to the stem's axis ; burrs
result from the incomplete development of clusters of ad-
ventitious buds ; in some woods [e.g. American Bird's-eye
Maple) they are of much beauty.

Loose knots are the remains of dead branches which have
been gradually embraced by the stem during growth in thick-
ness. Though enclosed in the wood they are not incorporated
by it, and considerably lower the value of sawn-up timber.
Knots of this kind are apt to occur in conifers, especially
Spruce.

The Harvesting of Timber

It is usual throughout Germany and Austria (with the ex-
ception of the mountainous districts) for the owner of a forest
to engage the labour necessary for harvesting the timber crop.
Only very rarely is this work given over to the employees of
timber merchants. So far as possible local labour is em-
ployed. In this way the system of small holdings suits well
in conjunction with forests held by the State, or proprietors
owning large tracts. Most forest work is done at seasons ot
the year when there is least necessity for attendance on small
farms. Especially is this the case with fellings, which are
best carried out in winter, when the agricultural occupations
of the crofter reach their lowest ebb. But if such workmen
are not available, others, probably less keenly interested in
woodcraft, must be engaged.

To secure a sufficient number of good men, it is essential
above all to pay a fair wage and provide adequate housing
accommodation, in bothies or otherwise, for the staff. At
the same time, this is an item of expenditure that may easily
exceed the limits of profitable management, and must be kept
strictly within bounds.

It is usual to divide the number of woodcutters into gangs,
and to apportion to them work in keeping with their skill
and experience. Each gang should have its foreman-worker,
who is held responsible for the behaviour of the rest.

FOREST UTILISATION 103

The work of felling may be conveniently done by contract
(piecework) according to fixed standards. For specially
difficult operations it is advisable to pay day's wages. If
the timber, when felled, must be dragged to depots or into
lots, an additional sum to that for cutting alone should be
allowed. When the workers' engagement may be broken
at a day's notice, and when payment is reckoned by the piece,
it ought to be borne in mind that the operation is subject to
interruption through unfavourable weather, and a somewhat
higher rate than that current locally for agricultural labour
may require to be paid.

The usual and most suitable season for the main fellings is
winter ; where the bark is desired from Oak, cuttings are
carried out after the period of active vegetation has set in —
that is to say, in spring. Trees from very marshy land should
be felled and extracted during severe frost ; often it is at such
times only that Alder clumps can be approached. Thinnings
or other intermediate cuttings allow of the widest choice as
regards season of felling ; indeed, they may be undertaken
when there is nothing else to afford the woodcutters em-
ployment.

In felling trees the axe is generally used conjointly with
the saw ; first a deep notch is hewn out with the axe upon
the side to which it is desired that the tree should fall, then
from the side opposite to this the saw is entered and the
stem cut through. Wedges, either of wood or iron, follow
the saw to ease it and to guide the felling direction more pre-
cisely. For smaller stems the axe alone is used, and slender
young growth may be cut over with the bill-hook.

Trees may be felled " by the root " — that is to say, the
larger roots, laid bare by digging, are cut through, and at the
same time, with ropes, cables, or the help of the " forest
devil," the -stem is drawn over and falls to the ground ;
weaker stems may be pressed over with a pole after severing
the roots. The felling of trees in this manner has much to
recommend it ; it permits of the fullest use being made
of the whole tree, and it is the surest way of giving the

I04 FORESTRY

proper direction to the fall. For the removal of trees from
very stony ground the method is quite unsuitable.

The tree being felled, the stem is freed from branches,
and the material is duly assorted. Timber is kept distinct
from firewood, and the former is arranged according to
species, size, quality, etc. It should be suitably lotted into
logs, butts, poles, pit-props, bark for tanning purposes, and so
forth. Dimensions of the various classes of each vary much
in different districts, but a great deal of importance should
be attached to proper lotting. Short timber lengths can
be arranged as firewood, stavewood, wood for paper-pulp
manufacture, or as its particular nature and the demands of
the market suggest. Cordwood is either put up in stacks
and its cubic contents measured, or it is bound in faggots of
a predetermined size.

The method adopted to clear the felling area depends upon
the size of the material and local conditions.

It is very convenient to gather the timber into a forest
depot, though very heavy logs are usually taken delivery of
directly by the purchaser. The means of removal may be
by carrying the smaller material by hand or on barrows, but
more frequently carts, timber wagons, and sledges are em-
ployed, or the logs brought together by dragging or sliding.
Any timber converted in the forest — fuel-wood and poles —
should be arranged immediately beside the nearest roads or
rides. Billets may be conveniently piled in stacks of four
or five feet high, each pile containing a known number of
cubic feet. Special regard must be paid to the assortment
of the logs, which are generally sold in small lots of even
character — species, size, and quality being taken into account.

Where proper care is exercised, each lot is measured and
receives its sale number. A catalogue is then prepared
showing, opposite to each number, the length, middle diameter,
and volume contents. Without this, valuation and exact ac-
counting are impossible. Revolving die-hammers are useful
in marking and numbering the lots, though this may also be
done by hand.

FOREST UTILISATION 105

Minor Products of the Forest

All forest products other than timber and wood come
under the term minor produce. The most important article
included in the latter category is bark — the bark of Oak,
and though to a very much less extent, that of Spruce and
Larch. Bark is collected for the tannin which it contains, but
its price has fallen considerably of recent years owing to the
more extended use of substitutes, among which Quebracho
wood from South America may be mentioned.

Oak coppice bark (smooth or silver bark) provides the
best material for tanning, being much preferred to the fissured
and more corky bark from older stems.

The bark from the lower portions is most easily removed
while the tree is still standing ; when all has been peeled
from the base to a height that can be conveniently reached,
the tree is felled and the bark from the upper parts is taken.

The operation of peeling is carried out generally in May ;
special instruments — the most important of which is the
peeling-scalpel or barking-iron — being used. Mallets for
beating and loosening the bark, chisels, etc., are also em-
ployed. The bark is easily injured by rain, and the speedier
and more thoroughly the drying process can be effected, the
better are the results. Airy sheds or mere temporary erec-
tions, such as iron sheeting, or tarpaulins, are made use of, or
simple frames and trestles can be employed to allow free
circulation of air about the bark, and thus hasten the drying.

Spruce and Silver Fir, if felled in summer, should have
their bark removed to prevent the spread of injurious insects,
which make such stems their breeding places. The bark
thus obtained, if not valued for tanning purposes, may be of
use as fuel.

The soil-covering of the forest, consisting of fallen leaves,
twigs, and so forth, in process of decomposition, is often
much valued by the agriculturist, who applies it as manure
to his fields. This litter sometimes requires to be disturbed,
as, for instance, in hoeing it aside from strips in prepara-

io6 FORESTRY

tion for reproduction by seed, or from roads and ditches
where it has accumulated. In such cases its removal is
quite justifiable ; but the frequent systematic abstraction of
this natural fertiliser should not be permitted. Much of the
mineral matter which a tree takes from the soil it stores in its
leaves, which in turn are shed, and in course of time form
first a mulch upon the surface, and later rich, black earth.
Should the leaves or the leaf mould be removed, there is a
distinct loss, and the soil suffers both in its chemical and
physical qualities. No tree suffers so much by the removal
of forest litter as the Beech — the very tree whose leaves are
most attractive to cottars and small holders.

The gathering of dead wood and pruned branches is quite
a different matter, and does no harm ; while clearing away
heather, grass, and similar growth from open places, rides,
and fire lines, may even be of service, especially in reducing
the risk of fire.

Naturally enough, the extent of the damage wrought by
the removal of leaf litter depends very much on the length
of time allowed the forest to recuperate. Should the ex-
traction be made annually or biennially, a marked decrease in
timber production quickly results. To revisit a forest for
this purpose once in six years is as often as is permissible.
When the litter is allowed to collect for ten years, woods in
middle age and those approaching maturity are not injured
appreciably except on the poorest situations. In any case,
only the mere surface material should be taken, and the work
ought to be under the immediate control of the proprietor.
Under adverse conditions of growth the removal of forest
litter should be most strictly forbidden.

Another source of revenue secured in many forests lies in
the collection of seeds and fruits, more especially seeds to
supply trade nurseries. The crop of seed obtainable varies
in amount in different years, being full, moderate, or even
wholly wanting, as the case may be. An abundant " seed-
year " occurs only at long intervals with Oak and Beech,
Spruce frequently proves unsatisfactory, whereas Hornbeam,

FOREST UTILISATION 107

Birch, and Alder bear practically every alternate year ; Scots
Pine and Silver Fir have full crops every third or fourth
year, though their periodicity is not so regular as with Oak
and Beech.

Certain seeds must be collected before they fall to the
ground — Silver Fir, Spruce, Scots Pine, Hornbeam, Syca-
more, Lime, and Acacia. The seeds or fruits of other
trees may be gathered after being naturally shed ; this plan
is invariably adopted with acorns and beech nuts. With
Elm, Ash, Birch, Alder, Maple, and Sycamore the seed is
either taken direct from the boughs, or the twigs are picked
off and subsequently stripped.

The once almost universal practice of feeding pigs on mast
in Oak and Beech woods has nearly ceased to exist. From
the forester's point of view the absence of these animals is
rather regrettable, for they did good work in turning over the
soil and devouring injurious insects.

The use of the forest during certain periods for grazing
purposes has become more and more restricted in recent
times, and the cutting of grass ought to be kept strictly
under the control of the woodland owners.

Peat need only be referred to as a commodity frequently
used as fuel by the people employed in the forest, though much
of it, not well adapted for burning, can be profitably utilised
as moss litter, while even the dusty residue is used in stables
and auction marts on account of its disinfectant properties.

Formerly resin-tapping obtained extensively in the coniferous
forests of Germany ; the practice has been discontinued in
that country, but in France resin-tapping gives rise to an
important industry.

Fallen branches for fuel, berries, and edible fungi can
considerably benefit the industrious poor, but are without
value to the proprietor.

In certain parts some return is obtained from such by-
products as sand, gravel, stones, etc. ; the value of these
materials is, of course, entirely dependent on local circum-
stances.

io8 FORESTRY

Disposal and Sale of Forest Products

In some parts of the country the practice is to sell whole
plantations as they stand, thus leaving the work of felling for
the purchaser to carry out. But this system is not common
for large timber as distinct from coppice. As a rule, the
crop is felled before being sold, though with species and sizes
for which there is only a limited outlet, offers may be taken
before felling operations are commenced, so that if there be
little or no demand the wood need not be sacrificed, but
can remain standing, or other means may be sought for its
disposal.

Much of the success of a timber sale depends upon the
way in which the material has been brought together. This
having received every attention according to the requirements
of the market, the timber is advertised for sale. If sold by
public auction, it is disposed of to the highest bidder after a
system of increased bids — the purchasers outbidding each
other. In some countries (France, Holland, Alsace-
Lorraine) the mode of bidding is contrary to that common
in Britain. There, what is called Dutch auction is preferred ;
the auctioneer, beginning at a very high figure, gradually
reduces the amount asked, and the first to make a bid becomes
the purchaser — his being the highest offer. Sales may also
be by private tender, whereby the seller usually receives a
number of offers from which he makes a selection. A less
common system is to sell the timber at a fixed price on a
more or less permanent contract or according to a stipulated
rate.

Minor forest produce may also be sold in all the ways just
mentioned. To grant a portion of such material in payment
for its collection and preparation is often an advantage to both
the forest owner and the workman. In the disposal of
timber the aim is, by means of competition amongst pur-
chasers, to get the highest price possible ; but with minor
produce other considerations may require attention, making it
difficult to extract the full financial value. For instance, the

FOREST UTILISATION 109

weeding out of undesirable trees from very young woods may
not be directly remunerative, though highly beneficial to the
growing crop.

The purchase price is frequently paid immediately after a
sale by auction, in which case discount is allowed ; more
usually a deposit is made and security given for the remaining
sum payable within a stated time. In the conditions of sale
a date should be fixed to limit the time given to the purchaser
for the removal of the timber.

Transport of Forest Products

The removal of the produce is commonly undertaken by
the forest owner's workpeople or those employed by his
agents. Transport may be by water or by land, the topography
of the country most generally controlling the choice. In both
cases the methods vary according to the conditions met with
locally.

Water Transport. In early times, rivers, even with but
small preparation to regulate their flow, were much used for
carrying down short pieces of timber and split billets — these
being simply thrown into the water and allowed to drift.
The loss of a portion of the material through stranding,
theft, and sinking from becoming saturated with water, could
not well be obviated, but as good public roads did not exist,
there was scarcely an alternative. In districts where suit-
able conditions prevail, particularly in mountainous parts, the
floating of wood (firewood especially) is practised at the
present time. For successful work, a considerable fall in
the stream is requisite — only then can the wood be expected
to proceed downward with sufliicient ease, and without undue
loss in time and material.

Dams constructed in order to collect a sufficient head of
water to carry down any large quantity of wood are usually
necessary. Wood about to be transported is gathered
together in the bed of the stream, and on the banks below
the dam. All being in readiness, the sluices are opened and

no FORESTRY

the wood is launched into the flood as quickly as possible.
By one or more of these rushes of water the material is
brought to its destination, where, with the aid of booms^ its
onward course is intercepted. Booms (bars which extend
across stream) are erected at the collecting basin ; some forms
act by diverting the floating wood ; others, by stopping it
entirely.

On the middle and lower reaches of rivers, and on canals
and lakes, the transport of long logs fastened together in the
form of rafts is very general. According to the character of
the waterway and the size of the timber, a number of logs
are fastened together into so-called raft sections. Each
section consists of six to ten logs as a rule ; where circum-
stances permit, several of these are coupled together, and may
form rafts of considerable length.

Transport by Land. Roads within the forest area are
necessary for the carriage of produce, and for communication
through the woods. Nothing conduces more surely to the
economical management of a forest than an efficient system
of roads. A distinction may be drawn between roads which
are used only for the extraction of timber (and to facilitate
sport) and public roads which can be made use of by the
forest proprietor for timber transport.

Apart from forest rides and paths, timber-slides, both
" dry " and " wet," sleepered sledge-roads, and forest tram-
ways have their particular merits. The means of transport
should always receive the most careful consideration, and all
aspects of the matter ought to be looked at before any decision
is made. Neglect is poor economy.

For ordinary traffic the plain turf road frequently suffices ;
in its case, attention to drainage is the main consideration.
Where the ground tends to be wet a fairly firm track can be
made by laying short logs, poles or sleepers packed closely
together crosswise over the line of road. Such tracks are
known in some parts as corduroy roads.

For the most precipitous places the so-called " wire-
tramway " is employed. It consists of a cable, or very

FOREST UTILISATION in

strong wire, that is stretched from the side of a valley into
the depth below. To the cable the logs are suspended by
chains, while wheels running on the cable are the means of
lowering the timber.

Timber-slides and Sledge-roads are formed for the re-
moval of wood from high-lying ground down to lower land.
They should be provided with such a declivity that little
or no force need be used to bring the produce down —
gravitation being relied upon for its transmission. The
work of the men in charge is then reduced to setting the
timber in motion, guiding its course, or, in the case of sledges,
occasionally moderating the speed and steering.

The best gradient depends on the character of the path ;
a prepared snow or ice path does well, with a fall of 8 in
I oo feet ; without snow (earth slide) ten to eighteen per cent,
is necessary. When pieces of wood have been laid on the
sides of the sliding track to prevent the logs from leaving it,
fifteen to eighteen per cent, is usual ; while for use only over
snow in winter the same type of slide should have a gradient
of ten -to twelve per cent.

A special kind of timber-slide is a prepared channel made
from six or eight logs or poles arranged together laterally in
the form of a trough. Much wood is, of course, necessary
for the construction and maintenance of the wooden timber-
slide. Down such channels timber travels by its own weight.
Slides of this description are used both in summer and winter.
When the presence of snow during a lengthened period is
assured, and the intention is to employ the slide in winter,
the declivity ought to be only about half of that for a slide
used in summer. In the former case, for long timber the fall
should be eight to ten per cent., for shorter logs ten to fifteen
per cent. ; and for those in summer transport, fifteen to twenty
per cent, and twenty-five to thirty per cent, respectively.
Short sliding tracks or skidways often serve to bring the
produce down out of the woods, depositing it at the nearest
road, where the further conveyance of the timber is under-
taken by carts, timber-wagons, jankers, etc. Where the

112 FORESTRY

state of the roads admits, the traction engine with wagons
usually works most economically. In Germany the four-
wheeled timber-cart is largely employed for transport ; it has
an advantage in that the front and back portions may be
detached and placed at either end of very long logs. When
this is done, the front pair of wheels bears the butt ends above,
while the back wheels support the upper parts, hanging from
the axle as a rule.

Reference must also be made to forest tramways, or light
railways. These are usually in part fixed or permanent,
leading to regular railway lines or sawmills, and in part
portable. They are of narrow gauge, and the movable por-
tion consists of sections of twelve to fifteen feet in length,
a size which admits of ready shifting to the felling areas and
even to individual stems. In addition to their usefulness in
carrying timber, light railways are often of much aid in the
construction of ordinary roads, conveying sand, gravel, stones,
etc., cheaply and with expedition. To be remunerative,
however, the permanent line must have an assured traffic of
large quantities of material. Considerable capital is neces-
sarily sunk in the enterprise, and only rarely is it satisfactory.
In mountainous districts the difficulty of obtaining suitable
gradients renders permanent tramways impracticable ; and
among the lower hills, and in level country, roads are generally
available, and lead in more divergent directions than the fixed
railway can be expected to take. It is different with the
portable form of railway ; especially where a timber-growing
district is sparsely populated, the narrow-gauge line will be
found serviceable and economical. The short sections may
have a gauge of eighteen to twenty-four inches ; they are
easily carried by one man, and are connected without the
slightest difficulty. They adapt themselves readily to the
slope and surface of the land, so that very little preliminary
preparation is required.

Of roads used for general traffic, the best are the mac-
adamised. They are much to be preferred to the causeway,
another permanent form of highway. Roads of less im-

FOREST UTILISATION 113

portance may need only to be formed of coarse gravel bound
together with a little clay, sand, or peaty earth, as the
foundation may require. The drawback to poorly con-
structed roads is that it is impossible to use them in any but
the driest weather in summer, and in time of frost in
winter. Carting over them at other seasons soon renders
them impassable, so that their utility is obviously restricted.

Occasionally forest material has to be taken across low,
marshy land, and then the fascine road or path proves useful
It consists of bound bundles of branchwood laid horizontally;
sods of grass or heather make a suitable covering to the
fascines.

When tracks are required only for temporary use, as, for
example, in the clearing of a recently felled area, the only
preparation generally given is the removal of a few awkwardly
lying stumps of trees. Thus, while the more important
forest roads are practically as well made as public highways,
others of more occasional utility need be of only the simplest
construction. The latter can be much more steep and have
sharper curves than are permissible on the main roads.
Whereas the maximum gradient for public roads should not
exceed five or six per cent., that for forest roads may be
seven per cent, or more. Auxiliary roads and tracks may
have a fall of ten per cent, where the traffic with laden carts
is only downhill.

The length of the timber to be removed often regulates
the degree of abruptness of a road's turnings. For short
pieces a minimum radius of twelve yards is sufficient, while
for the removal of long logs it must not be less than thirty to
forty yards. At the time of a road's formation insufficient
attention is apt to be given to the matter of suitable curves.
Especially is there a tendency to curtail these, to an incon-
venient extent, when there is no immediate prospect of an
output of lengthy timber ; a word of caution to the engineer is
therefore necessary, so that he may allow sufficiently for the
future growth of the forest. Much forethought is necessary in
laying down the whole system of roadways and intersecting

114 FORESTRY

rides. Too often present convenience influences a manager's
choice to the prejudice of permanent efficiency. Regard
must be paid not only to the transport of the harvested
material, but also to matters of forest management connected
with the proper division of the area. The aim should be to
extract the produce in the most direct manner consistent with
a low expenditure in money, time, and labour ; but along with
this to give consideration to the interests of the growing
stock.

CHAPTER VIII

FOREST MANAGEMENT

For the economic management of the forest, it is necessary
to ascertain its possible permanent yield, and in order to treat
the woods systematically, operations must proceed according
to a definite plan. The work in connection with forest
management embraces : (i) The survey and division of the
area, and the projection of the same on a map or maps ;
calculation of the volume contents, and the increment or
rate of growth ; and a detailed description of the woods.
(2) The scheme of management : determination of the future
treatment of the wooded area, selection of species and length
of rotation, calculation of the yield — in short, the preparation
of what is called a "Working Plan." (3) The guidance
towards fulfilment of the work indicated in the plan.

Survey and Division of Forests

There must, in the first instance, be a partition of very
large tracts of forest into conservancies, ranges, and inspection
areas. These are further considered in their individual parts
as blocks, compartments, and subdivisions. The compartment

FOREST MANAGEMENT 115

may be called the unit of division as regards management ;
in extensive forests its area is often fifty or sixty acres, but
it may be much less. In level country a system of cleared
lines, forming a rectangular network of roads, serves to
separate compartments. These divisional lines are also
generally useful as providing means of communication be-
tween the various parts of the forest, and as defence lines
against forest fires ; they usually run directly from north to
south, and from east to west. In forming compartments, due
regard must be paid to roads already existent, so as to avoid
awkwardly shaped areas.

Amongst the hills, roads and paths, supplemented by rides,
provide a convenient means of division, as do ridges, valleys,
and watercourses, where advantage can be taken of them.
In hilly districts it is especially necessary to give consideration
to the proper arrangement of the Felling Series at the time
of fixing the divisions of the forest.

Within the limits of one compartment there may be many
differences as regards the species, age, and condition of the
woods, and these should be noted in the survey — at least, if
over half an acre in extent. In future management such
irregularities ought to be eliminated as far as possible.

Frequently a forest district is divided into a series of blocks.
Natural boundaries, as a rule, form the limits of the block,
because the progression of fellings and, indeed, the regenera-
tion of the areas and general facilities for control are de-
pendent largely on local topography. Such blocks often
have considerable significance when they form the primary
divisions of a conservancy. Independent series of fellings
may be arranged for them, and each can with advantage be
placed under the supervision of one responsible forester.

The " working section " is another management-division,
the usefulness of which will be explained later. When a
conservancy is in the hands of more than one proprietor, the
boundaries of the working sections generally correspond with
those of the several estates. Still, even with the land in the
ownership of a single party, the presence of dissimilar species

ii6

FORESTRY

or divergent systems of treatment often makes it advisable to
fix different felling ages (j-otations)^ and each of these necessi-
tates a working section.

Measurement of Felled and Standing- Trees,
and Determination of Increment

Instruments used. A large number of instruments have
been devised to aid the forester in taking the measurement of
trees. A few of these must be described and their utility-
explained.

The Calliper (Fig. 21) is employed to find the diameter

FIG. 21. CALLIPER

r. Rule.
7n. Movable arm.
_f. Fixed arm.

of the stem. It is constructed in a variety of forms, and has
long been in use for many purposes. In forest mensuration
callipers are of greatest value, though as yet they have found
little favour in Britain, chiefly because ocular measurements
and rough approximate estimates have been very generally
considered to be sufficient. The instrument consists of a
rule having a scale upon it graduated conveniently in inches

FOREST MANAGEMENT

117

and tenths. Upon the rule and at right-angles to it are two
arms — one, placed at the end, being fixed, while the other
is movable. The movable arm is slid along the rule
until the object which it is desired to measure is clasped
between it and the fixed arm, when the diameter can at once
be read from the main bar of the instrument (Fig. 22).

Callipers are usually from three to four feet long, with the
arms about half the length of the rule. They are generally
made of wood, though aluminium is also suitable. The con-
struction of Heyer's calliper is shown at Fig. 23 ; the

FIG. 22 FIG. 23

a. Movable arm. b. Graduated rule. c. Metal wedge, d. Screw.

rule b is seen to have the form of a trapezium in cross-
section ; the wedge c is of metal and is attached to a screw
d, which may be moved backward and forward to counteract
the influences of swelling and shrinkage due to the wetting
and drying of the wood.

For measuring the diameter-increment of standing trees
Pressler's Increment ^orer (Fig. 24.) is used. It consists
essentially of three parts : (i) a hollow boring tube which is
slightly conical towards the point ; (2) the handle, which,
being hollow, accommodates the other parts of the instni-

ii8

FORESTRY

ment when not in use ; and (3) the wedge-needle, which is
toothed on one side, to press and hold fast the little cylinder of
wood when breaking it from the body of the stem. On the

FIG. 24

pressler's increment borer

a. Hollow metal handle.

b. Boring tube.

c. Wedge-needle with scale.

d. Wedge-needle showing

toothed edge.

reverse side the wedge-needle bears a scale for measurement.

In using the instrument the auger-like borer is made to
enter the stem in as radial a direction as possible, i.e. at right-
angles to the axis of the tree. At first the boring should
proceed slowly, later at any desired speed, until the instru-
ment has entered deeply enough. The wedge-needle is then
carefully inserted between the side of the boring tube and the
wood within. A turn of the handle backward is given in
order to detach the cylinder of wood at its further end,
and with the toothed needle the little column of wood is
drawn out. The latter shows along its length the annual
rings of the stem ; these rings are measured, and the rate
of increase computed. The instrument is thus of assistance
in deciding whether or not the trees have arrived at their
financial maturity.

In height measurement the geometric method is often
adopted ; it rests upon the theory of similar triangles.
Referring to Fig. 25, a vertical staff is placed in the ground
at some distance (6 to 8 feet) from the eye (D) of the
observer. The staff forms a line parallel with the stem of
the tree, and the rays or lines of vision to the top and foot

FOREST MANAGEMENT 119

of the stem cross it at b and a. The ray DC is horizontal.
Taking the measurement of the distances from the observer

FIG. 25

to the staff and to the tree, the height can be obtained by the
formula —

ba X DC •

H =

Faustmann' s H'^psometer^ or height measurer, is shown in
Fig. 26. With it a tree's height can be ascertained from
any convenient position from the stem, provided one can see
from it both the top and the base of the tree. The distance
from the observer to the base of the tree is measured, and the
vertical scale (^, e) is adjusted accordingly. Then, sighting
through a and b to the tree top, the pendulum (S), with the
plumb-line resting on the horizontal scale, gives the height
plus or minus the difference in level between the eye of the
observer and the foot of the tree. This latter point is
quickly decided by sighting to the tree's base, and adding or
subtracting according as the result indicates.

FORESTRY

FIG. 26
A BCD. Rectangular frame.

E. Foldingmirror to reflect scale and plumb-line.
Plumb-line.
Eye-piece.

The objective — a cross wire used in sighting.
Vertical scale adjusted to distance from object.
Horizontalor marginal rule upon which is
shown height of tree.

Weise's Hypsometer (Fig. 27) is constructed on exactly the
same principle. It is even handier than Faustmann's instru-
ment, though both are simple and reliable. Sighting is here
effected through a metal tube, on the side of which is fastened
a toothed scale, upon which the plumb-line indicates the
height. The units of distance from the observer to the base
of the tree must be shown upon a second scale — that which
has its position at right-angles to the "height scale" —
before the operator commences' sighting.

In order to ascertain the condition of a wood, it is necessary
to take into consideration the growing stock, its age and in-
crement, and the quality of the locality {i.e. soil and situation).

FOREST MANAGEMENT

t2t

FIG. 27

Stem measurement. The cubic contents of the stem of a
single felled tree are determined accurately enough for
ordinary purposes by multi-
plying the middle sectional
area by the length. At a
point taken by measure-
ment half-way along the
stem, the diameter is found
— most conveniently by
callipers. The area of the
cross-section is then calcu-
lated (obtained by squaring
the radius and multiplying
the result by 3-14) and the
result multiplied by the
length of the stem. Speci-
ally prepared tables may be used to accelerate the operation.

In Britain the practice is materially different, the quarter-
girth system being in vogue. By it the length is multiplied
by the square of the mean quarter-girth. Thus a tree
32 feet long, having an average circumference under bark
of 44 inches, is calculated as

1 1 2 X ~ — =27 cubic feet.

This is often supposed to give the actual cubic contents,
whereas the result thus obtained is about one-fifth less than
the actual volume. To state it otherwise, timber reckoned
by quarter-girth measurement to have a volume of 100 cubic
feet contains in reality about 125 cubic feet. The difference
is understood to equalise itself in the price obtained, and that
the surplus allowed to the purchaser provides for loss and
waste in squaring the stem. Only the force of custom,
however, can defend the use of such an incorrect system.

For scientific investigation the stem is measured as though
divided into short sections — say, 6 feet in length. The
diameter is taken at the middle of each piece, thus at 3 feet,

122

FORESTRY

9 feet, I 5 feet, etc., along the stem. The volume of each
piece is calculated as the product of the middle sectional area
multiplied by the length. All the volumes added together
give the total contents of the stem. The topmost portion is
measured apart from the rest of the stem as partaking of the
nature of branchwood.

Measurement of a standing tree. The volume of a standing
tree for any given species and age may be found by means of
form-factors^ (factors of shape). First of all, the diameter of a
tree should always be taken at breast height, or, to be exact,
at 4 feet 3 inches from the ground. The diameter being
taken at this point, the area of a cross-section is found, and the
tree's height measured. The volume is then the product of j"
(area of the cross-section) x /' (height) x/' (form-factor). By

form-factor is understood the quotient

where v is the

J- X //

volume of a stem or of a whole wood, and s and h are as

before. A form-factor represents
the relation of the tree's volume
to the volume of a cylinder whose
basal area is the same as the area
of a cross-section of the stem at
4 feet 3 inches from the ground,
and whose height equals the total
height of the tree. The principle
is illustrated in Fig. 28.

Of the various methods by
which the present volume of a
wood may be ascertained, form-
factors and volume tables are
most generally employed. In
using form-factors, all the trees
in the wood are callipered at

■* In Germany three kinds of form-factors are recognised : Tree
form-factor [Baumformzahl), representing all wood upon the tree.
Timber form-factor {Derbholzfo7nvzahl)=^a\\ timber having a diameter
of over 7 cm. (nearly 3 inches). Stem form-factor {Schaftfoi-m-z.ahl) =
timber over 7 cm. upon the stem only.

FIG. 28

FOREST MANAGEMENT

12-

breast height, thereby finding the diameter. From special tables
giving the areas of circular surfaces of known diameter ready
calculated, the contents of all transverse sections of the several
trees are found. By the addition of these sums the sectional
area S of the wood is obtained. The average height H is
found by measuring a considerable number of trees. From
tables prepared from averages, the form-factor F is obtained.
The contents of the wood are then as V = SxHxF.

When volume tables are used, the trees are callipered and
the number of stems in each diameter class is found. The
diameter classes are generally made to differ from each other
by gradations ot 2 inches; thus all stems of 10 inches are
arranged together, then 12, 14, 16 inches. The mean
height of trees of the several diameters is then taken. On
finely squared paper the heights are shown graphically as
ordinates, and with the respective diameters as abscissas a
"height-curve" is drawn. Fig. 29 gives one of these

Vfl&ciii

'M)

— c

-S^^'

1
I

id u Id 3J Xd hS ^ SS ^annVmc.
FIG. 20

curves. In the figure the heights are shown in metres
( = 39 inches), and the diameters in centimetres ( = -39 of
an inch), but it is similar when expressed in feet and inches.
Such a curve being constructed, one may read from it the
average height ot trees of every diameter. The age does
not require to be more than approximately estimated. The
volume of each diameter class is found by the multiplication

124 FORESTRY

of the number of stems by the volume of a single stem of
the respective diameter and height. The individual contents
are obtained from prepared volume tables. By addition of
the volumes of the several classes, the volume of the whole
wood is found.

Where conditions make it unsuitable to make use of the
two methods just described, Draudt's treatment may recom-
mend itself. By it a certain proportion of the stems of each
diameter class are felled as sample trees. The basal area
(sectional area) is measured as explained above, both for the
whole wood and for each sample tree. The volume of the
wood, V, is then obtained by multiplying the volume of the
sample trees, v, by the quotient of the standing crop's basal
area, and dividing by the sample trees' basal area —

V = f '— .
s

The volume of the sample trees is usually reckoned from

the middle sectional area multiplied by length of stem.

Smaller split timber, as distinct from whole stems or logs,

is arranged in stacked measure, and to find its cubic contents

reducing factors must be employed. These are coefficients,

representing the proportion of actual wood to the space

occupied in the heaps. The converting factor -7 may be

accepted for stacked timber, and -2 for branchwood, when

estimating these in solid cubic feet. By Draudt's method an

advantage is gained in that the volume of the timber is

calculated in assortments in which it may be sold. Should

the prices obtainable be known, the total value of the forest

can at once be ascertained. To find this, it is only necessary

to replace v by the quantities of the respective assortments,

S
and to multiply by -.

The best way of taking the age of a wood is to count the
number of annual rings upon the stool of a felled tree, adding
two to three years to the average age, the first few years'
growth not being always visible on the stool.

FOREST MANAGEMENT 125

Increment

In order to determine the rate of accretion of a given
wood from the date of measurement to the time when felling
will take place, either the system of increment percentages or
that o^ yield tables is adopted. The former is most useful
when it is wished to determine the increment for a short
period only, say ten years ; for longer periods than this the
latter is more applicable.

Of the various formulae for ascertaining the rate of incre-
ment, that of Schneider is the simplest. It is expressed as

/ = -±^.
ny. d

The numerator 400 is here a " constant," which in the
case of vigorously growing woods must be increased to 500
or 600 ; d is the actual diameter in centimetres without bark,
and n is the number of annual rings in the outermost
centimetre of the stem — measurement being taken at breast
height, and usually with the help of Pressler's increment borer.

Yield tables show the progression of a wood's growth per
acre by giving the volume of the trees forming the principal
part of the crop, the returns from thinnings, and the factors
which determ.ine the volume (height, number of stems, basal
area). They are founded upon a careful collection of statistics
regarding the important species. In the tables the latter are
arranged according to the quality of the locality, most usually
into live classes — I. denoting the best, and V. the poorest
condition.

The term " quality of locality " signifies the yield capacity
of the situation — the timber volume which under proper
management and without accident a crop of trees is able to
produce. Height growth gives the surest indication of the
quality of the locality. Under ordinary circumstances, there-
fore, it is sufficient merely to find the average height and age
of the trees in order to assign the wood to its suitable class.

126 FORESTRY

For the application of yield tables the composition of a
wood comes into consideration along with the examination of
the locality. One has to decide in how far a wood differs
from the perfect, or, as it is called, " normal " state, it being
understood in economic forestry that the forest is in a normal
condition when the crop is so complete that it preserves all
over the area an unbroken cover. In reality, woods never
quite attain to this degree of perfection, which, however,
is frequently taken as the standard = i , and the divergence
from it is expressed in decimal fractions. To be normal,
the canopy of the whole wood must be so perfect that
absolutely no direct sunlight can reach the forest floor. As
such woods — at least, of light-demanding species — do not
exist, the wood's condition may be more precisely deter-
mined by a comparison with the " normal " state given in the
yield tables.

If the quality of a locality be known, and the age of the
wood, one may, by means of yield tables, estimate what
quantity of timber can be produced on such an area, during
any given period of years.

The amount of the increase in volume duly arrived at, it
is easy to calculate the mean annual increment as being the
volume increment evenly distributed over the period. The rate
of volume growth is, however, by no means uniform. Most
generally, during a wood's earliest youth, the yearly accretion
is slight ; it then becomes accelerated, reaches its maximum,
and ultimately decreases — at first slowly, but later rapidly.
The ordinary course, the so-called current annual increment^
is occasionally interrupted by storms, the occurrence of seed
years, and the troubles of insect, fungus, or other attack.
The true current annual increment of a tree or wood is very
difficult to determine, and it usually suffices to take the average
increase over a short period — say from five to ten years — and
consider this as being accurate for each of the- years within
the period.

The mean annual increment follows a course very
similar to the actual yearly increase. At first it is even

FOREST MANAGEMENT 127

lower than the latter ; it rises gradually, and culminates later
than does the current increment, its maximum being also
lower ; the decrease from this point is less fast in the average
than in the current yearly increment. The mean annual in-
crement reaches its maximum when it is the same as the
current annual increment ; previous to that it is lower, subse-
quently higher than the latter.

Besides the quantity increment dealt with above, it is also
necessary, for the purposes of forest management and valua-
tion, to take into account the quality and price increments.
Quality accretion or increment follows from the increase of
value per cubic foot, which is associated with increased age
and dimensions of the trees in a wood. With additional
volume, there is a more than proportionate inci .ase in price
per unit of measurement ; hence the need of this factor being
duly noted. It has nothing to do with the price of tim-
ber in the general tendency of the market, which receives
consideration under the term "price increment." Price
increment denotes the change in value (positive or negative)
which may be occasioned by economic circumstances, most
of them beyond the control of the forester. Thus prices are
influenced very greatly by the shortage or superabundance of
the supplies of imported timber, and locally by the formation
of new roads or railway lines.

All three forms of increment (volume, quality, and price)
may be conveniently expressed as percentages.

As the sum of these three values (volume, quality,
and price increments) represents the actual increase in the
value of the forest, it is not difficult, after the three
items are known, to ascertain the return on the invested
capital.

The value of a wood is judged from the present worth of
its timber contents, T ; that of the land, L ; and a sum must
also be named to cover the costs of management, M, which
will include working expenses, taxes, wages, and so forth.
If the volume, quality, and price percentages be called
respectively ^, b, and c, then from these variables, which

128 FORESTRY

determine the amount of the forest capital, may be derived
the interest on the working capital (T + L + M).
The relationship may be stated as follows : —

(T + L + M) :T^±A±-':: loo :/>,;

lOO

^ T + L + M^ ^

This per cent., p,, has been called the " indicating " per cent.
(Pressler) ; it is useful as showing the return yielded by a
forest at any desired period, and it seeks to determine the
financial maturity or most profitable rotation of a wood.

Collection of Data for Working Plan

Previous to the regulation of forest management and con-
trol of the woods by means of a working plan, the total area
of a forest property is divided into suitable compartments,
and measurements are taken after the manner described above.
The results of such a survey and all relevant matter are
brought together in a statistical or descriptive report. The
two large divisions of this document are termed the General
and the Special Reports. The former concerns itself with
the prevailing conditions of the forest area ^s a whole, and
deals with such questions as ownership, public rights or servi-
tudes, the area occupied by forest growth, the sylvicultural
systems adopted, the character of the soil and situation,
marketing facilities, means available for transport of produce,
data regarding the quantity of timber hitherto utilised and
the monetary returns, notes regarding the executive staff, etc.

The Special Report is a detailed description of each
division or subdivision of the forest. In it the quality of
the locality, the nature of the existing crop, and proposals
for future management take the foremost place. The first of
these, the locality, is judged from the soil's physical and
chemical condition, depth and degree of moisture, the
altitude, slope, exposure, and general relations to climatic

FOREST MANAGEMENT 129

influences of the situation, the natural weed growth on the
soil's surface, etc. Where trees have already occupied the
ground the value of the site is more easily estimated than
where there is no guide from forest growth. In the former
case the condition is judged from the development in height
of the trees for the respective ages.

For certain methods of regulating the utilisation of a
forest, not the actual average-sized area, but a so-called
" reduced " area, is taken. This is necessary, because the
productive quality of the areas usually varies ; and if it be
desired to divide a forest into sections of equal yield capacity,
it follows that the poorer situations must be of greater extent
than the rich. In order to arrive at a proper balance, re-
ducing factors are employed. The best quality may be
called I, and inferior grades expressed by decimals of this,
or the average quality may be selected as the standard unit.
From the above it is evident that the soil and situation of
each wood ought to be appraised with care.

Coming into consideration along with the locality is the
qualify of the crop. The species of which the wood is
comprised must first be stated in the written account ; mixed
woods may have the kinds of trees indicated in the propor-
tion in which they occur. Thus, for example, a mixture of
Beech, Oak, and Ash might be stated Beech -6, Oak -3,
Ash -I. Then the age is noted, and the natural period to
which the wood may be assigned is given. Terms such as
" thicket stage," " pole forest," and " timber forest " describe
the stage which a wood has reached even better than a mere
numeral giving the years of its growth. Anything remark-
able about the trees, as affecting the quality of the timber,
should be included in the statement. The degree of density
may be represented by a figure, the "normal" condition being
called I, and the less perfect being denoted by decimal frac-
tions. Whether the crop be " blanky," " open," have a
" fairly good canopy," or what its general state is, should be
expressed in words as well as by figures. The method of
formation of each wood must be given so far as it is known,

I30 FORESTRY

and its sylvicultural treatment in the past as regards thinnings,
etc., explained. The volume of older woods requires to be
assessed in order to fix the proper quantity of timber shortly
to be utilised, and it is usually necessary to ascertain the
forest's increment or rate of volume accretion.

After the facts indicated above have received due con-
sideration, the most important points to be observed in the
future treatment of the woods are collected into a short
statement. Such matters are dealt with as instructions for
the filling in of blanks which have occurred in recently
formed woods, mode of carrying out thinning operations, the
process by which regeneration should be brought about, and
much else of like nature.

As far as possible the mode of management should be
represented upon maps or plans. Working first with only
a rough sketch of the area, the forest surveyor defines the
boundaries of the compartments and subdivisions, determines
the direction of roads, etc., until gradually the finished map
is evolved. Usually, at least two kinds of maps are pre-
pared : ( I ) The " Detail " map, in the scale of perhaps
twenty-five inches to a mile, showing boundaries of the
property and the forest working sections — a map of much value
in the event of change in ownership or management. (2) The
" Stock " or " Plantations " map, which represents the cha-
racter of the woods, particularly as regards species, distribution
of age-classes, and the manner by which the plantations have
been allotted to the periods of the rotation. Very often the
scale of six inches to a mile is found to be suitable for this.
Contour lines and the road system are occasionally depicted
on a separate plan, or they may be included upon the Stock
map.

The survey and division of woodlands proceed simul-
taneously in practice. The disposition of the divisional
areas is determined after an examination of the ground,
together with plan or map measurement. The division is
thus the result of work done partly in the office and partly
on the spot. The measurement of the forest is effected

FOREST MANAGEMENT 131

according to the recognised methods of land-surveying which
are based chiefly on trigonometry.

The Normal Forest

The laws of nature make it impossible for us to take away
annually from each individual tree its yearly production of
timber. This must be allowed to accumulate till the tree
has reached a useful size, and then, on felling it, the accretion
of years is at once harvested. In a forest consisting of sections
equal in number to the years of the rotation, the oldest
section should represent the year's increment for all the forest ;
upon its removal the quantity this represents is realised.
Yields from thinnings are here not taken into consideration.

A forest permanently placed under sylvicultural control is
under rules regulating sustained management. It is the foun-
dation of systematic forestry to secure to the proprietor
continuously (annually or periodically) a regular yield or
income. When the timber output is approximately equal
every year, it is the most positive evidence of sustained
management. This is possible only in the so-called " normal
forest" (see Fig. 30, p. 138), of which in its simplest form
the following is true. With a rotation or felling age of
r years (for instance, 100 years) a forest has r acres (say
100 acres) divided into a number of sections, the ages of
which are graded evenly from the youngest to the most

mature (gradation i r years). Immediately upon felling

the oldest wood, matters may be represented as o (r— i),

because the newly felled area is not restocked, and the ninety-
nine-years-old wood requires one year before it reaches its
full rotation period. Under such conditions the volume of
the r-years-old section is exactly equal to the annual incre-
ment amassed during the last growing season over the whole
forest area, and does not vary from year to year. The stock
of timber in the normal forest is called the normal grotving

StOL\.

The amount of the normal growing stock, apart from the

132 FORESTRY

size of the forest, depends upon the species, the quahty of
the locaHty, the sylvicultural system, treatment, and length
of rotation. With I representing the normal increment,
and r the number of years in the rotation, the normal stock
S is found from the equation —

s=i

The quantity of timber that may be taken each year under
normal conditions is called the normal annual yield. Corre-
sponding to this in practice is the actual produce available
for use without interference with the permanent revenue of
the forest.

If the increase of the growing stock exceed the amount
calculated as being the normal yield, the surplus may be
allowed to accumulate to form a reserve. Reserve stock may
consist of specified woods which, as a provision against acci-
dent, are not included in the estimate for the income, or the
returns may be calculated at a figure below that which the
forest is known to be capable of yielding.

Factors determining the Course of Future
Manag^ement

The survey of the forest, the estimate of the volume and
increment, and the detailed description of the woods, furnish
the information on which the course of future management is
based. It is necessary first to consider the object the owner
has in view in maintaining the woodlands. In strictly economic
forestry, some financial calculation is necessary to decide
when it will be most profitable to harvest the crop. This
may be reckoned by either the highest forest rent or the
highest soil rent theory. The former represents the difference
between the average annual income and expenditure ; but it
does not take into account the time occupied in the realisa-
tion of this. In the second case, the effort is to earn the
highest rate of interest on the capital invested — represented

FOREST MANAGEMENT 133

by the soil and standing crop. To obtain this, the manage-
ment must reahse the maximum " expectation value " of the
soil ; in fact, the rotation chosen must be that which
promises the greatest financial return. For this purpose, that
rotation which furnishes the highest net soil rental should be
selected.

The peculiar nature of forestry, especially as regards the
time element — the long interval between formation and realisa-
tion— which the production of timber entails, makes it possible
to arrive at only approximate results in any computations of
this kind.

It is interesting to note that for the last forty years there
has been a literary strife between the advocates of the two
methods of calculating the financial rotation which have just
been mentioned. This has resulted in an ultimate decision
in favour of the soil-rent principle, in spite of the uncertainty
of the premises upon which the reckoning is necessarily
based. In practice deviations must frequently be made to
suit local circumstances — more especially is it desirable, in
many cases, to keep the felling age well within the date
indicated theoretically.

This preliminary question concerning the aims of the
forest being fairly settled, the following matters in connection
with the management of the woods must be decided upon : —

(1) The selection of the sylvicultural system. High
forest (in any of its various forms), simple coppice, or coppice
with standards.

(2) Choice of the species.

(3) Determination of the most suitable felling age. Under
the financial arrangement of the highest soil rent the felling
age is earlier than where the largest forest revenue is the
motive. But when all the factors concerned are judiciously
weighed, the difference is not nearly so great as speculative
literary controversy would suggest.

(4) Arrangement regarding "working sections" according
to -the species, rotation, and character of public rights where
such exist.

134 FORESTRY

(5) General principles upon which future operations should
be conducted.

As the whole course of management has its foundation in
the above subjects, their importance will be readily appreciated.
The conclusions arrived at are embodied in the Working
Plan report.

Methods of Regulating the Yield

Various methods are employed to regulate the amount of
produce that may annually or periodically be taken from a
forest without diminishing its permanent stock or reducing
the productivity of the soil. The simplest of these consists
of the division of the total forest area into sections, corre-
sponding in their number to the number of years in the
rotation. These annual felling coupes may be either of equal
size, or else they may vary in extent according to their yield
capacity and degree of complete stocking. In this their
acreage is determined in inverse proportion to their productive
value. It is evident that smaller areas of dense woods are
equivalent to greater areas of thin crops or poorly grown
woods, and the allocation can be arranged accordingly. The
plan of making the divisions of equal or nearly equal size
is suitable for coppice woods and for woods worked on the
Selection system.

Of more general applicability is the method of allotting
the woods of a forest into Periods. The number of the
period classes and the time occupied by each, depend chiefly
upon the length of the rotation, but intervals of twenty years
are frequently found to be suitable.

Division of the forest into Periods takes place according to
area or volume, or regard is had to both of these factors, and
a method of partition by area and volume combined is resorted
to.

Allotment by Area. By this system approximately like
areas are allotted to separate periods in the rotation.

For example, if a forest of 12,000 acres, worked on a
rotation of 120 years, be treated in Periods of 20 years,

FOREST MANAGEMENT 135

there will be 6 Periods, in each of which 2,000 acres
will be dealt with — that is to say, an average of 100 acres
per annum.

If differences in the quality of soil or situation occur, the
areas may be reduced to one common quality standard.

The advantage of the allotment system is that it is more
elastic than mere division into fixed annual coupes. Under
the system of " Periods," the wood manager is at liberty
within limits to determine the area of the year's felling.

Allotment by Volume. The method of allotting the
woods into Periods by volume is made according to the an-
ticipated yield (growing stock and increment), so that the
total quantity of produce from each Period may be nearly
the same. The system of volume allotment has found but
little support in practice, owing to the difficulty, and indeed
impossibility, of determining the yields far into the future
with sufficient accuracy.

Combined Method. An improvement upon forest regula-
tion by volume alone is found in the " combined method,"
by which the areas receive more consideration, and due
importance is given to the arrangement of the age classes.

First of all, a suitable distribution of the areas into the
several Periods is effected, then the volume returns are cal-
culated (at least, for the first one or two Periods), and, so
far as appears necessary for the equalisation of the returns,
shiftings of single areas are made.

The estimate for determining the amount of the yield
which may safely be taken is sometimes confined to the next
ten years of the rotation. This practice, which originated
in Saxony, is gaining favour. A selection is made of the
woods which it is necessary to take in the course of the
coming decade, and the fellings are distributed as evenly
as practicable, so that the supply is made nearly constant.
The woods most urgently requiring removal are those whose
increment has sunk or is sinking below that which is profit-
able ; but in the removal of such woods, due regard must,
of course, be given to the sequence of the age classes.

136 FORESTRY

Regulation by Comparison with Normal Stock.

Wholly differing from the allotment system is the method
of regulating the felling accounts by calculating with formulas.
This consists essentially of a contrast between the actual and
the normal stock. In the Austrian formula method, which
is the oldest of its kind, and still practised in that country,
the underlying principle is as follows : A normal growing
stock produces a normal increment, the amount of which, in
mature timber, should be removed ; but forest crops which
show a growing stock greater or less than the normal should
be more largely exploited or more carefully conserved, as
the case may be. If a surplus be present the formula is —

^j T G/' — G;z

Y = I;- + ,

;•

where Y is the annual yield, \r the normal increment, which
is taken as equal to the final mean annual increment, Gr the
actual growing stock, Qtn the normal growing stock, and r
the number of years in the rotation.

Forest Working Plans

The object of the working plan is to regulate the time
and manner in which the utilisation of the forest produce
should take place ; and as a necessary accompaniment to this,
for the assuring of a " sustained yield," particulars concerning
all operations about to be undertaken are here brought to-
gether in methodical fashion. The plan or scheme is capable
of differentiation into three divisions : —

(i) The General or Chief plan.

(2) The Periodic plan.

(3) The Annual plan.

The first of these indicates the lines upon which the man-
agement is to be conducted. Its prescriptions extend over
the time occupied by the rotation ; only occasionally, when
the condition of a forest is very abnormal, its scope is pro-

FOREST MANAGEMENT 137

visionally shortened. If more than one series of age classes
(" working section ") exist, each must be managed on a
distinct rotation. One may, for example, have woods of
Alder coppice in the midst of a Scots Pine forest ; but as
their methods of treatment are fundamentally different, each
is given a suitable felling age and working section.

The General working plan deals with all that concerns the
control of the forest. It is the basis of the whole system of
management, and special emphasis is given to directions
regarding fellings and regeneration, regulating the way in
which the woods will pass gradually from one Period to
another. It consists partly of tabular statements, partly of
a written report. In former times schemes of regulation
were prepared to control detailed work, even in the distant
future. Such laboriously constructed plans are, however,
quite unnecessary, as, in the course of very long periods of
time, changes intentional and accidental are certain tu occur.
It has therefore now become customary to state only the
aims and guiding principles of the work, with particular
reference to the operations in the next ten or twenty years.
The areas of the more remote Periods have their places in
the working plan allotted to them in such a way that a per-
manently equal yield is assured. By noting these in the
general scheme, a survey is given of the whole of the proposed
course. As has been already mentioned, however, the selec-
tion of the woods for allocation is occasionally made with
regard only to the next decade.

In drawing up the General working plan attention is given
to the arrangement of the succession of the- fellings and the
formation of what will be the cutting series of the future.
Regard must also be paid to these important matters at the
time of the subdivision of the forest area.

The order in which the fellings are made, influences the
restocking of the cleared ground. The direction which the
fellings take in following one another is largely dictated by
the dangers which locally threaten the forest. Amongst
these, the lessening of damage by windstorm should be given

138 FORESTRY

first consideration ; but also insect attack and destructive
forest fires may in great part be combated by a suitable dis-
position of the cutting series. As a rule, the successive
fellings should be carried on in a direction contrary to that
of the prevailing wind, and the felling areas should then
take the form of broad strips at right angles to that line.

Cutting Series. Each apportioned part of a working
section for which a complete succession of fellings is arranged
forms what is called a cutting series. There may be only one
cutting series in the working section, the age gradations being
so planned that fellings proceed straight forward in unbroken
sequence, as shown in Fig. 30. The "coupes" in such a

West^^-

■>

B r^l 2 z \& ^ e T a\a JO

Ua Ui tf-3 U-2 U-1 U

-"^iEast

FIG. 30. FORMAL ARRANGEMENT OF AGE-CLASSES
Cutting would proceed from east to west

regular series as this equal in number the years in the rota-
tion. But though possessing the advantage of simplicity, and
usually suitable for coppice woods, long cutting series of this
kind are not always desirable. In the management of high
forest it is a general rule that no part be cut over until the
recently cleared area adjacent to it has been fairly established.
To obtain this, and yet continue the annual utilisation and
restocking, it is necessary to carry on operations at several

FOREST MANAGEMENT 139

different points in the forest, and to return to these for the
continuance of the felHngs, not annually, but at stated intervals.
The formation of small cutting series, giving many of these
centres or points of attack in exploitation, is therefore to
be recommended. Many dangers to which regular age-
gradations, when too closely associated, are prone are thus
avoided, or at least considerably reduced.

Formerly the data determining the quantity of timber to
be felled were also recorded in the General plan. Now,
however, since it has become customary to reckon the volume
and increment only for the first Period, or even only for the
first ten years, it has been found most suitable to give the
figures regulating the yield in the Periodic plan. This latter,
following the principles laid down in the General plan, deals
in a detailed manner with the necessary fellings and regenera-
tions. The woods which require to be entered in the scheme
of fellings as those first to be taken in hand are the following :
(i) defective old woods which are improperly stocked, being
blanky or too open ; (2) odd corners which have arisen in
the course of laying out the system of roads, and whose age,
species, or character suggest alteration ; (3) areas to be cleared
between divisions of the forest as Severance fellings in the
interests of the cutting series ; (4) the removal of parent or
shelter trees from regeneration areas, where such trees are no
longer desirable.

If, after such woods have received attention, the felling
budget allows of still more being utilised, parts of the forest
where the yearly accretion has become unsatisfactory should
be dealt with. Where the "indicating per cent." (showing
the interest yielded by the forest capital) has not been ascer-
tained, the condition of the woods and of the cutting series
must decide the woods' position in the Periodic plan.

The volume of wood on the area to be cut over during one
Period, along with its increment up to the time of cutting,
is the measure of the Period's " final yield." The quantity
divided by the number of years in the Period gives th^
annual yield. To this must be added the intermediate yield

140 FORESTRY

from thinnings extracted from woods belonging to later
Periods. As the amount of material which these yield is
apt to fluctuate, one seeks to arrange the woods for thinning
by taking a certain proportion b"^ area in hand each year.
All woods requiring thinning must be visited at least once in
ten years. The yield which may be expected from these
intermediate cuttings is estimated from figures given in yield
tables. The tables consist of carefully prepared averages of
measurements taken from a large number of cases.

Then there is the so-called Annual plan of management,
which has for its object the arrangement of the actual works
of felling, sowing, planting, etc., for the ensuing season, in
accordance with the instructions contained in the General
and Periodic working plans. It is not in itself a working or
regulation plan, but is simply part of the executive work.

Execution of the Working Plan

For reasons already stated, schemes which define in detail
the management for a whole prospective rotation are im-
practicable if the rotation be at all lengthy. Indeed, the
working plan should never be considered as something fixed
and unalterable. In order to maintain its efficacy, it is
essential that it be subjected from time to time to revision
and renewal. Revision is a check on the accuracy of the
work of the original document ; it has due regard to changes
in the objects of management, and, in short, by re-examina-
tion, the whole scheme gains in reliability and usefulness.
In the event of very extensive damage by windstorm or
other depredation, the existing plan may be so interfered
with that the preparation of a completely new one becomes
a necessity. Of the utmost importance to the accomplishment
of the aims of the working plan is a proper system of book-
keeping. Records must be kept to show how the various
operations have been carried out in order to construct a history
of each wood. Accounts are therefore necessary to show
the yield in material and money on the one hand, and every

FOREST FINANCE 141

item of expenditure on the other. The method of entering
the required particulars varies with circumstances ; but the
following books and statements may be mentioned : (i) a
register of all changes in the area and boundaries of the
forest ; (2) a statement giving the volume and value of the
returns from the fellings, both in the aggregate for the whole
forest, and for each compartment or division ; (3) a report
of the work of regeneration, of road-making, draining, fencing,
etc. ; (4) notes on matters of importance for future reference,
e.g. the occurrence of seed years, of windstorms, insect attack,
and so forth.

A revision of the working plan should take place at least
once in twenty years — usually at the end of a Period ; very
frequently, however, it is desirable to have it at a much
shorter interval. In Saxony, working plans are customarily
examined each five years. The longer the interval between
the revisions, the more thorough must they be ; llie amount
of work entailed, depends on the changes that have occurred,
and the suitability, or otherwise, of the system at first adopted.
Sometimes a revision is as laborious as was the preparation of
the original plan ; under other conditions it may occasion
very little trouble indeed. When circumstances have not
altered, it consists of merely closing the books of one Period,
and opening accounts, as it were, for the next, along with the
preparation of a new Periodic working plan.

CHAPTER IX
FOREST FINANCE

Valuation and Rate of Interest

Forest valuation consists in estimating the financial value of
woodland property. As far as mere calculation is concerned,
forest valuation is fairly simple ; but a distinct difficulty is

142 FORESTRY

found in determining the absolute values to employ in the
formulas made use of. The time element which forestry has
to face makes any approach to perfect accuracy impossible.
The management of a single crop of trees extends, as a
rule, over a very lengthy period, and it cannot be expected,
for example, that we can at present estimate with much
confidence what the yield and value of a wood will be a hundred
years hence. No less uncertain is the task of determining the
rate of interest to be charged for capital invested in forestry,
though, owing to the length of time during which the capital
is lying untouched, the accuracy of the basis of this estimate
is of great importance. Again, the financial calculation rests
largely on the supposition that the future management will
proceed upon definite lines, which, however, it may be
necessary to depart from — for example, the length of rotation
may have to be changed, the exact time at which thinnings
will be required is not known, and the yield from them can-
not well be forecast. In the narrower sense, at least, the
computation of the receipts and expenditure does not come
into the work of forest valuation, these matters being held
as part of the forest management — especially is this the case
with the more important forest areas.

Questions which materially affect the making of the esti-
mates are the future price of timber and the rate of interest
chargeable. Both of these are uncertain quantities ; but
statistics show that the tendency is for wood to rise in price
and that the rate of interest is sinking. This is true, of
course, only as regards the general tendency throughout long
periods, temporary fluctuations being beyond our power to
forecast. As the value and rate of interest tend to move
in opposite directions, the best course to adopt is to base
calculations on present prices, and reckon with a low rate
of interest — say 2^ or 3 per cent.

Amongst other arguments in favour of the use of a moderate
interest rate, it may be said that land, even in a good
agricultural district, yields but a low net return to the owner,
that for a permanent investment forestry is accounted very

FOREST FINANCE 143

safe, and that there is a FeeHng of pride in the possession of
forest property that is to be reckoned amongst the returns
of capital so invested. These advantages render this form
of investment particularly attractive and suitable to large
capitalists. If storms or insect plagues occasionally cause
damage, there is to be remembered, on the other hand, the
comparatively small expenditure required in forest maintenance.

Sale Value, Cost Value, and Expectation Value

Various more or less useful formulae have been constructed
for the calculation of the value of the forest soil, and the
growing stock, and for these two — soil and growing stock —
taken together under the comprehensive term "forest." For
each of these there is a sale value ^ an expectation value ^ and
a cost value ; and for the forest there is, in addition, a so-
called re?ital value.

The Sale Value represents the market price of the object
for sale ; no mathematical formulae are needed to determine
it ; but, instead, the price is estimated by comparison with
lands, woods, etc., previously sold under like conditions.

In calculating the value of a forest the selling price enters
largely into the calculation in the case of mature or nearly
mature woods. It is different with young woods ; their
timber may not be readily marketable, and to attempt to
sell anything more than a small portion of it might have
a very bad effect upon the price. The same consideration
holds good in estimating the returns and rental value of the
final yield wherever rotations are shortened, that they may
give an increased supply of a certain size of material tem-
porarily scarce.

With forest soil the selling value is in many cases capable
of being very exactly fixed, especially when the area has
been cleared of trees or when it appears suitable for tillage.

For extensive forests, owing to the diversity of the points
under consideration, the sale value should be used only as a
general guide.

144 FORESTRY

Expectation Value is the present value of all yields
which may be looked for from an estate, minus the present
value of all estimated expenditure to the date of realisation.
It is employed chiefly when estimating the value of the soil,
and it forms the best standard for judging the profitableness
of the forest's management. It also aflbrds a means of
gauging the respective merits of different systems of tree
raising, of agriculture combined with forestry, and so forth.
Only rarely is the expectation value used for calculating the
sale value of the forest.

The Cost Value of a forest property represents the pre-
sent value of the outlays for formation and maintenance to
date, less the present value of all receipts. It is chiefly used
for estimating the value of younger woods. Of the cost
value of the soil one can only speak when the land has been
reclaimed from an unproductive state by the expenditure of
money. The sum spent, along with interest, then constitutes
its cost value. Examples of this may be found where peat
bogs have been redeemed, or drifting sand permanently fixed.

By the term Rental Value is meant the capitalised rental
that a forest is able to yield. The organisation and treat-
ment being all that they should be, the rental value forms the
best standard of valuation. Where proper attention has not
been given, however, its employment in the sale of forests
often proves unfavourable to the interests of the vendor.

In practice it is always best to choose the method of
calculation for which the most reliable data are available ;
thus for young woods the cost value should generally be
chosen, and for middle-aged woods the expectation value.

FOREST ECONOMICS 145

CHAPTER X

FOREST ECONOMICS

In its scientific sense forest policy may be defined as the
representation of the economic position which forestry occu-
pies in the affairs of the State and the people. That which
is briefly discussed here, however, is simply the relationship
which exists between the State and forestry. State adminis-
tration consists, on the one hand, in the protection, care, and
management of the forest in the public interest ; and, on the
other hand, when the forest as a lasting source of supply is
endangered, administration may assume the form of restriction
of individual action for the benefit of the community at
large.

State Ownership of Forests

The attention given to forestry in a country depends very
largely on the nature and manner of treatment of the State
forests. Whenever one finds laxity of management or non-
conservative treatment of Government reserved forests, one
also finds the privately owned woods in an unsatisfactory
condition. Similarly in lands which do not possess any con-
siderable area of regulated national forest, the fact is there
reflected in the poor development of sylviculture. In short,
State woods teach through their example — being of first
importance as an educative power.

About the close of the seventeenth century, and the begin-
ning of the eighteenth, there arose a movement in France
and Germany in favour of the alienation from State owner-
ship of forest lands, it being held, in accordance with the
economic theories of the time, that the State should not be
directly interested in any particular industry. Owing to the
financial distress that prevailed, the agitation led to measures

146 FORESTRY

being taken in pursuance of this policy. Almost at once,
however, it became obvious that a mistake had been made.
In private hands the forests were mismanaged in nearly all
cases. Not only was the elementary principle of a sustained
yield and the production of the highest soil rental quite
neglected, but too often the public good was sacrificed to
private advantage by deforestation. Consequent on the with-
drawal of the forest cover, the soil was unduly exposed ; in
many parts barren wastes were formed, there was much
destruction by the washing away of soil by mountain torrents,
and, in other districts, great damage was occasioned by drift-
ing sand. It is the time element that singles out forestry from
all other commercial enterprises. The advantage or necessity
of continuity of ownership and management is felt in nothing
so much as in forestry. Much time, large areas, and regularity
of action are necessary to its most effective working. The
permanence and resources of a nation make the State the most
suitable custodian of forest property. With the realisation
of this fact the tendency now is to extend State ownership ;
one sees the policy active not only in such countries as
Germany and Austria, but also in the United States of
America.

The management of State woods differs in its method
according to its aims ; a distinction may be made between (^)
forests which, independent of all else, are treated for the
production of revenue, and (h) forests which are maintained
for a definite protective action in the interests of a district or
locality. In the latter case, financial profit may be interfered
with or entirely foregone in obtaining the desired effect.

From what has already been said, it will be evident that the
chief object of State-owned woods is usually the realisation
of the highest soil rental from the forest, having regard,
however, to all interests, particularly to the fostering of
commercial industry. In accordance with this principle, it is
not consistent that a rotation should be suddenly shortened in
order to take advantage of an unexpected demand for produce
of a particular size, or to specially favour a certain species

FOREST ECONOMICS 147

simply because its timber has, for the time being, shown an
advance in price. In fact, anything prompted by mere
speculation is out of place in State forest practice.

Many countries which have a system of Protection im-
pose a tax upon imported timber. So far as Germany is
concerned, the incidence of taxation has led to neither
afforestation nor deforestation. The imposition of an in-
creased duty in 1885 and the lowering of tariff charges in
1892 were alike without effect on the continued increase of
imports over exports. Between 1882 and 1896 the imports
into that country nearly doubled in quantity and trebled in
value. Since 1896 imports have risen still further. It is
obvious that the German forests are inadequate to meet the
requirements of the country. To do this, the quantity of
timber exploited would have to be increased by about thirty
per cent., which, of course, is out of the question.

Technical Education in Forestry

On the continent of Europe forestry is a recognised branch
of the civil service. This fact, together with the oppor-
tunity for the pursuit of game which life in the forest
invariably offers, attracts a very excellent class of men to the
work of forest administration. Even though the service is
not specially lucrative, positions in it are at all times much
sought after.

In Germany the State forest service recognises two dis-
tinct grades of officials, whose social position as well as techni-
cal training is clearly defined. In both cases candidates pass
through a lengthened period of careful preparation. The
course followed varies slightly in different parts of the
country ; but the following account indicates the character
of the educational system : —

Higher Grade. A candidate aspiring to an ultimate posi-
tion of control in the State forests is required, first of all,
to produce a certificate from one of the higher public schools,
where he must have passed certain examinations. In Prussia

148 FORESTRY

from six to twelve months are then spent in the woods in
practical training under the supervision of a district officer.
In other German States this portion of the work is taken at
a subsequent period. Leaving with a testimonial on which
is stated exactly what his work has been, the student repairs
to a Forest Academy such as that at Eberswalde or Tharandt.
Here he studies for two and a half years ; the course being of
a thoroughly scientific nature, illustrated by demonstrations
and excursions to the forest.

From the Academy the student proceeds to a University
for one year, where he occupies himself with Jurisprudence
and Political Economy. Before he can go further with his
course he is required to pass a very severe test. Amongst
the subjects with which he must show himself familiar may
be mentioned the management of woods, their formation, re-
generation, treatment, utilisation, valuation, and protection ;
forest history, applied mathematics, surveying, physics,
chemistry, geology, zoology (with special attention to
entomology), and botany. Passing this examination, he is
styled ^^Referendary For at least two years he is engaged,
without salary, in various forest districts ; part of this time
he is required to take the place of a forest guard or keeper
in the woods, thus ensuring experience in the details of
practical work. One year also is passed in compulsory
military training.

After the Refer end ar has gained the necessary knowledge,
he again presents himself for examination. On this occasion
matters of a technical kind are dealt with, relating chiefly
to forest management. The greater part of the examination
takes place within the forest, and relates to the actual pro-
cesses connected with the systematic treatment of woods.
The successful candidate then assumes the title ^^ Assessor " \
but for many years (usually about eight years, though it may
be much longer) his salary is only from five to nine shillings
per day. This is a period of probation ; when it is ended,
his name, for the first time, receives consideration for election
to the post of " Oberfbrster," or district officer. Only then

FOREST ECONOMICS 149

does he enter on any work of forest control ; he receives
but a modest salary, and later advancement is generally slow ;
^^ Forstmeister^^ or conservator, is the next stage— should he
reach it. The training is long and severe ; but, as already
indicated, applicants are not scarce. The profession is a
much respected one, and the social standing of the higher
officers is good.

Lozcer Grade. Posts, in some ways comparable to the
forester's position in Britain, are also filled by men speci-
ally trained for the work. A beginning is made by spending
two years in apprenticeship on a conservancy. During this
period no wage is received — indeed, sometimes a small
premium is exacted. An examination is passed, and some
years — the number varies in the different States — are spent
in general education and in gaining an elementary acquaint-
ance with science. In Bavaria this instruction is given in
special schools {^'■Waldbauschulen'''')\ in Prussia and Alsace-
Lorraine it is taken in conjunction with the duties of military
service. All must join the " Jnegerbatailloji,''^ or corps of
sharpshooters or scouts. This period passed, their knowledge
is again tested, and they become '-'• Hilf s jaeger" for about eight
to ten years. Once more they present themselves for exami-
nation, and if successful they attain the rank of '■'■ Forster.," or
"forester." The status of the Forster somewhat resembles
that of the head gamekeeper in Britain, but in State forests
he is a Government official, and may retire with a pension
after long service. For wage he receives about j^8o per
annum, a free house, and some acres of agricultural land.

In Austria and Russia there is, in addition, an "inter-
mediate grade " of training. This has an advantage in that
the private proprietor can more easily select a forest manager
who has the technical education necessary for any particular
requirement.

In order to aid in spreading a knowledge of the elements
of sylviculture, some countries, including Austria and Switzer-
land, have successfully inaugurated short courses of lectures
that extend over a few weeks or months. In Germany,

ISO FORESTRY

also, such work has grown in a marked manner in recent
years.

Communal Forests

Distinction is made between the various classes of forest
property according to ownership. Communal forests are
those in the corporate possession of a town, village, or
association. Reference has already been made to the gradual
subdivision of property that took place in Germany from the
time when the forests belonged either to the princes and lords
on the one hand, or to communities of peasants on the other.
This movement lasted till well into the nineteenth century.
The economic conception prevalent at the beginning of the
nineteenth century was more in favour of individual than
of collective ownership. This policy was successful with
agriculture, but destructive to forestry. The reasons why
the latter is less adapted to treatment on a small scale than
on extensive areas have already been discussed, and need
not be repeated here. Dismemberment led to very poor re-
sults ; systematic management of the small piece of forest
which became each man's lot was impossible. Even where
any effort in this direction was attempted, its effect was too
often nullified by the pests that spread from the woodland of
a careless neighbour.

The fallacy of dividing forest lands has been exposed,
however, and the present trend of forest policy is decidedly
towards combination. Communal forestry is encouraged, and
much is being done to promote the co-operative working of
forest properties previously separated.

Protection Forests

One of the most difficult questions, and at the same time
one of the most important, in connection with forest policy,
is that which deals with the treatment of protection forests.
By the term " protection forest " is understood a forest
which from its situation, or the nature of the land which
is enclosed within it, is of importance to the cultivation not

FOREST ECONOMICS 151

only of the soil on which it stands, but also of neighbour-
ing land or even of land at a distance — as, for example,
when the latter is liable to suffer from floods.

The protective action consists mainly in binding the soil.
This may take the form either of checking the erosive effects
of very heavy rains which wash away the soil, or of preventing
the drifting of sand.

Even though descriptions of the nature of land which
ought to be treated as protective forest are carefully circulated,
it is still found that if the matter be left to private action the
results are almost invariably unsatisfactory. This experience
has led to State intervention. In many countries qualified
Government officials inspect the threatened areas, and forest
courts are held. Should these declare the forests in question
to have a distinctly protective function to perform, the areas
are at once brought under definite laws, restricting the freedom
of use of such land. In Prussia and Austria investigation
with a view to State restriction or control, is made only as
occasion demands ; but in Switzerland, Italy, Russia,
Wiirtemberg, and Hungary inspection of the country for
this purpose takes place periodically at regularly appointed
intervals. The former system is the more desirable.

In order that a protection wood may realise the end in
view, it must always be maintained in good condition and
be managed with particular care. The better to accomplish
this, certain rules are drawn up, to forbid clear-felling, the
entrance of grazing stock, the extraction of tree stumps, etc. ;
but, naturally enough, the specific treatment necessary for
each case must vary with the circumstances.

As will be readily appreciated, the enforcement of the
regulations for the treatment of this class of woods is effected
only with greatest difficulty, more especially as the single
owner often suffers in the interests of the many. In con-
sequence, the procedure usually adopted is a transference
of the endangered areas from private hands into the possession
of the State.

This may be done by negotiation and purchase, should the

152 FORESTRY

sellers be willing to part with the land, otherwise expropria-
tion must be resorted to. The acquisition of such lands by
Government has been largely adopted in France — the country
most famous for its successful works of land protection by
means of forest growth.

In some countries it is found necessary to have laws com-
pelling private owners to restock land that has been cleared
of trees. Compulsory afforestation of areas not previously
wooded is never attempted, however, except when the areas
are put under charge of the State. Indeed, the usual pre-
liminary action in such cases is the purchase of the land
by Government.

Government Supervision of Private and
Communal Forests

As regards the method of management adopted in private
woods, the State is chiefly concerned with protection forests.
So long as the public interest does not suffer by the action of
the private owner. State intervention is unwarranted. In
Germany Government supervision of private forests is practi-
cally confined to the south and central districts, where the
character of the country demands that precautions be taken.
Seventy per cent, of Germany's private forests are entirely
free from interference by the State.

The success of restrictive measures is not very marked,
due partly to the fact that the staff provided is generally
inadequate for the quantity of work to be done, and partly be-
cause, on the other hand, means of circumventing the law are
readily found and taken advantage of. Modern forest policy,
as adopted in several countries, tends therefore to confine
interference on the part of the State to those woods whose
existence is of actual necessity to the public good or safety.

Measures for the encouragement of forestry have proved
much more effective. These consist mainly in providing for
land-owners and their agents opportunities for technical in-
struction in forest treatment, in giving advisory assistance, or

FOREST ECONOMICS 153

by supplying plants, granting loans of money at a low rate
of interest, allowing abatement of taxation, etc.

With forests belonging to public bodies the matter is
different. In them the State has a much more direct in-
terest, and over them it has a greater power. The woods
form part of the yearly income of the communities, and it
is a duty of Government to safeguard this source of revenue.
To obtain a permanent yield, proper methods of cultivation
require to be instituted, and exploitation must be duly regu-
lated according to production. The financial and even social
interests involved are considered to be of very great importance
to a country's well-being, and worthy of the attention of
the State.

In most European countries the Forest Department has
been empowered to assist in the control of municipal forests,
and to this end the following systems of supervision af*e found
in operation : —

1. The State may only exercise a general control over
financial dealings in order to render difficult the sale or
alienation of the land, or the burdening of it with debt.
Partition of the forest among its shareholders is forbidden,
and the utilisation of the land for purposes other than timber
production is subject to the sanction of the Government forest
authorities.

This is in vogue in only six per cent, of the communal
forests of Germany. It is less satisfactory in its results than
either of the following systems.

2. In addition to the above-mentioned control, corporation
woods may be placed under supervision as regards their
technical management. For their administration, proper
provision is then made for the protection and skilful treatment
of the woods by a thoroughly well-qualified staff. Almost
universally the woods are placed under the systematic direc-
tion of a working plan prepared by the higher grade forest
officers of the State.

In Germany this method obtains in close upon half of the
communal forests.

154 FORESTRY

3. By the third system of State control, the forests are
simply transferred to the care of the State forest officers.
The treatment then resembles in every way that accorded to
the Government forests.

Of the German communal woods, nearly forty-five per
cent, are managed in this way.

The action of the commoners is, of course, limited
most of all by this last-mentioned system, but it certainly
gives the best economic results, and is in every way advantage-
ous to the conmiunity when administered with due discretion.
The community pays a certain sum to the State in lieu of
management expenses, but, as a rule, this does not compensate
for the actual costs. The system is, on this account, the
most expensive to the Government — -a fact which has in
many parts militated against its more extended adoption.

INDEX

Abnormal direction of fibres, lOi
^cidium elatinum^ 89
Agaricus melleus, 88
Allotment, by area, 134

by combined method, 135

by volume, 135

Altitude, 26

Annual plan of management, 140

Anomalon circumjiexumy 87

Area under forest, 14

Artificial regeneration, 8, 32

Bark, for tannin, 105

Scorching of, 97

Birds, 75

Black Arches or Nun, 82
Black Game, 75
Blocks, Division by, 115
Bostrichus typographus^ 79

Callipers, 116

Canker fungus, 92

Ccratostoma pilijerum, loi

Chermes abietis, 86

Chermes laricis^ 86

Climate, 21

Cockchafer, 77

Colecp/iora laricella, 84

Communal forests, 150

Compartment, 114

Coppice woods, 57

Coppice with standards, 59

Cost value, 144

Crossbills, 75

Crown woods, 19

Cubic contents, 121

Current annual increment, 126

Cutting series, 138

Dasychira piidihunda, 82
Depth of soil, 26
Direct sowing, 35
Distribution of forests, 15
Division of forests, 114
Draining, 33
Draudt's system, 124
Drill-maker, 43
Dunes, 23, 34
Durability of timber, 100

Education, 147
Elasticity of timber, 100
Employment of labour, 21
Erosion, 22

Exotic species of trees, 25
Expectation value, 144

Felling operations, 103
Fidonia pi ni aria, 80
Final yield, 20
Fires, 68
Forest, Definition of, xi

area, 14

finance, 141

influences, 20

management, 11, 114

protection, 67

rent theory, 132

rights, 5

tramways, 112

Form-factor, 122
Formulae, Regulation by, 136
Frost, Lifting of soil by, 97
Frost-cracks, 96
Fungoid diseases, 88

155

156

INDEX

Game, 71

Gastropac/ia pij^i, 8 1
General working plan, 136
Government supervision of forests,

152
Group system, 31
Grovv^ing- space, 48

Hardness of timber, 100
Hares, 73

Harvesting of timber, 102
Heart-shake, loi
Height, Instruments for measure-
ment of, 119, 120
Hoes for soil preparation, 50, 55
Honey Agaric, 88
Hylesinus minor, 79
Hylesinus piniperda, 7 8
Hylohius abietis, 76
Hypsometer, Faustmann's, 119

Weise's 120

Hysteriuni pinastti, 9 1

Ichneumon flies, 87
Impermeable substratum, 33
Imports of timber, 19
Increment, 125

Instrument for measurement

of, 117
Indigenous trees, 2
Insects, Injurious, 75

Useful, 87

Intermediate yield, 20

Labour, 21

Ladybird, 87

Larch Aphis, 86

Larch Canker, 91

Larch Mining moth, 84

Leaf litter, 105

Light-demanding species of trees, 27

Li pari s monacha^ 82

Literature, 12

" Locality," 25

Loose knots, 102

Lophyrus pini, 85

Mammals injurious to the forest, 70

Maps, 130

Markeur, 43

Mean annual increment, 126

Measurement, of felled tree, 121

of standing trees and woods,

122

Melolontka hippocastani^ 78

Melolontha 'vulgar is^ 77

Mice, 74

Microgaster, 87

Minor products of the forest, 105

Mixed woods, 24, 29

Moor-pan, 33

Natural regeneration, by coppice
shoots, 57

by seed, 8, 32, 53

Nectria ditissima, 92
Normal forest, 131
Normal growing stock, 131
Normal yield, 132
Notching spade, 51
"Notch-planting,'' 51
Nurseries, Permanent and tempor-
ary, 41

Oak bark, 105
Oak-leaf roller moth, 83
Oak-root fungus, 92

Packing plants, 47

Peridermium Pint corticola, 89

Periodic working plan, 136

Peziza fVillkommii, 91

Phytophora onini'vora, 92

Pine Beauty, 81

Pine beetle, 78

Pine Looper-moth, 80

Pine moth, 81

Pine sawfly, 85

Pine-shoot Tortrix moth, 84

Pine weevil, 76

Planting, Advantages of, 39

arrangement, 47

density, 48

INDEX

157

Planting methods, 49

season, 47

Plough, 36

Preliminary thinning, 61
Preparatory fellings, 8, 54
Price increment, 127
Pruning, 66

Pure woods. Advantages and dis-
advantages of, 29

Species occurring in, 24

Quality increment, 127
Quantity increment, 127
Quarter-girth measurement, 121

Rabbits, 72

Reclamation, 33

Red deer, 73

Regeneration of crops, 5, 8, 31,

Sh 57
Regulation of yield, 1 34
Rental value, 144
Resin-tapping, 107
Rctinia buollana^ 84
Revision of working plans, 140
Ring-shake, loi
Roads, 1 10, 112
Rodents, 74
Roe deer, 73
Root fungus, 89
RoseU'mia quercina, 92
Ruling species of trees, 24

Sale of forest produce, 108

Sale value, 143

Sand dunes, 23, 34

Seed, Collection of, 37, 107

Protection of, 44

Storing of, 37

Testing of, 38

« Seed-felling," 54
Seed-horn, 44
Seedling fungus, 92
Selection system, 10, 57
Servitudes, 5

Severance cutting, 95

Shade-bearing species of trees, 27

Shifting sand, 23, 34

Situation, 25

Slit-planting, 51

Snow, 95

Soil, Cultivation of, 35, 52

Effect of the forest on, 22

Properties of, 25, 26

Soil-protection wood, 30
Soil-rent theory, 132
Sowing, in nursery, 43

Methods of, 38

Season for, 38, 44

Spruce-bark beetle, 79
Spruce-gall aphis, 86
Squirrels, 74

State ownership of forests, 145

Statistics, 13

Storms, 94

Strength of timber, 99

Striped Conifer-boring beetle, 80

Subordinate species of trees, 24

Survey and division of forests, 114

Sylviculture, xii, 24

TacAina, 87

Tax on imported timber, 147

Temporary nurseries, 41

Tending of woods, 60

Thinning, 61, 62

Tiger beetle, 87

Timber, Defects in, 10 1

imported into the United

Kingdom, 19

Measurement of, 116

Properties of, 98

Transport of, 109

Timber-slides, 1 1 1
Tomicus liticatus, 80
Tortrix 'viridana^ 8 3
Trachea pinipada^ 8 1
Trametes pini, 90
Trametes radiciperda, 89
Transplanting, 45
Tussock moth, 82

158

INDEX

Underplanting, 30
Useful insects, 87
Utilisation of forest produce, 98

Valuation, 141

Voles, 74

Volume, Determination of, 121

" Weeding " or Preliminary thin-
ning, 61

Weeds, Damage done by, 93
Weight of timber, 98
Windstorms, 94
Woodpecker, 75
Working plans, 136
Working-plan reports, 128
Working section, 115

Yield, Regulation of, 134
Yield tables, 125

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