Forestry lessons on home woodlands

Historic, archived document

Do not assume content reflects current
scientific knowledge, policies, or practices.

A RMAg es PAnge en SME re TERI YP, The ate ge ne ES NE prea ay Se Ty FIST fhe PE TW TUN ae PAS

: Issued September 30,1920 "| |

. FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS

/

ee My Reveed 3
WILBUR R. MATTOON, Extension Forester, Forest Service follows
| and

ALVIN DILLE, Formerly Specialist in Agricultural Education, States Relations Service

Introduction . . .
Sources of Information
The Survey .
lustrative Material
The Home Project
Lesson I. Forest Trees and Fordst Types. y
Ii, Location and Extent of Woodlands
Ili, Economic Value of the Forest .
IY. Products Fromthe Home Forest
V. Using Farm Timber . “
VI. Measuring and Estimating Timber
VII. Marketing Farm Timber .
VIII. Protecting the Woods Be i

IX. Improving the Home Forest by Cutting
X. Growth of Trees and Forests .
-XI, Forest Reproduction .
XII, Woodlands and Farm Welianulenk
SHRIMP IRONING MR con.) Fle lod tS

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1925

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Washington, D.C. Issued September 30, 1920; revised February 13, 1925

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS

By WiLBur R. Marroon, Extension Forester, Forest Service, and Atvin D1uLE,
formerly Specialist in Agricultural Education, States Relations Service

CONTENTS
Page Page
LGA AROGIO OHIO ETS Si ae Seer pipe EN ee 1 | Lesson VI. Measuring and estimating timber_ 15
Sources of information______________________- 2 VII. Marketing farm timber___________ 17
AM EVS UVC Ves ear ee ey ee ees ee 2 VIII. Protecting the woods_____________ 18
Mlustraiivennatenial= iss 2a sya ees 3 IX. Improving the home forest by
*Rhewnomesprojecien = 552 ee ee 3 CULbbin gy Ite Seren a ee YEE ES 21
Lesson I. Forest trees and forest types-_ _____- 4 X. Growth of trees and forests_______ 23
II. Location and extent of woodlands_ 9 XI. Forest reproduction_____._______- 25
III. Economic value of the forest ______ 0) XII. Woodlands and farm management 28
IV. Products from the home forest _ __- 2s Supplements koe wee ye ie a ee al 31
VesU sing farnittimberi2s sess oe 14
INTRODUCTION

The right handling of the home forest has come to be a matter
of recognized importance in farm management. Farming touches
forestry at a number of different pots. The farm requires timber
for the building and repair of houses, barns, sheds, fences, and tele-
phone lines. It needs more or less wood for fuel, and it should have
some woodland also for protecting the soil against erosion on steep
slopes, for shelter for growing crops and livestock against the hot,
dry winds of midsummer, the cold winds of winter, and likewise for
the comfort of man and the home of game animals.

A farm without some woods is less attractive as a place to live
and usually less valuable than one with at least a little woodland
and some forest trees scattered about. Thus woodlands have a
place both in the management of the farm and in the development of
the community.

The lessons which follow present the subject of farm forestry from
the standpoint of the important local kinds of forest trees and their
uses, the proper location of woodlands on the farm, their economic
value to ihe on the different farm timber products, measuring and
marketing timber, utilizing timber rightly on the farm, protecting
and improving woodlands, and planting young timber. A knowledge
of farm forestry, applied along simple lines, should make farming
more profitable. These lessons have been prepared to give to the

ft

9 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

organized school work in elementary agriculture additional impetus
in forestry, to provide material for instruction that is within the
range of elementary pupils, and to furnish a topic for home projects
that may be worked out profitably to every community and with
real educational value to the pupils themselves. .

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Practically all the subject matter for class use and instructions
for home projects will be found in bulletins available, either free or
at a small cost. Almost every State agricultural college has pub-
lished one or more bulletins on some phase of forestry, and in most
instances these may be had for the asking. Address the dean of the
agricultural college. ;

The Farmers’ Bulletins of the United States Department of Agri-
culture referred to in this bulletin will cover many of the topics to
be studied. Bulletins in this list will be sent free, so long as the
supply lasts, to any resident of the United States, upon application

to his Senator, Representative, or Delegate in Congress, or to the -

Office of Publications, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washing-
ton, D. C. Because of the limited supply, applicants are urged to
select only a few numbers, choosing those which are of special in-
terest, and ordering but one copy of each. When the free supply
has been exhausted, a number are yet for sale by the Superintend-
ent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.,
at 5 cents each. Other publications of this department are also for
sale by the Superintendent of Documents, but these are more often
technical bulletins and of interest to those only who wish to special-
ize in the subject.

Frequently revised classified lists of department publications on
different phases of agriculture, one of which is on the subject of
forestry, are issued by the Division of Agricultural Instruction, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, for teachers’ use. The teacher will find
that a number of the textbooks on forestry are suited to his needs,
and that some of the elementary textbooks may be used by the pupils.

In addition to the Farmers’ Bulletins and other Department Bul-
letins, the Forest Service issues a number of circulars on various
phases of forestry which may be obtained directly from that bureau.

THE SURVEY

‘One of the means by which the teacher may become informed
about the forestry interests of the district is a woodland survey.
The pupils may assist in obtaining this information, but a first-
hand knowledge obtained by the teacher will be a valuable aid.

This survey should include the kind of woodland, whether hard-
wood, conifer, or mixed type, the important species of trees in the
forest stand, in respect to their abundance and their use and com-
mercial value, the ieedine rough timber products that have been
sold, and the prices received in the woods or shipping point. This
information may be collected and tabulated.

A map of the district may be procured, or, if not available, one
can be drawn on a large sheet by the pupils. On this map the homes
and farms of the pupils are to be located. Place signs, emblems, or

i
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FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 8

colored bits of paper to represent various facts from your tabula-
tions; for example, colored circles to represent young, middle age,
or mature woodland, squares to represent timber products sold, ete.
Additional facts may be placed on this map, taking especial note of
the acreage per farm, interest in taking care of standing timber, etc.

ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL

Construct a chart showing the relation in size of crown and trunk
of a typical tree growing in the open (limby) and a tree in a close
stand (long, smooth trunk). Illustrate by a diagram the maximum
wood production per acre and quality production of good timber by
a crowded stand of trees and a thinned stand formerly containing
more trees per acre.

Make drawings of the cross section of a tree trunk showing how
the tree increases by a new ring of growth each year. Collect leaf
specimens of the trees of the district and mount same on cardboard
alter pressing and drying them. Collect samples of the wood of the
trees of the locality of approximately uniform size and mount them
on boards, or hang them in frames or racks especially constructed.

If possible, obtain hke specimens of the woods of other localities.
These samples may be classified and mounted into groups such as”
hardwoods and softwoods, or oaks, maples, pines, etc. At least a
small collection of such woods should be a part of the equipment of
every school. Charts showing the relative importance and uses of
the most abundant woods should be made.

Write to the Division of Agricultural Instruction, U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., for list of lantern-slide sets with
lecture syllabi on the different phases of forestry. These sets of
slides are loaned to teachers free of charge.

THE HOME PROJECT

It is agreed by teachers of agriculture that instruction in that
subject should follow certain definite lines: (1) It should be sea-
sonal. (2) Itshould be local initsinterests and development. (3) It
should meet the interests of the pupils. (4) It should be practical.
The home-project plan affords the best means of meeting these con-
ditions, especially the practical side. The pupil is working out for
himself the principles and theories taught in the classroom.

The term “home project,’’ applied to instruction in elementary
and secondary agriculture, includes each of the following requisites:
(1) There must be a plan for work at home covering a season more
or less extended. (2) It must be a part of the instruction in agri-
culture of the school. (3) There must be a problem more or less
new to the pupil. (4) The parents and pupil should agree with the
teacher on the plan. (5) Some competent person must supervise the
home work. (6) Detailed records of time, method, cost, and income
must be honestly kept. (7) A written report based on the record
must be submitted to the teacher. This report may be in the form
of a booklet.

Type of forestry project.—A project in forestry must of necessity
be of a much different type than a project in farm crops or animal
production. . The slow growth of forest trees and other factors in-

4 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

volved make it a project covering more than one season. However,
forest projects can be conducted and made of much value to the
student and community. Among the forestry projects that can be
carried out, the following are suggested: The renovation of a farm
- woodland, the replanting-of a woodland and subsequent care of the
young trees, the planting of forest trees on some eroding lands or
other waste ground on the farm, mapping and finding area of a forest
tract, cutting and marketing farm forest’ products, giving especial
attention to the proper cutting of trees and to the removal of the
parts of the trees not marketed, a study and survey of forest fires, in-
sect enemies, and the diseases of the common forest trees.

Lesson I. FOREST TREES AND FOREST TYPES

Problem.—To learn to know at sight the chief forest trees of the
locality. 5
— Sources of information.—Bulletins of the State colleges of agricul-
ture and State foresters on forest trees; Forestry Bulletin 17; forest
tree key and description of 100 important forest trees on pages 40-48 ~
of Supplement. The Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington, D. C., 1s ready to identify leaves, fruit, buds, and
wood that puzzle the young forester.

Illustrative material:—The best illustrative material for this lesson
is to be found in the woods, where the trees may be seen and their
characteristics studied. In case this can not be done, pictures of
typical trees may be used. Blackboard sketches showing the form
of different trees are easily made and should be used in this lesson.

Topics of study.—Getting acquainted with the important kinds of
forest trees in your locality. Their various common names and other
names. A few trees are known widely by the same common name,
but many are called by different names in various sections of the
country. The importance of botanical names for certain identifica-
tion. Distinguishing the different kinds or species of trees by some
well-marked characteristics of leaf, bark, fruit, seed, buds, or twig
arrangement.

Conifers: Trees bearing cones, such as the pines, spruces, firs, hem-
locks, cedars, junipers, larches, and cypress. How do bald cypress
and the larches differ from the others? Distinguishing characteristics
of each group or genus, and something about its different members or
species, particularly those that occur locally.

Hardwoods: Trees, most of which have wood harder than that of
the conifers and broad leaves which are deciduous, or are shed in the
fall. Kinds of hardwood trees which are evergreen. Group the
hardwood trees into general groups, such as the oaks, maples, elms,
and others, and identify as many different species of each as possible.

Kinds of trees which are associated together in different forest
types, such as (a) ridge type, (6) slope or cove type, (c) bottom-land
type, and (d) swamp type. What trees locally are associated to
make (a) coniferous forest type, (6) pure hardwood type, and (e)
mixed hardwood and conifer type.

Practical exercises—Gathering leaves and fruit of the important
local forest trees; press in wrapping paper, folded and labeled with
place and date.

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 5

Studying the shape and size of leaves; trace a leaf of each of the
important kinds of trees, and label with name, place where found,
and date.

Fic. 1.—White oak, a woodland tree of wide distribution and high value, representative of the
pure hardwood type

Grouping trees by kinds of fruit borne—nuts, keys, berries, cones,
etc. |

Collect samples of winter buds from leading kinds of trees, label-
ing with name of tree, place of collection, and date.

OO

6 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Study of winter buds, with drawings of buds and twig arrange-
ment.

Collect tree blossoms from red and silver maples, willows, catalpa,
elm, oak, dogwood, tulip poplar, basswood, buckeye, and magnolia.

Field study..—Now to the woods, that you may come into personal
touch with the forest trees of your own neighborhood.

Leaves: The leaf is the trade-mark of the trees. Gather the
leaves, study and compare them to gain a first knowledge of the trees
as individuals, then as groups. The tulip poplar writes its name

1 The sections on field study in Lessons I and III were contributed by Miss Lucy Kellerhouse, of the
Forest Service.

Fic. 2.—White oak leaf, flower, fruit, and winter bud: a, Pistillate or female flower; b, staminate or male flower; c, winter bud,

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 7

plainly upon its square-cut leaf, but the boxelder has a leaf some
what resembling the ash, though its seed is similar to the maple key.
Wherein does the ash leaf differ from that of the locust or the hickory ?
The oaks are divided into the red and the white oaks. What is a
typical leaf of each class?

You will probably begin this study in the autumn, so before the
leaves fall and your memory of them fails press and either mount
them or place in paper folders, and label with name, place where
found, and date.

If the foliage of the black gum is now reddening, that of the red
gum will also soon begin to color, and presently all the woods will
seem as if on fire. The autumn colors will help to identify your
trees and beautify your herbarium. <A few of the broadleaf trees
and all the conifers except the larches and bald cypress are evergreen.
Separate the conifers into the pines, spruces, eae: or other cone
bearers of your woods, and divide into as many species as you find.
Draw a diagram, and under the two heads, broadleaf trees and coni-
fers, group the trees that youidentify, with a short description of each.

Fruit: While you are gathering leaves, bring in the fruit, or seed,
that you find—the pulpy fruit, nuts, berries, pods, winged seed, and
tufted seed of the broadleaf trees and the cones of the conifers, and
add to your herbarium. - :

Buds: As the leaves fall, gather the bare branches and study the
winter buds that hold next year’s leaves and flowers, from the big
bud that tips the horse-chestnut to the long, sharp bud of the beech.
Label them as you did the leaves.

Bark: The sycamore bark tells its own story, but do you know
the bark of the elm from that of the ash? Contrast the glove-fitting
bark of the beech with the rough-and-ready coat of the shagbark
hickory.

Branches: Each tree has its own way of branching, though its
form is not always so definite as the red cedar spire. What is typi-
cal of the white-oak bough? The leaves of the scarlet and the pin
oak are considerably alike, but what is the character of each tree?
Draw a leafless elm.

Flowers: When spring comes and the buds are bursting, do not
forget the flowers of the forest trees. They form a clock dial for the
advancing year. So, as they bloom in succession, bring in the blos-
soms of the willow, the maple, the elm, and the cottonwood, until
you have gathered the last flower of June, and seed are on the wing.

While you have been getting acquainted with your trees, you
have learned that they prefer certain localities; you have found the
willow by the stream, the yellow or tulip poplar in the valley, the
red oak on the higher ground, for one needs much moisture in its
soil while another will grow in a drier situation. You have dis-
covered that certain trees “‘hobnob”’ together because of similar re-
quirements for soil, moisture, and light. In this way you will learn
to group your trees into forest types when you begin your practical
work as the forester of your home woodland.

Correlations.—Drawing: Sketch the different types of trees in
the district; make drawings or tracings of the daeeoate shaped
leaves. Mount these drawings and file with other illustrative ma-
terial.

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Fic. 3.—Leaf outlines of a few important species of forest trees. (Reduced—not to uniform seale)

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 9

Language: An account of a field trip carefully written will make
a good English exercise. <A tree Botklet describing the different
types of trees, telling where they are found, some of their charac-
teristics and uses, illustrated by original drawings and neatly bound
with an attractive cover page, will furnish an excellent drill both
in language and in drawing.

Lesson Il. LOCATION AND EXTENT OF WOODLANDS

Problem.—To study places about the farm where trees can be
grown profitably.

Sources of wnformation.—Farmers’ Bulletins 358, 745, 1071, and
1117; Department Bulletin 481.

Topics for study.—Places about the farm where forest trees and
woods should be kept. Timber is a poor-land crop. Places where
forest trees are profitable: (1) Poor soils. (2) Steep slopes. (3)
Eroding soils. (4) Rocky land. (5) Wet land. (6) Unused cor-
ners or waste places.

Extent of woodlands in the locality: Proportion of crop land and
woodland. The total acres of woods on 10 to 20 representative farms
in the locality. ;

Practical exercises.—From the data gathered in the survey con-_
struct a chart showing the proportion of crop land and woodland,
the total crop acreage, and the total woodland acreage. Study the
places where you find trees growing and list such locations as in-
dicated in topics for study. What type of trees do you find com-
monly growing in each of these localities? What farms could profit-
ably plant forest trees? What sort of trees should be planted in
case a young forest is established?

Correlations.— Drawing: Draw a map of a farm or of the school
district, locating the poor soils, steep slopes, eroding soils, rocky
land, wet land, unused corners.or waste land, and mark on this map
the names of the trees that grow on these places or that could be
profitably grown thereon.

Language: Write a report showing the advantages of using the
poor soils and waste lands for tree planting, giving examples from
the farms of the district if possible.: 7

Arithmetic: Problems showing comparative acreage of crop land
and woodland, and percentages of each, will be suggested in the
study of this lesson.

Lesson III. ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE FOREST

Problem.—To learn the value of a forest as conserver of soil
moisture, as protection against soil erosion, as a shelter against ex-
tremes of temperature, and as a means of increasing the farm income.

Sources of information.—Farmers’ Bulletins 358, 715, 745, 788,
1071, and 1117; Department Bulletin 481; Yearbook Separates 688
and 886; Forestry Misc. F-I.

Illustrative material.—The best illustrative material will be found
in a field trip to the woods and field. Actual examples of the use of
the trees can be pointed out. If a field AD is not practicable, illus-
trations may be clipped from papers and magazines showing the

10 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

erosion on unprotected hillsides and the use of trees as shelters in
pastures and about the farm buildings.
Topics for study.—With an acquaintance formed with the different
species of trees, it will be worth while to learn their value both as in-
ividual trees and associated together in woodlands.
Timber or wood products: Trees, grouped according to their value
for wood or timber. (This is expanded in Lesson IV.)
How a forest cover conserves the water from rainfall or melting
snow.
Flow of streams from open and from forested land; seepage and
springs. Protecting watersheds of city reservoirs and headquarters
of large streams from erosion and floods. State and municipal

Fic. 4.—The forest floor. Leaves and twig litter on the ground beneath the trees, spongy layer of de-
composed vegetable matter or humus, this and the lower layer of soil interlaced with tree roots and
Eootlets, and the clay subsoil. Dense growth of seedling and sapling trees covering and protecting
the soi

forests. The 150,000,000 acres of Government national forests held
for protection of watersheds and streams and for a permanent tim-
ber supply. Private owners hold four-fifths of the total standing
timber in the United States.

How trees protect the soil against erosion and the formation of
cullies on steep slopes. Examples of local hillsides and regions of
the United States.

Effect of woods as shelter against hot dry winds and cold winds
for growing grain and fruit crops, livestock, and the farm home.
The difference felt in temperature of the air in midsummer out in
the open road or field and in the shade of a single tree or of woods.
The same as experienced on a cold windy day in winter.

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FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS fel:

Field study.—In an excursion with the teacher to the hills and
fields the class can learn, by actual observation, the bond between
the forest and the river.

As soon as the pupil leaves the open and enters the cool shade of
the woods he will note the forest floor—the undergrowth of young
trees and shrubs, the ferns and moss, and the litter of fallen leaves.
With his jackknife, or a trowel, let him dig down beneath this cover
into the mold of many years of fallen leaves. The soil will be spongy
and moist. What happens when rain falls or snow melts? Under
the shadow of the forest it sinks into the spongy earth. (Fig. 4.)

What becomes of the rain and snow that the forest has soaked u
like a sponge? Find a spring. This is where the stored water is

Fic. 5,—Effect of deforestation. Washing of soil and devastion of valuable farm lands at the heads of
streams

seeping out to feed the streams. The rainfall that has been held back
in the hidden reservoir of the forest is here transformed into a steady
supply of water for the pasture, the farm, the mill, and the city.

Let the class now return to the open and dig into the soil on the
unwooded slope. It will be found dry and hard. What happens
when the rain falls or the snow melts on the open hillside? It is not
held back and absorbed but rushes down the slope. In a heavy rain
the streams rise rapidly. Perhaps the class will find a bridge that
has been carried away in a freshet. Some one may tell of the log
bridge on the farm that was destroyed. Then what happens when
the winter snow melts upon the unprotected mountain slopes and
the spring rains swell the rivers? (Figs. 5 and 6.)

12 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

While the class is on the open hillside, places will be found where
the soil, which has no roots to bind it, has been washed away by the
rain, and on some steep slope there will be deep gullies dug into the
ground.

Where does the soil go that is washed down the slope? Into the
stream. Perhaps the stream carries the silt into the water supply of
a city. If there is a river near, a sand bar may be found that has
washed down from the hill country. What do muddy rivers mean
to the harbors near the coast? Who has seen a dredge at work
scooping up the silt to keep the channel free? This means a vast
expense to the country.

The pupil who has noted these facts about woodland, soil, and
stream will begin to see the relation which the forests of our country
bear to the well-being ot the land. The little examples that he finds
in his own neighborhood of soil protection and good streams, of

Fic. 6.—Effect of deforestation. Sand bars in the stream channels. Millions of dollars are spent yearly
in dredging our rivers to keep them navigable

erosion and flood damage, are intimations of the larger meaning of
the Nation’s forests to farm land and industry and commerce. His
own home woodland is a part of nature’s plan to aid man and his
enterprise.

Lesson IV. PRODUCTS FROM THE HOME FOREST

Problem.—What products from the home forest can be utilized
by the farm both for home use and for the market?

Sources of wnformation.—Farmers’ Bulletins 516, 1071, 1117, and
1210; Department Bulletins 12, 605, and 753; Yearbook Separate 779.

Illustrative material_—Prepare a wall chart showing in a tabulated
form the varous wood products. In each product column write the
name of the tree or, better still, place a sample of the wood that
furnished that product. Prepare another chart showing in like
manner other timber products such as nuts, roots, bark, gum, and

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FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 13

edible fruits, listing the trees the same as in above chart. Any of the
products from root, bark, gum, etc., will also make interesting and
useful illustrative material.

Topics for study—Wood, in a rough state, is the principal farm
timber product. What kinds of wood are used for the following
rough products: (1) Saw logs; (2) poles and piling; (3) fence posts;
(4) bolts, blocks, or billets for (a) cooperage, (b) implement handles,
(c) wagon and automobile spokes, (d) pulp wood; (5) crossties; and
(6) fuel wood. The sizes and other requirements for each of these
various wood products, including the species of trees which are best
suited and bring highest prices on the market.

Forest trees which produce nuts of commercial value; roots, bark,
gum, and edible fruit. List of these products under each head and
what. they are used for commercially.

Fic. 7.—High-grade saw logs and rough stave boards cut from woodlands

Lumber is manufactured from the product of the woodland saw
logs. (How to measure sawed lumber treated in Lesson VI.) That
ners is ordinarily done by the sawmill man rather than by the

armer.

Practical exercises—What is the chief use of wood in the district?
What other forest products are made or used here? What trees
furnish the greater amount of wood? What kind of lumber is
sawed in the district? What becomes of this lumber? If there are
any wood product factories in the district. arrange for a trip to the
same and study the various processes from the rough wood to the
finished products. What timber in the district is most valuable?
Why? An interesting study to make is the part forest products play
in the construction of machinery, transportation lines, airplanes, etc.

Correlations. —Geography: Trace the timber products of the dis-
trict to their market. In a like manner locate the source of timber
Beau brought into the district and trace their probable route.

n a State map locate the timber areas and learn, if possible, the

14 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT. OF AGRICULTURE

important kinds of trees in each area. Locate the great lumber
regions of the United States. From what ports are forest products
of the United States exported ?

Arithmetic: Construct problems in which the prices of timber
products are used. Use, if possible, the value of the forest products,
the price of timber land, and prices of the miscellaneous forest
products.

Language: Make a study of the forest products of the district and
write a report of your study. Another report of value. will be that
on the forest products that are imported into the district.

Lesson V. USING FARM TIMBER

Problem.—To discover the right uses of farm timber.

Sources of anformation.—Farmers’ Bulletins 516, 744, 1023, 1071,
1117, 1177, and 1210; Department Bulletins 718 and 753; Forestry
Bulletins 80 and 144; publications of State foresters and colleges of
agriculture. :

Illustratwe material.—Again a field trip will furnish the bestillus-
trative material for this lesson. Note the height of the stumps
where timber has been cut, the careless felling of trees causing dhe
injuring of young trees, the tops and large limbs left in the forest.
In the absence of a field trip, pictures may be shown illustrating the
points mentioned above.

Topics for study.—The right using of timber on the farm should
begin at the time the tree is cut. Waste of good timber in the
woods is altogether too common nowadays, when wood is high-priced
and getting scarcer.

High stumps mean usually that the best quality of the timber in
the tree is wasted. Often the value of the timber left in high stumps
is sufficient to pay for all the costs of logging. Saw logs can now
be taken profitably from the tops which had to be left only a few
years ago. Wherever possible the tops should be worked up into
crossties, mine props, or firewood. By careless felling of trees much
promising young timber is broken and destroyed.

High grade and valuable timber should not be used in places about
the farm where less valuable woods will answer the purpose. Some-
times choice, white oak worth $40 a thousand feet in the log for
veneers is split up into fence posts, or black walnut used for farm
gates because it won’t split. Substitutes can be found by children
upon inquiry from their parents or neighbors. ,

Small and young timber cut in making improvement thinnings in
overcrowded stands can often be sold or used on the farm for posts,
poles, or firewood, instead of being allowed to decay in the woods.

Treating of fence posts: Short-lived woods when soaked in hot and
then cold creosote last from 10 to 20 years as fence posts. As the
supply of long-lived woods, such as black locust, osage orange, red
cedar, chestnut, mulberry, and catalpa become scarce, treated fence

posts are being increasingly used. Almost all farms have some com-
mon woods growing, practically all of which take coal-tar creosote
readily.

Practical exercises.—In a field trip to the farm forests note what
care is taken in felling trees, the disposition of limbs and tops, and
the height of the stumps. What examples may be found where an

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 15

expensive wood is used that could be replaced by a cheaper sub-
stitute? What high-priced timber is found in the district? What
is the common method of treating fence posts? How do telephone
and telegraph companies protect their poles?) What good and what
bad example of the use of farm timber can you mention ?

Correlations —Language: Make a written or an oral report on the
methods of cutting and handling timber on the farm, with especial
reference to disposing of waste timber. Write a short account of
the best methods used in the preservation of timber used in posts,
railroad ties, and other lumber.

Arithmetic: Measure the height of stumps in a cut-over piece of
timber and calculate the amount of lumber wasted. If one hundred
7-foot black walnut fence posts averaging 5 inches square in size can
be replaced by 100 locust or red cedar posts of the same size, calcu-

Fic. 8.—Small pine logs cut in improving the woods by thinning

late, on the basis of local prices, the amount saved by the substitution.
If creosoting a softwood post costs 15 cents each for treating but will
make it last three times as long as one not treated, assuming average
present local prices for labor in replacements and cost of untreated

osts, what will be saved in 20 years in fencing a quarter section of
and with posts spaced 12 feet apart?

Lesson VI. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING TIMBER

Problem.—How shall timber be measured and estimated ?

Sources of information.—Farmers’ Bulletin 1210; colleges of agri-
culture or State foresters’ publications; rule for scaling logs, page 37.

Topics for study—Measuring saw logs: Show how the diameter
at the small end is found by measuring inside the bark along an
average line, or two measurements taken at right angles and the

two averaged. The diameter and length found, the approximate lum-
1913°—25t|——3

16 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ber contents is found by referring to a copy of some log rule; prob-
ably the most common rule in use is the Doyle, although for small
logs under 16 to 20 inches it is very inaccurate, because from one-
third to one-half more lumber is usually sawed out than is indicated
by the rule. (See Supplement, p. 37.)

How bolts and billets are measured. What makes a standard
cord of wood?

Allowances made for defects in saw logs, bolts, or blocks, and in
other material.

Estimating standing trees: Finding approximately the contents of
standing trees in cords or
board feet of lumber by
measuring the diameter at
breast height (4% feet
above theground), estimat-
ing or measuring the num-
ber of 16-foot log cuts in the
tree, and by theinformation
- given in Farmers’ Bulletin

1210. Find the merchant-
able contents of the tree
expressed in board feet.

Estimating whole woods:
Applying thesame method

to all the trees on a meas-
ured one-tenth or one-
quarter acre, and thereby
estimating the contents
per acre. Recording the
measurements by different
species on a simple blank
form ruled in squares in
two directions.

Practical exercises —This
lesson should be essentially
one of practice. The class
should measure logs ac-
cording to the Doyle rule,

See SO Re SO standing trees by the use of
Fic. 9.—Measuring and estimating the saw timber in a volume tables for trees, and

ae ao FeEES ae cordwood by dimensions of
the piles. A good exercise for the more advanced students is tomake
estimates on logs and standing trees and then by applying the Doyle
rule or the volume table test the accuracy of the estimates. The
practical value of this lesson is in acquainting the pupils with com-
paratively easy ways by which they can measure logs and cordwood
and estimate the amount of lumber or cordwood in trees.

Correlations.—The operations mentioned in the practical exercises
will afford abundant work in calculations and suggest a varied list
of arithmetic problems.

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS iL 7

Lesson VII. MARKETING FARM TIMBER

Problem.—How shall the farm timber be marketed to the best
advantage.

Sources of information.—Karmers’ Bulletins 1100 and 1210; bulletins
of the State colleges of agriculture and State foresters.

Illustratwe materval—Timber price lists. Addresses of firms deal-
ing in timber. Local prices for cordwood, posts, crossties, and piling.

Topics for study —H¥ inding the best markets: Before timber is cut
its approximate size and amount by species, and its disposal should
be determined as definitely as possible. How to find buyers of cut-
timber products. How are logs, bolts or billets, piling, posts, cross-
ties, and firewood generally sold? Advertising in the newspapers,
consulting neighbors who have recently sold timber, consulting State
foresters and reliable experienced men.

Fic. 10.—The best timber brings high prices and can usually be shipped for veneer or quarter-sawed
lumber. Several owners can join in marketing a carload lot

The owner protecting himself by a simple form of written con-
tract: Much loss comes to sellers of timber products by failure to
peeve this precaution and to have the agreement in proper written —
Clava

Selling timber standing: Selling for a stated sum by the acre,
or a lump sum for the whole tract or ‘“‘boundary.”’

What to sell and what timber to keep growing in the woods;
what timber to sell and what to use at home. Choice logs of certain
woods bring high prices and can be profitably shipped long distances
by rail or water.

Cooperative marketing of farm timber: Carload lots of logs, etc.,
the least amount that can profitably be shipped. Many wood
manufacturing concerns buy direct from producers in carload lots.

-

18 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

A farmer may not have sufficient white-oak saw logs or hickory spoke
blocks to pay to ship.
Practical exercises—What timber is being sold in the district?

Who is buying it? To what place isit being shipped? What stand- -

ing timber is sold in the district? What cooperative shipping cf
timber do you find? Visit a wood yard and note methods of hand-
ling the wood and get prices per cord on the different sizes of wood.

Correlations —Abundant exercises in arithmetic will be suggested
by the prices of timber and amounts sold. If a price list of timber
and its products at the final market can be had, some interesting
problems can be worked out by comparisons with local prices.

For a language exercise make a report on the various kinds of
timber marketed, prices paid, methods of transportation, and markets.

Fic. 11—Oak spoke blocks, piling, and cross ties ready for shipment

Lesson VIII. PROTECTING THE WOODS

Problem.—To learn the best methods of protecting woodlands, and
to discover the kind and extent of injury or loss due to forest fires.

Sources of information.—Farmers’ Bulletins 173, 1177, and 1188;
Forestry Circular 205; Department Bulletins 308 and 787; Year-
book Separate 548; State publications. The United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture and the agricultural colleges will be glad to
render assistance by identifying and furnishing information concern-
ing various forest insects and plants.

Illustrative material——Pictures of forest fires, burnt over wood-
lands, forest rangers, their camps and equipment, copies of the
United States: Forest Regulations, and charts for fire prevention
will make excellent illustrative material. Pictures of trees damaged
by insects or fungi, samples of damaged wood, samples of insecticides
and materials used to prevent insects from -damaging trees should
also be used. Pere

>.

Pee 8 ee SSO eee

- a0, ul ten Pears

~! bee.

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RA BG GR io

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 19

Topics of study.—Fire, the arch enemy of the forest: It kills large
numbers of the smaller trees and kills or weakens the vitality of the
older trees; the humus layers over the ground are destroyed. The
loss of the protective covering exerts a marked effect in causing the
soil to dry out and become hard as a result of which the rain is shed
off rapidly following dry weather, much as when it falls on a house
roof. Trees in farm woodlands and city parks are often seen dying
at the tops, most usually from this cause.

HELP
PREVENT WOODS FIRES.
BE SURE your match is out before throwing it away.
DON’T throw away burning tobacco.
CHOOSE a safe place and make your camp fire small.

PUT OUT your fire with water and then cover it with
earth.

DON’T make large brush heaps. Choose a still day for
burning and plow furrows to protect near-by woods.

BE CAREFUL WITH FIRE.

Forest rangers employed by the States and Government for the ad-
ministration and protection of the State and national forests. What
type of men are required for forest rangers whose duties require them
to live out of doors and ride or work in all kinds of weather?’ Each
national forest divided into districts in charge of rangers. FT ire-pro-
tective plans worked out in great detail for detecting and fighting
fires as soon as possible after they start. Fire-fighting equipment,
such as lookout peaks and towers, telephone lines, and fire-fighting
tool boxes at convenient points over the forest. Airplanes and radio
also have their uses.

Protection for State forest lands by similarly organized methods.
Federal cooperation with the various States authorized by the Weeks
law, for the protecting against fire of headwaters of navigable
streams.

The grazing of livestock has much the same effect in removing
the protective covering and packing the ground hard. Cattle and
horses browse off the tender young seedlings and tramp down the
upper soil layers. Sheep and goats are very destructive to young
seedlings, particularly when closely herded. Hogs feed upon most
kinds of acorns and nuts, although by rooting up the leaf litter they
sometimes favorably expose the mineral soil for the quick germina-
tion of tree seeds. Hogs are very destructive to the seed or mast of
the long-leaf pine, and the young seedlings are killed in large num-
bers by animals stripping off the thick, sweet, spongy bark from the
roots.

Damage by insects: Leaf and inner bark-eating, twig-cutting,
bark and wood-boring insects. Methods of checking spread of insect
infestation by right methods of cutting.

Fungi in forest trees as a source of the dying and injury of many
trees. Some trees moreimmune than others. Importance of keeping

20

BULLETIN 863, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BREST SERV}

USS

PREVENT
FOREST FIRES

Start camp fires only in safe

places and extinguish them
completely before leaving.
Put out any fire discovered
or report it to the nearest
Forest Officer. ‘The Laws
provide heavy penalties for
wilful or careless setting of
forest fires. A reward will be
paid for information leading
to conviction of offenders.

Form 986

Fic. 12.—One of the fire signs posted widely in the national forests

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 21

woods in a healthy growing condition and rightly cut in order to
combat the spread of fungus diseases.

Practical exercises—What damages to woodlands occur in the
district? What forest protection in use in this locality? Do you
find any disease or insect attacking any special group of trees? Are
farm animals allowed to graze in farm woodlands? If so, what
damages do you notice?

Lesson IX. IMPROVING THE HOME FOREST BY CUTTING

Problem.—How to improve the home forest by proper cutting.

Sources of information.—Farmers’ Bulletins 1071, 1117, and 1177;
Forestry Bulletins 92 and 96; Department Bulletins 11, 13, 139, and
308; Forestry Misc. R-3; State foresters’ publications.

Illustrative material.—Charts or illustrations showing results of
overcrowding and of proper thinning out of forest trees. Pictures
showing results of careless felling of trees. If possible, visit a forest
where these results can be actually shown by observing rings on
stumps or cutting into trees that have been several years previously
thinned. In an even-aged group, note different sizes of trees of same
age as result of differences in growing space.

Topics for study.—Cutting the individual tree rightly; why as
little as possible of the tree’s stump and top should be left in the
woods; careful fellmg of trees. What is liable to happen to trees
injured by another falling?

Thinning out overcrowded stands of forest trees. How fewer and
fewer trees can grow on an acre as the trees increase in size. Avail-
able light supply for growth. Purpose of thinning to utilize timber
that would otherwise die and go to waste. Also to stimulate the
remaining trees to increased growth, which means increased value.

Improve the woods by proper cutting, taking out (1) the mature,
(2) broken, crooked, diseased trees, and (3) the slow-growing and less-
valuable species of trees. Most woodlands have many such trees
crowding out young, promising trees of the better kinds. Making
woodlands yield a profit on the investment, increasing farm income
and the selling value of the farm.

Practical exercises.—The facts taught in this lesson should be
verified by actual observation in trips to forests. Study first hand
the results mentioned in the lesson. A good project would be the
improvement of a forest plat by proper thinning, including the
removal of diseased, defective, overcrowded, and dead trees, and
undesirable species.

Correlations.—The class in drawing may construct the charts men-
tioned under ‘Illustrative material.’”?’ They should also make draw-
ings of trees showing development under adverse conditions and of
others under proper conditions.

Language: A survey of the general practice of home forest im-
provement of the district with a written report of the same will
afford a very good exercise in language.

Geography: A district or county map locating the farm forest
areas and designating those under improvement. An outline map of
the State locating the farm forest areas.

29°, BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

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Fic. 13.—The growth and value of pine are increased by repeated thinning. The trees removed can gener-
ally be used or sold profitably for firewood, treated fence posts, or small timber. A, Before thinning.
Fifteen overcrowded trees (shaded trees to be cut). B, The same stand five years after thinning. Six
larger and more valuable trees (shaded tree to be cut)

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 93
Lesson X. GROWTH OF TREES AND FORESTS

Problem.—To learn how trees and forests grow.

Sources of information.—Farmers’ Bulletins 134, 173, and 1071;
Forestry Bulletin 92; Department Bulletin 308.

Illustrative material.—Potted seedlings, pots or boxes, and seeds
of trees. A chart showing roots, stem, and leaves of a tree. A chart,

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Fia. 14.—How the tree trunk grows. All growth takes place in the cambium, lying between the inner
bark and sapwood. This is a very thin layer of living cells which divide and subdivide, forming on the
outside bark and on the inside wood (A). The inner bark, or last tissue, is soft and moist. Its function
is to carry the food prepared in the leaves to all growing parts of the tree (B). By a gradual change the
inner bark passes into outer bark, a corky layer composed of dry, dead cells. This serves to protect
the living stem against evaporation and mechanical injury (C). ‘The woody growth during one season
is called an annual ring. In the spring the newly formed cells are thin-walled and spongy, while in
midsummer and fall the walls of the cells become thicker and denser. ‘This difference can be distin-
guished in many kinds of trees as light-colored spring wood and darker colored Summer wood. Sap-
wood (D) is the lighter colored band of wood beneath the bark, often from 1 to 2inches thick. It carries
the sap from the roots to the leaves. Heartwood (E) is formed by a gradual change in the sapwood by
which it becomes darker, heavier, and often more lasting. Most of the trees, but not all, form heartwood.
Pith is the soft tissue on the innermost part of the stem, about which the first woody growth takes place
in the newly formed twig (F). From it extend the pith rays (G). These are flat, vertical bands of
essue yneh connect the pith with the various layers of wood and the inner bark. They transfer and
store up foo

or better, an actual cross section of a tree stem showing different
parts of the stem, such as annual rings, heartwood, sapwood, bark,
and cambium. Leaves mounted so that their structure can be |
studied. Branches showing bud and twig arrangement. Drawings
showing shapes of crowns of trees grown in the open and grown in
close stands. ©

24 BULLETIN 863, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Topics for study.—The life of a tree and why it is necessary to
know something about how trees live.

The leaves, trunk, and roots, and function of each in the tree’s
existence. How the tree breathes and gets its food from the soil and
air; what travels upward and what downward in the branches and
stems. Structure of the leaf and different parts of the trunk.

How the branches lengthen and the tree trunk increases in size;
the location, color, and structure of the living tissue or cambium
layer. What are annual rings, heartwood, and sapwood?

Requirements for growth: Air, light, moisture, and heat.

Trees in association—a stand. Influence of trees upon each other.
Difference, if any, between shape of crowns of open-grown trees and
those grown in close stands. Influence of different light and soil-

moisture supply.

Fic. 15.—Effect of light’ supply upon the form and commercial value of trees. A, Elm which grew
up among other trees of the same height but since cut down. Clear trunks make valuable lumber.
B, This elm grew standing in the open. ‘Trees with short limby trunks are useful chiefly as firewood

Effect of tree density (number of trees in a given area) upon
srowth of the individual tree. Natural dying out of trees in close
stands with advancing age. Understocked, well-stocked, and over-
stocked stands and the production of (a) saw timber and (0b) cord-
wood per acre under each condition.

Practical exercises —Make the following tests to show require-
ments for growth: Place a potted forest tree seedling in the dark
for a few days; withdraw moisture from one and supply moderate
amounts of moisture and excess moisture to other seedlings; sub-
ject plants, if possible, to different degrees of heat. Note results.
Erect a pole or 1 by 2 inch timber strip close beside a young, thrifty
sapling pine or hardwood. At regular intervals of a week or month,
mark on it the total height of the growing tree. Keep a record also
of the dates and measured heights.

OD ER NERO Sy aaa EGF eae on

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 95
Lesson XI. FOREST REPRODUCTION

Problem.—To learn how trees reproduce themselves.

Sources of wnformation.—Farmers’ Bulletins 134, 173, 423, 788,
1071, 1123, 1177, 1256, and 1312; Forestry Bulletins 45, 121, and
244; Forestry Circulars 45, 81, 99, and 208; Department Bulletin 153.

Illustrate materral—Make a collection of seed specimens of the
classes indicated under “‘ Topics for study.” Either mount these seeds
on cardboard or put them in wide-mouth bottles. Clip pictures of
young forest growth.

Topics for study.—Seeds: The various devices of nature for dis-
persing the seed widely. Tree fruits with (a) wings, plumes, ete.;
(b) pulpy fruit with bony seeds sought by birds; (c) el nut kernels
liked by rodents and birds, and often buried or otherwise stored
away; (d) light seeds which float or roll along the bottom of streams.
Species of trees whose seeds are (a) carried by wind, (b) water, or by
(c) birds and animals. (Fig. 16.)

Sprouts: Different species of trees which reproduce themselves by
means of sprouts from stumps. From what part or parts of the
stump do sprouts arise? Species which sprout from surface or lat-
eral roots. Influence of the season of the year when cutting is done
upon the vigor and growth of sprouts. Influence of age of parent.
tree upon success of sprouting.

Natural forest reproduction: Young growth. (Fig. 17.) Condi-
tions under which young growth starts in woodlands. A forest
without young growth is like a community without children—it will
die out. Need for large numbers of young trees for perpetuation of

the forest. Competition and shading out of the weaker seedlings

and saplings.

How the forest travels: (a) By wind; (b) by animals, birds, and
water. (Fig. 16.)

Age groups of young growth: (a) Seedling, (b) small sapling,
(c) large sapling, (d) small pole.

Starting a young forest by direct seeding or transplanting nur-
sery-grown seedlings. Sowing the seed direct where the trees are
wanted. Kinds of trees started this way: Usually the species diffi-
cult to transplant on account of large, deep taproots, such as hick-
ories, walnuts, some of the oaks, longleaf and some other pines.
Collecting the seed. Storing the seed over winter. Sections of the .
country (north) where seed sowing is best done in the spring and
(south) where it may be done in the fail or early winter. Preparation
of the soil and method of planting seed of different kinds. Care of
erowing seedlings.

Planting seedlings grown in nursery beds. Preparation of nur-
sery beds and sowing of seeds. Kinds of trees commonly raised in
nursery beds. Age of seedlings fit for planting. Need for trans-
planting seedlings in nursery prior to planting out in the woods or
fields. Season of year for successful laatine and method of plant-
ing. Sources of injury or loss, and means of combating. (Fig. 18.)

Regions where forest plantations are needed and commonly started.
Purposes for which plantations are set out. Kinds of trees profit-
apie in plantations. Pure and mixed plantations, and advantages
of each.

26 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BY WIND

Wi//ow

Fic. 16.—How the forest travels: By wind

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS

BY ANIMALS

Hickory
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Fic. 16.—How the forest travels: By animals; by birds; by water

i

28 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Planting steep slopes and eroding soils with forest trees to check
soil wastage and land destruction. Kinds of trees suitable for tak-
ing hold quickly and multiplying on such dry banks.

Filling up large openings in the woods and improving existing
woodlands by planting desirable species of trees.

Utilizing poor soils and so-called waste places about the farm by
planting quick-growing, useful kinds of trees: Black locust for fence
posts, pine and other species for use as treated fence posts.

Trees about the farm and farmstead for shade, nut production,
and ornamental purposes.

Fic. 17.—Woods with plenty of young growth coming on to take the place of the larger trees when cut

Lesson XII. WOODLANDS AND FARM MANAGEMENT

Problem.—How may the home forest be best managed to make it
more valuable, to increase the farm income, and to make the farm
more desirable ?

Sources of anformation.—Farmers’ Bulletins 635, 745, 1071, 1117,
1177, and 1210; Department Bulletin 481.

Topics for study.—Review importance and value of woodlands to
the farm. The uses of timber on the farm, and importance of having
home-grown timber close at hand.

Increasing the farm income by marketing the choice grades of
logs and other rough wood products not needed for home use.

Voodlands making farms more desirable and salable than simi-
lar farms without timber. The actual value of the timber and the
additional indirect or esthetic value because of attractiveness, a

yw ow oP ae ee

uiaihaceianadietead teats ee eats pities

Rae ic

Taek a

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 29

pee for the owner to recreate in, or a cover for small game. People
ave an inherent fondness for the woods. How the occurrence of
woods makes the community a better one in which to live.

Increasing or reducing the area in woods to the point of right pro-
portion of cropland, pastureland, and woodland. The soundness of
the farm policy of having permanent woodland on the farm. Proper
area in permanent woodland. Kind of soil, topography, and amount
of forest land in the locality, and their effect in determining the
area of permanent woodland.

Fic. 18.—Forest plantations are made with small seedlings and no later watering or cultivation are

necessary. Fire and grazing stock must be excluded

Waste or idle land, poor soils, steep slopes, wastes and gullies,
rocky and wet lands (fig. 19) made profitable by growing timber.

Handling woodlands so as to keep them at the highest point of pro-
duction. Overcutting and its ill effect upon the productive power
of the forest. Owners to be satisfied with a permanent revenue from
the woodland. Difference between a mine and a forest in respect to
their producing power.

Woodlands as a source of permanent revenue on the farm. Dif-
ferences between a timber tract containing thrifty young trees and
one with only scattered old trees and much sod and shrubs. The
forest capital—the stock of growing trees—must not be too heavily
cut. Because of the desire for ready money, there is constant danger
of this happening. The apparent returns may be increased for a

few years, while the productive capacity of the forest is being reduced

below the minimum limit. This point, below which the total
amount of growing timber should not be allowed to fall, is about one-

30 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

half the contents of a fully stocked stand at maturity. If the latter,
for example, is 40 cords per acre, then the woods should never con-
tain less than about 20 cords per acre as the growing stock or basis
necessary to secure the maximum production. This does not apply
to mixed hardwoods cut clean and renewed by sprouting.

Effect of the general rise in the value of all timber products in its
relation to desirability of holding woodlands and keeping them pro-
ductive. How a forest tract may supply timber yearly for many
years and meanwhile increase in value and be worth more at the end
of a long period.

Growing timber as a bank account upon which the owners may draw
repeatedly without diminishing the capital. A good form of prop-
orty to be handed down to the children as an inheritance.

ough Ridg
. (Wooded)

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Fia. 19.—Rough, steep, and poor lands and inaccessible parts of the farm increasing farm income
by growing trees in permanent woodlands

Keeping fire out of the woods, cutting the trees carefully, and find-
ing the best markets for excess timber products not needed on the
farm are indications of sound judgment in farm management.

Practical exercises.—A survey of the methods of caring for the
farm forest should be made. This survey should inquire into the
general practice of the district in the care of the forest, the forest
products marketed, the utilization of waste or idle lands for forest
tracts, the practice of replanting forest plats, and the general relation
of the acreage in forest to the crop and pasture acreage. From
this survey many facts will be obtained for class discussion in forest
management. A field trip into some of the farm woodlands of the
district is desirable where the studies made first-hand should include
the farm practice on the care of the forest.

SUPPLEMENT

PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRI-
CULTURE RELATING TO FORESTRY ON FARM WOODLANDS

DIRECTIONS FOR REQUESTING THESE PUBLICATIONS

(a) For publications available for free distribution, application should be
made to Director, Office of Publications, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C. (b) For publications for sale, application should be made
to the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,
D. C., inclosing the money in the form of cash or money order (stamps not
accepted).

The following lists are subject to frequent changes as available supplies become
exhausted and new publications are added:

FARMERS’ BULLETINS AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION

622. Basket Willow Culture.
744. Preservative Treatment of Farm Timbers.
745. Waste Land and Wasted Land on Farms.
1023. Machinery for Cutting Firewood.
1071. Making Woodlands Profitable in the Southern States.
1100. Cooperative Marketing of Woodland Products.
1117. Forestry and Farm Income.
1123. Growing and Planting Hardwood Seedlings on the Farm.
1177. Care and Improvement of the Farm Woods.
1188. The Southern Pine Beetle.
1210. Measuring and Marketing Farm Timber.
1256. Slash Pine.
1312. Tree Planting in the Great Plains Region.
1366. Production of Maple Sugar and Sirup.
1405. The Windbreak as a Farm Asset.

OTHER DEPARTMENT PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION

Forestry Bulletin 111, Lightning in Relation to Forest Fires.

Forestry Bulletin 114, Forestry Conditions in Louisiana.

Department Bulletin 152, The Eastern Hemlock.

Yearbook Separate 548, Fire Prevention and Control on the National Forests.

Yearbook Separate 688, Farms, Forests, and Erosion.

Department Circular 211, Government Forest Work.

Forestry Circular 205, Forest Fire Protection Under Weeks Law in Cooperation
with the States.

FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
Farmers’ Bulletin 134, Tree Planting for Rural School Grounds. Price 5 cents.
Farmers’ Bulletin 173, Primer of Forestry, Part I. Price 5 cents.
Farmers’ Bulletin 358, Primer of Forestry, Part II. Price 5 cents.
Farmers’ Bulletin 423, Forest Nurseries for Schools. Price 5 cents.
Farmers’ Bulletin 582, Uses for Chestnut Timber Killed by the Bark Disease.
Price 5 cents.
Forestry Bulletin 17, Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States. Price
15 cents.
Forestry Bulletin 36, The Woodsman’s Handbook. Price 25 cents.
Forestry Bulletin 58, The Red Gum. Price 15 cents.
Forestry Bulletin 61, Terms Used in Forestry and Logging. Price 5 cents.
Forestry Bulletin 92, Light in Relation to Tree Growth. Price 10 cents.

31

82 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Forestry Bulletin 96, Second Growth Hardwoods in Connecticut. Price 15 cents.

Forestry Bulletin 104, Principles of Drying Lumber. Price 5 cents.

Forestry Bulletin 117, Forest Fires. Price 10 cents.

Forestry Circular 65, Norway Spruce (Planting Leaflet). Price 5 cents.

Forestry Circular 77, Cottonwood (Planting Leaflet). Price 5 cents.

Forestry Circular 92, Green Ash (Planting Leaflet). Price 5 cents.

Forestry Circular 208, Extracting and Cleaning Forest Tree Seed. Price 5 cents.

Department Bulletin 12, Uses of Commercial Woods of the United States, Beech,
Birches, Maples. Price 10 cents.

Department Bulletin 13, White Pine under Forest Management. Price 15 cents.

Department Bulletin 55, The Balsam Fir. Price 10 cents.

Department Bulletin 153, Forest Planting in the Eastern United States. Price
10 cents.

Department Bulletin 212, Observations on the Pathology of the Jack Pine. Price
5 cents.

Department Bulletin 247, A Disease of Pines Caused by Cronartium Pyriforme.
Price 5 cents. :

Department Bulletin 272, The Southern Cypress. Price 20 cents.

Department Bulletin 285, The Northern Hardwood Forest. Price 20 cents.

Department Bulletin 299, The Ashes: Their Characteristics and Management.
Price 25 cents.

Department Bulletin 481, Status and Value of Farm Woodlots in the Eastern
United States. Price 15 cents. :

Department Bulletin 544, The Red Spruce: Its Growth and Management.
Price 20 cents.

Department Bulletin 605, Lumber Used in the Manufacture of Wooden Products.
Price 5 cents.

Department Bulletin 638, Forestry and Community Development. Price 10
cents.

Department Bulletin 683, Utilization of Elm. Price 10 cents.

Department Bulletin 718, Small Sawmills. Price 10 cents.

Department Bulletin 753, Use of Wood for Fuel. Price 10 cents.

Department Bulletin 787, Protection from the Locust Borer. Price 5 cents.

Department Bulletin 1061, Longleaf Pine. Price 25 cents.

Department Circular 64, How Lumber is Graded. Price 5 cents.

Yearbook Separate 779, Farm Woodlands and the War. Price 5 cents.

STATE FORESTRY DEPARTMENTS

Thirty-three States have departments of forestry, all of which publish more
or less material on varied phases of the subject. Applications should be ad-
dressed to the State foresters at the following places:

Alabama, State Commission of Forestry, Montgomery.

California, State Board of Forestry, Sacramento.

Colorado, State Board of Forestry, Fort Collins.

Connecticut, State Forester (under Agricultural Experiment Station), New
Haven.

Idaho, Fire Warden System (under State Board of Land Comniissioners),
Boise.

Tilinois, State Forester, Urbana.

Indiana, State Board of Forestry, Indianapolis.

Iowa, State Forestry Commissioner, Des Moines.

Kansas, State Agricultural College, Manhattan.

Kentucky, Commissioner of Agriculture, Frankfort. °

Louisiana, Department of Conservation, New Orleans.

Maine, Forest Commissioner, Augusta.

Maryland, State Board of Forestry, Baltimore.

Massachusetts, State Forester, Boston.

Michigan, Public Domain Commission, Roscommon.

Minnesota, State Forestry Board, St. Paul.

Montana, State Board of Land Commissioners, Helena.

New Jersey, Department of Conservation and Development, Trenton.

New York, Division of Lands and Forests, Albany.

North Carolina, Geological and Economie Survey, Chapel Hill.

Ohio, Department of Forestry, Wooster.

Oregon, State Board of Forestry, Salem.

Pennsylvania, Department of Forestry, Harrisburg.

Rhode Island, Commissioner of Forestry, Chepachet.

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 838

South Dakota, Forest Supervisor, Custer.

Tennessee, State Geological Survey, Nashville.

Texas, Agricultural and Mechanical College, College Station.
Vermont, Department of Agriculture, Montpelier.

Virginia, State Forester, University.

Washington, State Board of Forest Commissioners, Olympia.
West Virginia, Forest, Game, and Fish Department, Philippi.
Wisconsin, State Conservation Commission, Madison.

DOYLE RULE FOR SCALING LOGS!

LENGTH OF LOG IN FEET

Diameter of log
(small end, 6 7 8 9 10 | 11 | 12 13 14 15
inside bark)

BOARD FEET

Inches |
Gide tr 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5
Tg Sega ele ee 3 4 4 5 5 6 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11
he, ee 6 7 8 De LOL | earl? 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Cle Sees elas ee 9} 11] 12] 14] 16] 17] 19 20 22 23 25 27 28 30 31
QM Te TS) MGs SUS le LOM E22 1 25h 27 29 31 34 36 38 40 43 45
1S. Coa Sree Selle eee |e esol oleal wotule oe, 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61
1G) 2 oar ay a 24 | 28! 382}; 36] 40] 44] 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80
LER NE. RI 30} 35] 40] 46] 51} 56] 61 66 71 76 81 86 91 96 | 101
ty PS ee ge er 37 | 44] 50] 56] 62] 69] 75 81 87 94) 100] 106) 112] 119] 125
TU ea ea a a a 45 | 531] 60 | 68 | 76 | 83] 91 98 | 106] 113} 121) 129) 136) 144] 151
Giese ee 54; 63); 72) 81] 90} 99] 108| 117] 1385) 144] 144); 162} 162; 171] 180
N7pste ie Steyn see 63 | 74 |. 84] 95] 106} 116 | 127] 137] 148] 158! 169] 180] 190} 201] 211
ifeh fk VS Se aes 73} 86] 98 | 110] 122 | 133 | 147] 159] 171 | 184] 196] 208] 220] 283] 245
1G) = oes ee 84 98 | 112 | 127 | 141 | 155 | 169 183 197 211 225 239 253 267 281
D(a ees ek ate 96 | 112 | 128 | 144 | 160 | 176] 192 | 208] 224) 240} 256] 272)! 288) 304! 320
OF eae oe ened 108 | 126 | 144 | 163 | 181 | 199 | 217 |} 235] 253] 271 | 289) 307] 325) 343) 361
OP) SN ee 121 | 142 | 162 | 182 | 202 | 223 | 243 263 283 304 324 344 364 385 405
Dea crea eae 135 | 158 | 180 | 203 | 226 | 248 | 271 293 316 338 361 384 406 429 451
PY NAS S 22s BE ea 150 | 175 | 200 | 225 | 250 | 275 | 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500
DOG ace Big ee dere Sire 165 | 193 | 220 | 248 | 276 | 303 | 331 358 386 413 441 469 496 524 551
DAR o" ER oh area esl aie 181 | 212 | 242 | 272 | 302 | 333 | 363 393 423 454 484 514 544 Oto 605
Diet OTe ee 198 | 231 | 264 | 298 | 331 | 364 | 397 | 430} 463] 496} 529] 562] 595] 628] 661
Diep prepa ray. Fob oh 216 | 252 | 288 | 324 | 360 | 396 | 432 468 504 540 576 612 648 684 720
Oe ara eee 234 | 273 } 312 | 352 | 391 | 4380 | 469 508 547 586 625 664 702 742 781
0) nae ccer ee my Bah 253 | 296 | 338 | 380 | 422 | 465 | 507 549 | 591 644 676 718 760 803 845
Bil Set ees ne 273 | 319 | 364 | 410 | 456 | 501 | 547 | 592] 638) 683] 729] 775] 820] 866] 911
DB oe 294 | 343 | 392 | 441 | 490 | 539 | 588 | 637 | 686] 735 | 784] 833! 882] 931} 980
Se as ee 315 | 368 | 420 | 473 | 526 | 578 | 631 683 736 788 841 894 946 999 |1, 051
Saar Chek MT ES eS 337 | 394 | 450 | 506 | 562 | 619 | 675 731 787 844 900 956 |1, 012 |1, 069 |1, 125
ae Eres fe te 360 | 420 | 480 | 541 | 601 | 661 | 721 781 841 901 961 |1,021 |1,081 |1, 141 |1, 201
BGs, epee ea mete 384 | 448 | 512 | 576 | 640 | 704 | 768 | 832) 896] 960 |1, 024 |1, 088 /1, 152 /1, 216 /1, 280
Spee ee oS 408 | 476 | 544 | 613 | 681 | 749 | 817} 885 | 953 1,021 {1,089 |1, 157 |1, 225 |1, 293 |1, 361
Oto ha ses Spe 433 | 506 | 578 | 650 | 722 | 795 | 867 939 |1, 011 |1, 084 |1, 156 |1, 228 }1, 300 |1, 373 |1, 445
SUS Bee 459 | 536 | 612 | 689 | 766 | 842 | 919 995 |1, 072 |1, 148 |1, 225 |1, 302 |1, 378 |1, 455 /1, 531
ENQ) 5 so opt Ainallag econ ee 486 | 567 | 648 | 729 | 810 | 891 | 972 |1, 053 /1, 134 |1, 215 |1, 296 |1, 377 |1, 458 |1, 539 |1, 620

1 pet information regarding the advisability of using different log scales see U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’
Bul. 1210.

To find the number of board feet in a log without using the above table
according to the Doyle rule: Deduct 4 inches from the diameter of the smaller
end, square one-fourth the remainder, and multiply the product by the length

in feet.
KEY TO COMMON KINDS OF TREES!

The following key is intended only as a guide in the identification of the more
common kinds of trees. It is based on prominent, distinctive characteristics
which can be readily observed by those who have no special training in botany.
Most of the terms used require no explanation.

1 This key and the following tree descriptions are by William H. Lamb, formerly Scientific Assistant in
Dendrology, Forest Service.

84 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

To use the key, decide first, by an examination of the leaf, in which of the
following seven sections your tree belongs; then turn to that section, and from
the descriptions there given determine what kind of tree it is.

Section
Trees with needles or scalelike leaves, mostly evergreens, bearing cones______ I
Trees with broad leaves:
Leaves simple—
Alternately attached to twigs—
With toothedved sess" = = ses aa ne et See ee IT
Edges neither toothed nor notched -2. 22 i23)-2_ - 5 =e Til
Opposite on twigs—
With toothed edges:— "2 2 es see 6 Sa eee IV
Hidges neither toothed nor notched@===ss= a kee V
Leaves compound—
Alternately-attached to twigs_=) 9 en Biss By ee ee is Vi
Opposite:on-twigss 2. Soe SR es ee gee Vil

THE CONIFEROUS? TREES

I. TREES WITH NEEDLE OR poaueiies Leaves, Mostity EVERGREEN, BEARING
ONES
A. Leaves needle-shaped:
(1) Leaves clustered—
(a) Leaves long, from 1 to 18 inches, 2 to 5in a cluster. Cones
large, with many thick, woody scales______ (Pinus) Pine.
(6) Leaves short (less than 2 inches long) in brushlike clusters >
of 12 to 40, falling off in late autumn or early winter.
Cones very small, with thin scales, remaining on tree for
One OE MOKe SeASONS2 2 = es eee ee (Larix) Larch.
(2) Leaves single—
(a) Leaves scattered around twigs; falling off when dry or dead.
Cones elongated, with thin scales. Twigs roughened by
leaf-scars.
(x) Leaves stiff, often alarpncinied and more or less
foursid ed ..-2 ee Le EN (Picea) Spruce.
(y) Leaves soft, flat, rounded, or notched at ends, the
bases abruptly contracted into’ threadlike
Stempits 4 2S abs gike Sms nee (Tsuga) Hemlock.
(b) Leaves in two distinct rows, one on each side of the twig;
falling off in late autumn or early winter. Cones small,
ballelike®. 2 908s jist td See eee (Taxodium) Bald cypress.
(c) Leaves often in two rows on the sides of the twigs of lower
branches and mostly flat, those on upper branches stouter
and arranged on the sides and tops of the twigs. Cones
long, erect, produced only on upper side of topmost
branches; the scales falling off in autumn, leaving spike-
like central axes of the cones attached________ (Abies) Fir.
B. Leaves scalelike, pointed, overlapping, closely forming flat or four-sided
twigs.
(1) Twigs four-sided. Cones spherical or ball-like, with small, thick
scales armed with a spurlike point; seed with very narrow, hard
54 se od (RS GWE ag 2A Ne es ea Bae (Cupressus) Cypress.
(2) Taree flattened.
(a) Cones elongated, with only a few thin scales; bent back on
DEAN CHES: eee Bi ee ee ee (Thuja) Arborvite.
(b) Cones spherical, very small, berrylike, with thin scales
armed with a tiny point; seeds with a broad, thin wing
ONL WOPsSIGeS. 55-43 Frege eee Se (Chameecy paris) Cedar.
(c) Cones berrylike (showing indistinct outlines of, but no
separation into, scaly parts). Leaves either short, scale-
like, and sharpjointed, or much longer, needlelike, standing
out "loosely, and attached in pairs or in threes on the
DWTS i cpg nfs cps Oe a Bi ERM (Juniperus) Juniper.

2 Cone-bearing.
3 The larches are peculiar in having single, scattered leaves on the new or terminal twigs produced each
season. These should not be mistaken for the “‘single’”’ leaves borne throughout by other kinds of ever-

greens.

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 35

THE BROADLEAF TREES

II. Leaves StmpLe, ALTERNATE, LOBED, AND wiITH TooTHED EDGES, OR ONLY
WITH SMOOTH OR COARSELY TOOTHED EDGES

A. Leaves deeply lobed, or with large notches.

(1) Leaves as wide as they are long. Fruit, a swinging ball, 1 to 1%
inches in diameter.

(a) Leaves with finely toothed margins; star-shaped, the di-
visions pointed. Fruit, burlike balls, from which, when
ripe, small, winged seeds may be shaken. Bark rough.

(Liquidambar) Sweet gum.

(b) Leaves with smooth margins, 3 to 5 inches long, pointed
lobes, the space between the lobes rounded. Fruit, a
rough ball, easily broken when ripe; composed of closely
packed, long, narrow seeds which have hairlike bristles
at their lower ends and are attached to a bulletlike
central part. Old bark of trunks and large limbs peel-
ing off in thin, curled pieces, leaving pale inner bark
showing in irregular patches____- (Platanus) Sycamore.

(2) Leaves longer than wide.

(a) Leaves large, with deep, roundtopped, or with pointed
bristletipped lobes, or only with coarse marginal teeth.
Fruit, an acorn, resting in a separable cup.

(Quercus) Oak.

(b) Leaves small, with little sharp teeth on margin. Twigs
bearing sharp thorns. Fruit small (like a little apple),
spherical, with bony seeds__-_-__-_ (Crategus) Hawthorn.

B. Leaves one-sided (one side of leaf shorter at base than the other side).

(1) Leaves large, oval, 5 to 10 inches long, heart-shaped. Fruit, a
cluster of small, woody balls 144 to % inch in diameter, hanging
from a) narrow, leatiike blade ==) 22. 21% 2 (Tilia) Basswood.

(2) Leaves 3-veined at base, with long, tapering points, which gen-
erally turn to one side; edges smooth, or with small teeth of
uniform size. Fruit, a small berry about 14 inch in diameter.

(Celtis) Hackberry.

(3) Leaves with straight lateral veins, oval; edges double toothed (little
teeth on the larger ones). Fruit in clusters, dry, flat, with papery
wings allaround! theseeds202 22) os eae (Ulmus) Elm.

C. Leaves even sided (both sides of leaf the same length).

(1) Leaves oval, evergreen, thick, with short needlelike teeth. Fruit,
a bright red | XS Vie eo a pd ON aa ce A Sl ap Ai (Ilex) Holly.

(2) Leaves more or less elongated, deciduous, with one tooth at the end
of each side vein.

(a) Trees with smooth, bluish-gray bark, and long, pointed,
chestnut-brown buds. Fruit, a small, three-cornered nut,
in a spiny husk which splits open at the top into three
FORE EUS 2 gp ah ly ia A tee (Fagus) Beech.

(6) Trees with ridged, grayish-brown bark. Fruit, large,
spherical, covered with dense, needlelike spines; splits
open from the top into 3 or 4 divisions, and containing
several thin-shelled, chestnut-brown nuts.

(Castanea) Chestnut.

(3) Leaves very narrow, long, pointed, finely toothed. Small branches
slender, usually tough. Fruit, a long cluster of little pods filled
with “cotton” (SECIS) fe eee ane ee Merrie ne skeen (Salix) Willow.

(4) Leaves somewhat triangular in outline, broad at base, pointed,
toothed. Buds of some species coated with aromatic gum.
Branches coarse. Fruit, a long cluster of little pods filled with
PACOLUO Hye s SCO S) a mee ttre ee eens were See oe. ses (Populus) Poplar.

36 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

C. Leaves even sided—Continued.
(5) Leaves oval, pointed, with sawlike teeth.
(a) Fruit a tiny scaly cone.

(x) Bark of trunk and peiuencs peeling off in thin
papery sheets. Leaves double toothed (little
teeth on the larger ones.) Fruit (“cones”’)
borne singly, pendulous, scaly, falling apart
when ripe; seeds with gauzelike wings on two
SIDGS =) swe ee ee (Betula) Birch.

(y) Bark smooth or broken, but not peeling. Leaves
with small teeth. “Cones” several in a cluster
on stiff, upright stems, hard, woody, not falling
apart; seed with narrow wings on two sides.

(Alnus) Alder.
(b) Fruit, a berry; fleshy, edible.

(x) Leaves large, 3-veined at base, often irregularly,
deeply lobed; containing milky juice. Fruit
similar in appearance to a blackberry.

(Morus) Mulberry.

(y) Leaves small or medium sized, feather-veined;
containing green juice; fruit (cherry or plum)
with one hard-shelled, flattened or spherical seed.

(zt) Seed (‘‘stone”’) flattened. Fruit large

and short-stemmed _-_-__- (Prunus) Plum.
(iz) Seed spherical. Fruit small and_ long-
SteMmimedcs saan at ee (Prunus) Cherry.

III. Leaves SmmpLE, ALTERNATE, REGULARLY OR IRREGULARLY LOBED, EDGE
NEITHER TOOTHED NoR NOTCHED

A. Leaves with deep lobes.

(1) Leaves with blunt ends (appearing as if cut off), and with two,
pointed, side lobes. Flowers tuliplike. Fruit conelike, pointed,
upright, composed of long, thin, overlapping, winged seeds.
Bruised twigs have a peppery odor__ (Liriodendron) Tulip Poplar.

(2) Leaves with rounded ends; oval, often with a lobe on one side,
making the leaf mitten-shaped, or sometimes with a lobe on each
side. Bruised twigs and inner bark of trunk sweet-smelling.

(Sassafras) Sassafras.
B. Leaves without lobes.

(1) Bruised twigs with peppery odor.

(a) Leaves oval (evergreen in one species) or elongated, pointed,
large. Flowers large, at ends of branches. Fruit cone-
like, with a bright red seed in each division.

(Magnolia) Magnolia.

(2) Bruised twigs without peppery odor.

(a) Leaves broader at top than at the base, 8 to 12 inches long,
with very short leafstalk. . Fruit fleshy, edible, elongated,
3 to 4 inches long, with thick, yellowish, smooth skin
ae ripe, and large, bony, flat seeds. Buds brown and
|of 5) ay UMC, nen ae met ir sea errs REDS Ve (Asimina) Papaw.

(6) Vertes broadest at middle, oval, 3 to 10 inches long.

(x) Fruit short-stalked, spherical, 1 to 1% inches in
diameter; when ‘ripe pale orange color, sur-
rounded at base with old flower-cup; very
bitter, but edible after frost.

(Diospyros) Persimmon.

(y) Fruit long-stalked, elongated or spherical, solitary
or in pairs, with thin flesh and a ridged stone or
seed 22 2 5. one (Nyssa) Gum or Tupelo.

(c) Leaves rounded or heart-shaped, 3 to 5 inches across.
Flowers pealike, pink, appearing before the leaves.
Fruit, a dry flat pod, 2144 to 3% inches long; in dense
clusters on sides of branches; seeds, hard, small, oblong,
TA inch Jonge Se" 2 age ee eee (Cercis) Redbud.

(3) Bruised or cut twigs and leaves with milky juice.

(a) Leaves with narrow points. Twigs bearing thorns. Fruit
large, orangelike, with smooth, uneven surface, 4 to 6
inches in diameter______.----- (Toxylon) Osage orange.

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS 37

IV. Leaves SIMPLE, Opposite, WITH LoBE-TooTHED EpGEsS

A. Leaves with large (often lobelike) teeth. Fruit in pairs, each part with a
conspicuous, flat, very thin wing. Fruit matures in spring or in autumn,
when it becomes dry and yellowish-brown_-_-_-_-------_--- (Acer) Maple.

V. Leaves Simpie, Opposite, Epcrs NrItHER TooTHED Nor NoTCHED

A. Leaves very large, heart-shaped, long-pointed. Flowers showy, trumpet-
like, in large upright clusters. Fruit, a long, cylindrical pod, 6 to 14 inches
long, containing closely packed, flat, dry seeds, with fringed wings at each
CRG ee Mirae Oe tree SV iat Pehl TY gene, ad ceelia hehe (Catalpa) Catalpa.

B. Leaves rather small, oval, tapering at base and point. Flowers conspicuous,
white (occasionally rosy), appearing with the expanding leaves. Fruit,
a small cluster of two-seeded berries, turning red in autumn.

(Cornus) Dogwood.

VI. Leaves CompounpD, ALTERNATELY ATTACHED TO TwiGcs

A. Leaflets small, many, attached along two sides of a main stem. Fruit, a
flat, bean, dry or fleshy pod.

(1) Leaflets with small, wavy teeth. Pods flat, broad, long, often
twisted, thin-skinned, with thick, cheesy, sweetish pulp about
seeds. Trees with long, keen, branched thorns on the trunk.

(Gleditsia) Honey locust.
(2) Leaflets not toothed.
(a) Twigs with pairs of short, keen thorns. Leaflets oblong,
rounded at ends. Flowers showy white, in large clusters.
Pods small, flat, thin, dry, with small seeds.
(Robinia) Black locust.
(b) Twigs stout, thornless. Leaflets oval, pointed. Flowers
greenish, with violet odor. Pods large, flat, thick, with
greenish, jellylike pulp (poisonous) around the large,
black-brown seeds__________-_ (Gymnocladus) Coffee tree.
B. Leaflets large. Fruit, spherical, with a separable or inseparable husk, con-
taining a hard-shelled nut.

(1) Leaflets narrow at base becoming larger at outer end. Nut light-
colored, smooth, in a husk which separates more or less completely
into four parts ‘when Pipe swear ee (Hicoria) Hickory.

(2) Leaflets broader at base, becoming narrower at outer end. Nut
dark, rough, in a fleshy husk which is inseparable by natural
divisions and turns black when old. Pith of twigs forms numer-
OUSCELOSS-PaltitlONnse:< 92 ete os WENN ee a | (Juglans) Walnut.

VII. Leaves CompounD, OPpposITE ON TWIGs
A. Leaflets arranged along two sides of a main leafstalk, with a leaflet at the

end.
(1) Leaflets generally 3 (sometimes 5), toothed only near the ends.

Fruit, a cluster of dry, winged seeds, arranged in pairs like those

COVE TUOVG OY eee er yee eee ree el Oe ee rcs ieee Meee (Acer) Boxelder.*

(2) Leaflets generally more than 3 (3 to 11), and either not toothed

or with small teeth. Fruit, a cluster of single-winged, dry,
Oareshapedayiseedss. 44.2 5. Es + ah Me Vasa (Fraxinus) Ash.

B. Leaflets (5 to 9) clustered at end of a main leaf-stem. Fruit, with a thick,
warty or prickly husk, which separates into several parts, containing a
SHIM DEOWAL UGS = es gay Ea ea nite VAIS ST (Assculus) Buckeye.

4 Boxelder, a true maple, differs from the others in having compound leaves.

38

BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ONE HUNDRED EASTERN FOREST TREES *

ao F WO Ne

20.

21.

Name

. White pine (Pinus strobus) __
. Jack pine (Pinus banksiana) -

. Red or Norway pine (Pinus

T€Sinosa).

. Pitch pine (Pinus rigida) ___-
. Loblolly pine (Pinus tzda) _ -

nata) .

. Spruce pine (Pinus glabra) _-

. Virginia pine (Scrub pine)

(Pinus virginiana).

. Pond pine (Pinus rigida sero-

tina).

. Slash pine (Cuban pine) (Pi-

nus caribaea).

. Longleaf pine (Pinus palus-

tris) .

. Tamarack or Larch (Lariz

laricina) .

. White spruce (Picea glauca) _
. Black spruce (Picea mariana)

. Red spruce (Picea rubra) ___-

. Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) -

. Southern cypress ( Tarodium

distichum) .

. Balsam fir (A bies balsamea) _-

. Southern balsam fir (Abies

frazeri).

Northern white cedar ( Thu ja |
occidentalis) .

. Shortleaf pine (Pinus echi- |

Southern white cedar (Cha-

. Bur oak (Quercus macro- |

carpa).

. Overcup oak (Quercus lyrata)

. Post oak (Quercus stellata) __-

5 Kastern half of United States.

6 Stated only i in very general terms.

Distribution 6

Northeastern and Lake States
and Appalachian Mountains.

Northern tree, best growth
north of Lake Superior.

Northern tree, associated with
white pine.

Northeastern and middle At-
lantie States.

Southeastern United States—
Coastal plain, New Jersey
to Texas.

Middle Atlantic and Southern
States, with hardwood trees.
Piedmont uplands, New
Jersey to Texas.

Southeastern States___________

Middle Atlantic States to In-
diana.

Southeastern States in Coastal
Plain. Scattered.

Southeastern and Gulf States,
in poorly drained soils; up-
lands in Georgia, associated
with longleaf pine.

South Atlantic and Gulf
States.

Northeastern and Lake States
and in Canada to Alaska;
best growth in Canada.

Northeastern and Lake States
and Canada.

Northeastern and Lake States
and in Canada to Alaska.

Northeastern States, Canada,
and Appalachian Mountains
Northern and Eastern States
and in mountains to Georgia.

South Atlantic and Gulf
States; in swamps.

Northeastern and Lake States
to southwest Virginia.

High southern Appalachian
Mountains.

Northeastern and Lake States
and eastern Canada.

Swamps of eastern and Gulf

maecyparis thyoides) . Coast States.

. Red cedar (Juniperus vir- | Eastern United States_________
giniana).

. Red gum_ (Liguidambar | Central and Southeastern
styracifiua.) United States.

. Sycamore (Platanus occi- | Eastern United States________-
dentalis) .

. White oak (Quercus alba)____|__-__ Got! 235 2222 = een ee

Central and Northeastern
United States to the Dako-
tas, Nebraska, and Texas.

Characteristics

Fine Fiabe tree; leaves in clusters of 5,
3 to 5 inches long.

Common on sandy soil; leaves in clus-
ters of 2, 34 to 114 inches long.

Leaves in clusters of 2, 5 to 6 inches
long.

Leaves in clusters of 3, 3 to 5 inches
long.

Leaves in clusters of 3, 6 to 9 inches
long. Cone, 2 to 3inches in diameter

Leaves in clusters of 2and sometimes 3,
3 to 5inches long. Cone small, 1 to
2 inches in diameter.

Leaves in clusters of 2, 114 to 3 inches
long.
Do.

Leaves 6 to 8 inches long, tree similar to
pitch pine but cones remain closed for
several years. Cone egg-shaped.

Leaves in clusters of 2. sometimes 8, 8 to
12 inches long. Important turpen-
pentine tree.

Leaves in clusters of 3, 8 to 18 inches
long. Important turpentine tree.

Leaves needle-shape, 34 to 134 inches
long, in dense, brush-like clusters;
falling off in winter.

Leaves 14 to 34 inch long, arranged
singly around the smooth twigs;
whitish.

Similar to white spruce, but twigs are
minutely hairy; cones strongly at-
tached.

Similar to black spruce, but cones begin
to fall when ripe.

Leaves 14 to % inch long, attached by
a leafstalks; cones }2 to 34 inch
on.

Lents ¥ to 34 inch Jone: falling off in
winter; cones bali-like.

Leaves \% to 1144 inches long; cones up-
right, falling to pieces when ripe.

Similar to balsam fir, except that the
cones are covered with protruding
sealy bracts.

Leaves scale-like; cones 4 to 4% inch
long, bent backward on twigs, which
are flat.

Cones ball-like; leaves somewhat re-
sembling arborvite.

Leaves scale-like, those on young shoots
and seedlings awl-shaped and spread
ing; young cones changed into a firm
berry.

Leaves star-shape; fruit a bur-like ball
suspended by a long stalk.

Leaves broad and coarsely toothed;

base of leafstalk inclosing a winter
bud in peculiar manner; fruit a hard-
surfaced, long-stalked ball.

Leaves deeply lobed, not bristle-tipped;
acorns ripening in one season.

A white oak with fringe-edged acorn
and larger leaves more deeply lobed.

Southeastern United States.___| A white oak with acorns completely or

Eastern United States________-

almost covered by the thin cup.

A white oak with leaves cut deeply
above and below the middle lobes,
forming the suggestion of a cross.

Most of these are important as commercial timber trees; a few, however,
are small sized and included because of their botanical importance and wide occurrence in mixture with
timber trees, particularly in second-growth forests.

More detailed descriptions of the ranges of trees in this list, and of

all the trees indigenous to the United States and Canada, will be found in Check List of the Forest Trees

ofthe United States.

(Forestry Bulletin 17.)

32.

33.

34.

35.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44,

45.

46.

47.

48.

49,

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS

39

ONE HUNDRED EASTERN FOREST TREES—Continued

Name

. Chestnut oak (Qwercus mon-

tana).

Water oak (Quercus nigra) __-

Willow oak (Quercus phellos) -

. Live oak (Quercus virginiana) -

Basswood ( Tilia glabra) _____-

White basswood (Zilia
heterophylla) .

Hackberry (Celtis occi-
dentalis).

American elm (Ulmus ameri-
cana).

Distribution

Characteristics

Northeastern United States
and Appalachian. Moun-

tains. Common on ridges.

. Red oak (Quercus borealis | Eastern United States________-

maxima).

. Black oak (Quercus velutina) _|_---_ CO KO Ue ig Bynes Len de dint Mee
Pin oak (Quercus palustris) __|____- CO ee hte eee Te
Southern red or Spanish oak | Central and Southeastern

(Quercus rubra). States.

Southeastern United States__-_

Eastern United States_____.___

South Atlantic
States.

and Gulf

Northeastern United States ___

Middle and South Atlantic
States.

Middle Atlantic States to the
Dakotas, Kansas, and Mis-
souri.

Eastern United States________

Slippery elm (Ulmus fulva) -|____- GOB eee s sie Sa ee

Cork elm (Ulmus racemosa) -

Holly (1let opaca) __._-___-_-

Northeastern United States___

Eastern United States___._____

Beech (Fagus grandifolia) ____|____- (6 (oes seven akg eee CS eet

Chestnut (Castanea dentata) _

Chinquapin (Castanea pu-
mila).

Black willow (Salix nigra)___

Balsam poplar (Populus bal-
samifera).

Cottonwood (Populus del-
toides).

Northeastern and Middle At-
lantic States.

Middle and Southern States__-

Eastern United States__.._____

Northern United States_______

Northeastern United States___

A white oak with leaves resembling
those of the chestnut, and with long,
large, shallow-cupped acorns.

Leaves deeply cut, with bristle-tipped
points; acorns ripening in 2 seasons;
large, with very shallow cups.

An oak with thicker, large, glossy
leaves which are more or less minutely
woolly beneath; acorns with small
cups, aS deep or deeper than wide.

A red oak with smaller leaves and
smaller and shallower cupped striped
acorns.

A red oak with leaves very deeply cut,
the upper central portion being very
narrow and sometimes slightly
curved, and with dense, tawny-
yellow wool beneath.

A red oak; leaves not toothed, small,
tapering from broad top-end to the
base; sometimes 3-lobed. Small
acorns with shallow cup. Much
planted as street trees throughout
South.

A red oak with leaves resembling a
smooth-edged willow or peach leaf.
Much planted as street shade tree

in Middle Atlantic and Southern |

States.

An evergreen oak with narrow, smooth-
bordered leaves which are turned
under on the edge and pale-woolly
beneath and glossy above; small,
pointed acorns with long stalks.

Leaves smooth, broadly heart-shaped
with finely toothed edge; fruit a
cluster of little woody balls sus-
pended from the middle of a long
narrow leaf-like bract.

Similar to basswood except that the
leaves are whitish (or minutely
woolly) beneath.

Leaves finely toothed, long pointed;
fruit a long-stalked, single-seeded
berry with very thin, sweetish flesh.

Leaves Sharply toothed; fruit flat, pap-
ery, about 1% inch long, fringed
around with tiny hairs.

Long leaves, very rough on the upper
side; inner bark is slippery when
chewed, and the flat fruits have a
smooth edge.

Differing from other elms in having
fruit minutely hairy all over, and
twigs with conspicuous, corky ridges.

Evergreen tree, the leaves having spiny
teeth, and fruit a bright red berry,
remaining attached through the
winter.

Leaves with saw-tooth edge; fruit a
light brown spine-covered bur con-
taining a 3-cornered brown nut.

Long narrow leaves with sharp, for-
ward-pointing teeth; fruit aspherical,
spiny bur containing several brown
nuts. A plant disease is rapidly
killing chestnut.

Leaves smaller than chestnut and
finely woolly beneath; but one nutin
the spiny husk. Mostly known asa
shrub, but reaches tree size.

Leaves slender, long-pointed, and
finely toothed. The largest of our
eastern willows, difficult to distin-
guish from other willows.

Large leaves, very broad at base,
toothed, whitish beneath, with round
leafstalk.

Leaves triangular, long-pointed,
toothed, smooth, with flattened leaf-
stalk.

40 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

57.

58.

59.

60.
61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.
70.

(fle

72.

73.

74,

ONE HUNDRED EASTERN FOREST TREES—Continued

Name Distribution Characteristics

. Swamp cottonwood (Popu- | South Atlanticand Gulf States | Heart-shaped leaves with round leaf-

lus heterophylla). stalk, minutely woolly on underside
when young; smooth later.

. Aspen (Populus tremuloides.) | Northern and Western United | Leaves broad, finely toothed, leafstalks

States. flat, longer than blades.
. Large-tooth aspen (Populus | Northeastern United States. Leaves broad, coarsely toothed, with
grandidentata). flattened leafstalks.
. Paper birch (Betula papy- | Northern United States-____--- Leaves broad at base, finely toothed,
rifera). fruit a papery cone which falls apart

when ripe; white bark peeling off in
thin sheets.

. Sweet birch (Betula lenta) ___| Northeastern United States___| Bark dark brown, hard and close, not

peeling off in sheets; tiny scales of
cones smooth, not minutely hairy
along edges asin yellow birch.

. Yellow birch (Betula lutea)._.| Eastern United States____-___- Bark yellow-gray; tiny scales of the
cones minutely hairy along edges.
. Red mulberry (Morus ru- | ____- OS ae ea San ela a eee Leaves large, heart-shaped, sharply
bra). toothed; fruit red or black, black-
berrylike.
Wild plum (Prunus ameri- |____- GOS ee ae ees Leaves conspicuously veiny, pointed,
cana). finely toothed; fruit red or yellow

with short stalks; branches with
spinelike twigs. Small tree.
Wild red cherry (Prunus |_-_--- GO. Joe es aniessel ites tes Smooth red-brown bark; leaves re-
pennsylvanica) . semble those of the peach; fruit
bright red when ripe, long-stalked in
clusters of 3 to 5.

Choke cherry (Prunus vir- |____- (6 Coe ee ee Se ae Fruit in a long cluster, ripe berries
giniana). : glossy black, bitterish, producing a
puckering sensation in the mouth.
Black cherry (Prunus sero- |__-_-- GOS ak ea pee a stam Fruit resembles choke cherry, but
tina). smaller and thin-fleshed.
Yellow poplar (Liriodendron |____- O22 eS en Ser eee Leaves large, blunt or with deep notch
tulipifera). at end; flowers large yellow; tulip-
like; fruit a woody, upright cone.
Sassafras (Sassafras offici- |____- (6 0 ee ees er Paes Se Leaves oval with one lobe like a ‘‘ mit-
nale). ten,’’ or with a lobe on each side.
Twigs and inner bark fragrant.
Black gum (Nyssa sylvatica) _| Eastern United States___.____- Large tree; leaves oval with smooth

edge. Fruit an elongated black ber-
ry with seed but little flattened and
scarcely ridged.
Swamp black gum (Nyssa | Southern States___....------- Small tree; resembling black gum, but
biflora). fruit, which also grows in pairs, has a
’ flattened and ridged stone.
Tupelo gum (Nyssa aquati- | Swamps of Southeastern | Largetree; fruits produced singly, with

ca). Known also as cotton Coastal States. a stalk longer than the fruit; stone of
gum. Associated with fruit sharp-edged or winged.
cypress.

Sour tupelo gum (Nyssa | Swamps, South Carolina to | Small tree; resembling tupelo gum,
ogeche). Florida. but fruits with stalks shorter than

the fruit itself. 4
Sweet bay (Magnolia virgini- | Coastal swamps, Southeast- | Small flowers, white, fragrant. Leaves

ana). Known also: as} ernand Gulf States. silky-white beneath.
sweet magnolia.

Cucumber-tree (Magnolia | Eastern United States________- Leaves large, oval, smooth-bordered,
acuminata). pointed; flowers greenish yellow;

fruit slender.

Mountain magnolia (Mag- | Southeastern States___________ Flowers white; leaves deeply lobed at
nolia fraseri). base, forming ‘‘ears.’’

Bigleaf magnolia (Magnolia |____- 6G Ko cases eae ey ay ee Flowers large, white; leaves very large,
macrophylla) . ; with ‘‘ears’”’ at base, and white be-

neath. Largest leaved tree in North
America (20 to 30 inches long).

Persimmon (Diospyros virgi- | Eastern United States______-__- Leaves oval, smooth, with smooth
niana). margin; fruit orange colored, 1 to 1144

inches in diameter, edible in late fall
after frost.
Redbud ( Cercis canadensis) __|____- GO ee aa ee Leaves heart-shaped, smooth margin:
fruit a pealike pod in clusters of 4
to 8; flowers resembling a small rose-
colored sweet pea.
Osage orange (TZozylon | Native to Arkansas, eastern | Glossy leaves with smooth edges;

pomiferum). Oklahoma, and Texas, but fruit a heavy ball, resembling an
widely planted throughout orange, 4 to 5 inches in diameter,

eastern United States. milky juice.
Sugar maple (Acer sac- | Eastern United States_______- Leaves 3 to 5 lobed with large rounded
charum). teeth; fruit a pair of keys ripening in

autumn. Yields maple sugar.

75.

76.

Ue

78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

83.

_ 84.

85.

86.
87.

88.

89,

90.

Dil

92.

93.

FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS

41

ONE HUNDRED EASTERN FOREST TREES—Continued

Name
Silver maple (Acer sac-
charinum).
Red maple (Acer rubrum) __-

Boxelder (Acer negundo, in-
cluding 6 varietal forms).

Hardy catalpa (Catalpa

speciosa).

Dogwood (Cornus florida) __-

Blue dogwood (Cornus alter-
nifolia) .

Honey locust (Gleditsia

triacanthos) .

Black locust (Robinia pseud-
acacia).

Kentucky coffee-tree (Gym-
nocladus dioicus).

Pecan (Hicoria pecan) __----_-

Bitternut hickory (Hicoria
cordiformis) .

es hickory ( Hicoria aqua-

ica).

Shagbark hickory (Hicoria
ovata) .

Big nut shagbark hickory
( Hicoria laciniosa).

Mockernut hickory (Hicoria
alba).

Pignut

hickory
glabra) ;

( Hicoria

Black walnut (Juglans nigra)

Distribution 6

Characteristics

Eastern United States________

Throughout United States____

South Central States, widely
cultivated elsewhere.

Eastern United States_________

Northeastern States and Ap-
palachian Mountains.

Central States and Minnesota

to Texas. Widely culti-
vated elsewhere.
Appalachian region, widely

cultivated and naturalized
all over United States.

Mainly in Ohio and Missis-

sippi Valleys.

Mississippi Valley___________-

Eastern United States_________

Gulf States and Lower Mis-
sissippi Valley.
Eastern United States_________

Eastern United States_________

Butternut (Juglans cinerea) __|____- OS are Ree aati at,

White ash (Frazinus ameri-
cana).

Leaves deeply 5-lobed, with sharp
irregular teeth; fruit ripening in
spring before appearance of leaves.
Yields maple sugar.

Leaves 3 to 5 lobed, finely toothed;
reddish fruit ripening in spring or
early summer. Yields maple sugar.

Leaves compound, the leaflets toothed;
fruit ripening in early summer and
remaining on trees during winter.

Leaves large, heart-shaped; fruit a long
“Nod”? filled with flat seeds which are
tufted ateachend. A better shaped
tree than common catalpa (Catalpa
bignonioides).

Leaves mostly clustered at ends of
branches, with slightly wavy mar-
gins; flowers white with four large
bracts resembling petals. Leaves
opposite.

Leaves resembling those of flowering
dogwood, but alternate in arrange-
ment; white flowers without the four
large petallike bracts.

Leaves doubly-compound, the leaflets
with slightly wavy margins; fruit a
flat pod a foot or more in length,
twisted when dry. Trees’ with
large branching thorns.

Leaves compound, leaflets with smooth
margins; fruit a pod 3 to 4 inches
long. Trees with pairs of short
thorns at the base of leaves and
twigs. Wood heavy and durable in
the ground.

Leaves doubly compound, the pointed
leaflets with entire margins; fruit a
large, woody, wide pod, 6 to 10 inches
long, 114 to 2 inches wide containing
a greenish jelly, which is poisonous.
Trees without thorns.

Bud scales few, shell of nut thin, husk
wing-ridged, with large cavities; nuts
elongated with sweet kernel.

Nut broader than long, without angles,
very thin shelled; bitter kernel, husk
thin.

Nut broad, with bitter kernel.

Buds with many scales (all of the
preceding hickories have buds with
few scales); bark loosening from trees
in shaggy strips.

Leaves large; large, angled, thick-shelled
nuts with thick husks splitting to the
base; bark shaggy as in preceding.

Leaves large, hairy; buds large, bud-
scales many; bark closely furrowed,
not separating from the trunk. Nut
with thick husk, large, angled, thick-
shelled.

Leaves small, smooth; fruit abruptly
tapering at base to thick stem (resem-
bling a small fig); husk barely split-
ting at top end and usually retaining
the nut.

Leaves compound with toothed edges;
spherical fruit growing singly or in
pairs; bark brown, furrowed.

Leaves compound, with toothed edges;
fruit in hanging clusters of 3 to 5,
pointed and elongated, with viscid
hairs when young. Velvety cushion
just above leaf-scar; bark gray and
smooth on young trees.

Smooth twigs, opposite; leaves com-
pound, leaflets toothed or wavy on
the margins and paler beneath; seed
with a plump, well-rounded body and
a wing extending almost entirely
from the end and borne in dense
clusters. High-ground tree.

42 BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ONE HUNDRED EASTERN FOREST TREES—Continued

Name

94. Red ash (Frazinus pennsyl-
vanica).

95. Green ash (Frazinus penn- |

sylvanica lanceolata).

96. Pumpkin ash (Frazinus pro-
funda).

97. Black ash (Frazinus nigra) -

98. Water ash (Frazinus caro-
liniana).

99. Ohio buckeye (Aesculus
glabra).

100. Yellow buckeye (Aesculus
octandra).

Distribution

| Eastern United States________

|
|
|

insoutherniStates= =) 2=-= === ==

Northern and Lake States____-

Characteristics

Differs from white ash in having young
twigs and leaflets (beneath) velvety
and wing of seed extending down
along sides of seed body, which is
narrow. A low-ground tree.

Like the preceding, except twigs are
smooth, leaflets sharply toothed;
_body of seed and pointed wing very
narrow. Low-ground tree.

Resembling red ash, but seeds are very
much larger, sometimes twice the
size. Swamp tree.

Leaflets stemless, finely toothed, 7 to
11; seeds with a flat, wide wing, which
extends conspicuously down the
sides of the seed body and is blunt.
Swamp tree.

Leaflets oval-elongated, barely pointed;
seeds with a very broad, short-
pointed wing. Swamp tree, often
on inundated river swamps.

Leaves palmately compound like horse-
chestnut; fruit knobby, prickly,
spherical. Small tree.

Leaves resembling the preceding, but
fruit smooth. Large tree (90 feet
high).

ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNiTED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

December 16, 1924

SCCRCLENIRONeAMGMICULLUNG = 5 = Se ase oe Se Howarp M. Gore.
PASSTSLONEMSCCTOLONY a2 2222 eet ey Lo ke

Dinectouron scventejte VWonk= 2-5-2 2 sso SiS E. D. Batu.

Director of Regulatory Work ___----- ak WALTER G. CAMPBELL.

Durector op tatension Work. 2-22-22 2-2 C. W. WARBURTON.

SOLUCH Oma © ns Mane aye la Ee Le R. W. WILuIAMS.

WCQUNCTA DUR COU tae ee eS CuHaruES F, Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics _ _-------- Henry C. Taytor, Chief.
BuncainomAntmal INdustryo == 2 = Joun R. Mouser, Chief.
SUGCLUMOP MELA MOUS es ete ae Wituram A. Taytor, Chief.
OGESENSC ULCER aie Sees Ye ee W. B. GREELEY, Chief.

Bumecots oj Onenisiny. 25-0285 6 ol 2 2 ©. Al Browne, Chief.

BURCOMRO MMS OU Seen 2 Wee eee ae ae ee ee Mitton Wuitney, Chief.
BURCH OfMeMtomology= = 2-4 2 2 see L. O. Howarp, Chief.

Bureau of Biological Survey__._.-----<----- E. W. Newson, Chief.
Bunecauof Public Roads____=--_-_=___=__-_ Tuomas H. MacDona.p, Chief.
BUGeaw Of Ome HeOnOmics Uo 25205) Sea. | LovtsE STANLEY, Chief.

SURCON OO GUYUNG an ee ee See C. W. Larson, Chief.

Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory -_------- F. G. Cotrreiyi, Director.
Ojjiceroj La penrmeny Stavions==-2 2) 22. E. W. AuuEn, Chief.

Office of Cooperative Extension Work ___--__- C. B. Smitu, Chief.

Oficcsof Publications. 2-22 2-25. 78 L. J. Haynes, Director.

JETP OP USES ING: ep Gre een a bye Sete est Sah eens CLARIBEL R. Barnett, Librarian.
edenalemonicultunal Board 92s. 20 = C. L. Maruatt, Chairman.
Insecticide and Fungicide Board___----- -__.. J. K. Haywoop, Chairman.
Packers and Stockyards Administration___ ~~ aes Morri.u, Assistant to the
Gran utunes Administration. === 2. = Secretary.

This bulletin is a joint contribution from

1? OPOSE ASCE G EEA ae tt a OO W. B. GREELEY, Chief.
Branch of Forest Management______-_-- K. EK. Carter, In Charge.

ELEM STON S CNUUCE = ae enn ee C. W. WarsBurton, Director.
Division of Agricultural Instruction__.. E. H. Suinn, In Charge.

43

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