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^u>rvAK*  NEW  YORK  R/v^„,> 

*OkK  BOTANICAL  GARDEN 


FORESTRY  QUARTERLY 


VOLUME  VII 


PUBLISHED  UNDER  THE  DIRECTION 
of  a 
BOARD  OF  EDITORS 


With  Ten  Plates  and  Two  Diagrams 


LIBRARY 

NEW  YOfc. 

BOT/:.' 


CAMBRIDGE  (BOSTON),  MASS. 
1909 


BOARD  OF  EDITORS 


B.  E.  Fernow,  LL.  D.,  Editor-in-Chief 

Henry  S.  Graves,  M.  A.,  Filibert  Roth,  B.  S., 

Yale  Forest  School.  University  of  Michigan. 

Richard  T.  Fisher,  A.  B.,  Hugh  P.  Baker,  M.  F., 

Harvard  University.  Pennsylvania  State  College. 

Walter  Muleord,  F.  E.,  C.  D.  Howe,  Ph.  D., 

University  of  Michigan.  University  of  Toronto. 

Ernest  A.  Sterling,  F.  E.,        Raphael  Zon,  F.  E., 

Forester,  Penna.  R.  R.  Co.  Forest  Service. 

Frederick  Duneap,  F.  E.,  Clyde  Leavitt,  M.  S.  F., 

Forest  Service.  Forest  Service. 

Asa  S.  Williams,  F.  E. 


THE  OBJECTS  FOR  WHICH  THIS  JOURNAL  IS  PUB- 
LISHED ARE : 

To  aid  in  the  establishment  of  rational  forest  management. 

To  offer  an  organ  for  the  publication  of  technical  papers  of 
interest  to  professional  foresters  of  America. 

To  keep  the  profession  in  touch  with  the  current  technical  litera- 
ture and  the  forestry  movement  in  the  United  States. 


Manuscripts  may  be  sent  to  the  Editor-in-Chief  at  University 
of  Toronto,  Toronto,  Canada,  or  to  any  of  the  board  of  editors. 

Subscriptions  and  other  business  matters  should  be  addressed 
to  Forestry  Quarterly,  396  Harvard  Street,  Cambridge,  Mass. 


CONTENTS. 

Page. 

A  Forester's  Work  in  a  Northern  Forest,   2 

By  Elwood  Wilson,  B.  A.,  C.  E.,  Forest  Engineer,  Lauren- 
tide  Paper  Company. 
The  Forest  School  and  the  Education  of  the  Forester,  15 

By  Hugh  P.  Baker. 

The   Sciences   Underlying   Forestry,    23 

By  B.  E.  Fernow. 
The  Origin  and  Early  Development  of  Chestnut  Sprouts,  34 

By  W.  R.  Mattoon,  F.  E. 
Ranger  Courses,   147 

By  Julian  Eastman  Rothery. 
A  Plea  for  Abolishing  the  Duty  on  Evergreen  Seedlings  for  Forest 
Planting, 151 

By  Ellicott  D.  Curtis. 

Notes  on  the  Trees  in  the  Philippine  Islands, 155 

Forest  Planting  in  National  Forests,  127 

1.  Forestation  in  the  Inter- Mountain  Region,  127 

By  James  M.  Feterholf. 

2.  The  Pocatello  Planting  Station,  135 

By  Clinton  G.  Smith. 
Logging  in  the  Redwoods,  139 

By  Nils  B.  Eckbo. 
Recent  Log  Rules, 144 

By  Henry  S.  Graves. 
The  White  Pine  Blister  Rust, 231 

By  C.  R.  Pettis. 
Restricting  the  Free  Use  of  Timber  on  our  National  Forests,  238 

By  L.  L.  White. 
The  Coconino  Ranger  School,  243 

By  Theodore  S.  Woolsey,  Jr. 
Measurements  of  the  Effects  of  Forest  Cover  upon  the  Conserva- 
tion of  Snow  Waters,  245 

By  W.  R.  Mattoon. 
Cost  of  Evergreen  Seedlings,  249 

By  D.  Hill. 
Cost  of  Mountain  Logging  in  West  Virginia, 255 

By  Henry  H.  Farquhar. 
Marking  Western  Yellow  Pine,   270 

By  Theodore  S.  Woolsey,  Jr. 
Brief  Notes  on  Mexican  Forests, 277 

By  Max  Rothkugel. 
Eucalypts  Cultivated  in  the  Unitel  States,  280 

By  C.  Westergaard,  Jr. 
Why  American  Foresters  are  poorly  trained, 73 

By  a  Professor. 
Average  Wood  Production  in  the  United  States, 377 

By  R.  S.  Kellog  and  E.  A.  Ziegler. 
An  Experiment  in  Logging  Longleaf  Pine,  385 

By  Herman  H.  Chapman. 


Marking  In  Practice  

By  A.  B.  Recknagel. 

Japanese  Charcoal  Kiln,  

By  Nils  B.  Eckbo. 
Methods  of  Determining  the  Time  of  the  Year  at  which 

was  cut 

By  Raphael  Zon. 

Argentina  and  Its  Chaco, 

By  Herman  Kluge. 

CURRENT  LITERATURE,  48, 

Other  Current  Literature, 63, 

PERIODICAL  LITERATURE,  66, 

Forest  Geography  and  Description,  66, 

Botany  and  Zoology, 74, 

Soil,  Water  and  Climate, 78, 

Silviculture,  Protection,  and  Extension,  82, 

Mensuration,  Finance  and  Management, 87, 

Utilization,  Market,  and  Technology, 100, 

Statistics  and  History,  102, 

Politics  and  Legislation, 

Miscellaneous,  

Other  Periodical  Literature,   107, 

NEWS  AND  NOTES,  in, 

COMMENT, 120, 


Timber 


396 
400 

402 
410 


157,  304,  415 
169,  315,  429 

175,  317,  435 
1/5,  317,  435 
180,  320,  445 
192,  322,  456 
195,  328,  457 
204,  340,  470 

212,  343,  473 

213,  345.  477 
105,  349,  480 

215,  480 

216,  350,  481 
216,  352,  484 
223,  364,  487 


Africa,  game  and  disease,  . . . 

Alaska,   forests,    

Alcohol,  ethyl,  from  waste,  . . 

Ambrosia  beetles,  

American    Forestry    Associa- 
tion, forest  fire  platform,  . . 
Argentina,    forest    conditions, 

article,   

national  parks,  . . 

Baden,  working  plans,   

Baker,  Hugh  P.,  article, 

Barkbeetles,    

Bavaria,  budget,   

Biltmore        Forest        School 

abandoned,    

Birds,  ecology, 

Bogs,  investigations,   

made  available,  

"       utilization,    419, 

Brunswick,  results,    

By-products,  in  Germany,  . . . 

Calcareous  soils,  ecology,   . .  . 
Canada,      exports      1907      and 

1908,    118, 

"        Forestry   Association, 
Superintendent  of 

Forestry,    

Chapman    Herman    H.,    ar- 
ticle,      


INDEX. 

215      Charcoal    kiln,    Japanese,    ar- 

440         tide,      400 

433       Chestnut,    origin    of    sprouts, 

yy          article,    34 

Chicle,  supplies,   453 

172  Chile,  forestry,   444 

China,  forest  planting,  480 

400      Climate,  influence  on,  81 

349      Coconino,  ranger  school,   ....  243 

Colorado,  ecology,    189 

87                          forest  types,   74 

15      Connecticut  Entomologist, 

416         Report,  173 

102      Conservation         Commission. 

comment,    224,  415 

363      Conservation  Commission, 

191          report,    224 

325      Conservation    in   California,.  .  356 
79      Coppice,  chestnut  develop- 

456                           ment,_   34 

213                      production,    317 

212      Cost,  evergreen  seedlings,  .  . .  249 
"      logging   i  n    West    Vir- 

185                    ginia,    255 

Crimea,  forests, 175 

484      Curculio,  biology,     455 

173  baiting,      455 

Curtis,  E.  D.,  article 151 

172      Cypress,  durability,   118 

385      Dendrometer,  new 204 


Diameter  limit,  dangers, 208 

Distillation,  plans,    118 

Duty  on  seedlings,  articles,  151,  400 

Eckbo,  Nils  B.,  article, 139 

Ecology,  altitudinal,     194 

"        problems,    445 

"        of  birds, 191 

"        of  calcareous  soils,.  185 

"        in  Colorado,  189 

"        sea  shores,    187 

Education  of  foresters,  .  .15,  22,  373 

German,     481 

of  rangers, 147 

Eucalypts  in  U.  §.,   280 

Europe,  forest  changes,  175 

Evaporation  tests,    195 

Exotics  in  Germany, 198 

Explosive,  new, 475 

Farquhar,  H.  H.,  article,   . .  255 

Fernow,  B.  E-,  article,  22 

Fetherolf,  J.  M.,  article,  ...  127 
Finance,  loan  on  forests,  ....  341 
"        results  in  State  and 
private       manage- 
ment,   

"        value  increment,  . . .  340 

Fire  insurance,    

"     protection,    Wisconsin,..  112 

"     rangers,  instructions,  ...  9 

"     rangers,  ticket  patrol,...  107 

Fires  in  Bavaria, 471 

"      legislation  in  N.  Y.,...  120 

"       legislation,    comment,..  365 

Forest  areas,  U.  S.,  472 

Forest  finance,  rotation, 89 

"      finance,  Weise,    96 

"      geography,  changes 

in   Europe,    176 

"       influence  on  snow  wa- 
ters,    245 

"      influence      on     water- 
flow,    322 

"      schools,   Yale   practice 

work,    115 

"      service,  reorganization,  119 

"      types,  Colorado,   74 

Forester's  work,  article, 2 

education, 

15,  22,  147,  373,  481 

salaries  in  Prussia,  470 

France,  administration,    343 

"      forest    conditions,    317,  435 

"       laws,    350 

"       practices,    ....  67 
"       method  of  turpentin- 
ing,  437,  476 

"       municipal   forests,    . .  343 

"      timber   famine,    439 


Frost,  hardiness  of   Pseudot- 

suga,  

"       influencing  leaf  fall,   .  .  320 

Graves,  H.  S.,  article,  144 

Great  Britain,  afforestation,    .  114 
"       forest    produc- 
tion,    221 

Growth,  per  acre,   U.    S.,  ar- 
ticle,      377 

"        and  budgets  in  Prus- 
sia,      209 

"        and  pruning,    447 

"        of    chestnut    sprouts, 

article,  34 

"        energy  of  trees,  ....  75 

"        mechanics,    449 

"        of  Longleaf  Pine,  . .  388 
"        relations      of      Pine 

and  Spruce,  204 

"        selection  forest,   ....  206 
of  Sitka  Spruce,   . . . 

Gum,  railroad  ties, 354 

Hardness,  tests,    101 

theory,     474 

Hawaii,      Commissioners      of 

forestry,  173 

Hemlock,  grades  and  prices,.  222 

Hill,  D.,  article, 249 

Implements,  silvicultural,  ..339,  467 

Impregnation  plant,     113 

cheap   preserva- 
tives,      343,  474 

Increment,  selection  forest,  . .  206 

value,    340 

and  pruning,    ....  447 

Insects,  combating,  454,  455 

Instructions,    inspectors,    9,  11 

Japan,  charcoal  kilns,  article,  400 

Japan,   history,    348 

Java,  forests,  \\>. 

Kellog,  R.  S.,  article, 377 

Kluge,  Herman,  article, 410 

Leaf  fall  influenced  by  frost,  320 

Light,   influencing  growth,    .  .  180 

Log  measure,  accurate, 470 

"        comment,     223 

"    rules,  recent,  article,  ....  144 

"    size  for  market, 470 

Logging,  cost    in    West    Vir- 
ginia, article,  ....  255 
Longleaf    Pine,    ar- 
ticle,   385 

practice      in      Red- 
wood,       139 


Longleaf  Pine  growth,  . . . 
"  "      logging  exper- 

ment,   article,  385 

Lumber  production  by  States,  362 

Management,  aims  of,   47° 

"             in  Baden,  87 

Manila,  forest  facts,  •  172 

"        Lignum  vitae  substi- 
tute,     172 

Marking    in    practice,    article,  306 
Yellow      Pine,      ar- 
ticle   270 

Massachusetts,  Fall  River 

working    plan,  171 
State     Forest- 
er Report,  ...  172 
Mattoon,  W.  R.,  articles,  ...34,244 

Mecklenburg  statistics,   214 

Mensuration,  new  dendrome- 

ter, 204 

"  accurate   log 

measure,    ....  470 

Mexico,  forests,    277 

Minerals,  functions,  194 

Minnesota,  Forestry  Board,   .  173 

forest   fires,    171 

Mississippi,   ecology,    78 

Mixed    versus    pure    forests, 

experiments 332 

Moss     influencing     regenera- 
tion,      200 

"      versus  shade,   181 

Mulch  versus  shade,  181 

National  Forests,  free    use 

timber  article,  238 
"        comment,   .  364 
Natural      regeneration,      ob- 
stacles,      195 

Natural    regeneration    versus 

planting, 456 

New  Hampshire,  tax  commis- 
sion,      173 

New  York  Botanical   Garden,  174 

"      forest  fires, Hi 

"     state  nurseries,  ..  no 
"      Superintendent  of 

forests,    352 

Nitrogen,  bacteria 325 

supply,    192 

North    Carolina,    reports    no- 
ticed,     171 

Nun,  combating,   

Nursery,  mulch  versus  shade,  181 

"        practice 463 

Oak,  flooring, 475 


Obituary,  W.  W.  Clark,    ....  352 

F.  E.  Defebaugh,  .  488 

W.  F.  Fox,  352 

E.  S.  Woodruff,    ..  no 
Ontario,  Department  of  Agri- 
culture,    172 

"         forest   reserve,    363 

Other  Current  Literature: 
[See  also  pp.  429-434] 

Australia,  forestry  report,  .  174 

Basket    willow    production, 

U.  S., 64 

Bibliography,  forestry,  Cali- 
fornia   65 

Canada — 

forestry  products,  315 

report,     172 

Connecticut,  entomology,  . .  173 

Conservation — 
American   Society  of  En- 
gineers,      64 

function  of  chemistry  in,.  170 

Hawaii, 170 

Oregon  commission,    ....  63 

President's  message,   ....  171 

Distribution1  of  plants, 315 

Douglas  Fir 64 

Entomology — 

Connecticut,    173 

Ontario,     173 

Eucalpyts,    170 

Evergreens,  descriptions,   .  .  172 

Farmer's  Bulletin,  U.  S.,  .  .  65 

Florida,   Trees,   Gifford,    .  .  316 

Forest     club     annual,     Ne- 
braska,     315 

Forest   fires — 

Massachusetts,  315 

Minnesota,    171 

Platform   for   control,    . .  172 

Washington,     171 

Forest — 
management    and    valua- 
tion,      173 

products,   Canada 315 

Forest    protection — 

acquiring    watersheds,    . .  64 

Appalachian  Mountains,.  .  170 

laws  in  North  Carolina,.  171 

New  Jersey,  315 

Forest — 

reserves,    Canada,    172 

Forest  Service — 

forest  problems 171 

manual   of   procedure,    .  .  64 

our  wasteful  nation,    ....  64 

Forest  taxation, 63,  172,  173 

Forestry  Reports — 

Canada,    172 


Canadian    forestry    asso- 

cition,   17.3 

Hawaii,    *73 

Massachusetts,  172 

Minnesota,  _ 173 

Pennsylvania, 173 

South  Australia,  174 

Grazing- — 

experiments,  64 

overgrazed  ranges,  65 

Hawaii,  forestry  report,   . .  173 
Labrador  and  the  St.  Law- 
rence,      174 

Lignum  vitae,  substitute,  . .  172 

Lumber  cut,  1907,  U.  S.,  . .  65 

Massachusetts, 172,  3*5 

Mensuration,   65,  171,  172 

Michigan  tax  commission,  .  63 

Minnesota,  171,  173 

New  Jersey,  forestry  report,  315 
New   York   Botanical   Gar- 
den bulletin,  174 

North     Carolina,     land     of 

broad  education,  171 

Ontario    Agricultural    Col- 
lege, report,   172 

Ontario,  entomology, 173 

Pennsylvania,    forestry    re- 
port, _ 173 

Philippines,  forests  and  for- 
est service,   172 

Plant   geography — 

Balkan   Peninsula,    169 

Bonin  Ids,  65 

general 173 

Pike's  Peak,  315 

Saxony,    65 

Proceedings,  American  for- 
esters,    170 

Schlich's    Manual    of    For- 
estry,       172 

Substitute    for    lignum    vi- 
tae,      172 

Taxation,  Fairchild, 172 

Textile  production,  cost,   .  .  171 
Tree  guides — 

Colorado,    161 

Minnesota 169 

New  England,   170 

Tree  list,  Florida 316 

Use     of     land     in     United 

States,  Zon,    64 

Utilization,  Fisher,  172 

Washington,  fires 171 

Working    plan,    Fall    River 

City 171 

Other  Periodical  Literature: 
[See  also  pp.  481-483] 
Afforestation — 

Europe,    218 


Germany,     218 

Great  Britain,  218,  351 

plea   for,    217 

South   Africa,    107 

to  prevent  avalanches,   .  .  218 

Africa,    107,  108 

Arboriculture — 

danger  of  pure  forests,   .  107 

thinning,    218 

Asia,    forests,    108 

Avalanches,  prevention  of,  .  218 

Bogs,  nature  and  origin,  .  .  217 

Canada,  217,  218 

Canadian  Forestry  Associa- 
tion,      217 

Catalpa  leaf  spot,  351 

Conservation,     351 

Cutch,     261 

Electricity   and   agriculture,  109 

England,  218,  351 

Farm  Woodlot,  Pennsylva- 
nia,   108,  109 

Forest — 

fires,    Canada,    108 

influences,   108,  350,  351 

plow,     109 

policy,  Canada,   108 

protection,  patrol   system,  107 

reserves,    Canada,    218 

taxation,    217 

Forests — 

Asia  Minor,   108. 

Ivory  Coast,  108 

Northern  India,    350 

Philippines,     351 

Forestry,  profession,  future 

°f>    35* 

Germany,  afforestation,    . .  .  218 

Hungary,  108 

India,     476 

Japan,  108 

Ontario,  forestry,   218 

Palmetto  uses,   107,  350 

Peatbog,  investigations,    325 

toxins,    326 

Pennsylvania,    department    of 

forestry,  173 

Pennsylvania   Railroad  plant- 
ing-      219 

Pettis,  C.  R.,  article, 231 

Phenology,  comment,    367 

tables,    78 

Philippines,  tree  notes, 155 

Pine,  Longleaf,  logging,    385 

Pinon,     462 

White,  in-  Germany,  .  . .  200 

White,  silvics  of,    468 

Yellow,  marking: 270 


Planting,  density 202 

"         in    national    forests, 

article 127 

"        tool,    new,    467 

"         versus    natural    re- 
generation,       456 

"        waste  land,   219,435 

Poplar,  cultivation, 82 

Preservative,  new,  474 

Preservatives,  cheap,    343 

Prices,  of  white  pine  in  1876,  221 
Production    of    wood    in    the 

U.  S.,  377 

Pruning  and  increment, 447 

Prussia,  foresters'  salaries,  . .  480 

"       growth  and  budgets,  209 

"       statistics,    345 

"       waste   land  planting,  219 

"       working  plans 210 

Pseudotsuga,  frost  hardy,  . ._.  469 
Pure    versus    mixed,    experi- 
ments,       332 

Quebracho 452 

Races  of  trees 188 

Railroad  ties,  exports,    354 

"     gum,    354 

Rangers,  course,   147 

"        education,    243 

RECknagel,  A.  B.,  article, 396 

Redwoods,  logging,   139 

Regeneration  in  moss,   200 

Reviews  : 

Ahern,   Philippine  report,    .  167 

Akerman,  farm  forestry,   . .  426 
Austria,    Alpwirtschaftpoli- 

tik 63 

Banks,  collecting  insects,  . .  428 
Besley,  Maryland  forests,  .  161 
Bruncken,  Legislative  Bills,  59 
California  State  forestry,  .  .  52 
Canada's  Fertile  Northland,  55 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  con- 
servator's  report 54 

Carey,  Manual 62 

Cleveland,  forestry  in  U.  S.,  424 
Connecticut,    forestry    asso- 
ciation,     167 

Conservation  Commission,  415 

Dana,  Paper  Birch, 425 

Defebaugh,  lumber  tariff,  .  .  59 
Engineers,    conservation    of 

resources,    305 

Forest  Service,  atlas 160 

Harcourt,  swamp  soils,  ....  4T9 
Hawes,  Connecticut  survey,  164 
Hawaii,    Division    of    For- 
estry Report,   53 

Hopkins,  barkbeetles,   416 

Indiana,    State   Board,    ....  166 
Java,   Government   forests,. 


Kellog,  timber  supply, 304 

Kephart,  camping,    60 

MacMillan,  forest  fires,  ...  313 

Maine  Forest  Commission,.  50 
Mammen,   Sachsen's  Wald- 

ungen,    312 

Massachusetts,  Working 

plan,    161 

Mayr,  Waldbau,   60 

Merrit,  Mindoro,  forests,  . .  422 
Metcalf  and  Collins,  chest- 
nut disease, 427 

Michigan   forestry   commis- 
sion  report,    166 

Minnesota,     forestry     com- 
missioner's report,   420 

New      Jersey,      reservation 

commission,    426 

Petraschek     Wessely,     bio- 

graphie,    159 

Pettis,   reforesting  land,    . .  163 
Preble,      Athabasca      Mac- 
kenzie Region,  57 

Quebec,  Minister  of  Lands,  168 
Rhode  Island  Commissioner,  54 
Rouillard,    Labrador    Cana- 

dien 174 

Salisbury,  topographic  maps,  160 

Schenck,   forest   finance,    . .  160 

v.  Schrenk,  diseases,   419 

Schwappach,  S  t  a  t  i  s  tische 

Mitteilungen,    315 

Snider,  Laubholzkunde,   .  . .  314 

vSpaulding,  white  pine  blight,  427 

Terry's   Indian  Rubber,   ...  58 

Tschirch,   Harze,    62 

U.  S.  conference  of  Gover- 
nors,       162 

Wesseley,  Biographie,  159 

Wiesner,    Lichtgenuss,    ....  157 

Ward,  trees,  314 

Weber,  Besteuerung,  159 

Wisconsin  State  forestry,..  48 

Zavitz,  waste  land  planting,  169 

Zon,  future  use  of  land,   .  .  162 

Rights  of  user,  comment,   . . .  364 

"       "      "     value,   213 

Robinson,      measurement     of 

logs,    171 

Rocky  Mountain  vegetation,  .  66,  74 
Rotation,    method    of    deter- 
mining,      89 

Rotations,   ultra   conservative,  91 

Ro'r hery,  J.  F.,  article 147 

RoTHKUGEE,  M.,  article, 277 

Russia,  Crimean  forests,   ....  175 

forests 477 

"       forest  schools,  215 

Rust  of  White  Pine 23T 

Salaries,  Prussian  Foresters,.  470 


XI 


Sand  fixing  plants, 188 

Sea  shore,  ecology, 187 

Schenck,  cruiser's  tables,  ....  172 

Seed  supply,  variability,    ....  203 

"     yield,   spruce,    468 

"     dormancy,   322 

"     longevity, 191 

"      storage     and     germina- 
tion,     _ 328 

Seedlings,  cost  of  growing,  . .  249 

duty,    _ 151 

Selection  forest,  increment,  .  .  206 
Selection   forest,   versus    tim- 
ber forest,  198 

Selection  strip  method, 83 

Shading  versus  moss,  181 

Silviculture,  American  species 

in  Germany,  198 

Silviculture,     experiments     in 

regeneration,    456 

Silviculture,   implements,    ..339,467 
Silviculture,  natural  regenera- 
tion, obstacles,  195 

Silviculture,  problems,  336 

Silviculture,    selection    versus 

timber  forest,    198 

Silviculture,  strip  selection,  . .  83 

Snow  damage,  resistance,  ...  85 

Snow  waters  and  forest  cover,  245 

Soil  and  plant,  78 

Soil,  value  and  cost  of  prepar- 
ation,      79 

South   America,    forests,    . . .  444 

Spacing,  plantation,  202 

Spain,  reforestation,    349 

Spruce,  Englemann,  resin,   . ..  77 

"        planting  under  cover,  83 

"        rotation,  89 

"        Sitka,  growth,  470 

"        weeping,    452 

Statics,  meaning  of, 211 

"       Weise,   06 

Statistics,  Bavaria,  102 

Brunswick,    213 

Mecklenburg,  214 

Prussia,   345 

Sweden,  exports,    .  214 

"          Wurttemberg,    479 

wood  distillation, 
telegraph  poles, 
lumber  produc- 
tion,     360,  361,  362 

world,     477 

Stoetzer,    Waldwertrechnung,  173 

Strength,  time  tests, 100 

Strip  selection 83 

Stump,  removal 475 

Sudan,  forestry,   351 


Swamps,  made  available,  ....  79 

"  utilization,    419,450 

Sweden,    Skogsforsoksanstalt,  174 

Tariff  and  location,  105 

Taxation,  Minnesota  report,  .  105 

Telegraph  poles,  statistics,  . . .  361 

Testing,  effective  speed, 100 

"         hardness,    101 

Thinning,    in    the    dominant, 

principles,    458 

Thinning,  results, 461 

Timber,  time  of  cutting 402 

Timberland  legislation, _.  117 

Tolerance,     relation     to     soil 

moisture,    1S0 

Toxins,    326 

Tree  doctors,  119 

"      races,  188 

Turpentining,  French  method, 

437,  476 

Underplanting  of  spruce,  ....  83 

U.  S.  Census,  forest  problems,  171 

"      forest  areas, 383 

"       President's  special  mes- 
sage,      171 

"      wood  production, 377 

Vermont,  state  forester, 113 

Wagner  method,    S3 

Washington  fire  warden,    ...  171 

Waste  land  planting,  Prussia,  219 

"         "      France,    435 

Water,  evaporation, 195 

Water  flow  and  forests, 322 

Weed,  C.  M.,  Evergreens,  ...  172 

Weeds,  extirpating,  204 

Westergaard,  Jr.  C.,  article,  .  280 

White  Pine,  Blister  rust, 231 

White,  L.  L.,  article,  238 

Willow  plantation,  118 

Wilson,  Elwood,  article,  ....  2 

Wisconsin,  fire  protection,  ...  112 

Wood  distillation,  statistics,  .  360 

"      hardness,     474 

"      identification,     451 

"      structure,    451 

Woods      inspectors,      instruc- 
tions,      11 

Wood      production      in      the 

United    States,    377 

Woolsey,  Jr.  T.  S.,  articles,  243,  270 

Working  plans,  Baden, 87 

World,    forests,    477 

Wurttemberg,   statistics,    479 

Yellow  Pine,  for  paper, 118 

Yield  tables,  practical,   206 

Yield,  timber  forest  and  com- 
posite,    208 

ZiEGLER,  E.  A.,  article,  377 

Zon,  R.,  article,   402 


■     -,■;.- 


Volume  VII 


No.  1 


FORESTRY  QUARTERLY 


A  PROFESSIONAL  JOURNAL 


Subscription  Two  Dollars  per  Annum 


ITHACA,  NEW  YORK 
1909 

Entered  at  the  Ithaca,  New  York,  Port  Office  as  S»cond-cIa«»  Mall  Matter 


FORESTRY  QUARTERLY 


BOARD  OF  EDITORS 
B.  E.  Fernow,  LIr.  D.(  Editor-in-Chief 


Henry  S.  Graves,  M.  A., 

Yale  Forest  School. 

Richard  T.  Fisher,  A.  B., 

Harvard  University. 

Walter  Mulford,  F.  E., 

University  of  Ann  Arbor. 

Ernest  A.  Sterling,  F.  E., 

Forester,  Penna.  R.  R.  Co. 

Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E., 

Forest  Service. 


Filbert  Roth,  B.  S.t 

University  of  Michigan. 

Hugh  P.  Baker,  M.  F., 

Pennsylvania  State  College. 
C.  D.  Howe,  Ph.  D., 

University  of  Toronto. 

Raphael  Zon,  F.  E., 

Forest  Service. 

Clyde  Leavitt,  M.  S.  F., 

Forest  Service. 


Asa  S.  Williams,  F.  E. 


Till"  OBJKCTS  FOR  WHICH  THIS  JOURNAL  IS' PUBLISHED  ARK: 

To  aid  in  the  establishment  of  rational  forest  management. 

To  offer  an  organ  for  the  publication  of  technical  papers  of 
interest  to  professional  foresters  of  America. 

To  keep  the  profession  in  touch  with  the  current  technical 
literature  and  the  forestry  movement  in  the  United  States. 


Manuscripts  may  be  sent  to  the  Editor-in-Chief  at  University 
of  Toronto,  Toronto,  Canada,  or  to  any  of  the  board  of  editors. 
Subscriptions  and  other  business  matters  should  be  addressed 
to  Business  Manager,  Forestry  Quarterly,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


Prewof 

Watchman  Printing  Housb 

Bellefonte,  Pa. 

1909 


Origin  and  Development  of  Chkstnut  Sprouts. 

Thrift\    Sprouts,   2    Years    Old,    from    Chestnut    Stump,    Cut    Low    and 

With  a  Sloping  Surface.     Sprouts:    Average  rst  Year's  Growth, 

6.1    Feet;     Average  2nd  Year's  Growth,  2.9  Feet.     The 

Low    Cut    Stum])   Tends   to   Produce    Sprouts 

From  a  Deep  Origin. 


FORESTRY  QUARTERLY 

Voiv.  VII]  March,  1909.  [No.  1. 


TO  OUR  READERS. 

With  this,  the  "sabbatical"  volume,  the  Forestry  Quarterly 
promises  for  the  first  time  in  its  history,  to  become  self  supporting. 
As  it  is  not  the  policy  to  make  it  a  paying  venture,  but  rather,  as 
its  finances  permit,  to  enlarge  its  size  and  increase  its  usefulness, 
two  new  departments  are  to  be  added,  namely,  "Other  Periodical 
Literature"  under  which  caption  brief  references  will  be  made  to 
articles  appearing  in  various  magazines  or  journals,  not  of  suffi- 
cient importance  for  briefing,  yet  of  interest;  and  "Comments" 
which  is  to  be  open  for  short,  free  discussions  of  technical  prob- 
lems, technical  notes,  and  editorial  comment,  and  to  which  all 
readers  are  invited  to  contribute. 

The  Quarterly  may  claim  to  have  demonstrated  its  usefulness 
to  the  profession,  and  may,  therefore,  frankly  appeal  to1  its  readers 
for  more  generous  support  in  the  way  of  literary  contributions. 

So  far  it  has  rarely  been  necessary  to  solicit  contributions,  but 
it  is  believed  that  much  more  good  material  could  be  produced 
by  those  interested  in  professional  development,  in  articles  or  short 
notes,  and  we  appeal  to  our  readers  to  give  us  their  best  support. 


CD 

cn 


DC 
D_ 


A  FORESTER'S  WORK  IN  A  NORTHERN  FOREST. 

By  Eixwood  Wilson,  B.  A.,  C.  E. 
Forest  Engineer,  Laurentide  Paper  Company. 

In  July  of  1907  the  writer  organized  the  Forestry  Division  of 
the  Laurentide  Paper  Company,  operating  over  Crown  Lands 
held  under  license  in  the  Valley  of  the  St.  Maurice  and  its  tribu- 
taries, in  the  Province  of  Quebec.  These  lands  lie  scattered  over 
a  territory  about  160  miles  from  north  to  south  and  about  100 
miles  from  east  to  west,  and  generally  contiguous  although  there 
are  three  isolated  blocks  of  50  square  miles  each  and  one  of  225 
square  miles.  The  whole  district  is  tributary  to  rivers  and  streams 
flowing  into  the  St.  Maurice,  yet  in  some  sections  the  drive  re- 
quires two  years.  As  yet,  there  is  no  railroad  communication 
with  any  part  of  the  territory,  but  the  National  Transcontinental 
Railway  will  soon  tap  a  small  section.  The  country  is  practically 
unbroken  forest  with  a  network  of  lakes  and  small  streams  and 
for  the  most  part  rolling,  very  rough  in  sections  and  without 
roads  and  trails  except  the  old  Indian  portages.  About  30  years 
ago  the  large  pine  was  lumbered,  and  intermittent  cutting  has 
been  done  over  about  1350  square  miles. 

The  only  maps  which  existed  were  the  Government  traverses 
of  the  main  rivers  and  some  plans  showing  the  boundaries  of  the 
timber  berths,  both  of  which  were  often  grossly  inaccurate. 

Crown  lands  in  this  Province  must  be  cut  according  to  Govern- 
ment regulations  which  prescribe  a  diameter  limit. 

The  problems  which  had  to  be  met  were,  therefore,  the  follow- 
ing: to  ascertain  and  fix  all  boundaries;  to  make  accurate  topo- 
graphical maps  on  which  should  be  shown  the  rivers,  streams  and 
lakes,  water-sheds,  roads,  trails,  dams,  &c;  to  protect  the  terri- 
tory from  fire ;  to  ascertain  and  map  the  various  types  of  forest, 
and  to  obtain  a  reliable  estimate  of  the  kinds  and  quantities  of 
timber  available,  and  from  these  data  to  so  regulate  the  cut  that 
the  Company's  paper  mill  could  have  a  supply  of  raw  material  for 
a  long  future. 

One  difficulty  with  all  work  in  this  region  is  the  lack  of  com- 


A  Foresters  Work  in  a  Northern  Forest.  3 

munication;  all  supplies  must  be  transported  in  canoes  and  on 
men's  backs  in  the  summer,  and  by  horse  or  dog  sleighs  in  the 
winter.  For  this  reason  work  must  always  be  planned  for  at  least 
one  year  ahead,  and  every  detail  must  be  carefully  thought  out  if 
the  work  is  to  proceed  without  delay  and  at  the  minimum  of  ex- 
pense. Then,  too,  in  the  early  summer  from  the  first  of  June  until 
the  first  of  August  the  black  flies  and  mosquitoes  tender  the 
woods  almost  uninhabitable  and  in  winter  all  woodswork  must 
be  done  on  snowshoes,  and  with  the  thermometer  often  from 
thirty  to  forty  degrees  below  zero. 

First,  a  survey  party  was  organized,  consisting  of  chief  of  party 
with  his  canoe  man,  plane  table  man  with  two  rodmen,  cook  and 
assistant,  and  eight  or  nine  men  to  pack,  clear  lines,  move  camps 
and  so  forth.  The  chief  of  party  explores  the  country,  locates 
the  boundary  lines,  picks  out  the  camp  sites  and  lays  out  the 
work  for  the  plane  table  man.  The  latter  uses  a  small  15"  plane 
table  with  telescopic  alidade  having  stadia  hairs  and  his  two  rod- 
men  are  equipped  with  balsam  poles,  having  a  ring  of  bark 
peeled  every  foot.  Where  the  country  is  very  thick  with  under- 
brush, traverses  are  made  by  pacing,  and  where  there  are  roads 
as  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  settlements,  these  were  mapped  by 
buggy  traverse.  The  plane  table  man  as  need  be  acts  at  the  same 
time  as  fire-ranger.  All  work  incident  to  camp  moving,  packing, 
&c,  is  done  for  the  plane  table  party  so  that  they  are  always  free 
to  keep  steadily  at  their  work.  All  boundary  lines,  lot  and  range 
lines,  county  lines,  rivers,  lakes,  creeks,  roads,  trails,  portages, 
dams,  camps  and  caches,  principal  hills  and  ridges,  burnt  areas, 
pure  stands  of  jack  pine  and  black  spruce  swamps  are  located,  and, 
where  valuation  surveys  have  already  been  made,  as  was  done  in 
one  section,  the  beginning  and  end  of  each  strip  was  located. 
Traverses  are  all  closed  with  a  limit  of  error  of  1  in  66  and  the 
error  has  only  once  or  twice  exceeded  1:132.  This  gives  maps 
sufficiently  accurate  for  the  needs  of  the  work.  The  rate  of  pro- 
gress of  this  work  during  the  past  year  has  averaged  fifty  square 
miles  per  month,  and  about  700  square  miles  have  been  mapped. 

The  most  important  problem  in  the  management  of  timber 
lands  is  that  of  fire  protection.  In  this  Province,  the  Govern- 
ment formerly  appointed  the  rangers,  generally  men  with  some 
political  backing  who  took  a  shot  gun  and  their  fishing  tackle  and 


4  Forestry  Quarterly. 

located  themselves  comfortably  in  some  village  or  depot  and  oc- 
casionally went  a  little  way  into  the  woods.  This  proved,  natur- 
ally, so  unsatisfactory  that  the  holders  of  timber  licenses  asked  to 
appoint  their  own  rangers,  and  this  has  greatly  increased  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  protection.  This  Company  organized  a  corps  of 
fire  rangers  consisting  of  seventeen  men,  mostly  college  men, 
either  graduates  or  those  who  were  studying  forestry  and  wanted 
some  practical  knowledge  of  the  woods.  An  inspector  was  ap- 
pointed who  travelled  with  a  canoeman  over  the  whole  country 
to  see  that  the  rangers  were  doing  their  duty,  and  were  supplied 
with  provisions.  The  rangers  travelled  two  together,  each  party 
having,  besides  a  light  fifteen-foot,  canvas-covered  canoe, 
baker  tent,  with  mosquito  net,  light  sleeping  bags  and  cooking 
outfit.  In  addition  each  party  had  two  axes,  one  shovel  and  two 
folding  canvas  buckets.  Two  men  covered  about  one  hundred 
square  miles,  the  districts  being  laid  out  so  that  some  large 
streams  ran  through  each  one  of  them  and  as  all  summer  travel  is 
by  water,  the  rangers  could  see  all  parties  going  into  their  dis- 
trict, follow  them  up  and  put  out  at  once  any  fires  which  might 
be  started.  They  were  required  to  keep  a  diary  showing  their 
location  each  day,  the  weather,  names  of  persons  going  through 
their  territory,  a  list  of  all  fires,  how,  when  and  where  started  and 
by  whom,  when  discovered  and  how  extinguished.  During  the 
exceptionally  dry  weather  of  the  past  season  only  twenty  fires 
were  started  and  all  but  one  were  extinguished  without  damage. 
The  one  which  could  not  be  controlled  was  in  a  section  which  had 
been  lumbered,  and  the  tops  and  slash  made  it  impossible  to  check 
it.  The  damage  however  was  slight,  but  it  would  have  been  much 
worse  if  the  rangers  had  not  been  there.  All  rangers  are  ex- 
officio  justices  of  the  peace  with  power  to  arrest  any  one  caught 
breaking  the  fire  laws.  One  arrest  was  made,  the  offender  being 
fined  fifty  dollars  or  three  months  in  jail  under  suspended  sen- 
tence. 

The  most  dangerous  class  of  people  in  this  country,  as  shown 
by  an  analysis  of  the  causes  of  our  fires  this  past  season,  are 
the  settlers,  who  have  no  regard  whatever  for  the  law  and  are 
most  reckless  in  setting  fires  in  their  clearings.  We  hope  by  edu- 
cating these  people  as  to  the  value  of  the  timber,  teaching  them 
that  it  is  the  forest  which  gives  them  work  and  fire  wood,  build- 


A  Forester's  Work  in  a  Northern  Forest.  5 

ing  material  and  stream  protection,  and  by  making  prompt  arrests 
in  cases  of  violation  of  the  law,  to  greatly  reduce  this  source  of 
fires. 

This  coming  season  trails  suitable  for  horses  will  be  cut  and  it 
is  hoped  to  install  a  few  telephone  lines  by  which  help  can  be  sum- 
moned in  case  of  necessity.  The  cost  of  ranging,  which  includes 
extinguishing  such  fires  as  were  started  amounted  to  eighty-five 
hundredths  of  one  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  timber  lands. 

In  addition  to  fighting  fire  the  rangers  cut  out  trails,  watched 
caches,  and  made  reports  on  the  location  and  character  of  the 
timber. 

It  was  realized  that  before  any  definite  working  plans  could 
be  advised,  an  immense  amount  of  preliminary  work  was  neces- 
sary and,  therefore,  until  such  time  as  this  information  could  be 
obtained,  the  most  important  work  would  be  to  minimize  the 
waste  in  cutting  and  to  protect  the  young  growth,  and  as  far  as 
possible  do  nothing  to  hinder  the  natural  reproduction,  which 
in  this  country  is  excellent.  In  order  to  accomplish  this,  a  set  of 
cutting  regulations  was  drawn  up,  the  main  provisions  being 
inserted  in  the  contracts  with  the  contractors,  and  a  corps  of  in- 
spectors organized  to  see  that  the  regulations  were  carried  out. 
The  men  who  had  fire-ranging  in  the  summer  were  used  for  this 
work.  Each  inspector  was  given  an  assistant  who  spoke  French 
and  English,  sleeping  bags  and  cooking  outfit,  a  twenty-five  foot 
tape,  magnifying  glass,  scaling  rule  and  stamping  hammer.  A 
cabin  with  bunks  and  stove  was  built  for  him  in  a  central  location 
where  he  could  easily  reach  all  the  jobbers  cutting  in  that  terri- 
tory. The  limits  were  divided  into  twelve  districts,  making 
twenty-four  men  engaged  in  inspection  work,  and  a  head  inspector 
put  in  charge  of  them.  So  far,  this  season,  the  scheme  has 
worked  admirably,  the  jobbers  have  almost  without  exception 
shown  themselves  willing  and  anxious  to  follow  the  regulations, 
and  the  amount  of  wood  saved  to  the  Company  by  low  stumps, 
taking  out  all  sound  trees  of  merchantable  size,  seeing  that  no 
logs  are  left  in  the  woods,  no  trees  left  lodged,  and  that  all  profit- 
able material  in  the  tree  tops  is  taken,  will  certainly  pay  for  the 
cost  of  the  inspection  service.  A  weekly  report  in  duplicate  is 
sent  into  the  head  office,  giving  each  jobber's  rating  on  a  separate 
sheet,  showing  in  detail  the  rules  which  have  been  infringed,  and 


6  Forestry  Quarterly. 

in  the  case  of  stumps  cut  too  high  and  trees  cut  under  size  the 
number  of  each  species  is  given,  and  the  head  office  immediately 
sends  a  bill  to  the  offending  jobber  for  the  amount,  as  specified  in 
his  contract. 

In  addition  to  this  work,  valuation  surveys  by  the  strip  method, 
using  a  party  of  four  men,  have  been  run  over  ioo  square  miles 
of  territory,  and  general  reports  of  the  character  and  approximate 
amount  of  timber  on  584  square  miles  of  territory  have  been  made. 
Besides,  growth  studies  were  made  on  six  hundred  and  fifty  bal- 
sam and  three  hundred  spruce  trees,  giving  the  data  for  volume 
and  yield  tables.  Five  thousand  trees  were  planted.  Studies  of 
the  waste  in  logging  under  former  methods  have  also  been  made. 

The  work  is  organized  as  follows.  The  Forester  is  in  charge 
of  the  whole  establishment  of  42  men.  One  man  attends  to  office 
work,  supplies  and  outfits ;  one  man  in  charge  of  maps,  does  the 
drafting  and  attends  to  such  boundary  surveys  as  must  be  made 
from  time  to  time  to  determine  whether  trespasses  have  been  com- 
mitted or  else  to  prevent  them.  There  is  also  a  head  of  survey 
division  in  charge  of  topographical  surveys,  and  a  head  of  fire 
ranging  and  inspection  service. 

Since  the  Government  prescribes  a  diameter  limit,  not  much 
can  be  done  along  silvicultural  lines,  except  to  try  and  log  so  as  to 
hinder  reproduction  as  little  as  possible,  and  to  leave  seed  trees. 
The  writer  has  noticed,  however,  that  the  balsam  reproduces  much 
more  easily  and  rapidly  than  the  spruce,  and  as  the  spruce  has 
been  the  favorite  wood  for  pulp  the  character  of  the  forests  has 
been  gradually  changing,  the  removal  of  the  spruce  favoring  the 
reproduction  of  balsam  which  is  everywhere  coming  in  rapidly 
and  crowding  out  the  spruce.  As  the  balsam  yields  less  pulp  and 
as  throughout  this  country  it  is  of  poor  quality,  and  at  least  40% 
affected  with  heart  rot  and  red  heart,  it  seems  that  such  a  system 
of  cutting  is  slowly  but  surely  depreciating  the  value  of  the 
limits.  This  Company  has  gradually  increased  its  cut  of  balsam, 
and  the  writer  has  advised  cutting  the  balsam  clean,  down  to  the 
diameter  limit  set  by  the  Government  and  leaving  the  spruce  to 
grow  for  a  future  cut.  One  very  important  side  of  the  work  has 
been  the  business  management  which  it  has  been  endeavored  to 
standardize,  simplify  and  so  conduct,  that  accurate  cost  records 


A  Forester's  Work  in  a  Northern  Forest.  7 

could  be  had  of  all  the  different  kinds  of  work,  careful  inventories 
kept,  and  red  tape,  as  opposed  to  practical  system,  eliminated. 

With  these  ends  in  view,  standard  instructions  have  been 
issued  covering  different  kinds  of  work;  standard  report  forms, 
returns  of  expenses,  analyses  of  costs,  survey  and  valuation  sur- 
vey records,  &c,  have  been  prepared,  all  of  a  uniform  size  so  that 
they  can  be  filled  into  loose  leaf  binders.  By  a  careful  system 
of  cost  keeping,  different  parties  doing  the  same  kind  of  work 
can  have  their  costs  compared  and  past  experience  can  be  used  in 
planning  future  work.  In  handling  parties  so  far  from  a  base  it 
is  very  necessary  to  have  a  system  which  will  show  just  what  each 
has  in  the  way  of  provisions,  outfit  and  so  forth,  so  that  they 
will  not  run  short  and  that  the  work  will  not  be  delayed  by  lack 
of  supplies  or  necessary  equipment. 

Forestry  is  certainly  not  worthy  of  the  name  unless  it  is  practi- 
cal, and  it  seems  to  the  writer  that  the  most  rigorous  business 
methods  should  control  its  practice.  Cost  data  are  sadly  needed, 
and  while  conditions  vary  widely  in  different  parts  of  the  country, 
owing  to  topography,  weather,  climatic  conditions  and  so  forth, 
still  such  records  ought  to  prove  just  as  valuable  to  the  forester  as 
they  do  to  the  engineer. 

The  forest  policy  of  the  Quebec  Government  is  a  most  admir- 
able one  in  theory,  with  one  very  serious  exception.  All  timber 
lands  are  the  property  of  the  Crown  and  are  not  sold,  but  the 
license  to  cut  is  leased,  practically  in  perpetuity,  for  a  nominal 
ground  rent  and  so  much  per  thousand  feet  stumpage  dues  when 
the  timber  is  cut.  Cutting  regulations  are  in  force,  but  there  is  no 
adequate  inspection  and  the  regulations  are  obeyed  by  the  licen- 
sees only  because  they  believe  it  is  to  their  interest  and  profit  to 
do  so.  But  the  Government  reserves  the  right  to  take  lands  out 
of  a  license-holder's  territory  for  settlement,  giving  him  until  the 
first  day  of  May,  following  the  issuance  of  a  ticket  of  location  to 
a  settler,  to  remove  the  timber  down  to  the  diameter  limit  set  by 
law.  The  settler  generally  waits  until  the  Companies  have  fin- 
ished their  winter's  operations  before  applying  for  his  land,  so 
that  there  is  no  possibility  of  the  Company  removing  the  timber, 
and  as  the  diameter  limit  does  not  apply  to  the  settler  he  is  able 
to  cut  the  land  clear,  selling  either  to  the  original  license-holder 


8  Forestry  Quarterly. 

or  to  some  rival  concern.  There  would  be  no  objection  to  the 
sale  of  lots  to  settlers  if  the  lands  were  actually  agricultural  lands, 
better  fitted  for  farming-  than  for  the  growing  of  timber,  but  this 
is  not  the  case.  No  attempt  is  made  to  classify  the  lands,  and, 
when  a  license  holder  protests,  some  local  official  is  sent  to  make 
an  examination  and  report,  and  he  is  always  ignorant  and  gen- 
erally dishonest.  Investors  in  timber  licenses  in  this  Province 
have  called  the  attention  of  the  Government  to  this  state  of  affairs 
for  a  long  time,  and  the  general  feeling  now  is  one  of  distrust  and 
insecurity.  Large  holders  of  timber  lands  are  very  anxious  to 
manage  them  according  to  the  most  up-to-date  forestry  methods, 
are  willing  to  put  money  into  permanent  improvements,  roads, 
telephone  lines,  plantations  on  burnt  over  areas,  etc.,  but  they  dare 
not  do  this  since  there  is  no  assurance  that  at  any  time  their 
ground  rents  and  stumpage  dues  may  not  be  raised  beyond  all 
reason,  or  their  best  lands  given  over  to  speculators  masquer- 
ading as  settlers.  Only  this  fall,  just  before  the  general  election, 
a  member  of  the  provincial  parliament  went  to  the  Minister  of 
Lands  and  told  him  that  in  order  to  win  his  election  he  must  have 
some  lots  for  his  constituents.  The  order  for  the  sale  of  sixteen 
lots  was  issued  to  him,  lots  whose  only  value  consisted  in  the 
timber  on  them ;  there  were  no  roads,  the  soil  was  poor,  the  land 
hilly  and  in  no  sense  fitted  for  agriculture.  Fortunately,  the 
license  holder  discovered  what  was  afoot,  and  by  taking  the 
matter  directly  to  the  Prime  Minister  succeeded  in  getting  the 
sales  cancelled.  Capital,  however,  will  not  feel  secure  in  investing 
in  this  province  until  such  things  are  eliminated.  License  holders 
are  practically  in  a  position  to  be  black-mailed  at  any  time. 

The  great  need  is  for  an  honest  and  intelligent  classification  of 
lands  so  that  those  better  fitted  for  timber  than  for  agriculture 
can  be  kept  in  forests,  and  that  the  man  who  puts  in  money  in 
timber  licenses  can  feel  that  he  is  being  justly  treated  and  his 
rights  protected.  Nowhere  on  the  American  Continent  are 
owners  of  timber  lands  more  ready  and  willing,  indeed  anxious 
to  manage  their  lands  under  forestry  methods  than  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Quebec,  and  its  wealth  lies  almost  wholly  in  its  forests 
and  water  powers,  and  every  thing  possible  should  be  done  to 
conserve  and  protect  them  for  all  time  to  come. 


A  Forester's  Work  in  a  Northern  Forest.  9 

Instructions  to  Fire  Rangers. 

You  will  continually  patrol  the  territory  assigned  to  you,  fol- 
lowing routes  given.  You  will  try  to  find  on  your  routes  hills 
from  which  a  view  of  as  much  territory  as  possible  can  be  ob- 
tained. Visit  these  points  as  often  as  possible  during  dry  weather. 
Watch  out  for  smoke.  Should  smoke  be  seen,  proceed  at  once  to 
that  locality  and  attempt  to  extinguish  the  fire.  If  you  find  this 
absolutely  impossible,  go  to  the  nearest  place  where  help  can  be 
obtained.  Put  out  the  fire  with  water  or  sand  if  obtainable;  if 
not,  beat  with  Balsam  or  Spruce  boughs.  Do  not  leave  any  fire 
until  it  is  entirely  out.  Examine  carefully  to  make  sure  that  the 
fire  is  not  burning  in  the  ground.  If  you  cannot  put  out  the  fire 
by  the  means  above  given,  try  back-firing.  Always  observe  the 
direction  of  the  wind  before  starting  back-fires,  to  make  sure  that 
they  will  serve  their  purpose  and  not  spread  the  fire  in  a  new 
direction.  The  best  time  to  fight  fires  is  in  the  evening  and  very 
early  morning.  Fires  usually  die  down  at  night.  Always  remem- 
ber that  the  best  places  to  fight  a  fire  are  along  streams,  roads  and 
tops  of  ridges.  Fire  always  rushes  up  a  ridge,  goes  slowly  at  ihe 
top  and  runs  very  slowly  down  the  opposite  side. 

Camp -Fires  and  Smudges: 

In  building  a  camp-fire  or  smudge,  choose  a  place  where  there 
is  no  moss  or  duff  in  which  the  fire  might  smoulder;  then  clear 
the  ground  of  all  inflammable  material  for  four  or  five  feet  in 
every  direction ;  then  build  your  fire.  Never  leave  a  fire  once 
kindled  until  you  are  sure  it  is  entirely  out  and  not  burning  in  the 
duff.  Never  throw  away  a  lighted  match  or  cigarette,  or  lighted 
pipe  ashes.    Never  make  a  fire  against  a  dry  stump,  log  or  stub. 

Settlers: 

Do  not  in  any  way  antagonize  settlers  or  farmers.  Always  be 
civil  and  courteous  and  use  tact.  Always  pay  for  your  meals. 
Impress  upon  them  the  danger  from  fire  and  resulting  loss  of 
work,  and  of  their  own  timber.  If  they  are  burning  land,  watch 
them,  and  see  that  their  fires  are  kept  away  from  standing  tim- 
ber. Warn  settlers  making  fires  unlawfully  or  carelessly,  and,  if 
the  warning  is  not  heeded,  make  arrests  at  once. 

Hunters,  Trappers,  Sportsmen: 

Watch  all  such  people  going  into  your  territory.  Call  their  at- 
tention to  fire-posters.  Tell  them  the  law  regarding  fires.  Ex- 
plain the  necessity  for  care.  If  possible  follow  them  up ;  see  that 
their  fires  are  extinguished.  Let  them  know  they  are  being 
watched.    In  case  of  carelessness  warn  once,  then  arrest  promptly. 

Tents: 

Tents  must  be  protected  from  sparks.  Fires  must  not  be  made 
too  near.    Shake  the  tent  after  a  rain  before  rolling  up.    Be  care- 


io  Forestry  Quarterly. 

ful  not  to  tear  in  driving  stakes.    Always  carry  your  tent  done  up 
in  a  ground  cloth. 

Sleeping  Bags: 

Sleeping  bags  should  be  well  aired  once  weekly. 

Dishes: 

Dishes  must  be  regularly  washed;  avoid  denting  or  bending 
them. 

Canoes: 

Canoes  must  not  be  dropped,  and  great  care  must  be  taken  not 
to  run  on  rocks,  trees  or  snags.  Do  not  leave  the  canoe  in  the 
sun.    Turn  upside  down  when  on  land. 

Rapids: 

Do  not  ran  rapids  unless  you  have  looked  them  over  and  feel 
sure  you  can  do  it. 

Responsibility  for  Outfit: 

Men  will  be  held  fully  responsible  for  outfit,  which  will  be 
charged  one-half  to  each  man.  Credit  will  be  given  in  full  if  the 
outfit  is  returned  in  good  condition,  showing  ordinary  wear  and 
tear ;  tears  and  burns  in  tents  will  not  be  so  classed ;  broken  or 
badly  damaged  canoes  will  be  repaired  at  the  expense  of  the 
party. 

Fishing: 

Up  to  the  first  of  October,  fish  can  be  taken  for  food.  Do  not 
catch  more  than  can  be  eaten.  No  fishing  or  hunting  is  allowed 
on  Club  preserves. 

Hunting: 

Up  till  the  first  of  September,  it  is  against  the  Law  to  kill 
moose,  caribou  or  deer.  No  infringement  of  the  game  laws  will 
be  allowed.    It  is  forbidden  to  kill  bear  at  any  time. 

Drinking  Water: 

Avoid  drinking  water  that  is  unboiled  at  settlers'  cabins ;  and 
St.  Maurice  water  below  La  Tuque.  Always  see  where  your 
drinking  water  comes  from. 

Provisions: 

You  will  obtain  provisions  at  nearest  Company  Depot,  or  Depot 
of  some  other  Company,  giving  order  for  same  on  order  form 
furnished,  putting  all  details  of  order  on  stub:  Where  obtained; 
Date ;   Full  list ;   Signature. 

Laws: 

Read  over  carefully  the  following  extracts  from  the  Laws  of 
the:  Province;  of  Quebe;c  in  regard  to  fires.     Remember  that 


A  Forester's  Work  in  a  Northern  Forest.  n 

you  are  Government  Officers,  responsible  for  the  execution  of 
these  laws. 

Reports: 

Reports  must  be  made  monthly  and  must  contain  a  detailed 
record  showing  the  following : 

Weather ;  where  camped ;  route  followed ;  persons  seen 
(always  ask  the  names  and  addresses  of  persons  going  into  the 
woods)  ;  condition  of  the  woods- wet,  dry,  etc.;  condition  of  the 
rivers — high  or  low. 

Special  reports  must  be  made  in  case  of  fires,  no  matter  whether 
they  are  large  or  small.    Give  the  following  data : 

When  first  seen;  how  started;  when;  by  whom;  time  re- 
quired to  go  to  the  fire ;  means  used  in  extinguishing  it ;  time  re- 
quired to  put  it  out ;  assistance,  if  any ;  names,  addresses  and 
time  spent  by  each  man;  area  burned;  timber  burned;  say 
whether  top  fire,  ground  fire  or  brush  fire;  and  whether  trees 
have  been  killed  or  only  scorched. 

Other  Work: 

When  weather  is  wet,  or  there  is  no  danger  of  fire,  you  will 
be  expected  to  cut  trails  and  cruise  or  make  reports  and  forest 
studies.  Should  a  river  drive  come  into  your  territory,  watch  to 
see  if  the  men  are  careless  with  their  fires,  smudges,  matches,  etc. 
Report  any  carelessness  at  once  to  the  Foreman  of  the  drive  in 
writing,  sending  duplicate  report  as  soon  as  possible  to  the  office. 

Watch  the  limits  of  other  Companies  and  report  if  they  have 
Rangers  out,  giving  their  names.  Should  any  Company  not 
have  Rangers  on  duty,  report  the  fact  at  the  first  opportunity. 

Instructions  to  Woods  Inspectors. 

You  will  look  after  N.  N.  and  his  Sub  Contractors'  territory, 
and  give  all  your  attention  to  the  following : 

i.  That  jobbers  do  not  chop  any  White  Spruce  trees  under  n" 
on  stump,  Balsam  trees  under  9",  and  Black  Spruce  under  7". 

2.  That  no  tree-tops  be  left  in  woods  that  would  measure  4"  and 
up  in  diameter  at  small  end,  by  13^  ft.  long,  in  either  Spruce  or 
Balsam. 

3.  It  is  to  the  Company's  interest  that  no  Balsam  or  Spruce 
wood  fit  for  pulp  be  wasted  in  either  any  felled  trees,  or  any 
knocked  down  by  felling  larger  trees.  Even  though  there  would 
be  some  loss  in  the  log,  this  loss  can  be  fairly  deducted  by  Culler. 
Trees  that  break  in  felling  must  be  got  out,  and  should  Jobber 
fail  to  do  so,  you  will  report  number  of  trees  thus  left  and  con- 
tents in  feet  Board  Measure. 

4.  That  Jobbers  do  not  butt  Spruce  or  Balsam  trees  too  much, 
and  leave  any  sound  wood  laying  in  the  woods.  We  would 
rather  have  a  three  inch  loss  in  center  of  a  fair  sized  Spruce  log, 


12  Forestry  Quarterly. 

than  lose  a  piece  of  sound  wood  2  to  6  ft.  long,  often  caused  by 
butting. 

5.  That  Jobbers  are  topping  all  logs  with  saw.  We  will  not 
receive  any  logs  topped  with  axe. 

6.  See  that  stumps  are  cut  as  close  to  soil  as  possible.  Any 
cut  at  over  2  ft.  from  ground,  you  will  keep  account  of,  giving 
name  of  Sub-Jobber,  and  quantity  of  such  stumps  found. 

7.  In  burnt  and  other  territory,  all  Spruce  and  Balsam  timber 
that  is  sound  and  dry,  you  will  have  cut  clean,  as  small  as  4"  in 
diameter  at  small  end,  by  13^  ft. ;  Tamarac  and  Pine  not  less 
than  9"  at  small  end,  by  13^  ft. 

8.  Any  Pine  logs  that  Jobbers  are  liable  to  leave  in  woods  on 
account  of  small  rot  in  butt,  which  you  notice  Jobber  does  not 
haul,  and  that  in  your  estimation  there  is  sufficient  good  Pine 
timber  in  said  log  to  warrant  its  hauling,  and  Company's  ex- 
penses on  same, — you  will  measure  said  log,  advise  the  Com- 
pany and  also  the  Culler.  Also  see  that  Pine  trees  are  felled  in 
operations,  especially  in  Croche  territory — many  such  trees  were 
left  last  winter,  Jobbers  giving  for  excuse  that  timber  was  too 
large  and  heavy. 

9.  You  will  have  a  Culler's  stamp,  and  when  examining  logs 
in  skidways,  we  want  you  to  stamp  them  over,  giving  each  log 
several  good  marks.  See  that  Jobber  has  a  good  square  sharp 
L.  P.  stamp,  and  not  one  all  worn,  with  part  of  L.  and  P.  broken 
off.  Also  do  not  fail  to  pay  particular  attention  to  the  bark- 
marks  by  Choppers — have  them  long  and  wide  enough  in  the 
wood  to  make  them  plainly  seen. 

10.  You  will  measure  length  of  logs  in  woods  when  Jobbers 
are  cutting.  This  last  winter  a  good  percentage  of  our  logs 
measured  anyway  from  12  to  13  feet  5  inches.  We  want  logs 
13^  ft.  long.  Should  you  find  any  shorter  than  13-Jft.,  mark 
length  in  blue  pencil,  so  as  Culler  will  notice  when  culling  same. 

11.  You  will  furnish  the  Head  Office  and  District  Agent  with 
a  weekly  report  of  your  work,  giving  Subs'  and  Jobbers'  names 
and  location ;  and  give  full  details  of  complaints  against  Jobbers 
in  accordance  with  numbers  on  above  instruction  sheet,  giving 
quantity  in  all  cases. 

12.  While  passing  through  some  creeks  where  you  find  L.  P. 
logs  wintering  over,  you  will  stamp  over  all  you  can  find. 

13.  When  deep  snow  came  last  spring,  Jobbers  in  Croche  dis- 
trict felled  two  small  trees  to  prevent  log  tree  they  were  cutting 
from  sinking  deep  in  the  snow.  We  do  not  wish  this  waste  re- 
peated and  call  your  attention  to  same,  so  that  you  may  warn  Job- 
bers who  may  be  intending  doing  this  same  kind  of  work  this 
season. 

14.  Warn  Jobbers  not  to  cut  good  seed  trees,  bearing  cones, 
which  you  will  blaze  special.  Where  several  such  trees  are  close 
together,  all  but  one  may  be  cut. 


A  Forester's  Work  in  a  Northern  Forest.  13 

15.  Do  not  allow  the  use  of  good  lumber  in  building  of  camps 
and  roads  and  skidways.  Where  Poplar  and  Birch  is  available, 
compel  their  use. 

16.  See  that  all  logs  are  painted  one  end  before  being  received. 
If  it  is  at  all  possible,  it  would  be  advisable  to  paint  logs  in  skid- 
ways  before  being  hauled  to  landings. 

17.  See  that  no  logs  are  left  under  snow  in  skidways. 

18.  Landings  must  be  good  open  place  on  river  and  well 
cleared,  skids  being  placed  under  logs. 

19.  As  this  is  only  second  year  of  having  Special  Woods  In- 
spectors, you  must  use  your  judgment  in  a  good  many  cases,  and 
if  gone  about  in  right  way,  there  should  be  no  reason  for  trouble 
between  Jobbers  and  you  for  carrying  out  your  instructions. 

You  will  make  a  weekly  report  in  triplicate,  one  copy  to  be 
given  to  the  District  Agent,  and  the  other  two  to  be  forwarded  to 
Mr.  Kane  at  Grand  Mere.  All  rollways  must  be  cleared  before 
piling  logs,  and  must  be  in  good  places,  must  have  no  trees  or 
brush  in  front  of  them,  and  skids  must  be  placed  under  the  logs. 
A  badly  placed  skidway  means  loss  of  time  and  money  to  the 
Company  in  rolling. 

All  trees  above  Government  size  must  be  cut  in  your  territory 
except  two  or  three  seed  trees  per  acre  which  must  be  chosen  for 
size,  thrifty  growth,  and  soundness. 

Any  live  or  sound  dead  trees,  over  Government  standard,  left 
by  Jobber,  must  be  marked  with  a  number,  counted,  and  the  total 
given  in  weekly  report.  Each  tree  must  be  measured  three  feet 
from  the  ground  and  the  diameter  and  species  given. 

Bark  marks  must  be  carefully  watched  and  you  will  see  that 
the  letter  "L"  is  cut  through  the  bark  and  into  the  wood  at  least 
six  inches  long. 

Logs  must  be  stamped  by  Jobbers  as  soon  as  cut  and  you  will 
see  that  no  logs  are  piled  unless  bark  marked  and  stamped. 

No  tops  or  branches  must  be  allowed  on  ice. 

See  that  all  spruce  and  balsam  used  for  skids  is  cut  up  and 
hauled  out. 

See  that  no  logs  are  left  by  being  covered  with  snow. 

Should  any  fire  occur  through  the  negligence  of  any  Jobber  or 
his  employees,  put  it  out,  and  report  at  once,  location,  name  of 
Contractor  and  Jobber,  and  the  damage,  number  and  size  of  trees 
burned. 

You  are  in  the  woods  to  inspect  and  see  that  the  Company  gets 
all  that  it  pays  for  and  requires  under  its  regulations.  These 
regulations  are  reasonable  and  are  meant  to  be  enforced.  You 
are  under  no  obligation  to  the  Jobber.  You  will  be  polite  but 
firm  with  these  men,  remembering  that  they  are  ignorant,  and 
explain  everything  to  them  carefully,  patiently  and  often.  Try 
to  make  friends  with  them,  and  give  them  every  assistance  in 
your  power. 


14  Forestry  Quarterly. 

No  trouble  will  be  allowed  with  any  Jobber,  and  each  Inspec- 
tor's work  will  be  judged  by  its  results.  The  high  standard  set 
by  you  all  as  fire  rangers  must  be  maintained,  and  I  feel  sure  that 
you  will  continue  to  uphold  the  reputation  of  this  Department. 

Instructions  to  Woods  Inspectors  for  Forestry  Work. 

Following  the  jobbers  this  winter  you  will  measure  as  many 
trees  as  possible  in  white  spruce,  black  spruce,  white  pine,  red 
pine,  jack  pine,  balsam,  and  tamarac,  in  the  following  way. 

Height  of  stump  from  ground. 

Diameter  inside  the  bark  on  average  axis  at  stump  height. 

Diameter  outside  the  bark  on  average  axis  at  stump  height. 

Repeat  the  two  last  measurements  at  each  13.5  foot  cut. 

Length  of  trunk  from  last  cut  to  extreme  top. 

Diameter  breast  high  4.5  ft.  outside  bark. 

On  the  stump  and  average  diameter,  and  at  each  13.5  foot  cross 
section  you  will  count  the  rings  from  just  inside  the  bark  inward 
to  the  heart.  You  will  mark  each  tenth  ring  with  a  pencil,  and 
measuring  along  a  straight  line  give  the  length  of  each  line  from 
one  ten  year  point  to  the  next,  taking  for  your  notes  the  length 
of  the  first  ten  year  joint  from  the  outside,  the  length  of  the 
second  from  the  outside  and  so  until  the  center  is  reached. 

Only  normal  trees  are  to  be  chosen,  also  average  trees,  no 
forked  or  unsound,  or  exceptionally  large  or  small  or  suppressed 
trees  should  be  measured.  Give  the  type  from  which  each  tree 
was  chosen,  as  ridge,  slope,  level  ground,  or  swamp.  In  case  of 
slope,  note  whether  it  has  north,  east,  south  or  west  exposure. 

Notes  must  be  taken  on  paddles  and  copied  on  forms.  Make 
them  complete  and  full,  remembering  that  you  will  not  be  work- 
ing them  up,  do  not  trust  anything  to  your  memories.  The  char- 
acter of  the  notes  will  be  used  in  judging  of  your  work.  Clear 
cut,  clean,  legible  notes,  showing  good  judgment  will  be  counted 
very  much  in  your  favor. 

Study  your  territory  carefully  and  report  fully  on  it. 


THE  FOREST  SCHOOL  AND  THE  EDUCATION  OF 
THE  FORESTER.* 

By  Hugh  P.  Baksr. 

The  able  English  educator,  Sir  Horace  Plunkett,  in  a  recent 
comparison  between  colleges  of  a  certain  class  in  this  country, 
gave  expression  to  his  observation  of  a  well-marked  change  of 
trend  in  the  general  preparation  given  our  young  men  and  women 
before  they  enter  a  business  or  professional  career.  He  empha- 
sized the  changed  attitude  of  our  people  toward  industrial  educa- 
tion, which  is  causing  courses  of  study  in  high  schools  and  col- 
lege curricula  generally  to  be  so  changed  as  to  fit  the  young  people 
for  not  only  future  college  work  but  for  actual  everyday  service. 
There  is  now  a  general  belief,  although  not  always  expressed 
clearly,  that  our  young  people  should  be  educated,  not  for  them- 
selves alone,  that  they  may  earn — and  spend  or  accumulate,  but 
to  increase  their  practical  usefulness — that  they  may  be  of  in- 
creasing service  to  the  State. 

Many  of  those  who  directed  the  early  development  of  our  agri- 
cultural colleges  fortunately  have  lived  to  see  that  more  than  one 
vital  principle  originating  during  the  struggle  which  agricultural 
education  had  for  recognition  is  now  being  incorporated,  or  in 
some  instances  is  largely  replacing  older  systems,  and  more  than 
any  other  cause  has  brought  about  the  idea  of  educating  our 
young  people  away  from  themselves  that  they  may  accomplish  the 
most  for  others.  Agricultural  education  has  for  its  aim  the  im- 
provement of  the  condition  of  every  tiller  of  the  soil ;  the  raising 
of  the  profession  of  farming  to  the  standard  of  other  industrial 
professions,  and  the  ever  enlarging  investigation  of  plant  and 
animal  growth  and  production  that  the  energy  of  production  may 
be  greatly  enlarged  yet  conserved.  The  contact  with  and  the 
carrying  out  of  such  ideals  on  the  part  of  young  men  has  broad- 
ened their  vision  and  has  influenced  the  attitude  of  every  other 
group  of  servants  of  the  nation. 

The  gradual  development  of  great  movements  having  for  their 
purpose  the  protection  and  perpetuation  of  the  natural  wealth  of 

*Read  before  the  American  Forestry  Association. 


1 6  Forestry  Quarterly. 

this  country  and  the  promotion  of  the  policy  of  the  land  for  the 
people — with  all  that  it  contains  and  can  produce — has  slowly 
brought  together  a  group  of  workers  who  have  learned  that  the 
work  with  these  great  movements  has  been  more  enjoyable,  more 
profitable  to  them  than  the  mere  accumulation  of  riches  from 
other  sources.  These  large  movements,  recent  though  they  are, 
such  as  forestry  and  irrigation — all  that  we  mean  by  conserva- 
tion— are  already  having  tremendous  influence  upon  the  trend  of 
our  educational  development. 

Forestry,  which  everywhere  is  increasing  the  wideness  of  its 
scope  and  every  year  meaning  more  to  the  general  welfare  of  the 
people,  is  peculiarly  different  from  other  and  often  seemingly 
similar  professions  in  the  demands  which  it  makes  upon  those 
who  will  follow  it  as  a  life  work.  There  is  no  profession  outside 
of  the  historic  professions  of  the  law,  medicine,  and  the  ministry, 
which  demands  a  more  thorough  training.  The  forester  is 
brought  into  contact  with  and  must  deal  with  every  phase  of  our 
economic  development ;  he  must  be  able  to  deal  successfully  with 
every  class  of  men,  which  necessitates  a  knowledge  of  the  princi- 
ples of  business  law  controlling  the  business  relations  of  men. 
At  the  same  time  he  must  be  a  forester  with  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  principles  of  silviculture,  forest  mensuration  and 
management,  lumbering  and  utilization,  and  must  understand  and 
know  how  to  combat  such  enemies  of  the  forest  as  fire,  insects, 
and  plant  diseases.  And  last,  but  by  far  not  least,  he  must  under- 
stand and  be  able  to  appreciate  the  relationship  of  forestry  to 
other  great  industrial  movements  in  this  country.  Dr.  Henry  S. 
Pritchett,  in  a  recent  article  upon  professional  education,  sums  up 
nicely  the  dangers  of  hasty  and  unprepared  entrance  into  any 
profession  which  has  to  do  with  the  welfare  of  our  people.  He 
says  in  part :  "The  only  possible  protection  and  assurance  which 
the  public  can  have  is  to  insist  upon  fundamental  training  as  a 
preliminary  to  any  practice  and  it  may  rightly  suspect  the  motives 
of  any  set  of  would-be  practitioners  who  undertake  to  evade  these 
reasonable  requirements  *  *  *  not  only  does  the  public  find 
its  sole  protection  in  the  uniform  requirements  of  high  standards 
for  entrance  into  these  professions,  but  the  tolerance  of  low 
standards  means  the  maintenance  of  an  open  door  for  the  benefit, 
not   of  the   deserving,  but  of  the  unfit."     If  the   profession   of 


Forest  School  and  Education  of  Forester.  17 

forestry  is  not  kept  to  a  high  standard,  the  fault  will  lie  alone  with 
the  trained  members  of  the  profession. 

Young  men  of  to-day  are  often  attracted  by  forestry  because  it 
is  a  new  profession,  because  of  the  glamour  of  out-door  work  in 
top  boots  and  the  rather  wide  travel  which  has  gone  with  the 
work  in  this  country  up  to  the  present  time.  It  has  and  is  attract- 
ing many  young  men  whom,  unfortunately  for  the  men  them- 
selves, the  years  will  quickly  sift  out,  and  yet  there  will  be  many 
who  will  get  from  the  profession  both  permanent  pleasure  and 
great  opportunity  for  usefulness  and  development.  The  different 
grades,  the  different  opportunities  in  the  work,  which  are  more 
apparent  than  real,  have  demanded  differences  in  the  method  of 
theoretical  and  practical  training  and  the  length  of  the  training. 
Already  we  are  developing  different  schools  as  to  our  attitude 
toward  practical  training ;  as  to  how  little  or  how  much  one  must 
have  and  whether  the  practical  work  should  consist  of  the  study 
of  methods  or  the  application  of  principles.  A  considerable  num- 
ber of  graduates  have  been  out  of  our  forest  schools  for  from 
six  to  eight  years  and  with  certain  limits  the  character  of  their 
professional  work  and  their  development  will  determine  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  training  given  in  the  schools.  Unfortunately,  the 
nature  of  practical  work  in  forestry  is  such,  at  least  as  far  as  the 
management  of  timberlands  is  concerned,  that  a  man  may  con- 
tinue a  wrong  beginning  or  the  practice  of  mistaken  methods  for 
some  little  time  before  such  work  can  be  demonstrated  as  wrong. 

Because  of  the  absolute  newness  of  forestry  and  the  unusual 
demands  on  the  government  bureau  having  the  work  in  charge 
for  men  with  at  least  some  training,  institutions  of  every  grade 
giving  instruction  in  forestry  have  until  recently  of  necessity 
given  undergraduate  training  to  college  graduates  and  others. 
This  is  being  gradually  remedied  by  the  recent  development  of 
undergraduate  courses  and  schools ;  by  the  raising  of  standards 
for  entrance  to  post  graduate  work,  and  by  the  gradual  accumula- 
tion of  a  considerable  number  of  trained  men  to  meet  the  im- 
mediate needs  of  the  country.  The  exceedingly  strong  demand 
during  the  past  five  years  for  men  with  some  forestry  training  has 
put  into  the  field  a  number  who  have  obtained  the  training  by 
short  cuts,  which  have  been  along  the  line  of  intensive  drilling  in 
methods  of  practical  work  with  little  emphasis  of  the  principles 


18  Forestry  Quarterly. 

involved.  If  such  men  have  had  previous  collegiate  training,  or 
if  the  men  without  proper  foundation  work  are  located  in  the 
same  forest  region  as  that  in  which  the  practical  drill  was  given, 
they  get  a  start  toward  development  which  has  landed  and  may 
continue  to  land  them  to  a  safe  place  in  the  profession.  Any  in- 
stitution in  which  such  short  cut  work  is  given  is  decidedly  unjust 
to  students  if  it  does  not  make  clear  to  them  that  satisfactory  de- 
velopment in  the  profession  can  come  only  as  result  of  continued 
and  advanced  training  which  that  institution  is  not  able  to  give. 
It  will  be  indeed  unfortunate  and  humiliating  for  students  to 
begin  this  short  cut  training  at  say  the  age  of  21  or  22  with  the 
expectation  of  becoming  full  fledged  foresters,  and  then  at  the  age 
of  25  or  30  find  that  they  must  start  over  again  to  learn  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  the  work  of  which  they  may  have  an  excellent 
practical  knowledge,  if  they  are  going  to  reach  the  top  of  the 
profession.  I  contend  that  no  young  man  is  starting  in  to-day  to 
train  himself  for  forestry  who  has  not  in  view  rapid  advancement, 
and  that  to  the  top  of  the  profession.  If  the  development  of 
men  in  other  professions  means  anything,  we  are  safe  in  believ- 
ing that  the  man  thoroughly  trained  in  principles,  with  full  de- 
velopment of  observational  and  investigative  powers,  through  a 
certain  amount  of  practice  in  applying  principles,  is  the  man  with 
the  right  start  and  the  man  who  can  develop  indefinitely. 

Because  the  proper  training  of  a  forester  must  include  much 
work  along  the  line  of  botany,  and  because  the  principles  of  plant 
growth  and  propagation  are  taught  in  horticulture,  we  have  had 
a  number  of  men  with  excellent  training  in  these  two  last  named 
professions  who  have  entered  the  profession  of  forestry  on  the 
ground  that  they  know  the  forest  trees,  or  understand  principles 
of  growth  and  plant  propagation.  While  it  is  true  that  well- 
trained  botanists  are  peculiarly  fitted  for  the  investigation  of  cer- 
tain phases  of  plant  growth  ?nd  distribution  which  arc  of  great 
importance  to  the  forester,  yet  the  development  of  properly 
trained  men  cannot  help  but  eliminate  in  the  course  of  time  these 
men  who  are  trained  in  but  one  phase  of  the  subject.  Further- 
more, as  the  harvesting  of  the  forest  crop  and  its  proper  utiliza- 
tion demand  a  considerable  knowledge  of  civil  and  mechanical 
engineering,  we  find  men  trained  in  these  lines  taking  upon  them- 
selves the  practice  of  forestry.  All  of  this  is  the  natural  result  of 
the  development  of  a  profession  which  is  exceedingly  important 


Forest  School  and  Education  of  Forester.  19 

in  the  welfare  of  the  entire  country,  and  which  is  attracting  atten- 
tion from  everyone.  Professions  now  well  established  have  gone 
through  the  same  stages  in  their  development,  and  we  need  not 
worry  as  to  the  outcome  in  forestry.  And  all  of  this  not  as  a 
criticism,  but  a  pointing  towards  sources  of  danger  in  the  devel- 
opment of  trained  foresters.  There  is  no  question  but  that  we 
would  be  many  years  behind  the  present  splendid  development  had 
not  persistent  interest  been  taken  in  forestry  by  engineers,  agri- 
culturists, botanists  and  horticulturists. 

Already  educational  work  in  forestry  has  developed  far  enough 
to  allow  some  suggestions  as  to  the  future.  It  is  probable  that 
there  will  be  two  main  classes  of  men  with  a  possible  third  class 
demanded  in  the  future  of  forestry  in  this  country.  First,  the 
forest  ranger  or  woods  superintendent,  whose  training  will  be 
largely  along  practical  lines ;  second,  the  technical  forester,  who 
will  plan  and  carry  out  the  management  of  large  forest  areas  and 
guide  to  a  large  degree  the  work  of  the  forest  ranger  and  do  the 
investigative  and  administrative  work  demanded,  and  finally  a 
group  of  men  dealing  with  the  educational  problems.  This  last 
group  must  of  necessity  be  drawn  from  the  technically  trained 
foresters,  but  their  training  should  be  as  continuous  and  advanced 
as  possible. 

In  line  with  the  demands  of  the  profession  there  probably  will 
be  developed  three  classes  of  forest  schools:  First,  the  rangers 
school  or  academy,  which  plays  an  important  part  in  the  training 
of  old  world  foresters,  and  which  is  especially  fitted  to  prepare 
men  who  have  not  the  requisite  training  to  enter  more  advanced 
schools  for  positions  as  forest  managers  and  rangers.  The  more 
advanced  schools  will  draw  upon  these  schools  for  students,  for 
there  will  always  be  many  who  will  wish  to  take  more  technical 
courses  because  of  inspiration  received  in  the  elementary  schools. 
I  was  very  much  impressed  with  this  while  giving  a  short  course 
in  forestry  for  rangers  at  the  Colorado  Agricultural  College,  in 
February,  1907.  There  were  some  thirty  men  whose  schooling 
ranged  from  a  few  months  during  two  or  three  winters  to  four 
years  in  some  of  our  leading  universities.  The  training  given  in 
the  short  course  was,  of  necessity,  very  elementary  in  nature,  and 
yet  the  eagerness  of  the  men  seemed  to  show  a  great  need  for  the 
training  of  men  for  work  on  our  National  Forests.  The  estab- 
lishment of  a  ranger's  course  of  nine  weeks  at  Colorado  College, 


20  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Colorado  Springs,  is  a  step  decidedly  in  the  right  direction.  Fol- 
lowing the  first  rangers'  school,  it  is  probable  that  there  will  be 
an  increasing  demand  for  schools  and  academies  where  young 
men  of  limited  preliminary  training  and  limited  finances  may  get 
enough  to  start  them  in  the  early  grades  of  the  work.  The  step 
which  Pennsylvania  has  taken  in  the  establishment  of  an  academy 
for  the  training  of  men  to  manage  the  State  reserve,  is  an  ex- 
cellent one.  The  rangers'  schools  or  academy  as  so  far  organized 
in  this  country,  has  been  taken  to  the  woods,  though  by  so  doing 
they  are  largely  limited  to  drilling  in  methods  of  practical  work 
which  may  be  of  the  highest  grade,  but  which  cannot  take  the 
place  of  thorough  study  and  application  of  principles.  It  is 
probable  that  our  academies  will  not  be  provided  with  regularly 
established  and  fully  equipped  departments  of  botany,  geology, 
soils,  chemistry,  mathematics,  and  civil  engineering,  without 
which  the  requisite  foundation  work  cannot  be  given. 

The  undergraduate  school  of  forestry  has  been  in  existence 
for  a  little  time  in  this  country,  but  is  only  now  taking  an  im- 
portant place.  The  undergraduate  schools,  especially  if  located 
in  institutions  where  there  are  schools  of  engineering  and  agri- 
culture and  fully  developed  experiment  stations,  may  be  made  an 
exceedingly  important  factor  in  the  preparation  of  young  men 
for  forestry.  The  men  are  taken  during  their  formative  period 
and  are  in  the  work  for  four  years,  giving  such  a  hold  on  them 
that  they  may  be  controlled  and  directed  even  after  graduation, 
which  is  the  case  with  no  other  class  of  forestry  students. 

A  brief  statement  of  the  work  which  with  our  present  devel- 
opment should  form  a  part  of  the  curriculum  of  our  undergrad- 
uate schools  may  be  of  interest  at  this  point.  During  the  first  year 
it  is  an  advantage  to  give  the  foundation  work  which  is  an  ab- 
solutely essential  part  of  the  training,  and  which  students  will 
take  with  better  grace  during  the  first  two  years  than  later.  The 
subjects  of  advanced  mathematics,  botany,  chemistry,  plane  sur- 
veying, some  modern  language,  rhetoric  and  English  literature 
and  shop  work  may  make  up  the  first  year.  At  the  same  time 
very  elementary  phases  of  forestry  may  be  touched  upon  in  con- 
nection with  the  plane  surveying,  botany  and  shop  work,  and  the 
forest  school  will  find  it  to  its  advantage  to  meet  the  men  early 
in  some  of  its  own  work.  In  the  second  year  the  preliminary 
training  should  be  continued  and  should  also  include  such  sub- 


Forest  School  and  Education  of  Forester.  21 

jects  as  zoology,  entomology,  physics,  geology,  soils,  agricultural 
chemistry,  plant  propagation,  and  breeding,  organic  and  agricul- 
tural chemistry  and  continued  work  in  French  or  German  and 
English  composition.  The  plane  surveying  should  be  enlarged 
by  considerable  work  in  topographic  surveying.  If  this  course  is 
followed  the  last  two  years  may  be  given  largely  to  essential 
forestry  subjects  and  very  closely  related  lines.  These  forestry 
subjects,  such  as  mensuration,  silviculture,  forest  protection,  lum- 
bering and  utilization,  advanced  histology  and  wood  technology, 
with  various  lines  connected  with  forest  economics  should  be 
covered  thoroughly  with  enough  practical  work  to  acquaint  stu- 
dents with  application  of  principles  involved.  There  should  be 
given  in  connection  with  this  work  in  forestry  more  or  less  work 
in  forest  entomology  and  problems  involved  in  fish  and  game 
preservation  with  a  continuation  of  civil  engineering  dealing  with 
the  building  of  roads,  trails,  splash  dams,  etc.,  and  a  course  of 
lectures  of  greater  or  less  extent  involving  elementary  principles 
of  irrigation  engineering.  It  seems  desirable  to  leave  some  lee- 
way for  the  men  to  specialize  or  elect  during  their  last  year  ad- 
vanced work  in  political  economy,  psychology,  or  the  languages, 
or  to  follow  bents  along  the  lines  of  advanced  botany  and  plant 
diseases,  or  work  in  civil  and  mechanical  engineering.  During 
the  first  four  years  time  should  be  given  for  several  weeks  in 
lumber  camps  and  saw  mills,  and  students  should  be  expected  to 
take  a  number  of  trips  for  inspection  of  examples  of  practical 
forestry  work  and  of  industries  closely  connected  or  dependent 
upon  the  forest.  Often  men  may  be  placed  during  summer  vaca- 
tions in  lumber  camps,  saw  mills  or  yards,  or  in  forest  nurseries, 
and  my  experience  has  been  that  the  men  are  more  than  anxious 
for  such  practical  work.  After  a  year  or  more  of  practical  work, 
men  who  have  completed  a  four  years'  undergraduate  course, 
should  if  possible,  go  to  our  postgraduate  schools  to  continue  their 
training  along  the  lines  which  were  most  attractive  to  them  in 
their  undergraduate  work.  The  opportunity  for  development  and 
advancement  along  special  lines  of  forestry  is  increasing  rapidly, 
and  within  a  surprisingly  short  time  there  will  be  a  strong  demand 
for  a  high  grade  of  post  graduate  work.  It  is  pleasing  to  note 
that  some  of  our  post  graduate  schools  have  already  matured 
plans  for  advanced  courses  in  lumbering,  silviculture,  and  forest 
management  in  specialized  forest  industries  and  forest  economics. 


2.2  Forestry  Quarterly. 

The  post  graduate  school  is  the  most  important  factor  in  the 
development  of  forestry  in  this  country,  not  only  because  it  will 
play  an  important  part  in  the  training  of  professional  foresters, 
but  more  than  any  other  factor  it  can  influence  and  control  the 
standards  to  be  maintained  in  the  work. 

That  the  educational  work  in  forestry  in  this  country  may  be 
made  logical  in  its  sequence  from  rangers'  schools  to  post  grad- 
uate work  and  that  the  schools  may  be  more  closely  drawn  to- 
gether, it  is  hoped  that  there  will  develop  an  organization  of 
forest  school  instructors  who  may  suggest,  if  not  determine,  the 
processes  and  methods  whereby  we  will  produce  trained  foresters 
in  this  country.  It  may  be  that  the  Society  of  American  Foresters 
can  accomplish  this  as  the  American  Medical  Association  is  in- 
fluencing to  a  large  degree  the  training  of  physicians. 


THE  SCIENCES  UNDERLYING  FORESTRY.* 

By  B.  E.  Fernow. 

In  connection  with  the  preceding  article  by  Professor  Baker, 
the  following  thoughts  on  the  relative  importance  of  the  Sciences 
underlying  forestry,  formulated  for  a  different  occasion,  may  not 
come  amiss. 

The  writer  agrees  most  fully  with  the  tripartite  subdivision  of 
foresters  which  Professor  Baker  makes,  namely,  into  lower  grade 
local  executives,  higher  grade  local  managers,  and  highest  grade 
leaders,  and  that  according  to  the  needs  of  these  three  classes 
schools  or  curricula  ought  to  be  devised. 

It  is  still  open  to  question  in  my  mind,  whether  an  under- 
graduate course  cannot  be  devised  and  conducted  that  shall  at 
least  satisfy  the  second  class.  My  experience  at  Cornell  Uni- 
versity would  lead  me  to  believe  that  a  sufficient  basis  can  be  laid 
by  such  a  course  to  enable  the  later  development  in  the  practice  of 
first  class  managers ;  and  even  leaders  may  develop  out  of  those 
graduates,  who,  endowed  with  native  ability  and  through  pri- 
vate study,  develop  superior  judgment.  After  all,  the  personality 
of  the  man,  and  the  personality  of  the  teacher  have  more  to  do 
with  the  result  than  the  course. 

The  undergraduate  four-year  course,  as  outlined  by  Professor 
Baker,  very  closely  resembles  the  one  laid  out  by  the  writer  for 
the  first  professional  forest  school  at  Cornell  University,  and 
again  revived  in  the  University  of  Toronto. 

To  meet  the  requirement  of  a  better  educated  class  of  foresters, 
and  yet  to  maintain  the  idea  of  an  undergraduate  course,  a  course 
has  been  devised  at  the  University  of  Toronto  for  those  that  can 
afford  it,  which,  lasting  through  six  years,  leads  to  both  the  Arts 
degree  and  the  undergraduate  Forestry  degree  at  the  end  of  the 
six  years. 

The  idea  underlying  this  arrangement  is  the  early  introduction 
into  the  professional  subject  and  a  longer  occupation  with  it,  and 
thereby  a  longer  time  for  digestion  of  the  same,  while  the  added 
humanistic  or  cultural  courses  will  help  to  broaden  the  mind  in 
both  cultural  and  professional  direction.    This,  we  think,  is  prefer- 

*Read  in  part,  before  the  Sigma  Xi  Society. 


24 


Forestry  Quarterly. 


able  to  the  arrangement  of  securing  the  Arts  degree  first,  and 
then  in  two  short  years  a  Master's  degree  in  a  subject  for  which 
the  Arts  course  has  only  questionably  prepared  the  student. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  show  what  form  this  novei  combina- 
tion course  has  taken,  which  does  not,  however,  displace  the  regu- 
lar four  year's  course. 


I 


week  hours 


Mathematics    3 

Physics    5 

Biology  6 

German  and  French 4 

English   2 

Latin     3 

Forestry I 


24 


III 


Chemistry    4 

Mineralogy 3 

Geology   1 

Surveying  (Plane)   4 

German  and  French 2 

English  2 

History   3 

World  History   1 

Forestry    I 

Option   in   Mathematics   or 

Physics  or  Philosophy,  .  .  2 


V  23 

English   2 

Political  Economy    3 

Constitutional  Law,  History  2 

Philosophy  Option 2 

Science  Option    3 

Forestry    6 


II 


week  hours 


Chemistry 4 

Biology    4 

German  and  French 4 

English   2 

History   3 

World  History 1 

Forestry 2 

Science  Option  or  Latin  .  .  2 


IV 


22 


Chemistry 2 

Geology 2 

Meteorology    I 

Biology 3 

Surveying  (Topographical)  4 

Political  Economy  2 

Constitutional  History  ....  1 

Forestry    4 

Philosophy  Option   I 


18 


20 

VI 

Mathematics   2 

Chemistry  Applied 1 

Political  Economy    2 

Law,  Mercantile  1 

Engineering 4 

Philosophy  or  Science  Op- 
tion      3 

Forestry    5 


18 


The  Sciences  Underlying  Forestry.  25 

Forestry  is  an  art  which,  like  agriculture,  is  concerned  in  the 
use  of  the  soil  for  crop  production.  Just  as  the  agriculturist  is 
engaged  in  the  production  of  food  crops,  so  the  forester  is  en- 
gaged in  the  production  of  wood  crops.  Finally,  both  practice 
their  art  for  the  same  practical  purpose,  namely  for  revenue.  The 
art  is  carried  on  as  a  business  in  which  naturally  the  money  re- 
sult is  the  ultimate  aim. 

All  arts  have  a  scientific  basis,  are  applications  of  science 
proper,  or  of  parts  of  various  sciences.  The  knowledge  of  these 
may  have  been  acquired  either  systematically  or  empirically,  and 
may  be  possessed  in  different  degrees ;  but  even  the  commonest 
arts  are  based  upon  more  or  less  systematized  knowledge. 

The  butcher,  the  surgeon,  the  sculptor,  all  rely  upon  a  knowl- 
edge of  anatomy;  although,  according  to  the  different  object, 
their  knowledge  is  of  a  different  degree  and  acquired  in  a  differ- 
ent manner.  Similarly,  the  botanist,  the  horticulturist,  the 
forester  need  knowledge  of  botany,  each  in  a  different  manner. 

Success  and  improvement  in  the  practice  of  the  technical  arts 
depends  finally  upon  the  volume  of  applicable  knowledge  of 
sciences.  Volume,  however,  is  a  product  of  area  and  depth. 
And  as  even  the  specialist  possesses  depth  only  in  certain  parts  of 
his  field  or  his  area  of  knowledge,  so  the  practitioner,  though  he 
may  have  to  survey  a  broad  field  of  science,  needs  depth  only  in 
portions,  so  that  his  bottom  of  scientific  knowledge  may  exhibit  a 
rather  undulating  surface  of  uneven  depths.  In  other  words,  the 
thoroughness  with  which  the  different  sciences  and  parts  of 
sciences  underlying  his  art  must  be  known  by  him  is  variable  ac- 
cording to  his  necessities  in  their  application. 

Yet  as  the  true  artist  needs  genius  to  produce  a  master  work, 
so  the  practitioner  in  a  technical  art  needs  more  than  the  merely 
technical  contents  of  the  professional  branches  and  parts  of 
sciences,  the  practical  details  of  which  may  be  learned  outside  of 
Universities.  He  needs  judgment  and  business  instinct,  he  needs 
a  degree  of  general  education  which  contributes  towards  forming 
breadth  and  depth  of  judgment;  he  needs  thorough  familiarity 
with  the  principles  underlying  facts,  and  the  capacity  for  applying 
knowledge  and  inventing  new  combinations.  Hence  the  most 
efficient  practitioner  requires  not  only  more  knowledge  than  the 
mere  modicum  of  applicable  science  but  also  other  branches  of 
education,  which  do  not  appear  in  the  professional  curriculum. 


26  Forestry  Quarterly. 

From  the  dual  character  of  forestry,  namely  as  a  technical  art 
and  a  business,  its  fundamental  basis  is  found  in  two  different 
sets  of  portions  of  science.  The  technical  side,  to  which  we  give 
the  name  of  silviculture  in  the  broadest  sense  or  forest  crop  pro- 
duction, necessarily  relies  upon  natural  sciences,  while  the  busi- 
ness side,  which  we  comprise  under  the  name  of  forest  economy 
relies  mainly  upon  mathematics,  and  political  economy,  and  prac- 
tical knowledge  of  industries,  markets,  and  other  business  con- 
cerns. 

While  in  all  other  branches  of  production  human  labor  is  the 
most  important  factor — even  in  agriculture  and  horticulture — in 
forestry  the  factor  of  nature  plays  the  most  prominent  part ;  the 
materials  and  forces  of  nature  are  the  source  of  the  mighty  pro- 
cesses of  organic  life,  which  find  expression  in  forest  growth ; 
and  during  the  long  period  of  accumulation  of  annual  product  in 
the  growing  tree,  there  is  but  limited  chance  to  interfere  and  in- 
fluence the  result.  Yet  some  knowledge  of  natural  history  can 
be  brought  to  bear  to  direct  nature's  forces  into  more  useful  pro- 
duction than  its  unguided  activity  would  secure  for  us.  Nature, 
taking  no  count  of  space  or  time,  or  the  needs  of  man  must  be 
improved  upon  to  secure  economic  results. 

The  field  of  natural  sciences,  which  the  forester  must  survey 
is  quite  extensive,  but  the  different  parts  are  of  very  unlike  rela- 
tive importance,  and  hence,  since  he  does  not  study  the  sciences 
for  their  own  sake,  he  must  exercise  a  wise  limitation,  whereby  the 
depths  of  his  knowledge,  as  has  been  intimated,  will  be  very  un- 
even, to  be  sure,  but  located  at  the  right  places. 

This  does  not  exclude  occasional  expansion  and  deepening  in 
certain  portions  beyond  the  immediate  necessities,  and  such  ex- 
pansion has  led  foresters  usefully  to  specialize  and  develop  science 
in  the  direction  most  interesting  to  them.  Thus  economic  ento- 
mology and  economic  and  physiological  botany,  and  especially 
ecology,  have  experienced  considerable  advances  by  specializing 
foresters. 

Inherent  disposition  and  exterior  conditions  combine  to  pro- 
duce the  results  of  growth;  all  measures  which  the  forester  em- 
ploys to  secure  the  largest,  most  useful  and  most  valuable  crop 
are  based  upon  the  knowledge  of  these  two  biological  factors,  just 
as  in  agriculture.     Hence,  being  engaged  in  plant  production, 


The  Sciences  Underlying  Forestry.  2j 

botany,    geology,    meteorology,    with   physics    and    chemistry    as 
hand-maidens,  and  zoology  to  a  degree  require  attention. 

That  portion  of  botany  which  may  be  segregated  as  dendrology, 
the  botany  of  trees,  forms  naturally  the  main  basis.  In  this 
connection  let  me  point  out  that  the  arborescent  vegetation  is  to 
some  extent  sui  generis;  their  persistence  through  centuries,  the 
long  period  of  life,  and  their  elevation  above  the  rest  of  vegeta- 
tion, which  exposes  them  to  the  seasonal  changes  and  hence  sub- 
jects them  to  the  climatic  factors  throughout  the  whole  year,  make 
trees  exceptional  organisms,  and  render  their  life  history  more 
varied  and  of  greater  interest  than  that  of  the  annually  deciduous 
plants  of  those  half-woody  plants  which  winter  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  snow. 

But  to  study  such  segregated  portion  of  the  large  field  of 
botanical  science  presupposes  a  certain  amount  of  general  botani- 
cal knowledge.  In  order  to  know,  recognize,  and  classify  his  crop 
materials  the  methods  of  classification,  the  general  anatomy,  his- 
tology, and  physiology  must  be  familiar  to  the  forester.  Soon, 
however,  specialization  becomes  necessary,  and  his  botanical 
studies  must  concentrate  themselves  upon  the  botany  of  trees,  and 
this  does  not  mean  mere  descriptive,  systematic  dendrology,  the 
mere  knowledge  of  the  species,  their  classification  and  geograph- 
ical distribution,  but  physiological  and  ecological  or  biological 
dendrology,  the  life  history  of  the  tree  in  the  individual  and  in 
communities,  a  very  special  study,  to  which  few  botanists  have  as 
yet  given  much  attention. 

The  knowledge  of  the  species,  the  plant  material,  is  a  necessary 
equipment,  but  the  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  tree  growth  and  of 
the  life  history  of  the  limited  number  of  species  at  least  which 
have  forestal  importance  is  infinitely  more  necessary.  Only  a 
few  species  comparatively  form  the  basis  of  forest  production  in 
a  given  region:  out  of  the  500  species  of  which  this  continent 
boasts,  hardly  more  than  100  are  of  economic  significance.  The 
life  history  and  development  of  these  under  varying  conditions 
needs  to  be  known  fully ;  here  depth  is  needed. 

It  is  only  within  very  recent  times  that  botanists  have  developed 
systematically  in  the  direction  of  ecologic  studies,  in  studying  the 
relation  of  plants  and  plant  communities  to  their  surroundings 
and  to  each  other,  a  study  which  to  the  forester  has  been  for  a 
century  of  greatest  necessity  and  which  he  has  carried  on  em- 


28  Forestry  Quarterly. 

pirically  and  unsystematically  with  more  or  less  success.  He  has 
discovered  and  applied  his  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  different 
species  are  not  only  more  or  less  adaptive  to  varying  soil  condi- 
tions but  that  their  requirement  for  light  is  variable  and  that  trees 
as  well  as  other  plants  can  be  divided  into  groups,  according  to 
this  relative  requirement  into  light-needing  and  shade-enduring 
ones,  and  finally  this  one  factor  of  light  influence  for  the  devel- 
opment of  the  crop  has  become  so  prominent,  that  one  could  de- 
fine the  art  of  the  silviculturist,  as  the  art  of  managing  light  con- 
ditions in  the  growing  forest  so  as  to  secure  best  results.  Nor 
is  the  forester  satisfied  to  know  the  general  broad  features  of  the 
biology  of  the  species,  their  development  from  seed  to  maturity, 
their  requirements  regarding  soil,  and  light  conditions,  and  their 
general  relations  to  surroundings ;  but,  as  he  is  a  producer  of  ma- 
terials, he  is  most  emphatically  interested  in  the  amount  of  pro- 
duction and  the  rate  at  which  this  production  takes  place.  For, 
different  from  the  agriculturist's  crop,  his  is  not  an  annual  one, 
but  requires  many  years  of  accumulation,  and  as  each  year's  wait- 
ing increases  the  cost  of  production  by  tying  up  the  capital  in- 
vested, it  is  of  importance  not  only  to  know  the  likely  progress  of 
the  crop  but  also  how  its  progress  may  be  influenced. 

Here  is  a  phase  of  biological  dendrology,  the  mathematics  of 
accretion,  which  to  most  botanists  is  probably  an  unknown  depth 
and  as  far  as  our  own  species  are  concerned  largely  an  unex- 
plored area  even.  Foresters  almost  exclusively  have  developed 
this  portion  of  botanical  science.  The  laws  of  accretion  have 
through  many  years  of  measurement,  especially  by  German  for- 
esters, been  recognized,  and  form  a  most  fascinating  study.  As 
in  man's  development  the  infantile,  juvenile,  adolescent,  virile, 
and  senile  stages  are  recognized,  so  in  tree  life  these  stages  appear, 
and  the  dependence  of  tree  growth  on  its  environment — "the  fac- 
tors of  site" — is  even  more  pronounced  and  readily  recognizable 
than  in  the  animal,  which  can  change  its  "site". 

Besides  the  more  intimate  knowledge  of  trees  and  tree  life, 
some  knowledge  of  the  lower  vegetation  especially  in  its  ecologic 
relations  is  of  service.  Weeds  are  enemies  to  be  overcome ;  but 
they  also  are  indicators  of  soil  conditions  and  of  light  conditions, 
and  hence  the  study  of  what  the  Germans  call  Standortsgew'dchse 
— plants  indicative  of  the  character  of  the  site — forms  a  special 
branch.      Again   fungi  are   destructive  to  the  young  crop  and 


The  Sciences  Underlying  Forestry.  29 

others  deteriorate  the  old  crop,  calling  for  knowledge  not  merely 
of  their  names,  but  of  the  conditions  which  favor  their  develop- 
ment and  the  means  of  preventing  it.  It  will  be  observed,  then, 
that  botanical  studies  form  a  prominent  part  through  three  years 
of  the  curriculum. 

As  must  have  become  apparent  from  the  reference  to  the  rate 
of  growth  as  influenced  by  the  factors  of  site,  the  knowledge  of 
these  factors,  soil  and  climate,  general  and  local,  and  their  rela- 
tion to  plant  life  is  indispensable.  The  study  of  geology  and 
meteorology  as  far  as  they  explain  this  relationship,  as  far  as  they 
teach  the  chemico-physical  basis  for  wood  production,  and  form 
a  criterion  for  the  adaptation  of  species  to  various  conditions  is 
required. 

The  Germans  have  segregated  the  portions  of  these  sciences, 
which  contribute  towards  an  understanding  of  these  relation- 
ships as  a  special  branch  called  "Standortslehre." 

Especially  the  subject  of  soil  physics,  only  lately  developed 
into  a  science,  furnishes  much  useful  information  to  the  forest 
grower.  It  is  now  a  well  substantiated  fact  that  wood  growth 
is  much  less  dependent  on  the  mineral  constituents  of  the  soil, 
than  other  vegetable  growth,  and  especially  the  agricultural  food 
and  fruit  crops,  that  trees  live  and  thrive  literally  on  air,  and 
from  the  soil  derive  mainly  the  necessary  water ;  hence  the  physi- 
cal conditions  of  the  soil,  which  influence  the  water  conditions 
are  of  much  more  moment  than  the  chemical  composition ;  hence 
also  manures  are  not  required,  and  conservation  of  favorable 
water  conditions  is  the  main  concern  of  the  forest  owner. 

Since  limitation  is  wisdom  it  is  wise  to  confine  the  geological 
and  mineralogical  studies  to  such  small  portions  as  are  neces- 
sary for  a  general  understanding  of  how  and  what  soils  are 
formed  from  different  rocks,  and  secure  depth  of  knowledge  only 
regarding  soil  physics.  A  more  elaborate  introduction  to  the 
geological  history  and  dynamic  geology  may  be  of  general  edu- 
cational interest,  but  it  is  not  required  by  the  practitioner  who 
is  concerned  only  with  what  has  relation  to  tree  life. 

There  is  one  other  branch  of  natural  sciences  which  has  con- 
cern with  tree  life,  namely  zoology.  Animals  feed  on  plants, 
hence  become  enemies  to  the  forester's  business.  Especially  does 
he  find  a  limited  number  of  insects  which  can  become  trouble- 
some and  call  for  protective  measures.     He  should  know  them 


30  Forestry  Quarterly. 

and  their  life  history  as  well  as  that  of  his  friends  who  help  him 
keep  down  the  pests.  Forest  entomology,  the  knowledge  of  the 
insects  preying  on  forest  growth  and  the  means  of  combating 
them,  is,  therefore,  a  well  developed  branch  of  general  entomol- 
ogy. Nevertheless  a  mere  modicum  of  knowledge  will  suffice, 
by  no  means  comparable  with  the  requirement  in  the  branches 
mentioned  before. 

Since,  however,  forests  are  the  harborers  of  game  and  forest 
waters  of  fishes,  a  knowledge  of  game  and  fish  and  their  life 
habits  may  become  not  only  of  natural  interest  but  of  practical 
utility  and  hence  claim  some  attention. 

Finally  it  may  be  proper  to  point  out  that  the  aim  in  the  study 
of  natural  history  by  the  forester  should  be  rather  to  secure  a 
general  intelligence  of  nature  in  its  relationships  than  a  mere 
agglomerated  knowledge  of  unrelated  facts  and  forms. 

Now,  turning  to  the  other  side  of  forestry,  namely,  the  busi- 
ness side,  there  are  two  branches  which  contribute  towards 
building  out  the  subject  of  forest  economy  or  "forest  regula- 
tion," namely,  mathematics  and  political  economy.  There  is 
needed  a  certain  amount  of  mathematical  instinct,  if  not  elab- 
orate knowledge,  to  understand  the  relationships  of  the  laws  of 
accretion. 

To  measure  the  quantity  of  production,  which  must  form  the 
basis  of  business  calculations,  a  more  elaborate  use  of,  and  fa- 
miliarity with,  mathematical  operations  is  necessary:  forest  men- 
suration has,  therefore,  developed  into  a  special  branch  of  mathe- 
matics and  many  methods  have  been  developed  by  which  not  only 
the  volume  of  the  single  tree,  but  the  volume  and  rate  of  growth 
of  whole  stands  or  acres  of  trees  can  be  more  or  less  accurately 
determined. 

One  of  the  most  important  mathematical  problems  for  the  for- 
ester to  settle  is,  when  his  crop  is  ripe.  This  is  not  as  with  agri- 
cultural crops  and  fruits  determined  by  a  natural  period,  but  by 
the  judgment  of  the  harvester  based  upon  mathematical  calcu- 
lations. There  are  various  principles  which  may  be  followed  in 
determining  the  maturity  of  a  stand  or  in  determining  what  is 
technically  called  the  rotation,  that  is  the  time  within  which  a 
forest  managed  as  a  unit  shall  be  cut  over  and  reproduced.  Either 
the  largest  average  volume  production,  or  the  largest  average 


The  Sciences  Underlying  Forestry.  31 

value  production,  the  largest  "forest  rent,"  or  the  largest  "soil 
rent"  may  be  the  aim. 

In  either  case  a  complicated  measurement  and  calculations  are 
required  to  form  the  basis.  If  we  follow  the  principle  of  highest 
volume  production  it  is  only  necessary  that  actual  volumes  pro- 
duced in  different  periods  of  time  be  known,  in  order  to  choose 
that  time  when  volume  divided  by  years  of  its  production  be  at 
its  maximum,  that  is,  when  the  average  annual  accretion  cul- 
minates, and  this  we  know  occurs  by  an  interesting  mathematical 
law  when  it  has  become  equal  to  the  current  accretion.  If  we 
express   these   relations   in   percentage,   we   find  the   interesting 

formula  for  the  current  accretion  per  cent.    — -7-,  in  which  d  is 

the  average  diameter  of  a  representative  number  of  trees,  and  n 
the  number  of  annual  rings  for  one  inch  which  these  trees  have 
formed  on  the  average  during  the  period  of  growth  just  finished. 
We  have  also  the  remarkable  mathematical  discovery  that  aver- 
age accretion  per  cent,  culminates  when  it  is  equal  to ,    in 

which  a  is  the  age  of  the  stand.    And  as  this  culmination  occurs 

when  it  is  equal  to  the  current  accretion,  we  have  the  equation 

400           100    ,  .  .  ,  ,  .  ,  r 

— t  —  ,  irom  which  we  determine  a,  the  age  of  maximum 

forest  production  =  — . 
4 
If  maximum  value  production  is  looked  for,  matters  become 

more  complicated,  for  with  change  in  the  size  of  logs,  which 
make  up  the  volume,  their  value  changes  because  more  useful 
material  can  be  cut  from  them,  the  percentage  of  waste  being 
reduced. 

Finally,  if  we  begin  to  calculate  on  the  capital  of  soil  and 
standing  timber,  which  is  involved  in  accumulating  volume  and 
in  the  production  of  value,  and  try  to  secure  an  adequate  interest 
return,  compounding,  of  course,  since  neither  these  capitals,  es- 
pecially the  wood  capital,  nor  the  wood  interest  can  be  withdrawn 
until  the  long  distant  harvest  time — we  come  into  forest  finance 
calculation,  a  mathematical  branch  which  has  been  more  highly 
developed  than  such  calculations  in  any  other  business  excepting 
perhaps  life  insurance,  with  formulas  which  are  unfamiliar  to  the 
average  mathematician. 


32  Forestry  Quarterly. 

The  long  time  element  in  forestry  is  unique  and  involves  most 
elaborate  planning  and  calculation  in  order  to  enable  the  forest 
grower  to  carry  on  a  continuous  "sustained  yield"  management 
profitably. 

With  the  discussion  of  what  an  adequate  rate  of  interest  is, 
with  which  to  charge  this  business  with  its  long  time  production 
we  come  upon  the  field  of  national  economy  as  one  of  the  fun- 
damental sciences  for  forestry. 

Morevover,  the  aims  and  objects  of  forest  management  are  to 
a  large  extent  of  national  economic  character.  The  claimed  in- 
fluence of  forests  on  climate  and  water  flow  seem  to  impose  upon 
State  governments  the  duty  to  supervise,  regulate,  or  undertake 
the  management  of  forest  areas,  and,  since  other  considerations 
of  State  besides  the  cultural  interests  of  forest  areas,  involved 
in  the  peculiarities  of  the  forestry  business,  indicate,  that  State 
management  of  forest  areas  will  eventually  become  universal,  it 
is  desirable,  if  not  essential,  for  the  practice  of  technical  for- 
estry, that  the  fully  educated  forester  should  have  clear  concep- 
tions of  the  principles  underlying  such  duties  of  the  State.  Not 
only  are,  therefore,  those  branches  of  economics  which  concern 
themselves  with  the  development  of  business  principles  to  be 
thoroughly  mastered,  but  a  knowledge  of  the  functions  of  the 
State,  of  State  politics  are  to  the  forester  even  more  needful 
than  to  the  generally  educated  man,  for  his  business  is  in  closer 
relation  to  the  State. 

In  addition  to  the  fundamental  sciences,  forestry  must  borrow 
from  other  arts  and  professions.  The  manager  of  an  isolated 
property  must  have  varied  knowledge — accessories  to  his  art. 
He  must  have  enough  familiarity  with  the  principles  of  business 
law  to  avoid  pitfalls ;  he  may  have  to  be  his  own  architect,  sur- 
veyor, and  engineer.  There  is  especially  a  considerable  amount 
of  engineering  knowledge  needed  by  him  in  providing  methods 
and  means  of  economic  harvesting  and  transportation  of  his 
bulky  crop. 

The  forester  is  really  in  the  same  business  as  the  logger  or 
lumberman,  namely,  to  supply  wood  materials  to  the  community 
with  only  the  added  obligation  of  continuing  in  the  business  after 
the  first  harvest.  He  must,  therefore,  be  a  competent  logger, 
and  all  the  engineering  knowledge  of  the  "logger"  and  somewhat 
more  is  his  need.     Forest  surveys,  especially,  will  for  a  time  be 


The  Sciences  Underlying  Forestry.  33 

the  occupation  of  the  first  foresters,  and  hence  surveying  is  an 
essential  accessory,  including  road  building,  locating  of  railways, 
and  cruder  engineering  works. 

Every  business  man  needs  a  certain  amount  of  knowledge  in 
practical  commercial  law.  Singularly  enough  this  has  still  all 
to  be  learned  in  practice,  at  the  expense  of  employers  and  litiga- 
tion, instead  of  a  systematic  course  in  the  university.  Every 
man  who  claims  to  have  a  modern  education  should  have  had 
the  opportunity  of  acquiring  such  knowledge,  and  foresters, 
especially,  who  become  administrators  of  properties  away  from 
civilization  cannot  dispense  with  it. 

So  many  portions  of  science  have  to  be  segregated  and  com- 
bined towards  the  one  end  which  the  forester  seeks  to  accomplish, 
and  so  much  has  he  added  to  it  that  perhaps  he  may  be  entitled 
to  dignify  that  organized  sum  of  human  knowledge  which  is 
taught  in  the  purely  forestal  courses  of  a  professional  forestry 
school  as  the  science  of  forestry  and  thus  justify  the  claim  of  this 
youngest  accession  to  our  university  courses  as  a  science  in  itself. 


THE  ORIGIN  AND  EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF 
CHESTNUT  SPROUTS. 

By  W.  R.  Mattoon,  F.  E. 

In  a  silvical  study  which  the  writer  made  in  southern  Connecti- 
cut the  aim  was  to  determine  the  leading  facts  concerning  the 
origin  of  sprouts  and  their  growth  during  the  first  few  years, 
and,  in  addition,  the  variations  under  definite  known  conditions. 
As  the  Chestnut,  Castanea  dentata,  Borkh.,  is  one  of  the  more 
valuable  species  of  forest  trees  of  the  northeastern  states,  the 
study  has  a  bearing  on  the  practical  problem  of  forest  manage- 
ment. The  principal  region  of  study  was  a  mixed  hardwood 
tract  of  some  400  acres  near  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  known 
as  the  Maltby  tract.  This  region  has  been  cut  over  repeatedly 
under  the  coppice  system,  in  rotation  of  20  to  70  years.  In  it 
at  least  four  forest  types  are  clearly  demarkated,  corresponding 
with  regularity  to  definite  site  conditions : 

(a)  Bottomland  type:  This  occurs  in  the  moist  soil  of  de- 
pressions and  along  streams,  the  species  giving  character  to  the 
type  being  Red  Maple,  Ash,  Red  Oak,  Chestnut  and  Tulip,  (b) 
Chestnut  type:  Around  the  borders  of  the  depressions,  the  pre- 
ceding type  is  apt  to  grade  into  one  in  which  the  Chestnut  domi- 
nates, although  seldom  forming  over  50  per  cent,  of  the  stand. 
In  this  collar  of  the  low  basins,  the  soil  is  deep  and  drainage 
good,  thus  bringing  about  the  optimum  situation  for  the  Chest- 
nut, (c)  Oak  Ridge  type:  This  type  covers  the  rocky  ridges  and 
plateaus  where  the  soil  is  frequently  shallow  and  relatively  dry; 
a  site,  where  growth  is  still  possible  and  blanks  are  not  in- 
frequent; Chestnut  Oak,  White  Oak  and  Hickory  mark  the 
type,  (d)  Average  Hardwood  type:  This  is  distinctly  an  inter- 
mediate type,  occurring  on  situations  midway  between  the  Bot- 
tomland and  Oak  Ridge  types,  and  constitutes  in  area  approxi- 
mately 40  per  cent,  of  the  stand.  The  mixture  is  quite  uniform, 
of  Red  Oak,  Chestnut,  Hickory,  with  Maple,  Birch  and  Chest- 
nut Oak.  The  tract  is  in  many  respects  a  good  type  of  the  pre- 
vailing woodlands  of  Southern  New  England,  and  affords  ample 
material  for  the  study  of  the  reproductive  capacity  of  the  Chest- 
nut in  its  various  stages,  including-  advanced  decline. 


Early  Development  of  Chestnut  Sprouts.  35 

An  additional  region  of  study  lay  in  northern  central  Penn- 
sylvania. It  represented  mostly  first  cutting,  with  some  good 
examples  of  coppice  forest  resulting  from  lumbering,  and  also 
from  forest  fires.  The  special  contribution  from  this  region  to 
the  subject  under  investigation  consists  of  measurements  of 
sprouts  from  stumps  of  trees  of  seedling  origin,  clear  and  selec- 
tive cuttings  for  poles,  posts  and  ties  being  made  continuously 
over  the  tract. 

Except  where  otherwise  stated  the  method  used  in  obtaining 
the  data  for  each  of  the  investigations  was  the  same  through- 
out. In  general,  the  following  plan  prevailed:  Sample  plots  or 
strips  were  selected,  in  shape  and  size  depending  upon  conditions 
of  topography,  the  area  of  the  particular  type  or  site  quality,  and 
the  character  of  the  investigation  in  hand.  Sample  plots  were 
generally  66  feet  square,  and  strips  4  rods  wide;  measurements 
were  taken  on  all  living  stumps  of  the  specified  species  within 
the  sample  area.  In  the  studies  pertaining  to  height-growth 
(except  in  certain  cases)  only  the  three  dominant  sprouts  of 
each  colony  or  stump  group  were  considered.  In  young  sprouts, 
the  diameter  measurements  were  taken  at  a  height  of  2  feet  from 
the  ground.  Measurements  were  also  made  of  the  amount  of 
yearly  growth  in  height  for  successive  years  in  young  sprouts. 
The  .limits  of  growth  up  to  the  age  of  about  5  years,  are  defined 
by  one  or  more  of  the  following  external  appearances :  Ring  of 
the  bud  scale  scars,  or  enlargement  at  nodes ;  aborted  dead  tip 
of  previous  year's  growth;  cluster  of  branches  at  terminus  of 
year's  growth  (inconstant)  ;  decided  change  of  color  and  mark- 
ings on  bark.  Descriptive  notes  on  local  conditions  of  site  and 
silvicultural  features  were  taken  for  each  sample  area. 

Sprouts  arise  from  two  classes  of  buds,  dormant  and  adventi- 
tious, the  former  often  continuing  in  existence  for  many  years 
before  developing  into  a  shoot.  It  seems  likely,  however,  that 
sprouts  arise  more  frequently  from  adventitious  buds.  The 
formation  of  these  can  result  only  from  some  local  stimulation. 
Through  the  sudden  and  relatively  large  increase  in  food  supply 
at  all  points  in  the  stump  caused  by  the  removal  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  tree  such  a  stimulus  is  created.  There  are  other 
sources  of  irritation,  which  are  either  chemical  or  physical  in 
their  nature  and  internal  or  external  in  respect  to  the  point  of 
their  application.     The  enzyme  of  a  fungus  mycelium,  the  attack 


36  Forestry  Quarterly. 

of  insects,  bruising  or  wounding  the  surface  by  falling  limbs  or 
gnawing  animals,  and  the  scorching  effect  of  a  light  groundfire 
are  typical  examples  of  a  wide  variety  of  effective  sources  of 
irritation.  The  result  of  the  stimulation  in  all  cases  is  practically 
identical  in  bringing  about  that  form  of  rapid  and  complex  mul- 
tiplication of  new  cells  which  makes  for  the  regeneration  of  the 
individual. 

The  Locality  of  Origin. — In  the  Chestnut  the  region  of  sprout- 
ing is  confined  to  a  belt  with  comparatively  narrow  vertical  limits 
surrounding  the  stump  and  near  the  contact  of  the  ground  sur- 
face. 

The  height  at  which  the  parent  stump  is  cut  influences  to  a 
limited  degree  the  position  of  the  succeeding  sprouts.  In  low- 
cut  stumps  the  sprouts  have  a  lower  origin  than  under  opposite 
conditions.  Again,  the  point  of  insertion  was  observed  to  be 
higher  in  the  more  moist  situations,  under  a  good  degree  of 
shade,  and  on  the  cooler  aspects.  In  the  Red  Oak  the  upper  ver- 
tical limits  for  the  origin  of  thrifty  sprouts  is  somewhat  higher, 
perhaps  as  much  as  5  to  6  inches.  Chestnut  rarely  if  ever  makes 
"stoolshoots"  as  do  occasionally  the  oaks,  frequently  the  birches, 
and  normally  the  beech. 

An  effort  was  made  to  determine  any  tendencies  of  location 
within  the  horizontal  plane  of  the  sprouting  belt.  There  is  evi- 
dence that  the  root-system  exerts  an  influence  in  this  respect. 
Frequently  the  largest  groups  of  sprouts  as  well  as  the  tallest 
and  best  individuals  are  found  at  or  near  the  retreating  angle 
between  the  two  main  branches  of  the  lateral  root  system.  Often, 
yet  less  frequently,  the  sprouts  spring  from  the  convex  and  more 
exposed  surface  of  the  same  roots.  In  the  former  position,  the 
bark  is  less  thick  and  tough,  and  in  general,  offers  less  resistance 
to  the  exit  of  the  soft  tissues  of  the  growing  shoot.  The  lo- 
cality is  favorable  also  to  the  protection  of  the  shoot  from  ex- 
ternal mechanical  sources  of  injury. 

The  Root  System  of  Young  Sprouts. — This  centers  in  a  con- 
sideration of  the  length  of  time  and  the  extent  to  which  the  old 
root  system  continues  its  function  and,  correspondingly,  under 
what  conditions  and  to  what  degree  new  roots  are  formed  and 
relied  upon  by  the  new  generation. 

Only  a  very  small  portion  of  the  old  root  system  is  called  into 
activity  by  the  sprouts  of  the  first  year.     The  relative  demand 


Early  Development  of  Chestnut  Sprouts.  $7 

for  water  by  the  new  generation  is  exceedingly  light;  moreover, 
the  stump  and  roots  at  the  outset  hold  a  good  store  of  moisture 
and  food  materials.  In  such  a  state  of  inactivity,  roots  can  main- 
tain for  only  a  brief  period  of  time  their  potential  capacity  for  a 
renewal  of  functional  activity.  While  in  this  condition,  there  are 
many  species  of  insects,  bacteria  and  fungi  ready  to  effect  the 
early  destruction  of  all  living  tissues  in  the  root. 

Those  portions  of  the  old  root  system,  however,  which  are 
early  brought  into  functional  activity  by  the  demands  of  the  new 
sprouts,  survive  the  first  year,  which  appears  to  be  the  most  criti- 
cal period  during  the  process  of  readjustment.  -During  the  fol- 
lowing years,  with  the  enlargement  of  the  aerial  portion  of  the 
sprout  or  colony,  comes  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  demand 
for  soil  moisture.  This  demand  is  met  either  by  an  extension  of 
the  old  root  system  previously  appropriated  by  the  young  shoot 
or  by  the  production  of  new  roots  near  the  base  of  the  shoot. 

Low-cut  stumps  tend  toward  a  deeper  point  of  origin  for  the 
sprouts,  and  such  show  a  greater  tendency  to  develop  new 
lateral  roots,  thus  becoming  in  a  measure  independent  of  the  roots 
of  the  parent  which  in  so  many  cases  are  in  a  degenerate  condi- 
tion. 

Relation  of  Age  to  Sprouting. — As  is  to  be  expected,  there  is 
an  age-predisposition  with  respect  to  the  production  of  sprouts. 
Chestnut  is  subject  to  far  wider  limits  in  this  respect  than  the 
majority  of  coppice  species.  Local  study  in  Connecticut,  where 
50  to  60  years  is  the  average  rotation  in  practice,  failed  to  fix 
upon  the  maximum  or  the  optimum  age.  Up  to  this  age,  the 
number  of  sprouts  generally  was  directly  proportional  to  the  size 
of  the  stump  in  circumference. 

In  the  northern  Pennsylvania  tract,  however,  where  seedling 
trees  of  various  ages  and  sizes  had  been  recently  cut,  the  relation 
was  clear.  Fresh  stumps,  80  to  170  years  old,  produced  a  full 
thicket  of  short,  spindling  sprouts,  while  neighboring  stumps 
in  age  from  30  to  60  years,  bore  a  much  smaller  number  of  tall, 
stout  sprouts.  Evidently  some  point  below  60  years  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  optimum  age. 

The  figures  in  the  following  table  are  quoted  from  results  ob- 
tained by  Mr.  Raphael  Zon  on  the  Chestnut  in  Maryland.  The 
number  of  sprouts  in  relation  to  the  diameter  of  the  stump  is 


38  Forestry  Quarterly. 

given;    it  is  presumable  that  the  data  were  obtained  under  uni- 
form conditions,  so  that  the  age  is  proportional  to  the  diameter. 

Diameter    of   Stump,    inches,  9     10     11     12     13     14     15     16     17     18 

Number  Sprouts  per  Stump,  13     18    22    24    25    26    26    26    25    24 

The  number  of  sprouts  is  not  of  so  much  importance  as  their 
size  and  general  thrift.  The  comparison  is  one  between  a  thicket 
of  small  low  sprouts  and  a  small  group  of  tall  stout  sprouts. 
There  is  evidence  that  the  optimum  age  for  sprouts  coincides 
in  general  with  the  close  of  the  period  of  maximum  height 
growth,  which  occurs  somewhere  about  the  twentieth  to  thirtieth 
year.  Sprouts  from  old  age  stumps,  if  produced  are  less  vig- 
orous and  their  appearance  at  the  end  of  the  first  season  is  in 
general  similar  to  that  of  sprouts  from  stumps  cut  somewhat  late 
in  the  spring  season. 

The  Barly  Growth  of  Sprouts. 

The  Diameter  Growth  of  Sprouts. — After  the  first  year  there 
is  a  very  rapid  decrease  in  the  amount  of  annual  growth  in 
height.  The  rate  of  diameter  growth  in  the  sprout  during  this 
decrease  is   interesting. 

The  rapid  height  growth  during  the  first  year  secures  for  the 
shoot  access  to  light  and  carries  it  beyond  close  competition. 
At  best,  the  first  year's  growth  is  spindly.  The  second  and  third 
year's  growth  is  in  quite  an  opposite  direction  to  that  of  the  first, 
viz :  a  small  increase  in  height  but  a  large  expanse  in  cross 
section  area,  as  high  as  235  per  cent,  increase  in  the  second  year's 
growth  being  found.  The  general  form  of  sprouts,  thus,  changes 
from  cylindrical  to  a  conical  after  the  first  year.  An  increase  of 
nearly  1  inch  per  year  in  diameter  during  the  first  8  to  15  years 
has  been  observed  on  stumps  in  the  most  favorable  situations. 

The  cross  section  area  averages  (at  2  feet  above  ground)  for 
maximum  dominant  sprouts,  .44,  .99  and  2.J  sq.  in.  and  for 
dominant  sprouts,  .011,  .037  and  1.6  sq.  in.  for  the  first  three 
years  respectively. 

The  increase  in  cross  section  area  for  the  average  dominant 
sprout  is  for  the  second  year  about  130  per  cent,  to  150  per  cent., 
and  for  the  third  year  140  per  cent,  to  170  per  cent,  over  that 
of  the  preceding  year.     In  contrast  to  this  the  growth  in  height  of 


Barly  Development  of  Chestnut  Sprouts.  39 

the  same  sprouts  during  the  same  years  is  striking,  since  they 
show  a  decrease  in  the  amount  of  height  growth  for  the  two 
years  of  43.5  per  cent,  and  23.7  per  cent,  respectively. 

Annual  Height  Growth  of  Sprouts. — The  Chestnut  is  one  of 
the  more  fastidious  species  in  respect  to  its  natural  surroundings, 
and  the  total  amount  of  growth  during  any  period  of  years  in 
early  life  is  largely  determined  by  the  favorableness  of  the  situ- 
ation. There  is  however  a  relation  between  the  amount  of 
growth  during  the  first  and  the  succeeding  years  which  is  much 
less  variable,  hence  the  comparative  height  growth  made  during 
the  first,  second  and  third  years  under  various  conditions  was  in- 
vestigated. 

/.  Sprouts  from  Stumps  of  Seedling  Trees  (Penna.). — The 
amount  of  growth  in  height  for  each  year  was  measured  on 
100  three-year  old  sprouts,  taking  only  the  3  dominant  sprouts 
on  each  stump.  A  variety  of  ages  of  parent  stumps  was  repre- 
sented. The  general  site  was  Quality  I ;  Density,  2-4.  The  rate 
per  cent,  is  based  on  the  growth  of  the  first  year. 

Period.  Growth  in  Height.  Rate. 

1  st  year  6.87  feet  100    % 

2nd    "  2.78    "  40.4% 

3rd    "  2.12    "  30.8% 

2.  Sprouts  from  Coppice  Parent  Stumps  (Conn.),  a.  Average 
Good  Situation. — These  are  sprouts  after  several  generations  of 
ancestors.  They  represent  the  thriftiest  average  stock  to  be 
found  in  Southern  New  England,  and  were  growing  in  Bottom- 
land type  Quality  I ;  Density,  4. 

Period.  Growth  in  Height.  Rate. 

1  st  year                           5.69  feet  100     % 

2nd    "                              2.62     "  46.5% 

3rd    "                              2. 11     "  37-2% 

b.  Average  Poor  Situation. — Here  the  natural  quality  of  the 
site  differentiates  the  situation — the  species  occurred  in  about  the 
same  proportion  of  mixture.  The  site  was  a  warm  S.  E.  ex- 
posure of  moderate  slope,  unfavorable  soil  depths  and  soil  mois- 
ture. Type :  Average  Hardwoods ;  Quality  II  to  III ;  Density, 
2-4. 


Period. 

Growth  in  Height. 

Rate. 

1st  year 
2nd   " 
3rd    " 

4.48  feet 
2.37     " 
1.82    " 

100     % 

52.9% 
46.2% 

4-0  Forestry  Quarterly. 

There  is  a  rapid  decrease  in  rate  of  height  growth  under  all 
conditions  after  the  first  year;  this  continues  to  a  small  degree 
(as  shown  for  one  year  here,  and  from  repeated  observation  in 
older  stock)  in  later  years.  In  the  less  favorable  situations  the 
rate  of  annual  growth  shows  a  less  rapid  decrease.  An  average 
of  the  three  tables  above  gives :  first  year,  ioo  per  cent. ;  second 
year,  46.6  per  cent. ;  third  year,  38.2  per  cent.  The  amount  of 
growth  falls  to  less  than  one  half  after  the  first  year,  and  di- 
minishes thereafter  at  a  slow  rate. 

Effect  of  Midzvinter  and  Late  Spring  Cutting  Upon  Sizes  of 
Sprouts. — An  excellent  opportunity  to  study  the  effect  of  winter 
and  late  spring  cutting  was  afforded  in  the  Pennsylvania  tract. 
Sound,  mature  Chestnut  trees  of  seedling  origin  had  been  selected 
and  removed  for  poles  during  the  month  of  May,  while  a  clear- 
cutting  of  the  same  type  on  a  similar  site  had  been  made  on 
closely  adjoining  ground  during  the  December  and  January  pre- 
vious. The  region  was  visited  in  December  at  the  end  of  the 
first  season's  growth  of  sprouts,  and  measurements  made  which 
gave  the  following  results : 

Season     of  Average    Number  Average    Heights        Average 

cutting  of  sprouts  of  sprouts  in  diameter 

parent  stump.  per  stump.  feet.  of  sprouts 

(Inches). 

Midwinter,  22  6.15  .42 

May,  35  3-5  23 

The  sprouts  from  the  May  cutting,  while  more  numerous,  are 
decidedly  inferior  in  quality  and  size.  The  average  show  them 
to  be  about  one  half  normal  size.  Uniformly,  the  tips  of  these 
shoots  are  soft,  and  the  wood  cells  imperfectly  lignified  for  a 
distance  of  8  to  15  inches  down  the  stem  at  the  end  of  the  season, 
and  hence  from  30  per  cent,  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  growth  is 
winter-killed.  In  December,  the  thin,  soft  and  pliable,  light 
green  leaves,  overtaken  by  early  frosts,  were  found  clinging 
tightly  to  these  immature  shoots,  in  marked  contrast  with  the 
tough,  thick,  rigid,  dark-brown  leaves  of  the  normal,  full-season 
shoots. 

If  cutting  advances  into  the  summer  months  the  chances  of 
virile  sprouts  become  less  up  to  or  beyond  midsummer.  The 
numbers  of  sprouts  produced  is  less  and  the  season  for  growth 
short.     It  appears  that  root  pressure  constitutes  an  influencing 


Early  Development  of  Chestnut  Sprouts.  41 

factor  being  "present  in  trees  only  during  a  limited  period  at 
the  beginning  of  the  growing  season,  and  almost  entirely  absent 
*in  summer  when  the  greatest  amount  of  water  is  used." 

Effect  of  Light  and  Shade  on  Height  Growth. — Measurements 
were  taken  on  two  adjoining  plots  similar  in  slope,  aspect  and 
soil  conditions,  but  differing  in  light  conditions.  In  one,  a  clear 
cutting  had  been  made  three  years  ago,  while  in  the  other,  timber 
for  ties,  posts  and  poles  had  been  removed  at  the  same  time, 
leaving  still  a  rather  full  crown  cover,  density  about  .6.  The 
results  are  here  summarized : 

Period.  Under  Full  light.  Partial  Shade. 
1  st  year,                                             5.6  feet  5.1  feet 

2nd    "  4.0    "  2.4    " 

3rd    "  2.9    "  1.5    " 


Total  12.5    "  9.0    " 

The  difference  in  amount  of  growth  in  height  is  much  the  least 
for  the  first  year.  In  the  second  year  the  sprouts  in  the  open 
make  a  growth  of  66  per  cent,  greater  than  those  in  the  partial 
shade,  while  for  the  third  year  the  increase  is  93  per  cent.  These 
results  reaffirm  the  statement  elsewhere  made  concerning  the 
relatively  high  tolerance  of  sprouts  during  the  first  year  of  life 
As  the  food  supply  in  the  parent  stump  diminishes  and  the 
sprout  comes  to  depend  to  a  greater  degree  upon  the  products 
of  photosynthesis  its  tolerance  diminishes.  The  rate  is  seen  to 
be  relatively  rapid  if,  as  is  probable,  the  conclusion  is  warranted 
that  the  slower  rate  of  growth  results  from  a  diminished  supply 
of  light. 

There  is  still  a  greater  difference  in  diameter  growth  under  the 
two  conditions.  Sprouts  growing  under  a  moderate  shade  do 
not  even  by  the  third  year  attain  the  stout  form  which  is  usual 
with  sprouts  in  the  open.  The  decimation  of  sprouts  in  shade 
is  to  be  found  in  a  following  section. 

Effect  of  soil  conditions  on  Height  Growth. — The  amount  of 
annual  growth  in  height  for  each  of  the  years  was  measured  on 
three  year  old  chestnut  sprouts,  in  each  of  the  four  different  for- 
est types,  to  determine  the  influence  of  site  quality.  The  Maltby 
tract  contains  in  small  plots  a  wide  variety  of  site  conditions. 
There  are  at  least  three  distinct  site  qualities  with  regard  to 
moisture  and  depth  of  soil,  where  the  Chestnut  forms  a  promi- 


42  Forestry  Quarterly. 

nent  share  of  the  mixture.  These  grades  of  site  are  marked  off 
from  each  other  by  the  factors  of  soil  depth  and  soil  moisture. 
Beyond  these  limits  are  conditions  of  extremes  toward  which 
the  species  rapidly  fades  in  number  and  quality. 

The  results  are  given  in  the  table,  and  shown  graphically  in 
the  diagram. 

Site  I:  The  "Bottomland"  areas  (not  swampy). 

Site  II :  On  this  the  type  "Average  Hardwoods"  occurs. 

Site  III:  Verging  on  the  rocky  ridges  and  the  "Oak  Ridge" 
type. 


Quality 

of 

Site. 

Period. 

Average  Height 
growth  in  feet. 

Total  Height 
Three  years. 

I 

(Maximum) 

ist  year 
2nd    " 
3rd    " 

6.08 
3-41 
1-73 

11.22 

I 

(Average) 

ist  year 
2nd    " 
3rd    " 

5  69 
2.62 
2. 11 

10.32 

II 

ist  year 
2nd    " 
3rd    " 

4.48 
2-37 
1.82 

8.67 

III 

ist  year 
2nd    " 
3rd     " 

3-63 
2. 11 
1.30 

7.04 

In  the  best  situations  the  largest  advantage  for  height  growth 
comes  during  the  first  year.  Afterwards,  growth  on  sites  I  and 
II  is  more  nearly  the  same  in  amount.  In  the  third  year  the 
amount  of  height  growth  on  site  III  diminishes  much  faster  than 
upon  more  favorable  situations.  The  maximum  quality  I  (the 
largest  set  of  results  obtained  from  any  one  plot  of  quality  I  site) 
shows  a  large  increase  over  average  conditions  for  the  same 
quality. 

Relation  of  Soundness  of  Parent  Stumps  to  Height  Grozvth  of 
Sprouts. — The  removal  of  a  crop  of  first  or  second  generation 
coppice  wood  of  the  ordinary  type  in  Connecticut,  usually  reveals 
a  wide  variation  in  the  condition  of  soundness  of  parent  stumps. 
The  problem  here  presents  itself  as  to  the  subsequent  rate  of 
height  growth  of  sprouts  from  stumps  of  different  degrees  of 
soundness. 

A  study  was  made  under  the  following  conditions :    ( 1 )  The 


Rg-e  >n   Yea  as        *- 


HbiQMT   (j-ROWTH     of    Chestnut  QPaouTS. 


^SMrttWN  '^  1  ? --ti'lM  ^  Ml  r-tfl  mHfJit^^^lfSffl^ 


.&*&'»■*  "Va^rs 


Barly  Development  of  Chestnut  Sprouts.  43 

sprouts  had  completed  the  third  year's  growth  and  were  in  dor- 
mant winter  condition.  (October).  (2)  The  present  stumps 
were  2nd  to  4th  generation  sprouts.  (3)  The  situation  was  site 
II ;  Type,  Average  Hardwoods.  (4)  Three  grades  of  quality 
of  stump  were  made,  viz.,  good,  fair  and  poor  on  the  basis  of  con- 
ditions of  external  observations  cited  in  the  foregoing  study. 
Many  stumps  of  grade  "poor"  had  produced  no  sprouts  of  a 
size  assuring  the  participation  in  the  later  wood-crop,  and  all  such 
were  not  accepted  in  the  count.  The  aim  was  thus  to  determine 
if  possible  within  narrower  limits  the  effect  resulting  from  disease 
infection.  The  average  of  each  of  the  three  years'  growth  in 
height  of  sprouts  from  stumps  of  each  quality  is  shown  in  the 
following  table. 

Quality  of  Length  of  growth  in  height  in  feet. 

Stump.  1st  year.  2nd  year.  3rd  year.  Total. 

Good  4.88  2.23  1.9  9.01 

Fair  4.18  2.20  1.51  7.89 

Poor  3.97  2.0  1.23  7.20 

From  these  measurements  it  appears  that  the  rate  of  growth 
is  better  sustained  during  the  years  following  the  first  in  the 
case  of  sprouts  from  the  soundest  stumps.  Accompanying  di- 
sease in  the  stump,  shown  by  unsoundness,  the  curve  of  the 
upward  growth  flattens  out  comparatively  soon.  The  high  aver- 
age of  the  curve  for  the  poor  quality  stumps  is  due  to  the  con- 
ditions already  stated,  i.  e.  no  measurements  taken  on  stumps 
which  were  so  badly  diseased  that  no  sprouts  were  produced 
promising  a  fair  participation  in  the  wood-crop.  The  effects  of 
disease  are  thus  taken  from  a  narrower  source. 

Comparison  of  sprout  growth  from  seedling  and  coppice 
stumps. — The  rates  of  height  growth  of  sprouts  from  two  classes 
of  stumps — coppice  and  seedling  origin — growing  side  by  side 
under  identical  conditions,  are  suposed  to  be  different.  The 
figures  in  table  convey  some  idea  of  the  actual  amount  of  differ- 
ence in  growth. 

The  study  was  made  on  a  tract  of  Site  I  for  Chestnut.  It  is 
almost  exclusively  in  such  locations  that  seedling-trees  occur  at 
all  in  Connecticut ;  here,  also,  coppice  maintains  a  relatively  good 
thrift  for  successive  generations.  In  situations  where  favorable 
soil  factors  prevail,  the  seed  crops  are  generally  more  frequent 
and  larger,  the  seed  vitality  better  and  the  early  growth  of  the 


44  Forestry  Quarterly. 

seedlings  progresses  under  advantageous  conditions. 

A  tract  of  about  four  acres  was  found  with  three  year  old 
sprouts  where  about  120  of  the  Chestnut  trees  of  the  last  genera- 
tion were  of  seedling  origin.  The  usual  method  of,  taking  only 
the  three  dominant  sprouts  from  each  colony  was  followed.  The 
growth  of  each  tree  was  measured  and  results  averaged. 


Period. 
1st  year 
2nd    " 
3rd    " 

Seedling 
Parent  Stump. 
6.23  feet 
2.91     " 
2.4      " 

Coppice 
Parent  Stump. 
5-35  feet 
2.3      " 
1.6      " 

Total  11.54    "  9-25     " 

The  sprouts  from  stumps  of  seedling  trees  made  a  height 
growth  during  the  first  year  of  16.45%  and  during  the  first  three 
years  of  24.7%  greater  than  sprouts  in  the  same  situation  from 
coppice  stumps  of  good  average  quality.  In  comparison  with 
the  average  growth  from  the  predominating  poor  quality  of  3rd 
and  4th  generation  coppice  stumps,  the  sprouting  capacity  of  seed- 
ling stumps  becomes  more  striking. 

Comparison  of  Height  Grozvth  of  Chestnut  and  Associated 
Species. 

(a)  Chestnut  and  Red  Oak  (Q.  rubra). 

Because  of  their  frequent  association  in  mixture  and  general 
similarity  in  sprouting,  a  comparison  of  these  species  is  of  in- 
terest. The  results  averaged  below  were  obtained  from  a  long 
list  of  measurements  taken  on  a  number  of  different  plots,  all 
representing,  however,  practically  the  same  conditions,  viz.,  aver- 
age hardwood  type  site  II.  Mixture  of  two  species  about  equal 
and  composing  about  50%  of  the  stand.  Only  the  three  dominant 
sprouts  in  each  colony  are  considered. 

Period.  Chestnut.  Red  Oak. 

1st  year  5.69  feet  3.77  feet 

2nd    "  2.62    "  1.69    " 


Two  years  (total)  8.31     "  5.46     " 

During  the  first  year  the  ratio  of  growth  of  Chestnut  to  Red  Oak 
is  100:66;  during  the  second  year,  the  ratio  is  100:64.  The 
Red  Oak  decreases  faster  in  rate  of  growth  during  the  second 
year  than  does  the  Chestnut.     The  wide  difference  between  these 


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Vj  OTrwp<nMSorv ViV^VfNuT    And  r1sSoc.iATg.-p    -I)  P  E.  C  I  e.^ . 


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Early  Development  of  Chestnut  Sprouts.  45 

species  continues,  although  lessening  somewhat  in  amount  in 
later  years. 

(b)   Chestnut,  Red  Maple,  Red  Oak,  Ash  and  Chestnut  Oak. 

These  species,  excepting  the  last,  associate  freely  in  the  Bottom- 
land type.  These  measurements  were  taken  in  Site  I — deep 
soil  and  abundant  moisture,  with  good  drainage.  The  leaf  canopy 
had  been  opened  by  a  fairly  heavy  thinning,  allowing  entrance  of 
abundant  light.     Density  4. 

Growth  in  Height. 
Period        Chestnut        Red  Maple        Ash        Red  Oak        Chestnut  Oak. 

Feet. 
1st  year  6.06  4.43  3.78  4.20  3.60 

2nd    "  3.41  2.83  2.36  1.79  1.35 

Two  years 

(total)  9.47  7.26  6.14  5.99  4-95 

This  being  an  optimum  situation  for  the  species,  the  difference 
in  growth  can  be  considered  the  result  of  inherent  capacity.  The 
relation  of  the  amount  of  growth  for  the  period  of  two  years  is : 
Chestnut,  Maple  and  Ash,  but  much  less  for  the  Oak.  In  respect 
to  the  first  year's  growth,  the  Maple,  Oak  and  Ash  constitute  a 
group  widely  separated  from  the  Chestnut.  In  the  second  year, 
it  will  be  noted,  the  Oaks  become  differentiated  by  a  marked  re- 
tardation in  growth  while  the  Maple  and  Ash  agree  with  the 
Chestnut  in  preserving  a  relatively  rapid  upward  growth. 

Decimation  of  Sprouts  by  Disease. — The  relation  between  the 
number  of  sprouts  per  colony  and  the  degrees  of  soundness  of 
the  wood  at  the  end  of  a  rotation  of  40-50  years  is  shown  in  the 
table  given  below.  The  data  were  taken  from  stumps  on  a  plot 
of  clear-cutting.  Four  grades  of  quality  of  soundness  were 
made,  based  upon  external  appearances,  i.  e.  the  proportion  of 
sound,  diseased,  or  decayed  wood  on  the  lateral  surface  or  in 
cross  section ;  the  thickness  and  integrity  of  the  bark ;  and  any 
other  signs  of  infection  causing  weakened  vitality  and  slow 
growth. 

With  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  sprouts  composing  an  in- 
dividual colony  at  the  end  of  40-50  years  there  was  found  a  cor- 
responding degenerate  condition  of  its  members.  Or,  as  a  corol- 
lary to  this,  the  more  diseased  the  colony  of  sprouts  became  dur- 
ing life  as  shown  by  the  soundness  of  the  wood  after  a  clear- 
cutting,  the  fewer  sprouts  per  colony  reached  merchantable  size. 


46  Forestry  Quarterly. 

(Diameter  of  4  in.  at  breast  height).  As  early  as  the  first  season 
of  growth,  decimation  by  disease  begins.  The  infection,  mainly 
due  to  fungi  of  various  sorts,  spreads  from  the  parent  stump 
upward  and  was  observed  to  be  most  in  evidence  at  the  base  of 
the  shoot.  A  large  swelling  at  this  point  frequently  occurs  and 
the  tissues  within  become  honey-combed  in  appearance  and  dis- 
integrate through  the  enzyme  of  the  fungi.  Death  results  from 
the  severance  of  the  vital  connecting-vessels  and  tissues  or  by  the 
mechanical  forces  of  snow  or  wind. 

There  are  two  serious  fungus  enemies  of  the  Chestnut,  both 
attacking  the  heartwood  of  living  trees.  The  Sulphur  Mushroom 
(Polyporus  sulphureus)  eats  out  the  heartwood  causing  "brown 
rot"  and  the  Honey  Mushroom  (Agaricus  melleus)  sends  it  char- 
acteristic black  mycelium  into  both  the  food  conducting  vessels, 
and  the  sapwood.  It  appears  that  young  sprouts  are  practically 
susceptible  to  attacks  from  the  latter,  being  killed  by  it  in  large 
numbers. 

Decimation  by  Intolerance  of  Species. — Since  the  sprout  does 
not  depend  upon  light  for  its  food  supplies  during  the  first  year 
or  two,  it  is  relatively  tolerant.  When  the  stock  of  nourishment 
in  the  stump  lessens  appreciably  this  condition  alters,  and  Chest- 
nut sprouts,  as  already  shown  are  highly  intolerant.  The  change 
is  both  continuous  and  rapid.  During  the  second  year  there  is 
a  thinning  in  the  average  colony,  usually  greatest  when  the  sprouts 
are  crowded  so  as  to  receive  neither  adequate  food  materials  nor 
sufficient  light  for  independent  growth.  In  both  good  and  poor 
situation  a  difference  in  the  amount  of  height  growth  during  the 
second  and  third  years  has  been  observed  corresponding  to  full  or 
partial  light  supply.  The  rate  of  decimation  up  to  about  the 
fifth  year  is  very  rapid,  commencing  to  diminish  however  at 
about  the  third  year;  at  about  the  eighth  year  the  number  of 
dominant  sprouts  to  a  colony  does  not  usually  exceed  four  to  six. 
The  chief  factors  which  prevailingly  influence  the  rate  of  decima- 
tion are  health  and  age  of  parent  stump,  supply  of  light,  and  site 
quality.  It  is  a  common  experience  in  a  coppice  growth  of  four 
to  seven  years  in  age  to  find  frequently  large  clumps  of  Chest- 
nut sprouts  consisting  mostly  of  a  bunch  of  dead  and  dry  sticks 
with  the  bark  loose  and  clinging  in  tattered  shreds.  This  may 
in  part  be  the  result  of  intolerance  but  likewise  an  explanation  may 
be  found  in  the  inherent  disposition  to  short  life  coming  from  an 


Early  Development  of  Chestnut  Sprouts.  47 

old-aged  parent,  or  an  incomplete  attachment  of  the  sprouts  due 
to  infection  from  a  diseased  parent  stump. 

It  appears  certain  that  the  character  of  the  later  growth  and 
both  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  final  crop  in  the  case  of 
sprout  forests  depends  to  a  very  considerable  degree  upon  the 
conditions  under  which  the  crop  is  started.  These  may  be  either 
natural  or  artificial.  There  are  some  of  these  influential  factors 
in  the  early  life  making  for  the  success  or  failure  of  the  crop 
which  can  to  a  degree  at  least  be  controlled  by  man. 


CURRENT  LITERATURE. 

Henry  S.  Graves,  in  Charge. 

Report  of  the  State  Forester  of  Wisconsin  for  ipo?  and  ipo8. 
Madison,  Wis.    Pp.  jjj. 

This  report  shows  State  forest  reserves  to  the  extent  of  some 
250,000  acres  being  administered  on  an  annual  appropriation  of 
less  than  $10,000.  The  policy  behind  the  establishment  of  these 
reserves  appears  to  be  more  the  protection  of  headwaters  of  rivers 
for  the  conservation  of  water  power  than  the  conservation 
of  timber  lands.  The  state  forester  points  out  that  as  a 
lumbering  state  Wisconsin's  power  is  fast  waning,  and 
that  it  must  look  to  its  manufacturing  interests.  In  keeping 
with  this,  an  act  was  passed  authorizing  a  private  company  to  con- 
struct and  operate  reservoirs  on  the  Wisconsin  River  head-waters, 
certain  control  being  by  the  law  assigned  to  the  State  Forestry 
Board,  and  already  there  are  in  operation  reservoirs  with  a  stor- 
age capacity  of  some  4000  million  cubic  feet.  The  right  is  re- 
served to  the  state  to  take  over  and  become  the  owner  of  all  reser- 
voirs and  property  of  the  company. 

A  policy  of  consolidation  of  reserve  holdings  is  in  progress, 
the  forestry  board  having  the  power  to  sell  scattering  or  agricul- 
tural reserve  lands,  and  devote  the  proceeds  to  the  purchase  of 
absolute  forest  lands  elsewhere.  As  these  proceeds  would  re- 
sult in  a  very  slow  consolidation,  it  is  recommended  that  the  state 
board  of  forestry  be  authorized  to  issue  certificates  of  indebtedness 
on  the  reserve  lands,  payment  to  be  by  tax  upon  owners  of  water 
powers  on  streams  whose  headwaters  are  protected  by  the  re- 
serves. The  conditions  of  sale  appear  not  to  be  the  best.  The 
state  lands  were  appraised  before  the  formation  of  a  forestry  de- 
partment, and  although  this  department  reappraises  before  any 
recommended  sale,  and  may  increase  the  price,  it  cannot,  un- 
fortunately, lower  the  appraisal,  and  consequently  many  lands 
cannot  be  sold.  Further,  the  machinery  is  cumbersome,  since  the 
sales  take  place  through  the  board  of  land  commissioners  on  re- 
commendation of  the  forestry  board. 

The  educational  policy  consists  in  a  course  of  16  introductory 


Current  Literature.  49 

lectures  in  forestry  given  in  the  winter  at  the  University,  there 
being  no  training  school.     A  school  for  rangers  is  recommended. 

As  regards  reforestation,  where  natural  restocking  is  not  tak- 
ing place  nothing  is  being  done.  The  policy  is  to  defer  this  till 
the  forest  reserves  are  blocked  up  so  that  fire  lines  can  be  con- 
structed, and  the  organization  is  completely  systematized.  Pri- 
vate reforestation  is  encouraged  by  a  tax  exemption  law,  which  so 
far  has  brought  no  results.  The  report  contains  information  re- 
garding the  care  of  woodlots  and  planting  methods,  as  well  as 
notes  on  five  species  recommended  for  planting. 

Considerable  space  is  given  to  a  discussion  of  the  fires  of 
1908.  Some  1435  fires  were  reported  burning  over  1,209,432 
acres,  and  destroying  some  500  million  feet  of  merchantable  tim- 
ber worth  $3,000,000  and  young  growth  estimated  as  being  worth 
twice  that  amount,  to  say  nothing  of  other  property.  Over  11,- 
000  men  were  employed  in  fighting  these  fires  at  an  expense  of 
$100,000.  The  magnitude  of  the  fires  is  attributed  to  slash.  An 
analysis  of  the  causes  gave  60%  originating  from  burning  brush 
and  clearing,  15%  due  to  sparks  from  locomotive,  and  25%  from 
various  causes. 

As  a  result  of  these  fires  the  timberland  owners  appointed  a 
committee  to  report  on  advisable  measures  to  adopt  for  protec- 
tion. The  main  recommendations  were  :  ( 1 )  the  enlargement  of 
the  town  fire  warden  system  to  a  patrol  system  under  the  man- 
agement of  the  state  board  of  forestry;  (2)  the  imposition  by 
the  state  of  an  annual  tax  of  2  to  2.\  cents  per  acre  on  all  wild 
and  unimproved  lands  to  constitute  a  forest  fire  fund;  (3)  pro- 
vision for  burning  slash  and  debris ;  (4)  permission  of  fire  war- 
den to  set  fires  between  April  and  November.  (The  committee's 
report  is  worth  reading  in  full.)  "The  cost  of  2  to  2.\  cents  per 
acre  per  annum  is  a  low  insurance,  the  loss  from  forest  fires  in 
1908  alone  is  over  $9,000,000  and  this  would  pay  all  costs  of  such 
a  patrol  system  for  nearly  fifty  years." 

Not  only  are  the  lumbermen  in  sympathy  with  the  aims  of  the 
forestry  board,  but  the  railroads  are  cooperating,  as  is  instanced 
by  the  fact  that  many  of  them  arranged  for  meetings  of  their 
employees  at  which  the  state  forester  gave  addresses  on  protect- 
ing the  forests  and  explained  the  forestry  laws. 

With  regard  to  the  taxation  of  timber  lands  the  state  forester 
4 


50  Forestry  Quarterly. 

enters  a  plea  for  a  more  rational  system  to  encourage  forestry 
methods  among  the  lumbermen — and  annual  land  tax  with  the 
timber  exempt  until  cut. 

The  report  closes  with  an  account  of  the  Lake  States  Forestry 
Conferences  and  the  State  Conservation  Commission  and  an 
appendix  containing  the  State  Forestry  Laws. 

J.  H.  W. 

Seventh  Report  of  the  Forest  Commissioner  of  the  State  of 
Maine,  ipo8.     E.  E.  Ring,  103  pp.,  illustrated. 

The  biennial  report  of  the  Forest  Commissioner  of  Maine  shows 
a  reported  loss  from  forest  fires  in  1908  of  $618,816,  with  142,130 
acres  burned.  Credit  is  given  the  system  of  state  fire  wardens  for 
preventing  a  far  greater  loss,  a  statement  substantiated  by  the 
fact  that  the  loss  in  the  organized  towns  not  so  protected  was 
greater  than  in  the  unsettled  and  timbered  portion  of  the  State. 

Professor  W.  J.  Morse,  of  the  Maine  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  contributes  an  important  article  on  White  Pine  blight,  in 
which  he  shows  that  this  trouble  is  coincident  with  and  un- 
doubtedly caused  by  unusually  severe  winter  exposure  and  is 
therefore  of  a  temporary  nature. 

The  text  of  the  recent  decision  of  the  Maine  Supreme  Court 
is  given,  upon  the  question  of  the  right  of  the  State  to  regulate 
by  law  the  sizes  of  timber  which  an  owner  may  cut  from  his 
own  land.  It  is  not  generally  understood  that  this  decision  was 
rendered  under  a  constitutional  provision  which  directs  the  Su- 
preme Court  to  render  decisions  as  to  the  constitutionality  of  pro- 
posed legislation  of  importance  to  the  state,  when  formally  re- 
quested to  do  so  by  the  Senate.  No  such  law  has  been  passed  in 
Maine,  but  the  discussion  of  the  constitutionality  of  a  proposed 
measure  limiting  the  cutting  of  trees  to  12  inches  on  the  stump 
gave  rise  to  the  above  request  and  decision.  The  decision  was 
rendered  on  the  points  as  to  whether  the  restriction  of  cutting 
or  destruction  of  small  trees  by  the  owners  thereof  without  com- 
pensation was  constitutional,  or  was  a  taking  of  private  prop- 
erty for  public  purposes  and  public  uses  for  which  compensation 
must  be  made.  The  court  took  the  broad  ground  that  the  state 
had  power  "to  prescribe  regulations  to  promote  the  health,  peace, 
morals,  education  and  good  order  of  its  people,  and  to  legislate 


Current  Literature.  51 

so  as  to  increase  the  industries  of  the  state,  develop  its  resources 
and  add  to  its  wealth  and  prosperity."  Any  law  was  constitu- 
tional which  accomplished  these  results,  if  not  contrary  to  the 
rights  of  property.  The  question  of  taking  property  without  com- 
pensation was  then  discussed  at  length  and  the  conclusions  were, 
"Private  property  can  only  be  said  to  have  been  taken  for  public 
uses  when  it  has  been  so  appropriated  that  the  public  have  certain 
and  well  defined  rights  to  that  use  secured,  as  the  right  to  use  a 
public  highway,  ferry,  railroad  and  the  like."  This  is  recognized 
as  a  strict  construction,  but  justified  with  respect  to  land  by  these 
significant  words:  first,  "such  property  is  not  the  result  of  pro- 
ductive labor  but  is  derived  solely  from  the  state  itself,  the  ori- 
ginal owner;  second,  the  amount  of  land  being  incapable  of  in- 
crease, if  the  owners  of  large  tracts  can  waste  them  at  will  with- 
out state  restriction,  the  state  and  its  people  may  be  helplessly  im- 
poverished and  one  great  purpose  of  government  defeated." 
Again,  "while  it  might  restrict  the  owner  of  wild  and  uncultivated 
lands  in  his  use  of  them,  might  delay  his  taking  some  of  the 
product,  might  delay  his  anticipated  profits,  it  would  neverthe- 
less leave  him  his  lands,  their  product  and  increase  untouched 
and  without  diminution  of  title,  estate  or  quantity.  He  might 
suffer  delay  but  not  deprivation.  While  the  use  might  be  re- 
stricted it  would  not  be  appropriated  or  taken."  Based  on  this 
reasoning  the  court  decided  the  proposed  legislation  constitu- 
tional and  not  taking  of  private  property  for  which  compensa- 
tion must  be  made. 

While  the  general  principles  supported  by  this  decision  are 
sound  and  progressive,  foresters  generally  must  admit  that  any 
law  prescribing  a  rigid  diameter  limit  of  cutting  is  false  in  prin- 
ciple and  would  be  sure  to  work  injury  to  the  owners  of  timber 
property,  besides  being  a  handicap  in  the  proper  management  of 
a  forest  to  secure  new  crops  of  timber.  Many  species  can  be 
reproduced  successfully  only  by  practically  clear  cutting.  In 
such  stands  trees  below  the  size  limit  would  frequently  be  of 
stunted  growth  and  should  come  out.  In  thinning  a  young  stand, 
it  is  always  the  smaller  trees  that  must  be  removed  for  the  good 
of  the  stand,  yet  such  a  law  would  prevent  thinning,  and  reduce 
the  profits  on  plantations  to  a  serious  degree. 

There  are  but  two  arguments  to  justify  interference  with  private 
management  of  woods ;   First,  the  preservation  of  the  productive 


52  Forestry  Quarterly. 

capacity  of  the  forest  for  growing  wood  crops ;  Second,  the 
necessity  for  protection  to  the  soil  and  watersheds.  The  first 
principle  has  never  been  powerful  enough,  even  in  European  coun- 
tries to  bring  about  the  control  of  private  cutting.  The  second 
is  always  a  sufficient  reason,  but  the  influence  of  the  forests  must 
be  direct  and  noticeable.  So  we  find  regulation  of  private  forests 
only  on  mountain  slopes.  But  nowhere  does  this  regulation  take 
the  form  of  statewide  diameter  limit  regulations.  Such  forests  as, 
for  the  good  of  the  community  must  be  regarded  even  though 
they  remain  in  private  hands,  should  be  managed  under  a  law 
compelling  owners  to  accept  such  rules  as  are  laid  down  for 
them  by  properly  informed  and  properly  empowered  state  forestry 
officials,  who  shall  be  guided  by  their  knowledge  of  the  laws  of 
tree  growth  and  the  principles  of  forest  production.  It  is 
earnestly  to  be  hoped  that  state  legislatures  will  avoid  the  folly 
of  drastic  legislation  and  will  devote  their  energies  rather  to 
the  acquisition  of  state  forest  reserves,  and  in  regions  needing 
forest  protection,  or  to  the  adoption  of  plans  by  which  the  forest 
may  be  treated  according  to  its  needs. 

Forest  production  is  a  business,  and  of  a  highly  technical  char- 
acter. It  cannot  be  conducted  by  rule  of  thumb  or  by  state  legis- 
latures, but  must  be  encouraged  by  creating  favorable  conditions 
for  the  practice  of  forestry,  or  by  entrusting  trained  officials  with 
discretionary  power  of  enforcing  restrictions. 

The  body  of  the  report  of  the  commissioner  gives  a  history  of 
the  public  lands  of  Maine  and  sets  forth  the  times  and  manners 
in  which  a  public  domain  of  some  eight  million  acres  was  allowed 
to  pass  into  the  hands  of  speculators  and  railroads  with  small 
returns  to  the  state  and  public ;  a  history  which  has  been  dupli- 
cated in  many  of  our  western  states  at  a  later  day. 

H.  H.  C. 

Report  of  the  State  Forester  of  California  for  1907-08. 

This  report  is  largely  occupied  with  fiscal  matters  and  urges 
larger  appropriations,  the  most  important  of  which  is  a  State 
fund  that  might  be  used  in  cooperation  with  the  counties  to  hire 
fire  patrols. 

Thirteen  out  of  53  counties  have  appropriated  funds  for  pay- 
ment of  fire  wardens  and  128  wardens  were  so  employed.    Vol- 


Current  Literature.  53 

unteer  wardens  numbering  322  were  appointed  by  the  State,  their 
expenses  being  paid  from  private  sources.  With  the  U.  S.  Forest 
Service  rangers,  who  are  State  wardens,  the  force  numbers  721 
men. 

The  care  of  the  State  Redwood  park  is  outlined,  no  mention 
being  made  of  an  unpleasant  difference  which  arose  during  the 
year  between  the  State  forester  and  certain  advocates  of  the 
park  over  the  policy  of  removing  dead  or  firekilled  timber.  The 
conception  of  a  park  in  the  public  mind  is  that  of  an  area  pro- 
tected from  the  axe  and  preserved  in  its  natural  state.  The  fact 
that  the  State  forester  subjected  himself  to  widespread  criti- 
cism by  allowing  some  fire  scarred  redwoods  to  be  cut  serves  to 
illustrate  the  danger  to  forestry  that  results  from  a  confusion  of 
parks  with  forest  reserves.  The  care  of  parks  should  not  be  laid 
upon  the  State  forester,  but  if  unavoidable,  he  should  make  every 
effort  to  distinguish  such  areas  from  forest  reserves  in  the  public 
mind,  and  should  go  to  an  extreme  in  avoiding  all  cutting  that 
might  arouse  resentment. 

It  is  evident  from  the  report  that  the  forest  fire  service  in  the 
State  is  making  progress,  but  that  much  remains  to  be  done.  So 
far,  the  State  has  not  shared  in  the  expense  of  local  fire  protec- 
tion and  consequently  it  has  very  little  control  over  the  work  of 
the  fire  wardens.  The  beginnings  of  a  better  system  are  seen  in 
the  arrangements  made  by  the  State  forester  for  a  cooperative 
patrol  by  certain  counties  and  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  each  pay- 
ing half  of  the  expense,  to  protect  the  foothill  regions  from  fires. 

H.  H.  C. 

Report  of  the  Division  of  Forestry,  Territory  of  Hawaii,  for 
1907.     Pp.  84. 

The  fourth  report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Forestry  sums  up 
the  year's  progress  thus :  "On  the  part  of  the  Territory  itself  the 
points  of  notable  interest  during  1907  in  the  history  of  forestry 
in  Hawaii  are  a  definite  annunciation  of  policy  in  regard  to  the 
two  main  classes  of  Hawaiian  forest ;  the  extension  of  the  forest 
reserve  system,  through  the  setting  apart  of  additional  areas  and 
the  completion  of  field  work  bearing  directly  on  the  creation  of 
other  new  reserves ;  the  establishment  of  a  systematic  exchange  of 
seed  with  Botanic  gardens  and  other  similar  institutions;   and  an 


54  Forestry  Quarterly. 

amendment  to  the  forest  law  by  giving  to  the  Governor  more  ex- 
tended power  in  the  creation  of  forest  reserves." 

On  the  part  of  private  interests  and  corporations  there  is  also 
much  that  is  worthy  of  record.  Particularly  to  be  noted  is  the 
increasing  interest  in  tree  planting  on  waste  lands ;  the  extension 
of  the  rubber  plantations  on  Maui ;  the  beginning  of  cocoanut  in- 
dustry; and  especially  the  real  establishment  of  the  lumber  in- 
dustry in  the  leeward  districts  on  Hawaii  through  the  signing  of 
a  contract  between  the  Hawaiian  Mahogany  Lumber  Company 
and  the  Santa  Fe  Railway  System  whereby  there  will  be  sent  to 
the  mainland  during  the  next  five  years  over  2,500,000  Ohia 
Lehua  railroad  ties. 

J.  H.  W. 

Third  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Forestry  of 
Rhode  Island.    Providence,  R.  I.     ipop.     26  pp. 

The  Third  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Forestry 
for  Rhode  Island  indicates  that  progress  is  being  made  in  educa- 
tional lines.  The  state  still  lacks  the  first  attempts  at  a  fire  war- 
den system  and  the  hope  is  expressed  that  needed  legislation  along 
this  and  other  lines  may  soon  be  secured. 

H.  H.  C. 

Report  of  the  Chief  Conservator  of  Forests,  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  1907. 

This  report  shows  that  forestry  in  Cape  Colony  is  not  on  a 
very  high  level  as  yet.  The  area  of  state  forests,  after  current 
additions  and  exclusions,  remains  about  the  same  as  in  1906,  com- 
prising some  1,000,000  demarcated  and  390,000  undemarcated 
acres.  The  total  revenue  from  all  sources  amounted  to  $175,000 
(15  months)  with  an  expenditure  of  about  double  that  amount 
the  bulk  of  it  on  salaries  and  nurseries  and  plantations.  Some 
1750  acres  were  planted,  about  half  of  this  timber  plantations,  and 
the  other  half  drift  sand  and  tie  plantations.  Attempts  to  obtain 
natural  reproduction  are  weak,  owing  to  lack  of  funds,  and  graz- 
ing prevents  regeneration  on  the  unfenced  reserves. 

Some  work  was  done  on  valuable  surveys,  yield  and  increment 
tables,  and  a  working  plan  for  the  Pirie  Forest  of  7,000  acres  was 
completed. 


Current  Literature.  55 

Over  1500  prosecutions  for  forest  offences — mainly  tree  cut- 
ting, fire  setting,  and  game  hunting — resulting  in  $10,000  fines 
and  $2,000  damages  attest  the  departments'  attempts  towards  pro- 
tection of  the  forests  from  the  natives.  Fire  protection  is  mainly 
by  cleaned  belts.  63  fires  (44  from  unknown  causes)  destroyed 
98  acres  during  the  year  of  report.  The  settlement  of  boundaries 
seems  to  demand  a  large  share  of  the  department's  attention. 

Some  discouraging  features  in  the  past  year  have  been  the 
transfer  of  certain  undemarcated  forests  from  the  control  of  the 
Forest  Department  to  District  Councils,  the  historic  trouble  with 
communal  forests,  the  cutting  of  millions  of  saplings,  annually 
for  hut  wattles  and  the  lack  of  funds. 

J.  H.  W. 

Canada's  Fertile  Northland.  A  glimpse  of  the  Enormous  Re- 
sources of  Part  of  the  Unexplored  Regions  of  the  Dominion. 
Bdited  by  Captain  Ernest  J.  Chambers.  139  pp.,  17  Half-tone 
Illustrations  and  5  Colored  Maps  in  Case.  Published  under  Di- 
rection of  R.  E.  Young,  Department  of  Interior,  Ottawa,  1907. 

Contains  the  evidence  heard  before  a  Special  Committee  of  the 
Dominion  Senate  during  the  session  of  1906-07  and  the  report 
based  upon  it. 

In  the  evidence  heard  before  the  Committee  some  striking  facts 
stand  out  prominently,  a  number  of  which  are  summarized  in  the 
Introduction.  Mr.  A.  P.  Low,  Director  of  the  Geological  Sur- 
vey, for  example,  said  that  Ungava  possesses  a  belt  of  iron- 
bearing  rock,  probably  100  miles  long  and  200  to  300  miles  wide, 
which  in  the  future  will  furnish  a  large  supply  of  iron  for 
Canada.  He  also  said  that  in  the  region  north  of  Lake  Winnipeg 
is  an  area  of  5,000  to  10,000  square  miles  of  coutry  adapted  for 
agriculture. 

Mr.  W.  F.  Breden,  a  member  of  the  Alberta  Legislature,  esti- 
mated the  area  of  the  available  agricultural  lands  in  northern  Al- 
berta and  Mackenzie  at  100,000,000  acres.  Others  testified  that 
at  a  point  some  400  miles  due  north  of  Edmonton  splendid  crops 
of  wheat,  barley,  oats,  peas,  etc.,  have  been  regularly  raised  for 
more  than  twenty  years,  the  product  for  1906  being  25,000  bushels. 
The  production  of  grain  in  these  sparsely  settled  regions  has  re- 
sulted in  the  establishment  of  local  grist  mills  of  considerable 


56  Forestry  Quarterly. 

capacity  which  manufacture  flour  by  modern  processes.  Pota- 
toes and  other  vegetables  have  for  years  been  satisfactorily  cul- 
tivated at  Fort  Good  Hope,  on  the  Mackenzie  River,  14  miles 
from  the  Arctic  Circle.  Vegetation  matures  quickly  owing  to 
the  long,  sunny  days  of  summer.  The  lakes  and  rivers  teem  with 
fish,  there  is  an  abundance  of  game  and  considerable  mineral 
wealth,  including  coal,  oil,  copper,  silver,  gold,  salt,  sulphur,  ochre, 
sand  for  glass  making,  etc. 

In  regard  to  the  climate,  the  committee  say  in  their  report : 

"Although  in  the  north  the  thermometer  in  the  winter  season 
registers  low  temperatures,  the  cold  is  much  more  bearable  than 
are  far  higher  temperatures  in  countries  where  there  is  humidity 
in  the  atmosphere.  There  is  said  to  be  little  or  no  difference 
between  the  climate  at  Lesser  Slave  Lake  and  that  at  Edmonton 
250  miles  to  the  south.  The  Chinook  winds  blow  as  far  north 
as  Fort  Providence,  and  for  21  days  during  last  January  it  was 
not  necessary  to  wear  overcoats  there.  West  of  Peace  River 
Crossing,  stockmen  must  feed  their  cattle  about  seven  weeks  in 
winter,  but  eastward  the  snow  is  deeper  and  cattle  have  to  be  fed  a 
little  longer.  At  Fort  St.  John  on  the  Peace  River  they  often  sow 
wheat  in  March  and  last  year  began  cutting  the  wheat  on  the 
last  day  of  July." 

The  various  witnesses  also  testified  as  to  forest  conditions. 

These  reports  show  that  probably  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  forest 
cover  is  burnt  up  without  much  chance  of  recuperation. 

The  growth  is  quite  variable,  as  indicated  in  the  map  and  de- 
scription, given  in  the  article  of  Mr.  Fernow  in  the  Quarterly, 
volume  VI. 

A  Biological  Investigation  of  the  Athabaska-Mackenzie  Region. 
North  American  Fauna,  No.  27.  By  E.  A.  Preble,  U.  S.  Depart- 
partment  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  1908.     Pp.  1+575;  %s-  I6;  plates  25. 

The  report  before  us  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the  various 
species  of  plants  and  animals,  their  adaptations  and  variations, 
their  geographic  distribution  and  their  economic  relations.  Such 
reports  are  available  in  more  or  less  complete  form  for  other  sec- 
tions of  the  continent,  including  Labrador,  Hudson  Bay,  Alaska, 


Current  Literature.  57 

etc.,  but  the  Mackenzie  region  remained  the  most  neglected  large 
area  in  North  America. 

An  important  part  of  the  report  relates  to  climate  and  physio- 
graphy. Temperature  summaries  are  expressed  in  tabular 
fashion ;  likewise  the  dates  of  seasonal  events  at  various  stations. 
Such  events  include  the  first  thaw,  and  the  appearance  of  the 
first  migratory  birds  from  the  south  in  the  spring,  and  that  of 
the  migratory  northern  animals  like  the  Barren  Ground  caribou 
from  the  north  in  the  autumn.  Some  instructive  generalizations 
are  made  regarding  climate  in  general.  The  Peace  River  valley, 
of  importance  on  account  of  its  wheat-growing  possibilities,  ex- 
hibits the  peculiarity  of  having  an  upper  trans-mountain  section 
protected  from  the  northerly  and  easterly  cold  winds,  with  a  mild 
winter  climate ;  and  a  low  plains  section  with  almost  Arctic 
conditions  in  winter.  The  middle  section  is  favorable  to  plant 
growth,  the  powerful  warm  though  irregular  chinook  winds  mak- 
ing the  section  one  of  considerable  agricultural  promise.  The 
limit  of  the  distribution  of  Balsam  Fir  seems  to  limit  this  favor- 
able region.  From  the  mouth  of  the  Churchill  River,  Hudson 
Bay,  the  northern  boundary  of  the  great  transcontinental  spruce 
forest  follows  the  shore  closely  for  a  few  miles,  then  curves  gently 
inland.  Thence  it  extends  northwesterly,  crossing  Island  Lake, 
Ennadai  Lake  on  Kansan  River,  and  Boyd  Lake  on  the  Dubawnt. 
The  next  dividing  point  is  just  north  of  6o°  on  Artillery  Lake. 
From  this  point  the  line  curves  southwesterly  crossing  Lake 
Mackay  south  of  latitude  64°.  The  banks  of  the  Coppermine  are 
the  boundary  to  67 °.  Tongues  of  timber  follow  the  northward 
flowing  streams,  with  their  warmer  water,  well  into  the  Barren 
Grounds.  The  most  remarkable  case  of  this  kind  is  that  of  the 
Ark-i-linik,  a  stream  tributary  to  Hudson  Bay.  From  a  point 
near  latitudes  62^°  north,  within  the  main  area  of  the  Barren 
Grounds,  a  more  or  less  continuous  belt  of  spruce  borders  the 
river  to  latitude  64^°,  a  distance  of  over  200  miles  by  river.  A 
few  species  of  woodland-breeding  birds  follow  these  extensions 
of  the  forest  to  their  limits.  Alders  occur  in  more  or  less  dwarfed 
conditions  in  favorable  places  well  within  the  treeless  area,  and 
several  species  of  willows,  some  of  which  here  attain  a  height 
of  5  or  6  feet,  border  some  of  the  streams  as  far  north  as  Wollas- 
ton  Land.  These  are  the  only  trees  which  occur  even  in  a 
dwarfed  state  in  the  Barren  Grounds  proper.     The  principal  trees 


58  Forestry  Quarterly. 

of  the  sprvice  forest  whose  northern  limit  is  thus  defined  are  the 
White  and  Black  Spruce,  whose  range  is  co-extensive  with  the 
forest  limits,  the  Canoe  Birch,  Tamarack,  Aspen,  and  Balsam 
Poplar,  Banksian  Pine  and  Balsam  Fir  are  common  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  belt,  terminating  from  south  to  north  about 
in  the  order  given.  With  these  are  associated  generally  in  the 
form  of  undergrowth,  a  variety  of  shrubs.  The  tree  limit  on  the 
western  mountains  in  latitude  560  is  at  about  4000  feet.  The 
head  of  the  Mackenzie  delta  is  marked  by  islands  well  wooded 
with  spruce  and  Balsam  Poplar.  Lower  down  these  trees  give  way 
to  willows  which  continue  to  sea.  The  interesting  observation 
is  made  that  the  trees  of  the  swamp  in  their  more  northern  fields 
seek  the  dry  land. 

The  life  zones  included  in  the  region  comprise  parts  of  three 
subdivisions — the  Arctic,  Hudsonian,  and  Canadian  Zones.  The 
boundaries  of  these  zones  are  shown  in  a  very  useful  map  in 
considerable  detail.  Each  zone  is  summarily  described  in  a  clear 
and  comprehensive  manner.  B.  E.  F. 

India-Rubber  and  its  Manufacture.  With  Chapters  on  Gutta 
Percha  and  Balata.  By  Hubert  L.  Terry,  294  pp.,  18  illustra- 
tions. D.  Van  Nostrand  Company,  New  York,  1907.  (Price, 
$2.00) . 

India  rubber  has  become  an  almost  indispensable  commodity, 
and  this  circumstance  has  stimulated  the  interest  of  the  public  in 
its  natural  history  and  its  manufacture.  This  volume  is  not  a 
handbook  for  those  engaged  in  the  rubber  trade.  Its  purpose  is 
to  supply  to  the  general  and  the  critical  reader  the  latest  in- 
formation relating  to  the  whole  subject  of  India  rubber.  Mr. 
Terry  has  admirably  carried  out  his  design,  and  the  fact  that  the 
story  of  rubber  and  its  uses  is  of  unusual  interest  has  enhanced 
the  readable  quality  of  the  book. 

The  author  tells  of  the  discovery  of  India  rubber's  characteris- 
tics and  usefulness,  describes  its  production,  explains  its  chemical 
and  physical  properties,  and  deals  with  vulcanization  and  other 
processes.  The  chapter  on  India  rubber  plantations  shows  how 
widely  and  successfully  American  rubber  plants,  especially  Para, 
and  Castilloa  have  been  introduced  into  Asia.  There  are  chapters 
on  "India  rubber  substitutes",  "reclaimed  rubber",  "the  washing 


Current  Literature.  59 

of  crude  rubber",  "the  compounding  of  India  rubber",  "India 
rubber  solvents",  "gutta  percha",  "balata",  and  a  series  of  chap- 
ters on  the  production  of  all  kinds  of  rubber  goods.  The  work 
is  more  comprehensive  than  any  other  in  English  on  this  subject. 

(From  Bulletin  American  Geography  Society.) 

Hints  on  Drawing  Legislative  Bills.  By  Ernest  Bruncken, 
California  Legislative  Reference  Bulletin,  No.  1.  Sacramento, 
12  pp.,  Dec,  1908. 

It  is  the  contention  of  the  reviewer  that  all  professional  men, 
foresters  included,  should  know  and  be  taught  systematically 
at  their  schools  or  Universities  principles  of  law,  especially  of  the 
laws  of  contract,  real  estate,  trespass,  etc. 

While  the  brief  pamphlet  of  Mr.  Bruncken's  is  evidently  in- 
tended for  the  use  of  legislators  it  will  be  useful  to  such  forest 
officers  as  the  State  foresters,  who  are  called  upon  to  draft  bills, 
but  also  to  others  who  wish  to  eke  out  their  neglected  education 
in  this  matter. 

The  pamphlet  is  written  in  simple  clear  style,  and  while  the 
prescriptions  are  almost  all  self-evident,  it  is  useful  to  have  them 
systematically  brought  together.  Mr.  Bruncken  could  do  excellent 
service  in  educational  lines  by  following  up  this  first  issue  by 
others,  elucidating  the  principles  of  the  various  bodies  of  law  as 
indicated  in  the  same  simple  manner.  B.  E.  E. 

The  Lumber  Tariff  in  Relation  to  the  Value  of  Farms  and  to 
the  Property  Interests  of  Farmers  and  Other  Small  Timber 
Owners.  By  James  E.  Defebaugh.  Filed  before  the  Ways  and 
Means  Committee,  Washington,  D.  C,  February  18,  1909. 

This  brief  aims  at  showing  from  the  U.  S.  Government  statis- 
tics that  the  proposed  change  in  the  lumber  tariff  would  injure 
a  large  number  of  small  timber  owners  for  each  individual  heavy 
stumpage  owner. 

The  writer  points  out  that  the  average  saw-mill  is  a  small  enter- 
prise, 25,267  mills  out  of  a  total  of  26,934,  in  1907,  cutting  less 
than  five  million  feet  each,  or  20,604,500,000  feet  out  of  a  total  cut 
of  40,256,154,000  feet — one-half.  These  small  mills  represent  an 
average  investment  of  $4,000,  and  seldom  own  their  own  limits 
but  are  run  on  currently  bought  lumber.     Only  some  2,000,  the 


60  Forestry  Quarterly. 

larger  mills,  own  their  own  timber.  The  ownership  of  the  stand- 
ing timber  of  the  United  States  is  thus  classified  by  the  author: 
Government,  20% ;  lumber  manufacturers  and  heavy  owners, 
35%  ;    farmers  and  small  timberland  owners,  45%. 

The  timber  for  the  small  mills  is  bought  from  some  two  or 
three  million  farmers  and  small  timber  owners.  A  table  is  given 
of  the  prices  paid  these  for  logs  for  the  last  two  decades  showing 
that  their  stumpage  prices  have  risen  with  the  price  of  lumber. 
It  is  claimed  that  the  removal  or  reduction  of  the  duty  would  de- 
crease stumpage  values  and  so  would  injure  not  alone  the  few 
thousand  large  mill  operators  and  timber  owners,  but  likewise 
millions  of  small  holdings.  J.  H.  W. 

1 
The  Book  of  Camping  and  Woodcraft.     By  Horace  Kephart. 
Second  Edition,  revised.     Toronto,  1908.     323  pp.  12° . 

This  is  a  delightfully  written  booklet,  which  every  forester 
should  read,  and  more  than  that :  portions  of  it  he  should  know 
by  heart,  or,  if  his  memory  is  treacherous,  he  should  carry  it  with 
him  on  his  camping  trips,  for  it  is  filled  with  good  practical  hints, 
recipes,  etc. 

The  writer  is  broad  enough  to  invite  judgment  and  choice,  giv- 
ing good  and  bad  points  of  various  contrivances  and  behavior,  and 
the  whole  book  is  pervaded  by  common  horse  sense.        B.  E.  F. 

Waldbau  auf  naturgesetdicher  Grundlagc.  Bin  Lehr-  und 
Handbuch.  Von  Heinrich  Mayr.  Berlin,  1909.  Pp.  568.  Price, 
mk  15. 

This  latest  and  most  important  sequel  to  Wagner's  epoch-mak- 
ing silvicultural  volume  deserves  and  will  find  a  fuller  review  in 
a  later  issue.  We  consider  it,  however,  so  important  an  accession 
to  our  silvicultural  literature,  that  we  do  not  wish  to  delay  its  an- 
nouncement. 

As  one  would  expect,  nearly  half  the  stately  volume  is  de- 
voted to  a  discussion  of  the  biological  laws  upon  which  silvicul- 
ture rests,  and  this  is  its  most  important  part.  The  second  and 
third  part,  besides  describing  the  existing  practices  tests  them  in 
the  light  of  the  biological  laws  developed,  leading  to  some  conclu- 
sions at  variance  with  the  practice. 

The  last  six  pages  of  the  book  contain  the  gist  of  the  whole 


Current  Literature.  61 

book  in  Professor  Mayr's  novel  proposition  of  silvicultural  man- 
agement— the  "small  stand"  management. 

The  principle  of  this  management  is  to  break  away,  both  from 
the  uniformity  of  the  pure  stands  under  clearing  system  which, 
while  financially  the  best,  are  inviting  dangers  to  stand  and  soil, 
and  from  the  selection  forest,  which,  while  most  conservative  of 
soil  conditions,  is  financially  the  poorest,  and  also  from  the  mixed 
forest  in  regeneration  system  under  nurses,  group  or  otherwise, 
with  long  periods,  which  the  author  contends,  have  proved  fail- 
ures. He  substitutes  a  form  of  mixed  forest,  in  which  each 
species  appears  in  small  stands  of  from  three-fourths  to  eight  or 
ten  acres  in  extent,  each  of  these  enlarged  groups  or  clumps  of 
pure  forest  to  be  managed  by  itself,  with  a  thinning  practice 
which  in  the  40  to  50  year  makes  underplanting  for  soil  cover 
desirable. 

The  reproduction,  after  having  been  once  established  by  plant- 
ing is  to  be  done  by  shelterwood  system  within  the  small  stand, 
which,  under  such  management  would  permit  a  regeneration  in 
five  to  six  years,  removing  the  main  difficulties  of  natural  regener- 
ation, also  securing  the  safety  against  the  various  kinds  of  dam- 
age for  which  the  mixed  forest  is  noted,  and  at  the  same  time 
securing  the  greater  financial  efficiency  of  the  pure  forest. 

The  author,  claiming  the  general  applicability  of  this  method, 
expounds :  "In  the  American  forest  with  its  large  number  of 
species  the  small  stand  forest  may  be  found  the  best  form  for 
preserving  the  important  species,  and  to  reproduce  and  grow 
them.  Where  thinnings  (or  improvement  cuttings)  would  be 
necessary  to  preserve  desirable  species  in  competition  against 
overpowering  weed  species,  it  may  not  be  possible  to  apply  the 
method  because  of  the  extensive  areas  involved,  the  large  amount 
of  weed  trees  left,  the  unsaleableness  of  the  material,  the  high 
wages.  Here  only  the  pure  stand  resulting  from  clearings  fol- 
lowed by  planting  solves  the  problem,  (an  attitude  which  we  may 
as  well  subscribe  to  for  many  of  our  culled  mixed  forests !).  The 
small  stand  management  reduced  the  pure  stand  to  the  size  bio- 
logically admissible,  assures  the  preservation  of  the  valuable 
species,  and  permits  the  needed  thinnings,  etc." 

We  hope  to  return  to  a  fuller  and  more  critical  discussion  of 
this  most  meritorious  work  at  a  later  occasion.  B.  E.  F. 


62  Forestry  Quarterly. 

A  Manual  for  Northern  Woodsmen.  By  Austin  Cary.  Har- 
vard University  Publishers,  Cambridge,  1909.  Pp.  250.  Price, 
$2.00. 

This  manual  is  a  very  handy  book,  not  only  on  account  of 
its  contents,  but  also  in  the  make-up.  It  contains  chapters  on 
surveying,  mapping,  mensuration  and  estimating.  The  author 
does  not  lay  claim  to  originality  for  much  of  the  material,  but 
has  drawn  together  what  he  considers  likely  to  be  most  useful. 
The  result  is  a  very  handy  pocket  manual  of  information  along 
the  above  lines  most  likely  to  be  called  for  in  woods  work.  A 
chapter  of  tables  increases  the  usefulness  of  the  book. 

It  might  be  suggested  that  the  introduction  of  a  chapter  on  sil- 
vicultural  questions,  rates  of  growth,  etc.,  would  not  have  been 
amiss,  since  the  book  will  no  doubt  be  read  by  many  woodsmen 
who  have  no  knowledge  of  forestry  principles. 

J.  H.  W. 

Die  Harze  und  die  Harzbehalter  mit  Einschluss  der  Milchs'dfte. 
By  Dr.  A.  Tschirch.     2nd  Edition,  1906.     1268  pp.     Price,  32Mk. 

This  is  the  most  exhaustive  work  on  resins  and  resin  ducts  in 
existence,  based  on  a  life  time  of  study,  including  all  the  known 
resins  and  milky  juices  of  the  world. 

The  author  distinguishes  a  primary  or  superficial  resinous 
exudation  as  a  result  of  superficial  injury,  and  a  secondary  more 
vigorous  resin  flow  in  the  same  species  as  a  result  of  deeper 
incisions,  including  a  flow  richer  in  turpentine,  and  including 
also  the  formation  of  resin  ducts  where  normally  such  are  absent, 
as  in  firs,  so  that  the  wounding  is  really  the  cause  of  the  resin 
formation.  Full  description  of  the  various  resins  and  balsams  and 
of  their  commercial  collection  and  use  is  given. 

Here,  however,  weaknesses  appear.  How  even  a  well  informed 
author  can  go  horribly  astray  is  attested  by  his  reference  to 
Abies  balsamea  and  Abies  Fraseri  as  sources  of  Canada  balsam, 
and  Abies  Canadensis  and  Pinus  Fraseri  are  also  cited  as  sources 
of  supply. 

The  botanical  part  undoubtedly  is  the  most  interesting,  es- 
pecially as  it  furnishes  a  new  explanation  of  the  origin  of  resin 
formation.  The  author  recognizes  an  amorphous  resinogen  layer 
which  surrounds  the  resin  duct,  superimposed  on  the  thin  walled 


Current  Literature.  63 

epithelium-like  cells  which  surround  the  duct,  and  which  were 
hitherto  supposed  to  be  the  resin  producers.  This  layer  is  not 
a  part  of  cell  contents,  but  rather  of  the  membrane  possessing 
the  capacity  of  slimy  excretion. 

B.  E.  F. 

Alpwirtschaftspolitik  in  Oesterreich.  Veroffentlicht  vom  K.  K. 
Ackerbauministerium.     Vienna,  1908. 

The  wave  of  enthusiasm  regarding  the  "conservation  of  re- 
sources" is  not  confined  to  this  continent  as  this  publication  of 
the  Austrian  Department  of  Agriculture  testifies.  The  object  is 
to  state  precisely  the  policy  of  the  government  with  reference  to 
the  Alps,  of  which  about  3.5  million  acres  are  located  in  Austria. 

The  main  principle  in  this  policy  is  maintenance  of  the  Alps 
for  their  purpose,  which  means  maintenance  of  forest  wherever 
found,  and  improvement  wherever  necessary.  For  this  purpose 
there  are  created  special  commissions,  executive  local  committees, 
conversant  with  local  conditions — a  truly  democratic  institution. 
Organization  of  all  interests,  strict  segregation  of  forest  and  pas- 
ture and  regulation  of  the  existing  servitudes  is  believed  to  be  at 
the  bottom  of  success. 

B.  E.  F. 


OTHER  CURRENT  LITERATURE. 

Forest  Taxation.  A  reprint  from  the  Addresses  and  Proceed- 
ings of  the  International  Conference  on  State  and  Local  Taxa- 
tion held  at  Toronto,  October,  1908.  Contains  addresses  on 
forest  taxation  by  F.  R.  Fairehild,  A.  C.  Shaw,  and  B.  E. 
Fernow.  Published  by  the  International  Tax  Association,  Colum- 
bus, Ohio.     42  pp. 

Report  of  the  Commission  on  Inquiry  on  Tax  Lands  and* 
Forestry  to  the  Governor  and  Legislature  of  Michigan.  Lansing, 
Mich.,  1908.     146  pp. 

Report  of  the  Oregon  Conservation  Commission  to  the  Gov- 
ernor.    Portland,  Ore.  1908.  122  pp. 


04  Forestry  Quarterly. 

The  Conservation  Idea  as  Applied  to  the  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers.  Presidential  Address  by  M.  L.  Holman. 
Published  by  the  Society,  New  York,  1908.     41  pp. 

Douglas  Fir.  A  Study  of  the  Pacific  Coast  and  Rocky  Moun- 
tain Forms.  By  E.  H.  Frothingham.  Circular  150,  U.  S.  Forest 
Service,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  1909.     Pp.  38. 

Production  and  Consumption  of  Basket  Willows  in  the  United 
States  for  1906  and  1907.  By  C.  D.  Mell.  Circular  155,  U.  S. 
Forest  Service,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C, 
1909.     Pp.  14. 

Preliminary  Report  on  Grazing  Experiments  in  a  Coyote-Proof 
Pasture.  By  J.  T.  Jardine.  Circular  156,  U.  S.  Forest  Service, 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  1909.    Pp.  32. 

The  Future  Use  of  Land  in  the  United  States.  By  Raphael 
Zon.  Circular  159,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Washington,  D.  C,  1909.     Pp.  15. 

Our  Wasteful  Nation.  The  Story  of  American  Prodigality 
and  in  District  Offices.  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  Department  of 
Illustrated.     New  York,  1908.     Pp.  134. 

Manual  of  Procedure  for  the  Forest  Service  in  Washington 
and  in  District  Offices.  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  1908.     P.  93. 

Report  of  the  Committee  on  Agriculture  on  Acquiring  Land 
for  the  Protection  of  Watersheds  for  the  Conservation  of  Navi- 
gable Streams.  House  Report  No.  2027,  Washington,  D.  C, 
1909. 

Special  Message  from  the  President  of  the  United  States  trans- 
mitting a  Report  of  the  National  Conservation  Commission. 
Washington,  D.  C,  1909. 


Other  Current  Literature.  65 

The  Revegetation  of  Overgrazed  Range  Areas.  By  A.  W. 
Sampson  and  F.  V.  Colville.  Circular  158,  U.  S.  Forest  Service, 
Washington,  D.  C,  1908.     Pp.  21. 

The  Lumber  Cut  of  the  United  States:  1907.  Department  of 
Commerce  and  Labor,  Bureau  of  the  Census  (in  co-operation  with 
the  Forest  Service),  Washington,  D.  C,  1908.     Pp.  53. 

PUanzengeographische  Studien  uber  die  Bonin — Inseln,  with 
chart.  By  H.  Hattori.  Journal  of  College  of  Science.  Imperial 
University,  Tokio,  Japan,  Vol  23,  Article  10,  1908. 

PHanzengeographische  Karten  aus  Sachsen.  Three  sheets.  By 
Pof.  Dr.  O.  Drude,  Mitt,  des  Vereins  fur  Erdkunde  zu  Dresden, 
No.  7,  Dresden,  1908. 

A  Bibliography  of  Forestry  in  California.  By  Ernest  Brunck- 
en.     1908.     16  pp. 

Forest  Mensuration  of  The  White  Pine  in  Massachusetts. 
How  to  estimate  standing  timber;  log  scales;  volume  tables; 
yield  tables;  -financial  rotations;  growth  tables;  thinnings,  etc. 
By  Harold  O.  Cook,  1908.     50  pp. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  342.  Experiment  Station  Work,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  November,  ipo8.  Washington,  D. 
C.  Pp.  32.  Of  interest  might  be  mentioned:  Conservation  of 
Soil  Resources,  Fig  Culture  in  the  South,  Mushroom  Growing, 
Preserving-  Wild  Mushrooms. 


PERIODICAL  LITERATURE. 

In  Charge: 

Botanical  Journals, R.  T.  Fisher,  C.  D.  Howe 

Foreign  Journals, B.  E.  Fernow,  F.  Dunlap 

Propagandist  Journals, H.  P.  Baker 

Trade  Journals F.  Roth,  Walter  Muleord 

FOREST  GEOGRAPHY  AND  DESCRIPTION. 

The  localities  studied  by  Mr.  William  Coop- 

Rocky  Mountain     er  are  on  the  summit  and  eastern  flank  of 

Vegetation.  Front  Range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 

they   lie  between   Mt.  Tyndall  and  Stone's 

Peak,  a  distance  of  about  fourteen  miles.     The  areas  are  on  the 

continental  divide,  and  they  have  an  average  altitude  of  12,380 

feet.     Physiographically  the  author  divides  the   region  into  the 

flat  summit  of  the  divide  and  the  slopes  similar  to  it  and  the 

glacial  canyons ;    and  from  the  standpoint  of  vegetation  into  the 

alpine  grassland  and  the  forest. 

The  alpine  grasslands  are  of  two  types,  the  dry  meadows  occu- 
pying the  exposed  slopes  and  ridges ;  and  the  wet  meadows  in 
the  upper  portion  of  the  glacial  canyons.  The  distribution  of  the 
two  forest  societies  is  determined  by  the  soil  water  content. 
Pinus  Ucxilis  in  almost  pure  stand  covers  the  dry  summits  and 
upper  slopes  of  the  ridges  between  the  canyons  up  to  the  limit  of 
tree  growth.  The  spruce — fir  society  {Picea  Bngelmanni,  Abies 
lasiocarpa)  is  confined  to  situations  where  there  is  an  abundant 
soil  water  content,  that  is  in  the  canyons.  The  fir  is  more  abun- 
dant near  the  streams,  and  seldom  or  never,  in  the  region  studied, 
ascends  to  the  timber  line. 

At  the  timberline,  Pinus  Uexilis,  even  in  the  most  protected 
places,  is  irregular  and  contorted  in  habit,  while  Picea  Bngel- 
manni, even  in  the  most  exposed  places  persists  in  its  upright 
habit.  The  altitude  of  the  timberline  is  practically  the  same 
in  the  canyons  as  on  the  dry  ridges,  namely   10,900  feet.     The 


Periodical  Literature.  67 

author  concludes  that  P.  Hexilis  has  reached  its  climatic  limit  on 
the  ridges,  being  prevented  from  farther  advance  by  dry  winter 
winds,  but  that  P.  Engelmanni  on  the  wet  meadows  is  ascending 
to  altitudes  higher  than  its  present  limits. 

The  Alpine  Vegetation  in  the  Vicinity  of  Longs  Peak,  Colorado.  Bo- 
tanical Gazette,   1008,  pp.  3IQ-337- 

Dr.   Martin  continues  his  valuable  critical 

Forest  review  of  forestry  practices  in  various  coim- 

Practices  tries  on  the  basis  of  personal  observation, 

in  France.  France  being  the  latest  object  of  discussion. 

The  statistics  are  briefly  as  follows.     The 

total  forest  area  occupies  only  16%,  the  departments  of  Landes 

with  47%,  Var  with  42%,  and  Vosges  with  35%  being  the  most 

heavily  wooded. 

The  State  owns  2.5  million  acres  or  11%;  municipal  and  other 
public  corporations  23%  ;  leaving  66%  for  private  ownership. 
The  latter  is  absolutely  free  of  state  control,  the  organic  forest 
code  of  1827  being  silent  on  this  point,  except  only  on  areas  de- 
clared as  protective  forest,  where  clearing  is  forbidden.  Corpor- 
ation forests  are  administered  by  the  State. 

The  management  of  State  forests  is  extremely  conservative, 
large  accumulation  of  old  stock  and  high  rotations  are  character- 
istic, while  the  corporation  forests  are  managed  much  more  ex- 
tensively. 

This  appears  in  the  distribution  of  systems  of  management.  In 
the  State  forests  40%  are  timber  forest,  26%  composite,  1% 
coppice,  9%  under  conversion  from  the  latter  to  timber  forest,  the 
balance  protective  forest,  except  about  14%  still  without  working 
plans.  Of  corporation  forests  only  20%  are  timber  forest,  10% 
coppice,  3%  protection  forest,  the  balance  composite,  except  about 
15%  which  is  still  without  system.  While  in  the  State  forest 
about  15%  of  the  timber  forest  is  under  selection  system,  in  the 
corporation  forest  nearly  60%  is  under  that  system.  Private 
forest  appears  to  be  mostly  in  coppice  or  composite  forest.  (Ap- 
parently, therefore,  of  the  total  of  23  million  acres,  only  about 
2  million  acres  are  timber  forest — a  poor  showing!) 

The  most  prominent  species  in  State  and  corporation  forest  is 
the  oak  with  29%  of  the  area,  beech  follows  on  19%,  blue  beech 
on  16%.     Conifers  are  poorly  represented;   fir  occupies  7%,  es- 


68  Forestry  Quarterly. 

pecially  in  the  lower  and  middle  altitudes  of  the  Vosges,  Jura, 
Alps  and  Pyrenees ;  spruce  occurs  only  in  the  high  altitudes  of 
these  mountains  excepting  the  Pyrenees,  and  has  no  commercial 
value.  Larch,  too,  occupying  the  same  range  on  about  2.°/o  of 
the  area  is  of  little  economic  value. 

Scotch  Pine  is  widely  planted  in  the  lowlands  everywhere,  but 
did  not  naturally  exist  except  in  the  higher  elevations  of  the 
Vosges,  Alps  and  Pyrenees,  not  on  the  limestones  of  the  Jura. 
Along  the  Mediterranean  and  Atlantic  shores,  in  the  nearly  sub- 
tropic  climate,  an  evergreen  oak  and  Pinus  maritima,  which  is 
also  planted  elsewhere,  are  of  economic  importance. 

Oak  forests,  pure,  or  in  mixture  with  beech,  or  the  blue  beech,  is 
the  prominent  forest  type.  The  areas  visited  in  the  watershed 
of  the  Loire,  the  author  points  out,  do  not  represent  the  average 
but  the  optimum  in  every  respect  for  oak,  climate  as  well  as  soil 
are  best  suited,  and  the  forest  is  here  maintained  on  the  best  sites 
of  all  State  forests.  Hence,  the  results  are  far  ahead  of  any- 
thing known  in  Germany.  Straight  form,  clear  boles  up  to  60  and 
70  feet,  with  small  crown  diameters,  resembling  conifers  in  as- 
pect, characterize  the  old  stands.  Correspondingly  the  pro- 
duct is  astonishing.  Stands  of  180  to  220  years  of  age  are  seen 
with  80  trees  to  the  acre  (twice  the  number  of  German  yield 
tables),  with  average  diameters  of  20  to  22  inches,  height  of  100 
feet  or  more,  125  to  160  cubic  feet  to  the  stem,  showing  a  cross 
section  area  of  640  square  feet  per  acre,  or  50  per  cent,  more  than 
the  German  tables  on  the  best  sites,  and  115,000  to  even  140,000 
cubic  feet  per  acre — such  stands  as  are  impossible  to  secure  in  the 
German  climate. 

For  the  same  reason,  difference  in  climate  and  soil,  the  method 
of  regeneration  would  not  at  all  be  suitable  in  Germany.  Natural 
regeneration  in  10  year  periods  is  the  general  rule  for  which  con- 
ditions are  exceedingly  favorable ;  a  rich,  humose,  loose  soil,  full 
mast  every  4  to  5  years,  with  intermediate  partial  masts  often 
sufficient  to  produce  full  seeding  and  frost  a  rarity ;  hence,  while, 
in  general,  Hartigs'  prescription  of  three  fellings,  for  seed,  light, 
and  final  removal  are  followed,  it  does  not  matter  much  how 
quickly  the  fellings  follow,  for  here  the  oak  not  only  seeds  plenti- 
fully, but  can  stand  a  large  amount  of  shade,  becomes  positively 
shade  enduring  until  3  feet  high  and  the  progress  of  the  fellings 
may  be  more  or  less  rapid  without  much  damage.    These  satisfac- 


Periodical  Literature.  69 

tory  conditions  for  natural  regeneration  make  also  the  need  of  re- 
pair planting  rare,  which  where  necessary  is  done  with  2  year 
seedlings. 

On  poorer  soils  the  oak  regeneration  is  sometimes  completed 
by  planting  pine,  which  either  acts  as  filler  and  is  cut  out  earlier, 
or  is  allowed  to  grow  into  the  main  stand. 

Natural  regeneration  forms  altogether  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  French  silviculture,  artificial  planting  is  to  be  resorted  to 
only  for  recovering  mountainsides,  waste  lands  repair  planting  or 
introduction  of  new  species.  While  for  France,  with  its  mild 
and  humid  climate,  the  author  agrees,  that  this  is  the  best  silvi- 
cultural  policy,  in  Germany  conditions  are  different,  especially  for 
the  oak.  Not  only  are  climate  and  available  soil  less  favorable 
but  oak  stands  in  condition  for  natural  regeneration  are  rare.  Ar- 
tificial reforestation  is  here  forced  and  is  successful. 

The  same  arguments  hold  for  other  species  than  the  oak ;  when- 
ever conditions  of  site  and  stand  warrant  it,  natural  regeneration 
is  to  be  preferred,  but  soil  and  economic  considerations  may  prop- 
erly limit  its  use,  as  with  spruce  which  on  account  of  wind  danger 
forces  to  planting;  pine  which  with  its  exceeding  light  require- 
ments on  the  poor  soils  to  which  it  is  confined  forces  to  the  same 
method. 

While  on  paper  the  need  of  early  and  repeated  thinnings  for 
the  proper  development  is  accentuated  in  the  French  literature, 
in  practice,  the  operations  are  often  omitted.  The  well-known 
French  method  of  eclaircie  par  le  haut  seems  also  more  an 
academic  tenet,  than  a  practised  operation  except  in  mixed  forest. 

Notable  is  the  longer  interval  in  which  thinnings  are  made,  8 
to  10  years  being  the  rule,  and  in  the  young  timber  12  to  20  years. 
Two  thinnings  in  the  24  year  period  is  prescribed  in  the  working 
plans  of  the  oak  forests  visited.  The  degrees  of  thinning  is  ac- 
cording to  German  nomenclature  moderate;  in  the  60  year  old 
stands  the  best  trees  to  be  favored  in  the  thinnings  are  marked 
with  white  paint.  The  underwood  is  carefully  preserved  for  the 
sake  of  soil  protection  until  the  regeneration  requires  its  removal. 

The  very  long  rotations,  Martin  thinks,  could  be  considerably 
reduced  by  a  more  intensive  thinning  practice. 

While  otherwise  the  silvicultural  practice  of  France  in  its  tech- 
nical execution  in  State  and  corporation  forests  is  excellent,  the 
forest  regulation  work  or  working  plans  leave  much  to  be  wished 


jo  Forestry  Quarterly. 

for.  Indeed,  real  working  plans  are  mostly  absent,  but  the  con- 
dition of  the  woods  and  the  maps  give  an  insight  into  the  poverty 
of  the  methods  employed,  especially  in  locating  the  orderly  pro- 
gress of  fellings  and  in  the  determination  of  the  felling  budget. 
The  working  block  is  called  series — a  series  of  annual  fellings,  to 
be  managed  as  a  unit  and  often  coinciding  with  a  forest  ranger's 
beat  (triage).  Besides,  there  is  a  division  into  sections — parts  of 
a  forest  under  one  system  of  management  (taillis,  futaie  regulicre, 
futaie  jardinee,  etc.),  while  the  series  is  divided  into  periodic 
areas  (affectations) ,  in  the  forest  visited  into  8  periods  of  25 
years  each.  It  is  a  most  characteristic  principle  of  the  French 
working  plan,  that  these  periodic  areas  should  as  far  as  possible 
be  laid  together  (the  opposite  of  the  Saxon  method  where  the 
dismemberment  of  the  felling  areas  is  most  developed).  To  se- 
cure this  arrangement  great  sacrifices  have  been  and  are  being 
made  by  cutting  unripe  stands  or  leaving  ripe  ones,  the  schematic 
arrangement  of  the  felling  series  being  considered  the  most  need- 
ful condition :  the  result  is  a  collocation  of  large  areas  of  the  same 
age  classes.  In  Germany,  under  Hartig's  lead  the  same  tendency 
existed,  at  least  in  the  beech  forests,  but  has  long  been  abandoned 
as  regards  a  severe  adhesion  to  the  rule.  The  results  of  such 
extensive  regeneration  and  uniform  age  class  areas  are  increased 
clanger  from  insect  pests,  fire  and  especially  windfall.  This  latter 
danger  has,  then,  already  begun  to  show  itself  in  the  French  oak 
and  fir  forests :  so  extensive  has  been  the  wind  damage  in  the  fir 
forests  of  the  Vosges  that  the  windfirmness  of  the  species  as  com- 
pared with  the  shallow  rooted  spruce  is  doubted.  The  oaks,  too, 
which  show  a  shallower  root  system  than  is  usual,  suffer  on  the 
regeneration  areas.  A  discussion  of  the  conditions  of  wind  dam- 
age follows. 

The  determination  of  the  felling  budget  and  of  the  rotation  is 
next  discussed.  In  the  oak  forests  visited,  the  rotation  was 
found  to  be  200  years  in  8  affectations  of  25  years,  with  a  felling 
budget  of  only  47  cubic  feet  total,  of  which  28  cubic  feet  work- 
wood,  a  very  modest  amount,  surely  not  equal  to  the  increment. 
While  the  stands  show  a  large  number  of  trees  and  large  volumes, 
the  diameters  are  not  what  could  have  been  secured  under  the  ex- 
cellent growth  conditions.  No  tangible  reasons  for  this  long 
rotation  could  be  given  by  the  managers. 

On    paper,   the    forest   administration    declares   the   maximum 


Periodical  Literature.  Ji 

average  increment  as  avowedly  the  basis  for  determining  the 
rotations  after  the  example  of  Hartig.  But  the  data  for  such  de- 
termination seem  scanty.  A  determination  of  the  average  incre- 
ment of  one  of  these  200  year  old  stands  brought  out  96  cubic 
feet,  and  counting  in  probably  unbooked  thinnings,  100  cubic 
feet  may  be  assumed.  The  current  increment  was  by  a  casual 
increment  per  cent,  calculation  found  to  be  at  about  the  same 
amount,  so  that  here  really  the  200  year  rotation  seems  to  repre- 
sent that  of  the  highest  average  increment.  In  the  latest  German 
yield  tables  of  Schwappach,  this  rotation  lies  on  best  sites  at 
100  years.  It  was,  however,  found  that  under  the  French  con- 
ditions both  current  and  average  increment  remain  nearly  alike 
for  a  century  or  more,  so  that  the  greatest  uncertainty  arises  as 
to  the  proper  felling  age  determined  from  this  point  of  view  of 
volume  production. 

The  French  Forest  Administration  admits  the  obligation  of  de- 
voting its  forests  to  growing  stout  sizes,  hence  value  increment 
enters  if  not  in  calculation,  yet  in  general  judgment  the  question 
of  ripeness.  Stem  classes  formed  by  circumference  measure- 
ments (200,  100-200,  under  100  cm.)  which,  translated,  cor- 
respond to  26,  13  to  26,  under  13  inch  diameters  bring  (the  trees 
are  sold  on  the  stump)  $13,  $9  and  $6  respectively.  While  these 
data  are  insufficient  for  an  accurate  value  increment  calculation, 
in  connection  with  the  diameter  increment  calculations  they  allow 
an  estimate  of  at  least  1  per  cent,  annual  value  increment.  Other 
calculations  show  that  from  the  standpoint  of  value  increment  the 
stands  should  still  be  left  growing. 

As  regards  the  justification  of  the  rotation  upon  the  basis  of  a 
proper  interest  earning  on  the  wood  capital,  while  this  is  dis- 
cussed in  French  literature,  nothing  tangible  appears  in  the 
regulation  work,  but  general  considerations  lead  to  the  belief  that 
such  long  rotations  do  not  pay,  and  by  proper  thinning  practice 
the  same  dimensions  and  values  can  be  grown  in  much  shorter 
time. 

The  French  have  thoroughly  recognized  the  fact  that  timber 
growing  is  not  a  business  for  the  private  individual.  Tassy  says : 
"It  is  not  to  be  hoped  that  private  owners  will  ever  find  their 
interest  in  the  management  of  their  woods  in  the  form  of  timber 
forest.  To  lead  them  to  this,  it  would  be  necessary  not  only  for 
money  interest  rates  to  sink  considerably  but,  what  is  more  dif- 


72  Forestry  Quarterly. 

ficult  to  attain,  the  'unforeseeableness'  of  things,  the  needs  of  the 
present,  the  uncertainty  of  the  future  would  have  to  cease  playing 
a  role  in  human  affairs."  This  position  is  borne  out  in  actual 
conditions,  private  forests  are  mostly  not  timber  forests,  rotations 
are  short,  stocks  insufficient,  the  opposite  of  the  State  forests. 

Yet,  as  the  author  contends  at  length,  while  the  attitude  of  the 
State  towards  its  forest  property  must  be  different,  there  is  no 
good  reason  why  it  should  forego  any  of  the  financial  advantages 
from  it,  reducing  cost  of  production  and  not  lengthening  time  of 
production  beyond  the  necessary.  French  forest  management 
with  high  rotations,  moderate  thinnings  and  low  interest  earnings 
needs  reform  in  this  direction. 

Even  private  owners  in  France  are  beginning  to  change  their 
attitude.  The  profitableness  of  coppice  and  low  rotations  begins 
to  become  doubtful;  rise  in  labor  prices  and  lack  of  market  for 
charcoal  have  depreciated  the  value  of  coppice ;  decrease  in  in- 
terest rate  and  increase  of  wood  prices  lead  to  accumulation  of 
more  wood  capital  and  increase  of  rotation. 

Composite  forest  (taillis  sous  futaie,  taillis  compose),  as  we 
have  seen,  forms,  with  about  8  million  acres,  the  most  widely  dis- 
tributed system  of  forest  management  in  France,  often  hardly  to 
be  distinguished  on  account  of  the  scanty  overwood,  from  the 
simple  coppice  with  overholders.  For  200  years  and  more  this 
system  has  persisted  on  many  areas  without  change. 

A  simple  area  division  forms  the  felling  budget,  but  character- 
istic is  the  holding  over  for  reserve  one-quarter  of  the  area,  to 
be  used  only  in  case  of  need ;  such  need  occurs  regularly  during 
the  rotation  of  25  years,  so  that  no  change  of  rotation  results 
from  this  reserve.  This  reserve  idea  dates  from  Colbert's  cele- 
brated order  of  1669. 

Rotations  vary  from  10  to  30  and  more  years,  the  20  to  30 
year  rotations  prevailing,  generally  higher  than  in  Germany, 
where  the  sprouting  capacity  of  stocks  rather  than  the  character 
of  the  firewood  is  the  foremost  consideration. 

The  overwood  consists  of  three  classes  corresponding  to  three 
rotations ;  baliveau — to  hold  for  two  rotations,  modernes  for 
three,  anciens  which  are  in  the  fourth  rotation  of  the  underwood. 
A  very  accurate  statement  of  numbers  of  each  to  be  held  over  is 
made,  in  one  case  under  observation  50,  14,  6  respectively  per 
hectar,  a  very  open  position,  the  overwood  representing  from  600 


Periodical  Literature.  73 

to  700  cubic  foot  per  acre  rarely  up  to  900.  While  in  Germany 
the  management  of  composite  forest  (of  which  there  is  little)  is 
considered  specially  difficult,  being  most  intensive,  in  France  it 
is  quite  simple,  due  probably  to  the  lighter  overwood  stand,  and 
to  the  better  climate  which  preserves  stock  in  better  sprouting 
capacity.  Oak  is  the  principle  species  involved.  Old  oaks  are 
often  grubbed  out  and  such  grubholes  must  be  planted  by  the  pur- 
chaser, or  else  he  must  pay  for  planting  these,  as  well  as  of  the 
spots  which  he  has  used  for  preparing  his  wood.  He  must  also 
trim  the  overholders  up  to  18  feet  in  height.  And  all  this  is  not 
on  paper  but  actually  and  minutely  and  skilfully  done.  Thin- 
nings are  not  made. 

The  yield  of  the  composite  forest  is  much  more  readily  found 
out  than  that  of  the  timber  forest.  It  remains  also  very  steady, 
in  the  case  cited  52  cubic  feet  per  acre  and  year,  while  the  neigh- 
boring timber  forest  produced  only  47  cubic  feet. 

According  to  the  statistics  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
for  1876  it  was  claimed  that  in  the  timber  forest  of  the  State  the 
yield  was  only  42,  of  the  corporations  24  cubic  feet,  while  for  the 
composite  forest  it  was  stated  as  60  and  57  respectively.  That 
this  is  not  a  difference  due  to  system,  which  would  make  the 
composite  forest  yield  so  much  larger,  but  due  to  other  causes  has 
been  shown,  especially  by  Tassy  who  figured  out  85  cubic  feet 
for  timber  forest  as  a  moderate  performance  as  against  60  for 
composite  forest. 

In  price  for  the  wood,  the  cubic  foot  of  the  composite  forest 
with  a  little  over  7  cents  brings  about  half  what  the  wood  of  the 
timber  forest  brings.  The  net  acre  yield  in  the  Conservation  of 
Tours  brought  for  composite  forest  $3.35,  for  stands  in  con- 
version $^.60,  for  timber  forest  $5.15  per  acre.  Of  the  460 
million  cubic  feet  which  the  French  composite  forest  furnishes 
annually  only  80  million  are  workwood,  surely  a  poor  economic 
result  for  the  area  involved.  While  it  must  be  admitted  that  for 
privat  ownership  this  system  has  its  advantages,  it  is  not  proper 
for  the  State  to  carry  it  on.  This  has  been  recognized,  and  con- 
versions to  timber  forests  are  under  way. 

MittfiluH%en  iiber  forstliche   Verhaltnisse  in  Frankreich.     Forstwissen- 
schaftliches  Centralblatt,  1908,  pp.  468-485,  530-547,  655-665. 


74  Forestry  Quarterly. 

BOTANY   AND   ZOOLOGY. 

Boulder  County,  Colorado,  extends  from 
Forest  Types  the  continental  divide  eastward  to  a  dis- 
in  tance  of  about  12  miles  from  the  base  of 

Colorado.  the  Rocky  Mountains.     The  topography  of 

the  region  from  its  eastern  boundary  con- 
sists of  plains ;  foot  hills,  broken  by  deep  canyons,  and  attaining 
a  height  of  7,300  feet;  a  plateau  region  rising  from  the  latter 
elevation  to  9,750  feet  and  the  mountain  crests  and  ridges  extend- 
ing at  their  highest  elevations  to  13,000  feet.  The  climate  of  the 
region  is  semi-arid,  the  average  rainfall  for  9  years  at  the  base 
of  the  mountains  being  17  inches.  The  precipitation  was  10 
inches  greater  than  this  on  the  summit  of  the  range  during  one 
of  the  years  (1904)  in  which  the  study  was  made. 

The  author,  Mr.  Robert  Young,  divides  the  forests  of  the 
region  into  seven  formations  and  he  gives  for  each  the  tempera- 
ture, relative  humidity,  soil  water  content  measurements,  taken 
during  the  two  summers  (1904-1905)  of  study  in  the  field.  Pass- 
ing by  two  poplar-willow  formations  which  occur  along  the 
banks  of  streams,  one  finds  that  the  dry  mountain  slopes  are  oc- 
cupied by  three  formations,  namely,  the  Finns  scopulorum  forma- 
tion extending  from  the  base  of  the  slopes,  at  an  altitude  of  5,300 
feet,  to  about  7,800  feet ;  the  Firms  murrayana  formation,  extend- 
ing from  the  latter  elevation  to  12,750  feet;  the  Finns  Hexilis 
formation  extending   from   7,300  feet  up  to  timberline. 

The  moister  slopes  and  bottoms  of  the  canyons  support  two 
formations,  the  Pseudotsnga  mucronata-Picea  engelmanni  and 
the  Picea  en gelmanni- Abies  lasiocarpa  formations.  In  the  former, 
Pseudotsuga  is  far  more  extensive,  P.  engelmanni  being  con- 
fined to  the  cool,  moist  bottoms  of  the  canyons  where  it  forms 
only  a  straggling  society.  Pseudotsuga  on  the  other  hand  ex- 
tends up  the  drier  slopes  until  it  meets  the  pines.  The  area 
which  this  type  dominates  lies  between  5,800  feet  and  8,700  feet. 
The  Picea  engelmanni- Abies  lasiocarpa  formation  occupies 
chiefly  the  canyons,  although  it  may  be  found  on  ridges  between 
9,200  feet  and  the  timber  line. 

The  author  does  not  state  his  reasons  for  making  P.  engel- 
manni one  of  the  type  trees  of  two  formations.  It  would  seem 
to  one  reading  the  text  that  the  presence  of  the  trees  in  the 


Periodical  Literature.  75 

Pseitdotsuga  mucronata-Picea  engelmanni  formation  were  due 
to  the  projection  of  its  higher  and  more  characteristic  habitat  into 
the  area  characteristic  of  Pseitdotsuga  and  that,  therefore,  the 
author  gives  more  prominence  to  altitude  than  to  habitat  in  dis- 
tinguishing the  formations. 

The  measurements  of  temperature,  relative  humidity,  and  soil 
water  content  within  these  various  formations  are  interesting, 
but  they  are  not  conclusive  because  of  their  short  duration.  For 
example,  the  most  extensive  records  are  those  of  air  and  soil 
temperatures.  None  of  these  records  in  any  one  formation  ex- 
tends through  more  than  five  days  and  yet  the  author  concludes 
that  mountain  zonation  is  due  entirely  to  temperature. 

C.  D.  H. 

The  Forest  Formations  of  Boulder  County,  Colorado.  Botanical  Ga- 
zette, 1907,  44,  pp.  321-352. 

A  posthumous  article  by  Hofrat  Friedrich 
Growth  brings  a  series  of  measurements  with  one  of 

Energy  his  auxanometers  (see  description  in  F.  Q., 

of  vol.    IV,   p.    52)    on   a   number  of   species. 

Trees.  The  first  and  apparently  hitherto  only  in- 

vestigator of  the  growth  energy  of  trees 
was  Krabbe  who  came  to  the  following  results:  1.  The  force 
with  which  diameter  growth  takes  place  amounts  in  conifers  to 
at  least  10,  in  broadleaf  trees  15  atmospheres.  2.  At  the  time  of 
summerwood  formation  this  force  is  still  8  to  10  in  conifers  and 
12  to  15  in  broadleaf  trees.  3.  A  limit  of  growth  energy  could 
not  be  determined. 

A  description  of  the  apparatus  is  given:  A  spiral  spring  of 
tested  capacity  in  a  suitable  framework  and  provided  with  a  cen- 
timeter scale  is  attached  tightly  to  the  tree,  and  the  pressure  read 
off.  The  adjustment,  it  was  found,  was  not  quite  simple,  if  the 
experiment  was  to  be  precise,  but  eventually  all  difficulties  were 
overcome.  As  long  as  the  elasticity  of  the  spring  is  not  ap- 
proached by  the  growth  energy  the  spring  is  compressed,  and 
automatically  a  constantly  increasing  pressure  exercised  upon 
the  wood.  With  increasing  pressure  the  increment  must  become 
slower,  and  when  equality  of  forces  is  reached,  it  ceases,  the 
nonius,  which  is  read  off  twice  daily,  does  not  move  any  more, 
the  limit  of  pressure  against  which  the  cambial  activity  is  able 


76  Forestry  Quarterly. 

to  work  is  reached,  and  the  square  washers  in  touch  with  the  tree 
will  be  overgrown  in  the  well  known  manner.  A  series  of  pic- 
tures of  longitudinal  cuts  through  the  tested  zone  of  the  trees 
exhibits  the  result  of  the  pressure. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  all  species  observed  the  growth, 
i.  e.,  the  pressure,  progressed  evenly  until  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember, then  ceased  quickly.  In  this  connection,  we  recall  the 
interesting  observations  of  Professor  Buckout  recorded  in  the 
Quarterly,  vol.  V,  p.  259,  which  seemed  to  make  an  exception 
for  the  European  Larch  as  compared  with  the  White  Pine.  The 
observations  of  Larch  by  Friedrich  through  three  seasons  show, 
at  least  for  two  seasons,  a  falling  off  of  growth  energy  in  July, 
as  found  by  Prof.  Buckout,  authough  this  fact  is  not  noted  by 
the  investigator.  The  White  Pine,  observed  through  one  season, 
continued  active  at  nearly  constant  rate,  a  Japanese  Larch  at  an 
increasing  rate,  until  the  end  of  September. 

The  highest  growth  energy  was  noted  for  Basswood,  which 
showed  still  cell  division  and  growth  under  a  pressure  of  36  at- 
mospheres, while  a  horse-chestnut  showed  a  limit  of  10,  Larch 
of  12,  and  two  maples  ceased  to  grow  under  pressure  of  about  25 
atmospheres. 

To  give  an  idea  of  the  progress  of  the  pressures  through  the 
season,  and  in  different  seasons,  we  condense  some  of  the  ob- 
served data,  through  the  years  1904,  1905,  1906,  in  the  following 
tabulation,  the  reading  referring  to  the  same  date  in  the  months, 
namely  the  5th. 


Basswood. 

Spruce.              Douglas  Fir. 

White  Pine. 

Year 

'04     '05       '06 

'04     '05       '06     '04     '05       '06 
Growth  pressure  in  Atmospheres. 

'04 

'05       '06 

May 

...     11. 1     21.9 

...       3.2     13.8     ...       8.3     17 

3.2    12.9 

June 

7-4     13        25 

6        17        3        10.4    17.8 

6.5     15-3 

July 

8        16.4    29.5 

...      8.3     18. 1     3.7     12.7    18.8 

8.4    i5-i 

Aug. 

6        19- 1     35 

1.2    10.6    19. 1     5.6    13.7     19.2 

-7 

10.4     15.6 

Sept. 

8        20        35.8 

2.4    12. 1    20.7    6.4    14.7     19.5 

1.2 

"• 5     15-9 

Oct. 

11        20.4     

2.6    11. 9     6.4    14.6     .... 

2.8 

11. 5     .... 

It  would  appear  from  these  and  other  records  that  generally 
speaking  diameter  growth  in  conifers  is  slower  than  in  broadleaf 
trees  which  coincides  with  general  experience. 

Ueber  die  Dickenwachstumsenergie  einiger  Waldb'dume.  Centralblatt 
f.  d.  g.  Forstwesen,  1908,  pp.  482-498. 


Periodical  Literature.  yy 

An  interesting  compilation  of  the  existing 
Symbiosis  knowledge    regarding    the    cultivation    of 

of  fungi  by  ants  as  well  as  of  certain  wood- 

Ambrosia  infesting  bark  beetles  and  other  woodborers 

Beetles  is  furnished  by  Dr.  Knauer.     Wood  being 

and  poor  food,   the  need  of  introducing  other 

Fungi.  food  materials  is  given,  so-called  ambrosia 

(first  discovered  in  1836  by  Schmidberger) 
is  an  excretion  of  fungus  mycelia  which  covers  the  bore  holes. 
The  idea  of  real  cultivation  is  refuted  and  Hubbard's  theory  that 
the  excreta  of  the  beetles  serves  as  fertilizer  refuted.  The  ob- 
served practical  fact  that  Xyloterus  lineatus  attacks  wood  felled 
in  summer  and  immediately  barked  less  than  winter  felled  wood 
of  conifers  is  explained  because  of  the  better  substratum  of  the 
fungus  in  the  pith  ray  cells  filled  with  reserve  material  in  the 
winter  wood. 

According  to  Neger  there  is  no  need  of  the  teleological  expla- 
nation by  conscious  culture  on  the  part  of  the  beetle.  The  fruit- 
body  of  the  ambrosia  fungus  are  either  perithecia  of  the  genus 
Cerastomella,  or  pycnidia  of  the  genus  Graphium  from  which  the 
spores  emanate  as  slimy  drops.  As  the  beetle  leaves  his  nest  it 
must  pass  the  entrance  hole  of  the  mother  beetles  and  cannot  help 
brushing  off  the  spores  on  his  body  carrying  them  to  his  new 
abode.  The  long-throated  pycnidia  and  perithecia  and  the  fact 
that  the  pores  do  not  dust  but  are  contained  in  a  sticky  mass 
would  appear  as  phenomena  of  adaptation  for  the  symbiosis 
of  beetle  and  fungus. 

Die  Symbiose  der  Ambrosiakdfer  mit  Pilzen.  Centralblatt  f.  d.  g.  Forst- 
wesen,  1908,  pp.  498-501. 

Mr.  E.  R.  Hodson  has  recently  called  at- 
Resin  Vesicles       tention  to  the  occurrence  of  resin  vesicles, 
in  or  "blisters,"  so  typical  of  the  genus  Abies, 

Bnglemann  Spruce,  in  the  bark  of  the  Englemann  Spruce  (Picea 
engelmanni,  Engelm.).  His  observation 
was  first  made  near  Bernice,  Montana,  in  1907,  and  later  it  was 
confirmed  by  other  instances  in  Colorado.  The  vesicles  are  de- 
scribed as  not  so  abundant  or  conspicuous  as  balsam  blisters  and 
lying  deeper  in  the  bark  than  in  Abies.  The  only  genus  besides 
Abies    hitherto  described  as  having  resin  vesicles  is  Pseudotsuga. 

A  New  Characteristic  of  Bngelmann  Spruce.  Botanical  Gazette,  Novem- 
ber, 1008,  p.  386. 


78  Forestry  Quarterly. 

SOIL,   WATER,   CLIMATE. 

In  a  study  of  the  plant  cover  of  portions  of 
Soil  the    Mississippi    River   Valley,    Mr.    Henry 

and  Hus  enumerates  the  members  of  the  various 

Plant.  plant  habitats,  and   from  this   enumeration 

one  may  get  a  good  idea  of  the  distribu- 
tion of  trees  in  passing  from  one  bluff  of  the  Mississippi  River 
to  the  other.  To  one  acquainted  with  their  habitats  in  the  north, 
the  statement  that  Quercus  albo  and  Q.  coccinea  tinctoria  are 
"moisture  loving"  (p.  170)  is  interesting  and  supporting  the 
general  law,  that  in  the  northward  distribution  species  seek  drier 
soils. 

The  paper  contains  distributional  and  phenological  tables  of 
the  850  species  of  plants  which  were  found  in  the  twenty-four 
habitats  stvidies.  In  the  summary,  the  author  makes  the  state- 
ment that  for  the  majority  of  soils  their  chemical  condition  seems 
to  be  of  the  slightest  importance  in  determining  the  presence  or 
absence  of  a  plant.  After  making  an  exception  of  the  soils  of 
salt  marshes  and  alkali  lands,  he  goes  on  to  say  that  soils  con- 
taining lime  are  also  an  exception  to  the  above  statement,  for  the 
presence  of  lime  increases  the  amount  of  humus,  causes  the  soil 
to  assume  a  darker  color,  and  aids  in  the  germination  of  seeds. 
The  basal  rock  of  the  region  studied  is  limestone,  and  it  influ- 
ences chemically  the  soils  of  nearly  all  the  habitats.  Because  of 
the  general  distribution  of  lime  in  the  soils,  its  presence  does  not 
explain  the  diversity  of  the  vegetation  and  the  author  concludes 
that  such  diversity  is  chiefly  due  to  the  varying  soil-water  con- 
tent of  the  different  habitats. 

An  Ecological  Cross-section  of  the  Mississippi  River  in  the  Region  of 
St.  Louis,  Missouri.     Missouri  Botanical  Garden,  19th  Report,  1908. 

A  thoughtful  exposition  of  the  value  of  soil 
Soil  work  in   silviculture  was  given  before  the 

Preparation.  Hessian  Forestry  Association  by  Forst- 
meister  Sellheim.  While,  according  to 
him,  the  use  of  fertilizers  is  hardly  practicable  except  in  nur- 
series and  possibly  where  on  difficult  sites  it  is  necessary  to  help 
young  plantations  over  the  juvenile  period,  soil  culture  to  un- 
importance of  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  and  its  influence 


Periodical  Literature.  79 

prove  physical  conditions  may  be  more  widely  employed.  The 
even  on  the  food  materials  is  accentuated,  its  mechanical  con- 
ditions having"  a  bearing  on  the  decomposition,  the  distribution 
and  especially  the  leaching  of  the  same.  The  size  of  the  volume 
of  the  interstices  in  the  soil  and  its  granular  structure  are  useful 
measures  of  the  soil  quality.  Favorable  conditions  for  the  pre- 
serving of  granular  structure  in  the  forest  are  the  swaying  of 
trees,  work  of  the  animal  world,  cover  of  foliage,  litter  and 
humus,  protection  against  pattering  raindrops  by  crowns.  In 
the  forest  this  works  in  the  same  sense  as  manuring  in  the  fields. 
As  means  of  improving  soil  structure,  addition  of  lime,  humus, 
and  soil  work  may  be  employed.  Water  supply  is  the  most  im- 
portant need ;  regulation  of  water  contents,  prevention  of  rapid 
drainage,  of  evaporation  from  dry  soils  and  in  dry  seasons,  pro- 
motion of  penetration  especially  of  gentle  rains,  as  well  as  proper 
limitation  of  water  supplies  can  be  secured  by  correct  and  timely 
soil  work. 

In  light  sands  avoid  deep  soil  culture,  it  is  either  not  neces- 
sary or  is  harmful  by  promoting  the  leaching  of  food  materials. 
Depth  to  which  soil  work  is  to  be  done  depends  on  the  object 
to  be  attained.  It  is  most  desirable  to  work  the  soil  over  often : 
it  needs  time  to  secure  the  benefits  of  the  work.  In  seed  cuttings 
the  preparation  of  a  seed  bed  by  the  repeated  use  of  the  Danish 
roller-harrow  is  recommended,  which  costs  $1.20  per  acre  and 
saves  elsewhere,  making  a  seed  bed  in  which  every  seed  comes 
to  germination.  Also  in  clearings  followed  by  planting  this 
working  of  the  soil  pays,  promoting  proper  humification  and 
making  undesirable  soils  covers  of  huckle-berries,  etc.,  innocuous, 
and  mixing  the  raw  humus  with  mineral  soil. 

Hessischer  Forstverein.  Allegemeine  Forst-  und  Jagdzeitung,  1908,  p. 
406-407. 

The  Northern   States  and  Canada  abound 
Making  in  "bogs"  or  "swamps,"  which  eventually 

"Swamps"  will  form  an  important  area  for  farm  and 

Available.  forest  use.     Indeed,  for  Canada,  which  in 

this  respect  is  probably  more  generously  en- 
dowed than  the  States,  the  problem  of  making  the  extensive  bog 
areas  more  useful  is  probably  to  be  solved  in  the  not  far  distant 
future. 


80  Forestry  Quarterly. 

An  article  by  Kathriner  discusses  at  length  procedure  in  Alpine 
bogs.  The  first  requirement  is  a  survey,  and  map  on  a  scale  of 
not  less  than  i  :5ooo;  but  this  does  not  obviate  a  close  personal 
inspection  of  drainage  conditions,  and  especially  ascertainment  of 
the  cause  of  swampiness,  as  this  may  suggest  the  proper  remedy. 
If,  for  instance,  the  surface  and  ground  waters  from  a  slope 
are  subject  to  stowage  by  a  change  of  angle  to  flat  surface,  and 
thus  give  rise  to  swampy  condition,  a  simple  ditch  along  the  line 
of  change  of  slope  will  remedy  the  trouble. 

In  most  cases  impenetrable  subsoil  and  large  precipitation  are 
the  cause,  when  a  system  of  ditches  becomes  necessary.  The 
density  of  this  network  is  dependent  on  degree  of  wetness  and 
character  of  soil ;  the  distance  of  effective  drains  varying  from 
12  to  25  times  the  depth  of  the  ditch.  Hence,  in  very  wet  com- 
pact soil  with  a  depth  of  ditch  of  30  inches,  the  ditches  would 
have  to  be  8  yards  apart,  while  in  a  loose  soil  18  yards  might 
suffice.  In  order  to  avoid  mis  judgment  due  to  accidental  weather 
conditions,  the  flora  should  be  used  as  an  indicator  of  general 
moisture  conditions.  It  is  essential  not  to  crowd  the  ditches. 
The  depth  of  ditches  may  vary  according  to  soil  and  circum- 
stances from  2  to  3  feet  with  a  width  at  base  of  10  to  14  inches, 
wider  in  loose,  narrower  in  compact  soil,  the  slope  of  the  sides 
being  in  loose  soil  made  one  foot  per  foot  depth,  steeper  in  stiffer 
soils,  but  it  does  not  pay  to  save  in  this  respect  as  maintenance 
becomes  more  expensive  with  steeper  slopes. 

The  most  difficult  question  is  to  what  extent  it  is  necessary  to 
reduce  the  maximum  water  stage.  In  Alpine  situations,  where 
excessive  rainfall  is  the  main  cause  of  swamps,  there  is  little 
danger  of  drying  out  too  much,  and  in  most  cases,  even  though 
species  adapted  to  weather  situations  may  be  used,  except  in  real 
peat  bogs  or  high  moors,  the  danger  of  over  drainage  is  not  great. 

In  peat  bogs  (which  are  the  "swamps"  to  which  we  have  re- 
ferred above)  there  is  danger  of  over  drainage,  because  here,  not 
so  much  as  the  author  points  out,  is  there  a  relative  poverty  of 
mineral  constituents,  but  the  physical  conditions  for  water  con- 
duction and  perhaps  chemical  conditions  as  yet  unexplained  are 
unfavorable. 

It  must,  therefore,  not  be  supposed  that  mere  drainage  of  these 
bogs  will  improve  them.     The  experience  so  far  had  points  to 


Periodical  Literature.  81 

the  necessity  of  other  treatment,  liming  or  fertilizing,  in  order 
to  secure  satisfactory  crops. 

Entwasserung  und  Aufforstung  nasser  Fldchen  in  Aufforstungsgebieten. 
Schweizerische   Zeitschrift   fur   Forstwesen,    1908,   pp.    305-312,    333-341- 

Palestine  is  often  cited  as  affording  an  ex- 
Inftuence  ample    of    the    effect    of    deforestation    on 

of  climate.      Mr.    E.    Huntington    in    a   paper 

Deforestation        dealing  with  the  climate  of  ancient  Pales- 
on  tine  gives  as  evidences  of  the  changes  of 

Climate.  climate  the   reduction  in  population  owing 

to  the  diminution  in  fertility  and  resources 
of  the  countrty ;  the  ancient  routes  of  invasion,  migration  and 
trade,  especially  through  Sinai  and  the  Syrian  deserts — which 
show  more  favorable  natural  conditions  in  the  past  than  exist  to- 
day ;  and  the  ruins  of  large  cities,  abandoned  on  account  of  lack 
of  water.  In  explanation  of  these  changes  of  climate  he  discusses 
the  four  hypotheses  "of  uniformity,  of  deforestation,  of  pro- 
gressive change,  and  of  pulsatory  change."  As  regards  deforesta- 
tion, he  finds  that  "forests  were  of  limited  occurrence  in  the  time 
of  the  greatest  prosperity  of  Palestine,  and  that  there  seems  to 
be  no  evidence  whatever  that  the  cutting  away  of  forests  has  had 
any  appreciable  effect  upon  the  rainfall  although  it  may  have  done 
harm  in  other  ways.  He  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  "none  of 
the  evidence  conflicts  with  the  hypotheses  of  progressive  and  of 
pulsatory  changes  with  the  probability  on  the  side  of  the  latter 
explanation. 

Bulletin  American  Geograpkal  Society,  1908,  pp.  513-522,  577"586,  641- 
652. 

The  forest  area  of  Mauritus  has  been  re- 

Deforestatiou         duced  from  one-third  in  1850  to  one-tenth 

and  in   1880.     After  investigating  the  effect  on 

Climate.  the  climate,  Mr.  A.  Walter,  Royal  Alfred 

Observatory,  concludes  that  the  cutting  of 

the  forests  may  have  had  some  effect,  although  a  very  small  one, 

on  the  total  rainfall,  but  that  the  effect  has  been  greater  in  the 

case  of  the  number  of  rainy  days.    The  rainy  days  in  the  districts 

denuded  of  forests  have  been  decreased  by  about  thirty  a  year, 

6 


82  Forestry  Quarterly. 

but  under  such  conditions  that  the  amount  due  to  these  thirty- 
days  is  only  about  6  to  10  inches,  whereas  the  annual  variation 
of  the  total  rainfall  is  often  60  inches.  Before  deforestation  "rain 
fell  on  many  calm  afternoons,  because  the  presence  of  the  moist- 
ure transpired  by  the  trees  was  sufficient,  by  increasing  the  hu- 
midity and  decreasing-  the  pressure,  to  cause  slight  showers." 
The  rains  thus  caused  are,  however,  very  local,  and  the  author  of 
this  paper  does  not  recommend  any  great  work  or  expense  in 
planting  trees  with  the  idea  of  improving  the  climate  generally. 

R.  DeC.  Ward,  in  Bulletin  American  Geographical  Society,  1908,  p.  746. 

SILVICULTURE,  PROTECTION,  EXTENSION. 

It  is  stated  that  poplars  furnish  in  France 

Cultivation  an  annual  wood  product  valued  at  $6,000,- 

of  000,  Paris  alone  consuming  annually  about 

Poplar.  7  million   cubic   feet.     Thus,   according  to 

Breton-Bonnard's  volume  he  peuplier,  the 
poplar  is  next  to  oak,  the  most  useful  tree,  and  the  only  one  which 
he  who  plants  it  may  harvest.  Dr.  Thaler  discussing  the  propa- 
gation of  poplars  advocates  the  use  of  seed  rather  than  the  cus- 
tomary cuttings.  The  seed  ripens  the  end  of  May  to  beginning 
of  June  (P.  Canadensis  a  fortnight  later  than  P.  alba).  It  should 
at  once  be  sown  in  a  seedbed  thoroughly  watered,  the  seeds  in 
their  wool  being  placed  in  thin  layers  on  the  ground,  pressed  in, 
and  covered  with  very  fine  soil,  so  that  the  wind  will  not  move 
them  but  the  wool  still  remains  visible.  The  seedbeds  are 
shaded  by  placing  beech  brush  along  their  sides,  and  are  daily 
watered  several  times  with  a  sprinkler,  and  this  treatment  is 
continued  some  time  after  the  little  two-leaved  seedlings  have  ap- 
peared. A  dose  of  lime  dust  protects  them  against  snails  and 
worms.  Transplanted  after  a  year  the  transplants  made  a  growth 
of  over  five  feet  the  first  summer. 

The  male  and  female  plants  of  P.  Canadensis,  grown  from  cut- 
tings, show  differences,  the  males  having  a  gray  bark,  the  female, 
yellow  bark ;  the  males  have  larger  leaves,  and  at  the  tip  for  a 
foot,  or  foot  and  a  half  there  are  four  diagonally  opposite  small 
cork  wings  which  are  lacking  in  the  females. 

Anzucht  von  PappelsdmUngen.  Allgemeine  Forst-  und  Jadgzeitung, 
1908,  p.  378. 


Periodical  Literature.  83 

An  inquiry  among  Hessian  foresters 
Planting  showed  that  the  majority  favors  the  plant- 

Under  ing   of   spruce    under   the   cover   of   other 

Spruce  trees,  oak  and  larch,  beech  and  alder  being 

Cover.  considered  best.     Pine  was  undesirable  be- 

cause it  did  not  do  enough  to  subdue  weed 
growth.  From  one  section  it  was  reported  that  this  procedure 
did  not  lead  to  good  results,  others  thought,  at  least  in  higher 
altitudes  cover  could  be  dispensed  with  on  account  of  the  hu- 
midity in  such  locations.  It  is  especially  necessary  not  to  keep 
the  cover  too  long,  particularly  on  poor  soils,  where  plants  re- 
quire the  most  light. 

The  theory  of  the  cover  is  explained  in  that  the  excessive 
stimulus  of  intense  daylight  is  kept  from  the  young  plants,  so 
that  their  growth  is  not  more  rapid  or  better,  but  quieter, 
steadier,  surer.  Under  the  protection  of  the  cover  the  young 
plant,  which  has  experienced  a  shock  in  its  life  function  by  the 
transplanting,  finds  time  to  establish  itself  and  make  new  roots 
and  shoots.  The  dangerous  infantile  stage  is  more  readily  over- 
come, the  battle  with  grass  and  drouth  made  easier  and  shorter. 
Trying  winds  are  kept  off  as  well  as  the  light,  and  yet  the  fresh 
air  which  suits  the  spruce  is  secured. 

On  dry  soils,  to  which  spruce  is  at  any  rate  not  adapted, 
planting  under  cover  is  not  suitable,  such  planting  is  absolutely 
necessary  only  exceptionally ;  it  is  advantageous  in  all  conver- 
sions with  a  soil  cover  of  undecomposed  foliage  and  litter  and 
raw  humus,  in  order  to  prevent  drying  out,  and  blowing  away 
of  the  foliage  cover,  also  on  sunny  slopes.  It  may  be  dispensed 
with  in  all  protected  situations,  on  north  and  east  exposures,  on 
small  strips  and  other  small  clearings  surrounded  by  timber. 

Hessicher  Forstverein.     Allgemeine   Forst-   und  Jagdzeitung,    1908,   pp. 
405-6. 

Upon  the  basis   of  personal   inspection  of 

Wagner's  Wagner's  results  with  the  so-called  selection 

Strip  strip    method,    which    has    called    forth    so 

Selection  much  comment,   Eulefeld  gives  a  descrip- 

Method.  tion  of  conditions  under  which  these  were 

attained.       The     district,     Gaildorf,     near 

Stuttgart  in  Wurtemberg,   is  a  private  property,  mountainous, 


84  Forestry  Quarterly. 

about  800  feet  altitude,  located  on  Keuper  formation,  with  heavy 
clay  soils  to  fine  and  coarse  sands  and  all  intermediate  classes. 
Spruce,  fir  and  beech  form  the  stands,  mainly  the  first.  The 
growth  is  good  to  very  good.  The  soil  in  openings  is  inclined  to 
weeds,  in  the  close  forest  a  light  moss  cover  not  inimical  to  seed- 
ing. The  method  hitherto  pursued  was  clearing  followed  by 
planting  with  spruce  transplants ;  in  the  mixed  stands  natural  re- 
generation under  shelterwood  did  not  succeed.  The  fir  which  had 
made  the  stands  windfirm  vanished  thus  in  the  new  crop.  Owing 
to  the  drying  east  winds  and  hot  sun  the  plantation  suffered. 
Wind  danger  on  the  plain  areas  is  great  and,  due  to  impenetrable 
subsoil,  accumulation  of  spring  waters  add  to  the  danger. 

The  observation  that  certain  stands  on  the  north  side  of  the 
district  were  exposed  by  the  cutting  of  a  neighbor's  stand  and 
had  readily  and  fully  seeded  the  felling  areas  led  to  attempt  to 
use  this  hint.  Instead  of  beginning  fellings  as  hitherto  in  the 
East,  the  northern  side  was  opened  up  in  narrow  strip,  half  a  tree 
height,  /.  e.}  10  to  15  yards  broad,  and  this  planted  with  stout 
transplants.  In  many  places  this  planting  proved  unnecessary,  a 
sufficient  natural  regeneration,  even  of  fir,  having  covered  the 
ground.  Adjoining  this  strip,  a  strip  of  similar  breadth  is  lightly 
thinned  out ;  within  200  yards  another  such  combination  of  bare 
and  thinned  strip  is  made,  and  so  on.  When  a  sufficient  seeding 
of  the  bare  strip  has  resulted,  further  thinnings  until  final  re- 
moval take  place  in  the  neighboring  strip  and  at  the  same  time 
an  opening  up  of  another  strip,  progressing  with  the  fellings  from 
North  to  South.  The  results  are  a  perfect  success ;  conservation 
of  moisture  was  the  secret,  as  well  as  the  favorable  seedbeds.  The 
difference  in  appearance  of  the  regeneration  on  the  north  sides 
and  the  plantations  open  to  the  East  and  South  is  striking,  the 
latter  being  yellow  and  sickly. 

The  soil  cover  and  the  weeds,  too,  indicate  the  difference  not 
only  in  their  development  but  in  the  species  to  be  found  under 
the  two  conditions.  In  addition  to  more  favorable  soil  conditions, 
the  author  believes  also  that  a  greater  seed  bearing  capacity  is 
developed  on  the  north  sides  of  stands,  than  on  southern  exposure, 
because  trees  bloom  later  and  are  less  apt  to  lose  their  flowers  by 
late  frost.  If  the  tolerant  species,  fir  or  beech,  are  to  be  favored 
in  mixture  the  opening  is  made  less  severe  and  the  removal  pro- 


Periodical  Literature.  85 

ceeds  more  slowly ;  the  spruce  regeneration  vanishes  if  more  light 
is  not  given  soon. 

That  this  consideration  of  growth  conditions  in  regeneration 
tends  also  under  other  conditions  to  good  results  is  attested  by 
accounts  from  other  sites  and  with  other  species.  The  saving  in 
planting  cost,  if  even  only  half  covered  by  this  method  would  be 
a  great  gain.  The  author  figures  planting  (16  labor  days)  with 
transplants  at  $20  to  $25  per  acre ;  sowing  in  spots,  strips  or 
plats,  $4  to  $5  ;  cutting  out  too  dense  sowings  $2  per  acre  (3  labor 
days),  so  that  sowing  could  be  done  cheaper,  than  planting,  and 
natural  regeneration  still  more  so. 

Die  Waldwirtschaft  von  Professor  Wagner.  Allgemeine  Forst-  und 
Jagdzeitung,  1908,  pp.  353-356. 

In  a  long  article  Flury  gives  account  of  the 

Damage  damage  done  throughout  Switzerland  by  an 

by  unusual   fall   of   snow,   which  occurred  on 

Snow.  May    23-24,    1908,    which,    it    is    estimated, 

broke   some   two   million   cubic   feet.      The 

largest  previous   heavy  breakage  occurred  in    1885   with  nearly 

nine  million  cubic  feet. 

The  details,  character  and  probable  causes  of  the  extraordinary 
fall  of  snow  are  discussed. 

From  answers  to  circulars,  the  following  more  generally  inter- 
esting facts  were  elicited.  Deciduous  forests  suffered  the  great- 
est damage,  conifers  only  exceptionally,  and  pure  stands  more 
than  those  mixed  with  conifers.  The  more  uneven  crown  de- 
velopment and  hence  uneven  loading  of  the  broadleaved  trees  is 
adduced  as  a  reason  for  this  difference  in  behavior.  Curiously 
enough,  the  tough  oak  and  ash,  outside  of  the  softer  woods,  suf- 
fered the  most.  As  reason  is  suggested  a  difference  of  pliability 
of  branches  at  different  seasons.  Our  White  Pine  was  noted  as 
most  resistant. 

The  damage  was  experienced  in  all  age  classes,  in  the  older 
timber  uprooting  being  most  frequent,  together  with  breakages, 
in  the  younger  stands  breakage  and  bending,  more  rarely  up- 
rooting. The  greatest  damage  was  concentrated  on  altitudes 
between  1,500  and  2,000  feet;  the  steepness  of  the  slope  in- 
creasing the  damage.  Exposure  seems  not  to  influence  the  dam- 
age. 


86  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Both,  thinned  and  unthinned,  quite  young  stands  suffered  alike, 
the  former  more  by  breaking  of  single  stems,  and  the  latter  by 
group  breakages,  especially  the  stands  that  had  been  thinned  a 
year  or  two  before.  But,  on  the  contrary,  older  stands,  several 
times  thinned,  made  the  best  resistance.  Open  old  beech  stands 
suffered  from  branch-breaking  much  more  than  close  stands. 
Otherwise,  even-aged  and  evenly  closed  stands  suffered  more 
than  uneven-aged  with  slightly  open,  group-wise  distribution  and 
wavy  crown  profile. 

Stands  with  tall  slender  stems  and  high  crowns  naturally  were 
more  damaged  than  those  in  which  crown  length  and  shaft  were 
in  better  proportions,  hence,  more  damage  was  experienced  on 
good  sites  than  on  poor,  and  of  course,  on  shallow  sites  uproot- 
ing was  more  frequent  than  on  deep  soils. 

As  regards  the  causes  of  the  damage  the  reporter  notes  that 
more  or  less  accidental  concomitant  circumstances  influence  the 
effect  favorably,  such  as  the  fact  of  more  or  less  developed 
foliage,  different  conditions  of  soil  and  stands,  steepness  of  slope, 
and  the  varying  intensity  of  snowfall  and  character  of  snow  in 
different  altitudes. 

Especially  the  quality  of  snow  has  more  to  do  with  the  effect 
than  the  quantity.  Although  in  two  places  cited  at  3,000  feet 
altitude,  the  snowfall  was  24  and  25  inches,  there  was  no  dam- 
age in  the  existing  deciduous  woods,  while  at  another  locality, 
in  1,500  to  2,000  feet  altitude,  with  only  10  to  12  inch  snowfall 
the  greatest  damage  was  experienced:  the  specific  weight  of  the 
snow  decreasing  very  rapidly  from  lower  to  higher  altitudes, 
probably  from  .2  to  .8  or  .9.  In  the  higher  altitudes,  to  be  sure, 
also  the  absence  of  foliage  was  helpful,  while  in  the  lower  alti- 
tudes foliage  had  already  developed,  this  year  unusually  luxur- 
iantly, due  to  very  favorable  fall  as  well  as  spring  weather. 

Mixed  forest,  groupwise  differentiations  and  age  class  distri- 
bution, a  regular  thinning  practice  in  the  dominant,  are  means  to 
avoid  this  damage. 

The  treatment  of  damaged  stands  must,  of  course,  vary  ac- 
cording to  their  condition,  but  is  altogether  not  a  promising  oper- 
ation, especially  in  the  middle  age  classes,  between  40  and  80 
years,  where  underplanting  would  appear  the  only  method,  there 
being  little  hope  of  an  unassisted  restoration  of  the  crown  cover. 

Der  Schneefall  vom   23-24   Mai,    1908.     Schweizerische    Zeitschrift    fur 
Forstwesen,  1908,  pp.  270-277;    299-302;    318-323. 


Periodical  Literature.  87 

MENSURATION,  FINANCE,  MANAGEMENT. 

One  of  the  most  successful  and  most  profit- 

Working  able  of  forest  administrations  is  to  be  found 

Plans  in  Baden,  the  results  of  which  were  briefed 

in  at  greater  length  in  volume  VI,  p.   199  ff. 

Baden  The  method  of  regulating  the  felling  budget 

was  described  at  greater  length  at  a  recent 
meeting  of  the  Badish  Forestry  Association,  and  as  it  appears  to 
us  the  most  rational  of  all  the  methods  employed,  we  reproduce 
the  account  at  length.  It  is  based  upon  the  normal  forest  idea 
and  uses  Heyer's  well  known  formula  to  check  the  budget.  This 
method  has  been  applied  on  nearly  one  million  acres  of  State  and 
communal  forest.  Although  older  working  plans  exist,  the  more 
general  making  of  working  plans  was  begun  in  1836,  and  it  re- 
quired twenty  years  before  the  communal  forests,  which  are  ad- 
ministered by  the  State,  were  all  brought  under  working  plans, 
while  in  the  State  forests  60  to  70  years  passed  before  the  final 
regulation.  At  first,  an  area  and  volume  allotment  method  was 
applied,  but  in  1846,  when  the  first  revision  of  the  original  plans 
was  had,  the  securing  of  a  normal  stock  was  made  one  of  the 
problems  requiring  solution  from  the  new  working  plans. 

In  1849  it  was  realized  that  a  circumstantial  working  plan  for 
the  whole  rotation  was  useless  because  surrounded  with  too  many 
uncertainties  (interferences  by  windfall,  snow  pressure,  fire,  in- 
sects) ;  the  working  plan  was  made  by  area  allotment  in  detail 
for  the  next  decade,  otherwise  showing  merely  a  summary  area 
control  for  the  rest  of  the  rotation,  from  which  the  areas  allotted 
to  the  different  periods  could  be  seen.  The  budget  was  then  de- 
termined from  experience  of  felling  results  or  by  sample  fellings. 
Finally  in  1869,  after  35  years  of  experience,  the  Heyer  method 
was  adopted.  This  requires  the  calculation  of  the  actual  (as) 
and  the  normal  stock  (ns)  and  the  increment  (i)  during  the 
period  of  regulation  or  equalization  (e),  in  which  the  normal 
stock  is  to  be  established,  when  the  admissable  felling  budget  (&) 

as  +  (i  X  e)  —  ns, 

is  determined  as  b  = i  e..  the  actual  incre- 

e 

ment  during  e  is  cut,  increased  or  diminished  by  the  amount  of 

difference  between  the  actual  and  normal  stock. 

To  obtain  the  data  required  by  this  formula,  as  far  as  they 


88  Forestry  Quarterly. 

are  not  on  hand  from  former  estimates  of  stock  and  increment, 
which  can  be  proved,  the  stock  of  older  stands  is  ascertained  by 
sample  area  method,  in  the  younger  stands  it  is  estimated,  basing 
the  estimate  on  yield  tables  or  otherwise.  The  period  of  equal- 
ization may  be  less,  but  not  more  than  the  rotation. 

if 
While  theoretically  the  normal  stock  ns  = — ■,  it  was  found  that, 

if  i  was  determined  according  to  Heyer  upon  the  basis  of  the 
highest  average  increment  at  felling  age,  measurements  of  normal 
stands  develop  only  .45W.  It  was  also  found  that  the  normal 
increment  is  not  an  unattainable  ideal  but  could  be  determined  as 
the  average  increment  at  felling  age  of  well  stocked  and  well 
managed  stands.  For  the  communal  fuelwood  forests,  the  rota- 
tion was  established  on  Heyer's  basis,  but  in  the  timber  forest 
size  of  the  material  desirable  to  be  grown  (a  diameter  control) 
is  determinative. 

The  mathematically  determined  felling  budget  is  however  only 
used  as  a  guide,  just  as  Heyer  had  intended.  Silvicultural  con- 
siderations are  primary,  and  especially  when  a  comparison  of 
actual  and  normal  age  classes  shows  that  the  older  age  classes  are 
deficient,  the  establishment  of  these  in  normal  quantity  is  a  su- 
perior requirement,  unless  it  can  be  shown  that  younger  age 
classes  could  be  without  damage  utilized  in  shorter  rotation  to 
eke  out  the  felling  budget.  That  is  to  say,  a  summary  compari- 
son of  actual  and  normal  stock  is  not  sufficient,  the  comparison 
must  be  made  by  age  classes. 

There  is  then  a  careful  selection  made  of  stands  to  be  cut 
within  the  next  decade ;  in  this  selection  there  are  chosen  first 
old  stands,  then  poor  growing,  damaged  or  unsuitably  composed 
stands,  and  lastly  stands  below  the  normal  felling  age  are  con- 
sidered, if  necessary  to  approach  the  calculated  permissible 
budget. 

Since  every  ten  years  the  whole  working  plan  is  again  revised, 
any  miscalculations  or  mis  judgments  are  soon  corrected. 

Die   Forsfeinrichttmgsfrage,   etc.     Allgemeine    Forst-    und    Jagdzeitung, 
1908,  pp.  363-371- 


Periodical  Literature. 


89 


An  exceedingly  interesting  article  which 
Rotation  gives  an  insight  into  the  details  of  forest 

for  management     in     Saxony    by     Oberforster 

Spruce.  Pause    is    valuable    especially    in    bringing 

definite  data  of  results.  Professor  Wag- 
ner's volume  Grundlagen  der  Raumlichen  Ordnung  (reviewed  in 
Vol.  VI,  p.  160),  which  has  stirred  up  multifarious  discussion, 
has  called  forth  this  article.  As  is  well  known  the  spruce  forests 
of  Saxony,  which  have  been  so  lucrative,  are  mainly  managed 
under  a  clearing  system  followed  by  planting,  the  main  silvi- 
cultural  feature  of  which  are  the  small  felling  areas  and  the  care- 
ful location  of  felling  series,  while  short  rotations  and  special 
consideration  of  the  maturity  of  each  stand  are  the  managerial 
characteristics. 

To  determine  the  maturity  the  special  requirements  of  the 
Saxon  wood  market  are  considered,  which  takes  and  pays  better 
for  medium  sized  logs  rather  than  stouter  material.  The  aim  of 
the  management,  therefore,  is  or  should  be,  as  was  determined 
by  Pursche,  a  fully  stocked  stand  in  which  about  35  per  cent, 
stem  volume  of  over  9  inch  log  diameter  in  the  middle,  40  per 
cent,  of  the  total  cuts  being  of  such  logs. 

Pause  is  in  charge  of  a  typical  spruce  forest  in  the  Erz  moun- 
tains, of  entirely  uniform  good  site  conditions  and  normal  stands, 
which  have  grown  up  without  much  disturbances  by  storm,  snow 
or  insects,  a  rather  rare  case,  catering  entirely  to  local  market, 
saw  mills,  pulp  mills  and  other  manufacturing  concerns. 

From  felling  areas  (clearings)  comprising  112  acres  he  se- 
cured the  following  results : 


Age 

Logs  per  acre 

Total  volume 

Stands, 

with 

maximum  diameter  at 
Inches. 

sma 

11  end. 

including  fuel  wood. 

Years. 

5 

6 

9 

12      14             over 
Cubic  Meter* 

14 

Increase  % 

61-  70 

33 

39 

132 

113      51 

26 

464 

71-  80 

17 

32 

128 

153      95 

45 

552                    1-73 

81-  90 

15 

30 

12s 

181     106 

52 

606                      .93 

91-100 

7 

33 

117 

165     130 

92 

656                      .79 

101-120 

8 

14 

77 

134     145 

147 

614 

121 -140 

9 

7 

42 

92     128 

231 

595 

^Multiply  by  14.3  to  get  cubic  feet  per  acre. 


90  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Percentically  expressed. 


61-70 

8 

10 

33 

29 

13 

7 

71-80 

4 

7 

27 

33 

20 

9 

81-00 

3 

6 

24 

36 

21 

10 

91-100 

1 

6 

22 

30 

23 

17 

I0I-I20 

1 

3 

15 

25 

28 

28 

I2I-I40 

1 

1 

8 

19 

25 

46 

Prices, 

averaged  during 

1897- 1906, 

cents 

per  cu 

!o;c  /oof. 

6-5 

8.1 

11 

14 

16 

16.1 

A  calculation  of  the  value  obtained  for  these  variously-aged 
stands,  adding  all  materials  at  their  market  price,  gave  the  follow- 
ing results. 

61-70    71-80  81-90    91-100  100-121  121-140 

Total  value  per  acre,                  741      953  1056        1156  1150        1158 

"    cubic  foot,      10.8      11.6  11.7         1 1.9  12.6         13.1 

Value  per  cent,  increase  per  acre,  2.5          1  0.9 

The  decrease  in  material  product  in  the  older  stands  is  ac- 
counted for  by  loss  of  trees  by  rot  and  storm ;  the  sinking  value 
per  cent,  shows  that  the  use  value  of  this  timber  does  not  grow 
with  age,  the  wood  merchant  paying  for  95  year  old  wood,  the 
higher  price  for  stouter  material  being  merely  called  forth  by 
lack  of  supply.  The  rapid  change  in  price  for  logs  from  6  to 
9  inch,  and  still  more  from  9  to  12  inch  and  a  smaller  rise  to  14 
inch,  while  that  over  14  inch  does  not  rise  appreciably,  shows  that 
the  market  prefers  the  sizes  from  9  to  14  inches  diameter.  Be- 
tween the  70  and  90  year  evidently  the  most  favorable  distribution 
of  sizes  is  found,  60%  falling  into  the  most  desired  classes,  and 
30%  into  the  stouter  full  valued  material,  so  that  the  80  year 
rotation  would  appear  most  satisfactory.  A  soil  rent  calculation, 
in  which  the  costs  of  stands  is  figured  at  $17  and  annual  adminis- 
tration at  $1.20  would  also  warn  against  a  higher  rotation. 

The  author  then  elaborates  the  silvicultural  advantages  of  the 
Saxon  method  of  small  felling  acres  and  the  managerial  advan- 
tages of  clearing  followed  by  planting,  both  of  which  have  been 
proved  by  long  experience.  Whatever  may  be  said  of  other 
species  as  regards  the  preference  of  natural  regeneration,  the 
spruce  in  Saxony  does  not  promise  good  results ;  the  mother 
stand  is  endangered  by  winds ;  the  soil  before  the  crown  cover  is 
interrupted  for  regeneration  covered  with  dense  moss  or  with  a 
deep  layer  of  raw  humus  and  litter ;  after  opening,  grass  develop- 


Periodical  Literature.  91 

ment,  especially  of  Calamagrostis ;  the  young  spruce  disliking 
shade  above  (although  liking  side  shade) — these  conditions  must 
occasion  endless  difficulties  to  a  natural  regeneration. 

Yet  the  author  would  advise  at  least  a  trial  of  Wagner's  selec- 
tion strip  method.  As  to  Wagner's  declaration  that  the  spruce 
is  not  a  good  transplanter,  the  author  calls  attention  that  100 
years'  experience  in  Saxony  has  proved  the  contrary. 

Ueber  Hiebszugswirtschaft  in  Sachsen.  Allgemeine  Forst  und  Jagd- 
zeitung,  1908,  pp.  345S53- 

We  suppose  that  our  readers  realize,  that 
Ultra  whether    they    express    their    ideas    of   the 

Conservative  maturity  of  a  tree  or  stand  in  diameter 
Rotations.  sizes  or  values,  they  consciously  or  uncon- 

sciously discuss  the  time  element  in  forest 
production — the  rotation. 

A  lively  and  exceedingly  important  and  interesting  debate  has 
lately  taken  place  in  the  Bavarian  Legislature,  and  in  consequence 
in  the  daily  press  of  Bavaria  and  elsewhere,  as  regards  the  pro- 
priety of  reducing  the  existing  rotations  in  the  Bavarian  State 
forests. 

Of  the  nearly  2,000,000  acres,  timber  forest  (91.4%  of  total 
forest  area)  of  which  20%  are  oak  and  beech,  50%  spruce  and 
fir,  30%  pine,  a  rotation  of  96  years  (the  Bavarians  follow  a  duo- 
decimal system)  is  found  on  22%,  while  the  balance  is  over  108 
years ;  indeed,  beech,  fir  and  spruce  seem  to  be  managed  in  a 
rotation  of  140  years.  Hence  the  old  age  classes,  over  100  years, 
occupy  over  20%  of  the  area,  as  against  a  normal  16.7%.  In  de- 
manding a  reduction  of  these  supposedly  excessively  conservative 
rotations  it  was  pointed  out  that  with  57  cubic  foot  per  acre  the 
felling  budget  falls  behind  the  yield  of  Saxony,  Baden  and  Wurt- 
temberg,  who  work  with  lower  rotations,  by  15  to  24  cubic  feet; 
that  the  result  of  thinnings,  too,  with  only  15  cubic  feet  per  acre 
was  too  low;  that  the  net  yield  in  Bavaria  with  $2.68  per  acre 
compared  unfavorably  with  Saxony  and  Wurttemberg  whose  ad- 
ministrations yield  $5  and  $5.60  respectively,  that  the  work  wood 
per  cent,  in  Bavaria  with  about  64%  was  lower  probably  because 
of  the  frequent  red  rot  in  the  old  spruces ;  that  in  the  market,  trees 
of  10  to  14  inch  diameter,  which  can  be  attained  in  spruce  with 
rotations  of  70  to  100  years,  are  more  sought  than  stouter  material. 


92  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Hence,  a  reduction  of  rotations,  to,  say  about  ioo  years,  was  indi- 
cated with  a  consequent  increase  in  felling  budgets  to  net  an 
increase  in  yield  of  over  $2,000,000;  but  as  it  would  take  40 
years  to  secure  the  age  class  distribution  now  existing  in  Wurt- 
temberg  a  more  rapid  extraordinary  utilization  of  the  old  stock 
is  indicated,  say  in  30  years,  which  should  bring  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  $5,000,000.  The  legislator  advocating  these  changes 
asserts  that  a  reduction  of  future  forest  rents  was  not  to  be  ex- 
pected from  this  over  cutting,  rather  a  rise  was  sure  to  follow  (  ?). 
He  charges  the  forest  administration  with  seeking  a  sustained 
yield  in  reduction  of  felling  budgets  and  preservation  of  old 
stock  instead  of  regeneration  and  preservation  of  soil  vigor. 

Dr.  Endres,  now  the  leading  forester  at  the  University  of 
Munich,  in  a  severe  criticism  of  the  Bavarian  Forest  Administra- 
tion, agrees  that  the  felling  budget  might  be  readily  increased  by 
15  cubic  feet  per  acre  and  year  resulting  in  an  increased  yield  of 
2.5  million  dollars.  He  arraigns  the  administration  for  having 
slept  for  30  years,  for  not  keeping  track  of  increment  and  yield 
conditions,  stating  that  in  thinning  material  and  over  mature 
rotting  stands,  annually  a  quarter  million  dollars  worth  of  wood 
is  lost  in  Bavarian  State  forests.  Partly,  however,  the  fad  of  a 
natural  regeneration  method  forced  in  the  last  20  years  under 
Gayer's  schooling  is  the  cause  of  the  low  yield,  giving  rise  to  enor- 
mous losses  in  increment.  "To  secure  a  regeneration  of  a  few 
acres  an  expenditure  of  labor  and  time  of  many  years  is  needed, 
while  the  same  result  could  be  much  better  attained  with  a  few 
marks  spent  on  planting." 

The  result  of  the  discussion  has  been  the  appointment  of  a  com- 
mission of  three  higher  forest  officials  to  investigate  and  report. 

The  unnamed  reviewer  of  these  proceedings  points  out,  that  the 
extraordinary  cut  proposed  would  necessarily  lead  to  clearing, 
since  the  time  needed  for  natural  regeneration  would  be  lacking. 
The  extensive  plantation  thereby  necessitated  would  be  difficult  to 
make  successfully ;  that  the  difference  in  sites  in  the  Wurttemberg 
forest  may  account  for  difference  in  rotations.  (He  should  have 
also  accentuated  that  the  Wurttemberg  area  comprises  only  one- 
eighth  of  the  Bavarian  and  is,  therefore,  in  much  better  position ; 
it  is  also  nearly  everywhere  close  to  market,  while  the  old  stands 
in  Bavaria  are  probably  to  the  largest  extent  to  be  found  in  dis- 
tant and  hardly  accessible  mountain  districts. — Rev.) 


Periodical  Literature.  93 

It  is  also  pointed  out  that  the  sudden  increase  of  cut  will  in- 
fluence prices  and  make  the  calculations  untenable.  It  is  stated 
that  in  the  20  years  ending  1906  prices  had  advanced  at  the  rate 
of  4.7%  per  annum  in  the  average.  The  question  is  raised 
whether  the  wood  merchants,  who  confirmed  that  the  most  mar- 
ketable trees  were  those  of  10  to  14  inch  diameter,  were  not 
really  "laying  for  the  old  stock"  that  was  to  be  slaughtered.  In 
opposition  to  the  hotly  contested  proposition  that  natural  regenera- 
tion is  cheaper  than  artificial,  the  reviewer  asks  the  question : 
Is  the  advantage  of  a  method  of  reproduction  to  be  measured  only 
by  the  cost  of  plant  material  and  labor?  Do  the  advantages  of 
the  natural  regeneration  outside  the  cost  count  for  nothing? 

The  reviewer  refers  to  a  similar  onslaught  on  rotations  which 
30  years  ago  was  waged  in  Bern,  when  a  financial  deficit  made  an 
extraordinary  cut  desirable,  but  better  counsels  prevailed,  although 
later  here  and  there  rotations  were  reduced ;  yet  20  years  later 
an  increase  was  allowed  without  resistance. 

The  most  significant  outcome  of  these  discussions  is  the  de- 
claration of  the  highest  representative  of  forestry  science  in 
Bavaria,  that  he  considers  the  return  to  natural  regeneration  a 
retrograde  step  and  not  a  progress,  because  this  method  leads  to 
large  losses  in  increment. 

Thaler  investigates  how  such  surplus  of  stock,  if  any,  may  be 
utilized  without  loss.  He  points  out  that  neither  the  Bavarian 
nor  most  of  the  other  German  State  forest  administrations  could 
tell  whether  they  have  a  surplus  of  stock  or  not,  since  their  or- 
ganization is  based  on  area  or  volume  allotment  methods,  which 
do  not  determine  the  normal  stock  or  necessary  wood  capital. 
Only  in  Baden  and  Hesse  (lately)  is  the  regulation  of  the  budget 
based  on  the  normal  stock  idea,  at  least  as  one  factor. 

In  using  up  surplus  stock  the  question  arises  how  large  an 
area  may  be  cut  without  financial  or  silvicultural  disadvantages. 
This,  in  Hesse,  is  answered  by  limiting  the  area  to  what  with  the 
means  (nurseries)  and  labor  at  disposal  can  be  reforested.  This, 
for  any  one  district  has  hitherto  limited  the  felling  area  to  20 
or  25  acres. 

With  a  long  time  regeneration  method  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  control  the  size  of  felling  area  and  of  normal  stock,  ocurrence 
or  failure  of  seed  years  preventing  regular  progress.     Such  long 


94  Forestry  Quarterly. 

time  regeneration  methods  (just  as  the  selection  forest)  will  not 
work  into  such  a  scheme  of  budget  regulation. 

For  the  utilization  of  large  surplus  stock  a  special  working 
plan  is  suggested,  in  which  the  budget  is  so  apportioned,  that  the 
market  may  not  be  overstocked,  keeping  in  mind  that  new  chan- 
nels of  trade  do  not  open  at  once.  The  author  cites  an  experience 
to  show  this  difficulty  which  would  to  us  seem  incredible.  Al- 
though Germany  secures  now  one-third  of  her  consumption  of 
workwood,  the  author  thinks  it  will  take  considerable  time  before 
it  would  be  possible  to  dispose  of  large  surplus  masses  of  home 
product — probably  price  differences  accounting  for  this. 

At  the  present  time  several  of  the  German  administrators  con- 
template new  forest  regulation  schemes. 

A  similar  movement,  namely,  to  increase  the  cut  and  reduce 
rotations  was  made  in  Baden,  without  any  result.  Here,  Oberfor- 
ster  Fieser  figured  the  average  rotation  at  140  years,  and  by  re- 
ducing it  to  no  years  an  increase  in  the  present  budget  of  73 
cubic  feet  by  15  cubic  feet  as  possible.  This  would  mean  140,- 
000,000  cubic  feet  extraordinary  cut  and  increase  of  annual  budget 
by  8  cubic  feet.  In  the  legislature,  however,  the  policy  of  the 
administration  was  in  every  point  sustained  as  correct. 

The  administration  claimed  that  the  average  rotation  is  112 
years,  that  the  actual  stock  is  by  over  50  million  cubic  feet  behind 
normal,  while  the  age  classes  over  100  years  showed  a  surplus, 
the  next  lower  age  class,  80-100  years,  had  a  corresponding  de- 
ficit. Hence  a  slow  utilization  of  the  old  age  classes  was  indi- 
cated. In  1902,  the  normal  increment  was  calculated  as  76  cubic 
feet,  the  actual  increment  as  70  cubic  feet  now  increased  to  73 
cubic  feet,  and  this,  therefore,  is  set  down  for  the  main  felling 
budget. 

Dr.  Hausrath  discusses  the  yield  capacity  of  the  Badish  forests 
in  detail,  attempting  to  answer  two  questions:  Are  the  accepted 
normal  rotations  satisfactory?  and  are  these  rotations  actually 
in  operation? 

In  principle  the  rotations  of  Baden  are  based  on  silvicultural 
considerations  and  use  value  of  material,  hence,  in  the  more 
densely  populated  districts  lower,  in  the  Schwarzwald  higher  ro- 
tations are  indicated  which  furnish  good  saw  material. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  the  difference  in  the  price  of  larger  and 
smaller  sizes  has  lately  somewhat  decreased,  yet  the  sawmill  in- 


Periodical  Literature.  95 

dustry  still  prefers  the  stouter  sizes.  For  the  future,  it  is  just 
as  possible  that  the  difference  may  still  further  decrease,  as  that 
the  price  of  stout  material  should  rise  disproportionately  to  the 
smaller  dimensions.  Mixed  forest  is  the  prevailing  type  in 
Baden ;  here  the  species  most  prevalent  determines  the  rotation ; 
yet,  that  does  not  exclude  the  cutting  of  areas  earlier,  if  on  the 
whole  the  stand  could  not  remain  advantageously  through  the 
higher  rotation.  In  other  words  the  normal  forest  formula  is 
only  a  safety  regulator,  not  a  law,  silvicultural  considerations  and 
needs  of  the  owner  allowing  deviations. 

Several  tabular  statements  show  the  distribution  of  rotations 
among  the  species  and  localities,  especially  altitudes. 

On  poorest  soils  pine  forest  is  managed  in  80  to  90  year  rota- 
tions ;  otherwise  site  quality  does  not  influence  the  choice  of  ro- 
tation, but  altitudes  over  2,000  feet,  where  mostly  spruce  with  fir 
is  found,  bring  the  rotation  up  to  120.  A  small  acreage  of  less 
than  6,000  acres  located  in  mild  climate  is  managed  in  140  year 
rotation  with  a  view  of  growing  heavy  oak  timber.  A  120  year 
rotation  for  pine  in  mixture  with  oak  and  beech  in  low  altitude 
is  justified  by  the  production  of  high  priced  quality  "equaling  the 
pitch  pine"  (our  Longleaf).  Some  25,000  acres  of  fir,  largely 
mixed  with  pine  and  oak  are  also  managed  under  120  year  rota- 
tion with  a  view  of  utilizing  the  "light"  increment.  A  reduction 
to  100  years  might  be  advisable  but  the  data  to  prove  this  as  well 
as  the  influence  of  thinnings  on  a  reduction  of  rotation  are 
wanting. 

As  to  the  actual  existence  of  normal  stock  corresponding  to  the 
assumed  rotations,  it  is  admitted  that  the  booked  age  class  dis- 
tribution shows  deficits  in  areas  in  the  first  two  (1-40  years) 
and  the  fifth  age  class  (80-100),  but  this  does  not  argue  as  to 
the  volume  of  stock.  Since  most  of  the  stocktaking  is  done  by 
estimate,  there  is  considerable  uncertainty.  Although  estimates 
are  usually  below  the  truth  very  likely  deficiency  exists,  since  the 
snow  damage  of  1886-7  nas  made  havoc  even  in  the  middle  age 
classes.  The  author,  however,  thinks  the  data  on  hand  are  good 
enough  to  trust  the  increment  statements  as  given  above  to  be 
nearly  correct  i.  e.  a  deficiency  in  ni  and  in  nv. 

And  now  comes  a  statement  which  our  young  foresters  should 
consider  specially  and  ponder:  "From  the  private  owner's  stand- 
point it  would  perhaps  be  correct  to  manage  each  separate  state 


96  Forestry  Quarterly. 

forest  as  an  independent  unit,  to  regulate  the  felling  budget  en- 
tirely according  to  silvicultural  considerations  and  to  lay  up  a 
reserve  fund  against  future  lean  years  from  present  over-utiliza- 
tion." 

When  the  government  refuses  to  do  this  and  prefers  a  saving 
and  equalization  in  nature,  the  reason  is  probably  first,  that  the 
capital  made  current  is  too  easily  disposed  of  for  purposes  of  the 
present,  when  the  future  will  have  a  smaller  revenue.  Moreover, 
an  annual  even  cut  is  preferable  from  the  standpoint  of  labor 
conditions.  Again,  some  minor  sortiments — firewood,  etc.,  do  not 
find  a  sufficiently  large  market  to  make  an  over  cutting  surely 
profitable.  In  forestal  calculations,  the  danger  lies  in  extremes, 
the  formula  may  be  correct,  but  the  data  for  the  calculation  are 
uncertain. 

Die  Ertragsfahigkcit  dcr  badischen  Domdnenhochwaldimgen.  Forst- 
wissenschaftliches  Centralblatt,  1908,  pp.  627-637. 

Whoever   prates   glibly   and   knowingly   on 

Forest  forest  finance  should  be  invited  to  read  the 

Finance.  sound,  and  what  we  consider  epoch-making 

classical  expose  of  the  conditions  of  forestal 

finance  calculation  by  the  veteran  Weise,  formerly  director  of  the 

forest  academy  at  Munden. 

Forestal  Statics  is  to  investigate  which  of  several  procedures 
is  the  more  profitable,  for  instance  whether  it  is  more  profitable 
to  cut  a  10,  12  or  14  inch  diameter,  whether  a  rotation  of  60 
years  or  100  years,  whether  planting  or  natural  regeneration  pro- 
duces the  more  advantageous  balance  sheet. 

The  trouble  lies  in  the  difficulty  of  ascertaining  the  data  for 
the  calculation.  "Statical  calculations  which  are  to  deserve  cre- 
dence, are  possible  only  when  the  effect  of  silvicultural  measures 
influencing    soil    and    stand,    volume    and    value    production    are 

known.     This  is,  as  we  must  admit,  only  rarely  the  case 

We  have  notions  about  it,  but  anything  fixed  and  sure  and 
especially  expressed  in  numbers,  as  is  required  in  calculations, 
we  can  hardly  offer."  (If  this  is  true  in  Germany,  what  may  we 
think  of  the  cock-sure  finance  calculators  in  our  country. — Rev.) 

So  far  only  wood  volumes  may  be  available,  and  those  merely 
of  relative  value.  The  statics  of  the  bare  ground  are  perhaps  the 
easiest,  for  here  everything  is  supposition,  and  for  this  condition 


Periodical  Literature.  gy 

the  methods  of  calculation  at  least  are  supposed  to  be  well  de- 
veloped. These  methods  the  author  reviews  critically.  He  points 
out  first  that  in  the  usual  formulas  it  is  customary  to  place  all 
yields  free  of  harvest  cost  without  making  distinction  between 
the  cheaper  harvest  in  clearing-  than  in  natural  regeneration ;  that 
the  incomes  are  supposed  to  repeat  themselves  forever  in  equal 
amounts;  that  interest  rates  are  supposed  to  be  eternally  the 
same.  "Rate  of  interest,  thou  art  a  rock,  though  you  have  more 
the  nature  of  a  nervous  woman,  who  is  subject  to  every  mood." 

The  expenditures  for  administration  and  taxes  are  figured  as 
annually  equal  and  charged  against  all  stands  in  direct  propor- 
tion to  the  area.  But  (even  in  Germany)  eight  to  nine-tenths  of 
all  this  expense  is  chargeable  to  harvest  only  i.  e.  to  the  mature 
stands  alone.  Thus,  a  25  year  old  spruce  stand,  which  may  have 
cost  $10  to  plant,  and  then  required  no  attention  whatever  until 
now  a  thinning  may  be  made,  has  already  charged  against  it 
36.46  times  the  annual  administration  and  tax  expense — an  il- 
logical procedure.  Similar  considerations  show  that  the  cost  of 
planting  or  regenerating  are  for  bare  ground,  properly  placed  at 
the  year  of  calculation,  but  for  ready  forest  belong  to  the  harvest 
time  and,  indeed,  are  chargeable  to  harvest,  for  in  a  sustained 
yield  management  replacement  is  the  primary  condition. 

No  wonder  that  since  the  methods  not  only  rely  upon  unsafe 
basic  data,  but  declare  variable  quantities  constant,  charge  where 
charges  are  not  justified,  and  hence  are  faulty,  many  thinking 
foresters  refuse  to  use  them  for  practical  purposes.  All  such 
calculations,  it  should  be  admitted,  have  no  absolute,  only  relative 
value.  The  author  then  points  out  as  unfortunate  and  mislead- 
ing the  use  of  the  term  "soil  expectancy  value",  since  the  formula 
corresponding  to  it,  expresses  not  a  soil  value,  only  a  step  towards 
the  determination  of  such  value,  being  merely  a  statement  of  the 
numerical  result  of  a  certain  method  of  management.  To  make 
it  a  real  soil  value,  there  must  be  deducted  the  profit  that  a  user 
of  the  soil  (a  buyer)  would  expect  to  make  from  his  management. 

Looking  at  the  statics  of  the  stand,  the  first  question  that  arises 
is  as  to  how  to  consider  its  value  whether  cost  value,  sale  value, 
expectancy  value.  It  is  pointed  out  that  the  cost  value  may  be 
often  higher  than  the  other  two,  and  that  as  long  as  there  is 
no  actual  sale  value  (felling  value),  the  stand  cannot  be  sub- 
7 


98  Forestry  Quarterly. 

jected  to  statical  calculations.  When  a  sale  value  has  arrived, 
the  main  question  is :  Does  the  stand  by  its  annual  increment  in 
volume  and  value  make  good  the  annual  expense  of  administration 
and  interest  on  its  capital  value?  Is  it  ripe  or  not?  Any  com- 
pound interest  calculations  with  3%,  the  author  declares,  can 
give  favorable  results  only  as  long  as  the  stands  are  young;  in 
old  ones,  no  art  will  make  the  customary  100  year  rotation  profit- 
able (except  through  unusual  rise  of  prices. — Rev.) 

The  important  point  is  made  that  the  complicated  calculations 
can  be  obviated,  if,  instead,  merely  the  volume  increment  per 
cent,  is  ascertained.  If  this  is  found  considerably  under  3%,  the 
stand  is  ripe,  for  the  value  increment  can  always  (in  stands  near 
ripeness)  be  only  a  fraction  of  the  volume  increment  per  cent., 
since  value  rises  only  with  increase  of  diameter,  and  that  for  a 
long  time  in  direct  relation,  in  old  stands  not  even  to  that  extent, 
so  that,  if  the  volume  per  cent,  is  small,  it  is  nevertheless  larger 
than  the  value  per  cent.,  for  the  volume  depends  on  the  annual 
ring  area.  Without  volume  increment  no  value  increment  need 
be  expected. 

Referring  to  Pressler's  index  per  cent,  which  "to  him  who  can- 
not see  the  forest  for  the  stands"  is  a  convenient  means  of  cal- 

r 

culating  value  increment  [(p=  — ; — (a-j-b+c)],  the  author  points 

r  1  1 

out  that,  if  a-f-b+c  is  to  be  at  least  equal  to  3%  as  the  expected 
business  per  cent.,  a  stand  would  rarely  be  able  to  bring  it  when 
over  70  years  old. 

But  the  interest  yield  of  a  stand  is  an  entirely  different  matter 
from  the  interest  yield  from  a  whole  forest,  which  has  other  stands 
following  in  age  class  gradations,  and  is  considerably  higher  than 
the  single  stand  by  itself.  Here,  in  the  statics  of  the  forest  quite 
special  considerations  enter.  A  forest,  managed  for  sustained 
(not  necessarily  annual)  yield,  has  to  pay  interest  on  soil  value, 
(s)  and  value  of  normal  stock  (11s),  and  the  latter  should  be  put 
into  the  calculation  at  its  real  value,  which  can  be  secured  by  sale, 
(its  wrecking  value),  while  usually  by  forest  financiers  expec- 
tation values  are  introduced. 

What  uproar  there  would  be,  if  in  any  other  business  at  the  an- 
nual stock  taking,  raw  materials  on  hand  were  valued  at  what 
might  be  expected  they  were  worth  when  placed  into  manufacture. 
On  the  contrary,  depreciation  is  charged,  while  we  foresters  in 


Periodical  Literature.  99 

our  valuations  overburden  our  young  stands,  our  raw  material, 
not  only  by  charging  against  them  the  cost  of  their  first  produc- 
tion but  interest  and  rent  values  and  expectancy  values,  to  deter- 
mine the  capital  on  which  we  demand  interest.  Only  the  oldest 
stands  have  a  real  sale  value  and  can  be  realized  on  (Y),  besides 
thinnings  and  accidental  yields  (T),  against  these  alone  should 
be  charged  all  the  costs  (C)  when  the  unsound  compound  in- 
terest calculation  disappears,  and  the  equation  which  inquires  into 
the  result  of  our  management  becomes  simply  a  forest  rent  form- 

> 

ula;    (s-\-ns)  .op=Y-\-T — C.       No  prolongations  and  discounts 

< 

and  expectations  but  the  real,  practical  actual  forest  management 
is  represented  in  this  simple  formula,  which  tells  how  far  the 
management  brings  more  or  less  than  the  interest  on  soil  capital 
and  stock  value.  And,  if  the  manager  wants  to  secure  more  than 
the  usual  interest  rate  (p)  on  his  capital  value,  namely  a  profit,  he 
may  simply  introduce  this  amount  to  be  deducted  on  the  right 
hand  side  of  the  formula. 

What  means  do  we  have  to  postpone  the  time  when  the  right 
side  of  the  formula  becomes  smaller  than  the  left?  The  prin- 
cipal means  is  to  reduce  the  wood  capital  and  thereby  reduce  the 
interest  charge.  This  involves  silvicultural  operations  and,  in 
the  first  place,  thinnings  and  improvement  cuttings  (where  un- 
salable; girdling),  by  which  stock  is  reduced  but  volume  incre- 
ment increased.  A  few  simple  prescriptions  for  thinning  prac- 
tice are  given  in  which  the  author  inveighs  against  the  very  se- 
vere opening  up  which  for  a  short  time  leads  to  greatly  increased 
increment  but  at  the  expense  of  wood  quality. 

Against  the  other  means  of  making  the  equation  favorable  *.  e. 
increasing  the  apparent  income  by  reducing  the  interest  rate,  the 
author  protests  as  illogical.  Especially  the  proposition  of  vary- 
ing interest  rates  for  different  time  periods  (originally  proposed 
by  Baur)  he  points  out  as  lacking  entirely  a  tangible  basis  or 
justification,  indeed  he  characterizes  this  proposition  as  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  aberrations.  Everywhere  else  he  who  saves, 
does  so  in  the  expectation  to  be  paid  for  his  frugality  later  on, 
yet  this  proposition  requires  that  when  he  could  get  3%,  and 
instead  of  taking  it  he  leaves  and  capitalizes  some  of  the  incre- 
ment, say  until  the  capital  has  increased  by  50  per  cent.,  he  is 


ioo  Forestry  Quarterly. 

not  to  have  as  in  any  other  business  4.5%,  but  less.  It  is  custom- 
ary to  assume  a  3%  rate  in  forest  calculations  but  really  a  con- 
stant interest  rate  has  no  justification  in  any  business.  (Yet  in 
life  insurance  the  calculations  are  made  on  an  assumed  constant 
interest  rate. — Rev.) 

The  author  then  concludes  that  an  orderly  forest  management 
which  furnishes  satisfactory  material  for  the  arts  is  possible  only 
for  a  people  that  has  reached  a  stable  civilization  and  has  enough 
idealism  to  see  in  the  forest  more  than  a  certain  quantity  of  wood. 
It  has  taken  much  denial  to  bring  for  instance  Prussia's  forests  to 
the  present  status  admired  by  other  people.  All  that  forestal 
statics  has  done  so  far,  has  been  simply  "to  open  our  eyes,  that 
we  cannot  find  any  management  which  will  bring  a  high  interest 
rate  on  the  capital  involved.  A  large  margin  from  forest  prop- 
erty can  be  made  only  by  a  purchaser  who  cuts  everything  that 
pays  and  puts  it  into  cash." 

The  state  alone  can  afford  to  manage  for  the  interest  of  the 
future. 

Zur  Wiirdigung  der  forstlichen  Statik.  Forstwissenschaftliches  Cen- 
tralblatt,  1908,  pp.  432-448. 


UTILIZATION,  MARKET,  TECHNOLOGY. 

Mr.  H.  D.  Tiemann,  in  a  paper  read  before 

Time  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials, 

Tests  presented  some  results  of  his  investigations 

of  upon  the  effect  of  speed  of  testing  upon  the 

Strength.  strength  of  wood.     The  author  points  out 

that  the  rate  of  strain,  and  not  the  rate  of 

stress  usually  employed,  should  be  used  as  the  basis  for  strength 

tests,  since  the  rate  of  strain  can  be  controlled  while  the  rate  of 

stress    cannot   be    determined    in    advance.     He    finds    that   the 

strength  of  wood  varies  with  the  speed  at  which  the  stress  is 

applied,  increasing  more  rapidly  as  the  speed  increases ;  that  wet 

or  green  wood  shows  much  more  change  in  strength  than  dry 

wood.     The  speed  strength  modulus  is  the  ratio  of  the  relative 

change  in  strength  to  the  corresponding  relative  change  in  speed. 


Periodical  Literature.  101 

The  author  proposes  certain  standard  ratios  of  fibre  strain  in 
relation  to  speed  for  compression,  bending  and  shearing  tests. 

C.  D.  H. 

The  effect  of  the  speed  of  testing  upon  the  strength  of  wood  and  the 
standardisation  of  tests  for  speed.  Reprint  from  Proc.  American  Society, 
Testing  Materials.     1908. 

Janka,  of  the  Austrian  Experiment  Station, 
Hardness  reports  on  a  series  of  hardness  tests  with 

of  his   improved   ball   test,    (an    improvement 

Wood.  over  Brinell's  method  with  metals)  in  which 

one-half  iron  ball,  the  area  of  the  largest  of 
which  is  one  square  cm,  hence  its  radius  5.462  mm,  is  pressed 
into  the  wood  until  fully  imbedded,  when  the  pressure  employed 
is  a  direct  expression  of  hardness.  A  parallel  series  tested  with 
a  cone  impression  gave  invariably  lower  results,  due  according  to 
the  author  to  the  splitting  effect  of  the  cone  which  called  into 
requisition  the  cleavability  and  in  part  elasticity  rather  than  hard- 
ness. Practically,  however,  this  hardness  test  by  cone  corres- 
ponds to  that  of  a  nail  or  screw,  but  more  important  is  the  re- 
sistance to  saw,  file,  plane,  knife,  axe,  chisel,  etc.  The  author 
thinks  that  owing  to  the  impossibility  of  devising  special  tests 
for  all  these  uses  of  tools,  the  "neutral"  tests  with  ball  as  devised 
by  him  most  satisfactory. 

A  tabulation  of  the  comparative  tests  by  cone  and  ball  show  no 
parallelism,  but  in  general  broadleaf  wood  was  more  resistant  to 
the  cone  than  coniferous  wood,  when  tested  on  the  cross  cut  face, 
not  on  length  sections,  the  different  cleavability  in  the  first  case 
furnishing  the  explanation.  The  hardness  of  spruce  and  fir,  when 
tested  with  ball  on  the  cross  section  was  to  that  tested  on  the 
length  sections,  about  as  100:60. 

The  law  of  relation  between  hardness  and  specific  gravity  which 
for  the  same  species  was  well  maintained,  did  not  appear  so  well 

XT 

from  species  to  species.     This  relation  -q- was  considerably  smaller 

in  coniferous  than  broadleaf  wood  i.  e.  the  latter  in  proportion  to 
its  weight  is  harder. 

That  the  hard  summer  wood  of  the  pine  and  larch  in  tests  on 
length  sections  would  increase  resistance  is  only  natural,  hence 
the  difference  of  hardness  of  cross  section  and  longitudinal  sec- 


102  Forestry  Quarterly. 

tions  is  in  these  smaller  than  in  hardwoods.  The  tests  on  longi- 
tudinal sections  is  although  unsafe,  for  here  elasticity  of  fibers 
is  a  disturbing  factor. 

Some  divergences  from  the  relation  of  hardness  and  specific 
weight  are  met  with  the  doubtful  suggestion  that  wood  from 
different  localities  does  not  follow  the  law  as  the  author  claims 
also  to  have  established  in  regard  to  compressive  strength. 

The  author  claims,  however,  that,  in  general,  his  data  show  not 
only  a  direct  relation  between  hardness  and  specific  weight  but 
also  between  hardness  and  compression  strength.  An  attempt  to 
relate  hardness  to  bending  strength  was  also  made  with  unsatis- 
factory results. 

That  the  technical  qualities  including  hardness  are  a  function 
of  the  summerwood  per  cent,  are  specially  brought  out  in  the 
tests  of  spruce,  and  altogether  for  spruce  the  proportionality  of 
the  different  exhibitions  of  strength  to  the  hardness  are  satisfac- 
torily shown. 

The  simplicity  of  this  hardness  test,  the  author  thinks  should 
encourage  its  use  to  determine  the  relation  of  hardness  to  other 
qualities  and  perhaps  eventually  to  substitute  the  hardness  tests 
for  all  other  tests. 

The  reviewer  would  point  out  that  although  the  relation  of  the 
compression  strength  to  cross  bending  and  other  strength  is 
obvious  and  has  been  mathematically  established  by  Mr.  Neely 
from  the  tests  of  the  U.  S.  Forestry  Division,  so  conservative  are 
the  test  engineers  that  they  would  not  benefit  from  the  discovery 
which  would  curtail  much  of  their  work  both  at  the  machines  and 
in  the  computations. 

Ueber  Holzh'drtepriifung.  Centralblatt  f.  d.  g.  Forstwesen,  1908,  pp. 
443-456. 

STATISTICS  AND  HISTORY. 

The  budget  of  the  Bavarian   State   forest 
Bavarian  administration  for  the  year  1909,  which  re- 

Budget.  fers  to  the  productive  area  of  State  forests, 

comprising  2,035,605  acres,  was  placed  as 
follows,  the  detail  being  given  to  show  how  a  large  forest  adminis- 
tration presents  its  budget  to  the  legislature.  We  call  attention  in 
this  connection  to  the  controversy  discussed  on  p.         of  this  issue 


Periodical  Literature.  103 

regarding  the  reduction  of  rotations,  which  formed  part  of  the 
debates  on  the  budget. 

Incomes. 

Chap.      I.     From  wood. 

Wood  sales  49,810,000  Mk. 

Bye  products  1,270,000    " 

Sundries,  275,000    "  51,355,000  Mk. 

Chap.     II.     From  the  chase 316,000   " 

Chap.  III.     From  booms  and  woodyards 457,000    " 

Chap.   IV.     From  rents  of  houses  and  grounds  .  .         158,000    " 
Chap.     V.     Other  incomes 2,000    " 


Total  52,288,000  Mk. 

Expenditures. 

Administration  and  Management. 

Chap.      I.     Personal  and  office  expenses 6,918,500  Mk. 

Chap.     II.     Allowances  for  moving 30,000    " 

Chap.  III.     Subventions  to  needy  officials  . . .  156,000    " 

Chap.   IV.     Expenditures  on  houses   857,000    " 

Chap.     V.     Real  management  costs. 
1.  Account  of  woods — 

Wood  choppers'  wages, 6,850,000  Mk. 

Road  maintenance  building,  1,900,000 

Forest  regulation, 125,000 

Plantations  and  nurseries, 1,860,000 

Camps  and  tents,   90,000 

Accounts  of  by-products,   . 320,000 

Prevention  of  forest  insects, ,. .  160,000 

Other  costs  of  management, 145,000 


1 1,450,000  Mk. 


2.  Account  of  chase,  79,000  Mk. 

3.  Account  of  booms  and  woodyards, 330,000    " 

4.  Account  of  assistance  to  sick  and  injured 

officials  and  workmen,   266,000    " 

12,125,000  Mk. 


104  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Chap.      VI.     In  lieu  of  servitudes,  360,000  Mk. 

Chap.     VII.     For  canceling  servitudes  (funds 

provided  elsewhere). 

Chap.  VIII.     Purchase  of  lands,   30,000  " 

Chap.      IX.     Insurance  of  workmen,   1,349,000  ' 

Chap.        X.     Cashier's     expenses     in    paying 

wages,    138,000  " 

Chap.      XI.     Other  expenses, 3,000  " 

Chap.     XII.     Improvement  of  wages, 435,000  " 


Total  Administration  and  Management,  .  .  22,401,500  Mk. 

2.  Forestry  Education — 

A.  Aschaffenburg  Forest  School, 48,800  Mk. 

B.  Forest  Experiment  Station,  Munich, 37,900    " 

C.  Silvicultural  Schools, 39,900    " 


126,600  Mk. 


For  journeys,  excursions,  scientific  work,  ....  19,000  Mk. 

For  stipends  to  worthy  students, 12,000    " 

For  maintenance  of  demonstration  gardens,  . .  1,900    " 

For  school  buildings  maintenance, 6,500   " 

Total,  16,600  Mk. 

'Grand  Total  Expenditures,    .   22,567,500  Mk. 

Grand  Total  Income, 52,288,000    " 

Net  Yield,   29,721,500  Mk. 

This  yield  is  Mk.  5,187,407  more  than  in  1906.  Expenses  are 
43.1  per  cent,  of  the  income.  Gross  yield  is  63.44  Mk.  per 
hectar  ($6.11  per  acre);  expenditure  is  27.38  Mk.  ($2.61  per 
acre)  ;  net  yield  Mk.  36.06  ($3.50  per  acre),  a  very  considerable 
increase  over  previous  years. 

Der   Bayerische    Forstetat.    Forstwissenschaftliches    Centralblatt,    1908, 
pp.  590-602. 


Periodical  Literature.  105 

POLITICS  AND  LEGISLATION. 

In  the  report  of  the  Minnesota  Tax  Com- 

Taxation  mission  some  very  unusual  and  exception- 

of  ally    well    conceived    recommendations    are 

Timber  made  relative  to  the  timber  taxation  policy 

Lands.  of  the  state. 

The  report  is  accompanied  by  a  detailed 
estimate  of  the  quantity  of  standing  timber  in  the  state  by 
counties,  the  total  being  20,968,902,000  feet.  Of  this  quantity 
about  50  per  cent,  is  White,  Norway  and  Jack  Pine,  of  an  esti- 
mated value  ranging  from  $45,000,000  to  $95,000,000,  and  aver- 
aging anywhere  from  $5  to  $10  a  thousand  feet. 

On  the  question  of  the  best  method  of  taxing  standing  timber, 
attention  is  given  to  the  present  burden  on  timber  lands.  It  is 
stated  that  interest  charges  are  about  23  cents  a  thousand  feet, 
making  the  total  cost  of  carrying  38  cents,  which  naturally  in- 
creases from  year  to  year  as  the  period  of  nonproductivity 
lengthens.  The  carrying  charges  naturally  are  compounded  as  a 
part  of  the  cost  and  in  time  these  charges,  including  the  taxes, 
must  be  taxed.  In  ten  years  the  taxes  on  a  thousand  feet  of 
timber  would  be  $1.50  and  the  interest  compounded  $2.37,  making 
a  total  carrying  charge  of  $3.87. 

Consideration  also  is  given  to  the  suggested  method  of  sepa- 
rating the  value  of  the  land  from  the  value  of  the  timber  and  it  is 
pointed  out  that  under  the  Minnesota  taxing  laws  such  a  separa- 
tion is  not  possible. 

Commenting  on  the  results  of  the  present  methods,  it  is  said 
that  an  increase  in  local  tax  rates  would  impose  a  burden  that 
the  lumber  industry  might  have  difficulty  in  meeting. 

The  American  Lumberman,  1909,  p.  34. 

One  of  the  strongest  and  most  able  reviews 
Tariff  of  the  tariff  question  so  far  made  public 

and  is  supplied  by  J.  A.  Foster  of  the  Hilton 

Location.  and   Dodge   Lumber   Company,    Savannah, 

Ga.  It  is  pointed  out  that  by  reason  of  the 
tariff  timber  formerly  of  no  value  has  since  become  a  source  of 
supply  for  a  variety  of  forest  products  including  low  grade  lum- 
ber, box  shooks  and  similar  products.    The  author  states  that  land 


106  Forestry  Quarterly. 

cut  over  years  ago  when  merchantable  products  could  be  secured 
from  only  the  best  trees  now  are  furnishing  raw  material  of  a 
character  and  quantity  sufficient  to  keep  many  plants  in  opera- 
tion. This  change  is  attributed  in  large  degree  to  the  beneficial 
results  of  the  tariff.  A  $2  margin,  in  the  estimation  of  this 
practical  operator,  is  sufficient  to  bring  about  this  reconstruction 
of  the  affairs  of  lumber  manufacturers  in  the  Atlantic  coast 
manufacturing  district.  It  is  a  sufficient  barrier  to  keep  back 
a  flood  of  low  grade  stock  from  Canada  and  to  permit  of  wider 
distribution  of  the  products  of  manufacturers  who  secure  their 
raw  supplies  from  the  cutover  lands. 

Conditions  in  the  southeast  are  somewhat  unusual.  The  pine 
regions  of  the  Atlantic  coast  states  were  the  scene  of  the  first 
lumbering  operations  in  the  country.  Until  within  the  last  few 
years  only  the  largest  trees  of  the  highest  quality  were  cut. 
Owing  to  climatic  and  soil  conditions  along  the  Atlantic  coast 
timber  regions  the  growth  is  much  more  rapid  than  in  many 
other  parts  of  the  country  and  instances  have  been  reported 
where  lands  upon  which  cotton  was  raised  prior  to  the  civil  war 
have  since  produced  trees  of  a  quality  and  size  which  makes 
their  cutting  profitable  to  the  manufacturer.  This  growth  was 
brought  about  in  40  to  45  years. 

The  timber  of  this  section  does  not  grow  as  thickly  as  in  the 
north  and  west.  The  average  cut  probably  would  not  exceed 
7,000  feet,  and  the  range  is  from  3,000  to  15,000  feet  to  the  acre. 
The  timber  of  this  coastal  slope  is  not  greatly  injured  by  fire. 
The  relatively  sparse  stand  renders  the  individual  trees  more 
dependent  upon  themselves  and  results  in  a  sturdier  growth  with 
respect  to  root  support  than  is  found  in  northern  pine  and  hem- 
lock, or  in  the  timber  of  the  Pacific  slope. 

An  old  cruiser  who  had  inspected  the  operations  on  certain  of 
the  reservations  of  Minnesota  claims  that  a  very  heavy  per- 
centage of  the  seed  trees  that  have  been  left  had  been  blown  down 
by  the  wind.  Under  the  regulations  governing  the  cutting  of 
reservation  timber  a  certain  number  of  the  finest  trees,  desig- 
nated as  seed  trees,  must  be  left  standing  with  as  little  injury  to 
them  as  possible  in  felling  the  other  trees.  Old  woodsmen  claim 
that  to  leave  such  trees,  or  even  those  of  a  younger  growth,  is 
impracticable  because  the  individual  trees  can  not  stand  the  shock 
of  heavy  winds.     The  trees  are  flat  rooted  and  the  soil  is  loose, 


Other  Periodical  Literature.  107 

composed  largely  of  leafy  mould  that  has  never  been  tightly 
packed.  Pine  grows  to  a  height  of  more  than  100  feet  and  after 
being  rocked  back  and  forth  for  months  an  extra  heavy  gust  of 
wind  will  carry  a  tree  to  the  earth. 

In  the  western  fir  districts  a  very  similar  condition  exists.  On 
lands  that  have  been  cut  over  for  years  there  is  practically  nothing 
left  of  any  value,  nor  has  there  been  any  considerable  second 
growth.  The  small  trees  and  the  large  defective  ones,  from 
which  no  merchantable  products  could  be  secured  at  the  time 
these  tracts  were  logged  over,  have  toppled  to  earth  or  become 
food  for  the  flames.  Where  an  average  of  40,000  to  50,000  feet 
of  timber  is  cut  from  one  acre  of  land  it  is  not  possible  owing 
to  the  density  of  the  stand  to  protect  the  young  growth  from 
damage  in  felling  the  big  timber. 

The  American  Lumberman,  1909,  p.  34. 


OTHER  PERIODICAL  LITERATURE. 

Indian  Forester,  1908 — 

FIRE  PROTECTION  ON  THE  TICKET-PATROL  SYSTEM. 
Pp.  653-657.  Gives  an  account  of  a  method  of  controlling  fire- 
rangers  by  the  carrying  of  tickets  from  one  to  another. 

THE  DANGER  OF  THE  FORMATION  OF  PURE  FORESTS 
IN  INDIA.  Pp.  665-669.  Maintains  the  value  of  mixed  forests 
with  regard  to  insect  and  fungus  pests,  reciting  specific  ex- 
amples. 

FOREST  ADMINISTRATION  IN  BRITISH  INDIA  FOR 
1905-06.  Also  for  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam  for  1906-07. 
Pp.  671-675.     Reviews  progress  and  statistics. 

THE  COMING  TIMBER  FAMINE.  Pp.  688-691.  Discusses 
in  detail  the  position  of  Uganda  and  Indian  forest  supplies  in 
an  encouraging  manner. 

AFFORESTATION   IN   SOUTH   AFRICA.     Pp.    692-693. 

A  PHILIPPINE  SUBSTITUTE  FOR  LIGNUMVITAE.  Pp. 
717-720.  This  substitute,  Xanthostemon  verdugonianus,  Naves, 
called  commonly  Mancono  grows  in  abundance  in  almost  pure 
stands. 


108  Forestry  Quarterly. 

FORESTS  OF  THE  IVORY  COAST.     Pp.  747-749. 

FORESTRY   IN  HUNGARY.     Pp.    753-757. 

USE  OF  TERMINALIA  ARUNJA  BARK  FOR  TANNING. 
Pp.  583-590.  Discusses  the  value  of  the  Koha  Tree  as  a  tanning 
material,  and  its  depletion  along  water-courses  influencing 
water  stages. 

FORESTS  OF  ASIA  MINOR.     Pp.  623-625. 

INDIAN  FAMINES  AND  INDIAN  FORESTS.     Pp.  633-652. 

Shows  clearly  the  connection  of  famines  in  India  and  disturb- 
ance of  water-supply,  due  largely  to  clearance  of  woodland, 
showing  increase  of  famines. 

Bulletin  of  American  Geographical  Society,   1908 — 

ACROSS  PAPAGUERIA.  Pp.  705-725.  An  excellent  descrip- 
tion of  conditions  in  Arizona  with  special  reference  to  vegeta- 
tion. 

THE  FOREST  REGION  OF  MOUNT  KENIA,  BRITISH 
EAST  AFRICA.     Pp.  745-746. 

THE  SOUTHERN  CAMPOS  OF  BRAZIL.     Pp.   652-662. 

GLIEDERUNG  AFRIKAS  NACH  PHYSIKALISCHEM  UND 
WIRTSCHAFTLICHEM  GESICHTSPUNKTE.  (7  maps,  num- 
bering 5  being  "Vegetation  und  Verwitterung.")  Petermanns 
Mitt.,  No.  7,  Gotta,  1908. 

Canadian  Forestry  Journal,  1908 — 

A  FOREST  POLICY  FOR  CANADA.     Pp.   82-92. 

FOREST  FIRES  IN  1908.     Pp.  126-137.     A  detailed  list. 

FORESTRY  ON  THE  EASTERN  SLOPE  OF  THE  ROCKIES. 
Pp.  170-176.     Gives  a  good  account  of  conditions. 

JAPAN'S  FORESTRY  AND  HER  TIMBER  NEEDS.  Pp. 
211-217. 

Forest  Leaves,   1908 — 

THE  FARM  WOODLOT  IN  PENNSYLVANIA.     Pp.   163-167. 


Other  Periodical  Literature.  109 

WOODLOT  FORESTRY.     Pp.    173-174. 

LOCUST  PLANTING  BY  THE  PENNSYLVANIA  RAIL- 
ROAD COMPANY.  Pp.  167-168.  Gives  the  history  of  this 
work. 

CO-OPERATIVE  FORESTRY.  Pp.  169-171.  Tells  how  the 
Ohio  Experiment  Station  co-operates  to  enlist  private  enterprise 
in  forestry  work. 

The  Journal  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  London,  1908 — 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  WOODLAND.  Pp.  502-505.  Discusses 
management  of  Composite  Forest  for  game  preserves. 

The  Agricultural  Gazette  of  New  South  Wales,   1908 — 

SOME  PRACTICAL  NOTES  ON  FORESTRY,  SUITABLE  FOR 
NEW  SOUTH  WALES.  By  J.  H.  Maiden.  Running  through 
the  year.  Discusses  with  fair  illustrations,  silvics  of  species 
from  all  parts  of  the  world. 

ELECTRICITY  AND  AGRICULTURE.  By  W.  H.  P.  Cherry. 
A  useful  compilation  of  the  status  of  the  use  of  electricity  for 
plant  production. 

Forstwissenschaftliches  Centralblatt,    1908 — 

DER  FORSTMEISTER  WEBER'SCHE  WALDGRUBBER. 
Pp.  335,  587-590.  Gives  an  account  of  tests  of  a  new  forest 
plow  which  show  that  under  certain  conditions  it  does  cheap 
and  efiective  work. 

Centralblatt  fur  das  gesammte  Forstwesen,   1908 — 

BEWEISE  FUR  DIE  UNRICHTIGKEIT  DER  REINERT- 
RAGSELHRE.     Pp.   456-465. 


NEWS  AND  NOTES. 
E.  A.  Sterling,  in  Charge. 


The  death  of  Mr.  Edward  Seymour  Woodruff  from  typhoid 
fever  at  the  home  of  his  parents  in  New  York  City  on  January 
15th,  1909,  removes  from  the  profession  a  young  man  who  gave 
promise  of  a  marked  distinction  in  his  chosen  line  of  work,  and 
who  was  unusually  popular  with  his  classmates  and  friends. 
Mr.  Woodruff,  youngest  son  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Charles  H.  Wood- 
ruff, was  born  in  New  York  City  December  23,  1876.  He  pre- 
pared for  college  at  Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  and  followed 
this  by  a  special  course  in  biology  at  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
After  a  short  period  in  business  pursuits  he  entered  the  Yale 
Forest  School,  graduating  with  especially  high  honors  in  1907. 
Following  his  graduation  he  accepted  a  position  with  the  New 
York  State  Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Commission,  where  he  won 
high  approval.  In  addition  to  being  a  forester,  Mr.  Woodruff 
was  a  keen  student  in  botany,  entomology  and  ornithology,  and 
in  the  latter  particularly  he  made  several  valuable  contributions 
to  the  scientific  world.  He  was  a  member  of  several  clubs  and 
associations,  scientific  and  fraternal,  including  the  National  Geo- 
graphical Society,  Graduates  and  New  Haven  clubs,  the  Ameri- 
can Forestry  Association,  the  American  Ornithologist  Union, 
Sigmi  Xi,  Robin  Hood,  Delta  Phi,  and  the  University  and  Coun- 
try clubs  of  Albany,  N.  Y. 


In  order  to  encourage  tree  planting  for  commercial  purposes, 
the  New  York  State  Forest,  Fish,  and  Game  Commission  pro- 
poses to  sell  transplants  and  Seedlings  from  the  Saranac  Inn  Nur- 
sery, New  York,  at  low  cost.  The  prices  to  be  charged  are  as 
follows :  White  pine  transplants,  $4.25  per  thousand ;  White  pine 
seedlings,  $2.25 ;  Scotch  pine  transplants,  $3.75 ;  Scotch  pine 
seedlings,  $2.25.    Residents  of  the  State  of  New  York,  in  making 


News  and  Notes.  in 

application  for  this  material  are  furnished  with  a  blank  on  which 
they  are  to  note  the  topography,  original  growth,  present  growth, 
previous  use  of  land,  and  kind  of  soil  on  the  areas  which  are  to 
be  planted.  In  consideration  of  receiving  the  trees  specified, 
the  applicant  agrees : 

1.  To  pay  the  purchase  price  of  the  trees  to  said  Forest,  Fish, 
and  Game  Commission  within  ten  days  after  the  granting  of  this 
application. 

2.  That  the  trees  hereby  applied  for  shall  be  used  by  the  under- 
signed for  the  sole  purpose  of  reforesting  lands  within  the  State 
of  New  York. 

3.  That  the  said  trees  shall  not  be  sold,  offered  for  sale,  or 
given  away  by  the  said  applicant,  or  his  agents,  to  any  person. 

4.  That  the  said  trees  shall  be  planted  in  accordance  with  in- 
structions furnished  by  the  Forest,  Fish,  and  Game  Commission. 

5.  That  the  applicant  shall  furnish  the  Forest,  Fish,  and  Game 
Commission  from  time  to  time,  when  asked  for,  reports  in  re- 
gard to  the  condition  of  such  plantings. 

Since  the  State  of  New  York  has  an  organization  for  the  con- 
trol of  forest  fires  in  the  Adirondacks  and  Catskills,  there  have 
been  two  periods,  namely,  1903  and  1908,  when  forest  fires  were 
very  prevalent  and  the  losses  heavy.  The  period  of  drought  in 
1908  was  more  severe  and  considerably  longer  than  in  1903, 
thereby  making  the  fire  danger  much  greater  and  producing  the 
most  favorable  conditions  for  conflagrations  ever  known  in  the 
Adirondack  region.  The  following  comparative  statement  shows 
that  although  conditions  were  much  worse  in  1908,  the  acreage 
burned  over  was  less  than  one-fifth  of  that  in  1903,  the  loss  one- 
third  less,  and  the  cost  $15,000  less.  In  view  of  these  results,  the 
logical  conclusion  is  that  the  fire  wardens  were  better  organized 
and  more  efficient  last  year  than  they  were  five  years  previously : 


Number  of  fires, 

Acres  of  timberland  burned, 
Acres  of  wasteland  burned, 


1903. 

1908. 

377 

700 

3I2>59° 

30,400 

187,928 

147,000 

500,518         177400 


ii2  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Fire  Loss — 

Standing  timber, $695,282  $497,046 

Pulpwood  and  logs, I53»39I  !36,920 

Buildings,     34,443  10,020 


$883,116  $643,986 

Cost  of  fighting  fires,    $153,000  138,000 


The  forest  product  of  the  State  of  New  York  forms  still  quite 
a  respectable  amount,  being  for  the  year  1907  reported  by  the 
Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Commission  as  representing  1,266,754,365 
feet  B.  M.  In  this  total  cut,  spruce  represents  about  one-third, 
hemlock  and  pine  together  one  fourth,  maple  somewhat  over  one- 
tenth. 

The  other  hardwoods  range  in  relative  contributions  as  follows : 
beech,  birch,  oak,  basswood,  chestnut,  poplar,  elm,  ash,  hickory 
and  cherry. 

The  following  legislation,  proposed  in  a  resolution  passed  by 
the  Wisconsin  Timberland  Owners'  Association  notes  a  distinct 
advance  in  the  attitude  of  lumbermen  towards  the  need  of  more 
effective  protection  against  fire : 

Section  i.  Any  person  who  shall  cut,  or  cause  to  be  cut,  any 
logs,  bolts,  pulp  wood,  ties,  poles,  posts,  or  other  forest  products, 
in  any  of  the  counties  designated  in  section  4  of  this  act,  shall 
pile  the  tops  and  refuse  as  the  cutting  proceeds,  and  shall,  within 
one  year  from  such  cutting  and  felling,  burn  all  such  piles  of 
refuse  and  tops,  and  in  such  burning  all  reasonable  care  shall 
be  taken  not  to  damage  standing  timber  or  adjoining  property. 
The  term  "burning"  shall  be  construed  to  mean  the  destruction 
by  fire  of  so  much  of  such  slashings  as  would  become  easily  com- 
bustible material  and  dangerous  in  event  they  were  not  so  de- 
stroyed, but  no  burning  shall  be  done  during  dangerously  dry 
weather. 

Sec  2  Any  person  who  violates  any  of  the  provisions  in  re- 
gard to  the  burning  of  slashings,  refuse,  etc.,  shall  be  guilty  of  a 
misdemeanor  and  shall,  on  conviction  therefore,  be  punished  by 
a  fine  of  not  less  than  fifty  (50)  cents,  nor  more  than  two  dollars 


News  and  Notes.  113 

($2.00)  per  thousand  feet  log  scale  for  all  timber ;  not  less  than 
twenty-five  (25)  cents,  nor  more  than  one  dollar  ($1.00)  per 
cord  for  all  bolts,  pulp  wood,  cord  wood  or  bark;  and  not  less 
than  ten  (10)  per  cent,  nor  more  than  fifty  (50)  per  cent,  of 
the  full  cash  value  of  other  forest  products  cut  and  removed 
from  such  land. 

Sec.  3.  In  case  any  person  fails  to  properly  pile  and  burn  the 
tops  and  refuse,  the  state  board  of  forestry  may,  in  its  discretion, 
cause  the  same  to  be  done,  and  the  expense  thereof  shall  be  a  lien 
on  the  timber  or  other  forest  product  cut  from  the  land  on  which 
the  tops  and  refuse  are  situated  or  cut,  and  shall  also  be  a  lien 
upon  the  land  itself.  Proceedings  for  the  enforcement  of  such 
lien  shall  be  instituted  by  the  district  attorney  of  the  county  in 
which  the  cutting  was  done,  at  the  request  of  the  state  board  of 
forestry  and  in  the  name  of  the  state  of  Wisconsin  as  claimant; 
and  costs  shall  be  recovered  in  the  usual  manner.  The  claim  for 
any  lien  shall  be  filed  by  the  state  fire  warden,  or  under  his  di- 
rection by  any  of  his  assistants,  inspectors,  assistant  inspectors, 
patrol  or  fire  wardens,  in  the  district  in  which  the  expense  oc- 
curred, in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  district  court,  in  the 
county  in  which  the  claim  arose. 

At  Mount  Union,  Pa.,  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  has  put  into 
effect  another  feature  of  its  comprehensive  forest  policy.  Late 
in  1908  ground  was  broken  there  for  a  one-cylinder  treating 
plant,  equipped  to  impregnate  with  creosote,  zinc  chloride  or  any 
other  standard  processes,  1,500  ties  per  24  hour  day.  The  track 
lay  out  for  the  plant  is  completed  and  the  storage  of  ties  is  well 
under  way.  Five  tracks,  76  feet  apart  have  been  laid  and  be- 
tween them  there  is  room  for  500,000  ties  piled  7x1.  The  plant 
will  be  in  operation  by  May,  1909.  In  addition  to  its  regulation 
equipment  there  will  be  installed  a  3-tie  cylinder  for  experimental 
use.  Mount  Union  is  located  in  a  region  which  will  produce  quan- 
tities of  red  oak,  maple,  gum  and  beech  ties  for  years.  The  oil 
for  the  treating  plant  has  been  contracted  for  and  it  will  be  de- 
livered from  Europe  to  Greenwich  Point,  Philadelphia,  in  tank 
steamers  which  will  discharge  their  cargoes  directly  into  two 
500,000  gallon  tanks  which  are  being  erected.  Tank  cars  will 
carry  the  oil  thence  to  Mt.  Union.  In  connection  with  the  experi- 
8 


U4  Forestry  Quarterly 

mental  cylinder  a  fully-equipped  laboratory  will  be  installed  for 
testing  oils  and  studying  the  character  of  impregnation. 

After  neglecting  her  forests  for  hundreds  of  years,  Great 
Britain  has  come  to  the  front  with  the  most  far-sighted  pro- 
posal for  forest  work  and  land  improvement  ever  advanced  by 
any  nation  in  a  single  plan. 

The  recommendations  just  made  to  the  British  Government 
by  the  Royal  Commission  on  Afforestation  and  Coast  Erosion  will 
make  England  self-supporting  in  the  production  of  timber  if  suc- 
cessfully carried  out. 

The  report  embraces  two  separate  proposals,  involving  the 
afforestation  in  one  case  of  9,000,000  and  in  the  other  of  6,000,000 
acres.  The  former  proposal  calls  for  the  forest  planting  of 
150,000  acres  a  year  for  sixty  years  at  an  annual  cost  of  $450,000 
at  the  beginning,  to  over  $15,000,000  at  the  end  of  the  period. 
After  the  fortieth  year,  however,  the  forest  would  become  self- 
supporting.  After  eighty  years  the  forest  would  have  a  value  of 
$2,810,000,000,  which  is  $535,000,000  in  excess  of  the  cost  of 
producing  it,  and  would  yield  a  net  annual  revenue  of  $87,500,000 
or  $9.73  per  acre  from  land  now  barely  producing  50  cents  per 
acre.  While  these  estimated  returns  are  more  than  half  again 
as  much  as  the  highly  developed  forests  of  Saxony  yield,  it  is 
considerably  less  than  the  net  revenue  from  the  historic  town 
forest  of  Zurich,  Switzerland,  the  Sihlwald.  In  volume,  the  an- 
nual estimated  wood  production  would  exceed  the  present  annual 
wood  imports  to  England  by  500,000  "loads." 

An  evidence  of  the  enlightened  administration  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo's affairs  which  is  being  given  by  the  Americans  in  charge 
of  her  customs  lies  in  the  application  received  by  the  Forest 
Service  for  a  study  of  forest  conditions  on  the  island,  with  the 
idea  of  formulating  a  forest  policy  for  it. 

Mr.  J.  T.  Bond,  who  had  been  an  assistant  forester  with  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  since  he  left  the  Forest  Service,  accepted 
on  February  1  a  position  with  the  Wisconsin  Lumber  Company, 
at  Deering,  Mo. 

Professor  Austin  F.  Hawes  has  been  appointed  state  forester 
for   Vermont.     Professor   Hawes    after   graduating:   from   Yale 


News  and  Notes.  115 

Forest  School  was  in  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service  for  some  time. 
*  After  graduate  studies  in  Europe  he  became  state  forester  of 
Connecticut,  a  position  he  has  held  for  the  last  four  years. 

With  the  opening  of  the  British  Columbia  legislature  Premier 
McBride  announced  that  the  government  may  establish  a  bureau 
of  forestry  with  an  expert  at  its  head  to  look  after  the  timber  in 
this  province  and  take  up  such  questions  as  reforestation,  etc. 

The  senior  class  of  the  Yale  Forest  School,  numbering  thirty 
students,  will  leave  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  about  March  first 
for  Doucette,  Tyler  County,  Texas,  where  they  will  study  the 
lumber  operations  of  the  Thompson  Brothers  Lumber  Company, 
secure  final  practice  in  surveying,  map  making  and  the  estimation 
of  timber,  and  investigate  the  possibilities  of  forest  management 
in  the  region. 

It  has  been  the  custom  of  the  Forest  School  for  several  years 
to  conduct  the  work  of  the  spring  term  of  the  Senior  Year  on 
some  large  lumber  operation.  In  1906  the  work  was  carried  on  at 
Waterville,  N.  H.,  on  the  lands  of  the  International  Paper  Com- 
pany. The  spring  term  of  1907  was  spent  in  southern  Missouri 
on  the  lands  owned  by  the  Missouri  Lumber  and  Mining  Com- 
pany. The  class  of  1908  was  in  Central  Alabama  on  the  hold- 
ing of  the  Kaul  Lumber  Company. 

The  selection  of  Texas  for  the  coming  season's  work  is  due  to 
an  invitation  extended  by  Mr.  J.  Lewis  Thompson,  of  Houston, 
Texas,  Manager  of  the  extensive  Thompson  Lumber  interests  in 
Texas  and  likewise  an  enthusiastic  advocate  of  forestry.  Mr. 
Thompson  is  a  member  of  the  Forest  Conservation  Committee  of 
the  Yellow  Pine  Manufacturers'  Association  and  also  is  greatly 
interested  in  the  formulation  of  a  proper  forest  policy  for  the 
state  of  Texas. 

Arrangements  have  been  made  for  the  construction  of  camp 
buildings  near  the  center  of  one  of  the  large  timber  tracts  of  the 
Company,  where  the  students  will  live  during  the  greater  part  of 
their  stay  in  the  region. 

The  trip  wll  be  made  from  New  York  to  New  Orleans  by  boat 
and  from  thence  to  Doucette  by  rail.  It  is  probable  that  one  or 
more  cypress  operations  will  be  visited  while  the  students  are  en 
route  to  Texas. 


n6  Forestry  Quarterly. 

The  class  will  remain  on  the  holdings  of  the  Thompson  Brothers 
Lumber  Company  until  the  middle  of  June,  when  camp  will  be 
broken  and  a  committee  of  students  will  return  to  New  Haven 
to  represent  the  class  at  the  University  Commencement.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  class  will  scatter  to  various  parts  of  the  country 
for  a  short  vacation.  About  July  i  the  students  will  enter  the 
employ  of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  State  Forest  Commissions  and 
lumber  companies  or  engage  in  private  forest  work. 

The  instruction  in  surveying,  mapping  and  timber  estimating 
will  be  in  charge  of  H.  H.  Chapman,  and  the  study  of  the  log- 
ging and  manufacturing  methods  in  charge  of  R.  C.  Bryant,  both 
members  of  the  faculty  of  the  Forest  School. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  instruction  there  will  be  a  number 
of  special  lectures  by  prominent  lumbermen.  Among  the  latter 
are  Mr.  Thompson,  who  will  spend  some  time  in  the  camp  with 
the  students  and  will  give  a  number  of  talks  on  subjects  relating 
to  the  lumber  business,  and  Mr.  George  K.  Smith,  Secretary  of 
the  Yellow  Pine  Manufacturers'  Association,  who  for  the  past 
two  years  has  addressed  the  students  on  the  subject  of  lumber 
associations,  market  conditions,  etc. 

The  Forest  Conservation  Committee,  of  the  Yellow  Pine  Manu- 
facturers' Association,  J.  B.  White,  Chairman,  Kansas  City ;  J.  L. 
Kaul,  Birmingham ;  J.  A.  Freeman,  St.  Louis ;  J.  Lewis  Thomp- 
son, Huston,  Texas ;  P.  S.  Gardiner,  Laurel,  Miss. ;  will  hold 
a  meeting  at  the  Yale  Forest  School  Camp,  Tyler  Co.,  Texas, 
some  time  during  the  coming  spring. 

Professor  H.  P.  Baker,  who  is  in  charge  of  the  Department 
of  Forestry  at  Pennsylvania  State  College,  has  asked  for  leave 
of  absence  from  July  ist,  1909,  to  December  31st,  1910,  in  order 
to  take  up  a  course  of  study  abroad.  Professor  Baker  plans  to 
take  two  or  three  semesters'  work  at  Munich,  and  spend  six 
months  on  the  return  trip  via  India,  the  Philippines,  and  Japan. 

Mr.  Samuel  N.  Spring  resigned  from  his  position  as  Chief  of 
the  Office  of  Extension  in  the  Forest  Service  on  February  ist,  to 
take  up  work  as  a  consulting  forester.  Mr.  Spring  has  had  wide 
experience,  particularly  in  the  management  of  nurseries  and  the 
reforestation  of  open  lands,  and  is  well  fitted  to  undertake  this 
kind  of  work  for  private  landowners.     It  is  unfortunate  that  de- 


News  and  Notes.  117 

spite  the  extensive  forest  propaganda  of  the  last  few  years  so 
little  has  been  accomplished  on  private  lands,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  the  influence  of  men  like  Mr.  Spring  who  take  up  the  prac- 
tice of  private  forestry  will  stimulate  the  more  rational  manage- 
ment of  private  forests. 

Hofrath  Friedrich,  the  director  of  the  Austrian  Forest  Experi- 
ment Station  at  Mariabrunn,  died  September  26,  1908.  Fried- 
rich's  specialty  lay  in  the  devising  of  forest  instruments,  among 
which  a  precision  xylometer,  a  precision  caliper  measuring  to 
1/1000  millimeter,  a  dendrometer,  and  especially  an  auxano- 
meter — an  instrument  to  measure  the  growth  energy  in  diameter 
(see  F.  Q.,  Vol.  IV,  p.  52),  and  a  large  number  of  others.  The 
last  work  of  the  late  author  detailing  some  results  obtained  with 
the  auxanometer  is  briefed  on  p.  75  of  this  issue. 

Timberland  Legislation  is  the  title  of  an  article  written  by 
Judge  Judd,  Professor  of  Equity  Jurisprudence,  of  Equity  Plead- 
ing, of  the  Law  of  Torts,  Wills  and  Sales  in  Vanderbilt  Uni- 
versity. Judge  Judd  is  known  all  over  the  South  as  a  constitu- 
tional lawyer.  This  article  is  undoubtedly  the  first  article  of  its 
kind.  It  shows  the  relation  of  Federal  and  State  governments 
to  timberland  in  hands  of  private  owners — and  the  established 
legal  principles  that  control  the  solution  of  the  problem  which 
the  lumbermen  will  have  to  meet. 

This  article  will  be  of  especial  interest  to  technical  students  as 
well  as  to  lumbermen  who  are  interested  in  the  protection  of  our 
forests. 

A  forestry  congress  is  being  prepared  for  at  Bologna  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Society  Pro  montibus  et  silvis  for  the  purpose 
of  pressing  a  thorough  and  radical  reform  of  forest  legislation 
for  Italy. 

Germany  has  adopted  forestry  regulations  for  her  Togo  colony, 
owing  to  the  destruction  of  timber  and  deforestation  of  the  coun- 
try by  the  natives.  The  latter  clear  new  areas  by  fire  and 
abandon  their  exhausted  lands.  The  regulations  provide  for  the 
protection  of  the  remaining  forests  and  the  planting  of  112  square 
miles  annually. 


n8  Forestry  Quarterly. 

The  use  of  Yellow  Pine  for  paper  is  no  longer  an  experiment ; 
it  has  proved  succecsful.  A  paper  plant  at  Orange,  Texas,  utilizes 
pine  tops  and  stumps  for  raw  material.  The  paper  is  brown  and 
heavy. 

Canada  exported  in  1907  $33,587,474  worth  of  forest  pro- 
ducts: $11,783,564  to  Great  Britain:  $18,397,753  to  tne  United 
States. 

There  were  100  active  plants  during  1907  engaged  in  wood  dis- 
tillation. The  total  consumption  of  wood,  chiefly  birch,  beech 
and  maple  amounted  to  1,219,771  cords.  The  leading  states 
were   Michigan,   Pennsylvania   and  New  York. 

The  durability  of  southern  cypress  is  well  established  by  the 
excavation  of  a  coffin  on  which  the  date  1803  was  found.  The 
nails  holding  the  wood  were  not  rusted  and  the  wood  itself  was  in 
an  excellent  state  of  preservation. 

At  Burlington,  Iowa,  E.  A.  Florang  has  planted  forty  acres  of 
willows  or  about  1,000,000  plants.  This  is  the  largest  willow 
plantation  in  the  United  States.  It  is  expected  to  use  the  ma- 
terial for  willow  ware. 

A  new  firm  of  Consulting  Foresters,  Messrs.  Appleton  and 
Viles,  have  established  themselves  in  Bangor  and  Augusta,  Maine. 


COMMENT. 

It  is  about  time  a  vigorous  protest  is  made  against  the  various 
"tree  doctors"  and  pseudo-foresters  who  have  sprung  into  exist- 
ence during  the  past  two  or  three  years.  Who  they  are  or  where 
they  come  from  no  one  seems  to  know,  but  this  would  be  imma- 
terial if  they  would  ply  their  trade  of  "doctoring"  trees  and  catch- 
ing bugs  without  labeling  themselves  "practical  foresters."  In 
one  advertisement  in  a  prominent  magazine  is  displayed  the  seal 
of  one  of  these  companies,  showing  an  open  grown  deciduous 
tree  with  forks  and  limbs  almost  from  the  ground  up,  while  un- 
derneath the  words  "Scientific  Forestry,"  with  the  company's 
name  in  the  lower  arc  of  the  circle.  Another  "tree  surgery" 
company  actually  claim  to  operate  a  "school  of  practical  forestry" 
and  have  "skilled  men  at  work  everywhere  under  the  direction  of 
a  specialist."  To  the  profession  this  is  merely  ridiculous,  but  to 
the  layman  it  has  the  bad  effect  of  obscuring  the  relation  between 
true  forestry  and  arboriculture,  as  applied  to  the  care  of  indi- 
vidual ornamental  trees.  To  know  the  difference  between  an 
oak  and  a  dogwood  does  not  make  a  man  a  forester,  and  the  num- 
ber of  technically  trained  foresters  in  this  country  Is  still  so 
small  that  those  who  falsely  advertise  themselves  as  practical 
foresters  will  promptly  be  found  out,  but  meanwhile  their  exist- 
ence throws  discredit  on  the  profession. 

Despite  the  assertion  each  time  that  the  latest  reorganization 
of  the  Forest  Service  would  be  the  last  for  years,  there  were  sev- 
eral changes  during  1907  and  1908,  but  these  were  as  nothing  com- 
pared to  the  decided  difference  which  1909  dawned  upon.  The 
inspection  districts  which  existed  during  the  past  few  years 
were  changed  into  Forest  Districts  and  all  the  work  connected 
with  each  district  put  in  charge  of  the  District  Forest.  This  puts 
the  National  Forest  business  where  it  belongs,  in  the  community 
where  it  is  transacted.  The  saving  of  time  will  be  considerable, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  greater  likelihood  of  more  first  hand  knowl- 
edge of  each  case.  The  Washington  headquarters  continues  or- 
ganized practically  as  it  had  been,  except  that  Organization  and 
Engineering  in  Operation  and  Management  and  Extension  in  Sil- 


120  Forestry  Quarterly. 

viculture  are  no  longer  distinct.  The  District  organizations  are 
duplicates  of  that  in  Washington  with  the  natural  addition  of 
such  offices  as  Timber  Sales  and  Planting.  This  change  greatly 
reduces  the  force  in  Washington,  many  of  the  clerks  also  having 
been  transferred  West.  Although  the  District  organization  looks 
decidedly  top-heavy  on  paper,  the  move  is  undoubtedly  a  wise 
and  necessary  one,  destined  to  markedly  increase  the  ultimate 
efficiency  of  the  Service  in  handling  its  National  Forest  prob- 
lems. For  the  sake  of  its  esprit  de  corps  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
the  Forest  Service  will  not  be  again  reorganized  for  a  long  time. 

Railroad  companies  in  the  East  are  coming  in  for  a  large 
amount  of  criticism  in  connection  with  the  losses  from  forest 
fires  during  1908.  In  Pennsylvania  it  is  alleged  that  more  than 
four-fifth  of  the  disastrous  fires  are  caused  by  the  railroads,  and 
Representative  Creasy,  of  the  State  legislature,  has  introduced  a 
measure  to  "require  the  railroads  to  use  every  precaution  to 
prevent  forest  fires,  and  also  compel  the  railroads  to  extinguish 
the  fires  which  they  cause."  In  New  York  state,  it  is  stated 
that  more  fires  were  started  by  sparks  and  coals  from  railroad 
engines  than  from  any  other  cause,  and  the  patrol  which  was 
maintained  along  the  line  of  the  New  York  Central  Railroad 
extinguished  over  500  incipient  fires.  It  is  natural,  therefore, 
that  the  states  should  attempt  to  pass  drastic  regulations  against 
the  railroads,  and  in  New  York  we  find  that  the  Commission  ad- 
vocates that  the  railroads  be  made  to  pay  the  entire  cost  of  patrol 
along  their  lines,  the  present  arrangement  being  that  the  State 
pays  one-half  of  this  cost.  The  New  York  State  Commission 
furthermore  states  that  "danger  from  fire  is  so  imminent,  and 
the  necessity  for  preservation  so  great,  that,  at  whatever  cost  it 
may  entail,  railroad  companies  operating  within  the  forest  pre- 
serve of  the  State  should  be  compelled  to  use  some  substitute  for 
coal  for  fuel ;  something  that  will  not  create  fire  to  be  thrown 
from  grates  or  stacks  into  the  dry,  powder-like  growth  that 
abounds  along  their  rights  of  way. 

This  kind  of  legislation  is  characteristic  of  the  narrow-minded 
attitude  which  legislators  have  adopted  toward  railroad  companies 
during  the  past  few  years.  No  one  denies  the  seriousness  of  the 
forest  fire  question,  but  it  should  be  understood  that  the  railroads 
are  as  anxious  as  anyone  to  have  this  menace  to  our  resources 


Comment.  121 

controlled,  since  their  prosperity  depends  largely  on  the  well- 
being  of  the  country  through  which  they  operate.  To  arbitrarily 
state,  however,  that  the  Adirondack^  Division  of  the  New  York 
Central  Railroad,  for  instance,  should  not  use  coal  for  fuel,  is 
going  beyond  the  limits  of  practical  good  sense.  The  use  of  crude 
oil  as  a  fuel  has  not  been  found  possible  by  any  Eastern  railroad, 
while  to  electrify  such  a  mountain  division  would  involve  en- 
gineering problems  and  necessitate  an  expense  which  certainly 
are  not  justified  without  the  most  careful  investigation.  In  the 
matter  of  protecting  forest  lands  from  fire,  several  Eastern  rail- 
roads are  doing  everything  which  could  reasonably  be  expected. 
The  Pennsylvania,  for  example,  makes  every  effort  to  keep  the 
spark  arresters  in  good  condition,  burns  strips  along  the  right 
of  way  where  there  is  liable  to  be  danger  from  fire,  and  its  track- 
men are  active  in  extinguishing  all  fires  which  start  along  or 
near  the  tracks.  The  thanks  they  receive  for  this  are  to  find  that 
certain  landowners  look  forward  to  a  steady  source  of  income 
from  damage  claims  against  the  railroads  from  fires  which 
they  set  themselves  on  their  own  land;  one  farmer  went  so  far 
as  to  sue  the  company  for  damages  from  a  fire  which  started 
one-fourth  of  a  mile  from  the  tracks,  and  which  the  trackmen,  as 
a  matter  of  kindness,  helped  to  extinguish.  As  a  matter  of  fur- 
ther encouragement,  the  Pennsylvania  legislature  at  one  time  at- 
tempted to  pass  a  bill  making  the  railroads  responsible  on  prima 
facie  evidence  for  all  fires  which  started  on  or  near  the  right  of 
way,  thus  making  the  railroads  liable  for  fires  started  by  tramps 
and  other  trespassers. 


FOR  SALE! 

BACK  NUMBERS  OF 

FORESTRY  QUARTERLY 

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carcity,  the  price  of  Volumes  I  and  II  has  been  raised  to  $2  each. 

ADDRESS 

FORESTRY  QUARTERLY 

ITHACA,  N.  Y. 


FOREST  TREES ! 

FOREST  SEEDS! 

F.  O.B.  ROTTERDAM 
Seedlings  and  Transplanted.    By  the  Million 

PETER  SCHOTT,  KNITTELSHEIM 

Rheinpfalz  (Palatinate),  GERMANY 

Wholesale   Seeds  and  Nurseryman 


ESTABLISHMENT  FOR  DRYING  CONIFEROUS  SEEDS 


ESTABLISHED  1784 

The  oldest  established  Seed  and  Nursery  Business  in  Germany 
DESCRIPTIVE  CATALOGUES    POST   FREE   ON    APPLICATION 


Yale  University  Forest  School 

NEW  HAVEN,   CONNECTICUT 

A  two-year  graduate  course  is  offered,  lead- 
ing to  the  degree  of  Master  of  Forestry.  Grad- 
uates of  collegiate  institutions  of  high  standing 
are  admitted  upon  presentation  of  their  college 
diploma. 

The  Summer  School  of  Forestry  is  conducted 
at  Milford,  Pike  County,  Pa.  The  session  in 
1909  will  open  early  in  July  and  continue 
seven  weeks. 

For  further  information,  address 
HENRY  S.  GRAVES,  Director,  New  Haven,  Connecticut 


The  University  of  Toronto 
and  University  College 


Faculties  of  Art,  Medicine,  Applied  Science,  House- 
hold Science,  Education,  Forestry. 


The  Faculty  of  Forestry  offers  a  four  year  course, 
leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  in 
Forestry. 


For  information,  apply  to  the  REGISTRAR  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY,  or 
to  the  Secretaries  of  the  respective  Faculties. 


HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 

THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  OF  APPLIED  SCIENCE 
offers  a  two-years'  course  in  FORESTRY  leading  to  the  degree  of 
Master  in  Forestry.     The  descriptive  pamphlet  will  be  sent  on 
application  to    W.  C.  SABINE,  15  University  Hall,  Cambridge, 
Mass. 

POWDER  POINT  SCHOOL 

DUXBURY,  MASS. 

Preparatory  course  in  FORESTRY  leading  to  the  Biltmore 
and  college  courses  in  this  subject.  It  requires  hard,  earnest 
application,  and  develops  an  appreciation  of  nature  and  power  of 
leadership. 

F.  B.  KNAPP,  S.  B.,  (M.  I.  T.),  Box  361 

F.  R.  MEIER 

CONSULTING  FORESTER 

1  BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK,  IN.  V. 


Economics  of  Forestry 

A  Reference  Book  for  students  of  Political  Economy  and  Professional  and  Lay  Students 
By  B.  E.  Fernow,  LL.D.     12  mo.,  $1.50  net.     By  mail,  $1.65 

"  It  is  by  far  the  best  and  most  important  work  on  forestry  which  deals 
with  American  conditions."  Edward  M.  Shepard,  New  York. 

"I  find  it,  as  I  expected,  meaty  and  complete.    It  fills  the  place  it  is  writ- 
ten for."  Prof.  F.  Roth,  University  of  Michigan. 

"I  have  read  few  books  on  forestry  with  as  much  enjoyment." 

Prof.  Dr.  Schwappach,  Eberswalde,  Germany. 

For  sale  by  T.  Y.  CROW  ELL  &  CO.,  New  York. 


AND 


Forest  Trees,  also  Seeds 


Hardy  Sorts  for  Forest  Planting : 

Pinus  Strobus  (White  Pine),  Scotch  Pine,  Ponderosa  Pine,  Jack 

Pine,  White  Spruce,  Norway  Spruce,  Douglas   Spruce, 

and  many  other  Hardy  Varieties. 

Deciduous  Trees: 

European   Larch,   American  White   Elm,   Sugar   Maple,  White 

Ash,  American  Linden,  Catalpa,  Black  Locust,  Bur 

Oak,  Black  Oak,  Red  Oak  and  White  Oak 

Also  Seeds — Guaranteed  New  Crop : 

Evergreens:  Pinus  Strobus  (White  Pine),  Scotch  Pine,  Jack 
and  Bull  Pine,  and  20  other  varieties. 

Also  European  Larch,  Sugar  and  Norway  Maple,  Black  Lo- 
cust, Ash,  etc. 


WRITE  FOR  CATALOGUE  WITH  PRICES 

Mention  this  Magazine 

D.  HIUL 

Evergreen  Specialist  Dundee,    111. 


RogtsSar    Price  % 

&8mSO     per     pair.  * 

F©  introtiuc& 
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You  a  Samnio 
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to  write  for  our  big  FREE    BICYCLE  catalogue 
showing   the    most    complete    line    of    hi^h-grade 
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DC  HOT  BUY  A  BICYCLE  £%"%£, 

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PRICES  and  wonderful  new  offers  made  possible  by  selling  from  factory 
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WE  SHIP  OK  APPROVAL  -without  a  cent  deposit,  Pay  the  Freight  and 
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Notice  the  thick  rubber  tread 
"A"  and  puncture  strips  "B" 
and  "!>,"  also  rim  strip  "II" 
to  prevent  rim  cutting.  This 
tire  will  outlast  any  other 
make— SOFT,  ELASTIC  and 
EASY  BIDING. 


NAILS.  TACKS 

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making.    No  danger  from  THORNS.  CAC- 
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Serious  punctures,  like  intentional  knife  cuts,  can 
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Two  Hundred  Thousand  pairs  now  in  actual  use.  Over 
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DESCRIPTION l  Made  in  all  sizes.  It  is  lively  and  easy  riding,  very  durable  and  lined  inside 
with  a  special  quality  of  rubber,  which  never  becomes  porous  and  which  closes  up  small  punctures 
without  allowing  the  air  to  escape.  We  have  hundreds  of  letters  from  satisfied  customers  stating 
that  their  tires  have  only  been  pumped  up  once  or  twice  in  a  whole  season.  They  weigh  no  more  than 
an  ordinary  tire,  the  puncture  resisting  qualities  being  given  by  several  layers  of  thin,  specially 
prepared  fabric  on  the  tread.  That  "Holding  Back"  sensation  commonly  felt  when  riding  on  asphalt 
or  soft  roads  is  overcome  by  the  patent  "Basket  Weave"  tread  which  prevents  all  air  from  being 
squeezed  out  between  the  tire  and  the  road  thus  overcoming  all  suction.  The  regular  price  of  these 
tires  is  $8.50  per  pair,  but  for  advertising  purposes  we  are  making  a  special  factory  price  to  the  rider 
of  only  $4.80  per  pair.  All  orders  shipped  same  day  letter  is  received.  We  ship  C.O.D.  on  approval. 
You  do  not  pay  a  cent  until  you  have  examined  and  found  them  strictly  as  represented. 

We  will  allow  a  cash  discount  of  5  per  cent  (thereby  making  the  price  ©4.55  per  pair)  if  you  send 
FULL  CASH  WITH  OBDEK  and  enclose  this  advertisement.  We  will  also  send  one  nickel 
plated  brass  hand  pump  and  two  Sampson  metal  puncture  closers  on  full  paid  orders  (these  metal 
puncture  closers  to  be  used  in  case  of  intentional  knife  cuts  or  heavy  gashes).  Tires  to  be  returned 
at  OUR  expense  if  for  any  reason  they  are  not  satisfactory  on  examination. 

We  are  perfectly  reliable  and  money  sent  to  us  is  as  safe  as  in  a  bank.  Ask  your  Postmaster, 
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these  tires,  you  will  find  that  they  will  ride  easier,  run  raster,  wear  better,  last  longer  and  look 
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that  when  you  want  a  bicycle  you  will  give  us  your  order.  We  want  you  to  send  us  a  small  trial 
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«*€£/3<&  B  £M'0WinCO;  everything  in  the  bicycle  line  are  sold  by  us  at  half  the  usual 
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Dept.  "JL"  CHICAGO,  ILL. 


Established  1345. 


Incorporated  1900. 


W.  &  L.  R-  GURLEY 

TROY,  N.  Y-,  U.  S.  A. 
Largest  Manufacturers  in  America  of 

Instruments  for  Civil,  Mining  and  Hydraulic 
Engineers  and  Land  Surveyors 

Foresters'    Instruments,    Compasses,  "Plane- 
Tables,  Chains,  Tape-Lines,  Etc. 


No.  100RECONNOISSANCE  TRANSIT  $115.00 
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Please  mention  this  Magazine  when  writing. 


CONTENTS 


A  Forester's  Work  in  a  Northern  Forest, 
By  Ellwood  Wilson,  B.  A.,  C.  E., 

Forest  Engineer,  Xaurentide  Paper  Company. 


Page 
2 


The  Forest  School  and  the  Education  of  the  Forester, 
By'Hngh  P.  Baker. 


15 


The  Sciences  Underlying  Forestry, 
By  B.  E.  Fernow. 


23 


The  Origin  and  Early  Development  of  Chestnut  Sprouts,  34 

By  W.  R.  Mattoon,  F.  E. 


Current  Literature, 


48 


Other  Current  Literature, 


63 


Periodical  Literature, 


66 


Other  Periodical  Literature, 


10' 


News  and  Notes, 


in 


Comment. 


120 


Wm§&BW'  ■  '^W': 


Volume  VII 


No,  2 


FORESTRY  QUARTERLY 


A  PROFESSIONAL  JOURNAL 


Subscription  Two  Dollars  per  Annum 


ITHACA,  NEW   YORK 

1909 

Entered  at  the  Ithaca,  New  York,  Post  Office  a*  5ecoad>c!a«a  Mail  Matter 


FORESTRY  QUARTERLY 


BOARD  OF  EDITORS 
B.  E.  Fernow,  LL.  D.,  Editor-in-Chief 
Henry  S.  Graves,  M.  A.,  Filbert  Roth,  B.  S., 

Yale  Forest  School.  University  of  Michigan. 

Richard  T.  Fisher,  A.  Bm         Hugh  P.  Baker,  M.  F., 

Harvard  University.  Pennsylvania  State  College. 

Walter  Mulford,  F.  E.,  C.  D.  Howe,  Ph.  D., 

University  of  Michigan.  University  of  Toronto. 

Ernest  A.  Sterling,  F.  E.,       Raphael  Zon,  F.  E., 

Forester,  Penna.  R.  R.  Co.  Forest  Service. 

Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E.,         Clyde  Leavitt,  M.  S.  F., 

Forest  Service.  Forest  Service. 

Asa  S.  Williams,  F.  E. 


THE  OBJECTS  ICTI  THIS  JOURNAL  IS  PUBLISHED  ARE: 

To  aid  in  the  establishment  of  rational  forest  management. 

To  offer  an  organ  for  the  publication  of  technical  papers  of 
interest  to  professional  foresters  of  America. 

To  keep  the  profession  in  touch  with  the  current  technical 
literature  and  the  forestry  movement  in  the  United  States. 


Manuscripts  may  be  sent  to  the  Editor-in-Chief  at  University 
of  Toronto,  Toronto,  Canada,  or  to  any  of  the  board  of  editors. 
Subscriptions  and  other  business  matters  should  be  addressed 
to  Business  Manager,  Forestry  Quarterly,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


Press  of 

Watchman  Printing  House 

Bellefonte,  Pa. 

1909 


FORESTRY  QUARTERLY 

Vol,  VII]  June,  1909.  [No.  2. 

LIBRARY 

NEW  YORK 

FOREST  PLANTING  IN  NATIONAL  FORESTS. 

(iAkt>eN. 

1.  Forestation  in  the  Inter-Mountain  Region. 

James  M.  Fetherolf. 

The  region  to  which  this  article  applies  may  be  broadly  defined 
as  lying  between  Yellowstone  Park  and  the  Salmon  River  on  the 
north  and  the  Grand  Canyon  on  the  south ;  between  the  State  of 
Colorado  on  the  east  and  California  on  the  west.  Within  these 
bounds  there  are  at  present  32  National  Forests  which  cover 
31,020,268  acres  at  this  writing  and  embrace  most  of  the  ground 
that  can  properly  be  considered  as  forest  land.  Hence  this  article 
will  deal  only  with  the  problem  of  forestation  as  it  applies  to  the 
National  Forests.  Nursery  work  and  planting  have  occasionally 
been  discussed  with  reference  to  eastern  conditions,  less  fre- 
quently with  reference  to  western  conditions.  Not  only  are  the 
topography,  climate,  fauna  and  flora,  those  factors  which  deter- 
mine and  influence  kind  and  character  of  tree  growth,  different 
in  this  region,  but  the  technical  and  economic  problems  are  like- 
wise different.  While  it  might  be  possible  in  this  article  to  con- 
sider the  physical  factors  in  their  relation  to  tree  growth  at  some 
length,  it  is  the  writer's  aim  to  treat  the  subject  from  the  stand- 
point of  one  who  is  interested  in  getting  practical  results  and  to 
take  up  the  theoretical  only  in  so  far  as  it  has  direct  bearing  upon 
the  practical. 

During  the  past  summer  some  criticism  appeared  against  the 

CT,  policy  of  the  Forest  Service  on  the  ground  that  large  areas  of 

F;  grazing  land  had  been  included  within  the  National  Forests  in 

this  District,  which  the  Forest  Service  was  now  improving  as 

CQ  range  property  instead  of  stocking  with  trees  and  that  the  inten- 
:;-  tion  of  reforesting  denuded  lands  had  been  given  up.    While  the 


128  Forestry  Quarterly. 

contrary  is  true  so  far  as  the  planting  policy  is  concerned,  such  a 
statement  from  publications  not  especially  friendly  to  the  admin- 
istration, would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  public  welcomes  a  policy 
of  forest  planting  even  when  it  does  not  fully  approve  of  some 
of  the  other  important  phases  of  forest  work.  Forest  planting  by 
States  and  by  the  National  Government  naturally  appeals  to  the 
public ;  frequently  for  sentimental  reasons.  In  this  case,  how- 
ever, there  is  a  substantial  foundation  for  a  favorable  sentiment 
in  the  fact  that  there  is  a  comparatively  small  acreage  in  actual 
forest  land  within  the  District  and  many  of  the  important  water- 
sheds are  in  need  of  protection. 

By  referring  to  a  Forest  map  of  the  District,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  Forests  in  this  District  are  scattered  in  groups  over  an  ex- 
tensive area.  The  best  timbered  are  the  Sevier,  Powell,  and 
Kaibab,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  District,  the  Ashley  and  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Uinta  in  Utah,  the  Forests  in  northwestern 
Wyoming  and  those  between  Boise  and  the  Salmon  River  in 
Idaho.  Most  of  the  best  timbered  Forests  in  the  District  are  so 
remote  that  the  timber  on  them  is  practically  inaccessible  on  ac- 
count of  lack  of  transportation  facilities.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
more  accessible  Forests  in  the  center  of  the  District,  like  the  Fish- 
lake,  Manti,  Nebo,  Wasatch,  Cache,  Pocatello,  Minidoka,  Caribou, 
and  Targhee  are  poorly  timbered. 

The  two  principal  products  from  National  Forests  are  wood 
and  water.  At  present  the  Forests  of  the  District  do  not  supply 
the  local  demand.  Lumber  is  sent  here  from  Washington,  Ore- 
gon and  California.  In  fact,  the  Pacific  coast  timber  is  shipped 
to  the  plains  and  prairies  of  the  middle  west  and  as  far  east  as  the 
cities  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  Since  these  States  are  thus  heavily 
drained  of  their  timber  supply  the  time  must  come  when  District 
4  will  have  to  depend  more  largely  upon  its  forests  as  a  source  of 
supply.  At  present  grazing  is  permitted  and  encouraged 
wherever  it  does  not  interfere  with  the  water  supply  for  cities  and 
towns.  The  revenue  from  an  acre  devoted  to  grazing,  however, 
is  not  equal  to  that  which  would  be  obtained  from  the  same  area 
if  it  were  in  forest.  The  production  of  forest  trees  is  therefore 
a  higher  use  than  the  use  of  forage.  It  may  be  well  to  remark 
here  that  with  the  increase  in  population,  the  area  in  forest, 
especially  in  the  east,  will  be  still  further  reduced  through  agri- 
culture.   On  account  of  this  reduction  in  the  total  acreage,  it  will 


Forest  Planting  in  National  Forests.  129 

be  necessary  to  make  the  remaining  forest  land  more  productive 
by  putting  all  of  it  to  its  best  use.  There  is  no  better  way  to  do 
this  than  through  forestation  and  by  extending  it  rapidly,  for  tree 
growth  in  this  region  is  slow.  We  frequently  hear  the  ex- 
pression :  "Thirty  years  to  grow  a  tree  and  thirty  minutes  to  cut 
it  down."  That,  however,  does  not  apply  to  this  region.  From 
numerous  measurements  made  by  the  writer  on  the  Wasatch 
National  Forest  in  1905,  and  by  others,  it  appears  that  "Three 
hundred  years  to  grow  a  mature  tree  and  thirty  minutes  to  cut  it 
down,"  would  be  more  nearly  correct.  Hence,  if  the  country  at 
large  has  "reached  the  point  where  the  growth  of  our  Forests  is 
about  one-third  of  the  annual  cut,  and  we  have  in  store  timber 
enough  for  only  twenty  years,"  there  must  be  sufficient  cause  for 
action  from  the  standpoint  of  timber  production  alone,  not  con- 
sidering the  fact  that  most  of  the  National  Forests  are  valuable 
watersheds  in  need  of  protection. 

It  is  therefore  evident  that  for  the  present  a  very  conservative 
timber  sale  policy  should  be  in  vogue  on  the  poorly  timbered 
Forests  and  that  everything  possible  should  be  done  toward  pro- 
tecting individual  stands  from  destruction  by  fire.  For  the  most 
part,  the  existing  stands  of  timber  are  uneven-aged  and  if  prop- 
erly handled  can  be  culled  indefinitely  without  becoming  depleted 
as  successive  generations  of  young  trees  are  usually  springing  up 
naturally  to  take  the  place  of  the  larger  and  older  trees  removed. 
In  these  protection  forests  clear  cutting  with  replanting  will  never 
become  advisable.  With  the  numerous  burns  which  are  scat- 
tered throughout  the  forests,  however,  the  case  is  different.  The 
fires  which  have  caused  them  have  fed  on  the  refuse  from  lumber- 
ing and  have  destroyed  not  only  the  advance  growth  but  all  possi- 
bility of  natural  restocking  excepting  some  instances  in  the  case  of 
Lodgepole  Pine  stands.  Hence  a  system  of  forestry  which  aims 
at  more  than  mere  exploitation  would  naturally  undertake  first 
reforestation  of  the  burns  and  the  afforestation  of  as  much  of  the 
other  types  of  land  as  possible. 

With  reference  to  reforesting  burns,  one  naturally  concludes  as 
follows :  Where  trees  grew  before  and  produced  a  stand  of  tim- 
ber which  was  valuable  enough  to  cut  for  lumber,  they  may  be 
made  to  grow  again  and  to  produce  even  more  valuable  material. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  well  to  note  that  where  trees  never 
grew,  forest  planting  is  often  most  eagerly  sought  by  the  public, 


130  Forestry  Quarterly. 

and  that  foresters,  out  of  a  desire  to  meet  these  public  demands, 
have  not  infrequently  undertaken  the  difficult  and  questionable 
planting  projects  first.  In  the  execution  of  such  work,  faith, 
hope  and  enthusiasm  are  necessary ;  but  they  are  poor  substitutes 
for  suitable  soil,  moisture  and  temperature.  Emphasis  should  be 
laid  upon  the  fact  that  reforestation  should  precede  afforestation 
and  that  all  projects  which  involve  purely  afforestation  should  be 
considered  as  experiments  until  success  has  been  demonstrated. 
However,  I  do  not  mean  that  there  is  no  latitude  at  all  in  this 
matter,  for  favorableness  is  a  relative  term  and  there  are  various 
degrees  from  the  optimum  to  the  absolutely  forbidding  sites,  and 
these  grade  from  the  one  into  the  other.  Then,  too,  the  present 
distribution  of  a  species  is  not  necessarily  an  indication  of  its 
possible  distribution.  Drought,  grass  and  stock  frequently  pre- 
vent the  germination  of  seed  and  the  natural  extension  of  forests 
on  sites  upon  which  they  can  doubtless  be  successfully  established 
by  planting.  If  a  species  has  not  been  particularly  abundant  in 
a  certain  locality,  insects,  birds,  and  rodents  may  have  waged 
such  a  war  upon  successive  seed  crops  that  the  particular  species 
may  in  time  have  become  extinct  in  the  locality.  Similarly  a 
species  suited  to  a  region  may  be  absent  in  it  for  geological  rea- 
sons. The  writer  is  of  the  opinion  that  Yellow  Pine  was  elimi- 
nated from  the  Wasatch  Mountains  during  the  glacial  age. 
Hence  if  one  should  find  a  good  stand  of  this  species  upon  a 
certain  site,  say  in  Colorado,  and  should  upon  investigation,  find 
identical  sites  elsewhere  without  tree  growth,  it  should  be  natural 
to  suppose  that  that  species  could  be  safely  introduced  in  the 
latter  case  and  with  equal  or  better  results.  If  nursery  practice 
can  be  taken  as  a  criterion,  the  experience  in  growing  this  species 
at  the  Wasatch  Planting  Station  is  worthy  of  note.  Here,  at  an 
elevation  of  7,430  feet,  it  is  particularly  hardy  and  can  be  grown 
from  seed,  without  irrigation,  shade,  mulching  or  "damping  off." 
When  transplanted  at  the  age  of  one  year,  95%  of  the  plants  live 
and  thrive.  Were  ecology,  the  adaptation  of  species  to  sites,  an 
exact  science,  it  would  only  be  necessary  for  the  forester  to  study 
sites  and  requirements  of  species  and  to  make  the  proper  adjust- 
ments. In  this  way  it  might  prove  that  the  range  of  the  native 
species  could  be  extended  and  that  valuable  exotics  are  suited  to 
sites  which  are  not  naturally  timbered.  The  more  one  knows  of 
the  principles  of  ecology,  the  less  he  needs  to  rely  upon  blind  ex- 


Forest  Planting  in  National  forests.  131 

perimentation.  However,  until  it  furnishes  absolute  knowledge, 
it  is  always  necessary  to  be  on  the  safe  side,  and  thus  to  make  re- 
forestation the  more  important  issue. 

Of  the  hundreds  of  species  native  to  the  United  States  time 
has  not  granted  an  opportunity  to  study  a  forest  plantation  of  any 
one  species  from  seed  to  maturity.  Hence  we  have  no  knowledge 
from  actual  practice  of  their  relative  value.  However,  since  only 
species  of  high  commercial  value  should  be  artificially  propagated 
whatever  the  purpose  for  doing  so  may  be,  economic  considera- 
tions eliminate  the  great  majority  of  them.  We  must  rely  upon 
a  few  of  the  best,  most  widely  distributed  and  most  generally  use- 
ful native  species  like  Douglas  Fir  and  Yellow  Pine.  All  big 
projects  should  contemplate  the  use  of  one  or  both.  We  desire 
to  know  what  Scotch  Pine,  Norway  Spruce  and  numerous  other 
exotic  as  well  as  native  species  will  do  and  we  have  been  growing 
a  large  number  of  species  at  the  Planting  Stations  on  a  small 
scale  to  be  used  in  permanent  sample  plantations  where  their 
behavior  can  be  noted  and  compared.  The  superiority  of  some 
of  the  exotics  may  in  time  be  demonstrated  in  this  way. 

Since  all  work  which  involves  a  large  expenditure  should  be 
carefully  planned,  an  extensive  reconnaissance  study  was  con- 
ducted on  the  Wasatch  National  Forest  during  the  summer  of 
1905.  This  resulted  in  a  plan  which  gave  the  location,  area,  and 
character  of  the  planting  sites,  nursery  possibilities,  species,  rate 
of  growth,  etc.  Upon  it,  as  a  basis,  the  Wasatch  Planting  Sta- 
tion was  established  in  the  fall  of  1905  and  the  spring  of  1906. 
This,  therefore,  is  the  oldest  forest  nursery  in  the  District.  At 
the  same  time  it  is  the  largest,  having  an  annual  seedling  capacity 
at  present  of  4,000,000  plants.  At  first  this  station  was  intended 
primarily  to  grow  plants  for  reforesting  the  denuded  watersheds 
of  the  Wasatch  National  Forest.  One  year  later,  1906- 1907,  the 
Pocatello  Planting  Station  was  established  on  the  Pocatello  Na- 
tional Forest,  for  the  purpose  of  afforesting  the  treeless  slopes  of 
that  Forest.  Its  present  capacity  is  1,000,000  plants  annually. 
The  reconnaissance  work  has  since  been  extended  to  other 
Forests.  However,  these  two  are  the  only  planting  stations  in 
the  District. 

In  order  to  grow  additional  plants  and  to  give  the  Forest 
rangers  experience  in  nursery  and  planting  work,  a  number  of 
ranger  nurseries  were  established  on  some  of  the  other  Forests  in 


132  Forestry  Quarterly. 

the  spring  of  1907.  In  practically  every  instance  they  failed,  not 
because  of  natural  conditions,  but  because  it  was  an  attempt  to  do 
work  which  is  naturally  intensive  in  character  through  extensive 
methods  and  by  inexperienced  men.  All  but  two  of  these  were 
given  up  in  the  spring  of  1908,  and  the  better  policy  of  centraliz- 
ing nursery  work  in  the  planting  stations  was  adopted.  At  these 
stations,  work  is  now  being  conducted  on  such  a  large  scale  and 
has  been  so  systematized  and  intensified  that  it  may  be  con- 
sidered as  being  on  a  sound  practical  basis.  In  the  matter  of 
forest  planting,  the  stations  are  our  basis  of  operation,  our 
vantage  points  and  our  nursery  experiment  stations  alike.  Per- 
haps "Nursery  Stations''  or  rather  ''Nurseries"  would  express  the 
real  significance  of  the  stations  better  than  "Planting  Stations" 
for  at  them  the  central  idea  is  to  grow  nursery  stock  not  only 
for  planting  on  the  Forests  on  which  they  are  situated ;  but 
largely  for  planting  on  other  Forests  in  the  District  under  the 
supervision  of  men  who  are  not  directly  associated  with  the  sta- 
tions even  though  they  may  have  been  transferred  there  pre- 
viously to  gain  necessary  experience. 

On  account  of  the  large  and  increasing  annual  production  of 
seedlings  at  the  planting  stations,  and  the  fact  that  plants  have  to 
be  held  3  to  4  years  before  they  are  large  enough  for  field  plant- 
ing; it  will  not  be  possible  to  transplant  all  the  seedlings  at  the 
planting  stations  for  lack  of  transplant  ground.  To  relieve  the 
congestion,  plans  are  being  made  to  establish  "transplant  nur- 
series" with  an  initial  capacity  of  500,000  plants  on  several  of  the 
other  important  Forests.  The  plants  for  these  are  to  be  supplied 
from  the  central  planting  station  and  are  to  be  transplanted  and 
cared  for  by  an  experienced  Forest  ranger. 

A  study  of  past  nursery  practice  shows  that  wherever  partial 
stands  only  were  secured,  this  was  due  to  one  or  several  of  the 
following  causes:  "damping  off,"  birds,  and  rodents,  covering 
the  seed  too  deeply,  and  sowing  too  small  quantities.  "Damping 
off"  rarely  occurs.  It  can  usually  be  checked  by  refraining  from 
sprinkling  the  beds  and  by  airing  and  cultivating  them.  Birds 
and  rodents  can  be  controlled  by  methods  already  in  vogue. 
Considerable  care  must  be  exercised  in  sowing  the  seed,  for  it  is 
mostly  covered  too  deeply  unintentionally.  The  most  important 
factor,  however,  and  the  one  that  can  be  most  easily  controlled, 
is  the  quantity  of  seed  sown.     Too  much  emphasis  can  not  be 


Forest  Planting  in  National  Forests.  133 

laid  upon  the  value  of  intensive  seedbed  work,  for  it  is  by  inten- 
sive and  systematic  methods  that  the  cost  per  thousand  of  plants 
has  been  greatly  reduced  and  can  still  be  lessened.  For  instance, 
if  400  seedlings  of  Douglas  fir  are  grown  to  a  square  foot  of 
seedbed  instead  of  200,  which  appears  to  be  entirely  possible,  the 
cost,  not  including  the  value  of  the  additional  seed,  is  reduced  to 
one-half  per  unit  of  area,  and  a  nursery  of  2,500  square  feet  will 
produce  one  million  plants  instead  of  half  a  million.  Whenever 
the  seed  is  sown  in  drills,  the  drills  should  not  be  farther  than 
3  inches  apart  and  should  contain  not  less  than  45  plants  to  a 
running  foot  of  drill.  In  this  way  mulching  will  be  unnecessary 
with  such  species  as  Yellow  Pine  and  Douglas  Fir.  If  the  seed- 
lings grown  at  the  planting  stations  could  be  stimulated  so  as 
to  be  ready  for  field  planting  in  2  to  3  years  instead  of  3  to  4,  the 
cost  could  be  decreased.  A  number  of  experiments  along  this 
line  have  been  conducted  at  both  planting  stations  with  various 
fertilizers.  So  far  these  have  not  proved  beneficial,  and  it  is  not 
considered  necessary  to  continue  them  until  the  native  fertility  of 
the  soil  has  been  drained. 

While  the  planting  stations  have  been  quietly  developing  along 
technical  and  practical  lines,  different  ideas  about  the  whole  mat- 
ter have  arisen.  The  more  conservative  express  doubts  about  the 
possibility  of  reforesting  even  the  most  favorable  sites  with  the 
best  grown  nursery  stock.  This,  however,  seems  entirely  possible 
and  practicable.  Hence  the  conservatives  would  have  us  pro- 
ceed so  slowly  and  on  such  a  small  scale  that  the  cost  of  the  work 
done  would  be  excessive.  Others,  on  the  other  hand,  realizing 
the  enormity  as  well  as  the  importance  of  the  work  are  impa- 
tient for  direct  results  on  a  large  scale.  These  are  confident  of 
effecting  reforestation  even  by  direct  seedings.  Between  the  two 
extremes,  a  "golden  mean"  seems  to  be  the  logical  position  to 
hold,  i.  e.,  to  build  up  the  existing  nurseries  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
and,  in  addition  to  carry  on  experiments  in  planting  and  seeding. 
There  are  several  obstacles  in  the  way  of  getting  success  with 
direct  seeding.  Weather  conditions  are  usually  responsible  for 
success  or  failure.  However,  if  it  succeeds,  it  will  hold  out  a 
hope  of  accomplishing  results  more  nearly  compatible  with  the 
needs.  The  planting  stations  can  then  supply  stock  for  the  less 
favorable  sites  while  broadcasting  may  be  practiced  on  the  more 
favorable  situations. 


134  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Seed  collecting,  nursery  work,  planting  and  seeding  are  all  of 
a  technical  nature,  and  require  knowledge,  skill  and  experience 
to  bring  the  best  results.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  all  the  work 
done  on  a  National  Forest  must  necessarily  be  done  by  or  through 
the  local  Forest  officers,  the  inexperience  of  most  of  the  officers 
in  such  work  constitutes  one  of  the  greatest  drawbacks.  How- 
ever, the  planting  stations  offer  the  best  training  school  and  plans 
have  been  made  to  detail  one  or  several  rangers  from  those 
Forests  upon  which  planting  is  contemplated  to  the  nearest  plant- 
ing stations  for  short  periods  while  work  is  in  progress  there. 
It  is  expected  that  some  of  these  will  be  put  in  charge  of  the 
planting  and  sowing  on  their  own  Forests  as  well  as  of  the  trans- 
plant nurseries  to  be  established.  However,  the  bulk  of  the  labor 
at  the  planting  stations,  as  well  as  on  individual  Forests,  will  have 
to  be  hired.  Forestry  students  from  the  agricultural  colleges  have 
proven  to  be  very  desirable  temporary  laborers.  The  experience 
acquired  in  connection  with  their  employment  at  the  planting  sta- 
tions will  be  of  further  use  to  the  Forest  Service  in  case  they 
become  more  permanently  associated  with  the  work  on  a  particu- 
lar Forest. 

In  conclusion,  all  forestation,  whether  afforestation  or  refor- 
estation, whether  effected  through  planting  or  direct  seeding, 
should  be  regarded  in  the  light  of  improvement  work,  as  one  of 
those  functions  of  state  which  takes  into  account  the  public 
welfare  rather  than  financial  returns  because  these  are  shrouded 
in  darkness,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  prove  pecuniary  success 
because  too  many  of  the  following  factors  necessary  to  the  calcu- 
lation are  unknown  and  unknowable  : 

a.  Minimum  cost  of  establishing  and  maintaining  plantations 
from  seed  to  maturity. 

b.  Rate  of  growth  of  trees  and  time  of  harvest. 

c.  The  protective  value  of  Forests  reduced  to  tangible  terms. 

d.  Final  sale  value  of  product  at  maturity,  and, 

e.  Rate  of  interest  at  various  times. 

In  this,  as  in  all  other  important  undertakings,  there  are  neces- 
sarily elements  of  uncertainty.  Were  it  necessary  to  wait  until 
there  are  no  more  risks,  this  work  would  never  be  started,  and 
the  Service  would  be  comparable  to  a  young  man  who  fails  to 


Forest  Planting  in  National  Forests.  135 

take  upon  himself  some  of  the  active  duties  of  life  because  he 
cannot  know  beforehand  to  what  extent  reasonable  ventures  will 
prove  successful. 


2.  The  Pocatello  Planting  Station. 

Clinton  G.  Smith. 

From  an  economic  standpoint,  this  Station  is  one  of  the  most 
promising  Planting  Stations  in  operation  by  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment. It  is  located  in  Southeastern  Idaho,  upon  the  Pocatello 
District  of  the  National  Forest  of  that  name,  which  was  pro- 
claimed as  a  Forest  Reserve  by  President  Roosevelt,  September 

3.  I903- 

This  area  was  formerly  included  within  the  Fort  Hall  Indian 
Reservation,  which  was  partially  opened  to  settlement  June  17, 
1902. 

Immediately  after  the  opening  of  the  Reservation,  sheep  and 
cattle,  which  had  been  previously  excluded,  were  driven  upon 
this  area  in  large  numbers,  with  a  resulting  pollution  of  the  water 
supply  of  the  City  of  Pocatello,  and  threatened  shortage  of  water 
as  a  result.  Cause  and  effect  were  obvoius  and  this  Forest  was 
created  in  response  to  the  urgent  petition  of  the  citizens  of  Poca- 
tello. 

On  assuming  charge  of  this  area  of  50,000  acres,  the  Forest 
Service  began  a  protective  administration,  to  exclude  stock  and 
to  prevent  forest  fires,  and  more  than  this,  active  forest  exten- 
sion on  this  important  area  has  been  planned  and  actually  begun. 
A  small  nursery  was  established  in  1905,  and  continued  to  the 
opening  of  last  season,  when  this  was  made  a  permanent  Plant- 
ing Station.  The  results  of  the  first  three  years  showed  that  it 
was  technically  as  well  as  economically,  possible  to  raise  seedlings 
and  to  make  plantations  thrive,  but  it  was  not  practicable  to  do  so 
without  the  constant  attendance  of  a  practical  nursery  man,  dur- 
ing all  periods  of  growth  of  the  seedlings.  In  order  to  make  this 
worth  while,  the  capacity  of  the  nursery,  first  rated  at  500,000 
plants,  was  increased  during  the  coming  season  to  1,000,000 
plants. 

The  success  of  this  nursery  seems  assured  from  an  economic 


136  Forestry  Quarterly. 

standpoint,  owing  to  its  accessibility,  as  it  is  but  13  miles  from 
the  shipping  point,  Pocatello,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  fair 
wagon  road  and  telephone  line.  The  growing  season  is  long — 
from  April  15  to  October  1,  in  ordinary  years,  and  plant  material 
may  be  readily  transported  in  time  to  be  used  elsewhere  in  the 
State  before  the  season  is  too  far  advanced.  Labor  supply  is 
above  the  average  as  to  skill  and  availability  during  the  busy 
season.  Wages  paid  are  $2.50  per  day,  without  board,  which 
costs  the  laborers  50  cents  a  day. 

The  nursery  is  located  in  a  narrow  valley  on  the  main  fork  of 
Mink  Creek,  one-half  mile  below  one  of  the  intakes  of  the  city 
water  supply,  which  area  it  is  proposed  to  reforest.  The  altitude 
of  the  nursery  is  5,200  feet.  The  surrounding  hills  rise  to  nearly 
6,000  feet  within  a  mile  of  the  stream.  The  soil  of  the  seed  beds 
is  a  rich  argillaceous  loam,  whose  mechanical  texture  has  been 
somewhat  improved  artificially.  The  nursery  lies  on  a  slope  with 
southern  aspect.  The  sloping  character  has  been  corrected  by 
leveling  the  individual  beds,  retaining  the  proper  level  by  means  of 
four  inch  strips  of  boards  on  the  lower  sides.  A  new  seed  bed 
is  located  300  feet  distant  upon  the  creek  bottom,  which  is  a  flat 
about  two  acres  in  extent.  The  soil  here  is  alluvial,  and  is  quite 
largely  of  organic  origin.  Good  garden  crops  have  been  raised 
upon  this  flat  during  the  past  three  years,  and  it  is  anticipated 
that  it  will  meet  the  requirements  of  seedlings  even  better  than 
the  present  seed  bed. 

Seed  beds  are  of  two  sorts,  according  to  the  height  and  nature 
of  shade  frame.  Two  seed  beds,  called  "lath  houses,"  of  2,500 
square  feet  available  seed  area  each,  are  covered  with  lath  screen, 
made  as  a  woven  wire  fence,  in  strips  70  feet  long  and  4  feet 
wide.  These  are  supported  upon  a  frame  work  8  feet  above  the 
ground.  The  spacing  of  the  lath  is  such  that  40%  shade  is  given. 
The  sides  are  protected  in  the  same  manner  by  lath  fencing,  and 
protection  from  rodents  is  secured  by  the  placing  of  wire  netting, 
2  feet  wide,  with  9  meshes  to  the  square  inch,  about  the  bottom 
of  the  inclosure,  6  inches  being  below  the  level  of  the  ground. 
These  lath  houses  are  50  feet  by  70  feet  in  size  and  are  provided 
with  walks,  and  are  made  into  beds,  four  feet  wide.  The  aggre- 
gate seed  area  of  these  beds  is  2,500  square  feet.  They  are  suit- 
ably provided  with  iron  piping,  faucets  and  hose  attachments  for 
watering. 


Forest  Planting  in  National  Forests.  137 

Low  shade  frames,  of  the  same  mesh  as  that  used  for  the  lath 
houses,  12  in  number,  are  made  4  feet  by  12  feet,  for  a  seed  area 
of  48  square  feet  each.  They  are  placed  12  inches  high  above 
ground.  These  screens  are  made  of  lath  nailed  on  two  pieces  of 
wood  extending  from  end  to  end  of  the  frame.  They  are  de- 
signed to  be  handled  by  one  man.  We  calculated  to  shade  50  per 
cent. 

The  soil  is  reduced  to  a  suitable  depth  for  seeding  by  spading 
and  raking.  The  seeds  are  sown  broad  cast,  about  24  ounces  of 
Douglas  Fir  seed  to  100  square  feet  of  seed  bed.  This  is  designed 
to  produce  375  seedlings  per  square  foot. 

The  seedlings  remain  in  the  beds  two  years,  receiving  timely 
watering,  weeding,  mulching  during  the  winter,  and  other  care. 

They  are,  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  year,  transplanted  into 
transplant  beds,  where  they  are  spaced  i-|  inches  in  rows  by  6 
inches  between  rows.  Ordinarily  two  men  will  transplant  8,000 
to  10,000  plants  of  this  species  per  day,  by  means  of  a  transplant 
board.  Watering  and  weeding  are  required  during  the  season 
for  these  plants  also. 

Field  planting  is  best  accomplished  by  dividing  the  force  into 
crews  of  five  men  each,  one  man  carrying  in  a  bucket  transplants 
which  have  been  "puddled,"  and  handing  them  to  the  planters. 
The  soil  is  "wounded"  by  men  with  mattocks.  The  transplants 
are  spaced  6  feet,  the  distance  being  slightly  varied  to  suit  the 
more  favorable  conditions  as  to  soil  and  cover. 

Plantations  will  be  begun  this  spring  systematically,  on  an 
area  above  the  intake  of  the  city  water  supply  mains.  An  area 
has  been  selected  near  an  altitude  of  6,000  feet  that  is  evidently 
potential  forest  land.  The  soil  is  a  loam  of  moderate  texture  and 
fertility.  It  now  bears  a  scattering  stand  of  sage  brush.  Each 
year  the  plantations  will  be  marked  in  a  permanent  manner,  and 
plotted  upon  the  map  of  the  district.  In  all  there  are  about  8,000 
acres  of  potential  forest  land  upon  this  watershed,  at  present  de- 
void of  tree  growth,  which  will  be  reforested  as  funds  permit. 

Aside  from  the  actual  nursery  operations,  field  sowing  is  being 
tried  experimentally,  in  an  effort  to  devise  a  satisfactory  substi- 
tute for  the  expensive  planting. 

Experiments  along  the  lines  of  preventing  and  curing  damping- 
off  have  also  been  made  and  will  be  made  as  needed  in  an  effort 
to  determine  the     best  local  methods  for  producing  plants  of 


138  Forestry  Quarterly. 

maximum  vigor  at  a  minimum  cost.  The  relative  merits  of  high 
versus  low  shade  was  tested  last  season,  with  the  result  of  50% 
better  germination  and  immunity  from  fungus,  under  the  high 
shade  lath  house  as  compared  with  the  low  shade  frames. 

The  plant  now  at  this  station  exclusive  of  the  seed  bed  struc- 
tures consist  of  an  office  building  of  one  room,  a  three  roomed 
dwelling  house,  a  bunk  house,  barn  and  tool  house.  The  first  two 
named  buildings  are  made  of  D  sawn  logs  and  present  a  very- 
neat  and  attractive  appearance  besides  being  very  comfortable 
dwellings. 

The  Pocatello  planting  station  will  occupy  a  definite  place  in 
the  future  management  of  this  and  other  National  Forests  in 
southern  Idaho.  From  it  as  a  source,  plant  material  will  be 
shipped  to  other  portions  of  this  Forest,  and  to  other  National 
Forests,  where  local  conditions  demand  intensive  forest  manage- 
ment. 


LOGGING  IN  THE  REDWOODS. 

Niles  B.  Eckbo. 

Humboldt  County  is  situated  on  the  Northwest  coast  of  Cali- 
fornia. It  is  108  miles  in  extent  along  the  ocean  with  an  average 
width  of  approximately  35  miles,  making  a  total  area  of  about 
two  and  a  quarter  million  acres. 

It  is  calculated  that  originally  there  were  about  540,000  acres 
of  redwood  forest  in  the  county  of  which  some  70,000  acres  have 
been  cut.  The  known  amount  of  lumber  taken  from  this  cut  over 
land  justifies  the  average  estimate  of  100,000  feet  board  measure 
per  acre,  which  makes  a  total  of  7,000,000,000  feet.  Many  claims 
of  160  acres  will  yield  40,000,000  feet,  and  certain  acres  have 
yielded  as  much  as  1,300,000  feet.  One  tree  cut  by  the  Vance 
Redwood  Lumber  Company  in  1902  yielded  over  165,000  feet  of 
lumber  tallied  from  the  saw.  The  annual  cut  of  lumber  (exclu- 
sive of  shingles,  shakes,  etc.)  in  Humboldt  County  is  now  almost 
three  hundred  million  feet,  which  is  the  output  of  the  11  large 
sawmills  operating.  The  income  from  this  has  reached  as  high  as 
$6,000,000  yearly. 

The  redwood  belt  of  California  reaches  its  maximum  of  per- 
fection in  Humboldt  County,  and  it  is  not  strange  that  lumber  in 
its  various  forms  should  be  the  dominating  business  interest. 

The  redwood  occurs  mostly  in  pure  stands ;  but  is  mixed  some- 
times to  a  small  extent  with  Douglas  and  White  Fir,  (which  are 
both  generally  known  as  pine)  oaks,  madrona,  and  various 
other  trees. 

An  excellent  stand  of  almost  pure  redwoods  can  be  found  on 
Bull  Creek,  which  is  specially  wonderful  on  account  of  its  uni- 
formity in  sizes  and  the  flatness  of  the  ground.  It  is  considered 
the  best  redwood  timber  in  the  country.  Trees  from  10  to  16  feet 
in  diameter  are  not  rare,  and  the  timber  appeared  to  be  straight, 
not  badly  defective ;  but  with  quite  a  few  windfalls,  that  no  doubt 
yet  can  be  utilized  to  a  great  extent.  There  are  also  fine  stands 
of  redwood  on  Eel  River,  South  Fork  and  Mad  River  and  others. 

One  of  the  largest  redwoods  left  in  this  section  of  the  country 
grows  on  Simpson  Creek,  which  is  a  tributary  to  Mad  River.     It 


140  Forestry  Quarterly. 

measures  22  feet  in  diameter  at  the  butt;  it  is  approximately  200 
feet  high  and  has  a  bark  of  an  average  thickness  of  9  inches.  A 
trail,  which  is  tramped  entirely  by  interested  sightseers,  leads  to 
it  from  the  county  road. 

The  redwood  does  not  grow  very  fast,  and  a  few  stump 
analyses  showed  that  a  tree  5  feet  in  diameter  was  about  from 
600  to  700  years  old,  while  a  tree  8^  feet  in  diameter  showed  the 
age  of  900  years. 

The  redwood  reproduces  itself  by  seeds  and  sprouts,  and  the 
latter  are  of  most  importance  on  the  cut  over  lands.  Frequently  as 
many  as  20  sprouts  may  be  seen  coming  forth  from  the  neck  of 
the  roots,  and  occasionally  a  few  sprouts  come  out  from  the  top 
or  the  sides  of  the  stump  itself.  It  is  claimed  by  lumbermen, 
that  the  material  in  the  second  growth  redwood  is  of  inferior 
quality,  and  will  only  make  second  grade  of  lumber. 

The  stumpage  price  of  redwood  has  gone  up  greatly  in  late 
years,  and  is  still  increasing  at  the  same  rate.  The  present  price 
varies  usually  between  $2.25  to  $3.25  per  M  feet  board  measure; 
but  most  of  the  land  is  already  in  the  hands  of  large  lumber  con- 
cerns, and  is  never  known  to  be  for  sale. 

The  logging  of  the  redwood  differs  somewhat  from  the  log- 
ging of  other  species  on  account  of  the  large  sizes  that  have  to  be 
handled.  It  seems  an  immense  task  to  undertake  to  cut  down 
trees  of  such  enormous  diameters ;  but  the  fallers  seem  to  go  at 
their  giants  with  the  same  ease  as  the  choppers  do  with  their  16 
inch  trees  in  the  East.  The  fallers  work  two  and  two  together, 
and  have  nothing  else  to  do  but  fall  the  trees  properly.  This  re- 
quires some  skill  in  these  dense  forests,  where  a  tree  lodged  may 
mean  days  of  extra  labor.  The  fallers  stand  on  a  horizontal 
platform  when  felling  a  tree,  which  is  made  of  two  drivers  and 
two  boards  for  each  man.  The  undercut  is  often  made  with  ax 
and  saw,  which  is  easier  than  cutting  alone.  It  is  made  in  one 
of  two  ways,  either  by  cutting  off  part  of  the  first  log  to  the  saw- 
kerf,  or  by  cutting  off  a  slant  on  the  stump. 

To  be  sure  that  a  tree  is  going  to  fall  in  a  certain  direction  a 
gunstick  is  used.  This  stick  is  about  12  feet  long,  and  is  usually 
made  of  four  pieces  of  wood,  which  are  jointed  together  so  as  to 
form  a  parallelogram,  when  opened,  the  opposite  corners  will  be 
on  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  undercut. 

It  takes  from  2  to  2,\  hours  to  fall  a  tree  6  feet  in  diameter, 


A  Tree  That  Possibly  Dates  Back 
to  the  Time  of  Christ. 


Bull  Load  on  the  way  to  the  Landing. 


A  Typical  Redwood  Forest. 
(Sunrise) 


Logging  in  the  Redwoods.  141 

and  nearly  5  hours  to  fall  one  9  feet  in  diameter;  but  this  de- 
pends a  great  deal  on  how  curly  the  wood  is  and  how  it  leans, 
and  so  forth.  When  the  tree  is  felled  a  "ringer"  comes  and  cuts 
rings  around  the  tree  at  about  10  foot  intervals  to  make  it  pos- 
sible for  the  "peeler"  to  get  the  bark  off  easily. 

When  all  the  trees  are  peeled  on  a  certain  area,  they  are  "fired" ; 
which  means  that  a  fire  is  started  among  them  to  consume  all  the 
debris.  The  fire  is  either  started  the  same  or  the  next  season 
after  cutting.  It  chars  the  trees  to  some  extent,  and  consumes  all 
the  rotten  part  and  probably  a  little  more  in  some  instances. 

When  the  area  is  burnt  over,  the  trees  are  sawed  into  log  lengths 
by  regular  "sawyers."  The  length  of  the  logs  depends  on  the 
orders  to  be  filled.  The  logs  over  10  feet  in  diameter  are  usually 
split  in  two  with  a  black  powder.  There  must  necessarily  be 
some  waste  in  doing  so;  but  in  many  cases  it  would  not  be  prac- 
ticable to  get  heavy  enough  machinery  on  account  of  a  few  large 
logs,  and  in  other  instances  the  sawmills  would  not  be  able  to 
handle  them. 

Years  ago,  oxen  were  commonly  used  for  hauling  the  logs ; 
but  steam  has  superseded  them.  One  of  two  methods  is  com- 
monly used  here  to  get  the  logs  to  the  landing.  The  first  method 
is  to  have  a  main  skidroad  running  through  the  timber,  which  by 
a  cable,  running  in  a  closed  circle,  is  connected  with  a  40  to  50 
horsepower  "bull  donkey"  at  the  landing.  From  this  main  road 
are  built  skidroads  out  into  the  timber,  and  preferably  along  the 
small  gulches.  At  each  of  these  branch  roads  is  a  "logging 
donkey"  from  12  to  16  horsepower,  to  haul  the  logs  down  to  the 
main  road ;  where  they  are  chained  together  in  a  long  row, 
called  a  "bull  load,"  and  hauled  to  the  landing  by  the  bull  donkey. 
In  a  bull  load  may  be  as  many  as  30  logs,  when  the  timber  is 
fairly  small. 

In  the  second  method  the  bull  loads  are  handled  the  same  way 
as  formerly ;  but  the  great  number  of  branch  skidroads  are  prac- 
tically done  away  with.  This  is  due  to  the  powerful  bull  donkeys 
that  are  placed  along  the  main  skidroad  instead  of  the  logging 
donkeys,  and  these  are  able  to  haul  the  logs  without  skidroads. 
and  with  a  less  number  of  pullies.  While  the  machinery  in  the 
second  method  is  much  more  expensive,  it  is  supposed  to  save 
labor  enough  to  more  than  pay  for  itself. 

Formerly  a  number  of  horses  were  used  to  carry  water  on  their 


142  Forestry  Quarterly. 

back  to  supply  the  skidroads ;  but  now  if  water  cannot  be  found 
near  by,  it  is  pumped  up  with  separate  engines.  Besides  water  in 
the  skidroads,  the  skids  are  greased  by  the  "skid  greaser"  to 
make  the  logs  run  smoothly. 

Along  the  main  skidroad  are  usually  strung  two  electric  wires, 
that,  when  brought  in  contact  with  each  other,  will  ring  a  bell  at 
the  bull  donkey.  One  ring  of  the  bell  means  "start" ;  and  "stop" 
when  the  donkey  is  running.  Two  rings  mean  "back  up,"  and 
this  will  pull  the  cable  in  the  opposite  direction.  It  is  essential 
to  have  this  system,  in  order  to  bring  the  bull  load  to  a  stand 
still  on  any  part  of  the  road,  or  to  start  it. 

At  the  landing  the  bull  donkey  may  also  handle  the  loading  on 
the  railroad  cars,  or  there  may  be  a  separate  "loading  donkey." 
The  loading  is  done  by  bringing  the  cable  several  times  around 
the  log  and  hooking  in,  and  then  rolling  on  skids  upon  the  car. 
The  logs  are  fastened  to  the  car  with  two  "grab  hook  chains"  at 
each  end  of  the  load.  These  chains  are  long  enough  to  pass  each 
other  on  the  top  of  the  load  and  are  fastened  a  little  distance 
down  on  each  side.  This  is  a  simple  and  very  efficient  means, 
but  of  course  leaves  a  few  hookmarks  on  some  of  the  logs.  The 
logs  are  carried  to  the  mill-pond  by  railroads  and  dumped  into 
the  mill-pond  by  loosening  the  chains  and  running  the  cars  over  a 
tilted  track. 

The  sawmills  are  naturally  somewhat  more  heavily  constructed 
than  sawmills  in  general.  The  largest  logs  are  usually  taken  into 
the  mill  on  carriages,  and  are  often  split  in  two  on  an  exception- 
ally large  band-saw  before  they  are  cut  into  smaller  sizes.  The 
redwood  is  sawed  into  boards,  planks,  dimension  stuff,  shingles, 
lath,  and  is  used  for  turning,  sash  and  doors,  boxes,  etcetera. 

The  wood  takes  a  good  polish,  and  the  curly  wood  especially 
makes  an  elegant  and  handsome  finish.  Burls  often  occur  5  feet 
through,  and  are  frequently  utilized  for  fancy  furniture.  The 
lumber  is  mainly  sold  on  the  coast  and  shipped  to  the  Orient. 

The  enormous  waste  in  lumbering  that  formerly  took  place, 
has  now  been  reduced  considerably ;  but  there  are  yet  large 
quantities  of  good  material  that  is  not  utilized.  While  now  the 
stumps  in  most  places  are  supposed  to  be  cut  very  low,  several 
hundred  feet  of  lumber  could  be  saved  from  many  of  them. 
The  wood  near  the  stump  is  usually  of  better  quality  than  the 
rest  of  the  tree,  and  is  certain  to  make  first  class  shingles,  box- 


An  Unde 

rcut. 

IK 

Wa 

**&&■ 

Mm^ 

L  *Jlz1 

Cut  Over  Land. 


Logging  in  the  Redwoods.  143 

boards  and  so  forth.  There  is  one  factor  that  makes  the  waste 
in  logging  not  as  serious  as  it  might  be.  The  redwood  has  a 
wonderful  capacity  of  withstanding  decay,  and  when  the  redwood 
supply  is  getting  shorter  and  the  stumpage  prices  go  up,  it  may 
yet  be  time  to  come  back  and  get  what  may  have  been  left  10 
to  20  years  ago.  This  has  already  taken  place  in  several  locali- 
ties. It  is  the  waste  in  the  sawmills  that  is  the  most  serious  con- 
sideration, and  it  is  difficult  to  reconcile  oneself  to  the  amount  of 
good  lumber  that  is  consumed  in  many  of  the  various  round- 
houses for  fuel.  The  reason  for  this  consumption  is,  that  it  takes 
a  good  deal  of  labor  and  expense  to  sort  out  the  small  material, 
which  could  be  used  for  various  purposes,  and  the  profit  in  so 
doing  is  comparatively  small.  Naturally  most  men  think  of  the 
large  profits  and  disregard  the  small  ones. 

Strict  economy  may  not  be  essential  at  the  present  time,  as 
much  as  it  would  be  advisable ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  it  will  come 
later  when  the  supply  of  redwood  becomes  more  limited. 


10 


RECENT  LOG  RULES. 

Henry  S.  Graves. 

It  has  been  the  custom  in  this  country  for  a  good  many  years 
to  express  the  contents  of  round  log's  in  board  measure,  a  unit 
originally  designed  for  manufactured  lumber.  Log  rules  are  con- 
structed to  show  the  board  contents  of  logs  of  different  sizes. 
These  rules  show  really  the  amount  of  lumber,  expressed  in  board 
feet  which  it  is  estimated  may  be  manufactured  from  logs.  The 
factors  determining  the  amount  of  lumber  that  may  be  secured 
from  logs  are  exceedingly  variable  and  hence  it  has  not  been 
possible  to  construct  a  log  rule  that  will  satisfy  every  manufac- 
turer. The  result  has  been  the  production  of  a  large  number  of 
log  rules,  most  of  which  have  been  used  in  actual  business  trans- 
actions. 

From  time  to  time  there  has  been  an  agitation  toward  uni- 
formity in  log  measure.  These  agitations  have  usually  resulted 
in  the  production  of  more  rules.  In  1900  the  Woodsman's  Hand- 
book was  published  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Forestry.  In  that 
book  the  writer  brought  together  43  different  commercial  log 
rules  for  board  measure  used  in  this  country  and  Canada.  Per- 
haps that  work  added  to  the  interest  in  the  subject.  At  any  rate 
the  presentation  of  the  great  array  of  rules  with  their  many 
variations  and  deficiencies  has  not  stopped  the  production  of  new 
rules.  Mathematicians  have  taken  a  hand  and  worked  out  rules 
based  on  sound  mathematics  rather  than  on  rules  of  thumb.  The 
Champlain  Rule  of  Professor  Daniels  is  a  case  in  point — a  rule 
which  seems  thoroughly  adaptable  to  practical  conditions,  but  so 
far  very  few  manufacturers  have  adopted  it,  as  far  as  the  writer 
is  informed.  This  and  Professor  J.  F.  Clark's  International  rule 
have  been  discussed  in  the  writer's  Forest  Mensuration.  Since 
the  appearance  of  that  book  in  1906  a  number  of  new  rules  have 
appeared  whose  review  may  be  of  interest. 

Massachusetts'  Rule.  In  1905  Mr.  R.  C.  Hawley,  then  As- 
sistant State  Forester  of  Massachusetts,  made  a  local  study  of  the 
volume  of  White  Pine.  The  investigation  comprised  the  con- 
struction of  a  log  rule  from  mill  tallies.     Over  1200  logs  at  12 


Recent  Log  Rules.  145 

mills  were  measured,  followed  through  the  mill,  and  the  product 
ascertained.  The  results  were  tabulated  in  the  form  of  a  log  rule 
which  has  recently  been  published  in  "Forest  Mensuration  of  the 
White  Pine  in  Massachusetts"  by  Harold  O.  Cook,  Boston.  The 
Massachusetts  log  rule  is  supposed  to  show  the  actual  product  in 
inch  boards  which  the  average  portable  mill  can  produce  from 
white  pine  under  the  present  conditions  in  Massachusetts.  It  has 
been  tested  at  nearly  200  mills  and  gives  satisfaction. 

Clement's  Log  Rule.  This  rule  was  designed  by  Charles  J. 
Clement,  of  Portland,  Oregon.  It  was  published  in  1904  in  a 
small  pocket  booklet  entitled  "Clement's  Rule  and  Table  for  the 
Measurement  of  Logs."  It  only  recently  came  to  the  writer's 
attention  and  was  not  noted  in  "Forest  Mensuration."  The  claim 
is  made  that  it  is  the  only  rule  which  gives  the  exact  amount  of 
board  measure,  etc.,  a  statement  which  prejudices  one  against  it 
at  the  outset.  The  rule  is  as  follows :  Multiply  half  the  diameter 
by  half  the  circumference,  then  subtract  half  the  circumference, 
the  remainder  will  be  the  total  amount  of  feet,  board  measure, 
in  a  16  foot  log.  Or  if  the  circumference  is  unknown,  multiply 
the  diameter  by  3. 141 6,  then  divide  the  product  by  two  and  multi- 
ply by  half  the  diameter  and  subtract  as  above  mentioned.  If  the 
log  is  more  or  less  than  16  feet,  divide  the  amount  of  feet  by 
16,  then  multiply  this  remainder  by  the  number  of  feet  in  the 
length  of  the  log. 

Click's  Log  Rule.  This  rule  has  been  devised  by  Mr.  A.  G. 
Click,  of  Elkin,  N.  C.  The  general  rule  is  as  follows :  From  the 
square  of  the  diameter  deduct  two  and  a  half  diameters  and  mul- 
tiply the  remainder  by  one-half  the  length  of  the  log  and  cut  off 
the  right  hand  figure. 

Calcasieu  Standard  Log  Rule.  This  table  is  based  on  the  fol- 
lowing rule  of  thumb ;  Multiply  diameter  by  diameter,  that  pro- 
duct by  length,  divide  by  32,  and  add  one  one-hundredth. 

As  seen  in  the  comparison  table  below  the  results  are  absurdly 
small  for  large  logs.  This  rule  is  published  by  Irvine  &  Irvine, 
725  Ryan  St.,  Lake  Charles,  La. 


146  Forestry  Quarterly. 

COMPARISON  OF  LOG  RULES. 
Sixteen-foot  Logs. 

Diameters. 
8    10     12      14      16      18      20      24      30      36        40 

Board  Feet. 

Scribner,    32    54     79     114  159  213  280  404  657    923     1204 

Mass.,    51     79  ii5     IS8  205  256 

Clement,     37    62     94     131  175  226  282  414  659     961     1 193 

Click,     55    60    91     129  173  223  280  413  660    965     1200 

Calcasieu,    50    73      99  129  163  201  290  453 

Cubic  Foot  Rules.  One  of  the  most  encouraging  steps  in  ad- 
vance in  log  measurement  is  the  agitation  in  Maine  for  a  cubic 
foot  rule  for  the  measurement  of  pulpwood.  A  committee  ap- 
pointed by  the  Legislature  to  investigate  the  subject  of  log  meas- 
urement has  reported  in  favor  of  the  cubic  measure. 

A  cubic  feet  rule  has  just  been  issued  by  Mr.  Halbert  G.  Robin- 
son, of  Patten,  Me.  This  is  described  in  "The  Measurement  of 
Logs"  published  by  Thomas  W.  Burr  Printing  Co.,  Bangor,  Me. 
Robinson's  table  is  based  on  the  careful  taper  measurements  of 
4398  logs.  The  cubic  contents  of  each  was  computed  and  then  a 
table  of  averages  constructed  on  a  basis  of  the  middle  diameter 
of  the  logs  and  the  length.  It  was  found  that  the  taper  of  spruce 
averaged  one  inch  for  every  7.5  feet  of  length,  for  logs  up  to  40 
feet  long.  Longer  logs  had  a  more  rapid  taper,  so  that  the  log 
lengths  were  limited  to  40  feet  in  the  table.  After  arranging  a 
table  by  curves  the  author  worked  out  a  formula  to  express  the 
values  and  to  aid  in  interpolating  where  the  original  data  were 
insufficient  to  permit  of  constructing  curves.  The  formula  is  as 
follows : 

3.i4i6XD2XLXi.049 

V=B*XLX  1.049=— —=0.824    D2    L    in 

4 
which  Bi  is  the  sectional  area  at  the  middle,  D  is  the  diameter  at 
the  middle,  L  the  length,  and  1.049  tne  average  taper  of  the  log. 
The  author  has  presented  the  table  in  the  form  of  a  diagram 
which  may  be  used  in  constructing  a  caliper  scale.  A  table  is 
also  given  showing  the  allowance  which  must  be  made  for  bark. 


RANGER  COURSES. 

Julian  Eastman  Rothsry,  M.  F. 

One  of  the  important  and  typical  institutions  in  Old  World 
forestry  is  the  training  school  for  Forest  Rangers.  The  Indian 
School  at  Dehra  Dun  and  the  several  famous  academies  in 
Europe  are  established  on  certain  factors  in  the  forest  policies 
of  their  respective  countries. 

The  progress  of  American  Forestry  has  hardly  included  the 
creation  of  schools  of  this  kind,  until,  independently,  some  of  the 
Western  colleges  have  started  Ranger  Courses  of  two  or  three 
months  duration  in  the  winter  season.  The  need  and  value  of 
these  courses  is  only  just  beginning  to  be  realized ;  their  syste- 
matic development  has  not  yet  been  undertaken. 

I  should  like  to  draw  attention  to  two  points  concerning  pri- 
mary forest  instruction.  First,  the  demand  for  and  value  of 
such  instruction ;  second,  the  most  feasible  manner  of  building 
up  ranger  training  schools. 

There  are  probably  very  few  government  positions  of  equal 
rank  which  require  so  many  different  qualifications  and  such  a 
wide  scope  of  knowledge,  both  in  the  field  and  in  the  office,  as  the 
position  of  Forest  Ranger.  He  must  have  certain  natural  abili- 
ties, and  in  addition  a  certain  special  training.  As  he  deals  di- 
rectly with  the  forest  users,  from  his  competency  the  Service  is 
often  judged.  Frequently  he  is  a  man  of  wide  field  experience, 
but  of  limited  understanding  along  practical  forestry  lines,  con- 
cerning which  he  is  expected  to  have  so  much  and  applicable 
knowledge.  However,  when  it  comes  to  range  and  stock  prob- 
lems, he  has  a  keen  and  almost  incredible  perception  and  knowl- 
edge, an  intimacy  that  can  never  come  to  any,  except  the  man 
born  and  raised  on  the  range. 

This,  then,  is  the  typical  Forest  Ranger  to-day,  strong  in  the 
grazing  lines  developed  by  years  of  contact,  but  hampered  by 
lack  of  conceptions  of  the  elements  of  handling  timber  and  often 
of  surveying  and  other  subjects,  which  fundamentals  may  be 
given  in  a  comparatively  brief  period,  fully  enough  for  a  general 
basis  in  every  day  work. 


148  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Yearly  the  demands  on  the  Ranger  have  increased  in  variety 
and  degree  until  now,  many  are  exercising  more  judgment,  and 
shouldering  more  responsibility,  than  did  the  Forest  Supervisor 
five  or  six  years  ago. 

To  meet  these  demands,  there  are  usually  but  two  methods  of 
development:  instruction  from  headquarters,  and  profiting  by 
past  mistakes ;  these  are  cumbersome,  inaccurate,  and  costly  in 
time  and  money.  Or  else,  systematic  teaching  in  ranger  schools 
may  be  substituted.  One  Ranger,  after  taking  a  winter  course  in 
a  Western  college,  made  the  statement  to  me  that  he  had  learned 
more  about  timber  sales  and  the  silviculture  governing  them,  by 
two  months  application  in  class,  than  he  had  in  two  years  work  on 
the  Forest.  He  added  he  could  see  the  mistakes  he  had  made  in 
marking  timber,  and  that  his  district  would  look  differently  now 
had  he  obtained  his  fundamental  principles  earlier.  His  is  a  case 
of  rapid  development.  If  he  intelligently  puts  into  practice  his 
conceptions,  it  will  benefit  himself  and  the  Forest  Service. 

The  value  of  a  Ranger  Course  will,  I  believe,  be  appreciated 
and  acknowledged  by  all  in  contact  with  National  Forest  prob- 
lems of  to-day. 

In  regard  to  the  second  point,  the  most  logical  manner  of 
building  up  ranger  training  schools,  little  has  been  attempted. 
Several  considerations  which  must  be  given  weight  are  the 
location  of  the  school,  the  time  and  duration  of  the  course, 
subjects  of  study,  the  instructor,  and  last  but  not  least,  the  policy 
of  the  Forest  Service  towards  such  schools. 

The  various  state  and  agricultural  colleges  throughout  the  six 
Administrative  Districts  offer  certain  advantages :  i.  e.  fair 
proximity  to  the  District  Office  and  the  Forests  from  which 
Rangers  would  be  drawn,  a  faculty  which  could  give  instruction 
in  allied  subjects,  and  often  some  equipment  at  least,  along  bio- 
logical and  engineering  lines. 

A  thorough  canvass  of  a  class  of  nearly  twenty  men  who 
attended  a  course  this  past  winter  showed  that  three  months, 
January,  February,  and  March,  could  usually  be  spared  from 
work,  and  was  not  too  long  to  cover  the  ground  which  they  felt 
needed  to  be  covered.  It  also  disclosed  the  rather  surprising  fact 
that  the  men  were  nearly  unanimous  in  believing  that  Silvicul- 
ture, Dendrology,  and  Timber  Physics  were  of  more  importance 
and  benefit  than  Surveying,  which  one  might  suppose  would  ap- 


Ranger  Courses.  149 

peal  to  them  because  it  is  practical.  This  denotes  a  wholesome 
eagerness  to  acquire  some  elements  of  well  balanced  forestry,  a 
non-temporizing  spirit  which  is  one  of  the  essentials  of  forest 
work. 

The  Forest  Service  has  always  done  its  share  in  furloughing  or 
assigning  men  to  give  instruction  in  applied  forestry.  With  this 
broad  attitude  I  heartily  concur,  and  am  convinced  that  in  short 
courses,  particularly,  it  is  indispensable ;  for  a  man  familiar  with 
government  work  is  far  better  able  to  realize  the  needs  of  both 
the  Service  and  the  men,  and  to  emphasize  the  salient  points  and 
the  necessary  details.  Without  loss  of  time  and  from  the  view- 
point of  experience,  he  is  able  to  link  together  the  theory  and 
practice  which  is  paramount  in  a  short  course,  and  in  a  manner 
impossible  for  one  not  familiar  with  Forest  Service  requirements. 

But  further  than  this  the  Service  has  not  yet  gone.  When  the 
government  needs  specially  trained  men  for  the  Army  or  Navy, 
it  enlists  them  as  students,  under  pay,  and  educates  them  to  fill 
the  specialized  duties  of  officers.  Some  corporations  and  munici- 
palities do  the  same  for  their  employees,  and  find  that  they  are 
thus  able  to  build  up  a  corps  of  experts,  obtainable  by  no  other 
manner. 

Any  money  that  the  government  could  spend  in  reimbursing 
the  expenses  of  a  promising  ranger  would  most  certainly  make 
good  return  in  the  higher  efficiency  of  the  man. 

To  attend  a  ranger  course  may  involve  an  almost  prohibitory 
sacrifice  in  many  cases ;  two — three  hundred  dollars  loss  of 
salary,  and  about  half  that  for  expenses,  is  a  fair  estimate  based 
on  actual  figures.  A  furlough  on  part  pay  might  readily  make 
the  difference  between  attendance  and  non-attendance,  and  this 
small  encouragement  is  insignificant  in  comparison  to  the  re- 
sults obtainable  from  it.  The  expenditure  for  a  single  incorrect 
survey  may  run  as  high  as  forty  dollars ;  yet  a  man,  after  even  a 
three  months'  course,  should  be  able  to  check  his  work  by  lati- 
tudes and  departures  before  ever  leaving  the  ground. 

The  cost  of  a  small,  poorly  managed  timber  sale  may  be  ex- 
cessive, considered  in  the  light  of  future  demands  on  the  Forest, 
but  a  ranger  should  be  well  fitted  to  handle  such  a  sale  after  con- 
scientious application  at  some  good  school. 

It  is  not  the  object  of  this  article  to  attempt  to  outline  a  system 
of  study,  for  the  application  of  the  principles  would  vary  some- 


150  Forestry  Quarterly. 

what  with  the  locality  and  nature  of  the  school  and  the  region 
furnishing  the  men.  But  one  small  matter  concerning  the  pre- 
sentation of  studies  ought  to  be  noticed,  i.  e.  Practicability.  To 
keep  up  interest  and  to  work  at  the  highest  efficiency,  the  stu- 
dents, and  particularly  the  older  ones,  must  see  how  they  can  put 
in  practice  their  newly  acquired  knowledge.  It  should  be  em- 
phasized by  many  and  familiar  examples  that  the  foundations  of 
American  Forestry  are  broad  and  enduring,  but  that  the  practical 
application  is  real  and  possible,  that  Silviculture  is  not  merely  a 
theory,  but  a  reality  that  can  be  undertaken  on  each  Forest  and  in 
many  ways,  from  cleaning  up  an  old  burn  to  the  proper  adminis- 
tration of  a  large  timber  sale.  Show,  for  illustration,  that  sound 
elements  of  wood  preservation  may  be  called  forth  as  certainly  in 
the  construction  of  a  mountain  telephone  line,  as  in  more  com- 
plicated work. 

Ranger  Instruction  is  bound  to  play  an  important  part  in  Na- 
tional Forest  administration,  as  the  quickest  method  of  training 
men  to  new  and  varied  duties.  If  the  Forest  Service  can  cooper- 
ate with  one  institution  in  each  of  the  Six  Districts,  and  assign 
or  furlough  instructors,  and  financially  encourage  the  best 
rangers  to  attend,  then  the  institution  may  profitably  take  up  the 
systematic  development  of  a  ranger  course,  possibly  planning  for 
two  winters  of  progressive  work  for  the  more  competent,  and 
the  first  great  stride  in  establishing  an  American  counterpart  of 
the  Old  World  Academy  will  have  been  taken. 


A   PLEA    FOR   ABOLISHING   THE   DUTY   ON   EVER- 
GREEN SEEDLINGS  FOR  FOREST  PLANTING. 

Eujcott  D.  Curtis. 

Forest  planting  at  the  present  time  in  the  United  States  is  con- 
fined almost  entirely  to  lands  unsuited  for  agricultural  purposes, 
and  especially  to  lands  which  have  been  abandoned  as  farm  lands 
and  are  now  growing  up  to  brush.  This  type  of  land  is  extensive 
in  all  the  states  in,  and  east  of,  the  Appalachian  Mountains. 
Almost  every  farm  of  any  size  in  these  states  includes  a  certain 
amount  of  this  sort  of  land. 

The  plants  used  for  re-foresting  are  almost  entirely  evergreens, 
and  the  sizes  which  have  been  found  most  suitable  are  two-year- 
old  seedlings  and  three  year-year-old  transplants.  One  year  old 
trees  are  hardly  ever  large  enough  for  planting  out,  and  four- 
year  transplants  have  too  slight  an  advantage  over  the  three-year- 
old  trees  to  justify  their  use,  except  in  special  cases. 

The  most  approved  method  in  New  York  and  New  England 
is  to  plant  these  trees  at  the  rate  of  about  five  by  six  feet,  making 
nearly  1,500  trees  to  each  acre.  The  labor  cost  of  setting  out 
trees  of  this  kind  under  favorable  circumstances,  is  about  $2.25 
per  acre.  The  largest  item  in  the  cost  of  reforesting  is,  therefore, 
the  cost  of  the  trees.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  experience 
in  New  York  and  New  England  proves  that  two-year  seedlings 
can  be  used  for  this  purpose  when  they  do  not  have  to  be  shipped 
far,  but  in  general,  three-year-old  transplanted  trees  are  much 
better  and  are  well  worth  the  additional  cost. 

With  two-year  seedlings  there  will  be  a  larger  proportion  of 
re-planting  necessary,  which  will  increase  the  labor  cost  consid- 
erably, while  with  transplanted  trees  the  loss  should  not  be 
greater  than  10%,  which  will  make  no  material  difference  in  the 
future  forest. 

I  have  prepared  the  following  table  showing  the  cost  of  trees 
both  in  Germany  and  in  this  country,  together  with  the  cost  of 
importing,  and  the  per  cent,  of  duty  at  the  present  rate. 

The  prices  given  below  are  per  thousand  trees. 


152 


Forestry  Quarterly. 


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Duty  on  Seedlings.  153 

For  the  expense  of  raising  similar  trees  in  the  United  States 
the  figures  have  been  taken  from  a  bulletin  in  course  of  prepara- 
tion by  the  Division  of  Forestry,  and  they  are  corroborated  by 
information  which  I  have  obtained  from  independent  sources. 

The  species  of  trees  which  I  have  selected  for  this  table  are 
the  ones  which  are  most  used  in  this  work  in  almost  every  part 
of  the  country. 

From  the  above  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  cost  of  re-foresting 
one  acre  of  land  with  white  pine  seedlings  imported  from  Ger- 
many and  planted  at  the  rate  of  1500  per  acre,  will  amount  to 
$3.90,  and  if  three-year  transplanted  trees  are  used,  the  cost  will 
be  increased  to  very  nearly  $7.00  per  acre. 

For  the  spring  of  1908  white  pines  could  be  obtained  in  Ger- 
many for  $1.51  per  thousand,  and  could  be  delivered  in  New 
York  at  a  cost  not  exceeding  $3.50  per  thousand,  which  reduced 
the  cost  of  plants  per  acre  to  $5.25,  at  which  price  the  work  can 
be  satisfactorily  done.  It  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  ordinary 
farmer  or  land  owner  can  be  induced  to  re-forest  his  waste  land 
where  the  cost  of  material  is  over  $5.50  per  acre,  for  the  labor 
cost  will  increase  this  to  a  total  per  acre  cost  of  $7.75  which  is 
often  considerably  more  than  the  land  is  worth. 

A  point  particularly  to  be  noticed  about  the  above  table  is, 
however,  that  even  with  a  duty  of  from  68  to  265%  on  German 
seedlings,  they  can  yet  be  sold  in  this  country  at  a  less  price  than 
American-raised  seedlings,  and  a  specific  duty  of  $2.00  per  thou- 
sand would  not  change  this  result. 

It  should  further  be  noticed,  and  this  is  the  most  important 
fact  to  which  I  desire  to  draw  attention,  that  transplanted  trees 
upon  which  the  ordinary  land  owner  or  farmer  without  forestry 
experience  must  place  his  chief  reliance,  can  practically  not  be 
bought  in  this  country  at  any  reasonable  price.  It  is  impossible 
to  use  White  Pine,  the  most  important  lumber  tree  in  this  coun- 
try for  re-foresting  land,  when  the  transplanted  trees  cost  $18 
per  thousand,  the  lowest  price  at  which  they  were  offered  by  any 
nurseryman  in  this  country  in  the  spring  of  1908.  The  nursery- 
men mentioned  above  are  among  the  best  in  the  United  States, 
and  the  prices  which  I  have  given  are  all  from  their  printed  cata- 
logues sent  me  in  the  spring  of  1908  in  reply  to  my  request  for 
quotations  on  stock  for  forest  planting. 

I  desire  further  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  raising 
of  trees  for  forest  planting  is  a  comparatively  new  industry ;   that 


154  Forestry  Quarterly. 

very  little  capital  has  been  invested  in  it,  and  that  the  entire  re- 
moval of  the  duty  on  this  class  of  trees  will  be  attended  with  no 
great  loss  to  anyone. 

The  statement  in  Mr.  Hill's  letter  to  the  Tariff  Committee 
given  on  page  6,166  of  the  record,  that  he  has  200,000,000  ever- 
green seedlings  for  forest  planting,  is  evidently  a  typographical 
error.  These  trees  for  forest  planting  will  not  average  over  three 
years  old,  so  that  if  the  statement  were  true,  Mr.  Hill  would  be 
selling  about  70,000,000  seedlings  per  annum,  or  enough  to  forest 
about  45,000  acres.  It  can  be  positively  stated  that  no  re-foresta- 
tion  is  being  done  on  this  scale.  Probably  no  concern  is  planting 
more  than  the  State  of  New  York  in  its  Adirondack  forests,  and 
the  total  area  planted  by  them  in  1907  was  about  300  acres.  Less 
than  500  acres  were  planted  in  1907  in  the  whole  State  of  Con- 
necticut, and  it  is  doubtful  if  in  the  whole  United  States  10,000 
acres  of  evergreen  forest  seedlings  have  ever  been  planted  in  any 
one  year.   Mr.  Hill's  statement  therefore  is,  as  printed,  not  correct. 

It  should  further  be  stated  that  comparatively  few  importa- 
tions of  forest  seedlings  are  made  by  the  consumer,  most  of  this 
business  being  in  the  hands  of  nurserymen  who  make  a  specialty 
of  importing  the  stock.  Further  than  this,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
European  stock  can  be  successfully  shipped  very  far  from  the 
Atlantic  Seaboard,  as  the  trees  will  not  stand  a  longer  journey. 
It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  any  tariff  on  evergreen  seedlings 
is  a  burden  on  the  Eastern  consumer  and  does  not  affect  the 
Western  market  of  the  Western  producer  to  any  appreciable  ex- 
tent. 

When  we  consider  the  large  sums  that  the  National  and  State 
Governments  are  spending  on  forestry  propaganda,  and  that  the 
land  owner  must  wait  some  forty  years  for  his  crop,  it  seems 
both  unwise  and  unnecessary  to  put  any  additional  burden  on  the 
cost  of  planting  forests.  It  is  only  the  very  wealthy  who  will  use 
planting  stock  at  a  cost  of  $4.65  per  thousand,  which  is  the  cost 
of  white  pine  transplants  delivered  in  New  York  this  spring.  The 
elimination  of  the  duty  will  bring  this  cost  down  to  $3.25  per 
thousand,  placing  the  trees  within  the  reach  of  every  farmer. 
The  continuance  of  the  duty  will  restrict  planting  to  persons  of 
wealth  or  to  large  corporations  who  will  raise  their  own  plants. 
The  status  of  the  American  grower  of  seedlings  will  not  be  af- 
fected by  the  removal  of  this  duty,  while  forestry  will  at  least 
be  made  possible  to  many  millions  of  land-owners. 


NOTE  ON  THE  TREES  IN  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 

One  cannot  realize  the  richness  of  the  tree  flora  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  until  he  is  told  that  there  have  already  been  found 
over  two  thousand  kinds  in  the  Philippine  Islands.  This  means 
more  to  the  average  person  when  it  is  known  that  here  there  are 
probably  three  times  as  many  varieties  as  have  been  found  in 
the  United  States.  When  all  is  known  concerning  the  tree  flora 
of  the  Philippines,  it  is  probable  that  this  number  will  reach  three 
thousand.  Of  course,  it  must  be  stated  that  all  of  these  are  not 
used  commercially.  It  is  estimated  that  one  hundred  and  fifty 
of  them  are  on  the  market  at  the  present  time.  Many  of  the  two 
thousand  are  too  small  to  ever  be  of  any  great  importance  com- 
mercially. 

About  one-half  the  area  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  or  60,000 
square  miles,  is  in  public  forest.  Of  this  60,000  square  miles, 
more  than  one-half  is  in  mountainous  region,  and  will  not  yield, 
at  the  present  time,  much  wealth  to  the  Philippines.  Indirectly 
they  are  of  very  great  importance,  for  upon  them  will  depend  the 
conservation  of  moisture,  so  necessary  to  extensive  irrigation 
schemes.  Less  than  half  of  the  60,000  square  miles  can  be  classi- 
fied as  forest  which  will  yield  commercial  varieties  of  timber.  A 
rough  estimate  will  place  the  yield  of  this  forest  close  to  forty 
billion  board  feet.  If  this  could  be  placed  on  the  market  to-day, 
at  the  price  of  our  cheapest  timber,  it  would  bring  a  total  of  two 
and  a  half  billion  pesos.  Of  this  two  and  a  half  billion  pesos  of 
wealth  the  Bureau  of  Forestry  is  the  guardian.  It  is  the  object 
of  this  Bureau  to  have  the  wealth  utilized  as  rapidly  as  it  can  be 
without  danger  to  the  forests.  It  is  believed  that  about  four 
times  the  present  amount  used  can  be  exploited  without  en- 
dangering our  forest.  This  would  bring  the  annual  amount  of 
timber  put  on  the  market,  from  one  hundred  million  board  feet, 
the  present  amount,  to  four  hundred  million  board  feet.  This 
would  leave  three  hundred  million  board  to  be  exported  from 
the  Philippines,  and  thus  bring  to  us  considerable  wealth. 

Included  in  the  eighteen  hundred  or  more  comparatively  un- 
known woods  now  reposing  on  herbarium  sheets  in  Manila,  and 
bearing  scientific  names  but  no  information  of  commercial  im- 


156  Forestry  Quarterly. 

portance,  are  many  which  will  in  time,  and  after  investigation 
prove  valuable. 

The  rating  of  the  relative  values  of  this  assortment  of  trees ; 
the  distinguishing  between  those  commercially  desirable,  and 
the  others,  the  testing  of  those  which  have  been  selected  as  com- 
mercially valuable,  to  ascertain  their  strength  and  fitness ;  the 
supplying  of  merchants  and  engineers  with  specimens  and  infor- 
mation, and  the  directing  of  all  concerned  how  to  obtain  the 
maximum  good  with  the  minimum  waste  from  our  wooded 
lands — these  are  a  few  of  the  problems  which  daily  confront  the 
Bureau  of  Forestry  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 


CURRENT   LITERATURE. 

Der  Lichtgenuss  der  PHansen.  Von  Professor  J.  Wiesner. 
Leipzig.     1907.     K.  10.80. 

In  connection  with  the  highly  interesting  data  furnished  by 
Cieslar  in  regard  to  tolerant  and  intolerant  species,  briefed  on 
another  page,  we  may  appropriately  refer  to  the  same  author's 
review  of  Wiesner's  special  work  on  the  light  requirements  of 
plants  in  general,  a  synopsis  of  15  years  of  study  in  this  field  in 
which  he  is  undoubtedly  leading  authority.  The  subject  is  treated 
in  eleven  chapters,  and  brings,  besides  references  to  previous 
work  of  the  author  and  of  others  which  in  the  photometric  direc- 
tion began  in  1877  with  a  forester,  Theodor  Hartig,  also  the  re- 
sults of  entirely  new  investigations. 

The  first  chapter  treats  of  photometric  methods;  the  second 
analyzes  the  daylight,  direct  and  reflected. 

A  spectroscopic  investigation  of  the  light  at  the  exterior  and 
in  the  interior  of  densely  shading  crowns  revealed  that  down  to 
a  decrease  of  the  light  in  the  crown  to  1/80,  i.  e.  down  to  practi- 
cable limits,  a  change  in  spectral  composition  could  be  discovered 
by  Wiesner's  method. 

Every  plant  adapts  its  organs  to  the  light  conditions  sur- 
rounding it,  either  by  defending  itself  against  surfeit  or  by  pre- 
paring for  full  utilization.  This  adaptation  he  calls  "Lichtraum- 
nutzung" — utilization  of  light  space.  Thus,  a  tangential  plane 
laid  around  a  tree  crown,  which  Wiesner  calls  the  maximum  light 
plane,  is  the  measure  of  the  light  which  is  available  to  the  plant. 
According  to  Wiesner,  under  natural  conditions  the  total  leaf 
surface  of  a  tree  is  as  a  rule  smaller  than  this  plane — a  rather 
astonishing  fact.  For  beech,  a  tolerant  species  which  has  a  mini- 
mum light  sufficiency  (Lichtgenuss-minimum)  of  1/60,  the  leaf 
surface  is  .8  of  the  plane ;  for  spruce  with  a  light  sufficiency  of 
1/30,  it  is  .5,  for  larch  with  1/5  light  sufficiency,  .2. 

The  Lichtgenuss  is  the  relation  of  the  intensity  of  the  light 
reaching  the  plant  to  the  intensity  of  the  total  daylight — a  photic 
ratio — and  is  expressed  in  any  convenient  photometric  unit.  In 
the  fourth  chapter  this  Lichtgenuss  which  we  may  render  into 


158  Forestry  Quarterly. 

"light  sufficiency" — the  intensity  of  light  satisfying  the  needs  of 
the  plant — is  discussed  for  various  plant  types  in  their  habitats 
and  also  with  reference  to  trees.  The  author  makes  a  series,  ac- 
cording to  light  sufficiency,  closely  resembling  the  series  from 
tolerant  to  intolerant  usually  given  in  textbooks  of  silviculture. 
The  light  intensity  in  forest  shade  and  conditions  under  it  are 
discussed  most  interestingly,  bringing  scientific  support  for  many 
silvicultural  practices. 

The  dependence  of  light  sufficiency  on  altitude  and  latitude  is 
discussed  in  the  sixth  chapter.  Wiesner  has  shown,  that  between 
the  temperature  of  the  medium  (air,  water)  and  the  light  suffi- 
ciency there  exists  a  relation  in  that  a  part  of  the  light  which 
reaches  the  plant  means  a  gain  in  temperature  which  is  the  greater 
the  lower  the  surrounding  temperature.  Hence,  in  warmer  lati- 
tudes a  plant  will  show  a  lower  minimum  of  light  sufficiency,  in 
cooler,  more  northern  latitudes  a  higher  one;  the  needed  light 
supply  increases  towards  the  northern  limit  of  the  species, — a  fact 
which  explains  many  phenomena  of  plant  distribution  and  has  a 
bearing  on  silvicultural  operations. 

The  relation  of  light  sufficiency  and  leaf  fall,  of  light  suffi- 
ciency and  mycorhiza  formation — the  mycotrophy  increasing  the 
lower  the  minimum  light  sufficiency — and  of  its  influence  on  the 
color  of  leaves  are  dealt  with.  The  foliage  of  summer-green 
plants  changes  color  as  long  as  it  grows,  while  in  evergreens  even 
after  they  are  full-grown  the  leaves  darken  for  two  or  three  years. 

Each  species  or  variety  exhibits  a  certain  stationary  tone  of 
green  in  the  mature  foliage,  but  the  exterior  and  the  innermost 
foliage  of  the  crown  pale  by  and  by,  the  first  on  account  of  excess, 
the  latter  on  account  of  deficiency  of  light,  only  the  leaves  under 
medium  light  preserve  their  stationary  tone  of  green. 

A  physiological  analysis  of  light  sufficiency  is  attempted  in  a 
suggestive  chapter.  Below  the  minimum  of  light  sufficiency,  the 
formation  of  chlorophyll  is  retarded,  and  finally  leaves  die.  As 
Cieslar  has  experimentally  shown  (see  pages  180-185  of  this  vol- 
ume), with  plants  requiring  high  light  intensity  etiolation  begins 
even  under  quite  intense  light.  Assimilation  ceases  as  a  rule  at 
the  light  sufficiency  minimum.  The  light  under  which  the  birch 
ceases  to  assimilate  still  produces  good  assimilation  in  beech. 

How  the  study  of  light  relations  by  photometric  methods  can 


Current  Literature.  159 

be  of  service  to  plant  culture  is  the  subject  of  the  last  chapter  in 
a  book  full  of  interest  to  any  plant  grower. 

B.  E.  F. 

Joseph  Wessely's  Berufsbiographie.  Herausgegeben  von  Karl 
Petraschek.     Vienna.     1908.     319  pp. 

It  is  a  rare  case  that  a  forester  has  a  statue  dedicated  to  him, 
at  the  same  time  that  his  autobiography  is  brought  out  in  an  ele- 
gant volume.  This  rare  honor  was  accorded  last  year  to  Austria's 
most  noted  forester,  Joseph  Wessely,  in  the  park  of  the  Hoch- 
schule  fur  Bodenkultur  at  Mariabrunn  near  Vienna. 

The  biography  is  really  an  inside  history  of  the  early  develop- 
ment of  forestry  in  Austria,  to  which  the  writer  devoted  his  life 
from  1835,  when  he  became  assistant  at  the  forest  school,  until 
1898,  when  this  real  master  of  forestry  died  in  his  84th  year. 
What  Hartig  was  for  Prussia,  Cotta  for  Saxony,  Wessely  has 
been  for  Austria,  the  reformer  of  its  forestry,  and  he  had  the 
good  fortune  to  see  the  fruit  of  his  work  and  to  receive  the  appre- 
ciation of  his  colleagues  without  stint  during  his  lifetime. 

He  became  a  member  of  the  incompetent  Ministry  for  Soil- 
culture  in  1849,  which  he  left  before  its  collapse  to  become  the 
Director  of  the  private  forest  school  of  the  Maehrish-Silesian 
Forest  Association  in  1852.  Three  years  later  he  cast  his  for- 
tunes with  a  private  corporation,  which  had  extensive  forest 
properties  in  Hungary,  as  their  manager,  but  only  for  three  years, 
when  in  1858  he  undertook  the  re-organization  of  the  forest 
academy  at  Mariabrunn  over  which  he  presided  for  12  years 
laying  the  basis  for  its  development  into  the  School  for  Soil- 
culture  in  1875.  After  retiring,  in  1870,  he  remained  in  private 
life,  devoting  himself  to  literary  work,  in  which  he  was  most 
prolific,  with  over  300  titles,  among  which  16  monographs,  of 
which  best  known  is  the  classical  work  on  Der  europaische  Flug- 
sand.  The  occasion  of  his  81st  birthday  gave  opportunity  for 
many  expressions  of  appreciation  on  the  part  of  the  forestry 
world  of  Austria.  B.  E.  F. 

Die  Besteuerung  des  Waldes.  By  Dr.  Heinrich  Weber. 
Frankfurt  A.  M.     1909.     555  pp.     Mk.  10.50. 

This  is  the  first  independent  comprehensive  publication  in  book 


160  Forestry  Quarterly. 

form  regarding  the  subject  of  forest  taxation,  which  has  lately 
in  Germany  as  well  as  in  the  United  States  called  forth  much 
discussion.  The  author,  professor  of  forestry  at  Giessen,  keeping 
in  view  practical  questions,  discusses  the  principles  of  forest  taxa- 
tion in  use  in  German  and  other  States  and  investigates  how  far 
these  principles  are  correct  and  just,  or  where  they  need  reform 
in  view  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  forestry  business. 

B.  E.  F. 

Forest  Finance.  By  Dr.  C.  A.  Schenck.  Asheville,  1909.  Pp. 
144. 

This  is  primarily  a  syllabus  of  Dr.  Schenck's  lectures  on  the 
subject  in  the  Biltmore  Forest  School.  It  is  however  something 
more  than  mere  headings  of  topics,  for  the  subject  matter  is  pre- 
sented in  the  form  of  statements  covering  the  most  important 
points  in  the  theory  of  Forest  Finance.  H.  S.  G. 

Interpretations  of  Topographic  Maps.  By  Rollin  D.  Salisbury 
and  Wallace  W.  Atwood.  Professional  paper  No.  60.  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey.     Washington,  D.  C,  1908. 

This  very  valuable  volume  describes  the  topographic  work  of 
Geological  Survey,  with  special  reference  to  the  interpretation  of 
the  maps.  It  is  a  work  of  great  value  to  foresters  who  have  occa- 
sion to  use  Government  maps  or  who  have  themselves  to  do 
topographical  work.  H.   S.   G. 

Forest  Service  Atlas.  Extracts  from  the  statistical  volume 
of  the  Forest  Atlas  for  the  year  1907.  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 
Washington,  D.  C,  1908.     Pp.  30. 

This  book  contains  maps  and  tables  showing  statistics  regard- 
ing the  National  Forests  and  the  work  of  the  Forest  Service. 
Not  only  are  there  shown  the  areas  of  the  Forests,  but  there  are 
colored  maps  and  diagrams,  which  show  at  a  glance  the  most  im- 
portant information  regarding  their  condition  and  management. 
This  information  includes  statistics  regarding  the  administration 
of  the  Forests,  forest  fires,  construction  of  roads,  trails,  tele- 
graph and  telephone  lines,  permanent  improvements,  grazing, 
timber  sales,  etc.     One  map  shows  the  classification  and  propor- 


Current  Literature.  161 

tion  of  tree  species  within  the  forests,  enabling  a  ready  concep- 
tion of  the  character  of  the  distribution  of  the  different  trees. 

The  Atlas  contains  also  information  by  diagrams  of  the  pro- 
gress of  the  work  of  the  different  branches  of  the  Forest  Service. 
These  include  the  cooperative  work  with  private  owners  in  hand- 
ling woodlands,  the  progress  of  the  work  in  forest  products  and 
the  distribution  of  the  publications  of  the  Service.  There  are 
also  very  valuable  diagrams  showing  the  amount  of  forest  pro- 
ducts consumed  in  the  United  States. 

This  volume  will  be  of  great  use,  not  only  to  officers  in  charge 
of  National  Forests,  but  also  to  forest  schools,  and  to  all  others 
who  wish  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  latest  information  regarding 
the  forest  work  of  the  Government.  H.  S.  G. 

Maryland's  Forest  Resources.  By  F.  W.  Besley.  Forestry 
Leaflet  No.  7,  State  Board  of  Forestry,  Baltimore,  Md.  1909. 
Pp.  5- 

For  the  past  three  summers  a  detailed  forest  survey,  county 
by  county,  has  been  in  progress,  to  obtain  reliable  information  as 
to  resources  and  conditions.  So  far  ten  counties — one-half  of 
the  State — have  been  studied,  and  completion  of  the  work  is  ex- 
pected in  two  years  more. 

This  leaflet  embodies,  in  a  condensed  form,  the  results  of  the 
detailed  survey  of  the  one-half,  and  of  a  general  investigation 
of  the  other  half.  Thirty-five  per  cent,  of  the  State  is  woodland 
(two  million  acres)  and  the  estimated  stand  is  nearly  three  thou- 
sand million  feet  B.  M.,  (trees  over  10  inches),  one-quarter  of 
it  coniferous,  worth  eight  million  dollars.  The  cut  of  lumber  in 
1907  was  two  hundred  and  fourteen  million  feet,  so  that  the  art 
was  30%  greater  than  the  growth.  A  comparison  with  the  cuts 
of  previous  years  shows  that  the  maximum  production  has  been 
passed.    The  warning  is  plain.  J.  H.  W. 

Forestry  Working  Plan  for  the  North  Watuppa  Watershed 
for  the  City  of  Fall  River.  By  the  Massachusetts  Forest  Service, 
Boston,  1909.     Pp.  29.     Map. 

The  city  owns  some  60%  of  the  5,000  acres  concerned,  and 
wishes  to  take  steps  to  protect  its  water  supply.  After  a  short 
account  of  the  relation  of  forests  to  water  supply,  and  a  descrip- 


162  Forestry  Quarterly. 

tion  of  the  basin,  the  report  recommends  thinnings  at  a  net  cost 
of  $4,000  to  $7,000,  planting  at  a  cost  of  $4,000  to  $5,000,  and 
fire  protection  $4,000,  distributed  over  five  years — this  outlay  on 
stumpage  worth  $25,000.  Exception  may  be  taken  to  the  state- 
ment (speaking  of  the  superintendence  of  the  work)  that  "for- 
esters do  not  come  high;  an  active  young  man  with  a  college 
training  can  be  secured  at  a  salary  of  $1,000 — one-half  of  which 
represents  the  value  of  his  manual  work." 

J.  H.  W. 

Proceedings  of  the  Conference  of  Governors  held  at  the  White 
House,  Washington,  D.  C,  May  13th  to  13th,  1908.  Edited 
under  the  direction  of  Governors  N.  C.  Blanchard,  J.  F.  Fort, 
J.  C.  Cutler,  J.  O.  Davidson,  and  M.  F.  Ansel,  and  of  Dr.  W.  J. 
McGee,  Recording  Secretary  of  the  Conference.  Government 
Printing  Office,  Washington,  1909.     Pp.  451. 

This  volume  contains  a  complete  record  of  the  Governors' 
Conference  on  the  Conservation  of  Natural  Resources.  Many  of 
the  addresses  of  that  conference  have  already  been  published  in 
various  periodicals,  especially  in  Conservation,  the  organ  of  the 
American  Forestry  Association.  It  is  of  great  value,  however, 
to  have  the  full  account  of  the  conference  in  one  volume  for  ready 
reference  and  permanent  record.  H.  S.  G. 

The  Future  Use  of  Land  in  the  United  States.  By  Raphael 
Zon.  Circular  No.  159.  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D. 
C,  1909.     Pp.  15. 

In  this  circular  Mr.  Zon  discusses  in  a  broad  way  the  problem 
of  the  lands  of  the  United  States  in  the  future.  He  takes  up  the 
general  classes  of  land  from  the  standpoint  of  their  present  use, 
and  discusses  the  problem  of  how  large  areas  will  be  available 
in  the  future  for  different  purposes.  It  is  his  belief  that  in  a  half 
a  century  the  area  devoted  to  agriculture  will  amount  to  50% 
rather  than  20%  of  the  total  area  as  at  present.  About  25% 
will  be  devoted  to  grazing,  about  2%  will  remain  forever  a  desert, 
while  the  area  of  forest  will,  in  Mr.  Zon's  judgment,  shrink  to 
about  450,000,000  acres  or  approximately  one-fourth  of  the  total 
land  area  of  the  country.  In  addition  to  these  there  will  be  about 
2%  classed  as  intermediate  land  which    is    neither    exclusively 


Current  Literature.  163 

forest  land  or  agriculture  land,  but  which  may  be  devoted  to 
either  purpose  according  to  local  conditions. 

Mr.  Zon  discusses  the  problem  of  meeting  the  timber  supply  in 
the  future  on  a  basis  of  150,000,000  population.  He  makes  an 
interesting  comparison  with  other  countries  where  one  may  con- 
clude that  in  order  not  to  disturb  the  natural  balance  the  pro- 
portions of  the  forest  land  to  other  kinds  of  land  must  be  not 
less  than  from  one-fifth  to  one-third  of  the  total  area  of  the 
country.  Countries  with  about  100  acres  per  100  inhabitants 
produce  more  wood  than  they  actually  consume,  while  countries 
with  85  or  less  per  100  people  produce  less  wood  than  their  con- 
sumption. The  conclusion  is  that  there  must  be  an  area  of  about 
180  acres  of  forest  land  for  every  100  inhabitants  if  a  country  is 
to  be  sustained.  But  in  this  country  the  per  capita  consumption 
is  much  larger  than  in  Europe,  so  that  at  the  present  rate  of  use 
the  United  States  would  soon  be  unable  to  supply  the  demand 
from  its  own  resources.  In  as  much  as  it  will  not  be  possible  to 
import  a  great  deal  of  timber  from  abroad  it  is  obvious  that  the 
rate  of  consumption  must  decrease  and  also  the  rate  of  produc- 
tion increase.  In  case  our  per  capita  use  should  be  reduced  from 
the  260  cubic  feet  which  it  is  now,  to  150  feet  and  if  the  annual 
growth  of  our  forests  were  increased  to  50  cubic  feet,  the  450,- 
000,000  acres  which  it  is  estimated  will  comprise  the  forests  of 
50  years  hence  the  demands  of  the  people  may  be  met. 

These  are  a  few  of  the  more  important  conclusions.  The  paper 
is  an  exceedingly  interesting  one  and  should  be  read  by  everyone 
interested  in  the  problem  of  conservation. 

H.  S.  G. 

Instructions  for  Reforesting  Land.  By  C.  R.  Pettis.  State 
of  New  York,  Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Commission.  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  1909.     Pp.  22.     Plates  18. 

In  this  pamphlet  Mr.  Pettis  sets  forth  some  definite,  concise 
instructions  regarding  the  establising  of  forests  by  planting  in  the 
State  of  New  York.  The  directions  given  relate  to  how  best  to 
secure  stock  for  planting,  what  to  plant,  when  to  plant,  where  to 
plant  and  how  to  plant.  A  brief  discussion  of  the  financial  re- 
sults of  planting  is  also  presented. 

The  forestry  department  of  the  State  of  New  York  is  not  only 


164  Forestry  Quarterly. 

equipped  for  growing  the  nursery  stock  required  for  its  own 
planting,  but  also  grows  seedlings  to  distribute  at  a  nominal 
price  among  land  owners  of  the  State.  Instructions  are  given 
regarding  the  regulations  that  the  land  owner  must  comply  with 
in  order  to  obtain  forest  stock  from  the  State.  The  inference  is 
that  it  is  less  expensive  for  the  land  owner  to  obtain  the  stock 
required  for  planting  direct  from  the  State  than  to  grow  it  him- 
self. For  coniferous  stock  this  is  in  most  cases  true,  the  chief 
exception  being  when  stock  is  required  in  large  quantity. 

The  instructions  regarding  what  and  when  to  plant  are  so 
brief  that  they  convey  but  little  information  of  importance  to  the 
planter.  Early  spring  is  recommended  as  the  best  season  for 
planting. 

The  portion  of  the  pamphlet  dealing  with  the  handling  of  the 
stock  after  its  receipt  by  the  planter  and  the  method  to  follow  in 
planting  is  concise  and  if  followed  should  assure  the  farmer  or 
other  forest  planter  success  in  his  planting  operations. 

The  tables  and  other  matter  relating  to  the  value  of  planting 
are  interesting,  but  not  based  upon  sufficient  experience  and  data 
to  be  entirely  convincing.  The  plates  illustrating  the  State  nur- 
series, forest  plantations  and  planting  operations  are  excellent. 

J.  W.  T. 

Forest  Survey  of  Litchfield  and  New  Haven  Counties,  Con- 
necticut. By  A.  F.  Hawes  and  R.  C.  Hawley.  Forestry  Pub.  No. 
5,  Conn.  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.     Pp.  50.     Plates  6. 

The  chief  object  of  this  pamphlet  is  stated  to  be  the  awakening 
of  "interest  in  the  forest  lands  of  these  two  counties,  which  may 
lead  to  the  adoption  of  better  methods  of  treatment,  resulting  in 
a  steadily  increasing  production  by  the  forest."  It  is  the  first 
step  in  a  comprehensive  study  of  the  forests  of  Connecticut  which 
will  eventually  cover  the  other  six  counties  of  the  State,  and  fur- 
nish the  data  for  a  forest  map. 

Of  Litchfield  County,  55%  is  classed  as  forest  lands,  while 
only  46%  of  New  Haven  county  is  so  classed,  the  latter  being 
more  largely  a  manufacturing  community.  The  total  acreage  of 
the  two  counties  is  521,726,  and  the  amount  of  standing  timber 


Current  Literature.  165 

is  estimated  at  7,800,000  cords,  or  488,000,000  feet  of  lumber,  and 
5,168,000  cords  of  wood,  with  a  total  stumpage  value  of  $7,468,- 
000.  The  average  annual  cut  is  given  as  26,000,000  feet  of  lum- 
ber; 401,700  ties;  20,600  poles  and  piles;  and  235,500  cords  of 
wood,  with  a  total  stumpage  value  of  $418,696. 

Mr.  Hawes  discusses  in  detail  the  local  market  conditions  of 
Litchfield  county  showing  that  there  is  a  constant  demand  for 
ties,  poles  and  piles,  and  that  the  many  small  factories  use  large 
quantities  of  home-grown  lumber.  It  is,  however,  only  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  larger  towns  and  industrial  centers  which  con- 
sume considerable  quantities  of  cordwood,  that  it  is  possible  to 
make  improvement  thinnings  profitable.  This  is  a  large  factor 
in  preventing  the  increased  use  of  systematic  forestry  methods 
in  handling  the  woodlands  of  the  county  and  to  a  considerable 
extent  throughout  the  state.  At  present  thousands  of  cords  are 
wasted  annually  in  the  country  towns  for  want  of  a  profitable 
market. 

For  New  Haven  county,  Mr.  Hawley  answers  the  question : 
"Can  the  present  rate  of  cutting  be  continued  indefinitely  without 
exhausting  the  wood  supplies  of  the  county?"  He  estimates  the 
annual  cut  for  1906-7  as  120,000  cords;  the  annual  average 
growth  as  70,000  cords ;  and  the  present  stand  of  merchantable 
timber  as  1,200,000  cords.  The  conclusion  is  obvious  that  the 
local  supply  of  merchantable  timber  will  be  practically  exhausted 
in  twenty  years  if  the  present  cut  and  growth  are  maintained, 
and  although  a  large  amount  of  standing  timber  would  remain, 
it  would  not  be  of  the  most  profitable  size  for  cutting. 

As  the  demands  for  wood  are  increasing  throughout  the 
country,  and  the  prospect  of  a  reduced  output  from  the  chief 
timber  regions  is  certain  in  the  near  future,  the  local  supply  is 
bound  to  be  more  and  more  heavily  drawn  upon.  Hence  the 
annual  cut  for  the  county  must  necessarily  show  a  tendency  to 
increase  during  the  next  twenty  years.  As  Mr.  Hawley  points 
out,  the  exhaustion  of  the  local  timber  supply  can  only  be  pre- 
vented by  increasing  the  annual  growth  of  the  forest  lands.  His 
recommendations  to  this  end  include  more  intelligent  treatment 
of  already  existing  woodlands,  planting  of  open  and  partially 
stocked  lands,  and  protection  of  all  against  fire  and  grazing.  He 
further  states  that  fire  protection  is  the  most  essential  at  present. 


1 66  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Although  intended  primarily  for  the  people  of  the  state,  the 
survey  will  be  of  great  interest  to  the  professional  forester  as  a 
practical  study  of  regional  conditions. 

W.  O.  F. 

Eighth  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Forestry  of  In- 
diana.    Indianapolis,  1908.     Pp.  211. 

In  this  report  there  are  a  number  of  papers.  One  of  the  most 
important  is  an  account  of  the  influence  of  deforestation  along 
the  Wabash  River  by  Messrs.  F.  A.  Miller  and  E.  E.  Davis. 
There  is  also  an  account  of  the  work  done  during  the  year  on  the 
State  Forest  Reservation  and  a  general  discussion  of  different 
trees  suitable  for  planting  in  Indiana.  About  one-third  of  the 
book  is  made  up  with  reprints  of  circulars  of  the  United  States 
Forest  Service.  H.   S.  G. 

Report  of  the  Michigan  Forestry  Commission  for  the  years 
1907-08.     Lansing,  Michigan,   1908.     Pp.   126. 

The  bulletin  contains  the  biennial  report  of  Prof.  Filibert  Roth, 
in  his  capacity  as  State  Fire  Warden.  This  report  is  very  illu- 
minating in  regard  to  the  difficulties  of  forestry  in  Michigan. 
In  as  much  as  the  state  reservation  is  very  largely  cut-over  land 
the  problem  of  protection  is  and  will  be  for  a  good  many  years 
most  important.  Prof.  Roth  has  been  very  successful  in  the 
matter  of  forest  fires,  and  considering  the  difficulties  under  which 
he  is  working,  the  areas  injured  are  remarkably  small.  The  pro- 
tection during  the  five  years  of  administration  has  cost  2c.  per 
acre  per  year.  A  certain  amount  of  planting  has  been  done  on 
the  reservation,  altogether  440  acres  having  been  completed.  The 
report  is  especially  interesting  to  foresters  having  administrative 
charge  of  state  reservations. 

Mr.  W.  B.  Mershon,  a  member  of  the  Commission,  has  a' paper 
on  Private  Forestry  in  Michigan.  There  is  also  a  full  account 
of  the  Lake  States  Forestry  Conference  and  a  description  of  the 
work  of  the  Michigan  Forestry  Association  for  the  year. 

H.  S.  G. 


Current  Literature.  167 

Annual  Report  of  the  Director  of  Forestry  of  the  Philippine 
Islands  for  the  year  1907- 1908.  Major  G.  P.  Ahern,  Director. 
Manila,  1908.     Pp.  26. 

This  report  is  especially  interesting  as  showing  the  progress  of 
the  actual  work  of  organization  of  the  Philippine  forests.  In 
the  pine  forests  of  northern  Luzon  where  fires  are  particularly 
dangerous  the  experiment  of  employing  Igorot  natives  as  fire 
wardens  has  been  tried  and  very  successfully.  The  development 
of  a  native  force  of  foresters  is  one  of  the  most  important  prob- 
lems in  the  Philippines.  Sir  Dietrich  Brandis  early  recognized 
the  necessity  of  a  native  service  in  India  and  the  success  of  the 
plan  he  inaugurated  is  well  known.  It  is  encouraging  that  the 
problem  of  education  in  forestry  has  been  taken  up  in  the  Philip- 
pines. A  practical  school  of  instruction  for  rangers  will  be 
started  in  Bataan  on  the  logging  operations  of  the  Cadwallader 
Company.  Theoretical  instruction  will  also  be  given  at  Manila. 
In  the  future,  candidates  for  the  position  of  ranger  will  have  to 
pass  an  examination  in   forestry. 

Forest  maps  have  been  completed  for  most  of  southern  and 
central  Luzon  and  the  Zamboanga  Peninsula  of  Mindoro ;  also 
isolated  parts  of  other  Islands.  Working  plans  have  been  made 
for  at  least  one  large  concession  in  Mindanao.  The  research 
section  of  the  Bureau  shows  the  same  excellent  progress. 

H.  S.  G. 

Proceedings  of  the  Connecticut  Forestry  Association.  Publi- 
cation No.  6.     Hartford,  1909.     Pp.  43. 

This  bulletin  contains  a  number  of  papers  read  before  the  vari- 
ous forestry  institutes  held  throughout  the  State  under  the  au- 
spices of  the  Association.  Mr.  Austin  F.  Hawes  has  a  paper  on 
Government-owned  forests  in  which  he  gives  an  account  of  what 
is  accomplished  in  different  countries  abroad.  He  draws  a  par- 
allel with  this  country  and  pleads  for  State  forestry  and  for  reser- 
vations owned  and  operated  by  the  States,  particularly  in  the 
East.  In  a  paper  entitled  American  Forestry,  Professor  Graves 
discusses  the  general  problems  of  forestry  in  this  country  and  how 
they  may  be  worked  out.  These  two  papers  are  general  in 
character.    Other  papers  by  Mr.  E.  M.  C.  Eddy,  Elliot  B.  Bron- 


1 68  Forestry  Quarterly. 

son,  and  Ellicott  D.  Curtis  contain  discussions  of  specific  Con- 
necticut problems.  They  are  of  special  interest  to  owners  of 
woodlands  in  southern  New  England.  H.  S.  G. 

Report  of  the  Minister  of  Lands  and  Forests  of  the  Province 
of  Quebec  for  1908.    Quebec,  1909.    Pp.  216. 

According  to  this  report,  last  year  some  70,000  square  miles 
were  under  license,  yielding  nearly  one  million  dollars  in  stump- 
age  dues,  ground  rents,  etc.,  the  lowest  revenue  in  eight  years. 
The  cut  on  this  area  was  about  690  million  feet  B.  M.  with  some 
600,000  ties,  250,000  cords  of  pulpwood  and  6,000  poles. 

As  regards  forest  reserves,  the  province  is  fortunate  in  pos- 
sessing 19  of  these,  aggregating  in  million  acres — almost  one- 
half  of  its  total  area.  So  far  little  has  been  done  beyond  partial 
organization  for  fire  protection.  A  nursery  has  been  established 
near  Berthier  for  the  reforestation  of  sandy  soils,  the  leading 
species  grown  being  the  White,  Austrian  and  Scotch  Pines, 
European  Larch,  and  Norway  Spruce. 

The  most  striking  fact  in  the  report  is  the  extensive  settlement 
last  year  in  the  province.  Some  300,000  acres  were  sold  by  the 
Government  to  settlers,  in  lots  of  100-200  acres,  nearly  half  of 
this  amount  in  the  eastern  boundary  counties  where  the  land  is 
more  suited  to  tree  growing  than  farming.  There  is  strong  in- 
dication that  these  "farms"  serve  chiefly  for  lumbering,  without, 
of  course,  any  dues  accruing  to  the  crown.  A  comparison  of  the 
quantity  of  lumber  cut  by  the  large  companies  on  their  own  li- 
censed limits  in  1907-08  and  the  quantity  they  bought  from  own- 
ers of  lots  shows  the  latter  to  be  43%  of  the  total — a  significant 
percentage.  Moreover,  of  the  720,639  cords  of  pulpwood  ex- 
ported from  Canada  to  United  States  last  year  (largely  from 
Quebec)  only  147,159  cords  were  cut  from  Quebec  Crown  Lands 
under  license,  the  bulk  of  it  evidently  being  supplied  by  settlers. 

Quebec  forests  suffered  heavily  from  fires  last  year,  but  the  loss 
was  mostly  to  private  owners.  The  carelessness  of  settlers,  and 
locomotives  are  given  as  the  most  frequent  sources. 

A  lecture  delivered  by  Mr.  G.  C.  Piche  at  Laval  University  on 
the  protection  of  forests  is  given  in  full. 

The  report  contains  55  appendices  giving  much  interesting  de- 
tailed information.  J.  H.  W. 


Current  Literature.  169 

Report  on  the  Reforestation  of  Waste  Lands  in  Southern 
Ontario.  By  E.  J.  Zavitz.  Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture, 
1909.     Pp.  28. 

The  waste  areas  of  Southern  Ontario  are  mostly  sand  lands, 
and  comprise  some  8,500  square  miles,  in  large  contiguous  areas. 
The  report  advises  the  gradual  segregation  of  all  such  non-agri- 
cultural lands  to  be  managed  as  provincial  forests,  on  the  grounds 
of  wood  supply,  protection  of  headwaters  of  water  systems,  use 
as  game  preserves  and  recreation  grounds,  and  object  lessons  in 
forestry.  Many  areas  need  only  protection  from  fire,  on  account 
of  the  presence  of  scrub  growth,  but  calculations  are  given  to 
show  the  financial  success  where  planting  is  necessary. 

A  beginning  has  been  made  in  this  direction,  the  Government 
having  purchased  300  (  !)  acres  last  year. 

The  report  is  extremely  well  illustrated. 

J.  H.  W. 


OTHER  CURRENT  LITERATURE. 

Guide  to  the  Trees  and  Shrubs  of  Minnesota.  By  Frederick  E. 
Clements.  Minnesota  Plant  Studies  II.  University  of  Minne- 
sota, Minneapolis,  October,   1908. 

A  key  to  the  woody  plants,  native  and  introduced,  in  Minnesota. 
It  is  based  upon  flower,  fruit,  and  leaf  character  and  it  enumer- 
ates 213  species. 

The  Evergreen  Trees  of  Colorado.  By  B.  O.  Longyear.  Colo- 
rado Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  130.  Fort  Col- 
lins, Colorado,  1908. 

A  general  description  of  the  coniferous  trees  of  the  State,  ac- 
companied by  Keys  and  references  to  commercial  and  ornamental 
uses. 

Plant  Geography  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula.  By  L.  Adamovic. 
Published  by  the  Vienna  Academy,  1908. 

The  flora  of  the  region  is  divided  into  eight  vertical  regions 
and  each  region  is  divided  into  four  horizontal  zones. 


170  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Key  to  New  England  Trees,  wild  and  commonly  cultivated. 
By  J.  F.  Collins  and  H.  W.  Preston.  Preston  and  Rounds  Co., 
Providence,  R.  L,  1909.     Price  40c,  pp.  42. 

This  is  a  handy  key  to  190  species  based  primarily  on  leaf 
characters. 

Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  American  Foresters.  Vol.  Ill, 
No.  1,  October,  1908. 

Contains  the  following  articles:  Some  Further  Considerations 
Regarding  the  Tolerance  and  Intolerance  of  Shade,  by  Herbert 
A.  Smith ;  The  Silvicultural  Results  of  Marking  Timber  in  Na- 
tional Forests,  by  Edward  E.  Carter ;  Condition  of  American 
Silviculture,  by  Henry  S.  Graves;  Managing  a  National  Forest 
from  the  Business  Standpoint,  by  Theodore  S.  Woolsey,  Jr. ; 
Sir  Dietrich  Brandis,  by  Gifford  Pinchot ;  Influence  of  Lumber- 
ing on  Forestry,  by  Austin  Cary ;  Silvical  Notes  on  Lodgepole 
Pine,  by  E.  R.  Hodson ;  Some  Forest  Problems  in  the  Middle 
West,  by  Hugh  P.  Baker. 

Hearings  before  the  Committee  on  Agriculture  of  the  House 
of  Representatives  on  the  White  Mountain  and  Appalachian  Bill. 
Washington,  D.  C,  1909.     Pp.   143. 

This  report  contains  an  account  of  the  hearing  before  the 
House  Committee  on  Dec.  9,  1908.  It  contains  also  the  report 
of  the  Committee  to  the  House,  recommending  favorably  the 
Weeks  Bill. 

'The  Function  of  Chemistry  in  the  Conservation  of  our  Na^ 
tural  Resources.  By  R.  T.  Bogert.  Reprinted  from  a  journal 
of  the  American  Chemical  Society. 

Value  of  Eucalyptus  Trees.  Bulletin  No.  5  of  the  Forestry 
Society  of  California.     Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  1909.     Pp.  7. 

Conservation  of  Hazvaii's  Natural  Resources.  Honolulu,  1909. 
Pp.  21. 

This  pamphlet  contains  addresses  delivered  before  a  joint 
meeting  of  the  two  branches  of  the  legislature  of  Hawaii,  March 
1,  1909,  on  the  subject  of  the  Conservation  of  Natural  Resources 


Other  Current  Literature.  171 

Report  of  the  State  Fire  Warden  of  the  State  of  Washington 
for  the  year  1907-08.  J.  R.  Welty,  State  Fire  Warden.  Olympia, 
Washington,  1908.     Pp.  30. 

Short  Special  Report  on  Forest  Fires  in  Minnesota.  Published 
by  the  Forestry  Commissioner,  St.  Paul,  Dec.,  1908. 

The  report  states  that  during  1908  the  total  damage  by  forest 
fires  in  Minnesota,  exclusive  of  the  loss  in  the  village  of  Chis- 
holm,  was  over  $500,000.  If  the  loss  in  Chisholm  is  included 
there  is  a  total  of  over  $2,000,000  direct  damage  from  forest  fires. 
A  total  area  of  over  400,000  acres  was  burned  over. 

Special  Message  from  the  President  of  the  United  States 
Transmitting  a  Report  of  the  National  Conservation  Commission. 
Senate  Document  No.  676.    Washington,  D.  C,  1909. 

Laws  of  the  State  of  North  Carolina  Relating  to  Forest  Pro- 
tection and  to  Forestry.  Forest  Fire  Laws.  Press  Bulletin  No. 
25  of  the  N.  C.  Geological  and  Economic  Survey.  W.  W.  Ashe, 
Forester.     Chapel  Hill,  N.  C.     8  pp. 

Report  on  Condition  of  Land  of  North  Carolina  State  Board 
of  Education.    By  W.  W.  Ashe.    Raleigh,  N.  C,  1909.    4  pp. 

Forests  and  The  Cost  of  Textile  Production.  By  W.  W.  Ashe. 
11  pp. 

Forest  Problems  of  the  United  States,  1907.  Forest  Products 
No.  10  Compiled  in  co-operation  with  the  Forest  Service.  Bureau 
of  Census.  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.  Washington, 
D.  C,  1909.  A  compilation  of  statistics  issued  previously  as  cir- 
culars. 

The  Measurement  of  Logs.  By  Halbert  G.  Robinson.  Bangor, 
Me.,  1909.     Pp.  14.     See  article  on  Recent  Log  Rules. 

Forest  Working  Plan  for  Land  Belonging  to  the  City  of  Fall 
River,  Mass.  By  the  Massachusetts  Forest  Service,  Boston,  1909. 
Pp.  29. 


172  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Cruiser's  Tables  Giving  the  Contents  of  Sound  Trees  and  Their 
Dependence  on  Diameter,  Number  of  Logs  in  the  Tree,  Taper  of 
Tree  and  Efficiency  of  Mill.  Compiled  by  C.  A.  Schenck,  Bilt- 
more,  N.  C.    Pp.  61. 

The  Evergreens.  By  Clarence  M.  Weed.  Published  by  the 
State  Printers.  Boston,  1908.  Pp.  30.  An  elementary  account 
of  the  common  evergreens  for  use  in  the  public  schools. 

Fifth  Annual  Report  ofihe  State  Forester  of  Massachusetts,  for 
the  year  1908.     Boston,  1909.     Pp.  46. 

Economic  Problem  of  Forest  Taxation.  By  Prof.  Fred  R 
Fairchild.     A  reprint  from  the  Yale  Review,  Feb.,   1909. 

The  Control  of  Forest  Fires  Platform  adopted  by  the  American 
Forestry  Association  at  its  annual  meeting  in  January,  1909. 
Published  by  the  Association  at  Washington,  D.  C. 

Thirty-fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Ontario  Agricultural  Col- 
lege and  Experimental  Farm  1908.  Ontario  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Toronto,  1909.     Pp.  288. 

Schlich's  Manual  of  Forestry,  Volume  V :  Forest  Utilisation. 
By  W.  R.  Fisher.  Bradbury,  Agnew  &  Co.,  London,  1908.  Sec- 
ond edition,   12  shillings.     Pp.  840. 

The  Dominion  Forest  Reserves.  By  A.  Knechtel.  Bulletin 
No.  3,  Forestry  Branch,  Department  of  the  Interior,  Canada, 
1909.    Pp.  19. 

Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Forestry  for  1907-8.  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior,  Canada,  1909.     Pp.  58.     Illustrated. 

A  Philippine  Substitute  for  Lignum  Vitae.  By  W.  I.  Hutch- 
inson. Bulletin  No.  9,  Bureau  of  Forestry,  Manila,  P.  I.,  1908. 
Pp.  8. 

A  Fezv  Pertinent  Facts  Concerning  the  Philippine  Forests  and 
Needs  of  the  Forest  Service.  Circular  No.  3,  Bureau  of  For- 
estry, Manila,  P.  I.,  1908.     Pp.  21. 


Other  Current  Literature.  1 73 

Tenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Canadian  Forestry  Association, 
1909.    Pp.  165.    Illustrated. 

Eighth  Report  of  the  State  Entomologist  of  Connecticut  for 
1908.     New  Haven,  Conn.,  1909.     Pp.  86,  plus  18. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  Ontario  for 
1908.  Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture,  1909.  Pp.  152.  Il- 
lustrated. 

Report  of  the  Minnesota  State  Forestry  Board.  December  15, 
1908.     Pp.  5. 

Report  of  the  Commission  of  Inquiry,  Tax  Lands  and  For- 
estry.    Michigan,  1908.     146  pp. 

Fifth  Report  of  the  Board  of  Commissioners  of  Agriculture 
and  Forestry  of  the  Territory  of  Hawaii  for  the  year  1908.  Hon- 
olulu, 1909.     163  plus  53  pp. 

Report  of  New  Hampshire  Tax  Commission  of  1908.  Con- 
cord, 1908.     Pp.  336  plus  300. 

Report  of  the  Pennsylvania  Department  of  Forestry  for  190/. 
Harrisburg,  1908.     Pp.  197. 

Waldzvertrechnung  und  forstliche  Statik.  By  Dr.  Herman 
Stoetzer.  Vierte  Auflage.  J.  D.  Sauerlander,  1908.  243  pp. 
Mk.  5. 

Der  deutsche  Wald.  By  Dr.  M.  Biisgen.  Quelle  and  Meier. 
Mk.  1.80. 

Pflans  en  geographic  By  Prof.  Dr.  L.  Diels.  Leipzig,  1908. 
Pp.  164.    Price  80  pf. 

"A  condensed  description  of  the  distribution  of  plant  life,  the 
natural  influences  which  promote  its  growth  and  the  forms  of 
vegetation  characterizing  regions  of  different  natural  conditions. 
The  work  of  a  botanical  authority  and  a  good  example  of  the 
treatment  of  a  scientific  topic  in  short  compass." — Bull,  of  Am. 
Geog.  Soc,  January,  1909. 


174  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Meddelanden  fran  Statcns  Skogsforsoksanstalt,  haftet  5,  1908. 

Mitteilungen  aus    der    Forstlichen    Versuchsanstalt    Schwedens. 
Stockholm,  1909.     Pp.  286-fxxix.     Pris  2:25  kronor. 

Annual  Progress  Report  upon  State  Forest  Administration  in 
South  Australia  for  1907-08.  By  W.  Gill,  Conservator.  Ade- 
laide, S.  Australia,  1908.    Pp.  11,  12  illustrations. 

La  Cote  Nord  du  Saint  Laurent  et  le  Labrador  Canadien. 
Par  E.  Rouillard.  Department  of  Mines  and  Fisheries,  Quebec, 
Que.,  1908.     Pp.  188.     Illustrated. 

Bulletin  of  the  New  York  Botanical  Garden.  Volume  V,  No.  18, 
February,  and  Volume  VI,  No.  20,  March,  1909. 


PERIODICAL    LITERATURE. 

The    non-official    part  of  the  report  of  the 

Forests  Imperial    Institute    contains    an    interesting 

of  account  of  the  forests  of  the  Crimea  which 

Crimea.  are  of  value  mainly  as  protection  forests  on 

the  calcareous  mountains. 

Out  of  the  plain  rises  a  mountain  range  up  to  5,000  feet  with 
heights  to  5,600  feet.  In  the  foothills  the  lowest  belt  to  1,000 
feet  is  grass  land,  here  and  there  with  oak  brush,  to  be  followed 
by  another  500  feet  of  rounded  tops  with  a  variety  of  deciduous 
chaparral.  On  the  northern  slope  of  the  mountains  proper  a 
forest  of  low  oaks,  blue  beech,  maple,  ash,  elm,  aspen,  "silver 
pear,"  Cornus  mas,  Rhus  cotinus,  Hazel  and  Thorns  is  found  up 
to  4,000  feet.  Another  narrow  forest  belt,  located  between  2,000 
and  2,500  feet  on  fresher  soil  consists  of  high  stemmed  oaks  with 
basswood,  ash,  beech,  and  other  broadleaf  trees.  The  forest  is 
open  with  a  grassy  and  shrubby  vegetation. 

A  third  belt  above  this  consists  of  excellent  pure  beech  forest, 
between  2,500  and  4,000  feet ;  3  feet  diameter  being  no  rarity. 
Only  on  steep  and  stony  ridges  is  to  be  found  Pinus  sihfestris  and 
Juniperus  excelsa.  Above  the  beech  region  up  to  5,000  feet, 
there  follows  chaparral  of  Juniperus  sabina  and  depressa  or  open 
stands  of  broad-crowned  maple,  blue  beech,  basswood,  oak,  and 
beech.  The  top  of  the  range  is  a  treeless  plateau,  the  so-called 
Jaila,  covered  with  a  thin  grass  cover,  here  and  there  showing  a 
remnant  of  the  Taurian  Pine.  The  cause  of  the  treelessness  is 
not  known,  undoubtedly  in  part  due  to  man. 

On  the  southern  slope  the  beech  belt  between  1,500  and  3,000 
feet  is  less  satisfactorily  developed  and  towards  the  East  gives 
way  to  Pinus  laricio  and  silvestris.  On  the  stony  ridges  often 
a  truly  northern  forest  type  appears  of  birch,  aspen,  pine. 

Below  the  beech  belt,  oak  and  Crimean  pine  appear,  the  former 
occupying  more  the  eastern,  the  latter  the  western  end,  the  pine 
everywhere  mixed  with  oak,  except  in  the  higher  altitudes  of  its 
field,  where  it  becomes  pure  with  varied  undergrowth  and  de- 
velops excellent  form. 

The  southern  shore  region  can  be  divided  into  three  belts.    The 


176  Forestry  Quarterly. 

upper  1,000  to  1,500  feet,  grassland  with  occasional  deciduous 
trees;  the  middle  belt  of  walnut,  down  to  500,  with  Quercus 
pubescens,  the  characteristic  Pistacia  mutica,  Juniperns  excelsa 
and  oxycedrus,  Carpinus  duiensis,  Cornus  mas,  and  with  or- 
chards, tobacco  plantations  and  grain  fields;  the  lower  belt  with 
evergreen  broadleaf  species,  Cupressus,  Olive  and  Laurel  trees. 
At  the  eastern  end,  the  three  oaks  occur  with  Pistacia,  etc.,  and 
occasionally  the  peculiar  Pinus  Pithyusa,  short  and  poor,  not 
more  than  25  to  30  feet  high  and  24  inch  diameter  in  300  years. 

Most  of  this  forest  is  private  property  and  not  fit  for  anything 
but  firewood,  even  the  beautiful  beech  furnishing  only  poor  tim- 
ber.    Ash  furnishes  the  best  wood,  pine  is  unfit  for  saw  timber. 

The  Crimea  has  been  highly  cultivated  from  oldest  times,  being 
the  highway  of  the  wandering  tribes  to  Europe.  But  for  three 
or  four  centuries  the  country  was  left  unused  and  old  ruins  may 
be  found  in  the  forest  which  has  grown  over  the  old  civilization. 
No  virgin  forest,  which  evidently  used  to  be  more  coniferous,  is 
anywhere  to  be  found,  and  goats  and  sheep  are  accountable  for 
the  scrubby  condition  of  the  present  forest. 

In  1884  the  Russian  government  began  to  prepare  for  the  man- 
agement of  its  small  holdings  here,  but  no  tangible  results  are 
visible. 

Mltteilungm  des  Kaiserlichen  Forstinstituts,  1908.  Zeitschrift  fur 
Forst-u.  Jagdwesen,  February,  1909,  pp.  105-109. 

Dr.    Cieslar,   in   a   popular   address,  traced 
Forest  the  changes    of    forest    cover    in    Europe 

Changes  through    geological    ages    and    in    modern 

in  times ;     from    the    archaean  and  palaeozoic 

Europe.  era   with    Sigillarias,   Lepidodendron,   tree- 

like Equisetae  and  Ferns,  and  in  the  Per- 
mian with  the  tree  ferns  and  the  beginnings  of  conifers  to  the 
mezoic  era  in  which  during  the  Cretaceous  period  the  first  broad- 
leaf  trees  appeared.  In  the  eocene  period,  during  the  Tertiary 
formations  central  Europe  had  palms,  sequoias,  aralias,  laurel, 
figs,  evergreen  oaks,  bamboo,  together  with  poplar,  elm,  birch, 
etc.,  in  the  make-up  of  its  forest  flora.  Then  a  slow  cooling  pro- 
cess progressed,  northern  forms  were  pushed  forward,  a  colder 
snowy  and  rainy  period  ushered  in  the  glaciation  in  the  Diluvian 
which  covered  nearly  all  of  Great  Britain,  all  of  Scandinavia, 


Periodical  Literature.  177 

northern  Russia  and  northern  Germany  as  far  south  as  Vienna, 
besides  the  Alps,  a  wavy  line  from  Calais  to  the  middle  Ural 
forming  the  southern  limit.  During  this  period  probably  all  for- 
est growth  vanished  except  possibly  in  the  lowest  plains  of  South 
Germany,  northern  end  of  the  upper  Rhine  valley,  the  lowest 
Elbe  valley  in  Bohemia,  lowlands  of  Moravia  and  lower  Austria. 

In  Western  Europe  the  glaciation  reached  to  the  Arctic  Ocean ; 
at  the  southern  limit  it  seems  that  plains  were  adjacent  to  the  ice 
sheet,  and  on  the  southern  boundary  of  the  plains  region  there 
was  found  forest  country.  The  lower  elevations  of  the  Carpath- 
ians and  the  Transylvanian  Alps  remained  forested,  as  well  as 
the  eastern  base  of  the  Alps  and  the  Bohemian  mountains.  The 
forest  country  proper  of  Europe  during  the  ice  age  was  the  Med- 
iterranean portion  south  of  the  Alps.  This  portion  since  then 
has  been  gradually  deforested,  while  the  glaciated  area  to  the 
North  had  reforested  itself.  The  migrations  of  plants  and  es- 
pecially tree  species,  which  have  been  studied  by  palaeobotanists, 
came  in  part  of  old  tertiary  floral  elements  from  West  and  South, 
in  part  of  Eastern  elements  from  Central  Asia.  Denmark  was 
occupied  by  the  former,  Scandinavia  both  from  the  South  and 
from  the  East  by  way  of  Finland,  whence  spruce  and  White 
Alder  came,  while  middle  Europe  was  entirely  reforested  from 
the  south.  The  studies  of  peat  bogs  have  revealed  layers  with 
typical  tree  remnants ;  at  the  bottom  the  tundra  flora  is  found, 
Dryas  octopetala  and  various  Salices  as  characteristic  plants,  then 
follows  birch,  aspen  and  soon  pine,  then  oak  and  alder  and 
lastly  beech.     Supposedly  this  is  the  sequence  of  re-occupation. 

It  is  interesting  to  note,  that  while  pine  in  prehistoric  times 
formed  extensive  stands  in  Denmark,  since  historic  times  it  is 
here  entirely  absent.  During  this  domination  of  the  pine,  broad- 
leaved  shrubs  and  trees  came  in,  such  as  Sorbus,  Wild  Cherry, 
Snowball,  Alders,  then  denoting  warmer  climate,  Hazel,  Elm  and 
Linden.  Gradually  the  pine  was  replaced  by  Oak  accompanied 
by  Ash,  Maple,  Elm,  denoting  further  improvement  of  climate, 
and  across  the  then  existing  land  bridge,  it  progressed  as  far  as 
middle  Sweden,  where  it  met  in  competition  with  the  spruce. 
The  beech,  with  its  tolerance  a  dangerous  competitor  of  the  oak, 
came  in  at  the  end  of  prehistoric  and  the  beginning  of  historic 
times  crowding  out  the  oak,  until  it  met  the  spruce  at  a  lower 
latitude — being  a  later  comer  than  the  oak.     Later  the  climate 


178  Forestry  Quarterly. 

became  worse,  this  deterioration  being  indicated  for  instance  by 
the  southward  withdrawal  of  the  hazel. 

In  Germany  for  a  long  time  and  into  historic  times  the  oak 
remained  in  possession,  but  finally  the  beech  crowded  it  back. 
The  spruce  which  used  to  be  indigenous  to  northwest  Germany, 
did  not  return  even  into  Denmark,  coming  into  Sweden  from  the 
northeast. 

The  portions  of  Bohemia,  Moravia  and  Lower  Austria  which 
were  not  glaciated,  and  hence  retained  a  relatively  mild  climate, 
show,  soon  after  the  ice  age,  beech,  oak  and  hazel,  with  which 
pine,  spruce  and  fir  were  associated. 

In  the  Alps  the  same  change  took  place  as  in  the  northern 
areas  except  that  the  forest  of  the  oak  period  remained  decidedly 
a  mixed  forest  and  that  the  periods  were  of  shorter  duration. 

During  the  stone  age,  as  the  rubbish  heaps  show,  the  flora  of 
North  and  Middle  Europe  consisted  almost  exclusively  of  broad 
leaf  types  and  most  of  the  charcoal  consists  of  oak  (74%)  while 
the  beech  did  not  yet  exist  in  Denmark.  Here  it  is  found  with 
assurance  not  earlier  than  the  iron  age,  perhaps  in  the  time  of  the 
Romans.  The  stone  age,  then,  and  the  oak  period  cover  each 
other,  and  it  would  appear  that  man  did  not  exist  in  Northern 
Europe  for  thousands  of  years  after  the  ice  age.  Before,  the  clim- 
ate was  too  rigorous,  the  soil  mostly  swampy  and  unfavorable 
for  man's  existence. 

The  pile  buildings  in  Switzerland  exhibit  all  the  species  now 
existing  excepting  larch,  Pinus  Cembra,  and  spruce,  although  the 
latter  existed,  but  fir  seems  to  have  been  most  common ;  the  larch 
immigrated  later.  The  stone  age  here  coincides  with  the  beech 
period,  the  beech  establishing  itself  here  earlier  than  farther  north. 

The  prehistoric  changes  are  then  characterized  by  the  fact  that 
the  more  frugal  intolerant  species  were  gradually  displaced  by 
the  more  demanding  which  by  their  shady  character  improved 
the  soil,  while  during  the  time  of  man  the  opposite  has  been  the 
result  of  his  interference. 

A  more  detailed  account  of  the  phenomena  described  above  in 
Cieslar's  article  may  be  found  in  the  works  of  Axel  Blvtt, 
Nathorst,  Rekstad,  Gunnar  Anderson,  Sernander,  A.  Schulz  and 
others. 

These  works   have  recently  been   reviewed  by  Jens   Holmboe 


Periodical  Literature.  179 

and  are  restated  again  in  Harshberger's  article  on  "Bogs,"  Feb- 
ruary number  of  the  Plant  World. 

Holmboe  recognizes  ninety  species  of  plants  which  have  been 
discovered  in  the  bogs  of  Norway.  After  a  critical  study  of  the 
remains  as  found  in  situ  in  the  peat  deposits,  Holmboe  recog- 
nizes the  following  successive  strata:  (a)  dwarf  birch,  polar 
willow  {Salix  herbacea)  and  water  plants;  (b)  birches  (un- 
doubtedly Betula  odorata)  which  formed  the  primeval  postgla- 
cial forest,  similar  to  the  forest  which  is  represented  to-day  at  the 
northern  limit  of  trees  together  with  aspen,  tall  willows,  juniper, 
bilberry,  white  water-lily  (Nymphaea  alba)  ;  (c)  pine  stratum 
with  alder,  hazel,  raspberry,  twin-flower  {Linnaea  borealis)  and 
twig- rush  {Cladium  mariscus) ,  while  in  the  lowest  parts  of  this 
stratum  with  the  pine  are  found  remains  of  dwarf  willows  and 
avens  {Dry as  octope'tala)  ;  (d)  the  layer  of  the  oak  with  the  ash, 
Norway  maple,  hazel  and  winter  linden  {Tilia  parvifolia) ,  these 
trees  being  found  in  a  broad  belt  during  the  warmest  postglacial 
period,  forming  in  many  places  extensive  forests;  (e)  the  layer 
of  Pinus  silvestris  (Fichtenzone)  which  occurs  only  in  a  few 
places  in  Kristiania  and  Trondjemsfjord  and  represents  the  latest 
fossil  layer  of  peat;  (f)  then  comes  last,  the  heath  stratum  char- 
acterized by  the  heather  {Calluna  vulgaris),  which  exists  in  great 
abundance  on  the  treeless  west  coast  of  Norway,  replacing  the 
earlier  forests  as  the  most  important  formation  plant.  Similarly 
K.  R.  Kupffer  found  just  above  the  clay  bottom  of  a  bog  in 
Russia,  a  layer  of  sand  ten  to  fifteen  cm.  thick,  filled  with  the 
remains  of  characteristic  alpine  plants,  such  as  Dryas  octopetala 
and  willows  {Salix  arbuscula,  hastata,  herbacea,  polaris,  myrsin- 
ites,  phylicifolia  and  reticulata)  besides  other  flowering  plants, 
twenty-eight  species  in  all. 

Europa's  Wald  in  Grauer  Vorzeit.  Centralblatt  f.  d.  g.  Forstwesen, 
February,    1909,  pp.   60-69. 

Bogs,  their  Nature  and  Origin.  The  Plant  World,  February-March, 
1909,  pp.  34-41;    53-61. 


180  Forestry  Quarterly. 

BOTANY  AND  ZOOLOGY. 

Referring  to  Fricke's  article  on  "Tolerant 
Tolerance  and   Intolerant   Species,   a  dogma   scientifi- 

of  cally  unproved"   (see  Quarterly,  vol.  II,  p. 

Species.  226),  Dr.   Cieslar  publishes  the  results  of 

investigations  of  this  question  carried  on 
for  eighteen  years.  Fricke  denied  the  existence  of  varied  toler- 
ance of  species  but  recognized  tolerant  and  intolerant  forms  in 
the  same  species ;  whether  this  adaptation  was  habitual  or  se- 
cured through  the  life  of  the  individual  he  did  not  state. 

It  has  been  generally  accepted,  and  demonstrated  by  Hessel- 
mann  through  exact  investigation,  that  every  species  can  endure 
more  shade  on  fresh  sites,  but  if  compared  on  the  same  site  a 
graded  difference  of  this  capacity  among  the  species  can  be  as- 
serted. 

In  1890  Cieslar  started  10  beds,  each  sown  in  drills  with  Spruce, 
Black  and  Scotch  Pine,  and  Larch,  eight  of  the  beds  being 
shaded  with  lath  screens  of  varying  closeness  so  as  to  secure 
from  25  to  75  per  cent,  of  shade.  One  of  the  remaining  beds 
was  covered  with  moss  between  the  drills  without  shade,  the 
other  left  entirely  open.  While  for  most  beds  laths  of  1  cm.  were 
used,  one  was  covered  with  a  screen  of  2  cm.  and  another  of  3 
cm.  lath,  which  was  found  afterwards  to  give  different  results 
from  those  covered  with  the  1  cm.  lath  screens,  namely,  relatively 
better  ones,  for  here  the  actual  light  passing  through  is  larger 
than  the  theoretical  50  per  cent.  The  results  of  the  denser,  darker 
shade  are  also  influenced  by  the  fact  that  the  soil  here  is  kept 
moister.  The  effect  was  determined  by  very  accurately  meas- 
uring with  Friedrich's  precision  xylometer  the  volume  of  100 
seedlings  and  comparing  the  volumes  percentically  to  those  of 
the  moss  covered  bed;  also  comparing  the  length  of  the  plants 
percentically  with  those  of  the  least  shaded  bed. 

The  results  are  given  in  tables  from  which  we  bring  an  extract. 


Periodical  Literature.  181 

Spruce.  Austrian  Scotch  Larch. 

Pine.  Pine, 

vol.  Igth.  vol.  Igth.  vol.  Igth.  vol.  Igth. 

Unshaded,  58   79  145  100  146  108  68  120 

with  moss,  ....  100  116  100  163  100  154  100  135 

Shaded     .25  79  100  101  100  69  100  67  100 

■  33    92  103  78  no  70  103  44  109 

.40  90  106  74  109  68  118  56  122 

•  50  80  in  73    131  41  140  46  143 

2  cm. 50  76  109    62  125    34  148    31  134 

3  cm. 50  87  108    67  113    53  115    44  125 

.66  64  121    34  162    21  169    21  151 

•  75  54  133    27  155    19  184    13  176 

The  author  argues:  If  the  product  of  the  different  conifers 
with  decreasing  light  decreased  in  equal  proportion  we  would 
have  to  give  up  the  terms  "tolerant  and  intolerant  species;"  if, 
however,  with  the  same  degrees  of  shade  the  product  of  some 
were  more  and  that  of  others  less,  then  the  distinction  has  silvi- 
cultural  justification.  Thus,  if  the  Larch  can,  when  three-quar- 
ters shaded,  produce  only  13  per  cent,  of  the  volume  attained 
when  unshaded,  while  the  Scotch  pine  produces  still  19  per  cent., 
and  the  same  relations  are  found  persistently  with  other  degrees 
of  shading  and  with  other  species,  then  the  proof  seems  incon- 
trovertible that  tolerance  is  a  specific  quality.  The  smaller  the  de- 
pression of  volume  production  in  a  species  with  a  given  degree 
of  shade,  the  smaller  is  the  need  of  light  by  that  species,  the  more 
shade-enduring  or  tolerant  is  the  species. 

The  variation  of  the  beds  covered  with  broader  lath  is  strik- 
ing, and  a  hint  for  nursery  practice. 

Another  interesting  result  is  the  influence  of  the  shade  on 
length  growth.  All  species  show  increase  in  length  with  increase 
of  shade — the  well  known  etiolation  influence — but  the  shade-  en- 
during respond  less  to  the  stimulus  than  the  light-needing.  While 
Spruce  increased  its  length  under  the  densest  shade  only  33  per 
cent,  pine  and  larch  increased  it  by  55,  84  and  76  per  cent,  re- 
spectively, the  plants  of  the  last  two  beds  of  these  being  very 
spindly  and  weak,  absolutely  useless.  This  is  another  proof  of 
the  specific  character  of  tolerance. 

The  excellence  of  the  growth  on  the  unshaded,  moss-covered 
bed  is  specially  noticeable,  and  argues  for  this  method  of  nursery 
practice  and  also  for  the  relation  of  tolerance  to  moisture  condi- 
tions. 

Check  tests  instituted  in  1894  and  1896  with  all  species  under 


ioo,    80, 

104, 

104, 

84 

( 84 

84), 

84. 

84 

IOO,    80, 

7-2, 

65, 

40 

(  46 

55), 

25, 

14 

ioo,    99, 

108, 

107, 

89 

(100 

105), 

89, 

76 

182  Forestry  Quarterly. 

same  conditions  confirmed  the  findings   of  the   original   experi- 
ment more  or  less  strikingly. 

A  series  of  beds  of  Fir,  the  most  tolerant  of  all  the  European 
conifers,  showed  entirely  different  behavior,  the  decrease  of  pro- 
duction decreasing  but  slightly  or  not  at  all  with  the  degree  of 
shade,  but  the  decrease  of  moisture  in  the  least  shaded  produced 
decreased  volume.  Beginning  with  the  moss  covered  bed  as 
100,  the  beds  with  wider  lath  in  parenthesis,  the  series  was : 

Volume  of  yearlings,    .  . 
Volume  of  3  year  olds, 
Length  of  3  year  olds,   . 

This  series  shows  also  that  with  continued  shading  the  un- 
favorable influence  of  shading  becomes  more  pronounced ;  while 
in  the  first  year  the  most  shaded  bed  still  produced  84%  of  the 
unshaded,  after  three  years  the  production  had  fallen  to  only  14 
per  cent.  The  influence  on  the  length  was  with  this  highly  tol- 
erant species  of  small  amount. 

The  3  year  old  firs  were  transplanted  and  kept  without  shade 
for  another  3  years.  These  showed  that  having  their  root  system 
and  their  assimilating  apparatus  adapted  to  the  shade  conditions, 
they  required  years  before  adapting  themselves  to  the  new  light 
conditions.  Those  densely  shaded,  after  3  years,  had  made  a 
length  shoot  of  only  4.3  cm.  as  compared  with  14.7  cm  on  the 
part  of  those  who  had  never  been  shaded,  or  only  29  per  cent.; 
and  in  volume  only  9  per  cent,  of  those  grown  without  shade. 
(A  matter  for  practical  consideration  for  the  friends  of  selection 
forest — Rev.) 

The  effect  of  continued  shading  was  also  observed  on  the  other 
species,  and  was  of  a  similar  nature.  With  .75  shade,  all  except 
the  spruce  were  shaded  out  in  the  second  year,  and  larch  even 
with  .66  shade ;  for  the  rest,  the  denser  the  shade  the  smaller 
the  product.  Even  the  spruce,  although  still  showing  24  per  cent, 
of  the  weight  of  the  plants  in  the  unshaded  bed,  showed  that  it 
would  not  have  survived  a  third  year  of  shade. 

Other  tests  under  raised  screens  of  varying  shading  quality  led 
to  the  same  conclusions. 

Interesting  is  the  observation  that  the  firs  on  the  unshaded 
beds  formed  rather  short  branches,  while  the  crowns  of  the  more 
shaded  ones  spread  out  with  long  branches,  evidently  trying  to 
secure  more  light. 


Periodical  Literature.  183 

Tolerance  and  intolerance,  then,  graded  from  species  to  species, 
and  reduced  volume  production  with  decrease  of  light,  the  light — 
needing  reacting  more  than  tolerant  to  withdrawal  of  light,  are 
well-established  facts. 

To  establish  more  precisely  the  relation  between  soil  moisture 
and  light  requirements  a  few  investigations  were  made.  In  a 
stand  of  Douglas  Fir,  21  years  old,  three  plats  of  about  7  square 
feet  were  planted  with  8  or  9  yearlings  each  of  five  species  be- 
sides acorns  and  beech  nuts.  On  two  plats,  the  soil  of  the  plats 
was  isolated  by  cutting  through  all  roots  of  the  Douglas  Fir  and 
placing  boards  16  inches  deep  as  sidewalls.  After  planting  and 
sowing  in  the  spring,  all  three  plats  were  thoroughly  watered, 
and  again  one  of  them  only  whenever  three  days  without  rain 
occurred,  keeping  it  well  watered  through  the  season. 

During  July  and  August  of  the  same  year  all  the  plants  on  all 
three  plats  died,  the  two  kinds  of  pine  first,  then  the  spruce  and 
finally  the  Douglas  and  Nordmann  Firs. 

At  the  same  time  two  plats,  leaving  out  the  watered  one,  were 
located  and  planted  similarly  in  a  21  year  old  pine  stand  of 
normal  density,  (one-seventh  of  total  daylight)  on  fresh  soil. 
At  the  end  of  June  the  condition  of  the  plants  on  both  plats  was 
satisfactory,  especially  of  the  firs.  At  the  end  of  September  both 
firs,  Scotch  Pine  and  oak  were  in  excellent  condition,  of  spruces 
4  on  each  plat  had  died,  of  Austrian  Pine  on  the  isolated  plat  all 
8  were  green ;  on  the  non-isolated  plat,  one  had  died,  that  is  to 
say,  no  difference  in  the  two  plats  was  noticeable. 

In  the  following  spring  by  the  middle  of  May  the  firs  and  the 
oaks  showed  excellent  condition  and  remained  so  through  the 
season.  Three  spruces  were  alive  on  the  isolated,  4  on  the  non- 
isolated plat,  the  living  plants  on  both  plats  showing  no  difference 
while  the  two  species  of  pines  looked  hopeless,  and  by  the  end 
of  September  on  the  isolated  plat  they  were  all  dead ;  in  the  non- 
isolated 3  and  4  were  still  hanging  on,  but  died  the  next  year. 
Yet  the  water  contents  at  8  to  10  inches,  after  it  had  not  rained 
for  11  days,  was  found  on  the  isolated  plat  as  23.2,  on  the  non- 
isolated as  16.8  per  cent,  showing  the  pumping  capacity  of  the 
roots. 

The  pines  then,  which  are  less  demanding  as  regards  water 
supply  perished  because  not   receiving  enough   light,   while   the 


184  Forestry  Quarterly. 

firs,  highly  dependent  on  moisture,  found  enough  light  and  cor- 
responding to  it  sufficient  soil  moisture. 

The  third  year  (1908)  the  spruces  still  hung  on,  while  the 
firs  and  oaks  were  thriving.  Douglas  Fir  and  Oak  grew  better 
in  the  isolated,  Nordmann  Fir  showed  no  difference,  spruce  did 
worse  in  the  isolated  plat. 

Practically,  the  influence  of  varying  soil  moisture  on  incre- 
ment can  exist  only  within  the  limits  of  light  supply  required  by 
the  biological  character  of  the  species. 

A  further  check  test  was  made  in  the  Douglas  Fir  stand,  re- 
planting the  old  plats  and  treating  them  the  same  as  before,  but 
adding  a  fourth  one  in  an  opening  with  only  top  light,  which  ad- 
mitted one-eighth  of  the  full  daylight.  At  the  end  of  the  year  the 
plants  on  the  last  plat  showed  better  than  on  the  other  plats.  In 
July  of  the  second  year,  the  difference  was  still  greater,  the  toler- 
ant firs  could  not  persist  in  the  shadier  plats,  even  though  watered, 
while  in  the  opening  a  number  of  pines  even  had  persisted. 

Finally  a  last  test  was  made  in  the  Douglas  Fir  stand  by  placing 
4  boxes  16  inches  deep,  the  bottom  consisting  of  narrow-gaged 
wire  netting,  filled  with  the  same  kind  of  prepared  soil  and  planted 
with  a  number  each  of  nine  species ;  after  the  boxes  had  been 
kept  well  watered  in  open  light,  two  of  these  were  placed,  sunk 
into  the  soil  in  an  opening,  the  two  others,  25  feet  from  the  first, 
in  dense  shade.  One  box  in  each  set  was  kept  well  watered  when- 
ever it  had  not  rained  for  three  days.  By  the  end  of  June  all 
larches  had  succumbed  in  both  boxes  in  the  shade,  the  pines  being 
sickly;  by  the  end  of  September  all  the  plants  in  these  boxes 
watered  or  not,  were  dead  or  dying.  Those  in  the  other  set,  out- 
side of  Scotch,  White  Pine  and  Larch  which  had  mostly  suc- 
cumbed, were  in  good  condition,  no  difference  between  watered 
and  unwatered  box  being  visible.  The  next  year  merely  ac- 
centuated the  relation.  In  the  opening  all  larch,  all  pines,  except 
one  White  Pine  had  died,  firs,  beech,  and  oak  remaining  in  good 
condition,  less  so  spruce  and  Douglas  Fir,  the  watering  making 
no  difference. 

This  last  step,  then,  also  demonstrated  that  an  optimum  of  soil 
moisture  can  be  of  use  to  an  undergrowth  under  the  crown  cover 
of  an  old  stand  only  when  there  is  a  light  intensity,  which  ex- 
ceeds the  minimum  of  light  requirement  of  the  species.     Hence, 


Periodical  Literature.  185 

soil  moisture  and  light  supply  must  work  together  for  best  suc- 
cess. 

In  this  connection  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  with  decreas- 
ing light  intensity  the  amount  of  transpiration  is  also  depressed, 
hence  with  small  amount  of  light  the  plant  cannot  utilize  a  full 
supply  of  moisture,  i.  e.  a  smaller  supply  produced  the  same  re- 
sult as  a  more  ample  one.  On  the  other  hand  an  excess  of  light 
supply  may  produce  weedgrowth  on  the  soil,  which  would  rob 
the  surface  soil  in  a  greater  degree  than  the  roots  of  the  mother 
trees. 

The  author  then  concludes,  that  not  only  a  difference  in  light 
requirements  distinguishes  the  species,  but  a  relation  between 
light  supply  and  volume  production,  the  tolerant  species  within 
certain  limits  of  light  supply  suffering  less  loss  of  increment  from 
a  lack  of  light  than  the  intolerant.  An  optimum  of  volume  pro- 
duction can  be  secured  only  when  the  two  factors,  light  and  moist- 
ure, are  at  an  optimum.  An  increase  of  production  by  providing 
the  most  favorable  soil  moisture  conditions  can  be  secured  only  if 
the  light  supply  is  above  the  minimum  light  requirement  of  the 
species ;  hence  soil  as  well  as  crown  conditions  must  be  considered 
in  natural  regeneration. 

In  stands  of  tolerant  species,  since  only  top  light  and  hardly 
any  side  light  is  secured  by  an  opening  of  the  crown  cover,  this 
must  be  made  larger  for  the  same  light  effect. 

For  nursery  work  it  should  be  noted  that  the  best  results  are 
attained  not  by  shading  (except  where  frost  danger  exists)  but 
by  covering  with  moss  between  the  rows  weighted  with  lath. 

Licht-  und  Schattenholzarten  Lichtgenuss  und  Bodenfeuchtigkeit.  Cen- 
tralblatt  f.  d.  g.  Forstwesen,  January,  1909,  pp.  4-22. 

A  well  illustrated  study  of  the  influence  of 

Ecology  forest  use  on  soil  conditions  on  the  lime- 

of  stone  rocks  of  the  island  of  Gotland,  one 

Calcareous  of  Sweden's  possessions,  is  of  general  in- 

Soils.  terest. 

The  whole  island  is  a  limestone  forma- 
tion, but  of  varying  character,  giving  rise  to  three  types  of  soil 
and  corresponding  plant  formations,  namely,  naked  rocks,  rocks 
with  drained  diluvial  soil,  rocks  with  undrained  diluvial  soil. 
On  the  naked  rocks  a  decidedly  calcophil  flora  of  xerophilous 


1 86  Forestry  Quarterly. 

structure  is  found,  mainly  in  the  fissures  and  depressions.  Here 
a  miserable  growth  of  pine,  of  10  to  12  feet  height  and  with  stout 
branches  is  found,  which  sometimes,  where  fissures  are  frequent, 
forms  open  stands.  But,  if  only  10  to  20  inches  of  soil  cover  oc- 
curs, the  stands  close  up  and  the  soil  underneath  is  occupied  by 
grasses  and  herbs  and  the  shrubby  Arctostaphylos  Uva  ursi. 
Here  the  height  of  the  trees  increases  to  30  feet  and  more,  furnish- 
ing short  sawlogs  and  especially  railroad  ties  which  owing  to  the 
narrow  rings  and  high  resinous  contents  are  specially  valued. 
Here  and  there  spruce  comes  in,  the  branches  of  this  tree  hugging 
the  ground  and  striking  root,  and  occasionally  developing  from 
these  layers  upright  branches  which  can  develop  into  independent 
trees,  forming  thickets. 

Along  the  coast  the  well  drained  calcareous  gravel  bears  good 
pine  stands,  but  on  the  undrained  diluvial  soils  the  vegetation  is 
entirely  different.  Here,  during  the  spring  and  fall  a  surplus  of 
water  is  found,  while  in  summer  the  soil  dries  out  severely.  In 
freezing,  the  undrained  soil  experiences  considerable  mechanical 
changes,  the  water  is  withdrawn  from  the  clay  which  forms  an 
important  part  in  the  composition  of  these  soils,  and  the  ice 
formed  exerts  considerable  force,  moving  good-sized  stones,  and 
lifting  out  or  breaking  stout  roots  of  the  Juniper  here  found. 
This  feature  of  the  soil  is  inimical  to  tree  growth  and  indeed  to 
any  vegetation.  Here,  therefore,  the  "Alfvar"  type — treeless 
areas  with  sparse  vegetation — is  found.  In  the  worst  places  only 
the  stout  rooted  or  otherwise  protected  forms  can  exist,  like 
Galeopsis  Ladanum  globosa,  Cirsium  arvcnse  fcrox,  Daucus 
carota  contractor  The  few  pines  that  have  maintained  them- 
selves show  peculiar  "heaved"  roots. 

In  deeper  depressions,  where  the  water  stands  in  spring  and 
fall  but  in  summer  dries  up,  the  soil  is  then  powdery,  consisting 
of  amorphous  calcium  carbonate,  and  bears  a  very  scanty  vegeta- 
tion of  calcophile  hydrophytes  like  the  Characeae  and  species  of 
Amblystegium,  and  no  trees. 

The  influence  of  man  on  the  changes  in  vegetation  are  noted. 
A  considerable  industry  in  burning  lime  used  to  call  for  fuel  sup- 
plies. But  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  this  occasioned  considerable 
clearings,  the  forest  is  not  destroyed  and  in  the  neighborhood  of 
abandoned  lime  kilns  is  as  good  as  away  from  them.     The  forest 


Periodical  Literature.  187 

returns,  though  slowly,  and  even  the  lower  vegetation  is  little  in- 
fluenced by  the  clearings.  The  re-establishment  of  the  forest 
progresses,  of  course,  at  varying  rates  on  the  different  soils. 
Where  areas,  formerly  wooded,  are  now  bare,  the  cause  is  not 
found  in  the  forest  use,  but  in  the  extensive  pasturing  of  sheep, 
which  was  carried  on  in  commons.  Since  pasture  grounds  have 
become  individual  property  and  sheep  herding  has  decreased,  re- 
turns of  the  forest  progresses. 

Skogsvardsforeningens    Tidskrift,    March,    April,    1908,    pp.    93-199. 

Olsson-Seffer  has  made  a  careful  study  of 
Ecology  the    factors    influencing   the    vegetation    of 

of  sandy  sea-shores  in  many  parts  of  the  world. 

Vegetation  He  has  visited  many  regions  in  both  Tem- 

on  perate  and  Subtropical  zones,  regions  vary- 

Sea-Shores.  ing  greatly  in  climatic  and  geological  char- 

acters. Some  of  his  conclusions  may  be  of 
interest  to  those  engaged  in  the  work  of  reclaiming  sandy  areas 
near  the  sea. 

He  states  that  the  atmospheric  conditions  are  the  most  im- 
portant factors  owing  to  their  influence  on  transpiration. 
Sandy  vegetation  differs  from  inland  flora  in  being  subject  to 
great  fluctuation  of  diurnal  temperatures,  owing  to  easy  radiation 
of  heat  from  the  sandy  surface.  The  large  amount  of  heat  ab- 
sorbed by  sand  and  reflected  from  its  surface,  the  intensity  of 
illumination  direct  and  reflected,  and  the  exposure  to  winds  have 
been  very  important  factors  in  modifying  plants  in  these  locali- 
ties. Another  factor  is  the  intense  salinity  of  the  air  near  the 
sea-shore.  This  factor  is  according  to  Olsson-Seffer  of  greater 
importance  than  the  salty  character  of  the  soil.  In  fact  he  states 
that  the  strand  flora  is  not  halophytic.  The  reason  for  this  is  that 
beach  sands,  although  supposed  to  be  thoroughly  saturated  with 
salt,  are  in  reality  only  salt  where  inundated.  The  saline  char- 
acter is  found  at  the  surface,  but  the  sand  of  lower  levels  where 
the  roots  extend  is  not  salt,  being  kept  fresh  by  a  flow  of  fresh 
water.  Further  inland  where  the  salt  spray  condenses  the  salt  is 
either  washed  out  by  rain  or  remains  at  the  surface. 

The  amount  and  distribution  of  precipitation  throughout  the 
year  plays  an  important  part  in  binding  sands  and  aiding  the 


1 88  Forestry  Quarterly. 

growth  of  vegetation,  as  do  the  texture  and  chemical  composition 

of  the  sands. 

R.  T.  F. 

Relation  of  Soil  and  Vegetation  on  Sandy  Sea-shores.  The  Botanical 
Gazette,  1909,  No.  2. 

In    continuation    of    the     inquiry     of    the 

Races  Swedish    Experiment    Station    as    regards 

of  races  of  trees,  a  whole  stand  of  so-called 

Trees.  serpentine  spruces  i.  e.  with  irregular  and 

pendulous  branching — a  stand  of  two  and 

a  half  acres  near  the  village  of  Orsa — was  found  composed  of  a 

great  variety  of  these  misshapen,  irregularly  branched  specimens 

(395)>  a  number  of  which  are  pictured.     Another  smaller  stand 

of  100  specimens  was  found  not  far  from  here ;  both  growing  on 

abandoned  pastures.     Elsewhere  only  single  specimens  or  small 

groups  have  been   found,  a  number  of  which  occurrences   are 

noted  from  other  parts  of  Sweden,  Switzerland  and  Bohemia. 

It  seems  that  these  variations  occur  either  on  pastures  or  open 
places,  not  in  denser  stands.  A  great  variety  of  shapes  is  noted, 
reduced  branching,  variety  of  form,  size  and  arrangement  of 
needles  and  of  cones.  A  number  are  described  in  detail.  They 
may  be  grouped  in  three  classes,  namely,  serpentine  spruces 
(Picea  excelsa  virgata)  ;  pendulous  spruces  (P.  cxcelsa  znmin- 
alis) ;  and  intermediate  forms  (europaea,  femica,  acuminata,  etc.). 

The  question  of  the  hereditariness  of  these  forms  awaits  solu- 
tion. Their  occurrence  in  stands  would  argue  for  heredity,  but 
other  reasonings  are  possible.  The  more  prononunced  serpentine 
forms  have  a  teratological  character  and  are  by  a  series  of  transi- 
tion forms  connected  with  the  normally  branched  spruces.  More- 
over, they  exhibit  great  lability.  In  a  serpentine  spruce  branches 
with  normal  arrangement  occur,  or  the  lower  part  of  the  tree  may 
be  normal,  the  upper  serpentine. 

Skogsvardsforeningens  Tidskrift,  December,  1908.     Pp.  401-460. 

The  first  recorded  attempt  to  fix  shifting 

Sand  Binding        sand  dunes  in  India  by  planting  dates  back 

Plants  in  India.      to  1849,  and  since  then  from  time  to  time, 

the  process  has  been  successfully  employed 

on  various  Indian  coasts  as  well  as  upon  interior  sands.    V.  See- 


Periodical  Literature.  189 

bramania  Tyer  in  a  recent  article,  describes  the  ecological  adap- 
tations of  numerous  native  sand  binders.  The  underground 
stems  and  branches  of  some  extend  to  enormous  lengths.  For 
example,  Cyperus  arenarius  sends  out  branches  to  a  length  of 
fifty  feet  with  innumerable  side  branches  and  branchlets,  while 
those  of  Ipomea  bilboa  and  Canavalia  obtusifolia  may  extend 
forty-two  and  thirty-five  feet  respectively.  It  seems  that  the 
families  represented  are  practically  the  same  as  those  found  on 
American  sand  dunes. 

C.  D.  H. 
Indian  Forester,  February,  1909,  pp.  82-07. 

Reference  has  already  been   made   in  this 

Ecological  Journal   (F.  Q.  VII  p.  74),  to  studies  on 

Studies  the  vegetation  of  Colorado,  under  the  title 

in  of  Studies  in  Mesa  and  Foothill  Vegetation. 

Colorado.  This  is  the  first  of  a  series  and  includes 

Geology  and  Physiology  of  the  Mesas  near 

Boulder  by  Gideon  S.  Dodds;    Climatology  of  the  Mesas  near 

Boulder  by  Francis  Ramaley;    Distribution  of  Conifers  on  the 

Mesas  by  W.  W.  Robbins  and  Gideon  S.  Dodds ;   Distribution  of 

Deciduous  trees  and  Shrubs  on  the  Mesas  by  W.  W.  Robbins. 

The  Mesas  studied  are  Horse  Mesa  and  Long  Mesa  about  two 
miles  south  of  Boulder,  Colorado.  They  have  been  carefully 
mapped  with  reference  to  geology,  topography,  soils  and  the  dis- 
tribution of  woody  species.  Soil  moisture  seems  to  be  the  most 
important  physical  factor  affecting  plant  distribution  on  the 
mesas.  The  upper  stratum  of  soil  on  the  top  of  the  mesas  is 
coarse  in  texture  and  dries  rapidly  after  a  rain.  The  slopes  are 
dry  except  in  the  bottoms  of  ravines  and  along  seepage  areas. 

Pinus  scopulorum  is  the  dominant  tree  of  the  foothill  and  mesa 
region.  The  woody  species  on  the  slopes  of  the  mesas,  however, 
are  chiefly  deciduous  shrubs  and  small  trees.  The  pines  on  the 
mesa  fall  into  three  well-marked  age-classes.  The  oldest  (150- 
200  years)  are  distributed  on  the  higher  portions  of  the  mesa  top 
and  are  relatively  few  in  number  and  far  apart.  The  middle 
class  (80-100  years)  is  found  among  the  oldest  trees  and  its 
members  extend  farther  out  toward  the  end  of  the  mesa.  The 
youngest  (20-30  years)  are  the  most  abundant  and  grow  farther 
out  than  the  preceding  groups  but  do  not  extend  entirely  to  the 


190  Forestry  Quarterly. 

end  of  the  mesa.     The  outermost  parts  of  the  mesa  have  sparse 
growth  of  small  trees  of  various  sizes. 

In  accounting  for  these  well-defined  groups  of  age  classes  with 
few  intermediate  ages,  the  author  points  out  that  the  trees  are 
in  the  tension  zone  between  forest  and  grassland  where  seedlings 
in  particular  are  sensitive  to  slight  changes  in  environmental  con- 
ditions. Favorable  conditions  for  growth  are  not  present  every 
season.  Thus  during  some  seasons  and  even  for  a  series  of  years, 
the  climate  may  be  comparatively  mild  and  moist.  If  this  period 
happens  to  coincide  with  an  abundant  seed  year,  trees  will  be 
established  on  the  mesa  far  beyond  their  ordinary  range.  Then 
may  follow  a  series  of  dry  and  cold  winters  in  which  only  well 
established  seedlings,  those  that  are  at  least  five  years  old,  can 
persist. 

The  pines  do  not  invade  the  plains  below  the  mesas  because  the 
soil  may  be  too  dry  for  the  seedlings  to  get  a  start.  On  the  mesa 
the  seedlings  often  establish  themselves  under  the  protection  of  a 
rock  and  regeneration  is  most  abundant  on  the  north  slopes 
where  the  soil  moisture  is  most  favorable.  Competition  with  the 
grass  is  another  important  factor.  The  coarse  soil  of  the  mesa 
does  not  lead  to  such  complete  control  of  the  grasses  as  does  the 
fine-grained  soil  of  the  plains  and  the  trees  establish  themselves 
on  the  mesa  in  the  open  places  where  the  seeds  can  get  down  to 
the  mineral  soil.  While  the  mean  temperatures  of  mesas  and 
plains  do  not  differ  greatly,  yet  the  daily  extremes  are  consider- 
ably greater  on  the  plains.  It  is  very  probable  that  tree  seedlings 
on  the  plains  are  killed  by  late  spring  frosts. 

A  bibliography  of  Colorado  botany  is  appended  which  con- 
tains references  to  twenty-nine  papers  relating  to  the  forests  of 
Colorado. 

The  thoroughness  of  the  preliminary  work  in  Geology,  Topo- 
graphy and  Climatology  as  well  as  the  method  of  treatment  of  the 
distributional  studies  make  this  work  a  model  which  future  plant 
ecologists  would  do  well  to  follow. 

C.  D.  H. 

Studies  in  Mesa  and  Foothill  Vegetation.  I.  The  University  of  Colo- 
rado Studies.     Vol.  VI,  No.   1. 


Periodical  Literature.  191 

Charles   C.   Adams,   University   of  Illinois, 

Ecology  has  disclosed  a  new  and  interesting  field  of 

of  study   in   his   paper  upon   "The   Ecological 

Birds.  Succession  of   Birds."     His  thesis   is   that 

just  as  there  is  a  succession  of  vegetation, 
so  there  is  a  succession  of  birds  on  a  given  area,  dependent  upon 
the  successive  changes  in  vegetation.  For  example,  on  Isle 
Royale  in  Lake  Superior,  the  author  observed  that  certain  birds 
accompanied  the  invasion  of  open  bogs  by  Tamarack,  Black 
Spruce  and  Arbor  Vitae.  These  birds  are  the  Red-breasted 
Nuthatch,  Yellow-bellied  Flycatcher,  Golden-crowned  Kinglet, 
Cedar  Waxwing,  Chickadee,  Canada  Jay,  White-winged  Cross- 
bill. Where  alders  abound  the  conditions  are  favorable  for  the 
Redstart  and  the  White-throated  Sparrow.  But  later  as  the  bog- 
conifer  forest  becomes  continuous  and  dominant,  the  Waxwing, 
Redstart  and  White-throated  Sparrow  diminish  in  numbers  and 
finally  disappear.  Still  later  as  the  swamp  becomes  eliminated 
by  the  Spruce-Balsam  forest,  the  Yellow-bellied  Flycatcher  is  ex- 
cluded and  various  species  of  woodpeckers  come  in.  In  a  similar 
manner  he  traces  the  changes  in  bird  life  which  accompany  the 
successive  stages  in  the  reforestation  of  burned  areas. 

While  birds  from  their  nature  are  more  mobile  than  plants  in 
their  occupancy  of  an  area,  yet  in  the  breeding  season,  pairs  of 
birds  tend  to  space  themselves  and  to  become  relatively  sedentary 
and  thus  they  react  to  the  laws  of  invasion  and  succession  in  a 
manner  similar  to  plants. 

C.  D.  H. 

The  Ecological  Succession  of  Birds.  The  Auk,  Vol.  25,  No.  2,  April, 
1908. 

It  appears  from  recent  investigation  accord- 
Longevity  ing  to  Wm.  Crocker,  that  delayed  germina- 

of  tion  in  seeds  is  generally  due  to  the  char- 

Seeds.  acter  of  the  seed  coats  rather  than  to  the 

so-called  dormancy  of  protoplasm.  The 
prevention  of  germination  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  seed  coat 
shuts  out  for  a  time  conditions  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the 
embryo.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  exclusion  of  water  or 
oxygen,  or  perhaps  chemical  compounds  necessary  for  germina- 
tion. 

13 


192  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Growth  may  be  started  artificially  by  removing  the  integuments 
or  by  modifying  them  so  that  they  no  longer  exclude  the  essential 
substances.  Thus  in  the  case  of  Mesquite,  Prosopis  juliflora, 
ether  dissolves  the  oily  deposits  of  the  seed  coat  and  allows 
germination  to  take  place.  The  application  of  heat,  while  soak- 
ing seeds,  hastens  germination,  but  its  effect  is  very  variable  in 
different  species,  in  the  same  species  in  different  parts  of  its 
range,  or  even  in  different  parts  of  the  same  crop. 


R.  T.  F. 


Longevity  of  Seeds.     The  Botanical  Gazette,  1909,  No.  1. 


SOIL,  WATER,  AND  CLIMATE. 

A  resume  of  the  present  knowledge  as  re- 
Forest  gards  nitrogen  supply  to  tree  growth  points 

and  out   that,    according  to    Schroeder,    atmos- 

Nitrogen  pheric  precipitation   carries   annually    10  to 

Supplies  1 1.5  lbs.  of  nitrogen  per  acre  to  the  ground  ; 

that  the  annual  consumption  for  wood  pro- 
duction by  beech,  spruce,  fir,  birch,  is  9.3,  11.9,  12,  and  6.5  re- 
spectively, while  the  litter  returns  to  the  soil  annually  40  lbs.  per 
acre  under  beech,  28.8  under  spruce,  and  26.1  under  pine.  The 
litter  then  plays  an  important  role. 

Professor  Henry  of  Nancy  (See  Quarterly,  Vol.  II,  173,  etc.) 
who  has  for  years  studied  the  question  and  assigned  to  bacteria 
living  in  the  litter  nitrogen  gathering  capacity,  publishes  addi- 
tional material  in  the  Journal  d'agriculture  pratique,  1907. 

On  a  sand  dune  planted  in  1850  with  Pinus  maritima,  in  1906 
a  fine  forest  was  found,  the  soil  of  which  in  a  sample  taken  to  a 
depth  of  6  inches  developed  over  7  tons  of  organic  substance, 
with  nitrogen  contents  of  1.5%,  i.  e.  248  lbs.  per  acre  or  4.5  lbs. 
of  accumulation  per  year.  In  another  case,  under  a  specially 
made  plantation  of  pine,  after  9  years  the  accumulation  was  7.2 
lbs.  per  year. 


Periodical  Literature.  193 

Under  an  old  oak  stand  the  conditions  were  found  still  more 
striking.    In  the  soil  layer 

down  to  4  inches,   1545  lbs. 

4  inches  to  12  inches, 2610  lbs. 

12  inches  to  24  inches, 1642  lbs. 

24  inches  to  32  inches, 732  lbs. 


6529  lbs. 
per  acre  were  found. 

Lately  it  has  been  found  that  frost  reduces  the  nitrogen-gath- 
ering capacity  of  soil  bacteria,  hence,  clearing  is  liable  to  bring 
damage  in  this  direction.  Thomas  slag  and  phosphoric  fer- 
tilizers increase  it. 

That  plants  may  take  up  nitrogen  directly  through  the  leaves 
has  been  held  by  various  botanists.  Lately,  Jamieson  had  found 
various  trichomes  on  foliage  to  be  organs  specially  adapted  to 
this  purpose.  He  found  such  hairs  of  various  shapes  in  Acer 
campestre,  Tilia,  Ulmus,  Sorbus,  Fagus,  Abies  concolor;  the 
presence  of  nitrogen  in  these  organs  and  their  presence  in  the 
youngest  parts,  which  are  richest  in  nitrogen,  is  the  argument  for 
their  functions. 

Last  year,  two  Hungarians,  Zemplen  and  Roth,  of  the  Forest 
Experiment  Station,  have  published,  illustrated  by  many  colored 
plates,  their  findings  in  Erdeszeti  Kiiserletek,  Heft  1  and  2, 
which  seem  to  confirm  Jamieson's  claim. 

A  long  series  of  deciduous  leaved  trees  showing  these  trichomes 
in  a  variety  of  shapes,  mostly  on  the  leaf  stems  and  nerves,  but 
also  on  youngest  shoots  and  fruits  was  investigated.  Conifers 
also  were  found  to  have  these  organs,  but  the  nitrogen  reactions 
were  weaker.  The  life  and  function  of  the  hairs  on  deciduous 
leaves  is  shorter  and,  therefore,  perhaps  more  intensive.  On  the 
fruit  of  Juglans  regia  the  hairs  are  especially  rich  in  nitrogen. 

The  question  remains  open  whether  this  nitrogen  comes  from 
the  air  or  other  parts  of  the  plant.  Against  the  latter  assumption 
argues  the  fact  that  the  albumen  reaction  does  not  begin  until  a 
certain  stage  of  development  of  the  trichome  is  reached,  and  then 
always  in  its  head,  only  later  in  the  foot. 

Centralblatt  f.  d.  g.  Forstwesen,  February,  1909,  pp.  89-92. 


194  Forestry  Quarterly. 

We    take    from    the    Experiment    Station 

Migration  Record  for  September,  1908,  the  following: 

of  Deleano  finds  that  there  is  a  double  move- 

Mineral  Salts.        ment  of  mineral  matter  during  the  life  of  a 

plant,  one  from  the  soil  to  the  plant,  the 
other  from  the  plant  to  the  soil.  He  found  that  under  certain 
conditions  plants  could  return  to  the  soil  mineral  matter  equal  to 
50  per  cent,  of  the  plant's  weight.  While  the  nitrogen  content  of 
the  plant  remains  fairly  constant  after  once  attaining  a  maxi- 
mum, and  the  carbohydrates  increase  and  are  stored  up,  the 
mineral  matter  gradually  diminishes  until  the  death  of  the  plant. 
The  explanation  of  this  is  that  this  mineral  matter  is  not  actually 
assimilated  by  the  plant  but  is  held  by  the  plasma  of  the  cells 
through  its  semi-permeability.  When  the  vitality  of  the  cell  be- 
comes reduced  or  the  cells  are  dead,  the  plasma  becomes  per- 
meable and  the  mineral  matter  escapes  by  simple  diffusion. 

A  study  of  the  Role  and  Functions  of  Mineral  Salts  in  the  Life  of  a 
Plant.  Inst.  Bot.  University  of  Geneva,  7  ser.,  1907,  No.  9,  pp.  48.  Ab- 
stract in  Bot.  Centralblatt,   107,    (1908),   No.   1,  p.  4. 

The   Plant   World   for   March   contains   an 

Vegetation  article  by  Charles  H.  Shaw  on  vegetation 

and  in    relation    to    altitude,    particularly    with 

Altitude.  reference  to  light  intensity  and  evaporation. 

He  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  making 
calculations  of  light  intensity  from  the  sun's  altitude  there  is  not 
one  varying  factor  but  several,  namely,  variation  according  to 
sine  of  angle  of  incidence ;  disproportion  as  to  variation  of  dif- 
fuse light ;  diminution  with  decreasing  elevation  of  the  sun  due 
to  increasing  length  of  path  of  light  through  the  atmosphere; 
disproportionate  absorption  in  the  lower  layers  of  atmosphere ; 
local  conditions  quite  beyond  calculation.  In  reference  to  the 
latter  error,  he  points  out  that  from  measurements  in  Buitenzorg, 
Java  and  in  Cairo,  Egypt,  light  diminished  rapidly  between  11 
and  12  o'clock  on  a  clear  day.  The  greatest  intensity  found 
anywhere  in  the  world  is  not  in  the  tropics  but  in  the  Yellowstone 
Park. 

In  regard  to  evaporation  at  high  altitudes  the  writer  refers  to 
his  results  from  a  series  of  porous  cup  atmometer  records  in  the 
Selkirks.     The  results  as  a  whole  seem  impossible  to  harmonize 


Periodical  Literature.  19S 

with  the  idea  that  total  evaporation  increases  with  altitude.  The 
maximum  evaporation  was  shown  by  the  instrument  at  the 
second  station,  1,100  meters  altitude.  Above  that  a  gradual  and 
irregular  diminution  was  shown.  It  may  be  that  the  influence  of 
temperature  on  evaporation  over-balances  the  effects  of  dimin- 
ished pressure  and  air  movement.  His  records,  however,  refer 
only  to  weekly  totals,  and  throw  no  light  on  what  might  happen 
during  a  certain  portion  of  the  day. 

C.  D.  H. 

Vegetation  and  Altitude.     Plant  World,  March,   1909. 

The  United  States  Weather  Bureau  estab- 
Evaporation         lished,  under  the  direction  of  Prof.  Frank 
Tests.  H.  Bigelow,  five  towers  40  feet  high  about 

the  Reno,  Nevada,  reservoir  in  order  to 
obtain  data  in  regard  to  evaporation.  On  these  towers  evaporat- 
ing pans  were  located  at  different  points  on  the  reservoir.  Evapo- 
ration from  29  pans  was  measured  every  three  hours  for  six 
weeks.  Prof.  Bigelow  found  that  the  rate  of  evaporation  at  the 
different  altitudes  seemed  to  be  controlled  by  the  invisible  vapor 
blanket  which  always  overlies  any  body  of  evaporating  water. 
He  states  that  in  dry  climates  this  vapor  blanket  above  the  water 
will  be  from  300  feet  to  one-fourth  mile  deep,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  sheet  of  water.  In  moist  climates  it  will  be  deeper 
and  more  extensive.  In  the  arid  regions  of  the  West  it  seems 
probable  that  this  vapor  blanket  conserves  about  three-eighths  of 
the  water  that  would  otherwise  be  lost  by  evaporation. 

C.  D.  H. 

Monthly   Weather   Review,   Washington,    February,    1909. 

SILVICULTURE,  PROTECTION  AND  EXTENSION. 

Professor  Wagner,  whose  book  (see  F.  Q. 
Obstacles  Vol.  VI,  p.  160)  has  stirred  up  a  lively  dis- 

to  cussion     on     silvicultural     subjects,     feels 

Natural  called  upon  to  further  explain  and  defend 

Regeneration.         his  pet  scheme  of  the  strip  selection  system, 
which  consists  in  securing  natural  regener- 
ation in  narrow  strips  located  on  north  sides  by  a  kind  of  selec- 


196  Forestry  Quarterly. 

tion  cutting.     He  discusses  here  various   difficulties   which  are 
urged  against  natural  regeneration  in  general. 

The  first  difficulty  is  that  of  hampering  the  cutting  of  a  given 
budget,  which  was  lately  accentuated,  when  an  increase  of  the 
budget  for  the  Bavarian  forests  was  demanded  (see  F.  Q.  Vol. 
VII,  p.  91).  Wagner  claims  that  the  opposite  is  true,  provided 
that  not  large  areas,  but  small  strips  as  he  proposes  are  regener- 
ated, permitting  any  number  of  attacks  and  hence  any  increase 
in  budget. 

The  second  difficulty  is  found  in  the  rare  occurrence  of  seed 
years,  which  either  delays  progress  of  fellings  or  requires  change 
to  artificial  means.  This  is  also  overcome  by  the  strip  selection 
system,  the  author  having  observed,  thai  for  this  system  full 
seedyears  are  not  required ;  partial  seed  years  are  not  only  suffi- 
cient but  welcome,  because  the  regeneration  will  then  not  be  too 
dense.  The  author  claims  that  in  this  system  all  the  seed  is 
utilized,  and  that  in  a  partial  seed  year,  and  especially  in  mixed 
forest  these  occur  yearly,  almost  all  is  good  seed,  besides  finding 
best  conditions  for  germination.  Moreover,  artificial  aid  by 
sowing  is  here  readily  given. 

The  objection  that  natural  regeneration  furnishes  often  too 
dense  stands,  the  author  finds  curious.  Even  if  it  should  become 
necessary  to  thin  out,  dense  stands  are  an  optimum  condition. 
Such  dense  crops  occur  readily  in  his  system  in  full  seedyears  on 
account  of  the  favorable  conditions  for  germination.  Here,  the 
thinning  must  take  place  early  and  is  best  done  in  spruce  and 
other  shallow  rooted  species  by  handpulling  when  8  to  12  inches 
high.  This  is  to  be  done  only  once ;  the  loss  of  plants  by  pulling 
out  roots  of  neighboring  plants  is  meaningless  in  the  face  of 
plenty. 

The  great  Spruce  Snout  beetle  is  believed  under  such  condi- 
tions an  assistant,  as  it  is  known  to  attack  onlj  trie  sickly,  the 
vigorous  young  growth  and  plantings  with  ball  of  earth  resisting 
this  pest  sufficiently. 

Drouthy  periods  which  often  cause  the  loss  of  a  regeneration, 
the  author  finds  to  have  no  terror  for  the  selection  strip  system, 
the  opening  being  made  towards  the  North,  where  the  dews  suf- 
fice to  keep  the  young  growth  alive.  Although  some  of  the  plants 
here  suffer,  and  may  loose  their  root  system,  as  soon  as  the  rains 
set  in  they  throw  out  new  roots  and  shoots,  and  revive. 


Periodical  Literature.  197 

"Here  the  thought  occurs,  that  in  the  natural  habitat  of  the 
spruce  in  regions  of  variable  humidity,  the  capacity  of  deep  and 
shallow  rooting  may  be  differentiated  in  early  years,  so  that  in 
regions  of  long  drouthy  periods  by  close  selection  the  surviving 
individuals  are  those  which  have  the  ability  to  root  deeply  at 
germination ;  those  that  did  not  have  this  capacity  succumbed. 
In  regions  with  high  humidity  and  frequent  precipitations  this 
differentiation  would  not  take  place,  a  large  number  would  be 
shallow  rooted,  hence  sowings  with  seed  from  such  localities  in 
dry  climate  and  in  the  open,  would  be  apt  to  dry  up. 

On  the  East  and  South  sides  the  sun  diminishes  the  effect  of 
the  dews,  hence  even  in  the  North  strips  the  East  ends  suffer  in 
drouthy  periods,  and  hence  a  turn  to  North — Northwest  is  advis- 
able, especially  on  East  slopes.  This,  however,  increases  the  wind 
danger.  In  the  end,  the  direct  North  exposure  appears  the  most 
satisfactory  from  all  points  of  view,  as  the  author  has  observed 
with  all  species  on  all  sites  in  the  North  of  Germany  as  well  as  in 
the  South. 

The  ideal  of  natural  regeneration  is  to  carry  the  soil  from  the 
old  to  the  new  stand  without  letting  it  become  grassy.  This  is 
best  attained  by  the  strip  selection,  which  secures  the  best  light 
conditions,  and  can  progress  more  or  less  slowly. 

On  all  soils  which  are  inclined  to  weedgrowth  the  progress  of 
fellings,  i.  e.  full  opening  of  the  crop  should  not  be  made  until 
full  regeneration  is  secured  and  the  young  growth  is  knee-high. 

Sometimes  weeding  may  become  necessary,  which  if  not  done 
too  carefully  does  not  cost  much. 

The  main  difficulty  is  lack  of  personal  knowledge  and  ability  of 
manager  and  his  personell. 

The  author  acknowledges  that  to  carry  on  a  system  of  natural 
regeneration  requires  almost  a  gift,  like  that  of  a  musician. 
Hence  such  divergent  views  and  divergent  success.  The  strip 
selection  makes  least  demand  on  judgment,  success  and  failure 
are  soon  recognized  in  their  causes,  hence,  even  he  with  little  in- 
terest soon  learns  and  becomes  interested.  Moreover,  since 
always  only  small  areas  are  involved,  failures  are  sooner  corrected. 

Hence,  the  author  recognizes  no  difficulty  to  natural  regenera- 
tion, if  only  his  system  is  adopted,  which  in  its  final  analysis  lays 
main  stress  on  the  proper  location  of  felling  areas. 

Hindernisse  der  Naturverjungung.  Forstwissenschaftliches  Central- 
blatt,  March,  1909,  pp.   123-140. 


198  Forestry  Quarterly. 

The     same    author,     Wagner,     in    another 

Selection  polemic  article,  defends  his  position  as  re- 

Versus  gards  the  value  of  timber  forest  when  com- 

Timber  Forest.  pared  with  selection  forest.  He  accentu- 
ates that  while  the  ideal  of  the  selection 
forest  may  fill  the  soul  of  the  young  forester,  when  he  comes  into 
the  practice  he  finds  that  this  ideal  meets  too  great  difficulties  in 
German  forestry  practice,  that  it  is  a  picture  of  the  imagination, 
a  phantom,  not  realizable  in  the  German  forest,  but,  the  author 
reiterates,  he  is  speaking  only  for  Germany.  He  stands  on 
Gayer's  dictum :  "If  then  the  selection  form  cannot  any  more 
claim  the  significance  of  a  regular  forest  management,  it  remains 
an  inexhaustible  source  for  the  study  of  the  forest  and  its  laws." 

He  then  discusses  three  points,  namely,  the  technical  quality  of 
wood  grown  in  the  selection  forest,  the  site  as  producer  of  results 
ascribed  to  the  system,  and  the  question  as  to  whether  an  eco- 
nomic judgment  of  the  system  can  now  be  had  for  Germany,  or 
whether  the  basis  for  such  judgment  is  still  lacking. 

He  comes  to  the  conclusion,  that  the  average  quality  of  the 
selection  forest  product  is  inferior  to  the  timber  forest  product, 
which  is  so  often  overlooked  by  citing  extraordinary  quality. 
Damage  to  the  timber  in  the  fellings  is  largely  responsible  for  this 
average  result.  While  the  selection  form  undoubtedly  preserves 
soil  conditions,  the  strip  selection  form  does  the  same,  and  it  is 
still  to  be  proved  that  regular  timber  forest  does  not  do  the  same. 

The  difficulty  of  the  harvest  without  damage  appears  the  most 
important  objection  to  selection  form ;  another  difficulty  is  that  it 
prevents  economic  oversight  and  order,  a  sufficiently  sure  weigh- 
ing of  results.  Hence  for  the  German  economic  world  this  form 
in  most  conditions  is  undesirable. 

Blenderwald  oder  schlagzveiser  Hochwald.  Forstwissenschaftliches  Cen- 
tralblatt,  January,  1909,  pp.  23-39. 

Dr.    Schwappach   reports   on  the   condition 

American  of  plantations   of  conifers  made   on   waste 

Species  lands  of  Schleswig-Holstein.     Scotch  Pine 

in  and   Norway    Spruce   have   not   done   well. 

Schleswig.  Old  stands  of  the  first  named  species  are 

rare.     The  author  knows  of  only  one  60  to 

80  years  old  in  prosperous  condition.     Pine  suffers  from  Schiitte 


Periodical  Literature.  199 

until  the  sixth  year,  and  later  dies  off.  Spruce  also  declines  after 
reaching  polewood  stage  first  the  older  needles  fall,  then  the 
younger,  until  the  tree  is  leafless  and  after  once  more  shooting 
out  it  dies.  As  cause  is  suggested,  the  salt  air,  the  drouthy  winds 
and  raw  humus  formation,  and  secondarily,  insects.  So  exten- 
sive has  been  the  loss  that  the  growing  of  spruce  will  have  to  be 
abandoned.  Northern  seed  has  lately  been  imported  with  doubt- 
ful results. 

On  the  other  hand  trial  plantations  of  Picea  alba,  sitchensis 
and  pungens  and  of  Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  have  proved  successful. 
The  first  existing  in  50  to  60  years  specimens  is  only  objectionable 
because  of  its  slow  growth  in  volume.  Picea  pungens  for  the  first 
10  years  grew  as  tall  as  Norway  Spruce.  Picea  sitchensis  has 
proved  the  best,  an  excellent  grower,  overhauling  the  Norway 
on  peaty  heath  soil,  and  shows  in  20  to  25  years  no  sign  of  the 
disease  of  the  latter.    In  the  sea  climate  it  is  in  its  proper  element. 

A  plantation  of  about  two  and  one-half  acres  on  fresh  humose 
loamy  sand,  planted  with  Norway  and  Sitka  spruce  in  rows, 
showed  the  following  relations  per  hectar,  the  figures  being  in 
metric  measure. 

Picea  sitchensis.  Picea  excclsa. 

Age,     25 25 . 

Number,     1946 1198. 

Average    height,    12.9  n. 6 

Average   diameter,    13.3   11. 9 

Cross  section  area,    13.10 H3-33 

Volume,   timberwood,    77-5   75  • 

Thinning  yield 

Number,     426 470. 

Cross    section,    2.41 3-24 

Volume,    7.2  15.4 

Sitka  Spruce  is  ahead,  healthy,  well  developed  with  less  taper, 
the  native  spruce  is  less  vigorous  and  shows  signs  of  deteriora- 
tion, while  not  a  single  exotic  spruce  is  diseased. 

Pseudotsuga  succeeds  excellently  in  protected  situations,  and, 
as  conditions  for  Sitka  Spruce  improve,  they  prove  less  satisfac- 
tory for  Douglas  Fir. 

Pimis  rigida  has  proved  a  failure. 

Deutsche  und  fremde  Nadelholser  in  Schleswig-Holstein.  Zeitschrift 
fur  Forst-u.  Jagdwesen,  January,  1909,  pp.  27-34. 


200  Forestry  Quarterly. 

The   introduction   of   the  European   Larch 

Value  from  the  Tyrolese  mountains  to  the  plains 

of  of  Silesia  dates  back  to  Frederic  the  Great, 

Exotics.  and  now  stands  of  this  species  in  mixture 

with  pine  and  spruce  are  coming  to  harvest. 

In  1906,  according  to  Guse,  a  stand  of  about  3  acres  was  felled, 

the  larch  being  no,  pine  105-110  and  spruce,  probably  volunteer 

growth,  80-100,  years  old. 

The  yield  of  timberwood  was  9652  cubic  feet,  in  which  pine 
represented  28%,  larch  34%,  spruce  38%.  The  workwood  per 
cent,  for  larch  and  spruce  was  94,  of  pine  89;  diameters  up  to 
24  and  30  inches ;  average  height  of  larch  100  to  1 14  feet,  occa- 
sionally 130,  of  pine  85  to  104,  spruce  65  to  114  feet.  The  total 
money  yield  per  acre  was  $1,087,  *n  which  the  larch  represented 
nearly  44  per  cent,  although  its  volume  was  only  34%,  the  price 
per  cubic  foot  being  14.4  cents  as  against  10. 1  and  9.4  cents  for 
pine  and  spruce.  Thinnings  in  former  years,  which  had  fur- 
nished probably  not  less  than  25%  of  the  final  yields  had  brought 
as  much  as  21  cents  and  more  per  cubic  foot. 

Reference  is  also  made  to  the  results  of  the  celebrated  larch 
plantations  near  St.  Petersburg,  from  105  to  170  years  old,  the 
oldest  grown  from  broadcast  seeding,  showing  maximum  diame- 
ters of  over  30  inch  and  130  feet  in  height,  with  9,767  cubic  feet 
per  acre. 

In  the  same  district  in  Silesia  some  30  to  40  acres  of  White 
Pine  of  magnificent  development  and  over  100  years  old  are  to  be 
found,  80  feet  in  height  and  20  to  24  inch  diameter,  cylindrical 
and  with  the  crowns  high  up.  Strangely  enough,  however,  there 
is  no  market  for  the  material  and  even  to-day  the  price  paid  for 
it  lags  behind  even  that  for  fir,  which  is  lower  than  for  spruce. 

Ldrche  und  Weymouthskiefer  in  Oberschlesien.  Forstwissenschaft- 
liches  Centralblatt,  February,  1909,  pp.  84-88. 

A  series  of  experiments  and  observations, 
Natural  carried  on  by  Bohmerle  for  some  twenty- 

and  five  years  in  the   Great  Pine  Forest  near 

Moss  Cover         Vienna  had  shown  (see  Quarterly  Vol.  IV, 
Regeneration.        p.  161)  that  the  dense  moss  cover  has  un- 
doubtedly a  prejudicial  influence  on  the  in- 
crement, since  in  times  of  continued  drouth  the  moss  keeps  dew 


Periodical  Literature.  201 

and  small  rains  from  reaching  the  soil ;  it  also  may  cripple  and 
lead  to  the  death  of  old  trees,  where  the  moss  cover  is  very  dense, 
so  that  in  raked  areas  a  much  better  condition  was  observed. 

Since  1906  moss  covered  and  moss  free  areas  have  been 
specially  inspected  as  regards  the  establishment  of  natural  vol- 
unteer growth,  the  investigation  being  favored  by  an  unusually 
full  seed  year  in  1906.  The  counting  of  plants  was  made  by  the 
method  of  quadrat  sample  areas  of  1  m  side,  20  such  on  each  four 
sample  plots,  thinned  in  different  degrees,  namely,  I  light,  II 
moderate,  III  severe  thinnings,  and  IV  severe  opening. 

The  results  rounded  off  are  laid  down  in  the  following  table : 

/.  //.  //.  IV. 


Year. 


o         3       £       o  £     £,      o 

£h  ^  S         Jh  S        §       H 


Thousands  of  Plants. 

1906,    80    7    87         112    60     172        122    62     184        166    38    204 

1907,     20    5    25  48     13      61  57     38      95  89     16     105 

1908,     10    6     16  30     14      44  30    29      59  28    31       59 

The  observations  of  1906  show,  if  no  differentiation  of  moss 
cover  is  made,  an  increase  of  plants  with  increased  light  supply. 
But,  if  the  differentiation  is  made,  in  each  case  very  considerable 
reductions  occur  in  the  moss  covered  parts  which  is,  of  course, 
explained  by  the  difficulty  of  germinating  in  the  moss  cover  es- 
pecially of  the  more  open  stands. 

In  the  counting  of  1907  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  plants  is 
found  everywhere,  but  the  differences  between  moss  covered  and 
moss  free  plats  is  not  as  pronounced. 

In  1908,  which  proved  a  very  dry  year  the  difference  between 
the  two  conditions  is  still  further  lessened  and  in  the  open  posi- 
tions has  practically  vanished. 

Percentically  expressed  in  relation  to  the  plant  number  of 
1906  there  were  still  left  in  1908: 

I         II         III       IV 

On  moss  free  soil,   12         17         17         14  per  cent. 

On  moss   covered,    7  8         16         15  per  cent. 


202  Forestry  Quarterly. 

In  the  open  stands  the  moss  cover  is  more  favorable  than  in  the 
denser  stands,  and  even  on  the  moss  free  plats  of  the  denser 
stands.  This  is  explained  by  the  possibility  of  the  shallow  roots 
of  young  plants  in  the  moss  cover  to  secure  some  moisture  from 
the  moss,  especially  in  drouthy  years. 

The  author  concludes  that  ( i )  moss  cover  under  otherwise 
equal  conditions  is  not  favorable  to  germination.  (2)  In  drouthy 
conditions  the  moss  cover  has  a  favorable  effect  as  long  as  the 
roots  of  the  plants  can  still  participate  in  the  moisture  absorbed 
by  the  moss.  (3)  Since  this  beneficial  effect  can  be  only  a  pass- 
ing one,  it  cannot  be  of  moment,  especially  as  the  moss  free  area 
will  support  a  sufficient  number  of  plants. 

Moosdecke    und   natiirliche    Verjungwng.     Centralblatt.    f.    d.    g.    Forst- 
wesen,  January,  1909,  pp.  22-27. 

A   controversial   article   by   Dittmar   is   di- 
Density  rected  against  the  propositions  of  Fromb- 

of  ling  (see  Quarterly,  Vol.  IV,  p.  48)  to  re- 

S pacing  turn  to  the  use  of  larger  quantities  of  seed 

of  and  more  plants  in  plantations,  such  as  used 

Plantations.  to  be  employed  in  former  times.     Dittmar 

points  out  that  the  use  of  15  to  20  lbs.  of 
pine  and  spruce  seed  sixty  years  ago  as  against  3^  and  even  2  lbs. 
per  acre  now  is  to  be  explained  by  the  low  germination  per  cent., 
which,  due  to  poor  methods  of  gathering  and  keeping  seed,  pre- 
vailed in  olden  times,  namely  not  more  than  60  per  cent,  as  against 
now  mostly  90  per  cent.  Haack  has  shown  that  100  grains  of 
90  per  cent,  seed  is  equivalent  in  practical  results  to  317  grains  of 
60  per  cent,  seed,  accordingly  the  3^  lbs.  of  to-day  are  equivalent 
to  the  15  lbs.  of  60  years  ago. 

Of  interest  are  a  few  samples  of  results  of  dense  and  open 
position. 

In  a  good  natural  regeneration  of  Scotch  Pine  (to  be  compared 
with  our  Shortleaf,  or  Norway  Pine)  some  16  sample  areas  showed 
10,400  plants,  7  and  14  years  old.  In  a  number  of  sowings  and 
plantings  of  about  the  same  age,  a  considerably  larger  average  of 
plants  was  found.  In  a  15  year  sowing  of  pine  with  5^  lbs.  in 
rows  4  feet  apart  10,320  were  found,  in  an  eight  year  sowing  with 
2f  tb.,  3  feet  apart, 67,900,  while  plantations  made  3  x  if,  4  x  |, 
4  x  1^,  varied  from  9,100  to  21,200,  or  in  the  average  of  five 


Periodical  Literature.  203 

positions  over  24,000  plants,  showing  that  the  modern  practice 
furnishes  sufficient  numbers.  The  better  development  of  plants 
in  the  more  open  position  in  the  nursery  (less  than  25  lbs.  per 
acre)  as  compared  with  denser  sowings  is  pointed  out  as  argu- 
ment for  opener  stands  in  the  field.  Examples  of  results,  show- 
ing for  relatively  open  stands  larger  cross  section  area  and  height, 
than  in  denser  stands,  are  adduced. 

The  proposition  to  plant  in  plats  several  1-2  year  old  pines 
in  one  plat  seems  like  combining  the  disadvantages  of  sowing 
with  that  of  a  poor,  wide  spaced  plantation. 

Dichte  oder  weitstandige  Kulturen.  Zeitschrift  fur  Forst-u.  Jagdwesen, 
January,  1909,  pp.  34-48. 

The  Swedish  Tidskrift  collects  every  year 

Variability  information    regarding   the    seed    crops    of 

of  pine  and  spruce  in  different  parts  of  Sweden 

Seed  Supply.         and  publishes  it  in  maps  which  by  varied 

shading  shows  the  character  of  the  seed 
crop.  The  scale  used  is  as  follows :  no  yield,  when  no  cones  to 
be  found ;  small  yield,  when  cones  sparse  on  single  trees  in 
the  open ;  better  yield,  when  cones  general  on  trees  in  the  open 
or  on  forest  borders ;  good  yield,  when  cones  general  also  in 
middle  aged  and  old  stands ;  ample  yield,  when  large  number  of 
cones  on  most  trees  of  middle  aged  and  old  stands.  The  seed- 
ing in  the  fall  of  1908  was  generally  poor,  especially  for  spruce, 
but  while  the  latter  varied  from  none  to  poor  with  only  4  of  the 
90  districts  having  a  better  yield,  the  greatest  variety  was  found 
in  the  seeding  of  pine,  of  which  districts  with  good  yields  ad- 
joined not  only  districts  with  better  but  also  with  poor  yields, 
apparently  without  any  demonstrable  reason,  as  far  as  climatic 
influence  is  concerned. 

For  pine,  one-year  cones  as  well  as  two-year  cones  are  re- 
ported, and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  favorable  reports  of 
the  one-year  cone  crop  in  1907  was  not  by  any  means  always  real- 
ized as  a  good  two-year  cone  crop  in  the  following  year,  and  vice 
versa,  when  an  improvement  occurs ;  this  is  supposedly  due  to  a 
difference  in  the  reporter's  observations. 

Tillgangen  pa  tall  och  grankott  i  sverige  hosten,  iqo8.  Skogsvards- 
foreningens  Tidskrift,  January,  1909,  pp.  39-42. 


204  Forestry  Quarterly. 

A  warfare  against  weeds  is  aided  by  a  leaf- 
Bxtirpating  let  of  the  Biological  Section  of  the  Imperial 

Weeds.  Health  Department  at  Berlin,  in  which,  be- 

sides the  usual  mechanical  removal,  pre- 
vention of  seeding  by  cutting  weeds  at  the  proper  stage,  clean 
culture,  etc.,  there  is  recommended  the  use  of  a  copperas  solution, 
which  has  proved  effective.  The  copperas  must  be  fresh,  made 
into  a  15  per  cent,  solution  in  a  wooden  cask,  preferably  using 
warm  water  to  expedite  the  solving.  For  1  acre  about  15  to  20 
quarts  are  required,  or  60  to  75  lbs.  copperas.  Spraying  pumps 
may  be  used,  the  spraying  must  be  done  neither  too  early  when  it 
would  require  repetition,  nor  too  late  when  it  would  not  kill  the 
weeds.  Unfortunately  not  all  cultivated  plants  can  resist,  like 
the  grain  does,  this  treatment.  Whether  this  means  can  be  used 
in  nurseries  is  still  in  question. 

Forstwissenschaftliches   Centralblatt.    February,    1909.     Pp.    1 18-120. 
MENSURATION,  FINANCE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

Adolf    Sterbik    at    Ferchenhaid,    Bohemia, 
Universal  offers    for    144    Kr.    ($36)    an    improved 

Dendrometer.  Winkler-Grossbauer  dendrometer,  for  which 
he  claims  that  it  will  measure  heights  to 
i — £%  accuracy;  diameters  to  1/400;  can  be  used  to  cube  ac- 
cording to  various  methods ;  can  be  used  to  measure  and  locate 
lines  and  angles ;  measure  and  locate  areas ;  can  be  used  with  a 
tripod  as  levelling  instrument.  A  description  with  illustration  is 
given. 

Allgemeine  Forst-u.    Jagdzeitung.     Dec.  1908,  p.  450. 

The  activity  in  forestry  matters  of  Sweden 
Growth  should  be  of  interest  to  our  Northeastern 

Relations.  States  and  Canada,  since  they  are  dealing 

with  similar  northern  conditions.  A  care- 
ful investigation  of  volume  and  form  of  pine  and  spruce  by  Maas 
in  Darlekarlien  laid  down  in  14  tables  brings  rather  interesting 
and  new  general  results  of  growth  relations. 

The  author  points   out  that  volume  tables   arranged  only  by 
diameter  and  height,  or  even  by  age,  diameter  and  height  do  not 


Periodical  Literature.  205 

permit  their  use  for  single  stems,  since  they  represent  only  aver- 
ages. To  permit  closer  approximation  to  single  stem  volumes  the 
form  quotient  should  be  introduced  when  tapering  as  well  as 
cylindrical  stems  may  be  determined  more  accurately. 

To  avoid  making  the  tables  too  cumbersome,  the  author  does 
not  give  the  form  factor  for  each  form  quotient. 

A  comparison  of  form  factors  for  spruce  and  pine  shows  that 
the  form  factors  in  the  same  form  class  approach  each  other 
closely.  For  heights  from  30  feet  upward  the  differences  are  at 
most  2%.  Hence,  since  an  error  of  2%  in  estimating  may  be 
neglected,  the  volume  tables  for  pine  may  also  be  used  for  spruce. 

A  comparison  with  the  form  factors  established  for  pine  and 
spruce  in  Austria  by  Schiffel  brings  out  the  interesting  fact  of  a 
remarkable  similarity,  so  that,  if  the  form  quotient  is  taken  care 
of,  it  is  not  necessary  to  recognize  growth  regions.  Such  volume 
tables  may  be  employed  for  extensive  areas. 

The  results  of  the  author  show  that  age  does  not  have  a  definite 
influence  on  form ;  nor  does  a  regular  rise  or  fall  of  the  form 
factor  occur  with  rising  b.  h.  d. ;  but  the  form  factor  sinks  or 
rises  with  the  form  quotient;  and  in  each  form  class  the  form 
factors  decrease  with  increasing  height  (contrary  to  Fricke's 
opinion,  see  Quarterly,  Vol.  VI,  p.  303).    For  instance,  for  pine: 

Form  Class.        Average  Height. 

.65  16.8  m 

.70  14. s    " 

•75  13-8   " 

.80  12.5    " 

Since  a  higher  stem  is  mostly  older  and  stouter  than  a  lower, 
it  follows  that  the  form  quotient  sinks  with  rising  age  and 
diameter. 

The  form  quotients  for  pine  and  spruce  move  mainly  between 
.575  and  .825. 

In  using  the  volume  tables  diameters  are  measured,  height  and 
form  class  estimated,  the  latter  from  the  relation  between  breast 
high  and  middle  diameter,  which  relation  is  given  in  a  special 
table.     Other  relations  are  discussed. 

A  small  series  of  measurements  shows  that  the  bark  alone 
shows  for  pine  from  18  to  10%  of  the  total  volume  with  bark, 


206  Forestry  Quarterly. 

decreasing  uniformly  with  increasing  height  while  spruce  shows 
24  to  12%. 

Kiibikinnchollet  och  form  en  hastallen  och  grancn.  Skogsvords  foren- 
ingens  Tidskrift.     December,  1908. 

A   "friend   of  the   selection    forest,"   Ober- 
Increment  forster  Christen,  points  out  that  careful  in- 

in  vestigations    of    the    current    increment    in 

Selection  typical  selection  forest  would  show  that  it 

Forest.  exceeds  that  of  even-aged  forest  on  similar 

sites.  Only  the  difficulties  of  ascertaining 
with  precision  the  increment  under  the  constantly  changing  con- 
ditions of  the  selection  forest  are  in  the  way  of  establishing  this 
fact. 

In  the  French  methode  du  controle,  which  consists  in  deter- 
mining the  current  increment  by  measurements  at  two  different 
periods  of  time,  (I  =  V  —  V  +  N),  the  increment  on  N,  which 
is  the  budget  cut  between  the  two  periods  of  time,  is  neglected, 
which  may  make  a  very  considerable  difference.  The  author  does 
not  overlook  that  portions  of  the  increment  occurring  due  to  the 
influence  of  light  on  remaining  trees  may  be  offset  by  the  damage 
done  to  the  young  growth  by  fellings.  He  finally  develops  a 
very  complicated  formula  which  is  to  take  care  of  all  the  varied 
influences,  and  connect  the  usual  discrepancies  of  calculation. 

Measurements  in  four  different  localities  3,000  to  4,000  feet 
above  sea  level,  carried  out  with  this  care  brought  out  increments 
of  114,  133,  137,  and  173  cubic  feet  per  acre.  In  even-aged 
spruce  stands  in  Switzerland  in  the  hill  country  up  to  2,500  feet 
bring  in  80  years  an  average  increment  of  274  for  best  and  133  for 
poorest  sites  which  on  higher  altitudes  is  reduced  to  266  and  114 
respectively,  including  brushwood,  while  in  the  computations  for 
the  selection  forest  these  were  neglected. 

Zur  Brmittlung  des  laufenden  Zuwachses  speziell  im  Plenterwalde. 
Schweizerische  Zeitschrift  fur  Forstwesen,  February-March,  1909,  pp. 
37-41,  82-87. 

The  carefully  collected  normal  yield  tables 
Practical  of  the  German  Experiment  Stations  were, 

Yield  according  to  Ostwald,  to  serve  two  objects : 

Tables.  first,  to  give  an  insight    into    the    laws  of 

growth,  which  they  have  done  satisfac- 
torily ;  secondly,  to  furnish  practical  aids  in  estimating  for  pur- 
poses of  working  plans. 


Periodical  Literature.  207 

In  this  last  respect,  the  author  claims,  the  yield  tables  in  their 
present  form  do  not  fulfill  their  function,  because  the  data  are 
insufficient.  As  regards  grouping  the  data  in  relation  to  time  no 
fault  is  to  be  found,  for  intervals  of  five  years,  as  used  in  the 
best  tables,  are  for  practical  purposes  sufficient.  But  when  the 
data  for  older  stands  are  compared  from  site  class  to  site  class, 
there  being  usually  five  site  classes  made,  the  differences  become 
eventually  too  great  for  practical  purposes,  since  for  a  felling 
age  position  of,  say,  100  years,  the  difference  from  site  class  to 
site  class  may  be  1,500  to  even  3,000  cubic  feet,  leaving  too  wide 
intervals  without  data.  Hence,  the  author  proposes  supplement- 
ary tables  at  least  for  older  stands  above  sixty  years,  which  he 
illustrates  by  such  tables  worked  out  for  Scotch  Pine  from  data 
furnished  in  Schwappach's  tables. 

Table  I  gives  the  range  of  average  heights  in  each  site  class 
in  relation  to  age.  Table  II  gives  with  five  year  intervals  the 
timberwood  in  relation  to  the  average  heights.  Table  III  gives 
for  age  classes  in  periods  of  10  and  20  years  the  periodic  loss 
in  each  site  class  by  thinning.  Table  IV  does  the  same  for  dif- 
ferent average  heights.  Table  V  is  an  increment  table.  In 
Table  VI  also  increment  relations  to  age  and  height  are  elabo- 
rated in  such  a  manner  as  to  permit  an  estimate  of  present  and 
future  yields.  Tables  VII  and  VIII  serve  for  diameter  estimates, 
the  first  giving  actual  diameters  related  to  age  and  height,  the 
second  expressing  the  same  percentic  progression  for  various 
growth  periods. 

This  may  be  illustrated  by  an  example. 

The  average  diameter  of  a  70  year  stand,  with  average  height 
60  feet,  hence  according  to  table  I  belonging  to  site  class  III,  is, 
according  to  table  VII,  8  inches.  If  the  aim  of  the  management 
is  to  produce  12  inch  diameters,  then  the  diameter  increment 
required  to  the  felling  time  must  be  50  per  cent.  According  to 
table  VIII,  this  will  require  50  years ;  and  from  table  II  it  can 
be  found  that  the  cut  will  be  5,700  cubic  feet. 

Die  Normalertragstafeln  im  Dienste  der  Forsteinrichtung.  Zeitschrift  f. 
Forst-u.  Jagdwesen,  January,  1909,  pp.  14-27. 


14 


2o8  Forestry  Quarterly. 

In  1894  the  forest  law  of  Gotland,  the  cal- 
Dangers  careous    island     of     Sweden,    described    on 

of  p.   185,  was  amended  to  forbid  the  cutting 

Diameter  of  conifers  below  8  inches  diameter  at  the 

Limit.  base.     The  result  has  been  the  opposite  of 

advantageous,  for,  as  a  rule,  the  trees  left 
are  suppressed,  poorly  developed  runts,  which  had  best  been 
removed ;  true  forest  devastation  has  been  the  result.  The  new 
forest  protection  law  of  Sweden,  enacted  in  1903,  which  required 
the  owner  to  replant  if  by  the  cut  the  regeneration  had  been  im- 
periled, did  not  improve  matters.  Owing  to  climate  and  inimical 
conditions,  with  the  forest  once  so  deteriorated  the  difficulty  of  re- 
establishing it  by  planting  or  natural  regeneration  is  so  great  that 
success  by  general  prescription  is  rarely  attained. 

A  new  law  is  proposed  to  establish  a  forest  preservation  com- 
mittee, which  is  to  supervise  all  cutting  and  make  suitable  con- 
ditions fitting  the  particular  case.  The  Committee  is  to  employ 
competent  experts. 

Skogsvardsfdreningens  Tidskrift.     March,  April,  1908. 

As  is  well  known,  in  France  conversions  of 
Timber  Forest       composite  forest  to  timber  forest  have  been 
Production  going  on  for  some  time    (See  F.  Q.   Vol. 

versus  VI,  p.   157  and   183).     Viellard,  a  private 

Composite  Forest,     forest  owner,   brings   a  comparison   of   re- 
sults in  yield  between  three  different  stages 
of  development,   showing  the   superiority   of  production   of  the 
timber  forest: 

1.  French  composite  forest  with  few  standards  (160  trees), 
no  ha.,  30  year  rotation,  net  yield  per  hectar,  22.20  Mark. 
181  ha.,  25  year  rotation,  net  yield  per  hectar,  21.68  Mark. 

2.  Alsace  stands,  still  in  process  of  conversion. 

257  ha.,  with  felling  budget  of  3.50  fm.,  net  yield  28.16 

Mark. 
86  ha.,   with   felling  budget  of  3.23   fm.,  net  yield  32.31 

Mark. 
69  ha.,  with  felling  budget  of  4.22  fm.,  net  yield  40.10 

Mark. 


Periodical  Literature.  209 

3.     Alsace  stands,  already  of  timber  forest  character. 

409  ha.,  with  felling  budget  of  5?7o  fm.,  net  yield  42.47 

Mark. 
244  ha.,  with  felling  budget  of  4.50  fm.,  net  yield  41.86 

Mark. 
317  ha.,  with  felling  budget  of  4.84  fm.,  net  yield  43.30 

Mark. 

The  reporter,  Kahl,  remarks  that  the  preponderance  and  fine 
development  of  beech  and  high  price  for  fuelwood  of  same, 
namely  $12  to  $14  per  cord,  may  have  influenced  the  favorable 
outcome  of  the  latter  positions. 

Mittelwald  U tnwandlungsfrage.  Allgemeine  Frost-u.  Jagdzeitung,  Janu- 
ary, 1909,  pp.  112-113. 

In  discussing  propositions  for  the  improve- 
Conservative         ment  of  the  methods  of  making  working 
Budgets  plans  in  Prussia,  Dr.  Martin  points  out  that 

and  true   conservatism   does  not  consist  in  re- 

Growth.  ducing  felling  budgets  or  holding  on  to  old 

timber,  but  in  keeping  the  soil  in  best  pro- 
ductive capacity,  in  careful  regeneration  and  care  of  the  young 
growth.  To  show  how,  under  good  management,  increment  can 
be  effectually  stimulated,  he  cites  the  conditions  of  the  Saxon 
forests.  Here  the  felling  budget  and  stock  on  hand  per  acre  for 
the  last  50  years  increased  as  follows : 


1854-63 

1864-73    1874-83    1884-93      1894-1903 

Budget,  Timber,.  .  49 

61             67             70             72  cu.  ft. 

Total,  ...60 

75            85            86            86.5 

Stock, 2275 

2530        2700        2595        2700 

In  Prussia,  the  author  contends  also,  that  in  spite  of  the  con- 
stantly increasing  budgets,  namely,  from  40  cubic  feet  in  1870 
to  70  cubic  feet  in  1900,  the  actual  increment  is  hardly  cut.  Ac- 
cording to  the  newest  yield  tables  for  pine  III  class  the  current 
increment  runs 

Age:  40  60      80      100      120      140 

Increment,     131         101       77        66        54        23  cubic  feet. 


2io  Forestry  Quarterly. 

And  according  to  various  yield  tables  the  following  total  yields 
at  the  end  of  the  named  rotations  are  normal. 


Species 

Rotation 

II 

III 

IV 

site  class. 

Beech 

no 

127 

105 

85 

cu.  feet. 

Spruce 

00 

172 

145 

114 

"      " 

Timberwood 

151 

114 

82 

"      " 

Pine 

70 

121 

86 

72 

"      " 

Timberwood 

103 

82 

57 

"      " 

Pine 

120 

100 

83 

63 

a         u 

Timberwood 

88 

7i 

Si 

a          a 

These  figures  would  indicate  that  further  increases  in  the  bud- 
gets are  still  to  be  anticipated. 

Die  Organization  des  Forsteinrichtungszvcsen.  Allgemeine  Forst-u. 
Jagdzeitung,  February,  1909,  pp.  49-62. 

Anyone  who  wishes  to  know  in  detail,  how 

Making  the  practical  work  of  "forest  regulation"  is 

Working  sometimes  carried  on  in  Prussia,  also  what 

Plans  the  official  relations  are  and  how  officialdom 

in  is  sometimes  inimical    to    good    plans  will 

Prussia.  find  an  interesting  account    in    reminiscent 

style  of  the  work  on  one  of  such  working 

plans  in  an  article  by  Forstrat  Kaiser,  in  which  he  also  refers  to 

the  historical  development  of  this  class  of  work. 

The  various  districts  of  the  province  Hesse-Nassau  were  dur- 
ing 13  years  newly  surveyed  and  regulated  under  a  special  or- 
ganization with  a  crew  of  55  assistants,  which  were  specially 
drilled  for  the  work.  A  road  system  was  made  the  basis  of  sub- 
division. 

The  cost  of  topographical  survey,  laying  out  and  partially 
building  the  road  system  and  opening  division  lines,  was  27.8 
cents  per  acre,  of  which  12%  went  for  survey,  33%  was  used  for 
reconnaissance  and  provisional  laying  out  of  roads,  27%  for  defi- 
nite location  of  lines,  and  28%  for  marking  the  system  with 
stones,  etc.  In  simple  topographic  conditions  the  cost  was  re- 
duced to  as  low  as  15.2  cents. 

The  working  plan  work  averaged  10  cents  per  acre.  In  1908 
a  new  ordinance  declares  the  making  of  working  plans  a  matter 
of  the  current  work  of  district  managers. 

Against  this  proposition  Kaiser    argues,    that    only    specially 


Periodical  Literature.  211 

trained  men,  organized  for  this  work,  can  do  justice  to  this  class 
of  work. 

Bin  Stuck  Preussischer  Forstgeschichte.  Zeitschrift  fur  Forst-u.  Jagd- 
wesen,  February,  1909,  pp.  71-104. 

In  an  address,  which  Dr.  Martin  delivered 

Meaning  upon  assuming  the  directorship  of  the  For- 

of  est  Academy  at  Tharandt,  he  defined  fore- 

Statics.  stal  statics  as  "the  art  of  weighing"  fore- 

stal  operations. 

Lately  this  subject  has  been  raised  to  a  special  course  at  this 
and  the  Prussian  academies.  Martin  accentuates  the  practical 
importance  of  this  discipline  and  points  out  various  statical  prob- 
lems lately  discussed;  the  strictures  made  in  the  Bavarian  legis- 
lature regarding  the  surplus  of  old  age  classes  (briefed  in  the  last 
number  of  the  Quarterly)  could  be  answered  only  on  the  basis 
of  statical  calculations ;  the  question  of  profitableness  of  the  com- 
posite forest  is  a  problem  in  Alsace-Lorraine ;  the  long  rotations 
in  France  and  in  the  pineries  of  Prussia,  and  in  Saxony  the  ques- 
tion of  species  mixture,  manner  of  reforestation  and  thinnings, 
call  for  statical  investigation. 

He  refers  to  Heyer  as  having  laid  too  much  stress  on  the  mathe- 
matical methods  and  too  little  on  purely  economic  considerations. 
He  admits  that  the  foundations  of  forest  management  cannot  be 
laid  on  generally  applicable  mathematical  data,  nor  can  yields 
and  costs  and  interest  rates  be  determined  with  precision.  Yet, 
are  we,  therefore,  to  give  up  the  calculations  which  underlie  a 
well-planned  management?  If  we  make  such  undertakings  de- 
pendent upon  exact  calculations,  we  could  not  pursue  a  colonial 
policy,  could  not  build  railroads  and  ships  or  build  factories  or 
conclude  commercial  treaties,  because  these  things  too  withdraw 
themselves  from  exact  mathematical  demonstration  as  regards 
their  profitableness.  Yet  the  results  of  increased  cost  of  produc- 
tion or  of  increased  or  reduced  stock  can  be  weighed  without  pre- 
cise algebraic  formulae.  The  calculation  is  only  one  of  the 
guides,  and  judgment  in  the  direction  of  natural  history  and  of 
economics  must  supplement  the  calculation.  History  and  experi- 
ence in  combination  with  biological,  mathematical  and  economic 
principles  must  guide  the  progress  of  forestry. 

Although  similar  bases  and  ideas  underlie  forest  valuation,  in 


212  Forestry  Quarterly. 

the  latter,  which  is  done  for  purchase  or  sale,  more  precise  calcu- 
lations are  necessary  than  in  statics ;  moreover  the  former  deals 
with  the  single  stand,  while  the  latter  weighs  measures  to  be 
taken  with  reference  to  large  aggregates ;  hence  the  propriety 
of  making  it  a  special  discipline. 

Zur  Wiirdigung  der  forstlichcn  Statik.     Forstwissenschaftliches  Central- 
blatt,  January,  1909,  pp.  9-23. 

UTILIZATION,  MARKET  AND  TECHNOLOGY. 

The  harvest  of  berries,  mushrooms,  etc., 
Forest  plays  not  an  unimportant  part  of  some  of 

By  the  German  forest  districts,  both  as  regards 

Products.  an   addition   to   the   income   of  the   district 

and  of  the  poor  population,  as  will  be  real- 
ized when  it  is  stated  that  the  buyers  of  huckleberries  in  one  of 
the  districts  in  Pomerania,  according  to  the  size  of  the  harvest 
pay  from  $18,000  to  $30,000  and  more  annually.  In  the  forests 
of  Eberswalde  5,600  permits  are  sold  at  only  1.5  cents,  giving 
rise  to  an  income  for  the  gatherers  estimated  at  over  $20,000. 

The  gathering  of  these  forest  by-products  is  regulated  in  the 
different  districts  in  the  same  manner  as  the  wood  harvest.  In 
the  dukedom  of  Anhalt,  for  instance,  a  permit  to  gather  certain 
fruits  must  be  obtained,  which  for  hazelnuts  costs  from  25  to  50 
cents,  for  mushrooms  and  the  different  berry  crops  each  to  7 
cents  for  "favored,"  12  cents  for  ordinary,  and  36  cents  for  "un- 
favored" gatherers.  The  "favored"  are  the  regular  laborers  in 
the  forest,  and  notoriously  needy  persons  or  such  living  within 
the  forest,  the  "unfavored"  are  strangers. 

The  management  of  this  resource  is  otherwise  in  the  discretion 
of  the  district  officer,  who  can  also  exclude  from  benefits  per- 
sons convicted  of  various  forest  crimes  or  repeatedly  disregard- 
ing ordinances,  and  children  under  14  years  except  when  in  com- 
pany of  their  parents.  They  may  also  be  withheld  from  laborers 
who  without  good  reason  refuse  to  work  in  the  forest.  The  per- 
mits may  be  restricted  to  certain  days  or  even  hours,  and  must 
be  shown  to  the  forest  guard  when  demanded.  In  the  discretion 
of  the  district  manager  permits  may  also  be  given  free  of  charge, 
if  the  harvest  would  be  of  no  moment  to  the  treasury. 

Even  in  this  direction  rights  of  user,  old  rights  to  gather  berries 


Periodical  Literature.  213 

without  restriction,  exist,  sometimes  to  the  great  detriment  of 
plantations  and  young  growth. 

Das  Sammcln  von  Beer  en  und  Pilzen  in  den  preussischen  Forsten. 
Zeitschrift  fur  Forst-u.  Jagdwesen,  January,  1909,  pp.  49-54. 

The  city  of  Eberswalde  has  just  succeeded 
Value  in  buying  off  the  rights  of  user  in  its  city 

of  forest,  which  gives  an  insight  into  the  bane- 

Rights  ful  effects  of  these  old  servitudes  on  forest 

of  management.       There    were      316      house 

User.  owners  who  had  rights  to  secure  their  fuel 

from  the  communal  forest.  These  rights 
have  been  bought  off  for  $125,000,  and  it  is  estimated  that  through 
improved  utilization,  i.  e.  increased  use  of  wood  as  building  ma- 
terial instead  of  fuel,  this  capital  investment  will  pay  6£  per  cent. 

Silva,  April  16,  1909,  p.  268. 

STATISTICS  AND  HISTORY. 

It  is  of  interest  to  learn  something  about 
Results  the  smaller  forest  administrations    of   Ger- 

in  many,  which  by  the  fact  of  their  smallness 

Brunswick.  show  often  relatively  better  results  than  the 

larger  ones. 
The  forest  area  of  the  dukedom  of  Brunswick  under  State  con- 
trol comprises  202,180  acres,  which  in  1905-6  brought  a  net  yield 
of  $638,715  or  $3.15  per  acre,  the  expenditures  having  been 
$2.60.  That  even  on  this  small  area  conditions  must  be  quite 
varied  appears  from  the  fact  that  the  acre  yield  varied  in  different 
districts  from  57  cents  to  $8.94. 

The  total  cut  was  456,000  cubic  feet  of  workwood  of  which  73 
per  cent,  coniferous,  besides  8.74  million  cubic  feet  of  fuelwood, 
altogether  7.8  cubic  feet  per  acre.  Prices  for  workwood,  rang- 
ing from  15.4,  for  larch  logs  to  2.2  cents  for  spruce  poles,  averaged 
10.2  cents  or  $1.47  per  acre;  the  cost  of  wood  cutting,  etc.,  was 
1.2  cents  per  cubic  foot.  Around  $25,000  were  received  for  by- 
products. 

Plantations,  including  nursery  expenses,  required  a  round 
$50,000,  or  23.4  cents  per  acre  of  forest,  and  road  building  nearly 


214  Forestry  Quarterly. 

the  same,  namely,  24.7  cents.    There  were  employed  4,029  persons 
with  439,032  labor  days. 

Mitteilungen  iiber  die  Wirtschaftsergebnisse  der  Herzoglich  Braun- 
schweigischen  Forstverwaltung  fur  das  Jahr  1905/6.  Zeitschrift  fur 
Forst-u.  Jagdwesen,  January,  1909,  p.  57. 


Another  of  the  smaller  forest  properties  is 

Results  that     of     the     dukedom     of     Mecklenburg 

in  Schwerin    with    244,410    acres,    two-thirds 

Mecklenburg.         coniferous,  the  total  gross  income  of  which 

was  in  1905-6  $962,000,  the  net  income 
$527,000  or  only  $2.15  per  acre.  The  total  cut  was  15,690,000 
cubic  feet  or  65.5  cubic  feet  per  acre,  of  which  hardly  one- 
third  was  workwood.  Wood  prices,  which  for  the  total  cut  had 
averaged  7.8  cents,  were  in  1906,  8.3  cents  per  cubic  foot.  The 
by-products  alone,  among  which  peat  and  pasture  play  a  promi- 
nent role,  brought  nearly  $70,000.  The  chase,  in  addition  netted 
$21,000  or,  including  some  24,000  acres  of  meadows,  peat  bogs 
and  fields,  over  7  cents  per  acre. 

The  enumeration  of  the  game  and  wild  or  other  animals  killed 
on  these  268,000  acres  under  conservative  management  should 
make  some  of  our  game  preserve  owners  envious ;  823  stags, 
2,157  roebuck,  187  boar,  13,074  hares,  8,573  rabbits,  193  geese, 
3,996  pheasants,  3,286  ducks,  868  woodcock,  20,240  partridge, 
14,017  thrush,  1,181  other  game  birds,  1,594  foxes,  301  martins, 
552  minks,  399  ferrets,  1,933  cats,  1,037  dogs,  5,482  squirrels,  and 
a  large  number  of  rapacious  birds. 

Wirtschaftsergebuisse  der  Grossherzoglich  Mccklenburg-Schiverinschen 
Kameralforsten,  1905/6.  Zeitschrift  fur  Forst-u.  Jagdwesen,  February, 
1909,  p.  121. 

According  to  the  German  General  Consul, 

Sweden's  wood   export   sales   from   Sweden   in    1906 

Wood  and  first  months  of  1907  were  active  at  high 

Exports.  prices,  then   falling    off    and    forcing    low 

prices  in  the  fall,  the  average  result  being 

however,  better  than  the  previous  year,  although  quantities  were 

less.  Twenty  Mark  per  Petersburg  standard  (=  165  cu.  ft.  sawed 

or  120  cu.  ft.  round  wood),  say  3  cents  per  cubic  foot,  seems  to 

be  the  average  price. 


Periodical  Literature.  215 

During  the  four  years  from  1904  to  1907  the  total  export  aver- 
aged per  year: 

Planks,  Battens,  Boards,  884,000  standards. 

Planed  Boards,  118,000  standards. 

Staves,  13,000  standards. 

Wood  ends,  63,000  Kubik  faden. 

Beams  and  Spars,  292,000  loads. 

Hollander  Beams,  17,000  standards. 

Mine  props,  240,000  standards. 

This  represents  about  220,000,000  cubic  feet  of  wood,  nearly 
equal  to  the  entire  year's  cut  of  the  Prussian  State  forests  of  that 
description  of  wood.  In  addition,  an  export  of  500,000  tons  of 
pulp  (in  1908,  114,000  tons  more  than  the  previous  year)  and 
two  and  a  half  million  dollars  worth  of  manufactures  bring  the 
value  of  the  total  export  to  around  $52,000,000.  It  is  said  that 
the  pulp  industry  is  working  without  profit  to  the  manufacturer. 

Holsausfuhr  Schwedens  im  Jahre  1907.  Allgemeine  Forst-u.  Jagd- 
zeitung,  1909,  p.  115. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

The  Imperial  Forest  Institute  at  St.  Peters- 
Forest  School        burg  in  1907  had,  according  to  the  official 
in  report,  686  students  inscribed,  being  there- 

Russia.  by  by  far  the  largest  forest  school  in  the 

world.  Of  these  22  were  graduated  as 
foresters  of  first  order,  50  as  such  of  second  order.  The  main- 
tenance of  this  institution,  outside  of  student  fees,  required  $101,- 
260. 

In   1900  an  agreement  was  made  between 

Game  Germany  and  England  to  institute  a  close 

in  season  for  some  of  the  big  game  in  Africa, 

Africa.  and  forbid  in  certain  districts  the  shooting 

of  some  species  which  were  threatened  with 

extinction.     This  treaty  was,  however,  not  ratified  by  England 

on  the  ground  furnished  by  Dr.  Koch,  who  held  that  this  big 

game,  bear,  buffalo  and  antelope,  was  the  carrier  of  the  dreaded 

Tsetse  fly,  which  occasions  the  sleeping  sickness  of  the  negroes 

and  the  dying  of  Zebu  cattle.     He,  therefore,  advocated  extirpa- 


216  Forestry  Quarterly. 

tion  of  the  game.  Now  the  zoologist,  Prof.  Matschie,  has  pointed 
out  that  this  fly  occurs  where  there  is  no  game  and  also  that  it 
is  absent  in  some  regions  where  this  game  thrives.  Deep  shade 
is  the  needed  condition  for  the  development  of  the  fly.  Dr.  San- 
ders also  points  out  that  not  only  big  game  but  all  other  animals 
are  hosts  of  the  Tsetse  fly,  including  the  cold  blooded  crocodiles, 
lizards,  perhaps  also  birds.  Even  if  it  were  practically  possible 
to  extirpate  the  game,  it  would  be  a  great  loss  from  the  stand- 
point of  meat  supply  for  expeditions. 

Centralblatt  fur  Jadg-u.     Hundeliebhaber,  1908.     No.  25. 


OTHER  PERIODICAL  LITERATURE. 

The  Indian  Forester,  1909, — 

Appointment  of  Probationers  for  the  Indian  Forest  Ser- 
vice.    Pp.   1-9. 

New  regulations  provide  for  the  appointment  in  1909  by 
the  Secretary  of  State  for  India  of  12  stipendiary  students 
(£240  each)  to  take  a  Science  Degree  and  Diploma  of  For- 
estry at  Oxford  University.  The  effect  upon  the  status  of 
forestry  as  a  science  in  English  Universities  in  the  future, 
and  upon  the  efficiency  of  the  Indian  Service,  will  be  in- 
teresting to  watch. 

Notes  on  the  Torrent  Training-works  and  Reboisement  of 
Mountain  Slopes  near  Interlaken.     Pp.  14-28. 

Describes  the  former  conditions  and  their  causes,  the  diffi- 
culties met  with,  and  the  methods  pursued. 

Match  Manufacture  in  the  Philippines.     Pp.  28-9. 
Gives  a  promising  outlook  for  this  industry. 

Lac  in  the  Eastern  Dun.     Pp.  31-33. 

Gives  additional  facts  from  local  investigations  on  this 
insect. 

The  Future  of  Cutch  and  Katha  Manufacture.     Pp.  68-82. 


Other  Periodical  Literature.  217 

Discusses  the  whole  question  and  gives  a  new  method  of 
combined  manufacture  of  the  two. 

The  Allapilli  Monorail  Tramway.    Pp.  133-148. 
Gives  a  description  of  the  plant,  traffic  capability,  and  fi- 
nancial aspects. 

Rod  and  Gun,  1909,— 

British  Columbia's  New  Game  Preserve.    Pp.  964-965. 

Forest  Leaves,  1909, — 

Inequitable  Taxation  of  Standing  Timber.     Pp.   181-182. 

What  is  Practical  Forestry?    Pp.  183-189. 
A  plea  for  tree  planting. 

Plant  World,  1909  — 

Bogs,  Their  Nature  and  Origin.     Pp.  34-41,  53-61. 

A  general  discussion  of  succession  on  bogs  in  various  parts 
of  the  world,  but  chiefly  on  certain  bogs  in  Monroe  County, 
Pennsylvania. 

Some  Mexican  Fiber  Plants.    Pp.  25-34. 

Gives  the  methods  of  making  rope,  matting  and  so  forth 
from  fiber  obtained  from  certain  species  of  Agave.  Yucca 
and  Samuela,  as  well  as  the  distribution  of  these  species  in 
Mexico. 

Ohio  Naturalist,  1909,— 

Distribution  of  the  Woody  Plants  of  Ohio.     Pp.  469-474. 
Two  hundred  and  seventy-eight  species  are  grouped  ac- 
cording to  their  frequency  and  distribution. 

Canadian  Forestry  Journal,  1909, — 

The  Toronto  1909  Convention.     Pp.  1-17. 

A  Western  Problem.     Pp.  18-22. 

Describes  the  conditions  in  the  prairie  regions  of  Alberta 
and  Saskatchewan,  and  outlines  the  investigations  necessary 
to  solve  the  problem  of  wood  and  water  supply. 


218  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Some  Notes  on  Forestry  in  Ontario.     Pp.  23-26. 
Game  and  Forestry  in  Canada.     Pp.  27-30. 
The  Dominion  Forest  Reserves.     Pp.  31-47. 
Great  Britain's  Afforestation  Scheme.    Pp.  48-54. 

Bulletin  of  the  American  Geographical  Society,    1909, — 

The  Relation  of  Geology  to  Topography.  Pp.  138-142. 
Shows  the  importance  of  geological  knowledge  for  guidance  in 
constructing  maps. 

Quarterly  Journal  of  Forestry,   1909, — 

Planting  on  the  Weald.  Pp.  5-13.  Gives  the  results  of  the 
writer's  experience. 

Effects  of  Overthinning  and  Ground  Moisture  upon  the 
Grozvth  and  Value  of  Plantations.    Pp.  13-21.    Shown  by  tables. 

Recent  Progress  in  Afforestation.  Pp.  21-31.  Describes  some 
work  done  by  the  Midland  Re-afforesting  Association. 

The  Journal  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  1909, — 
Report  on  Afforestation.     Pp.  853-858. 
A  full  summary  of  the  conclusions  and  recommendations 
in  the  second  report  of  the  Royal  Commission. 

Afforestation  of  Waste  Lands  in  Denmark,  Holland, 
France,  and  Belgium.     Pp.  858-863. 

A  brief  summary  of  information  regarding  the  policies 
and  methods. 

Afforestation  of  Waste  Lands  in  Germany.     Pp.  942-944. 

Schweizerische     Zeitschrift  fur    Forstwesen,    January,    February, 
March,  1909,— 

Ueber  Lazvinenverbauungen  an  der  Gotthardbahn.  By 
Burri. 
Elucidates  in  detail  and  with  illustrations  the  methods  and 
means  used  along  the  St.  Gotthard  Railway  to  prevent  and  make 
harmless  avalanches.  This  has  been  mostly  done  by  mechanical 
means,  but  reforesting  in  part  has  been  undertaken,  and  with 
success. 


NEWS  AND  NOTES. 

The  University  of  Wisconsin  is  rejoicing  over  the  decision  of 
the  United  States  Forest  Service  to  locate  there  its  new  experi- 
mental laboratory  station.  It  means  much  to  the  University  as 
the  laboratory  will  be  available  both  to  staff  and  students  for  in- 
vestigative work,  and  lectures  will  be  given  by  the  station  staff. 
To  the  paper,  lumber  and  railroad  interests  of  the  state  it  is  of 
great  importance  owing  to  the  character  of  the  investigations  con- 
templated. These  will  include  woodpulp  experiments,  timber 
tests,  wood  preservation  tests,  experiments  in  wood  distillation, 
etc.     To  the  people  of  Wisconsin  its  economic  value  is  evident. 

The  University  will  erect  a  suitable  building,  while  the  Forest 
Service  will  equip  the  laboratory  at  a  cost  of  $14,000  and  pro- 
vide for  the  staff  ($28,000  yearly). 

The  School  of  Forestry  in  the  University  of  Georgia  has  added 
to  its  curriculum  two  summer  terms  for  Junior  and  Senior  years, 
which  are  to  be  held  in  a  woods  camp  for  two  months.  For  this 
purpose  a  tract  of  2,000  acres  has  been  placed  at  its  disposal.  It 
appears  that  only  afternoons  are  given  up  to  practice  work  and 
excursions,  and  that  the  camp  work  is  to  be  done  by  the  students. 
Others  than  students  are  admitted,  but  are  expected  to  submit  to 
the  same  discipline  as  the  students. 

Waste  Land  Planting  in  Prussia  progresses  at  a  rapid  rate. 
During  the  six  years  1901-1906  Prussia  bought  or  exchanged 
300,000  acres  of  waste  lands  partly  wooded  together  with  57,- 
000  acres  farmland,  spending  altogether  $9,500,000.  In  1907 
20,000  acres,  in  1908,  13,000  acres  were  added  to  those  holdings 
and  around  25,000  acres  were  planted  in  these  two  years  at  a 
cost  of  over  $100,000. 

By  the  first  of  October,  1908,  the  government  had  waste  lands 
still  unplanted  of  over  70,000  acres. 

The  Pennsylvania  Railroad  is  planning  to  set  out  this  spring 
more  than  1,000,000  trees.  This  will  make  a  total  of  3,430,000 
trees  which  have  been  planted  in  the  last  three  years  to  provide 


220  Forestry  Quarterly. 

for  some  of  the  Company's  future  requirements  in  timber  and 
cross  ties.  This  constitutes  the  largest  forestry  plan  yet  under- 
taken by  any  private  corporation. 

Heretofore  the  Company's  forestry  operations  have  been  con- 
fined to  a  limited  area  between  Philadelphia  and  Altoona.  This 
year,  however,  65,000  trees  are  being  set  out  on  tracts  of  land 
near  Metuchen  and  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.  In  addition,  there 
are  to  be  planted  within  the  next  month  207,000  trees  near  Cone- 
wago,  Pa.,  186,000  in  the  vicinity  of  Van  Dyke,  334,000  at  Lewis- 
town  Junction,  7,000  at  Pomeroy,  and  205,000  at  Denholm. 

The  bare  places  in  the  locust  tree  plantations,  which  were 
started  some  years  ago  are  being  filled  in  with  new  seedlings,  in 
order  that  these  may  follow  as  a  second  growth  after  the  older 
trees  have  been  removed  for  fence  posts  and  other  purposes.  Of 
the  trees  that  are  to  be  set  out  this  spring,  893,000  are  red  oak, 
40,000  Scotch  pine,  29,000  locust,  14,000  hardy  catalpa,  14,000 
pin  oak,  5,000  European  larch,  3,000  chestnut,  3,000  yellow  pop- 
lar, 2,000  black  walnut,  and  1,000  white  pine. 

The  policy  of  encouraging  reforestration  on  the  part  of  the 
public  has  been  actively  pursued  this  spring.  Some  151,000  trees 
have  been  furnished  practically  at  cost,  to  private  corporations 
and  individuals.  In  addition,  8,000  privet  hedge  plants  have  been 
supplied  to  private  individuals.  Privet  hedge  plants  to  the  num- 
ber of  7,000  are  to  be  set  out  to  ornament  boundary  lines  along 
the  Company's  right  of  way. 

A  special  effort  has  been  directed  this  season  to  growing  orna- 
mental shrubbery  for  use  in  parking  the  lawns  around  stations 
and  unoccupied  spaces  along  the  roadway.  To  save  the  time 
required  to  grow  these  from  seed,  6,000  plants  have  been  im- 
ported from  France.  They  will  be  placed  in  beds,  at  the  Com- 
pany's nursery  at  Morrisville,  N.  J.  Part  of  them  will  be  ready 
for  transplanting  next  year  and  the  remainder  in  191 1. 

Indicative  of  the  scope  of  the  forestry  plan  of  the  Company 
this  year  is  the  fact  that  at  the  Morrisville  nursery  alone,  approxi- 
mately 1,250,000  trees  have  been  dug,  bundled  and  shipped  to 
places  along  the  railroad.  The  area  occupied  by  these  trees  has 
been  plowed,  fertilized  and  is  to  be  re-planted  with  about  200 
bushels  of  acorns.  Half  a  million  coniferous  seedlings,  which 
were  grown  last  year,  are  being  set  in  transplant  beds,  to  remain 
for  a  year  before  being  set  out  permanently.     In  addition  to  the 


News  and  Notes.  221 

above,  there  will  be  planted  this  spring  about  100  pounds  of  pine 
and  spruce  tree  seed,  which  should  produce  about  a  million 
plants.  These  in  time  will  be  transplanted  in  permanent  loca- 
tions. 

According  to  the  recently  published  report  of  the  Royal  Com- 
mission appointed  to  inquire  into  the  timber  resources  of  New 
South  Wales,  the  total  quantity  of  commercial  timber  at  present 
standing  in  the  State,  excluding  timber  growing  on  private  lands, 
is  estimated  at  23,116,000,000  superficial  feet,  consisting  of:  Hard- 
woods ;  Iron-bark,  1,335,000,000  superficial  feet;  other  hard- 
woods for  milling,  8,668,000,000  superficial  feet ;  for  other  pur- 
poses, 11,788,000,000  superficial  feet;  total,  21,811,000,000  super- 
ficial feet.  Soft  woods;  cedar,  5,000,000  superficial  feet;  hoop 
pine,  230,000,000  superficial  feet;  other  brushwoods,  150,000,- 
000  superficial  feet ;  cypress  pine,  920,000,000  superficial  feet ; 
total,  1,305,000,000  superficial  feet.  The  commissioners  state 
that,  at  the  present  rate  of  consumption,  the  quantity  of  hard- 
wood timber  suitable  for  commercial  purposes,  estimated  to  be 
at  present  standing  on  the  forest  reserves  and  other  Crown  lands 
of  the  State,  will  not  last  more  than  about  36  years  and  that  the 
supply  of  soft  woods  will  be  consumed  in  a  little  more  than 
20  years.  Amongst  other  things  the  commissioners  recommend 
that  the  present  royalties  on  certain  timber  should  be  increased 
and  that  the  export  of  iron  bark  and  tallowwood  beyond  the 
Commonwealth  should  be  prohibited  for  a  period  of  ten  years. 
Recommendations  are  also  made  for  the  replanting  of  the  most 
valuable  timbers  and  for  the  protection  of  timbers  at  present 
standing. 

In  an  article  on  "Toronto  Lumber  Trade  Thirty  Years  Ago," 
printed  in  Canada  Lumberman  and  Woodworker,  the  following 
interesting  price  list  of  White  Pine  occurs.  These  are  taken  from 
an  old  memorandum  book  dated  1876: 

Cost  at  Mill.  Retailed  at 

Mill  culls,    $4.00  $7.00  to  $8.00 

Shipping    culls,    5.00  to      6.00  9.00  to  10.00 

Good  common  boards,  10.00  to     12.00  14.00  to  15.00 

Dimension   stuff,    11.00  to     12.00  15.00  to  16.00 

Dressing  pine,    14.00  to     15.00  18.00  to  20.00 

No.  1  cuts  and  better 28.00  to     30.00  34.00  to  38.00 

Matched  flooring 16.00  to  20.00 

Shingles  XXX  pine,    2.00  to      2.25  2.50  to  3.00 

Lath,  No.   r,   1.50  to      1.75  2.25  to  2.50 


222  Forestry  Quarterly. 

As  a  building  material  hemlock  had  not  yet  come  into  general 
use.  While  grades  have  changed  so  that  direct  comparisons  are 
impossible,  an  idea  of  the  change  can  be  had,  from  the  price  lists 
on  cargo  lots  in  the  same  trade  paper,  which  runs  from  $12.50 
for  the  lowest  culls  to  $54  for  the  best  2-inch  cuts. 

The  growing  interest  of  Southern  pine  manufacturers  and 
stumpage  holders  in  forest  conservation  and  forest  education  is 
strikingly  exhibited  in  the  coming  meeting  of  the  Forest  Con- 
servation Committee  of  the  Yellow  Pine  Manufacturers'  Asso- 
ciation that  was  to  be  held  on  May  10  and  11  in  the  camp  of  the 
Yale  Forest  School,  in  Tyler  county,  Texas.  This  committee  is 
composed  of  J.  Lewis  Thompson,  President  Thompson-Tucker 
Lumber  Company,  Houston,  Texas ;  J.  B.  White,  Manager  Mis- 
souri Lumber  and  Land  Exchange  Co.,  Kansas  City,  Mo. ;  John 
L.  Kaul,  Kaul  Lumber  Company,  Birmingham,  Ala. ;  J.  A.  Free- 
man, Freeman  Lumber  Company,  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  and  P.  S. 
Gardiner,  Eastman-Gardiner  Co.,  Laurel,  Miss.  The  object  of 
the  meeting  is  to  discuss  means  for  furthering  the  conservation 
of  the  yellow  pine  forests  of  the  South  and  the  prominence  of  the 
men  who  are  to  be  present  insures  a  very  successful  meeting,  and 
the  action  taken  by  this  committee  will  have  much  weight  with 
the  stumpage  holders  of  yellow  pine. 

Mr.  S.  S.  Sadler,  who  will  graduate  from  the  Forestry  De- 
partment of  Pennsylvania  State  College  in  June,  has  been  ap- 
pointed Forest  Assistant  with  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Com- 
pany, to  take  charge  of  the  Forest  Nursery  at  Morrisville,  Pa. 
The  position  which  Mr.  Sadler  is  called  upon  to  fill  will  event- 
ually include,  in  addition  to  the  nursery  work,  the  field  planting 
operations  and  landscape  gardening  along  the  right-of-way. 

The  English  steamship  "Balakani,"  discharged  a  cargo  of 
1,030,000  gallons  of  German  creosote  oil  at  Philadelphia,  April 
30  and  May  1st.  This  oil  is  for  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Com- 
pany, and  is  the  first  steamer  cargo  of  creosote  to  be  brought 
into  Philadelphia ;  it  is  also  the  first  large  shipment  for  the  use 
of  an  eastern  railroad  company  in  the  preservation  of  their 
timber. 

The  office  of  the  Superintendent  for  Suppressing  the  Gypsy 
and  Brown-tail  Moths  has,  by  an  Act  of  the  Legislature,  been 
combined  with  the  office  of  the  State  Forester,  who  thereby 
secures  the  handsome  salary  of  $5,000. 


COMMENT. 

At  last  patriotism  in  holding  on  to  the  established  and  anti- 
quated is  to  be  supplanted  by  common  sense.  The  Legislative 
Commission  of  Maine  appointed  to  investigate  the  methods  of 
scaling  logs  and  lumber,  have  made  their  report,  and  state  in 
substance  the  following: 

"The  board  foot  is  not  the  proper  unit  for  log  measure  since 
it  is  relevant  only  in  case  of  lumber  manufacture,  but  entirely 
irrelevant  in  pulp,  staves,  veneer,  and  other  industries. 

"The  cubic  foot  should  be  the  unit  of  measure  and  each  manu- 
facturer should  calculate  the  product  he  could  manufacture  in 
board  feet,  pounds  of  pulp,  number  of  staves  and  square  feet  of 
veneer,  and  fix  the  price  accordingly. 

"The  contract  logger,  figuring  in  cubic  feet  would  then  be  paid 
according  to  the  weight  he  handles,  whether  the  logs  are  large 
or  small.  In  contracting  by  the  thousand  board  feet,  as  is  now 
done,  he  handles  a  larger  weight  of  small  logs  per  thousand 
than  of  large  logs. 

"The  commission  recommends  the  substitution  of  a  cubic  foot 
caliper  rule  as  the  legal  rule  for  Maine,  arguing  that,  besides 
applying  to  all  industries  involved,  it  would  aid  economical  log- 
ging and  full  utilization  of  material." 

To  a  forester,  there  is  no  need  of  pointing  out  the  soundness 
of  this  conclusion.  He  knows  that  the  logs  always  did  grow 
into  cubic  feet,  and,  if  the  irrelevant  and  tedious  translation  into 
board  feet,  which  is  dependent  entirely  upon  the  judgment  and 
practice  of  the  scaler  and  the  miller,  is  avoided,  his  fate  will  be 
a  happier  one. 

It  is  very  evident  that  if  log  measurement  is  to  be  standard- 
ized for  the  entire  country,  the  cubic  foot  caliper  rule  applied  at 
the  middle  of  the  log  will  be  applicable  for  all  states,  all  indus- 
tries, all  species,  whatever  their  taper,  and  for  long  logs  as  well 
as  short  logs.  While  the  volume  by  the  middle  diameter  method 
is  not  entirely  exact  especially  for  very  long  logs,  the  error  is  very 
small  in  favor  of  the  buyer.  But  it  gives  by  far  the  better  result 
in  comparison  with  end  diameter  measurement,  even  when  the 
latter  method  makes  allowance  for  taper.  In  this  connection  the 
15 


224  Forestry  Quarterly. 

briefs  on  cubing  timber  on  pp.  262-265,  vol.  II,  of  the  Quarterly 
should  be  re-read. 

Utopia  is  surely  coming  earlier  than  we  had  expected,  if,  be- 
sides the  North  American  Conservation  Commission,  the  Inter- 
national Conservation  Commission  should  become  a  fact  before 
the  display  of  Dreadnoughts  may  put  a  damper  on  the  enthusi- 
astic altruists  who  are  engineering  the  movement. 

There  is  nothing  in  the  declaration  of  principles  issued  by  the 
North  American  Conservation  Commission  to  which  a  forester 
will  take  exception,  for,  where  forestry  is  practiced,  these  prin- 
ciples have  already  been  recognized  and  acted  upon  long  ago. 

The  one  new  and  apparently  practical  proposition,  namely, 
the  stocktaking  of  resources,  if  it  is  to  be  executed  over  the 
whole  world,  strikes  us  as  somewhat  chimerical,  and  the  diffi- 
culties still  for  a  long  time  insuperable.  Even  in  such  highly 
civilized  and  organized  countries  as  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada, this  would  be  a  tremendous  undertaking,  while  in  South 
American  Republics,  Asia  and  Africa,  it  is  hopeless.  Moreover, 
what  would  be  the  meaning  of  a  statement  of  forest  areas,  even 
if  we  were  to  approximate  them  more  closely  than  we  can  with 
present  information?  Even,  if  we  could  more  closely  state  the 
merchantable  available  supplies  on  hand,  would  we  have  grasped 
what  the  resource  itself  means  with  reference  to  future  supplies? 
We  do  not  want  to  discourage  the  undertaking  but  we  do  not  re- 
gard the  proposition  as  easy,  practicable,  or  likely  to  lead  to 
tangible  results. 

The  only  value  we  see  in  the  whole  movement  is  that  sluggish 
democratic  governments,  which  cannot  be  moved  by  reason,  may 
be  moved  by  display  of  aroused  popular  interest  to  a  realization 
of  their  duty. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  in  the  Principles  the  paternal  note,  the 
absence  of  which  once  distinguished  American  policies  from  Ger- 
man or  French. 

Is  true  democracy,  after  all,  going  to  be  found  in  direct  gov- 
ernment activity  for  the  good  of  the  people? 

No  doubt,  at  least  the  political  difficulties  have  been  recognized 
by  the  Commission  as  may  be  learned  from  the  wording  of  the 
letter  of  the  Canadian  Commission  accompanying  a  copy  of  the 
Principles  sent  to  people  interested  in  the  subject. 


Comment.  225 

"The  Canadian  Commission  to  the  North  American  Confer- 
ence on  the  Conservation  of  the  Natural  Resources  of  this  Conti- 
nent held  last  month  in  Washington  have  the  honor  to  respect- 
fully invite  your  consideration  of  the  enclosed  'Declaration  of 
Principles.' 

"This  Declaration  was  drawn  up  by  the  representatives  and 
unanimously  adopted  after  careful  consideration  and  thought. 
It  is  not  in  any  sense  a  treaty  between  the  governments  or  coun- 
tries taking  part  in  the  Conference.  It  does  not  in  any  way  bind 
those  countries  to  particular  action.  It  lays  down  principles  on 
which  authorities  having  control  over  natural  resources  may  act 
in  their  future  treatment  of  their  resources,  either  by  legislation 
or  by  grants.  While  the  Federal  Government  of  Canada  took 
part  in  this  Conference  there  is  no  thought  or  idea  of  any  in- 
fringement or  interference  with  the  rights  of  the  Provinces 
within  the  Dominion.  The  Declaration  fully  recognizes  pro- 
vincial, state  and  national  authorities.  It  is  hoped,  however, 
that  the  principles  enunciated  will  commend  themselves  to  all 
authorities  in  relation  to  the  future  disposal  and  use  of  the 
natural  resources  of  the  continent." 


Yale  University  Forest  School 

NEW   HAVEN,    CONNECTICUT 

A  two-year  graduate  course  is  offered,  lead- 
ing to  the  degree  of  Master  of  Forestry.  Grad- 
uates of  collegiate  institutions  of  high  standing 
are  admitted  upon  presentation  of  their  college 
diploma. 

The  Summer  School  of  Forestry  is  conducted 
at  Milford,  Pike  County,  Pa.  The  session  in 
1909  will  open  early  in  July  and  continue 
seven  weeks. 

For  further  information,  address 
HENRY  S.  GRAVES,  Director,  New  Haven,  Connecticut 


The  University  of  Toronto 
and  University  College 


Faculties  of  Art,  Medicine,  Applied  Science,  House- 
hold Science,  Education,  Forestry. 


The  Faculty  of  Forestry  offers  a  four  year  course, 
leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  in 
Forestry. 


For  information,  apply  to  the  REGISTRAR  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY,  or 
to  the  Secretaries  of  the  respective  Faculties. 


HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 

THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  OF  APPLIED  SCIENCE 
offers  a  two-years'  course  in  FORESTRY  leading  to  the  degree  of 
Master  in  Forestry.     The  descriptive  pamphlet  will  be  sent  on 
application  to    W.  C.  SABINE,  15  University  Hall,  Cambridge, 
Mass. 

POWDER  POINT  SCHOOL 

DUXBURY,  MASS. 

Preparatory  course  in  POKlSTRY  leading  to  the  Biltmore 
and  college  courses  in  this  subject.  It  requires  hard,  earnest 
application,  and  develops  an  appreciation  of  nature  and  power  of 
leadership.     SUMMER  CLASS  ;  also  TUTORING. 

F.  B.  KNAPP,  S.  B.,  Principal 

F.  R.  MEIER 

Consulting    Forester 
INo.  1  Broadway,  INew  York 

Examinations,  Reports,  Sales 
18  Years  Experience  in  United  States 

MANUAL  FOR  NORTHERN  WOODSMEN 

By  AUSTIN   CAREY,   Harvard  University  Publisher,  Cambridge, 
1909;  Pages,  250.     Price,  $2.00. 

The  above  publication  highly  recommended  by  the  editor  of 
this  journal  can  be  had  at  the  above  price  by  addressing  Business 
Manager,  Forestry  Quarterly,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


EVERGREENS 


AIND 


Forest  Trees,  also  Seeds 


Hardy  Sorts  for  Forest  Planting : 

Pinus  Strobus  (White  Pine),  Scotch  Pine,  Ponderosa  Pine,  Jack 

Pine,  White  Spruce,  Norway  Spruce,  Douglas  Spruce, 

and  many  other  Hardy  Varieties. 

Deciduous  Trees: 

European   Larch,   American  White   Elm,   Sugar   Maple,  White 

Ash,  American  Linden,  Catalpa,  Black  Locust,  Bur 

Oak,  Black  Oak,  Red  Oak  and  White  Oak 

Also  Seeds — Guaranteed  New  Crop : 

Evergreens:  Pinus  Strobus  (White  Pine),  Scotch  Pine,  Jack 
and  Bull  Pine,  and  20  other  varieties. 

Also  European  Larch,  Sugar  and  Norway  Maple,  Black  Lo- 
cust, Ash,  etc. 


WRITE  FOR  CATALOGUE  WITH  PRICES 
Mention  this  Magazine 

D.  HILL 

Evergreen  Specialist  Dundee,   111* 


FOR  SALE! 

BACK  NUMBERS  OF 

FORESTRY  QUARTERLY 

Volume  III,  Number  i,  has  been  reprinted,  and  complete 
back  sets  are  now  obtainable  at  $2  per  volume.  Owing  to  their 
scarcity,  the  price  of  Volumes  I  and  II  has  been  raised  to  $2  each- 

ADDRESS 

FORESTRY  QUARTERLY 

ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

FOREST  TREES ! 

FOREST  SEEDS! 

F.O.B.  ROTTERDAM 

Seedlings  and  Transplanted.    By  the  Million 

PETER  SCHOTT,  KNITTELSHEIM 

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Wholesale   Seeds  and  Nurseryman 


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ESTABLISHED  1784 

The  oldest  established  Seed  and  Nursery  Business  in  Germany 

DESCRIPTIVE  CATALOGUES    POST   FREE   ON    APPLICATION 


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Two  Hundred  Thousand  pairs  now  in  actual  use.  Over 
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DESCRIPTION '#  Made  in  all  sizes.  It  is  lively  and  easy  riding,  very  durable  and  lined  inside 
with  a  special  quality  of  rubber,  which  never  becomes  porous  and  which  closes  up  small  punctures 
without  allowing  the  air  to  escape.  We  have  hundreds  of  letters  from  satisfied  customers  stating 
that  their  tires  have  only  been  pumped  up  once  or  twice  in  a  whole  season.  They  weigh  no  more  than 
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HEAD  CYCLE  COMPANY,  Dept.  "JL"  CHICAGO,  ILL. 


WimiMmimM&m     ' 


.'      ''■•.  '■  -vV  '    "'/^■■'■'^■.f-;*-,;r'''.--''i'-/ 
_>■■<■'>: Yl<:'::{-<- W:.--;  r-^W'^-e 


Established  1845.  Incorporated  1900. 

W.  &  L.  E  GURLEY 

TROY,  N.  Y.,  U.  S.  A. 
Largest  Manufacturers  in  America  of 

Instruments  for  Civil,  Mining  and  Hydraulic 
Engineers  and  Land  Surveyors 

Foresters'    Instruments,    Compasses,    Plane- 
Tables,  Chains,  Tape-Lines,  Etc. 


No.  100RECONNOISSANCB  TRANSIT  $05.00 
CATALOGUES    AND    DETAILED    INFORMATION    ON    REQUEST 

Please  mention  this  Magazine  when  writing:. 


CONTENTS 


Fage 

Forest  Planting  in  National  Forests,      -  -            -            127 

1.  Forestation  in  the  Inter-Mountain  Region,       -  127 

By  James  M.  Feterholf. 

2.  The  Pocatello  Planting  Station,  -           -            135 

By  Clinton  G.  Smith. 

Logging  in  the  Redwoods,            -            -  -                      139 
By  Niles  B.  Eckbo. 

Recent  Log  Rules,            -            -            -  -                       144 
By  Henry  S.  Graves. 

Ranger  Courses,             -             -            -  ■            •             1 47 
By  Julian  Eastman  Rothery. 

A  Plea  for  Abolishing  the  Duty  on  Evergreen  Seedlings 

for  Forest  Planting,             -            -  -            -            151 
By  Ellicott  D.  Curtis. 

Notes  on  the  Trees  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  -            155 

Current  Literature,           -           -           -  -            -            157 

Other  Current  Literature,                  .  -            -            169 

Periodical  Literature,              -               -  -            -            175 

Other  Periodical  Literature,        -  -            -            216 

News  and  Notes,                         -            -•  .  •            -            219 

Comment.            ....  -           223 


Volume  VII  No.  3 


FORESTRY  QUARTERLY 


A  PROFESSIONAL  JOURNAL 


Subscription  Two  Dollars  per  Annum 


CAMBRIDGE  (BOSTON),  MASS. 

1909 

Application  for  entry  as  Secoad-claM  Mall  Matter  pending 


FORESTRY  QUARTERLY 


BOARD  OF  EDITORS 

B.  E.  Fbrnow,  IX.  D.,  Editor-in-Chief 

Henry  S.  Graves,  M.  A.,  Fiubkrt  Roth,  B.  S., 

Yale  Forest  School.  University  of  Michigan. 

Richaud  T.  Fisher,  A.  B.,        Hugh  P.  Baker,  M.  F., 

Harvard  University.  Pennsylvania  State  College. 

Walter  Mulford,  F.  E.,  C.  D.  Howe,  Ph.  D., 

University  of  Michigan.  University  of  Toronto. 

Ernest  A.  Sterling,  F.  E.,       Raphael  Zon,  F.  E., 

Forester,  Penna.  R.  R.  Co.  Forest  Service. 

Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E.,         Clyde  Leavitt,  M.  S.  F., 

Forest  Service.  Forest  Service. 

Asa  S.  Williams,  F.  E. 


the  objects  for  which  this  journal  is  published  are  : 

To  aid  in  the  establishment  of  rational  forest  management. 

To  offer  an  organ  for  the  publication  of  technical  papers  of 
interest  to  professional  foresters  of  America. 

To  keep  the  profession  in  touch  with  the  current  technical 
literature,  and  with  the  forestry  movement  in  the  United  States. 


Manuscripts  may  be  sent  to  the  Editor-in-Chief  at  University 
of  Toronto,  Toronto,  Canada,  or  to  any  of  the  board  of  editors. 
Subscriptions  and  other  business  matters  should  be  addressed 
to  Forestry  Quarterly,  396  Harvard  Street,  Cambridge,  Mass. 


PreMof 

Watchman  Pkihtino  Housi 

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*9°9 


Subscribers  are  requested  to  note  that,  with  this 
issue,  the  office  of  publication  of  the  FORESTRY 
QUARTERLY  is  transferred  from  Ithaca  to  396  Har- 
vard St.,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  to  which  all  business 
communications  should  be  addressed.  This  change 
of  address  does  not  apply  to  the  Editorial  department, 
which  remains  in  the  same  hands  and  at  the  same  ad- 
dress as  before. 


Measuring  Effect  of  Forest  Cover  on  Snow  Waters.    Conditions  on  April  15 

I.    Station  in  open  "park."    The  light  ground  effect  due  to  sunlight  on  grama  grass. 
II.    Station  in  virgin  Yellow  Pine  Forest.    Scattered  drifts  and  banks  of  snow  over 
level  surface, 

III.     Deep  banks  of  snow  on  northerly  aspects  near  measuring  station.     The  gulches 
and  narrow  canyons  filled  with  snow. 


LIBRARY 
NEW  YORK 

FORESTRY  QUARTERLY      "ZZT 

Vol.  VII]  September,  1909.  [No.  3. 


THE  WHITE  PINE  BLISTER  RUST. 
By  C.  R.  Pettis. 

It  is  very  much  to  be  regretted  that  another  disease  of  a  very 
serious  nature  has  been  imported  into  this  country.  This  time  it 
is  a  rust,  which  attacks  White  Pine.  Its  most  common  name  is  the 
White  Pine  Blister  Rust  (Peridermium  strobi  Klebahn),  called,  in 
Germany,  Weymutskiefernblasenrost.  It  is  a  member  of  the 
order  of  Uridineae  (rust  fungi),  and  like  many  of  that  order  is 
heteroecious,  i.  e.  requiring  two  hosts  for  its  complete  develop- 
ment. This  particular  rust  has  the  genus  Ribes  as  its  second  host. 
The  alternate  form  on  the  Ribes  is  called  the  European  Currant 
&ust  (Cronartium  ribicola  Dietr.)  which  is  most  commonly  found 
on  black  and  red  currant,  more  rarely  on  gooseberry. 

This  disease  is  not  indigenous  to  this  country,  and  this  species 
of  Peridermium  has  not  been  reported  as  found  in  North  America 
until  this  summer.  The  Cronartium  was  originally  described  in 
1856  from  specimens  collected  in  western  Russia,  while  the  Peri- 
dermium was  first  described  by  Klebahn  in  1887  as  a  distinct  spe- 
cies ;  but  later  through  inoculation  experiments  by  him  and  others, 
they  were  found  to  be  only  different  forms  of  the  same  disease. 
The  disease  has  been  reported  from  Belgium,  Denmark,  Switzer- 
land, Norway,  France,  Austria,  England,  common  throughout 
Germany.  Epidemics  have  occurred  in  Sweden,  and  in  some 
localities  of  Holland  it  is  so  prevalent  that  the  culture  of  White 
Pine  has  been  abandoned. 

The  Cronartium  ribicola  Dietr.  has  been  reported  only  twice 
in  this  country.  In  September,  1906,  Prof.  F.  C.  Stewart  discov- 
ered it  at  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y., 
but  could  not  determine  how  it  was  introduced.     In  order  to  pre- 

orent  the  disease  from  becoming  established  drastic  measures  were 
CD 

en 


CO 


232  Forestry  Quarterly. 

taken  and  the  entire  currant  plantation  of  the  station  was  de- 
stroyed. Since  that  time  no  signs  of  the  disease  have  been  found 
at  Geneva.  This  outbreak  of  the  currant  rust  has  been  fully  re- 
ported in  Technical  Bulletin,  No.  2  of  that  Station. 

As  already  stated,  the  disease  has  two  forms  of  spores  which  are 
produced  on  the  two  different  plants.  The  spores  which  are  pro- 
duced on  the  underside  of  the  Ribes  leaves  appear  during  the  sum- 
mer and  autumn  (probably  in  August  and  early  September)  as 
orange-colored  powder  having  somewhat  the  appearance  of  coarse 
yellow  plant  hairs.  These  spores  (uredo-spores)  when  mature 
may  be  carried  by  the  wind  to  adjacent  White  Pine  trees.  There 
they  germinate,  and  the  mycelium  grows  in  the  soft  inner  bark  of 
the  pine.  The  period  of  incubation  in  the  White  Pine  is  not  com- 
plete the  first  spring  after  infection,  but  often  during  the 
coming  summer  infected  stems  or  branches  show  a  thickening 
and  apparent  swelling.  The  following  spring  (probably 
middle  of  April,  or  May  and  early  June)  the  disease  breaks 
through  the  bark  and  the  light  orange-colored  fruiting  bodies, 
which  are  about  one-eighth  inch  thick,  project  from  the  diseased 
pine  branch  or  stem.  These  spore  cases  soon  rupture  and  the 
spores  are  desseminated.  The  spores  from  the  pine  (aecidio- 
spores)  may  infect  any  Ribes  leaves  with  which  they  come  in  con- 
tact. The  period  of  incubation  on  the  Ribes  is  much  shorter 
(varying  from  fifteen  to  forty  days)  resulting  in  the  breaking 
out  of  minute,  yellow  pustules,  the  uredo-spores,  which  on  opening 
emit  a  yellow  dust,  which  may  again  infect  either  other  Ribes  or 
White  Pine,  while  the  aecidio-spores  which  are  produced  on  the 
pine  can  infect  only  Ribes,  i.  e.  the  disease  can  not  be  transmitted 
direct  from  pine  to  pine.  Toward  the  end  of  the  summer  the  yel- 
low spots  on  the  currant  leaves  become  darker,  and  hornlike  out- 
growths are  found  on  them.  On  these  horns  new  spores  are 
formed.  These  "teleuto-spores"  germinate  and  produce  small 
bodies  called  sporidia,  and  it  is  only  these  sporidia  which  are  again 
capable  of  germinating  on  White  Pine  and  producing  the  blister 
rust. 

Some  facts  in  regard  to  the  discovery  of  the  disease  may  be 
of  interest.  Last  spring  the  Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Commission 
of  New  York  received  a  large  consignment  of  trees  from  J.  Heins' 
Sonne,  Halstenbeck,  Germany,  in  order  to  satisfy  the  demand  for 
reforesting  stock.    When  these  trees  were  being  unpacked  one  of 


The  White  Pine  Blister  Rust.  233 

the  foremen  noticed  a  peculiar  coloring  of  the  stems  and  soon  after 
referred  the  matter  to  the  writer.  Some  three-year  old  transplants 
which  showed  evidence  of  the  disease  were  secured  and  at  the 
same  time  an  examination  was  made  of  some  white  pines,  which 
had  been  imported  from  Germany  as  two-year  old  seedlings  the 
previous  year,  and  transplanted  in  a  nursery  at  Lake  Clear  Junc- 
tion. In  this  nursery  several  specimens,  which  showed  typical 
forms  of  the  disease,  were  found.  Dr.  Perley  Spaulding,  of  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  was  present  and  identified  the  disease 
as  Peridermium  strobi.  Later,  specimens  were  sent  to*  Prof. 
Arthur,  of  Purdue  University,  Prof.  Stewart,  of  the  Geneva 
(N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station,  Prof.  Jones  of  the  University  of 
Vermont,  Dr.  Metcalf  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  also  Pro- 
fessors Farlow  and  Thaxter  of  Harvard  University,  all  of  whom 
confirmed  the  previous  identification. 

A  casual  examination  by  Dr.  Metcalf  and  Dr.  Spaulding,  as- 
sisted by  the  various  state  forestry  officials  soon  located  the  dis- 
ease in  Vermont,  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut. 

As  soon  as  Commissioner  Whipple  became  acquainted  with  the 
situation  he  immediately  called  a  conference  of  the  forestry  inter- 
ests, inviting  representatives  of  state  and  private  work,  from 
Maine  to  Maryland  and  west  to  Ohio,  also  of  the  Forest  Service 
and  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry.  This  Conference  met  in  New 
York  City,  June  28th,  and  was  attended  by  the  following  persons : 
Mr.  W.  O.  Filley,  State  Forester,  New  Haven,  Conn. ;  Mr.  A.  F. 
Hawes,  State  Forester,  Burlington,  Vt. ;  Mr.  Alfred  Gaskill,  State 
Forester,  Trenton,  N.  J. ;  Prof.  F.  W.  Rane,  State  Forester, 
Boston,  Mass. ;  Mr.  C.  R.  Pettis,  State  Forester,  Albany,  N.  Y. ; 
Dr.  Perley  Spaulding,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Washington, 
D.  C. ;  Dr.  Haven  Metcalf,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Washington, 
D.  C. ;  Mr.  Raphael  Zon,  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C; 
Hon.  R.  A.  Pearson,  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Albany, 
N.  Y. ;  Hon.  James  S.  Whipple,  Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Com- 
missioner, Albany,  N.  Y.,  Prof.  Austin  Cary,  Superintendent 
State  Forests,  Albany,  N.  Y. ;  Mr.  George  G.  Atwood,  Chief 
Nursery  Inspector,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Albany,  N.  Y. ; 
Prof.  J.  W.  Tourney,  Yale  Forest  School,  New  Haven,  Conn. ; 
Mr.  H.  R.  Bristol,  Superintendent  of  Woodlands,  D.  &  H.  R.  R., 
Plattsburg,  N.  Y. ;  Hon.  George  Aiken,  Forest  Commissioner, 
Woodstock,  Vt. ;    Mr.  John  Foley,  Assistant  Forester,  Pennsyl- 


234  Forestry  Quarterly. 

vania  Railroad,  Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  Prof.  F.  C.  Stewart,  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y. ;  Mr.  S.  N.  Spring,  Con- 
sulting Forester,  New  Haven,  Conn. ;  Prof.  C.  C.  Curtis,  Professor 
of  Botany,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City ;  Hon.  Robert  P. 
Bass,  Forest  Commissioner,  Peterboro,  N.  H. 

Commissioner  Whipple  acted  as  Chairman  of  the  meeting.  The 
nature  of  the  disease  was  fully  explained  by  Prof.  Stewart  and 
Dr.  Metcalf,  after  which  followed  a  general  discussion,  and  a  state- 
ment to  the  general  press  was  prepared.  It  was  finally  decided 
that  further  importations  of  German  White  Pine  were  undesirable, 
because  the  most  careful  inspection  on  the  docks,  is  unable  to  ex- 
clude infected  stock  unless  it  happens  to  have  the  conspicuous 
spore  bodies.  A  resolution  was  adopted  advocating  the  passage 
of  a  law  giving  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  the  same  power  to 
exclude  fungus  diseases  as  he  now  has  in  relation  to  insect  dis- 
eases. It  was  also  agreed  that  each  state  should  take  prompt 
measure  to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  disease. 

The  following  plan  for  eradicating  the  disease  was  adopted  for 
New  York  State,  the  State  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the 
Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Commission  working  in  cooperation : 

i.  Procure  as  complete  a  list  as  possible  of  every  place  where 
Heins'  White  Pine  stock  has  gone  during  the  past  two  years.  It 
is  our  desire  to  extend  this  list  to  include  all  other  stock  im- 
ported from  Germany  and  France. 

2.  Inspect  all  such  premises  and  destroy  all  Ribes  plants  wild 
and  cultivated  within  one  hundred  yards  from  such  trees,  and 
even  a  further  distance  where  practicable.  The  Ribes  plants 
should  be  pulled  up  or  cut  out  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent 
sprouting.  For  example,  the  skunk  currant  should  be  pulled  up 
because  it  spreads  by  underground  stems,  while  gooseberries  and 
cultivated  currants  difficult  to  pull  up  may  be  cut  off  below 
ground.    Burn  all  such  plants  found  as  explained  under  section  4. 

3.  Keep  close  tab  on  cultivated  currants  and  gooseberries  in  all 
districts  of  the  state  where  suspicious  pines  are  located,  and  after 
July  15th  keep  closer  watch  than  heretofore  on  currants  and 
gooseberries  throughout  the  state. 

4.  Destroy  by  burning  all  infested  or  suspicious  pines  or  Ribes 
plants.  This  is  especially  important  in  1909,  for  Ribes  may  be  ex- 
pected to  show  signs  of  the  disease,  if  at  all,  after  July   15th. 


The  White  Pine  Blister  Rust.  235 

When  plants  are  to  be  burned  it  should  be  done  where  they  are 
found  or  at  a  place  to  which  the  plants  can  be  carried  in  bags  made 
of  closely  woven  heavy  cloth,  such  as  canvas  or  factory,  and  all 
such  bags  should  be  thoroughly  boiled  or  sterilized  at  the  conclu- 
sion of  each  job. 

5.  Suspicious  plantings  are  to  be  thoroughly  inspected  during 
the  last  two  weeks  in  May  and  the  first  week  in  June  (between 
May  10th  and  June  10th  probably  best  time).  This  will  be  very 
important  in  1910  and  should  be  repeated  in  191 1,  the  thorough- 
ness in  that  year  depending  largely  upon  1910  findings. 

Eighty-four  different  shipments  of  German  stock  have  been 
located  in  New  York  State  since  the  conference,  and  in  every  case 
where  any  stock  more  than  two  years  old  was  thought  to  exist  the 
plantation  was  visited  either  by  the  State  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture or  the  Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Commission  and  the  Ribes  de- 
stroyed before  July  20.  All  those  places  where  two-year  old  seed- 
lings are  known  to  have  been  shipped  will  be  visited  this  fall  and 
the  Ribes  eradicated.  Through  the  cooperation  of  the  two  above 
State  Departments  very  effective  work  has  been  accomplished  in 
New  York  State,  and  the  method  outlined  above  has  proved  very 
practical. 

This  disease  has  been  the  subject  of  much  investigation  and 
writing  abroad,  but  probably  Klebahn  is  the  most  authoritative 
and  Die  Wirtwechselnden  Rostpilze  his  best  work.  Horticultural 
Bulletin  No.  2  "Emergency  Bulletin  on  the  Blister  Rust  of  Pine 
and  the  European  Currant  Rust,"  prepared  by  Mr.  George  G. 
Atwood,  has  been  issued  by  the  State  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Albany,  N.  Y.  Circular  No.  38  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
Washington,  D.  C.  "The  European  Currant  Rust  on  White 
Pine  in  America"  by  Dr.  Perley  Spaulding  has  also  been  published 
since  this  disease  was  discovered  in  this  country. 

It  is  certainly  fortunate  that  such  a  timely  discovery  was  made 
and  that  some  opportunity  was  given  to  eradicate  the  disease. 
Nearly  all  of  our  northeastern  states  are  planting  public  lands 
or  assisting  private  land  owners  in  their  reforesting  work.  The 
discovery  of  this  disease  may  check  the  progress  somewhat,  but  if 
the  work  is  delayed  until  our  American  grown  stock  can  supply 
the  necessary  planting  material  the  future  of  White  Pine  planting 
will  not  be  in  doubt. 


236  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Mr.  Raphael  Zon  adds  the  following  notes  to  the  above  state- 
ment: 

In  Europe,  Pinus  cembra  Stone  Pine,  is  the  only  representative 
of  the  group  of  five-needled  pines  to  which  our  white  pines  belong. 
Pinus  cembra  has  occasionally  been  found  to  be  affected  with  the 
blister  disease,  but  within  the  large  region  of  its  natural  distribu- 
tion (Switzerland,  Tyrol,  and  the  Carpathians)  no  fructification 
of  the  fungus  has  ever  been  observed.  Only  in  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains of  Russia,  where  the  Stone  Pine  is  also  a  native  tree,  does 
the  fungus  occasionally  produce  spores.  This  fact  would  indicate 
that  Pinus  cembra  is  so  resistant  to  the  attacks  of  the  rust  that, 
although  the  fungus  can  gain  an  entrance  into  its  bark,  it  only 
seldom  reaches  the  spore-producing  stage.  Until  the  introduction 
of  the  American  white  pines  into  Europe,  this  rust  was  not,  there- 
fore, considered  of  great  danger.  As  soon,  however,  as  the 
American  white  pines  were  introduced  and  planted  on  a  somewhat 
extensive  scale,  the  fungus  found  more  favorable  conditions  for 
its  work,  which  is  only  another  demonstration  of  what  usually 
happens  when  a  certain  disease  comes  in  contact  with  new  victims 
which  have  not  had  time  to  become  resistant  to  its  attacks.  White 
pine  rust,  which  could  do  but  littl  harm  to  Pinus  cembra,  proved 
extremely  fatal  to  Pinus  strobus  and  Pinus  monticola.  Its  attacks 
are  especially  destructive  to  young  trees.  Old  trees,  protected 
with  thick  bark,  through  which  the  fungus  cannot  enter,  are  more 
resistant.  In  the  case  of  old  trees,  the  fungus  attacks,  therefore, 
chiefly  the  tops  of  the  trees  and  the  younger  branches.  The  young 
seedlings,  however,  are  attacked  both  through  the  stem  and 
branch,  and  therefore  are  killed  off  entirely. 

In  Europe,  according  to  Prof.  Somerville,  the  disease  is  so 
much  on  the  increase  that  the  outlook  in  that  country  for  Pinus 
strobus  and  other  five-needled  American  pines  is  almost  hopeless. 
There  are  estates  in  Britain,  like  Murthly  in  Perthshire  and 
Woburn  in  Bedfordshire,  where  hardly  a  living  young  Pinus 
strobus  or  Pinus  monticola  is  left.  The  disease  has  played  havoc 
also  with  'the  white  pine  in  the  Crown  woods  near  Ascot  and 
Windsor. 

In  Denmark  and  in  some  places  in  Russia,  as  near  Moscow,  for 
instance,  the  raising  of  white  pine  had  to  be  given  up  entirely  on 
account  of  this  rust. 


The  White  Pine  Blister  Rust.  237 

While  Cronartium  ribicola  discolors  the  foliage,  otherwise  it 
is  not  considered  very  destructive  to  the  currant  bushes. 

The  means  of  combating  this  fungus,  while  very  simple,  are  not 
always  practical  or  effective. 

The  fungus  can  live  for  several  years  in  the  pine,  and  may  be 
present  for  a  year  in  the  stems  of  white  pine  seedlings  before  ap- 
pearing on  the  surface  as  a  blister.  This  fact  makes  the  detection 
of  the  fungus  by  means  of  even  a  careful  inspection  or  fumiga- 
tion at  the  port  of  entrance  of  more  than  doubtful  effectiveness. 

All  the  seedlings  affected  by  the  fungus  must,  of  course,  be  at 
once  pulled  up  and  burned ;  all  currant  bushes  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  plantation  should  be  destroyed,  which,  if  effectively  done, 
would  starve  out  the  fungus.  The  most  effective  way,  of  course, 
would  be  to  prohibit  any  importation  of  white  pine  stock  from  re- 
gions where  the  fungus  is  known  to  be  prevalent.  In  our  present 
unpreparedness  for  furnishing  planting  stock  of  the  desired 
quality,  cheaply  and  in  large  quantities,  this  measure  would  prove, 
however,  a  considerable  drawback  to  the  planting  movement, 
which  has  shown  so  much  vigor  within  the  last  few  years.  The 
situation  demands  immediate  and  careful  action,  which,  without 
checking  the  interest  in  planting  in  this  country,  would,  at  the 
same  time,  remove  the  possibility  of  introducing  and  spreading  a 
dangerous  enemy  of  our  native  white  pines. 


RESTRICTING  THE  FREE  USE  OF  TIMBER  ON  OUR 
NATIONAL  FORESTS. 

By  L.  L.  White. 

Nearly  every  National  Forest  that  has  been  created  has  been 
looked  upon  by  the  people  living  adjacent  with  considerable  doubt 
and  dissatisfaction  in  the  early  stage  of  administration.  This  feel- 
ing of  mistrust,  due  to  misconception  and  lack  of  knowledge  of  the 
real  purpose  of  the  Forests,  was  inevitable  in  many  communities. 
It  was  therefore  early  apparent  that  certain  administrative  provis- 
ions must  be  made  which  would  assist  in  dispelling  the  misguided 
ideas  of  the  public,  and  in  bringing  about  a  realization  of  the 
benefits  which  the  Forest  policy  was  intended  to  subserve.  Sev- 
eral measures  were  adopted  for  this  purpose  but  probably  the 
most  effective  has  been  the  adoption  of  a  liberal  policy  with  regard 
to  the  free  use  of  National  Forest  timber. 

Under  the  present  regulations  a  permittee  is  entitled  to  $20.00 
worth  of  timber  per  annum,  or  more  in  case  of  unusual  need. 
The  exact  amount  depends  on  the  current  local  valuation  of  timber 
and  various  materials.  The  only  restrictions  placed  upon  the  busi- 
ness to  those  entitled  to  it  is  that  all  material  shall  be  used  by  the 
permittee  and  none  of  it  shall  be  sold  or  used  as  a  commercial 
commodity.  It  is  further  required  that  all  green  saw  timber  shall 
be  logged  by  the  permittee  unless  he  is  physically  incapable  of 
doing  this  work,  and  that  all  logging  operations  shall  conform  to 
the  rules  and  regulations  governing  regular  timber  sales.  Or  in 
other  words,  the  work  shall  be,  from  a  forester's  view,  economi- 
cally and  silviculturally  well  done.  In  the  use  of  dead  timber  the 
operations  require  but  very  little  supervision,  but  it  is  obvious  that 
all  green  timber  should  be  marked  for  cutting  and  the  logging 
should  receive  careful  supervision.  When  the  magnitude  of  this 
business  is  considered,  there  being  more  than  2,000  free  use  per- 
mits issued  annually  on  some  individual  Forests,  the  difficulty  of 
supervising  the  work  with  a  limited  ranger  force  can  readily  be 
seen.  It  is  a  matter  of  general  knowledge  among  Forest  officials 
that  the  standard  of  the  free  use  timber  work  in  such  Forests  as 
have  a  large  amount  of  this  business  is  unsatisfactorv  and  below 


Free  Use  of  Timber.  239 

that  which  is  obtained  in  regular  timber  sales.  This  is  exceed- 
ingly unfortunate  since  bad  "free  use"  operations  are  often  re- 
ferred to  by  regular  timber  purchasers  as  exhibits,  and  it  is  not 
uncommon  to  see  the  bad  influence  such  "free  use"  cuttings  have 
upon  adjacent  sale  operations.  The  bad  features  of  this  free  use 
business  cannot  be  remedied  materially  under  the  present  liberal 
policy  without  greatly  increasing  the  administrative  force  on  the 
Forests,  and  the  necessity  of  economic  administration  for  a  long 
time  to  come  will  in  many  cases  prevent  the  available  ranger  force 
from  properly  handling  this  work.  It  is,  therefore,  apparent  that 
in  order  to  secure  the  desired  results  in  these  operations  some  re- 
strictive measures  on  free  use  must  be  adopted  to  enable  the  avail- 
able field  force  to  properly  handle  the  work.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  sufficient  restrictions  on  the  cutting  of  green  timber  would 
obviate  the  present  bad  silvicultural  methods  resulting  from  the 
free  use  business.  The  difficulty  would  naturally  be  in  formula- 
ting and  carrying  out  such  restrictions  in  a  manner  satisfactory 
to  those  concerned.  The  value  of  the  past  liberal  "free  use"  policy 
in  bringing  public  sentiment  to  favor  the  National  Forests  has  un- 
doubtedly been  more  than  commensurate  with  the  sacrifice  made 
silviculturally,  and  it  should  therefore  be  clearly  understood  that 
the  writer  has  no  criticism  to  make  on  whatever  poor  timber  work 
may  have  resulted.  Since,  however,  the  purpose  of  the  policy  has 
been  well  served  and  public  sentiment  has  become  generally  favor- 
able, it  might  now  be  well  to  give  less  consideration  to  sentiment 
and  to  find  out  just  how  much  our  liberal  policy  is  actually  bene- 
fiting the  people  who  exercise  their  free  use  privilege. 

In  considering  the  material  used  under  free  use  it  is  found  that 
the  amount  of  supervision  necessary  varies  almost  directly  with 
the  value  of  the  timber.  The  cutting  and  logging  of  saw  timber 
is  in  most  need  of  a  close  supervision,  while  on  the  other  hand 
operations  for  fuel  and  dead  timber  can  be  managed  at  a  very 
small  expense  to  the  Service.  It  is,  therefore,  apparent  that  the 
most  valuable  materials  are  the  ones  which  should  be  first  con- 
sidered in  a  restrictive  free  use  policy  whose  object  shall  be  pri- 
marily to  greatly  improve  the  proper  management  of  free  use 
cuttings.  This  object  alone  might  be  insufficient  as  a  basis  for 
free  use  restriction  provided  the  benefit  derived  by  Forest  users 
through  a  liberal  policy  were  sufficient  to  offset  what  we  must 
sacrifice   in   proper   Forest  management.     There   are,   however, 


240  Forestry  Quarterly. 

economic  reasons  for  discontinuing  the  permits  for  free  use  of 
green  saw  material  to  individual  permittees.  In  the  first  place  the 
cost  of  logging  his  own  timber  is  much  greater  for  the  average 
permittee  than  it  is  for  a  regular  timber  sale  operator  who  under- 
stands the  business  and  is  equipped  for  it.  This  additional  cost  is 
hard  to  determine  but  from  a  few  specific  cases  it  has  been  found 
to  exceed  $2.00  per  M  over  that  of  an  adjacent  timber  purchaser 
operating  under  the  same  conditions.  The  most  apparent  lack  of 
economy  in  the  free  use  business,  however,  is  in  the  high  cost  of 
milling  by  so-called  custom  work.  The  mill  operators  who  do 
custom  work  in  District  4  are  almost  without  exception  small 
timber  purchasers.  The  amount  purchased  depends  chiefly  on  the 
local  market,  consequently  if  this  market  is  largely  supplied  by 
free  use  permits,  as  is  often  the  case  in  newly  settled  communities 
where  no  large  towns  are  located,  there  is  very  little  revenue  from 
timber  sales.  The  free  use  permittees  always  get  their  saw  timber 
as  close  as  possible  to  mill  sites  and  since  most  of  them  are  not 
equipped  for  logging  they  are  continually  annoying  the  mill  oper- 
ators by  borrowing  tools,  etc.  The  operators  naturally  do  not 
overlook  this  point  when  charging  for  the  mill  work,  and,  since 
the  expense  of  milling  out  each  special  order  and  piling  it  sepa- 
rately for  the  permittee  is  expensive,  this  too  is  an  item  not  over 
looked.  The  result  of  this  additional  milling  expense  and  bother 
to  the  operator  adds  not  less  than  $2.00  and  in  many  cases  as  high 
as  $6.00  per  M  in  excess  of  regular  milling  costs.  These  figures 
are  based  on  the  practice  in  the  Forests  in  District  4  where  mill 
operators  charge  from  $5.00  to  $9.00  per  M  for  custom  work  with 
an  average  of  $7.00  per  M,  while  the  actual  cost  of  milling  in 
regular  timber  sales  by  portable  circular  sawmills  seldom  exceeds 
$3.00  per  M.  It  can,  therefore,  be  readily  seen  that  the  free  use 
permittees  pay  an  average  excessive  cost  of  about  $6.00  per  M 
in  logging  and  milling  fees  while  the  only  economic  consideration 
granted  by  the  Government  is  in  free  stumpage,  which  in  District 
4  would  average  about  $2.00  per  M,  still  leaving  a  loss  of  $4.00 
per  M  to  the  permittee.  It  has  been  argued  that  many  of  the  per- 
mittees can  do  their  logging  in  the  winter  when  there  is  no  other 
occupation  for  them  and  their  teams,  and  that  the  difference  be- 
tween the  milling  fee  and  the  actual  cost  of  the  operator's  lumber 
at  the  mill  represents  the  economy  of  the  free  use  timber.  If  risks 
and  breakage  were  eliminated  and  other  employment  impossible 


Free  Use  of  Timber.  241 

this  would  be  true.  In  actual  practice,  however,  there  are  very- 
few  localities  in  which  a  permittee  cannot  work  at  some  other  busi- 
ness more  profitably  than  at  doing  his  own  logging.  Even  most 
mill  operators  would  rather  hire  men  who  are  unable  to  buy  lum- 
ber and  take  their  pay  for  lumber  in  exchange  for  labor,  rather 
than  be  bothered  with  custom  mill  work.  In  this  District,  over 
eighty  per  cent,  of  the  mill  operators  approached  on  the  subject 
were  decidedly  in  favor  of  eliminating  free  use  custom  work. 
This  is  especially  interesting  in  view  of  the  excessive  rates  they 
receive  for  custom  work.  It  goes  to  show,  however,  that  these 
rates  are  not  considered  commensurate  with  the  annoyance,  extra 
costs  and  disorganization  to  which  operators  are  put.  This  latter 
factor  is  perhaps  the  greatest  inconvenience  to  mill  operators, 
since  it  leaves  them  a  very  uncertain  market  for  the  timber  they 
have  purchased  and  is  very  discouraging  to  business-like  logging 
and  marketing. 

It  has  sometimes  been  suggested  that  if  free  use  of  saw  material 
is  discontinued  it  will  give  mill  operators  a  chance  to  charge  ex- 
orbitant rates.  Perhaps  this  will  be  done  in  a  few  cases  until  com- 
petition adjusts  it.  The  operators  now  have  the  same  opportunity 
to  charge  exorbitant  rates  on  custom  "free  use"  work,  and  the  op- 
portunity is  even  better,  for  the  possibility  of  an  advance  on 
stumpage  rates  by  the  Forest  Service  at  each  increase  in  lumber 
rates  would  easily  convince  operators  that  high  priced  lumber 
would  add  nothing  to  their  profits.  On  the  other  hand,  high 
priced  lumber  at  the  local  mills  would  in  many  cases  interfere 
greatly  with  sales  by  bringing  it,  along  railroad  points,  into  closer 
competition  with  the  general  market,  and  also  by  encouraging  the 
people  to  use  "house"  logs  and  other  building  material  which  is 
granted  under  free  use. 

The  final  result  of  discontinuing  the  free  use  of  green  saw  ma- 
terial to  individual  permittees  would  be  to  consolidate  timber  oper- 
ations and  have  lumber  supplied  to  communities  through  regular 
mill  operators  and  timber  purchasers.  This  would  enable  the  ad- 
ministrative force  of  each  Forest  to  have  close  supervision  over 
the  work  which  is  the  essential  item  to  proper  forest  management ; 
and  lastly,  in  most  cases  lumber  supplied  by  regular  timber  pur- 
chasers would  be  an  economy  to  the  permittees  as  well  as  a  source 
of  revenue  to  the  Government.  In  District  4  over  $25,000.00 
worth  of  saw  material  is  given  away  each  year. 


242  Forestry  Quarterly. 

This  restrictive  policy  has  already  been  successfully  adopted  on 
several  of  the  Forests  in  the  district  where  the  supply  of  such 
material  is  very  limited.  Considering  the  abuses  and  benefits  of  a 
liberal  policy  there  appears  to  be  no  reason  for  not  eliminating 
green  saw  material  from  the  free  list  on  every  Forest. 

In  connection  with  this  point  it  is  worth  noting  that  this  policy 
has  been  adopted  on  the  Weiser  Forest,  where  the  supply  of  tim- 
ber is  quite  large  and  the  free  use  business  was  formerly  very  ex- 
tensive and  impossible  to  handle  properly.  The  result  has  been 
first  class  supervision  of  the  timber  work  without  the  expected 
dissatisfaction  of  the  forest  users.  The  present  difficulty  in  adopt- 
ing this  policy  on  many  other  Forests  in  District  4  is  due  to 
adjacent  Forests  persisting  in  a  liberal  policy.  There  is  no  doubt 
in  the  writer's  mind  that  a  uniform  restrictive  policy  along  this 
line  would  work  admirably  in  this  district  and  to  a  certain  extent 
in  other  administrative  districts. 

Since  free  stumpage  conveys  the  idea  to  most  individuals  of  an 
apparent  economy,  the  important  point  is  to  educate  forest  users 
to  the  lack  of  financial  benefit  they  are  receiving  under  a  liberal 
policy.  This  can  be  successfully  done  if  the  policy  receives  the 
proper  support  from  the  Forest  officers  on  the  ground  who  deal 
with  the  people. 


THE  COCONINO  RANGER  SCHOOL. 
By  Theodore  S.  Woolsey,  Jr. 

The  interesting  article  on  "Ranger  Courses,"  in  this  volume  of 
Forestry  Quarterly,  on  page  147,  by  Mr.  Rothery,  emphasizes 
the  need  of  training  rangers,  in  order  to  secure  successful  field 
work  in  the  Forest  Service.  This  has  been  keenly  felt  and  it  is  now 
recognized  that  upon  an  efficient  ranger  force  rests,  to  a  great  de- 
gree, the  success  or  failure  of  the  Service.  This  is  particularly 
true  in  timber  sales  where  much  of  the  routine  for  some  time  to 
come  must  be  left  to  the  ranger  force,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of 
technically  trained  men.  As  the  writer  has  observed  in  British 
India,  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for  the  successful  forest  adminis- 
tration there  has  been  a  force  of  technically  trained  rangers. 
These  officers  trained  at  Dehra  Dun  are  given  a  training  that  com- 
pares favorably  with  most  of  the  Forest  Schools  in  the  United 
States,  and  is  much  superior  to  many  of  them. 

One  solution  of  this  educational  problem  has  been  educational 
co-operation  with  local  and  State  universities.  Instructors  have 
been  temporarily  detailed  on  furlough  and  rangers  have  been 
given  every  opportunity  to  attend.  Another  solution,  which  was 
approved  by  the  Forester  on  June  14,  will  be  the  establishment  of 
a  Ranger  School  on  the  Coconino  National  Forest,  Arizona,  in 
District  3. 

The  advisability  of  having  a  Government  training  school  for 
rangers,  to  correspond  with  the  schools  of  instruction  maintained 
by  the  Army  and  Navy,  has  been  often  recommended  during  the 
past  few  years,  but  the  definite  project  of  a  school  on  the  Coconino 
Forest  during  the  coming  summer,  originated  and  was  planned,  I 
think,  chiefly  by  District  Forester  Ringland. 

The  object  of  the  school  is  to  give  technical  and  practical  train- 
ing to  rangers  and  possibly  practical  training  to  new  Forest  As- 
sistants fresh  from  Forest  Schools,  who  are  not  familiar  with 
western  conditions.  This  will  replace  former  ranger  meetings, 
where  it  was  customary  to  discuss  the  "Use  book"  regulations,  as 
well  as  office  and  field  procedure  and  methods. 

The  school  will  be  held  during  September  and  October  on  the 


244  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Coconino  Forest;  instruction  will  be  given  chiefly  by  officers  de- 
tailed from  the  district  and  will  be  in  charge  of  the  Chief  of  Opera- 
tion. The  Forest  Service  will  provide  for  the  transportation  of 
all  officers  detailed,  but  the  cost  of  subsistence  while  attending  the 
school  will  be  borne  by  the  rangers.  They  will  be  detailed,  how- 
ever, on  full  pay.  The  following  outline  of  courses  is  particularly 
interesting : 

Silviculture:  Mensuration,  stem  and  stump  analysis;  recon- 
naissance, estimating ;  timber  sales :  marking,  scaling,  grading, 
woodswork,  reports ;  botany :  identification  and  life  history  of 
plants;  management:  systems  of  management — planting,  silvics, 
working  plans  (simple). 

Operation:  Engineering,  land  surveying;  use  of  instruments, 
mapping ;   permanent  improvements ;   location  of  roads  and  trails. 

Lazv:    Principles,  appropriations  ;   land  law,  mining  claims. 

Grazing:  Control,  development;  carrying  capacity  of  range; 
classes  of  range  and  stock. 

Camp  Practice:  Pitching  tents,  cooking;  care  of  horses,  rid- 
ing; packing,  shooting. 

Field  Work:  Silviculture,  botany;  management,  engineering; 
examination  of  mining  claims ;  use  of  range  and  carrying  capac- 
ity;   wood  utilization ;  first  aid  to  the  injured. 

Office  Procedure:  Grazing;  operation;  silviculture;  timber 
sales ;   planting ;   silvics. 

The  officers  in  District  3  feel  very  strongly  that  a  ranger  school 
with  the  opportunity  for  practical  field  work,  suited  to  local  condi- 
tions, is  the  proper  solution  of  the  problem.  The  results  of  this 
school  will  be  closely  watched  and  its  success  will  mean  a  great 
deal  for  the  future  of  the  Forest  Service.  It  is  in  many  ways  one 
of  the  most  important  steps  in  the  development  of  the  Forest 
Service,  and  its  significance  will  no  doubt  be  recognized  in 
American  forest  history. 


MEASUREMENTS    OF    THE    EFFECTS    OF    FOREST 

COVER  UPON  THE  CONSERVATION  OF 

SNOW  WATERS. 

By  W.  R.  Mattoon. 

The  large  treeless  openings  or  "parks"  in  the  western  yellow 
pine  forests  of  the  southwest,  which  form  a  well  known  char- 
acteristic, afford  an  excellent  opportunity  for  a  comparative  study 
of  the  effect  of  a  forest  canopy  upon  local  snow  conditions.  Dur- 
ing the  late  winter  and  spring  of  1909,  the  writer  had  an  excep- 
tionally favorable  opportunity  for  observing  the  progress  of  snow- 
fall and  subsequent  melting  in  a  virgin  stand  of  western  yellow 
pine  near  the  base  of  the  San  Francisco  peaks  on  the  Coconino 
National  Forest  in  northern  Arizona. 

The  observations  include  the  measurement  of  each  successive 
snowfall,  and  the  total  depth  of  snow  at  intervals  of  seven  days 
under  two  entirely  different  forest  conditions,  namely,  in  a  virgin 
stand  of  mature  timber  and  on  an  adjacent  treeless  park,  covering 
an  area  of  several  square  miles.  The  observations  were  taken 
during  the  period  from  February  26  to  April  25,  at  an  altitude 
of  approximately  7,500  feet. 

On  March  11,  the  average  depth  of  the  snowfall  from  a  two 
days'  storm  was  4.0  inches  in  the  park,  as  compared  with  5.0 
inches  in  the  forest,  a  difference  of  25  per  cent,  in  favor  of  the 
forest.  A  snowfall  on  March  23  measured  10.8  per  cent,  deeper  in 
the  forest.  These  may  be  taken  as  fair  examples  of  the  difference 
under  the  two  conditions.  As  an  explanation,  it  seems  probable 
that  the  sweep  of  wind  across  the  park  carries  along  a  certain  ex- 
cess amount  or  load  of  snow  from  the  snow  gauge,  which  under 
the  quieter  atmospheric  conditions  prevailing  in  the  forest  is  ordi- 
narily deposited — a  phenomenon  corresponding  in  many  respects 
to  the  well  known  laws  governing  the  deposition  of  silt  by  water 
currents.  Over  a  forested  area  broken  by  parks  the  maximum 
deposition  occurs  at  the  margin  of  the  parks,  the  normal  deposi- 
tion in  the  forest  body,  and  the  minimum  over  the  parks  and 
larger  openings. 

Contrary  to  the  usually  accepted  fact,  during  the  early  spring, 


246  Forestry  Quarterly. 

melting  commences  earlier  and  progresses  more  rapidly  in  the 
forest  than  in  the  open  treeless  areas.  This  is  due  to  difference  in 
radiation.  Records  taken  in  both  situations  show  a  much  higher 
average  temperature  in  the  forest,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  night 
temperatures  are  from  5  to  15  degrees  warmer  than  in  the  adjacent 
parks.  Early  in  March  it  was  noted  that  the  soil  beneath  the  snow 
in  the  forest  generally  contained  no  frost  and  consisted  of  soft 
mud.  The  origin  of  the  soil  is  from  decomposing  "malpais,"  a 
basaltic  lava  bed.  At  this  time,  however,  a  thick  ice  layer  had 
formed  beneath  the  snow  in  the  open  park  and  was  constantly 
thickening,  due  to  the  low  daily  minimum  temperatures.  By  April 
1,  the  ice  layer  had  reached  a  thickness  of  3  to  6  inches,  and  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  during  the  month  of  March  a  relatively  small 
amount  of  water  from  the  surface  melting  reached  the  soil 
throughout  the  park. 

On  March  17,  the  average  depth  of  snow  in  the  forest  was  11.5 
inches,  and  of  snow  and  ice  in  the  park  19.5  inches,  with  water 
equivalents  of  5.2  and  9.4  inches,  respectively.  The  figures  are 
significant,  when  it  is  recalled  that  the  measurements  show  con- 
siderably less  snowfall  in  the  park  than  in  the  forest.  The  dis- 
proportion of  the  ratio  caused  by  the  high  water  content  in  the 
park  will  be  noted. 

The  distribution  of  snow  was  uniform  in  the  smooth,  open  park, 
while  in  the  forest  the  ground  surface  was  exposed  in  many  places 
and  snow  banks  from  2  to  4  feet  deep  occurred  in  the  natural 
openings  and  lanes  between  tree  groups.  The  depth  for  the 
forest  was  obtained  by  averaging  measurements  taken  at  ten  snow 
stations  spaced  about  50  feet  apart  on  a  due  north  and  south  line. 
A  similar  line  of  stations  was  established  and  used  in  obtaining  the 
park  measurements. 

The  surface  run-off  in  the  two  situations  is  interesting  from  the 
standpoint  of  water  conservation.  By  April  1,  bodies  of  water 
overlying  the  ice  sheet  had  collected  in  the  depressions  in  the 
park,  and  a  good-sized  stream  was  flowing  at  the  outlet.  No  per- 
ceptible surface  run-off  from  the  forest  (over  the  locality  under 
consideration)  occurred  during  March.  The  days  of  April  1,  2 
and  3  were  unusually  warm  and  quiet,  and  resulted  in  the  only 
run-off  from  the  forest  during  the  entire  spring.  The  amount 
was  insignificant  compared  to  the  total  water  content  of  the  snow 
mass.     It  is  well  to  state,  incidentally,  that  the  writer  made  dailv 


Effects  of  Forest  Upon  Snow  Waters.  247 

trips  between  the  two  measuring  stations,  which  afforded  an 
opportunity  for  noting  the  conditions. 

A  spell  of  warm  weather  occurred  during  the  first  half  of 
April.  By  April  8,  the  depth  had  decreased  to  an  average  of  8.5 
inches  in  the  park  (6.5  inches  of  snow  and  2.0  inches  of  ice),  and 
3.8  inches  in  the  forest.  In  the  following  five  days,  of  high  tem- 
perature and  strong  southwest  winds,  practically  all  of  this  snow 
and  ice  disappeared  from  the  park,  accompanied,  it  is  needless  to 
state,  by  an  excessive  run-off  which  continued  for  a  few  days 
after  the  period.  On  April  15,  no  snow  existed  in  the  park,  while 
throughout  the  forest  there  remained  considerable  snow  dis- 
tributed in  banks  and  ridges  over  the  north  slopes  and  level  sur- 
faces as  well.  Photographs  shown  on  the  frontispiece  give  a  good 
idea  of  the  appearance  on  this  date  of  the  measuring  stations  in 
the  park  and  forest,  and  the  remaining  snow,  banks  of  snow,  on 
northerly  slopes  in  the  mature  timber.  In  the  timber  throughout 
this  region  there  remained  on  April  25  a  considerable  quantity  of 
snow  in  sheltered  situations  favorable  for  late  melting,  while  the 
last  trace  of  snow  had  disappeared  from  the  park  by  April  12. 

The  progress  of  accumulation  and  later  melting  of  snow  in  the 
two  comparative  situations  may  be  summarised  as  follows : 

(1.)  The  total  snowfall  in  the  forest  is  somewhat  more  than 
over  the  open  parks,  due  chiefly  to  accelerated  wind  velocity  over 
the  parks,  resulting  in  a  lighter  deposition  of  snow,  a  case  similar 
to  the  deposition  of  silt  in  stream  courses. 

(2.)  Due  to  protection  afforded  by  the  forest  cover  against  ex- 
tremes of  cold  resulting  in  a  higher  average  temperature,  the  pro- 
cess of  melting  during  the  spring  commences  considerably  earlier 
in  the  forest  than  in  the  adjacent  open  park. 

(3.)  The  low  minimum  daily  temperatures  in  the  park  account 
for  the  formation  of  a  thick  layer  of  ice  at  the  base  of  the  snow 
during  the  early  spring.  This  in  turn  serves  to  retain  the  moisture 
above  the  soil. 

(4.)  During  the  month  of  March,  the  park  remained  almost 
entirely  covered  with  a  deep  and  quite  uniform  layer  of  snow  and 
ice,  while  in  the  forest  the  snow  cover  was  much  broken  along 
rock  ledges  and  banked  high  in  the  natural  tree  avenues,  and  the 
total  amount  of  snow  and  water  content  above  the  soil  surface 
was  decidedly  less  per  unit  of  area  in  the  forest  than  in  the  park. 
16 


248  Forestry  Quarterly. 

The  condition  strongly  suggested  an  apparent  advantage  of  a 
treeless  over  a  forested  area  in  conserving  the  winter  snowfall 
and  storing  a  supply  of  moisture  for  distribution  in  the  late  spring 
when  most  needed. 

(5.)  With  rising  spring  temperatures  and  absence  in  the  park 
of  protection  against  extremes  of  heat,  a  point  is  reached — the 
usual  "warm  spell" — when  the  layer  of  snow  and  ice  in  the  park 
"breaks  up"  very  rapidly  and  the  water  goes  off  with  a  rush, 
resulting  in  a  very  small  underground  storage,  and  the  further 
consequence  of  a  rapid  drying  or  baking  of  the  soil. 

(6.)  In  the  forest,  due  to  the  high  efficiency  of  the  tree  canopy 
in  modifying  surface  temperatures,  and  of  the  forest  cover  in 
checking  the  velocity  of  the  winds  which  at  this  season  of  the 
year  are  strong  and  from  the  southwest,  and  blow  with  the  regu- 
larity of  the  "trades,"  the  progress  of  melting  proceeds  more  uni- 
formly and  is  prolonged  into  late  spring  or  early  summer  with  a 
minimum  loss  of  water  by  surface  run-off  and  evaporation  and  a 
relatively  high  storage  in  the  forest  soil. 


COST  OF  EVERGREEN  SEEDLINGS. 
By  D.  Hill. 

Dundee  Nurseries,  III. 

Referring  to  the  article  in  the  current  volume  of  the  Quarterly 
(pp.151-154),  entitled  "A  Plea  for  Abolishing  the  Duty  on  Ever- 
green Seedlings  for  Forest  Planting,"  by  Mr.  Ellicott  D.  Curtis,  I 
feel  called  upon,  in  justice  to  myself  and  to  your  readers,  to  cor- 
rect some  very  grave  errors  in  the  statements  which  the  gentleman 
makes. 

In  his  table  of  comparison  showing  the  difference  in  price  be- 
tween American  and  foreign  stock,  he  is  misinformed  regarding 
the  prices  which  are  charged  for  evergreen  seedlings  by  American 
growers.  I  have  before  me  our  regular  price  lists  for  the  years 
1907,  1908  and  1909,  and  the  prices  quoted  for  White  Pine  seed- 
lings for  the  three  years  in  question  are  as  follows : 


1907 —                                                     100 
White  Pine  seedlings  4-6  inch  $1.00 
3-4    "        1 -oo 

1000 

$6.00 

4.00 

1 0000 

$55-00 

40.00 

1 00000 

$500 . 00 

375-00 

1908 — 
White  Pine  seedlings  6-8  inch 
4-6    " 
3.4    « 

1. 00 
1. 00 

•  75 

7.00 
5.00 
4.00 

45-00 
35-00 

400.00 
300.00 

1009— 
White  Pine  seedlings  4-6  inch 

3-5     " 
a          a            a          „  .     it 
*~4 

1. 00 
1. 00 

•75 

6.00 
5-00 
4.00 

55-00 
47-50 
40.00 

500.00 
425.00 
350.00 

By  carefully  noting  the  above  you  find  that  in  not  one  single 
instance  have  I  quoted  White  Pine  seedlings  for  forestry  planting 
as  high  as  $8.00  per  1,000.  In  the  fall  of  1907,  it  is  true,  we  issued 
a  list  which  listed  White  Pine  at  $8.00  per  1,000,  but  that  was  a 
list  got  out  principally  to  send  to  small  jobbers  who  occasionally 

The  Quarterly  desires  to  open  its  columns  to  a  free  discussion  of  any 
and  all  strictly  technical  and  professional,  not  personal,  matters,  without, 
however,  assuming  any  responsibility  as  to  statements  of  fact  or  opinion 
by  its  contributors.  It  takes  pleasure,  therefore,  in  printing  the  rejoinder 
of  Mr.  Hill  to  the  statements  of  Mr.  Curtis,  who  has  also  been  given  an 
opportunity  to  reply  in  rebuttal,  this  ending  the  controversial  character 


250  Forestry  Quarterly. 

line  out  a  few  hundred  of  the  different  varieties  of  seedlings  each 
fall.  We  prefer  not  to  cater  to  this  trade,  because  in  removing 
small  quantities  of  seedlings  from  the  seed  beds  in  the  fall  of  the 
year  those  trees  adjacent  to  the  ones  removed  are  often  spoiled  or 
injured  and  consequently  in  filling  an  order  at  that  time  of  the 
year  for  a  thousand  White  Pine  seedlings  we  would  perhaps  spoil 
three  or  four  hundred  other  trees  to  get  them.  This  is  the  reason 
for  charging  an  advanced  price  in  the  fall. 

It  would  then  appear  that  in  putting  us  on  record  as  charging 
$8.00  per  1,000  for  White  Pine  seedlings  for  forest  planting,  when 
in  reality  our  prices  average  less  than  50  per  cent,  of  that  figure, 
Mr.  Curtis  is  doing  us  a  gross  injustice  and  is  misleading  the 
public  and  legislators. 

I  also  wish  to  take  exception  to  the  statement  he  makes  re- 
garding the  expense  of  raising  two-year  White  Pine  seedlings  in 
the  United  States.  On  a  basis  of  actual  cost  per  1,000  plants,  from 
data  gathered  during  an  experience  extending  somewhat  over  half 
a  century  on  our  grounds  here,  I  know  it  to  be  an  actual  fact  and 
am  also  advised  to  that  effect  by  other  growers,  that  90  cents 
falls  a  long  way  short  of  covering  the  expense  of  raising  White 
Pine  at  the  age  of  two  years.  It  costs  between  32  and  28  cents 
alone  to  shade  1 ,000  plants  and  then  you  have  to  pay  for  seed  ;  for 
preparing  the  beds  and  planting  the  seed ;  for  keeping  them  free 
from  weeds  for  two  years ;  for  waging  the  continual  warfare 
against  the  birds  and  other  animals,  such  as  gophers  and  moles, 
rabbits,  etc.,  which  at  all  times  seek  to  destroy  the  tender  young 
seedlings.  Added  to  that  you  must  figure  in  the  interest  on  your 
investment  and  taxes  on  your  land  and  many  other  items. 
Although  the  gentleman  may  be  very  conscientious  in  making 
the  statement  referred  to  above,  still  I  think  he  is  misinformed,  or 
inexperiencel,  or,  on  the  other  hand  he  must  be  a  propagator  of 
extraordinary  ability.  Many  of  the  leading  foresters  in  the 
country,  who  have  had  experience  in  growing  these  seedlings,  in 
the  east  as  well  as  the  west,  have  told  me  their  experience  in 
growing  this  material,  and  the  figure  most  of  them  estimate  as 
their  cost  prices  is  in  most  cases  from  150  to  200  per  cent,  above 
what  Mr.  Curtis  states. 

Regarding  the  planting  which  is  being  carried  on  in  this  country 
at  the  present  time,  no  doubt  Mr.  Curtis  is  aware  of  what  is  being 
done  in  that  line  in  New  York  and  Connecticut,  but  I  do  not  think 


Cost  of  Evergreen  Seedlings.  251 

he  is  aware  of  the  enormous  quantities  of  plant  material  which  are 
being  used  by  the  farmers  in  the  large  States  west  of  New  York, 
such  as  Ohio,  Michigan,  Indiana,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Nebraska, 
Iowa,  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Oklahoma,  Texas  and  New  Mexico. 

For  every  large  concern  making  extensive  plantings  in  the 
States  he  mentions,  there  are  hundreds  of  farmers  in  each  one  of 
these  other  States  who  are  planting  each  year  several  thousand 
trees  on  their  farms,  around  their  fields  and  pastures,  houses  and 
sheds  and  transforming  waste  land  into  wood  lots.  These  farmers 
are  carrying  out  the  idea  and  teachings  of  true  forestry  just  as 
much  as  the  large  lumber  concerns  who  replant  the  areas  from 
which  they  have  cut  off  the  timber. 

Mr.  Curtis  states  that  the  raising  of  trees  for  forest  planting  is 
a  comparatively  new  industry.  There  are  firms  to-day  growing 
this  material  who  were  engaged  in  the  same  business  many  years 
before  our  Government  ever  thought  of  advocating  conservation 
or  reforestation.  He  states  that  the  removal  of  duty  from  this 
class  of  stock  and  the  assured  destroyal  of  this  industry  would  be 
attended  with  no  great  loss  to  anyone.  I  beg  to  differ  with  him  in 
that  respect.  There  are  many  firms  who  are  more  or  less  engaged 
in  this  business  and  the  capital  invested  would  run  up  into  the 
millions.  To  destroy  this  industry  would  bring  untold  hardship  to 
thousands  of  families  whose  breadearner  has  spent  his  life  in  this 
work  and  knows  no  other. 

.  Regarding  the  cost  of  reforestation  material  in  general,  it  is 
true  of  ourselves  and  I  am  sure  also  of  other  growers,  that  for 
many  years  we  maintained  experimental  grounds  and  have  de- 
voted much  time,  energy  and  money  to  the  end  of  being  able  to 
lower,  if  possible,  the  cost  of  production  of  this  material,  by  study- 
ing the  method  of  treating  seed  to  get  higher  per  cent,  of  the 
germination,  the  combating  of  disease,  etc.  The  most  critical 
period  of  a  seedling  is  during  the  first  four  weeks  after  it  has 
pushed  through  the  ground.  Numerous  diseases  are  liable  to 
attack  them,  the  most  serious  being  called  "damping  off."  It  is 
only  recently  that  we  have  been  able  to  combat  this  disease  at  all. 
In  all  cases  where  we  have  been  able  to  lower  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion, by  attaining  success  in  getting  better  germination  percent- 
age, we  have  been  quick  to  lower  the  price  on  our  stock.  To  cite  a 
specific  case,  by  referring  to  our  annual  price  lists  for  three  years 


252  Forestry  Quarterly. 

back,  the  quotations  on  Jack  Pine  seedlings,  a  species  which  is 
used  largely  in  western  States,  will  be  found  as  follows : 

1907  Jack  Pine  2  year  seedlings  4-6  inch  $4.00  per  1000. 

1908  "        "      "     "  "  4-6      "       3.00    "        " 

1909  "        "     "      "  "  4-6     "       2.50    "        " 

It  has  been  our  policy  in  the  past  and  will  be  in  the  future  to 
furnish  such  material  at  the  lowest  possible  price  and  we  expect 
to  be  able,  as  a  result  of  our  recent  experiments,  to  materially 
lower  the  cost  of  several  other  varieties  which  are  used  largely  for 
reforestation  purposes. 

To  seek  legislation  which  would  certainly  destroy  this  indus- 
try— an  industry  which  you  have  built  up — does  not  appear  to  us 
to  be  in  exact  harmony  with  the  broad  policy  with  which  you 
started  out,  and  is  an  action  which  we  firmly  believe,  is  not  in 
accord  with  the  wishes  of  your  leaders. 

In  conclusion,  I  wish  to  state,  that  our  grounds  will  be  wide 
open,  as  in  the  past,  to  any  National,  State  and  private  estate 
foresters,  who  may  wish  to  carry  on  any  investigation  or  experi- 
ments that  he  may  choose,  to  the  furthering  of  forestry  interests, 
and  it  is  our  hope  that,  in  co-operation  with  them  in  this  manner, 
we  will  be  doing  our  part  and  shouldering  our  share  of  the  burden 
which  former  generations  by  their  reckless  waste  have  put 
upon  us. 


The  above  strictures  having  been  submitted  to  Mr.  Curtis,  he 
has  made  the  following  rejoinder : 

The  "very  grave  errors"  which  Mr.  Hill  finds  in  my  article  are 
apparently  three:  1.  I  have  misrepresented  his  prices  for  seed- 
lings. 2.  I  have  understated  the  cost  of  growing  such  seedlings. 
3.  I  have  minimized  the  amount  of  forest  planting  now  being 
done,  and  the  amount  of  capital  invested  in  the  business  of  sup- 
plying that  demand.    Let  us  discuss  these  points  in  turn. 

1.  That  I  have  misrepresented  Mr.  Hill's  prices.  Unfortunately 
for  him,  Mr.  Hill  is  forced  to  admit  that  this  charge  is  not  entirely 
untrue.  I  should  not  have  ventured  to  mention  names  in  my 
article  if  I  had  not  been  sure  of  my  facts,  and  I  therefore  stated 
that  I  was  quoting  from  Mr.  Hill's  fall  catalogue  of  1907.    I  have 


Cost  of  Evergreen  Seedlings.  253 

personally  used  in  each  of  the  last  three  years,  between  forty  and 
fifty  thousand  seedlings,  chiefly  White  Pine.  I  must  make  ar- 
rangements early  for  obtaining  my  planting  stock,  and  Mr.  Hill's 
catalogue  was  sent  me  when  I  was  looking  up  quotations  for  my 
1908  supply.  The  first  page  of  that  catalogue  states:  "The  fall 
gives  us  plenty  of  time  in  which  to  handle  your  business.  There- 
fore we  can  afford  to  sell  your  stock  at  a  better  figure  than  in  the 
spring  of  the  year,  when  the  season  is  short  and  we  are  forced  to 
go  at  a  terrific  pace  to  keep  up  with  the  work.  When  fall  planting 
is  employed  all  is  changed.  We  can  go  ahead  and  take  care  of 
your  orders  as  they  come,  and  give  them  our  best  and  most  careful 
attention."  Under  these  circumstances,  it  seemed  hardly  worth 
while  to  write  for  lower  quotations  than  $8.00  per  thousand  for 
White  Pine.  I  do  not  think  that  I  ever  had  another  price  list 
from  Mr.  Hill.  If  his  general  scale  of  prices  has  been  incorrectly 
given,  the  fault  would  seem  to  be  his  own  in  sending  out  lists  with 
different  scales. 

2.  That  I  have  understated  the  cost  of  growing  seedlings.  Here 
I  have  also  given  my  authority,  viz:  a  forthcoming  bulletin  of 
the  Division  of  Forestry.  If  Mr.  Hill  disagrees  with  the  Division, 
his  quarrel  must  be  with  it  and  not  with  me.  I  have  no  doubt  that 
your  paper  will  be  glad  to  have  from  Mr.  Hill  a  careful  and  de- 
tailed statement  of  the  items  making  up  such  cost.  I  may  say, 
however,  that  I  have  recently  received  a  letter  from  Mr.  C.  R. 
Pettis,  State  Forester  of  New  York,  in  which  he  says  that  the 
figures  I  quoted  "are  those  I  prepared  for  the  Bulletin  which  I 
have  written"  for  the  Division.  Mr.  Pettis  may  not  have  been 
growing  seedlings  as  long  as  Mr.  Hill,  but  his  figures  will 
probably  be  accepted  as  authoritative  by  most  of  your  readers. 

3.  That  I  have  minimized  the  amount  of  forest  planting  now 
being  done,  and  the  amount  of  capital  invested  in  the  business  of 
supplying  that  demand.  Upon  this  subject  Mr.  Hill  is  undoubt- 
edly a  much  better  authority  than  I,  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that 
he  did  not  see  fit  to  give  more  definite  figures  in  his  reply  to  my 
article.  Did  he,  or  did  he  not,  for  instance,  as  stated  in  his  letter 
submitted  to  the  Ways  and  Means  Committee  of  the  House  of 
Representatives,  have  on  hand  200,000,000  evergreen  seedlings  for 
forest  planting?  Shortly  after  the  date  of  that  letter,  I  find  his 
advertisement  in  the  Rural  New  Yorker  (January  30,  1909),  stat- 
ing:   "We  have  50,000,000" — evergreens.    In  the  absence,  there- 


254  Forestry  Quarterly. 

fore,  of  more  definite,  as  well  as  more  consistent,  figures  from  Mr. 
Hill,  I  think  that  there  is  no  room  for  doubt  that  forest  planting 
and  the  demand  for  seedlings  for  that  purpose  is  comparatively 
new,  and  as  yet  comparatively  undeveloped.  Mr.  Hill  will  hardly 
deny  that  much  the  most  important  part  of  his  business  is  in  orna- 
mental stock ;  he  will  certainly  not  deny  that  his  hundreds  of 
farmers,  each  of  whom  is  planting  several  thousand  trees  in  the 
middle  west,  will  be  most  unlikely  to  import  their  trees  from 
abroad.  The  effect  of  such  importations  on  Mr.  Hill's  business 
would  seem,  therefore,  to  be  almost  negligible. 

May  I  further  say  that  my  article,  which  was  written  for  sub- 
mission to  the  Ways  and  Means  Committee,  was  called  forth  by 
the  effort  of  Mr.  Hill  and  some  other  nurserymen  to  increase  the 
duty  on  evergreen  seedlings  from  one  to  two  dollars  per  thousand. 
Their  effort  seemed  to  me  but  one  more  indication  of  the  utter 
demoralization  fostered  in  the  business  world  by  a  tariff  system 
which  is  enacted  largely  by  the  protected  interests  for  their  sole 
benefit.  Fortunately,  more  powerful  interests  than  mine  were  at 
work  in  this  particular  matter,  and  evergreen  seedlings  are  now 
on  the  free  list.  What  effect  the  discovery  of  blister  rust  on  this 
year's  stock  will  have  on  future  importations  cannot  now  be  fore- 
told, but  it  is  fairly  certain  to  cut  down  the  area  of  new  planta- 
tions for  a  few  years. 


COST  OF  MOUNTAIN  LOGGING  IN  WEST  VIRGINIA. 
By  Henry  H.  Farquhar. 

The  following  data,  designed  to  give  the  costs  of  setting  up  and 
running  a  team  camp,  with  brief  descriptions  of  the  methods  of 
logging  employed,  in  the  Allegheny  Mountain  region,  were  gath- 
ered in  the  fall  of  1907  while  working  in  a  camp  of  the  Otter 
Creek  Boom  and  Lumber  Company,  of  Hambleton,  West  Virginia. 

This  is  one  of  the  largest  lumber  companies  in  the  State,  using 
one  band  and  one  circular  saw  and  sawing  about  ninety  thousand 
feet  per  day.  A  planing  and  a  lath  mill  are  under  the  same  roof. 
The  logs  are  furnished  by  six  contractors. 

Before  selecting  the  particular  camp  for  the  study,  inquiry  was 
made  as  to  the  largest  and  most  up-to-date,  and  the  following  de- 
scriptions and  figures  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  team  logging 
in  this  (the  Spruce-Hemlock)  type,  throughout  the  region. 

The  logging  for  the  Otter  Creek  Boom  and  Lumber  Company 
is  all  done  by  contract.  The  camp  from  which  these  figures  were 
taken  is  situated  about  twenty  miles  southwest  of  Hambleton,  the 
contractor  being  Grant  Dickson.  Of  the  daily  output  of  the  com- 
pany's mill  of  ninety-thousand  feet,  over  forty  thousand  feet  are 
furnished  by  this  camp,  the  remainder  being  supplied  by  five  other 
contractors. 

The  region  and  woods  will  first  be  described,  the  contract,  the 
cost  of  setting  up  camp,  then  the  methods  of  logging,  wages  and 
board,  and  finally  the  summary  of  the  whole. 

The;  Woods. 

Lying  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Southern  Appalachians,  the 
region  has  the  usual  rugged  mountain  topography.  A  narrow- 
gauged  railroad  winds  in  and  out  along  the  bed  of  a  small  stream, 
between  the  high  mountains  on  both  sides,  rising  from  Hambleton, 
at  an  elevation  above  sea  level  of  1,700  feet,  up  to  Dickson's  camp, 
which  is  about  3,300  feet,  or  a  rise  of  1,600  feet  in  twenty  miles. 
At  frequent  intervals  along  this  road  are  seen  great  bald  moun- 
tains, entirely  destitute  of  trees,  with  only  burnt  and  blackened 


256  Forestry  Quarterly. 

trunks  keeping  guard  over  the  huge  boulders,  left  white  and 
shining  after  man  has  uncovered,  after  fire  has  burned,  and  rain 
washed  them.  What  little  growth  can  find  a  foothold  here  con- 
sists of  Cherry,  Birch  and  Scrub  Oak,  with  quantities  of  laurel 
and  rhododendron. 

But  as  we  approach  camp  we  gradually  enter  a  dense  virgin 
forest,  of  mixed  conifers  and  hardwoods,  Hemlock  (Tsuga  cana- 
densis) and  Spruce  (Picea  rubcns)  forming  90%  °f  the  whole. 
Hardwoods  form  the  lower  story  and  are  most  abundant  and  best 
developed  on  the  moist,  richer  soil  of  the  valleys,  seldom  extending 
to  the  tops  of  the  mountains.  The  species  making  up  the  forest 
are  found  in  about  the  following  proportions:  Hemlock,  45%; 
Spruce,  45%;  Birch,  5%;  Beech,  3%;  Cherry,  1%;  Maple, 
.5%;   others,  .5%. 

The  reproduction  is,  in  most  cases,  rather  poor.  In  places  the 
laurel  is  so  dense  as  to  be  nearly  impenetrable,  making  impos- 
sible any  reproduction  of  the  above  species.  But  where  this  is  not 
the  case,  as  where  an  open  space  has  been  left  by  logging,  or  fire, 
or  where  the  crown  density  is  sufficiently  open,  good  reproduction 
is  found,  especially  that  of  hemlock  and  spruce.  These  two  species 
are  very  thick  to  fill  up  any  open  spaces  in  the  woods,  which  fact 
must  be  taken  practical  advantage  of  in  any  plan  for  management 
of  these  lands. 

Contract. — The  logging  contract  specifies  that  the  logs  be  placed 
upon  the  skidway  beside  the  railroad  track,  ready  for  loading,  and 
paid  for  according  to  the  log  scale  of  the  company's  scaler,  using 
the  Doyle  rule.  The  price  paid  per  thousand  varies  with  the 
topography  of  the  country  and  the  distance  from  the  railroad. 
Dickson  was  paid  $5  per  thousand,  which  is  a  little  more  than  the 
average  price.  If  the  contractor  loaded  the  cars,  as  was  usually 
the  case,  fifty  cents  per  thousand  additional  was  paid,  making  a 
total  of  $5.50  per  thousand  for  logs  loaded  on  cars  in  the  woods. 
The  company  owns  three  steam  log-loaders,  anyone  of  which  may 
be  rented  by  the  jobber  for  $25  per  day. 

The  company  pays  $4  per  ton,  which  is  approximately  equal  to 
a  cord  of  128  cubic  feet,  for  hemlock  bark,  in  four-foot  lengths, 
loaded  on  the  cars. 

Spruce  pulpwood  is  cut  in  8  and  12-foot  lengths  and  down  to 
four  inches  at  the  small  end.  The  jobber  is  paid  $3  per  cord  on 
the  cars. 


Cost  of  Mountain  Logging.  257 

The  cost  of  all  lumber  and  other  building  materials,  of  the  labor, 
of  the  supplies,  and  in  fact  the  entire  cost  of  setting  up  and  run- 
ning camp,  exclusive  of  railroad  transportation,  is  borne  by  the 
contractor. 

The  company's  employees,  such  as  inspectors,  scalers,  train 
crew,  etc.,  are  boarded  at  the  jobber's  camp  free  of  charge  when- 
ever their  work  requires  them  to  be  there,  in  return  for  which  the 
company  hauls  all  supplies  for  the  jobber. 

Setting  up  Camp. — As  stated  under  contract,  the  entire  cost  of 
building  camps,  exclusive  of  railroad  transportation,  is  borne  by 
the  contractor.  The  company  furnishes  lumber  and  other  building 
materials  at  wholesale  rates,  and  delivers  these  materials  to  the 
camp  site. 

Dickson's  buildings,  planned  to  accommodate  about  sixty-five 
men  and  twenty  horses,  are  situated  in  the  valley  on  a  moderately 
level  stretch  of  ground,  on  the  south  side  of  a  small  stream  and 
right  beside  the  company's  railroad.  The  timbered  hill-sides  slope 
up  at  an  angle  of  about  40  degrees  from  both  sides  of  this  stream. 
The  buildings  consist  of  the  following : 

Bunk  house,  66'x24',  21'  high,  the  first  floor  of  which  is  divided 
into  kitchen,  18x24';  dining  room,  30^24' ;  lobby,  i8'x24'.  Office 
i6'xi4';  meat  house,  I4'xi4';  filing  shack,  i6'xi2';  smithy, 
i8'xi8';  stable,  6o'x34';  hay  shed,  i6'xi6';  coal  shed  i6'x8'. 

On  the  second  story  of  the  bunk  house,  extending  over  the  lobby 
and  dining  room  are  the  sleeping  quarters,  48'x24',  containing  31 
wire-mattress  beds. 

The  lumber  for  these  buildings,  consisting  of  mill  culls,  cost 
$584.32. 

Camp  at  this  place  was  set  up  in  May,  1907.  An  entire  outfit 
was  bought  at  that  time.  Exclusive  of  the  lumber  mentioned 
above  and  exclusive  of  wages  and  all  food  supplies,  the  cost  of 
setting  up  and  running  camp  from  May  1st  to  September  30th,  in- 
cluding cost  of  horses,  harness,  all  logging  supplies,  etc.,  was 
$5,023.92. 

Logging  Operations. 

Roading  and  Swamping. — The  mountains  being  in  all  cases 
very  steep,  and  in  places  even  precipitous,  swamping  and  road- 
making  form  a  large  proportion  of  the  expense  of  getting  out  the 
timber.     Hemlock  is  cut  in  the  spring,  before  many  of  the  logging 


258  Forestry  Quarterly. 

roads  have  been  made,  the  trees  being  thrown  in  the  most  con- 
venient place  for  peeling.  Such  areas  are  locally  called  "slash- 
ings," and  greatly  increase  the  work  and  cost  of  swamping,  due 
to  the  brush  and  undergrowth  being  pinned  down  beneath  the 
large  logs  and  tops. 

The  main  roads  are  cut  to  a  width  of  one  rod.  The  buck 
swamper  goes  ahead  selecting  and  blazing  out  the  best  route  for 
the  roads,  the  swampers  following  and  removing  all  trees  and 
bushes  of  whatever  size,  all  stumps,  and  as  many  of  the  large 
stones  as  is  necessary.  The  buck  swamper  sees  to  it  that  the 
swampers  clear  out  around  each  individual  log  so  that  the  team 
may  get  at  it  easily,  the  side  roads  of  course  in  this  case  being 
narrower  than  the  main  roads.  In  case  the  swampers  cannot 
break  or  move  the  large  rocks,  two  men  are  sent  with  drill  and 
dynamite  to  blow  them  to  pieces.  Anything  approaching  a  smooth 
road  is  of  course  impracticable  in  these  mountains,  but  a  great 
deal  of  care  and  expense  is  put  upon  them  in  order  to  reduce  to  a 
minimum  the  danger  of  injury  to  the  horses.  It  takes  ten  men, 
on  the  average,  a  little  over  three  days  to  swamp  out  one-quarter 
of  a  mile.  Taking  these  men's  wages  at  the  rate  of  $1.70  apiece 
per  day,  and  their  board  at  60  cents  per  day,  we  find  that  it  costs 
nearly  $300  per  mile  of  road  one  rod  wide.  This  figure  agrees 
closely  with  Mr.  Dickson's  experience  that  swamping  costs  nearly 
one  dollar  per  square  rod. 

For  each  skidding  road — two  teams  hauling  on  one  road — there 
is  one  road  man  with  axe  and  grub-hoe,  whose  duty  it  is  to  bridge 
or  corduroy  all  boggy  places,  to  remove  any  stones  or  stumps  left 
by  the  swampers,  and  generally  to  keep  in  repair  the  roads  as  they 
are  worn  by  hauling.  For,  besides  the  very  large  rainfall  there 
are,  as  a  result  of  it,  upon  the  sides  of  the  mountains  in- 
numerable springs,  and  this  water,  in  many  cases  flowing  directly 
down  or  across  the  skidding  road,  makes  constant  repairing  and 
bridging  necessary.  In  most  cases  corduroying  does  not  have  to 
be  resorted  to.  Usually  the  soil  is  quite  compact,  and  it  is  only 
necessary  to  "bridge"  the  boggy  places — that  is,  to  lay  cross  pieces 
in  the  mud,  say  about  1^  feet  apart,  so  that  the  horses  may  step 
between  them,  the  logs  sliding  over  the  top,  and  thus  being  pre- 
vented from  plowing  the  hole  deeper. 

Taking  the  operations  of  swamping,  roading,  blasting  and  re- 


Cost  of  Mountain  Logging.  259 

pairing,  requiring  the  labor  of  about  sixteen  men,  the  cost  amounts 
to  87  cents  per  thousand. 

Roading  and  Swamping :  Per  M. 

1  Buck  Swamper  a  $40  per  month  $0.04 

10  Swampers             "  340    "        "  .34 

4  Road  men            "  160    "        "  .16 

1  Blaster                  "    40    "        "  .04 

16  men  at  60c  board  per  day  .29 

.87 

Sawing. — Three  saws  are  usually  run,  except  from  the  first  of 
May  until  the  first  of  August,  when  only  the  hemlock  is  cut  and 
the  bark  peeled,  during  which  time  contracts  are  let  to  from 
twenty  to  thirty  men.  During  the  rest  of  the  year  the  sawyers 
first  go  through  the  woods,  cutting  what  spruce  and  hemlock  has 
been  left  by  the  bark  peelers,  afterwards  going  over  again  and 
taking  the  hardwoods.  This  is  done  to  avoid  loss  through  logs 
splitting  and  breaking  if  they  are  felled  across  each  other. 

Everything  ten  inches  on  the  stump,  and  any  straight  log  twelve 
feet  long  that  will  measure  eight  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small 
end,  is  cut.  In  the  case  of  pulp  wood  sticks,  the  limit  is  four 
inches  at  the  small  end.  Stumps  are  cut  as  low  as  possible, 
averaging  about  twenty  inches.  Two  men  with  a  chopper  who 
goes  ahead  selecting  the  trees,  makes  the  undercut  and  afterwards 
fixes  the  lengths  of  the  logs,  and  the  two  knotbumpers  or  limbers 
who  cut  off  the  limbs  from  the  logs  and  nose  or  point  them,  make 
a  crew,  which  saws  from  fifteen  to  twenty  thousand  feet  per  day, 
the  spruce  and  hemlock  averaging  4.5  logs  to  the  thousand  board 
feet. 

No  care  is  exercised  in  the  felling  of  the  timber  so  as  to  prevent 
injury  to  the  young  growth,  the  only  object  being  to  get  it  in  the 
best  possible  position  for  skidding.  As  many  as  possible  of  the 
trees  are  felled  across  or  alongside  of  the  main  stem  of  the  road. 

The  spruce  and  hemlock  trees  will  often  cut  seventy-five  to 
eighty-five  feet,  linear  measure,  of  merchantable  logs  each.  The 
woods  furnish  ideal  fifty-foot  spruce  and  hemlock  bridge  timbers, 
as  straight  as  a  line  and  free  from  branches  for  this  whole  length. 
These  sticks  must  square  15  by  9  inches,  which  requires  that  they 
be  not  less  than  18  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small  end.     After  this 


260  Forestry  Quarterly. 

fifty-foot  log  is  taken  out,  frequently  two  additional  logs  are  cut 
from  the  same  tree. 

Simond's  saws  are  used  exclusively. 

The  cost  of  sawing  is  about  95  cents  per  thousand,  as  follows  : 

Per  M. 
6  Sawyers  a  $240  per  month  $0.24 

3  Choppers  "     120    "        "  .  12 

6  Knot  Bumpers  "    210    "        "  .21 

1  Filer  "      90     "        "  .09 

16  men  at  60c  board  per  day  .29 

Total  $0.95 

Skidding. — One  of  the  most  difficult  and  dangerous  operations 
in  the  whole  work  is  snaking  the  logs,  often  five  or  more  at  a  time, 
down  the  steep  sides  of  the  mountain. 

In  this  operation  Langham  grabs  are  used,  which  consist  of 
two  five-inch  dogs,  attached  to  opposite  ends  of  a  short  chain, 
which  are  driven  into  the  abutting  ends  of  two  logs.  For  use  in 
large  logs,  where  one  grab  or  grapple  would  be  apt  to  pull  out, 
double  grabs,  or  "four-paws"  as  they  are  called,  are  used,  thus 
having  two  dogs  to  each  log. 

There  is  one  grab-driver  to  each  two  teams,  who  is  provided 
with  an  axe.  a  sledge,  a  canthook,  a  block,  two  chains  and  several 
pairs  of  grabs.  Where  there  is  a  particularly  steep  place,  the 
grab-driver  drives  the  grab  into  a  log,  the  stretcher  is  then  caught 
just  back  of  the  small  knob  on  the  grab,  and  the  log  started. 
When  it  is  in  the  road  and  has  got  fairly  under  way,  at  a  word 
from  the  driver  the  horses  step  quickly  to  one  side,  the  stretcher 
slips  from  off"  the  knob  on  the  grab  and  the  log  goes  sliding  down 
hill  at  a  tremendous  rate.  This  operation  is  repeated  until  sufficient 
logs  are  got  to  a  less  steep  place.  The  coupling  up  of  the  logs 
for  the  drive  to  the  skidway  at  the  bottom  of  the  mountain  then 
proceeds  as  under  ordinary  circumstances,  and  is  as  follows : 
Beginning  usually  with  the  log  farthest  up  the  hill,  the  grab- 
driver  places  a  grab  in  the  end,  the  team  hitches  on  and  drags 
the  log  up  till  the  back  end  of  it  is  just  even  with  the  front  end 
of  the  next  log.  These  two  logs  are  then  fastened  together  with 
single  or  double  grabs  as  the  case  may  be,  and  are  then  pulled  on 
down  to  the  next  log,  which  is  similarly  fastened  on  behind.  In 
order  that  the  logs  may  not  be  continually  catching  against  pro- 


Cost  of  Mountain  Logging.  261 

jecting  roots  and  stones  on  their  trip  to  the  skidway,  the  forward 
end  of  each  log  is  rounded  off,  or  ''nosed,"  by  the  knot-bumpers. 
From  one  to  five  or  even  six  logs  may  be  taken  at  a  trip  with  two 
horses  in  this  way,  the  number  of  course  depending  on  the  size  of 
the  logs,  on  the  horses  and  driver,  on  the  condition  of  the  skidding 
road,  etc. 

But  even  after  this  string  of  logs  is  well  on  its  journey  toward 
the  skidway,  the  danger  is  not  over.  On  a  steep  descent  some  of 
the  grabs  may  pull  out,  when  a  part  or  even  all  of  the  logs  come 
sliding  pell-mell  down  upon  team  and  driver.  But  this  is  seldom 
the  case,  and  with  well  trained  horses,  experienced  drivers  and  the 
best  roads  possible,  accidents  are  extremely  rare.  Where  there  is 
danger  of  such  a  slide,  one  or  two  of  the  logs  are  bridled  by  wrap- 
ping a  chain  around  them  several  times,  to  prevent  their  slipping 
too  freely.  The  usual  load  is  about  one  thousand  feet,  log  meas- 
ure. The  teams  average  six  trips  per  day  where  the  haul  is  not 
much  over  one-fourth  mile,  as  is  usually  the  case,  although  from 
the  streams  to  the  tops  of  the  hills  is  quite  often  nearer  one-half 
than  one-fourth  mile. 

The  outfit  per  team  consists,  besides  the  harness  and  stretchers 
which  cost  about  $65,  of  the  following,  which  cost  from  $4.50 
to  $6.50 — fifteen  sets  of  grabs,  a  twenty-foot  chain,  a  sixty-foot 
chain  and  a  pulley,  to  be  used  where  the  team  has  not  room  or 
foothold  to  work  close  to  the  log. 

The  cost  of  skidding  per  thousand  averages  about  $1.76. 

Per  M. 

8  teamsters  a  $480  per  month  $0.48 

4  grab  drivers      "     160    "        "  .  16 

12  men  at  60c  board  per  day  .22 

20  horses  at  $1.50  .90 

Total  $1.76 

Loading. — a.  By  Hand:  The  railroad  track  is  laid  alongside 
the  small  streams  that  run  down  the  river  valley.  As  the  moun- 
tains slope  abruptly  to  the  edge  of  the  streams,  advantage  is  taken 
of  this  slope  to  build  up  the  end  of  the  skidway  or  deck  nearest 
to  the  track,  just  high  enough  to  allow  the  logs  to  be  rolled  off  on 
the  cars  alongside.  The  back  ends  of  the  two  logs  on  the  skidway 
are  placed  at  a  slightly  higher  elevation  than  are  the  ends  nearest 
the  track,  so  that  a  gradual  incline  from  the  skidding  road  to  the 


262  Forestry  Quarterly. 

track  results,  thus  enabling  the  logs  to  be  loaded  cheaply  and  with 
little  difficulty  by  hand.  Russell  cars  are  used.  The  bunk  load 
(or  bottom  layer  of  logs  on  the  car)  is  first  put  on,  then  short 
spiked  skids  are  rested  upon  these  and  the  skidway,  when  the  next 
layer  is  rolled  up,  and  so  on. 

Two  men  work  on  each  skidway  when  loading  cars  except  in 
the  case  of  bridge  sticks,  where  more,  men  are  required.  Cars  are 
usually  loaded  at  two  decks.  Two  men  load  on  the  average  ten 
cars  per  day.  The  cars  carry  very  close  to  2,650  feet  log  measure 
each  so  that  each  day  for  two  skidways  twenty  cars,  or  over 
50,000  feet,  are  loaded  ready  for  transportation  to  the  mill.  As 
explained  elsewhere,  owing  to  the  excessive  rainfall  only  about 
twenty  days  per  month  are  put  in  at  work  except  in  the  case  of 
the  steam  loader.  But,  taken  together  for  the  year,  and  logs 
loaded  by  hand  and  by  the  steam  loader,  the  output  runs  very  close 
to  50,000  per  day  for  each  working  day,  or  40,000  per  day  for  a 
month  of  twenty-six  working  days,  or  approximately  1,000.000 
feet  per  month. 

The  cost  of  loading  is  50  cents  per  thousand,  namely : 

Per  M. 

Cost  of  building  skidways  $0.15 

6  Canthook  men  at  $240  per  month  .24 

6  Men  at  60  cents  board  per  day  .11 

Total  $0.50 

b.  With  Steam  Loader:  The  steam  loader  (American  Log 
Loader,  Model  C)  and  crew,  which  the  jobber  may  rent  for  $25 
per  day,  works  from  daylight  until  dark,  six  days  in  the  week,  re- 
gardless of  weather  conditions.  For  work  with  this  loader,  tem- 
porary skidways  are  placed  above  a  deep  gully,  the  logs  are  rolled 
indiscriminately  over  the  bank  down  into  this  gulch  until  it  is 
filled,  forming  what  is  locally  called  a  "rough-and-tumble  land- 
ing." When  several  of  these  piles  of  logs  are  ready,  a  switch  is 
laid  into  each  and  the  loader  and  crew  are  hired  from  the  com- 
pany. 

Three  men,  the  engineer,  the  hooker-on  and  the  top-loader,  load 
with  this  machine  about  thirty  cars  per  day.  This  means  about 
seventy-five  thousand  feet  put  on  the  cars  for  $25,  of  less  than 
34  cents  per  thousand.    Thus  it  is  seen  that  where  it  is  possible  to 


Cost  of  Mountain  Logging.  263 

use  the  steam  loader,  it  is  cheaper  than  loading  by  hand,  even 
after  allowing  the  same  cost  per  thousand  for  building  the  short 
railroad  switches,  as  for  building  the  skidways  used  in  hand 
loading.  But  larger  loads  may  be  put  on  with  careful  hand  load- 
ing, and  for  most  of  the  time  this  is  the  method  used. 

Scaling. — Logs  sawed  during  the  bark  peeling  season,  are  scaled 
in  the  woods  by  the  jobber's  clerk,  and  a  deduction  of  from  5  to 
10%  is  made  for  hidden  defects.  All  logs  are  scaled  by  the  com- 
pany's scaler  after  being  loaded  on  the  cars,  this  scale  being  fre- 
quently checked  by  the  jobber's  clerk.  The  Doyle  rule  is  used. 
No  deduction  is  made  for  any  defects  in  spruce,  and  but  little  is 
necessary  in  hemlock  and  other  logs  grown  in  the  virgin  forest 
where  fire  has  not  entered. 

The  mill  scale  overruns  the  log  scale  by  from  10%  to  15%,  be- 
tween eight  and  nine  hundred  feet  as  scaled  on  the  cars  cutting 
about  1,000  board  feet  at  the  mill.  An  experienced  scaler  and 
millman  says  that  in  using  the  Doyle  rule  in  this  region,  the  mill 
scale  will  overrun  the  log  scale  up  to  about  twenty  inches  diameter 
at  the  small  end. 

The  spruce  and  hemlock  logs  average  very  close  to  4.5  to  the 
thousand  board  feet.  The  fifty-foot  bridge  sticks  average  nearly 
one  thousand  board  feet  each.  They  are  scaled  as  two  sixteens 
and  an  eighteen-foot  length. 

Bark. — Bark  is  loaded  at  any  time  that  suits  best  with  the  num- 
ber of  men  available  at  the  time.  For  this  reason,  and  because  the 
bark  operations  last  only  a  short  time,  it  is  here  treated  as  a 
separate  operation,  except  that  the  items  of  office,  blacksmith,  etc., 
are  entered  under  timber,  and  the  cost  of  handling  the  bark  is 
calculated  without  these  items  of  expense. 

The  peeling  season  is  from  May  1st  to  August  1st,  when 
contracts  are  let  to  from  twenty  to  thirty  men. 

Two  men  work  together,  peeling  about  three  cords  for  the  two. 
A  cord  is  128  cubic  feet  or  2,000  pounds,  and  is  produced  in  pro- 
portion to  about  2,500  feet  of  lumber. 

The  contractor  pays  $2  per  cord  for  bark  peeled  and  $1  per 
thousand  feet  for  timber  cut.  Two  good  men  working  together 
and  cutting  three  cords  between  them  may  thus  clear  $6.75  per 
day  apiece.    But  this  is  more  than  most  of  them  do. 

One  man  and  two  horses  haul  eight  to  ten  cords  per  day,  de- 

17 


264  Forestry  Quarterly. 

pending-  on  the  distance  and  roads.  One  car  holds  from  six  to 
seven  cords,  depending  upon  the  care  of  the  packers.  With  the 
bark  beside  the  railroad,  seven  men  load  four  cars  per  day.  The 
Otter  Creek  Boom  and  Lumber  Company  pays  the  contractor  $4 
per  cord  for  bark  on  the  cars. 


Peeling  : 
Hauling: 

1  Teamster  at 

1  Teamster  board  at 

2  Horses  board  at 
2  Horses  labor  at 

Cost  of  Bark. 

$2.00  day 

.60  day 

2.00  day 

1. 00  day 

Per  Cord. 
$2.00 

Loading: 

7  men  at  $1.70  day 
7  men  board  at  60c 

$5.60  for  9  cords 

$12.00 
4.20 

.62 

$16.20  for  25  cords  .65 

Total  $3.27 

— to  which  must  be  added  a  small  share  of  the  expense  of  the 
office,  etc. 

Pulpwood. — Spruce  pulpwood  sticks  are  cut  down  to  4  inches 
diameter  at  the  small  end,  8  feet  and  12  feet  long.  No  figures  were 
obtained  for  itemized  costs  here.  The  contractor  said  it  cost  about 
$3  per  cord  (128  cubic  feet)  to  get  it  out  and  load  it  on  the  cars. 
Only  a  little  pulpwood  was  got  out  at  this  camp. 

Wages,  Board,  etc. 

Board  and  lodging  is  furnished  free  to  all  the  men.  The  scale 
of  wages  for  the  different  jobs,  and  the  average  number  of 
men  at  each  is  seen  from  the  following  table.  Those  marked  (x) 
receive  straight  time,  the  rest  losing  bad  weather  days. 

No.  of  Men.  Per  Day. 

1  Cook  (x)  $3-00 

1  Blacksmith  (x)  2.50 

1  Carpenter  2.50 

1   Filer  (x)  2.00 

6  Sawyers  2.00 

3  Choppers  (Undercutters)  2.00 
8  Teamsters  (x)  2.00 

4  Grab-drivers  2.00 


Cost  of  Mountain  Logging. 


265 


6  Canthook  men 

1  Shooter  (Dynamiter) 

4  Road  men  (Roadsters) 

1  Buck  Swamper 

6  Knot  Bumpers  (Limbers) 
10  Swampers 

2  Cookees   (x) 

1  Chore  boy  (x) 

1  Scaler  and  Clerk  at  $60  per  month 

1  Foreman. 


2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
i-75 
.50—1.75 
1.50 
1.50 


58 

In  calculating  the  wages  per  month  for  those  on  a  per  diem 
wage,  it  must  be  remembered  that  taken  throughout  the  year,  the 
excessive  precipitation  of  the  region  (it  being  second  only  to  the 
Puget  Sound  region)  reduces  the  work  days  to  about  twenty  per 
month.  Those  paid  by  the  month  are  paid  for  a  month  of  thirty 
days.  With  these  facts  in  mind,  it  will  be  found  that  the  monthly 
wage  totals  $2,505,  as  shown  below. 

Wages  per  Month. 


No.  of  Men 

Per 

Month 

Total  per  Month 

1  Cook 

at  $90 

per 

month 

$00 

1  Blacksmith 

"      75 

" 

' 

75 

1  Carpenter 

"     50 

" 

' 

50 

1   Filer 

"     60 

" 

1 

60 

6  Sawyers 

"     40 

u 

t 

240 

3  Choppers 

"     40 

<< 

1 

120 

8  Teamsters 

"     60 

" 

.  ' 

480 

4  Grab-drivers 

"     40 

a 

t 

160 

6  Canthook  Men 

"     40 

" 

1 

240 

1  Shooter 

"     40 

" 

' 

40 

4  Road  men 

"     40 

" 

' 

160 

1  Buck  Swamper 

"     40 

" 

1 

40 

6  Knot    Bumpers 

"     35 

a 

' 

210 

10  Swampers 

"      34 

" 

' 

340 

2  Cookees 

"     45 

a 

t 

90 

1  Chore  boy 

"     45 

a 

t 

45 

1  Scaler  and  Clerk 

"      60 

" 

" 

60 

57 


Total  Monthly  Wage 


$2505 


Board. — The  board  furnished  the  men  is  remarkable.  The  con- 
tractor very  truly  says  that  it  costs  but  little  more  to  feed  well  than 
to  feed  poorly,  and  that  much  better  results  are  obtained  by  giving 
the  men  good,  clean,  wholesome  food.  The  following  list  of  sup- 
plies for  one  week  was  taken  at  random  from  several  others,  and 
is  fairly  representative  of  the  kinds  and  amounts  of  supplies  pur- 


266 


Forestry  Quarterly. 


chased,  except  that  at  the  time  this  particular  list  was  taken  there 
were  only  about  forty-five  men  in  camp  instead  of  the  usual  sixty 
or  over.  Of  course  the  prices  of  these  articles  vary,  as  is  also  the 
case  with  the  horse  feed  given  below,  but  they  average  up  pretty 
closely  during  the  year. 


To  Run  Camp  of  Forty-five  Men  for  One  Week. 


$6.50 
1.85 
4-50 
3-50 
.90 
5-50 
4-50 
M-35 
3.60 
4.80 
36.80 
2.88 
i-75 
1.50 
4-50 
2.25 
2.24 
2.40 
3.38 
i-75 
4.00 
4.80 
14-50 
5.00 
2.50 
6.00 


I 

tub  lard 

I 

sack  turnips 

] 

sack  onions 

I 

crate     " 

I 

box  yeast 

I 

case  cream 

I 

barrel  sweet  potatoes 

7 

sacks  potatoes 

1 

case  pears 

1 

case  peaches 

2 

case  eggs 

1 

case  tomatoes 

1 

basket  tomatoes 

2 

baskets  tomatoes 

1 

barrel  apples 

1 

case  apples 

11 

2  rb  cabbage 

1 

case  corn 

22 

Y2  ft  cakes 

11 

basket  cakes 

[0 

rb  tea 

2 

cases  strawberries 

2 

barrel  P.  B.  flour 

10 

baking  powder 

5 

baking  powder 

1 

box  washing  powder 

Total 


$116.35 


1907  Sept. 


Oct. 


Fresh  Meat  For  One  Month. 


4, 

300  lbs. 

beef 

at  8  cents 

7, 

295   " 

" 

* 

II) 

240   " 

14, 

240   " 

18, 

295   " 

" 

"  " 

21, 

230  " 

25, 

290   " 

" 

"  " 

28, 

215   " 

" 

it     it         it 

2 

65   " 

" 

"   "      " 

Total 


$24.00 
23.60 
19.20 
19.20 
23.60 
18.40 
23.20 
17.20 
5.20 

$173-60 


The  above  list  gives  an  insufficient  idea  of  the  character  of  the 
meals  served.  As  seen  from  the  scale  of  wages,  the  cook  is  paid 
$3  per  day,  and  must  of  necessity  be  a  good  one.     He  is  given  two 


Cost  of  Mountain  Logging.  267 

helpers,  or  cookees,  each  at  $1.50  per  day.  These  three  men  are 
the  first  to  rise  in  the  morning  and  the  last  to  bed  at  night.  No 
pains  or  expense  are  spared  to  have  plenty  of  everything,  and 
everything  of  the  best.  For  instance,  there  is  Shredded  Wheat, 
Grapenuts,  and  Force  on  the  table  all  the  time,  and  in  addition, 
oatmeal  is  served  for  breakfast.  Tea,  coffee,  milk  and  cream  for 
every  meal.  Fresh  and  salt  meat  for  nearly  every  meal,  with  eggs 
two  or  three  times  a  week.  Fresh  vegetables  all  the  time.  Various 
kinds  of  pickles  and  dressings,  wheat  bread  always,  and  either  hot 
corn  bread,  hot  biscuits,  or  hot  rolls  for  dinner  and  supper  every 
day.  Apple  sauce,  preserved  pears  or  peaches,  and  jelly  is  always 
on  the  table,  while  a  barrel  of  apples  is  always  open  to  anyone. 
Mince,  apple,  strawberry,  huckleberry,  apricot,  raisin  and  peach 
pies  take  their  turn  for  dinner  and  supper,  with  often  some  kind 
of  pudding  besides.  Cookies  are  always  before  you,  while  about 
twice  a  week  the  cook  bakes  a  layer  cake — jelly,  icing  or  chocolate, 
as  the  case  may  be.    Indigestion  was  not  an  uncommon  malady ! 

The  cost  of  boarding,  including  the  wages  of  the  cook  and 
cookees,  averages  fifty-three  cents  per  day  per  man.  This  is  for 
a  working  camp  of  fifty-five  men.  But  there  are  three  crews  or 
parts  of  crews  to  every  camp — those  coming  to  camp,  those  at 
work,  and  those  leaving  camp.  For,  the  lumber  jack  is  restless 
and  above  all,  a  critic,  and  if  things  are  not  to  his  liking  he  is  very 
brief  in  "histeing  his  turkey."  These  men,  then,  the  comers  and 
goers,  increase  the  cost  of  board  to  the  contractor  about  seven 
cents  a  day  for  each  of  the  fifty-five  or  sixty-five  men  at  work,  so 
that  in  cost  accounting  it  is  necessary  to  figure  board  at  sixty 
cents  per  day  per  man. 

Feed. — The  following  is  the  average  monthly  consumption  of 
twenty  horses : 

8  tons  hay  at  $26.00  $208.00 

500  bushels  oats  at  .67  335-00 

20  sacks  bran  at  1.50  30.00 


Total  $573-00 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  cost  per  day  for  the  twenty  horses  is 
$19.10,  or  taking  into  account  medicines,  wear  and  tear,  etc.,  ap- 
proximately $1  per  day  per  horse. 


2(58  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Miscellaneous. 

Each  man's  name,  the  number  of  clays  worked,  the  rate  per 
diem,  and  the  supplies  which  he  purchases,  all  time  checks  issued, 
the  number,  the  amount,  to  whom  and  when  due,  are  kept  by  the 
contractor's  clerk ;  also  the  number  of  logs  loaded,  the  number  of 
cars  and  the  scale  of  each,  the  number  of  cars  of  bark  and  of  pulp- 
wood  and  the  costs  of  these  various  operations.  The  report  of 
each  day's  output  in  board  feet,  bark  and  pulpwood  is  sent  in  the 
following  day  to  the  company's  office  at  Hambleton. 

The  regular  pay  day  is  the  Saturday  following  the  fifteenth  of 
each  month.  On  this  date,  upon  request,  time  checks  are  issued, 
and  are  payable  for  work  done  up  to  and  including  the  last  day  of 
the  preceding  month.  If  one  wishes  his  money  for  work  done 
since  that  time,  he  is  given  a  check  which  is  not  due  until  the  pay 
day  the  middle  of  the  following  month,  but  which  he  may  have 
cashed  at  any  time  before  then  at  5%  discount.  These  checks  are 
payable  at  the  company's  office  in  Hambleton. 

A  collection  at  the  rate  of  75  cents  per  month  is  made  from  all 
men  who  work  in  any  of  the  company's  camps  for  four  days  or 
longer.  Fifty  cents  of  this  goes  to  pay  the  company's  doctor,  and, 
in  case  of  injury  where  hospital  service  is  not  necessary,  to  furnish 
all  medicine,  board  and  lodging  until  recovery.  If  the  patient  has 
to  go  to  the  hospital,  he  is  sent  to  the  best  one  in  Elkins,  West  Vir- 
ginia, and  25  cents  of  the  above  goes  to  the  company  toward  a 
fund  for  the  payment  of  these  hospital  dues,  which  run  from  $10 
to  $15  per  week.  The  other  25  cents  is  set  aside  as  a  reserve  fund 
to  pay  the  expenses  of  any  one  hurt  who  has  not  worked  as  long 
as  four  days  for  the  company. 

The  payment  of  this  medical  fee  is  not  required  of  the  men. 
But  if  they  do  not  pay  it  and  are  injured,  they  have  to  pay  the 
company  $10  if  an  engine  has  to  be  sent  to  the  woods  for  them, 
besides  the  $10  to  $15  per  week  while  in  hospital. 

Every  Wednesday  and  Saturday  the  company  delivers  pro- 
visions to  the  camp.  Mail  is  also  brought  at  these  times  from  the 
postoffice  at  Hambleton,  and  any  supplies  which  may  be  ordered. 
The  company  runs  a  mercantile  store  at  Hambleton,  the  various 
jobbers  ordering  clothing,  tobacco,  etc.,  from  there  and  selling  at 
cost  to  the  men.  The  merchandise  account  being  then  deducted 
from  their  wasfes. 


Cost  of  Mountain  Logging.  269 

Summary. 

Below  is  found  in  condensed  form,  the  cost  of  each  operation  in 
getting-  out  the  timber,  the  cost  of  bark  operations,  and  of  pulp- 
wood  : 


Timber: 


Per  M. 

Roading  and  swamping  $0.87 

Sawing  .95 

Skidding  1.76 

Loading  .35 

Office  .08 

Extras  .24 


Total  $4.25 


Hemlock  Bark: 


Per  Cord 

Peeling  $2.00 

Hauling  .62 

Loading  .65 


$3-27 


Spruce  Pulpivood: 

Per  Cord 
Sawing  and  Skidding  $3. 00 

As  supplementary  to  the  foregoing,  the  following  summary  as 
given  at  the  Hambleton  office,  of  the  total  cost  of  manufacturing 
the  lumber,  is  added.  This  was  for  January,  1907,  the  total  for 
this  month  being  $2,205  Per  thousand  higher  than  the  cost  per 
thousand  for  all  of  1907. 

Stumpage  for  spruce  and  hemlock  in  most  cases  is  about  $3.50 
per  thousand ;   for  hardwoods,  about  $4  per  thousand. 

COST  PER  M.  OF  MANUFACTURED  LUMBER. 


Per  M. 

Logging    (including  stumpage) 

$7.60 

Railroad  construction 

86 

Yarding 

89 

Yarding  expense   (repairs,  new  track,  etc.) 

12 

Milling 

1 

64 

Log  train 

1 

67 

Office 

15 

General  expenses,  attorney,  taxes,  etc., 

•03 

$12 

96 

MARKING  WESTERN  YELLOW  PINE. 
By  Theodore  S.  Woolsey,  Jr. 

When  the  Forest  Service  first  took  over  the  administration  of  the 
National  Forests,  little  detailed  attention  could  be  given  the  mark- 
ing of  timber  by  executive  officers ;  it  was  left  almost  entirely  to 
green,  untried  technical  assistants,  and  more  frequently  to  the 
rangers  themselves.  Too  heavy  cutting  resulted,  and  the  need  for 
detailed  instructions  and  marking  rules  was  keenly  felt.  Now 
there  are  general  instructions  for  marking  for  every  forest  in  the 
United  States,  divided  according  to  the  silvicultural  regions. 
Western  Yellow  Pine  naturally  falls  in  the  Western  Yellow  Pine 
region,  southern  division. 

But  now  that  these  instructions  have  been  drawn  up.  it  seems 
that  the  next  progressive  step  will  be  personal  marking  by  execu- 
tive officers ;  plans  are  being  formulated  for  sample  marking  on 
each  National  Forest  in  the  Third  District.  Of  course,  this  can- 
not be  done  all  at  once  and  must  come  about  gradually.  Before 
any  large  sale  commences,  however,  it  is  planned  to  have  repre- 
sentative areas  marked  by  the  Chief  of  Silviculture  and  the  Dis- 
trict Forester  in  connection  with  the  local  officers.  In  other  words 
a  marking  board  has  been  formed,  in  order  that  the  results  may 
bear  the  consensus  of  approval  of  the  officials  in  the  district  most 
directly  concerned.  In  the  past,  local  rangers  have  complained 
that  one  visiting  officer  advises  one  method,  while  another  sug- 
gests something  else ;  naturally  this  has  resulted  in  considerable 
confusion.  By  having  the  marking  commenced  by  a  board  of  of- 
ficers it  is  thought  that  this  subsequent  confusion  and  criticism 
can  be  done  away  with  to  a  large  extent ;  gradually,  instead  of 
referring  to  paper  instructions,  reference  can  be  made  to  repre- 
sentative areas  on  each  forest.  For  example :  a  supervisor  will 
be  instructed  to  mark  the  John  Doe  timber  sale  in  accordance  with 
the  methods  employed  on  Sections  3,  4  and  5,  T  22  N,  R  6  E. 
Coconino  National  Forest.  Of  course,  this  may  properly  be  sup- 
plemented by  a  brief  and  specific  reference  to  the  existing  marking 
rules,  but  in  the  main,  the  technical  assistant  and  supervisor  would 
follow  the  actual  marking:  that  has  alreadv  been  done  which  has 


Marking  Western  Yellozv  Pine.  271 

proved  satisfactory.  Those  of  the  Forest  Service  who  were  en- 
gaged in  the  early  co-operative  work  will  remember  that  similar 
methods  were  gradually  introduced  in  advising  the  forest  man- 
agement of  private  woodlands ;  the  first  few  years  there  were 
merely  paper  instructions  which  were  supposed  to  be  followed  out 
by  the  owners ;  then,  gradually,  these  instructions  were  supple- 
mented by  actual  marking  on  the  ground.  This  latter  method,  I 
believe,  was  found  to  be  by  far  the  most  satisfactory  and  pro- 
ductive of  actual  results. 

In  Europe,  where  the  art  of  marking  is  far  advanced,  detailed 
instructions  on  paper  would  be  more  or  less  a  matter  of  amuse- 
ment to  the  officers  in  charge.  The  marking  policy  of  each  silvical 
type  is,  of  course,  well  understood,  but  the  actual  choosing  of 
trees  still,  and  always  will,  demand  the  direct  supervision  of  the 
officers  in  charge,  although  it  may  be  executed  by  particularly  well 
trained  rangers,  where  there  are  no  complications.  It  is  well 
recognized,  I  think,  in  Forest  Service  work,  that  the  actual  selec- 
tion of  individual  trees  can  lose  or  save  many  hundreds  of  dollars 
in  each  million  feet  marked.  This  statement,  I  feel  sure,  will  be 
borne  out  by  subsequent  inspections,  particularly  as  soon  as  the 
results  of  marking  can  be  more  thoroughly  investigated.  Detailed 
observations  by  means  of  sample  plots  will  be  instituted  in  order 
to  get  an  accurate  line  on  whether  present  methods  are  satis- 
factory. 

The  general  silvical  principles  of  marking,  as  laid  down  in  the 
1909  "Use  Book,"  are  well  known.    These  may  be  summarized : 

Mature,  over-mature  and  defective  trees  should  be  marked  un- 
less needed  for  seed;  thrifty,  rapidly  growing  trees  of  desirable 
species  should  be  reserved;  mark  lightly  where  windfall  is  prob- 
able, or  where  timber  is  needed  for  watershed  protection,*  or  to 
prevent  erosion.*  Each  tree  should  be  left  with  its  crown  free 
enough  for  vigorous  growth.  Suppressed  trees  should  be  marked. 
Even  if  reproduction  is  present  for  safety  in  case  of  fire,  seed 
trees  must  be  left.  Trees  on  the  edge  of  openings  should  be  left  on 
the  side  from  which  the  prevailing  winds  blow.  Isolated  trees  of 
desirable  species  should  be  left.  "If  in  doubt  whether  a  tree  is 
needed  for  either  seed  or  protection,  leave  it.  If  in  doubt  whether 
a  defective  tree  should  be  classed  as  merchantable,  mark  it." 

*  The  practical  value  of  forest  cover  in  these  directions  has  been  ques- 
tioned. 


272  Forestry  Quarterly. 

In  addition,  the  following-  instructions  which  supersede  the  old 
diameter  limit  methods  have  been  issued  for  the  Western  Yellow 
Pine  type.  For  convenient  reference,  these  have  been  divided 
numerically  into  a  number  of  paragraphs  in  order  that  each  one 
may  be  referred  to  specifically. 

Pure  Western  Yellow  Pine  Type. 

(1.)  "Yellow  Pine  stands  are  naturally  open  and  on  much  of 
the  land  included  in  this  type,  the  ground  is  now  but  partly  and 
insufficiently  stocked  with  young  timber.  In  many  cases  the  forest 
maintains  itself  as  against  chaparral  with  difficulty,  and  reproduc- 
tion depends  largely  upon  the  protection  against  evaporation. 
This  makes  a  selection  system  of  marking  obligatory.  A  con- 
servative policy  is  especially  advisable  since  the  areas  of  forest  are 
constantly  becoming  more  accessible  to  market  and  there  is  every 
indication  of  a  strong  future  demand  at  greatly  increased  prices. 

All  marking,  then,  should  be  by  a  conservative  selection  system. 
But  the  exact  form  of  cutting  must  be  decided  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  stand.  Two  conditions  ordinarily  present  them- 
selves : 

(2.)  Where  there  are  young  trees  present  and  a  second  cut  can 
be  obtained  in  about  forty  years,  sales  should  rarely  be  made.  In 
such  cases  at  least  one-third  of  the  trees  at  present  large  enough 
to  be  merchantable  must  be  left  for  a  future  cutting.  This  means 
that  at  least  1,500  or  2,000  feet  should  be  left  to  the  acre,  and,  in 
heavy  stands,  more — up  to  one-third  of  the  total  stand.  No  sales 
should  be  made  in  stands  so  open  that  1,500  feet  can  not  be  left 
and  the  logging  be  done  at  a  profit.  Leave  all  "black  jacks"  unless 
plainly  undesirable  from  serious  unsoundness  or  overcrowding,  or 
so  misshapen  that  they  will  not  develop  into  valuable  timber  trees. 
In  general,  leave  all  thrifty  trees  which  will  plainly  be  much  more 
valuable  at  the  time  of  another  cutting. 

(3.)  Where  the  stand  is  composed  wholly  of  mature  or  over- 
mature timber,  or  with  only  very  scattering  "black  jacks"  or 
healthy  young  yellow  pines,  it  will  be  necesary  to  start  a  new 
crop  from  seed,  and  consequently  in  any  cutting  enough  seed  trees 
must  be  left  to  seed  up  the  area  amply.  Before  marking  any  tree 
for  removal,  therefore,  be  sure  that  it  is  not  needed  for  seed,  for 
the  best  trees  for  producing  seed,  irrespective  of  size,  must  be  left. 
Young,  thrifty  yellow  pines  or  large  thrifty  "black  jacks"  with 


Marking  Western  Yellozv  Fine.  273 

full  crowns  make  the  best  seed  trees.  "Enough  seed  trees"  usually 
means  from  two  to  five  to  the  acre,  the  number  varying  with  the 
seed-bearing  capacity  of  the  trees.  If  young  trees  that  are  just 
beginning  to  bear  cones  are  left,  at  least  five  are  needed  to  the 
acre.  From  two  to  four  seed  trees  are  enough  if  they  are  old 
and  have  large,  spreading  crowns  and  are  wind-firm.  The  trees 
left  should,  wherever  possible,  be  distributed  in  small  groups. 
This  makes  them  more  secure  against  windfall,  and  conforms  to 
the  grouping  tendency  of  the  western  Yellow  Pine.  Leave  enough 
seed  trees  even  where  the  seedling  growth  is  good,  in  order  to 
ensure  reseeding  in  case  of  fire.  This  method  is,  at  best,  unre- 
liable, and  should  be  used  only  in  extreme  cases. 

(4.)  These  two  conditions  grade  into  each  other,  and  the  exact 
method  of  marking  to  be  used  will  require  nice  adjustment  on  the 
part  of  the  Forest  officer.  Arbitrary  rules  are  useless.  It  is  well, 
however,  never  to  make  an  opening  for  more  than  one-quarter  of 
an  acre  in  the  forest,  nor  to  enlarge  a  natural  opening  to  a  greater 
size,  even  if  the  trees  left  are  mature  and  partially  unsound,  unless 
good  reproduction  is  already  well  established. 

(5.)  On  all  of  the  drier  portions  of  this  type,  slash  should  be 
lopped  and  scattered  over  the  openings  on  the  cut-over  area. 
This  material  will  aid  reproduction  by  protecting  the  soil  from 
evaporation  and  by  gradually  forming  humus.  Where  there  is 
clanger  from  fire,  the  brush  should  be  piled  and  burned  on  a  strip 
approximately  200  feet  wide,  around  the  area  where  the  brush  is 
scattered.  Where  the  danger  from  fire  is  extreme  it  may  be 
necessary  to  pile  and  burn  all  the  brush." 

The  necessity  for  conservatism  in  marking  Western  Yellow 
Pine  in  the  southwest  is  well  known  on  account  of  the  drying 
influences  of  the  wind  and  sun,  and  the  open  character  of  the 
stand.  It  has  been  particularly  emphasized  where  the  Western 
Yellow  Pine  borders  the  woodland  type.  Here  definite  rules  are 
in  effect  that  no  cutting  be  allowed  where  the  virgin  forest 
amounts  to  less  than  2.000'  B.  M.  per  acre.  In  addition,  a  general 
rule  has  been  promulgated  that  at  least  one-third  (see  paragraph  3) 
of  the  present  stand  be  left  for  seeding,  second  cut,  and  protection 
of  the  soil.  At  present  the  only  criticism  of  a  very  conservative 
policy  is  from  the  lumberman's  viewpoint ;  in  order  to  have  a  suc- 
cessful sales  administration  it  is  vital  that  the  legitimate  interests 
of  lumbermen  be  recognized,  consequently,  where  a  very  light  cut 


274  Forestry  Quarterly. 

would  yield  only  a  loss  on  account  of  the  expense  of  building 
roads,  the  necessary  reduction  in  stumpage  rates  should  be  pro- 
vided for.  This  is  certainly  preferable  to  sacrificing  silvical 
methods. 

A  selection  system  is  certainly  advisable,  if  not  followed  too 
literally.  Some  officers  have  erroneously  secured  the  impression 
that  seed  trees  should  be  distributed  over  the  cutting  area  with 
absolute  precision.  In  other  words,  the  quality  of  the  seed  trees 
obtained  has  been  in  some  cases  sacrificed  in  order  that  the  dis- 
tribution may  be  uniform,  and  it  is  often  at  serious  cost  that  this 
uniformity  is  secured.  It  seems  to  me  far  better  to  secure  the 
proper  quality  of  seed  trees,  even  if  distributed  in  groups  and  even 
if  small  openings  have  to  be  made.  Sacrifice  uniformity  in  order 
to  secure  quality. 

Where  there  is  an  excellent  stand  of  "black  jack"  (Western 
Yellow  Pine  usually  under  150  years  old  with  typical  black  bark) 
marking  is  comparatively  simple.  It  is  often  sufficient,  in  stands 
of  this  character,  to  cut  most  "yellow  pine"  and  leave  all  "black 
jack,"  except  those  that  are  defective  or  in  need  of  thinning.  This 
often  means  that  only  half  the  stand  is  actually  removed,  but  the 
mature  trees  yield  a  far  better  profit  to  the  lumberman,  and  the 
young,  thrifty  "black  jack"  that  are  bushy,  costly  to  trim,  and 
hence  expensive  to  log,  are  not  desired  by  the  average  purchaser. 
On  the  Coconino  Forest,  an  actual  exchange  of  mature  "yellow 
pine"  for  "black  jack"  has  been  arranged  between  the  Forest  Ser- 
vice and  two  local  companies  controlling  all  timber  on  certain 
railroad  sections  which  had  been  deeded  to  the  Government  with 
timber  rights  reserved.  In  this  case  the  Service  gives  fully  mature 
"yellow  pine"  rapidly  declining  in  value  and  in  vigor,  and  receives 
in  return  healthy,  rapidly  growing  "black  jack"  of  equal  scale 
that  are  rapidly  increasing  in  value. 

The  marking  problem  in  stands  composed  wholly  of  mature  or 
over-mature  timber,  with  only  scattering  "black  jack,"  is  much 
more  difficult.  Here  the  question  arises  whether  to  sacrifice 
present  receipts,  or  possible  reproduction  from  the  seed  of  over- 
mature trees,  protection  of  the  soil,  and  a  second  cut  forty  or  fifty 
years  hence.  Without  taxes  to  pay,  and  with  a  large  per  cent,  of 
over-mature  timber,  it  is  naturally  more  profitable  to  the  Forest 
Service  to  cut  rapidly  virgin  stands,  and  to  leave  sufficient  for  a 
second  cut.     Here,  again,  the  lumberman  would  complain  that  his 


Marking  Western  Yellow  Pine.  275 

own  immediate  profits  are  being  sacrificed  to  a  problematical  cut 
forty  or  fifty  years  from  now.  In  these  mature  stands,  however, 
the  vital  problem  of  detail  has  been  the  determination  of  the  num- 
ber of  mature  and  over-mature  trees  to  leave.  There  have  been 
two  arguments :  one  school  of  markers  claims  that  trees  plainly 
over-mature,  possibly  stag-headed,  or  with  signs  of  decline  in 
the  crowns,  should  never  be  left.  They  fear  that  the  seed  from 
these  trees  has  not  the  same  vitality  as  the  younger  growth,  that 
windfall  is  invited,  insect  attack  encouraged,  fungus  growths 
given  an  advantage,  and  that  reproduction  will  not  be  increased ; 
that  the  protective  value  of  these  tall,  over-mature  trees  is  slight, 
and  that  much  better  natural  reproduction  would  be  secured  by 
felling  these  over-mature  trees,  scattering  the  brush,  and  thus  en- 
couraging reproduction  from  neighboring  stands.  Seed  in  the 
southwest  can  be  distributed  great  distances  on  account  of  the 
snow  crust  which  enables  the  winged  seed  to  be  blown  until  it  finds 
a  resting  place,  possibly  in  the  scattered  brush.  It  is  agreed,  how- 
ever, that  on  the  edges  of  the  parks  and  where  windfall  is 
likely,  that  apparently  healthy,  mature  trees  should  be 
left  in  groups ;  particularly  where  they  have  proven  windfirm  by 
past  isolation  or  exposure.  The  other  school  feels  that  where  an 
opening  of  an  acre  or  so  will  be  made  that  even  stag-headed,  over- 
mature Western  Yellow  Pine  should  be  reserved  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  soil,  to  secure  possible  reproduction,  on  account  of 
preserving  forest  conditions,  and  because  officers  on  the  ground 
cannot  be  trusted  to  discriminate  in  marking.  This  policy  would, 
of  course,  reduce  legitimate  receipts  from  National  Forests  which 
should  not  be  lessened  without  good  cause.  Can  a  problematical 
chance  of  getting  reproduction  be  considered  "good  cause?"  Can 
the  lumberman's  profit  be  fairly  reduced  by  saving  such  over- 
mature seed  trees  of  doubtful  character  ?  A  Bavarian  forester  who 
recently  visited  this  district,  and  who  discussed  this  problem  quite 
thoroughly,  believed  that  the  reservation  of  over-mature  and  par- 
tially stag-headed  trees  should  under  no  condition  be  permitted. 
He  applied  the  German  word  "Unsinn"  (nonsense)  to  marking  of 
this  kind.  He  felt  that  the  receipts  secured  from  the  sale  of  these 
over-mature  trees  could  more  properly  be  employed  in  actual 
planting;  that  in  the  end  far  better  results  would  be  secured. 
Personally,  I  agree  with  the  Bavarian  forester,  except  that  natural 
reproduction  be  given  a  trial  under  conditions  made  more  favor- 


276  Forestry  Quarterly. 

able  by  the  proper  scattering  of  brush,  provided  the  fire  danger  is 
not  too  great. 

The  literal  enforcement  of  the  rule  that  at  least  one-third  of  the 
stand  must  be  left  has  not  worked  well.  The  poor  results  from 
such  an  arbitrary  rule  have  been  plainly  emphasized  by  recent 
windfalls  on  the  Coconino.  Long-boled  Western  Yellow  Pine  with 
scanty  crowns  were  necessarily  left  under  a  strict  adherence  to 
this  rule.  Naturally  the  result  has  been  disastrous  windfall  and 
consequently  material  losses  in  receipts.  This  seems  to  emphasize 
the  impossibility  of  making  ironclad  rules,  even  if  prompted  by 
the  necessity  of  emphasizing  the  need  of  great  conservatism  in 
marking. 

A  recent  seed  test  has  further  emphasized  that  the  seed  from 
over-mature  trees  has  not  the  same  germinative  power  as  has  the 
seed  from  young,  healthy  trees,  and  this  is  recognized  in  European 
marking.  According  to  comparative  seed  tests  between  "yellow 
pine"  and  "black  jack"  68.4  per  cent,  of  the  seed  from  "yellow 
pine"  (11  trees)  germinated,  while  83.3  per  cent,  germinated  from 
"black  jack"  (9  trees).  Although  the  number  of  trees  is  too  small 
to  give  conclusive  results,  yet  it  indicates  a  difference  of  14.9  per 
cent,  in  favor  of  seed  collected  from  "black  jack"  at  the  end  of 
twenty  days'  germination.  The  "yellow  pine"  from  which  the 
seed  was  collected  averaged  approximately  330  years,  and  the 
"black  jack"  approximately  131  years. 

An  arbitrary  rule  that  "an  opening  of  more  than  one-quarter  of 
an  acre  in  the  forest  should  never  be  made"  cannot  be  followed  on 
the  ground,  but  might  be  justified  on  paper,  in  order  that  rangers 
should  be  taught  to  be  conservative. 

The  writer  heartily  endorses  the  scattering  of  slash  as  a  matter 
of  protection  to  reproduction,  and  in  the  southwest  special  care 
should  be  taken  to  scatter  it  densely  enough,  so  as  to  give  real  pro- 
tection. 

The  writer  feels  that  the  solution  of  the  marking  problem  will 
be  accomplished  chiefly  by  personal  marking  by  the  very  highest 
officials  in  the  Forest  Service,  and  that  paper  instructions  are, 
at  best,  a  poor  substitute.  This  belief  is  gradually  becoming 
universal. 


BRIEF  NOTES  ON  MEXICAN  FORESTS. 
By  Max  Rothkugee. 

On  a  trip  through  Mexico  and  Central  America  the  writer  had 
a  chance  to  spend  two  weeks  in  the  timbered  section  of  the  Sierra 
Madre  in  the  State  of  Durango.  Along  the  Mexican  Central  Rail- 
way between  El  Paso  and  Mexico  City  one  passes  through  a 
barren  arid  country  without  any  tree  growth.  The  timbered  area 
is  confined  to  altitudes  above  8,000  feet  which,  in  the  Sierra 
Madre,  lie  between  the  Pacific  Coast  and  the  Mexican  Central 
Railway. 

The  Sierra  represents  a  mountainous  high  plateau.  The  first 
tree  growth  commences  in  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  at  an  altitude 
of  about  6,000  feet,  and  consists  of  Huitzache,  a  small  scrubby 
tree  with  leaves  like  cypress,  which  gives  these  foothills  the  ap- 
pearance of  an  old  apple-tree  orchard.  Above  this  scrubby  forest 
commences  the  Pino-Longleaf  pine  type  at  an  elevation  of  about 
8,000  feet.  It  was  rather  surprising  to  find  longleaf  pine  forming 
a  type  with  Pinon  Pine.  The  Pihon  pine  reaches  the  size  of  one 
and  two  logs  per  tree.  At  an  elevation  of  about  9,000  feet  com- 
mences the  commercial  timber  consisting  mainly  of  Western  Yel- 
low Pine*  and  a  white  pine  not  identified.  Interspersed  are 
Shortleaf,  Western  White  Pine,  and  also,  I  believe,  Loblolly 
Pine.*  Douglas  fir  occurs  in  canons.  The  ordinary  pine  stands 
average  about  3,000  feet  B.  M.  but  there  are  large  areas  of  pine 
where  they  cut  up  to  9,000  feet  per  acre.  Such  a  locality  of  a 
good  pine  stand  is  near  Salto  where  a  new  railroad  is  under  con- 
struction from  Durango  to  tap  this  rich  timbered  section.  This 
timber  has  been  bought  by  Americans,  probably  for  $1.00  gold 
per  acre  (which  is  $2.00  Mexican  money).  The  timber  tracts  for 
sale  in  Mexico  are  usually  very  large,  from  100,000  acres  up,  be- 
longing to  estates  or  Spanish  land  grants.  The  prices  of  tracts 
already  in  the  hands  of  American  speculators  are  held  at  from  $1 
to  $4  gold  per  acre. 

*  These  pines  are  undoubtedly  improperly  identified.  The  classification  of 
Mexican  pines  is  still  somewhat  uncertain,  but  P.  Montczumae  and  P. 
Arizonica  are  probably  the  most  common. — Editor. 


278  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Generally  speaking,  the  Mexican  pine  forests  are  what  we 
would  call  here  still  inaccessible  or  in  other  words,  not  yet  ripe 
for  profitable  logging  under  present  market  conditions.  For  an 
immediate  logging  proposition  I  do  not  consider  the  requirements 
of  large  Mexican  timber  holdings  as  a  very  splendid  investment 
on  account  of  the  great  amount  of  money  needed  at  the  start  for 
railway  construction  to  reach  the  timber,  and  on  account  of  labor 
conditions  and  present  market  prices  of  lumber,  as  long  as  Ameri- 
can lumber  can  be  sold  as  cheap  as  Mexican.  But  if  stumpage 
can  be  secured  for  30  cents  gold  or  less,  and  then  be  left  alone  for 
10  or  15  years,  a  good  investment  may  be  made.  Ground  fires 
are  frequent  but  do  not  do  much  damage  to  old  timber  in  those 
altitudes ;  the  damage  being  done  to  the  reproduction  only,  which 
makes  the  investment  on  the  old  timber  comparatively  safe. 

These  pine  forests  extend  in  larger  bodies  on  high  altitudes 
through  the  southern  part  of  Mexico  and  Central  America. 
Around  the  snow  clad  mountains  of  the  Popocatepetl  and  Iztac- 
cihuatl  (18,500  ft.  high)  the  timber  line  seems  to  go  as  high  as 
16,000  feet.  When  the  writer  passed  these  mountains  there  were 
three  different  forest  fires  raging.  In  the  interior  of  the  Republic 
of  Honduras  is  another  larger  body  of  pines  more  or  less  of  inter- 
est for  lumbermen. 

Outside  the  pine  forests  of  the  high  altitudes  in  the  interior, 
which  offer,  a  very  pleasant  temperate  climate,  are  the  tropical 
hardwood  forests  with  mahogany,  Cedrela  odorata  and  many  other 
valuable  species,  situated  on  the  bottomlands  and  coast  region. 
There  are  also  large  white  oak  forests  between  Mexico  City  and 
the  Pacific  coast  which  have  been  explored  quite  recently. 

In  general,  the  exploitation  of  the  Mexican  pine  forests  is  just 
commencing.  The  market  of  these  forests  lies  east  of  the  Sierra 
Madre,  which  is  fortunately  the  more  accessible  side.  The  largest 
lumber  company  is  the  Sierra  Madre  Timber  &  Land  Co.,  which 
has  concessions  of  2,300,000  acres  east  of  Chihuahua,  with  a  mill 
of  a  daily  capacity  of  500,000  b.  f.,  located  300  kilometers  west  of 
Chihuahua  at  the  terminal  of  the  Chihuahua  al  Pacifico  R.  R. 
The  mill  has  never  been  operated  to  its  full  capacity  but  the  out- 
put has  averaged  about  100,000  b.  f.  per  day.  This  company  has 
been  newly  organized  this  spring  and  is  owned  by  Americans. 
Aside  from  this  large  concern,  there  are  a  few  other  small  lumber 
companies.     A  very  interesting  logging  operation  is  conducted 


Brief  Notes  on  Mexican  Forests.  279 

with  a  permanently  located  overhead  cable  construction  such  as  is 
used  in  modern  mines  in  Peru  to  transport  ore  and  people  across 
canons.  In  this  case  the  logs  and  supplies  are  transported  from 
the  rim  of  the  Sierra  towards  a  point  situated  1,500  feet  lower,  the 
terminal  of  the  logging  railroad.  This  length  of  the  cable  works 
is  2-J  kilometers  at  a  cost  of  $22,000.  This  lumber  company  is 
located  about  200  kilometers  north  of  the  city  of  Durango  at  the 
terminal  of  the  International  R.  R.  in  the  Sierra  de  la  candela. 
The  logging  itself  is  done  in  a  very  wasteful  manner.  The  stumps 
are  cut  very  high.  The  cuttings  spread  all  over  the  area,  leaving 
many  places  unfinished.  The  laborers  are  all  Mexicans,  receiving 
from  40  to  60  cents  gold  per  day.  At  least  half  the  amount  of 
the  wages  must  be  spent  at  the  commissary,  but  the  most  of  them 
spend  all  their  wages,  and  little  cash  money  is  handled  on  a  pay 
day.  The  discipline  in  those  camps  so  remote  from  civilization 
appears  striking  to  an  American.  Any  disobedience  or  drunken- 
ness is  punished  at  the  camp  by  tying  the  man  to  a  tree  with  his 
arms  behind  his  back  and  making  him  stand  on  his  toes,  or  else 
he  is  put  into  the  camp  jail.  The  foreman  is  a  deputy  sheriff  and 
wears  a  pistol  and  a  long  sword  (not  to  be  confused  with  a 
machete). 

The  traveling  on  the  Mexican  Central  from  El  Paso  to  Mexico 
City  is  very  pleasant  with  Pullman  facilities ;  the  meals  are  served 
in  the  Pullman  cars.  The  trip  lasts  three  days  without  changing 
cars,  and  costs,  including  Pullman,  $36.00.  The  trip  from  Mexico 
City  over  Vera  Cruz  to  Salina  Cruz  on  the  West  Coast  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  can  be  made  in  two  days  and  costs,  in- 
cluding Pullman,  $21  gold.  In  a  year  from  now,  one  will  be  able 
to  travel  from  Mexico  City  to  Guatemala  City  in  Pullmans,  a  most 
interesting  cosmopolitan  city  with  about  100,000  inhabitants  and 
a  splendid  climate.  It  is  located  5,000  feet  above  the  sea,  which 
makes  its  climate  very  pleasant.  During  the  evening  one  can  wear 
an  overcoat,  although  located  15  degrees  north  latitude. 

Two  hours  ride  on  the  railroad  brings  one  into  the  land  of  real 
tropics  with  all  its  beautiful  scenes  and  plantations.  I  recommend 
every  reader  to  make  a  trip  through  Mexico.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  know  Spanish  if  one  travels  only  to  Mexico  City  as  the  con- 
ductors speak  English,  but  further  south  without  knowing  the 
Spanish  language,  traveling  may  become  uninteresting. 


EUCALYPTS  CULTIVATED  IX  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
By  C.  Westergaard,  Jr. 

The  following  descriptions  of  the  species  of  Eucalyptus  mostly 
cultivated  in  the  southwestern  United  States  may  satisfy  the 
growing  popular  interest  manifested  in  Eucalyptus  culture.  They 
are  intended  as  a  guide  for  the  prospective  Eucalyptus  grower, 
and  it  is  hoped  that  the  information  thus  condensed  will  prove  to 
be  useful  for  quick  and  practical  reference. 

The  descriptions  are  based  on  the  work  of  recognized  authori- 
ties in  both  this  country  and  Australia,  including  such  writers  as 
A.  J.  McClatchie,  Von  Mueller,  Abbott  Kinney,  and  Elwood 
Cooper.  Such  other  sources  as  experiment  station  reports,  gov- 
ernment reports,  and  leading  newspaper  and  magazine  articles 
have  been  freely  consulted.  Direct  information  has  also  been 
obtained  by  visits  to  different  regions  incidental  to  travel  in  con- 
nection with  Farmers'  Institute  work. 

1.     E.  amygdalina. 

GIANT  EUCALYPT,  PEPPERMINT  TREE. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Varying  from  very  narrow  to 
lance-shaped.  Said  to  have  a  distinct  peppermint  odor  when 
crushed.  Flowers  and  Fruit — Flowers  small,  8  to  15  in  compact 
clusters.  Seed  cases  small  and  nearly  top-shaped.  Bark — Quite 
variable ;   being  either  rough  and  persistent  or  flaking  off. 

Growth  :  Among  the  tallest  trees  in  the  world.  Reaches 
400  feet  in  height  and  18  to  35  feet  in  diameter.  Second  only 
to  Sequoia  gigantea.  Very  variable.  Does  not  seem  to  do  as 
well  in  California. 

Wood:  The  timber  not  as  valuable  as  that  of  some  others. 
Not  valued  for  fuel.  Durability — Does  not  last  well  under 
ground.  Uses — Said  to  be  used  for  shingles,  rails,  and  plank- 
ing.   An  important  source  of  eucalyptus  oil.     (Maiden) 

Requirements:  Climate — Prefers  moist  cool  ravines.  Does 
not  thrive  in  interior  valleys.  Endures  low  temperatures,  but 
not  dry  heat. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West:  Berkeley  (?),  Pasadena, 
Santa  Barbara,  Chico. 


Eucalypts  in  the  United  States.  281 

Facts  of  Special  Interest:  This  tree  yields  the  highest 
percentage  of  oil  of  all  the  eucalypts.  Most  abundant  and 
largest  growth  in  West  Australia. 

2.     E.  botryoides. 

BASTARD  MAHOGANY. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Horizontally  placed,  rather  large 
and  thick,  dark  green  shiny  surface.  Flowers  and  Fruit — 
Flowers  stemless,  4  to  10  in  cluster;  stout  flattened  stalks; 
seed  cases  cup-shaped,  or  goblet-shaped  ;  rather  large.  Bark — 
Of  stem  of  young  tree  quite  smooth.  Bark  of  lower  trunk  of 
adult  tree  rough,  usually  persistent,  grayish  or  brownish  in 
color.     Bark  flakes  off  branches. 

Growth  :  Reaches  75  to  100  feet  in  height.  Grows  rapidly 
while  young. 

Wood  :  Reddish  color  and  close-grained.  Durability — Posts 
14  years  old  showed  no  signs  of  decay.  (Mueller).  Uses — 
Useful  as  a  forest  cover  and  for  shade.  Authorities  disagree  as 
to  its  value  for  timber. 

Requirements:  Climate — Prefers  sandy  situations  close  to 
sea  coast.  Does  not  thrive  in  a  dry  climate  and  will  not  stand 
low  temperatures. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West  :  Santa  Barbara,  Montecito, 
Los  Angeles,  Pasadena. 

Facts  of  Special  Interest  :  Said  to  do  well  at  Santa  Bar- 
bara and  Montecito.    Said  to  present  a  fine  appearance. 

3.     E.  calophylla. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Broad,  horizontally  placed. 
Flowers  and  Fruit — Flowers  unusually  large  for  the  genus, 
cream  colored  and  in  large  clusters.  Seed  cases,  urn-shaped, 
the  largest  of  any  eucalypt.  Bark — Rough,  grayish  or  brownish 
in  color,  persistent,  deeply  furrowed. 

Growth:  A  moderate  sized  tree.  (A  specimen  on  the  Uni- 
versity campus  at  Berkeley  seems  stunted).  The  young  seed- 
lings hairy  for  some  time. 

Wood  :  Durability — Not  durable  under  ground.  Uses — 
Timber  valuable  in  Australia,  takes  place  of  hickory.  An  im- 
portant source  of  nectar  for  bees.  (In  California  seed  cases  are 
sometimes  polished  and  used  for  pipe  bowls). 


282  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Requirements:  Climate — Thrives  best  in  moist  tropical 
climate.  Does  not  endure  a  dry  hot  atmosphere.  Very  sensi- 
tive to  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West:    Santa  Monica,  Berkeley. 

Facts  of  Special  Interest:  In  California  has  succeeded 
only  in  warm  coast  regions.  A  specimen  at  Berkeley  does  not 
seem  to  do  well. 

4.  E.  citriodora. 

LEMON-SCENTED  GUM. 

Identification  :  Leaves — The  stem  and  leaf  stalks  of 
young  seedlings,  rough  with  short  brownish  hairs ;  pleasant 
odor  resembling  lemon.  Flowers  and  Fruit — Flowers  abundant, 
conspicuous,  in  compound  clusters ;  flower  buds  nearly  pear- 
shaped,  the  covering  being  nearly  hemispherical.  Seed  cases 
egg-shaped  or  somewhat  globular.  Bark — Light  colored,  mot- 
tled by  indentations  where  it  has  peeled  off. 

Growth  :  Handsome,  tall,  slender,  fast  growing.  60  to  100 
feet  in  10  to  15  years.    Foliage  mostly  at  summit. 

Wood  :  Grayish,  brownish,  or  yellowish ;  flexible,  strong, 
and  durable.  Value  due  to  strength,  elasticity,  and  beauty. 
Uses — Said  to  replace  hickory  in  coach  factories.  Valuable  for 
bees. 

Requirements  :  Climate — Thrives  in  frostless  coast  region. 
Not  suited  to  dry  interior  valleys.  Very  sensitive  to  low  tem- 
peratures. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West:    Santa  Monica. 

Facts  of  Special  Interest  :  Best  adapted  to  low  lying 
tropical  and  semi-tropical  regions. 

5.  E.   coryacea. 

DROOPING  WHITE  GUM. 

Identification:  Leaves — Principal  veins  run  lengthwise  of 
leaf.  Flowers  and  Fruit — Medium  sized  flowers  in  compact 
clusters.  Bark — Smooth  and  grayish.  Twigs  and  flower  clus- 
ters sometimes  adorned  with  a  bluish  white  bloom. 

Growth  :  Of  medium  size,  rarely  75  feet  high  and  3  feet  in 
diameter. 

Wood:  Timber  comparatively  soft,  splits  fairly  well  but  is 
rather  brittle.     On  account  of  frost  resistance  it  should  make 


Eucalypts  in  the  United  States.  283 

good  forest  cover.  Durability — Said  not  to  be  durable  under 
ground.    Uses — Makes  good  fuel. 

Requirements:  Climate — Will  not  endure  drought  or  dry 
atmosphere  even  when  watered  artificially.  Said  to  be  some- 
what resistant  to  frost. 

Facts  of  Special  Interest:  In  Australia  it  is  reported  to 
extend  up  to  the  permanent  snow  line.  Grows  from  base  to  top 
of  mountains. 

E.  cornuta. 

YATE. 

Identification  :  Leaves — On  young  tree  oval,  becoming 
longer  as  the  tree  grows  older,  thin  in  texture.  Flowers  and 
Fruit — Flowers  large  and  conspicuous ;  deciduous  covering  of 
flower  buds  is  very  long  and  conspicuous.  Bark — Of  trunk 
never  deeply  furrowed,  usually  persistent  but  small  patches  may 
peel  off.    Color  drab. 

Growth  :  Tends  to  grow  rather  low  and  to  be  profusely 
spreading. 

Wood:  Very  heavy,  hard,  tough,  and  elastic.  Uses — An 
effective  low  windbreak.  Used  also  as  a  shade  tree  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

Requirements:  Climate — Endures  hot  summers  of  Cali- 
fornia and  Arizona  if  roots  are  supplied  with  water.  Also  en- 
dures more  rain  than  most  eucalypts.  no0  to  1160  F.  and  23  ° 
to  260  F.  Soil — Prefers  rich  moist  soil.  Will  make  fair  growth 
in  poor  soil. 

Peaces  Grown  in  the  West:  Thrives  on  the  coast.  En- 
dures hot  interior  if  supplied  with  sufficient  moisture.  Berkeley, 
Santa  Monica. 

E.  corymbosa. 

BLOODWOOD. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Leathery,  varying  from  oval  to 
lance-shaped.  Frequently  mottled  with  red;  veins  numerous, 
spread  like  a  feather  in  characteristic  manner.  Flowers  and 
Fruit — Bloom  profuse ;  flowers  white  or  cream  color,  above 
average  size.  Large  seed  cases,  urn-shaped  or  egg-shaped,  etc. 
Different  from  any  other  eucalypt.    Bark — Grayish,  or  brownish 


284  Forestry  Quarterly. 

and  rough;  wrinkled  and  persistent;  upper  branches  smooth 
cream  colored  or  reddish. 

Growth  :  Of  moderate  size  ;  may  reach  100  feet.  Reported 
as  sometimes  being  stunted  and  shrubby. 

Wood:  Easily  worked  when  fresh,  but  very  hard  when  dry, 
unsuited  for  lumber  on  account  of  Kino.  Durability — Well 
adapted  for  underground  work.  Posts  reported  as  40  years  old. 
Uses — Suitable  for  fence  posts,  useful  for  bees.  Not  considered 
a  very  good  fuel. 

Requirements:  Climate — Seems  to  do  well  near  the  coast. 
Does  not  thrive  in  hot  interior  valleys.  Supposed  to  be  sensi- 
tive to  both  severe  frosts  and  high  heat. 

8.  E.   crebra. 

X ARROW-LEAVED  IRON-BARK. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Narrow,  green  on  both  sides, 
thin.  Flowers  and  Fruit — Flowers  very  small;  seed  cases  very 
small  goblet-shaped,  or  cup-shaped;  valves  minute.  Bark — 
Rough  and  persistent,  hard,  dark,  and  deeply  furrowed. 

Growth  :  A  slender  tree  reaching  100  feet  in  height  and  2 
or  3  feet  in  diameter. 

Wood:  Reddish  with  interlocked  fibres,  hard,  tough,  and 
elastic.  Durability — Said  to  be  durable  under  ground.  Uses — 
Used  for  posts,  ties,  piles,  bridges,  and  wagon  work.  High 
timber  value  ;   a  valuable  wood. 

Requirements  :  Climate — Endures  a  greater  variety  of  cli- 
mate than  other  iron-barks.  Survives  temperatures  180  to  20° 
F.  and  no°  to  1180  F.  Soil — Is  reported  to  get  along  well  in 
poor  soil. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West:  Fresno,  California;  Phoenix, 
Arizona. 

Facts  oe  Special  Interest  :  Supposed  to  be  well  adapted 
to  hillsides. 

9.  E.  corynocalyx. 

SUGAR  GUM. 

Identification  :  Leaves — On  young  trees  oval  or  round ; 
on  mature  trees  nearly  lance-shaped.  Flowers  and  Fruit — 
Blooms  profusely  and  at  an  early  age.  Flowers  conspicuous. 
Produces  flowers  during  several  months  of  the  year.     Bark — 


Bucalypts  in  the  United  States.  285 

Left  smooth  by  continuous  flaking  off ;  deep  cream  color  on 
main  stem,  darker  on  branches ;  quite  red  on  young-  twigs. 

Growth  :  Grows  a  straight  trunk  with  slight  taper.  At- 
tains 50  to  100  feet  in  height,  and  a  diameter  of  5  to  6  feet. 

Wood:  Very  hard  when  dry.  Warps  very  little  in  drying. 
Durability — Post  set  in  ground  reported  sound  at  end  of  15 
years.  Uses — Valuable  for  posts,  ties,  and  timber,  and  for 
underground  situations.  Useful  for  felloes  and  naves  of 
wheels.    Valuable  for  bees. 

Requirements  :  Climate — Likes  moisture  but  will  endure 
a  great  amount  of  drought.  One  of  the  best  trees  for  a  desert 
region,  but  sensitive  to  frost.    20°  to  250  F.  and  no°  to  1150  F. 

Peaces  Grown  in  the  West:  Wide  range.  Santa  Monica, 
California ;   Glendale,  Arizona  ;   Sierra  Madre. 

Facts  oe  Special  Interest  :  Considered  one  of  the  best  all 
around  eucalypts.    Very  popular  in  Australia. 

10.  E.   diversicolor. 

KARRI. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Attractive  foliage,  dark  green 
above,  paler  below.  Flowers  and  Fruit — Flowers,  4  to  8  in 
clusters  with  rather  slender,  somewhat  flattened  stalks.  Seed 
cases  egg-shaped  or  goblet-shaped.  Bark — Grayish,  commonly 
persistent. 

Growth  :  Reaches  a  height  of  400  feet.  Grows  faster  than 
E.  amygdalina.  It  is  the  second  tallest  tree  in  Australia.  Basal 
diameters  up  to  20  feet.    Trunk  usually  straight. 

Wood:  Light  color;  bends  freely,  straight  grain.  Timber 
superior  to  blue  gum.  Authorities  differ  regarding  value  of  the 
wood.  The  wood  seems  to  vary.  Uses — Grown  for  forest 
cover.  Used  for  masts,  wheelwright  work,  ship-building, 
spokes,  shafts,  felloes,  and  rails. 

Requirements  :  Climate — Thrives  in  a  moist  climate.  Does 
not  endure  dry  heat  well.  Said  to  be  resistant  to  considerable 
frost. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West:  Los  Angeles,  Pasadena, 
Berkeley. 

11.  E.  eugenioides. 

WHITE  STRINGY  BARK. 
Identification  :     Leaz'es — Opposite   and   notched   in   seed- 
lings.    Later  twigs  smooth  and  leaves  regular.     Foliage  quite 


286  Forestry  Quarterly. 

dense.  Flozvers  and  Fruit — Flowers  medium  size  in  compact 
clusters.  Seed  vessels  cup-shaped.  Bark — Tenacious.  Re- 
sembles American  cedar.    Color  gray  to  tan. 

Growth:  Attains  heights  of  150  to  200  feet.  Pleasing  in 
appearance.     Seedlings  covered  with  soft  hair. 

Wood:  Pale  colored.  Splits  readily,  not  liable  to  warp. 
Strong  and  durable.  Uses — Useful  for  timber,  fence  rails,  and 
posts.  Bark  used  for  roofing,  mats,  and  strings.  Leaves  rich 
in  oil. 

Requirements:  Climate — Best  adapted  to  a  moderately 
humid  region.  Does  not  do  well  in  too  hot  climates.  Does  best 
near  coast.    Soil — Is  found  on  sandy  and  poor  soil. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West:    Pasadena,  Santa  Monica. 

12.     E.   globulus. 

BLUE  GUM. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Early  leaves  blue  and  opposite. 
Older  leaves  smooth,  elongated,  and  alternate.  Small  twigs  on 
young  trees  square,  on  old  trees  rounded.  Flowers  and  Fruit — 
Warty  protuberances  on  flower  buds.  Seeds  larger  than  in 
most  species  of  eucalypts.  Bark — Usually  peeling  but  some- 
times persistent. 

Growth  :  Grows  to  a  height  of  200  to  300  feet  in  Autralia. 
In  California  has  attained  a  height  of  150  feet  in  30  years,  and 
50  to  75  feet,  in  5  years.    The  fastest  growing  tree  in  the  world. 

Wood:  Pale  in  color,  hard,  heavy,  and  strong.  Compares 
with  hickory  in  hardness.  Very  liable  to  check  badly  unless 
•carefully  seasoned.  Durability — Not  very  lasting  under  ground. 
:but  lasts  well  for  piling  in  salt  water.  Uses — Used  for  fuel ; 
used  in  manufacture  of  implements,  tool  handles,  etc.  Leaves 
a  valuable  source  of  oil. 

Requirements:  Climate — Thrives  well  in  moist  warm  cli- 
mates, and  quite  well  in  warm  dry  regions.  Endures  tempera- 
tures between  270  F.  and  105 °  F.  Rather  sensitive  above  and 
below  these  extremes.  Soil — Wide  range.  Prefers  river  banks 
and  alluvial  valleys  in  Australia. 

Peaces  Grown  in  the  West:  Found  in  most  parts  of  Cali- 
fornia. Does  not  thrive  at  Chico,  Cal.  (Does  not  do  well  in 
Arizona). 

Facts  oe  Special  Interest:     The  most  widely  grown  and 


Bucalypts  in  the  United  States.  287 

best  known  of  all  the  eucalypts.     Surpassed  in  height  only  by 
E.  amygdalina  and  E.  diversicolor. 

13.  E.  gonio  calyx. 

Identification  :  Leaves — On  young  trees  and  on  sprouts 
from  trunk  opposite,  heart-shaped,  and  broadly  oval.  Leaves  of 
adult,  long  and  quite  slender ;  both  sides  similarly  colored. 
Flozvers  and  Fruit — Flowers  nearly  stemless,  in  small  clusters 
borne  on  flattened  stalks.  Seed  cases  nearly  cup-shaped  and 
usually  more  or  less  angled.  Bark — Commonly  persistent,  but 
sometimes  flakes  off.    The  character  of  its  surface  varies. 

Growth  :  Reaches  a  height  of  300  feet  and  a  diameter  of  6 
to  10  feet  in  Australia.  At  Coopers  Ranch  has  reached  a  diame- 
ter of  8  to  18  inches  in  20  years. 

Wood:  Hard  and  tough.  Wood  varies,  pale  yellowish  to 
brownish  color.  Does  not  warp.  Interwoven  fibres  make  it 
almost  as  difficult  to  split  as  E.  rostrata.  Durability — Lasts 
well  under  ground.  Said  to  be  very  durable.  Uses — Used  by 
wheelwrights,  boat  builders,  and  for  general  building  purposes. 
Suitable  for  fence  posts,  ties,  etc.     Excellent  fuel. 

Requirements:  Climate — Grows  well  in  the  coast  regions  of 
California.  Ascends  to  4,000  feet  in  Australia,  hence  a  promis- 
ing species  for  mountains  of  California. 

Facts  oe  Special  Interest:  Has  not  been  tested  in  dry  hot 
valleys. 

14.  E.  gomphocsphala. 

TOOART. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Thick,  shining,  rather  leathery ; 
upper  surface  darker  than  the  lower.  Flozvers  and  Fruit — 
Flowers  large  and  stemless  in  clusters  on  a  flattened  stalk. 
Seed  cases  top-shaped,  bell-shaped,  etc.  One-half  to  three- 
fourths  inch  broad.  Bark — Gray,  rough  and  persistent,  flakes 
off  from  branches.    Twigs  reddish  yellow. 

Growth  :  Rather  stalky  and  symmetrical.  Has  reached  80 
feet  in  24  years  at  Santa  Barbara. 

Wood:  Heavy,  tough,  and  strong.  Hard  to  split.  One  of 
the  strongest  timbers  in  the  world.  Durability — Very  durable 
in  all  kinds  of  weather  and  in  many  different  situations. 
Uses — Used  for  ship-building  and  bridges. 


288  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Requirements  :  Climate — Thrives  along  the  coast  and 
seems  to  do  fairly  well  in  dry  interior  valleys. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West:    Santa  Barbara. 

Facts  of  Special  Interest:  Has  not  been  grown  enough 
yet  to  determine  its  range. 

15.  E.   gunnii. 

CIDER  EUCALYPT. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Foliage  dense  and  darker  than 
most  eucalypts.  Frequently  confined  to  ends  of  branches.  In- 
dividual leaves  said  to  be  wavy  or  kinked  suggesting  flutina. 
Flowers  and  Fruit — Flowers  medium  size.  Seed  cases  nearly 
top-shaped.  Bark — Usually  rough  and  brownish,  continually 
flaking  off. 

Growth  :  Not  usually  tall,  may  reach  250  feet  in  Autsralia ; 
60  feet  so  far  in  America.  Shrubby  in  alpine  regions,  trees 
sometimes  crooked  and  irregular. 

Wood  :  Too  crooked  in  growth  to  make  good  timber.  Dura- 
bility— No  good  for  underground  work.  Uses — Promises  to  be 
a  good  forest  cover.    Makes  fair  fuel.    Excellent  for  charcoal. 

Requirements  :  Climate — Said  to  be  very  hardy.  Endures 
summer  heat  fairly  well.    Thrifty  at  200  F. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West:    Santa  Monica. 

Facts  of  Special  Interest:  Grows  at  altitudes  of  4,000  and 
5,000  in  Australia. 

16.  E.   haemastoma. 

WHITE  GUM. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Thick,  usually  lance-shaped,  oc- 
casionally verging  into  oval  forms.  Floivers  and  Fruit — Flow- 
ers of  medium  size.  Covering  of  flower  buds  rounded  with  an 
abrupt  point.  Fruits  cup-shaped  or  goblet-shaped  with  brown 
or  reddish  rims.  Bark — Commonly  smooth,  but  sometimes 
rough  and  persistent. 

Growth  :     Medium  size.     Usually  erect  and  symmetrical. 

Wood  :  Gray  or  reddish  in  color.  Durability — Decays 
readily  and  not  durable  if  exposed.  Uses — Wood  used  some 
for  fuel.    Reported  as  of  no  particular  value. 

Requirements:      Climate — Thrives    near   the    coast.      Not 


Bucalypts  in  the  United  States.  289 

suited  to  the  dry  interior  valleys.     Soil — Claimed  to  do  well  in 
dry  sandy  situations,  by  Kinney. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West:    Santa  Monica. 

17.  E.  hemiphloia. 

GRAY  BOX. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Thick  varying  from  oval  to  lance- 
shaped.  Foliage  dense  enough  to  make  a  good  shade  tree. 
Flowers  and  Fruit — Flower  cup  sharply  pointed.  Fruit  com- 
monly goblet-shaped.  Bark — Persistent  and  rough  but  never 
deep  furrowed.    Bark  on  branches  stript. 

Growth  :  In  Australia  reaches  from  75  to  100  feet  in  height 
and  1  to  4  feet  in  diameter.  At  Coopers  Ranch  80  feet  in  height 
and  18  inches  in  diameter  in  20  years. 

Wood  :  Yellowish  white  in  color ;  very  heavy.  Timber 
strong,  hard,  and  not  easily  split.  Durability — Post  said  to  be 
sound  after  16  years.  Claimed  (by  Maiden)  to  be  subject  to 
dry  rot.  Uses — Used  for  mawls,  wheelwrights'  work,  posts, 
piles,  and  ties.    Makes  good  fuel. 

Requirements;  Climate — Range  of  temperatures,  150  to 
200  F.  and  no0  to  1150  F.  This  tree  appears  to  be  adapted  to 
a  very  wide  climatic  range.  Soil — Said  to  be  well  adapted  to 
dry  sandy  situations.     (Kinney) 

Places  Grown  in  the  West  :  Pasadena,  California  ;  Phoe- 
nix, Arizona ;    Santa  Monica. 

Facts  of  Special  Interest  :  Tree  tends  to  become  hollow 
at  an  early  age. 

18.  E.   leucoxylon. 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIAN  BLUE  GUM  (McCLATCHIE),  OR 

VICTORIAN  IRON  BARK,  OR  WHITE  GUM 

(MUELLER). 

Identification  :  Leaves — Foliage  of  a  pleasing  bluish  cast 
Leaves  scattered.  Flowers  and  Fruit — Flowers  grow  in  threes. 
Seed  cases  egg-shaped  or  globular.  Flowers  while  young. 
May  flower  while  leaves  are  in  opposite  stage.  Bark — Smooth 
and  light  in  color. 

Growth  :  Rapid.  Trunk  has  a  tendency  to  be  crooked  and 
out  of  perpendicular.  Seedling  weak,  disposed  to  recline  on 
ground.    May  reach  100  feet  in  height. 


290  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Wood:  White,  may  vary  to  shades  of  light  reddish  brown. 
Always  header  than  water.  Very  hard  and  strong.  Dura- 
bility— Durable.  Lasts  well  both  in  water  and  under  ground. 
Uses — Useful  for  forest  cover,  timber,  and  fuel.  Attractive  to 
bees.    Highly  prized  by  millwrights. 

Requirements:  Climate — Wide  range  of  climate;  from 
coast  to  interior  desert  valleys.  Grows  on  coast,  plains,  and 
foothills.    Endures  150  to  200  F. 

Peaces  Grown  in  the  West:  Especially  thrifty  at  Santa 
Monica  and  at  Phoenix,  Arizona. 

Facts  of  Special  Interest  :  Has  not  been  known  to  freeze. 
Claimed  to  be  well  suited  to  a  limestone  country.     (K.) 

19.  E.  longifolia. 

WOOLLY-BUTT. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Long,  sickle-shaped.  Flowers 
and  Fruit — Bloom  abundant  during  several  months  of  the  year. 
Seed  cases  bell-shaped,  angular,  growing  in  threes  about  one- 
half  inch  in  length.  Bark — Grayish  tan-colored,  rough  and  per- 
sistent, flakes  off  from  branches.    Twigs  red  or  yellowish. 

Growth  :  Tree  of  moderate  size,  but  may  reach  200  feet  in 
height.    Trunk  straight. 

Wood:  Timber  not  very  strong;  on  account  of  gum  veins 
not  good  for  timber.  Durability — Timber  durable,  but  not  very 
strong.  Uses — Used  for  posts,  ties,  and  paving;  for  fuel. 
Useful  for  bees. 

Requirements:  Climate — Thrives  near  coast  but  not  in  hot 
interior  dry  valleys. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West:  Claremont,  Pasadena,  Santa 
Monica. 

20.  E.  macrorhyncha. 

VICTORIA  STRINGY-BARK. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Of  young  seedlings,  broad  and 
oppositely  placed.  Young  growth  covered  with  short  thick  hair. 
Leaves  of  older  trees  thick  and  leathery.  Flowers  and  Fruit — 
Flowers  medium  size  in  clusters,  4  to  10.  Covers  of  flower 
buds  distinctly  conical  or  long  pointed.  Matured  seed  cases 
nearly  spherical.  Bark — Of  trunk  and  branches,  thick,  fibrous, 
persistent,  and  usually  of  dark  gray  color. 


Euealypts  in  the  United  States.  291 

Growth  :  Said  to  attain  a  fair  height  in  Australia,  but  speci- 
mens in  California  have  shown  up  well.     Not  symmetrical. 

Wood  :  Hard,  durable,  easily  split.  Some  samples  have  indi- 
cated a  good  furniture  wood.  Uses — Wood  used  for  fencing, 
lumber,  shingles,  and  fuel.  Promising  as  a  forest  cover.  Bark 
used  for  strings. 

Requirements:  Climate — Not  suited  to  dry  hot  plains,  but 
thrives  on  coast.    A  mountain  species. 

21.  E.  marginata. 

JARRAH. 

Identification  :  Leaves — From  ovate  to  lance-shaped. 
Somewhat  curved,  thin  to  leathery.  Flozvcrs  and  Fruit — Flow- 
ers quite  large,  3  to  12  on  conspicuous  stalks.  Flower  cap  long 
and  tapering.  Seed  cases  globular  or  egg-shaped.  Three-quar- 
ter inches  long.  Bark — Commonly  persistent.  Somewhat 
fibrous. 

Growth  :  May  grow  to  large  size.  Few  American  speci- 
mens over  30  feet.  In  Australia  up  to  100  feet  high  and  10  to 
15  feet  in  diameter. 

Wood:  Red  in  color,  takes  good  polish.  May  be  used  for 
furniture.  Is  rather  too  brittle  for  architectural  work.  Dura- 
bility— Very  durable  under  ground.  Exceptionally  resistant  to 
teredo  and  in  water.  Uses — Much  prized  in  India  and  Australia 
for  piles  and  ties. 

Requirements:  Climate — So  far  has  not  been  found  to 
thrive  well  anywhere  in  America,  either  on  coast  or  inland. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West:    Cahueuga. 

Facts  of  Special  Interest:  Not  relished  by  borers  and 
white  ants.  Has  made  poor  growth  at  Santa  Monica  and  Pasa- 
dena. 

22.  E.  melliodora. 

YELLOW  BOX. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Of  young  trees  oval  or  oblong, 
of  older  trees  lance  and  sickle-shaped ;  both  sides  dull  green. 
Floivers  and  Fruit — Flowers  of  medium  size  growing  in  com- 
pact clusters  on  short  stems.  Seed  cases  nearly  egg-shaped  with 
small  end  cut  away.     Bark — Outer  bark  brownish   grav  and 


292  Forestry  Quarterly. 

commonly  persistent.  Inner  bark  yellow.  Branches  usually 
smooth. 

Growth  :  Trees  usually  of  medium  height.  Said  to  attain 
250  feet,  and  diameter  of  6  to  8  feet.  Trunks  commonly 
crooked  and  gnarled. 

Wood  :  Timber  very  hard,  tough,  and  durable ;  not  easy  to 
split.  Wood  of  yellowish  color.  Durability — Durable  both 
above  and  under  ground.  Uses — Used  for  spokes,  naves,  cogs, 
and  heavy  frame  work.  Used  for  telegraph  poles,  posts,  etc. 
An  excellent  fuel.    A  good  source  of  honey. 

Requirements:  Climate — Wide  range  of  climate.  Will 
grow  near  coast  on  plains  and  foothills,  and  in  warm,  dry  in- 
terior valleys.  Soil — Prefers  a  fairly  fertile  soil  in  order  to  do 
well. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West:    Santa  Monica. 

23.     E.   microtheca. 

COOLIBAH. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Foliage  dense  and  inclined  to 
droop.  Leaves  long  and  somewhat  curved,  dull  green.  Flowers 
and  Fruit — Flowers  very  small,  3  to  8  in  cluster,  which  usually 
grow  in  groups.  Seed  cases  very  small,  broadly  top-shaped, 
valves  protruding.  Bark — Of  trunk  rough,  generally  furrowed, 
commonly  persistent,  brownish  gray  color. 

Growth  :  Tree  of  medium  size,  generally  crooked,  attains 
heights  of  50  to  80  feet  and  diameter  of  2  to  4  feet.  The  few 
growing  in  America  have  erect  trunks  and  promise  to  become 
fairly  large. 

Wood:  Dark  red  or  brown,  excessively  hard  and  inter- 
locked. Uses — Promises  well  for  a  forest  cover.  Furnishes  ex- 
cellent all  around  timber.  Useful  for  bridges,  ties,  posts,  build- 
ings, and  for  cabinet  work. 

Requirements:  Climate — Indigenous  to  dry,  hot  deserts. 
Will  stand  1270  F.  in  shade,  and  even  1560  F.  Endures  heavy 
frosts.  This  tree  promising  under  desert  conditions.  Soil — 
Does  best  in  gravelly,  well  drained  soil. 

Peaces  Grown  in  the  West:  Has  grown  well  wherever 
tried  in  California. 

Facts  oe  Special  Interest:  Roots  at  times  a  source  of 
water  in  dry  interior  of  Australia. 


Eucalypts  in  the  United  States.  293 

24.  E.   obliqua. 

MESSMATE. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Of  young  tree  broad,  narrow  on 
older  trees,  thick,  stiff,  and  unequally  sided  toward  the  base. 
Flozvers  and  Fruit — Flowers  medium  sized,  very  short  stem, 
stalks  slender,  slightly  compressed.  Shape  of  mature  seed  cases 
that  of  an  egg  with  small  end  cut  away.  Bark — Grayish, 
fibrous,  and  persistent  on  trunk  and  branches. 

Growth  :  Tree  straight  stemmed.  May  attain  a  height  of 
300  feet  with  diameter  of  10  feet.  According  to  Maiden  a  rapid 
grower. 

Wood:  Straight,  easily  split.  Durability — Said  not  to  be 
durable  under  ground.  Uses — Wood  used  for  fence,  palings, 
and  shingles.    The  bark  has  been  used  for  paper  making. 

Requirements:  Climate — Grows  well  near  coast,  does  bet- 
ter a  little  inland.  Does  not  endure  drouth,  or  the  dry  inland 
valleys.    Soil — Will  thrive  in  light,  barren  soil. 

Peaces  Grown  in  the  West:    Los  Angeles,  Santa  Monica. 

25.  E.   occidentalis. 

FLAT-TOPPED  YATE. 

Identification  :  Leazfes — Of  medium  size,  quite  thick  and 
shiny.  Flowers  and  Fruit — Flowers  large  and  conspicuous, 
stalks  of  clusters  flattened,  and  flower  stems  angled.  Seed  cases 
bell-shaped  or  pear-shaped.  Bark — May  be  persistent,  or  cast 
off  in  flakes.  Branches  smooth  and  white.  Small  twigs  reddish 
brown. 

Growth  :  Individual  trees  vary.  Frequently  shrubby,  10  to 
30  feet  in  height.  In  Australia,  tree-like,  under  favorable  con- 
ditions attaining  100  feet.    Tree  flat-topped  in  appearance. 

Wood:  Timber  hard  and  strong.  Durability — Said  to  be 
durable. 

Requirements  :  Climate — Thrives  near  coast  where  temper- 
ature does  not  get  below  25  °  F.  Also  thrives  inland,  but  will 
not  even  endure  25°  F.  then. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West:  Santa  Monica,  Santa  Bar- 
bara. 

Facts  of  Special  Interest:  A  valuable  tree.  Well  suited 
to  California.     (Kinney) 


294  Forestry  Quarterly. 

26.  E.  paniculata. 

WHITE  IRON  BARK,  OR  RED  IRON  BARK. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Of  medium  size,  commonly  lance- 
shaped,  or  somewhat  curved.  Flowers  and  Fruit — Flowers 
abundant,  below  medium  size,  3  to  8  on  rather  slender  angled 
stalks.  Seed  cases  from  low  cup-shaped  to  goblet-shaped. 
Bark — Of  trunk  grayish  brown  and  usually  hard  and  rough, 
flakes  off  in  some  cases. 

Growth  :  Tree  usually  below  medium  size.  May  reach  100 
feet  in  height,  usually  25  to  30  feet.  Not  promising  in  United 
States. 

Wood:  Dirty  dark  brown  in  color.  Timber  hard,  durable, 
and  considered  very  valuable.  Uses — Much  used  for  posts, 
bridges,  sleepers,  and  carriage  work. 

Requirements  :  Climate — Does  not  endure  heat  and 
drought  well.  Grows  fairly  well  near  the  coast  and  in  moun- 
tains. 

Facts  of  Special  Interest:  Barely  survived  the  drought  at 
Santa  Monica.    1899- 1900. 

27.  E.   pilularis. 

BLACKBUTT. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Scattered,  nearly  lance-shaped. 
Flowers  and  Fruit — Flowers  of  medium  size,  4  to  16  in  clusters, 
bud  coverings  conical.  Seed  cases  nearly  spherical,  or  the  shape 
of  the  broad  part  of  an  egg.  Bark — Of  lower  part  of  trunk 
dark  gray,  rough,  and  partially  persistent,  but  from  most  of  the 
trunk  it  flakes  off. 

Growth  :  A  well  shaped  tree  that  may  attain  300  feet  in 
height  and  a  diameter  of  15  feet.  Usually  about  100  to  150 
feet  and  3  to  5  feet  in  diameter.  Grows  fairly  well  in  Califor- 
nia.    Inclined  to  be  tall  and  slender. 

Wood  :  Of  a  yellowish  color.  Considered  one  of  the  best 
all  around  trees  for  timber.  Durability — Fence  posts  reported 
to  have  lasted  20  years.  Uses — In  demand  for  telegraph  poles 
and  ties.    Very  good  for  honey. 

Requirements  :  Climate — Does  not  thrive  in  the  dry,  hot 
interior  valleys.  Endures  neither  very  high  nor  very  low  tem- 
peratures. 


Bucalypts  in  the  United  States.  295 

Places  Grown  in  the  West:  In  America  grows  quite 
thriftily  at  and  near  the  coast.    Santa  Monica. 

Facts  of  Special  Interest:  Wood  has  a  tendency  to  warp 
when  exposed  to  the  sun,  hence  rather  difficult  to  season. 

28.  E.  piperita. 

WHITE  STRINGY-BARK, 

Identification  :  Leaves — Of  adult,  variable  from  broadly 
lance-shaped  and  very  unequally  sided  to  a  narrow  lance-shaped 
and  quite  straight  leaf.  Flowers  and  Fruit — Flowers  of  me- 
dium size,  6  to'  12  in  compact  clusters.  Seed  cases  nearly  spheri- 
cal or  like  broad  part  of  an  egg.  Bark — Grayish  bark  of  trunk 
fibrous  and  persistent. 

Growth  :  Tree  erect,  shapely,  and  attains  considerable 
height.    Young  seedlings  clothed  with  distinct  hairs. 

Wood  :  Color  of  wood  red.  Timber  splits  readily,  checks 
badly  in  drying.  Is  difficult  to  work.  Durability — Is  reported 
to  have  kept  sound  in  damp  ground  for  40  years.  Uses— Used 
for  fencing  and  general  building  purposes. 

Requirements:  Climate — Does  not  endure  dry  hot  climates, 
and  will  not  stand  heavy  frosts. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West:  Makes  a  rapid  growth  near 
the  coast  and  in  cool  inland  situations. 

29.  E.  polyanthema. 

RED  BOX. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Trees  of  a  spreading  habit,  char- 
acteristic foliage.  Leaves  roundish,  broadly  egg-shapped. 
Flozvers  and  Fruit — Bloom  profuse  and  dainty,  flowers  consid- 
erably below  average  size  and  arranged  in  branching  clusters. 
Seed  cases  somewhat  top-shaped  and  with  their  stems  are  quite 
distinctly  goblet-shaped.  Bark — Of  trunk  and  branches  per- 
sistent.    Somewhat  furrowed,  grayish  in  color. 

Growth  :  Tree  of  medium  size,  may  reach  250  feet.  Not  a 
rapid  grower.  Few  American  specimens  over  one  foot  in 
diameter. 

Wood  :  Timber  very  hard,  strong  and  durable.  Durability — 
Claimed  to  be  durable,  though  stems  become  hollow  with  age. 
Uses — Used  for  ties,  cogs,  wheels,  etc.,  used  for  fuel.    Valuable 

19 


296  Forestry  Quarterly. 

as  honey  pasture.  A  pleasing  shade  tree.  Wood  so  hard  that  it 
is  difficult  to  work. 

Requirements  :  Climate — Thrives  throughout  a  wide  range. 
Has  shown  itself  drought-resistant  at  Santa  Monica.  Endures 
150  to  20  °  F.  and  no°  to  1180  F. 

Peaces  Grown  in  the  West:  Santa  Monica,  Berkeley, 
Pasadena. 

Facts  of  Special  Interest:  This  tree  has  many  points  in 
its  favor,  besides  its  attractive  appearance. 

30.  E.   populifolia. 

POPLAR-LEAVED  BOX. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Scattered,  on  rather  long  stalks, 
roundish,  rather  egg-shaped,  shiny  and  deep  green  on  both 
sides.  Flowers  and  Fruit — Flowers  very  small,  3  to  12  in 
cluster,  on  short  stems.  Lid  of  flower  hemispherical.  Seed 
cases  small  and  nearly  top-shaped.  Bark — Wrinkled,  rather 
furrowed  and  persistent. 

Growth  :  Of  medium  size  and  somewhat  resembling  E. 
polyanthema. 

Wood:  Gray  or  light  brown  in  color.  Tough,  strong,  and 
hard  to  work.  Over  50  per  cent,  of  the  wood  unsound.  Takes 
a  good  polish.  Uses — Reported  to  make  good  posts.  Others 
claim  it  to  be  inferior  even  for  burning.     Not  well  known. 

Requirements  :  Climate — Thrives  in  dry  situations  in  Cali- 
fornia.   Said  to  promise  well  for  the  dry  interior. 

31.  E.   punctata. 

LEATHER  JACKET. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Lance-shaped  or  sickle-shaped, 
and  thin.  The  under  surface  somewhat  paler  than  the  upper 
shiny  one.  Flowers  and  Fruit — Flowers  above  medium  size, 
in  clusters  of  3  to  10  on  rather  stiff  flattened  stalks.  Seed  cases 
shaped  nearly  like  the  broad  part  of  an  egg.  Bark — Dark  in 
color,  rough  and  with  a  tendency  to  flake  off. 

Growth  :  Tree  of  medium  size.  May  reach  100  feet  in  Aus- 
tralia.   Of  spreading  habit. 

Wood  :  Pale  reddish  brown,  tough,  hard,  close-grained,  diffi- 
cult to  split.    Durability — Wood  durable  both  above  and  under 


Bucalypts  in  the  United  States.  297 

ground.     Uses — Used  for  fence  posts,  railway  ties,  parts  of 
wheels,  etc.    Makes  excellent  fuel. 

Requirements:  Climate — Thrives  at  and  near  the  coast; 
does  not  do  well  in  the  interior. 

32.  E.   resinifera. 

RED  MAHOGANY. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Slender,  somewhat  curved,  paler 
beneath  than  above ;  leathery  in  structure.  Flowers  and  Fruit — 
Flowers  of  medium  size,  4  to  10  in  cluster;  buds  distinctly 
cream  colored,  lids  conical  with  tapering  points.  Seed  cases 
cup-shaped  or  bell-shaped.  Bark — Of  trunk  dark,  reddish, 
fibrous,  and  persistent  resembling  that  of  the  stringy  barks. 

Growth  :  Of  fair  size,  erect  and  symmetrical.  May  reach 
100  feet  in  height. 

Wood:  Said  by  some  to  be  of  a  rich,  red  color.  The  term 
mahogany  considered  a  misfit  by  good  authorities.  Durability — 
Reported  to  last  well  under  ground.  Uses — Used  in  Australia 
for  piles,  posts,  paving,  shingles,  and  general  building  purposes. 
Considered  by  some  as  good  furniture  wood.  Used  for  forest 
cover  au.d  shade. 

Requirements  :  Climate — Grows  well  in  coast  region  of 
California,  but  does  not  thrive  in  interior  valleys.  It  is  reported 
as  neither  resisting  frosts  nor  very  high  temperatures. 

Facts  of  Speciae  Interest:  Best  adapted  to  moist,  semi- 
tropical  climates. 

33.  E.  robusta. 

SWAMP  MAHOGANY. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Large,  leathery,  sometimes  6 
inches  long  by  2  inches  wide,  upper  side  dark  green,  lower  side 
paler  green.  Flowers  and  Fruit — Flowers  cream  colored, 
abundant,  3  to  10  in  clusters  on  stout  usually  flattened  stalks. 
Seed  cases  goblet-shaped,  or  sometimes  urn-shaped.  Bark — 
Rusty  gray,  usually  wrinkled,  furrowed,  and  persistent,  flakes 
off  frequently  on  branches,  leaving  branches  smooth. 

Growth  :  Tree  of  medium  size.  In  Australia  reaches  100 
feet  in  height  and  4  feet  in  diameter.  In  California  50  feet  high 
and  1  foot  in  diameter.    Of  spreading  habit. 

Wood  :    Of  reddish  color,  hard  to  split,  not  in  favor  with  arti- 


298  Forestry  Quarterly. 

sans.  Durability — Durable  under  ground.  Uses — Used  for 
posts,  ties,  etc. 

Requirements  :  Climate — Thrives  near  the  coast.  In  Aus- 
tralia found  in  swampy  regions.  Will  grow  in  a  variety  of 
situations  if  kept  supplied  with  plenty  of  moisture.  Not  adapted 
to  dry  interior  valleys. 

Peaces  Grown  in  the  West:  Santa  Monica,  Alhambra, 
Los  Angeles. 

Facts  of  Special  Interest  :    Will  not  endure  heavy  frosts. 

34.  E.  rostrata. 

RED  GUM. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Of  medium  size,  lance  or  sickle- 
shaped,  and  have  the  same  color  on  both  sides.  Foliage  may 
vary  from  livid  green  to  yellowish  or  brownish.  Flowers  and 
Fruit — Flowers  small  on  slender  stems,  3  to  12  in  clusters  borne 
on  slender  stalks ;  deciduous  covering  distinctly  beaked.  Seed 
cases  cup-shaped  with  conspicuous  protruding  valves.  Bark — 
Of  young  tree  smooth,  reddish  or  ashy  gray.  On  older  ones 
more  rough  and  furrowed,  usually  persistent,  but  may  flake  off 
in  patches.    Twigs  and  seedlings  red. 

Growth  :  Commonly  100  feet  high  in  Australia,  may  reach 
6  to  12  feet  in  diameter.  Makes  fairly  rapid  growth.  Tree 
varies  in  habits  and  appearance. 

Wood  :  Rich  red  when  freshly  cut ;  darkens  on  exposure  to 
air,  hard,  strong,  close-grained  and  difficult  to  split.  Dura- 
bility— Very  durable  both  underground  and  in  water.  Resistant 
to  teredo  and  white  ants,  etc.  Uses — Used  for  ship  building, 
piles,  posts,  paving,  house  blocks,  street  curbing,  etc. 

Requirements:  Climate — Prefers  moisture  but  will  endure 
much  heat  and  drought.  Thrives  in  moist,  foggy  sections. 
Wide  range.  In  dry  valleys  endures  150  to  200  F.-  and  no°  to 
1150  F.    Soil — Tolerant  of  considerable  alkali. 

Peaces  Grown  in  the  West:    Santa  Barbara,  Berkeley,  etc. 

Facts  oe  Special  Interest:  One  of  the  most  useful  and 
widely  grown  of  all  the  eucalypts. 

35.  E.  rudis. 

FLOODED  GUM  TREE  OR  SWAMP  GUM  TREE,  ETC. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Rather  thin  in  structure.  Occa- 
sionally sickle-shaped.    Flowers  and  Fruit — Flowers  of  medium 


Bucalypts  in  the  United  States.  299 

size,  bud  covers  conical.  Seed  cases  cup-shaped,  with  prominent 
protruding  valves.  Bark — Grayish,  usually  persistent,  but 
sometimes  peels  off,  rough. 

Growth  :  Reaches  50  to  75  feet  in  height.  At  Fresno,  Cali- 
fornia, a  15  year  old  grove  contains  trees  70  to  80  feet  tall  and 
18  to  24  inches  in  diameter.  At  Phoenix,  Arizona,  30  feet  high, 
diameter,  6  inches  in  3  years. 

Wood  :  Uses — Promises  to  be  useful  for  a  forest  cover,  fuel, 
and  as  a  source  of  honey. 

Requirements:  Climate — Thrives  naturally  along  streams 
in  Australia.  Seems  adapted  to  a  wide  range  if  moisture 
enough  is  available.  Endures  15°  to  180  F.  and  no°  to  1180 
F.  at  Phoenix,  Arizona.  Soil — Claimed  to  be  resistant  to  mod- 
erate amount  of  alkali. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West  :  Fresno,  California ;  Phoenix, 
Arizona. 

36.  E.   saligna. 

GREY  GUM  OR  SILKY  GUM,  ETC. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Lance-shaped,  somewhat  curved, 
long  pointed,  lower  side  paler  than  upper.  Flowers  and  Fruit — 
Flowers  nearly  stemless,  medium  size,  4  to  8  in  clusters ;  much 
flattened  stalk.  Bud  cover  nearly  cone-shaped.  Seed  cases  bell- 
shaped,  valves  protruding.  Bark — Of  trunk  grayish  in  color, 
rendered  nearly  smooth  by  the  outer  layer  flaking  off. 

Growth  :  Lofty,  straight  stemmed,  from  100  to  200  feet 
high,  diameter  3  to  6  feet. 

Wood:  Pale  reddish  in  color.  Timber  of  great  strength, 
straight-grained,  easily  worked,  durable.  Uses — Used  for  piles, 
beams,  ties.  In  Australia,  of  importance  for  lumber.  The  wood 
a  favorite  with  carpenters. 

Requirements  :  Climate — Has  not  been  thoroughly  tried  in 
America,  hence  climatic  requirements  little  understood.  Did 
not  survive  well  the  seasons  of  1897  and  1900  in  California. 

Facts  oe  Special  Interest:  In  America,  it  has  not  given 
promise  of  attaining  to  great  size. 

37.  E.  sideropkloia. 

BROAD-LEAFED  IRONBARK. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Large,  broad,  usually  thick,  often 
much  curved.     Flowers  and  Fruit — Flowers  of  about  medium 


300  Forestry  Quarterly. 

size,  2  to  8  in  clusters  on  more  or  less  angled  stalks.  The  long 
covering  of  flower  bud  conical  and  sharp  pointed.  Seed  cases 
with  stems  goblet-shaped.  Bark — Peristent  and  rough,  with 
quite  deep  fissures,  rusty  color,  somewhat  flaky. 

Growth  :  Becomes  over  ioo  feet  high  in  Australia,  and  3  to 
4  feet  in  diameter.    Promises  well  in  California. 

Wood  :  Extremely  hard,  difficult  to  work,  strong  and  dur- 
able. Uses — Used  for  bridges,  posts,  sleepers,  railway  ties; 
makes  a  fair  fuel  but  burns  slowly. 

Requirements  :  Climate — Fairly  wide  range  of  climate. 
Does  not  thrive  in  dry,  hot  interior  valleys.  Resist  the  follow- 
ing temperatures,  180  to  200  F.,  and  no°  to  1120  F. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West  :    Los  Angeles. 

Facts  oe  Special  Interest  :  This  may  be  found  to  be  a  very 
valuable  tree. 

38.  E  sideroxylon 

RED  IRONBARK  (THE  TYPICAL  IRONBARK). 

Identification  :  Leaves — Narrow  lance-shaped,  often 
curved,  usually  having  a  more  or  less  silvery  surface.  Leaves 
of  seedling  somewhat  like  the  older  trees.  Flozvers  and  Fruit — 
Flowers  in  clusters  of  3  to  8;  light  pink  to  scarlet;  covering  of 
flower  bud  cone-shaped,  sharp  pointed,  seed  cases  nearly  cup- 
shaped.  Bark — Th  darkest  of  the  ironbarks,  being  dark  red  or 
brown,  furrowed  and  crooked,  studded  with  beads  of  kino. 

Growth  :  Tree  of  medium  to  large  size,  erect,  large  side 
branches ;  never  grows  to  a  great  height. 

Wood:  Of  a  dark  red  color,  hard,  heavy,  strong,  and  dur- 
able. Durability — Durable  under  ground.  Uses — Used  for  ties, 
girders,  spokes,  and  shafts.  Makes  a  desirable  shade  tree  or 
wind-break.    Good  for  honey. 

Requirements:  Climate — In  California,  thrives  in  dry  soil 
near  the  coast,  and  on  the  plains  and  hillsides  of  some  interior 
valleys.  Not  suited  to  hot  interior  valleys,  or  to  Arizona.  En- 
dures 160  to  200  F.  and  no°  to  1120  F. 

Facts  oe  Special  Interest:    Considered  a  very  useful  tree. 

39.  E.  stuartiana. 

APPLE-SCENTED  EUCALYPT. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Of  seedlings,  opposite  on  stems, 
roundish  or  lance-shaped  with  a  distinct  bloom ;    when  crushed 


Bucalypts  in  the  United  States.  301 

gives  forth  a  pleasant  odor  resembling  apples.  Flowers  and 
Fruit — Flowers  of  medium  size  in  compact  clusters  of  3  to  8 ; 
deciduous  covering  of  flower  bud  cone-chaped.  Seed  cases 
rather  small  and  usually  almost  top-shaped.  Bark — Of  trunk 
and  main  branches  rough  and  more  or  less  fibrous,  grayish 
brown  outside  and  salmon  colored  next  the  wood. 

Growth  :  Trees  never  attain  great  size,  but  grow  very 
rapidly  the  first  ten  years.  May  reach  30  to  40  feet  in  height 
and  one  foot  in  diameter  in  10  years.  Grows  erect  with  a  stocky 
appearance. 

Wood:  Hard  but  not  straight-grained,  light,  warm,  wavy 
red  color.  Takes  a  polish,  hence  used  for  rough  furniture. 
Uses — Used  for  a  forest  cover,  for  wind-breaks,  for  shade,  etc. 
Used  some  for  fence  posts  and  sleepers. 

Requirements  :  Climate — Thrives  near  the  coast,  endures 
io°  F.  to  180  F.  Hence  adapted  to  considerable  variation  in 
altitude.     Not  suited  to  the  hot  interior. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West:     Santa  Monica,  Pasadena. 

40.     E.  tereticornis. 

FOREST  RED  GUM. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Of  seedlings,  broad  with  short 
stalks.  As  they  grow  older,  stalks  become  longer  and  leaves 
more  pointed.  Flowers  and  Fruit — Flowers  above  medium  size, 
in  open  clusters  of  4  to  8  on  slender  stalks.  Covering  of  full- 
grown  flower  bud  long,  round,  usually  abruptly  pointed  pod 
sharp.  Seed  cases  usually  below  medium  size,  goblet  shape, 
with  prominent  and  protruding  valves.  Bark — Smooth,  gray- 
ish, and  usually  flaking  off  in  thin  layers. 

Growth  :  Tree  may  reach  100  feet  in  height  and  6  feet  in 
diameter.  Rate  of  growth  about  two-thirds  of  that  of  Blue 
Gum.     (Cooper) 

Wood  :  Red,  heavy,  hard,  close-grained,  and  durable.  Duray 
bility — Maiden  reports  a  post  sound  after  45  years.  Uses — Has 
practically  the  same  uses  as  E.  rostrata,  but  considered  superior 
by  some  authorities. 

Requirements:  Climate — Grows  best  near  coast  but  en- 
dures drought  and  the  hot  valleys  well.  Range  of  temperature : 
150  to  200  F.  and  no°  to  1120  F. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West  :    Pasadena,  Santa  Monica. 


302  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Facts  of  Special  Interest  :  Resembles  E.  rostrata  in  many 
respects,  but  not  as  valuable  a  tree. 

41.  E.  viminalis. 

MANNA  GUM. 

Identification  :  Leaz?es — Of  young  plant  and  suckers, 
stemless,  slender,  pointed,  with  broad  bases  and  placed  opposite 
on  the  stem.  Narrower  on  older  trees.  Flowers  and  Fruit — 
Flowers  of  medium  size  on  slender  stalks,  variable  in  number. 
Covering  of  flower  buds  approximately  cone-shaped,  usually  a 
low,  broad  cone.  Seed  case  top-shaped  or  nearly  globular, 
valves  protruding.  Bark — Surface  of  bark  varies.  The  per- 
sistent bark  brownish  in  color,  furrowed  and  rough.  Bark  on 
branches  usually  flakes  off. 

Growth  :  Tree  may  reach  300  feet  in  height  and  a  diameter 
of  15  to  30  feet.  Exceeded  only  by  E.  globulus  in  rapidity  of 
growth.  At  Pasadena,  in  24  years,  100  feet  high,  diameter  5 
feet.     Small  branches  usually  droop. 

Wood  :  From  light  to  dull  brick  in  color.  Timber  less  valu- 
able than  that  of  most  eucalypts.  Durability — Authorities  differ 
about  its  durability  under  ground.  Uses — Useful  for  forest 
cover,  windbreak,  shade,  and  fuel,  though  not  the  best  fuel. 

Requirements:  Climate — Does  not  seem  to  resist  drought 
well.  Temperatures  endured,  150  to  200  F.  and  no0  to  1150 
F.    Soil — Shows  moderate  toleration  for  alkali. 

Places  Grown  in  the  West:  Pasadena,  San  Francisco, 
Santa  Barbara,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. ;  Yuma,  Phoenix,  Arizona. 

Facts  of  Special  Interest:  Will  grow  on  portions  of  the 
"gooselands"  of  Glenn  and  Colusa  Counties. 

42.  E.  ficifolia. 

Identification  :  Leaves — Scattered,  or  some  almost  oppo- 
site, dark  green  above,  paler  beneath.  Somewhat  leathery. 
Flowers  and  Fruit — Flowers,  conspicuous  4  to  6  in  terminal 
umbels;  stalks  conspicuous.  Fruits  large  urn-shaped,  valves 
deeply  enclosed,  filaments  beautifully  red.  Fruit  1  to  i\  inches 
long. 

Growth  :  Tree  dwarfish  in  growth.  Said  to  attain  50  feet 
in  Australia.    Blooms  at  a  very  early  age. 


Encalypts  in  the  United  States.  303 

Wood:  Uses — The  showy  flowers  makes  it  a  favorite  orna- 
mental tree. 

Requirements:  Climate — Considered  rather  sensitive  to 
cold. 

Peaces  Grown  in  the  West:  Berkeley,  South  Pasadena, 
Santa  Monica. 

Facts  of  Speciae  Interest  :  The  color  of  the  flower  said  to 
vary. 


CURRENT  LITERATURE. 

The  Timber  Supply  of  the  United  States.  By  R.  S.  Kellogg. 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Forest  Service,  Circular  166. 
Pp.  24. 

This  is  a  brief,  yet  comprehensive,  statement  of  the  knowledge 
— or,  we  should  rather  say,  an  approximation  of  the  knowledge 
— we  have  regarding  the  extent  and  rate  of  decimation  of  our 
timber  resources.  The  author  himself  acknowledges  the  slim- 
ness  of  his  basis  for  these  estimates.  Most  of  the  "guesses''  as 
regards  extent  of  original  and  present  forest  area  agree  closely 
enough  with  those  which  the  reviewer  had  ventured  some  ten 
years  ago  as  representing  a  general  picture  of  our  status.  The 
data  are  here  worked  out  in  greater  detail,  and  as  there  are  now 
more  and  better  sources  of  information  at  hand,  the  slight  differ- 
ences may  perhaps  bring  us  nearer  the  truth  than  the  earlier 
figures. 

The  total  area  of  productive  forest  is  now  stated  as  544,250,000 
acres;  the  stumpage  as  2,500  billion  feet;  the  cut  (in  1907)  as 
40,256  million  feet,  77%  softwood  and  23%  hardwood;  the 
total  value  of  forest  products  as  $1,280,000,000,  representing  over 
twenty  billion  cubic  feet  of  forest-grown  material.  All  these 
figures  practically  substantiate  the  picture  painted  by  the  reviewer 
previously. 

The  author  also  attempts  to  prognosticate  future  supplies.  It 
would  have  been  interesting  to  know  how  he  came  to  the  assump- 
tion that  the  annual  growth  "does  not  exceed  12  cubic  feet  per 
acre,  a  total  of  less  than  7  billion  cubic  feet."  He  properly  makes 
the  assumption  that  three  conditions  exist ;  namely,  mature 
forest ;  partially  cut  and  burned  forest ;  and  severely 
culled  forest  "on  which  there  is  not  sufficient  young 
growth  to  produce  another  crop  of  much  value."  He 
estimates  these  conditions — of  course,  also  mere  guesses — to  be 
represented  by  200,  250  and  100  million  acres,  respectively.  But, 
instead  of  using  these  figures  in  a  calculation,  he  jumps  to  the 
above  conclusion  as  to  new  growth.  Of  course,  to  arrive  at  such, 
or  any  conclusion   in  this   regard,   some   more  assumptions   are 


Current  Literature.  305 

necessary.  The  matter  is  of  such  a  speculative  character,  that, 
unless  the  full  basis  for  it  is  stated,  it  becomes  worse  than  useless, 
and,  used  as  an  argument  as  if  it  were  true,  dangerous.  We 
believe  it  untrue.  We  might,  for  instance,  assume  that  on  the 
uncut  areas  there  is  no  growth  until  they  are  cut,  which  is  ap- 
proximately correct  theory,  but  that,  as  soon  as  cut,  growth 
begins,  and  that,  under  the  enlightened  teachings  of  the  Forest 
Service,  this  growth  is  at  least  not  being  interfered  with  by  fire 
or  otherwise;  we  may  assume  that  on  these  areas  the  growth 
will  be  only  half  as  good  as  the  average  experienced,  say,  in 
France,  namely  20  cubic  feet  per  acre — less  than  in  Germany, 
where  the  slow  producing  selection  forest  is  nearly  abandoned 
and  hence  an  average  better  by  50  per  cent,  prevails.  We  must 
then  still  assume  that,  say,  one-third  of  the  standing  timber  is 
to  be  found  on  the  second  class,  the  culled  areas.  This  would 
give  9  M.  per  acre  to  the  untouched,  and  3  M.  to  the 
culled,  areas,  and,  since  these  latter  areas  are  assumed  to  be 
partly  burned  and  otherwise  badly  treated,  we  will  assume  that 
they  show  only  one-half  the  increment  of  the  first  class,  or  say 
10  cubic  feet,  and  that  further  cutting  does  not  influence  this 
increment,  although,  of  course,  it  should  do-  so  favorably.  To 
furnish  the  40  billion  feet  of  annual  consumption,  there  will  have 
to  be  cut  3  million  acres  of  9  M.  feet  and  4  million  acres  of  3  M. 
feet  stands  annually.  With  all  these  not  very  unreasonable 
assumptions,  we  will  then  find  that  the  total  increment  during  the 
sixty  years,  during  which  the  stands  are  supposed  to  be  cut,  has 
averaged  9  cubic  feet  on  the  first  class,  to  which  the  10  feet  on 
the  second  class  must  be  added.  And,  if  in  that  time  the  third 
class  of  100  million  acres  has  not  begun  to  contribute  its  quota, 
it  should  not  have  been  mentioned  as  productive  forest  area,  or 
is  this  to  be  offset  by  the  acreage  to  be  turned  into  farms?  We 
would  like  to  see  something  more  tangible  substituted  for  these 
mere  assumptions.  B.  E.  F. 

Conservation  of  Natural  Resources.  Meeting  of  Engineers, 
March  24,  1909.    56  pp. 

This  pamphlet  contains  five  addresses,  delivered  at  a  joint  meet- 
ing of  the  National  Societies  of  Civil,  Mining,  Mechanical  and 
Electrical  Engineers  at  New  York.     Each  of  the  addresses  dis* 


306  Forestry  Quarterly. 

cusses  some  phase  of  the  subject  which  through  President  Roose- 
velt's insistence  has  assumed  a  more  than  national  importance. 
These  utterances  are  timely,  and  important  mainly  in  that  they  are 
made  by  entirely  sane,  and  competent,  unbiased  and  disinterested 
men  in  an  attitude  neither  of  controversy  nor  of  wild  popular  en- 
thusiasm or  unbalanced  sentiment,  which  has  characterized  dis- 
cussion elsewhere,  but  in  a  cautionary  attitude  such  as  an  engineer, 
who  deals  with  precise  data  would  naturally  take ;  as  one  of  them 
says : 

"Let  us  have  less  rhetoric  and  more  precise  engineering  investigation  in 
estimating  the  extent  and  value  of  these  great  resources." 

In  reviewing  this  pamphlet  we  cannot  do  better  than  bodily 
quote  the  passages  which  have  more  particularly  to  do  with  our 
and  cognate  subjects,  forests  and  waters,  and  we  quote  in  extenso, 
because  the  utterances  are  not  entirely  orthodox  and  of  the  tenor 
in  which  we  have  been  accustomed  to  hear  the  subject  discussed. 

In  his  introductory  address,  Dr.  James  Douglas  shows  himself 
in  the  somewhat  ignorant  or  hazy  condition  of  mind  in  which  a 
large  majority  of  our  citizens  is  found  who  have  not  yet  learned 
that  forestry  applied  to  culled  areas  means  expenditure  which  re- 
turns profits  only  in  the  long  run.    He  says  : 

"I  have  not  very  clear  ideas  with  regard  to  forestry,  nor  do  I  think 
that  most  of  the  people  who  preach  upon  the  subject  could  carry  their 
precepts  into  practice  if  called  upon  to  do  so.  Considering  that  our 
forests  have  all  been  largely  stripped  of  their  best  trees,  we  have  not 
seen  any  feasible  scheme  proposed  by  which  scientific  forestry  on  a  large 
and  profitable  scale  can  be  applied  to  the  recovery  of  what  remains  uncut." 

Mr.  John  R.  Freeman  devotes  his  time  to  a  discussion 

"On  certain  misapplications  of  forest  influence  on  stream  flow  and 
one  or  two  other  features  of  the  conservation  movement  that  have  been 
urged  with  more  attention  to  making  an  impression  than  to  scientific 
truth." 

We  quote  his  remarks  approvingly  at  length : 

"It  has  been  broadly  stated  that  the  cutting  off  of  the  forests  in  our 
Eastern  mountains  has  increased  the  floods,  intensified  the  droughts  and 
greatly  injured  the  water  power  of  our  rivers.  I  challenge  those  who  so 
loudly  make  these  statements  to  produce  proof ! 

"The  broad  truth  that  forest  cover  in  the  mountains  is  beneficial  for 
conserving  and  regulating  stream  flow  and  preventing  soil  erosion,  is  too 
firmly  established  to  be  shaken,  and  the  work  of  reforesting  and  fire  guard- 
ing should  be  pushed  with  tenfold  the  present  vigor,  but  nevertheless,  let  us 
as  engineers  caution  some  of  our  good  friends  to  be  more  careful  in  their 
applications  of  this  doctrine. 


Current  Literature.  307 

"To  be  more  specific,  the  statements  that  lessened  summer  flow,  greater 
floods,  or  the  shoaling  of  channels,  because  of  deforestation,  have  come 
to  the  water  powers  of  the  Merrimack  or  to  the  navigation  of  the  Hudson, 
rest  on  fancy  and  not  on  fact. 

"It  is  my  belief,  based  on  many  years'  observation,  that  the  lumbering 
and  the  clearing  for  agriculture  that  have  been  going  on  in  these  Eastern 
mountain  regions  for  the  past  hundred  years  have  not  measurably  affected 
the  flow  in  flood  or  drought  of  any  important  rivers  of  the  White  Moun- 
tains or  of  the  Adirondack  region,  and  probably  not  of  those  of  the  South- 
ern Appalachians. 

"I  was  born  almost  within  the  edge  of  the  White  Mountain  forests,  was 
for  ten  years  engineer  with  a  water-power  company  on  the  Merrimack, 
and  have  had  occasion  to  study  stream-flow  conditions  carefully  in  certain 
parts  of  the  Adirondacks  and  in  the  heart  of  the  North  Carolina  mountains. 

"The  daily  flow  of  the  Merrimack  probably  has  been  observed  with  pre- 
cision for  a  longer  period  than  any  other  large  American  river,  and  these 
precise  measurements  reveal  no  progressive  increase  in  intensity  of  flood 
or  drought  and  no  decrease  of  average  flow. 

"Why  should  they?  Traverse  the  highways  and  climb  the  hills  and 
estimate  the  percentage  of  cleared  land.  You  will  find  it  surprisingly 
small.  Note  the  abandoned  fields  and  pastures  that  have  grown  up  to 
woods.  It  takes  40  years  to  grow  a  good  pine,  and  from  100  to  200  years 
to  grow  a  good  stock  of  spruce  timber,  but  go  where  the  lumberman  has 
been  but  five  or  ten  years  ago  in  these  Eastern  mountains  and  see  how 
soon  the  scars  that  he  left  are  healed.  There  are  some  small  regions  of 
special  sterility  where  the  fire  has  followed  him  and  made  a  deeper  scar, 
but  the  percentage  of  area  in  these  is  small.  The  sprout  land  is  nearly 
as  efficient  as  timberland  for  stream  flow.  The  cutting  out  of  scattered 
merchantable  spruce,  hemlock,  balsam  or  pine,  from  among  the  large 
hardwood  growth,  as  I  have  observed  it  in  the  heart  of  the  Adirondacks, 
can  make  no  very  material  change  in  the  melting  of  the  snow  or  in  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  rainfall  reaches  the  river. 

"In  these  particular  regions,  Nature  frowns  on  agriculture  and  there 
can  never  be  the  broad  denudation  and  change  into  bald  prairie  that  we 
find,  for  example,  in  the  Genessee  Valley,  and  the  more  of  thrifty  hardy 
farmers  in  the  mountains,  the  less  chance  that  forest  fires  will  run  riot, 
and  destroy  the  sponge-like  humus  which  it  may  have  taken  hundreds  of 
years  to  accumulate  and  which  promotes  the  forest  growth.  I  beg  you 
not  to  misunderstand  me.  There  is  no  more  ardent  lover  of  the  woods 
than  I,  etc. 

"After  a  while,  by  comparing  districts  of  similar  rainfall  and  topography, 
and  substrata,  wooded  and  unwooded,  or  before  and  after  close  cutting, 
we  could  get  some  precise  information  on  forest  influences. 

"One  frequent  error  has  come  from  a  failure  to  differentiate  between 
different  conditions  of  climate  and  porous  soil,  and  to  make  too  specific 
an  application  of  what  may  be  true  on  the  average.  The  statements  re- 
garding the  Merrimack  and  the  Hudson  which  I  have  criticised  as  without 
foundation  in  fact  may  very  likely  be  true  of  some  drainage  areas  in  a 
more  arid  region." 

The  speaker  then  refers  to  the  "Sinful  encouragement  of  fires," 
by  the  methods  of  lumbering-,  and  cites  figures  on  the  burning  of 
brush,  25  to  50  and  75  cents  per  M  feet,  and  asks : 

"Does  not  the  benefit  to  posterity  warrant  this  tax?"  We  ought  not 
to  be  too  hasty  in  answering,  but  one  who  has  tramped  over  a  recent 
burn  will  be  inclined  to  say,  "Yes,"  and  that  the  action  of  the  lumbermen 


308  Forestry  Quarterly. 

which  leads  time  and  again  to  this  result,  should  be  made  a  crime  with 
penalties  that  would  deeply  touch  the  sensitive  pocket  nerve. 

Speaking  of  the  conditions  surrounding  the  development  of 
water  powers,  he  says : 

"I  mention  these  examples  (of  failures)  because  I  have  noted  in  some  of 
the  recent  conservation  talk  an  idea  that  the  flow  of  almost  any  river  or 
stream  of  rapid  descent  could  be  easily  transmuted  into  a  never-ending 
flow  of  gold. 

"The  same  glowing  accounts  fail  to  discover  what  use  could  be  made 
of  such  vast  amounts  of  power  in  these  remote  localities,  and  they  utterly 
ignore  questions  of  market  in  reckoning  value. 

"Ridicule  and  distrust  are  the  proper  reward  for  those  who  put  forth 
these  unqualified  statements." 

Note,  however,  how  even  the  sane,  matter-of-fact  engineer  falls 
a  victim  to  his  esthetic  feelings : 

"While  the  scenic  value  of  water  has  received  too  scant  attention  in 
the  work  of  the  engineer,  it  is  at«  the  hands  of  the  lumbermen  and  the 
early  mill  builders  that  it  has  suffered  most.  The  dismal  swamps,  and 
the  ghostly  ruins  of  trees  that  were  killed  by  dam  building  in  the  Adiron- 
dacks  and  in  Northern  Maine,  have  made  such  raw  spots  in  the  memories 
of  those  of  us  who  love  the  forest  and  its  lakes  that  we  sympathize  with 
the  purpose  of  the  constitutional  restrictions  which  this  State  of  New 
York  has  interposed  against  the  flooding  of  its  forest  lands  by  storage 
reservoirs." 

As  if  it  were  necessary  to  make  the  surroundings  unsightly 
when  constructing  such  reservoirs  ! 

Another  speaker,  C.  W.  Baker,  M.  E.,  discusses  the  waste  of  our 
natural  resources  by  fire,  pointing  out  that  the  loss  in  buildings 
and  their  contents  was  $215,000,000  in  1907,  or  $2.50  per  capita, 
as  against  12  to  49  cents  in  European  countries.  He  naturally 
rails  against  forest  fires  and  concludes  as  we  have  always  con- 
cluded : 

"What  I  most  want  to  make  clear  to  you  is  that  unless  and  until  you 
create  in  every  forest  State  of  the  Union  effective  laws  and  effective  or- 
ganization to  prevent  forest  fires — unless  and  until  you  do  that  thing — all 
our  talk  of  conserving  the  forests  is  vain.  We  cannot  get  away  from 
economic  laws.  We  cannot  expect  a  man  to  preserve  valuable  woodlands 
uncut  when  at  any  time  a  forest  fire  may  wipe  out  the  property  entirely. 
And  the  higher  the  price  of  lumber  goes,  the  greater  the  inducement  to  cut 
off  the  trees. 

"Thus  the  more  our  forests  dwindle  and  the  nearer  the  inevitable  timber 
famine  approaches,  the  more  certain  we  make  it  that  all  the  forests  shall 
disappear.  If  a  man  could  hold  his  timber  lands  like  other  property  for  a 
higher  price  without  risk  of  total  loss,  many  would  prefer  to  do  this,  and 
many  would  be  found  to  undertake  timber  culture ;  but,  so  long  as  timber 
properties  are  subject  to  grave  risk  of  total  loss,  they  cannot  be  attractive 
to  capital. 


Current  Literature.  309 

"I  may  be  criticised  for  saying  very  little  so  far  about  conservation.  But 
surely  little  need  be  said  to  prove  that  the  fire  loss  is  a  waste  and  a  vast 
drain  upon  our  natural  resources.  Every  one  appreciates  it,  of  course, 
where  forest  fires  are  concerned;  but  it  is  just  as  much  of  a  drain  on  the 
forests  to  burn  up  the  boards  and  the  timber  in  a  house  which  must  be 
rebuilt  as  to  burn  up  the  trees  before  they  are  cut  down  and  sawed.  And 
not  only  timber  but  iron,  tin,  lead,  zinc — all  the  materials  used  in  building 
construction — and  a  vast  amount  of  merchandise  contained  in  buildings 
are  devoured  annually  by  the  flames.  Surely,  then,  the  prevention  of  this 
waste — the  work  of  the  structural  engineer  and  the  fire-protection  en- 
gineer— is  a  task  whose  accomplishment  means  much  for  the  public  benefit, 
means  much  for  the  conservation  of  the  world's  resources." 

A  cautionary  attitude  in  regard  to  the  development  of  water 
powers  and  inland  waterways  and  to  the  broad  propositions  of  the 
Inland  Water  Ways  Commission  was  also  taken  by  L.  B.  Still- 
well,  E.  E.,  but,  while  with  all  the  other  speakers  this  attitude 
came  in  only  incidentally,  Dr.  R.  W.  Raymond  made  it  the  princi- 
pal theme  in  discussing  the  futility  of  attempts  to  conserve  na- 
tural resources  by  legislation;  holding  that  economic  adjustments 
and  education — knowledge  of  conditions — will  alone  suffice  to 
bring  about  conservative  use  of  resources.  While  we  do  not  quite 
agree  with  this  old  Spencerian  belief,  we  admit  its  force  as  against 
unwise  legislation,  and  quote  the  speaker's  pithy  language  in  ex- 
tenso: 

"The  recent  general  awakening  of  public  interest  in  the  conservation 
of  national  resources  is  an  event  for  which,  as  engineers,  we  may  well 
be  grateful.  Even  if  we  admit,  as  I  suppose  we  must,  that  a  part  of  it 
is  artificial  and  another  part  erroneous  or  premature,  and  that  some  of  the 
immediate  purposes  for  which  many  have  proposed  to  utilize  it  are  question- 
able in  character,  the  fact  remains  that  a  subject,  to  some  aspects  of  which 
engineers  have  been  for  a  generation  calling  attention  in  vain,  is  now  sud- 
denly brought  forward  in  such  a  way  that  the  sluggish  sit  up  and  listen, 
and  the  tremendous  energy  of  public  opinion  is  liberated  by  a  swift  reaction. 
How  this  energy  shall  be  wisely  directed  is  another  question.  The  funda- 
mental fact  is,  that  without  it  nothing  at  all  could  be  done ;  and  it  is 
better  to  have  the  will  and  the  power,  even  to  make  mistakes,  than  to 
remain  in  sleep,  knowing  nothing,  or  in  paralysis,  knowing  much,  but  im- 
potent to  act. 

"The  official  movement  for  the  conservation  of  national  resources  did 
not,  at  first,  contemplate  the  aid  of  the  engineers  of  the  country.  If  I 
remember  correctly,  it  was  to  be  a  convention  of  Governors  and  members 
of  Congress.  But,  by  a  happy  afterthought,  the  four  national  engineering 
societies  were  invited  to  take  part  in  this  convention,  and,  consequently, 
representatives  from  all  of  them  were  present.  Their  presence 
had  little  effect  upon  the  conference,  and,  indeed,  the  conference 
itself  had  little  effect,  except  through  the  creation  of  a  more 
permanent  commission;  the  practical,  though  informal  commitment  of 
the  Governors  of  the  States  to  the  general  movement  contemplated ;  and 
the  impression  of  a  grand,  unanimous  advance  in  a  new  reform  thereby 
produced  upon  the  public  mind.  These  results,  however,  were  of  incal- 
culable importance,  and  may  well  be  regarded  as  satisfactory  to  the  friends 
of  the  general  cause  thus  inaugurated. 


310  Forestry  Quarterly. 

''Concerning  the  attempt  to  utilize  the  results  of  this  conference  in 
support  of  certain  measures  in  Congress,  nothing  need  be  said  here.  Such 
arguments  were  fair  enough,  to  the  extent  of  their  real  bearing,  but  they 
could  not  be  conclusive  as  to  questions  involving  grave  considerations 
of  constitutional  power  or  political  wisdom.  It  is  not  enough,  under  our 
institutions,  to  prove  that  a  thing  is  a  good  thing  and  ought  to  be  done,  in 
order  to  establish  the  proposition  that  it  should  be  done  in  a  hurry,  or  in 
a  certain  way,  or  by  doubtful  means.     *    *     * 

"Much  of  recent  eloquence  concerning  the  conservation  of  resources  is 
merely  the  revival  of  what  engineers  have  been  saying  for  a  generation, 
and  their  experience  qualifies  them  to  measure  actual  conditions  and  point 
out  actual  perils  with  special  authority.     *     *     * 

"Another  illustration  is  furnished  by  timber  conservation.  Until  within 
a  few  years  the  practice  of  forestry  in  our  Eastern  States  by  owners  of 
small  tracts  and  limited  capital  was  impossible,  because  timber-land  which 
was  not  within,  say,  five  years  of  being  ready  for  the  axe  would  not 
command  a  greater  price  than  cleared  land.  *  *  Legislation  would  not 
have  altered  the  situation ;  but  something  else  has  altered  it — namely, 
the  gradual  increase  in  the  market-value  of  the  timber,  and  the  corres- 
ponding perception  of  its  value  when  only  half-grown.  Before  long  a  tree- 
planted  area  in  this  country  will  advance  year  by  year  in  cash  value,  in 
proportion  to  the  money  that  has  been  spent  upon  it,  and  the  condition 
of  its  growing  crop.  This  will  make  forestry  possible,  and  we  shall 
have  no  more  cause  to  fear  the  exhaustion  of  lumber  than  of  corn. 
Meanwhile,  with  regard  to  our  forest  resources,  even  more  than  as  to 
our  mineral  resources,  it  is  waste  rather  than  use  that  needs  to  be  pre- 
vented ;  and  the  simple,  adequate  remedies  are  the  pressure  of  economic 
conditions  and  the  diffusion  of  knowledge.     *     *     * 

"In  my  judgment,  the  progressive  education  of  the  people  and  the  steady 
pressure  of  economic  conditions  will  effect  this  result,  as  a  general  rule, 
better  than  any  legislation  can  do  it." 

In  pointing  out  the  dangers  of  legislative  conservation  the 
speaker  does  so  under  six  heads,  namely,  Hasty  Legislation ;  De- 
struction of  Individual  Responsibility  and  Initiative ;  Tend- 
ency of  Governmental  Agencies  to  Seek  Additional  Power;  Ex- 
pense of  Governmental  Agencies  and  Regulations ;  Interference  of 
Governmental  Agencies  with  Private  Occupations ;  Half-way 
Adoption  of  European  Methods.  The  results  of  hasty  legislation 
are  most  fully  exemplified.  Although  the  story  is  quite  familiar  to 
our  readers,  we  may  yet  repeat  it  in  the  words  of  Dr.  Raymond — 
the  story  of  misguided  forestry  legislation  in  the  State  of  New 
York. 

"The  first  peril  to  be  named  is  that  of  hasty  and  ill-considered  action, 
taken  under  the  influence  of  an  ignorant  though  well-meaning  public  senti- 
ment, roused  or  guided,  in  too  many  instances,  by  selfish  interests. 

"The  history  of  forestry  in  the  State  of  New  York  furnishes  a  striking 
case  in  point.  Sentimentalists  who  had  gone  no  further  in  the  knowledge 
of  the  subject  than  'Woodman,  spare  that  tree!'  and  conceived  of  no  more 
effective  reform  than  a  universal  observation  by  the  public  schools  of 
'Arbor-Day,'  were  persuaded  in  the  name  of  'Conservation'  to  carry  into 
our  new  Constitution,  with  a  rush  and  whoop  of  victorious  virtue,  a  pro- 
vision absolutely  prohibiting  all  cutting  of  timber — that  is,  any  exercise 


Current  Literature.  311 

of  forestry  whatever — upon  the  Forest  Reserve  of  the  State.  At  the  same 
time,  large  sums  were  spent  in  the  purchase  of  wild  lands,  to  be  added 
to  the  Forest  Reserve — that  is,  to  increase  the  area  of  State  lands  thus 
doomed  to  useless  and  mischievous  decay.  The  constitutional  prohibition 
was  adopted  by  the  Constitutional  Convention  against  the  urgent  protest 
of  the  American  Forestry  Association,  and  was  carried  at  the  polls,  with 
the  rest  of  the  Constitution,  by  the  votes  of  those  who  assumed  it  to  be 
all  right,  because  it  sounded  so  wise  and  patriotic.  Moreover,  there  were 
amateur  foresters  in  plenty,  who  learnedly  expounded  an  American' 
system  pursued  by  Nature,  who  would  take  care  of  her  own  forests,  if 
we  only  let  her  alone.  The  necessity  of  such  a  jungle  in  the  Adirondacks 
to  protect  the  water-supply  of  the  Frie  canal,  to  conserve  water-powers, 
and  to  furnish  fresh  air  to  invalids,  was  eloquently  set  forth.  Above  all, 
the  wickedness  of  corporations  engaged  in  actually  using  the  whole 
forest-crop  from  one  area  after  another — turning  even  the  little  branches 
and  twigs  into  paper-pulp,  and  such-like  odious  products — was  rhetorically 
set  forth  to  a  sympathetic  and  credulous  public.  Much  of  this  lamentable 
performance  was  doubtless  sincere;  but  behind  the  ignorant  sincerity 
there  was  an  influence  which  finally  made  itself  recognized  as  well  as  felt — 
the  influence  of  individual  owners  of  small  pieces  of  land,  and  summer 
residences  thereon,  who  were  determined  that  the  State  should  preserve 
at  public  expense  an  unbroken  old-fashioned  wilderness  around  them — a 
wilderness  in  which  they  could  camp  or  fish  or  shoot  one  another  by  mis- 
take, without  being  disturbed  by  the  sound  of  the  axe  or  the  saw.  To 
this  party,  the  thing  to  be  conserved  was  a  great  open-air  sanitarium  and 
game-preserve,  with  incidental  attractions  of  'scenery,'  unmarred  by  any 
unesthetic,  because  useful,  touch  of  man.  The  whole  history  of  the  matter 
has  never  been  clearly  and  connectedly  told ;  indeed,  it  is  not  yet  ended. 
But  among  its  unhappy  results  have  been  already  the  arbitrary  destruc- 
tion, through  the  veto  of  an  ill-advised  Executive,  and  at  the  dictation  of 
interested  parties  who  knew  more,  of  the  foremost  forestry  school  of 
the  United  States  the  abandonment,  upon  false  pretenses,  of  a  forestry 
experiment,  outside  of  the  State  Forest  Reserve,  which,  if  suffered  to  con- 
tinue, would  have  furnished  an  object-lesson  of  incalculable  value  to  private 
land-owners  as  well  as  official  bureaus  everywhere ;  and  the  surrender 
by  the  State  of  New  York  of  its  proud  position  at  the  head  of  the  great 
work  of  the  conservation  of  forest-resources  for  an  ignominious  place 
at  the  tail  of  that  procession  of  progress.  I  say  'at  the  tail,'  but  perhaps 
it  would  be  more  accurate  to  say  that  New  York  is  out  of  the  procession 
altogether ;  for  I  do  not  think  that  any  other  State,  however  backward  in 
popular  intelligence,  has  ever  gone  quite  so  far  as  to  forbid  forestry  upon 
its  public  land. 

"Meanwhile  a  State  Commission  has  gone  on  adding  by  purchase  or 
otherwise  to  the  Forest  Reserve.  But  since  the  Constitution  forbids 
the  subsequent  cutting  and  sale  of  timber  from  any  tracts  thus  purchased, 
after  the  title  has  passed  to  the  State,  the  Commission  cannot  afford  to 
buy  timber-lands  at  prices  including  any  value  assigned  to  the  timber. 
Consequently,  it  bargains  for  such  lands,  to  be  delivered  to  the  State  after 
the  timber  has  been  cut.  off,  within  a  limited  period,  by  the  present  owners, 
And  the  present  owners,  unless  they  happen  to  be  within  market-distance 
of  a  wicked  pulp-mill,  cut  the  salable  timber  as  fast  as  they  can,  and 
turn  over  to  the  State  the  land  with  the  unsalable  underbrush,  tops, 
branches  and  twigs  of  the  forest — an  ideal  nursery  for  forest-conflagra- 
tions. 

"The  final  result  of  all  these  attempts  at  conservation  by  legislation  was 
exhibited  last  year,  when  the  City  of  New  York  was  darkened  for  many 
days  by  the  smoke  from  the  burning  of  hundreds  of  square  miles  of  that 
Adirondack  wilderness  which  had  been  prepared  by  ignorant  legislation  to 
nourish  just  such  a  bonfire.     The  destruction  of  property  thus  occasioned 


312  Forestry  Quarterly. 

was  so  great  that  one  is  tempted  to  wish  our  Constitution-makers,  Legisla- 
tures and  Governors  had  let  the  whole  business  alone ! 

"Yet  the  tragedy  has  its  comic  after-piece.  For  our  State  authorities 
are  now  resuming  on  the  Forest  Reserve  the  once-ridiculed  policy  of  tree- 
planting,  instead  of  leaving  the  matter  to  Nature;  and  we  hear  com- 
placent statements  of  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  new  trees  which  have 
been  set  out.  Yet  everybody  knows,  or  ought  to  know,  that  these  planta- 
tions that  cannot  be  properly  managed  hereafter  without  the  use  of  'the 
forester's  weapon,'  the  axe,  and  that  when,  at  great  expense,  they 
shall  have  been  brought  to  the  condition  of  ripe,  marketable  forest-crops, 
nothing  can  be  done  with  them,  under  our  Constitution,  but  let  them  decay, 
or  sell  them  as  burnt  and  fallen  timber  after  'accidental'  fires,  and  go  on 
planting  new  ones !  The  alternative  is  to  amend  the  Constitution — a  slow 
and  doubtful  process — or  else  'construe'  it  so  as  to  make  it  mean  what  it 
does  not  say — an  easy  and  fashionable  but  most  demoralizing  expedient." 

The  writer  should  have  stated  that  this  tree-planting  is  entirely 
unconstitutional  according  to  the  clause  in  the  Constitution  which 
requires  these  lands  to  be  left  in  the  "wild  state." 

Other  amusing  miscarriage  of  well  intentioned  legislation  is 
recited.    The  speaker  finally  concluded : 

"And,  as  to  the  general  problem  of  'conservation,'  I  think  it  is  the  busi- 
ness of  all  engineers  to  pour  cold  water  on  hot  heads,  and  prevent,  so  far 
as  they  may,  the  reckless  operations  of  a  sincere,  but  ignorant,  enthusiasm." 

This  is  somewhat  severe  on  our  enthusiastic  conservers,  but  it 
is  perhaps  useful  to  dampen  the  ardor  of  the  over-enthusiastic. 

B.  E.  F. 

Die  IValdungen  des  Konigrcichs  Sacliscn.  By  Franz  Mammen. 
Leipzig,  1905.    331  pp.  40.    Price,  Mk.  16. 

A  belated  reference  to  this  monumental  statistical  work,  dis- 
cussing in  the  greatest  detail  the  forest  conditions  in  1902  of  the  one 
of  the  German  States,  which  until  lately  has  been  leading  all  others 
in  financial  results,  Saxony,  may  be  justified  in  order  to  bring  out 
the  fact  that  these  financial  results  have  in  part  resulted  from  a 
reduction  in  the  length  of  the  rotation  and  the  cutting  of  the  older 
age-classes.    The  present  distribution  of  age-classes  is  as  follows : 

Over  100  81-100  61-80  41-60  21-40  1-20  years 

3.6  6.6  16.4  23.8  22.2  24.5  per  cent. 

This  for  State  forest.  For  private  forest  the  relation  is  still 
less  favorable,  the  series  being 

2.4  5.1  14.1  24.1  24.9        25.3 


Current  Literature.  3r3 

As  is  well  known  the  Saxon  forest  management  is  based  on  a 
strict  financial  rotation  figured  on  the  soil  rent  principles.  This 
exhibit  makes  it  doubtful  whether  the  financial  results  are  not 
secured  from  the  savings  of  former  generations.  At  any  rate, 
even  so,  Saxony  in  financial  results  is  declining,  if  rising  wood 
prices  are  taken  into  consideration,  and  is  now  left  behind  by 
Wurtemberg,  and  pressed  closely  by  Baden,  two  States  which 
have  not  yielded  to  the  persuasions  of  the  soil  rent  theory.  For 
Saxony  netted  in  1900,  $5.25  ;  in  1902,  $4.37,  and  in  1907,  $6.02 
per  acre,  while  Wurtemberg  stood  in  1903  with  $5.00  and  in  1907 
with  $7.66  in  front  of  all  the  State  forest  administrations,  while 
Baden  in  1906  boasted  $6.07,  in  1907,  $5.53  per  acre.  And  these 
results  are  secured  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  in  industrial  Saxony 
the  spruce  is  the  prevailing  timber  and  smaller  sizes  can  evi- 
dently be  turned  into  workwood,  the  workwood  per  cent,  here 
being  now  83,  in  Wurtemburg  63,  in  Baden  only  48;  but  the 
total  cut  per  acre  was  in  1907,  90  cubic  feet  in  Wurtemberg  as 
against  78  in  Saxony. 

As  to  ownership,  State  and  private  forests  appear  in  almost 
equal  proportion,  namely  45.2  and  46  per  cent.,  the  rest  being  com- 
mercial or  institute  forest.  Timber  forest  occupies  99  per  cent, 
of  the  total  area  (selection  forest  .4).  Conifers,  58  per  cent, 
spruce,  30  per  cent,  pine,  is  prevalent. 

The  data  for  this  volume  are  secured  under  cooperation  of  fed- 
eral and  State  authority,  gathered  by  186  men,  of  whom  108  were 
foresters,  and  furnish  as  complete  a  statement  as  could  well  be 
brought  together.  B.  E.  F. 

Forest  Fires  in  Canada  during  1908.  By  H.  R.  MacMillan. 
Forestry  Branch,  Bulletin  No.  7,  Ottawa,  1909. 

This  is  an  attempt  to  get  some  idea  of  the  extent  of  damage 
which  Canada  suffers  through  forest  fires.  Admittedly  the  at- 
tempt is  a  failure,  if  anything  like  the  area  actually  burned  over 
and  the  damage  to  young  growth  and  soil  is  desired  to  be  known. 
The  vast  country,  especially  of  the  Northland,  sparsely  settled, 
experiences  extensive  fires  annually  without  being  noticed,  and, 
even  in  the  more  settled  and  organized  communities,  only  exten- 
sive fires  destroying  merchantable  timber  are  taken  note  of. 
Even  in  the  Province  of  Ontario,  which  spent  over  $200,000  on 


314  Forestry  Quarterly. 

its  protective  service,  and  whose  towns  were  filled  with  smoke 
in  that  year,  no  statistics  of  the  extent  of  fires  were  collected, 
nor  does  the  realization  that  they  did  damage,  even  though  no 
merchantable  timber  was  destroyed,  seem  to  have  come  to  the 
authorities. 

The  partial  information  shows  835  fires  reported,  occasioning  a 
damage  of  over  $25,000,000,  besides  the  loss  of  22  lives,  which 
occured  at  the  great  fire  in  Fernie,  B.  C.  An  expenditure  of 
$374,000  in  fighting  fires  was  occasioned,  Ontario  spending  most, 
with  $210,000,  the  Dominion  and  New  Brunswick  each  with 
$50,000  being  second,  Quebec  spending  $24,000,  and  Nova  Scotia, 
which  seems  now  the  best  protected,  $6,089.  It  is  a  mistake  to 
charge  this  last  amount  to  public  expense,  for  most  of  this  money 
is  collected  from  the  timberland  owners  holding  more  than  500 
acres,  while  any  deficiencies  in  payment  for  the  cost  of  the  service 
is  collected  from  the  municipalities,  the  Provincial  government 
itself  incurring  no  expense. 

It  is  gratifying  to  note  that  the  United  States  can  be  referred 
to  as  one  of  the  countries  coping  successfully  with  the  fire  evil, 
reference  being  made  to  the  decrease  of  fires  in  the  National 
Forests  during  the  years  from  1904  to  1907,  when  the  burned 
over  area  was  gradually  reduced  from  0.66  to  0.07  per  cent. 

B.  E.  F. 

Trees:  a  handbook  of  forest  botany  for  the  woodlands  and  the 
laboratory.  Vol.  IV:  Fruits.  By  H.  M.  Ward.  New  York, 
1908.     Price,  $1.50. 

The  interest  to  us  in  this  posthumous  volume,  as  well  as  in  the 
preceding  ones  of  the  series,  lies  in  the  method  of  treatment  of  the 
subject,  since  the  descriptions  refer  only  to  trees  of  Great  Britain. 
The  method  is  to  describe  separately  leaves  and  twigs,  flowers  and 
inflorescence,  fruits  and  wood,  preceding  the  specific  descriptions 
by  general  discussions  of  the  morphology  of  each,  and  giving  keys 
based  on  characters  of  each  of  these  features. 

Illustriertes  Handbuch  der  Laubholzkunde.  By  C.  K. 
Schneider.     8  Lieferung,  pp.  241-366.     Jena,  1909. 

This  is  a  monumental  work,  most  thorough  and  practical,  on 
the  deciduous  tree  flora  indigenous  and  introduced  into  middle 


Current  Literature.  315 

Europe,  fully  illustrated.  The  reviewer  in  the  Botanical  Gazette 
refers  to  it  with  these  words:  "Who  of  our  foresters  will  give  us 
something  as  good,  but  perhaps  a  little  less  condensed?" 

Statistische  Mitteilungen  iiber  die  Ertraege  deutscher  Watdun- 
gen  im  Wirtsc hafts  jahre,  190?.  By  Dr.  Schwappach.  Mitteil- 
ungen des  Deutschen  Forstvereins.    No.  2.     1909.    70  pp. 

This  is  the  annual  budget  of  statistics  of  the  results  of  German 
forest  management  including  not  only  the  State  forests  but  also 
some  of  the  private  and  the  commercial  forests  and  now  com- 
prising 53.4  per  cent  of  the  total  forest  area  of  Germany  . 


OTHER  CURRENT  LITERATURE. 

Forest  Fires  in  Massachusetts.  By  F.  W.  Rane,  State  Forester. 
Boston,  1909.  Pp.  43.  This  bulletin  is  published  "that  the  people 
may  realize  more  fully  the  exact  condition,  and  in  the  hope  that 
some  good  will  result  therefrom."  Contains  tables  of  damage, 
causes,  extent  and  month-frequency,  as  well  as  information  on 
methods  of  organization  and  protection. 

Forest  Products  of  Canada,  By  A.  H.  D.  Ross.  Bulletin  No. 
4,  Forestry  Branch,  Department  of  the  Interior,  Ottawa,  Canada, 
1909.  Pp.  33.  Official  statistics  brought  together  for  the  first 
time. 

The  Distribution  of  Woody  Plants  in  the  Pike's  Peak  Region. 
By  E.  C.  Schneider.    Colorado  College  Pub.,  No.  6,  1909. 

An  act  for  the  Protection  Sf  Woodlands.  New  Jersey  State, 
April,  1909.  Provides  for  the  construction  of  fire  lines  by  railroad 
companies. 

Forest  Club  Annual,  University  of  Nebraska,  1909.  Pp.  70. 
Contains  the  following  articles:  Seed  Sowing  on  National  For- 
ests, by  G.  B.  McDonald ;  Notes  on  Osage  Orange,  by  T.  E.  Mil- 
ler; The  Advantages  of  Clear  Cutting  Lodgepole,  by  H.  S. 
Stevenson;    Experiments  in  Forest  Tree  Seed  Germination,  by 


316  Forestry  Quarterly. 

L.  L.  Bishop  ;  Summer  Forest  Botany  in  Colorado,  by  R.  J.  Pool ; 
Lumbering  Cottonwood,  by  W.  E.  S.  Hallett ;  Distillation  of 
Hardwoods,  by  C.  R.  Tillotson ;  Lumbering  in  Colorado,  by  H. 
H.  Greenamyre ;  A  Paper  Pulp  Operation  in  Wisconsin,  by  J.  C. 
Ketridge;   Logging  in  Wisconsin,  by  A.  C.  Hamel. 

A  List  of  the  Trees  of  tlie  State  of  Florida.  By  John  Gifford. 
Cocoa  Nut  Grove,  1909.  24  pp.  Enumerates  281  species  of  na- 
tive and  introduced  tree  species.  Although  it  is  printed  for  popular 
consumption,  namely,  for  the  "Forestry  Department  of  the 
Florida  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs,"  and,  therefore,  does  not 
pretend  to  scientific  accuracy  or  method,  it  offends  the  eye  and  pro- 
priety to  see  the  latin  species  name  printed  in  capitals  and  the 
authors'  names  left  out. 


PERIODICAL  LITERATURE. 
FOREST  GEOGRAPHY  AND  DESCRIPTION. 

Dr.  Martin  continuing  his  account  of  for- 
Forestry  estry    conditions    in    France,    discusses    the 

'*  in  coppice,  which  plays   such  a  large   role  in 

France.  French  forests,  occupying  probably  over  7.5 

million  acres.  The  most  important  species 
is  the  oak  in  several  species,  also  blue  beech,  ash,  elm,  birch,  willow 
and  poplar  are  frequent.  Chestnut  and  Black  Locust  are  found 
especially  in  Southern  France.  Since  most  of  the  coppice  forest 
is  in  private  hands  the  statistics  are  very  incomplete.  In  the  State 
forests  a  rotation  of  20  to  30  years  is  applied  to  56%  of  its  cop- 
pice, 10  to  20  years  to  32%  and  over  30  years  to  10%.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  communal  forest  is  also  managed  in  20  to  30  years 
rotation. 

Regarding  production  the  coppice  stands  lowest  with  11.5  cubic 
feet  per  acre  in  the  State  forest  and  18.5  cubic  feet  in  the  com- 
munal forests,  as  against  41  and  24  for  timber  forest  of  these 
two  classes  of  proprietors.  On  this  basis  Tassy  calculates  that 
this  coppice  management  costs  society  a  loss  of  60  million  dollars, 
more  than  half  the  direct  taxes  of  the  country. 

Two  primitive  forms  of  coppice  are  still  in  vogue,  le  taillis  sarte 
in  which  the  debris  is  spread  out  and  burnt,  and  then  a  grain  or 
hoed  crop  is  grown,  and  le  taillis  furete,  in  which  the  sprouts  are 
cut  as  it  were  in  selection,  four  to  five  fellings  being  made  during 
the  rotation,  always  taking  the  stoutest  sprouts ;  this  to  secure 
better  fuelwood.  The  result  is,  as  with  other  unevenaged  forms, 
a  deterioriation  of  the  stand,  the  sprouts  become  poorer  and  the  re- 
pletion of  stocks  difficult. 

Tanbark  coppice  is  very  general  in  hands  of  private  owners, 
some  350  million  pounds  being  the  annual  product  which  is  sold 
at  about  $14.00  per  ton.  While  the  maximum  product  might  be 
attained  in  12  to  15  year  rotation,  these  woods  are  usually  man- 
aged in  18  to  25  year  turns  in  order  to  secure  a  better  wood  pro- 
duct. Growth  conditions  are  excellent,  and  replenishing  of  stocks 
does  not  seem  much  required ;   where  poor  growths  in  oak  coppice 


318  Forestry  Quarterly. 

need  improvement,  this  is  often  done  by  sowing  pine,  which  shows 
a  beneficial  influence  on  the  growth  of  the  oak. 

"Looking  at  forest  conditions  of  France  in  general  and  the  sta- 
tistical data  of  yields,  no  doubt  can  exist  that  coppice  in  France 
just  as  in  Germany  and  other  countries  is  a  form  of  management 
not  any  more  timely  or  compatible  with  national  interests."  This 
verdict  will  impress  itself  more  strongly  as  the  price  of  its  pro- 
ducts sinks  in  comparison  with  those  of  the  timber  forest,  which 
latter  are  bound  to  rise.  Coppice  is  rapine  and  with  increase  of 
civilization  more  intensive  use  of  the  soil  becomes  necessary. 

One  of  the  most  essential  characteristics  of  French  management 
lies  in  the  mode  of  wood  sales  which  differs  widely  from  German 
practice. 

For  State  forests  auctions  are  the  rule ;  exceptions  are  admitted 
only  on  insignificant  items  for  naval  and  military  use  and  to  those, 
holding  rights  of  user.  In  communal  forests  open  sale  is  the  rule, 
and  here  mostly  of  stumpage  for  the  year's  cut. 

There  are  three  methods  in  vogue:  sale  of  stumpage  (vente 
sur  pied)  ;  sale  according  to  size  and  assortments  {vente  a  I'unitc 
de  produits)  ;  sale  of  cut  wood  {vente  apres  faconnage) .  The 
latter  method  which  is  the  one  usual  in  Germany,  is  very  rarely 
practised  in  France,  and  the  second  for  less  than  20  per  cent,  of 
the  cut  in  State  forests.  Buyers  in  the  State  forests  are  mostly 
wholesale  wood  merchants  hence  wholesale  sales  are  the  rule. 
Dates  for  the  sales  in  series  are  advertised  for  each  inspection  dis- 
trict a  long  time  ahead.  Smaller  cuts  are  sold  as  a  whole,  larger 
ones  in  several  lots  which  are  in  the  forest  subdivided  by  ditches. 
One  lot  is  not  to  exceed  the  amount  of  $2,000. 

When  stumpage  in  block  is  sold,  trees  to  be  cut  or  to  be  left  are 
marked  with  hammer,  and  the  trees  to  be  cut  calipered  and  their 
contents  very  carefully  ascertained  and  in  detail  placed  in  a  pro- 
tocol, divided  by  assortments.  Then  the  value  of  each  class  of 
trees  is  estimated,  {estimation  brute).  From  the  sum  total  the 
costs  to  the  buyer  are  deducted.  Among  these  appear  the  buyer's 
profit  {le  benefice  de  V ' adjudicature)  which  is  figured  at  10%  ; 
■cost  of  felling  and  sawing,  etc.,  including  eventual  pruning  of 
trees  left ;  certain  services  in  connection  with  delivering  wood  to 
officers,  assistance  in  roadbuilding,  etc.  {traveaux  mis  en  charge)  ; 
any  other  costs.  These  deductions  leave  the  "reste  net,"  upon 
which  the  bids  are  based. 


Periodical  Literature.  319 

The  sale  by  assortments  is  usually  applied  in  selling  the  result  of 
thinnings,  where  an  estimate  of  totals  is  impracticable.  The  classi- 
fication is  simple  and  uniformity  in  three  classes  ;  workwood  (bois 
d'  oeuvre)  of  at  least  32  inch  circumference,  in  two  or  three  sub- 
classes;  fuel  wood  (bois  de  feu),  less  than  32  inch  circumference, 
several  classes ;  bois  de  corde,  split  cordwood,  and  fagot,  round 
billets;  lastly  brushwood  (bourrees)  below  10  inch  circumference, 
which  is  gathered  into  fagots  of  about  3  feet  circumference  in 
lengths  of  4  to  6  feet. 

Sometimes  the  log  timber,  bois  de  service  is  by  a  kerf  marked 
off  from  the  part  of  the  stem  that  is  to  be  allotted  to  bois  de  feu, 
this  latter  being  reduced  by  1.8  to  steres,  cubic  meter  space. 

In  the  sale  sur  pied  the  bid  is  made  for  the  total  cut,  in  the  bid 
a  V  unite  it  is  made  by  assortments.  At  the  auction  the  bidding  is 
downward  (au  rabais)  ;  a  bid  proposed  by  the  auctioneer  (crieur) 
equal  to  double  the  estimated  value,  going  down  by  a  certain  per- 
cent, until  somebody  calls:    je  prends,  "I  take  it." 

The  conditions  imposed  upon  the  buyer  are  also  characteristic, 
and  are  recited  in  great  detail  on  the  sale  protocol. 

In  timber  forest,  trees  are  as  a  rule  to  be  dug  out  (exploites  par 
extraction  des  souches),  taking  care  not  to  injure  roots  of  the  re- 
served trees.  The  holes  must  be  filled  up  again.  In  the  coppice 
the  character  of  the  cut  is  carefully  prescribed  and  the  presence  of 
a  grindstone  required.  In  regeneration  fellings,  beech  advance 
growth  must  be  removed,  also  soil  cover  which  impedes  regenera- 
tion. Spots  used  by  the  buyer  for  working  up  wood,  charcoal  pits, 
etc.,  must  be  planted,  broken  branches  of  standing  trees  trimmed 
and  tarred ;  in  thinning,  trees  to  be  felled  may  have  to  be  first 
trimmed.  The  selection  of  wood  choppers  is  also  supervised. 
Winter  felling  is  the  rule,  but  for  coniferous  woods  spring  felling 
"in  the  sap"  is  recommended,  which  is  said  not  only  to  make  the 
wood  lighter  and  barking  to  avoid  insect  trouble  easier,  but  also  to 
preserve  better  appearance. 

All  smaller  dimensions  and  fuel  wood  must  as  soon  as  possible 
be  moved  to  roads  and  to  the  edges  of  the  felling  area.  Larger 
logs  may  be  trimmed  and  hewn  in  place,  but  are  then  to  be  moved 
to  landing  places,  and  in  regeneration  cuttings  the  chips  and  debris 
are  to  be  removed.  All  damages  are  paid  for  according  to  a  pre- 
determined scale. 

The  furnishing  of  fuelwood  to  the  forest  officers,  and  assistance 


320  forestry  Quarterly. 

in  road  building,  planting,  etc.,  are  also  often  imposed  conditions, 
an  inspection  (rccolement)  takes  place  at  the  end  of  the  felling. 

French  foresters  consider  this  system  of  sale,  especially  for 
final  harvest  fellings,  satisfactory.  It  reduces  the  labor  of  the 
officers  and  insures  more  adequate  utilization  of  the  cut  by  the 
better  informed  merchant  according  to  needs  of  the  market.  This 
may  also  result  in  better  prices  to  the  forest  owner. 

Objections  are  that  no  consumer  can  secure  materials  without 
the  middleman ;  the  volumes  and  especially  defects  cannot  be  as 
surely  determined  as  on  the  felled  timber — the  German  method — 
which  is,  therefore,  fairer.  Valuable  statistical  knowledge,  which 
is  needed  for  an  intense  management,  is  lost  to  the  forest  manager. 
The  objection  that  from  this  mode  of  sale  on  the  stump  damage 
to  young  growths  is  to  be  experiencel,  is  overcome  by  close  super- 
vision and  inspection,  yet,  according  to  Boppe,  much  damage  had 
resulted,  and  he  ascribes  the  loss  of  thrifty  oak-stands  in  West  and 
Middle  France  to  this  cause,  poor  pine  plantations  taking  their 
place. 

Mitteilungen  iiber  die  forstlichen  Verhaltnisse  in  Frankreich.     Forstwis- 
senschaftliches  Centralblatt.     April,   1909,  pp.  203-218. 

FOREST  BOTANY  AND  ZOOLOGY. 

Dr.  Jaccard  records  a  peculiar  phenomenon 

Leaf  Fall  of  the  leaves  of  various  species  persisting 

and  through  fall  frosts  which  usually  bring  about 

Frost.  their  fall.     In  spite  of  the  frosts  of  October 

20  to  23,   1908,  in  Switzerland,  sycamores, 

elms  and  basswood  remained  quite  green,  apple  and  pear  trees, 

oak  and  horsechestnuts  exhibited  frosted  but  persistent  foliage,  the 

foliage  of  the  last  two  remaining  green  but  crumpled,  the  former 

brown  but  with  spread-out  blades.    Horse  Chestnut  remained  green 

and  foliaged  until  November  10,  and  then  it  required  considerable 

force  (by  wind  or  hand)  to  break  the  leaves  off  at  the  insertion  of 

the  petioles.     Here  wound  periderm  was  found,  but  not  the  usual 

layer  of  separation  at  the  base  of  the  petiole  which  facilitates  the 

leaf  fall,  the  fibrovascular  bundles  remaining  open,  and  only  a 

swelling  containing  gum  surrounding  the  spirals  of  the  ruptured 

vessels.    The  absence  of  the  separation  layer  accounts  for  the  late 

leaf  fall. 


Periodical  Literature.  321 

According  to  Wiesner  the  disorganization  of  the  middle  lamella 
in  the  separation  layer  is  due  to  reduced  transpiration ;  this  leads 
to  oxidation  of  the  chlorophyll,  the  formation  of  acids,  especially 
oxalic  acid,  and  to  a  ferment  which  destroys  the  cells.  Jaccard 
found  many  oxalate  of  lime  crystals  in  the  mesophyll  of  the  frozen 
leaves,  as  well  as  in  the  parenchyma  of  petiole  and  ribs,  but  no 
free  oxalic  acid. 

If  the  separation  layer  is  formed  before  the  frost,  an  ice  layer 
is  formed  in  the  layer  and  on  thawing  the  leaves  fall,  even  green 
ones.  The  changes  which  prepare  this  leaf  fall  are  usually 
gradual,  under  the  influence  of  gradual  reduction  in  light  and  de- 
creasing transpiration ;  differently  colored  substances,  anthocyan, 
tannin,  tannoidin  and  humus  formations  causing  the  discolora- 
tion, while  the  starch  is  decomposed  and  wanders  into  the  twigs ; 
water  is  lost,  certain  parenchyma  cells  at  the  base  of  the  petiole 
elongate  transversely  and  form  the  separation  layer. 

In  the  year  of  observation  warm  weather  prevailed  until  Octo- 
ber 20,  vegetative  activity  continuing,  and  frost  found  the  foliage 
unprepared  for  the  fall.  While  the  mesophyll  cells  were  consider- 
ably dried  out,  those  of  the  petiole  were  turgid  with  water.  This 
would  argue  that  the  formation  of  the  separation  layer  depends 
on  the  chemical  changes  in  the  chlorophyll  rather  than  on  the 
cessation  of  transpiration  and  assimilation.  Starch  was  found  in 
the  petioles  two  days  after  the  frost,  but  after  a  fortnight  had 
it  vanished,  while  the  blades  still  showed  undiminished  quantities, 
and  it  was  still  present  by  November  20  in  the  leaves  that  were 
hanging  on.  It  looked  as  if  only  the  protoplasm  in  petiole  and 
midrib  had  been  changed,  and  the  ferments  of  the  cellsap  which 
dissolve  the  starch  and  conduct  it  into  the  twigs  had  remained 
active.  The  cell  tissues  of  the  petiole  were  still  able  to  perform 
osmotic  processes  but  were  unable  to  form  the  separation  layer. 

The  influence  of  frost  on  the  protoplasm  was  peculiar.  While 
the  color  remained  green  much  xantophyll  was  shown  by  the 
spectroscope ;  but  a  solution  in  alcohol  treated  with  benzin  did 
not  split  into  cyanophyll  and  xantophyll ;  the  chlorophyll  had  be- 
come resistant  to  changes.  This  experience  may  account  for  the 
finding  of  green  moss  and  leaves  in  peat  bogs  and  under  thick 
layers  of  mud.  The  green  chlorophyll,  to  be  sure,  persisted  only 
on  the  upper  side,  where  the  crumpling  of  the  leaves  prevented 
direct  light  influence;   the  under  side  turning  brown. 


322  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Referring  to  the  biological  value  of  leaf  fall,  the  writer  refers 
to  Wiesner's  classification  according  to  causes  into  summer  leaf 
fall,  heat  leaf  fall,  shoot  leaf  fall,  autumn  leaf  fall  and  frost  leaf 
fall ;  the  first  caused  by  insufficient  light  reaching  the  interior  of 
crowns,  the  second  by  drouth,  the  third  caused  by  the  sprouting  of 
dormant  buds  at  the  base  of  leaves,  the  last  two  by  reduction  of 
transpiration  and  respiration.  In  all  cases  except  frost  leaf  fall,  it 
is  a  natural  reaction  to  exterior  conditions  and  of  advantage  to  the 
life  of  the  plant. 

The  loss  of  foliage  in  the  autumn  reduces  damage  from  wind 
and  snow.  The  fallen  litter  enriches  the  soil  with  minerals,  espe- 
cially carbon  from  the  air,  as  well  as  nitrogen  contained  in  organic 
substance.  By  humification  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  is 
improved  and  the  leaf-litter  protects  the  soil  against  radiation  and 
frost.  In  early  spring  the  sun  can  reach  all  the  buds  in  the  leafless 
crown  and  expedite  their  awakening,  the  summergreen  trees  hav- 
ing in  this  respect  an  advantage  over  the  wintergreen,  whose  buds 
are  confined  to  the  periphery  of  the  crown. 

Wirkung  des  Frostes  auf  den  Laubabfall.  Schweizerische  Zeitschrift  fiir 
Forstwesen,  April,  1909,  pp.  105-112. 

The  old  doctrine  that  germination  of  seeds 
Germination  is  promoted  by  the  absence  of  light  has  been 

and  dispelled   by   the    investigations   of    Kinzel, 

Dormancy.  who  has   demonstrated   with   a  number  of 

plants  that  the  very  opposite  is  true.  De- 
layed germination  or  dormancy,  the  same  investigator  finds  not 
necessarily  to  be  due  to  the  character  of  the  seed  coat,  but  pos- 
sibly to  the  character  of  the  embryo. 

Lichtkeimung.  Berichte,  Deutsche  Botanische  Gesellschaft,  1908,  pp. 
631-645. 

SOIL,  WATER  AND  CLIMATE. 

A  belated  consideration  of  the  proceedings 

Forests  of   the    Navigation    Congress   at    Milan,    in 

and  :9°5^  cahs  forth  a  discussion  by  Buffault  of 

Water  Flow.         the  evidence  reported  at  the  Congress  and 

elsewhere  of  forests  on  waterflow  in  answer 

to  the  position  taken  by  Rabot,   Secretary  of  the  French   Geo- 


Periodical  Literature.  323 

graphic  Society,  to  the  effect  that  such  evidence  is  deficient  or  in- 
conclusive. 

Wolfschiitz  of  Briinn  adduced  instances  to  show  that  the  efficacy 
of  the  forest  in  retaining  the  waters  fails  in  long  continued  and 
extraordinary  rainfall  periods.  According  to  Honsell,  the  best 
wooded  basins  of  the  Black  Forest,  Harz,  Spessart,  etc.,  con- 
tributed most  to  the  floods  of  the  Rhine  in  1882. 

Similar  experiences  were  reported  from  the  watersheds  of  the 
Elbe  in  1897,  of  the  rivers  Enns,  Traun  and  Ybbs  in  1899,  and 
from  the  densely  forested  Riesenwald  in  Silesia  in  1888,  1897  and 
1903.  Yet  Wolfschiitz  recognizes  at  least  a  limited  and  local  in- 
fluence in  certain  regions  in  reducing  disastrous  floods. 

Lauda,  the  director  of  the  Austrian  Hydrographic  Bureau,  ad- 
mits the  difficulty  of  solving  the  problem  and  reports  very  careful 
and  precise  observations  made  in  1903  and  1904  in  the  basins  of 
two  rivers  in  Moravia,  the  Bistrizka  with  48%  forest  cover,  and 
the  Seniza  with  only  27%,  otherwise  the  two  being  geologically 
and  topographically  alike,  and  nearly  of  the  same  area.  He  comes 
to  the  interesting  conclusion  that  the  preceding  weather  conditions 
have  a  bearing  on  forest  influences.  While,  generally  speak- 
ing, the  retentive  capacity  of  the  forest  cover  is  undoubted,  it  be- 
comes relatively  less  in  extreme  flood  times,  so  that  after  a  certain 
degree  of  saturation  the  run  off  from  the  forest  is  greater  than 
from  the  unforested  area.  (Did  more  rain  fall  on  the  forested 
slopes?)  After  periods  of  drouth  the  retentive  capacity  of  the 
forest  is  superior,  so  that  a  rainfall  after  three  months'  drouth  in 
the  better  forested  basin  became  noticeable  in  the  river  two  days 
later  than  in  the  less  forested. 

Conclusiveness  of  these  observations  is  doubtful. 

A  correspondence  between  Lauda  and  Tessier,  published  in  a 
later  issue  of  the  same  journal,  which  brings  further  detail  and 
diagrams  of  conditions  and  observations  in  the  two  river  basins. 

Lauda  concludes,  that,  if,  as  Tessier  demands,  it  is  necessary  to 
prove  identical  distribution  of  rainfall  in  two  basins  to  be  com- 
pared, it  will  never  be  possible  to  demonstrate  experimentally  the 
forest  influence  on  floods. 

Ponti,  an  Italian  engineer,  asserts  experiences  of  increased 
floods  due  to  deforestation  in  Sardinia,  Sicily  and  Campobasso, 
and  of  the  watersheds  of  the  Adda  and  Matero,  and  on  the  other 


324  Forestry  Quarterly. 

hand  favorable  influence  of  forest  planting  in  the  provinces  of 
Grosetto  (Tuscany),  Avellino  (Campania),  Sondrio  (Lombardy). 

The  Russian  Lokhtine  cites  a  long"  series  of  general  experience 
from  various  parts  of  Europe  and  especially  from  Russia,  which 
would  indicate  the  bad  effect  of  deforestation.  Among  others,  he 
cites  the  statements  of  Schreiner  and  Copeland  regarding  condi- 
tions in  Monroe  County,  Wisconsin,  where  in  70  years  the  forest 
area  was  reduced  from  83%  to  6%,  and  the  effect  has  been 
noticeable  in  1887  in  a  striking  manner  by  low  river  beds  and 
abandonment  of  mills. 

The  results  of  a  special  commission  to  investigate  water  condi- 
tions on  the  Dnieper  and  its  tributaries  show  the  deforested  basins 
as  retaining  from  3  to  20  per  cent,  less  water  than  the  forested 
basins,  in  proportion  to  the  deforestation.  The  gradual  decrease 
of  average  water  level  in  the  Soura  has  been  observed  from  1888 
to  1900  in  proportion  to  the  progressive  deforestation. 

Similarly  on  the  upper  Bielaja  at  Oufa,  where  deforestation  has 
progressed  from  1887- 1900,  the  average  water  level  has  decreased, 
while  on  the  lower  Bielaja  at  Grouzdecka,  where  the  forest  cover 
has  remained  undisturbed,  the  water  level  has  practically  remained 
even.    Similar  experience  is  cited  from  the  Volga  basin. 

These  citations  are  followed  by  a  general  discussion  of  the 
problem.  It  starts  with  a  reference  to  the  undoubted  effect  of 
forest  cover  on  erosion,  and  rehearses  the  observations  and  ex- 
periments of  Ebermayer,  Calas,  Henry  and  others. 

The  most  striking  experience  cited  is  that  from  the  department 
of  Aude  in  1893,  when  the  main  river  after  a  downpour  rose  15 
feet.  In  two  branches  draining  almost  totally  deforested  basins 
great  damage  was  clone,  in  another  branch  coming  through  a  well 
forested  basin  with  the  same  storm,  no  perceptible  rise  and  no 
damage  was  noted.  A  long  list  of  such  observations  is  recited 
with  references  to  the  sources  of  information  which  make  the 
article  useful. 

La  capaciti-  rctentionelle  de  la  foret.  Revue  des  eaux  et  forets.  January, 
1909.  pp.  1 -18.  33-34.  April,  1909,  pp.  229-234. 


Periodical  Literature.  325 

The  much  mooted  problem  of  how  nitrogen 
Nitrogen  is  made  available  to  plants  is,  step  by  step, 

Fixation  being   solved.     It   is    now   certain   that   an 

in  aerobic     bacterium,     Azotobacter     chrooc- 

Soil.  occum,   is   responsible   for   it.     A   Russian, 

Krzeminiewski,  contributes  further  knowl- 
edge of  the  activity  of  this  bacterium.  Humus  does  not  serve 
either  as  a  source  of  nitrogen  or  carbon,  but  it  acts  as  an  im- 
portant stimulant :  the  addition  of  nitrogen-free  media  multiplies 
the  amount  of  nitrogen  fixed  by  the  bacteria  many  times.  Humus 
from  different  soils  yields  different  results.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  addition  of  nitrogenous  compounds  had  an  inhibitory  in- 
fluence. 

The  importance  of  humus  is  further  accentuated  by  these  find- 
ings. 

Untersuchungen    tiber    Azotobacter    chroococcwm.      Botanical    Gazette, 
June,  1909,  p.  475. 

Mr.  G.  P.  Burns  continues  an  account  of  his 
Peat  Bog  investigations  of  the  Huron  River  Valley, 

Investigations.  and  the  present  paper  deals  with  the  de- 
scription of  some  of  its  greyest  peat  bogs, 
which  were  investigated  in  detail  by  use  of  a  borer,  to  establish 
their  relation  to  original  post-glacial  lake  contours.  The  author 
concludes  that  the  chief  factor  determining  the  position  of  the 
greatest  amount  of  peat  deposit  and  the  width  of  the  zones  of 
plants — lily,  bog  sedge,  bog  shrub,  tamarack,  maple-poplar,  in 
definite  orderly  succession — is  the  depth  of  the  water  in  the 
different  parts  of  the  original  post-glacial  lakes.  The  position  of 
open  water  is  determined  by  depth :  given  time  enough,  the  open 
water  will  disappear  from  all  bog  lakes.  Where  water  is  shal- 
low, the  bog  flora  cannot  establish  itself  because  of  the  wave 
action  induced  by  the  winds,  and  on  account  of  the  shore-ward 
push  of  the  ice. 

Botanical  Survey  of  the  Huron  River  Valley.     VII.     Botanical  Gazette, 
June,  1909,  pp.  445-453- 


326  Forestry  Quarterly. 


A  further  contribution  towards  establishing 
Bog  the  theory  of  "toxicity"  of  soils  as  explain- 

Toxins.  ing  unproductiveness,   is   furnished  by  Al- 

fred Dachnowski,  based  on  experiments 
with  wheat  plants  in  water  cultures,  conducted  in  the  Botanical 
Laboratory  of  Ohio  State  University.  The  importance  of  these 
investigations  into  the  cause  of  infertility,  especially  of  bogs 
and  swamps,  lies  in  the  fact  that  these  swamp  and  muck  lands 
are  naturally  rich  in  constituents  needed  for  plant  food,  and  yet 
have  seldom  given  satisfaction,  even  after  drainage  and  addi- 
tion of  fertilizers.  In  another  series  of  experiments  on  the 
cause  of  xerophily  in  bogs,  the  author  had  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  inhibiting  factors  of  a  bog  are,  in  part,  the  presence  in 
the  soil  water  of  injurious  toxic  substances,  that  this  toxicity  can 
be  corrected  by  various  methods,  and  that  plants  grown  in  solu- 
tions thus  treated  show  not  only  accelerated  growth  and  an  in- 
crease in  transpiration,  but  also  an  increase  in  the  green  and  dry 
weight  of  organic  matter. 

Other  tests  seem  to  indicate  that  the  toxins  are  not  merely 
specific  excretions  from  the  roots  and  rhizomes  of  bog  plants, 
but  probably  are  certain  unstable  bodies  of  the  nature  of  organic 
compounds  excreted  from  the  roots  in  the  absence  of  oxygen,  and 
in  heavy  clay  soils  not  adequately  aerated. 

Following  is  the  summary  resulting  from  the  present  investiga- 
tion, as  stated  by  the  author: 

"1.  Many  swamp  and  muck  soils  exhibit  a  sterility  which  can- 
not be  remedied  by  drainage  or  by  the  addition  of  fertilizers. 

"2.  The  sterility  appears  to  be  most  marked  where  investiga- 
tions on  the  physiological  properties  of  bog  water  and  bog  soils 
indicate  a  greater  amount  and  activity  of  bog  toxins. 

"3.  The  production  of  bog  toxins  is  due  to  a  number  of  physi- 
cal and  chemical  factors.  One  can  only  conclude  that  the  chemi- 
cal constitution  of  bog  water  and  bog  soils  at  a  given  moment 
conditions  toxicity  and  that  the  excretion  from  roots  and  rhi- 
zomes of  plants  is  one  of  the  variables  of  the  conditioning  factors. 

"4.  In  untreated  bog  water  there  are  found  deposited  upon 
the  roots  of  wheat  plants  numerous  colored  bodies  as  the  result 
of  the  oxidizing  action  of  roots.     The  general  decay  of  the  root- 


Periodical  Literature.  327 

tips  indicates  that  the  oxidizing  activity  is  insufficient  to  decrease 
the  harmful  effect  of  the  bog  toxins. 

"5.  It  is  possible  that  ecesis,  association  and  succession  of 
plants  depends  primarily  upon  respiration,  and  that  in  respiration 
bog  plants  differ  from  other  plants. 

"6.  Treating  bog  water  with  an  insoluble  absorbing  agent  is 
invariably  beneficial. 

"7.  Different  physiological  phases  result  from  the  progressive 
addition  of  an  absorbing  substance.  With  coarser-grained  ma- 
terials, the  low  optimum  rate  of  transpiration  is  soon  succeeded 
by  a  minimum,  which  is  due  to  the  action  of  toxic  substances 
still  present. 

"8.  Finer-grained  insoluble  bodies  are  more  beneficial.  The 
response  to  toxic  bodies  when  present  in  small  amounts  leads  to 
acceleration  of  growth.  The  period  of  growth  is  more  prolonged, 
and  the  optimum  and  maximum  rate  of  transpiration  lie  near  to- 
gether. 

"9.  The  adsorptive  action  of  carborundum  and  humus  is  about 
four  times  greater  than  that  of  quartz ;  the  capacity  of  soils  for 
retaining  toxins  is  therefore  higher  the  greater  the  content  of 
humus. 

"10.  The  decrease  of  the  poisonous  effect  of  bog  water  is 
probably  a  function  of  the  surface  of  the  particles ;  it  is  rela- 
tively proportionate  to  the  quantity  of  the  solid  body  used. 

"11.  In  agricultural  soils  used  as  adsorbents,  the  presence  of 
the  adsorbed  unknown  toxins  replaces  normal  growth  by  an 
abnormal  retardation.  Fertility  is  restored  through  aeration, 
that  is,  after  time  enough  has  elapsed  for  the  oxidation  of  the 
injurious  bodies. 

"12.  The  contaminated  condition  of  agricultural  soils  and  the 
consequent  decreased  physiological  activity  of  the  plants  grown 
in  them  still  further  indicates  that  xerophily  cannot  be  due  to 
acidity ;  that  is,  the  factors  heretofore  cited  are  only  in  part  the 
cause  of  xerophily." 

Bog  Toxins  and  their  Effect  upon  Soils.  Botanical  Gazette,  May,  1909, 
pp.  387-405- 


328  Forestry  Quarterly. 

SILVICULTURE,  PROTECTION  AND  EXTENSION. 

In  1905  and  1906  Oberforster  Haak,  an  ex- 
Germination         pert   in   this    line,    published    investigations 
Per  Cent.  (see  Quarterly,  Vol.  V,  p.  205)  into  the 

and  relations   of   the   germination   per   cent,    of 

Seed  pine  seed  to  the  number  of  plants  actually 

Storage.  resulting,  which  showed  that  the  use  value 

of  seed  increases  and  decreases  with  increas- 
ing or  decreasing  germination  per  cent,  in  much  more  rapid  pro- 
gression than  the  final  number  of  germinated  seeds  in  a  test  would 
indicate.  To  secure  the  same  number  of  plants,  very  much  less 
seed  of  a  high  germination  per  cent,  is  required  than  proportion- 
ately of  seed  of  a  lower  per  cent.,  i.  e.,  lower  grade  seed  is  much 
less  valuable  than  its  germination  per  cent,  indicates. 

To  secure  more  precise  data  on  this  relationship,  to  determine 
what  the  author  calls  the  "plant  per  cent."  corresponding  to  a  cer- 
tain germination  per  cent.,  some  129  sowings  in  seedbed  and  in  the 
open  were  made  with  400  to  800  grains  to  the  sowing,  and  the 
number  of  resulting  plants  counted.  To  take  account  of  the  dif- 
ference of  seedbed,  practically  experienced,  three  different  condi- 
tions, favorable,  unfavorable  and  half- favorable,  were  created. 
From  the  curves  representing  the  results  the  following  relation- 
ships were  deduced : 

Germination  per  cents. :  50  55  60  65  70  75  80  85  90  95 
Plant  per  cents. : 

I  Under  favorable  conditions  11   15  20  25  30  35  41  47  54  61 

II  Under  unfavorable  conditions  2    4    7    9  12  16  20  27 

III  Under  half-favorable  conditions  2    7  11  17  22  28  34  41  48  56 

VI  Average  of   I  and   II  5     7  11  14  18  22  26  31  37  44 

While  under  favorable  conditions  seed  of  60  per  cent,  germina- 
tion will  furnish  one-third  the  number  of  plants  indicated  by  its 
germination  per  cent.,  a  90  per  cent,  seed  will  furnish  54,  more 
than  one-half  the  theoretical  figure.  Since  there  are  so  many  in- 
fluences at  work  to  make  conditions  favorable  or  unfavorable,  the 
author  proposes  the  use  of  the  figures  which  result  from  averaging 
the  figures  under  I  and  II,  and  which  he  finds  to  agree  very  well 
with  the  best  practice. 

To  explain  the  strikingly  lawful  progress  of  the  decrease 
of    plant    per    cent,     with    decreasing    germination    per    cent., 


Periodical  Literature.  329 

it  is  stated  as  a  result  of  many  years  of  observation  that 
originally,  excluding  blind  seeds,  there  is  90  per  cent,  of  good  seed 
found  in  the  cones.  Various  causes  bring  about  deterioration; 
the  same  cause  which  destroys  the  viability  of  some  of  the  seeds 
also  decreases  the  vitality  of  the  others,  but  not  all  in  the  same  pro- 
portion ;  at  any  time  some  have  lost  their  germinative  power  alto- 
gether, some  can  still  push  forth  a  germ,  without  forming  normal 
roots,  still  others  are  sound  but  germinate  only  slowly,  and  only 
a  portion  have  remained  undamaged,  undiscovered  individual  dif- 
ferences rendering  these  more  resistant  to  baneful  influences. 

As  regards  the  question  whether  the  use  of  mixed  seed,  i.  e., 
seed  with  high  and  low  germination  to  secure  an  average,  is  justi- 
fied, finds  answer  in  the  upward  turn  of  the  plant  per  cent,  curve : 
the  plant  per  cent,  of  mixed  seed  is  never  lower  than  that  of  un- 
mixed seed  of  same  germination  per  cent.  The  equation  to  secure  a 
mixture  of  c  per  cent,  germination  from  seed  of  a  and  b  per  cent,  is 

ad  c  c — b  , 

x \-y =100 ,or^r  = ,   ioo,    and  y   =    100 — x. 

100  100  100  a — 0 

To  secure,  therefore,  85  per  cent,  seed  from  a  mixture  of  65  and  95 
per  cent,  seed  there  are  needed  33.3  parts  of  the  first  and  66.6  parts 
of  the  second ;  or,  if  95  per  cent,  seed  is  to  be  mixed  with  o  per 
cent,  seed,  89.5  parts  of  the  first  and  10.5  of  the  latter  are  needed. 
Now  while  unmixed  85  per  cent,  seed  shows  an  average  plant  per 
cent  of  31,  the  two  mixtures  yield  34  and  39  per  cent  respectively. 
The  impropriety  of  relying  merely  on  the  germination  per  cent,  as 
regulator  of  price  is  apparent.  If  a  seed  dealer  had  two  parcels  of 
seed,  one  of  65  per  cent.,  the  other  of  95  per  cent,  germination,  the 
buyers  would  object  to  the  first  as  too  low,  but  would  not  be  will- 
ing to  pay  its  true  value,  or  more  than  for  an  80  per  cent,  seed,  the 
average  quality  The  seed  dealer  is,  therefore,  justified  in  mixing, 
and  even  to  add  0  per  cent,  seed  to  a  95  per  cent,  seed,  whereby  he 
even  improves  the  corresponding  plant  per  cent. 

If  the  plant  per  cent,  were  used  in  price  making,  the  following 
differences  would  appear.  Taking  an  85  per  cent,  seed  as  of  nor- 
mal quality  at  the  cost  of  I,  then  the  value  under  (I)  favorable, 
(II)  unfavorable  and  (III)  average  conditions  is: 


Germination  per  cent. : 

55 

65 

75 

85 

95 

I 

•  32 

•  53 

•  74 

1. 

1.29 

II 

— 

.25 

•  56 

1. 

1.69 

III 

.22 

•  45 

•  71 

1. 

1.42 

330  Forestry  Quarterly. 

If,  therefore,  85  per  cent,  seed  is  worth  $1.00,  one  could  afford 
to  pay  30  to  70  cents  more  for  95  per  cent.  seed. 

To  secure  the  same  number  of  plants  one  would  have  to  sow, 
under  average  conditions,  to  secure  a  sowing  of  same  density : 

Germination  per  cent. :  65  75  85  95 

4.8  3.8  2.2         .1.5  lbs. 

The  policy  of  using  the  very  best  seed  material,  especially  on 
poor  sites,  is  strongly  argued. 

Besides  germination  per  cent.,  germinative  energy  needs  to  be 
considered,  /'.  e.,  the  rapidity  of  germination  within  a  limited  time, 
e.  g.  for  pine  ten  days.  The  author's  tests  exhibit  a  striking  simi- 
larity of  the  progress  of  germinative  energy  with  that  of  the  plant 
per  cent.,  leading  to  the  conclusion  that  only  the  rapidly  germinat- 
ing grains  furnish  the  plants  in  open  sowings,  and  that  the 
germinative  energy  rather  than  the  germination  per  cent,  is  the 
important  factor ;  a  seed  test  of  ten  to  fourteen  days  should 
settle  the  judgment  on  seed  quality.  Proper  conditions  for  testing 
are,  to  be  sure,  essential.  The  author,  having  made  over  3,000 
tests,  finds  it  best,  if  the  seed,  lying  on  filter  paper  or  flannel, 
secures  its  moisture  by  capillary  action  from  water  located  under 
the  paper  3cm,  under  the  flannel  \\cm.  No  special  apparatus  is 
needed,  a  deep  plate  suffices,  and  if  paper  is  used  a  glass 
cover.  A  very  simple  apparatus  may  be  made  of  a  tin  tray,  3 
inches  deep,  with  ledges  on  two  side  walls,  across  which  movable 
bridges  punctured  with  holes  can  be  placed  on  which  the  flannel 
or  paper  is  placed,  and  a  window  glass  over  all.  Contrary  to 
former  beliefs  darkness  is  not  required,  indeed  undesirable,  but 
uniform  temperature  essential. 

The  author,  who  has  been  in  charge  of  a  seed-extracting  estab- 
lishment of  more  than  $20,000  capacity,  then  discusses  the  pro- 
priety and  method  of  securing  best  seeds.  The  gathering  of  only 
ripe  cones,  and  the  regulating  of  the  heat  in  getting  the  seeds  out 
are  first  requirements.  The  author  recommends  domestic  seed  as 
superior  to  imported,  whose  origin  is  not  known.  Next  comes 
the  keeping  of  the  seed,  which  when  refusing  to  use  imported  seed, 
needs  to  be  done  for  a  number  of  years  between  seed  years. 

The  conditions  most  favorable  for  keeping  seed  germinative 
were  investigated  in  a  long  series  of  experiments,  detailed  in 
tables  and  germination  curves.     The  present  practice  of  storing 


Periodical  Literature.  331 

seed  in  cool,  open  boxes  and  shoveling  them  over,  apparently  to 
prevent  heating,  is  condemned.  Just  as  Cieslar  has  shown  in 
similar  experiments,  storing  in  airtight  receptacles  is  most  favor- 
able to  maintaining  germination  per  cent,  and  germinative  energy. 
After  two  or  three  years,  seed  stored  in  such  manner  produced 
1.6  to  3.3  times  the  number  of  plants  as  the  same  seed  stored  in 
open  air  under  most  favorable  conditions.  After  three  years  such 
seed  had  lost  from  16  to  68  per  cent,  of  germination,  while  seed 
kept  airtight  still  showed  nearly  90  per  cent.  The  loss  in  the 
former  was  especially  noticeable  when  originally  poor  seed  was 
involved.  Hence,  airtight  storage  is  not  only  desirable  for  first- 
class  seed,  but  especially  for  seed  which  is  difficult  to  keep.  Such 
storage  should,  however,  not  be  made  in  rooms  in  which  the  tem- 
perature can  rise  much,  if  even  only  temporarily,  especially  if  the 
seed  is  not  first  fully,  yet  not  too  thoroughly,  dried.  The  degree 
of  dryness  attained  by  being  placed  for  a  few  days  in  the  sun  or  in 
a  well  warmed  room  until  the  weight  of  the  seed  is  decreased  1  to 
2  per  cent,  may  be  the  most  favorable. 

A  sample  of  the  tabulation  will  give  an  insight  into  the  changes 
in  germination  per  cent  and  germinative  energy  that  take  place 
under  different  conditions,  the  germination  period  being  10  to  28 
days,  the  drying  having  been  done  in  chlor-potash  exsiccator  for 
seven  days. 

EARLY  HARVEST  OF  1905-6. 

In  Air-tight  Bottles 
Exposed  to         In  Warmed  In  Unzvarmed 

Air  in  Room  Room  In  Cellar 


5^ 


,-« 


Germination  Per  Cents. 

0  90-96      90-96      90-96      90-96      90-96      90-96  90-96  90-96  90-96 

1  49-83      62-90      83-96      81-95  73-94  80-96  77-96 

2  32-44      46-71       61-90      60-89      64-91       67-90  68-92  68-94  68-91 

3  18-21       32-46      66-83      61-81       71-91       69-93  66-93  69-93  76-91 
3                             (The  last  year  kept  on  ice)  78-85  84-92 

Keeping  seed  on  ice  in  airtight  bottles  proved  under  all  condi- 
tions an  improvement  over  other  methods,  especially  as  regards 
germinative  energy.  This,  as  some  experiments  showed,  may  be 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  cold  inhibits  the  carbonic  acid  formation 


332  Forestry  Quarterly. 

and  consequent  loss  of  substance  due  to  respiration  of  the  seed. 
Such  respiration  must  also  be  a  cause  of  deterioration  when  the 
respiration  is  active  under  admission  of  air.  Yet  storage  in  car- 
bonic acid  did  not  appear  to  produce  advantageous  results. 

The  importance  and  financial  value  of  these  findings  as  to  proper 
storage  may  be  understood  when  it  is  stated  that  the  price  of  70  to 
75  per  cent,  seed  was  in  1906  4  marks ;  in  1907,  7  mk. ;  in  1908, 
11  mk. ;  in  1909,  9.5  mk,  and  that  from  two  to  three  times  as  many 
plants  result  from  seed  kept  airtight  for  3  years,  as  from  the  seed 
kept  in  open  air. 

The  best  place  to  keep  seed  is  an  ice-cellar  (cold  storage)  ;  next, 
a  deep,  cool  cellar,  the  seed  dried  to  a  loss  of  1  to  2  per  cent,  of  its 
weight,  being  enclosed  in  dried-out,  corked  and  sealed  bottles,  or 
in  zinked  receptacles,  possibly  with  a  little  unslaked  lime  enclosed. 

Der  Kicfernsamc.  Zeitschrift  fur  Forst-u.  Jagdwesen.  June,  1909, 
PP-  353-381. 

That  mixed  forest  is  superior  to  pure  forest 

Mixed  is  a  dogma  accepted  without  exact  investiga- 

or  tion.  The  difficulty  of  such  investigation  has 

Pure  postponed   its   being  undertaken,   but   now, 

Forest?  since   1905,  Dr.   Schwappach  has  instituted 

some  twenty  sample  plots  for  the  purpose, 

and,  while  so  far  mainly  the  methods  may  be  discussed,  there  are 

already  results  noted  which  throw  light  on  the  question. 

The  object  of  the  investigations  are  to  be:  (a)  determining  the 
rate  of  growth  of  mixed  as  compared  with  pure  stands;  (b)  de- 
termining the  influence  of  mixed  stands  on  soil  conditions;  (c) 
experiments  into  the  most  suitable  methods  of  establishing  and 
managing  mixed  forest.  The  sample  plots,  located  in  East  Prussia 
and  Silesia,  comprise  three  general  types,  namely,  (1)  mixtures  of 
pine  and  spruce;  (2)  mixtures  of  larch  with  pine  and  spruce; 
(3)  spruce  and  fir  with  pine,  and  with  beech. 

The  following  samples  from  the  published  tabulations  will  illus- 
trate the  manner  of  record  : 


Periodical  Literature. 


333 


TABLE  I.— Mixed  Stand. 


Pure  Stand 

Permanent  Stand. 

Thinnings. 

according 
to  Yield 

c 

»*j 

Table. 

« 

£ 

0 

•0 

D 

o 

•a 

.O 

.5? 
'5 

bjl 

'5 

o 
o 

o 

—  > 

o 
o 

o 
Is 

o 

u 

o 

O 

00 

V 

c 

to 

00 

10 

o 

0) 

.o 

a 

o 
Id 

u 
U 

6 

to 

a) 

3 

§.2 

*-  r-i 
O   O 

b. 

3 

a, 

< 

s 

CO 

m 

m 

<7  >« 

ftn 

> 

o 

h 
/W 

I.  —  PlNE-SFRUCE. 


19 

Pi. 
Sp. 

58 
61 

469 
358 

23.9 
21.3 

24.8 
25. 

827 

22.6 


243 
107 


32  4   350 


3.1 


23   I 
6  II 


29 


32.8 

38.7 


319 
416 


II. — Larch-Pine-Spruce. 


16 


128 

La. 
Pi. 

Sp. 

106 
99 
106 

225 
108 
169 

32.4 
28.9 
22.9 

33. 

29.4 

24.7 

22.4 

12.1 

9. 

326 
143 
95 

1.45 

1.32 

.56 

.1 
2.3 

2 
27 

I 

IV 

33.8 
33. 

502 

43.5 

564 

2.4 

29 

427 

369 


TABLE  II. — Participation  of  Species  in  Composition. 


Stem  Number  Cross  Section.  Timber-wood. 


Per  Cent. 


I. — Pine-Spruce. 


19 


Pi. 
Sp. 


34.5 
65.5 


60.3 
39.7 


61.2 
38.8 


II.  — L  arch-Pine-Spruce. 


15 

128 

La. 

45. 

51.6 

57.9 

Pi. 

21.5 

28. 

25.3 

Sp. 

33.5 

20.4 

16.8 

TABLE  III. — Progress  of  Height  Growth 


District 

Species 

Age 

1905 

1900 

1890 

1880 

1870 

1860 

1850 

132 

La. 
Pi. 
Sp. 

109 
104 
110 

34.5 
29. 6» 
33. 

34 

29.2 

31.3 

32.9 

28.3 
28.4 

31.6 

27.2 
26.7 

30.1 
25.3 
25. 

28.2 
22.8 
23.2 

25.7 
20.3 
20.9 

La.— Pi. 
La.— Sp. 
Pi.— Sp. 

4.9 

1.5 

-3.4 

4.8 

2.7 

-2.1 

4.6 

4.5 

—  .1 

4.4 

4.9 

.5 

4.8 

5.1 

.3 

5.4 
5. 

"■4 

5.4 

4.8 

—  .6 

334  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Table  IV. — Volume  Increment  Per  Cent,  of  Model  Trees 


District 

Species 

Age 

1896-1905 

1886-95 

1876-85 

1866-75 

1856-65 

136 

Pi. 

Sp. 

129 
129 

.58 
1.39 

.94 
1.32 

1.14 
1.42 

1.26 
1.62 

1.62 
1.90 

Average 

128 
102 

.99 

1.80 
1.86 

1.13 

1.80 
2.12 

1.28             1.44 

2.22            2.26 
2.56            2.94 

1.76 

2.28 
2.58 

Average         1.83 

1.96 

1 
2.39            2  60 

2.43 

In  the  mixed  forest  of  pine  and  spruce,  three  types  are  recog- 
nized, namely:  i.  Uniform  pine — spruce  mixture;  2.  Pine  with 
interspersed  spruce ;  3.  Pine  with  spruce  undergrowth.  These 
types  with  many  transitions  depend  on  soil  quality,  especially 
humidity.  The  fresher  and  stronger  the  soil  the  more  prominent 
is  the  spruce  and  the  more  it  emulates  the  pine  in  heightgrowth, 
while  on  poorer,  drier  sites,  the  spruce  becomes  a  mere  interme- 
diate or  underwood.  The  delicacy  of  the  reaction  in  this  respect  is 
noticeable,  and  makes  it  difficult  to  secure  really  uniform  sample 
areas.  In  the  same  stand  in  the  rolling  country  at  short  distances 
and  with  altitude  differences  of  only  1  to  2m,  stands  show  these 
variations.  The  differences  are  best  brought  out  by  reference  to 
the  heights  of  trees.  In  type  I,  the  two  species  have  about  the 
same  height.  In  type  2,  the  pine  in  3  to  4  in  higher  than  the 
spruce ;  in  type  3,  the  difference  is  5  to  jm  in  maximum  and  8  to 
10m  in  average  height. 

The  sample  plots  had  been  chosen  according  to  the  type  of  the 
stands  without  reference  to  site  quality,  but  when  afterwards 
ranged  according  to  average  heights  it  was  found  that  15  out  of 
the  17  plots  of  pine-spruce  forest  belonged  to  site  class  I,  indicat- 
ing that  only  on  such  sites  is  an  even-aged  mixture  of  these  two 
species  likely  to  persist. 

On  the  poorer  sites,  in  small  volumes  of  the  average  tree  of  the 
more  fastidious  species  show  how  little  they  contribute  to  value 
production,  and  that  any  undergrowth  which  is  only  30  to  50  years 
old,  becomes  entirely  insignificant  in  volume  production. 

The  comparison  of  the  volumes  of  mixed  stands  with  the  yield 
tables  of  pure  stands  suffers  by  the  fact  that  the  latter  are  based  on 
stands  produced  under  regular  thinning  practice.     In  the  mixed 


Periodical  Literature.  335 

stands  of  type  i,  the  volumes  lie  between  those  for  pure  stands  of 
the  two  species  ;  in  type  2  the  admixture  of  spruce  adds  15  to  20% 
to  the  volume  of  pure  pine  in  most  cases.  In  type  3,  no  influence 
of  the  spruce  admixture  or  volume  is  noticeable. 

The  three  plots  of  larch-pine-spruce,  originating  from  sowings 
made  over  100  years  ago,  correspond  as  regards  volume  and 
height  growth  to  the  ideals  which  are  usually  ascribed  to  mixed 
stands,  their  volumes  being  in  excess  of  yield  tables  for  pure  pine 
or  spruce  (by  15  to  50%).  But  the  larch,  for  which  yield  tables 
are  lacking,  is,  to  be  sure,  the  ideal  tree  for  a  mixture,  since  under 
its  light  shade  the  other  species  can  still  thrive.  Stands  like  these 
are  a  rarity  in  Germany.  Failure  to  produce  similar  stands  on  the 
same  sites  in  later  plantations  in  which  only  few  larches  have 
maintained  themselves  and  from  which  a  nearly  pure  pine  stand 
with  spruce  underwood  resulted,  are  ascribed  to  improper  amounts 
of  seed  used,  and  perhaps  to  game  damage. 

The  investigations  into  relative  heightgrowth  give  valuable  hints 
for  the  establishment  of  mixed  stands.  Even-aged  mixtures  seem 
to  be  appropriate  only  on  the  sites  of  type  1 ;  on  the  other  types 
the  introduction  of  the  spruce  is  indicated  only  as  underwood  when 
the  pines  have  reached  an  age  of  40  years. 

As  regards  the  volume  per  cent.,  the  interesting  fact  is  brought 
out,  that  while  in  earlier  ages  the  pine  shows  mostly  a  higher  per 
cent,  than  the  spruce,  the  per  cent,  for  the  latter  after  the  100  year 
is  approximately  double  that  of  the  pine.  While  the  data  of  tree 
analyses  are  insufficient  to  make  deductions  for  the  whole  stand 
it  may  be  concluded  that  in  the  mixed  stand  the  current  increment 
shows  a  higher  rate  in  old  age  than  that  of  pure  pine  stands,  and 
that  in  such  stands  of  pine  and  spruce  mixed  the  index  per  cent, 
sinks  more  slowly  than  in  pure  stands. 

The  data  so  far  gathered  permit  preliminary  conclusions  which, 
however,  may  need  further  verification  or  correction. 

1.  Mixed  stands,  in  which  the  more  fastidious  species  partici- 
pate in  considerable  degree,  say  over  20%  of  the  total  volume  of 
the  mature  (over  100  year)  stand  are  possible  only  on  the  better 
sites  which  are  favorable  to  that  species ;  otherwise  this  species 
can  only  be  underwood  or  soil  cover. 

2.  Site  class  I  for  pine  corresponds  to  site  class  II  to  III  for 
spruce  (and  beech),  site  class  II  for  pine  to  site  class  III  to  IV 
for  spruce  (and  beech). 


336  Forestry  Quarterly. 

3.  An  increase  in  volume  production  of  pine  stands  by  mixing 
in  spruce  is  attainable  only  on  the  best  pine  sites,  and  in  type  1 
especially  needful  because  here  site  conditions  are  more  favorable 
to  spruce. 

4.  Apparently  the  beech-spruce  mixture  does  not  produce  more 
volume  than  the  pure  spruce  forest,  while  value  production  is 
greatly  depressed  by  beech  admixture. 

5.  To  determine  the  best  method  of  growing  and  managing 
mixed  forest,  careful  studies  on  the  basis  of  stem  analyses  are 
valuable. 

6.  The  artificial  establishment  of  even-aged  mixed  stands  of 
pine  and  spruce  are  admissible  only  on  the  best  sites ;  on  the 
poorer  sites,  the  spruce  is  best  introduced  in  the  polewood  stage 
by  underplanting,  in  order  to  correct  the  branchiness  of  the  pine 
growing  up  in  the  open  stand. 

7.  Both  technical  and  financial  considerations  make  higher  rota- 
tions advisable  for  pine-spruce  mixture  than  for  pure  pine  stands. 

Untersuchungen  in  Mischbestanden.  Zeitschrift  fur  Forst-u.  Jagd- 
wesen.    May,  1909,  pp.  313-332. 

Although  referring  to  a  particular  locality 
Silvicultural         and  species,  the  discussion  and  report  of  ex- 
Problems.  periments  by  Forstrat  Abele  on  the  natural 

regeneration  of  fir  in  the  Bavarian  moun- 
tains is  most  suggestive  to  all  who  wish  to  understand  silvicultural 
problems. 

The  discussion  refers  to  the  region  of  the  Bavarian  mountains, 
a  range  of  100,000  acres,  with  an  altitude  of  1,800  to  4,500  feet, 
mainly  gneiss  and  granite.  Up  to  3,800  feet  the  forest  consists  of 
a  mixture  of  spruce,  fir  and  beech,  some  12,000  acres  being  in 
selection  forest,  170  to  200  years  old  and  more,  culled  and  open, 
weedy,  with  about  60  to  70  %  of  normal  stock. 

The  aim  of  the  management  has  been  to  grow  by  natural  re- 
generation the  three  species  in  mixture  of  50%  spruce,  20%  fir 
and  30%  beech,  but,  in  spite  of  the  preponderance  of  the  fir  in  the 
old  stand  and  apparently  proper  management,  no  success  has  been 
had  in  propagating  the  fir.  While  in  the  old  stands  over  100  years 
the  fir  forms  68.6%,  in  those  below  100  years  not  more  than  4.2 
to  8.5%  appear. 

The  greatest  diversity  of  opinions  as  to  the  reason  for  this  fail- 


Periodical  Literature.  337 

tire  has  for  years  been  advanced  by  practitioners  and  theorists, 
some  assigning  it  to  soil  conditions,  especially  the  formation  of  raw 
humus  under  the  change  of  light  conditions,  others  to  the  inter- 
ference of  beech  litter  or  other  causes  for  unsuitable  seed  bed, 
snow  accumulations,  weed  growth,  others  again  to  the  interfer- 
ence by  game,  by  fungus,  by  insects. 

Finally,  in  1904,  somewhat  extensive  trials  throughout  the 
region  were  inaugurated  to  determine  the  cause  of  the  failing  re- 
generation;  25  groups  on  15  trial  plots  were  similarly  located, 
each  group  of  600  square  feet.  These  were  made  in  3  series  of  5 
plots  each,  the  first  series  was  left  unprotected  to  test  the  influence 
of  game,  the  second  series  in  full  light,  the  third  in  subdued  light 
which  was  secured  either  by  the  neighboring  stand  or  by  lath 
screens. 

The  first  set  was  sown  on  the  natural  soil  cover,  the  second  set 
after  removal  of  the  loose  litter  on  the  unworked  humus,  the  third 
with  the  humus  layer  worked  in  with  the  mineral  soil,  the  fourth 
with  both  litter  and  humus  cover  removed,  the  fifth  with  the 
mineral  soil  worked  after  removal  of  litter  and  humus. 

The  seed  was  gathered  from  the  200-year  old  firs  on  the  ground, 
and  was  sown  as  Nature  does  it,  without  cover,  at  the  rate  or  1 
grain  to  the  square  meter  (90  lbs.  per  acre).  After  four  years, 
during  which  the  plats  were  under  observation,  the  trials  were 
considered  concluded.  In  all  cases  the  loss  of  plants  during  the 
four  years  was  considerable,  averaging  /Q%  of  the  original  stand. 
In  the  first  series  only  11%  survived;  in  the  second  series  31%  in 
the  average  and  37%  on  the  best,  the  last  set;  while  the  third 
series  (in  subdued  light)  showed  19%  survivors,  varying  from  12 
to  21  on  the  various  plots. 

Taking  series  2,  the  most  advantageous,  by  itself,  and  noting 
the  losses  from  year  to  year,  it  is  noticeable,  that  the  percentage  of 
loss  from  year  to  year  decreased  rapidly,  the  loss  per  cent,  averag- 
ing 42,  29,  18,  8  from  the  first  to  the  fourth  year,  but,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  plots  left  in  natural  condition  the  proportion  of  loss 
from  plot  to  plot  showed  little  difference,  the  last  two  series  being 
only  slightly  favored. 

On  the  plots  left  natural,  at  the  end  of  the  period  there  were 
still  over  5,000  seedlings  per  acre,  which  would  be  quite  satis- 
factory, but  8%  of  all  the  plots  had  no  plants,  21%  at  best  not 
over  1,000,  8%  at  best  not  over  2,000  seedlings,  so  that  altogether 


338  Forestry  Quarterly. 

27%  of  the  area  in  the  first  set  must  from  the  standpoint  of  man- 
agement be  considered  in  unsatisfactory  condition.  And,  if  it  is 
considered  that  an  unusually  large  amount  of  first  class  seed  had 
been  used,  supplemented  by  nature,  it  would  be  proved  that  natural 
regeneration  without  human  assistance  seems  excluded. 

Considering  the  various  influences  that  may  cause  the  difficulty, 
it  is  stated,  that,  qualitatively,  the  seed  from  the  old  firs  was  alto- 
gether without  flaw,  as  tests  and  comparison  with  results  from 
other  seed  had  shown,  but  quantitatively  it  appeared  quite  insuffi- 
cient, since  hardly  20  trees,  seeding  sparsely  were  to  be  found  per 
acre,  as  against  120  normally  in  stock  of  100-year  old  stands. 

The  damaging  influence  of  game  seemed  to  be  conclusively 
proven  as  a  concomitant  cause  of  failure.  The  favorable  influence 
of  full  enjoyment  of  light  was  patent  (although  fir  is  a  very  shade 
enduring  species),  supporting  the  claim  of  Dr.  Martin:  "Direct 
sunlight  is  always  favorable  to  young  firs.  From  the  very  day  of 
their  germination  it  would  thrive  best  and  grow  fastest  in  full  sun- 
light. Here,  too,  only  the  indirect  consequences  which  light 
brings  with  it  are  damaging,  namely,  in  the  increased  growth 
of  weeds  which  are  still  more  favored  by  the  light." 

As  regards  the  influence  of  soil  cover  and  humus  forms,  it  is 
stated  that  raw  humus,  of  more  than  1  to  2-inch  depth  does  not 
occur  in  the  region.  The  plots  show  that  the  removal  of  the  sur- 
face litter  does  not  have  any  appreciable  influence.  While  the  re- 
moval of  the  humus  layer  seemed  numerically  to  be  favorable,  the 
poorer  development  of  the  seedling  in  the  soil  deprived  of  the 
humus  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  result  is  in  no  proportion  to 
the  cost  of  this  work  of  soil  culture. 

Altogether,  while  the  removal  of  the  loose  surface  cover  was 
effective,  the  treatment  of  the  soil  in  the  various  ways  in  order  to 
secure  a  seedbed  did  not  improve  matters.  On  plats  covered  with 
light  moss  and  loose  huckleberry  growth,  seedlings  endured  better 
than  where  soil  cover  had  been  removed  or  soil  cultivated,  so  that 
with  such  cover  its  removal  seems  disadvantageous.  Martin  and 
other  authors  are  quoted  as  having  before  assigned  to  a  light  moss 
cover  beneficial  influence  on  fir  reproduction,  especilly  in  dry  years, 
both  for  germination  and  water  supply. 

As  regards  foliage  litter  the  conclusion  is  reached  that  the  re- 
moval of  old  foliage  of  several  years  is  an  indispensable  require- 


Periodical  Literature.  339 

ment  for  a  satisfactory  seeding  and  development  of  fir,  although 
a  newly  fallen  leaf  layer  is  not  objectionable. 

While  the  influence  of  weeds  could  not  very  conclusively  be 
shown  on  the  experimental  plats,  except  the  first  set,  where  the 
germination  was  in  the  first  place  interfered  with,  observations  on 
the  felling  areas  show  the  presence  of  grass  especially  inimical  to 
the  young  regeneration.  Especially  in  the  first  year  the  fir  is,  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Martin,  very  sensitive,  to  the  withdrawal  of 
moisture  by  the  grass,  especially  where  a  certain  degree  of  light 
favors  the  weed  growth ;  its  shade  endurance  is  the  sole  weapon 
of  defence,  so  that  even  under  dense  beech  regeneration  it  can 
maintain  itself  and  develop. 

Occasionally  several  species  of  snout  beetles  and  fungi  were  ob- 
served as  damaging  the  young  growth.  The  conclusion  is  that  the 
main  cause  of  the  failing  regeneration  may  lie  in  insufficiency  of 
seed  supply,  and  in  the  grass  and  weedgrowth  impeding  germina- 
tion and  further  development  of  seedlings.  In  the  combat  with 
grasses  and  weeds  endowed  with  an  extensive  root  system,  the 
seedling  with  its  scanty  organs  of  nutrition  must  succumb. 

The  unfavorable  conditions  have  come  about  gradually,  so  that 
in  the  last  50  to  60  years  neither  fir  nor  spruce  have  reproduced, 
and  the  conditions  for  natural  regeneration  are  lost.  Here,  Mar- 
tin's and  Schwappaclrs  positions  in  general  are  justified,  the  first 
considering  an  insistence  upon  natural  regeneration  a  "rapine  in 
the  worst  sense  of  the,  word,"  the  latter  finding  the  excessive  preju- 
dice for  natural  regeneration  when  it  is  to  be  forced  without 
proper  conditions  being  present,  a  principal  fault  of  many  a  man- 
agement. Hence  change  to  artificial  reproduction  by  planting  with 
3-year  old  transplants  is  the  only  solution  of  the  problem. 

On  the  other  hand  the  25,000  acres  of  stands,  100  to  170  years 
old,  show  still  favorable  conditions  for  natural  regeneration.  This 
is  to  be  practiced,  with  such  variation  as  is  indicated  by  these 
trials,  preventing  especially  weedgrowth  by  keeping  fellings  dark. 

Die  Naturver  jiingung  der  Tanne  in  den  Staatswaldungen  des  Bayer- 
ischen  Waldes.  Forstwissenschaftliches  Centralblatt.  April,  May,  1909, 
pp.  187-198,  251-266. 

Just  as  the  moleplow  is  revolutionizing  farm 

Silvicultural         culture,   so   seemingly   is   a   similar   "forest 

Implements.         grubber"  (W  Mil  grubber)  finding  more  and 

more  friends.     The  principle  of  these  plows 

is  not  to  lay  the  furrow  over  but  to  stir  the  soil  without  dislocating 


340  Forestry  Quarterly. 

it.  Several  such  grubbers  are  in  the  market  (see  notice  of  Web- 
ber's grubber  on  p.  109  of  this  volume).  The  praises  of  Kahler's 
grubber  are  sung  by  Geist,  who  accentuates  that  the  superior  soil 
preparation  is  cheaper  than  older  methods  which  entail  repair- 
planting  and  loss  of  increment. 

The  cost  of  plowing  furrows  with  this  instrument  is  $3.60,  and 
at  most  $4  per  acre  (10,000  yards.  20  inches  wide  and  deep),  to 
which  from  60  cents  to  $1.50  must  be  added  for  harrowing  by 
harrow  or  hand.  But  the  result  in  the  stand  of  the  sowings  is 
phenomenal,  especially  in  dry  humus. 

Two  furrow  sowings,  the  one  made  by  the  old-fashioned  plows, 
the  other  by  the  grubber,  succumbed  to  unusual  drouth  ;  in  the  first 
case  $10  had  to  be  spent  to  secure  planting  plots  ;  in  the  latter  case 
no  expense  for  soil  preparation  was  needed.  The  cost  of  the  im- 
plement is  about  $300. 

Zur  Kiefernnachzucht,  etc.,  Tiefe  Wiihllockerung.  Zeitschrift  fur  Forst- 
u.     Jagdwesen.     May,  1900,  pp.  333-337. 

MENSURATION,  FINANCE,  MANAGEMENT. 

It  has  been  asserted  by  various  writers  that 
Value  the   unit   value   of   work  wood — hardwoods 

Increment.  in  all  practical  sizes,  conifers  within  certain 

limits — rises  in  proportion  to  diameter — 
(that  is,  wherever  price  is  an  expression  of  value,  as  inGermany. 
Rev.), — so  that  e.  g.  for  beech,  the  following  arithmetic  progres- 
sion may  be  found : 


Diame 

iters : 

30 

40 

So 

60 

70 

80  cm. 

Price : 

9 

12 

15 

18 

21 

24  Mk. 

Schubert  has  investigated  this  law  of  the  parallelism  of  price 
and  diameter,  expressed  by  the  equation  y  =  ax,  i.  e.,  progress  in 
straight  lines,  for  various  species  on  the  basis  of  data  from  several 
limited  localities.  He  finds  that  as  a  matter  of  fact,  price  increase 
in  oak  and  beech  from  8  to  24  inches  diameter  moves  practically  in 
a  straight  line,  with  only  one  exception.  With  beech,  the  lines 
ascend  at  the  ratio  of  a  —  \,  with  oak  the  appreciation  is  more 
rapid,  namely  at  the'ratio  of  a  =  1,  or  even  =  i£,  i.  e.,  increase  of 
diameter  increases  value  disproportionately. 

Quite  different  is  the  relation  in  spruce  and  fir.    While  here  too, 


Periodical  Literature.  341 

price  increments  progress  in  straight  lines,  they  are  not  anywhere 
near  parallel  to  the  diameter  increase.  For  the  smaller  sizes  this 
parallelism  holds  good,  but,  after  10  inches  is  reached,  the  line 
curves,  i.  e.,  proportionality  of  price  and  size  vanishes,  and  beyond 
the  diameter  of  14  inches,  the  price  per  cubic  foot  does  not  change 
any  more.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  price  lines  of  the  two 
years  1904  and  1907,  two  years  of  entirely  different  market  condi- 
tions, while  absolutely  different  in  value,  run  entirely  parallel. 

The  author  then  goes  into  a  discussion  of  how  to  shape  the  offi- 
cial sale  rates  for  logs,  which  has  no  direct  interest  for  us.  The 
author  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  such  relations  as  the  fore- 
going can  only  be  local  and  temporary. 

Ueber   Wertsuwachs.     Allgemeine  Forst-u.     Jagdzeitung,  May,   1909. 
pp.  153-158. 

While  on  this  continent,  and  especially  in 

Loans  Canada  it  is  customary  for  banks  to  make 

on  loans  on  forest  properties  on  the  basis  of 

Forest  Properties,    the  estimated  actual  timber  or  "wrecking" 

value,  in  Prussia  the  county  credit  banks — 
cooperative  banks  of  the  estate  holders  or  farmers  (Landschafts- 
bank) — determine  the  credit  value  of  forests  on  the  basis  of  the 
yield  under  sustained  yield  management  and  of  a  controllable 
working  plan.  In  consequence  of  this  principle,  a  forest  which 
does  not  admit  a  felling  budget  for  the  first  period  of  the  rotation 
is  not  loanable.  In  these  provincial  or  county  credit  banks  the 
value  of  all  the  farms  in  the  county  or  province  have  been  assessed, 
so  that  every  member  knows  to  what  extent  he  can  loan  on  it. 

The  forest  assessment  is  variously  made  by  different  banks,  but 
always  by  experts  if  at  least  25O'  acres  are  involved.  The  rota- 
tions for  coppice  vary  from  10  to  20  years ;  for  timber  forest 
usually  60  years,  and  in  some  parts  up  to  120  years.  The  princi- 
ples of  the  working  plan  are  definitely  laid  down,  varying  from 
province  to  province.  The  stocktaking  is  usually  confined  to  the 
stands  allotted  to  the  first  period.  It  is  significant  to  note  that 
selection  forest  practice  makes  the  forest  unloanable.  The  net 
yield  is  determined  upon  the  average  price  for  the  last  six  years 
in  the  forest  itself  or  in  neighboring  properties,  diminished  by  10% 
in  conifers,  5%  in  broadleaf  forest,  to  discount  calamities,  by  20  to 
60  cents  per  acre  for  cost  of  management,  by  $2  to  $10  per  acre 


342  Forestry  Quarterly. 

for  planting  in  timber  forest  (in  some  parts  less),  $i  to  $4 
(or  $8)  in  coppice  and  composite  forest,  by  cost  of  logging  ac- 
cording to  six  year  average,  by  the  value  of  any  servitudes  on  the 
forest,  and  by  the  needs  of  the  farm  or  estate  itself  according  to 
judgment  of  the  assessor. 

In  some  banks  these  figures  vary,  and  sometimes  an  additional 
allowance  of  10%  is  made  against  market  fluctuations. 

The  net  yield  so  determined,  multiplied  by  20  (5  per  cent.), 
represents  the  yield  value  upon  which  loans  may  be  issued.  In 
some  provinces  a  longer  rotation  than  70  years  reduces  the  rate  to 
4  and  3  per  cent. 

It  is,  of  course,  understood  that  the  forest  is  to  be  managed  for 
sustained  yield,  and  a  strict  control  is  exercised,  annual  budgets 
and  planting  plans  must  be  submitted,  and  every  3  years  an  in- 
spection and  possibly  revision  takes  place. 

Lately,  in  Silesia,  it  has  been  found  that  such  improvement  in 
the  values  of  forest  properties  has  taken  place  that  an  increase  in 
their  loan  value,  determined  on  these  data,  of  15  to  20%,  has  shown 
itself  admissible.  Especially  the  premium  against  calamities,  ex- 
perience has  shown,  may  be  diminished  by  one-third.  Again,  the 
value  of  thinnings  has  increased  so  that  they  may  be  taken  into 
account  to  the  extent  of  20  cubic  feet  per  acre  and  year  of  tim- 
berwood,  and  up  to  15%  of  the  total  yield  for  brushwood. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  how  far  advantage  is  taken  of  this  loan- 
ing method. 

In  one  of  the  counties  of  Silesia  91  private  forests,  totaling 
252,000  acres  had  their  value  assessed  at  around  $6,000,000,  or  $24 
per  acre.  The  four  largest,  however,  representing  120,000  acres, 
figure  out  only  $18.75  Per  acre-  ^ie  smaller  ones  from  $30  to  $62 
per  acre  and  the  three  best  from  $83  to  $108  per  acre.  Here,  no 
differentiation  of  soil  and  stand  value  is  made.  This  is  done  in 
some  of  the  other  provinces.  In  East  Prussia  the  tax  value  of  the 
stand  was  calculated  (since  1901)  at  45%  of  the  total  yield  value 
calculated  at  $50  per  acre.  In  Pomerania  (since  1903)  with  a 
yield  value  of  $28  per  acre  the  stand  value  was  calculated  to  repre- 
sent 44%  ;  in  Posen  (since  1907)  with  a  total  yield  value  of  $16 
per  acre,  68%  was  allotted  to  soil  value. 

In  the  average  then,  on  a  total  assessed  area  of  around  42,000 
acres  the  yield  value  being  $42,  the  tax  value  of  the  soil  was  cal- 
culated at  $18,  that  of  the  stand  at  $24. 


Periodical  Literature.  343 

Propositions  to  improve  the  opportunities  for  securing  credit  of 
foresi.  properties  with  a  view  of  assisting  in  lifting  farmers  out  of 
the  burden  of  debt  are  made  by  v.  d.  Borne.  It  appears  that  in 
the  Eastern  Provinces  these  debts  represent  from  28  to  53  per  cent, 
of  their  total  gross  property  values,  in  the  western  provinces  from 
10  to  30  per  cent. 

Die  Frage  der  Waldbeleihungen  dutch  die  preussischen  Landschaften. 
Zeitschrift  f.  Forst-u.    Jagdwesen,  March,  1909,  pp.  141-156. 

The  city  of  Pontarlier  has  just  added  to  its 
Municipal  Forests    forest  property  at  out  400  acres,  so  that  the 
in  city  forest  comprises  now  over  2,000  acres. 

France.  The  price  for  this  new  property  was  around 

$16,000,  one-third  of  it  consisting  of  se- 
verely culled  woods,  the  balance  run  down  pastures  and  waste 
lands,  which  are  to  be  reforested.  The  1600  acres  of  its  original 
forest  property,  which  until  1877  brought  annually  $5,000,  now 
yields  $12,000,  and  promises  to  increase  its  yield  to  $16,000  shortly, 
or  $10  per  acre.  This  experience  stimulated  the  city  to  the  new 
purchase. 

Bulletin  de  la  Societe  Franchise  des  Amies  des  Arbes.     1908. 

In    March,    1909,    a    reorganization   of   the 
French  French  Forest  Service  was  inaugurated,  in- 

Forest  eluding  readjustment  of  salaries.    These  are 

Administration.      now  for  the  Director  General  and  the  Direc- 
tors from  $2,400  to  $3,000;    Chiefs  of  Ser- 
vice, $1,400  to  $2,200,   rising  by  $200  increases;    Sub-director, 
$1,800  to  $2,600 ;  Administrators,  $2,200  to  $2,600 ;   Conservators, 
the  district  officers,  $1,600  to  $2,400. 

Administration  centrale  des  eaux  et  for  its.  Revue  des  eaux  et  forets, 
April,  1909,  pp.  216-220. 

UTILIZATION,  MARKET,  TECHNOLOGY. 

Professor  Henry,   of  Nancy,   discusses  the 

Cheap  value  of  different  preservatives  and  methods 

Wood  from  the  standpoint  of  efficiency  and  espe- 

Preservatives.       daily  cheapness.     Main  attention  was  paid 

to  Carbolineum  Avenarius,  which,  although 

more  expensive  than  other  tar  oils,  was  supposed  to  be  superior. 

22 


344  Forestry  Quarterly. 

After  a  few  experiments,  some  7,000  ties  were  treated.  The  anti- 
septic was  applied  in  open  bath,  heated  to  60  to  8o°  C.  in  a  tank 
holding  15  ties,  immersed  for  half  an  hour,  the  arrangement  being 
capable  of  treating  450  ties  per  day  at  a  cost  of  about  6  cents  per 
tie,  the  absorption  being  1^  pound  of  antiseptic  at  4  cents  per  tie, 
oak  and  beech  being  used.  According  to  experiments  the  same 
absorption  takes  place  in  ten  minutes  as  in  half  an  hour,  and  by  so 
much  the  process  may  be  cheapened. 

As  these  ties  were  laid  down  in  1907,  there  has  not  been  time 
for  an  endurance  test,  but  after  immersion  cross  sections  were 
made  which  showed  the  sapwood  fully  penetrated  and  the  heart- 
wood  at  least  at  the  ends,  where,  the  author  claims,  the  fungus  is 
most  likely  to  get  in.  Sixteen  months  later,  sections  were  cut,  and 
at  first  sight,  showed  no  trace  of  the  impregnation,  but  exposed  to 
the  light  for  a  day,  a  browning  took  place  throughout  the  sapwood 
and  part  of  heartwood,  which,  the  author  argues,  shows  that  there 
was  no  displacement  of  the  oil,  but  a  chemical  reaction,  the  nature 
of  which  remains  unexplained. 

Another  antiseptic  to  be  tried  is  Green  Oil  (Huile  verte),  also 
a  derivative  of  creosote,  which  sells  at  about  2  cents  per  pound, 
and  can  be  applied  cold  with  brush.  With  this  oil  too,  when  the 
wood  is  sectioned  the  impregnation  is  not  visible,  but  on  exposure 
the  wood  turns  green,  then  brown,  showing  the  effect  of  treatment. 
This  would  reduce  the  cost  per  tie  to  about  3  cents. 

Another  antiseptic  made  in  Belgium  is  Cresoyle,  a  hydrocarbon 
oil,  by-product  from  the  distillation  of  tar,  of  the  density  1.05,  and 
same  cost  as  Carbolineum. 

Phenol  is  also  said  to  be  cheaper  than  creosote  and  more  effi- 
cacious. 

While  these  are  all  products  of  tar  distillation,  a  new  source 
of  antiseptics  is  found  in  a  derivative  of  fluor — salts  of  hydro- 
fluoric and  fluorsilicic  acid  called  Hylinite,  developed  in  Austria. 
It  is  inodorous,  colorless  and  inoffensive,  thereby  becoming  useful 
in  house  protection,  especially  as  it  also  reduces  inflammability  and 
combustibility.  It  easily  penetrates  wood,  and  can  be  applied  by 
brush  and  is  very  cheap.  It  costs  less  than  2  cents  to  cover  a 
square  yard  with  two  coats.  Different  woods  take  up  different 
quantities,  but  8  to  10  pounds  per  cubic  foot  may  be  an  average. 
Most  satisfactory  experiences  with  this  antiseptic  are  reported. 


Periodical  Literature.  345 

The  possibility  of  making  use  of  various  woods  of  the  French 
colonies,  subject  to  fungus  attack  is  also  discussed. 

Essai  en  grand  du  Carbolineum  Avenarius.  Revue  des  eaux  et  forets. 
April,  1909,  pp.  204-215. 

STATISTICS  AND  HISTORY. 

A  retrospect  on  the  forest  management  of 
Prussia's  Prussia  during  the  year   1907  by   Semper 

Forest  gives   insight  into  conditions   and  changes 

Management.        based  on  official  data. 

Industrially,  Germany  was  passing 
through  a  year  of  depression,  like  the  United  States,  due  to  over- 
speculation,  scarcity  of  funds,  political  fears,  strikes,  etc.,  but,  as 
in  the  United  States,  the  crisis  was  not  severe,  owing  to  good  farm 
crops. 

Until  1900  the  State  forests  of  Prussia  in  the  old  provinces  were 
mortgaged  for  the  debts  resulting  from  the  wars  of  liberation,  and 
whenever  any  of  them  were  sold,  the  cash  had  to  be  devoted  to 
discharging  these  debts.  Since  then,  both  State  farms  and  State 
forests,  especially  near  large  cities  have  been  sold  to  the  amount 
of  over  $40,000,000,  of  which  $7,000,000  was  for  forest  properties. 

These  funds  together  with  an  appropriation  of  $25,000,000  made 
in  1902,  are  at  the  disposal  of  the  government  for  purchase  of 
waste  lands  and  mismanaged  forests,  especially  in  the  eastern 
provinces  of  Posen  and  West  Prussia. 

By  1900  the  total  area  of  land  under  the  management  of  the 
forest  administration  comprised  2,809,645  hectar,  an  increase  since 
1870  of  175,000  hectar;  then  the  purchases  increased  at  the  aver- 
age rate  of  18,418  hectar  annually,  so  that  the  total  area  under  the 
forest  administration  in  1909,  was  2,975,407  hectar  (7,349>255 
acres).  Of  the  waste  lands  acquired,  237,000  acres  had  been 
planted  by  1908,  and  in  later  years  this  planting  is  annually  done 
on  about  10,000  to  12,000  acres,  which  represents  about  20  to  25 
per  cent,  of  all  the  planting.  It  is  remarkable  to  note  that  about 
80%  of  the  plantings  required  repair  during  the  years  1900  to 
1903,  which  in  the  following  years  was  cut  down  to  about  60%,  as 
a  result  of  more  careful  initial  planting.  It  is  expected  to  improve 
further  on  this  score. 

The  total  budget  for  planting  which  in  1907  was  $1,300,000,  ex- 
perienced increases  of  $357,000  and  $238,000  in  1908  and  1909 


346 


Forestry  Quarterly. 


respectively.  Since  the  planting  area  in  1907  was  63,000  acres,  the 
average  cost  per  acre  appears  to  be  near  $20. 

Great  activity  is  noted  in  the  provincial  bureaus  in  the  direction 
of  assisting  private  owners  with  advice,  working  plans,  etc. 

In  1906  the  pine  moth  (Bombyx  pirn  ) became  obnoxious  in  the 
eastern  provinces  occasioning  an  expenditure  of  $52,000,  and,  in 
1907,  extending  its  destruction  over  near  100.000  acres,  $135,000 
were  spent  in  combating  it,  although  the  need  of  "liming"  was 
doubted.  Now  disease  has  overcome  the  pest.  The  spruce  moth 
(Liparis  monacha)  also  occasioned  damage.  Here,  mixture  of  the 
pine,  which  is  also  attacked,  with  broadleaf  trees  proved  an  effi- 
cacious means  of  resistance. 

In  regard  to  forest  fires,  we  learn  that  the  year  1907  had  only 
19  fires  destroying  600  acres  as  against  the  15-year  average  of  24 
fires  with  1550  acres  destroyed. 

Forest  fire  insurance  is  becoming  more  general.  The  original 
insurance  company  in  this  field  (Gladbach)  had  in  1903,  33,000 
acres  insured,  but  refused  to  give  later  information  on  account  of 
competitors  coming  into  the  field,  one  competing  company  report- 
ing 82,000  acres,  and  another  4,000  acres  insured.  These  latter 
insure  the  sale  value  of  the  stands,  or  else  the  cost  value,  while  the 
Gladbach  company  insures  the  sale  value  only  on  stands  which 
are  designed  to  be  cut  within  the  decade,  otherwise  the  expectancy 
value  or,  in  the  beginning  till  the  first  thinning,  the  cost  value  is 
made  the  basis  of  insurance. 

The  change  in  the  cut,  which  in  1907  was  398,000,000  cubic  feet, 
and  in  the  resulting  income,  and  in  wood  prices  is  exhibited  in  the 
following  table. 


Cut  Per  Acre 


Money  Yield 
Per  Acre 


Price  Cents 
Per  Cub.  Ft. 


"?U 


1890 
1895 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 


0 

K 

so. 

S 

"4> 
55 

& 

s 

ft. 

0 

55 

42 

47 

2.72 

1.36 

8.3 

2.9 

4-8 

52 

42 

51 

2.49 

1.05 

7-1 

2.8 

4-5 

54 

44 

60 

3-6o 

1.97 

10. 

3.4 

6.6 

58 

47 

59 

3-te 

1.87 

9.2 

3-0 

6.2 

61 

49 

55 

3-36 

1.60 

8-4 

3.0 

5-4 

70 

59 

63 

4.09 

2.15 

8.7 

3-1 

6.1 

65 

55 

64 

4.29 

2.44 

9-2 

3-3 

6.4 

61 

51 

64 

4.26 

2.42 

99 

3-5 

6.8 

60 

50 

62 

4.27 

2.28 

10.3 

3-8 

7-i 

61 

52 

63 

4-55 

2.52 

10.6 

7-5 

Periodical  Literature.  347 

Prices  for  wood  have  risen  at  the  rate  of  z\  to  2,2%  Per  annum 
for  the  last  12  years.  Mine  timbers  especially  rose  in  price,  owing 
to  the  increase  in  coal  prices  which  invited  the  miners  to  develop 
deeper  pockets  with  more  extended  use  of  timber.  Mine  props  in 
1906  brought,  delivered,  14  cents,  in  1907  17  cents  per  cubic  foot. 

Imports,  mostly  from  Russia,  have  nearly  doubled  in  the  last  six 
years,  imports  over  exports  rising  gradually  from  3,703,000  tons 
in  1902  to  7,201,000  tons  in  1907.  This  latter  figure,  the  highest 
so  far  attained,  can  be  translated  into  500  million  cubic  feet  of 
forest  grown  logs,  or  25  per  cent,  more  than  the  home  cut. 

This  enormous  activity  in  the  wood  market  found  a  check  in  ex- 
tensive strikes  in  the  building  trades  so  that  prices  sank  in  many 
cases  by  15%  below  those  of  the  previous  year. 

Although  a  new  tariff  had  reduced  the  duties  on  both  logs  and 
timber  considerably,  an  influence  of  this  feature  on  imports  is 
discredited,  the  industrial  conditions  alone  being  responsible  for 
the  increase.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  nearly  50  per  cent,  of 
the  import  is  by  water,  in  the  eastern  rivers  by  means  of  rafts,  on 
the  Rhine  and  Donau  by  vessel. 

To  check  the  loss  of  forest  labor  by  emigration  to  town,  the 
State  is  building  houses  for  laborers,  is  introducing  scales  of  wages 
which  increase  with  length  of  service  and  is  encouraging  immi- 
gration from  Russia,  and  giving  financial  assistance  in  various 
ways. 

In  Eberswalde,  workmen  receive  83  cents,  after  three  years  an 
increase  of  8  cents  and,  after  6  years,  an  additional  16  cents  per 
day.  Wood  choppers  who  have  worked  one  winter  for  six  weeks 
receive  in  the  following  winters  premiums  for  every  week  they 
work,  from  25  to  75  cents  per  week ;  railroad  fares  are  paid  them, 
and  other  means  to  keep  labor  in  the  woods  are  resorted  to. 

Educational  changes  consist  in  lengthening  the  term  at  the  for- 
est academies  to  three  years. 

An  association  of  private  forest  officials  was  founded  in  1904, 
which  in  1908  had  2,553  members.  In  1906  it  instituted  a  school 
for  forest  rangers  which  is  succeeful.  Short  courses  are  given  in 
various  districts.  The  association  also  holds  examinations  outside 
this  school  to  which  202  persons  were  admitted  in  1909.  Since 
there  are  about  16  million  acres  of  private  forest  in  Germany  these 
efforts  to  secure  properly  prepared  foresters  outside  of  the  gov- 


348  Forestry  Quarterly. 

ernment  schools  is  a  healthy  sign  of  the  development  of  private 
forestry,  which  is  also  being  aided  by  the  State. 

Forstwisscnschaftliche  Riickblicke  auf  das  Jahr  1907.  Zeitschrift  fur 
Forst-u.     Jagdwesen.     April,  1909,  pp.  232-253. 

The  nestor  and  founder  of  modern  Japanese 
Japanese  forestry,  Matsumo,  died  last  year  in  Tokio. 

Forest  Some  30  years  ago  he  abandoned  his  medi- 

History.  cal    studies    in    order   to    study    forestry   at 

Eberswalde,  and  cognate  subjects  in  Berlin 
for  five  years.  On  his  return  to  his  country,  although  he  received 
a  position  in  the  government,  he  found  that  his  ministers  con- 
stantly changing,  harrassed  by  the  many  innovations  that  were 
demanded,  could  not  be  moved  to  warm  to  his  propositions  of 
reform. 

Just  as  on  this  continent,  it  was  necessary  first  to  form  public 
opinion  and  so  he  began  to  give  public  addresses,  first  to  small 
audiences.  Then  he  organized  a  society  of  friends  of  forest  cul- 
ture, the  presidency  of  which  was  taken  by  one  of  the  princes, 
whose  name  drew  others  and  the  attention  of  higher  circles.  The 
result  was  the  foundation  by  the  Ministry  of  a  forest  school  in  con- 
nection with  the  University,  at  which  Matsuno  was  first  the  only 
instructor,  later  to  be  joined  by  Dr.  Nakamura. 

Later  a  forest  ranger  school  was  instituted,  which,  however, 
had  to  be  abandoned  after  the  Russian  war  for  lack  of  funds.  A 
forest  experiment  station  of  35  acres  was  also  one  of  Matsuno's 
works.  On  the  literary  side  an  elegant  volume  on  the  forest  trees 
of  Japan,  finely  illustrated,  stands  to  his  credit. 

German  influence  was  naturally  strong  in  guiding  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  forest  administration,  but  particularly  on  Matsuno, 
who  had  married  a  German  wife,  a  woman  of  parts,  who  herself 
was  active  in  reform  work  in  educational  lines. 

Allgemeine  Forst-u.    Jagdzeitung.    May,  1909,  pp.  187-8. 


Periodical  Literature.  349 

POLITICS  AND  LEGISLATION. 

A  new  reboisement  law  is  under  discussion 

Reforestation        before  the  Cortes.     Under  the  law  of  1863, 

in  considerable  areas  of  mountain  brushwood 

Spain.  have  been  sold  for  pasture  purposes,  with 

disastrous  consequences,  only  10  per  cent, 
of  Spain  remaining  in  forest.  The  same  law  and  subsequent  ones 
provided  for  reboisement  under  expropriation  and  by  assistance 
with  money  and  plant  material;  the  law  of  1891  having  special 
reference  to  restauration  of  mountain  slopes  in  torrential  basins. 
The  results,  according  to  Miguel  del  Campo,  professor  of  silvi- 
culture at  the  Escurial  forest  school,  are  practically  nil  owing  to 
the  failure  of  private  owners  and  municipalities  to  act. 

The  new  project  contemplates  restrictive  measures  on  private 
properties,  and  the  formation  of  planting  associations  with  finan- 
cial assistance  by  the  State,  premiums,  etc.,  or  else  the  State  may 
take  over  and  plant  the  property,  paying  4  per  cent,  of  the  value 
of  the  soil  annually,  until  the  proprietor  chooses  to  take  it  back ! 
According  to  Campo  this  is  an  impracticable  proposition.  He 
proposes,  therefore,  first,  differentiation  of  forest  zones,  which 
must  be  kept  in  forest ;  if  municipal  property,  it  is  to  be  placed 
entirely  under  State  administration ;  if  private,  under  limited  sur- 
veillance, restricting  number  of  cattle,  clearings,  use  of  fire,  etc. 
Territory  requiring  reboisement  to  be  acquired  by  the  State.  A 
20-year  credit  to  be  voted  for  this  work  and  to  be  used  in  20  equal 
instalments  under  a  specially  organized  corps  of  foresters  and 
subalterns.  Creation  of  special  schools  for  their  education,  dis- 
tribution of  plant  material,  exemption  from  taxes  for  plantations, 
low  freight  rates  for  forest  products,  propaganda  bureau,  arbor 
days,  and  the  whole  rigmarole  of  methods  which  have  been  used 
elsewhere  form  part  of  the  plan. 

L'o  euvre  de  la  restauration  forestiere  en  Espagne.     Revue  des  eaux  et 
forets.     March,  1909,  pp.  166-171. 

Partly  under  French  influence  the  Argentine 

Argentine  Republic  has  set  aside  two  national  parks, 

National  that  of  Iguazu  on  the  river  of  the  same 

Parks.  name,  of  50-60,000  acres,  and  that  on  Lake 

Nahuel    Huapi    in    the    watershed   of    Rio 

Negro  in  Patagonia,  lately  ceded  by  Chili.     Picturesqueness  has 


350  Forestry  Quarterly. 

been  the  reason  for  these  reservations.  A  movement  is  also  on 
foot  to  create  a  forest  reserve  in  the  Terra  del  Fuego,  which  has 
been  largely  devastated  by  axe  and  fire. 

La  Nature. 

Increased  activity  is  noticeable  in  France  to 
French  further  strengthen  State  influence  on  forest 

Forest  management.     In  March,   1909,  a  new  law 

Laws.  modifying  existing  relations  was  passed.    It 

provides  that,  besides  State  and  communal 
forests  of  whatever  description,  also  forests  of  areas  to  be  refor- 
ested, belonging  to  associations  formed  for  purposes  of  public 
utility  and  of  mutual  aid,  and  certain  other  private  properties  are 
to  be  placed  under  State  control. 

The  forest  administration  may  undertake  at  the  request  of  pri- 
vate owners  for  a  consideration  to  manage  altogether  or  in  part 
private  properties.  In  such  properties  contracts  and  sales  pre- 
viously concluded  must  be  submitted  for  sanction  to  the  govern- 
ment, or  can  be  annulled. 
Other  details  are  enacted. 

There  is  also  proposed  a  bill  to  prevent  clearing  land  without 
State  permit,  which  requires  that  notice  of  intended  clearing  be 
given  four  months  in  advance.  Permits  are  to  be  withheld  if  the 
conservation  of  forest  is  found  necessary.  The  necessity  is,  of 
course,  in  the  first  place  due  to  protective  influences,  but  it  also  in- 
cludes "the  maintenance  of  existing  economic  conditions."  A  fine 
of  $100  to  $300  per  hectar  for  disobedience  is  proposed. 

Proposition  de  loi  etc.     Revue  des  eaux  et  forets.    April,  1909,  pp.  234-239. 


OTHER  PERIODICAL  LITERATURE. 

The  Indian  Forester,  1909,— 

The  Hyderabad  Floods  and  their  Moral.    Pp.  195-207. 
Points  out  once  more  the  economic  importance  of  the  pre- 
servation of  forests  on  catchment  areas  of  great  rivers. 

Notes  on  the  Forests  of  Northern  India  and  Burma.     Pp. 
213-219;  257-262. 


Periodical  Literature.  35 x 

These  notes  deal  mainly  with  the  coniferous  forests  of  the 
Himalayas,  the  sal,  the  grazing  problem,  and  the  Indian 
Forest  Department. 

The  Forests  of  the  Philippine  Islands.    Pp.  235-237. 
Statistics  regarding  the  same. 

Influence  of  Forests  on  the  Rainfall  in  India.    Pp.  262-273. 
Suggests  lines  of  inquiry. 

Report  of  Woods  and  Forests  Department  in  the  Sudan  for 
1907. 

Bulletin  of  American  Geographical  Society,  1909, — 

Plateau  of  the  San  Francisco  Peaks  in  its  Effect  on  Tree- 
Life.    Pp.  257-270;  365-382. 

Ohio  Naturalist,  1909, — 

The  Catalpa  Leaf  Spot.    Pp.  509-512. 

The  Journal  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  1909,— 

Area  of  Land  Available  for  Afforestation.    Pp.  44-47. 
Statistics  regarding  waste  lands  in  Great  Britain. 

Bulletin  of  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  1909, — 

Conservation  of  Natural  Resources.    Pp.  439-451. 
Conservation  of  Water.    Appendix,  pp.  1-19. 
Conservation  of  Natural  Resources  by  Legislation.     App. 
pp.  20-36. 

Waste  of  Natural  Resources  by  Fire.    App.  pp.  37-42. 
These  last  three  are  papers  read  at  a  joint  meeting  of  en- 
gineers in  New  York,  in  March.     Also  printed  as  a  separate. 
See  review  on  p.  305. 

The  Pennsylvania  State  Farmer,  1909, — 

The  Future  in  the  Forestry  Profession.    Pp.  75-77. 


NEWS  AND  NOTES. 


We  regret  to  have  to  record  the  death  of  one  of  the  early- 
pioneers  of  the  forestry  movement  in  this  country,  Colonel  W.  F. 
Fox,  well  known  to  all  foresters  as  Superintendent  of  Forests 
under  the  Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Commission  of  New  York  State, 
which  position  he  held  for  nearly  a  quarter  century.  He  died  at 
Albany  on  June  16,  in  his  70th  year,  having  ailed  for  several  years 
with  heart  trouble. 

Colonel  Fox,  who  earned  his  title  during  the  Civil  War,  came 
into  his  position  and  into  prominence  in  the  forestry  world  in  1885, 
when  the  State  Forest  Commission  was  created.  He  was  neither 
a  forester  by  profession  or  study,  nor  had  he  been  one  of  those 
who  had  exercised  himself  to  advance  the  establishment  of  forest 
policies ;  it  was  a  purely  political  appointment.  He  was  a  grad- 
uate of  Union  College  and  previous  to  his  appointment  had  been 
civil  engineer  with  the  Blossburg  Coal  Company.  But  Colonel 
Fox  was  an  intelligent  man,  with  executive  ability,  and  especially 
with  geniality  and  tact,  which  helped  him  to  keep  his  place 
through  Republican  as  well  as  Democratic  administrations,  al- 
though he  was  an  openly  professed  Democrat,  and  a  thoroughly 
honest  man,  who  steered  through  the  mazes  of  political  corrup- 
tion without  even  a  suspicion  of  improper  use  of  his  position  for 
personal  gain.  Later  on  in  his  career,  his  intimate  knowledge 
of  property  conditions  and  personnel  in  the  Adirondacks  made 
his  services  invaluable,  and  in  this  direction  especially  his  loss 
will  be  most  severely  felt.  Although  himself  an  amateur,  he 
had  a  proper  appreciation  of  the  possibilities  of  professional 
forestry,  and,  as  far  as  the  limited  opportunities  of  his 
activity  permitted — circumscribed  as  it  was  by  the  well-known 
puerile  clause  of  the  State  Constitution — he  tried  to  make  room 
for  it.  It  was  through  his  suggestion  that  the  fated  State  College 
of  Forestry  at  Cornell  came  into  being,  and  the  waste  land  plant- 
ing operations  of  the  Forest  Commission — a  clear  violation  of  the 
same  clause  in  the  Constitution — were  encouraged  by  him. 

He  was  a  facile  writer,  and,  besides  the  annual  reports  of  the 
Commission,  which  made  up  in  elegant  form  what  they  lacked  in 


News  and  Notes.  353 

professional  value,  he  was  the  author  of  "A  History  of  Lumbering 
in  the  State  of  New  York."  He  was  also  noted  as  a  writer  on 
Civil  War  history,  his  chief  writings  being  "Life  of  General 
Green,"  "Slocum  and  his  Men,"  "History  of  the  Twelfth  and 
Twentieth  Corps,"  "Regimental  Losses,"  "The  Battle  of  Gettys- 
burg.' He  leaves  behind  him  the  sincere  esteem  of  all  who  knew 
him  intimately. 

One  of  the  saddest  losses,  which  calls  forth  our  gloomiest 
philosophies,  is  that  of  a  young,  devoted  life,  suddenly  cut  off  in 
full  vigor  and  with  all  the  promise  of  a  long  usefulness  unfulfilled. 
Such  a  loss  the  profession  has  just  sustained  in  the  death  of 
W.  W.  Clark,  one  of  the  strongest,  healthiest,  and  most  promising 
of  the  small  group  which  claimed  Cornell  College  of  Forestry  as 
their  alma  mater.  He  died  after  two  days'  illness,  at  Logan,  Utah, 
on  July  20,  from  acute  pneumonia,  contracted  by  taking  a  cold 
bath  while  in  an  overheated  condition.  Sunshine  himself,  and, 
spreading  sunshine  around  him,  loved  by  everybody  who  knew 
him,  and  in  love  with  everybody  and  with  his  profession,  just 
starting  a  happy  family  life,  he  had  everything  to  live  for.  In 
him  the  profession  loses  one  of  its  most  valuable  and  faithful 
members. 

He  began  his  professional  work,  after  graduation,  in  1902  in 
the  Philippines,  returned  after  three  years  to  the  United  States 
Forest  Service,  and  advanced  finally  to  the  position  of  Supervisor, 
being  in  charge  of  the  Cache  National  Forest. 


Mr.  Austin  F.  Cary,  Assistant  Professor  of  Forestry  at  Harvard 
University,  has  been  appointed  Superintendent  of  State  Forests  of 
New  York  to  succeed  Mr.  William  F.  Fox,  whose  death  is  noted 
above.  Mr.  Cary,  a  graduate  from  Orono,  Me.,  has  been  closely 
identified  with  forestry  work  in  this  country  since  1893,  having 
first  been  associated  with  the  United  States  Forest  Division,  then 
with  the  Forest  Commission  of  Maine  for  many  years  and  later 
with  the  United  States  Forest  Service.  His  experience  not  only 
covers  a  wide  range  of  conditions  in  this  country,  but  he  has  also 
travelled  extensively  abroad,  and  in  educational  work  has  served 


354  Forestry  Quarterly. 

as  Instructor  of  Forestry  at  Yale,  and  later  as  Assistant  Professor 
of  Forestry  at  Harvard  University. 

One  of  the  early  and  successful  campaigns  of  the  old  Division 
of  Forestry  was  in  persuading  the  railroad  companies  that  the 
chestnut  oak  timber  which  was  cut  for  bark  in  the  Appalachian 
region  was  entirely  suitable  for  ties,  and  since  the  railroads  have 
been  convinced  of  this  fact  they  have  accepted  chestnut  oak  on  a 
par  with  white  oak.  As  the  supply  of  white  oak  ties  has  dimin- 
ished, the  railroads  have  been  urged  to  use  inferior  woods  of  sev- 
eral kinds  and  to  make  them  serviceable  by  preservative  treatment, 
and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  efforts  along  this  line  are  at 
last  bearing  fruit.  The  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  for  example,  is 
using  treated  black  gum  ties  in  the  New  York  Tunnels,  and  is 
carrying  on  experiments  with  loblolly  pine,  beech,  maple,  and  other 
hitherto  unused  or  rarely  used  woods  on  the  main  line.  The  softer 
woods  and  even  the  gum  ties  in  the  tunnels  are  being  protected  by 
large  flat  tie  plates  and  screw  spikes.  Other  roads  are  evidently 
working  along  the  same  line,  as  evidenced  by  the  statistics  in  the 
recently  published  circular  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Census 
and  the  United  States  Forest  Service,  which  show  that  the  pur- 
chases of  gum  ties  in  the  United  States  during  1908  exceeded 
260,000,  while  but  15,000  were  reported  in  the  previous  year.  The 
purchases  of  beech  ties  in  1908  amounted  to  nearly  193,000, 
against  51,000  in  1907.  European  roads  are  able  to  get  20  to  30 
years'  service  from  creosoted  beech  cross-ties  by  giving  them  pre- 
servative treatment  and  proper  protection,  and  while  the  traffic 
and  wheel  loads  are  heavier  in  the  United  States,  it  should  be  pos- 
sible to  get  considerable  longer  service  from  treated  beech  and 
similar  woods  than  from  the  untreated  oak  which  has  been  pre- 
viously used. 

Cross-ties  under  the  present  schedule  are  admitted  from  the 
United  States  into  France  under  the  minimum  tariff,  and  the 
French  custom  duty  on  untreated  ties  imported  direct  from  an 
American  to  a  French  port  is  19.3  cents  per  long  ton  for  ties  that 
exceed  3.1496  inches  in  diameter.  Treated  ties  pay  the  above 
rate  plus  20%.  Since  the  duty  is  not  prohibitive,  the  United  States 
Consular  Office  sent  a  communication  to  French  railroad  com- 
panies and  to  leading  contractors  inquiring  whether  they  would  be 


Nezvs  and' Notes.  355 

disposed  to  purchase  American  ties.  The  replies  are  rather  inter- 
esting as  indicating  the  willingness  on  the  part  of  the  French  rail- 
roads to  purchase  American  ties  under  certain  conditions,  one  of 
these  being  that  they  be  delivered  free  on  cars,  duty  paid,  at  some 
terminal  port  or  at  some  distributing  point  on  their  respective  lines. 
The  French  State  railways  have,  as  a  rule,  used  ties  of  domestic 
origin,  but  recently  purchases  have  been  made  of  "Baltic  redwood" 
and  Black  Sea  beech  ties.  In  accepting  foreign  ties,  it  is  usually 
specified  that  the  place  of  origin  of  the  species  shall  be  given ; 
that  the  wood  shall  be  cut  only  after  the  growing  season ;  that  the 
approximate  age  of  the  trees,  the  method  of  cutting  the  ties — 
whether  two  or  four  per  log  section — and  the  proportion  and  dis- 
tribution of  sapwood  and  heartwood  be  given;  that  ties  in  which 
sapwood  predominates  are  preferred,  for  the  reason  that  they  can 
be  given  preservative  treatment  more  readily ;  and  in  the  case  of 
beech,  the  individual  trees  which  have  red  heartwood  or  cannot 
be  easily  injected  will  be  refused.  There  are  several  reasons  why 
it  is  not  likely  that  American  dealers  will  attempt  to  export  ties  to 
France.  One  of  the  first  is  that  it  would  be  quite  out  of  the  ques- 
tion for  an  American  lumberman  to  approximate  the  age  of  the 
trees,  or  even  in  many  cases  to  assure  an  approximate  percentage 
of  sapwood.  In  the  matter  of  prices,  there  seems  to  be  a  discrep- 
ancy between  the  statement  by  the  Paris-Lyon  Mediterranean 
Company  that  it  will  not  consider  quotations  exceeding  $1.18  per 
tie,  and  an  article  in  the  "Timber  Trades  Journal"  to  the  effect 
that  the  above  railroad  purchased  its  tie  supply  for  the  year  1908 
on  the  basis  of  86.8  cents  each  for  oak  ties  and  67.5  cents  each  for 
beech  ties.  If  ties  can  be  procured  in  France  at  the  above  cost, 
there  would  certainly  be  no  incentive  for  American  dealers  to  ex- 
port timber  to  that  country,  as  the  prices  at  home  would  be  more 
than  they  could  hope  to  receive  for  ties  delivered  at  French  ports. 
Beech  ties  cut  in  eastern  Pennsylvania,  for  instance,  are  quoted  at 
82  cents,  whereas  white  oak  ties  from  the  South  cannot  be  de- 
livered at  Pittsburgh  or  Philadelphia  for  less  than  85  or  90  cents. 
It  becomes  apparent,  therefore,  that  the  crisis  which  American 
railroads  are  facing  in  regard  to  tie  supply  is  already  at  hand,  and 
that  the  use  of  untreated  ties  without  tie  plates  is  no  longer  justi- 
fied on  account  of  low  initial  cost.  Yet  in  Canada,  notably  Quebec, 
the  price  for  cross  ties  this  year  is  10  cents  lower  than  last  year, 
30  cents  buying  first  class  cedar  ties. 


356  Forestry  Quarterly. 

The  Board  of  Water  Supply  of  the  City  of  New  York  are  pre- 
paring plans  for  the  establishment  of  forest  nurseries  in  connec- 
tion with  the  maintenance  and  betterment  of  the  catchment  basins 
in  the  Catskill  on  which  they  depend  for  water  supply.  The  work 
is  under  the  general  direction  of  Mr.  Alfred  D.  Flinn,  Department 
Engineer,  while  the  operations  on  the  ground  are  looked  after  by 
Mr.  A.  Underhill,  Landscape  Gardener.  It  is  understood  that  the 
first  reforestation  work  will  be  the  planting  of  a  strip  several 
hundred  feet  wide  around  the  large  storage  reservoirs,  the  total 
area  aggregating  between  8,000  and  10,000  acres.  This  is  a 
further  advance  in  the  adoption  of  policies  of  forest  planting  on 
city  watersheds  in  the  East,  in  cities  of  Newark,  N.  J.,  Bridgeport, 
Conn.,  and  several  others  having  taken  up  the  work  in  the  past  few 
years. 

The  conservation  movement  in  the  United  States  seems  to  have 
attained  a  firm  foothold  in  the  minds  of  the  people,  and  it  is  en- 
couraging that  commercial  interests  are  also  giving  the  movement 
antial  backing.  Conservation  meetings  are  being  held  in 
many  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  consideration  is  being  given 
to  ways  and  means  of  preserving  the  natural  resources,  which  are 
rapidly  being  destroyed  through  extravagant  use.  Five  years  ago 
such  meetings  were  almost  unheard  of,  and  would  have  created 
hardly  passing  interest.  Among  the  recent  meetings*  is  that  of 
the  Counties  Committee  of  the  California  Promotion  Committee, 
which  was  held  at  Del  Monte,  Cal.,  on  May  8.  Among  the  promi- 
nent speakers  were  Dr.  Geo.  C.  Pardee,  exGovernor  of  California ; 
Dr.  W.  J.  McGee,  of  the  United  States  Inland  Waterways  Com- 
mission ;  O.  H.  Miller,  Secretary  of  the  Sacramento  Valley  De- 
velopment Association ;  F.  F.  Olmstead,  of  the  United  States 
Forest  Service ;  G.  B.  Lull,  State  Forester  of  California ;  W.  W. 
Mackie,  United  States  Bureau  of  Soils ;  and  John  E.  Fox,  Special 
Director  National  Rivers  and  Harbors  Congress.  The  West  has 
been  noted  for  its  interest  in  the  conservation  of  waters  and 
forests,  but  it  is  noticeable  that  the  movement  has  now  passed 
from  a  propaganda  on  a  sentimental  basis  to  one  which  actively 
discusses  ways  and  means  for  attaining  the  desired  ends.  The 
realization  that  the  prosperity  of  a  region  is  absolutely  dependent 
on  unfailing  timber  supply  comes  home  with  particular  force  to 
*  See  account  of  Engineers'  meeting,  on  p.  305  of  this  volume. 


Nezvs  and  Notes.  357 

the  people  of  the  West,  since  they  realize  that  retrogression  must 
follow  and  decrease  in  the  supply  of  available  water,  and  the 
water  supply,  they  have  found,  is  more  or  less  dependent  on  the 
forests.  The  resolutions  adopted  at  the  conservation  meeting  in 
California,  briefly  summarized,  are  as  follows : 

Resolved;  That  the  plan  proposed  by  the  National  Rivers  and 
Harbors  Congress  for  the  issuance  of  Government  bonds  in  the 
sum  of  $500,000,000  for  the  improvement  of  the  navigable  rivers 
of  the  country  be  endorsed ; 

That  hearty  endorsement  be  given  to  the  work  of  the  United 
States  Weather  Bureau  in  California ; 

That  cordial  approval  be  given  the  general  policy  of  conserving 
the  forest  and  mineral  resources  and  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
throughout  the  country; 

That  the  Forest  Service  be  asked  to  institute  more  compre- 
hensive tests  and  experiments,  in  order  that  official  data  relating 
to  Eucalyptus  growing  may  be  placed  at  the  service  of  the  State, 
and  that  these  tests  and  data  be  broadly  commercial  in  their  bear- 
ing rather  than  technical. 

In  this  connection  a  rather  daring  but  by  no  means  insane  propo- 
sition which  looks  ahead  to  the  still  stupendous  possibilities  of  de- 
velopment on  this  continent,  has  been  launched  by  Arthur  Hooker, 
secretary  of  the  board  of  control  of  the  National  Irrigation  Con- 
gress, who  presented  a  resolution  for  approval  by  that  organiz- 
ation at  its  seventeenth  sessions  in  Spokane,  August  9  to  14, 
memorializing  Congress  to  issue  3  per  cent,  gold  bonds,  running 
100  years,  to  the  amount  of  $5,000,000,000,  or  as  much  thereof  as 
may  be  necessary,  for  the  following  specific  purposes : 

One  billion  dollars  for  drainage  of  overflowed  and  swamp  lands, 
thus  reclaiming  an  area  equal  to  100,000  square  miles. 

One  billion  dollars  for  the  reclamation  by  irrigation  of  40,000,- 
000  acres  of  arid  and  semi-arid  lands,  now  partly  or  wholly  waste. 

One  billion  dollars  to  construct  and  improve  deep  waterways,  to 
develop  thousands  of  miles  of  territory  now  without  adequate 
transportation  facilities. 

One  billion  dollars  for  good  roads  and  national  highways,  for 
the  lack  of  which  the  loss  to  the  farm  area  of  the  United  States  is 
approximately  $500,000,000  annually. 

One  billion  dollars  for  forest  protection,  reforestation  and  con- 


358  Forestry  Quarterly. 

serration  of  the  forest  resources,  thus  assuring  timber  and  lumber 
supplies  for  centuries  to  come. 

"Five  billions  of  dollars  is  an  enormous  sum,  but  it  is  no  more 
than  is  actually  required  to  carry  out  the  gigantic  scheme  in  de- 
veloping millions  of  acres  of  lands  in  various  parts  of  the  United 
States  now  absolutely  worthless,"  said  Mr.  Hooker  in  explaining 
the  plan.  "Congress  will  not  be  asked  to  appropriate  a  penny. 
The  returns  from  the  improvements  would  pay  off  the  bonds. 
The  government  would  simply  act  as  a  banker,  as  it  does  now  for 
the  various  irrigation  projects.  The  bond  issue  would  provide 
ample  funds  as  required  to  carry  out  the  work  in  the  several  di- 
visions, at  the  same  time  giving  the  best  possible  collateral  to  those 
investing  in  these  securities. 

"Government  figures  bear  out  the  statement  that  there  is  enough 
good  land  overflowed  in  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Kansas,  Nebraska, 
Louisiana,  Kentucky,  Tennessee  and  Mississippi  to  make  an  area 
as  large  as  the  state  of  Missouri,  or  more  than  44,000,000  acres, 
while  in  the  eastern,  central,  and  western  states  there  is  more 
than  as  much  more,  or  about  100,000,000  acres  in  all.  At  a  con- 
servative estimate  of  $25  an  acre,  the  sale  of  this  reclaimed  land 
would  justify  the  expenditure  of  $2,500,000,000,  or  150  per  cent, 
more  than  is  required  to  drain  it.  This  land  would  support  from 
2,000,000  to  3,000,000  population. 

"Approximately  40,000  acres  of  lands  in  western  and  south- 
western states  are  adapted  to  irrigation,  which,  if  reclaimed  at  an 
average  cost  of  $25  an  acre,  would  be  worth  not  less  than  $200 
an  acre  or  a  total  of  $8,000,000,000,  and  provide  homes  for  more 
than  8,000,000  persons.  The  economic  value  of  irrigation  cannot 
be  measured  in  dollars  and  cents,  but  crops  of  from  $500  to  $1,000 
an  acre  are  not  rare  in  the  irrigated  districts.  There  are  already 
14,000,000  acres  under  irrigation  and  the  Reclamation  Service  esti- 
mates it  will  have  reclaimed  2,000,000  acres,  at  a  cost  not  exceed- 
ing $70,000,000,  before  the  close  of  191 1. 

"The  construction  and  improvement  of  the  deep  waterways  re- 
quired to  provide  better  and  cheaper  transportation  facilities  is, 
I  believe,  a  100  per  cent,  investment,  from  the  fact  that  two-thirds 
of  the  bulky  freight  could  be  shipped  by  water  routes,  at  a  cost 
to  the  shipper  of  not  more  than  one-sixth  of  the  present  rail  rates. 
The  importance  of  this  becomes  apparent  when  it  is  remembered 
that  the  food  question  is  becoming  a  world  problem. 


News  and  Notes.  359 

"The  state  of  New  York  is  expending  $101,000,000  to  enlarge 
the  Erie  canal,  and  $100,000,000  is  the  amount  required  to  im- 
prove the  Missouri  river  from  a  point  about  40  miles  west  of 
Yellowstone  Park  to  where  it  meets  the  Mississippi  river,  2,547 
miles.  Then  there  is  the  projected  waterway  from  Lake  Michigan 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  scores  of  others  necessary  to  cheap  and 
better  transportation  facilities.  Millions  of  dollars  will  be  saved 
annually  to  the  people  of  the  United  States  by  the  completion  of 
these  works. 

"The  maintenance  of  the  greatest  water  way  in  the  world,  com- 
posed of  the  Great  Lakes,  on  which  the  government  of  the  United 
States  has  expended  more  than  $90,000,000  for  harbors  and  con- 
necting channels,  presents  an  argument  in  favor  of  the  scheme  to 
develop  thousands  of  miles  of  territory  in  the  Missouri  and  other 
valleys.  The  other  projects  outlined  in  the  foregoing  are  of 
equal  if  not  greater  importance,  and  with  proper  backing  they 
can  be  carried  out  successfully. 

"No  one  questions  the  statement  that  good  roads  have  a  high 
money  value  to  the  farmers  of  the  nation,  and  it  may  be  said 
that  this  alone  is  sufficient  to  justify  the  cost  of  their  construction 
as  rapidly  as  practicable  under  an  efficient,  economical  and  equit- 
able system  of  highway  improvement.  The  big  points  in  favor 
of  this  expenditure  is  the  economy  of  time  and  force  in  transporta- 
tion between  farm  and  market,  enabling  the  growers  to  take 
advantage  of  fluctuations  in  buying  and  selling,  as  well  as  enhanc- 
ing the  value  of  real  estate. 

"It  is  estimated  that  the  average  annual  loss  from  poor  roads 
is  76  cents  an  acre,  while  the  estimated  average  increase  resulting 
from  improving  all  the  public  roads  is  $9.  The  losses  in  five  years 
would  aggregate  $2,432  for  every  section  of  land,  or  more  than 
enough  to  improve  two  miles  of  public  highway.  The  necessity  of 
good  roads  is  obvious,  as  it  would  enhance  the  value  of  each  section 
of  land  about  $5,760,  or  more  than  double  the  estimated  cost  of 
two  miles  of  improved  highway,  which  constitutes  the  quota  for 
640  acres  of  land. 

"The  value  of  our  forests  was  never  better  appreciated  than 

to-day.     Within  the  arid  and  semi-arid  portions  of  the  western 

states  nearly   124,000,000  acres  are  covered  with  woodland,   of 

value  for  fuel,   fence  posts  and  other  purposes  essential  to  the 

23 


360  forestry  Quarterly. 

success  of  the  farmers.  There  also  97,000,000  acres  covered  with 
heavy  forests  having  commercial  value  for  timber  and  logs  for 
saw  mills,  also  hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres  of  timber  lands  in 
other  ports  of  the  United  States.  Reforestation  and  conservation 
of  the  vast  resources  are  necessary  to  provide  future  generations 
with  timber  and  lumber  supplies.  The  government  is  expending 
large  amounts  of  money  every  year  to  protect  its  forests  from  fires, 
yet  expert  lumbermen  say  that  more  standing  timber  is  destroyed 
by  flames  annually  than  is  converted  into  merchantable  lumber  by 
the  saw  mills." 

No  need  of  adding  that  the  Congress  refused  to  commit  itself 
to  this  daring  program. 

A  preliminary  report  by  the  Census  Bureau  on  the  distillation 
of  wood  in  the  United  States  during  the  calendar  year  ending 
December  31,  1908,  shows  a  falling  off  of  thirty  per  cent,  over 
the  figures  of  1907. 

Hardwood  Distillation :  1908  1907 

Number  of  plants,   101  100 

Material : 

Beech,  birch,  maple,  etc.,  cords 878,632  1,219,771 

Cost,    $2,710,745  $3,824,669 

Products : 

Charcoal,  bushels,  37,286,520  50,772,234 

Value $2,644,923  $3,838,392 

Crude  alcohol,  gallons,  6,285,678  7,741,645 

Value $1,084,223  $1,153,307 

Gray  acetate,  pounds,  108,098,846  1 33,374,941 

Value $1,636,825  $2,565,938 

Brown  acetate,  pounds,   1,586,441  8,152,848 

Value,  $13,457  $94,446 

Iron  acetate,  gallons,  262,989 

Value,     $25,024 

Oils,  gallons,    57,829  382,959 

Value,    $3,813  $9,296 

Softwood  Distillation : 

Number  of  plants,  30                   31 

Material : 

Longleaf  pine,  cords, 90,991             61,149 

Cost,   $201,696         $210,604 

Douglas  fir,  cords,  974 

Cost, $4,581 

Mill  waste,  cords,    7,247               1,200 

Cost,   $925                $240 


News  and  Notes.  361 

Products : 

Turpentine,  gallons,  505,800  654./ 11 

Value         $166,343  $304,860 

Charcoal,   bushels,    1,995,728  1,158,364 

Value               $186,616  $102,41 1 

Oil,  gallons',' .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.' 304,979  391,9*6 

Value     $56,043  $69,399 

Tar,  gallons,    066,675  760,836 

Value,     $8i,349  $58,132 

Pyroligneous  acid,  gallons,  8,100 

Value $810 

While  the  figures  indicate  a  marked  falling  off  in  activity  during 
1908  in  the  industry  of  hardwood  distillation,  the  showing  for 
softwoods  compares  favorably  with  that  of  the  preceding  year. 
Developments  of  interest  in  softwood  distillation  are  noted  in  the 
relatively  large  increase  in  the  quantity  of  mill  waste  utilized  as 
material,  and  in  the  fact  that  Douglas  fir  for  the  first  time  was 
reported  in  considerable  quantity. 

A  preliminary  report  by  the  Bureau  of  Census  on  the  purchase 
of  poles  in  the  United  States  during  the  calendar  year  ending 
December  31,  1908,  shows  the  same  falling  off  in  production: 

Kinds  of  Wood  1908  1907 

Number  Cost  Number  Cost 

Total,    3,249,154  $5,928,824  3,283,268  $8,081,768 

Cedar 2,200,139  3,780,973  2,109,477  5,202,617 

Chestnut,   516,049  1,227,273  630,282  1,619,785 

Oak 160,702  95,032  76,450  60,285 

Pine,     1 16,749  382,710  i55,96o  459,545 

Cypress 90,579  148,070  100,368  307,974 

Juniper,    42,367  83,401  38,925  109,226 

Tamarack,  24,123  32,212  13,884  10,247 

All  other 08,446  179,153  157,922  312,089 

Marked  decreases  were  noted  in  the  returns  from  the  groups  of 
purchasers  comprising  electric  railways,  light  and  power  com- 
panies, and  steam  railroad  companies,  the  total  for  the 
former  group  in  1898  equalling  only  79  per  cent,  and  that 
of  the  latter  53  per  cent,  of  their  reported  totals  in 
1907.  These  were  largely  offset,  however,  by  the  purchases  of 
telephone  and  telegraph  companies,  which  exceeded  those  of  1907 
by  a  considerable  margin  though  the  returns  of  some  of  the  largest 
buyers  in  this  group  carried  materially  smaller  figures  for  1908. 
The  percentages  contributed  to  the  total  purchases  in  1908  and 
1907  were,  by  groups,  as  follows :  telephone  and  telegraph  com- 
panies, 79  per  cent,  and  70  per  cent. ;  electric  railroads  and  electric 


362  Forestry  Quarterly. 

light  and  power  companies,  16  per  cent,  and  21  per  cent.;    and 
steam  railroads,  5  per  cent,  and  9  per  cent.,  respectively. 

A  preliminary  report  by  the  Census  Bureau  on  the  production 

of  lumber,   lath  and   shingles   in   the  United   States   during  the 

calendar  year  ending  December  31,  1908,  compared  with  that  of 

1907  is  worth  reprinting  to  accentuate  the  fluctuations  in  lumber 

production  with  general  trade  depression,  independent  of  what 

stumpage  prices  may  do. 

No.  of  Mills        Lumber  M.  feet, 

Reporting        Production,  B.  M. 

State                              1908        1907  1908  1907 

United  States, 31,-231      28,850      33,289,369  40,256,154 

Washington,  929        1,036  2,91 5,928  3,777,606 

Louisiana,    516          531  2,722,421  2,972,119 

Texas,    605          673  1,524,008  2,229,590 

Mississippi,    905          823  1,861,016  2,094,485 

Wisconsin, 899          778  1,613,315  2,003,279 

Arkansas,    1,155        1,146  1,656,991  1,988,504 

Michigan,     989          906  1,478,252  1,827,685 

Pennsylvania,  2,224       2,131  1,203,041  1,734,729 

Minnesota,    500          429  1,286,122  1,660,716 

Oregon,    595          644  1,468,158  1,635,563 

North  Carolina, 1,740        1,668  1,136,796  1,622,387 

Virginia,    1,937        1,652  1,198,725  1,412,477 

West  Virginia,    1,044       1,044  1,097,015  1,395,979 

California,  288          321  996,115  1,345,943 

Alabama,   981          892  1,152,079  1,224,967 

Maine,    902          927  929,350  1,103,808 

Kentucky,    1,530        1,451  658,539  912,908 

Tennessee,    1,490        1,104  790,642  894,968 

Georgia,  1,049          788  904,668  853,697 

New   York,    2,291        2,185  781,391  848,894 

Florida,    279          302  730,906  839,058 

New  Hampshire, 604          544  606,760  754,023 

South  Carolina, 423          365  560,888  649,058 

Missouri,   1,108          916  458,938  548,774 

Ohio,    1,094          987  459,259  529,087 

Idaho,  255          247  518,625  513,788 

Indiana,   1,089          999  411,868  504,790 

Vermont,   506          612  304,017  373,66o 

Massachusetts,  610          518  384,526  364,231 

Montana,   173          130  3^,533  343,8i4 

Maryland,    384          307  168,534  213,786 

Iowa     113          100  97,242  144,271 

Illinois, 546          499  123,319  141,317 

Oklahoma,  214          129  158,756  140,015 

Connecticut,    293          236  137,855  140,011 

Colorado,  254          230  182,036  134,239 

New  Mexico,  61             52  79,439  1 13,204 

Arizona,  11             12  43,287  72,134 

Delaware,    112          106  41,184  50,892 

New  Jersey,   181           166  34,930  39,942 

South  Dakota,  47            64  25,859  34,841 

Rhode  Island,   45            41  30,528  32,855 


News  and  Notes.  363 

Wyoming,    70  73  18,822  17,479 

Utah,    95  80  15,059  14,690 

All  other  states, 5  6  10,627  5,891 

1908  1907 

Lath    2,986,684,000      3,663,602,000 

Shingles,    12,106,483,000     1 1,824,475,000 

The  International  Association  of  Experiment  Stations  has  de- 
cided to  publish  a  general  bibliography  of  forestal  literature,  which 
is  to  gather  all  the  publications  in  the  various  journals — pre- 
sumably something  like  what  the  Forestry  Quarterly  attempts 
to  do  in  a  modest  way.  The  Swiss  Station  has  been  made  the 
editor.  There  is  to  be  first  a  collective  volume  for  the  past,  com- 
prising the  time  from  1750  to  the  present,  and  then  yearly  addi- 
tions. It  is  calculated  that  the  volume  will  contain  60,000  refer- 
ences, the  cost  will  be  $6,000,  and  it  will  require  five  years  to  make 
the  collection.  The  German  Forstwirtschaftsrat  has  decided  to 
assist  the  undertaking  with  $250  annually. 

In  March  the  Providence  of  Ontario  added  one  million  acres 
to  its  forest  reserves  by  the  formation  of  the  "Quetico  Forest  Re- 
serve" in  the  Rainy  River  District.  This  will  be  part  of  an  inter- 
national reserve,  Minnesota  having  set  aside  a  contiguous  reserve 
on  their  side  of  the  border. 

Melard  editor  of  the  Revue  des  eaux  et  forets,  best  known  by  his 
article  on  the  threatening  timber  famine  of  the  world,  died  in 
March,  1909. 

Willard  Springer,  Jr.,  Yale  Forest  School,  '09,  has  been  added 
to  the  force  of  foresters  employed  by  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
Company.  He  will  assist  in  the  management  of  the  company's 
timberlands. 

It  will  be  learned  with  regret  that  Dr.  Schenck  has,  this  sum- 
mer severed  his  connection  with  Mr.  Vanderbilt  at  Biltmore,  the 
latter  apparently  having  tired  of  his  experiment. 

Dr.  Schenck  will,  however,  continue  his  school  on  a  novel  plan, 
namely  as  a  peripatetic  one,  with  three  locations,  one  near  Bilt- 
more, another  in  the  Lake  States,  and  the  third  in  Germany — a 
somewhat  daring  undertaking,  characteristic  of  its  author. 


COMMENT. 

It  is  a  pity  that  our  national  carelessness  prevents  us  from  se- 
curing all  the  good  things  from  abroad  without  allowing  the  bad 
things  to  slip  in  also.  The  first  two  articles  at  the  beginning  of 
this  number  accentuate  the  need  of  developing  greater  care  in 
importing  material  as  well  as  ideas  and  policies,  without  closer 
investigation. 

More  than  a  decade  ago  the  need  of  fumigating  imported  plant 
material  was  fully  established,  and  to-day  there  is  as  yet  no 
efficient  protection  against  the  importation  of  fungus  diseases ; 
and  also  while  in  general  the  propriety  of  adopting  European 
methods  in  handling  forest  resources  has  been  descried,  methods 
which  experience  in  Europe  has  proved  undesirable  and  inefficient 
are  nevertheless  imported. 

The  "free  use"  permit,  against  which  Mr.  White's  article 
brings  cogent  argument,  suggests  the  cancer  of  which  German 
forest  management  has  suffered  for  centuries  and  from  which  it 
has  only  lately  been  cured — the  rights  of  user  or  forest  servitudes. 

It  has  taken  a  century,  and  millions  of  dollars  to  get  rid  of  this 
incubus,  which,  starting  by  permits  grew  into  rights  to  free  use. 
just  to  give  an  idea  of  what  such  rights  may  eventually  amount  to 
in  value  we  may  recall  a  note  from  the  last  number  of  the  Quar- 
terly to  the  effect  that  the  city  of  Eberswalde,  where  the  Prussian 
Forest  Academy  is  located,  had  just  succeeded  in  freeing  its 
forest  property  from  such  incumbrance  by  paying  $125,000  to 
the  316  house  owners  for  the  right  to  secure  their  fuel  from  the 
city  forest ;  and  it  is  calculated  that  this  investment  will  return 
six  and  one-half  per  cent,  by  the  improved  utilization. 

While  it  may  have  been  wisdom  to  grant  these  free  permits  in 
the  National  Forests  as  a  sop  to  the  good  will  of  the  population 
adjoining,  it  will  also  be  wisdom  to  withdraw  these  grants  as  soon 
as  practicable. 

The  appearance  of  a  fungus  enemy  to  the  white  pine  from  a 
country,  in  which  that  pine  is  not  indigenous  opens  up  a  rather 
interesting  biological  problem.  In  the  larch  saw  fly  and  the 
gypsy  moth  we  have  had  experience  of  an  imported  pest  thriving 
better   and   doing  more   damaere   in   its   new   home   than   in   the 


Comment.  3°5 

old  one,  due  to  the  absence  of  its  enemies,  but  that  a  rust  requir- 
ing two  hosts  for  its  complete  cycle  should  be  absent  in  the  coun- 
try in  which  the  one  necessary  or  preferable  host  is  indigenous 
appears  an  enigma.  We  expect  that  on  closer  examination  this 
rust  will  be  found  after  all  indigenous,  but  for  some  reason  rare, 
while  wholesale  cultivation  of  the  host  under  artificial  conditions 
may  have  favored  its  prolific  propagation  in  the  new  habitat. 

The  last  Legislature  of  the  State  of  New  York  enacted  two  laws 
of  interest  to  foresters,  one  amending  the  general  organization  of 
the  forest,  fish  and  game  laws,  the  other  creating  a  forest  reser- 
vation in  the  Highlands  of  the  Hudson  River.     Both  of  them  con- 
tain curious  examples  of  undigested  legislative  food.     The  latter 
act  reminds  us  somewhat  of  the  ancient  inforestation  of  lands  by 
William  the  Conqueror.     It  describes  a  tract  of  land  of  about  75 
square  miles,  and  declares  all  lands  within  these  limits,  fit  only 
for  timber  growing,  but  excepting  lands  fit  for  other  specified 
purposes,  a  forest  reservation  "to  be  managed  and  controlled  after 
the  method  of  modem  forestry,  and  the  Forest,  Fish  and  Game 
Commission  are   authorized  to  acquire,   maintain  and  preserve 
according  to  the  methods  of  modem  forestry,  the  lands  and  prop- 
erty  within   the    said    forest   reservation."     The   land   is   to   be 
acquired  by  gift,  contribution  or  bequest,  or  to  be  taken  by  pur- 
chase, and  the  commission  may  also  receive  moneys  for  the  pur- 
chase'and  the  improvement  of  the  lands.     But  the  commission  is 
to  superintend  and  control  the  cutting  of  timber  upon  the  lands 
included  within  the  boundaries,  not  only  on  public,  but  private 
lands !     This  is  introducing  European  methods  with  a  vengeance, 
and  that  in  a  state  which,  by  its  constitution,  has  prevented  itself 
from  treating  its  own  lands  according  to  forestry  principles.    Five 
thousand    dollars    is    appropriated    to    carry    out   this    "Undmg" 
(absurdity). 

The  phrase  "after  the  method  of  modern  forestry"  is  delightful, 
especially  when  placed  in  juxtaposition  to  the  phrase  used  in  the 
act  amending  the  Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Law,  in  which  it  is  pro- 
vided—"The  commissioner  shall  appoint  all  foresters  necessary 
for  tree,  garden  and  forestry  work." 

In  this  act,  too,  the  cutting  of  timber  by  private  owners  is  regu- 
lated. Evidentlv  and  properly  for  the  purpose  of  diminishing 
fire  danger,  it  prescribes  that  within  the  forest  reserve  counties, 


366  Forestry  Quarterly. 

all  felled  coniferous  trees  shall  have  their  branches  lopped,  under 
penalty  of  $2  for  every  tree  not  so  trimmed,  besides  fine  and  im- 
prisonment. 

The  important  portions  of  the  law  are  in  the  direction  of  improv- 
ing the  protection  against  forest  fires,  increasing  the  machinery  by 
the  appointment  of  fire  inspectors  to  inspect  engines  and  railroads, 
and  providing  that  the  railroads  operating  in  the  forest  preserve 
counties  shall  maintain  fire  patrols.  In  these  counties  four  fire 
districts  are  established,  with  appointed  superintendents  of  fire 
at  the  head,  who  are  to  organize  the  fire  patrols,  fire  stations,  fire 
signals,  etc. 

There  is  one  important  provision,  which  will  probably  not  be 
enforced,  because  in  its  present  form  it  is  unmanageable,  but  which 
shows  that  the  restrictive  European  police  measures  which  it  was 
once  declared  could  never  be  enforced  in  this  free  country  are  at 
least  being  recognized  as  probably  after  all  necessary  to  reduce 
the  danger  from  forest  fires.     This  section  reads : 

"Whenever,  by  reason  of  drouth  or  other  cause,  it  shall  be 
dangerous  to  the  forests  of  the  state,  or  for  other  reasons  contrary 
to  the  public  interest,  for  any  person  or  persons  to  enter  any  por- 
tion of  the  lands  within  the  forest  preserve  counties  of  the  state 
for  the  purpose  of  camping  out  or  taking  fish,  fowl,  birds  or 
quadrupeds  therein,  or  for  any  person  or  persons  being  already 
within  the  forest  preserve  counties  of  the  state  to  take  fish,  fowl 
or  birds  or  quadrupeds  therein,  the  Governor  shall  have  authority 
to  determine,  and  shall  determnie  and  declare  that  it  is  dangerous 
to  the  forests  of  the  State  or  contrary  to  the  public  interest  for 
any  person  or  persons  to  enter  any  portion  of  the  lands  within  the 
forest  preserve  counties  of  the  state  for  the  purpose  of  camping 
out  or  of  taking  fish,  fowl,  birds,  or  quadrupeds  therein,  or  for  any 
person  or  persons  being  already  within  the  forest  preserve  counties 
of  the  state  to  take  fish,  fowl,  birds,  or  quadrupeds  therein,  and 
upon  such  determination  and  declaration,  the  Governor  shall  have 
authority  to  forbid,  and  shall  forbid  by  proclamation,  any  person  or 
persons  from  entering  the  said  lands  for  such  purposes,  and  any 
person  or  persons  being  already  therein  from  taking  fish,  fowl, 
birds,  or  quadrupeds  therein.  But  the  Governor  must  state  in 
such  proclamation  the  reason  or  reasons  why  he  has  so  determined 
that  such  acts  would  be  dansrerous  to  the  forests  or  contrary  to 


Comment.  367 

the  public  interest,  and  he  must  in  such  proclamation  limit  the  time 
during  which  such  entry  and  such  acts  shall  be  prohibited." 

What  language ! 

After  all,  the  efficiency  of  fire  control  lies  in  the  men  in  charge 
rather  than  in  the  law,  and  in  the  morals  of  the  community  more 
than  in  the  patrol. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  revival  of  ideas  and  directions  of 
work  in  the  Forest  Service  which  were  originally  devised  in  the 
old  Division  of  Forestry.  The  "timber  physics"  work,  to  which 
the  old  Division  had  given  much  prominence  as  providing  the 
most  direct  means  of  reducing  waste  in  the  use  of  resources,  was 
abandoned  as  "not  germane  to  forestry,"  but  has  been  revived 
with  appropriations  five  to  six  times  as  large  as  the  old  Division 
could  secure,  and  forms  an  important  part  of  the  investigatory 
work  of  the  Service.  Now,  the  "phenological  observations," 
which  for  some  time  were  carried  on  by  the  old  Division,  have 
again  come  upon  the  program  of  the  Service.  This  was  the  first 
line  of  work  which  the  reconstructed  Division  instituted  in  1886, 
more  for  the  purpose  of  getting  into  relation  with,  and  interesting 
a  larger  number  of  people  more  definitely  in  tree  growth — that  is, 
for  educational  purposes,  "to  promote  an  interest  in  forestry  which 
may  lead  to  a  better  appreciation  of  its  aims  and  methods" — 
than  for  any  practical  results  that  might  be  expected  from  it. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  original  idea  of  contemporaneous  ob- 
servations of  the  phases  of  plant  development — the  phenology  of 
plants1 — first  proposed  by  Hofmeister  long  ago,  had  in  view 
to  bring  out  climatic  conditions.  It  was  supposed  that  the  phe- 
nomena of  budding,  leafing,  blossoming,  leaf  fall,  fruiting  and 
ripening,  etc.,  gave  a  better  index  of  climatic  difference  than 
statements  of  the  single  factors  of  temperature  and  humidity. 
While,  theoretically,  this  supposition  is  true,  practically,  difficul- 
ties arise  in  selecting  objects  of  observation,  continuing  observa- 
tions on  the  same  objects  for  sufficient  time,  and  then  interpreting 
the  results. 

The  Smithsonian  Institute  had  attempted  this  line  of  work 
before,  and  published  a  volume  of  observations  compiled  by 
Dr.  Hough,  some  30  or  40  years  ago,  but  did  not  continue  it. 

The  enterprise  launched  by  the  old  Division  collapsed  for  lack 
of  clerical  assistance  to  compile  the  data,  and  the  impossibility 


368  Forestry  Quarterly. 

of  keeping  the  same  observers  on  the  same  objects  from  year  to 
year,  an  essential  condition  for  satisfactory  results.  Both  these 
troubles  are  probably  not  going  to  beset  the  revived  enterprise. 
There  is  all  the  cash  needed  for  compiling,  and  there  is  much 
more  lively  interest  in  the  subject  than  there  was  twenty-four 
years  ago,  and,  perhaps,  at  least  a  special  class  of  observers  can 
be  continued. 

Altogether,  many  things  that  a  quarter  century  and  even  a 
decade  ago  were  thought  impossible,  and,  indeed,  were  impossible, 
are  easy  now — so  changed  is  the  temper  and  attitude  of  the 
people. 


Yale  University  Forest  School 

NEW   HAVEN,    CONNECTICUT 

A  two-year  graduate  course  is  offered,  lead- 
ing to  the  degree  of  Master  of  Forestry.  Grad- 
uates of  collegiate  institutions  of  high  standing 
are  admitted  upon  presentation  of  their  college 
diploma. 

The  Summer  School  of  Forestry  is  conducted 
at  Milford,  Pike  County,  Pa.  The  session  in 
1909  will  open  early  in  July  and  continue 
seven  weeks. 

For  further  information,  address 
HENRY  S.  GRAVES,  Director,  New  Haven,  Connecticut 


The  University  of  Toronto 
and  University  College 


Faculties  of  Art,  Medicine,  Applied  Science,  House- 
hold Science,  Education,  Forestry. 


The  Faculty  of  Forestry  offers  a  four  year  course, 
leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  in 
Forestry. 


For  information,  apply  to  the  REGISTRAR  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY,  or 
to  the  Secretaries  of  the  respective  Faculties. 


HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 

THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  OF  APPLIED  SCIENCE 
offers  a  two-years'  course  in  FORESTRY  leading  to  the  degree  of 
Master  in  Forestry.     The  descriptive  pamphlet  will  be  sent  on 
application   to    W.  C.  SABINE,  15  University  Hall,  Cambridge, 
Mass. 

POWDER  POINT  SCHOOL 

DUXBURY,  MASS. 

Preparatory  course  in  POftcSTRY  leading  to  the  Biltmore 
and  college  courses  in  this  subject.  It  requires  hard,  earnest 
application,  and  develops  an  appreciation  of  nature  and  power  of 
leadership.     SUMMER  CLASS  ;  also  TUTORING. 

F.  B.  KNAPP,  S.  B.,  Principal 

F.   R.  MEIER 

Consulting    Forester 

No.   1  Broadway,  New  York 

Examinations,  Reports,  Sales 
18  Years  Experience  in  United  States 


MANUAL  FOR  NORTHERN  WOODSMEN 

By   AUSTIN    CARY.   Harvard    University    Publisher,    Cambridge, 
1909;  Pages,  250.     Price,  $2.00. 

The  above  publication  highly  recommended  by  the  editor  of 
this  journal  can  be  had  at  the  above  price  by  addressing  Forestry 
Quarterly,  396  Harvard  street,  Cambridge,  Mass. 


EVERGREENS 


AIMD 


Forest  Trees,  olso  Seeds 


Hardy  Sorts  for  Forest  Planting : 

Pinus  Strobus  (White  Pine),  Scotch  Pine,  Ponderosa  Pine,  Jack 

Pine,  White  Spruce,  Norway  Spruce,  Douglas  Spruce, 

and  many  other  Hardy  Varieties. 

Deciduous  Trees: 

European   Larch,   American  White   Elm,   Sugar   Maple,  White 

Ash,  American  Linden,  Catalpa,  Black  Locust,  Bur 

Oak,  Black  Oak,  Red  Oak  and  White  Oak 

Also  Seeds — Guaranteed  New  Crop : 

Evergreens:  Pinus  Strobus  (White  Pine),  Scotch  Pine,  Jack 
and  Bull  Pine,  and  20  other  varieties. 

Also  European  Larch,  Sugar  and  Norway  Maple,  Black  Lo- 
cust, Ash,  etc. 


WRITE  FOR  CATALOGUE   WITH  PRICES 

Mention  this  Magazine 

D.  HILL 

Evergreen  Specialist  Dundee,    III. 


THE  NORTH-EASTERN  FORESTRY  CO. 

CONSULTING  FORESTERS 

Forest  Nurserymen 

Forest  Tree  Seed  Collectors 

Please  send  us  your  address  that  we  can  get  in 
touch  for  mutual  benefit. 

BOX,  1131 

NEW  HAVEN,  CONN. 


FOREST  TREES ! 

FOREST  SEEDS! 

F.  O.B.  ROTTERDAM 
Seedlings  and  Transplanted.    By  the  Million 

PETER  SCHOTT,  KNITTELSHEIM 

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Wholesale   Seeds  and  Nurseryman 


ESTABLISHMENT  FOR  DRYING  CONIFEROUS  SEEDS 


ESTABLISHED  1784 

The  oldest  established  Seed  and  Nursery  Business  in  Germany 

DESCRIPTIVE  CATALOGUES    POST    FREE    ON    APPLICATION 


Established  1845.  Incorporated  1900. 

W.  &  L.  E.  GURLEY 

TROY,  N.  Y.,  U.  S.  A. 
Largest  Manufacturers  in  America  el 

Instruments  for  Civil,  Mining  and  Hydraulic 
Engineers  and  Land  Surveyors 

Foresters'     Instruments,    Compasses,     Plane- 
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Please  mention  this  Magazine  when  writing. 


CONTENTS 


,  Page 

The  White  Pine  Blister  Rust,  -  -  -  231 

By  C.  R.  Pettis. 

Restricting  the  Free  Use  of  Timber  on  our  National  Forests,  238 
By  L.  L.  White. 

The  Coconino  Ranger  School,  -  -  -  243 

By  Theodore  S.  Woolsey,  Jr. 

Measurements  of  the  Effects  of  Forest  Cover  upon  the 

Conservation  of  Snow  Waters,        -  -  -  245 

By  W.  R.  Mattoon. 

Cost  of  Evergreen  Seedlings,  -  -  -  249 

By  D.  Hill. 

Cost  of  Mountain  Logging  in  West  Virginia,  -  255 

By  Henry  H.  Farquhar. 

Marking  Western  Yellow  Pine,  -  -  -  270 

By  Theodore  S.  Woolsey,  Jr. 

Brief  Notes  on  Mexican  Forests ,  -  -  -  277 

By  Max  Rothkugel. 

Eucalypts  Cultivated  in  the  United  States,  -  280 

By  C.  Westergaard,  Jr. 

Current  Literature,  -  304 

Other  Current  Literature,  -  -  -  315 

Periodical  Literature,  -  -  -  -  317 

Other  Periodical  Literature,         -  -  -  350 

News  and  Notes,  -  -  -  -  -  352 

Comment.  ------  364 


Volume  VII 


No.  4 


FORESTRY  QUARTERLY 


A  PROFESSIONAL  JOURNAL 


Subscription  Two  Dollars  per  Annum 


CAMBRIDGE  (BOSTON),  MASS. 
1909 

Entered  as  second-class  matter  September  28,  1P0P,  at  the  post  office  at  Boston 
Mass.,  under  the  Act  of  March  J,  1897. 


FORESTRY  QUARTERLY 


BOARD  OF  EDITORS 
B.  E.  Fernow,  EL.  D.,  Editor-in-Chief 


Henry  S.  Graves,  M.  A., 

Yale  Forest  School. 

Richard  T.  Fisher,  A.  B., 

Harvard  University. 

WAI/fKR  MULEORD,  F.  E., 

University  of  Michigan. 

Ernest  A.  Sterling,  F.  E., 

Forester,  Petina.  R.  R.  Co. 

Frederick  Dunlap,  F.  E., 

Forest  Service. 


Filibert  Roth,  B.  S., 

University  of  Michigan . 

Hugh  P.  Baker,  M.  F., 

Pennsylvania  State  College. 

C.  D.  Howe,  Ph.  D., 

I  'diversity  of  Toronto. 

Raphael  Zon,  F.  E., 

Forest  Service. 

Clyde  Leavitt,,M.  S.  F., 

Forest  Service. 


Asa  S.  Williams,  F.  K. 


THE  OBJECTS  FOR  WHICH   THIS  JOURNAL  T^  PUBLISHED  ARE' 

To  aid  iti  the  establishment  of  rational  forest  management. 

To  offer  an  organ  for  the  publication  of  technical  papers  of 
interest  to  professional  foresters  of  America. 

To  keep  the  profession  in  touch  with  the  current  technical 
literature,  and  with  the  forestry  movement  in  the  United  States. 


Manuscripts  may  be  sent  to  the  Editor-in-Chief  at  University 
of  Toronto,  Toronto,  Canada,  or  to  any  of  the  board  of  editors. 
Subscriptions  and  other  business  matters  should  be  addressed 
to  the  publisher,  Forestry  Quarterly,  396  Harvard  Street,  Cam- 
bfidee,  Mass. 


I'ress  of 

Watchman  Printing  Housh 

Bcllefonte,  Ta. 


Charcoal  Kiln  made  at  the  Experiment  Station  at  Xoporo,  Japan. 
Ready  for  kindling. 


Slii 

se'''4 

Ifc^s 

ok- 

^^  -  ^M'  1 

^»i 

E^WSj        IP^rW. 

f  luK  "'Aye 

mSm 

mMa 

Kilns  made  by  farmers  at  Kanayama,  Japan. 
One  just  burnt  out,  other  ready  for  kindling. 


LIBRARY 
NEW  YORK 

FORESTRY  QUARTERLY  B°™«- 

Vol.  VII]  December,  1909.  [No.  4. 


WHY  AMERICAN  FORESTERS  ARE  POORLY  TRAINED. 
By  A  Professor. 

Every  new  calling  which  aspires  to  the  dignity  of  a  profession 
must  pass  through  a  stage  of  militant  propaganda  to  obtain  a 
footing  among  the  old  established  professions.  Some  prove  their 
worth  and  take  their  proper  place;  others  fail  and  remain  in  the 
class  of  trades.  Law,  medicine  and  the  ministry  were  formerly 
looked  upon  as  the  professions.  It  was  only  after  a  bitter  struggle 
that  the  engineer  and  chemist  obtained  recognition.  The  forester 
is  now  knocking  at  the  door  for  admission.  Is  he  to  be  a  profes- 
sional man  or  a  tradesman? 

The  situation  in  the  case  of  the  forester  is  unique  in  our  his- 
tory. It  is  not  the  struggle  of  a  new  profession  for  recognition 
in  the  world  of  science,  but  the  struggle  of  a  profession  already 
old  in  Europe  for  a  recognized  footing  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  The  question  is  are  we  doing  our  best  to  obtain  that 
footing  ? 

If  a  calling  is  to  take  rank  as  a  profession  it  must  require  some 
training  other  than  skilled  labor,  and  peculiar  to  itself.  So  long 
as  men  of  another  vocation  can  enter  the  field  of  forestry  without 
any  special  training  and  do  successfully  the  work  which  is  de- 
manded of  them  there  is  no  distinct  profession  of  forestry  and 
the  forester's  proper  standing  has  not  been  attained. 

According  to  these  premises  the  forester  in  this  country  is 
undoubtedly  without  footing  as  a  professional  man.  Men  of  all 
professions  and  many  trades  dabble  in  the  planting  of  parks,  the 
planting  of  windbreaks,  or  the  patching  up  of  decayed  trees  and 
pass  current  as  foresters.  The  thoroughly  trained  forester,  the 
botanist  who  has  studied  the  life  history  of  a  single  tree,  the 
lawyer  who  has  studied  up  the  forest  laws,  the  engineer  who  has 


374  Forestry  Quarterly. 

tested  the  strength  of  a  few  beams,  the  stock  man  with  a  little 
experience  in  grazing  sheep  in  the  woods,  the  manufacturer  of 
packing  boxes  who  is  utilizing  his  waste,  the  collector  of  census 
figures,  the  maker  of  maps,  the  writer  of  reports ;  all  these  are 
accepted  as  foresters  on  the  same  footing  and  no  distinction  made 
between  them. 

Three  causes  seem  to  be  contributing  to  this  chaotic  state  of 
affairs :  The  ignorance  of  the  general  public ;  the  policy  of  the 
U.  S.  Forest  Service ;  and  the  consequent  fragmentary  nature  of 
the  training  in  the  "Forest  Schools." 

The  training  of  public  opinion  can  come  only  with  time.  The 
forester  must  insist  on  doing  his  own  proper  work  and  insist  on 
the  proper  recognition.  The  employment  of  a  forester  by  a  lum- 
ber company  for  the  better  cruising  of  its  timber  is  an  insult  to  the 
profession  and  a  disgrace  to  the  man  who  continues  to  hold  such 
a  position  and  contents  himself  with  such  work.  The  bad  ex- 
ample of  the  employment  of  the  trained  man  in  the  National 
Forests  for  just  such  work  is  largely  responsible  for  this  point 
of  view.  The  forester  should  refuse  such  work  and  the  make- 
shift forester  be  discredited  by  the  profession. 

The  U.  S.  Forest  Service  is  the  great  aggressive  force  which  is 
leading  and  directing  forestry  development  in  the  United  States. 
To  them  every  one  looks  for  an  example  and  demonstration  of 
what  forestry  in  this  country  is  and  what  the  work  of  the  forester 
should  be.  Are  they  setting  the  best  example  of  what  this  devel- 
opment ought  to  be? 

In  this  article  we  are  more  particularly  interested  in  the  work 
of  the  forest  schools.  Let  us  look  at  the  conditions  of  this  work 
and  try  to  trace  the  causes  of  these  conditions. 

This  condition  is  little  short  of  chaos.  There  are  three  classes 
of  schools :  Graduate  schools  and  undergraduate  schools  which 
are  attempting  to  cover  the  whole  field,  and  undergraduate 
courses  which  are  more  or  less  fragmentary  in  nature.  All  are 
giving  arbitrary  degrees  without  meaning — for  there  is  no  stand- 
ard by  which  to  judge  them. 

The  so-called  graduate  schools  are  giving  graduate  degrees  for 
undergraduate  work.  They  are  turning  out  men  of  anything  but 
a  uniform  grade,  because  there  is  no  uniformity  in  the  entrance 
requirements.  A  degree,  no  matter  what  kind,  is  all  that  is  nec- 
essary.   If  that  degree  happens  to  be  for  science  work  the  student 


American  Foresters  Poorly  Trained.  375 

is  well  prepared;  the  man  who  obtains  his  first  degree  for  liter- 
ature, history,  economics  and  philosophy  has  no  preparation  and 
the  class  can  go  no  faster  than  these  poorest  prepared  men  are 
able  to  go.  In  either  case  the  work  is  strictly  undergraduate  and 
necessarily  of  a  low  order  to  meet  the  necessities  of  the  poorly 
prepared. 

The  four  year  undergraduate  school  gives  a  uniform  and  more 
thorough  course.  The  work  is  more  consecutive,  and  the  longer 
time  gives  more  chance  for  the  practical  application  of  the  prin- 
ciples learned  to  existing  conditions,  more  time  for  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  theories  taught  to  sink  in.  The  graduate  from  such 
a  course  is  a  better  trained  man,  but  is  lacking  in  general  educa- 
tion, which  the  forester  of  all  men  should  have.  A  course  on  top 
of  this  degree  would  be  real  graduate  work  and  would  give 
splendid  results,  but  such  a  thing  is  out  of  the  question  till  some 
opportunity  offers  a  proper  reward  for  such  training. 

The  fragmentary  courses  given  at  so  many  schools  in  the 
country  serve  a  good  purpose.  They  are  centers  of  education  for 
the  enlightening  of  the  laymen.  They  instill  a  leaven  which  will 
lighten  the  whole  loaf  of  public  opinion  wonderfully,  but  they 
should  not  be  considered  as  professional  schools.  Some  men  are 
being  graduated  from  these  schools  who  have  never  seen  a  forest. 
The  education  obtained  in  all  of  them  is  necessarily  one-sided. 

The  complete  undergraduate  school  gives  a  bachelor's  degree 
for  a  four  years'  course,  the  graduate  school  gives  a  master's  de- 
gree for  a  two  year  course  of  the  same  work;  the  fragmentary 
course  often  yields  a  degree  which  sounds  as  well  as  either.  Who 
shall  say  what  the  standard  shall  be? 

The  civil  service  examinations  are  largely  responsible  for  this 
state  of  affairs.  Nine-tenths  of  the  men  graduated  from  the 
forest  schools  go  into  the  forest  service,  and  there  is  nothing  for 
the  schools  to  do  but  live  up  to  the  standard  of  those  examina- 
tions. A  man  with  two  or  three  years  experience  as  a  lumber 
jack  stands  quite  as  much  show  of  passing  these  examinations  as 
the  well  trained  technical  forester  and  a  great  deal  more  show  of 
rapid  advancement  when  he  is  in. 

Many  of  the  high  places  in  the  Forest  Service  to-day  are  held 
by  men  of  little  or  no  technical  training.  What  show  has  the 
technical  man  under  such  conditions?  It  is  the  same  old  question 
of  the  grammar  school  man  belittling  the  college  graduate,  and 


376  Forestry  Quarterly. 

in  the  end  the  result  will  probably  be  the  same,  but  in  the  mean- 
while it  is  rather  hard  on  the  trained  man,  and  the  school  which 
is  trying  to  turn  out  trained  men. 

What  is  the  incentive  to  good  work  in  the  schools?  How  can 
a  school  hold  on  to  a  man  long  enough  to  give  him  a  thorough 
training  when  he  knows  that  a  year's  work  in  a  lumber  camp  on 
top  of  a  little  superficial  work  in  school  will  give  him  a  better 
standing  in  the  government  service  than  the  best  technical  train- 
ing he  could  possibly  get  in  the  schools.  Many  of  the  best  men 
leave  school  in  their  sophomore  and  junior  years  to  take  a  position 
on  a  ranch  or  in  a  lumber  camp  because  they  feel  that  the  man  so 
trained  stands  a  better  show  than  the  man  with  the  better  technical 
training. 

Can  the  schools  be  blamed  for  this?  They  are  obliged  to  turn 
out  such  men  as  the  public  demands.  The  public  in  this  instance 
is  largely  represented  by  the  Government  Forest  Service,  the 
largest  consumer  of  forest  school  products.  The  following  is  the 
inevitable  conclusion :  When  the  Forest  Service  reserves  its  for- 
ester's positions  for  thoroughly  trained  foresters  and  ceases  to 
dub  every  unclassified  man  they  pick  up  with  the  title  which 
belongs  properly  to  the  trained  forester  alone,  then,  and  only  then, 
will  the  schools  be  able  to,  or  be  justified  in,  turning  out  well 
trained,  well  rounded  men  worthy  of  the  title  of  "Forester." 


AVERAGE  WOOD  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  UNITED 

STATES. 

On  pages  304-5  of  the  Forestry  Quarterly  for  August,  the 
reviewer  of  Forest  Service  Circular  166,  "The  Timber  Supply  of 
the  United  States,"  after  quoting  some  of  the  statistics  given  in 
the  Circular,  continues : 

"The  author  also  attempts  to  prognosticate  future  supplies.  It  would 
have  been  interesting  to  know  how  he  came  to  the  assumption  that  the 
annual  growth  'does  not  exceed  twelve  cubic  feet  per  acre,  a  total  of  less 
that  seven  billion  cubic  feet.'  He  properly  makes  the  assumption  that 
three  conditions  exist ;  namely,  mature  forest ;  partially  cut  and  burned 
forest;  and  severely  culled  forest,  'on  which  there  is  not  sufficient  young 
growth  to  produce  another  crop  of  much  value.'  He  estimates  these  con- 
ditions— of  course,  also  mere  guesses — to  be  represented  by  200,  250  and 
100  million  acres,  respectively.  But,  instead  of  using  these  figures  in  a  cal- 
culation, he  jumps  to  the  above  conclusion  as  to  new  growth.  Of  course,  to 
arrive  at  such  or  any  conclusion  in  this  regard,  some  more  assumptions  are 
necessary.  The  matter  is  of  such  a  speculative  character,  that,  unless  the 
full  basis  for  it  is  stated,  it  becomes  worse  than  useless,  and,  used  as  an 
argument  as  if  it  were  true,  dangerous.    We  believe  it  untrue." 

Then  follows  a  discussion  leading  apparently  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  average  increment  per  year  for  all  our  forest  area  during 
the  next  60  years  might  be  about  8  or  9  cubic  feet  per  acre,  an 
estimate  which  tallies  closely  with  that  given  on  page  51  of 
"Economics  of  Forestry,"  and  which  upon  the  assumptions  given, 
is  very  reasonable,  although  the  author  says,  it  is  probably  far 
too  high.  I  wish,  however,  to  call  the  reviewer's  attention  to  the 
fact  that  the  conclusion  reached  in  the  circular — that  the  annual 
growth  for  all  our  forest  area  does  not  exceed  12  cubic  feet  per 
acre — is  not  a  mere  jump  as  he  implies,  but  is  the  result  of  a 
carefully  worked  out  calculation  in  which  the  different  classes  of 
forest  land  in  each  region  were  considered.  Circular  166  is  but 
a  brief  popular  statement  of  the  best  facts  and  estimates  which 
our  present  knowledge  enables  us  to  give  concerning  our  forest 
resources.  It  states  only  conclusions.  Space,  and  its  non-technical 
character,  forbade  filling  the  circular  with  the  details  of  forest 
calculations.  The  data  upon  the  growth  and  yield  given  in 
the  Circular  are  based  upon  the  very  excellent  paper  entitled 
"Rate  of  Forest  Growth,"  prepared  by  Mr.  E.  A.  Ziegler  for  the 
National  Conservation  Commission,  and  published  in  Vol.  II  of 


378  Forestry  Quarterly. 

the  report  of  the  Commission.  Since  the  number  of  copies  of  this 
report  published  is  so  limited  as  to  prevent  its  distribution  among 
forest  students,  I  hope  very  much  that  the  following  discussion 
by  Mr.  Ziegler  upon  present  growth  can  be  given  publicity  in  the 
Quarterly. 

I  am  sure  any  further  discussion  of  this  paper  as  well  as  of 
others  issued  from  the  Service  will  be  welcomed  by  the  readers 
of  the  Quarterly.*  It  is  only  in  this  way  that  the  truth  can  be 
finally  established,  and  the  absence  in  so  many  cases  of  sufficient 
data  upon  forest  growth,  conditions  and  stand  gives  room  for 
wide  divergence  of  opinion. 

R.  S.  Keiaog. 

After  giving  all  the  available  data  upon  the  growth  of  individual 
species  in  various  localities  Mr.  Ziegler  continues  his  article  as 
follows : 

Present  Average  Production  Per  Acre  and  Total  Pro- 
duction. 

From  the  foregoing  notes  on  the  growth  of  the  different  species 
and  the  yield  per  acre  in  the  infrequent  fully  stocked  stands  of 
second  growth  forest,  little  information  can  be  got  on  the  actual 
wood  production  throughout  our  forests,  since  growth  conditions 
are  often  very  unfavorable.  In  the  very  old  mature  forests  growth 
is  offset  by  decay,  and  our  millions  of  acres  of  this  type  of  forest 
may  for  all  practical  purposes  be  regarded  as  nonproducing  capi- 
tal. Were  all  our  forests  of  this  class,  the  production  per  acre 
would  be  zero.  Were  all  mature  trees  removed  and  the  land  all 
densely  stocked  with  thrifty  growth,  the  yield  would  approximate 
from  30  to  1 10  cubic  feet  per  acre  per  year  according  to  the  species 
and  locality.  The  actual  forest  represents  all  degrees  of  produc- 
tion between  these  two  extremes.  There  are  large  bodies  of  over- 
mature timber  that  are  not  increasing.  There  are  small  areas  of 
pure  second  growth  producing  the  maximum  amount.  There 
are  culled-over  areas  containing  mature  defective  trees  or  unde- 
sirable species  mixed  with  second  growth,  areas  denuded  by  ax 

*  The  reviewer  is  glad  to  have  provoked  the  above  most  interesting 
article,  which  really  was  the  object  of  his  criticisms.  Ingenious  as  the 
method  of  arriving  at  data  upon  which  to  make  a  statement  of  the  acre 
production,  the  result  does  not  fill  the  reviewer  with  any  more  confidence  in 
its  truth  than  his  own  mere  guesses. 


Average  Wood  Production  in  United  States. 


379 


and  fire  with  no  appreciable  growth,  and,  the  largest  class  of  all, 
cut  over  and  burned  over  lands  with  some  growing  trees,  but 
usually  not  nearly  as  dense  as  the  virgin  forest. 

To  arrive  at  any  approximation,  then,  of  the  total  wood  pro- 
duction of  the  country  some  rough  classification  of  the  entire 
forest  area  is  necessary.    Hence  the  following  is  offered : 


Table  XIII. — Classification  op  Forest  Land. 


region. 

Total  for- 
est and 
woodland 
area. 

Probably 

mature  timber 

and  woods. 

Probably  not 
restocking. 

Probably  grow- 
ing forest  and 
woodland. 

Northeastern  States,     . 
Central  States,     .... 
Southern  States: 

Pine  land  (60  per 

Hard  wood  land  (40 

Rocky  Mountain  States 
Pacific  Coast  States.     . 

A  cres. 

47,000,000 
48,000,000 
71,000,000 

124,000,000 

82,000,000 
97,000,000 
76,000,000 

Per 

cent. 

4 
4 
9 

33 

43 
7° 
80 

Acres. 
2,000,000 
2,000,000 
6,000,000 

41,000,000 

35,000,000 
68,000,000 
61,000,000 

Per 

cent. 
3* 
18 
15 

27 

7 
12 

3 

A  cres. 
18,000,000 
8,000,000 
11,000,000 

33,000,000 

6,000,000 
12,000,000 
2,000,000 

Per 

cent. 

58 
78 
76 

40 

50 
18 

17 

Acres. 
27,000,000 
38,000,000 
54,000,000 

50,000,000 

41,000,000 
1 7, 000' 000 
13,000,000 

Total, 

545,000,000 

215,000,000 

90,000,000 

240,000,000 

The  total  forest  area,  including  woodland,  is  seen  to  amount 
to  approximately  545,000,000  acres,  of  which  about  50,000,000 
acres  are  scrubby  woodland,  producing  only  cord  wood.  This  is 
confined  largely  to  the  Southwest,  such  as  the  scrub  oak,  pirion,. 
and  juniper  lands  of  California,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Texas,, 
and  other  Rocky  Mountain  States.  This  estimate  of  total  forest 
area  is  based  on  almost  complete  returns  from  county  clerks,, 
usually  supporting  estimates  previously  made  by  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey  for  Washington  and  Oregon,  the  Forest  Ser- 
vice forest  maps  of  California  and  New  Hampshire,  and  the  more 
general  State  estimates  of  Doctor  Fernow. 

The  classification  into  mature  timber  and  cut  and  burned  land 
probably  not  restocking  are  estimates  based  on  reports  of  Pro- 
fessor Roth  for  Michigan  and  Wisconsin  and  General  Andrews 
for  Minnesota,  the  Geological  Survey  revised  township  estimate 
for  Washington  and  Oregon  by  Henry  Gannett,  together  with 
special  reports  of  state  foresters,  and  more  general  regional  re- 
ports, such  as  the  "Report  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  on 
the  White  Mountains  and  Southern  Appalachian  Watersheds, 
1908 ;"    "Southern  Appalachian  Forests,"  Ayers  and  Ashe,  Geo- 


380  Forestry  Quarterly. 

logical  Survey;  "Timber  Pines  of  the  Southern  United  States," 
Forestry  Division  Bulletin  13,  by  Mohr,  etc.  That  some  differ- 
ence of  opinion  may  be  expressed  on  this  classification  is  not  to  be 
doubted,  but  the  totals  are  good,  errors  in  high  and  low  estimates 
compensating  to  some  degree. 

The  mature  timber  totals  over  188,000,000  acres,  which  might 
be  raised  to  approximately  215,000,000  if  all  woodland  such 
as  the  scrub  oak,  juniper,  and  pinon  lands  of  the  Southwest  are 
included.  It  is  evident  that  there  is  little  mature  timber  in  the 
Lake  and  Northeastern  States.  The  States  included  as  Central 
States  have  a  little  more  mature  timber,  though  culled  forests, 
which  consist  largely  of  mature  trees,  are  here  included  under 
growing  forests,  to  be  conservative.  The  Southern  States  are 
figured  as  having  one-third  mature  timber  on  pine  lands  and  a 
little  larger  proportion  of  the  hardwoods  of  the  alluvial  bottoms 
and  southern  Appalachians.  The  Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific 
coast  forests  are  largely  mature  forests.  Since  there  has  been  a 
great  lumber  output  on  the  coast  it  might  be  supposed  that  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region  should  have  a  larger  percentage  of  ma- 
ture forest,  but  the  thinner  forest  of  the  Rockies  and  much  greater 
damage  from  fire  have  tended  to  lessen  the  mature  forest  per- 
centage and  greatly  increase  the  "not  restocking"  percentage. 
This  large  area  of  mature  forest  can  not  be  considered  as  increas- 
ing materially  by  growth  above  the  loss  by  decay,  windfalls,  in- 
sects, etc.  The  burned  areas  restocking  are  included  under  grow- 
ing forest. 

Under  the  head  of  "Probably  not  restocking"  the  Lake  States 
lead  with  38  per  cent.  This  is  due  perhaps  to  the  more  complete 
reports  and  forest  and  logging  conditions  which  invited  the  many 
great  conflagrations  credited  to  this  region.  The  larger  amount  of 
hardwood,  different  topography,  denser  population,  larger  per- 
centage in  small  wood  lots,  and  other  factors  decrease  the  per- 
centage of  forest  not  restocking  for  the  Northeastern  States. 
These  same  factors — notably  the  composition  of  the  forest  as  of 
hard  woods  almost  entirely  with  sprout  reproduction — lessen  it 
still  more  for  the  Central  States.  In  the  Southern  States  on  the 
pine  lands  it  rises  sharply  and  would  be  still  higher  were  not  the 
effects  of  fires  less  destructive  in  the  more  open  mature  forests 
still  existing.  Southern  hardwoods  suffer  much  less.  This  is 
due  to  their  location  in  the  lowlands  and  mountains,  to  the  less 


Average  Wood  Production  in  United  States.  381 

inflammability  of  nonresinous  wood,  and  to  sprout  reproduction. 
In  proportion  to  the  cut-over  land  the  Rocky  Mountains  show  a 
large  percentage  of  land  not  restocking,  while  on  the  Pacific  coast 
climatic  conditions  make  reseeding  better  and  safer.  The  areas 
of  land  not  restocking  are  believed  to  be  very  conservative  even 
though  the  total  seems  startling  when  placed  at  about  82,000,000 
acres  of  forest  land  or  90,000,000  acres  of  forest  and  woodland. 
To  the  observant  forester  several  trips  through  the  Lake  State 
pineries  and  southern  pineries  (where  one-half  of  this  land  is  to  be 
found)  are  sufficiently  convincing.  This  is  the  second  large  item 
which  must  be  withdrawn  from  the  total  so-called  forest  area. 
The  question  may  be  raised  whether  this  has  not  already  been 
excluded  in  the  classification  of  total  forest  and  woodland.  It  is 
not,  because  it  is  inseparably  mingled  with  the  mature  and  grow- 
ing timber  areas,  and  it  is  still  potential  forest  land  but  unable  to 
restock  on  account  of  recurring  fires  and  lack  of  seed  trees.  For 
example,  Minnesota  is  given  15,000,000  acres  of  forest  land,  only 
7,500,000  of  which  is  restocking  to  a  degree  indicative  of  a  second 
crop.  The  other  7,500,000,  while  not  entirely  devoid  of  tree 
growth,  will  require  many  decades  of  efficient  fire  protection  and 
a  large  amount  of  artificial  regeneration  to  bring  it  into  the  pro- 
ducing forest  class. 

The  growing  forest  area  is  got  by  deducting  the  mature  forest 
and  the  area  not  restocking  from  the  total  forest  area.  This  is 
approximately  225,000,000  acres  of  forest  land,  or  240,000,000 
acres  of  forest  and  woodland.  These  figures  give  a  total  forest 
area  of  about  495,000,000  acres,  which  is  raised  to  545,000,000  to 
mclude  woodlands  (lands  incapable  of  producing  saw  timber 
forest). 

Having  thus  analyzed  the  total  forest  area  and  secured  an  ap- 
proximation for  the  area  of  growing  or  producing  forest,  there 
remains  a  discussion  of  the  actual  increment  on  this  area.  Since 
(as  has  been  stated  before)  the  growing  forest  is  made  up  of  all 
conditions  of  growth  from  the  lightly  culled  mature  forests  pro- 
ducing little  increment  to  the  pure  dense  stands  of  young  growth 
with  an  increment  approaching  the  maximum,  the  arriving  at  an 
average  production  is  very  difficult.  The  most  important  single 
factor  is  the  amount  of  growing  stock  present  or  the  density. 
The  second  is  the  age  of  the  growing  stock. 

In  the  first  column  of  the  table  below,  the  annual  production 


382 


Forestry  Quarterly. 


per  acre  of  fully  stocked  forest  is  taken  as  the  basis  for  calcula- 
tion (being  the  average  for  the  life  of  the  trees  to  maturity  for 
all  qualities  of  forest).  This  is  expressed  in  cubic  feet  of  stem 
volume  (not  all  of  which  is  merchantable)  got  from  the  few 
American  yield  tables  (see  Appendix,  pp.  45-61)  supplemented 
by  German  yield  tables,  and  weighted  roughly  according  to  the 
species  in  the  growing  forests  of  each  region. 


Table  XIV.— Estimated  Growth  per  Acre. 


REGION. 

Average  esti- 
mated produc- 
tion in  fully 
stocked  forest 
per  acre  per 
year. 

Average  "best 
virgin  forest" 
density  in  per 
cent,  of  fully 
stocked. 

Estimated 
density  of  im- 
mature forest 
compared  with 

best  virgin. 

Probable 
growth  per 
acre  in  grow- 
ing forest. 

Northeastern  States,    .   .   . 

Southern  States  : 

Pine  land,      .          ... 

Hard-wood  land,  .  .  . 
Rocky  Mountain  States,  . 
Pacific  Coast  States,    .   .   . 

Cubic  feet. 
90 

80 
60 

70 
70 
30 
no 

Per  cent. 
60 
60 
70 

46 
70 
53 
73 

Per  cent. 

70 
70 
60 

65 
60 
60 
70 

Cubic  feet. 
38 
33 
25 

21 
29 
9 
56 

In  order  to  see  how  the  density  of  our  virgin  forests  compares 
with  the  fully  stocked  forest  of  the  yield  tables  recourse  is  taken 
to  a  comparison  of  basal  areas  (area  of  tree  cross  sections).  The 
total  basal  area  (see  Appendix,  pp.  62-63)  for  northern  virgin 
forests  containing  a  large  percentage  of  conifers  ranges  from  75 
to  200  square  feet,  averaging  about  120;  the  central  hardwood 
forests  from  90  to  150,  averaging  about  117  square  feet;  the 
southern  pine  forests  30  to  120,  averaging  70  square  feet;  the 
Rocky  Mountain  forests  30  to  130,  averaging  80  square  feet ;  and 
the  Pacific  coast  forests  190  to  240,  averaging  220  square  feet. 
These  basal  areas,  when  compared  with  Quality  II  80-year  white 
pine  in  New  England  (see  Appendix,  p.  64,  for  normal  yield  table, 
basal  areas  and  increments),  with  242  square  feet  per  acre;  paper 
birch.  Quality  I,  60  years,  in  New  England,  with  120  square  feet ; 
loblolly  pine  in  Texas,  at  40  years,  with  126  square  feet ;  second- 
growth  hardwoods  in  the  Southern  Appalachians,  with  140 
square  feet.  Norway  spruce  120  years  old,  in  Germany,  with  288 
square  feet;  beech  with  192  square  feet;  and  Scotch  pine  with 
212  square  feet,  show  that  our  virgin  forests,  even  of  the  best 
grades  as  selected  and  of  much  greater  age  than  the  normal  forests 


Average  Wood  Production  in  United  States. 


383 


compared,  are  not  nearly  normally  stocked — the  redwoods  of 
California  being  exceptional.  This  deficiency  of  stocking  in  the 
best  virgin  forest  is  expressed  by  a  percentage  in  column  2  of 
the  above  table.  Column  3  gives  the  estimated  relation  between 
the  immature  or  growing  forest  and  the  best  virgin  tracts.  Here 
the  percentage  for  the  central  and  southern  hardwoods  is  placed 
at  60,  in  order  to  allow  for  the  large  number  of  mature  trees 
still  in  these  culled  forests.  The  density,  including  these  mature 
non-producing  trees,  would  of  course  be  much  higher  than  60 
per  cent,  of  the  virgin  forest  density. 

By  multiplying  the  production  in  the  fully  stocked  forest 
(Table  14)  by  the  percentages  of  effective  stocking  in  virgin 
and  growing  forests  successively,  the  last  column  of  that  table 
is  secured,  indicating  a  production  of  from  21  to  56  cubic  feet 
per  acre  per  year  in  the  immature  forest  in  all  regions  except  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region,  where  the  large  area  of  juniper,  pifion, 
and  scrub  oak  woodland  included  in  the  total  wooded  area  re- 
duces an  already  low  average  growth  to  approximately  9  cubic 
feet.  These  figures  are  believed  to  be,  if  anything,  higher  than 
the  truth. 

Applying  this  estimated  average  growth  to  the  area  of  grow- 
ing forest — 

Table  XV. 


Probable  area 
of  growing 
forest  and 
woodland. 


Estimated 
growth 
per  acre. 


Estimated 

total 
production. 


Lake  States, 

Northeastern  States, .  .  , 

Central  States, 

Southern  States  : 

Pine  land 

Hard-wood  land,  .  . 
Rocky  Mountain  States, 
Pacific  Coast  States,  .   . 


Total, 


Acres. 
27,000,000 
38,000,000 
54,000.000 

50,000,000 
41,000,000 
17,000,000 
13,000,000 


Cubic  feet. 
38 
33 
25 


Cubic 
1,026 
1,254 
1.35° 

1,189 
153 

728 


feet. 

000,000 
000,000 
000,000 

000,000 

ooo,coo 

000,000 
000,000 


240,000,000 


6,750,000,000 


a  Average. 


an  estimated  total  production  of  about  6,700,000,000  cubic  feet 
is  indicated.  This  is  an  average  of  about  28  cubic  feet  per  acre 
for  the  estimated  240,000,000  acres  of  growing  forest  and  wood- 
land, or  about  12  cubic  feet  for  the  entire  forest  and  woodland 


384  Forestry  Quarterly. 

area    of    545,000,000    acres,    including    mature    and    devastated 
forests. 

Of  this  probable  total  of  6,700,000,000  cubic  feet  the  part  suit- 
able for  saw  timber  would  represent  an  actual  mill  output  of 
probably  much  less  than  20,000,000,000  board  feet,  the  rest  being 
cord  wood  and  mill  waste.  * 


AN  EXPERIMENT  IN  LOGGING  LONGLEAF  PINE.* 
By  Herman  H.  Chapman. 

At  the  suggestion  of  John  L.  Kaul,  of  Alabama,  the  conserva- 
tion committee  of  the  Yellow  Pine  Lumber  Manufacturers'  As- 
sociation, at  its  session  held  in  May  in  Tyler  county,  Texas,  de- 
cided to  recommend  the  cutting  of  yellow  pine  in  two  operations 
separated  by  a  period  of  years,  instead  of  removing  the  entire 
stand  in  the  first  cut  as  at  present. 

The  chief  argument  presented  in  support  of  this  change  was 
that  small  timber  that  is  now  unprofitable  to  log,  would,  if  left 
twenty  years,  have  grown  to  valuable  sizes,  and,  with  the  in- 
creased price  of  stumpage,  would  pay  a  fair  interest  on  the  in- 
vestment, and  make  it  possible  to  prolong  the  operation  over  a 
second  period  nearly  equal  to  the  first. 

This  suggestion,  coming  from  lumbermen,  is  of  great  value, 
for  it  agrees  perfectly  with  the  method  of  cutting  which  seems 
to  be  demanded  by  longleaf  pine  to  secure  reproduction  and  per- 
petuate the  forest.  Timber  land  owners  can  undertake  only  such 
measures  as  promise  a  reasonable  interest  on  the  investment. 
For  this  reason  lumbermen  can  not  be  expected  to  develop  long- 
leaf  pine  lands  at  a  financial  loss  for  the  sole  purpose  of  getting 
a  crop  of  seedlings  started  which  will  mature  in  eighty  to  one 
hundred  years.  But  if  a  new  crop  of  seedlings  can  be  secured 
as  a  side  issue  with  very  little  extra  expense,  the  future  value 
of  the  land  so  stocked  would  be  very  much  increased  and  the 
final  disposition  of  the  land  by  its  present  owners  probably  will 
be  much  simplified  if  it  is  seen  to  be  in  good  productive  condition. 

At  present  the  probable  value  of  the  second  cutting  is  the  im- 
portant factor.  This  will  depend,  first,  on  the  amount  left  stand- 
ing from  the  first  cut ;  second,  upon  the  growth  secured  and, 
third,  upon  the  increase  in  stumpage  values. 

Longleaf  pine,  growing  as  it  does  upon  the  driest  and  sandiest 
soils,  matures  more  slowly  and  produces  less  timber  in  a  given 
time    than    either    shortleaf    or    loblolly    pine.     Growth    figures 

*This  article  appeared  first  in  the  American  Lumberman,  July  10,  1909, 
and  is  reprinted  at  the  request  of  the  author. 


386  Forestry  Quarterly. 

for  long-leaf  have  therefore  a  special  value  as  indicating  the 
smallest  returns  that  can  be  expected  from  growth  on  stands  left 
for  a  second  cut. 

In  deciding  on  the  amount  and  kind  of  timber  to  leave  stand- 
ing, the  owner  may  have  in  mind  only  the  second  crop.  In  this 
case  he  will  remove  all  his  old  timber  and  large  sizes,  leaving 
only  the  smaller  diameters,  and  might  attempt  the  operation  on 
the  basis  of  a  diameter  limit  high  enough  to  secure  a  reserve  of 
the  size  desired.  But  there  are  decided  objections  to  this  method, 
even  from  the  standpoint  of  the  second  crop.  A  diameter  limit 
ignores  the  two  main  factors  which  will  give  value  to  the  second 
crop — soundness  and  ability  to  grow.  It  also  ignores  the  matter 
of  distribution  or  spacing  of  the  trees  left,  upon  which  growth 
in  the  next  period  largely  depends,  and  it  tends  to  leave  large 
blank  areas  which  will  not  seed  up,  so  that  the  seedling  crop  is 
not  fully  secured.  The  results  of  cutting  to  a  diameter  limit  must 
therefore  be  very  disappointing,  and  the  value  secured  at  the  end 
of  twenty  years  must  fall  far  below  the  results  which  might  be 
secured  on  the  same  area,  leaving  the  same  amount  of  timber 
standing,  provided  an  intelligent  system  of  selection  is  used  in 
the  first  cutting. 

It  is  not  generally  realized  that  in  many  longleaf  forests  at  least 
one-fourth  of  the  area  is  covered  with  thrifty,  young  timber 
below  14  inches  on  the  stump,  ranging  in  size  down  to  seedlings. 
Measurements  of  sixteen  40-acre  plots  taken  in  stands  which 
averaged  9,500  feet  showed  25  per  cent.,  or  ten  acres  for  every 
plot,  fully  stocked  with  young  pines.  How  many  timber  owners 
have  any  accurate  knowledge  of  the  area  of  virgin  forests  already 
restocked  with  young  growth,  or  any  conception  of  its  possible 
future  value?  For  lack  of  this  knowledge  it  happens  that  most 
of  this  young  growth  is  frequently  wiped  out  during  logging, 
when  much  of  it  might  be  saved  if  it  was  looked  upon  as  having 
a  value. 

The  mature  timber,  above  14  inches  on  the  stump,  is  seldom 
if  ever  even-aged.  On  the  area  of  a  forty  usually  are  found 
groups  of  overmature  trees,  or  single  trees,  25  to  40  inches  in 
diameter,  in  many  cases  decaying  rapidly  and  bound  to  disappear 
before  long.  Below  these  in  size  come  a  much  larger  number  of 
smaller  and  younger  trees  which  make  up  the  main  stand,  rang- 
ing from  12  to  25  inches.    The  heights  are  equally  variable,  rang- 


Logging  Longleaf  Pine.  387 

ing  from  two  16- foot  logs  up  to  five  or  six  logs  on  the  same  area. 
The  trees  are  distributed  very  unevenly,  growing  sometimes  in 
dense  clumps,  then  scattered  or  singly  with  wide  blanks. 

It  is  evident  that  under  natural  conditions,  even  in  the  presence 
of  repeated  fires,  the  longleaf  pine  forest  renews  itself,  young  trees 
coming  in  on  areas  left  blank  by  the  death  of  old  timber.  Seed 
is  constantly  supplied  from  the  surrounding  trees  and  seedlings 
finally  survive  the  fires  and  form  groups  of  saplings  and  poles. 

But  along  with  this  restocking  are  at  work  the  processes  of 
decay  and  destruction.  Red  rot,  which  attacks  trees  that  have 
dead  stubs  of  branches  to  give  the  spores  a  chance  to  enter  the 
wood,  is  constantly  weakening  old  trees  and  will  attack  smaller 
timber,  especially  the  stunted  weakened  trees.  In  time  such 
timber  dies  or  blows  over.  Fire,  if  it  once  succeeds  in  burning 
through  the  bark  at  the  base,  will  continue  to  eat  into  a  tree  in 
successive  years  until  it  brings  it  down.  These  two  factors  re- 
duce the  number  of  trees  to  the  acre  and  others,  in  competition 
with  stronger  trees  close  by,  cease  to  grow  and  finally  die. 

All  trees  in  a  stand  do  not  grow  equally  fast,  nor  continue  to 
grow  at  the  same  rate.  In  longleaf  pine  this  is  especially  no- 
ticeable. Only  the  largest  trees,  with  the  biggest  crowns,  con- 
tinue to  grow  at  a  rapid  rate  after  a  stand  has  reached  merchant- 
able size.  The  older  a  tree  becomes,  the  slower  it  grows,  as  a 
rule. 

The  falling  off  of  growth  in  old  or  crowded  stands  is  one  of 
the  main  reasons  for  advocating  a  selection  of  trees  in  the  first 
cut,  rather  than  a  diameter  limit.  After  a  longleaf  pine  stand 
reaches  the  age  of  about  120  years  the  loss  from  rot,  fire  and 
suppressed  growth  increases  so  fast  that  the  net  gain  in  growth 
on  the  stand  would  not  pay  the  taxes.  The  following  figures  are 
taken  with  some  care  and  may  be  accepted  as  representing  the 
yield  on  average  longleaf  soils  for  old  stands. 

These  are  actual  yields  from  average  stands,  with  the  area 
occupied  by  timber  below  14  inches  excluded.  It  was  found 
that  the  number  of  trees  to  the  acre  diminished  constantly  as  the 
stands  grew  older,  till  at  300  years  ten  trees  per  acre  was  a  full 
stand,  while  at  100  years  sixty  trees  per  acre  was  the  average. 
This  slow  destruction  of  timber  which,  as  the  table  shows,  offsets 
growth,  is  due  chiefly  to  the  inability  of  the  soil  to  support  so 
many  trees  of  large  size.     Rot  and  fire  are  merely  the  agencies 


388  Forestry  Quarterly. 

for  removal,  since  they  attack  trees  weakened  in  the  struggle,  or 
old  trees  whose  vitality  is  ebbing. 

Table  I. — Yield  or  Longleaf  Pine  in  Pure,  Even-aged  Stands. 
Doyle  Rule. 

Tyler  County,  Texas. 
Age,  Yield  per  Acre, 

Years.  Board  Feet. 

100,  8,600 

1 10,  9.50O 

120,  10,300 

130,  11,000 

140,  11 ,600 

150,  12,200 

160,  12,800 

170,  13,500 

180,  14,000 

190,  14,400 

200,  14,800 

210,  15,100 

220,  15,400 

230,  15,600 

240,  15,800 

250,  16,000 

260,  15,900 

270,  15,700 

280,  15,400 

290,  1 5,000 

300,  14,350 

310,  13,000 

320,  12,400 

Treatment  in  Cutting. 

If  a  cutting  is  made  with  the  intention  of  leaving  a  thrifty 
growing  stand,  this  process  of  waste  and  overcrowding  will  be 
checked  provided  each  acre  is  treated  separately.  Trees  are  de- 
pendent on  their  immediate  surroundings,  and  the  thinning  made 
on  one  acre  will  not  benefit  the  trees  on  an  adjoining  acre.  But 
properly  made,  a  heavy  cutting  will  put  the  whole  forest  into 
shape  so  that  for  the  next  twenty  years  the  largest  possible  growth 
will  be  obtained,  with  practically  no  loss. 

This  means  the  removal  of: 

1.  All   trees   affected  by  red  rot   or  otherwise  injured. 

2.  Trees  with  burns  or  cat  faces  at  the  base. 

3.  Stunted  or  suppressed  trees,  no  matter  what  size. 

These  trees  are  either  not  increasing  at  all  in  value  or  are  liable 
to  complete  destruction  before  the  second  cut,  and  their  presence 
prevents  other  trees  from  making  rapid  growth. 


Logging  Longleaf  Pine.  389 

In  addition  to  these  classes,  large  trees,  say  above  20  inches, 
and  slim,  long-boled,  small-crowned  trees  should  come  out.  It 
is  especially  important  to  remove  stunted  or  slow  growing  trees. 
Anyone  familiar  with  the  appearance  of  crowns  of  trees  can  learn 
in  a  day  or  two  to  detect  the  difference  between  a  thrifty  tree 
and  a  stunted  one.  The  former  will  have  a  large,  often  pyra- 
midal, crown,  with  long  dark  green  needles,  while  the  crown  of 
the  stunted  tree  is  small,  misshapen,  with  short  needles. 

The  presence  of  these  stunted  trees  means  that  growth  of  the 
stand  has  been  checked,  and  loss  will  follow  if  they  are  not  cut 
and  used.  It  is  usually  a  better  plan  to  cut  out  the  stunted  trees 
in  a  group  and  leave  the  thrifty  ones  even  if  the  latter  are  larger, 
since  the  thrifty  trees  already  have  a  large  root  system  and  will 
make  splendid  growth  if  left.  The  stunted  trees  will  require 
several  years'  time  to  recover  and  will  probably  get  into  good 
shape  to  grow  just  about  the  time  the  second  cutting  comes 
around. 

These  principles  apply  to  all  owners.  But  there  will  be  a  dif- 
ference in  marking,  depending  on  whether  the  owner  is  willing 
to  try  to  obtain  a  crop  of  seedlings.  Longleaf  pine  seed  is  heavy 
and  can  not  be  counted  on  to  blow  much  farther  than  the  height 
of  the  trees.  If  a  crop  of  seedlings  is  desired,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  leave  a  few  trees  of  larger  diameter  than  would  otherwise  be 
left,  and,  in  some  cases,  defective  trees  if  no  others  are  available, 
so  that  no  blanks  are  left  larger  than  about  half  an  acre.  Two 
large  trees  to  the  acre,  or  four  or  five  smaller  ones,  will  produce 
plenty  of  seed.  Where  young  timber  already  is  in  the  sapling 
stage,  no  seed  trees  are  needed  and  in  many  cases,  where  dense 
thickets  of  blackjack  would  prevent  reproduction,  it  would  be 
foolish  to  leave  them. 

The  best  way  to  secure  the  proper  cutting  and  reservation  of 
the  right  trees  is  to  blaze  every  tree  that  is  to  come  out.  An  ex- 
perienced man  can  mark  carefully  about  thirty  acres  a  day  in 
stands  running  6,000  to  10,000  feet  per  acre,  which,  even  at  $5 
a  day,  would  make  the  cost  of  marking  about  2.\  cents  a  thou- 
sand feet. 

Method  of  Marking. 

In  order  to  demonstrate  the  possibilities  of  this  method  of 
marking,  about  400  acres  were  marked  for  cutting,  in  plots  ten 
25 


cut. 

left. 

Pet. 

Pet 

Bd.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

cut. 

left. 

3,053 
5,198 

6,311 
9,712 

1,204 
1,506 
2,368 
2,317 

72 

77 
73 
81 

28 
23 
27 
19 

390  Forestry  Quarterly. 

acres  square,  each  of  which  was  tallied  by  diameters  and  esti- 
mated. The  object  was  to  leave  all  the  young  thrifty  timber, 
take  out  all  overmature,  stunted  and  defective  stuff,  and  leave 
seed  trees. 

The  actual  results  are  shown  in  tabular  form,  according  to  the 
density  of  the  original  stand. 

TABLE  II. 

Proportion  of  Merchantable  Stand  Per  Acre  of  Longleaf  Pine 
Removed  By  a  Selection  Cutting. 

Class  Average       Amount    Amount 

Bd.  ft.  per  acre,  stand. 

FEET   PER   acre —  Bd.  ft. 

Under  5,000  . . .  4,257 

5,000-7,500 6,704 

7,500-10,000 8,679 

Over  10,000 12,029 

Table  III  shows  strikingly  the  contrast  between  an  intelli- 
gent selection  of  trees  and  an  arbitrary  rule  of  cutting.  Even  in 
the  12-inch  class,  corresponding  with  14  inches  on  the  stump,  34 
per  cent,  is  removed  because  it  is  unfit  to  remain.  On  the  other 
hand,  some  timber  is  left  standing  that  is  over  20  inches.  This 
is  in  all  cases  left  as  seed  trees,  but  is  sound  and  windfirm  and 
will  stand  safely  till  the  second  cut  and  make  considerable  growth. 
In  the  14  to  20  inch  classes  a  diminishing  number  of  trees  are 
left,  those  taken  being  the  trees  that  will  not  make  good  growth. 
In  these  classes  the  trees  which  grow  the  best  are  also  the  best 
seed  trees,  have  well  developed  crowns  and  are  not  too  tall. 

The  amount  of  growth  to  be  expected  on  such  stands  is  influ- 
enced by  three  factors : 

1.  Number  and  size  of  merchantable  trees  left   standing. 

2.  Number  of  trees  which  will  become  merchantable  before 
the  second  cut. 

3.  Increased  growth  due  to  opening  up  of  the  stand. 

The  growth  was  studied  on  eight  typical  plots  of  ten  acres 
each  or  eighty  acres,  and  the  results  show  what  can  safely  be  de- 
pended on  for  similar  stands. 

A  period  of  twenty  years  was  taken  as  the  time  elapsing  before 
the  second  cut.  First,  the  actual  diameter  growth  of  several  hun- 
dred trees  was  measured  for  the  last  twenty  years  on  stumps, 


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Logging  Longleaf  Pine.  391 


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392  Forestry  Quarterly. 

and  a  table  prepared  showing  the  average  rate  of  growth  in  di- 
ameter, omitting  the  badly  suppressed  trees,  since  these  will  not 
be  left. 

TABLE  IV. 

Growth  in  Diameter  of  Longleaf  Pine  for  Twenty  Years. 
Tyler  County,  Texas. 


Present  diameter  at 

Gro1 

wth  in  twenty 

Diameter  in  twe 

4V2  feet,  inches. 

years,  inches. 

years,  inches. 

9 

2-3 

11. 3 

10 

2.3 

12.3 

11 

2.3 

13-3 

12 

2.25 

14-25 

13 

2.2 

15-2 

14 

2.15 

16.15 

15 

2.1 

17. 1 

16 

2.1 

18. 1 

17 

2.0s 

1905 

18 

2.0 

20.0 

19 

i-95 

20.95 

20 

1.9 

21.9 

21 

1.85 

22.85 

22 

1.8 

23.8 

23 

i-7 

24-7 

24 

1.6 

25.6 

25 

i-55 

26.55 

26 

1-5 

27-5 

27 

1. 45 

28.45 

28 

1-45 

29-45 

29 

1-4 

30.4 

This  rate  of  growth  is  not  nearly  as  rapid  as  that  of  shortleaf 
or  loblolly  on  old  fields  or  even  in  the  forest,  but  it  is  all  that 
can  be  expected  of  longleaf,  grown  in  the  forest.  No  allowance 
is  made  for  possible  increase  as  a  result  of  thinning,  so  the  actual 
growth  will  from  this  cause  probably  be  greater  than  shown. 


Logging  Longleaf  Pine.  393 

TABLE  V. 

Growth   in   Board  Foot  Contents,  Doyle  Rule,  in   Twenty  Years — 
Longleaf  Pine  in  Tyler  County,  Texas. 

Present         Present  volume,      Growth  in  years,    Growth,  per  cent., 
diameter.  board  feet.  board  feet.  twenty  years. 

12  75  65  87 

13  95  80  84 
H                           130                              95  73 

15  167  108  65 

16  220  117  54 

17  280  125  45 

18  325  132  40 

19  375  138  37 

20  465  143  3i 

21  530  146  28 

22  600  148  25 

23  670  150  22 

24  760  151  20 

25  845  153  18 

26  940  154  16 

27  1,040  155  15 

28  1,150  154  13 

29  1,260  152  12 

The  volumes  in  board  feet,  Doyle  rule,  of  trees  of  all  sizes  were 
prepared  by  measuring  about  400  felled  trees.  By  using  the 
average  merchantable  heights,  assuming  that  a  tree  of  one  diam- 
eter will  grow  to  the  height  of  the  average  tree  in  the  upper 
diameter  class,  the  growth  per  tree  as  taken  from  the  volume 
table  was  as  recorded  in  Table  V. 

On  the  eighty  acres  upon  which  the  growth  was  measured  it 
was  found  that  690  trees  now  below  the  limit  of  12  inches  would 
become  merchantable  in  twenty  years.  Their  volume  added  to 
the  growth  on  the  present  stand  gives  the  total  second  crop. 

TABLE  VI. 

Growth  Per  Acre  op  Longleae  Pine  in  Twenty  Years  After  Removing 
First  Cut — Tyler  County,  Texas. 

Original  stand,  board  feet,   7,690 

First  cut,  board  feet,  5,990 

Stand  left,  board  feet,  1,700 

Growth  in  twenty  years,  board  feet,  957 

Trees  maturing,  per  acre, 86 

Volumes  of  same  in  twenty  years,  board  feet,  ....  743 

Total  growth,  board  feet,  1,700 

Final  volume,  board  feet,  3,400 

This  gives  an  increase  of  100  per  cent,  for  twenty  years,  of 


394  Forestry  Quarterly. 

which  56  per  cent,  is  growth  on  merchantable  trees  and  44  per 
cent  trees  maturing  in  the  interval. 

As  was  well  shown  on  the  area  marked,  a  stand  of  from  1,500 
to  2,500  feet  per  acre  will  usually  be  about  all  the  timber  that 
ought  to  be  left,  and  in  addition  will  furnish  enough  seed  trees 
to  secure  the  new  crop.  These  seed  trees  would  in  most  instances 
be  the  best  trees  to  leave,  even  if  no  effort  were  made  for  the 
third  crop,  and  it  is  only  an  occasional  large  or  defective  tree 
that  could  be  cut  instead  of  left  if  the  third  crop  were  ignored. 
The  provision  for  the  third  crop  thus  entails  a  very  small  addi- 
tional sacrifice. 

Once  the  probable  yields  are  agreed  upon,  it  is  not  a  difficult 
matter  to  compute  the  expense  and  profit  of  leaving  a  second 
cutting.  The  method  applies  only  to  regions  where  transporta- 
tion and  railway  construction  are  reasonably  cheap,  but  this  is 
fortunately  the  case  over  most  of  the  longleaf  pine  areas. 

The  leaving  1,500  to  2,500  feet  per  acre  will  not  so  reduce 
the  present  cut  as  to  make  profitable  logging  impossible — in  fact, 
much  of  the  young  timber  now  cut  is  probably  handled  at  a  loss. 
The  growth  upon  a  reserve  larger  than  2,500  feet  would  not  be 
as  great  in  proportion  to  the  capital  invested  as  upon  this  small 
stand. 

It  is  probable  that  an  increase  in  twenty  years  from  1,700  to 
3,400  feet  per  acre  would  not  of  itself  be  sufficient  to  pay  5  per 
cent,  interest  compounded  annually.  But  there  is  no  reasonable 
doubt  that  stumpage  will  double  in  value  in  that  time.  This 
makes  a  fourfold  increase  in  the  value  of  the  standing  timber, 
independent  of  the  improvement  in  quality  and  grade  with  in- 
creased age  and  size. 

This  method  of  cutting  can  not  be  considered  as  an  imprac- 
tical scheme.  It  is  absolutely  sound  in  principle,  which  is  to  re- 
duce waste  and  secure  at  once  the  largest  rate  of  increase  in 
value  on  property  which  it  is  the  intention  of  the  owner  to  hold 
for  at  least  twenty  years.  The  plan  should  appeal  to  owners 
who  expect  to  continue  cutting  for  fifteen  to  twenty  years  and 
can  control  the  amount  of  their  output.  Instead  of  cutting  clean 
and  destroying  all  future  increase  in  value  on  the  cutover  areas 
on  the  one  hand,  and  allowing  the  virgin  forest  to  lie  in  its  pres- 
ent state  of  stagnation  on  the  other,  such  owners,  while  they  can 


Logging  Longleaf  Pine.  395 

maintain  their  present  output  by  cutting  a  slightly  larger  area 
each  year,  are,  with  each  acre  cut,  changing  the  overmature  forest 
into  a  thrifty  growing  form,  comparatively  safe  from  loss  by 
fire,  rot  or  insects.  In  fact,  so  great  is  the  difference  between 
the  powers  of  resistance  of  thrifty  trees  and  of  old,  rotten  or  sup- 
pressed trees,  that  such  a  cutting  might  be  regarded  as  the  best 
form  of  insurance  which  is  available   for  standing  timber. 

The  experimental  markings  and  studies  of  growth  the  results 
of  which  were  given  here  were  made  by  the  seniors  of  the  Yale 
Forest  School  on  the  holdings  of  the  Thompson  Lumber  Com- 
pany in  Tyler  county,  Texas.  The  company  does  not  own  the 
land  and  the  marking  was  made  for  purposes  of  instruction 
only.  The  timber  will  be  cut  clear.  Therefore  these  figures  do 
not  represent  the  results  of  an  actual  operation,  but  are  intended 
to  give  a  definite  statement  of  methods  and  results  which  can  be 
obtained  by  their  adoption. 

\ 


MARKING  IN  PRACTICE. 
By  A.  B.  Recknagex, 

So  much  has  been  written  on  the  theory  of  marking  timber  in 
sales  on  the  National  Forests  that  a  brief  review  of  the  field 
practice  in  common  use  may  not  be  amiss.  Even  under  the 
Land  Office,  it  was  the  practice  to  mark  timber  for  cutting,  and 
when,  in  1905,  the  reserves  were  transferred  to  the  Department 
of  Agriculture,  this  practice  continued. 

At  that  time,  there  were  no  instructions  for  marking  other 
than  those  contained  in  the  Use  Book.  It  soon  became  evident 
that  further  instructions  were  necessary,  so  that  the  practice 
developed  of  issuing  marking  rules  with  every  timber  sale  of 
any  importance.  This  worked  well  until  the  sales  increased  in 
number  and  importance  so  rapidly  that  it  became  impossible  to 
draw  up  careful  marking  rules  in  each  individual  case.  Then 
general  marking  rules  for  each  Forest  were  formulated  so  far 
as  possible,  but  the  lack  of  data  made  them  unsatisfactory.  Dur- 
ing the  fall  of  1907,  all  the  supervisors  and  all  the  technical  men 
stationed  on  National  Forests  were  requested  to  submit  general 
marking  rules  for  their  Forests.  The  replies  showed  a  remark- 
able unanimity  of  opinion  as  to  the  general  principles  and  made 
possible  the  compilation  of  standard  marking  rules  for  the  va- 
rious silvicultural  regions  in  the  West.  These  were  (1)  the 
Lodgepole  Pine  region;  (2)  the  Douglas  Fir  region  of  the 
Northwest;  (3)  the  Yellow  Pine  region,  with  (a)  the  northern 
division  comprising  eastern  Oregon  and  Washington,  (b)  the 
eastern  division  comprising  eastern  Montana,  Wyoming,  and 
eastern  North  and  South  Dakota,  and  (c)  the  southern  division 
comprising  Arizona  and  New  Mexico;  (4)  the  Engelmann 
Spruce  region  of  Utah  and  Colorado;  (5)  the  Sugar  Pine  region 
of  California;  and  (6)  the  woodland  region  of  Nevada  and 
Southwestern  Arizona. 

These  rules,  mimeographed  and  in  the  hands  of  all  the  rangers, 
helped  to  standardize  the  silvicultural  side  of  marking.  But 
the  general  marking  rules  made  no  mention  of  how  the  actual 
field  work  should  be  done  except  to  emphasize  a  few  points,  such 


Marking  in  Practice.  397 

as  that  the  marking  should  be  done  slowly  and  carefully  and  not 
too  far  in  advance  of  the  cutting.  Even  the  Use  Book  has  little 
to  say  on  this  important  subject  other  than  that  "all  trees  which 
are  to  be  cut  shall  be  marked  or  otherwise  unmistakably  identi- 
fied for  cutting  *  *  *  the  Forest  officer  may  instead  of 
marking  *  *  *  every  tree,  blaze  and  mark  the  boundaries 
of  the  cutting  area  *  *  *  standing  timber  must  be  marked 
'U.  S.'  near  the  ground  so  that  every  stump  will  show  the 
mark.  Where  snow  may  conceal  the  marking  from  the  cutters 
each  tree  must  also  be  marked  at  a  point  several  feet  from  the 
ground." 

As  a  rule,  the  marking  in  connection  with  small  sales  and  in 
free  use  timber  is  done  by  a  ranger  without  any  assistance.  Any 
one  who  has  done  much  marking  will  agree  that  it  is  the  most 
arduous  physical  work  of  any  on  a  National  Forest  except  fight- 
ing fire.  It  requires  all  the  force  of  a  woodchopper,  besides  a 
considerable  amount  of  skill.  If  it  is  carefully  done  a  man  can 
with  one  blow  take  off  the  bark  at  breasthigh  and  reversing  his 
marking  ax  stamp  it  "U.  S."  By  picking  out  a  projecting  root 
with  one  downward  and  one  sidewise  "swipe"  and  stamping  the 
"U.  S."  he  marks  the  base  of  the  tree.  It  is  always  well  to  mark 
in  strips,  unless  the  sale  area  is  very  limited  or  only  a  small 
amount  of  free  use  timber  is  being  marked.  Where  marking  is 
done  in  strips  it  is  well  to  blaze  the  trees  at  breasthigh  on  a  uni- 
form side,  i.  e.,  on  the  side  towards  which  the  marking  proceeds. 
In  other  words,  if  the  marking  is  done  from  north  to  south,  the 
trees  should  be  blazed  on  the  south  side  and  the  marker  can  then 
always  tell  at  a  glance  without  going  up  to  a  tree  whether  or  not 
it  has  been  marked.  It  is  especially  convenient  to  mark  when 
there  is  snow  on  the  ground  for  the  footprints  indicate  clearly 
whether  or  not  the  tree  has  been  included  in  the  marked  strip. 
In  order  to  be  perfectly  sure  that  every  tree  has  been  passed 
upon,  it  is  a  good  practice  when  snow  is  on  the  ground  to  actu- 
ally walk  around  the  seed  trees  which  are  left,  in  order  that  on 
the  return  trip  the  footprints  may  show  that  it  had  been  left  on 
purpose.  Where  the  sale  is  of  large  size,  the  marking  should 
preferably  be  done  by  a  crew.  It  is  not  advisable  to  have  more 
than  six  men  in  one  crew.  Of  these  at  least  two  should  be  men 
experienced  in  marking  timber,  each  of  these  keeping  an  eye  on 
the  work  of  the  green  man  on  either  side  of  him.    The  work  can 


398  Forestry  Quarterly. 

then  be  done  very  rapidly.  Where  the  country  is  sectionized,  the 
marking  is  usually  by  land  lines.  Where  the  area  is  unsurveyed 
the  topography  governs,  as  it  may  also  govern  in  very  rough 
country  even  though  it  is  surveyed.  Marking  is  best  done  up 
and  down  the  slope.  When  a  strip  is  finished  the  group  of  men 
should  "wheel"  so  that  the  inside  man  becomes  the  outside  one 
on  the  return  trip.  It  is  also  well  to  mark  "en  echelon,"  that  is 
the  inside  man  being  a  little  ahead  of  his  partner  and  so  on. 

The  advantage  of  this  is  that  the  inside  man  can  watch  the 
previous  marking  and  is  sure  to  omit  no  trees,  and  each  man 
can  watch  the  marking  of  the  man  in  front.  Care  should,  of 
course,  be  taken  not  to  go  too  fast  and  to  have  each  man  observe 
his  own  strip.  It  is  very  necessary  to  have  a  sense  of  direction. 
Each  man's  strip  should  usually  not  exceed  150  feet  in  width, 
although  this  must  vary  greatly  with  the  density  of  the  timber. 
Where  the  strip  adjacent  to  a  section  line  is  being  marked  the 
inside  man  may  find  it  well  to  do  no  marking  at  all  but  to  follow 
the  line  by  the  aid  of  a  compass. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  thing  in  marking  is  to  do  it  slowly 
and  carefully  and  to  study  every  tree  before  it  is  marked.  It  is 
very  popr  policy  to  walk  up  to  the  base  of  a  tree  and  then  decide 
whether  you  want  to  mark  it  or  not.  It  is  far  preferable  to  watch 
the  trees  in  advance  and  to  pick  them  out  as  you  approach  them 
(This  is  well  illustrated  in  Photograph  No.  3,  where  the  illustra- 
tion shows  the  Forest  officer  carefully  looking  over  the  timber 
before  marking  any.)  If  a  man  is  inexperienced  in  marking  it  is 
well  for  him  to  tally  the  trees  which  he  cuts  and  those  which  he 
leaves,  making  a  rough  estimate  of  their  contents  in  board  feet. 
In  this  way  he  gets  a  check  on  the  amount  and  percentage  of  the 
total  stand  left  and  can  be  assured  that  he  has  not  exceeded  the 
two-thirds  of  the  total  stand  allowed  to  be  cut  under  the  general 
marking  rules.  Cuts  3  and  4  illustrate  two  different  conditions  of 
stands,  frequently  met  in  the  yellow  pine  forests  of  the  Southwest. 
Cut  3  shows  an  overmature  stand  with  practically  no  "black 
jacks."  In  this  case,  all  the  spike  top  trees  in  the  foreground  were 
marked  for  cutting  and  the  large  tree  next  to  the  Forest  officer 
and  also  the  one  in  the  right  hand  margin  of  the  picture  were  left 
not  only  as  seed  trees,  but  also  on  account  of  their  scenic  value, 
being  close  to  the  wagon  road.  In  cut  No.  4,  the  conditions  are 
entirely  opposite.     The  timber  is  all  young  and  there  is  a  charac- 


if£v!7v.' 

1      * 

nF1  •      >jB 

T    l»  SBnggtP 

zZZai^Wj       I 

/ 

2 

Marking  in  Practice.  399 

teristic  group  of  reproduction  in  the  foreground.  This  area  also 
is  near  a  wagon  road  and  the  timber  was  left  untouched  because  of 
its  landscape  value.  In  such  a  case  it  would  be  unnecessary  to 
leave  seed  trees  since  the  young  growth  is  ample  and  already  con- 
stitutes the  basis  for  an  early  second  cut. 

While  marking  in  winter  is  advisable  because  of  its  being  done 
economically  at  that  time  and  not  interfering  with  other  forest 
work,  such  as  fire  patrol,  improvements,  etc.,  still  the  season 
presents  unexpected  difficulties,  especially  after  a  heavy  snowfall 
when  the  unfortunate  marker  has  to  walk  through  deep  drifts,  as 
illustrated  in  Cut  5. 

A  final  word  as  to  the  relative  value  of  marking  implements  may 
not  be  amiss.  The  marking  hatchet  has  the  advantage  of  being 
easily  carried,  especially  on  a  saddle,  but  the  old  fashioned  heavy 
marking  ax  is  far  easier  if  much  marking  is  to  be  done,  since  its 
very  weight  carries  it  through  the  heavy  bark  of  the  western  Yel- 
low Pine  and  of  the  Douglas  Fir.  If  a  man  is  going  to  do  much 
marking  it  is  best  for  him  to  pick  out  a  helve  suitable  to  his  indi- 
vidual tastes. 

So  much  has  been  said  about  marking  being  the  most  important 
work  on  a  Forest  that  a  repetition  seems  superfluous.  However, 
marking  is  forestry  in  the  truest  sense,  and  the  results  are  for  all 
time  to  come.  I  believe  there  is  no  satisfaction  greater  than  going 
over  a  sale  area  which  one  has  marked  himself  and  feeling  that 
the  work  has  been  well  done.  Equally  poignant  is  the  regret  for 
mistakes  forever  past  remedying ;  for  there  is  no  work  where  one 
can  more  clearly  realize  mistakes..  Errors  stand  out  with  uncom- 
promising distinctness.  It  is  because  of  its  supreme  importance 
that  the  men  in  charge  of  the  District  offices  are  more  and  more 
getting  out  and  marking  timber  along  with  the  supervisors  and 
rangers.  "Paper  work"  will  be  abandoned,  the  mimeographed 
marking  rules  will  be  vitalized  by  actual  marking  examples  by 
the  men  who  formulated  the  marking  rules.  Just  in  proportion  as 
this  is  done  will  the  standardizing  of  all  timber  sales  work  be 
consummated. 


JAPANESE  CHARCOAL  KILN. 
By  Nils  B.  Eckbo. 

There  is  a  great  deal  more  charcoal  used  in  Japan  than  in  any 
other  country,  and  it  is  a  necessity  in  every  Japanese  household. 
According  to  statistics  of  the  year  1906,  the  quantity  of  charcoal 
amounted  to  956,422  tons  which  represents  a  value  of  about  six 
and  a  quarter  million  dollars. 

The  burning  of  charcoal  has  been  known  for  centuries ;  while 
the  methods  naturally  have  had  their  course  of  development.  The 
method  described  here  is  the  one  used  most  commonly  throughout 
Japan,  and  the  construction  of  the  kilns  in  their  most  complete 
form  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustrations.  As  the  woods- 
man and  farmers  make  it,  it  is  somewhat  simplified,  which  can  be 
seen  clearly  in  the  photographic  reproductions. 

The  kiln  is  most  easily  made  in  a  clay  hillside  where  it  can  be 
dug  out  with  four  to  five  feet  high  walls.  These  may  also  be  made 
of  stone,  which  is  a  little  more  expensive,  but  makes  a  whiter 
charcoal,  which  is  more  valuable  than  the  black.  The  entrance  is 
made  of  three  stones  and  one  hundred  bricks,  the  bottom  of  the 
chimney  is  also  constructed  of  stone  with  about  one  hundred 
bricks  composing  the  funnel.  Wood  of  broadleafed  trees  is  used 
exclusively  and  is  cut  as  long  as  the  wall  is  high,  then  piled  verti- 
cally from  back  towards  the  entrance.  On  the  tops  are  laid 
shorter  pieces  so  as  to  make  a  properly  curved  roof,  which  is  cov- 
ered with  straw  mats. 

The  roof  of  the  kiln  is  made  of  burnt  clay  and  water,  the  clay 
being  pounded  into  a  layer  of  three  to  five  inches  in  thickness 
and  with  a  perfectly  smooth  surface.  This  is  practically  airtight, 
and  when  burned  becomes  hard  as  brick  and  cracks  with  difficulty. 
In  the  entrance  are  put  two  rows  of  round  wood,  about  one  foot 
in  diameter,  to  prevent  too  much  draft,  and  the  kindling  is  started 
under  a  small  canopy  made  of  clay  in  front  of  the  entrance. 

As  the  fire  spreads,  during  the  first  seven  to  twenty-four  hours, 
one-half  of  the  entrance  is  closed  gradually  with  rocks.  At  the 
end  of  seven  days,  pale  smoke  usually  emanates  from  the  chimney, 


d 

S>c 

»«.. 

s. 

Br 

tk. 

— 

B« 

,»>t  <Jl 

* 

Clc 

V 

peal  e 

Imch 

=    H 

f«* 

-iapenese         Charcoal         Kilta 


Japanese  Charcoal  Kiln.  401 

which  is  a  sign  that  all  the  openings  can  be  closed  entirely  and  the 
kiln  left  to  cool  off  in  two  or  three  days. 

No  water  must  be  applied  on  the  roof  during  the  burning, 
which  is  also  often  protected  by  a  wooden  shed.  One  man  is  suffi- 
cient to  watch  the  kiln  and  cut  wood  at  the  same  time. 

When  the  wood  is  completely  carbonized,  the  charcoal  is  taken 
out  through  the  entrance  of  the  kiln  and  the  roof  remains  intact 
and  is  ready  for  a  second  burning.  A  kiln  like  this  can  be  used 
steadily  from  three  to  five  years,  when  kept  in  proper  condition. 

It  can  be  said,  to  the  advantage  of  this  kiln,  that  it  is  not  ex- 
pensive to  construct,  is  maintained  very  cheaply,  and  is  a  de- 
cided improvement  on  the  customary  dirt  kiln.  The  gases  can  be 
collected.  As  a  drawback,  however,  must  be  considered  the  long 
time  required  for  carbonization,  which  can  not  be  avoided  with  a 
kiln  made  on  that  principle. 


METHODS    OF   DETERMINING    THE    TIME    OF    THE 
YEAR  AT  WHICH  TIMBER  WAS  CUT. 

By  Raphael  Zon. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  time  of  the  year  at  which  tim- 
ber is  cut  has  an  influence  upon  the  durability  of  the  wood,  and 
that  timber  cut  in  winter  gives  longer  service  than  timber  cut  in 
summer.  This  opinion  is  based  not  merely  on  theoretical  con- 
siderations but  also  on  actual  experiences,  especially  with  railroad 
ties.  Ties  made  from  trees  which  were  known  to  be  cut  in  sum- 
mer rotted  sooner  in  the  ground  than  ties  made  of  the  same  species 
but  cut  in  winter.  The  reason  for  this  is  found  in  the  scantiness 
of  easily  decomposed  chemical  substances  in  the  tissues  of  trees 
after  the  close  of  the  vegetative  period.  The  sap  in  the  tree 
during  winter  consists  almost  entirely  of  water,  and  therefore  does 
not  offer  a  favorable  medium  for  the  development  of  micro-or- 
ganisms. In  summer,  on  the  contrary,  the  sap  contains  albumi- 
nous and  other  chemically  unstable  substances  which  under  the 
influence  of  the  high  temperature  of  summer  readily  ferment  and 
favor  the  development  of  decay-producing  micro-organisms. 

The  few  who  oppose  this  view  claim  that  by  proper  handling  of 
the  timber  after  cutting,  wood  cut  in  summer  may  prove  as  dur- 
able as  that  cut  in  winter.  Since  the  presence  of  moisture  in  the 
wood  more  than  the  chemical  composition  of  the  sap  favors  the 
starting  of  decay,  they  argue  that  the  smaller  amount  of  water  in 
the  tree  and  quicker  drying  of  the  wood  in  summer  prevent  de- 
cay. This  might  be  true  if  the  wood  could  always  be  dried  im- 
mediately after  cutting,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  unless  timber 
cut  in  summer  is  at  once  dried  artificially  or  in  the  air,  it  is  in- 
variably less  durable  than  timber  cut  in  winter.  That  the  ad- 
vantages of  winter  cutting  are  fully  recognized  by  the  users  of 
wood  may  be  readily  inferred  from  the  fact  that  practically  all 
of  the  government  railroads  abroad  and  some  of  the  railroads  in 
this  country,  specify  in  their  contracts  for  ties  that  the  latter  shall 
be  of  winter  cutting.  Since  however,  there  is  no  accurate  method 
for  determining  with  certainty  the  time  of  cutting,  the  inspectors 
of  ties  have  often  been  compelled  either  to  make  merely  a  pre- 


Determining  Time  Timber  Was  Cut.  403 

tense  that  they  can  tell  whether  or  not  ties  were  cut  in  winter,  or 
to  allow  this  specification  to  remain  altogether  a  dead  letter. 
vSometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  the  railroads  in  Russia,  agents  have 
been  sent  to  the  places  where  the  ties  were  supposed  to  be  cut  in 
order  to  ascertain  on  the  ground  the  time  of  cutting.  The  lack 
of  any  accurate  method  of  determining  with  certainty  the  time  of 
cutting  has  also  prevented  many  users  from  enforcing  the  speci- 
fication that  wood  used  for  construction  purposes  should  be  cut 
exclusively  in  winter. 

The  ability  to  tell  readily  and  accurately  if  not  the  month,  at 
least  the  season  at  which  a  given  piece  of  wood  used  in  construc- 
tion was  cut  would  evidently  be  of  both  scientific  and  practical 
value.  Scientifically,  it  would  be  of  advantage  because  it  would 
enable  us  to  determine  with  accuracy  the  exact  role  which  the 
time  of  cutting  plays  in  causing  decay.  Practically,  it  would  be 
useful  in  helping  us  to  study  conditions  under  which  wood  of 
summer  as  well  as  winter  cutting  may  be  used  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage. It  would  undoubtedly  lead  to  a  demand  by  users  of 
wood  to  have  the  timber  employed  in  construction  cut  in  winter, 
and  in  this  way  would  lead  to  greater  enconomy. 

It  is  easy  to  figure  out  the  saving  which  could  be  made  on  rail- 
road ties  alone  by  the  use  of  ties  of  winter  cut  only.  There  are 
now  about  300,000  miles  of  railroad  track  in  the  United  States. 
Since  each  mile  of  railroad  requires  on  an  average  about  2,700 
ties,  there  are  in  the  neighborhood  of  810,000,000  ties  on  the  main 
lines  alone.  Let  us  assume  that  ties  cut  in  winter  will  give  only 
one  year  more  service  than  ties  cut  in  summer,  or,  in  other  words, 
remain  in  the  ground  eight  years  instead  of  seven.  If  the  ties 
were  to  be  changed  every  seven  years  there  would  be  required 
annually  810,000,000  divided  by  7,  or  about  115,700,000  ties.  If 
the  ties  gave  an  eight-year  service,  then  the  number  which  it 
would  be  necessary  to  replace  every  year  would  be  810,000,000 
divided  by  8,  or  about  101,250,000  ties.  Thus,  by  using  ties  of 
winter  cutting  there  would  be  required  annually  about  14,450,000 
less,  which  at  an  average  price  of  50  cents  per  tie  would  make  a 
saving  of  $7,225,000,  not  counting  the  cost  of  replacing  the  addi- 
tional 14,450,000  ties.  Since  a  large  number  of  ties  now  used 
by  the  railroads  are  cut  in  winter,  this  example  does  not  pretend 
to  represent  the  actual  saving,  but  merely  to  illustrate  the  possi- 
bilities of  using  ties  of  winter  instead  of  summer  cutting. 


404  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Such  a  method  may  also  prove  useful  in  case  of  litigation  when 
it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  exact  time  of  a  trespass  cutting. 

Is  there  any  way  of  determining  with  accuracy  the  time  of  cut- 
ting? 

From  what  is  known  of  the  chemical  changes  which  take  place 
in  the  tissues  of  trees  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  and  from 
the  structural  development  of  the  annual  ring,  one  naturally  turns 
to  chemical  and  microscopical  methods  for  finding  characteristic 
differences  in  the  wood  cut  at  different  seasons  of  the  year. 

Chemical  Methods. 

During  the  vegetative  period  the  tissues,  especially  the  living, 
active  tissues,  contain  albuminous  or  proteinous  substances  which 
enter  into  the  composition  of  the  living  cells,  but  very  little  starch. 
In  the  fall,  just  after  the  tree  enters  into  its  dormant  stage,  it  con- 
tains considerable  reserve  material  in  the  form  of  sugar,  dextrin, 
and  especially  starch,  deposited  in  the  medullary  rays  and  the 
pith.  One  would  expect,  therefore,  that  a  piece  of  wood  cut  in 
winter  when  treated  with  an  alcoholic  or  watery  solution  of  iodine 
would  assume  a  yellow  color,  while  the  pith  and  the  medullary 
rays  containing  starch  would  assume  a  dark  blue  color.  If  the 
piece  were  cut  in  summer  all  the  tissues  would  become  of  a 
uniform  yellow  color.  This  method,  theoretically  at  least,  should 
enable  us  to  determine  broadly  whether  a  given  piece  of  wood 
was  cut  in  winter  or  summer.  In  practice,  however,  it  gives 
dubious  results ;  first,  because  the  differences  in  the  chemical 
substances  found  in  the  wood  of  trees  in  summer  and  winter  are 
not  so  much  qualitative  as  quantitative,  and  second,  because 
trees  of  the  same  species,  like  all  living  beings,  are  subject  to 
variations    depending   upon    climatic    and   soil    conditions. 

Another  chemical  method  which  suggests  itself  is  the  deter- 
mination of  the  amount  and  the  composition  of  the  ash  contents 
of  the  wood  cut  in  summer  and  winter.  The  amount  of  mineral 
substances  in  the  wood  as  represented  by  the  ashes  obtained  after 
burning  the  wood  is  supposed  to  vary  with  the  season  of  the  year. 
At  least  this  has  been  proven  with  certainty  in  regard  to  the 
foliage.  It  is  generally  assumed  that  the  wood  in  summer  con- 
tains a  larger  amount  of  mineral  substances  (and  consequently 
yields  a  larger  amount  of  ashes),  of  which  a  larger  per  cent,  is 
insoluble  in  water,  than  is  usually  found  in  wood  during  winter. 


Determining  Time  Timber  Was  Cut.  405 

The  amount  of  mineral  substances,  however,  is  still  more  subject 
to  variation  than  organic  substances.  The  mineral  composition 
of  the  soil  has  a  decided  influence  upon  the  amount  of  mineral 
substances  contained  in  a  tree.  Fliche  and  Grandeau  have  dem- 
onstrated that  a  difference  in  the  amount  of  ashes  in  the  wood 
of  different  trees  of  the  same  species  may  amount  to  one  per  cent., 
while  the  difference  in  the  amount  of  the  individual  components 
of  the  ashes  may  often  be  as  high  as  16  per  cent. 

In  the  following  table  are  brought  together  results  obtained  by 
a  chemical  analysis  of  the  amount  of  ashes  and  the  per  cent,  of 
their  soluble  and  insoluble  components  for  ten  samples  of  pine 
wood  cut  at  different  seasons  of  the  year.  The  time  of  cutting 
of  each  sample  was  accurately  determined  beforehand:* 

No.    of        Total     Per  cent,  of  insoluble    Time   of   cutting   Actual  time 
Sample,     per  cent,   and  soluble  portions,     as  indicated  by      of  cutting, 
of  ashes.   Insoluble.     Soluble,     chemical  analysis. 


I 

2 

3 

0.410 
0.230 
0.365    . 

74-4 
65.2 
68.5 

25.6 
34-8 
31-5 

Summer 

Winter 

Summer 

Summer 
Winter 

4 
5 
6 

0.570 
0.275 
0.220 

89-5 
65.5 
63.6 

10.5 

34-5 
36.4 

Winter 

a 

7 

0.217 

67.7 

32.3 

" 

Summer 

8 

9 
10 

0.275 
0.183 
0.208 

70.9 
43-7 
61.0 

29.1 
56.3 
39-0 

a 

Winter 

If  sample  No.  1,  which  contains  the  largest  amount  of  ashes 
and  the  largest  per  cent,  of  mineral  substances  insoluble  in  water, 
be  accepted  as  typical  for  wood  cut  in  summer,  then  samples  3 
and  4  must  also  be  put  in  the  same  group,  although  as  a  matter  of 
fact  they  were  cut  in  winter.  If  sample  No.  6,  which  contains  a 
comparatively  small  amount  of  ashes  and  a  comparatively  large 
amount  of  soluble  mineral  substances,  be  taken  as  typical  for 
wood  cut  in  winter,  then  samples  2  and  7  must  also  be  placed 
in  the  same  category,  which,  however,  is  contrary  to  the  facts. 
These  results,  therefore,  clearly  show  that  no  dependence  can 
be  placed  upon  these  chemical  methods  of  determining  the  time 
of  the  year  when  a  tree  is  cut. 

*  P.  I.  Rashevsky,  An  Accurate  Method  of  Determining  the  Time  of 
Cutting  of  Felled  Trees  (in  Russian).    Warsaw,  1897. 

26 


406  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Microscopic  Method. 

The  wood  of  all  trees  native  to  the  temperate  zone  is  clearly 
marked  on  transverse  section  by  circular  bands  which  are  known 
as  annual  layers  or  rings.  These  annual  rings  are  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  cells  composing  them  are  not  of  the  same  structure 
throughout  the  whole  ring.  In  spring  and  early  summer  the 
cells  are  large,  thin-walled,  and  in  the  case  of  broadleaf  trees, 
traversed  by  many  water-conducting  vessels.  Toward  the  end 
of  the  vegetative  season,  the  cells  become  small,  thick-walled  and 
compact,  and  in  the  broadleaf  trees  the  number  and  size  of  fibro- 
vascular  bundles  decrease.  At  the  beginning  of  the  following 
vegetative  season,  the  new  layers  begin  abruptly  again  with  large 
cells,  and  this  sudden  transition  from  one  kind  of  cell  to  another 
makes  the  wood  appear  in  the  form  of  clearly  defined  rings.  The 
exact  cause  of  this  structural  difference  in  the  "summer"  and 
"winter"  wood  is  not  fully  known,  but  it  is  present  in  all  trees  of 
the  temperate  zones  or  climates  with  periodic  changes  of  season. 

It  is  evident  therefore  that  the  stage  of  development  of  the  last 
ring  furnishes  a  means  of  determining  the  time  at  which  the  tree 
was  cut.  If  the  last  layer  of  pine  wood  for  instance,  examined 
under  the  microscope  or  magnifying  glass,  shows  only  large, 
hexagonal,  translucent  cells,  one  may  infer  with  certainty  that 
the  tree  was  cut  during  the  early  part  of  the  vegetative  season ; 
if  the  last  layer  in  addition  to  large  hexagonal  cells  contains  also 
a  fringe  of  small,  compact,  elliptical,  whitish-yellow  cells,  it  is  a 
sure  indication  that  the  tree  was  cut  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
vegetative  season,  or,  if  the  layer  of  winter  wood  elements  is  large, 
that  it  was  cut  after  the  termination  of  the  vegetative  period. 

This  periodicity  of  the  seasons  marked  on  the  wood  by  annual 
rings  with  their  characteristic  "summer"  and  "winter"  wood, 
served  as  a  basis  for  a  Russian  civil  engineer,  P.  E.  Rashevsky, 
to  develop  a  practical  and  accurate  way  of  determining  the  time 
at  which  timber  was  cut.  During  the  20  years  of  his  service 
as  civil  engineer  on  one  of  the  Government  railroads  in  western 
Russia,  he  became  convinced  that  ties  cut  in  summer  did  not  give 
the  same  service  as  ties  cut  in  winter ;  yet  he  was  powerless  to 
make  the  contractors  live  up  to  the  stipulation  that  all  ties  deliv- 
ered to  the  railroads  should  be  only  of  winter  cut,  since  there  was 
no  accurate  way  of  telling  this  at  the  time  of  inspection  at  the 


Determining  Time  Timber  Was  Cut.  407 

points  of  delivery  where  large  numbers  of  ties  were  accumulated. 
This  led  him  to  investigate  the  problem,  and  although  the  results 
of  his  study  do  not  contain  anything  which  was  not  known  to 
students   of  wood  before,   yet  their  practical   application   makes 
them  of  considerable  interest  to  both  foresters  and  users  of  wood. 
His  method  presupposes  as  a  conditio  sine  qua  non  that  there 
should  be  present  in  the  wood  a  portion,  no  matter  how  small,  of 
wood  containing  a  part  of  the  last  ring,  a  condition  which  can 
be  readily  met  in  all  hewn  ties,  piling,  and  similar  material.     He 
extended  his  study  of  the  differences  in  the  structural  appearance 
of  the  last  layer  over  a  whole  year,  during  which  he  cut  a  tree 
on  the  first  day  of  each  month.    From  each  tree  thus  cut  he  took 
two  disks  about  one  inch  thick  from  the  butt  and  the  crown,  in 
order  to  study  the  formation  of  the  cells  at  different  heights  in 
the  tree.    Since  he  was  chiefly  interested  in  the  species  which  were 
used  for  railroad  ties,  his  studies  were  confined  exclusively  to 
pine  and  oak.     The  method  which  he  followed  in  preparing  the 
sections  for  examination  was  this :    From  each  disk  he  cut  with 
a  penknife  small  sections  parallel  to  the  long  axis  of  the  tree, 
including  in  every  case  the  last  layer  of  wood  near  the  bark  and 
placed  these  in  water  so  that  they  should  become  soft  and  more 
easily  cut.     He  then  obtained  by  means  of  a  microtome,  thin, 
transparent  cross  sections  of  these  pieces  not  more  than  the  thick- 
ness of  thin  writing  paper,  for  examination  under  the  compound 
microscope.    The  last  layer  of  wood  was  examined  under  the  mi- 
croscope,  and   its   structural   appearance   in   each   month   of   the 
year   studied.      As    a    result   of  these    investigations    Rashevsky 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  possible  to  tell  from  the  appear- 
ance of  the  cells  of  the  last  layer  of  wood  not  only  whether  the 
tree  was  cut  in  summer  or  winter,  but  whether  it  was  cut  in  the 
spring,  summer,  fall,  or  winter.     This  he  determined  by  compar- 
ing the  width  of  the  last  layer  of  wood  elements  with  the  width 
of  a  similar  layer  of  the  previous  year.     If,   for  example,  the 
winter  layer  directly  adjoining  the  bark  appeared  under  the  mi- 
croscope to  have  a  width  of  half  an  inch,  and  the  winter  layer  of 
the  previous  year  a  width  of  one  inch,  he  inferred  that  the  tree 
was  cut  in  the  middle  of  winter.    If,  however,  the  winter  layer  of 
the  last  wood  appeared  to  have  a  width  of  about  an  inch,  he 
would  take  it  for  granted  that  the  tree  was  cut  at  the  close  of  the 
winter.     The  same  rule  he  applied  to  the  summer  layers.     If  the 


408  Forestry  Quarterly. 

summer  layer  bordering  upon  the  bark  appeared  under  the  mi- 
croscope as  having  a  width  of  half  an  inch,  while  the  summer 
layer  of  the  previous  annual  ring  had  a  width  of  one  inch,  he 
took  it  for  certain  that  the  tree  was  cut  in  the  middle  of  the  sum- 
mer period ;  if,  however,  there  were  only  a  narrow  layer  of 
summer  cells  under  the  bark,  it  would  indicate  to  him  that  the 
tree  was  cut  in  the  early  spring.  Since,  however,  the  width  of 
summer  layers  as  well  as  winter  layers  varies  not  only  in  differ- 
ent trees,  but  even  in  the  same  tree  from  year  to  year,  it  is  not 
enough  to  compare  the  width  of  the  last  wood  with  the  width  of 
the  corresponding  layer  of  the  previous  year  only.  In  order  to 
obtain  accurate  results,  it  is  necessary  to  compare  the  width  of 
the  last  wood  with  the  average  width  of  a  layer  of  the  same  char- 
acter for  a  number  of  preceding  years. 

In  determining  the  time  of  cutting  of  old  trees,  and  especially 
of  trees  that  have  been  lying  for  a  long  time  on  the  ground,  it 
often  happens  that  it  is  difficult  to  make  out  the  cells  under  the 
microscope,  and  therefore  to  determine  the  time  of  cutting.  In 
such  case  it  is  well  to  dip  the  section  of  wood  into  a  solution  of 
iodine  which  colors  the  walls  of  the  cells  a  dark  orange  and  en- 
ables them  to  be  more  readily  distinguished. 

The  results  of  these  investigations  are  fully  illustrated  by  a  num- 
ber of  photographs  of  the  structure  of  the  last  wood  as  it  appeared 
under  the  microscope. 

Since  the  exact  date  of  cutting  of  the  tree  from  which  each  sec- 
tion has  been  taken  is  definitely  known,  these  photographs  obtained 
by  means  of  a  microscopic  camera  afford  a  most  interesting  in- 
sight into  the  development  of  the  layer  of  wood  during  the  entire 
year. 

These  investigations  convinced  Rashevsky  of  the  entire  accur- 
acy and  practicability  of  such  a  method  of  determining  the  time 
of  cutting  to  such  an  extent  that  it  was  made  compulsory  by  the 
railroad  for  which  he  worked  for  all  the  inspectors  to  make  mi- 
croscopic examinations  of  not  less  than  four  samples  from  each 
consignment  of  ties.  If  among  these  samples  even  one  proved 
of  summer  cut,  the  whole  consignment  was  rejected  and  had 
to  be  removed  from  the  railroad  grounds  and  substituted  by 
another  consignment  of  ties  of  winter  cut. 

In  order  to  make  these  examinations,  it  is  not  necessary  of 
course,  to  go  to  the  same  length  as  did  Rashevsky  in  his  pains- 


Figure  i  section  of  pine  cut  May  I 


"    oak 


July  i 
October  i 
February  i 
July  I 
February  r 


Determining  Time  Timber  Was  Cut.  409 

taking  work  by  means  of  costly  instruments.  Such  instruments 
are,  of  course,  necessary  for  careful  scientific  investigations,  but 
for  ordinary  determinations  of  the  time  of  cutting,  a  cheap 
microscope  with  a  magnifying  power  of  140,  which  can  be  bought 
for  $25  or  $30,  a  sharp  penknife  and  a  small  piece  of  wood  con- 
taining a  portion  of  the  last  layer  of  wood  are  about  all  that  is 
needed  for  such  examinations. 

Rashevsky's  examinations,  supported  by  microscopic  photo- 
graphs of  the  actual  structure  of  the  wood  obtained  from  trees 
cut  each  month  of  the  year,  open  also  a  new  field  of  investigation 
into  the  structural  changes  which  take  place  in  the  annual  layer 
after  the  close  of  the  vegetative  period. 

Rashevsky's  studies  do  not  leave  any  doubt  as  to  the  possibility 
of  determining  from  the  appearance  of  the  last  wood  layer 
whether  the  tree  was  cut  in  the  spring,  summer,  or  during  the 
dormant  period  of  the  tree.  This  for  the  practical  end  which  is 
sought  by  such  a  method  is  all  that  is  required.  His  claim,  how- 
ever, to  be  able  to  tell  from  the  appearance  of  the  last  layer 
whether  the  tree  was  cut  in  the  late  fall  or  middle  winter,  must 
be  taken  with  considerable  reservation.  It  is  evident  that  there 
can  be  no  increase  in  the  width  of  the  last  layer  after  the  growing 
season  is  over.  The  actual  division  of  the  cambium  cells  and  the 
formation  of  wood  elements  take  place  within  a  comparatively 
short  time,  in  the  temperate  climate  between  May  and  July. 
While  the  new  layer  of  wood  is  in  the  process  of  growth  its 
width  may  serve  as  a  measure  of  time;  but  after  its  growth  is 
completed  it  is  hard  to  see  how  the  width  of  its  winter  wood  can 
determine  whether  the  tree  was  cut  in  the  beginning  or  the  middle 
of  winter,  unless  some  subsequent  changes  take  place  in  the  zvood 
elements,  which  change  the  proportion  of  summer  and  winter 
wood  in  the  annual  layer.  This  would  open  new  vistas  into  a 
field  which  so  far  has  been  but  little  investigated. 

[The  Editor  can  not  allow  this  contribution  to  pass  without  accentuat- 
ing and  enforcing  Mr.  Zon's  doubts  as  to  the  likelihood  of  structural 
changes  in  the  wood  during  winter. 

It  is  well  established,  we  think,  that  different  species  in  the  northern 
climate  exhibit  growth  periods  of  different  lengths  (some  extending  it 
into  September,  see  Quarterly,  Vol.  V,  p.  259),  but  also,  that  all  cease 
growing  in  winter.  The  Russian  Civil  Engineer  evidently  knew  little  of 
the  physiology  of  tree  growth,  and  his  scheme  sounds  fanciful.  All  he 
could  possibly  determine  is  whether  the  wood  was  cut  before  or  after  the 
summer  wood  of  the  year  had  been  formed. — Ed.] 


ARGENTINA  AND  ITS  CHACO* 
By  Herman  Kxuge. 

The  term  Chaco  means  all  the  lands  formerly  controlled  by  the 
once  powerful  Guaranie  Indians  before  the  Spanish  conquest. 
The  name  first  used  was  Yacu,  which  is  the  name  for  the  wild 
turkey ;  for  in  former  times  they  were  abundant.  Gradually  the 
name  changed  to  Chacu,  then  to  Chaco.  Thus  Paraguay,  Ura- 
guay  and  Bolivia  have  their  Chacos.  The  Chaco  in  Argentina 
extends  through  the  northern,  northeastern  and  northwestern 
parts.  Chaco  does  not  necessarily  mean  timber  land,  but  the 
timber  land  is  in  the  Chaco.  The  belts  of  timber  cannot  be  dis- 
tinctly defined,  but  they  lie  more  or  less  in  the  river  districts  of  the 
Parana,  Paraguay,  Pilcomayo  and  Bermejo.  This  makes  it  easy 
to  subdivide  the  Chaco  into  districts.  Of  these,  the  part  called 
"Rio  Bermejo  Chaco"  is  best  known  by  the  writer.  This  tract 
lies  east  of  Chile  and  South  of  Bolivia  at  an  elevation  of  from  500 
feet  to  4,000  feet  above  the  sea  level. 

The  entire  Chaco  seems  to  contain  the  more  important  wood? 
distributed  over  the  whole,  such  as  cedro,  quebracho,  urendel  or 
unrendey  and  lapacho.  Yet  of  the  less  common  woods  each  part 
of  the  Chaco  shows  its  peculiar  distinctive  trees.  Pine  is  said 
to  be  found  along  the  Andes  from  the  Strait  of  Magellan  to 
Bogota,  Columbia,  in  more  or  less  quantities,  but  there  is  no  re- 
liable information.  In  Brazil,  on  the  head  waters  of  the  Uraguay 
river,  a  good  kind  of  pine  exists  which  in  small  quantities  reaches 
the  mills  at  Buenos  Ayres.  South  America  is  still  in  such  an  un- 
explored condition  that  the  best  one  can  say  is :  there  is  timber 
here  and  timber  there,  without  being  able  to  give  an  idea  of 
the  extent  of  the  tracts.  Argentina,  taken  as  a  whole,  has  not 
a  great  amount  of  timber,  but  what  there  is  is  of  the  finest  kinds, 
very  little  strictly  ornamental  wood  but  the  best  of  hard  woods. 
There  are  immense  tracts  of  land  that  are  untrodden  by  white  men 
and  the  government  is  making  no  effort  to  have  it  surveyed.  In 
the  Bermejo  region  the  timber  runs  from  2,000  feet  to  15,000  feet 

*  This  article  was  published  in  the  American  Lumberman  of  November 
13,  after  having  been  submitted  for  publication  in  the  Quarterly. 


Argentine  and  Its  Chaco.  411 

per  acre.    A  curious  fact  is  that  within  these  tracts  of  timber  are 
found   large   grassy  flats   or  pampas.     The   many   varieties    (as 
many   as    30   merchantable   woods)    occur   in    spots   or   bunches 
called  islands,  which  are  rarely  very  large.     According  to  their 
nature  some  seek  the  highlands,  like  urendey,  and  others  the  low 
lands;   mora,  lapacho  and  cedro  like  damp  lands  near  water,  but 
this  law  of  distribution  often  fails.     All  the  trees  grow  to  large 
sizes.     Trees  measuring  six  feet  in  diameter  and  thirty  to  forty 
feet  to  limbs  clear  are  common,  in  fact  almost  the  rule.     Que- 
bracho, urendel,  cedro,  quina,  cevil,  mora  and  others  are  sound 
while  growing,   having  few  if  any   defects,   on   the  other  hand 
palo  amarillo  and  palo  bianco  are  rotten  when  large  or  overgrown. 
Some  forests  do  not  contain  an  old  tree  of  any  kind.     Wind  falls 
are  always  the  best  lumber  when  of  quebracho,  urendel,  mora, 
guayacan  and  lapacho,  for  they  never  seem  to  rot.     One  never 
hears  of  forest  fires,  for  the  woods  are  always  green.     In  this 
region  it  is  the  custom  to  fell  the  timber  from  two  to  four  years 
before  hauling  in  order  to  season  it  somewhat,  but  even  then  in 
many  the  crown  remains  still  green,  while  roble  will  even  sprout 
again.      The   fact   that  only   cedro   floats,   makes   the   numerous 
streams    useless    for    logging    purposes ;    therefore,    all    logging 
propositions  are  for  railroad.     A  German  firm,  the  Arthur  Kop- 
pel  Co.,  of  Berlin,  with  a  branch  office  in  Buenos  Ayres  furnish 
practically  all  the  rails  and  locomotives,  and  make  a  good  steel 
logging  car.     In  connection  with  the  railroad  the  most  primeval 
methods  of  logging  are  in  existence.     In  many  places  they  still 
load  the  cars  by  hand,  a  few  by  oxen.     The  main  logging  is  by 
oxen  and  a  cart  on  two  wheels,  especially  a  structure  of  this  sec- 
tion.    This  method  is  slow  and  expensive  but  not  knowing  that 
there  was  any   other  method  loggers  were   contented  until  the- 
Lidgerwood  Mfg.  Co.  of  New  York  entered  the  field,  and  now 
the  advantages  of  steam  logging  are  being  seen. 

The  woods  are  full  of  very  heavy  underbrush  and,  as  is  usual 
in  all  semi-tropical  countries,  vines  of  great  size  and  number  are 
very  abundant.  These  vines  so  hold  trees  together  that  8  or  10 
have  to  be  cut  before  any  fall  and  when  they  do  fall  there  is  a 
mess.  The  oxen  are  of  a  good  breed  and  there  are  plenty  of 
them,  but  mules  are  small,  not  much  larger  than  burros.  The 
laborers  are  of  Spanish  and  Indian  descent.  In  most  parts  they 
are  what  their  employers  make  them,  but  a  very  strong,  firm  hand 


412  Forestry  Quarterly. 

is  required  to  handle  them.  Their  homes  are  but  of  a  few  sheets 
of  tin,  and  hardly  any  of  them  own  or  care  to  own  land.  Those 
that  do,  never  work  in  the  mills,  while  the  others  live  a  hand 
to  mouth  existence  and  seem  contented,  working  for  very  low 
wages. 

The  market  for  most  of  the  timber  is  local.  All  the  railroads 
are  calling  for  ties  and  timber,  but  certain  classes  are  shipped  to 
Buenos  Ayres.  At  present  the  freight  rates  are  heavy  but  a 
new  outlet  is  being  built  by  way  of  the  Parana-Paraguay  River 
which  will  do  wonders  for  the  section.  There  is  no  market  want- 
ing and  all  mills  could  dispose  of  double  their  output. 

About  the  only  wood  exported  in  any  amount  is  quebracho 
Colorado,  and  the  official  report  for  1908  is  as  follows : 

Of  254,571  tons  of  quebracho  Colorado  (round  logs)  exported 
to  foreign  countries  203,065  tons  were  sent  to  Great  Britain, 
which  also  took  48,000  tons  of  tannin  (quebracho  extract). 
This  represents  about  65  million  board  feet  of  quebracho. 
The  latest  figure  on  quebracho  Colorado  ties  is  $2.25  gold  each, 
for  2.7  meters  or  wide  gauge.  $35  paper  or  $15  gold  a  ton  for 
tannin  quebracho  logs  is  the  rule,  no  difference  being  made  be- 
tween green  or  dry.  Of  the  saw  milling  it  must  be  said  that 
American  saw  mill  machinery  is  and  has  been  an  absolute  failure 
here.  The  saw  mill  machinery  must  be  made  to  suit  the  peculiar 
conditions  of  the  country  before  it  is  shipped,  not  after  it  is  here 
and  by  the  buyer.  The  labor  and  the  wood  must  be  thoroughly 
studied  as  the  French,  German  and  English  have  done,  resulting 
in  their  manufacturers  controlling  the  market  by  such  companies 
as  the  Ransome  &  Company  Ltd.  of  England,  Panhart  &  Gavas- 
sor  of  France,  and  Kirchner  of  Germany.  None  of  the  American 
machinery  seems  adapted  to  cutting  the  very  hard  wood.  Such 
things  as  live  rollers,  edgers,  conveyors  are  almost  unknown. 
In  a  mill  of  fifteen  band  saws  I  made  inquiries  as  to  American 
band  saws  and  was  surprised  to  find  one  in  use,  but,  on  close 
questioning,  I  found  that  the  saw  could  not  be  filed  by  them  as 
in  the  United  States,  so  they  recut  the  teeth  after  the  usual 
style,  and  now  the  saw  is  giving  good  results.  The  mills  are  all 
ground  mills,  with  shafting  buried  where  only  snakes  can  easily 
go.  There  is  much  to  learn  in  saw  milling  here,  but  the  Americans 
will  have  to  learn  much  themselves  before  they  will  be  able  to 
teach  much.    The  following  kinds  of  timber  are  the  most  in  use : 


Argentine  and  Its  Chaco.  413 

Cedro. — A  reddish,  soft  wood,  floats  readily  and  is  very  fine 
for  interior  construction  of  all  kinds.  Weight  dry  is  about  25 
pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

Mora. — A  yellowish  wood  and  very  hard.  Does  not  float, 
weighs  about  75  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  As  this  wood  has  a 
very  close  interwoven  fibre  it  is  especially  used  for  cross  strains 
and  compression.  It  is  used  for  heavy  doors,  construction  of 
cars  and  special  bridge  ties. 

Quebracho  Colorado: — A  reddish  wood,  the  color  depending 
on  exposure,  when  much  exposed  it  secretes  the  natural  preserva- 
tives or  else  they  come  to  the  surface  and  it  changes  to  a  blood 
red  and  deep  ruby.  Is  also  hard  and  very  rich  in  natural  preserva- 
tives. In  this  section  the  quebracho  is  not  used  for  the  extraction 
of  tannin  nor  for  export  trade,  but  rather  for  ties  and  wooden 
bridge  construction.    Weighs  from  75  to  85  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

Urendel. — Good  for  the  same  uses  as  quebracho,  it  being  a 
sister  wood  and  only  an  expert  can  detect  the  difference. 

Lapacho. — A  deep  yellow  green,  hard  wood,  taking  a  fine  pol- 
ish. It  is  noted  for  its  tensile  strength  and  lasting  qualities.  I 
have  never '  seen  a  better  heavy  construction  wood.  It  is  used 
in  all  better  classes  of  construction.  Weighs  about  70  pounds 
per  cubic  foot. 

Quina*. — This  is  a  hard  wood  of  reddish  color  and  rather  brittle. 
It  is  used  in  second  class  construction,  ranking  way  below  la- 
pacho.   Weight  70  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

Cevil. — A  very  hard  heavy  wood  of  reddish  white  color,  but 
color  not  running  true.  The  bark  is  very  rich  in  tannin.  Burns 
with  an  intense  heat  and  scarcely  any  smoke.  It  needs  very 
careful  handling  and  drying,  for  it  warps  badly.  Used  on  dry 
construction,  but  will  last  about  25  years  in  the  ground,  while 
the  better  class  lasts  50  years  easily.  Weighs  about  85  pounds 
per  cubic  foot. 

Palo  bianco. — A  semi-soft,  white  wood.  It  makes  a  good  floor- 
ing and  ceiling,  being  like  the  best  spruce  but  heavier. 

Palo  amarillo. — A  hard,  yellow  wood,  better  than  palo  bianco 
for  construction.  This  does  not  grow  to  very  great  sizes  nor 
over  two  feet  in  diameter. 

Roble. — A  wood  resembling  North  American  oak  in  weight  and 
color.  It  is  not  a  true  oak  but  still  has  the  name.  Entirely  used 
in  furniture. 


414  Forestry  Quarterly. 

The  less  common  are :  Horco  moyo,  Afata,  Matr,  Palo  Lanzo, 
Guayabil,  Tipa  and  others. 

The  people  have  been  lumbering  here  for  about  60  years,  but 
they  will  have  to  lumber  a  long  time  before  they  reach  such  con- 
ditions as  prevail  in  the  United  States.  They  cannot  understand 
why  American  pine  and  spruce  can  be  sold  at  Buenos  Ayres  at 
the  price  it  is.  Still  they  make  no  effort  to  solve  the  problem. 
The  country  is  asleep  to  the  fact  that  it  has  some  resources  in 
lumber.  Many  good  propositions  have  not  even  been  discovered 
for  the  country  is  as  yet  unexplored.  Argentina  does  not  know 
what  Argentina  has. 


CURRENT  LITERATURE. 

Report  of  the  National  Conservation  Commission.  Sen.  Doc. 
No.  676,  60th  Congr.  2d  Sess.  Edited  by  Henry  Gannett.  Eebr., 
1909.     3  vols.    276,  771,  793  pp. 

We  have  succeeded  only  just  before  going  to  print  in  secur- 
ing a  copy  of  this  voluminous  (1840  pp.)  and  most  valuable 
report,  which  brings  out  the  most  complete  statements  regarding 
the  natural  resources  of  the  United  States.  It  is  a  pity  and  a 
shortsighted  policy  to  have  limited  the  edition  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  leave  no  copies  for  a  liberal  distribution  by  the  Commission 
itself.  The  limit  is  set  so  low  as  to  suggest  an  attempt  at  sup- 
pressing the  information,  but  we  hope  and  have  no  doubt  that  the 
essential  points  will  not  fail  to  be  propagated  gradually  among 
the  public,  as  we  have  begun  in  the  present  issue. 

We  have  now  space  and  time  only  to  refer  to  the  structure  of 
the  document.  It  consists  not  only  of  three  volumes  but  of  three 
parts  which  do  not  correspond  to  the  volumes.  The  first  volume 
containing  two  parts,  namely  summaries  of  different  degrees  of 
condensation,  and  the  third  part  being  distributed  through  the 
other  two  volumes,  namely,  the  separate  papers  by  experts  on 
which    the    summaries    presumably    are    based    or    supported. 

The  first  volume  contains,  besides  the  President's  message  and 
the  brief  summarized  report  of  the  Commission,  and  of  the  con- 
servation conference,  the  summary  statements  by  the  secretaries 
of  the  section  of  waters,  of  forests,  of  lands,  and  of  minerals. 

These  summaries  are  the  part  of  the  report  which  should  be 
widely  distributed  among  the  people. 

That  on  forests  was  prepared  by  Mr.  Overton  W.  Price  on  23 
pages  under  the  caption,  What  forests  do ;  what  we  have ;  what 
is  produced  (see  article  in  this  issue)  ;  what  is  used  (differentiat- 
ing by  character  of  use,  by  States,  and  by  species)  ;  what  is 
wasted;  where  we  stand;  what  should  be  done;  and  where  we 
might  stand. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  not  all  the  statements  are  as  inaccurate  and 
misleading  as  the  one  on  which  our  eye  fell  accidentally :  "For 
ten  years  the  Department  of  Agriculture has  carried  for- 


416  Forestry  Quarterly. 

ward  a  national  campaign  of  education."  This  statement  'kills  by 
silence'  all  that  has  been  done  previously  by  the  American  Forestry 
Association  and  the  Department  of  Agriculture ! 

The  following  "experts' "  articles  in  Volume  II  have  special  in- 
terest for  foresters : 

Underground  waters,  by  W.  C.  Mendenhall ;  Floods,  by  M.  O. 
Leighton;  Relation  of  surface  conditions  to  stream  flow,  by 
William  L.  Hall  and  Hu  Maxwell;  Denudation,  by  R.  B.  Dole 
and  H.  Stabler ;  Original  forests,  by  R.  S.  Kellogg;  Standing  tim- 
ber in  wood  lots,  by  Wesley  Bradfield;  Stand  of  timber,  by 
Herbert  Knox  Smith ;  Standing  timber  owned  by  the  States,  by 
J.  Girvin  Peters;  Standing  timber  in  possession  of  the  Federal 
Government,  by  G.  M.  Holmans;  Forest  products,  by  R.  S. 
Kellogg;  Rate  of  forest  growth,  by  E.  A.  Ziegler;  Methods  of 
increasing  forest  productivity,  by  E.  E.  Carter;  Foreign  sources 
of  timber  supply,  by  Raphael  Zon ;  Cost  of  forestry  in  different 
countries,  by  H.  S.  Graves;  Extent  to  which  foreign  methods  of 
administration  are  suited  to  conditions  in  the  United  States,  by  S. 
T.  Dana ;  Forest  fires,  by  Clyde  Leavitt ;  Waste  and  reduction  of 
timber  supplies  caused  by  insects,  by  A.  D.  Hopkins ;  Conservative 
turpentining,  by  George  B.  Sudworth ;  Conservative  logging,  by 
Earle  N.  Clapp ;  Waste  in  milling,  by  Louis  Margolin ;  Waste  in 
use  of  timber,  by  McGarvey  Cline ;  Taxation  of  timber  lands,  by 
Fred  Rogers  Fairchild;  Reduction  of  timber  supply  through 
abandonment  or  clearing  of  forest  lands,  by  W.  B.  Greeley; 
Utilization  of  wood  waste  by  chemical  and  other  means,  by  H.  S. 
Bristol  and  L.  F.  Hawley;  Wood  preservation,  by  W.  F.  Sher- 
fesee  and  H.  F.  Weiss ;  Forest  planting,  by  A.  S.  Peck ;  Water 
circulation  and  its  control,  by  Bailey  Willis ;  Methods  which 
should  be  adopted  by  private  owners  to  insure  the  perpetuation 
of  our  timber  supply,  by  C.  S.  Chapman ;  What  the  State  should 
do  to  perpetuate  the  forests,  by  Filibert  Roth;  Past  and  present 
prices  of  forest  products,  by  H.  S.  Sackett. 

We  hope  to  come  back  to  the  details  of  this  Report  as  occasion 
is  afforded.  B.  E.  F. 

Barkbeetles  of  the  Genus  Dendroctonus.  By  A.  D.  Hopkins. 
Bulletin  No.  283,  Part  I.  Bureau  of  Entomology.  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.    October,  1909.    169  pp. 

This  report  deals  with  the  results  of  economic  interest  of  the 


Current  Literature.  4l7 

careful  investigations  conducted  in  recent  years  by  Dr.  Hopkins 
and  his  assistants.  Together  with  Technical  Series  No.  17,  Part  1, 
in  which  the  species  treated  of  in  the  present  report  are  character- 
ized in  detail,  it  forms  one  of  the  most  thorough  and  complete 
treatises  on  a  single  genus  of  American  forest  insects  that  has  come 
to  our  notice. 

The  genus  Dendroctonus  includes  23  species  of  which  one  occurs 
in  middle  and  northern  Europe  and  in  western  Siberia  while  the 
others  are  distributed  over  the  whole  of  North  America  wherever 
coniferous  trees  occur,  and  among  them  are  the  most  dangerous 
enemies  of  pine  and  spruce  forests. 

Their  destructiveness  is  due  in  large  measure  to  their  habit  of 
swarming  or  concentrating  their  attacks  upon  groups  of  trees  in 
the  forest,  and  their  ability  to  attack  and  kill  living  trees  wherever 
their  numbers  are  sufficient  to  overcome  the  resistance  offered  by 
the  trees.  Contrary  to  opinions  hitherto  held,  in  the  case  of  certain 
species  especially  the  Black  Hills  beetle  (D.  ponder osae  Hopk.), 
an  actual  preference  for  living  trees  has  been  demonstrated,  and 
the  widespread  destruction  caused  by  this  species  is  mainly  due  to 
this  habit. 

The  relative  destructiveness  of  the  different  species  also  de- 
pends upon  the  part  of  the  tree  attacked  and  upon  the  character 
of  the  larval  mines.  Species  attacking  the  middle  and  upper  parts 
of  the  trunk  are  more  destructive  than  those  which  affect  the  lower 
part,  and  those  species  whose  larvae  excavate  transverse  winding 
galleries  girdle  and  kill  the  tree  more  rapidly,  though  not  less 
surely,  than  those  whose  galleries  are  straight  and  longitudinal. 
An  immense  amount  of  timber  is  killed  in  this  way,  and  many  large 
denuded  areas  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  supposed  to  have  been 
killed  by  fire  were  primarily  caused  by  Dendroctonus. 

Emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  necessity  of  knowing  the  peculiarities 
in  the  life  history  of  each  species  as  a  basis  for  the  successful  con- 
trol of  their  ravages.  The  time  for  directing  operations  towards 
the  control  of  a  particular  outbreak,  depends  e.  g.  upon  the  time 
of  hibernation  and  that  of  emergence  of  adults  in  the  spring,  the 
number  of  broods  in  the  season,  and  these  features  not  only  differ 
in  the  different  species  but  vary  in  any  given  species  in  different 
parts  of  its  geographical  range,  the  variations  depending  upon 
climatic  conditions,  chiefly  those  of  temperature. 


418  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Among  the  influences  other  than  climatic,  affecting  the  multi- 
plication of  the  beetles,  forest  fires  and  commercial  cutting  of  tim- 
ber may  act  favorably  or  unfavorably,  depending  upon  the  species 
involved  and  in  the  latter  case  upon  the  time  and  method  of  cut- 
ting. It  is  important  that  the  principal  cutting  operations  be 
carried  on  during  the  period  of  hibernation,  i.  e.,  in  the  late  fall 
and  winter,  since  during  the  following  summer  the  stumps  and 
slash  serve  to  attract  the  beetles  away  from  the  trees,  and  as  the 
new  broods  remain  in  the  bark  during  the  following  winter  they 
can  then  be  burned  before  the  time  of  emergence  in  the  spring, 
When  more  than  one  annual  generation  occurs,  as  in  the  southeast 
and  Rocky  Mountain  region,  it  may  be  necessary  to  burn  the 
winter  slash  before  the  first  of  July. 

In  fifteen  of  the  species,  removal  of  the  bark  from  the  main 
trunk  is  all  that  is  required  to  kill  the  broods  which  live  in  the 
inner  bark,  and  are  killed  on  exposure  to  the  drying  influences  of 
the  sun  and  wind.  In  the  remaining  eight  species,  it  is  necessary 
to  burn  the  bark,  as  in  these  species  the  larvae  enter  the  outer  bark 
to  transform  into  pupae.  If  necessary  the  barked  trees  may  be 
allowed  to  stand  for  several  years  without  the  value  of  the  wood 
becoming  impaired.  Various  methods  are  also'  suggested  for  the 
destruction  of  the  broods  without  removal  of  the  bark,  such  as 
converting  the  logs  into  lumber  and  burning  the  slabs,  placing 
the  logs  in  water,  etc. 

On  the  occurrence  of  an  extensive  invasion  the  affected  areas 
should  be  surveyed  and  mapped  in  the  fall  and  the  amount  of  in- 
fested timber  estimated,  and  logging  operations  should,  when 
possible,  be  concentrated  upon  the  affected  areas  so  that  as  large 
a  percentage  as  possible  of  the  infested  timber  can  be  cut,  barked 
or  otherwise  treated  before  the  broods  begin  to  emerge.  If  this 
course  cannot  be  adopted,  as  much  as  possible  of  the  infested 
bark  should  be  removed  from  the  standing  timber  or  from  those 
felled  for  that  purpose. 

The  trap-tree  method  of  control  is  not  recommended  in  the  case 
of  Dendroctonus  beetles. 

The  introduction  and  protection  of  natural  enemies  such  as 
parasitic  and  predatory  insects  and  insectivorous  birds  is  another 
important  phase  of  the  subject  of  the  control  of  these  insects  but 
has  as  yet  received  comparatively  little  attention. 


Current  Literature.  419 

The  general  part  of  the  report  concludes  with  an  account  of 
some  very  gratifying  results  obtained  from  efforts  made  in  recent 
years  to  control  various  outbreaks  of  Dendroctonus,  especially 
the  extensive  depredations  of  the  Black  Hills  beetle. 

This  is  followed  by  a  detailed  account  of  the  various  species, 
extending  over  127  pages.  Each  species  is  briefly  characterized, 
its  work,  life  history,  habits  and  economic  features  are  described, 
and  special  methods  of  control  given. 

The  report  is  profusely  illustrated  with  accurate  text-figures  of 
the  beetles  and  their  work,  and  photographs  showing  the  appear- 
ance of  infested  trees. 

E.  M.  W. 

Diseases  of  Deciduous  Forest  Trees.  By  Herman  Von  Schrenk 
and  Perley  Spaulding.  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry.    Bulletin  No.  149.    Pp.  85. 

Not  as  one  would  expect  from  the  title,  but  as  one  would  ex- 
pect from  the  authors,  the  greater  part  of  this  Bulletin,  (fifty- 
eight  of  the  sixty-seven  pages  in  the  text  proper),  is  devoted  to 
fungus  diseases.  The  diseases  of  trees  are  discussed  under  two 
groups,  those  caused  by  unfavorable  environmental  conditions  and 
those  caused  by  living  organisms.  Under  the  former  group,  the 
relation  of  trees  to  smoke  and  sulphur  gases,  unfavorable  soil 
conditions  and  extreme  cold  is  briefly  discussed.  The  diseases 
caused  by  living  organisms  are  treated  under  three  subheads, 
namely,  those  caused  by  insects ;  those  caused  by  the  parasitic 
higher  plants  and  those  caused  by  fungi  and  by  bacteria.  For  the 
first  of  the  subheads,  however,  one  is  referred  to  previous  publi- 
cations and  the  latter  subhead  is  chiefly  devoted  to  the  various  rots 
of  standing  trees  and  structural  timbers.  Only  general  descriptions 
of  the  various  fungi  concerned  are  given,  most  of  the  discussion 
being  devoted  to  the  response  of  the  host  to  the  disease.  The 
Bulletin  closes  with  a  discussion  of  the  decay  and  prevention  of 
decay  in  structural  timbers.  It  is  accompanied  by  eleven  figures 
in  the  text,  ten  plates  and  a  bibliography  of  one  hundred  and  four- 
teen numbers.  C.  D.  H. 

Report  on  Fertilizer  Experiments  on  Szvamp  Soils.  By  R. 
Harcourt,  in  Thirtieth  Annual  Report  of  the  Ontario  Agricultural 


420  Forestry  Quarterly. 

and  Experimental  Union.     Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture, 
1909. 

This  report  embraces  the  result  of  information  gathered  by  cor- 
respondence regarding  the  extent  and  productivity  of  Ontario 
swamp  soils,  the  result  of  soil  analyses  and  of  field  and  pot  ex- 
periments with  fertilizers. 

In  the  writer's  opinion  swamp  lands  with  clay  subsoil  are  more 
common  in  Ontario  than  those  with  a  sand  subsoil.  In  general 
the  former  produce  good  crops,  while  the  latter  and  those  where 
decomposition  has  not  progressed  sufficiently  to  form  a  soil  that 
will  hold  water  after  tile-draining,  do  not. 

The  forty-four  analyses  showed  that  those  with  sandy  sub- 
soils contained  a  lower  percentage  of  the  mineral  food  constitu- 
ents, especially  potassium  and  phosphorus,  than  the  others;  but 
that  on  the  whole  the  non-productiveness  of  Ontario  swamp  soils 
could  not  be  ascribed  to  lack  of  mineral  food.  Fertilizer  experi- 
ments on  deficient  soils,  with  potash,  however,  did  show  increased 
yields,  while  the  addition  of  lime  and  phosphoric  acid  made  little 
change.  So  far,  however,  results  are  meager,  owing  to  the  diffi- 
culties incident  to  co-operative  work,  in  this  case  especially  to  get  • 
the  experimenters  to  drain  their  plots  sufficiently. 

The  writer  suggests  that  the  reason  for  the  non-productiveness 
is  to  be  found  in  the  nature  of  the  humus,  analyses  indicating 
that  its  decomposition  does  not  take  place  rapidly  enough  to 
keep  vegetable  growth  supplied  with  food.  Pot  experiments  in 
innoculation  with  germs  to  hasten  this  decomposition,  garden 
lawn  and  farmyard  manure  being  used,  showed  increased  growth, 
indicating  the  probability  of  this  explanation.  Co-operative  field 
experiments  in  such  inoculation  have  not  so  far  been  tried. 

J.  H.  W. 

Fourteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Forestry  Commissioner  of 
Minnesota,  for  1908. 

This  report  gives  the  text  of  several  important  additions  to  the 
forest  laws.  Following  a  season  of  drought  and  severe  fires,  an 
effort  has  been  made  to  improve  the  machinery  of  the  fire  law. 
The  reported  damage  from  fire  was  $2,000,000  of  which  $1,- 
500,000  was  caused  by  the  destruction  of  the  mining  town  of 
Chisholm. 


Current  Literature.  421 

Among  the  measures  adapted,  the  emergency  appropriation 
for  payment  of  fire  fighters  was  raised  to  $14,000  annually  and 
the  compensation  of  wardens  put  on  a  basis  of  25  cents  per  hour, 
and  for  helpers  20  cents  per  hour  instead  of  $2.00  and  $1.50  per 
day.  The  minimum  penalty  for  violation  of  the  statute  against 
setting  fires  accidentally  or  otherwise  was  made  $50.00.  For- 
merly no  minimum  was  stated.  Camp  fires  must  by  the  new  law 
be  built  only  after  clearing  a  space  ten  feet  from  the  fire,  of  all 
combustible  material  and  must  be  extinguished  before  leaving. 
The  provisions  for  prosecution  of  offenders  are  strengthened  by 
an  increased  appropriation  of  $2,000  annually,  by  allowing  the 
acceptance  of  circumstantial  evidence  of  neglect  in  allowing  fire 
to  spread,  and  by  adding  a  penalty  for  the  neglect  or  refusal  of 
county  attorneys  or  magistrates  to  take  action  against  offenders. 

The  old  system  of  requiring  the  town  supervisors  to  act  as 
fire  wardens  is  retained,  and  town  clerks  and  highway  commis- 
sioners are  given  similar  duties. 

But  the  most  important  acts  are  three  in  number:  First,  the 
commissioner  is  empowered  to  district  the  portions  of  the  state 
exposed  to  danger  from  fires,  irrespective  of  local  organization 
and  to  appoint  paid  rangers  at  $5.00  per  day  to  patrol  for  the 
prevention  of  fire.  The  only  limit  to  the  extension  and  use  of 
this  plan  is  the  amount  of  money  available.  It  marks  the  definite 
adoption  of  the  only  scheme  of  fire  protection  that  has  ever 
proven  successful. 

Second.  Railroads  are  required  to  employ  a  patrol  for  every 
mile  of  road  in  districts  where  the  danger  is  great.  This  is  in 
addition  to  the  provision  for  clearing  right  of  way  and  providing 
spark  arresters.  If  enforced,  this  will  insure  almost  absolute  im- 
munity from  fires  from  railroads. 

Third.  The  slashings  (tops,  branches,  and  rubbish)  must  be 
burned  at  a  seasonable  time,  and  before  May  1st,  using  due  pre- 
caution to  prevent  injury  to  standing  timber.  Before  burning, 
they  must  be  piled,  and  burning  without  piling  is  prohibited. 

While  conditions  in  Minnesota  justify  the  enforcement  of  such 
a  provision  as  a  measure  for  the  prevention  of  damage  from  sub- 
sequent fires,  it  is  doubtful  if  the  present  organization  of  the 
warden  force,  or  the  state  of  public  opinion  will  permit  of  its 
rigid  enforcement  except  near  towns  or  on  land  where  there  is  an 

27 


422  Forestry  Quarterly. 

active  effort  being  made  to  secure  a  second  growth  of  pine.  The 
expense  of  piling  may  often  be  considered  unnecessary  and  the 
burning  be  just  as  effective  without  the  piling  if  done  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  reducing  the  fire  risk.  The  law  will  require  for  its 
enforcement  a  far  greater  development  of  public  interest  in  the 
care  of  wild  lands  and  activity  in  the  actual  work  of  reforestation 
than  exists  at  the  present  time.  But  there  is  no  doubt  that  active 
efforts  to  enforce  these  provisions  will  have  a  great  educational 
effect. 

Another  provision  of  some  importance  is  the  passage  of  a 
law  submitting  a  constitutional  amendment  to  the  people  which 
would  provide  a  1-15  mill  State  tax  to  raise  funds  for  reforesta- 
tion. The  usefulness  of  this  amendment,  if  adopted,  will  be 
greatly  hampered  by  the  limit  of  $3.00  per  acre  incorporated  as 
a  part  of  the  amendment. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  State  has  provided  for  the  ac- 
ceptance of  a  gift  of  2,200  acres  near  Carlton  as  a  demonstration 
forest  for  the  University  of  Minnesota  Forest  School,  and  has 
made  a  $5,000  appropriation  to  pay  students  employed  in  the 
practical  work  of  forest  protection. 

The  Chief  Fire  Warden  is  now  known  as  the  Forestry  Commis- 
sioner and  continues  to  be  the  active  head  of  the  Fire  Warden 
system,  and  nominally  responsible  for  forestry  propaganda  and 
education,  while  the  Forestry  Board  has  charge  of  state  forest 
reserves  and  their  administration.  H.  H.  C. 

The  Forests  of  Mindoro.  By  Melvin  L.  Merritt,  Forester,  Di- 
vision of  Investigation.  Bulletin  No.  8,  Department  of  the  In- 
terior, Bureau  of  Forestry,  Manila.  1908.  Pp.  51.  plates  10, 
maps  1. 

The  main  part  of  the  bulletin  is  devoted  to  a  general  descrip- 
tion of  Mindoro,  one  of  the  more  important  islands  of  the  Phil- 
ippine Archipelago  and  contains  an  interesting  description  of  the 
types  of  vegetation  and  the  utilization  of  forest  products.  In  an 
appendix  are  found  19  tables  of  yield  for  different  forest  types 
and  a  list  of  forest  tree  species  reported  to  date.  This  list  con- 
tains 445  species  many  of  which  are  not  merchantable.  The 
family  of  Dipterocarpaceae  and  Leguminosae  are  the  most  im- 
portant from  a  commercial  standpoint.     The  Dipterocarps  reach 


Current  Literature.  423 

their  best  development  on  the  slopes  of  the  foothills  and  lower 
mountains.  Here  they  form  a  distinct  forest  type.  This  is  char- 
acterized by  large  tall  growing  trees,  chiefly  belonging  to  the 
family  Dipterocarpaceae,  and  by  an  undergrowth  less  dense  than 
is  found  in  other  types.  The  maximum  diameter  is  about  5  feet, 
and  the  clear  length  ranges  from  65  to  115  feet.  The  dipterocarp 
forests  will  be  the  chief  source  of  timber  supply  of  the  island. 

The  solid  commercial  forest  unbroken  by  clearings  is  estimated 
at  818,000  acres  with  a  stand  of  5,755,300,000  feet  of  board 
measure  of  merchantable  timber  (7,000  feet  per  acre),  and  the 
commercial  forest  broken  by  clearings  is  estimated  at  262,000 
acres  with  400,000,000  ft.  B.  M.  (1,500  ft.  per  acre).  The  heav- 
iest stands  average  20,000  ft.  B.  M.  per  acre. 

Steam  logging  with  railroad  transportation  is  recommended 
as  the  only  feasible  way  of  exploiting  the  larger  part  of  the  for- 
est. Few  species  are  adapted  for  driving  because  of  their  specific 
gravity  and  hauling  is  too  slow  and  expensive  with  the  primitive 
methods  now  in  use.  Under  the  present  system  the  cost  of  log- 
ging and  delivery  from  the  forests  to  the  beach,  a  distance  of  one 
or  two  miles,  ranges  from  $4.35  to  $9.00  per  1,000  ft.  B.  M. 

Shipping  facilities  to  the  Manila  market  are  inadequate  and 
rates  are  between  10  cents  and  15  cents  per  cubic  foot. 

Four  small  saw  mills  operate  at  different  points  on  the  island, 
but  they  are  too  light  for  satisfactory  work  and  most  of  the 
lumber  used  locally  is  cut  by  hand  with  whip  saws. 

The  subject  of  forest  protection  is  discussed  briefly.  The 
chief  damage  the  forest  suffers  is  from  clearings  made  by  the 
mountain  tribes  who  denude  and  cultivate  small  areas  for  one  or 
two  seasons  and  then  abandon  the  plot.  In  some  parts  of  the 
island  all  the  merchantable  timber  has  been  destroyed  in  this 
manner.  The  solution  of  this  problem  is  a  serious  one  in  many 
parts  of  the  Philippine  Archipelago,  as  it  is  a  practice  that  can 
be  regulated  with  difficulty  because  of  the  irresponsible  character 
of  the  natives  with  whom  the  forest  officers  must  deal.  Fires  fol- 
low up  these  clearings  and  kill  any  reproduction  that  may  have 
started.  A  patrol  for  the  prevention  of  fire  is  considered  too  ex- 
pensive under  present  conditions  and  no  recommendations  are 
made  for  forest  protection  except  rules  which  prevent  waste  in 
logging  and  injury  to  young  growth. 

The  forest  map  appended  to  the  report  shows  in  colors  the 


424  Forestry  Quarterly. 

location  of  the  different  forest  types,  some  topographical  data 
and  the  boundaries  of  the  proposed  forest  reserve.  The  data 
collected  in  this  bulletin  are  a  valuable  addition  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  forest  resources  of  the  Philippines  and  other  bulletins  on 
this  subject  will  be  awaited  with  interest. 

This  bulletin  can  be  had  for  80  cents  U.  S.  currency,  map 
separately,  50  cents. 

R.  C.  B. 

The  Status  of  Forestry  in  the  United  States.  By  Treadwell 
Cleveland,  Jr.  Circular  No.  167,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  1909.     Pp.  39. 

This  circular  is  an  excellent  statement  of  the  present  status  of 
forestry  in  this  country.  It  describes  what  is  being  done  by  the 
Federal  Government,  by  the  States,  and  by  private  owners.  There 
are  many  useful  tables  showing  the  extent  of  the  work  on  the 
National  forests,  a  list  of  the  States  which  have  undertaken  or- 
ganized fire  protection,  lists  of  the  National  forests,  State  forests, 
and  forest  schools. 

In  reading  the  circular  one  is  impressed  by  the  immense  amount 
of  work  being  actually  done  on  the  National  forests  and  by  the 
relatively  meager  work  done  by  private  owners.  The  small  num- 
ber of  large  private  proprietors  practicing  forestry  in  the  United 
States  is  very  striking.  Not  only  that,  but  those  who  have 
undertaken  it  have  in  many  cases  not  gone  beyond  the  initial 
stage  of  an  attempt  to  protect  their  property  from  fire.  The 
showing  would  have  been  better  if  the  author  had  laid  more 
emphasis  on  the  silvicultural  work  by  small  proprietors. 

Mr;  Cleveland  describes  very  clearly  the  obstacles  to  private 
forestry,  thus  explaining  the  reason  why  progress  in  that  direc- 
tion has  been  so  slow.  I  do  not  think  that  he  has  done  full  jus- 
tice to  the  question  of  forestry  as  an  investment  for  private 
owners.  There  is  no  question  that  with  the  present  fire  risk  and 
the  unfair  taxation  the  planting  of  trees  on  a  large  scale  is  not 
attractive.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  an  enormous  amount  of 
immature  timber  which  it  will  distinctly  pay  the  private  owner 
to  hold  and  protect  for  its  future  increment.  Many  lumbermen 
will  find  it  profitable  to  cut  very  conservatively  and  to  hold  the 
medium  sized  and  young  trees  for  future  growth.    In  many  cases 


Current  Literature.  425 

it  would  be  a  good  investment  to  purchase  second  growth  timber 
which  can  now  be  secured  cheap  and  to  hold  it  for  a  later  cutting. 

H.  S.  G. 

Paper  Birch  in  the  North-Bast.  By  S.  T.  Dana.  Circular  No. 
163,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C,  1909.     Pp.  37. 

Mr.  Dana  has  presented  a  very  satisfactory  account  of  the 
Paper  Birch  as  it  grows  in  the  North-East.  The  tree  is  de- 
scribed from  the  commercial,  botanical,  silvical,  and  silvicultural 
standpoints.  There  are  excellent  tables  of  growth,  volume,  and 
yield. 

In  the  chapter  dealing  with  management  the  author  has  de- 
scribed three  possible  methods  of  silviculture: 

1.  Cutting  to  a  diameter  limit  to  utilize  the  young  growth  to 
the  best  advantage. 

2.  Clean  cutting  of  pure  stands  to  secure  sprout  reproduction. 

3.  Complete  removal  of  the  birch  from  mixed  or  changing 
types  to  give  way  to  species  which  are  more  valuable  or  better 
adapted  to  the  locality. 

It  is  made  clear  that  the  present  birch  types  are  transitional  in 
character  and  that  a  birch  stand  cannot  be  replaced  by  a  birch 
stand  indefinitely  except  by  planting  or  possibly  by  the  use  of 
fire.  The  systems  advocated  are  essentially  methods  of  handling 
the  stands  as  they  occur  to-day. 

The  first  of  the  systems  advocated  is  applicable  to  middle- 
aged  pure  stands  which  are  more  or  less  even-aged  but  which 
show  considerable  variation  in  diameters.  The  plan  is  to  thin 
out  the  larger  trees  and  give  an  opportunity  for  the  smaller  ones, 
which  otherwise  would  be  suppressed,  to  grow  to  a  merchant- 
able size. 

The  second  system  is  simple  coppice  applied  to  thrifty  middle- 
aged  stands. 

The  third  system  is  applicable  in  mixed  stands  or  where  there 
is  already  reproduction  on  the  ground.  It  is  designed  to  replace 
the  birch  by  other  species. 

It  would  have  been  useful  if  the  author  had  expanded  this 
chapter  on  silvicultural  treatment  of  the  birch  and  had  illus- 
trated it  by  diagrams  and  photographs.  At  the  present  time  the 
science  of  silviculture  is  in  such  formative  stage  that  the  most 


426  Forestry  Quarterly. 

specific  statement  of  principles  underlying  a  proposed  form  of 
management  is  required  to  prevent  it  from  becoming  a  mere  rule 
of  thumb. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  Forest  Service  will  publish  other  mono- 
graphs like  this  circular.  Like  the  monograph  on  the  Douglas 
Spruce  by  Mr.  Frothingham,  the  Paper  Birch  in  the  North-East 
constitutes  a  very  valuable  contribution  to  silviculture. 

H.  S.  G. 

Farm  Forestry.  By  Alfred  Akerman.  Published  by  the 
Georgia  Forestry  Association,  Athens,  Ga.,  1909.     Pp.  22. 

This  pamphlet  is  an  outline  of  a  text  designed  for  use  in  agri- 
cultural schools  and  colleges  of  Georgia.  It  is  to  be  followed  by 
a  more  extended  text  later  on.  It  is  essentially  a  statement  of 
the  principles  of  farm  forestry  considered  under  the  headings  of, 
the  timber  trees,  principles  of  establishing  stands  by  natural  re- 
production and  planting,  the  protection  of  forests,  and  improve- 
ment work.  The  matter  is  presented  in  very  clear  and  simple 
language  and  the  pamphlet  should  be  of  distinct  use  to  farmers. 

H.  S.  G. 

The  Planting  and  Care  of  Shade  Trees.  From  the  Fourth  An- 
nual Report  of  the  Forest  Reservation  Commission  of  New 
Jersey.      1908.     Patterson,   N.   J.,    1909.      Pp.    142. 

In  view  of  the  increasing  interest  in  the  care  of  city  trees,  this 
publication  is  very  welcome.  Many  towns  and  cities  are  appoint- 
ing tree  wardens  and  shade  tree  commissions  and  need  preciselv 
the  information  presented  in  this  report. 

The  pamphlet  contains  three  articles :  First,  The  Planting  and 
Care  of  Shade  Trees,  by  Alfred  Gaskill,  State  Forester ;  second, 
Insects  Injurious  to  Shade  Trees,  by  J.  B.  Smith,  State  Entomolo- 
gist ;  third,  Fungi  of  Native  and  Shade  Trees,  by  B.  D.  Halsted, 
State  Botanist. 

The  report  contains  also  the  laws  of  New  Jersey  relating  to 
shade  trees. 

It  would  have  been  very  useful  if  there  had  been  included  in- 
formation regarding  the  proper  organization  by  a  town  or  city 
of  the  work  of  the  care  of  the  shade  trees.  The  municipality 
first  looking  toward  the  protection  of  its  trees  needs  information 


Current  Literature.  427 

as  to  the  cost  of  the  actual  work  of  spraying,  pruning,  and  plant- 
ing, and  the  cost  of  administering  shade  tree  departments. 

The  experience  of  such  cities  as  New  Jersey,  Newark  and  East 
Orange,  and  of  cities  in  other  states,  would  have  been  very  useful. 

H.  S.  G. 

The  Present  Status  of  the  White  Pine  Blight.  By  Perley 
Spaulding.  Circular  No.  35,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry.    Pp.  12. 

This  circular  has  been  issued  to  allay  fears  for  the  safety  of 
the  White  Pine  which  has  been  subject  to  a  noticeable  disease 
during  the  past  few  years.  In  1907,  the  disease  was  apparently 
due  to  a  parasitic  fungus  in  the  leaves,  although  the  primary 
cause  may  have  been  the  extreme  climatic  conditions  of  the  pre- 
ceding winters.  Relatively  few  trees  were  actually  killed  by  this 
leaf  blight.  No  new  trees  became  affected,  and  half  of  the  dis- 
eased trees  recovered  in  the  following  season. 

In  1908,  the  diseased  pines  were  suffering  chiefly  from  twig- 
blight  which  was  due  in  some  cases  to  winter  killing,  in  others 
to  insect  and  fungus  parasites.  Serious  damage  by  the  parasites 
is  not  anticipated,  and  winter  killing  of  twigs  usually  results  only 
in  retarding  growth  for  a  year  or  two.  C.  D.  PL 

The  Present  Status  of  the  Chestnut  Bark  Disease.  By  Haven 
Metcalf  and  J.  Franklin  Collins.  Bulletin  No.  141,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.    Part  V.     Pp.  45-53. 

This  bulletin  is  not  so  hopeful  as  the  circular  from  the  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry  mentioned  above.  The  disease  appears  prac- 
tically to  exterminate  the  chestnut  trees  in  any  locality  which  it 
infests,  since,  in  the  past  five  years  it  has  killed  more  than  half 
of  the  trees  in  New  York  City  and  its  environs,  where  it  is  esti- 
mated to  have  caused  a  financial  loss  of  several  million  dollars. 
From  this  center  it  has  spread  north  to  Rhode  Island  and  south 
to  Virginia. 

The  disease  is  being  distributed  rapidly  by  means  of  nursery 
stock.  Cases  have  been  noted  where  it  has  undoubtedly  spread 
to  native  trees  from  this  source.  The  bulletin  recommends  that 
chestnut  nursery  stock  be  placed  upon  the  quarantine  list  by  the 
state  governments.     Apparently  the  only  way  to  fight  the  disease 


428  Forestry  Quarterly. 

successfully   is   to  burn   the   infested  parts,   still   better   in  most 
cases,  the  entire  tree. 

The  disease  has  not  yet  extended  to  the  commercial  forests  of 
chestnut  in  the  southern  mountains,  and  they  may  be  outside  of 
its  probable  range,  but  it  is  potentially  so  dangerous  that  every 
effort  should  be  made  to  check  its  spread.  C.  D.  H. 

Directions  for  Collecting  and  Preserving  Insects.  By  N. 
Banks.  Smithsonian  Institution,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  Bulle- 
tin 67.     1909.     Pp.   135,  pi.   1,  figs.   188. 

After  a  brief  statement  of  the  characteristics  of  the  classifica- 
tory  groups  of  insects,  the  writer  describes  very  fully  and  simply 
the  necessary  apparatus  for  their  collection,  mounting  and  stor- 
ing. Details  are  given  also  of  the  special  methods  suitable  for 
larvae  and  wing  mounts.  Hints  are  given  for  collecting  the  va- 
rious groups,  and  in  addition  the  reader  will  find  a  fund  of  infor- 
mation as  to  insect  cases,  arrangement  of  specimens,  dealing  with 
collection  pests,  breeding  and  shipping  specimens,  etc. 

The  bulletin  is  a  good  one,  generously  illustrated,  and  made 
more  useful  by  a  list  of  entomological  periodicals  and  dealers  in 
supplies,  and  a  bibliography.  J.  H.  W. 


OTHER  CURRENT  LITERATURE. 

Report  of  the  British  Timber  Conference.  Issued  by  the  Royal 
English  Arboricultural  Society.     London,   1909.     Pp.  48. 

Contains  the  following  papers :  Railroad  Rates  for  Native  as 
Compared  with  Imported  Foreign  Timber,  by  Chas.  Hopton  (a 
protest  against  discrimination)  ;  Extraordinary  Traffic  and  Ex- 
cessive Weight,  by  E.  Charles ;  The  Rating  and  Taxation  of 
Woodlands,  by  Leslie  S.  Wood  (suggests  a  scheme  of  remission 
to  woodland  owners  who  attempt  to  carry  out  forestry  principles)  ; 
The  Best  Means  of  Encouraging  the  Consumption  of  Native 
Timber,  by  Murray  Marshall. 


Other  Current  Literature.  429 

Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  American  Foresters.  Vol.  IV, 
No.    r,    1909. 

Contains  the  following  articles:  The  New  Reconnaissance — 
Working  Plans  that  Work,  by  A.  B.  Recknagel;  Experiment 
Stations  on  the  National  Forests,  by  S.  T.  Dana;  Forestry  for 
Railroads,  by  E.  A.  Sterling;  Problems  in  Nursery  Practice,  by 
C.  R.  Pettis;  Plant  Formations  and  Forest  Types,  by  F.  E. 
Clements ;  Relation  Between  State  and  Private  Forestry  in  Penn- 
sylvania, by  J.  T.  Rothrock;  Some  Notes  on  the  Yellow  Pine 
Forests  of  Central  Alabama,  by  R.  C.  Bryant;  A  Study  of  the 
Reproductive  Characteristics  of  Lodgepole  Pine,  by  G.  E.  Tower ; 
Preliminary  Forest  Management  in  the  Southwest,  by  T.  S. 
Woolsey,  Jr.;    Timber  Estimating,  by  H.  H.  Chapman. 

Yearbook  of  Forestry.  Seventh  Annual  Report  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Protection  of  the  New  Hampshire  Forests.  1909.  Pp.  78. 
Illustrated. 

Forest  Laws  of  New  Hampshire.  Bulletin  No.  1.  Concord, 
New  Hampshire.     1909.     Pp.   18. 

The  Genus  Dendroctonus.  By  A.  D.  Hopkins.  Technical 
Series  No.  17,  Part  1,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.     1909.     Pp.  164.     Illustrated. 

Bark  Beetles  of  the  Genus  Dendroctonus.  By  A.  D.  Hopkins. 
Bulletin  No.  83,  Part  1,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.  1909.  Pp.  169.  Illus- 
trated. 

Year  Book  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  1908.  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.     1909.     Pp.  822. 

Contains  an  article  on  the  progress  of  Forestry  in  1908,  by 
Treadwell  Cleveland,  Jr.,  and  statistical  tables  of  Forest  Pro- 
ducts, of  Forest  Associations,  Schools  of  Forestry,  and  State 
Forest  Officers. 

Silvical  Leaflets,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  Washington,  1909:  No. 
43,  Red  or  Norway  Pine;   No.  44,  Jack  Pine;    No.  46,  Limber 


430  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Pine;    No.  47,  Pinon  Pine;    No.  48,  Pignut  Hickory;    No.  49, 
Shagbark  Hickory;  No.  50,  Big  Shell-Bark  Hickory. 

Instructions  for  the  Building  and  Maintenance  of  Telephone 
Lines  on  the  National  Forests.  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.     1909.     Pp.  23.     Illustrated. 

Location  and  Area  of  the  National  Forests  in  the  United  States, 
Alaska,  and  Porto  Rico;  and  Dates  When  Latest  Proclamations 
Became  Effective.  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C. 
1909. 

The  list  shows  a  grand  total  of  150  national  forests,  aggregat- 
ing i94,5°5>325  acres. 

Properties  and  Uses  of  Southern  Pine.  By  H.  S.  Betts.  Cir- 
cular No.  164,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C.  1909. 
Pp.  30. 

The  Green  Striped  Maple  Worm.  By  L.  O.  Howard  and  F.  H. 
Chittenden.  Circular  No.  no,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.     1909.     Pp.  7. 

Record  of  Wholesale  Prices  of  Lumber.    U.  S.  Forest  Service. 
Heretofore  this  material  has  been  published  monthly  by  the 
Forest  Service.     Hereafter  it  will  be  published  quarterly. 

Pulp  Wood  Consumption  for  1908.  Forest  Products  No.  1, 
Bureau  of  the  Census.  Compiled  in  co-operation  with  the  Forest 
Service,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Pp.  12. 

Tan  Bark  and  Tanning  Extracts  for  1908.  Forest  Products 
No.  4,  Bureau  of  the  Census.  Compiled  in  co-operation  with  the 
Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington, 
D.  C.     Pp.  10. 

Wood  Distillation  for  1908.  Forest  Products  No.  7,  Bureau 
of  the  Census.  Compiled  in  co-operation  with  the  Forest  Ser- 
vice, U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.    Pp.  10. 


Other  Current  Literature.  431 

Cross  Ties  Purchased  for  1908.  Forest  Products  No.  8,  Bureau 
of  the  Census.  Compiled  in  co-operation  with  the  Forest  Ser- 
vice, U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.    Pp.  8. 

Poles  Purchased  for  1908.  Forest  Products  No.  9,  Bureau  of 
the  Census.  Compiled  in  co-operation  with  the  Forest  Service, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.    Pp.  8. 

Emergency  Bulletin  on  the  Blister  Rust  of  Pines  and  the  Euro- 
pean Currant  Rust.  By  George  G.  At  wood.  Horticultural  Bul- 
letin No.  2,  New  York  State  Department  of  Agriculture,  Albany, 
N.  Y.     1909.     Pp.  15. 

European  Currant  Rust  on  the  White  Pine  in  America.  By  P. 
Spalding.  Circular  No.  38,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.     1909.     Pp.  4. 

Co-operative  Experiments  in  Forest  Planting.  By  F.  J.  Phil- 
lips. Circular  No.  1,  Department  of  Forestry,  University  of  Ne- 
braska, Lincoln,  Nebraska.     1909. 

Missouri's  Opportunities  in  Forestry.  By  S.  J.  Record.  Re- 
print from  New  York  Report  of  Missouri  State  Board  of  Horti- 
culture.   Pp.  7. 

First  Biennial  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Forestry  of  Ore- 
gon for  1907-8.     Salem.  Oregon.     1909.     Pp.  39. 

Fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  Shade  Tree  Commission  of  New- 
ark, New  Jersey.     1909.     Pp.  54. 

Experiment  Station  Work.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  60,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.     1909. 

Contains  an  article  on  Street  Trees :  Their  Care  and  Preserva- 
tion. 

Conservation  of  Natural  Resources.  The  Annals  of  the  Ameri- 
can Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  Vol.  XXXIII,  No. 
3.     Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania.     1909.     Pp.  256. 

Contains  the  following  articles : 


432  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Forestry  on  Private  Lands,  Hon.  Gifford  Pinchot. 

Public   Regulation  of   Private   Forests,   Professor   H.    S. 

Graves. 
Can  the  States  Regulate  the  Private  Forests  ?    F.  C.  Zach- 

arie. 
Water  as  a  Resource,  W.  J.  McGee,  LL.  D. 
Water  Power  in  the  United  States,  M.  O.  Leighton. 
The  Scope  of  State  and  Federal  Legislation  Concerning 

the  Use  of  Waters,  C.  E.  Wright. 
The  Necessity  for  State  or  Federal  Regulation  of  Water 

Power  Development,  C.  W.  Baker,  C.  E. 
Federal  Control  of  Water  Power  in  Switzerland,  T.  Cleve- 
land. 
Classification  of  the  Public  Lands,  G.  W.  Woodruff. 
A  Summary  of  Our  Most  Important  Land  Laws,  Hon. 

Knute  Nelson. 
Indian  Lands:    Their  Administration  with  Reference  to 

Present  and  Future  Use,  Hon.  Francis  E.  Leupp. 
The  Conservation  and  Preservation  of  Soil  Fertility,  C.  G- 

Hopkins. 
Farm  Tenure  in  the  United  States,  Henry  Gannett. 
What  May  be  Accomplished  by  Reclamation,  Hon.  F.  H. 

Newell. 
The  Legal  Problems  of  Reclamation  of  Lands  by  Means 

of  Irrigation,  Morris  Bien. 
Our  Mineral  Resources,  Hon.  G.  O.  Smith. 
The   Production   and   Waste   of   Mineral   Resources   and 

Their  Bearing  on  Conservation,  J.  A.  Holmes. 
Preservation  of  the  Phosphates  and  the  Conservation  of 

the  Soil,  C.  R.  Van  Hise. 

The  Report  of  the  National  Conservation  Commission  and  the 
Chronological  History  of  the  Conservation  Movement.  Bulletin 
No.  4.  Issued  by  the  Joint  Committee  on  Conservation.  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.     1909.     Pp.  52. 

Report  on  National  Vitality;  Its  Waste  and  Conservation.  By 
Irving  Fisher.  Public  Bulletin  No.  30,  of  the  Committee  of  One 
Hundred  on  National  Health.  Prepared  by  the  National  Con- 
servation Commission.     1909. 


Other  Current  Literature.  433 

Conservation  of  Resources  in  California.  By  Edward  Hyatt. 
From  the  23rd  Biennial  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction  of  California.  Sacremento,  California.  1909.  Pp. 
98.     Illustrated. 

An  admirable  popular  presentation  of  conservation  problems. 

The  Riding  Mountain  Forest  Reserve.  By  J.  R.  Dickson. 
Bulletin  No.  6,  Forestry  Branch,  Department  of  the  Interior, 
Ottawa,  Canada.     1909.     Pp.  42. 

Indian  Woods  and  Their  Uses.  By  R.  S.  Troupe.  Economic 
Products  Series,  Vol.  1,  No.  1.    Calcutta.    1909.    Pp.  273. 

Ethyl  Alcohol,  made  from  Wood  Waste.  How  it  is  done  and 
what  the  process  means  to  the  world. 

A  trade  announcement  of  the  Standard  Alcohol  Company  of 
Chicago,  containing  a  description  of  the  newly  discovered  pro- 
cess. 

Forestry  in  Nature  Study.  Special  Circular,  Office  of  Experi- 
ment Stations,  U.   S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington, 

D.  C.     1909.     Pp.  10. 

The  Rabbits  of  North  America.  By  E.  W.  Nelson.  North 
American  Fauna  No.  29,  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.  1909.  Pp.  314, 
pis.  13. 

Exports  and  Imports  of  Forest  Products,  1908.  By  A.  H.  Pier- 
son.  Circular  162,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, Washington,  D.  C.     1909.     Pp.  29. 

The  Future  of  the  Forests.  By  E.  T.  Allen.  Oregon  Conser- 
vation Association,  Portland,  Oregon,  1909.     Pp.  10. 

Forest  Trees  of  Maine  and  How  to  Know  Them.     By  Gordon 

E.  Tower.     Maine  Forestry  Department.     1909.     Pp.  62.     Illus- 
trated. 

Co-operative  Demonstration  Forestry.  Bulletin  6,  Volume  XI, 
University  of  Maine,  1909.     Pp.  10.     Illustrated. 


434  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Care  of  the  Farm  Woodlot.  By  Gordon  E.  Tower.  Timely 
Helps  for  Farmers  Series,  No.  8,  Volume  I.  University  of  Maine, 
19x59. 

Trees:  a  handbook  of  forest  botany  for  the  woodlands  and  the 
laboratory.  Vol.  V :  Form  and  Habits,  with  an  appendix  on 
Seedlings.  By  H.  M.  Ward.  Cambridge  University  Press. 
1909.     Pp.  308. 

This  volume,  which  completes  the  series,  treats  the  subject  after 
the  method  of  the  preceding  volumes. 


PERIODICAL  LITERATURE. 

FOREST  GEOGRAPHY  AND  DESCRIPTION. 

In  two  further  instalments  Dr.  Martin  fin- 

Forest  ishes  his  critical  review  of  forest  manage- 

Conditions  ment  in  France,  the  one  referring  to  refor- 

in  estation   of   waste   lands,   especially   of  the 

France.  Landes,  the  other  to  forest  management  in 

the  Pyrenees. 

In  the  light  of  our  movement  for  the  conservation  of  resources 
the  reforestation  of  the  Landes  should  attract  particular  attention. 
It  exhibits  a  brilliant  example  of  the  permanent  success  of  well 
planned  persistent  activity  through  60  years  on  a  large  scale, 
some    1,675,000  acres   being   involved. 

The  character  of  the  Landes  in  their  original  condition,  a 
heath  on  infertile  sand  with  impervious  subsoil — hence  swampy 
like  the  so-called  barrens  of  Nova  Scotia  and  other  parts  of  this 
continent — has  often  been  described. 

The  work  of  reclaiming  these  wastes  was  done  partly  by  the 
State  directly,  partly  by  the  municipalities  under  force  of  legisla- 
tion. Remarkable  to  tell,  by  sale  on  the  part  of  municipalities  the 
larger  portion  of  these  reclaimed  lands  (80  per  cent.)  belong  now 
to  private  owners,  14  per  cent,  to  corporations,  and  only  6  per  cent, 
to  the  State. 

The  legislation  of  1857  obliged  municipalities  to  reforest;  in 
case  of  refusal,  the  State  was  to  do  it  and  retain  the  land  until 
recouped.  In  the  end,  the  municipalities  unloaded  their  obligation 
in  part  on  private  owners  by  selling  their  lands,  and  these  have 
reforested  them  to  their  financial  advantage,  the  investment  of 
some  ten  million  dollars  having  made  these  areas  worth  tenfold. 

This  experience  is  rather  damaging  to  the  theory  that  such 
vast  undertakings  in  forestry  can  only  be  carried  on  by  the  State 
directly. 

Another  theory  which  has  proved  erroneous  here,  is  that  for- 
estry furnishes  little  opportunity  for  human  labor.  Compared 
with  what  was  the  case,  a  considerable  population  finds  lucrative 


436  Forestry  Quarterly. 

employment  now.  The  region  offers  a  most  varied  picture  of 
farm,  forest,  vineyard  and  orchard. 

Pine  (P.  maritima)  is  almost  exclusively  planted  on  the  larger 
areas ;  on  smaller  areas,  Black  Locust  is  found.  Oak  has  proved 
a  failure. 

With  railroads  running  through  these  highly  inflammable 
pineries,  and  with  the  habit  of  the  former  herders  of  burning  over 
pastures  not  entirely  subdued,  damage  from  fire  is  not  unusual. 
The  measures  of  prevention  are  wide  rides  or  fire  lines,  10  to  15 
yards  wide,  cut  open  every  1,000  yards,  which  in  the  State  forests 
is  done  systematically.  These  serve  merely  as  lines  of  defense 
from  which  to  start  counter-fires.  They  are  kept  free  from  ex- 
cessive weed-growth  and  for  one-third  of  their  width  absolutely 
clean  of  inflammable  matter,  a  sable  blanc.  Roads  and  rides  are 
kept  free  from  brush  along  their  sides. 

Distribution  of  suitable  tools  for  fire  fighting,  forbidding  all 
smoking,  and  a  telephone  service  are  also  measures  practiced. 

The  condition  of  these  plantations  is,  to  be  sure,  not  by  anv 
means,  extraordinarily  good.  Form,  density  and  increment  are 
medium  to  poor.  Ripe  stands  are  45  to  50  feet  in  height;  num- 
bers per  acre,  150  to  200;  cross  section  area,  200  to  220  square 
feet;  diameter  of  final  harvest  trees,  12  to  16  inches;  volumes, 
between  4,240  and  5,650  cubic  feet;  stands  corresponding  to 
those  of  III  and  IV  sites  in  the  North  German  sandy  plain. 

Towards  the  ocean  the  stands  under  the  influence  of  seawinds 
become  even  shorter,  in  spite  of  the  excellent  dune  improvements. 

The  management  of  these  pineries  is  simple  indeed.  The  orig- 
inal crop  was,  of  course,  planted,  but  new  crop  is  secured  by 
natural  regeneration,  the  pine  seeding  every  year.  Volunteer 
growth  is  usually  removed.  The  result  is  not  very  complete  or 
regular  or  full  stands.  These  could  be  improved  by  cutting  out 
the  broom,  which  is  impeding  the  young  crop.  The  market  for 
vineyard  stakes  permits  a  thinning  practice  beginning  with  the 
15th  year  and  repeated  every  10  years;  the  final  harvest  being 
made  at  70  years. 

The  budget  is  determined  by  area.  Five  annual  areas  are  sold 
together,  the  tapping  for  resin  being  practiced  for  5  years,  the 
final  cut  taking  place  in  the  fifth  year. 

In  the  absence  of  other  woods  the  pine  is  good  enough  for  all 
kinds  of  use,  hop  poles,  vineyard  stakes,  mine  props,  even  for 


Periodical  Literature.  437 

export,  at  5  cents  per  cubic  foot,  telegraph  poles  impregnated, 
also  for  paper  pulp,  wood  pavement  (in  blocks  at  16  cents  per 
cubic  foot),  railroad  ties  (at  55  cents  apiece),  poor  building 
material,  boxboards,  etc. 

The  value  increment,  it  appears  from  the  prices  stated,  is  con- 
siderable between  40  and  70  years  with  an  average  price  of 
say  5  cents.  The  annual  yield  may  be  placed  at  $1.60  to 
$2.00  per  acre.  But  this  low  result  is  improved  by  the  addi- 
tion of  the  resin  crop  which  may  increase  it  by  85  cents. 

Contrary  to  the  beliefs  held  in  Germany  the  bleeding  of  trees 
is  supposed  not  only  not  to  injure  but  to  improve  the  quality  of 
the  wood  in  regard  to  durability  (Demontzey)  and  to  quality  in 
general  (Violette). 

In  the  stands  designated  for  harvest  gemmage  a  mort  is  prac- 
ticed for  five  years  before  the  cut.  On  opposite  sides  the  bark 
is  removed  from  the  root  up  for  3  feet  and  an  incision  is  made, 
4  inches  wide  and  about  half  an  inch  deep,  which  is  kept  open  by 
weekly  laceration  (30  times  a  year).  A  zinc  gutter  and  a  glazed 
pot  facilitate  the  gathering  of  the  resin,  which  is  gathered  every 
3  to  5  weeks.  Only  once  a  year  is  the  scrape  gathered.  One 
tree  with  3  to  5  incisions  furnishes  at  one  harvest  about  one  quart 
liquid  resin. 

The  remaining  younger  stands  are  also  bled.  The  trees  des- 
tined to  be  removed  in  the  thinnings  are  tapped  so  as  to'  exhaust 
them  (gemmage  a  epuisement) .  The  others  are  to  be  tapped 
with  greatest  care  and  without  decreasing  the  increment.  A  di- 
ameter limit  of  13  inches  is  set  for  this  operation,  hence  the 
smaller  trees  are  exempt  from  bleeding. 

The  yield  per  acre  may  run  as  follows : 

12345    year 
160    130     130    100    95  gallons 

The  total  gross  value  of  the  harvest  is  around  $90.00,  half  of 
which  goes  to  pay  for  the  harvesting. 

In  the  last  decade  or  so,  the  French  forest  department  has  done 
considerable  work  on  a  large  scale  in  the  Pyrenees  to  correct  the 
evils  of  deforestation  on  soil  and  water  courses.  Here,  too,  when 
private  property  is  involved,  the  owners  are  forced  to  perform 
the  required  work  of  safe-guarding,  or  else  the  State  may  ex- 

28 


438  Forestry  Quarterly. 

propriate  and  do  the  work,  when  the  owners  can  buy  back  upon 
payment  of  costs  and  interest.  The  procedure  is  based  upon  a 
general  law  of  1882  and  special  declaration  on  the  public  utility 
of  the  work  in  each  case  by  the  legislature. 

The  cause  of  the  devastation  by  the  torrents  is  largely  to  be 
found  in  the  pasturing  of  steep  mountain  sides.  Also  log  slides 
are  found  to  start  the  evil  of  soil  erosion. 

The  procedures  are  the  same  as  those  well  known  in  other 
reboisement  work  of  the  French,  the  barrages  of  stone,  the  fas- 
cines of  wickerwork,  followed  by  sowing  grass  and  planting 
trees.  The  establishment  of  a  sod  often  precedes  the  tree  plant- 
ing, but  sodding  alone  is  not  permanently  efficacious.  In  the 
neighborhood  of  the  brooks,  poplar,  willow  and  alder  is  planted; 
at  a  distance,  other  deciduous  trees,  especially  maple ;  also  Scotch 
Pine,  Austrian  Pine,  P.  montana  and  cembra,  spruce,  fir,  and 
especially  larch  are  used.  The  planting  is  done  on  plats  prepared 
with  the  hoe,  3.5  to  4.5  feet  apart,  with  2  to  3  year  olds,  sometimes 
in  bunches.  The  plant  material  is  grown  in  temporary  camps; 
the  large  nurseries  at  lower  altitudes  having  been  abandoned  as 
not  satisfactory.  It  has  been  found  that  deciduous  trees  are 
more  resistant  than  conifers,  which  suffer  from  snow  breakings, 
insects,  fungi,  and  fire.  The  sprouting  capacity  of  the  former  is 
also  in  their  favor  in  the  protective  forest. 

Hence,  lately,  oak,  and  in  milder  situations  chestnut,  and  on 
gravel  beds,  Black  Locust  have  been  widely  used.  In  medium 
altitudes  up  to  5,000  feet,  the  beech  which  is  native  here,  has 
proved  best.  For  the  Alpine  situations  up  to  6,500  feet,  Mountain 
Ash,  Alder,  Birch,  and  various  willows,  mixed  in  groups  are 
most  important.     Transplanted  stock  is  mostly  used. 

The  management  of  the  existing  forest  areas  is  determined  by 
the  protective  function  of  the  forest  cover.  In  the  particular 
locality,  however,  conditions  are  such  as  to  harmonize  economic 
requirements  with  protective  functions.  The  principle  of  securing 
changes  in  stands  only  gradually,  which  is  the  one  adapted  to  pro- 
tective forest  also  satisfies  here  the  economic  needs.  Selection 
forest  with  its  group-wise  reproduction,  in  fifteen  years  return,  is 
mostly  practiced. 

The  author  closes  with  the  following  pertinent  remarks :  The 
management  of  a  protective  forest  never  consists  in  allowing  it  to 
grow  on  in  its  original  form.     By  passive  measures,  by  avoiding 


Periodical  Literature.  439 

cutting,  no  protective  forest  is  kept  in  good  condition.  It  is  de- 
cidedly needful  to  cut  all  that  is  mature.  Overmature  stands  and 
members  of  stands  are  for  protective  purposes  undesirable,  as 
these  forests  clearly  show.  The  old  firs  and  beeches  are  rotten, 
break  down  in  storms,  and  make  undesirable  openings.  Repro- 
duction, young  growths  in  good  condition,  furnish  the  best  pro- 
tection. 

Mitteilungen  iiber  forstliche  Verh'dltnisse  in  Frankreich.  Forstwissen- 
schatfliches  Centralblatt.    July,  August,  1909.     Pp.  375-386;    421-433. 

The  latest  statistics  (1905)  give  the  follow- 
Timber  ing  ownership  classification  of  forest  land 

Famine  in   France:     State,   2,881,070  acres;    com- 

in  munal  and  institutional  4,844,310  acres,  pri- 

France.  vate,  15,000,000  acres.     Eighteen  per  cent, 

of  the  State  and  3.6  per  cent,  of  the  com- 
munal and  institutional  forest  land  is  considered  unproductive, 
the  reason  for  the  former  high  figure  being  that  the  State  delib- 
erately buys  up  denuded  land  for  reforestation. 

Thus  only  some  seven  and  one-half  million  acres  is  forest  under 
government  control.  The  State  forests  are  of  course  under  abso- 
lute control,  but  in  the  communal  and  institutional  forests  the 
supervision  is  less  effective,  while  in  the  case  of  the  fifteen  million 
acres  of  private  woodland  the  restrictions  of  the  law  of  1859  na"V'e 
been  so  poorly  enforced  that  they  are  seriously  exhausted. 

Statistics  show  the  financial  return  per  acre  to  be  much  higher 
on  the  State  forests  than  in  those  belonging  to  communes  and 
institutions.  This  is  to  be  explained  not  alone  on  the  ground  of 
more  able  management,  but  also  because  the  products  include  a 
higher  percentage  of  larger  sizes — in  other  words,  there  is  less 
depletion  in  the  State  forests.  In  the  case  of  privately  owned 
forests  this  depletion  has  gone  still  farther,  and  it  is  becoming 
more  and  more  difficult  to  obtain  high  grade  lumber.  At  the 
present  time,  France  can  meet  her  own  needs  only  in  firewood, 
ties,  poles,  posts,  etc. ;  the  higher  grades  of  lumber  and  timber 
must  be  imported,  so  that  to-day  this  country  ranks  third  in  wood 
imports  among  European  countries. 

In  consequence  of  this  condition  of  affairs  the  French  govern- 
ment is  not  only  busy  reforesting,  but  has  in  preparation  a  new 
law  to  encourage  reforestation,  which  will  also  impose  more  re- 


44°  Forestry  Quarterly. 

strictions  upon  the  cutting  of  timber  on  communal  and  private 
forest  lands. 

The  Inadequacy  of  Home  Grown  Timber  in  France.  The  Indian  For- 
ester.   September,  1909.    Pp.  543-548. 

The   following  description  of  a  portion  of 
Alaskan  the  Yukon  River  basin,  where  it  enters  the 

Forest  United  States  from  Canada,  is  given  by  Mr. 

Conditions.  Wilfred  H.  Osgood. 

"The  low  banks  are  fairly  well  wooded, 
but  their  most  common  condition  is  what  may  be  called  semi- 
tundra — a  line  of  fair-sized  trees  bordering  the  river,  and  inland 
on  more  or  less  level  ground,  moss  and  small  shrubs,  with  a  few 
scattered  trees  and  many  small  ponds.  A  few  islands  appear  here 
and  there,  becoming  larger  and  more  numerous  as  Circle  is  ap- 
proached. They  are  flat  and  heavily  timbered  and  rarely  more 
than  a  mile  in  length. 

The  region  as  a  whole  is  not  heavily  timbered,  and  deciduous 
trees  greatly  outnumber  the  conifers.  The  most  abundant  trees 
are  poplars  (P.  tremnloides  and  P.  balsamifera).  The  White  and 
Black  Spruce  (Picea  canadensis  and  P.  mariana)  occur,  but 
neither  attains  large  size,  usually  being  from  six  to  ten  inches  in 
diameter.  They  grow  in  small  clumps  on  the  central  parts  of  the 
islands,  in  protected  places  on  the  hillsides,  in  long  fringes  on  the 
low  banks  of  the  river,  and  rather  scatteringly  throughout  the 
more  or  less  level  country.  The  Paper  Birch  {Be  tula  alaskana) 
is  mixed  with  the  poplars,  but  is  neither  large  nor  abundant.  The 
Dwarf  Juniper  {Juniperus  nana)  is  common  in  dry  gulches  and 
occasionally  occurs  on  open  hillsides. 

Other  woody  plants  worthy  of  mention  are  as  follows :  Alders 
(Alnusf)  :  Very  abundant,  chiefly  in  damp  situations  on  level 
or  nearly  level  ground;  sometimes  in  dense  and  very  extensive 
thickets  growing  in  swamps  to  the  exclusion  of  almost  all  other 
trees  and  shrubs.  Willows  (Salixf)  :  Several  species  occur, 
mostly  about  the  borders  of  the  islands  and  wherever  the  river 
banks  are  low  and  sandy.  From  the  ripe  catkins  (in  July),  seeds 
were  blown  by  every  current  of  air.  Dwarf  Birch  {Betula 
glandulosa)  :  Very  abundant  in  damp  situations  where  semi- 
tundra   conditions   prevail.      Buffalo   Berry    {Lepargyrea   cana- 


Periodical  Literature.  441 

densis)  :  Found  sparingly  all  along  the  route.  High-bush 
Cranberry  (Viburnum  pauciflorum)  :  Quite  abundant  in  many 
localities;  in  full  bloom  about  July  1.  Wild  Rose  (Rosa  acicu- 
laris)  :  Very  common,  particularly  on  comparatively  dry  ground 
near  the  edge  of  spruce  woods;  blooming  profusely  early  in 
July.  Arctic  Sagebrush  (Artemisia  frigida)  :  Abundant  on 
dry  sandy  hillsides  with  southern  exposure,  where  it  grows  to 
the  exclusion  of  almost  all  other  plants.  Labrador  Tea 
(Ledum)  :  Rampant  in  suitable  places,  always  so  in  semi- 
tundra,  and  very  conspicuous  on  account  of  its  striking  starry 
white  flowers.  Dwarf  Laurel  (Kahnia  glauca)  :  Abundant  in 
swamps.  Andromeda  (Andromeda)  :  Occasionally  found  in 
swamps  in  great  abundance.  Bear  Berry  (Arctostaphylos 
uvaursi)  :     Fairly  common,  but  much  scattered. 

The  trees,  shrubs,  and  general  plant  life  are  much  the  same  as 
throughout  the  Hudsonian  and  Arctic-Alpine  zones  elsewhere 
in  the  northwest.  Among  those  worthy  of  mention  are  the  fol- 
lowing: 

Picea  canadensis  (White  Spruce). — The  most  abundant  coni- 
fer; occurs  in  scattered  clumps  near  timberline  and  in  more  or 
less  continuous  forest  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the  mountain  and 
on  comparatively  dry  ground  lower  down.  The  trees  along 
Mission  Creek  are  not  very  large,  being  about  eight  inches  in 
diameter  and  from  thirty  to  fifty  feet  high.  A  few  groves  of 
larger  ones  were  seen  on  Comet  Creek,  some  being  eighteen 
inches  or  more  in  diameter  and  about  sixty  feet  high. 

Picea  mariana  (Black  Spruce). — Common  in  moist  places  on 
high  exposed  ridges  and  saddles,  as  well  as  in  swampy  flats 
lower  down. 

Popidus  tremuloides  (Aspen). — Common  on  dry  knolls  and 
low  ridges  near  Eagle  and  scattering  along  Mission  and 
Seward  creeks. 

Populus  balsamifera  (Balsam  Poplar). — Common,  probably 
more  so  than  P.  tremuloides.  In  many  places  along  Mission 
Creek  it  stands  in  large  groves,  many  trees  of  which  are  sixty 
to  seventy  feet  high.  It  is  cut  for  fuel  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties wherever  easily  accessible,  being  preferrd  to  the  other  tim- 
ber of  the  region. 

Salix  (Willow). — Several  undetermined  species  of  willow 
occur    along    the    streams.     The    following    two    species    grow 


442  Forestry  Quarterly. 

above  timberline:  Salix  reticulata  (Net-veined  Willow). — 
Found  sparingly  in  the  matted  vegetation  high  above  timberline. 
Salix  phlebophylla. — One  small  colony  of  several  plants  was 
observed  on  a  rocky  flat  near  Glacier  Mountain.  Specimens 
were  preserved,  and  have  been  identified  by  Frederick  V.  Co- 
ville. 

Alnus  sinuata  (Alder). — Much  less  common  than  in  moun- 
tains near  Cook  Inlet  and  other  points  on  the  Alaska  coast. 
It  does  not  form  extensive  thickets  on  the  open  mountain  sides 
nor  even  in  the  draws  above  timberline,  but  is  confined  chiefly 
to  the  borders  of  streams  below  timberline. 

Betula  glandulosa  (Dwarf  Birch). — Excessively  abundant; 
by  far  the  most  common  shrub  on  the  upper  slopes  of  the  moun- 
tains, chiefly  above  timberline,  in  many  places  growing  in 
thickets  covering  five  to  ten  acres.  According  to  situation  and 
possibly  soil,  these  thickets  may  be  of  very  low  almost  prostrate 
shrubs  not  exceeding  eight  inches  in  height,  or  they  may  be 
good-sized  bushes  two  to  four  feet  high. 

Betula  alaskana  (Paper  Birch). — Along  Mission  Creek  beau- 
tiful groves  of  birch  are  frequently  seen.  In  such  places  there 
is  little  underbrush  and  the  ground  is  covered  luxuriantly  with 
grass  (Agrostis).  A  few  birches  are  scattered  indiscriminately 
throughout  the  spruce  forest.  Along  Seward  Creek  a  few 
small  trees  occur  not  far  below  timberline. 

North  American  Fauna  No.  jo.  Biological  Survey,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  1909. 

In  the  island  of  Java  there  are   1,665,000 
Government         acres     of    Government     forest — principally 
Forests  teak-wood.      They     are     primeval     forests, 

of  more  or  less  damaged  by  dishonest  fellings. 

Java,  Three  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  acres  of 

them  consist  already  of  plantations.  Nearly 
all  these  forests  are  worked  on  working  plans.  In  the  greater 
part — 1,545,000  acres — the  management  is  not  so  thorough,  as 
forests  are  felled  there  by  contractors.  In  the  remaining  part — 
120,000  acres — management  is  effective,  the  timber  bing  cut  by 
the  Forest  Service.  The  area  under  effective  management  in- 
creases yearly,  and  consequently  the  felling  by  contractors  will  de- 
crease in  future.     In  1907  the  teak  forests  yielded  175,000  tons  of 


Periodical  Literature.  443 

timber,  of  which  129,000  tons  were  cut  by  contractors,  39,000  tons 
by  the  Forest  Service,  and  about  7,000  tons  by  others.  The  yield 
of  fire-wood  and  fuel  was  27,000,000  cubic  feet  (stacked). 

Government  felling  was  started  in  1897.  In  1905  these  fellings 
yielded  26,000  tons  of  teak  timber,  the  next  year  36,000  tons,  and 
in  1907  the  yield  was  39,000  tons.  Fellings  by  contractors  yielded 
in  those  years  120,000,  116,000  and  129,000  tons  respectively. 
Nearly  all  forests  being  worked  on  working  plans,  it  cannot  be 
expected  that  the  annual  output  will  increase  by  increased  felling 
of  forests. 

Contractors  arrange  for  the  exploitation  of  forests  with  a  yearly 
supply  of  about  1,400  tons  of  timber  for  five  to  eight  years.  They 
pay  a  certain  sum  per  month  or  year,  or  at  a  rate  per  ton  of  timber 
yielded.  The  exploitation  of  these  forests  is  mostly  determined 
by  open  contract,  a  great  number  of  such  forests  being  in  the 
hands  of  a  few  companies,  who  sell  the  timber  after  its  arrival  in 
depots,  or  export  it.  The  timber  supplied  by  the  Forest  Service 
is  mostly  sold  at  public  auction,  the  supply  of  some  Government 
depots  being  sold  by  public  tender. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  year  the  Government  started  an  ex- 
periment with  a  donkey  engine  that  was  ordered  from  Seattle. 
Prior  to  this  time  all  the  timber  had  been  hauled  to  the  roads  by 
buffaloes  or  by  men.  The  transport  from  the  forest  to  the  nearest 
railway  or  great  river  is  done  along  logging  railroads  or  on 
buffalo  cars.  Floatable  streams  are  scarce  in  Java.  Most  of  this 
timber  is  hewn  into  balks  that  are  made  in  the  forest  with  the  axe. 
However  in  the  last  few  years  the  production  of  logs  has  been 
growing  into  practice. 

The  export  of  teak  timber  in  1907  was  47,000  tons,  distributed 
as  follows :  24,500  tons  to  Europe,  3,600  tons  to  Asia,  18,000  tons 
(mostly  sleepers)  to  Africa,  650  tons  to  Australia,  and  150  tons 
to  America.  128,000  tons  were  used  in  Java.  The  export  has  in- 
creased of  late  years.  In  1903  it  was  20,000  tons;  in  1904,  22,000 
tons ;  in  1905,  43,000  tons ;  in  1906,  46,000  tons,  and  in  1907, 
47,000  tons.  Besides  the  teak  forests,  Java  has  wild  wood  forests 
of  considerable  extent.  All  wood  that  is  not  teak  is  called  wild 
wood  here.  However,  the  good  timbers  have  disappeared  from 
most  forests.  They  occur  still  in  the  mountains,  but  transporta- 
tion is  difficult  there.  Besides,  many  of  the  mountain  forests  have 
been  reserved  for  climatological  and  hydrological  reasons. 


444  Forestry  Quarterly. 

In  other  islands  (Sumatra,  Borneo,  Celebes,  etc.)  there  is  no 
forest  management  deserving  the  name.  However,  the  Govern- 
ment is  considering  the  exploitation  by  contract  in  the  Island  of 
Sumatra  of  a  great  forest  area.  Of  course,  it  would  be  necessary 
for  capital  to  interest  itself  in  this  enterprise.  Steam  logging  ap- 
pliances and  saw  mills  and  export  on  a  large  scale  would  be 
necessary  conditions  for  success. 

There  are  still  enormous  areas  covered  with  forest  on  these 
islands.  Thus,  if  the  experiment  should  be  tried  and  prove  a  suc- 
cess, exploitation  could  be  greatly  extended  there. 

Canada  Lumberman  and  Wood  Worker.     October  15,  1909.     P.  31. 

Although  Chile  imports  from  three  to  five 
Forestry  million    dollars    worth    of    wood    from    the 

in  United  States  in  addition  to  wood  manufac- 

Chile.  tures  from  the  States  and  other  countries  of 

around  half  a  million,  she  has  in  the  south- 
ern portions  a  valuable  forest  resource  with  excellent  woods, 
among  which  the  most  useful  are  Rauli,  a  mahogany-like  wood ; 
Roble  Pellin,  a  beech ;  Laurel ;  Luma ;  Canelo ;  Ulmo ;  Quillay ; 
Coihue  ;  a  larch  ;  a  pine ;  a  cypress.  Absence  of  means  of  trans- 
portation and  the  very  rainy  climate  make  exploitation  difficult  and 
expensive.  Yet,  in  1907  and  1908,  some  four  lumber  companies 
with  a  capital  of  nearly  two  million  dollars  were  formed. 

Fire  has  been,  as  everywhere  on  the  American  continent, 
the  worst  enemy,  and  of  the  75,000  square  miles  (26.7%)  of  es- 
timated forest  area  probably  little  of  it  has  remained  untouched. 
In  1872,  a  forest  protection  law  was  passed,  but  in  1891  again 
abolished,  having  probably  never  been  applied.  In  1908,  a  re- 
vival of  this  law  was  proposed  in  the  legislature,  and  the  govern- 
ment of  Magallanes  Territory  instituted  a  commission  to  draw 
up  a  forest  and  field  code  to  stem  in  part  the  forest  destruction. 

Silva.    August,  1909.    Pp.  570-572. 

Most  of  the   South   American   forests   are 
Forest  Resources     tropical,  but  in  the  Andes  and  at  the  south- 
of  ern  end  of  the  continent  may  be  found  for- 

South  America.       ests    characteristic   of   temperate   and    sub- 
arctic zones.    The  tropical  forests  have  such 
a  mixture  of  species  that  logging  is  always  expensive  and  often 


Periodical  Literature.  445 

unprofitable.  Rubber  hunters  have  traversed  most  of  the  areas 
where  rubber  trees  may  be  found.  Otherwise  the  forests  have 
scarcely  been  touched  except  along  the  coast  and  principal  rivers. 
In  Paraguay  the  timbers  of  lapacho  and  quebracho  used  by 
Jesuit  missionaries  are  well  preserved  while  imported  North 
American  woods  decay  rapidly.  In  Columbia  the  eucalyptus 
grows  very  successfully.  The  west  coast  depends  almost  entirely 
on  North  American  woods  because  of  the  transportation  difficul- 
ties caused  by  the  mountains. 

Canada  Lumberman  and  Wood  Worker.    June  15,  1909. 
BOTANY  AND   ZOOLOGY. 

The  student  of  Biological  Dendrology  can 
Present  Problems  find  no  more  suggestive  and  stimulating 
in  Plant  Ecology.      reading  than  that  in  the  series  of  articles 

cited  below.  Dr.  Cowles'  paper  is  a  protest 
against  the  theory  of  vitalism  in  Plant  Ecology,  that  is,  the  phil- 
osophy that  plants  develop  structures  because  such  structures  are 
of  use  to  them.  To  cite  one  of  his  many  illustrations :  "Hard  bast 
and  similar  mechanical  tissues  are  an  undoubted  source  of  strength 
in  plants,  yet  recent  experiments  have  failed  to  get  any  significant 
response  in  bast  development  by  exposing  growing  tissues  to  con- 
siderable tension.  Bast  primordia,  however,  are  very  plastic  and 
respond  readily  to  changes  in  moisture.  Thus,  bast  fibers  do  not 
adapt  themselves  to  a  demand  for  tensile  strength,  although  such 
a  response  would  be  highly  advantageous,  but  they  do  respond  to 
increased  transpiration,  although  it  has  never  been  claimed  that 
bast  fibers  are  of  especial  value  in  checking  transpiration."  The 
writer  points  out  that  such  terms  as  adaptation,  adjustment  and 
regulation  are  misleading  because  they  are  vitalistic  words  which 
imply  that  plants  can  transcend  their  environment  and  can  con- 
travene the  ordinary  laws  of  matter. 

Dr.  Livingston  makes  a  plea  for  more  accurate  quantitative 
studies  of  the  factors  of  site  and  for  the  development  of  more 
accurate  recording  instruments.  For  example,  there  is  no  reliable 
and  practical  instrument  for  measuring  light  intensity.  The  so- 
called  photometer  is  not  a  photometer  at  all  but  an  actinometer 
and  is  thus  most  responsive  to  the  shorter  light  waves  which  are 
not  the  most  important  in  plant  activity.     Methods  for  determ- 


446  Forestry  Quarterly. 

ining  the  amount  of  soil  moisture  are  at  present  crude  and  un- 
satisfactory and  in  regard  to  the  most  important  problem  of  all, 
the  rate  of  possible  supply  or  the  resistance  offered  by  the  soil 
particles  to  water  absorption  by  the  roots,  practically  nothing  is 
known.  This  might  possibly  be  determined  approximately  by  a 
study  of  the  easily  ascertained  capillary  power  of  the  soil  with 
reference  to  vegetation,  yet  it  is  a  problem  which  ecologists  have 
hardly  even  attempted. 

Prof.  Shaw's  paper  in  the  series  has  already  been  reviewed. 
(Forestry  Quarterly,  VII,  194.) 

Professor  Spaulding  discusses  the  recent  advance  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  ecological  relations  of  desert  plants  and  he  makes 
suggestions  for  future  work.  He  shows  that  important  results 
come  from  the  simplest  experiments  and  observations  when  they 
are  conducted  with  exactness  and  with  a  definite  end  in  view. 
Such  as  these  are  the  conditions  required  for  the  germination  of 
the  seeds  of  the  various  species ;  the  determination  of  the  soil 
moisture ;  the  relative  root  development  and  the  determination 
of  the  strata  of  soils  which  the  roots  of  apparently  competing 
species  occupy;   the  pre-emption  of  the  soil  by  various  species. 

In  discussing  the  relation  of  climatic  factors  to  vegetation, 
Transeau  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  the  past  century  sixty 
different  proposals  of  geographic  zones  and  regions  have  been 
published  for  North  America  alone.  This  shows  the  futility  of 
the  point  of  view  which  disregards  all  but  one  or  two  climatic 
factors.  When  one  tries  to  apply  the  actual  distribution  of 
plants  to  these  zones  and  regions  he  is  still  further  impressed  bv 
their  inadequacy.  Actual  plant  distribution  through  its  lack  of 
uniformity,  its  tendency  to  concentric  dispersal  and  the  coinci- 
dence of  the  optimum  areas  of  many  species,  seems  to  demand  a 
larger  basis  for  classification  in  harmony  with  the  processes, 
composition,  and  origin  of  their  components.  The  point  to  be 
recognized  and  appreciated  is  that  continental  zones  and  their 
subdivisions  are  not  natural  organizations  of  plants  or  plant 
formations. 

The  writer  points  out  that  we  have  as  yet  almost  no  experi- 
mental data,  from  a  modern  point  of  view,  on  geographic  va- 
riation as  related  to  climate.  For  such  experiments  pedigreed 
plants  should  be  used.  The  use  of  seeds  from  the  same  plant  or 
branch,  or  even  from  the  same  fruit  is  not  sufficient  unless  the 


Periodical  Literature.  447 

source  of  the  pollen  is  known,  since  among  the  larger  number  of 
plants  necessary  for  such  experiments,  there  may  be  physiological 
or  ecological  races  within  a  species,  and  such  races  would  respond 
differently  to  their  environment.  The  use  of  homogeneous  ma- 
terial (elementary  species  or  varieties)  is  an  indispensable  pre- 
requisite. 

Another  field  that  is  practically  virgin  to  the  plant  ecologist  is 
exact  experimentation  in  regard  to  the  processes  of  competition, 
migration  and  adjustment  in  relation  to  climatic  factors. 

C.  D.  H. 

The  Trend  of  Ecological  Philosophy.  H.  C.  Cowles.  The  American 
Naturalist.    June,  1909.    Pp.  350-368. 

The  Present  Problems  of  Physiological  Plant  Ecology.  B.  E.  Livingston. 
The  American  Naturalist,  June,  1909.     Pp.  369-378. 

Vegetation  and  Altitude.  Ch.  H.  Shaw.  The  American  Naturalist.  July, 
1909.    Pp.  425-431. 

Problems  of  Local  Distribution  on  Arid  Regions.  V.  M.  Spaulding.  The 
American  Naturalist.    August,  1909.    Pp.  472-486. 

The  Relation  of  the  Climatic  Factors  to  Vegetation.  E.  N.  Transeau. 
The  American  Naturalist.    August,  1909.    Pp.  487-493. 

The  results  of  an  extensive  series  of  inves- 

Pruning  tigations  into  the  effects  of  pruning  at  dif- 

and  ferent    seasons    with    different    species    and 

Increment.  locations,    on   the   manner    of   treating   the 

wounds,    and   increment,   made   by   Zeder- 

bauer  at  the  Austrian  Experiment  Station,  is  of  interest  to  us  only 

so  far  as  the  physiological  data  are  concerned  and  incidentally 

as  far  as  foresters  on  this  continent  are  supposed  to  be  general 

"tree-sharps"  who  should  know  all  about  trees,  ornamental  as 

well  as  economical.     It  is,  however,  possible  that  in  the  not  very 

distant  future,  under  some  conditions,  tree  pruning  may  become  a 

forest  practice. 

As  regards  the  season  for  pruning,  it  would  appear  that  spring 
is  the  most  satisfactory,  the  operation  at  other  seasons  not  only 
delaying  the  healing  process  but  giving  rise  to  discolorations  at 
the  margin  of  the  wound.  That  the  healing  process  progresses 
more  readily  if  the  cut  is  made  close  to  the  bole  is  well  known. 
The  rapidity  of  the  process  depends  also  upon  the  species,  rapid 
growers  callusing  more  rapidly,  and  in  the  growth  conditions 
generally. 

Among  the  species  investigated  Douglas  Fir  was  included. 
Among  other  things  it  was  found  that  just  as  with  deciduous 


44&  Forestry  Quarterly. 

trees,  pruning"  in  the  fall  leads  to  browning  of  the  wound,  and  a 
retardation  of  the  callusing  process.  While  wounds  made  in 
the  spring  1906  were  in  1908  already  closed,  those  made  in  the 
fall  of  1905  were  mostly  still  open  three  years  later.  The  influ- 
ence of  .pruning  on  the  increment  of  the  cross-section  area  is  of 
special  interest.  In  these  investigations  six  to  twenty  trees  were 
treated  for  each  season. 

By  removing  one-half  of  the  crown  the  average  increments 
were  as  follows : 

1906.  1907. 

Spring, 372  sq.  in.  .341sq.m. 

Summer, 108  .  387 

Autumn, 542  .558 

Winter, 806  .682 

1.828  1.968 

Per  tree, 450  .491 

By  removing  one-third  of  the  crown  the  increments  were : 

1906.  1907. 

Spring, 713  .852 

Summer, .713  .698 

Autumn, 883  1.162 

Winter, 729  .  760 

3.038  3.472 

Per  tree, 760  .868 

When  only  dry  branches  were  removed,  i.  e.,  when  no  influence 
on  the  rate  of  growth  was  of  course  experienced,  the  increments 
were : 

1906.  1907. 

Spring,    1 .  426  1 .  410 

Summer,    .  992  2 .  092 

Autumn,    1.937  4-945 

Winter,    1.535  1.085 

5.890  9-532 

Per  tree,   1 .472  2.382 

The  loss  then  per  tree  due  to  the  removal  of  half  of  the  crown 
was  1.022  and  1.891  sq.  in.,  or  70  and  80  per  cent,  respectively 
in  the  two  years. 

The  loss  when  one-third  of  the  crown  was  removed  was  .712 
and  1.5 14  sq.  in.,  or  48  and  64  per  cent,  respectively. 

These  figures  show  a  very  considerable  influence  of  the  prun- 


Periodical  Literature.  449 

ing  on  the  rate  of  growth.  Other  species  investigated  in  these 
directions  were  beech,  oak,  and  Norway  Spruce.  Regarding  the 
latter  it  was  found  that  the  influence  on  the  cross-section  incre- 
ment was  not  as  large  as  in  the  Douglas  Fir.  Here,  also,  the  de- 
crease in  height  growth  of  twelve-year-old  spruces  was  noted,  but, 
after  a  few  years,  the  height  growth  again  gradually  increased. 

When  removing  one-third  of  the  crown  in  August,   1905,  the 
progress  of  the  height  growth  for  the  different  years  was 


1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

48 

17 

18 

II 

23 

44  cm. 

When  removing  one-half  of  the  crown  the  progress  was 
31  17  24  14  31  54  cm. 

When  only  dry  branches  were  removed, 

46  21  19  47  45  60  cm. 

Untersuchungen  iiber  die  Auf ashing  der  Waldb'dume.  Centralblatt 
f.  d.  g.  Forstwesen.     October,  1909.     Pp.  413-427. 

Dr.   Metzger,  who  some  fifteen  years  ago 
Mechanics  advanced  most  interesting  theories  to  ex- 

of  plain   the   laws   of  mechanics   under  which 

Tree  Growth.         the  form  of  tree  trunks  is  built  up,  publishes 
similar  investigations  of  the  static  and  me- 
chanical principles  involved  in  the  minute  anatomy  of  the  wood. 
The  discussion,  the  author  admits,  lacks  experimental  basis,  and 
is  therefore  fragmentary. 

The  author  discusses  the  problem  of  epi-  and  hyponasty.  Why 
in  conifers  the  underside  of  branches,  in  deciduous  trees  more 
often  the  upper  side  shows  increased  tissue  formation,  is  one  of 
them.  That  these  tissues  are  mechanical  adaptations  to  give  in 
one  case  additional  compression  strength,  in  the  other  additional 
tension  strength,  seems  clear.  The  tension  strength  of  the  upper 
side  of  a  birch  branch  showed  nearly  double  that  of  the  lower 
side. 

The  author  finds  altogether,  that  deciduous  trees  are  constructed 
more  for  tension,  coniferous  trees  more  for  compression,  although 
some  data  appear  to  contradict  this  finding.  In  wind  breakages, 
with  conifers  the  broken  stem  usually  preserves  connection  with 
the  stump  on  the  leeward,  i.  e.,  the  compression  side,  while  in 


450  Forestry  Quarterly. 

deciduous  trees  usually  on  the  windward  side ;  the  side  of  attack, 
i.  e.,  the  tension  side  exhibits  usually  a  long-fibred  break,  showing 
that  here  it  gave  way  last. 

Metzger  adduces  the  straight,  cylindrical,  vertical  shaft  form 
and  the  uniform,  bricklike  cell  structure  of  the  tracheids  in  con- 
iferous wood  as  suggesting  its  structure  for  compressive  strength, 
the  opposite  conditions  in  deciduous  growth. 

Interesting  references  are  made  to  the  derivation  of  climbing 
and  creeping  varieties  from  treelike  dicotyls,  or  else  the  reverse, 
the  ancestors  of  the  treelike  dicotyls  winding  themselves  on  the 
historically  older  conifers.  From  that  period  until  to-day  the 
diametrically  opposite  principle  of  epinastic  and  hyponastic  struc- 
ture of  one-sidedly  loaded  members  has  persisted.  Unfortunately, 
as  Dengler  points  out,  this  position  is  not  so  generally  supported 
as  the  author  seems  to  imply,  for  of  92  branches  of  oak,  27  were 
found  epinastic,  40  hyponastic,  in  beech  88  and  49,  in  pine  28  and 
123  respectively,  and  these  differences  often  on  the  same  individ- 
ual. Roots,  which  also  exhibit  epinastic  and  hyponastic  struc- 
ture vary  similarly. 

In  explaining  annual  ring  structure  by  statical  and  mechanical 
laws,  it  is  pointed  out  that  resistance  to  the  force  of  winds  in  the 
crown  tests  the  bending  strength  of  the  stem.  At  the  end  of  the 
period  of  vegetation  force  and  resistance  must  be  in  proportion. 
In  the  spring  when  by  increase  of  crown  the  proportion  is  dis- 
turbed, an  interior  tension  of  cambium  cells  is  created  which  re- 
sults in  the  formation  of  the  annual  ring  of  corresponding 
breadth,  or  rather  strength.  The  wide-lumened  tissues  are  needed 
for  physiological  purposes;  the  effect  on  strength  is  greatest  if 
with  the  same  amount  of  material  the  wide-lumened  elements  are 
disposed  on  the  inside,  the  narrow-lumened,  thick-walled  ones  on 
the  outside.  This  mode  of  disposition  has  become  an  inherited 
quality.  While  Metzger  then  claims  for  increase  of  the  wood 
body  (diameter  growth)  direct  mechanical  causes  for  the  division 
into  spring  and  summer-wood,  he  relies  upon  teleological  explana- 
tions. He  refuses  to  accept  Schwarz's  explanation  who  refers 
the  formation  of  summer-wood  to  longitudinal  pressure,  which 
stimulus  during  spring-wood  formation  is  offset  by  other  forces. 

To  this  position  Dengler  also  takes  exception  with  good  rea- 
soning, and  altogether,  acknowledging  the  ingenious  and  interest- 
ing character  of  the  discussion,  and  the  priority  of  Metzger  in 


Periodical  Literature.  451 

this  field  points  out  the  hypothetical  condition  in  which  the  theories 
are  left. 

Ueber  das  Konstructionsprincip  des  sekunddren  Holzkorpers.  Natur- 
wissenschaftliche  Zeitschrift  fur  Forst-u.  Landwirtschaft,  1908,  as  re- 
viewed by  Dengler  in  Zeitschrift  f.  Forst-u.  Jagdwesen.  April,  1909.  Pp. 
272-276. 

Another  contribution  to  the  knowledge  of 
Identification  wood   structure   comes    from   the   botanical 

of  Woods.  laboratories  at  Harvard  in  the  form  of  an 

anatomical  study  of  the  wood  of  the  pine 
family.  The  wood  of  the  genus  Picea  heretofore  has  been  char- 
acterized by  the  entire  absence  of  wood  parenchyma.  By  making 
slightly  oblique  tangential  sections,  Bailey  found  wood  paren- 
chyma upon  the  outer  surface  of  the  summer  wood  in  seventeen 
species,  American  and  foreign.  The  occurrence  of  such  cells, 
however,  is  extremely  sporadic.  They  were  distinguished  only 
with  difficulty  in  the  species  of  northeastern  America. 

It  is  stated  in  Penhallow's  North  American  Gymnosperms  that 
spruce  wood  lacks  spiral  thickenings  of  the  tracheids.  The  writer 
of  the  paper  found  them  well  developed  in  the  summer  wood  up 
to  the  tenth  year  in  seventeen  species.  In  wood  formed  later  than 
this,  they  were  very  sporadic  in  occurrence. 

The  investigator  uses  the  above  points,  together  with  others, 
to  show  the  futility  of  distinguishing  woods  by  any  one  charac- 
ter, especially  is  this  true  of  the  genera  Picea,  Larix  and  Pseu- 
dotsuga.  In  fact,  to  distinguish  them  one  must  refer  to  all  of 
the  anatomical  characters  as  well  as  to  the  gross  characters. 

The  Structure  of  the  Wood  of  the  Pineae.  Botanical  Gazette.  July, 
1909.    Pp.  47-55- 

A  thorough  and  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
Microscopic  microscopic    structure    of    wood    is    as    es- 

Structure  sential  to   investigators  and  users   of  pre- 

of  servative   and   seasoning  processes,   and  to 

Wood.  the   use   and   identification   of  woods   as   a 

knowledge  of  anatomy  is  to  the  modern 
physician.  Take  for  example  the  injection  of  preservatives  and 
the  drying  of  wood.  An  accurate  understanding  of  the  struc- 
ture of  water  conducting  elements  and  the  method  by  which  fluids 
pass  through  wood  is  essential  to  the  development  of  successful 


452  Forestry  Quarterly. 

and  simple  processes  of  attaining  the  results  desired.  In  pulping 
woods  and  in  the  extraction  of  by-products  much  could  be  done 
by  a  well  trained  chemist  with  a  thorough  knowledge  of  wood 
structure.  Unfortunately  the  anatomy  of  woods  has  never  been 
studied  with  a  practical  application  of  knowledge  gained  in 
view,  and  much  of  the  purely  scientific  work  has  been  superficially 
or  inaccurately  done  owing  to  the  fact  that  only  recently  have 
proper  methods  of  technique  been  developed.  The  minute  size 
of  woody  elements  and  of  the  water  conducting  systems  makes 
the  use  of  the  highest  powers  of  the  microscope  and  delicate  and 
careful  treatment  of  material  essential.  Bailey  points  out  some 
of  the  difficulties  of  identifying  woody  structures  and  in  making 
keys  for  the  identification  of  wood  by  microscopical  structure. 
The  Gymnosperms  and  their  structure  have  received  a  great  deal 
of  attention  and  have  been  the  basis  of  much  controversy.  Yet 
in  this  field  which  has  been  so  largely  thrashed  over,  much  yet 
remains  undiscovered  or  improperly  understood. 

A  curious  weeping  spruce  probably  a  va- 
A  riety  of  Picea  canadensis  has  been  found 

Weeping  Variety     about  one  hundred  miles  north  of  Winnipeg. 
of  It   is   a   tree   about   60  feet   high   with  the 

Picea  Canadensis,  lower  branches  at  least  20  feet  from  the 
ground ;  the  strikingly  pendulous  branches 
are  six  feet  or  more  long,  slender  and  but  little  branched  them- 
selves. It  evidently  bears  the  same  relation  to  White  Spruce  that 
the  pendula  variety  of  the  commonly  planted  Norway  Spruce  does 
to  Picea  excelsa. 

"A  Weeping  Spruce."    Torreya.    July,  1909. 

Quebracho,  a  contraction  of  the  Spanish 
Quebracho.  quicbra-hacha  or   "ax  breaker,"   is   applied 

to  many  tough,  hard  trees  in  Latin  America. 

In  recent  years  the  name  has  been  re- 
stricted to  a  peculiar  tree  found  only  in  the  drainage  basin  of  the 
Parana  river.  The  genuine  quebracho  is  found  in  Brazil,  Para- 
guay and  the  Argentine  Republic.  There  are  two  varieties.  Que- 
bracho Colorado  or  Loxo pterygium  lorentzii  and  Quebracho  bianco 


Periodical  Literature.  453 

or  Aspidosperma  quebracho.  The  former  yields  the  best  quali- 
ties of  tannin  extract  and  very  durable  railroad  ties. 

In  1907  there  were  28,195  tons  of  extract  exported  of  which 
17,733  tons  were  sent  to  the  United  States.  The  bark,  sap  and 
heartwood  all  yield  extract.  The  bark  has  6-8%,  the  sap  3-4%, 
and  the  heart  20-25%.  The  heart  represents  two-thirds,  often 
three-fourths  of  the  tree. 

For  extracting  the  tannic  acid  the  wood  is  shaved  into  fine 
pieces,  then  treated  in  immense  kettles  by  chemical  processes  to 
remove  the  extract;  the  fluid  is  then  evaporated  into  a  thick  jelly- 
like mass  which  is  poured  into  sacks  and  dried  into  the  solid  sub- 
stance sold  in  commerce.  The  industry  of  manufacturing  sleep- 
ers from  this  wood  has  assumed  large  proportions  and  large  com- 
panies with  modern  machinery  are  sawing  out  lumber  and  ties 
and  making  extract.  One  company  owns  4,000,000  acres  and 
another  turns  out  20,000-30,000  sleepers  per  week. 

The  Hardzvoods  of  the  Americas.  Bulletin  of  the  International  Union 
of  the  American  Republics.    September,  1909. 

For  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,   1909, 

Chicle,  there  were  imported  into  the  United  States 

The  Basis  of      5,450,139  pounds  of  chicle,  valued  at  $1,- 

Chczuing  Gum.  987,112,  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
chewing  gum.  Chicle  is  obtained  from  the 
sap  of  the  Achras  Sapota  tree  of  the  northern  South  American 
countries,  Central  America,  and  Mexico.  The  Sapota  tree  reaches 
an  average  height  of  25  to  40  feet  and  reaches  maturity  at  40  to 
50  years.  A  tree  25  years  old  producing  20  to  25  pounds  of  gum 
will  be  about  22  inches  in  diameter  and  25  to  30  feet  high. 

The  wood  is  of  a  reddish  color,  closely  resembling  mahogany, 
is  quite  hard,  heavy,  compact  in  texture  and  fine  grained.  The 
wood  is  very  durable  and  in  great  demand  by  cabinetmakers. 

The  operation  of  gathering  chicle  and  preparing  it  for  market 
is  similar  to  that  employed  in  the  sugar  maple  industry  in  the 
United  States.  Under  careful  management  trees  have  been  tap- 
ped for  25  years. 

As  yet  the  systematic  cultivation  of  the  Achras  Sapota  has  not 
been  carried  on  to  any  extent,  but  experiments  have  shown  that 
trees  planted  at  a  distance  of  10  feet  apart  will  yield  from  5  to  6 

29 


454  Forestry  Quarterly. 

pounds  of  chicle  gum  when  from  8  to  10  years  old  and  from  12 
to  15  inches  in  diameter.  In  its  wild  state  the  tree  is  usually 
found  in  groups,  frequently  growing  to  a  height  of  from  40  to  50 
feet;  it  is  straight,  and  has  a  long,  clear  length,  thus  making  it 
most  desirable  for  timber.  While  it  grows  well  in  a  variety  of 
soils  it  seems  to  thrive  best  in  a  rich  clay  loam,  with  good  drain- 
age and  an  annual  rainfall  of  about  90  inches. 

Chicle,  the  Basis  of  Chewing  Gum.  Bulletin  of  the  International  Union 
of  the  American  Republics.    October,  19x19. 

The  "Nun"  (Lymantria  monacha,  L.) ,  a 
Combatting  close  relative  of  the  gypsy  moth,  is  one  of 

Insects.  the  most  destructive  insect  pests  in  Europe, 

returning  periodically.  As  a  result  of  long 
extended  observations  and  investigations  in  library  and  field  Dr. 
Sedlaczek  of  the  Austrian  Experiment  Station  publishes  a  very 
exhaustive  article,  the  conclusions  of  which  are  of  interest  as  ex- 
hibiting biological  habits  that  may  apply  more  or  less  generally 
to  the  family  of  spinners. 

As  regards  the  origin  of  an  invasion  this  appears  to  be  autoch- 
thonous. 

Eggs  are  deposited  at  varying  heights  according  to  site, 
weather  during  the  flight  and  other  exterior  influences,  and  in 
the  same  stand  can  in  different  years  be  at  different  heights. 

Neither  when  young,  nor  in  later  life,  do  all  caterpillars  leave 
the  once  chosen  location.  According  to  species,  site  and  other  in- 
determinable influences  sometimes  a  larger,  sometimes  a  smaller 
number  descends.  Pupation  takes  place  at  varying  heights.  Du- 
ration and  liveliness  of  flight  depends  on  weather.  The  moths, 
like  the  caterpillars  come  down  out  of  the  crowns  only  when 
exterior  influences  force  them. 

To  be  eaten  clean,  requires  a  predisposition  of  the  stand. 

Precautionary  revision  consists  in  gathering  moths  by  day  in 
not  too  high  and  too  dense  stands.  Baiting  by  means  of  torches 
is  successful  only  in  dark,  warm,  calm  nights.  Egg  masses  should 
be  determined  carefully  on  felled  trees,  and  not  only  the  number 
but  the  position  in  height  should  be  noted.  Providing  means  of 
gathering  excreta  is  commendable.  Trial  baiting  with  insect 
lime  is  uncertain  in  results  and  lack  of  success  does  not  assure 
the  absence  of  the  pest. 


Periodical  Literature.  455 

For  combating  the  pest  the  use  of  insect  lime  is  commendable 
when  egg  deposits  are  low,  and  in  polewoods,  especially  of  pine 
and  spruce  mixed,  when  the  two  species  are  of  equal  height. 

In  low,  easily  accessible  stands  gathering  the  moths  is  prac- 
ticable. Other  methods  recommended  or  practiced  are  only  condi- 
tionally effective. 

The  "polyeder"  disease  of  the  Nun  is  discussed  by  Dr.  Wahl  in 
the  same  publication. 

Die  Nonne.  Centralblatt  f.  d.  g.  Forstwesen.  April,  May,  June,  1909. 
Pp.  145-172;   241-261. 

A   similar  piece   of   work   to  the  above  in 

Fighting  which,  however,  more  stress  is  laid  on  the 

the  methods  of  combating  the  insect  based  upon 

Curculio.  an   extended   series   of   trials   with   various 

means  is  published  by  Dr.  Eckstein,  namely, 

on  the  Pine  curculio,  Pissodes  notatus,  the  warfare  against  which 

involves  in  Prussia  an  annual  outlay  of  over  $10,000.     The  beetle 

attacks  the  young  plantations  from  one  to  twelve  years  old ;    it 

flies    May,   June,   but   also   in   August ;    winters   hidden   on   the 

ground,  chooses   for  ovi-deposition  sickly  trees  injured  by  fire, 

"schutte"  or  otherwise,  but  not  those  badly  infested  with  root 

fungi. 

To  grow  healthy  stock  is  the  best  prevention,  daily  collecting 
from  plants  and  baiting  billets,  the  method  of  combating. 

Die  Bekampfung  des  Pissodes  notatus.  Zeitschrift  fin*  Forst-  u.  Jagd- 
wesen.    April,  1909.    Pp.  209-232. 

A  new  method  of  baiting  Curculios  has  been 

Baiting  devised  by  forest  guard  Kissel.    An  earthen 

Curculios.  pot,    flaring    inward,    filled    with    water   to 

which  is  added  a  strong  smelling  substance 
(turpentine)  is  placed  in  the  ground  flush  with  the  soil  surface 
and  loosely  covered.  The  beetles  attracted  by  the  smell,  creep 
through  the  surface  litter  to  the  pot  and  falling  into  it,  die.  The 
cover  is  placed  over  the  pot  to  prevent  useful  beetles  from  falling 
into  it ;  these,  it  is  found  are  not  attracted  by  the  smell  and  do 
not  approach  the  pot  in  the  same  manner.  The  pots  remain 
effective  for  several  weeks. 

Der  Russelkafer-Fangtopf.  Allgemeine  Forst-  u.  Jagdzeitung.  Sep- 
tember, 1909.    P.  325. 


45^        •  Forestry  Quarterly. 

SOIL,   WATER   AND   CLIMATE. 

In  these  days  of  reclamation  of  waste  lands 
Utilising  the   report  of  Dr.   Kienitz,   how   the   alder 

Swamps  swamps    in    his    district    are    changed    into 

and  meadows  is  of  interest.     For  this  purpose 

Bogs.  there  is  needed,  first,  the  lowering  of  the 

water  table  to  20  inches,  sowing  of  grass 
species  carefully  selected  according  to  their  adaptability  and  char- 
acter, taking  care  to  choose  for  upper  and  lower  stand,  partly  per- 
manent, partly  rapid  growers  and  nitrogen  gatherers.  Annual 
fertilizing  and  harrowing  is  necessary. 

For  regulating  the  water  table,  only  a  partial  level  survey  is 
needed  to  see  whether  altogether  the  water  can  be  drained  off. 
Only  a  slight  grade  is  required.  The  main  ditch,  located  in  the 
direction  of  the  greatest  fall  is  usually  made  1  yard  deep,  the 
base  half  a  yard,  the  top  1.5  yards  wide.  Side  ditches  are  placed 
at  right  angles  to  the  main  ditch,  of  varying  depth,  20  inches  at 
top  and  12  inches  at  base. 

After  regulating  the  water-table  the  whole  area  is  thoroughly 
cleared  of  brush  and  roots,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  leveled,  not, 
however,  removing  other  vegetation.  When  the  moor  has  settled 
so  far  as  to  bear  horses  the  ground  is  harrowed  and  manured. 
Mostly  only  potash,  and  sometimes  magnesia,  is  deficient,  which 
is  best  supplied  by  cheap  potash  salts,  about  half  a  ton  of  kainit 
to  the  acre.  Sometimes  an  addition  of  phosphates,  Thomas  slag, 
to  the  amount  of  a  quarter  ton,  is  indicated. 

The  fertilizing  must  be  repeated  annually. 

Sowing  of  grass  seed  is  not  necessary,  since  grasses  will  come 
in  naturally,  but  it  is  advisable  in  order  to  secure  the  best  result. 
This  is  done  with  well  selected  material  at  the  rate  of  20  to  25 
pounds  per  acre,  after  harrowing  and  rolling. 

V 'ersammlv.n n en  Norddeutscher  Forstvereine.  Allgemeine  Forst-  u. 
Jagdzeitung.     September,  1909.     P.  318. 

SILVICULTURE,  PROTECTION  AND  EXTENSION. 

The  one-sidedness  of  American  foresters  in 
Silvicultural  advocacy  of  natural  regeneration,  and  that 

Sins.  in  selection  form,  — a  silvicultural  doctrine 

which,  owing  to  Gayer's  fervent  and  bril- 
liant exposition,  gave  rise  to  an  enthusiastic  school  of  natural  re- 


Periodical  Literature.  457 

generators  in  Germany  and  elsewhere — receives  a  severe  rebuke 
in  a  very  judiciously  written  article  by  Oberforstmeister  Guse. 

He  refers  to  Judeich  as  an  associate  in  opposition  to  the  "fash- 
ion of  proposing  to  force  everything  with  natural  regeneration  and 
selection  forest." 

In  Saxony  extensive  trials  were  made  on  four  different  sites, 
the  species  being  prominently  spruce,  namely : 

1.  In  most  exposed  alpine  sites  of  the  Erzgebirge,  where  pro- 
tection is  principal  concern,  and  clearing  threatens  devastation. 

2.  In  better,  yet  frosty  situations  where  hitherto  small  clearings 
with  planting  had  given  good  results. 

3.  On  milder,  good  sites  where  success  of  planting  on  larger 
openings  is  successful  without  doubt. 

4.  On  granite,  quartzite  and  basalt  soils  of  steep,  rocky  as  well 
as  fresh  good  sites  in  mild  climate. 

On  the  first  two  sites  success  was  attained  only  when  volunteer 
growth  was  already  in  existence.  With  long  regeneration  pe- 
riods, even  under  rather  open  stands  the  young  growth  after 
snowy  winters  simply  vanished ;  hence,  where  protection  against 
wind  breakage  exists,  return  to  small  openings  with  planting  be- 
came necessary,  otherwise  selection  cutting,  but  only  following 
up  the  natural  regeneration  is  practiced. 

In  some  localities,  where,  besides  climatic  ills,  poor  soil  is  en- 
countered and,  hence,  the  stands  are  short-boled,  natural  regen- 
eration is  successful. 

On  the  milder,  good  sites,  no  favorable  experiences  were  had 
with  natural  regeneration,  grass  had  choked  out  much  young 
growth,  snout  beetles  multiplied,  much  young  growth  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  after-fellings,  windfalls  were  frequent,  loss  and 
expense  in  logging  were  deterrent. 

The  best  results  were  secured  in  the  last  named  sites.  Here  the 
same  favorable  conditions  as  in  the  Black  Forest  prevails.  Here, 
however,  "pre-regeneration,"  i.  e.,  regeneration  before  the  old 
stand  is  removed,  is  not  necessary. 

These  were  the  results  announced  27  years  ago  by  the  Saxon 
foresters,  and  now  the  author  adds  the  results  of  his  observations 
in  the  meantime.  Success  of  natural  regeneration  he  finds  very 
variable.  He  considers  the  saving  of  all  volunteer  growth  on 
clearings  desirable,  but  it  is  not  to  be  forgotten  that  in  some  cases 
this  volunteer  growth  must  be  gradually  brought  into  open  po- 


458  Forestry  Quarterly. 

sition,  or  else  it  is  lost.  Beech  and  fir  are  naturally  regenerated 
as  a  matter  of  course.  There  are  also  sites  where  only  what  dies 
is  to  be  taken  out,  and  one  must  be  grateful  for  whatever  nature 
provides. 

Altogether,  careful  consideration  as  to  species  and  site  must 
determine  where  natural  regeneration  is  practicable.  For  oak, 
on  bottom  lands,  there  can  be  no  question  as  to  natural  regener- 
ation :  grass  and  water  prevent  it ;  planting  is  successful,  espec- 
ially after  agricultural  use  of  the  ground.  In  other  sites  where 
oak  is  at  home,  either  natural  or  artificial  regeneration  with  grad- 
ual opening  is  indicated  wherever  natural  volunteer  growth  is 
found. 

As  to  spruce,  no  species  can  be  more  surely  regenerated  arti- 
ficially ;  but  it  must  be  carefully  managed,  namely,  by  making 
small  felling  areas  to  prevent  dying  out,  and  utilizing  volunteer 
growth.  But,  although  in  some  situations  natural  regeneration  is 
successful,  planting  is  more  so. 

In  spite  of  the  dangers  which  accompany  it  if  not  properlv 
done,  for  pine,  artificial  reproduction  is  the  only  satisfactory 
method.  According  to  the  author's  60  years  of  observation  in 
various  districts,  wherever  pine  and  spruce  are  mixed  there  is 
plenty  volunteer  growth  of  spruce  to  be  found,  but  not  of  pine. 
In  pure  stands,  opening  up  is  apt  to  deteriorate  soil  conditions. 
Under  cover,  "damping  off"  is  more  frequent  than  in  open  cul- 
tures.   The  use  of  volunteer  growth  of  pine  is  questionable. 

In  conclusion,  the  author  points  out  that  the  return  wave  of 
enthusiasm  for  natural  regeneration  emanates  again  from  South 
Germany,  where  the  mildness  of  the  climate,  the  frequency  of 
seed  years,  the  fertile  soil,  the  mixture  of  species,  all  conspire  to 
make  natural  regeneration  more  readily  successful. 

Wiederkehrende  Stromungen.  Forstwissenschaftliches  Centralblatt. 
September-October,  1909.    Pp.  453"46i. 

An     unusually     thoughtful     discussion     by 

Principles  Forstrat    Schubert   on   the    applicability    of 

of  the  French  method  of  thinning  in  deciduous 

Thinning  woods    develops    the    principles    underlying 

in  the  the  practice  of  thinning  so  lucidly  that  we 

Dominant.  brief  it  at  length. 

Hartig's    teachings    which    still    pervade 
most  of  the  practice  in  thinnings  were  based  on  the  principle  that 


Periodical  Literature.  459 

they  were  to  move  only  in  the  subordinate  stand.  Within  the  last 
20  years  ideas  opposed  to  this  teaching  which  does  not  recognize 
the  dominant  stand  have  asserted  themselves,  and  under  various 
names  {Plenterdurchf  orshmg,  Kopf  durchforstung,  Durchforstung 
im  Herrschenden,  freie  Durchforstung)  systems  of  thinning  in  the 
dominant  (the  French  eclaircie  par  le  haut)  in  juxtaposition  to 
thinning  in  the  subordinate  {Niederdurchforstung,  eclaircie  par  le 
has)  have  been  developed. 

The  object  of  thinnings  in  general  is  the  production  of  the 
largest  and  at  the  same  time  most  valuable  wood  quantities  in 
shortest  possible  time. 

It  has  been  recognized  that  the  largest  volume  is  dependent  on 
a  certain  degree  of  density  of  stand.  What  degree,  is  still  un- 
solved, although  we  are  nearer  its  solution.  Volume  is  the  re- 
sultant of  the  work  of  crown  and  root,  a  combination  of  the  ra- 
diating energy  of  the  sun  and  the  chemical  energy  of  the  soil. 
We  have  learned  through  Wiesner,  that  not  all,  and  not  the  direct 
light,  but  certain  rays  and  of  the  diffused  light — only  a  certain 
part  of  the  light  surrounding  the  crown  is  active.  It  may  be 
asserted  that  the  useful  light — the  so-called  relative  light  enjoy- 
ment (Lichtgenuss) — becomes  the  smaller  in  amount,  the  more 
effective  the  crown  density.  But  since  root  activity  has  also  to  be 
considered,  a  limitation  results.  Not  the  densest  crown  cover  rep- 
resents the  optimum,  although  here  the  largest  amount  of  foliage 
and  light  are  interacting,  but  root  energy  is  reduced  especially 
by  retaining  precipitation  in  the  foliage  and  lower  temperature.. 
Considering  various  degrees  of  density  the  optimum  must  have- 
passed  when  after  interruption  of  crown  cover  the  soil  covers; 
itself  with  a  green  vegetation,  which  withdraws  part  of  the  total 
growth  energy  from  wood  production. 

The  working  hypothesis,  then,  may  be  formulated  that  the 
largest  increment  occurs  when  a  minimum  of  foliage  is  pervaded 
by  the  largest  amount  of  utilizable  light.  The  optimum  will  be 
at  hand,  theoretically,  just  before  other  vegetation  appears,  prac- 
tically when  the  crown  cover  is  slightly  opened.  Hence  a  severer 
opening  of  the  crown  cover  means  decrease  of  volume  production 
(not  of  the  single  stem,  but  of  the  stand)  ;  except  temporarily 
when  through  more  rapid  humification  the  soil  energy  is  increased. 
But  this  is  merely  anticipating  the  use  of  the  fertile  elements 
which  would  be  otherwise  distributed  in  time. 


460  Forestry  Quarterly. 

All  data  available  confirm  this  conclusion,  that  the  total  volume 
production  cannot  be  increased  beyond  a  certain  amount  attain- 
able under  proper  crown  density.  From  the  standpoint  of  vol- 
ume production  a  rational  practice  of  the  old  method  of  thinning 
seems  to  be  unassailable. 

The  second  requirement,  namely  of  value  production,  however 
changes  the  aspect. 

After  referring  to  what  constitutes  value  and  to  the  observa- 
tion that  diameter  and  price  more  or  less  parallel  each  other  up 
to  certain  limits  (see  p.  340  of  this  volume),  the  author  points 
out  that  of  two  stands  of  the  same  species,  same  soil,  same  age  and 
density,  the  one  with  the  smaller  number  of  stems  has  the  larger 
diameters  (although  usually  smaller  volume)  :  where  a  smaller 
number  participates  in  the  crown  cover,  the  individuals  have  larger 
diameters,  in  other  words,  the  diameter  is  a  function  of  the  light 
enjoying  crown. 

Since,  apparently  at  least,  a  given  site  presents  a  limited  growth 
energy,  if  a  larger  number  of  individuals  must  grow  on  it,  each 
individual  secures  less  than  if  there  were  fewer.  Hence,  the 
number  of  stems  per  acre,  stock  density,  is  of  importance,  and  the 
regulation  of  numbers,  which  does  not  enter  into  the  considera- 
tion of  the  old  thinning  practice,  becomes  a  second  primary  con- 
cern. Examples  are  given  which  accentuate  the  failure  of  the 
old  method  in  this  respect. 

The  third  primary  requirement  which  influences  value  produc- 
tion is  to  secure  best  stem  forms ;  not  only  forms  of  bole,  but  of 
the  crown  as  well,  which  is  in  relation  to  form  development. 

Finally  the  author  formulates  the  object  of  stand  improvement; 
to  utilize  to  the  fullest  the  source  of  energy  on  a  given  site  for  the 
existing  stand  and  to  distribute  its  results  over  stems  determined 
as  to  kind  and  number. 

This  direction  is  given  by  opening  up  around  selected  individ- 
uals in  order  to  increase  the  lighted  part  of  the  crowns.  The 
apportionment  of  the  existing  growth  energy  among  the  individ- 
uals would  appear  the  most  important  and  most  productive  task 
of  the  forester,  and  this  is  attained  by  thinning  in  the  dominant, 
which  will  furnish  larger  intermediate  and  smaller  final  harvest 
yields,  the  opposite  of  thinnings  in  the  subordinate  stand. 

General  recipes  of  procedure  to  attain  these  objects  cannot  be 
given.    General  considerations  are,  that  in  order  to  preserve  soil 


Periodical  Literature.  461 

cover  and  to  secure  the  clearing  of  the  dominant,  the  living  inter- 
mediate or  underwood  is  left  undisturbed.  The  opening  up  of  the 
upper  crown  level  must  be  gradual;  rapidity  and  time  of  return 
depends  on  soil,  age,  condition  of  stand ;  in  younger  stands  not 
less  than  in  five  year  periods. 

To  secure  clean  boles  the  opening  up  should  not  begin  until 
thirty  or  forty  to  fifty  feet  of  clear  bole  have  been  secured  by 
dense  position  which  may  be  in  fifty  to  seventy-five  years.  Prun- 
ing to  secure  this  is  a  doubtful  measure,  but  pruning  in  the  inter- 
mediate to  help  the  development  of  a  superior  tree,  when  its  re- 
moval would  open  up  too  much,  is  commended. 

Form  development  and  correction  of  composition  form  the  con- 
cern in  the  young  period,  until  the  superiority  of  the  select  is 
readily  visible  and  the  elite  can  then  be  favored.  The  general  rule 
then  is  to  take  out  stems  which  interfere  with  the  crown  devel- 
opment of  a  more  valuable  neighbor.  In  a  mixture  of  oak  and 
beech  in  Bramwald  an  average  distance  of  twenty-five  feet  for 
the  elite,  say  sixty  to  eighty  trees  to  the  acre,  providing  for  losses, 
appeared  a  desirable  number.  These  are  marked  with  a  white 
mark  on  two  sides,  this  mainly  to  help  the  eye  and  train  the  per- 
sonnel in  this  new  way  of  marking  for  thinning. 

Die  Hochdurchforstung  im  Laubwalde.  Forstwissenschaftliches  Cen- 
tralblatt.    September-October,  1909.    Pp.  461-474. 

In  an  article  of  over  100  pages,  Dr.  Heck 
Results  publishes  the  results  of  fourteen  years'  prac- 

of  tice    with    this    new    method    of    thinning, 

Thinning  called   by   him    Freie   Durchforstung    (free 

in  the  thinning)  to  denote  that  it  is  independent  of 

Dominant.  any  schematic  prescriptions  or  rules.     The 

results  are  given  in  a  long  series  of  tabula- 
tions, in  which  all  growth  conditions  are  given  in  detail  measure- 
ments from  year  to  year.  Side  by  side,  in  the  same  stand  of  beech, 
thinnings  after  the  old  and  the  new  method  were  made  and  com- 
pared in  every  detail.  The  article  discusses  at  length  every  phase 
of  the  subject.  Of  the  conclusions  the  following  may  be  of  more 
general  interest.  Stem  classes,  made  after  Kraft's  classification, 
change  soon  after  they  are  made ;  only  one-half  to  two-thirds  of 
the  trees  remain  in  the  same  class  for  a  decade,  the  rest,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  which  advance,  falls  into  a  lower  class.    After 


462  Forestry  Quarterly. 

five  years  a  new  classification  becomes  necessary,  while  shaft-form 
classes,  as  made  by  Heck  (see  Quarterly,  vol.  Ill  p.  40)  remain 
more  constant. 

In  all  stem  classes  the  cross  section  area  increment  varies 
greatly  from  year  to  year  according  to  treatment,  season,  and 
peculiarity  of  species.  The  East- West  diameter  is  in  the  average 
several  millimeters  larger  than  the  North-South  diameter. 

The  better  shaft  form  produces  the  larger  increment,  at  least  in 
beech.  The  thinning  after  Heck  in  spite  of  the  smaller  cross  sec- 
tion area  produces  a  larger  and  at  the  same  time  more  valuable 
increment  than  a  moderate  thinning  after  Kraft.  In  two  experi- 
ment areas  this  difference  in  ten  years  was  35%  and  10%  re- 
spectively, in  one  area  6%  less,  average  12%.  In  comparison 
with  the  old  method,  this  larger  area  and  value  increment  is  se- 
cured on  a  smaller  stock  capital,  hence  a  higher  interest  on  the 
value  of  the  stand  is  secured,  and  the  latter  method  continuously 
improves  this  relation,  approaching  the  ideal  stand,  the  best  stems 
becoming  more  and  more  prononunced  and  prominent  in  making 
up  the  stand. 

Ein  Jahrzehnt  Durchforstungsversuch,  etc.  Zeitschrift  fur  Forst-  u. 
Jagdwesen.     May- August,  Pp.  281-313;    382-408;    436-472;    502-520. 

Some    interesting    notes    on    the    silvics    of 
The  Silvics  Piiion  Pine  are  given  by  Phillips.     Of  par- 

of  ticular  interest  are  those  relating  to  the  un- 

Pinon  Pine.  favorable   conditions   of  moisture,   altitude, 

and  soil  which  this  tree  is  capable  of  resist- 
ing. Besides  its  value  as  a  cover  for  arid  regions  the  Pinon  Pine 
is  of  considerable  economic  importance.  The  wood  is  largely 
used  for  fuel  and  possesses  high  fuel  values.  The  seed  is  sold  in 
large  quantities  as  a  delicacy. 

The  wood  is  cut  after  it  has  been  dead  two  years  as  before  that 
time  it  is  unseasoned  and  if  left  for  a  longer  period  of  time  will 
have  deterioriated.  The  wood  has  been  used  for  posts  and  ties, 
but  is  not  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil  and  needs  preservative 
treatment  for  this  reason.  Extensive  tracts  have  given  a  yield  of 
ten  to  twelve  cords  to  the  acre. 

The  fruit  is  gathered  in  immense  quantities,  single  dealers  have 
been  reported  as  handling  20,000  to  50,000  pounds.  During  seed 
years  native  collectors  sell  the  seed  at  five  to  fifteen  cents  a  pound. 


Periodical  Literature.  463 

Dealers  in  cities  get  from  forty  to  sixty  cents  a  pound.  The  seed 
is  plentiful  during  seed  years  (about  every  five  years).  Mature 
trees  produce  one  to  eight  bushels  of  cones.  Each  cone  averages 
ten  to  twenty  seeds  and  trees  have  been  known  to  yield  300  pounds 
of  seed  per  acre,  while  large  areas  have  produced  sixty-five  pounds 
per  acre.  The  seeds  have  a  high  per  cent,  of  infertility  and  lose 
their  germinating  power  easily  unless  they  are  especially  stored. 
There  follows  a  table  of  five  samples  of  seed  collected  from  va- 
rious localities,  with  their  germinating  per  cents. 

No.  seeds     %  viable,    %  viable,     %  viable,    %  viable, 

per  pound,  knife  test,  water  test,  green  house,      open.  Where  collected. 

2510  87.2  84.0  82.2  75.6  Ft.  Bayard,  N.  M. 

2215  87.1  86.6  80.3  69.2  Tres  Piedras,  N.  M. 

1810  91.2  86.0  78.1  70.4  Ft.  Garland,  Col. 

1950  92.7  88.5  81.3  71.0 

1520  99.2  97.1  96.4  90.3  Lincoln,   N.   M. 

Owing  to  infrequent  seed  years,  infertility  of  the  seed,  loss  of 
germinating  per  cent.,  loss  of  seed  from  rodents,  birds,  grazing, 
and  man,  and  unfavorable  site-conditions  it  is  difficult  to  secure 
a  reproduction  of  Pinon  Pine.  In  the  future  management  of  this 
tree  a  selection  system  in  which  the  dead  and  dying  trees  are 
removed  for  fuel  seems  to  be  the  only  practical  one. 

A  Study  of  Pinon  Pine.    Botanical  Gazette.     September,  1909. 

The  name  of  the  small  town  of  Halstenbek 
Nursery  in  Holstein  is   familiar  to  many  American 

Practice.  foresters  as  the  seat  of  the  extensive  nurser- 

ies of  Heins'  Sons.  Evidently  the  location 
is  favorable  for  this  business  for,  according  to  v.  Reitzenstein, 
there  is  still  another  monster  nursery  to  be  found  there,  namely, 
that  of  H.  H.  Pein,  the  oldest  in  existence,  nearly  a  century  old, 
which  covers  about  200  acres  and  controls  altogether  the  growth 
on  nearly  500  acres,  most  of  the  transplants  being  grown  under 
contract  with  small  adjoining  growers,  who  have  become  experts 
under  the  influence  of  the  principal  grower.  The  trade  is  about 
150  million  a  year. 

The  location  is  within  the  direct  influence  of  a  sea  climate,  on  a 
fine  deep,  strongly  humose  loose  sand.  Hedges  of  Thuya,  Car- 
pinus,  and  Syringa  surround  and  separate  the  smaller  nurseries 
besides  furnishing  windbreaks. 


464  Forestry  Quarterly. 

In  the  main  nursery  the  beds  are  made  1.2  m  wide  and  13  m 
long  (say  4  x  42  ft.),  forming  the  normal  bed  of  168  square  feet. 

Thorough  cultivation  of  the  soil,  on  which  great  stress  is  laid,  is 
secured  by  a  specially  constructed  machine,  consisting  of  a  heavy 
roller  (in  three  parts)  followed  by  a  series  of  very  rapidly  rotating 
knives  in  spiral  position  on  an  axle.  These  fine  the  soil  to  a  depth 
of  three  inches.  For  sowing  in  drills,  which  is  used  for  coarser 
seeds,  this  is  all  the  preparation  needed.  For  smaller  seeds  full 
seeding  is  practiced,  and  for  this  the  soil  is  once  more  fined  care- 
fully with  narrow  rakes. 

For  transplant  beds,  which  are  usually  seeded  the  year  before 
and  hence  well  worked,  a  mere  ploughing  to  twelve  inch  depth 
and  planing  with  a  board  suffices. 

Artificial  fertilizer  is  tabooed,  and  even  green  manuring  has  not 
been  found  desirable,  but  animal  manure  is  largely  employed  after 
having  been  exposed  for  a  whole  year  and  a  half  in  compost  heaps. 
In  these  a  4-inch  layer  of  horse  manure  is  alternated  with  a  layer 
of  half  this  depth  of  raw  humus  or  street  sweepings,  which  is 
brought  by  the  carload  from  Hamburg.  The  weedings  are  also 
added,  the  heat  of  the  manure  destroying  the  germinative  power 
of  the  seeds.  A  ditch  around  the  compost  heap  gathers  the 
leached  waters,  which  are  either  poured  over  the  compost  or 
placed  on  the  land. 

This  manure  is  uniformly  distributed  over  the  harvested  fields 
in  spring  or  fall  after  being  plowed,  and  then  again  plowed.  For 
deciduous  trees  the  largest  amount  used  is  1,400  cubic  feet  to  the 
acre,  for  conifers  about  one-half;  for  certain  species,  Douglas  Fir, 
Sitka  Spruce,  Black  Locust,  which  are  apt  with  too  good  treat- 
ment not  to  ripen  their  wood  before  the  early  frosts,  no  manure  is 
used. 

Besides  the  thorough  soil  preparation  extensive  water-works 
with  pumps,  water-tower  of  150  feet,  and  four  to  two-inch  piping, 
prevent  any  chance  of  drouth. 

Drill  sowing  is  practiced  only  for  a  few  deciduous  species,  and 
mainly  to  avoid  transplanting,  when  every  second  row  is  used  in 
the  second  or  third  year. 

No  fancy  tools  are  used  for  making  drills,  a  simple  rake  with 
hollow  tine  teeth  properly  distanced  suffices  to  make  the  drills  in 
the  length  direction  of  the  beds,  and  after  sowing  by  hand,  an 
ordinary  wooden  rake  finishes  the  work. 


Periodical  Literature.  465 

As  reason  for  relying  mainly  on  broad-casting,  especially  of 
conifers,  is  stated  that  the  latter  permits  a  more  uniform  develop- 
ment in  all  directions.  This  is  a  poor  reason  except  as  to  looks  of 
the  plants,  and  where  winter  cover  is  needed  drill  sowing  is 
preferable. 

The  sowing  is  done  with  greatest  care  especially  as  to  the 
amount  of  cover,  so  that  practically  every  sprouting  seed  will 
make  a  plant. 

A  man  lifts  with  a  shovel  from  one-half  of  the  bed  a  layer  of 
earth  of  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  and  throws  it  on  the  other 
half,  a  girl  sows  the  carefully  determined  quantity  of  seed,  a 
second  girl  covers  the  seed  with  a  layer  of  sand  about  one-eighth 
of  an  inch,  and  the  man  returns  the  removed  layer  of  earth.  And 
this  process  is  continued  from  bed  to  bed  by  the  well  drilled  crew 
at  an  average  cost  of  twenty-five  cents  per  bed.  The  intermediate 
layer  of  sand  has  for  its  purpose  to  prevent  the  formation  of  a 
crust  under  the  influences  of  rain,  breaking  the  connection  between 
upper  and  lower  earth  layers.  To  keep  the  soil  in  friable  condi- 
tion until  the  cotyledons  appear,  great  pains  is  taken,  using  a 
simple  but  effective  instrument,  called  "Igel"  (porcupine),  a 
wooden  roller  of  twenty-four  inch  diameter  beset  with  one  inch 
long  wire  teeth. 

The  seed,  naturally  tested  and  measured  out  according  to  germi- 
nation per  cent.,  is  largely  pre-germinated  in  order  to  effect  uni- 
form germination. 

For  this  purpose,  according  to  hardness  or  time  needed  for 
germination,  earlier  or  later,  the  seed  is  placed  in  walled-up  ditches 
and  water  poured  over  it.  Seeds  in  not  too  thick  layers  (to 
avoid  heating)  liable  to  lie  over  are  bedded  in  moist  sand. 

Transplanting  is  also  done  without  machinery.  Men  make 
rills  with  a  spade  across  beds,  a  line  being  stretched  over  all  the 
adjoining  beds.  Women  place  the  plants  along  a  lath  on  which 
the  distance  is  marked.  The  making  of  the  second  rill  accom- 
plishes the  firming  of  the  plants  in  the  preceding  rill.  Three  per- 
sons transplant  in  this  way  25,000  plants. 

Curiously  enough  the  transplanting  begins  in  July  and  is 
finished  by  the  beginning  of  October,  partly  in  order  to  employ  all 
the  help  through  the  year  efficiently,  partly  because  in  this  way  the 
plants  repair  the  roots  the  same  fall  and  are  ready  next  spring  to 
start  at  the  earliest. 


466  Forestry  Quarterly. 

The  transplanting  of  deciduous  trees  and  pines  is  done  with 
yearlings,  except  P.  Strobus.  The  latter,  as  well  as  spruce,  fir, 
larch,  are  transplanted  in  the  second  year.  Only  first  class  seed- 
lings are  transplanted. 

Altogether  the  whole  procedure  is  primitive  and  the  great  suc- 
cess lies  in  the  skill  of  the  well-trained  labor. 

To  protect  the  beds  against  night  frost,  especially  of  exotics 
they  are  covered  with  bamboo  mats,  supported  on  laths,  sixteen 
inches  above  ground.  These  are  also  used  in  drouthy  periods 
during  summer,  after  watering  to  prevent  rapid  drying.  Birds 
are  shot.    June  bugs  are  fought  by  chickens. 

Plant  diseases  occur  rarely.  Only  a  few  years  ago  the  White 
Pine  rust  had  made  its  appearance.  To-day  this  is  an  unknown 
thing  in  Halstenbek.  The  infested  plantings  were  burnt,  and  the 
White  Pine  is  being  transplanted  in  double  spaces,  too  close  stands 
hazdng  been  the  main  cause  of  the  spread  of  the  disease. 

Even  the  "Schiitte,"  so  common,  is  in  pine  seedlings  unknown 
and  hardly  noticeable  in  two-year-olds. 

Weeding  in  the  broad-casted  beds  is  done,  of  course,  by  hand; 
in  the  transplant  beds  with  the  Planet,  Jr.,  or  another  simpler  tool 
of  local  construction,  which  consists  of  a  stirrup-like  contrivance 
on  a  handle  the  base  being  an  obliquely  set  knife,  which,  pushing 
forward,  cuts  the  weeds,  and  pulling  backward,  lays  them  over 
and  frees  them  from  soil.  They  are  left  on  the  ground  to  wither, 
except  in  humid  weather. 

In  shipping,  the  principle  is  strictly  adhered  to  of  never  allow- 
ing plants  to  lie  in  the  cellar  more  than  one  day  before  packing. 
Broad-leaf  transplants  are  dug  in  the  fall  and  heeled  in,  conifers 
in  the  spring  directly  for  shipping. 

The  lifting  of  plants  is  done  by  a  special  plow  with  a  horizontal 
share  at  proper  distance  from  the  surface  which  lifts  the  plants 
about  two  inches,  when  they  can  be  gathered  without  any  injury 
to  roots,  being  at  the  same  time  sorted  and  counted. 

In  packing,  the  waterworks  are  constantly  in  use,  and  the  pack- 
ages after  being  made  ready  for  shipping,  are  once  more  sprayed. 
Conifers  are  shipped  in  baskets,  the  roots  in  moss.  When  the 
season  is  advanced  dry  heather  is  packed  in  with  the  moss  to  pre- 
vent heating. 

The  author  concludes  by  pointing  out  that  such  nurseries  can 
produce  cheaper  and  better  material  than  the  small  home  nurseries. 

Die  Baumschulen  von  H.  H.  Pein  in  Halstenbek.  Forstwissenschaftliches 
Centralblatt.    July,  1909.    Pp.  353-364- 


Periodical  Literature.  467 

Split-planting,  the  most  generally  practiced, 

New  the  cheapest  at  the  start,  is  recognized  as 

Planting  responsible  for  many  failures,  especially  on 

Tool.  compact    soils.      The    premature    dying    of 

pine   on  abandoned   farm  and  heath   soils, 

while  sowings  persist,  is  explained  by  the  unnatural  position  of 

the  roots  in  this  mode  of  planting. 

An  example  is  cited  by  Splettstosser  of  a  pine  sowing  made 
twenty-five  years  ago,  which  for  six  years  was  repaired  by  split 
planting.  The  pines  originating  from  seed  have  now  a  height  of 
about  twenty-six  feet,  a  diameter  at  base  of  six  inches,  and  tap- 
roots of  about  eight  feet  in  length.  The  planted  pines  are  in  the 
average  nine  to  ten  feet  lower,  have  a  diameter  of  hardly  two 
inches,  a  taproot  of  little  over  one  and  a  half  feet  and  the  root 
development  more  or  less  in  one  plane,  the  result  of  the  split- 
planting.  The  fan-like  form  of  the  root  system  reduces  the  feed- 
ing area,  the  side  roots  lying  above  the  taproot  robs  it  and  im- 
pedes its  development,  the  trees  are  underfed,  sickly,  liable  to  in- 
sect attacks,  and  lose  in  wind  firmness. 

To  overcome  this  trouble  the  author  has  constructed  a  new 
planting  tool,  which  makes  the  hole  not  by  pressing  the  soil,  but 
by  moving  it:  a  cylindrical  hollow  borer  with  a  turned-in  re- 
movable cutting  edge  (forming  a  slot  with  the  other  half)  in  two 
halves  with  handles,  one  of  iron,  one  of  wood,  working  like  a 
pair  of  scissors,  processes  in  the  iron  handle  fitting  into  recesses 
in  the  wooden  handle  which  keep  the  cylinder  closed,  when  re- 
moving the  earth.  The  tool  is  applied  by  a  boring  motion,  and 
is  kept  closed  until  the  soil  is  to  be  emptied  out.  It  is,  of  course, 
not  useful  on  gravelly  or  very  stony  soil.  The  diameter  of  the 
cylinder  is  made  from  four  to  eight  inches ;  four  or  five  inches 
being  found  best  for  one  and  two  year  seedlings. 

On  slightly  grassy  sand  soil  one  experienced  planter  can  make 
180  holes  per  hour,  which  will  occupy  two  women  to  set  with 
plants ;  a  crew  of  three  under  favorable  conditions  planting  1,400 
trees,  which,  with  us,  would  bring  the  cost  to  less  than  $3  per  M. 
Very  satisfactory  results,  also  with  oak  and  beech,  are  recorded. 
The  tool  in  three  sizes  (10,  15  and  20  cm)  may  be  had  for  $5  to  $6 
from  Bach  and  Mahlow,  Sophienstrasse  32,  Berlin. 

An  additional  finesse,  useful  in  connection   with  this  tool,  is 


468  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Norings  plant  holder,  which  insures  the  proper  depth  of  setting, 
and  a  firming  tool.      (See  Illustration  on  page  483.) 

Der  Zangenbohrer  von  Splettsiosser.     Centralblatt  f.  d.  g.     Forstwesen. 
June,  1909.    Pp.  283-286. 

I 

A   very   interesting   investigation   has   been 

Seed  made    by    Prof.    Toboleff    reported    in    the 

Yield.  Journal  of  the  Imperial  Forest  Institute  for 

1908,  to  ascertain  the  seed  yield  of  spruce 

stands  by  means  of  sample  plots,  each  containing  100  trees,  which 

were  under  observation  four  years.     The  amount  produced  was 

not  ascertained  by  direct  count,  but  by  gathering  the  cones  from 

about  ten  per  cent,  of  the  tree  number  in  seven  to  ten  tree  classes. 

The  dominant  trees,  class  I,  II,  III,  and  the  two  sub-classes  of 

the  last  two,  produced  98%  of  the  total  yield,  class  IV,  although 

represented  with  17%  gave  the  other  2%,  class  V  representing 

20%  of  the  number  yielded  nothing.     The  contribution  of  each 

class  per  tree  was  in  the  proportion  of  3,  2,  1,  -J,  o,  for  the  five 

classes  from  I  down.    That  is  to  say,  a  tree  of  class  I  would  yield 

three  times,  of  class  II,  twice  that  of  a  tree  of  class  III. 

The  seed  yield  of  the  single  tree  depends  on  development  of 
crown,  size  of  cone,  number  of  seeds  in  cone,  size  of  seed,  germi- 
nation per  cent,  and  age  of  tree.  The  largest  yield  of  single  trees 
in  each  of  the  four  classes  were  2.3,  .83,  .167,  .107  pounds  of 
germinative  seed. 

A  calculation  showed  in  good  years  around  one  million  seeds 
per  acre  and  40,000  to  the  tree. 

Ueber  den  Samenbetrag  der  Fichtenbest'dnde.  Zeitschrift  fur  Forst-  u. 
Jagdwesen.    July,  1909.    Pp.  477-479. 

The  experiences  in  Germany  with  our  own 
Silvics  species  are  accumulating,  and  naturally  of 

of  interest  to  us.     In  the  Palatinate,  this  ex- 

White  Pine.  perience  with  White  Pine  in  forest  condi- 

tions is  over  a  century  old.  Forstrat 
Neblich  reports:  The  natural  reproduction  of  White  Pine  offers 
no  difficulties  if  begun  at  the  proper  time.  In  stands  over  no 
years  old,  its  regenerative  power  begins  to  decline.  As  regards 
light  requirements  in  the  red  sandstone  district  it  is  to  be  classed 
with  the  tolerant  species  and  its  biologic  characteristics  place  it 


Periodical  Literature.  469 

with  Abies  rather  than  Pinus,  standing  in  silvicultural  characteris- 
tic between  Picea  and  Abies.  Its  great  recuperative  power,  due 
to  elasticity  and  rapid  rate  of  growth  in  the  natural  regeneration 
is  praised ;  also  its  ease  of  artificial  reproduction.  Two  to  three- 
year-old  seedlings  are  planted  on  soil  free  of  weeds ;  three  to  five- 
year-old  transplants  are  used  in  wet  or  peaty  soil  and  repair  plant- 
ing. Its  largest  and  best  production  occurs  in  dense  stands,  hence 
the  spacing  should  not  be  too  wide.  The  speaker  claims  that  the 
species  clears  its  bole  best  in  pure  stand,  but  also  in  mixture  with 
others  if  not  outgrowing  them  too  fast.  If  mixed  with  a  too 
large  preponderance  of  spruce  and  fir  the  cleaning  process  is  the 
slowest,  and  then  dry  pruning  has  to  be  resorted  to.  Contrary  to 
our  experience,  according  to  the  speaker  it  does  not  bear  green 
pruning.  While  not  very  fastidious,  it  does  not  thrive  in  dried  out 
sunny  sites,  but  shows  still  good  growth  on  wet,  peaty  soil  with 
raw  humus.  For  improving  soils  it  is  excellent,  crowding  out 
weeds  and  forming  a  mild  humus.  The  smooth  straight  shaft  is 
praised  for  increasing  in  full-woodedness  with  age.  The  work- 
wood  per  cent,  is  placed  at  eighty-three. 

The  116  year  old  White  Pines  show  85%  of  heartwood  as 
against  45%  in  Scotch  Pine.  Altogether  the  White  Pine  accom- 
plishes in  100  years  what  the  Scotch  Pine  in  the  district  under 
discussion  does  in  160  years.  At  104  years  of  age  the  stand 
showed  1,360  cubic  feet  timberwood  as  against  1,324  for  spruce  on 
site  I,  and  910  for  Scotch  Pine. 

Prices  paid  are  now  much  better  than  for  native  pine,  70%  in 
the  better  grades,  and  still  10%  in  the  lowest.  Its  resistance  to 
diseases  and  dangers  is  praised  and  also  its  wind  firmness. 

Allgemeine  Forst-  u.     Jagdzeitung.     August,  1909.     Pp.  290-291. 

In   a  note   by   Zederbauer,   observations   at 

Frost  various    places    in    Austria    are    recorded 

Hardiness  which  substantiate  that  generally  the  blue 

of  variety  of  Douglas  Fir   (the  one  from  the 

Pseudotsuga.         dry  regions  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  etc., — 

Rev.)  is  more  frost  resistant  than  the  green 

variety.    Under  cover,  and  in  the  open  after  about  twelve  feet  in 

height  is  attained  the  green  variety  does  not  suffer,  while  in  the 

open  all  those  under  twelve  feet  did. 

Centralblatt  f.  d.  g.    Forstwesen.    August-September,  1909.     Pp.  387-388. 
30 


470  Forestry  Quarterly. 

A  stem  analysis  of  a  single  Sitka  Spruce  in 

Sitka  the   forest   garden   at   Giessen,   shows  that 

Spruce.  even  in  a  climate  by  no  means  similar  to 

its  native  habitat  this  species  preserves  its 

rapid  rate  of  development  tolerably  well. 

Age  no            ?n  30  40  50           58 

Height  4             21  39  56  69            73  feet 

Diameter  3.4  7.4  11  13            15  inch 

Area  3.5  16  31  50            66  sq.  inch 

Volume  1  6.6  18  3?           46  cu.  ft. 

Form  factor  .61  .48  .47  .44          .44 
Annual  rate — 

height  17            1.8  1.7  1.3              .4  feet 

diameter  .4  .34  .2  .2  inch 

area  1.35  1.5  1.9  i.6sq.inch 

volume  .56  1.24  1.4  1.4  cu.  ft. 

per  cent.  14.8  9.2  5.6  4.5 

Allgemeine  Forst-  u.     Jagdzeitung.     August,  1909.     Pp.  295-6. 


MENSURATION,  FINANCE,  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

To  secure  a  measure  which  in  valuable  tim- 

Ac curate  ber  will  permit  more  accurate  measure  than 

Log  the  customary  lath  or  tape,  Beuz  has  con- 

Measure.  structed  a  measure  consisting  of  a  lath,  at 

one  end  of  which  an  iron  point  is  inserted 

at  a  right  angle,  at  the  other,  a  V  scribe  the  length  from  the  point 

to  the  scribe  being  exactly  a  meter  or  any  other  unit  length.     A 

stub  handle  near  the  point  end,  and  the  usual  ring  handle  of  the 

scribe  permit  a  rapid  and  accurate  measuring  of  log  length. 

Das   Abldngen    des    hangnutzholzes    bei    der    Ansformung    im    Rohen. 
Allgemeine  Forst-  u.     Jagdzeitung.     June,  1909.     Pp.  190-195. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  with  what  precision 

Aims  the  technical  aim  of  a  forest  management 

of  in   Saxony  may  be   expressed,   as   deduced 

Forest  from  the  results  in  the  log  market. 

Management.  By    investigating   the    sales    (about    100 

million   cubic   feet)    of   logs    for   20  years, 

from  1880  to  1899,  Pursche  comes  to  the  conclusion,  that  the  aim 

of  Saxon  forest  management  is  to  be  sought  in  growing  normal 

stands,  in  which  about  35  per  cent,  of  the  total  log  volume  is  to  be 


Periodical  Literature.  471 

found  in  trees  which  have  a  middle  diameter  of  9  to  12  inches. 
The  growing  of  logs  of  a  larger  diameter  appeared  during  that 
period  at  least  disadvantageous  in  Saxony. 

In  cutting  to  logs  such  stands,  in  which  35  per  cent,  of  the  vol- 
ume is  represented  by  9  to  12  inch  middle  diameters,  while  45  per 
cent,  will  be  represented  by  stems  with  6  to  9  inch  middle  diam- 
eters, there  will  be  found  40  per  cent,  of  the  volume  over  9  inch 
at  the  small  end. 

This  discussion  recalls  a  similar  investigation  by  Wagener  in 
his  Waldrente,  in  which  according  to  the  testimony  of  various 
saw  millers  the  most  advantageous  diameters  for  German  log 
markets  are :  6  to  8  inch,  27%  ;  8  to  10  inch,  37%  ;  10  to  12  inch. 
23%  ;  over  12  inch,  13%. 

Ueber  Hiebsxugswirtschaft  in  Sachsen.  Allgemeine  Forst-  u.  Jagd/ei- 
tung.    June,  1909.     Pp-  189-90. 

The  great  variation  of  financial  results  of 
Financial  forest    management    under    varying    condi- 

Results.  tions   even   in   Germany,   where   conditions 

over  the  small  territory  of  200,000  square 
miles  might  be  supposed  not  to  be  extraordinarily  different,  ap- 
pears from  a  comparison  of  two  State  administrations  with  the 
results  of  a  private  forest  management  in  Suabia. 

The  latter  property  of  about  6,000  acres,  92%  spruce,  the  bal- 
ance oak  and  beech,  has  a  good  road  system  and  several  rail- 
roads passing  through,  insuring  high  prices.  The  cut  (average 
for  last  three  years)  is  690,000  cubic  feet,  or  117  cubic  feet  per 
acre.  Comparing  the  financial  results  with  those  of  the  large 
forest  area,  much  on  poor  soils,  of  Prussia,  and  the  small  but 
intensely  managed  State  forests  of  Wurttemberg,  the  following 
interesting  figures  appear: 

Gross  Yield  Net  Yield  Expenditures 

Per       Per  Per  Per  Mge-    Cul- 

acre.      cu.  ft.  acre.  cu.  ft.  Pers.  merit,  ture.  Road. 

Dollars.  Per  acre- 

Prussia                           3-90       .068  2.40  .043  -62        .91       -V       -l7 

wSttemberg*                9-20       .096  6.0  .057  .£      2.27       .23       .40 

Private                           19-24       -^4  17-47  ."9  -47      1-32       .16       .08 

The  logging  cost  on  the  private  property  is  relatively  high, 
wages  being  high,  and  all  wood  being  moved  to  roads,  namely, 

*  These  figures  have  lately  been  improved,  see  p.  479- 


472  Forestry  Quarterly. 

4.5  cents  per  cubic  foot.  On  the  other  hand  supervision  is  easy  and 
relatively  inexpensive.  The  total  cost  of  management  is  just  a 
little  more  than  that  of  the  Prussian  State  forests,  yet  the  total 
net  result  is  8  times  as  great. 

Bine  forstliche  Winterreise  in  die  schwabische  Hochebene.     Allgemeine 
.borst-  u.    Jagdzeitung.     September,  1909.     Pp.  302-3. 

In  spite  of  the  relative  significance  of  fire 
Forest  losses    in    Germany,    the    desire    to    insure 

Fire  against  these  small  losses  is  still  active,  in 

Insurance.  addition  to  the  effort  of  preventing  or  re- 

ducing them  by  severe  laws,  effective  self- 
help  of  owners,  increased  care  of  visitors,  etc.  The  few  insur- 
ance companies  (see  Vol.  VI,  p.  434)  who  are  in  this  business 
insure  at  high  rates,  sometimes  as  high  as  10  to  14  cents  per  acre 
per  year. 

To  overcome  the  difficulty  Keiper  proposes  that  the  government 
take  hold  of  the  insurance,  and  to  make  it  obligatory.  He  pro- 
poses the  method  of  doing  it  in  Bavaria. 

We  are  interested  only  in  the  technical  side.  Species,  kind  of 
management,  age  and  location  form  the  basis  for  making  danger 
classes.  Deciduous  forest  over  60  years  old,  belongs  to  the  lowest 
danger  class,  then  follow  the  younger  deciduous  stands  with  cop- 
pice and  standard  coppice.  Coniferous  forest,  the  most  endang- 
ered is  graded  by  three  age  classes  following  the  two  deciduous 
danger  classes ;  those  over  60  year  form  the  third,  those  from  30 
to  60  years  the  fourth,  and  the  young  growths  the  fifth  or  highest 
danger  class ;  mixed  forest  to  be  ranged  according  to  prominence 
of  species.  Specially  endangered  locations  near  cities,  roads, 
railroads,  factories,  etc.,  increase  the  rate. 

The  larger  the  number  of  insured  properties  the  smaller  may 
be  the  rate. 

The  following  example  is  based  on  the  whole  Bavarian  forest 
area  of  all  properties  over  12.5  acres  in  extent,  which  comprise 
altogether  3,750,000  acres.  Making  the  average  rate  4  cents  per 
acre,  this  would  furnish  $150,000  insurance  premium,  of  which 
the  State  itself  would  have  to  pay  $90,000.  The  author  thinks  this 
would  suffice,  and  indeed,  soon  according  to  the  interest  created 
and  the  resulting  decrease  of  fires,  the  rate  may  be  decreased, 


Periodical  Literature.  473 

perhaps  halved,  so  that  hardly  any  financial  burden  would  be  ex- 
perienced. 

Waldbrandversicherung.     Forstwissenschaftliches  Centralblatt.     October, 
1909.     Pp.  418-21. 

In  connection  with  the  above  the  statistics 
Forest  of  forest  fires  in  the  State  forests  of  Ba- 

Fires  varia  for  the  30  years  from  1877  to   1906, 

in  just  published  are  of  interest. 

Bavaria.  On  the  state  forests  there  were  altogether 

2,728  fires  covering  2,958  hectar,  only  two 
of  which  ran  over  areas  of  more  than  250  acres.  The  total  dam- 
age, including  cost  of  extinguishing  fires  in  the  30  years  has  been 
$135,000,  hence  per  annum  $4,500,  less  than  $18  per  acre  of  dam- 
aged area  (about  240  acres)  less  than  half  a  cent  per  acre  of  the 
total  forest  area  (2,300,000  acres). 

The  necessity  for  fire  insurance  for  the  Bavarian  State  forests 
does  therefore  not  exist. 

That  the  spring  months  are  the  most  dangerous,  is  supported 
by  these  statistics,  64%  of  the  cases  occurring  during  March, 
April,  May.  Running  fires  from  over  78%,  tree  fires,  hardly  5%. 
The  overwhelming  number  of  cases  was  due  to  foolishness  or 
negligence;  yet  over  15%  was  due  to  malevolence. 

Forstwissenschaftliches  Centralblatt.     October,  1909.     Pp.  441-2. 

UTILIZATION,  MARKET,  AND  TECHNOLOGY. 

A  very  careful,  learned  and  extensive  dis- 

Hardness  cussion  of  the   factors  entering  into  hard- 

of  ness  and  hardness  tests  of  wood,  and  of  the 

Wood.  meaning  of  hardness,  which  goes  fully  into 

the  mathematics  involved,  comes  from  the 

pen  of  Dr.  Lorenz  as  a  contribution  from  the  Austrian  Experiment 

Station.     It  is  of  such  a  character  as  to  make  briefing  impossible. 

The  contents  may  be  seen  from  the  following  headings:     1.  The 

theoretical  equation  of  the  hardness  test.    2.  The  theoretical  equa- 

itons  of  the  pressure  in  hardness  tests.     3.  The  determination  of 

the  constants  of  pressure  and  hardness  equations  from  empiric 

hardness  data.     4.  The  application  of  theoretical  pressure  and 

hardness  equations  to  empiric  hardness  data;    subjecting  various 


474  Forestry  Quarterly. 

data  secured  by  various  methods  to  analytical  examination.  5. 
Mutual  advancement  of  theory  and  experience. 

Under  the  last  heading  the  dependence  of  hardness  to  specific 
weight  forms  a  special  feature  of  the  discussion,  in  which  the 
result  appears  that  the  hardness  of  specifically  heavier  woods  in- 
creases more  rapidly  than  their  specific  dry  weight,  when  the 
pressure  is  applied  with  not  too  acute  bodies. 

In  the  resume  the  author  states  that  a  comparison  of  hardness 
in  wood  on  the  basis  of  equal  area,  or  equal  indentation  depth,  or 
a  combination  of  the  two,  or  on  the  basis  of  equal  surface  of 
punches,  which  have  different  form,  is  theoretically  not  ad- 
missible; the  most  suitable  basis  for  comparison  is  the  volume 
equality  of  the  punches. 

He  develops  the  conception  of  "form  pressure"  as  the  most  suit- 
able expression  of  the  hardness  measure  of  the  compression  tests, 
conceptions  which  can  only  be  discussed  with  the  use  of  form- 
ulae. 

Untersuchung  des  Begriffs  der  Holzh'drte.  Centralblatt  f.  d.  g.  Forst- 
wesen.    August,  September,  1909.     Pp.  348-387. 

From  the  Austrian  Experiment  Station  Dr. 

Nezv  Lorenz    reports    a    new    wood   preservative 

Wood  which  overcomes  the  objections  to  the  salts 

Preservative.         soluble  in  water  (hence  easily  leached  out), 

and  to  the  expense  when  using  efficient  tar 

oils,  the  phenols  of  which  are  also  leached.     This  new,  effective 

and  cheap  preservative  is  arsenate  of  copper,  which  is  absolutely 

insoluble  in  water.     The  preparation  is  made  by  dissolving  5.5 

pounds  of  copperas  with  16.5  pounds  of  ammonia  of  25%NH3 

(sp.  gr.  .91)   and  water,  to  make  50  gallons.     To  this  is  added 

50  gallons  of  arsenious  acid,  2.2  pounds  dissolved  in  5.5  pounds 

of  the  same  ammonia  and  diluted  with  water. 

After  being  filtered  to  get  rid  of  some  carbonate  of  copper  and 
other  impurities,  the  dark  blue  ammoniacal  solution  of  arsenite 
of  copper    (C11HASO3)    is   ready   for  use. 

According  to  the  dryness  of  the  wood  from  25  to  40  per  cent, 
of  the  wood  volume  is  taken  up.  The  ammonia  evaporates  and 
the  blue  green  color  of  the  impregnated  wood  changes  to  gray 
green  which  remains  constant  (the  arsenate  of  copper).  A  beech 
tie  impregnated  with  this   liquid   will  contain   from  one-half  to 


Periodical  Literature.  475 

one  pound  of  the  dry  very  poisonous  arsenate.    The  cost  is  15  to 
25  cents  per  tie  as  against  50  to  80  cents  for  tar  oil  impregnation. 

Centralblatt  f.  d.  g.     Forstwesen.     August,  September,  1909.     Pp.  388-90. 

A  new   safe   explosive,  called  "Ammonca- 

Removal  hiicit,"    for    use    in    removing    stumps    and 

of  roots  has  been  most  satisfactorily  used  in 

Stumps.  the    Bavarian    Forest    Department.      With 

this  safely  handled  explosive  three  men  can 

get  out  from  120  to  150  stumps  per  day. 

Ueber  die  Stockrodung,  etc.     Silva.     August,  1909.     Pp.  565-67. 

Oak  floors  laid  nearly  two  hundred  years 

Oak  ago    in    Versailles    and    Fontainebleau    are 

Flooring.  still  in  excellent  state  of  preservation.     The 

famous  colonial  mansion  "Adena"  at  Chilli- 
cothe,  Ohio,  which  was  built  in  1805  still 
has  the  original  oak  floors  well  preserved.  With  the  advent  of 
the  use  of  White  Pine,  oak  was  used  to  a  less  extent  for  flooring 
except  in  the  finer  houses.  At  this  time  when  kiln  drying  was 
almost  unknown  the  more  modern  methods  of  heating  are  said 
to  have  been  injurious  to  oak  floors. 

The  first  oak  flooring  was  made  by  hand,  and  later  it  was  made 
from  boards  which  were  matched  by  machinery  after  being  rip- 
ped to  width.  Most  of  such  flooring  was  manufactured  at  local 
planing  mills  and  was  cut  for  each  separate  order.  A  Wisconsin 
manufacturer  began  the  practice  of  cutting  hardwood  flooring 
and  ceiling  into  shorter  lengths  and  butting  the  ends  of  the  pieces 
by  machinery.  This  was  soon  followed  by  end  matching  of  pieces, 
which  was  perfected  by  a  Chicago  firm  and  patented.  The  patent 
was  contested  in  the  courts  and  at  first  upheld  but  later  the  de- 
cision was  reversed  and  the  manufacture  of  flooring  became  an 
important  industry.  The  present  high  demand  for  oak  and  other 
hardwood  floorings  is  largely  due  to  the  construction  of  more 
sanitary  floors. 

The  Southern  Lumberman. 


476  Forestry  Quarterly. 

The    French    method    of    turpentining    re- 
French  Method      quires  more  labor  and  skill  and  produces 
of  less  result  than  any  of  the  methods  used  in 

Turpentining.  the  United  States.  It  has  the  great  ad- 
vantage, however,  of  maintaining  the  flow 
of  resin  for  a  longer  period  than  our  methods.  The  box  method 
reduces  the  productive  life  of  the  longleaf  pine  to  four  to  six 
years,  the  cup  and  apron  system  allow  15  to  20  years  tapping, 
while  the  French  system  allows  bleeding  of  the  maritime  pine  for 
30  years  or  more  without  diminishing  the  flow.  Axes  with 
curved  blades  set  at  a  slight  angle  to  the  handle  are  used  for 
chipping,  which  is  performed  about  30  times  between  March  and 
the  middle  of  October  and  results  in  a  face  of  26  to  30  inches  each 
season.  Turpentining  is  carried  on  along  the  Bay  of  Biscay  where 
the  primary  purpose  of  the  forest  is  to  hold  the  light  sands. 

The  Southern  Lumberman. 


The  palmettoes  were  once   fairly  common 
Uses  along  the   South   Atlantic  coast,  but  have 

°f  been  cut   in   such  large  numbers  that  the 

Palmetto.  supply   is    said    to   be   almost   entirely   ex- 

hausted in  North  Carolina.  This  endo- 
genous wood  is  admirably  suited  for  the  construction  of  wharves, 
since  it  is  said  not  to  be  affected  by  the  teredo  or  other  sea  worms' 
In  early  days,  large  quantities  were  used  for  wharves  at  Nor- 
folk, Wilmington,  Charleston,  Savannah  and  other  places.  Dur- 
ing the  Revolutionary  War  the  palmetto  was  considered  to  be 
the  best  wood  for  constructing  forts,  since  the  soft,  fibrous  na- 
ture of  the  timber  made  its  destruction  difficult  by  either  small  or 
large  shot.     The  wood  is  not  of  value  for  furniture. 

The  Southern  Lumberman. 


Periodical  Literature. 


477 


27%  " 

a 

t            a 

3 

a           u          t 

18%  " 

it 

(             a 

8 

((              St            (t 

35%    " 

a 

C                   (( 

22 

a          a         i 

15%    " 

(C 

(             a 

53 

a           a          t 

28%    " 

'       "  5 

•  15 

(6               ((             i 

STATISTICS  AND  HISTORY. 

Prof.  Snrosch  of  the  forest  school  at  New 
World's  Alexandria  (Poland)  has  brought  together 

and  with    great    industry,    in    over    500    pages, 

Russia's  statistics  and  description  of  the  world's  for- 

Forests.  est  areas,  lumber  trade,  and  forest  manage- 

ment. The  data  of  Russia  occupy  naturally 
the  larger  portion  of  the  work,  and  are  given  in  more  detail.  Ac- 
cording to  Surosch  the  forest  areas  of  the  world  appear  to  be : 

Europe       1200  thousand  sq.  miles,  30%  of  the  total  area,  1.7  acre  per  capita 

Asia  4280        "  '' 

Africa        2040        "  ' 

America     5640        "  ' 

Australia     490        "  ' 

Total       13,650 

The  total  exports  of  wood  products  in  1903  totaled  $335  million, 
the  imports  $371  million,  while  in  1890  the  figures  were  $176  and 
$205  million  respectively. 

In  the  exports  the  following  countries  participated : 

Russia  and  Finland, $59       million 

North  America  (means  U.  S.),   ..  56 

Austria-Hungary,   52 

Sweden,    43 . 5 

Canada,    39-7       " 

Norway,   19.5       " 

Holland,   16.4       " 

France,    10.2       " 

Germany,    5.8 

Roumania, 4.5       " 

Others,    28.4      " 

The  imports  going  to  the  following  countries  were  valued  at: 

Great  Britain,    $114      million 

Germany,    51 

France,   30. 5       " 

North  America,    28 

Belgium,     26 

Holland,   25 

Italy,  12.7       " 

South  America, 1 1 


478  Forestry  Quarterly. 

The  north  temperate  zone  of  the  Old  World  has,  with  3,$ 
thousand  square  miles  the  most  important  forest  area,  of  which 
Russia  in  Europe  has  800,  in  Asia  2,200,  or  altogether  3  million 
square  miles.  The  author  places  Canada  next  with  1,260  square 
miles,  the  United  States  and  Mexico  next. 

While  European  Russia  has  38.8%  of  forest  area  (according  to 
others  36)  it  is  stated  that  57%  of  the  population  are  crowded 
on  22%  of  the  area  and  suffer  from  lack  of  wood.  At  least  20 
million  use  straw  and  dung  for  fuel,  withdrawing  15,000  cubic 
feet  of  manure  each  year  from  the  farms. 

In  southwestern  Asia,  in  the  mountains  there  are  still  coni- 
ferous woods,  but  the  largest  part  is  sandy  plain  occasionally  with 
chapparal. 

In  western  Siberia  the  watershed  of  the  Ob  (Tomsk  and  Omsk) 
is  an  immense,  swampy  plain,  of  26,500  square  miles,  one-third 
without  any  forest,  two-thirds  conifer  forest  with  little  fit  for  cul- 
tivation.    Seven  thousand  square  miles  are  tundra. 

Eastern  Siberia  shows  similar  zones,  coniferous  forest,  almost 
without  population,  occupying  27,000  square  miles.  North  of  the 
730  dwarf  growth  begins.  South  of  the  Amur  the  most  significant 
growth  is  to  be  found.  Roads,  people,  capital,  are  lacking  to  de- 
velop these  areas. 

The  Russian  forest  department  controls  altogether  870  million 
acres,  and  1,025  million  acres  in  Asia  are  not  yet  placed  in  its 
hands.  But  only  250  million  acres  are  State  forests,  the  rest  held 
either  for  partition  among  the  peasants,  in  other  branches  of  the 
administration  (mines)  for  corporations,  or  in  dispute.  An  army 
of  nearly  32,000  guards,  of  whom  20;ooo  educated  underforesters, 
are  employed.  The  stumpage  is  usually  sold  to  lumbermen  at  a 
stated  price  per  tree  or  per  area,  sometimes  for  a  number  of  years. 

In  1897  on  the  peninsula  of  Kola  for  288,000  pieces  sawlogs 
of  12  inch  and  over  to  be  taken  in  5  years  nearly  $200,000  were 
paid;  a  million  trees  in  Jeniseick  were  sold  in  1900  for  13  years 
at  20  cents  apiece.  In  1903  the  cut  offered  at  $25  million  brought 
at  auction  over  $30  million.  The  total  receipts  in  1902  were  $32.3 
million,  expenditures  $5.7,  net  $2.6. 

The  law  of  1899  which  obligates  buyers  to  reforest  has  mostly 
remained  a  dead  letter ;  the  lumbermen  allow  as  a  rule  their  guar- 
antees to  lapse,  so  that  in  7  years  $3,000,000  were  to  the  credit  of 
the  planting  fund,  only  half  of  which  had  been  used.     Meanwhile 


Periodical  Literature.  479 

the  implanted  area  grows.     Natural  regeneration  has  proved  a 
total  failure. 

Beitrdge  sur  forstlichen  Statistik.    Zeitschrift  fur  Forst-  u.    Jagdwesen. 
August,  1909.     Pp.  545-550. 

Wiirttemberg  has  the  honor  of  showing  the 
Statistics  most  profitable   forest  management   among 

of  all  the  German  States,  with  a  net  result  of 

Wiirttemberg.  S6.74  per  acre,  in  1906.  Most  complete 
statistics  are  published  by  the  forest  admin- 
istration. The  productive  forest  area  comprises  471,000  acres, 
from  which  were  harvested  in  1907  at  the  rate  of  87  cubic  feet 
timberwood  per  acre,  of  which  68  for  main  harvest,  the  balance  in 
thinnings,  which  are  only  moderate.  The  workwood  per  cent,  for 
conifers  was  79,  for  oak  55.6,  for  other  deciduous  woods  16.5, 
excepting  beech  with  only  8.7%. 

Wood  prices  have  continuously,  though  slowly,  risen,  the  price 
for  oakwood  being  29  cents,  for  coniferous  logs  14  cents  per 
cubic  foot,  for  beech  fuelwood  $2.15  per  cord,  for  pine  (with 
79%  taken  out  for  workwood)  $1.66  per  cord.  These  prices  are 
for  logs  and  cords  in  the  woods. 

The  area  of  annual  plantings  is  4,722  acres,  which  corresponds 
to  just  about  100  year  rotation  in  the  average.  Actually,  in  the 
timber  forest  it  is  higher,  but  statistics  in  this  direction  are  lacking. 
With  the  exception  of  about  330  acres,  which  are  sowed,  this  area 
is  planted  with  1,494,880  conifers  and  205,840  deciduous  trees  at 
a  cost  of  $8.60  per  acre,  which  is  considered  moderate.  Repair 
planting  to  the  extent  of  30%  seems  rather  exorbitant. 

Altogether,  the  cost  for  cultural  work  represents  25  cents  per 
acre  of  forest,  an  amount  which  corresponds  to  that  spent  by 
other  administrations,  but  is  larger  than  in  former  years.  Road- 
work  requires  44  cents  per  acre.  All  expenditures  represent 
32.9%  of  the  receipts,  which  amount  to  $4,716,000,  the  net  in- 
come, as  stated,  figuring  at  $6.74  per  acre. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  changes  in  all  items  during  the  53 
years  from  1853  to  1906,  which  show,  of  course  increases  in  all 
cases;  the  cut  by  nearly  66  per  cent.;  the  gross  income  by  375 
per  cent. ;  the  total  expenditure  by  nearly  200  per  cent. ;  the  ex- 
pense for  cultural  work  by  230  per  cent. ;    for  road  building  by 


480  Forestry  Quarterly. 

nearly  600  per  cent. ;  the  net  yield  by  620  per  cent. ;   and  the  net 
yield  per  acre  nearly  740  per  cent. 

Forststatistische  Mitteilungen  aus  Wiirttemberg  fiir  das  Jahr,  1906. 
Forstwissenschaftliches  Centralblatt.  September-October,  1909.  Pp.  524- 
527. 

POLITICS  AND  LEGISLATION. 

The  German  government  has  for  some  time 
Forest  reforested     waste     lands     in     Kiautschou, 

Planting  which  is  the  territory  over  which  Germany 

in  exercises    a    protectorate.      The    results    of 

China.  this  planting  have  been  so  satisfactory,  even 

financially,  and  have  aroused  such  wide- 
spread interest  among  the  Chinese  that  increased  activity  in  this 
direction  is  promised. 

Silva.    August,  1909.    P.  567. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Lately,  an  improvement  has  been  made  in 
Prussian  the  salaries  of  the  field  men  in  the  forest 

Foresters'  service   of   Prussia.      The    Oberforster,    or 

Salaries.  managers  of  districts,  begin  with  $750  and 

can  attain  $1,800,  besides  free  lodgings;  in 
addition,  they  may  attain  supplementary  pay  for  travel,  represen- 
tation, etc.,  up  to  $750,  and  small  additions  up  to  $75,  if  located 
in  special  places.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  these, 
as  all  other  government  positions,  entitle  the  holder  to  a  pension, 
variously  graded.  Aspirants  to  managerships  (Forest  assessor) 
who  used  to  be  variously  employed  at  daily  rates,  are  now,  for 
the  first  two  years,  employed  at  monthly  rates,  namely  $45  and 
$50  respectively,  then  at  yearly  rates,  $675,  $750,  $825,  and  in  the 
sixth  year  they  are  appointed  Oberforster  without  a  district. 

The  underforesters  (rangers)  receive  from  $350  to  $625,  be- 
sides free  house  and  fuel  and  some  other  emoluments  which  may 
amount  to  $200. 

Guards  are  paid  on  the  average  $400,  with  $50  added  for  house 
rents,  free  fuel,  and  $7.50  .towards  a  uniform.  These,  too,  are 
entitled  to  a  pension. 

Forstwissenschaftliches  Centralblatt.     July,  1909.     Pp.  387-389. 


Periodical  Literature.  481 

The  requirements  for  a  full-fledged  higher 

Education  education  in  forestry  are  formulated  by  Dr. 

of  Wagner  for  German  conditions  as  follows : 

Foresters.  1.  Better  mathematical  preparation  in  the 

preparatory  schools. 

2.  Fuller  theoretical  education  at  a  university  by  increasing 
the  duration  of  studies  from  seven  semesters  to  nine,  and  creation 
of  fellowships  for  the  still  further  increase  of  education  for  se- 
lected men. 

3.  Organization  of  the  practical  education  into  thorough  and 
systematic  courses. 

4.  Regular  continuation  courses  in  theory  and  practice  of  a  few 
weeks  duration  for  officials. 

Dr.  Wimmenauer  objects  to  the  increase  of  the  study  time  on 
the  ground  that  in  German  Universities  where  attendance  is  not 
enforced  many  students  will  only  waste  more  time,  and  prefers 
to  attain  the  object  by  increasing  entrance  requirements. 

Allgemeine  Forst-  u.     Jagdzeitung.     September,  1909.     P.  323. 


OTHER  PERIODICAL  LITERATURE. 

Quarterly  Journal  of  Forestry,  1909, — 

Judicious    Tree  Planting  for  Shelter.     Pp.  1 14-125. 
Shows  the  economic  importance  to  farmers. 

Wood  Used  at  Scotch  Collieries.    Pp.  125-130. 

A  short  report  containing  details  of  the  individual  use  of 
the  various  kinds  of  wood  for  colliery  purposes.  A  pertinent 
question  is  why  Great  Britain  must  depend  upon  foreign 
countries  for  her  supplies,  with  so  much  waste  land  suited 
for  pine  growth. 

Pinus  cembra.     Pp.  130-133. 
Silvicultural  notes. 

Second  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission.     Pp.  138-157. 
A  review  by  Dr.  W.  Schlich. 


482  Forestry  Quarterly. 

Experimental  Plantations  at  Cooper's  Hill.     Pp.  228-232. 
Gives  the  present  condition  of  22  plots  planted  in  1891-2. 

The  Botanical  Gazette,  1909, — 

A  Study  of  Pinon  Pine.     Pp.  216-223. 
A  discussion  of  the  silvical  characters. 

The  St.  Louis  Lumberman,  1909, — 
Melted  Wood.    P.  84. 

Gives  the  method  of  preparation,  and  qualities  of  the  fin- 
ished article. 

Canada  Lumberman  and  Woodworker,  1909, — 

A  Novel  Tree  Felling  Machine.     P.  31. 

Canadian  Forestry  Journal,  1909, — 

The  Regina  Meeting.     Pp.  105-121. 

An  account  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Canadian  Forestry 
Association  at  the  special  meeting  at  Regina,  Saskatchewan, 
in  September. 

Outlook  for  the  World's  Timber  Supply.     Pp.  123-126. 

A  paper  read  before  the  British  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science  pointing  out  the  inevitableness  of  a 
timber  famine. 

The  Forest  Trees  of  Canada.     Pp.  130-136. 

This  is  a  very  complete  enumeration  of  the  arborescent 
flora  of  Canada  giving  the  distribution  by  provinces.  We 
note  only  one  serious  omission,  namely  Quercus  acuminata, 
which  ocurs  in  south-western  Ontario.  By  admitting  a  num- 
ber of  the  many  species  of  Crataegus,  given  in  Sargent's  Silva, 
and  recognizing  Betula  fontinalis,  alaskana,  Alnus  sitchensis, 
several  species  of  Salix,  as  well  as  Acer  saccharum  var. 
rugelii,  Juniperus  scopulorum,  Ptelea  trifoliata,  and  also  sev- 
eral others  which  attain  tree  form  elsewhere,  it  would  be  pos- 
sible to  extend  the  list  to  over  150  in  all. 

The  Indian  Forester,  1909,— 

Afforesting  Waste  Lands  and  Financial  Returns  There- 
from.    Pp.  247-256;    305-312. 


Other  Periodical  Literature.  483 

The  American  Forest  Service.     Pp.  313-346. 
A  comprehensive  article. 

Some  Notes  of  a  Tour  in  Ceylon.    Pp.  346-353. 
Instructive    reading   regarding    Ceylon    forests    and    their 
working. 

Reproduction  of  Teak  in  Burma.     Pp.  367-376. 

Inheritance  in  Plants.     Pp.  418-419. 

Experiments  with  seeds   from  trees  of  the  same   species 
growing  on  different  sites. 

Bulletin  of  American  Geographical  Society,  1909, — 
Die  Vegetation  der  Brde.     Pp.  523-4. 
A  review  of  numbers  7  and  8  of  this  notable  series  of  mon- 
ographs on  plant  geography. 

Northern  Alaska  in  Winter.     Pp.  601-610. 
Contains  a  few  items  regarding  the  forest  flora,  and  the 
fuel  question  of  that  region. 


■,  \ 


I  i 

&         s.% 


%    11   •  ■    Mi  \  ->r 

>*  *r-  K'l  <  a  ~'k 


Splettstosser  Planting  Tools. 


NEWS  AND  NOTES. 

The  timber  owners  of  the  State  of  California  have  organized 
themselves  into  a  Forest  Protective  Association,  with  Thomas  B. 
Walker  of  Minneapolis,  the  well-known  lumberman,  as  president, 
he  being  the  largest  timberland  holder  in  the  State.  He  is  re- 
ported in  the  American  Lumberman  as  expressing  his  attitude 
in  the  following  words:  "I  hold  this  timber  because  the  laws  of 
the  country  make  it  possible  for  me  to  acquire  it,  and  because  in  a 
sense  it  was  offered  to  me  by  my  government.  It  has  increased 
in  value  because  of  the  work  that  other  men  have  done  in  this 
growing  country  of  ours  and  under  the  guardianship  of  our  laws. 
I  feel  that  it  is  mine,  but  mine  to  use  for  the  public  welfare. 
Therefore  I  have  no  right  to  handle  it  recklessly,  to  destroy  it,  to 
leave  a  waste  where  there  is  now  a  forest,  beneficent  in  its  influ- 
ence; but  I  must  use  it  so  as  to  perpetuate  it  and  to  continue  the 
benefits  which  it  confers  upon  the  regions  in  which  it  stands.  I 
feel  secure  not  only  in  title  but  in  reward  for  administering  this 
property,  but,  after  all,  I  hold  it  only  as  a  trustee." 

During  the  season  of  1908,  the  Forestry  Department  of  the 
Ontario  Agricultural  College  at  Guelph,  Ontario,  sent  out  to 
farmers,  for  waste  land  planting,  400,000  trees,  chiefly  White 
Pine,  Scotch  Pine,  Jack  Pine,  and  Black  Locust.  In  addition, 
collections  of  small  forest  trees  were  supplied  to  the  public  schools 
as  an  educative  factor. 

Statistics  of  Canada's  trade  in  wood  products  for  the  fiscal  year 
ending  March  31,  1909,  give:  Exports  of  unmanufactured  pro- 
ducts to  Great  Britain,  $10,024,123  ;  to  United  States,  $26,377,715  ; 
exports  of  manufactured  products  to  Great  Britain,  $1,481,750; 
to  United  States,  $3,217,331 ;  imports  from  United  States,  $8,- 
306,360. 

At  the  request  of  the  State,  the  United  States  Forest  Service 
has  undertaken  a  detailed  forest  survey  of  Mississippi  with  a 
view  to  the  adoption  of  legislation  providing  for  protection,  con- 


News  and  Notes.  485 

servation,  and  improvement  of  taxation  methods.    In  South  Caro- 
lina a  similar  survey  is  in  progress. 

The  new  specifications  for  southern  yellow  pine  bridge  and 
trestle  timbers  recently  issued  by  the  Yellow  Pine  Manufacturers' 
Association  can  be  obtained  from  the  secretary,  Mr.  Geo.  K. 
Smith,  Lumbermen's  Building,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Persistent  effort  is  being  made  by  cypress  manufacturers  toward 
establishing  a  much  wider  market  for  this  species.  Good  results 
from  this  special  endeavor  have  been  noted  in  Minnesota,  Maine, 
Colorado,  eastern  Canada  and  the  British  Isles.  The  exports  to 
the  British  Isles  and  the  Continent  show  an  increase  of  300% 
over  what  they  were  twelve  months  previous.  The  California 
Wine  Growers'  Association  on  March  17,  1908,  decided  that 
Cypress  was  the  best  substitute  for  White  Oak  in  tight  cooper- 
age suitable  for  wine  barrels.  Other  woods  in  competition  with 
the  Cypress  were  Redwood,  California  Cedar,  Washington  Cedar, 
Western  Spruce  and  Idaho  Cedar.  This  will  open  a  large  field 
for  cypress  lumber. 

A  movement  is  on  foot  to  adopt  log  grading  along  the  Col- 
umbia River.  Such  grading  has  been  practiced  for  several  years 
on  Puget  Sound  with  good  results.  The  advantages  of  log  grad- 
ing are  mutual  to  loggers  and  millmen. 

A  recent  decision  of  the  U.  S.  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals  at  New 
Orleans  makes  it  prohibitive  for  non-residents  to  cut  timber  from 
school  lands.  This  decision  affects  large  lumber  concerns  to  the 
extent  of  fully  $5,000,000. 

A  classified  list  of  more  than  5,000  consuming  concerns  is  given 
in  the  "Southern  Lumbermen's  Directory  of  Lumber  Consuming 
Factories  of  America."  The  book  is  to  be  issued  annually  with 
quarterly  supplements.  The  consuming  factories  embrace  those 
manufacturing  furniture,  vehicles,  implements  and  tools,  boxes 
and  coffins,  and  toys,  as  well  as  planing  mills,  mill  work  shops 
and  others.  The  list  is  presented  alphabetically  by  states,  towns 
and  cities,  and  gives  the  nature  of  the  output  in  each  case. 
31 


486  Forestry  Quarterly. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Hardwood  Manufacturers'  Association, 
Mr.  Lewis  Doster,  Secretary,  it  was  stated  that  in  the  last  year 
there  had  been  a  loss  of  nearly  40  per  cent,  in  business  as  a  result 
of  the  substitution  of  paper,  fiber,  and  pulp  boards  in  box  making. 

The  annual  loss  to  the  State  of  Maine  through  failure  to  utilize 
properly  its  wealth  of  timber  is  estimated  by  Fred.  A.  Gilbert  of 
The  Great  Northern  Paper  Co.,  at  over  $10,000,000  a  year  on 
five  of  the  most  common  kinds  of  timber,  spruce,  pine,  fir,  hem- 
lock, and  cedar.  In  addition  to  this  the  State  is  slowly  losing  its 
principal  asset,  the  standing  timber.  Only  a  little  more  than  one- 
half  of  what  the  State  is  capable  of  producing  is  marketed.  The 
rest  goes  to  make  up  the  losses  due  to  waste,  decay,  fire,  and 
wind. 

Mr.  Edwin  A.  Ziegler  resigned  on  October  1st  as  Chief  of 
Computing  in  the  Forest  Service,  to  become  an  instructor  in  the 
Pennsylvania  State  Forest  Academy  at  Mont  Alto,  Pa. 

Mr.  John  M.  Nelson,  Jr.,  who  had  been  Assistant  Chief  of 
Wood  Preservation  in  the  Forest  Service,  was  furloughed  on 
October  1st  to  accept  a  position  with  the  Philadelphia  &  Reading 
Coal  &  Iron  Company  at  Pottsville,  Pa. 

Mr.  E.  T.  Allen,  District  Forester  at  Portland,  Oregon,  has 
accepted  a  position  with  the  Weyerhausers.  Mr.  C.  S.  Chapman 
will  succeed  him. 

Mr.  S.  N.  Spring,  who  has  been  working  as  a  consulting  for- 
ester since  leaving  the  Forest  Service  last  February,  has  accepted 
the  post  of  State  Forester  of  Connecticut.  He  will  be  assisted  by 
Mr.  W.  O.  Filley. 


COMMENT. 

Catalpa-Brown  has  succumbed  as  far  as  the  publication  of 
Arboriculture  is  concerned,  which  with  the  October  number  comes 
to  an  end,  in  a  beautifully  illustrated  issue  in  honor  of  the  Catalpa- 
Tree.  Mr.  Brown  reminded  us  of  the  German  professor  who  en 
his  death  bed  bemoaned  his  mistake  in  having  devoted  his  life  to 
the  study  of  the  definite  article  instead  of  confining-  himself  to  the 
casus  accusdtivus.  It  is  questionable  whether  any  one  species  of 
tree  can  show  such  an  amount  of  literary  devotion  as  Mr.  Brown 
has  bestowed  on  the  Catalpa.  It  is  useful  to  have  men  with  one 
idea  if  that  idea  is  not  run  into  the  ground.  Catalpa  is  good  in 
its  place,  but  it  is  not  any  more  a  cure-all  than  Eucalyptus. 

We  must  call  special  attention  to  a  sentence  in  the  article  on 
nursery  practice,  briefed  on  p.  463,  which  has  reference  to  the 
occurrence  of  the  White  Pine  rust  in  the  Halstenbek  nurseries. 
It  will  perhaps  allay  the  fears  of  those  who  saw  the  end  of  trade 
relations  with  Germany  in  the  line  of  seedlings  to  learn  that  the 
rust  once  was,  but  now  is  not  any  more  found  in  Halstenbek. 
We  can  trust  the  thoroughness  with  which  such  things  are 
handled  in  Germany.  Yet  it  will  do  no  harm  to  scrutinize  care- 
fully all  importations. 

Dr.  Schenck,  after  an  experience  of  fifteen  years  with  Mr. 
Vanderbilt,  writes :  "It  is  obvious  that  private  individuals,  in  the 
long  run,  will  never  practice  timber  forestry,  whilst  corporations 
might  be  induced  by  proper  tariff  legislation,  proper  tax  legisla- 
tion, and  proper  fire  legislation,  to  indulge  in  long-time  invest- 
ments of  the  character  required  in  business  forestry." 

We  are  tempted  to  bowl  over  even  these  pillars  of  private  for- 
estry, especially  those  built  of  tax  releases  and  tariff  reductions 
or  increases,  and  leave  only  the  one  incentive,  the  pocketbook 
(which  is  but  little  affected  by  taxes  and  tariffs)  as  the  only  per- 
suasive argument  for  private  forest  management.  While  there 
are  still  cheap  ready-made  forests  to  be  had,  while  there  are  still 
endless  opportunities  to  reap  speculative  values,  in  other  words, 
while  the  new  world  is  still  unsettled,  only  very  special  conditions 


488  Forestry  Quarterly. 

can  justify  private  capital  in  engaging  in  forestry  as  a  business. 
The  need  of  the  country  at  large  to  husband  its  resources,  to  pro- 
tect itse/f  against  damage  by  waste,  and  against  ruination  of 
fertile  areas,  that  need  will  never  be  met  by  private  enterprise ; 
it  is  the  function  of  the  State.  Nor  should  it  be  overlooked  that 
the  people  will  have  to  pay  for  this  insurance  of  the  future,  reap- 
ing the  benefits  in  the  long  run. 


We  regret  to  anounce  that  on  November  20th,  the  well-known 
editor  of  the  American  Lumberman,  Mr.  J.  E.  Defebaugh,  suc- 
cumbed to  the  attacks  of  a  malignant  cancer.  Mr.  Defebaugh  was 
a  selfmade  man  of  high  ambitions,  who  exerted  himself  in  later 
years  on  behalf  of  forestry,  giving  considerable  space  and  personal 
discussion  in  his  journal  to  the  subject,  thereby  becoming  an  im- 
portant factor  in  advancing  forestry  interests  among  lumbermen. 
He  was  also  the  author  of  a  voluminous  History  of  the  Lumbering 
Industry  in  United  States  and  in  Canada,  of  which  two  volumes 
have  appeared. 

Born  in  Williamsburg,  Pennsylvania,  on  March  28th,  1854,  he 
learned  the  printer's  trade.  In  1877  came  to  Chicago  and  became 
a  correspondent  of  trade  journals.  In  1885  he  established  The 
Timberman,  in  competition  of  the  North  Western  Lumberman, 
with  which  in  1899,  a  consolidation  was  effected  under  the  name 
of  the  American  Lumberman.  Of  this  enterprise  he  became,  in 
1906,  the  sole  owner.  In  him  the  forestry  interests  lose  a  staunch 
and  sane  friend. 


HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 

THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  OF  APPLIED  SCIENCE 
offers  a  two-years'  course  in  FORESTRY  leading  to  the  degree  of 
Master  in  Forestry.     The  descriptive  pamphlet  will  be  sent  on 
application  to    W.  C.  SABINE,  15  University  Hall,  Cambridge, 
Mass. 


DUXBURY,  MASS. 


Preparatory  course  in  rim  LIS  1 1\  I  leading  to  the  Biltmore 
and  college  courses  in  this  subject.  It  requires  hard,  earnest 
application,  and  develops  an  appreciation  of  nature  and  power  of 
leadership.     SUMMER  CLASS  ;  also  TUTORING. 

F.  B.  KNAPP,  S.  B.,  Principal 

P.  R.  MEIER 

Consulting    Forester 

INo.  1  Broadway,  New  York 

Examinations,  Reports,  Sales 
18  Years  Experience  in  United  States 

MANUAL  FOR  NORTHERN  WOODSMEN 

By   AUSTIN   CARY.  Harvard   University    Publisher,    Cambridge, 
1909;  Pages,  250.     Price,  $2.00. 

The  above  publication  highly  recommended  by  the  editor  of 
this  journal  can  be  had  at  the  above  price  by  addressing  Forestry 
Quarterly,  396  Harvard  Street,  Cambridge,  Mass. 


Yale  University  Forest  School 

NEW   HAVEN,    CONNECTICUT 

A  two-year  graduate  course  is  offered,  lead- 
ing to  the  degree  of  Master  of  Forestry.  Grad- 
uates of  collegiate  institutions  of  high  standing 
are  admitted  upon  presentation  of  their  college 
diploma. 

The  Summer  School  of  Forestry  is  conducted 
at  Milford,  Pike  County,  Pa.  The  session  in 
1909  will  open  early  in  July  and  continue 
seven  weeks. 

For  further  information,  address 
HENRY  S.  GRAVES,  Director,  New  Haven,  Connecticut 


The  University  of  Toronto 
and  University  College 


Faculties  of  Art,  Medicine,  Applied  Science,  House- 
hold Science,  Education,  Forestry. 


The  Faculty  of  Forestry  offers  a  four  year  course, 
leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  in 
Forestry.  Also  a  six  year  course  leading  in  addition 
to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts. 


For  information,  apply  to  the  REGISTRAR  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY, 
to  the  Secretaries  of  the  respectire  Faculties. 


JUST  FROM  THE  PRESS 


A  BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  FORESTRY 

In  Europe,  United  States,  and  other  countries 

BY 

Bernhard  E.    Fernow 
UNIVERSITY  PRESS,  TORONTO 

Price  $2.50  Postpaid 

To  be  ordered  either  from  the  University  Press, 
University  of  Toronto,  Toronto,  Canada,  or  through 
the  Manager  of  the  Forestry  Quarterly,  396  Harvard 
Street,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts. 

Those  who  are  in  possesssion  of  incomplete  advance 
copies  can  have  the  revised  and  missing  parts  supplied 
by  sending  50  cents  to  either  of  the  above  addresses. 

Back  Numbers 

OF 

FORESTRY  QUARTERLY 

For  Sale  at  50  cents  per  Number 

Address  Forestry  Quarterly,  396  Harvard 
St.,  Cambridge,  Mass. 


EVERGREENS 


AND 


Forest  Trees,  also  Seeds 


Hardy  Sorts  for  Forest  Planting : 

Pinus  Strobus  (White  Pine),  Scotch  Pine,  Ponderosa  Pine,  Jack 

Pine,  White  Spruce,  Norway  Spruce,  Douglas  Spruce, 

and  many  other  Hardy  Varieties. 

Deciduous  Trees: 

European   Larch,   American  White   Elm,   Sugar   Maple,  White 

Ash,  American  Linden,  Catalpa,  Black  Locust,  Bur 

Oak,  Black  Oak,  Red  Oak  and  White  Oak 

Also  Seeds — Guaranteed  New  Crop : 

Evergreens:  Pinus  Strobus  (White  Pine),  Scotch  Pine,  Jack 
and  Bull  Pine,  and  20  other  varieties. 

Also  European  Larch,  Sugar  and  Norway  Maple,  Black  Lo- 
cust, Ash,  etc. 


WRITE  FOR  CATALOGUE  WITH  PRICES 

Mention  this  Magazine 

D.  HILJL 

Evergreen  Specialist  Dundee,    UK 


Forest  Tree  Seeds 

NATIVE  AND  FOREIGN  SPECIES 

All  Guaranteed  to  be  of  New  Crop 

DO  YOU  NEED  TREES  AT  REASONABLE  PRICES 

FOR 

FOREST  PLANTING? 

Write  for  Quotations  on  large  or  small  Quantities 

THE  NORTH-EASTERN  FORESTRY  CO. 

BOX  1131, 

NEW  HAVEN,  CONN. 

FOREST  TREES ! 

FOREST  SEEDS! 

F.O.B.  ROTTERDAM 
Seedlings  and  Transplanted.    By  the  Million 

PETER  SCHOTT,  KNITTELSHEIM 

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Wholesale   Seeds  and  Nurseryman 


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ESTABLISHED  1784 

The  oldest  established  Seed  and  Nursery  Business  in  Germany 

DESCRIPTIVE  CATALOGUES  POST  FREE  ON  APPLICATION 


Established  1845.  Incorporated  1900. 

W.  &  L.  E.  GURLEY 

TROY,   N.  Y.,  U.  S.  A. 
Largest  Manufacturers  in  America  of 

Instruments  for  Civil,  Mining  and  Hydraulic 
Engineers  and  Land  Surveyors 

Foresters*    Instruments,    Compasses,     Plane- 
Tables,  Chains,  Tape-Lines,  Etc. 


No.  100  RECONNOISSANCE  TRANSIT  $115.00 

CATALOGUES    AND    DETAILED    INFORMATION    ON     REQUEST 

T'lease  mention  this  Magazine  when  writing. 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Why  American  Foresters  are  poorly  trained,  -  -         373 

By  a  Professor 

Average  Wood  Production  in  the  United  States,  -  377 

By  R.  S.  Kellog  &  E.  A.  Ziegler 

An  Experiment  in  Logging  Longleaf  Pine ,  -  -  385 

By  H«rman  H.  Chapman 

Marking  in  Practice,  -  -  -  -  396 

By  A.  B.  Recknagel 

Japanese  Charcoal  Kiln,  ....  ^00 

By  Nils  B.  Eckbo 

Methods   of  Determining  the   Time  of  the  Year  at 

which  Timber  was  cut,         -  -  -  402 

By  Raphael  Zon 

Argentina  and  its  Chaco,  -  -  -  410 

By  Herman  Kluge 

Current  Literature,           -           -           -            -            -  415 

Other  Current  Literature,           -            -            -  429 

Periodical  Literature,             -              ...  435 

Other  Periodical  Literature,        -            -            -  481 

News  and  Notes,            .....  484 

Comment.            ......  ^3^ 


New  York  Botanical  Garden   Librar 


3  5185  00251    4980 


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