LIBRARY NEW YORIC BOTANICAL GARDEN
FORESTRY QUARTERLY
VOLUME IX
PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION
OF A
BOARD OF EDITORS
With Ten Plates, Four Cuts and Four Diagrams
LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL
OARDEN.
CAMBRIDCi: (BOSTON), MASS.
1911
v.^
BOARD OF EDITORS
B. E. Fernow, LL. D., Editor-in-Chief.
Henry S. Graves, M. A., Filibert Roth, B. S.,
Forester, Forest Service. University of Michigan.
R. C. Bryant, F. E., Frank J. Phillips, F. M.,
Yale University. University of Nebraska.
Richard T. Fisher, A. B., Hugh P. Baker, Ph. D.,
Harvard University. Pennsylvania State College.
Walter Mulford, F. E., C. D. Howe, Ph. D.,
University of Cornell. University of Toronto,
Ernest A. Sterling, F. E., Raphael Zon, F. E.,
Forester, Penna. R. R. Co. Forest Service.
Frederick Dunlap, F. E., Clyde Leavitt, M. S. F.,
Forest Service. Forest Service,
Asa S. Williams, F. E.
THE OBJECTS EOR WHICH THIS JOURNAL IS PUBLISHED ARE:
To aid in the establishment of rational forest management.
To ofifer an organ for the publication of technical papers of
interest to professional foresters of America.
To keep the profession in touch with the current technical
literature, and with the forestry movement in the United States
and Canada.
Manuscripts may be sent to the Editor-in-Chief at the Uni-
versity of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any of the board of
editors.
Subscriptions and other business matters should be addressed
to Forestry Quarterly, 396 Harvard Street, Cambridge, Mass.
CONTENTS.
Some Notes on Jack Pine (Pinus divaricata) in Western Ontario) i
By L. M. Ellis.
Comfortable Camps as a Means of Increasing the Efficiency of
Woods' Labor i c
By S. B. Detwiler.
How Fascines are Made, i8
By S. B. Detwiler.
Grain and Texture in Wood, 22
By Samuel J. Record.
The Equipment and Operation of a German Seed-extracting Es-
tablishment, 26
Translation by Sidney L. Moore.
Some Facts on Forestry Conditions in Sweden, 45
By Max H. Foerster.
The Swedish Forest Conservation Law 59
By B. E. Fernow.
Fixation of the Dunes on the Coast of Jutland, 62
By W. J. Morrill.
Supervisors' Meeting at San Francisco, 68
Forestry and the Lumber Business, 195
By. J. E- Rhodes, Secretary, Weyerhauser Lumber Company.
New View Points in Silviculture, 205
By Raphael Zon.
The White Pines of Montana and Idaho — Their Distribution, Quality
and Uses, 219
By F. I. Rockwell.
Seasonable Variation in the Food Reserves of Trees, 232
By John F. Preston and Frank J. Phillips.
Pith Flecks or Medullary Spots in Wood, 244
By Samuel J. Record.
Silvicultural Treatment of Abandoned Pastures in Southern New
England, 253
By Philip T. Coolidge.
Multiple Volume Table, 261
By Lincoln Crowell.
Supervisors' Meetings at Boise, Idaho, and Ogden, Utah, 262
An Appreciation of Dr. Heinrich Mayr, 268
By Hugh Potter Baker.
Consumption of Basket Willows in the United States for 1908, .... 271
By C. D. Mell.
The Need of a Vigorous Policy of Encouraging Cutting on the
National Forests of the Pacific Coast, 375
By Burt P. Kirkland.
Example of a German Working Plan, 391
Translated by A. B. Recknagel.
A Canadian Forest Survey, 400
By James W. Sewall.
The Biltmore Stick and its Use on National Forests, 406
By A. G. Jackson.
A Method of Assessing Fire Damage in the Southwest, 412
By Robert Rogers and Barrington Moore.
Results of "Light Burning" near Nevada City, Cal., 420
By M. D. Pratt.
Nomenclature of Divisions of Area in Working Plans, 425
By Barrington Moore.
Report of Supervisors' Meetings at Denver, Col-, 429
Frank J. Phillips — An Appreciation, 450
By J. C. Blumer.
The Yale Transplanting Board, 539
By J. W. Tourney.
The Rise of Silviculture, 544
By Dr. Jentsch. Translated by Frederick Dunlap.
Winter Reconnaissance in California, 557
By R. F. Hammatt.
The "Hand-loggers" of British Columbia, 563
By Louis Margolin.
Rotation of Cutting to Secure a Sustained Yield from the Crown
Timber Lands of British Columbia, 568
By Leonard S. Higgs.
A Confusion of Technical Terms in the Study of Wood Structure, 575
By C. D. Mell.
Report of Committee on Forest Fires, Canadian Forestry Associa-
tion, 578
Canadian Volume Tables, 589
By Ellwood Wilson.
CURRENT LITERATURE, 75, 279. 454. 595
Other Current Literature, 115, 292, 470, 615
PERIODICAL LITERATURE, 124, 301, 476, 620
Botany and Zoology, 124, 301, 476, 620
Forest Geography and Description, 476
Mensuration, Finance and Management, 129, 319, 495, 648
Politics and Legislation, 339, 644
Silviculture, Protection and Extension, 125, 308, 481, 622
Soil, Water and Climate, 303, 480
Statistics and History, 157, 337, 506, 643
Utilization, Market and Technology, 136, 333, 503, 642
Miscellaneous, 163, 344, 51 1
Roads and Survey, 306
Other Periodical Literature, 164, 346, 512, 645
NEWS AND NOTES, 168, 349, 5i4, 649
COMMENT, 185, 362, 527, 654
INDEX.
Abies concolor, 622 American Forestry Associa-
Administration, Austria, .... 160 tion ^Tt^
Switzerland,. 509 Andamans", ' ref ., ' '...'.'.'. 121
U. b. oer- . , , . ' , . .
vice, rev.,. 91 Appalachian, denudation, ref., 294
Africa, timbers., ref., 299 Arbor Day, ref., 297
Alaska, ref., 164, 165 Argentine, trees, ref., 300
Allen, practical forestry., ref., 473 Arkansas., ref., 123
American foresters', proceed- " birds, ref., 617
ings, ref., 471, 617 Armillaria mellea, ref., 348
Aspect influencing soil mois-
ture, 30s
Aspen, Weigle, rev., 459
Associations, 182, 183
" forest fires, . . . 367
" in Germany, . . 525
" western, 352
Australia, pines., ref., 300
Austria, aclministration, 160
" statistics, 338
" torrents, 644
Baker, H. P., article 268
Bamboos, ref., 348
Bark beetles, new genus, .... 480
Bark-weevils, ref., 116, 292
Barrels, I53
Basket willow, ref., 347
Bavaria, forests, ref., 648
" working plans, .... ^'^■7
Beech, rev., 612
Belgium, exotics in, ref., .... 300
" statistics, 339
Bern State forests, Sio
Betula lenta, range, ref. 647
Bibliography, ref., 473
" d e n d r ology,
rev., 609
" international, . 653
Baltimore, forest school, . . . . 359
Biltmore Stick, mensuration,
article, 406
" tables, ref., 473
Birch hubs, 335
Bird migration, ref., ii/
Blueberry culture, rev 281
Blue stain, lumber, ref., 512
BlumER, J. C, article, 450
Bogs, cause, 481
Bookkeeping, woodlot, 332
Borneo, trees, ref., 647
Botany, morphology and
physiology, ref. 119
Boxes, 154
" fibre and wood, ref.,.. 470
Boxwood 180
British Columbia, hand -log-
gers, 563
1 o gging.
ref., 646
" " log rules, . 361
" " log scaling,
ref., .... 648
lumber
camps, . . 142
" " report 75
" " rotation
c u 1 1 ing,
article, . 568
Brush burning, 179, 420, 435
Brussells' Conference, ref.,.. 167
Bud and twig key, ref., 618
Cableways, use, 143
California, ref 122, 166
" flora, ref. 298
" silva., rev., 95
southern, trees,
rev., loi
" winter reconnais-
sance, article, . 557
Caliper, self-recording, 495
Camps, comfortable, article,.. 15
" improved, 142
Canada, reciprocity 186
" experimental farms,
ref., 123
" cross ties, rev., .... 285
" forest products, 649
" forest reserves, .... 524
" forest survey, . . . 307, 400 ;
ref., 474
" Hudson Bay road
conditions, 468
" insurance, 174
" pulp, ref., 166
" pulpwood, 159
" Rocky Mountains, . . 175
" statistics, 82, 85, 159, 235,
293, 299, 464, 465-
ref, 467, 512, 649
" telegraph poles, ref., 299
Castilla, rubber plant, ref., . . 117
Catalpa, ref., 298
Cedar of Lebanon, ref., 513
" Red, growing, I73
" uses, rev., 469
" use and enemies, 149
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana, . 623
Chapparal, California, rev., . 458
Charcoal, manufacture, ....136, 141
Chestnut, bark disease, ref., . 295
" blight, commission, 353, 518
" insects, rev-, 105
" sweet, ref., 5^3
" wormy, 2,2,7
China, forester, 517
Clearing by fire, 179
Cocoanut palm, ref., 117
Colorado, forest schools, .... 358
Conifers, ecology, ref., 165
" identification, ref., . 165
" sprouting, ref., .... 512
Connecticut, ref., 119
" forest work, . . . 351
" insects, ref 295
" report, ref 472
Cornell forestry department,. 522
" state forester,
rev., 605
Vlll
Conservation, ref., 117
" rev., 107
" American, .... 516
" Commission, . . 183
" C o m m i ssion,
Canada, . .-474. 5^3 •
" handbook, ref-, 295
" Sweden, article, 59
" W a s h i ngton,
ref 298
CooLiDGE, P. T., article, 253
Cooperage, statistics, ref., . . 293
Coppice, Management, ref., . . 616
" vs. high forest, 501
" with standards,
management, .... 641
Cork oak, 180
Costa Rica, ref., 165
Cost, growing timber, rev., . . 107
" logging, 144
" producing lumber, 333
" veneers, ••• iSo
Cottonwood, '• • • 157
Creosote, volatilization, rev., 604
CrowEll, L., article 262
Cuba, materials, ref., • 298
Cypress, by-products, 360, 413
" uses, rev., 4o9
Damage by fire, assessing, ar-
ticle, 412
" by gas, ref-, 348
Damping off, 301,492
Deerlodge Ranger, 527
Deer raising, ref., ••• ^^7
Dendrology, bibliography,
rev., 609
Density, measure, 497
" and spreading, 125
Desert, plants, distribution,
100
rev., ; • ^\q
Detwiler, S. B., artacle, i5, i»
Diameter and price, I33
Dibble, new, 484
Diseases, fungous, rev., 97
Douglas Fir, Cline, rev., . . - • 400
" " m anagement,
ref., 470
Dunes, fixation in Jutland,
article
Dunlap! F.. article, transla-
lation, : • • ^44
Durability, post timbers, rev., 291
Ecology, rev., ^79
Education, ref., io7
" Bavaria, 345
" commercial, 161
Electricity, seasoning, ref-, . . 619
Ellis, L. M., article, i
Elm leaf beetle, ref., 619
Elms, European, ref., 646
Engineers' field manual, ref., 118
Eucalyptus, ref., 121
California, rev.,. 93
" Florida, rev., . . . 283
" Hawaii, ref 618
" railroad ties, . . . 180
" Tasmania, ref., 300, 337
" yield in Califor-
nia, rev., 105
Exotics, Belgium, ref 300
Germany, 490, 622
Explosives, ref., 120
Fascines, article, 18
Farming in forests, 317
Felling machine, 143, 520
Fernow, B. E., article, 59
Fertility, plains area, ref., . . 293
Fertilization, self, 620
Fertilizer, ref., 513
" in forest produc-
tion, 626
Fibre boxes I54
" material, 181
Finance, problems, I34
Fir, Balsam, volume table, . . 593
" Douglas, Germany, .... 313
" Douglas, resistance to
insects, 3^4
Fire damage, assessing, ar-
article, 412
light burning, article, . 420
'' prevention, ref 615
Fisher, W. R., obituary, .... 184
Fisheries department, On-
tario, ref., 299
Floods and grazing, ref 614
Flooring, ref 297
FoERSTER, M. H., article, 45
Fokienia, ref., 348
Food reserves, article, 232
Forest conditions, ref., 120
Forest farming, 3^7
Forest fire association, Ore-
gon, .- • 517
Forest fire association, Wis-
consin, 517
Forest fire law, Oregon, ref.,. 618
" " protection plans,
ref., 615
Forest fires, 186, 367: ref., 164,
346, 347; rev., 90
Canada, ref., 299, 512;
rev., 80
" " Canadian report,
article, 578
" " conference, ref., 2^"]
" insurance, 174
" " legislation, Can-
ada, 524
" " legislation,
Washington, . 516
" " new legislation, 532
North Qaro-
lina, ref.5 .... 296
" " Ontario, ref., . . 166
" U. S., 179
U. S., rev., 92
" " Washington as-
sociation, ref.> 298
" " wardens, ref.,.. 472
Forest influence, evaporation,
ref., 512
" " on run-off,
ref., .... 616
Forest influences, ref., 647
Forest policy, Schenck, ref., 300
Forest products, Canada, 82, 85, 285,
299, 464, 46s, 467
Forest products, consump-
tion, U. S., rev., 610
Forest products, U. S., ref.,. 470
Forest ranger, ref., 645
Forest reservations, 185
Forest reservations, Appa-
lachian, 169 ; ref., 292
Forest reserves, ref., 347
Forest reserves, contracts.
ref., 118
Forestry Association, Ameri-
can, work, 355
Forest school, Biltmore, .... 359
Forest schools, 161, 162, 182
" " ref., . .164, 472, 645
647
" " Bavaria, 345
Colorado, ... 358
" " Montana, ... 3S8
Forest survey, Canadian, ar-
ticle, 400
Forest waste, ref 616
Form factors, ref., 347
France, ref., 167
" association, 511
Fungi, parasitic, ref., 297
Fustic wood, ref., 270
Game market, ref., 616
Game protection, ref., ._ 47i
Germany, forest conditions,. 506
" . forestry associa-
tions 525
" notes, ref., 646
" value of hunting, 511
Grades, low, 148
Grading rules, 181
Grazing and floods, ref., . . . 614
Great Britain, ref., 167
Gum, tupelo, 150
Gymnosporangium, rev., .... 604
Gypsy moth, disease, ref., . . . 472
Hammatt, R. F., article 557
Harvard forestry club, ref., . 472
Hawaii, report, ref., 300
Hawthorns, ref., 347
Height measuring, ref., 646
Hemlock rust, ref., 166
Hesse, management 131
HiGGS, Leonard S., article, . . 568
High forest vs. coppice, .... 501
History, 183
" of forestry, ref 619
Humus, ref 120
Hunting in Germany, 511
Illinois, conditions, rev., .... 621
" ref 297
" trees, ref., 297
Impregnation, Riiping pro-
cess, 642
Increment and moss, 126
" borer, new, 496
" mathematics, .... 320
" per cent, table, . . . 321
" selection forest, 129, 502
" trees, ref., 118, 119
" of tree classes, . . 633
" value and quality, 498
India, forest service, ref., . . 647
" lumbering, 163
'' reports, 475,646
" woodlots, ref., 299
Indiana, ref., 120
" report, ref., 297
Indian reservations, regula-
tion, ref., 615
Insects, ref., 47i
" cambium miners, ref., 295
" Canada, ref., 474
" Connecticut, ref., . . . 295
" control, ref., ii5
" damage, 518
" devastation, Si4
" forest floor, 479
" injury, ref., 116
" introduction, ref., . . 293
May beetle 128
" pests, ref., 617
" spruce bud worm, . . 523
" wood-boring, ref., . . 292
Iowa, conservation, ref-, 298
Ireland, ref., 167
Irrigation, ref., 122
Canada, ref., .... 299
congress, 519
Jack Pine, article i
Jackson, A. G., article, 406
Japan, ref., 167
forest conditions, . . . 365
forest work, 354
" paper mill 180
JENTSCH, Dr., article 544
Journals 527
Juglandaceae, ref 165
Juglans cathayensis, ref., . . . 646
Juniper seeds, germination,
ref., 646
Junipers, sprouting, ref., 512
Jutland, dunes, article, 62
Kamtschatka, forests, 476
Kegs, 154
Kentucky, industries, rev.. . . 288
" wood industry,
ref 296
KiRKLAND, B. P., article, 375
Korea, ref., 348
Labor, efficiency, article, 15
" forestry 505
" National Forests, . . . 505
" wages, 178
Lac insect, ref 121
Landes' pine forest, ref 348
" planting, rev., 611
Landscape gardening, ref-, 295, 472
Larch seed, ref. 646
Larix leptolepis, 623
Legislation, forest fires 352
Light and shade plants 476
" Zon, rev., 455
Litter and insects 479
Loans on forest property, . . 638
Lodgepole pine, 151
Log camp, prices 176
Logging, British C o 1 u mbia.
ref., 646
" by hand, in British
Columbia, article, 563
" camps, feeding, . . . 334
" " comfort, . .15, 142
" congress, rev., 607
" cost 144
" felling machine, . . . 520
Log roads, 146
" rule, cubic, 319
" Cumberland River 133
" slides, dynamics 503
Loranthus, in India, ref 646
Lumber, freight rates, ref., . . 618
" statistics, ref 293
Lumbering and forestry, ar-
ticle, 195
Mahoganv, ref., 122, 152
" Columbian, ref., . 615
Maine commission, ref., .... 118
insect devastation, ... 514
Maple syrup, rev., 104
Map making, ref 166
Margolin, L., article, 563
Maryland, forest work, .... 357
Massachusetts industries rev., 287
May beetle, combatting, 128
Mayr, appreciation, 268
characterization, .... 362
" silviculture, rev., .... 205
Mell, C. D., article 271, 575
Mensuration, Biltmore Stick,
article, 406
Mensuration, errors, 628
Metal ties, in Germany, 508
Michigan, Forestry Associa-
tion, 182
Michigan, report, ref., 297
Minnesota, report, rev.. .... 463
" taxation, ref 120
Missouri, ref., 121, 123
" Ozark mountains.
rev., no
Moles, life history, 124
Montana, forest schools, .... 358
Moore, B., article 425
" S. L., article 26
Moors, cause 481
cultivation, 306
Morrill, W. J-, article, ref., . 62
Moss and incremenr, 126
" and soil humidity 480
Municipalities, forestry, ref., 166
Museum, woods and forestry, 182
Natal, tree growth, ref., .... 299
National, forests, felling poli-
cy, article, 375
National forests, labor, 505
planting, 350, 363
" forests, property
rights. 349
" park, management, 182
parks, U. S. 514
Naval stores, light chipping,
rev 606
Newark, tree commission,
ref 608
New England, pastures, ar-
ticle, 253
New Hampshire, ref., 123, 164
" " association, 515
New Jersey forest fire legis-
lation, 355
" " forest laws, ref., 296
" " forest park com-
mission, rev., . 606
" " forest work 351
New York Conservation Com-
mission, 514
" " forests, ref., ..296, 619
" " forest work, .... 356
" " nurseries 514
" " scaling, 514
Nitrogen, ref., 167
" fixation, ref 165
North America, phytogeo-
graphy, rev., 595
North Carolina, ref. 119
" " industries,
rev., 286
" " report, ref., . . 296
Norway, ref., 647
Nun, combating, 492, 627
Nurseries, ref., 116
transplanting
board, article,. 539
" inspectors, 359
Oak, ref., 166
" pruner, ref., 116
" wood, ref., 165
Ohio, forest conditions, ref., 120
" trees, ref 120
" vegetation, ref., 347
Olympic National Forest, . . . 470
Ontario, fisheries depart-
ment, ref., 299
" forest department,
ref., 299
" Jack Pine areas, ar-
ticle, I
" shade trees, ref., . . 648
" shrubs, ref 298
Oregon, forest fires associa-
tion, ref., 298
" forest fire legisla-
tion, 517
" forestry 353
" industries, rev., .... 290
" ref., 122
rev., 88
Osier, consumption, article, . 271
Ownership, State, ref., 346
Paper making, crop plants.
ref 617
" mill, Japan, 180
Pastures in logged-off land,
ref 616
" treatment, article, . 253
Paving blocks, 336, 521
" wood, specifications, . 155
Pecan, scab, ref 165
Pennsylvania, ref., 123
" foresters, ref., 347
" Railroad Com-
pany, forest
work, ....353, 354
" State college,
ref., 473
Personalia, 184, 521, 522
Phenology, 620
Philippines, forests, ref., .... 616
" Islands, ref., ..129, 169
" report, ref., .... 298
" school, ref., .... 645
" trees, ref., 647
Phillips, F. J., appreciation, 450
" F. J., obituary, ... 158
Phytogeography, North
America, rev., 595
Picea sitchensis 622
Pine beetle, 518
" lodgepole, 151
" races, 484
" Scotch, management, . . 625
" scrub, ref., 614
" sprouting, ref. 512
" uses, ref., 615
" white, volume table, . . . 595
" yellow, market 364
Pinus divaricata (banksiana),
article, i
" rigida, 623
Pith flecks, article 244
Plains, fertility, ref. 293
Planting with borer 127, 482
dibble, 484
" intractable soils, . . 310
" National Forests, . 350
" perfection, 482
Plant material, bought vs.
home-grown, 128, 314
Poles, cross arms, etc., statis-
tics, ref., 294
Populus virginiana, ref., 647
Post timbers, durability,
rev., 291
Powder-post beetle, ref 471
Prairies, value, ref. 475
Pratt, M. D., article, 420
Preservation, telegraph poles,
ref, 472
" rev., 461
Preservatives, penetrability,
rev., 103
" Riiping pro-
cess 642
" treatment, ref., 513
" treatment of
poles, ref.. . 618
" use in U. S-,
ref 615
Preston and Phillips, ar-
ticle, 232
Price and diameter, I33
Prices, Canada, rev., 84
" log camp, 176
" lumber, 158, 360
" lumber, ref., . ..115, 292, 615
Private forests, ref., 165
Prussia, statistics, 2^7
" waste lands, 339
Pulpwood, Canada, 159; rev., 85
" consumption, U.
S., 1909, ref., . . 115
" and paper, ref., . . 347
statistics, ref., ... 293
Quebec, 182 ; ref ,121
" convention, ref., . . . 347
" square timber, 14"
Quebracho, 148
logging 359
Railroad ties, ref., 115; rev., 285
" concrete, ...181, 360
" " metal, . ._ 508
" " ispecificartions, 177
Railways, forest, ref., 348
Recknagel, a. B., article,
translation 39i
Reconnaissance, winter, Cali-
fornia, 557
Record, S. J., articles, 22, 244
Red cedar, growing, I73
Reforestation, ref., 119
Reviews :
Abrams, California trees,... lOi
Bates, windbreaks, 599
Betts and Smith, eucalypts, 93
British Columbia Commis-
sion, 75
Bureau of chemistry, ma-
ple-sap syrup, 104
Canada, forest fires, I909> 80
" forestry report, . 78
" lumber, 1909, ... 82
" pulpwood, 1909, . 85
Cline and Knapp, Douglas
Fir, uses^ 460
Connecticut, State forester, 605
Coville, blueberry culture, 281
Crumley, post timbers, ... 291
Dickson, conditions of
Hudson Bay road, 468
Duggar, fungous diseases, 97
Forestry Branch, Canada,
1910, 78
Forest service, U. S., for-
est products, 610
Graves and Ziegler, wood-
man's handbook, i i i
fire protection, ... 90
handling wood-
lands, 454
" report of forester,
1910, 90
Hall and Ingall, Illinois'
conditions, 6ci
Hall and Maxwell, com-
mercial
woods, 614
" " stream
flow, . 282
Harshberger, North Ameri-
can survey, 595
Hawes, state forester, 1910, 102
Herty, light chipping, .... 606
Huffel, Economic forestiere 469
Indian Forester, 109, 613
Jepson, silva of California, 95
Kellogg and Ziegler, cost
of growing timber, 107
Kempfer, preserving poles, 461
Kern, Gymnosporangium, . 604
MacMillan, Canada, cross
ties, 285
" cooperage, etc.,
Canada, 465
" tan bark, Can-
ada, 467
" telegraph
poles, Canada, 464
Margolin, Eucalyptus in
California, 105
Martin, Forsteinrichtung, . 1 14
Maxwell, Massachusetts,
industries, 287
IMcGrath, timber bonds, . . 608
Minnesota Commission, . . . 463
Nebraska, forest club, .... 284
New Jersey, forest park
commission, 606
Oakleaf, Oregon, indus-
tries, 290
Oregon Conservation Com-
mission, 1910, 88
Pacific logging congress, . 607
Plummer, chaparral, Cali-
fornia, 458
Record, Ozark region con-
ditions, no
Rehder, Bradley biblio-
graphy, 609
Ricard, Pays Landais, 611
Schlich, silviculture, 112
Schreiner and Shorey,
soils, harmful substances, 99
Schwappach, Rothbuche, . . 6io
Simmons, Kentucky, wood
industries, . . . 288
" North Carolina,
wood indus-
try, 286
Smith, Wisconsin, indus-
tries, 289
Snyder, wood-boring in-
sects, 105
Spaulding, desert plants,
movement, . . 100
" blister rust, . . . 602
" timber rot, .... 603
Stevens and Hall, diseases, 97
Teesdale, creosote volatili-
zation, 604
Tiemann, deflectometer, . . 94
" effect of speed, 106
" penetrability of
v.'ood, 103
Van Hise, conservation, . . 107
Warming, ecology, 279
Weigle and Frothingham,
aspens, 459
Wisconsin, State forester,
1910 87
Zon and Briscoe, eucalypts, 283
" and Graves, light and
tree growth, 455
" resources of world, .. ill
Rhode Island, report, ref., 295, 472
Rhodes, J. E., article 195
Roadbuilding in mountains, . 306
Road construction, ref., 117
Roads, 146
" Kiton 504
Rockwell, F. I., article, .... 219
Rogers, R. and Moore, B., ar-
ticle, 412
Root system, influenced, .... 308
Rope ways, 503
Rotations, 326
Rot, Lenzites, rev., 603
Rubber plant, ref., 117
Russia, ref., 347
Riiping process, 642
Sample areas, marking, 433
Sandalwood, ref., 124, 348
Sand dunes, article 62
Sawflies, ref., 292, 471
Scaling cordwood, 514
Scandinavia, woodpulp, ref., 347
Schools, see Forest schools,
Schiitte, 301, 492
Scotland, a.fiforestation, ref., 474
Seasoning, by electricity,
ref., 619
Seed coloring, 488
Seed-eating mammals, ref., . 471
Seed-extracting, article, 26
Seed, collecting cones 439
■' extraction, 367
" preventing fraud, .... 315
and size of cones, 172
" supply, 315, 488, 626
" suppty, ref., 646
" control, 526
Selection forest 626
" " growth, rate, 129
" " value, 322
" " product, 502
" strip method, 481
Sequoia, uses, rev., 469
Sewall, J. W., article, 400
Shrinkage of cut wood, ^^,7
Shuttlewood, 180
Siberia, exports, 164
" forest conditions, . . . 360
Silvicultural systems, article, 431
" rev. 112
" experiments, . . . 318
" Graves, rev., . . . 454
" history, 160
" new, article, . . . 205
" and races of
pine, 484
" rise of, article, 544
Slavonia, ref., 166
Smoke resistance, ref., 296
Soil bacteria, ref., 512
" fertility, ref., 166
" harmful substances, rev., 99
" humidity and moss, . . . 480
" moisture and aspects,.. 305
" surveys, various, ref., . 294
" use, ref., 471
" and yield, 303
South Australia, ref., 121
Sowing by machine, 311
Spacing, ref., 513
Spain, trade, 159
Splettstoesser, planting tools,
482, 513
Spoolwood, .^35
Spreading habit and density, 125
Spruce vs. broadleaf forest, 315
" black, volume table,
591, 502
" bud-worm, 523
" burls, ref., 165
■' insect devastation, 514
" root system influ-
enced 308
" white, voluume ta-
ble, 591
" wood, chemistrj'^, . 300
Statistics, Austria, 338
Belgium 339
" Canada, 464, 465, 467, 649
Hesse, 131
" Prussia, ^37
" Spain 159
" Switzerland, 157, 509, 510
" United States, ..293, 610
Staves, estimating, 132
Steam logging 334
Steam flow, rev., 282
Structure of wood, ref., .... 346
Supervisors' meetings, Den-
ver, article, . . 429
" meetings, Idaho,
and Utah, . . . 263
" meeting, San
Francisco, ar-
ticle 68
Supplies, prices, 176
Survey, method, 307
Sweden, conditions, article, . 45
conservation law,
article, 59
Switzerland, administration, . 509
" report, ref., 300
" statistics, 510
" trade, 157
Tanbark oak, California, ref., 615
" statistics, ref., 293
Tasmania, Eucalyptus, 337
" forests, ref., 300
Taxation, 366; ref., 120, 295
" conference, ref., . . 295
" tables, 135
" Wisconsin, ref.. . . 298
Taxus baccata, 626
Teak, plantation, ref., 474,620
" strength, ref 474, 620
Telegraph poles, chestnut,
rev., . . . 105
" " preserva-
t i o n ,
rev., . . . 641
Tennessee, conditions, ref., . . 473
Thinning material, use, 333
Thuya gigantea, 625
Timber bonds, re\^, 610
" cost of growing, rev., 107
" killing by chemicals,
ref., 348
" physics, dead loads,
rev., 94
" speed tests, rev., .... 106
" square 147
Toothpicks, 336
Torrents, correction, Austria, 644
TouMEY, J. W., article, 539
Town planting, ref., 296
Transpiration 302
Transplanting board, Yale,
article, 539
Transportation, 503
" cableways, 143, 334
Trees, leaf key, ref., 119
" planting, ref., 297
" to plant, ref., 296
Tsuga canadensis, ref., 624
" heterophylla, 624
Tupelo 150
Turpentine, limits, value, . . . 153
Turpentining, Gilmer's sys-
tem, IS3
Twisting, pines, ref. 512
United States, standing tim-
ber, ref. 293
Utilization, change of species, 147
Valuation, forests, 637
" Wiirttemberg, . . . 500
Value and volume, relations, 634
Vancouver, ref., 166
Vegetative cycles, 303
Veneers, 156
" statistics, ref., 293
Vermont, 182
forest management,
ref., 295
" forests, ref., 346
" report, rev., 102
Volume table 262
" " Canadian, ar-
ticle, 589
" " and felling
results, . . . 632
" and value, relations, 634
Wages, woods labor, 178
Wagon hubs 181, 335
Walnut burls, 152
Washington, ref-, 122
" association, for-
est fires, ref., 298
" conservation,
ref., , . 298
" forest fire legis-
lation, 516
Waste lands, ref 122
" " Prussia, 339
Water, duty, ref., 616
and forests 334
movement in trees, . 478
power, ref 292
" Cascades, ref., 294
succulent plants, ref., 294
sur>nly in Great Ba-
sin, ref 294
West Virginia, report, ref., 206, 473
" wood indus-
try, ref., . . . 296
White Pine, blister rust,
rev., 603
" " seed tests, 172
" . " western, article, 219
WiEBECKE, article, 26
Willows, basket, article, .... 271
" culture, ref., 513
" ref., 647
Wilson, Ell wood, article, . . 589
Windbreaks, ref., 600, 619
Wind, soil movement, ref.,.. 618
Wisconsin, rev., 87
" forest fire legisla-
tion, 517
" industries, rev-, . 289
" river, ref., 473
" taxation, ref., . . . 298
Wood alcohol production, .. 179
" industries, Kentucky,
rev., ... 288
rev., . . . 296
Massachu-
setts, rev., 287
North Caro-
lina, rev., 290
" " Oregon,
rev., . . . 290
West Vir-
ginia, ref., 296
" Wisconsin,
rev., 289
" distillation, ref., .... 293
Woodlot, bookkeeping, .... ^;i2
Woodlots, bookkeeping, .... 3^2
ref., 347
Woodpeckers, ref., 471
Wood, penetrability, rev., . . 103
Woodoulp, Scandinavia, ref., 347
" testing, ref., . . . •J48
Wood, structure, terms, ar-
ticle, 575
" texture and grain,
article, 22
Woodworking machinery, . . 181
Woods, commercial, ref., ... 119
Working plans, Bavaria, . . . 327
" " German, ar-
ticle, 391
" " nomencla-
ture, ar-
ticle, 423
World, resources, rev-, .... ill
Wiirttemberg, forests, value, 500
Wiirzburg, forest ordinance, 643
Yew, 625
Yield and soil 303
ZoN, R., article, 205
JOURNALS BRIEFED.
Agricultural Gazette of New South
Wales. —
Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeit-
ung.—
L'Alpe.—
American Forestry. —
American Lumberman. —
Appalachia. —
Barrel and Box. —
Botanical Gazette. —
Bulletin of American Geographical
Society. —
Bulletin American Institute of
Mining Engineers. —
Bulletin of the New York Botani-
cal Garden. —
Bulletin de la Societe Dendrolo-
gique de France. —
Bulletin Societe forestiere de
Franche — Comte et Belfort. —
Bulletin of the Southern California
Academy of Science. —
Canadian Forestry Journal.
Canada Lumberman and Wood-
worker.—
Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. —
Cultura. —
Experiment Station Record. —
Forest Leaves. —
Forstwissenschaftliches Central-
blatt.—
Gardeners' Chronicle. —
Hardwood Record. —
Indian Forester. —
Journal of the Board of Agricul-
ture.—
Lumber Review. —
Lumber Trade Journal. —
Minnesota Forester. —
Mississippi Valley Lumberman. —
Naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift
fiir Forst- und Landwirtschaft. —
New York Lumber Trade Jour-
nal.—
Ohio Naturalist.—
Philippine Journal of' Science : Bo-
tany.—
Pomona College Journal of Econo-
mic Botany. —
Praktische Blatter fur Pflanzen-
bau und Pflanzenschutz. —
Proceedings of the Academy of
Natural Sciences — ■
Proceedings of the Society of
American Foresters. —
Pulp and Paper Magazine of Can-
ada.—
Quarterly Bulletin of the Canadian
Mining Institute. —
Quarterly Journal of Forestry. —
Revue des Eaux et Forets. —
Rhodora. —
Rod and Gun. —
Zeitschrift fur
Science. —
Schweizerische
Forstwesen. —
Sierra Club Bulletin.
Silva. —
Skogsvardsforeningens Tidskrift.
Southern Lumberman.
Southwest.
St. Louis Lumberman.
Timberman.
Timber Trades Journal. —
Transactions of the Royal Scottish
Arboricultural Society.
Woodcraft. —
Wood Worker. —
Zeitschrift fur Forst- und Jagd-
wesen. —
V«lum« IX No I
FORESTRY QUARTERLY
A PROFESSIONAL JOURNAL
Subscription Two Dollars per Annum
CAMBRIDGE (BOSTON). MASS.
Entered «• Mcoad-clus matter September 28, 1909, at the p««t office at BettoD.
mm*:, under the Act Qf March ». 1807.
FORESTRY QUARTERLY
BOARD OF EDlTORvS
B. E. F£;rnow, LL. D., Editor-in-Chief.
HtNRY S. Graves, M. A., Filibhrt Roth, B. S.,
Forest Service. University of Michigan.
R. C. Bryant, F. E., ,, ^ ^ ., ^
^ , jr . ., Hugh P. Baker, M. F.,
Yale University. ' '
,^ ^T^ -r^ A Pennsylvania State College.
RjciiAPD 1. Fisher, A. B.,
Harvard University. C. D. HowE, Ph. D.,
\\^\LTi:k A.1UI..F0RD, F. E., University of Toronto.
Cornell University. r.^phaee Zon, F. E.,
Ernest A. Sterling, F. E., p^,,,^ Service.
Forestef, Penna. R. R. Co.
Frederick Dunlap, F. E., Ceyi^e Re.witt. M. S. F.,
Forest Service. Forest Service.
Asa S. Wieeiams, F. E.
the objects for which this journal is published are:
To aid in the establishment of rational forest management.
To offer an organ for the publication of technical papers of
interest to professional foresters of America.
To keep the profession in touch with the current technical
literature, and with the forestry movement in the United States
and Canada.
Manuscripts may be sent to the Editor-in-Chief at University
of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any of the board of editors.
Subscriptions and other business matters should be addressed to
the publisher, Forestry Quarterly, 396 Harvard Street, Cam-
bridge, Mass.
Press of
Watchman Printing Hoisk
Bellefonte, Pa.
i9n
S. B. Detwiler.
Jack Pine Stand, Itasca Park, Minnesota.
FORESTRY QUARTERLY
Vol. IX.] March, 191 i. [No. i.
SOME NOTES ON JACK PINE (Pinus drvaricata) IN
WESTERN ONTARIO.* mwyc,
TD T AT T:^ 8OTANICA
By L. M. Ellis. n^ •» . c ^,
The Jack Pine — Pinus banksiana or divaricata — does not rank
with White Pine, or Norway Pine, although it is a valuable
species, and is becoming increasingly more so as the virgin
supplies of the better kinds are becoming exhausted.
The wood makes excellent railroad ties, and by its cheapness, a
large supply being available, it has become the tie tree par excel-
lence of Western Ontario.
It grows chiefly on burnt-over areas — the extensive stands of
it to be found in that part of the province are due, to a large
extent, to past fires. This character of occupying brule country
it shares with aspen, with which it is frequently associated.
These two trees are pioneers in that they are not components of
the climax forest type of the region which is composed of a White
Pine — hardwood — balsam association.
As a lumber tree it is inferior, as it never attains a very large
size, barely over 18 to 20 inch diameter. It furnishes knotty lum-
ber; the wood is soft and weak.
Distribution and Association.
Its botanical range covers the great Laurentian region. It is
found from Nova Scotia to the valley of the Athabasca River, and
down the Mackenzie to about latitude 65° North, ranging south-
*The writer has mainly relied on his own investigation in the field. He
**■ has also consulted notes furnished by H. R. McMillan in Bulletin 6, For-
^ estry Branch, and a report on tie timber to the Northern Pacific R. R. Co.
DC
Q-
2 Forestry Quarterly.
ward to the coast of Maine and through the Northern States to
Minnesota, common and of large size in the region north of Lake
Superior.
Along the southern limit of its range, for instance in Wiscon-
sin, it remains a small tree, usually, less than lo" in diameter and
below 60' in height.
It reaches its maximum development north and west of Lake
Superior, west of Lake Winnipeg and north of the Saskatchewan
River, where it frequently reaches a height of 85' to 90' with a
straight trunk, sometimes free of branches for 30 feet, but rarely
exceeding 20" in diameter breast high.
North of Lake Winnipeg it rapidly deteriorates into an inferior
tree, seldom exceeding 8" in diameter and 50' high. The trees
of larger diameter are normally infected with heart rot.
In Western Ontario, and elsewhere, the Jack Pine occupies all
the poorest sands where White Pine, Red Pine, or even aspen and
birch no longer thrive. However, it can and does grow on the
better soils, for instance on sandy loam. It never covers large
areas in pure stand, but occurs in smaller stands of from five acres
to several hundred acres in extent, wherever successive fires have
swept over the country and have so reduced the humus contents
of the soil that only the hardy Jack Pine can thrive.
It is normally associated with aspen and White Birch on the
burned over areas, and while in the earlier stages of its develop-
ment it appears in pure stands, later owing to the open crown
conditions, birch, balsam, spruce slowly creep in. In fact the
presence of birch is always a sure indication of merchantable Jack
Pine. On the ridges and exposed situations where the soil is
shallow and poor (causing low water content), Black Spruce
enters the mixture to a large extent.
Typical Jack Pine forest has a characteristic vegetation of its
own. Alnus viridis and several species of Vaccinium are more
generally found here than elsewhere. The dry soil and maximum
light conditions are inducements to the growth of these plants.
Other shrubs common to the forests of this region are Mountain
Ash, Sorbus americana; Mountain Maple, Acer spicatiim; Hazel,
Corylus americana.
Under young stands of Jack Pine the ground cover is extremely
sparse, but it increases when the stand becomes soonewhat open
Some Notes on Jack Pine. 3
or is mixed with birch. With density reduced to 60% to 80% a
vigorous growth of herbaceous plants springs up, the most
common being Cornus canadensis, Lycopodiiim — several species ;
Aralia nudicaidis ; Clintonia borealis; Pteris aquilina; Lonicera
canadensis ; Ganltheria procumbens ; Unifolium canadense;
Smilacina trifolia; Chio genes hispidula; Coptis trifolia.
The Forest.
Jack Pine has adapted itself to many different sites and condi-
tions, but in general it is distingushed from the other pines by its
ease of reproduction and growth on sandy barren soils. It grows,
however, under varied conditions of moisture, from the pure
absolute muskeg with 70% to 80% water content to the bald rock
ridges where 5% water content is sometimes high in the heat of
the summer.
However, it is only on the warm, granular, well drained, deep
soils of the upland that the Jack Pine grows to the sizes necessary
for tie-timber. "The optimum water content for its development
varies from 10% to 20%." Relatively dry coarse sand with
comparatively small amount of humus are typical sites.
Given certain natural conditions it is possible to foretell with
fair accuracy the future forest cover of the region. Jack Pine
and Aspen will inevitably reclothe the bald burn and make their
appearance very soon after the fire has swept over the region, the
Jack Pine seeking the higher and drier sandy soils, while the
Aspen establishes itself on the richer loamy soils of the benches
and bordering on lakes.
By the agency of fire the field of Jack Pine is being extended
throughout districts, where at one time White Pine reigned
supreme.
At least two principal types of Jack Pine forest may be distin-
guished :
Type i: — Jack Pine in mixture with White Birch and Black
Spruce on deep, well-drained soil, a mixture which produces the
largest returns in sizes suitable for cross-ties.
Forestry Quarterly.
TABLE No. I.
Composition on Site I.
(Average of ii Acres)
Number of Trees Per Acre
Diat
neter
White
Black
Breast high
Jack Pine
Birch
Aspen
Spruce Ba
Isam
4 inches
I.O
26.2
.8
13.0
5
1.2
24.7
I
7
21.5
5
6
1.2
22.5
4
2
19.2
25
7
6.0
25.0
2
7
15-2
75
8
12.5
16.7
4
2
9-5
75
9
17-5
7.0
4
5
6.5
SO
10
12.5
2.5
3
7
2.5
50
II
12.2
1.7
3
0
2.2
25
12
II. 2
1.2
2
5
1.7
25
13
II. 0
•5
I
7
.02
25
14
6.0
7
25
15
3.1
02
i6
al ...
1.0
Tot
93-0
128
27
91
4
Per
cent.
277o
2,77o
8%
27%
1%
S, 10
inches
and over in d
'ameler b.
h.
Total
57.0
59-0
II. 6
6.4 I
.50
Per
cent.
42.0
44-0
8
•4
4.6 I
.0
The yield of Jack Pine in the diameters 10" and over in the
above average is perhaps 25% higher than the average yield for
the entire district.
Type II: Jack Pine in mixture with Black Spruce, Balsam Fir
and White Birch on scanty, impoverished, cold and poorly drained
soils. All the higher hills, ridges, low lands bordering on
muskegs are included in this site. In the Lac Seul country the
largest part of the interior regions are occupied by this mixture.
The Tack Pine here rarely reaches merchantable sizes, and
never in such bodies as to make exploitation profitable.
Some Notes on Jack Pine.
TABLE No. 2.
Composition on Site II.
Diameter
Breast high
4 in. & under
Jack
Pine
8.2
(Average of lo acres)
Number of Trees Per
Balsam,
Fir
9
10 "
11 "
12 in.
13 "
i6.5
27-4
32.8
i6.8
9.6
3-2
& under i.6
•5
Black
Spruce
124.4
41
40
16
14
12
44-1
2.2
■ 4
■3
.2
.2
9.0
30
Larch
.8
1-3
1.6
2.0
1-4
.6
• 3
.2
.1
^4 ere
Birch
20.8
3
8
4 "
I
Aspen
.4
.6
1.8
1-5
1-3
■ 5
.2
.1
Total 125.4
Per cent. . . 27
235-3
50.4
47-4
II .2
8.3
1.=;
Trees 10 inches and over in diameter breast high.
Total 14.9 12.0 0 .6
Per cent. ...54.0 43.0 0 2.0
40.6
8.6
6.4
1-3
■3
i.o
Characteristics of Jack Pixe.
Form. — Jack Pine on well drained deep soils attains a height
of 80 feet, and not uncommonly even 85 feet. In diameter breast
high outside the bark 18 inches may be considered a maximum
figure (12" — 15" is the average natural size). Isolated speci-
mens have been measured 22" d. b. h. and 90' high. Under
normal forest conditions the crown is narrow and rather open,
covering only the upper portion of the tree.
Where it grows in the open the branching system is wide and
spreading. The limbs pendulous and laden with cones, the whole
resembling very closely a typical orchard apple tree. It is short
and stunted and would be of use only for fuel when maturity is
reached, between 85 and 100 years ; but rot sets in at about 100
years, and the tree rapidly deteriorates to a useless condition.
Peristency of branches is very characteristic, more so than in
other pines. Even under dense crown cover the dead limbs
remain on the tree. Knotty lumber results. However, the knots
do not seriously affect the use of Jack Pine for ties.
Under average conditions, the clear height of the stem varies
from 30% to 45% of the total length, depending on the age and
situation.
Forestry Quarterly.
Taper. — The taper of Jack Pine is not at all excessive. Exces-
sive taper is always an indication of poor soil and difificult condi-
tions of growth, while the full-boled tree is found only on deep
loamy soil with optimum silvical surroundings. Other things
being equal the taper is greater and more variable from the
ground to diameter breast high, and in the top. For the mer-
chantable portion of the tree for a length of 8 feet, the taper
varies from .6 inches to 1.4 inches, with an average of i inch;
(like most other Canadian species) while in the crown and butt it
is much greater and ranges from i inch to 3 inches per unit length
of 8 feet.
TABLE No. 3.
Taper of Logs.
Basis 79 trees
Diameter
breast-high. Diameter inside bark at given height above ground.
Outside bark
Inches 9 ft. J? ft 25 ft. 33 ft. 41ft. 49 ft. 57 ft. 66 ft. 73 ft.
5
6
7
8
9
10
II
12
13
14
15
16
4-9
5-9
6.5
7.5
8.6
9-5
10.2
10.9
II. 7
12.2
13.0
137
3.6
4.8
5-2
6.5
7.8
8.2
9-5
10. o
II. o
II-3
II. 8
12.8
1.6
3-3
4-1
5-7
6.9
7-5
8.7
8.9
10. 1
10.6
II .2
II .2
1-7
2. 1
4-7
6.1
6.6
7.8
8.1
9.1
9-5
10.2
10.7
2.4
30
4-1
4.8
5.8
7.0
7.4
8.0
8.4
• 7
1-5
2.5
30
3.6
S-i
5-7
6.0
6.4
Bark. — Jack Pine has a thin bark which is fissured into irregu-
lar confluent rounded edges, with close scales of reddish color.
It increases in thickness from that of fifteen inches on the sapling
to that of six inches on the mature tree standing in the open.
The perceniage of bark as compared to that of the total volume
of the tree varies but little. The average on 100 trees being
found to be 11%. It might be expected that as the volume of the
tree increases the bark percentage should decrease, but there is
not more than 1% difference in the percentage amount on a 5'
tree as compared with a 15" tree.
Some Notes on Jack Pine. 7
SiLVICULTTJRAL REQUIREMENTS.
Soil and Moisture. — Although Jack Pine owing to its frugality,
hardiness and fecundity, grows on a wide range or soils, it never-
theless demands for its best development fairly deep sandy glacial
till, such as is found on plateaux upland, — gently rising ground
where the drainage is good, and the moisture not far beneath the
surface.
It grows still vigorously where hardwood, such as birch and
aspen will no longer thrive, where successive fires burning off the
loam and humus have created conditions unfavorable for their
growth.
Over wide stretches of Laurentian country where these condi-
tions are present the Jack Pine holds the field.
A mechanical analysis of typical pine soils made by the U. S.
Forest Service shows how, under natural conditions, the Jack
Pine seeks the coarser soils, although not necessarily confined to
them.
The following table shows the percentage of the species found
on the different trades of soil.
"e _:
::ipi
?cies
e
i^>o
— '^^
~ ■
.J
•-. 0
, 6
zz
w '^
0
^
Ol-^
^ ?
S '^
^ -^
**^
<5
^ 0
: L
•Ct
*- If
'^^
?kO
•S "^'
2 -^
^•^^
^ q
■3 q
tc
'0
'-^
^
'0
Whit
e Pine
1.3%
6.8%
7.2%
22.%
29.1%
7.6%
Red
Pine
.4%
3.770
12.0%
62.4%
6.7%
2.8%
Jack
Pine
2.5%
34-2%
39-9%
13-9%
4-1%
3 -770
It will be noted that coarse sand and medium sand comprise in
a large degree the soils of the Laurentian country where Jack
Pine reaches its best development.
Hundreds of square miles of just such sandy land exist between
Fort William and Kenora, deposited by glacial action, land which
is stocked with sapling growth of Jack Pine — potential wealth,
which would become actual, if the fires were kept out for 75 years.
On the better soils Jack Pine in maturity averages 12 to 16
inches in diameter breast high outside the bark, and 75 to 82 feet
high, producing 3 to 5.2 ties per tree; whereas in Type II, low
flat, ridges, etc., Jack Pine is short, stunted, a low wide spreading
8 forestry Quarterly.
tree with excessive taper, and is very limby, never growing much
more than lo inches in diameter and 60 feet high.
Compared with its associates it will withstand considerable
drought and frost and it is altogether peculiarly adapted to thriv-
ing under xerophytic conditions.
Jack Pine is a comparatively deep rooted tree; where spruce
and balsam fir are blown down by the hundreds, Jack Pine
easily holds its own. The tendency under average conditions is
to develop strong laterals, rather than tap root, thus securing
maximum food materials and optimum moisture. These laterals
ramify in all directions 12" to 24" beneath the surface.
Up to ninety years of age wind has practically no effect on the
tree, but as it becomes over-ripe and its vitality is reduced it is
more susceptible to wind action, and much valuable timber blows
down before it is noticeably deteriorated. Where there is excess
of water content in the soil the roots of the Jack Pine are forced
to grow closer to the surface, the windfall is more frequent, but
as the species here never reaches an average size which would
permit of harvesting for tie, or saw material, the increased damage
due to windfall is of small import.
Tolerance. — Jack Pine is most intolerant of shade at all ages.
This intolerance accounts in part for its presence in pine islands
during the younger stages, where, by the exclusion of quick grow-
ing broad-leaved species, it secures the optimum amount of light
necessary for its existence.
For reproduction the optimum seemingly is sunlight. Under
mature forest the average density is such that the light admitted
is below the minimum necessary for the young tree, so that seed-
ling growth is very rarely found under mature stands.
During the seedling stage the Jack Pine can hold burned over
land, provided it can secure complete possession of the ground
from the beginning, but if the faster growing Aspen enters into
competition with it, it quickly succumbs to the broad leaved tree.
In later life the open symmetrical head of the Jack Pine admits
the maximum amount of light to the growing crown.
Owing to the inabiHty of Jack Pine to endure even its own
shade, in the transitional change it gives way to other trees which
are capable of growing under less favorable light conditions, e. g.
spruce, balsam. White Pine.
Seed Production. — With the optimum amount of light, cones
Jack Pine Plain t)n ■Mattagaiui-Porcupinc Portages, Ontario.
Jark Pine Plantation in the Treeless Sand Hills, Holt County, Nebraska,
20 years after planting (see F. Q., Vol. I, p. 140).
Some Azote's on Jack Pine. g
appear at the early age of ten years, but in close stands they do
not appear until 5 to 10 years later. This early fruiting partly
explains the persistent re-appearance of the tree on areas which
have been burnt over repeatedly within the last 60 years.
Where the soil is deep and loamy, and other conditions are
favorable, seed production is delayed, but the increased quality of
the seed balances the later fruiting.
The period of maximum seed production lies between the ages
of 40 and 90 years.
"At a rough approximation a normally developed tree, 15"
diameter and 90 years old, would produce annually 300 to 500
cones, with 10 to 30 seeds per cone (the larger the cone the more
the number of seeds per cone)." It will be seen that seed produc-
tion from a mature Jack Pine forest would reach considerable
proportions, but as there is practically no reproduction under the
mature stand the seed produced counts for little unless the area is
burnt over, when the viable seed is at once awakened into activity.
Ten days after a fire had passed over the Clearwater country
(Summer 1910) Jack Pine seedlings i to 2 inches high were
growing (scores of thousands to the acre) over large portions of
the district.
During growing seasons of excessive dryness the production
of seed is more abundant than at other times, but no definite
alternation of seed years has been observed.
Cones may persist on the branches from 10 to 25 years, or even
longer and are serotinous. It has been said that fire is the only
medium by which cones release their seed, but this is certainly not
entirely true, for a fair percentage of the cones open when still on
the tree, to be sure, after several years ; the cones becomes dry,
contract, open and the seed is released. During dry summers
many cones are opened when in a wet season they would remain
closed. Soon after opening on the tree, limbs bearing cones may
be broken oiT by the wind, or trees are blown over and squirrels,
etc., bring cones to the ground. Then the sun opens many cones,
but a large percentage are never opened until expanded by sudden
heat — by fire — when the seed falls on the fresh mineral soil to
germinate and restock the area.
Germinating power of Jack Pine is high, namely, 60% to 7S%'
and it is retained for many years, provided the cone is sealed.
The facility of reproduction after fires, and the inability of
lO Forestry Quarterly.
reproduction under mature stands, means that Jack Pine forests
can in nature only be secured by Hre. This fact will be borne
out by further investigation.
Danger and Diseases. — Jack Pine is fairly resistant to fire.
During early youth, however, up to 30 years of age, the thin, soft
bark of the sapling offers no resistance to the forest fire, while the
resinous foliage presents an ideal fuel for the flames. Sweeping
fires receive a great impetus when pure Jack Pine stands are
encountered, and it is here that the greatest damage is done.
The adult tree is not as susceptible to damage by fire, the bark
being thicker and firmer. Yet in an ordinary ground fire as much
as 60% of the stand may be so weakened that the stock will
eventually die, death being caused by the killing of the root
system or either by insects.
Jack Pine is one of our most hardy species, and rarely injured
by frost even during the earliest stages of its development, and
altogether it can adjust itself to extremes of temperature which
are very common to its range of distribution.
The normal healthy tree is practically free from insect attack
of every kind. Rare instances have been noted where the leaders
of sapling trees have been wounded, resulting in a resinous excre-
scence interiorly on which a pupa was developing — "presumably
Retina comstockiana" — beyond this case no insects have ever
been observed attacking the healthy tree.
The weakened, or fire-killed tree, however, is the subject of
attack immediately after the fire i. e. if during the summer by
bark and wood destroying insects common to the region, e. g.
genus Monohammus and Pissodes strobi.
In two seasons after the attack, the wood will be so riddled as
to be useless for lumber, although not damaged so seriously as
to prevent its use for tie purposes.
Porcupines seem to have a particular liking for the bark from
trees 10 to 14 inches in diameter, and, although the damage is not
widespread, individual cases have been seen where as many as 18
trees on a quarter acre have been girdled by a band one foot high
around the stem, with all the enclosed bark eaten clean away.
Some Notes on Jack Pine.
II
Rate of Growth.
Comparing the following figures and tables derived from
studies in Western Ontario with those obtained for Jack Pine for
other regions, e. g. Minnesota, and northern Saskatchewan, it is
found that relatively the pine of the district compares most
favorably with them all, and indeed outstrips the growth in
Minnesota, while the Pine of the Lac Seul region is a much
inferior tree. It may be said that nowhere else does the Jack
Pine reach better development than in the district studied.
Seedlings grow very little during the first five years of its
existence while it is establishing a firm root system needed to
compete with the ever thirsty aspen and birch. On well drained
soils the sapling soon shows its quick response to favorable con-
ditions of soil and light, so that by the first decade it is 8 feet
high.
The annual growth after the establishment of the root system
is from i to 1.5 feet. This rate holds fairly uniform for about
40 years, after which it steadily decreases, falling to an imper-
ceptible amount at 100 years.
Height of growth is a very good indication of soil conditions,
for while on fertile soils the mature tree reaches 80 feet to 86
feet, on poor, wet, cold soils a mature height growth of 60 feet is
very good.
TABLE No. 4.
Height Groivth on Average Soil Conditions.
Basis :
100 trees
Age
Height
ige
Height
5 years 1.5
feet
60'
years
64 feet
10 '
8
65
61 '
15 '
17
70
70 '
20 '
28
75
72 '
25 '
36
80
74 '
30 '
42
85
76 '
35 '
46
"
90
77 '
40 '
50
95
79 '
45 '
54
100
80 '
50 '
58
105
81 '
55 '
61
no
81.5 '
The following tables of diameter growth are based on a com-
plete stem analysis of one hundred trees taken under fairly aver-
age and normal conditions of growth.
12
Forestry Quarterly.
The greatest growth seems between the ages of lo and 20 years.
During early youth, because of the density of the stand, the
growth goes into height, but once the competiton for Hght is
lessened, volume and diameter growth become more prominent.
From the 40 to 70 years the progress is uniform at nearly 1.5 inch
per decade. Then it slowly declines, and at about 90 years, the
diameter accretion is practically at a standstill.
TABLE No. 5.
Diameter Grozvth.
(Basis : 100 trees)
Age Diameter breast high
5 years
Age Diameter breast high
60 years 11. 7 inches
10
.8 inches 65
12.4 "
15 '
2.0 " 70
13-0 "
20
4.0 " 75 '
13-5 "
25 '
5-8 " 80 '
' 14.0 "
30 '
7.1 " 85 '
14.5 "
35 '
8.1 " 90 '
14.9 "
40 '
8.9 " 95 '
15-2 "
45 '
' 9.6 " 100 '
15.6 "
50 '
10.3 " 105 '
' '5-9 "
55
II. 0 " no '
TABLE No. 6.
10.2
Time Required to Increase Diameter one inch, under Average
Conditions.
Time required to grotv
iameter breast high
Age
one inch
Inch
Years
Years
I
II
II
2
15
4
3
18
3
4
20
2
5
22
2
6
25
3
7
29
4
8
34
5
9
4i
7
10
48
7
II
55
7
12
62
7
13
70
8
14
80
10
15
91
II
16
107
16
Some Notes on Jack Pine.
TABLE No. 7.
13
Volume Growth {exclusive of bark) under Average Soil Condi-
tions.
Basis : 100 trees.
Diameter
Total volume
Diameter
Total volume
Breast high
of Stem.
Breast high
of Stem..
2
.26
9
13.10
3
.70
10
16.90
4
1.50
II
21.25
5
2.54
12
25-75
6
4.15
13
30.40
7
6.30
14
35.20
8
9-30
15
39 80
16
42.90
17
44-50
TABLE No. 8.
Rate of Growth in Volume.
Annual rate
Increase in vol.
of increase in
1. B. H.
Age
Fo/.
per
inch
of D. B. H.
volume
Inches
Years
Cm. ft.
P
"r cent.
Per cent.
7
29
6.3
48
9
8
34
9-3
41
6
9
41
13-I
29
4
10
48
16.9
25
3
II
55
21.25
18
2.S
12
62
25-75
18
2
13
70
30.40
13
1.3
14
80
35-20
13
I.I
15
91
39-80
»
8
■5
16
107
42.90
4
TABLE No. 9.
Yield of Ties on average soil conditions. Based on Actual
Measurement.
Yield of Tit
?s
Diameter
No. I Tie
No. 2 Tie
Cull Tie
Total
breast high
Age
7"x7"x8'
6"x6"x8'
3"x3".r8'
All kinds
9
41
I.O
10
48
.8
I.I
1.9
II
55
• 3
2.0
1.0
3.3
12
62
1.2
1.8
.8
3.8
13
70
2.2
1-5
.8
4.5
14
80
3-2
1-5
• 4
5.1
IS
91
3-8
1-3
•3
5-4
16
107
4.0
1.2
.2
5-4
14 Forestry Quarterly.
It will be seen that for a 15" d. b. h, the yield is greatest and it
suggests that a rotation based on value increment should not
exceed 90 years, for after the age of 90 years the volume incre-
ment and in this case that means also value increment is practi-
cally at a standstill.
Cut to a diameter limit of 10 inches, measurements of 30 sample
plots on poor rocky soil and open stand developed not more than
18 ties to the acre. But mature stands on good, well drained
soils produced in an average of 50 sample areas, taken over
several thousand acres, 150.5 ties, of which 17 per cent. No. i ; 43
per cent. No. 2, and 40 per cent, culls — a yield, which by proper
silvicultural management could probably be increased by at least
25 per cent.
COMFORTABLE CAMPS AS A MEANS OF INCREASING
THE EFFICIENCY OF WOODS LABOR.
By S. B. Detwiler.
Any reduction in the cost of lumber production tends
to hasten the appHcation of better methods of forest management.
Improvement in machinery has progressed much more rapidly
than increased efficiency in hand labor. Sixty to eighty per cent,
of the cost of lumber is money paid for manual labor according
to Captain J. B. White, of Missouri. At the mill there is a better
opportunity to apply labor saving methods than in the woods and
the larger mills, at least, are fairly well organized, yet much
remains still to be done. One of the largest mills in Minnesota
was recently rearranged, and as a result the cost was reduced
from $3.80 to $i.go per M. An Arkansas firm is said to save
$1.50 per M. by an improved system of transportation and piling
in the yard ; five men do the work which formerly required
thirteen.
In the woods the logging boss reigns supreme and resents any
innovation as a reflection on his ability or as a useless fad. He
depends on close supervision and the loyalty of his men to keep
down costs. High wages, increased cost of supplies and a poorer
class of men are causing lumbermen to turn their attention to a
more systematic management of the woods work. One firm
investigated the loss from poorly laid out ice roads and engaged
an engineer to locate the roads at all their camps, with very satis-
factory results. A Michigan operator is using an efficient cost-
keeping system which shows the work performed by the various
crews, and the total cost of each operation. In Wisconsin, a
camp with accommodations for men and horses has been built on
car trucks, in order that the men might save time in going to their
work. Piece labor is advocated by some as a method of cheapen-
ing woods operations, and in many cases, undoubtedly, it will
prove practical, especially where only one class of material is
gotten out, such as ties, cordwood or pulpwood.
Any method which conserves the energy of the men and
systematically organizes their work, is of value, but no system
i6 Forestry Quarterly.
will succeed unless the human factor in labor is recognized and
the utmost advantage taken of it. Camp bosses recognize the
value of good fellowship, strict discipline and bounteous feeding,
and they are not slow to take advantage of benefit derived from
competition between individuals and crews. Nearly every fore-
man has his own methods of holding his men, and frequently it
is his personality and his ability to enforce his commands that are
his greatest asset. The environment of a camp is seldom con-
ducive to the greatest efficiency of labor, especially near towns.
Alcoholic liquors, improper diet, poor ventilation, and lack of
amusement are all factors which must be reckoned with in nearly
every camp. Also, the lumberjack of the early days has been
largely replaced by less intelligent foreigners, and it is becoming
more and more difficult to hold men of the desirable class. As
forestry practices are adopted by loggers it will become more
necessary to have crews of trained and intelligent workmen, and
this class of men must be attracted by something more than mere
wages. Men of this class must either be furnished with homes,
or with comforts in camp that will in some degree compensate for
the lack of home life. A great army of men who are down and
out through dissipation, drift from camp to camp. It is impos-
sible to estimate the loss from this cause, but there is little doubt
that much of it would be avoided if these men were placed under
conditions where they could regain their self-respect and bodily
vigor.
A lumber company operating on the Mississippi river in
Minnesota and Wisconsin has a camp which was built with a view
of supplying more than ordinary comforts. The fact that the
timber is situated along a navigable stream made it possible to
use a floating camp, and the necessity of frequently changing the
base of operations made it economical to use a camp that was
easily moved. A two-deck excursion barge, 24 by 120 feet, is
fitted with a steam heating plant, incandescent gasoline lamps,
and a pressure tank for water supply. The upper floor is equip-
ped with double-decked spring bunks and mattresses. The for-
ward portion of this floor is reserved for a reading room, and
contains tables for writing. A wash-sink, bathtub and a stove to
dry clothes in wet weather are also provided. The lower floor
consists of a kitchen and dining room, with modern conveniences,
and with ample storage room for supplies. A small room for the
1. Fl( ating Linnljcr Camp, capable of accommodating 90 men.
2. Kitchen and Dining Room, Floating Camp.
3. Sleeping Quarters, Floating Camp.
4. Wash Room, Floating Camp.
Increasing Efficiency of Wood Labor. 17
accommodation of the cooks, and a store and office combined are
also on this floor. Numerous windows and a half dozen venti-
lators give an abundance of air and light. Hardwood floors and
painted wood work make it easy to keep the quarters clean, and
the camp was inspected and fumigated by a physician at least
once in two weeks, when a large crew was employed. The camp
will accommodate 90 men.
The original cost of the barge was about thrice that of the
ordinary tar paper camp, and the equipment about a thousand
dollars more than the usual furnishings. Since the camp is good
for twelve or fifteen years, or more, the outlay is not excessive,
while the comfort and cleanliness of the "hotel" holds the men,
and makes them more self respecting. The camp has been in use
only one year, so that the ultimate results are unknown, but the
experiment shows promise of great possibilities in the conser-
vation of labor.
Most camps cannot be fitted up in the style of this camp
because they are not permanent. If the problem were studied,
however, much could be done to improve them. A small board
and tar paper camp was built in sections, 10 and 12 feet long, and
fastened with bolts so that it could be quickly taken down and
transported. The cost was increased about 50% (mostly for
labor), but made the building many times more valuable. Camps
of this kind would not only save money, but could be made to add
much to the comfort of the men.
HOW FASCINES ARE MADE.
By S. B. Detwiler.
The improvement of our rivers for navigation affords an
excellent, thoug-h very limited opportunity for forest manage-
ment. The dams and shore protections which confine the currents
and keep the channel scoured, are constructed of bundles of
brush (fascines) weighted with rock. Along rivers where
improvements are being carried on, the forester can make the
cleaning and thinning of young stands profitable. Since this is
usually difficult to accomplish, a description of fascine making on
the upper Mississippi river may be of interest.
The brush used on the upper river (St. Paul to mouth of
Missouri river) from the beginning of improvement work in 1878,
to June 30, 1910, totals slightly over 8,000,000 cubic yards, about
one-fifth being used in shore protections, one-twentieth in repairs,
and the remainder in constructing dams. About four and one-
third cubic yards of brush are required per lineal foot of dam.
Approximately 200 miles of shore protections and 225 miles of
dams have been built on the upper river.
The specifications of the U. S. Engineer's office for brush are
as follows : "Fascines shall be made of live brush, sufficiently
trimmed and choked to form a compact mass, 20 feet long and 12
to 15 inches in diameter, and tied with bands of lath yarn or wire
not more than 4 feet apart." Bundles down to 10 inches in
diameter are usually accepted but they must hold out in length,
although any length in excess of 20 feet is not paid for. Brush
cut for fascines may be 4 inches in diameter at the butt, although
3 inches is usually the limit. The species are seldom named,
although the willow is preferred because the bundles pack better.
In constructing the dams the fascines are closely packed into
mats, 12 feet or over in length, held together by three or more
pairs of binding poles which are secured by ties of lath yarn or
wire. Poles must be 20 feet long, 3 inches or over at the butt, and
are piled and paid for the same as brush. The mats are loaded
with rock according to specifications, and sunk, the butts of the
bundles being down stream. The shore revetments ("rip-rap")
Hozi' Fascines Are Made. 19
are more frequently built entirely of rock above low water line,
but mats are used for a foundation under water. On the lower
river the mats are elaborately constructed.
The prices paid for brush are usually from 17 to 19 cents per
cubic yard, the range being 12 to 26 cents. In 19 10, in the first
division, the contract for 60,000 cubic yards, loaded on the barge,
was let at 22 cents per yard. The successful bidder sublet con-
tracts at 90 cents per cord (about 18 cents per cubic yard). This
price was the highest paid in over 10 years, on account of the high
price of labor, scarcity of brush and the extremely low water.
Although summer cut brush is much preferred because it pack?
better, it was decided to get out winter brush in Division I. in
191 1. The contract calls for 70.000 cubic yards at 17.9 cents per
yard, 60 per cent, of which must be banked this winter. The
contractor will get most of this brush from the tops of trees cut
for logs and cordwood.
The government owns hundreds of acres of low islands in the
Mississippi river, which are reserved for the production of brush
for river improvement. Willows {Salix nigra, and sandbar
villows of the flni'latUis type) are the principal species on these
"towheads" and form dense stands. The contractor does not
have to pay stumpage for this brush, but can cut it at his own
discretion. The brush is cut clean and the stumps low, and in five
or six years the sprouts can again be profitably cut. The maxi-
mum yield per acre from a fully stocked stand of w^illow where
the trees run 2" to 4" in diameter at the butt, is about 1,500 cubic
yards. The War Department tried some experimental willow
plantations on over-flow lands near St. Louis, but without success.
However, observations seem to show that the higher portions of
the towheads may be completely seeded to willow if the proper
measures are taken.
The brush cutter prefers to cut willow because it is lighter and
more convenient to handle, and consequently more profit in it.
Where, however, willow is scarce they go to the higher bottoms
for other species. This land is usually o\vned by private indi-
viduals, who charge i or 2 cents per cubic yard for stumpage
where cutting is unrestricted. The professional brush cutter
often has a good idea of the principles of thinning, and stands
which are excellent examples of such cutting, and which show
greatly increased growth, are to be found in many places on the
20 Forestry Quarterly.
river. This has led many owners to permit responsible contrac-
tors to thin young stands of maple, ash, elm, birch, etc., free of
charge. The brush men trim the live side branches to pack in the
top of the bundle to make it hold its diameter, hence the appear-
ance of the stand after thinning is very pleasing. Trees in the
open are frequently trimmed to the top; one such tree, a birch
about 20 years old, furnished 19 bundles of brush from its side
branches.
An experienced brush cutter covers the tract systematically,
beginning near the banking ground and cutting successive strips.
The brush is placed in wind-rows, in piles of sufficient size for a
bundle. These piles are allowed to dry for three days to a week
and are then tied. In tying, the brush is first lifted onto a rack
about 16 feet long made after the fashion of a sawhorse. Some-
times three short racks are used instead of having them joined
into a long one. The work is greatly facilitated if the ends of
the cross sticks on which the bundle rests are long and slightly
curved downward, since this prevents the brush from catching
while it is being tied. Two men work together in tying. The
brush is compressed by the use of two wooden arms about 3 feet
long, which are connected by a rope 18 inches long, tied about 3
inches from the lower end of the sticks. One arm is passed
beneath the bundle and then back over the top so that the rope
forms a loop around the bundle. By pressing down on the arms,
using the 3 inches at the lower end as a fulcrum, the bundle is
choked tight. One arm is fastened under the cross piece of the
rack, leaving a man free to tie the brush. Strings are usually
cut 52 inches long, and double strings are frequently used on the
first two ties to prevent the bundles from loosening during
handling. Lath yarn is preferred to wire because, though more
expensive, it saves time and does not hurt the fingers. After
tying, the bundles are carried into convenient piles with the butts
placed in one direction. They are then loaded on wagons with
special racks which are made so that the brush may be tipped off
without handling. Three men work together in loading (a driver
and two loaders). The brush is dumped on the bank of the river
or a slough and is then carried on the barges. A barge will hold
about 400 cubic yards, and this quantity can be loaded by six men
in half day, under average conditions. The bundles are piled
A. Interior of i8 year-old stand of River Birch prior to thinning. Mississippi
River Bottoms, Wisconsin.
B. Thinning i8 year-old stand of River Birch for fascines and cordwood,
Mississippi River Bottoms, Wisconsin.
Hozv Fascines Are Made. 21
evenly 5 to 6 feet high, and the brush is measured when it is
delivered at the works.
A crew of 6 or 7 men work together to best advantage in
cutting brush. Figures of average cost of making willow
fascines were obtained in 1910 at several camps where the best
work was being done. The cost will vary with the men and the
wage, the character of the brush and its location, and the stage of
water. In high water for instance, the ground is too -soft for
teams, and the brush must be carried directly to the barge, but the
barge can then be placed to better advantage.
Average Cost of Fascines per Cubic Yard
Cutting, I man at $2.00 cuts and piles 80 cu. yd. per day, $0,025
Tieing, 2 men at $2.00 ea. tie and pile 100 cu. yd. per day, 0.040
Hauling, 3 men and team at $2.00 ea., bank 400 cu. yd., per day, 0.020
Loading, 6 men at $2.00 ea. load 400 cu. yd., in ^ day, 0.015
Lath Yarn, per cubic yard, o.oio
Total cost per cubic yard, exclusive of stumpage, $0,110
Eleven cents per cubic yard may be taken as the average cost
where the wages are about $2.00 per day, and all the conditions
are favorable. At this figure the average haul should not exceed
three-eighths of a mile, or possibly a half-mile. Under exception-
ally favorable conditions the cost may not exceed 7 or 8 cents.
Under unfavorable conditions the cost may easily run 15 to 18
cents per yard. Accordingly, the returns per acre may be very
low or may run as high as $150.00 to $200.00.
GRAIN AND TEXTURE IN WOOD.
By Samuel J. Record.
Much confusion exists not only in the popular conception but
also in the minds of professional men and authors regarding the
proper use and meaning of the terms 'grain' and 'texture' as
applied to wood. Many writers use the terms interchangeably
and without defining them. Others who attempt definitions fail
consistently to agree, as will appear from the following excerpts.
Boulger^ explains his use of the term 'grain" thus :
"The elements of the wood are generally parallel in
direction to the axis of the stem or limb in which they
occur — i. e. the wood is straight grained; but they may be
spirally twisted round the stem, or oblique, in which latter
case if successive layers lie in the opposite directions the
wood is cross grained. A slightly wavy longitudinal
course in the elements of the wood produces the condition
known as curly grain, frequent in maple ; whilst slight
projections or depressions repeated on the outer surface of
successive annual layers produce the bird's-eye and
landscape varieties in the same wood."
It appears from this statement that the arrangement of the
wood elements determines grain.
Laslett- refers to grain as "the lines and planes of structure."
Again he says :
"Grain — a term it is not easy to define, but which refers
to the kind of surface — rough, smooth, coarse or fine — left
after the action of a tool."
This co-.H-cption agrees fairly with that of Boulger, that grain
is concerned with the arrangement of the wood elements.
Baterden^ in his recent work defines a specific use of the term :
"Wood is called 'coarse grained' or of 'bigger bait' if the
annual rings are wide apart, and 'fine grained' if they are
close."
^"Wood" by Boulger, second edition, pp. 32-33.
^ "Timber and Timber Trees" by Laslett, page 4.
"^ "Timber" by J. R. Baterden. page 11.
Grail! and Texture in Wood. 23
The Century Dictionary is authority for this definition :
■'Grain is the substance of wood as modified by the
quahty, direction or arrang-ement of its fibers."
This embraces the conception of the writers quoted but intro-
dues a new attribute, viz the quality of the wood elements.
In only one publication'* so far issued from the Government
Forest Service is a definition of grain attempted. From a page
of discussion is quoted the following:
"The terms 'fine-grained', 'coarse-grained', 'straight-
grained' and 'cross-grained' are frequently applied in
woodworking. In common usage, wood is 'coarse-
grained' if the annual rings are wide, 'fine-grained' if they
are narrow ; in the finer wood industries a 'fine-grained'
wood is capable of high polish while a 'coarse-grained'
wood is not, so that in the latter case the distinction
depends chiefly on hardness, and in the former on an acci-
dental case of slow or rapid growth."
In order to ascertain the conception of the term 'grain' now
held by members of the U. S. Forest Service, expert in wood, the
writer obtained from them memoranda from which two excerpts
follow :
" 'Grain' is properly used to designate the structural
composition of wood resulting from the character and the
association of its component elements within the annual
or other periodic layers of growth. It follows that differ-
ences in the thickness of the layers of growth do not affect
grain and that characteristic differences of grain are due,
solely, to the arrangement, direction, size, and form of the
elements of the wood."
"Grain designates the structural composition of wood,
resulting from the form, size, arrangement, and direction
of its component elements of fibers and vessels. Accord-
ing to this usage, grain takes account only of the assem-
bling of the different elements within the layers of annual
growth. * "^ * If the fibers and vessels which make
up the wood are small, the wood is considered fine grained ;
if relatively large, it is coarse grained."
This amplifies the definition of the Century Dictionary but
introduces a new phase, viz: That the width of rings or layers of
* "Timber," Bulletin 10, Division of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agr..
pp. 21-23.
24 Forestry Quarterly.
growth never have direct bearing upon 'grain.' This is so
opposed to the popular conception that it can only serve to
increase confusion without gain in exactness of expression.
Stone^ considers 'grain' in reference only to the siae of the
wood elements without reference to their arrangement or direc-
tion.
"A plank may be 'fine grained' in one part and 'coarse
grained' in another, whereas if the plank is cut from the
outside of the tree (tangentially), the grain or size of the
pores and cells may be uniform throughout."
Although the term 'texture' is frequently used in describing
woods, few writers attempt definitions of it, while many use it as
a synonym in part for 'grain'. Gayer ^ says :
"The texture of planed wood depends upon its anatomi-
cal structure, on the arrangement of its fibres and the
direction in which it has been sawn. * * * Wood is
said to be even-grained when it possesses fine medullary
rays, and not only equal annual zones, but narrow summer
zones, as in slow-growing sessile oak, spruce or silver fir.
Wood is also even-grained in the case of many fruit trees,
with evenly distributed pores (pear, apple, service tree,
etc). * * *
"Fine-textured woods are those which show freedom
from knots, fine or even grain, fine waviness, or other
marks. As a rule dense broad-leaved species are more
finely textured than porous woods, and more easily
polished. Coarse-textured woods are coarse-fibred, light,
porous woods, those with considerable difference between
the spring- and summer-wood, and knotty wood."
The lack of harmony in the above cited usages of the terms
'grain' and 'texture' is due for the most part to their attempt to
embrace too wide a field. Wood is a complex structure composed
of definite elements with infinitely variable arrangement. Almost
without exception, authorities agree that arrangement or direc-
tion of these wood elements afifects 'grain'. Disagreement and
confusion results when size, form, and character of these elements
are included.
It remained for Prof. J. W. Tourney, of the Yale Forest School,
to suggest a practical way of overcoming these difficulties. He
° "The Timbers of Commerce" by Stone, Introduction page xiv.
• Schlich's Manual of Forestry, Vol. V, pp. 60-61.
Grain and Texture in Wood. 25
considers 'grain' as referring wholly to the ar^rangement or di-
rection of the wood elements, and employs the term 'texture'
when referring to the size, quality or fineness of these elements as
affecting the structural character of the wood. He further holds
that neither term has specific meaning without the use of some
qualifying adjective as 'fine,' 'coarse,' 'uniform,' etc. It ap-
pears to the writer that this use of terms brings order out of con-
fusion, and best of all coincides in very large measure with the
popular conception and usage of the terms.
Some of the adjectives used to give 'grain' specific meaning
are : coarse, fine, even, uneven, rough, smooth, straight, cross,
spiral, twisted, wavy, curly, mottled, landscape, bird's-eye, gnarly,
and silver. All of these terms refer to certain arrangements of
the wood elements and several of them are dependent on the lay-
ers of growth. For example, 'coarse grain' means wide growth
rings ; 'uneven grain,' irregular growth, etc.
'Straight grain' as applied to a tree occurs where the wood
elements are parallel to the axis of growth : as respects a board,
when the radial and tangential planes of structure are parallel
to its length. Sawn boards are often cross-grained even when
cut from straight-grained logs, while straight-grained sticks may
be split from a spiral-grained tree.
The most common attributes of texture are coarseness and
fineness, evenness and unevenness. Coarse-textured woods have
many large elements or the average size is large as in Castanea
(Chestnut). Even or uniform texture applies to woods exhibit-
ing little variation in the size of the elements as in Jiiniperus vir-
giniana (Red Cedar).
Following are instances of the use of both terms in describ-
ing woods: Finns strobns (White Pine), medium texture and
grain; Pinus taeda (Loblolly Pine), medium texture and coarse
grain; Sequoia senipervir*,ens (Redwood), coarse texture and
fine grain; Pinus edulis (Nut Pine), fine texture and grain.
In summary, the writer contends that 'grain' should be em-
ployed in referring to the arrangement or dif,ection of the ele-
ments of woody structure, while texture should refer to the rela-
tive sise, fineness or quality of these elements.
THE EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION OF A GERMAN
SEED-EXTRACTING ESTABLISHMENT.*
By Forstmeiste:r Wiebecke;.
Translation by Sydney L. Moore.
Among the problems that confront the practicing forester to-
day, whether in private, state, or federal service, is the import-
ant one of securing a large annual supply of seed of the desirable
coniferous species for his reforestation work. Extensive refor-
estation has been initiated within the last few years by several
corporations and states. The federal Forest Service in particu-
lar has within the last two years increased very largely the
amount of such work upon National Forests. The natural con-
sequence of this activity has been a tremendous increase in the
demand for forest tree seed.
In the case of coniferous species, large quantities of seed have
been imported from Germany because of the lack of a sufficient
supply of native seed. This lack of native seed is due to the fact
that the forest tree seed business has not yet been developed in
this country to the extent necessary to supply the demand. There
is now a dem.and (which is going to increase constantly) for
coniferous seed in bulk, at a low cost, with high germinative
power and high purity. This means that establishments for the
exclusive handling of coniferous seed, according to the most ap-
proved methods, have got to be constructed either by private in-
dividuals as a commercial enterprise, or by the large private and
federal forest administrations to supply their own needs. At
present, there are very few or none of these establishments in this
country.
I believe, therefore, that a description of the equipment and
operation of such a seed-extracting establishment, as given by
the German forester Wiebecke, will be of great interest to many
American foresters. The description which follows is a trans-
lation of the greater part of an article by Wiebecke, printed in the
"Zeitschrift filr Forst und Jagdwesen" of June, 1910. Wiebecke
*Althoiigh this article was briefed in F. Q. Vol. VIII, p. 515, we re-
produce this complete translation because it covers the subject exhaust-
ively.
German Seed-Extracting Bstablishuient. 27
gives in detail the plans and methods of operating a seed-extract-
ing plant for Scotch pine, in short, his ideas of a model seed-
extracting establishment for pine seed. For his purpose he cites
the successes and failures that have attended the operation of the
plant at Eberswalde where numerous experiments have been con-
ducted to determine doubtful points.
Wiebecke's article is as follows :
/. Location of the Seed-extracting House.
1. If one is at liberty to determine the location of a seed-
txtracting house which is to be built, it is recommended to place
it at a concentration point of the greatest possible accessibility,
a point from which roads radiate connecting the forests and in the
vicinity of railroad stations leading to it. The yard, etc., about
the seed-extracting house is by all means to be paved (for easier
approach in soft weather).
The location far from a railroad of the Eberswalde seed-
extracting house, which also lies at a distance from the main
road, causes excessive transportation costs, which I can show to
be 4 cents (.15 marks) per 2.2 pounds of seed (i kg.).
2. The seed-extracting house must be located upon an open
flat, exposed to sun and wind, — so much the better to dry the
cones in the shed ; the smoke bothers no neighbors and neighbor-
ing fire danger is avoided.
3. The seed-house manager (in the case of larger seed-extract-
ing houses the seed-house secretary) must invariably live nearby,
as well as the seed-house foreman ; the purchasing of cones
must go on at every hour of the day, for the sake of an abundant
supply at all times ; the seed-house business itself requires con-
stant supervision day and night from a reliable foreman.
//. The Cone-shed.
Large high sheds located within the forest wherever possible
and in open places, with solid or close-jointed board walls are
the suitable thing. Bins constructed contiguous to one another
if possible, of a size 10 x 10 x 10 = 1000 cubic feet = 770
bushels of cones (270 hi.) to the bin, are the proper thing in this
shed.
Cones gathered in December, or better still in January and the
28 Forestry Quarterly.
following months, harvested in sunny weather, stored dry, and
transported in dry weather and then placed in the shed, give little
trouble as a rule in storage, so that they can even be kiln-dried
safely during the following summer if they have been purchased
so abundantly as to make this necessary.
But even if the drying-kiln should first begin to handle the
cones in January, and Vi^anted, if possible, to take only dry ones,
it could get cones (at advanced prices) gathered in November
when there was no snow (consequently harvested more easily)
which v/ere suitably stored somewhere until removed to the
seed-extracting house ; rainy weather and snow during their
transportation and unloading from the railroad are more fre-
quent than desirable. Often the cones mould in the large bins,
sticking fast to one another, and must be continually worked over,
and suffer even then. Cones collected in February open, accord-
ing to experience, more easily than those gathered early; the
constant changes of sunny warmth, of cold, and of dry wind
ripen up the cones on the tree ; cones properly handled in late
winter can be opened with increasing ease in the summer.
Upon this basis, I recommend a cone-shed of light, open rafters,
with flat roof and a central passage, the roof of which is raised
at the sides about 20 inches (^ m), and provided with slat-
shutters. The elevation of that part of the roof over the cen-
tral passage, and having the sides formed of slat-shutters is
necessary since experience in old roofed sheds with closed roofs
shows that the topmost layers of cones in the bins are made moist
by sweating on account of the lack of circulating air; the upper
cones retain after several months storage 4.4 pounds (2 kg) of
water to 220 pounds (100 kg) of weight more than those which
are stored compactly pressed together, apparently more unfa-
vorably, in the middle of the large bin.
The floor of the whole shed should be made of asphalt or ce-
ment; the former is better protection against ground moisture.
It must be raised about 20 inches (^ m) above the outside
ground, and as a safeguard against the entrance of rodents, etc.,
should be protected by a surrounding ditch about 20 inches
(50 cm) deep plastered and cemented on the inner side, or in
some other suitable manner. Also the doors of the central pas-
sage should be made tight against rodents, to a height of 20
inches (.50 m), but for the rest with movable slat-shutters to
German Seed-Extracting Bstablishmcut. 29
allow free circulation of dry air (wire net doors with movable
slat-shutters over them).
The outer walls are also made of movable slat-shutters such
as one commonly finds used cheaply and easily in the better
equipped brick kilns. They are shut tight in damp weather and
opened when it is sunny and windy, in the same way as the door
slat-shutters.
Standing on both sides of the central passage and arranged at
a distance of about 12 inches (30 cm) apart so that it is possible
to clean them are cone-silos, which are 10 feet (3 m) deep (from
the central passage toward the outer wall), five feet (1.5 m.)
wide, and for ease in filling them not over 10 feet (3 m) high.
The floor of these is sloped strongly toward the central passage
(a I to 2 slope) so that the cones will run out through a chute.
It is made of oak slats placed on edge, close together, and cut
I 1/5 X 3 inches (30 x 75 mm( with 1/2 to 3/4 of an inch (15 to
20 mm) space between. The walls of these silos are made of gal-
vanized wire net which is strong and of suitably small mesh sup-
ported on oak poles. Every such silo would hold about 340
bushels (120 hi) of cones after allowance for the space occupied
by the poles, braces, and walls ; therefore two or three silos take
a carload or double carload of cones ; one silo, about three farm-
ers' wagons full of cones. Smaller quantities can be kept sepa-
rate by laying old sacks between them. The number of these
silos necessary for the contemplated extent of the seed-house
business is placed behind on another on both sides of the cen-
tral passage. The cones in them are continuously surrounded
and reached everywhere by dry air; they continuously dry and
ripen.
According to occasional observations of the extraction cost
of cones dried in this manner as compared with fresh cones, one
can reckon in Eberswalde a reduction in favor of the former of
about 6.5 per cent. If one wants to mark off in the individual
silos the quantity of each particular lot of cones by colored marks
for the sake of keeping check on them, this can be easily ar-
ranged; it is practicable, but it can not serve as a basis for the
measuring of cones and payment for them, because the higher
filled the silos are, so much the more compressed are the cones,
and consequently the diminished quantity removed from a silo
seems unfair to the person who originally supplied the cones.
30 Forestry Quarterly.
Tests of weight at the Eberswalde cone bins which are im-
practically equipped and lo x lo x lo = looo cubic feet, with
tight walls and cement floors, showed that from 220 pounds ( 100
kg) of weight 22 pounds (9.8 kg) of water was dried out in the
seed-house shed ; in the case of longer storage the di-ying out
was raised to 2>o pounds (15 kg) without shoveling the cones
over.
///. Preliminary Drying-room.
Invariably in conjunction with the cone-shed a preliminary
drying- room is constructed, equipped with similar silos (but
perhaps 6^ feet (2 m) wide), with strong, heavy, outer walls,
and heated from 'jy° to 95° F. (25° to 35° C.) through the sur-
plus hot air of the seed-extracting house. This room if of such
size that the seed-house workman can easily manage to store in it
a supply sufficient for 10 to 15 kiln-days; requiring, therefore,
about 4 to 6 silos. Ventilators remove the moist air.
More emphasis must be placed upon the continuous removal
of the moist air. Only in this way can a more rapid and safer
drying be accomplished at moderate degrees of heat. It must
be effected in the cone-shed through an active circulation of air.
in the prelim inar}^ drying- room with ventilators and in the real
drying-kiln by means of exhausts.
Cones preliminarily dried at a moderate temperature in this
manner open easily and with specially good germination energy
in their seeds. Time, expense, and danger from heat in the
drying-kiln are saved. How eminently important the establish-
ment and operation of this sort of preliminary drying-room is for
the careful, cheap, and more rapid extraction of seed, (with the
application pf the most careful possible temperatures) is shown
from investigations in the Eberswalde drying-kiln : Cones dried
out in the cone-shed from 112 to loi pounds per 2.8 bushels (51
to 46 kg per hectolitre), lost during the 7 days in which they
were preliminarily dried at 91° F. (33° C.) in small compartments
through which air circulated, 13 pounds (6 kg) more of water.
The ripest cones began to crack open on this seventh day. Ac-
cordingly, therefore, the original weight of freshly delivered
cones which equals 112 pounds per 2.8 bushels (51 kg per hi)
\vas reduced through drying in the air and in the preliminary
drying-room to 88 pounds (40 kg). The favorable result thus
German Sccd-Bxtracting EsfablisJuncnt. 31
obtained lies in the fact that an unusually short time and mod-
erate temperature will accomplish the complete final opening.
The application of y7° to 95° F. (25° to 33° C.) in this pre-
liminar}' drying-room in which the cones remain 10 to 15 days
according" to their condition, before kiln-drying, corresponds to
the noon-day temperature at which cones sown in plantations
crack open voluntarily. The treatment in the drying-kiln, then,
serves only to hasten the completion of the process, to effect the
complete opening of the more resistant, hard-opening smaller
cones, etc.
Arrangements for heating this room can be eft'ected without
cost for special heating material, through suitable management
of the hot-air combined with the drawing-off of the resulting
damp air.
Such heating arrangements are found operating with special
economy in all veneer factories, chair factories, furniture works,
etc.. which must subject their wood to a special drying process.
They are not new, nor especially costly, nor difficult for the in-
dustries which are concerned with them. Just as little so is the
arrangement of the following.
IV. Drying-kiln.
It was formerly the opinion (and Borgmann and von Penz
even about 1900 remodeled and managed the Eberswalde drying-
kiln according to this principle) that the still-closed cone could
be kiln-dried with higher degrees of heat because it protects the
enclosed seed, but that care must be taken, therefore, to have the
seed fall out of the opened cone as soon as possible into a cooler
room. This idea has indeed, in a certain respect, been most in-
fluential for drum drying-kilns, etc. It is not to be doubted that
every supcrflnous delay in a high temperature can do no good
to the seed.
However, the application of higher degrees of heat to cones
still closed and therefore containing moisture is (contrary to the
opinion just expressed) especially dangerous, as in general
living things (and the embryo in the seed is such a thing) can
resist dry heat better than moist; in every case numerous experi-
ments in the Eberswalde drying-kiln have shown (and Over-
forester Haack has given attention to th*-) that cones which are
32 Forestry Quarterly.
taken fresh from the delivery wagon and at once exposed to a
temperature of 131° F. (55° C.) until they crack open (that is for
about 20 hours long) preserve on the average only 7 per cent,
germination while the same cones preliminarily dried for several
days in rooms warmed from yy° to 86° F. (25° to 30° C.j and
then kiln-dried at about 104° to 122° F. (40° to 50° C.) for 6 to 8
hours and finally kiln-dried for a short time until they crack wide
open, in the hottest part of the drying-kiln at 122° to 131° F.
(50° to 55° C), showed (in the average of over 1,000 tests in the
year 1908-9) 87.6 per cent, germination (the maximum amount-
ing to 98.7 per cent.). From this observation the practice has
been developed for the Eberswalde drying-kiln of treating the
cones first dried in the preliminary drying-room (which unfor-
tunately is only a primitive one) for several hours in the coolest
part of the drying-kiln and then exposing them gradually more
and more, through constant transposition of the drying trays,
to the in-flowing hot air. In this way it has been possible, without
increasing the degrees of heat, to shorten the process in the
drying-kiln with a great increase of the germination per cent.
But it is especially dangerous that in the ordinary kiln-drying
establishments of the Prussian Forest Administration cooler and
warmer air must be let in by constant changes of the inlet valves
and with continuous observation of the thermometer, whenever
the temperature in the drying-chamber ascends over 131° F.
(55° C.) or threatens to fall below 113° F. (45° C), with the re-
sult that the air-valves must be handled every 8 to 12 minutes.
Every brief neglect makes itself felt through the whole contents
of the drying-chamber (about 45 bushels) (16 hi), resulting in
a great decrease of the germination energy.
The often discouraging results of plantations (despite all la-
bor and care) have for a long time been correctly traced back
to careless and too severe kiln-drying of the seed with the con-
sequent weakening of its vitality ; the seeds will indeed germinate
if kept long enough (especially in germination testing apparatus
cleverly chosen and carefully attended to) ; but they can not
withstand unfavorable weather in the plantation and endure ex-
posure to the weather which stronger seeds (those, for instance,
released naturally or resulting from cone-sowings) vigorously
overcome.
It can not be left unmentioned that in the tenth edition of
German Seed-Extracting Establishment. 33
Gayer's "Forest Utilization," 1909, the chapter upon the equip-
ment of seed-extracting houses contains some dangerous obser-
vations. For example, "to extract seed at 140° F. (60° C)." The
chapter has in general remained almost literally the same since
1878 and still earlier (4th and 5th editions) ; it proves how little
kiln-drying science has progressed since then in the knowledge
of foresters. The average Scotch pine seed germination is often
given them as only 65 per cent.
My conclusion is, therefore, that cones should be slowly dried
at first in the preliminary drying-room and exposed to continu-
ally increasing degrees of heat up to the highest temperature of
113° to 122° F. (45° to 50° C), and this process shortened as
much as possible by the removal of the resulting moist air. For
this purpose the following arrangement of the drying-kiln should
serve :
In the preliminary drying-room the cones are spread out flat
upon wood drying-trays about 51 inches (1.3 m) long and 30
inches (75 cm) wide. The floors and sides of these consist of
wooden slats nailed near each other with a space between ; I
recommend soft wood slats between which little cones possibly
do not stick so fast as between oak sticks. The drying-trays are
about four inches (10 cm) deep, but should be covered only with
one copious layer of cones so that when the cones increase in
size upon opening, there is still sufficient room. These drying-
trays are then shoved into a carrying rack, above one another
about 10 to 15 high, so that they stand over one another with
two to four inches (5 to 10 cm) space between, and so that the
workman can fill the highest tray from the ground.
The whole rack is mounted on a low truck moving upon rails,
and after opening a sliding door is pushed into the drying-kiln
in which a current of dry air circulates around every tray. The
drying-kiln is a room about five feet (i^ m) wide, 6| feet (2 m)
high and 26 to 30 feet (8 to 9 m) long with tight walls which
takes 10 such trucks (with tray racks) coupled to one another on
the broad side.
Hot air is let into this drying-kiln through a series of separate
openings on both sides. The hot air apertures are arranged on
both sides in a series above one another from the bottom, to the
top and especially in the vicinity of the exit-door of this drying-
kiln, while air holes are located near the entrance-door, through
8
34 Forestry Quarterly.
which the moist air forming in the drying-kiln is constantly-
drawn out. Once more should the importance of the removal
of the moist air be emphasized here ; it must be drawn backward
toward the entrance-door in order to prevent the cones which are
getting more and more dry from becoming heated again with
moisture present.
The exit-door of this drying-kiln consists of panes of glass .12
to .15 of an inch (3 to 4 mm) thick, properly framed; the kiln-
master can, therefore, see whether the cones have opened prop-
erly. According to the time of year, the quality of the cones, etc.,
the opening of the cones occurs in periods of time of different
length which practice and observation soon learn to recognize.
The order of operation is as follows :
The kiln-master opens the exit sliding door, draws out the truck
nearest to him, at the same time pulling forward the others
nearest the door, goes to the entrance door, opens it and shoves
in a truck filled with fresh-drying-trays, which he couples to the
next truck in order to close the entrance-door again.
The operation is a continuous one, going forward day and
night so long as there are cones.
It is uneconomical, even harmful, to cool off the drying-rooms
oftener than is necessary to clean the stove grates, draughts, flues,
etc. Competent stove-factories design stoves requiring the least
possible interruption in heating for continuous efficiency.
It is not at all difficult for present day science to control
the hot air accurately and to maintain it constantly at a tempera-
ture of 104° to 122° F. (40° to 50° C.) with occasional attention
to a reliable little regulating apparatus. One need only think of
the central heating system employed in modern liouses every-
where.
In order to guard against all contingencies thermographs and
hygrographs, visible from the outside, are constructed in the
drying-kilns (also as a check upon the kiln-workman).
The design of the drying-kiln, the introduction of warm air
^maintained uniformly at 113° to 122° F. (45° to 50° C), its
regular distribution in the drying-kiln and the removal of the
damp air as it cools, is not at all new to the technique concerned
with such things ; similar operations are carried on in many
kinds of industries ; I call to mind, for instance, the drying ar-
rangements in modernly-equipped pasteboard factories. The
German Seed-Extracting Bstablishmcnt. 35
method of drying just described can easily be looked after by one
man even if two such drying-kilns are set up beside each other
at one working place from which the thermograph, etc., is ob-
served and upon which the emptied drying-tray trucks are
shoved back in order that they may be pushed into the entrance-
door after being filled in the preliminary drying-room.
Each individual drying-kiln should hold 10 trucks coupled
broadwise to one another because according to experience at
the Eberswalde drying-kiln cones which opened with difficulty
were dried out after 10 changes of the trucks, at 90-minute in-
tervals at most ; cones which open easily require 40 to 50 minutes
in each position, when there are 10 changes from the coolest to
the hottest parts of the drying-kiln.
If one should use fewer drying-tray trucks coupled behind
each other, the cones would be brought to the greatest heat too
quickly ; if one should arrange more trucks in a series in a drying-
kiln it would be necessary to force so much the more hot air into
the excessively long space and to remove moist air from it, and
the drying-kiln would be cooled down on account of the very
frequent removal of the trucks which are finished. However, one
can secure every possible service from a drNang-establishment
by arranging many drying-kilns near each other, as desired.
I want especially to lay stress upon the recommendation, for
medium-sized and larger establishments, that a hot-air drum, or
something similar be placed between the heating-stove and the
drying-kiln. The heating-stove is fired with empty cones,
occasionally supplemented with coal.
Besides this I will mention the fact that it is superfluous, with
the latest science of heating, to provide for the drying-room in
the loft above the heating equipment, as done hitherto in com-
mercial seed-extracting houses. Such an arrangement serves
merely to increase the cost, since all the thousands of bushels of
cones must in such a case be lifted up to it.
V. The Churn-room.
The opened cones taken out of the drying-kiln are quickly
emptied into the churn-room, which is about 20 feet (6 m) long
and three to four feet (i to i.i m) wide with neatly cleaned,
solid walls.
36 forestry Quarterly.
The emptying out of the cones must be done quickly in order
that the cones, which close again upon cooling, (especially at their
base), may not hold fast the seeds. With this object the entrance
to the churn-room is invariably located near the exit from the
drying-kiln.
The churn-room likewise is warmed by hot-air to yy° to 86° F.
(25° to 30° C), in order to keep all moisture away from the cones
and seed. In it a wooden box with a funnel-shapped bottom is
set up, about 39 inches (i m) above the floor, into which the
workman empties the drying-trays taken fresh from the drying-
kiln. By manipulating a slide door he lets the cones fall into a
churn. The latter consists of a cylinder with its sides constructed
of thin iron bars, of the same style as a sorter for cleaning grain.
They are known to all older seed-extracting establishments. By
the rotation of the churn the cones are shaken about, slowly
downward, while they give out their winged seeds. The winged
seeds fall through the bars upon the floor of the churn-room
which is rounded in the shape of a gutter lined with tin, and
drawn out into a funnel closed with a slide-door, which readily
conducts the collected seeds into the wing-removing room.
The workmen must avoid entering the churn-room, even with
felt slippers, to sweep up the seed, in the manner hitherto prac-
ticed. The Scotch pine seed is easily crushed or compressed and
every such wound forms an infection point for fungi ; or else, as
in many other cases, the embryo instead of coming out normally
(with root tip foremost), comes out of the seed coat with the
cotyledons foremost, — a useless little plant.
Germination tests show that every injured seed, commencing a
few hours after the injury, festers a mould distinctly visible to the
unaided eye after three or four days. Uninjured seeds do not !
Numerous tests at the Eberswalde seed-house with seeds arti-
ficially torn or nicked have shown (sometimes in every case)
cotyledons breaking through first ("rump-born"). All these
seed are useless for sowing in plantations.
The churn must have a diameter of about 31 inches (80 cm)
and a length of 16 feet (5 m) and be set up with a fall of 39
inches (i m) at the most (this can be regulated) ; it is revolved
rapidly (from the outer room). The empty cones, shaken around
in it, fall out of the end into a funnel-shaped trough which
empties into a shed from which the cones can be easily removed
German Seed-Extracting Bstablishment. 2>7
for fuel or for sale without the necessity of the cone-purchasers,
etc., entering the true drying-rooms.
VI. Bmpty-cone Shed.
This can be built, as cheap as possible, with board walls and a
floor made secure against the entrance of dampness. On
account of the fire danger it is recommended that it be built with
walls closed on all sides, and made air-tight possibly with roofing-
paper or better, calked with oakum, and of such size that the
whole drying process will not be interrupted and harmed by an
inopportune overflow of cones.
VII. The Wing Removing Room.
The winged seed gathered in the churn-room is here, once a
day, put into sacks.
If cones from different collectors or for different tests are kiln-
dried on the same day, each kind is sacked separately. The
winged seeds are in these sacks freed from the wings by carefully
beating the sacks with soft leather flails and grinding them
around frequently.
This method is the most careful one known to me. If well
carried out, it removes the wings from Scotch pine seed with such
completeness that, in the plantations, the seed runs smoothly out
of the smallest aperture of the seeding machine. With seed from
which the wings have been so removed, it has been possible to
distribute evenly, with the Drewitz machine, 4.4 pounds (2 kg) in
6.2 miles (10 km) of seed furrows.
Other methods leave behind wing particles or injure the shells
of the seed.
Each sack is given an enclosed label with the notations : Kiln-
dried on ; Cones delivered by ; Derived
(Date.) (Name.)
from kiln-dried cones, winged seed. Thus
(bushels.) (pounds.)
one can easily prove, by germination tests of each sack, the
quality of the supply and care exercised on each particular drying
day.
The sacks are then finally hung up in this room for several
38 Forestry Quarterly.
days. The temperature of the room is kept at 77° F. (25° C.)
in order to keep out moisture.
On convenient days, but at least once a week, the contents of
each sack separately is cleaned in one of the best, well-known
grain cleaning machines. In this way particles of wings and dust
are blown out ; needles and cone scales are sifted out, sterile seeds
are separated out by the machine.
The separation of large and small seed is also accomplished,
but not in a useful manner. Ordinary grain cleaning machines
work by means of an air-blast and manipulation of sieves. But
by the air-blast larger seeds with bits of wing attached are
blown together with wingless smaller seeds. Numerous germi-
nation tests have shown only unessential differences in germi-
native power between the two sizes. But since it has been shown
that larger and smaller seeds have different "use-value" it is
recommended that the seed be sorted according to size in a suit-
able sorting-machine.
The proper label is put back in each sack after it has been filled
out with the weight of the winged seed and the wingless seed.
The cleaned seed is still kept in this moderately warm room.
Once a week a small number of seeds are taken from the product
of each day or of each assortment in order to carry on germi-
nation tests with them.
VIII. Germination Chamber.
A compartment about three feet square (i m) is sufficient for
this ; fitted up as a miniature green-house, continuously heated
by hot-air to about 86° F. (30° C.) ; under its glass panes stand
the little "cellars," tin boxes, (Improved and described by Over-
forester Haack) and upon the bridges of these are laid about 100
seeds on a strip of flannel or blotting paper, the edges of which
hang down into water. The practical application of this at the
Eberswalde seed-house has resulted in the use of blotting-paper
only, the seed being allowed to lie free upon it, and the individual
tin boxes, which can comfortably hold 10 tests of 100 seeds each,
being covered with very large plates of glass, lying loose upon
them. The seed are then always visible, germinate quickly, and
after 170 germination hours give a result which is accomplished in
the quickest and most useful way to be of practical value. We
German Seed-Extracting Bstablislnncnt. 39
germinate three parallel tests of each day's seed assortment, so
that any incorrect handling in the germination chamber can be
definitely established. If .all three tests are proportionate, the
particular assortment of seed is traced back to the cone-collector
and poor values are penalized or high values commended. If the
three tests turn out unequally new seeds of the same assortment
are on the seventh day at once put in, in order to determinie
definitely any mistakes in the drying process.
The practical working out of several thousand germination
experiments at Eberswalde has confirmed the opinion of Haack
that in the case of fresh seed from good cones all the really useful
seeds have germinated in 7 days. For example, about 1,000
experiments in 1909 with seed from Pomerania showed, in the
best instance, 98.7 per cent, of genuinated seed after 170 germi-
nation hours ; at the Eberswalde seed establishment this is called
"germination energy," (contrary to those testing establishments
which compute the germination energy after a very much longer
time, — in a manner of little use for practical application). The
total result, achieved after 21 germination days, is called, at the
Eberswalde seed establishment, "germination capacity", (likewise
contrary to the testing establishments which continue observa-
tions up to the 43rd day).
The average of all experiments with local seed from December
1908 to June 1909 gave a germination on the seventh day of 87.6
per cent., on the twenty-first day of 92.2 per cent. Therefore, in
the later weeks only 4.6 per cent, germinated, which has no
significance in practical plantation sowing.
If the quality of the seed has been authentically established in
the germination chamber, it is thrown together according to its
germination quality (though naturally the different assortments
are kept separate) and also according to the principle that every
iforester who supplies cones can receive back the seed extracted
from his own cones.
So much of the seed as is to be used early in the spring is
stored in suitable dry rooms, in little sacks holding about 66
pounds (30 kg).
IX. The Granary.
The dififerent lots of seed mentioned above, which are to be
used soon, are placed in this room, in little individual sacks. Its
40 Forestry Quarterly.
size depends upon the maximum amount of seed being extracted
during tlie winter months, from December to April. It must be
mouse-proof, dry and of a uniform temperature.
All the other seed, in particular that being cleaned from April
to December, is stored in the wing-removing room until the
completion of the germination tests, after which it is finally dried
out for an hour just inside the exit door of the drying-kiln in
order to remove any absorbed moisture. (This final drying out
has the same object which the prudent farmer aims at when he
spreads out his hay in the midday sun just before putting it in, in
order to dry out the dew or other moisture before putting it in).
The seed is then at once poured into glass carboys ; these are
corked and sealed and taken into the seed-house cellar.
X. The Seed-house Cellar.
Older experiments by Cieslar and others as well as more recent,
very exact, year-long experiments by Haack have shown that the
storage of cones, be it ever so well done, in order to open them in
subsequent poor seed years, does not prevent the germination
capacity from falling off from year to year until it speedily
becomes useless for practical sowing. The experiments have
further show^n that the gemiination capacity remains much more
constant if the pure seed is shut up in the dark, uniformly dry
and cold.
One is perhaps warranted in stating the proposition in the
following w^ay : The seed contains a living thing which is
capable, on the one hand ( i ) of protecting itself to a certain
degree against inopportune development, on the other hand (2)
of taking advantage of favorable moments for development and
growth.
Concerning ( i ) : In the dry summer season the outer corky
layer of the seed, the seed coat, becomes hard ; it seems indeed as
if the inner, thinner seed coat also becomes corky to protect itself,
since the seed shrinks and no longer fills out the inside of the
outer capsule. One can easily recognize, in the case of larger
kinds of seed, as for example oaks, how when laid upon too dry
ground they germinate with difficulty, after long delay, or not at
all. While the same oak seeds, if one splits the outer hard shell
German Seed-Extracting Bsiablisluncnt. 41
absorb water quickly and readily, the seed coats are distended and
the seeds develop.
In a similar way many Scotch pine seed are delayed and, there-
fore, useless in dry planting seasons, or else do not develop at all,
because their outer seed coat hardens too much in order to protect
them against summer dryness, no longer lets in sufficient water
and the embryo does not break through.
Concerning (2) : In every case when in summer or autumn
sufficient humidity accompanies the warmth always prevailing at
these seasons, the seed tries to develop (also when on rainy days
the air in the ordinary granaries is sufficiently moist) ; every such
attempt soon ceases again, when dry weather ensues ; but each
time the vitality is weakened so that all seeds by weakening them-
selves are ruined. (Even potatoes stored in cold dark cellars can
be prevented from germinating for a long time, whereas they
germinate quickly when in the spring before planting they are
spread out upon barn-floors for 8 to 14 clear, moist, warm days).
These observations perhaps explain why the above mentioned
recent experiments lead to the conclusion that the germination
energy can, by the exclusion of light, moisture, and heat, be
preserved for several years.
Thereby is the opportunity afiforded to preserve the surplus of
abundant seed-years in a useful condition for poor seed-years,
which seldom continue longer than one or two years.
For this a seed-house cellar is needed, high enough so that a
man can enter it upright; large enough so that as many carboys
can be placed in it upon shelves (in two tiers on both sides of a
central passage 5 to 7 feet (1.5 to 2 m) wide as are needed to
preserve the seed.
The Eberswalde seed establishment has connected with it a
primitive experiment cellar built into the ground. It is dark ; it
is located upon and in a dry sand-hill; it is about 3.3 feet (i m)
high covered over with earth and straw ; the thermograph in it
shows that it maintains a constant even temperature of about 46°
F. (8° C.) ; double doors with straw filling and a closed entrance
vestibule protect it against the entrance of heat and cold.
In it stand hundreds of glass carboys such as can be bought
comparatively cheaply from druggists who obtain sulphuric acid,
etc., in them. Storage in this earth cellar at the Eberswalde seed-
establishment showed an unimpaired germination vitality up to
42 Forestry Quarterly.
the present time (middle of May, 1910) of the seed which had
been extracted and stored since the beginning of April, 1909. It
is recommended that carboys of this sort, but somewhat stronger,
be specially blown, capable of holding exactly one quart (i litre)
or 66 pounds (30 kg) of seed. A number is placed upon each
one with oil paint; corresponding numbers in a catalogue show
the assortment, germination, etc., of the contents. In order to
carry them into the cellar flat, strong osier baskets with strong
handles are recommended. Besides each carboy stands a little
medicine bottle, similarly filled with the same seed, painted with
the same number, and out of these we take test samples so as
continuously to watch over, in the germination chamber, the
preservation of the seed.
The glass carboys are more convenient and easier to open and
shut than soldered tin containers concerning the tight soldering
of which there may be reasonable doubts, since we know how
often canned vegetables spoil because the little cans are frequently
not tightly soldered. The cans could of course be screwed air
tight but there have recently been doubts as to whether the
oxidation of the tin does not injure the enclosed seed which forms
carbonic acid. The contents of the glass carboys are always
visible and the division of the seed in the spring is easily managed
by the use of these carboys which contain 66 pounds (30 kg) in
each case.
In building seed establishments the cellar should be constructed
near the extraction house, with double insolated walls and a
protecting double vestibule, possibly under the cone-shed or under
the living quarters of the kiln master or foreman.
Since, however, according to Haack's investigations the seed
preserves its germinative energy better the nearer the tempera-
tur is maintained constantly at 32° F. (0° c), one will have to
build the cellar as the ice-cellars of large breweries are built. A
sufficiently large and strong vault is constructed and insolated
walls and roof are built about it. Ice is put between the vault
and the outer walls, care is taken to constantly remove the water
from melting and thus a suitable temperature is maintained.
The cost of building such a seed-extracting establishment can
not be much higher than the cost of the usual conventional seed-
house having the same annual capacity. The cost of constructing
the cone-shed will be somewhat dearer ; everything else is the
German Sced-Bxiracting Establishment. 43
same as for an ordinary seed-house of similar size, even if built in
accordance with the latest science and arrangements.
The construction of the drying-kiln and the heating system will
perhaps cost more ; but they can not cost excessively since many
factories possess similar equipment for much less valuable
products than Scotch pine seed. Every home has a central
heating system, while we are concerned only with the heating of a
few small rooms which can be effected cheaply by hot air. The
fuel is chiefly empty cones and coal. This feature is especially
economical.
By having practical equipment the operation of the plant is
simplified for the workmen ; continuous operation makes the most
of the buildings and other arrangements, and increases the utility
of the heating system, thereby making the cost of operation
cheaper.
All in all, the current expenses of the seed-extracting house are
cheaper than hitherto. The cost of the cellar is a new addition,
but it must be figured in, if the results of the latest investigations
and experience are to be made use of in our actual practice, which
certainly requires them; this cost is not excessive, even if one
prefers a regular ice-cellar, since the two-storied arrangement of
the carboys does not require any great amount of space.
I want to touch upon one more point : Cones which are picked
late, delivered dry, and collected from old stands have the follow-
ing advantages :
1. They open quicker; all expense, wages, interest, and the
final charging-off of the cost of the seed extracting establishment
amount to less with such cones,
2. It seems that such cones afford greater germination energy
and consequently greater real value.
3. The quantity of seed yielded varies frequently between one
and one-quarter and one and three-quarters pounds per two and
three-quarters bushels of cones (.55 to .80 kg. per i hi).
It is my idea (and it must be carried out in practice) to offer
advanced prices to cone collectors for cones which afford the
greatest yield of seed, the highest real value and the cheapest
production of seed ; perhaps at first in the form of a suitable bonus
which would be paid after the results from the cones had been
ascertained. Correct and honest calculation and payment of this
bonus will teach the cone collectors to supply such seed-extract-
44 Forestry Quarterly.
ing establishments with cones which are collected and handled in
the best manner. Because of the eminent importance of the cone
supply it is more than necessary to pay especially well for late
picked, well handled cones that open quickly, contain abundant
seed and show in their seed the highest germination, — in fact, to
put a premium on them.
SOME FACTS ON FORESTRY CONDITIONS IN
SWEDEN.*
By Max H. Foe^rster.
The Kingdom of Sweden comprises 172,876 square miles, 8 per
cent, of which is water. As to size it is the sixth in rank of the
European countries.
Longitudinally it extends about 900 miles south and north with
a breadth of only 180-240 miles. Stockholm, the capital and
center of the wood industry, is situated one-third of the longi-
tudinal distance from the southern end, Sundsvall and Hernoe-
sand not quite two-thirds of the distance. The distance of this
point from Berlin in airline is 700 miles, which is as far north
as Rome is south.
Ages ago the kingdom was divided into three large provinces,
Goetarike, Svearike and Norrland. The first one comprises the
southern part of Sweden about as far as Norrkoping. Svearike
comprises central Sweden and extends along the coast to the lati-
tude of Gefle, but along the Norwegian boundary it continues
much farther north. Norrland includes the northern and largest
part of the country. At the present time it is the most important
part of Sweden as far as the wood industry is concerned. This
land division is, however, only of historical importance, but
continues to exist in the minds of the people. For purposes of
administration, Sweden is divided into 24 administrative districts.
The population of Sweden is recorded as 5,300,000 inhabitants.
Of these 24,000 are Finns, residing in the northern part of Norr-
land, and about 7,000 are Lapps, living in Lappland, largely on
the proceeds from their reindeer herds. The residence of these
Mongolian people, especially the Finns, used to extend much
farther south in the interior part of the county. Hence the name
"Finnenwald" for the forest along the boundary between Swedish
Wermland and Norway, which still contains many reminiscences
of the Finnish inhabitants. The density of the population varies
considerably. Disregarding the cities, of which only two have
*Translated from Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdseitung, April, 1910; ar-
ticle by Dr. C. Metzger.
46 Forestry Quarterly.
over 100,000 inhabitants, (Stockholm and Gotenburg) the people
live scattered in the country, densest along the coast in the agri-
cultural districts, and sparsest in the heavily timbered districts
and the large plains of Lappland which lie above timber line.
The most thickly settled regions are Malmo (225) and Gotenburg
(198), while Norbotten, the most northern province, has an aver-
age of only three inhabitants per square mile. Large areas of the
latter country which compare favorably in size with Bavaria,
Saxony and Wurttemberg are totally deserted. Of the total area
of the country 12 per cent, is used for agriculture, and 51 per
cent, is timbered. In accordance with this, a large per cent, of
the Swedish population obtains its subsistence from the industries
which result from the use of these 70,000 square miles of timber-
land. About 47 per cent, of the population is said to practice
agriculture ; but at the same time, the forest and the work going
on in it are an equally, if not more important source of income for
the agricultural inhabitants of the forested districts, especially
in the northern ones. The wood industry alone employs 67,000
workmen.
Of further importance as sources of income are the mining
industry (iron, copper, zinc), the textile industry, and fishing.
Hunting, especially for wild fowl, must also be regarded as such.
The topography of Sweden is largely hilly. Level stretches are
only found in the south (Malmo) and along the coast where they
are broken up by hills. The topography becomes more rugged as
one advances towards the Norwegian boundary, which coincides
for long distances with the crest of the Scandinavian watershed.
Hence the streams, arising on the eastern slope of the mountain
chain, traverse only Swedish ground. Only the Klarelf River,
traversing Wermland, originates in Norway, where it rises from
the Faemund Lake under the name of Trysil. The rivers are
rarely over 300 miles in length, flowing in a southeasterly direc-
tion. Their gradient is steep and their courses frequently inter-
rupted by natural dams, above which they form long narrow lakes
and through which they break as cataracts and rapids; there-
fore they are only navigable for short distances. On the other
hand, these streams are of the utmost importance for driving
timber, their numerous falls and rapids are an almost inexhaus-
tible source of power for industries and traflic.
Most of the streams flow into deeply incised fjords, the open-
forestry Conditions in Sweden. 47
ings of which are strewn with small rocky islands. Thus
protected the fjords offer excellent harbors and are therefore the
natural stations of commerce and industry, i. e. of the wood
industry, the centers of which are found along the rugged coast
of Sweden.
These streams bring the rough logs to the saw mills and pulp
manufacturing plants, and from their yards the products are
loaded directly on to the ships.
Geologically, Sweden differs widely from Denmark and the
North German plain. The bedrock underlying the forest soils
belongs almost exclusively to the fundamental formation of the
Archean rocks, granites, gneisses, and quartzites. Only small
areas inside the timbered belt contain paleozoic formations. The
bedrock crops out quite frequently in the level and hilly areas,
generally in the form of rounded knobs or ridges, but the crevices,
ravines and troughs of the same are always filled with diluvium,
which conceals the bedrock over long distances. Only on steep
slopes is the soil a product of erosion of the bedrock, but even here
it is frequently mixed with diluvial depositions. The forest soils
must therefore be classed as diluvial. The soils of the glacial
moraines have, however, gone through a series of displacements
in postglacial times, due to upheaval and depression of the land-
surface, and hence inundation by the waters of the sea and the
action of streams.
The more or less dry, level stretches of sand, usually covered
with scrubby pine growth, should be distinguished from the hilly
gravel of the moraines on which grow mixed stands of pine and
spruce, or spruce pure, and also from the gravelly ridges of
coarse or fine but smooth material, which belongs to the poorer
soils and as a rule can only grow pine. In contrast to these
glacial soils those formed by disintegration of the fundamental
rock formations, are found in the mountains and show a greater
or smaller degree of fertility according to their origin.
Due to the large extension of the kingdom from north to
south, the climate of Sweden shows great variations in the dif-
ferent provinces. Southern Sweden (Schonen) possesses a cli-
mate similar to the insular climate of Denmark. On the west
coast the influence of the gulf stream and ocean is quite notice-
able. The harbor of Gotenburg is free of ice. The farther one
advances to the north, however, the more raw and continental
48 Forestry Quarterly.
the climate grows, especially in winter, when the large lakes of
Finnland and Sweden, as well as a large number of the harbors
of the Baltic Sea, are frozen over and the moderating influence
of these waters on the climate is eliminated. The warm season
of the year, therefore, shows a mild sea climate, similar to the
German climate.
The mountain group in the western part precipitates a large
per cent, of the precipitation coming from the ocean. Only the
west coast as far north as Gotenburg is open and receives a rela-
tively high precipitation (70-75 cm) similar to the Norwegian
coast. The greater part of Sweden, however, lies in the shadow
of the Scandinavian Divide, so that most of the recorded precipi-
tations in the interior and coast land fall below 50 cm. This
is especially true of the timbered Norrland, which only gets
40-45 cm. annually. The mountain ridge also protects Sweden
against western storms. Winds are quite limited, especially in
summer; and the number of calm days is large. This is of great
significance in the straight symmetrical development of the pine.
The sources of warmth during the summer months differ very
little from those in Germany. As far as the amount of heat,
which favors vegetation is concerned, the longer hours of the
day equalize the lower degree of intensity of the sun's rays, so
that our cereals and even species of turnips ripen in the central
Norrland.
The greatest change in climatic respect is brought about by
the cold season. In central and northern Sweden, the timbered
sections, the lakes freeze over during November, beginning with
those farthest north. In Wermland the lakes are usually frozen
by November 20th, in Dalekarlien by November loth to 15th.
Actual thawing does not start in till the latter part of April.
The lakes of Dalekarlien are free from ice about May loth
but farther north the ice does not break up before June. In
central Sweden snow covers the ground from 90 to 130 days, in
northern Sweden for 200 days on an average of a number of
years. The harbors of the Baltic Sea are closed several months
during winter, unless they are artificially kept open as the harbor
of Stockholm and several others south of it are. Navigation
usually closes down in December, beginning again in May.
For trade and traffic, therefore, the harbors of Norrland are
handicapped.
Forestry Conditions in Szveden. 49
Snow and ice play an important role in forestry in Sweden,
first in connection with the growth of the forest, and second,
with forest utilization.
The covering of snow, which for months protects the little
plants, is doubless of the greatest importance. In late spring they
emerge from the cover of snow almost immediately into the most
vigorous vegetation. On the other hand damage by snow is a rare
occurrence, as there is a low degree of atmospheric moisture
in the winter and the snow falls dry.
The snow also offers cheap transportation of wood. By freez-
ing over lakes and swamps the winter opens up the most inaccess-
ible and distant forest regions. When a cutting is to take place,
shacks are constructed for the crew and horses. Skidding trails
are staked out, following the streams, swamps and lakes, avoid-
ing the loss of timber. The snow on these roads is iced and steep
grades covered with brush or grass. The logs are loaded on
sleds and skidded to the nearest driveable stream by the small
but strong woods horses. The ends of the logs are stamped
with the mark of the owner and left on the ice or the bank of
the stream until thawing sets in. The drive begins with the
breaking up of the ice on the small streams and continues until
midsummer, the streams and rivers being gradually cleared
towards their mouths. At the sorting booms above the industrial
districts they are caught and rafted from there on downstream.
The numerous rapids and falls are avoided by improvements of
all sorts.
At watersheds or divides raising apparatus and means of trans-
portation are constructed at advantageous points in order to
make possible the transfer of logs from small river systems into
larger ones. The necessary dams, booms, etc., for rendering
the streams of Norrland and Dalekarlien driveable represent a
capital of 8,000,000 to 11,000,000 dollars. Driving and rafting
are usually conducted by special boom companies, of which the
timber owners, sawmill owners, pulp manufacturers, etc., are
members. The cost of transportation is thus reduced to a mini-
mum. On a well managed driveable stream the cost is hardly
more than one-half a cent per mile per saw log, to which must
be added the cost of sorting, which amounts to from ^ to i cent
according to the size and equipment of the sorting gap. As
skidding on sleds in winter is also cheap, provided the distances
4
so forestry Quarterly.
are not too great, the wood material is delivered to the indus-
tries at a very small expense, even though it often has to come
a distance of 200 miles. Permanent logging roads or road sys-
tems are not known in the Swedish forests. On the other hand,
there are over 15,000 miles of driveable streams and about 40,-
■000,000 logs are transported by them annually.
The entire forested area of Sweden is estimated at around
70,000 square miles. Of this total 75 per cent, is in private and
25 per cent, in government ownership. To every farm-house
belongs a greater or smaller forest area, depending upon the
amount and productive capacity of the cleared land. The unit
for this is up to the present day so-called "Mantal," i. e., the num-
ber of soldiers to be sent by each farmhouse, a remnant of the
old military government. A part of these forests, mainly the so-
called Aussenwaelder which were located farthest from the farms
were later on sold to large concerns. Oftentimes these forests
were aggregated to form community forests.
Considering the distribution of forests it must be remembered
that the south is scarcely forested at all. As a result of its fa-
vorable climatic conditions and the fertility of the soil, it has
become the grain center of the country. The first large bodies
of forests are encountered on the mountainous boundary between
Gota and Svealand, north of Norkoping. Sixty-two per cent,
of Oestergotland and Oerebro are forested. The real forests of
Sweden, however, are found in Wermland, Dalekarlien, and
Norrland. The most heavily forested parts of the latter country
are Gefleberg with 82 per cent, and Westernorrland with 73 per
cent, forest.
Higher up in the mountains, especially going north, the forest
cover diminishes rapidly. The mountainous Jamtland represents
the average of the entire country, Norrland the most northerly
province showing only 30 per cent, forested. The most import-
ant export point for Wermland is Gotenburg with which it is
connected by the Klara and Gota river systems. Some 18 million
cubic feet of wood material is exported from this place.
For Dalekarlien and Norrland, which, combined, represent
about 80 per cent, of the total Swedish export of planks and
boards, the principal export points are in their order beginning
at the south : — Gefle, Soderham, Hundiksvall, Sundsvall,
Hernoesand, Umea, Skelleftea, Pitea, Lulea and Haparanda.
Forestry Conditions in Sweden. 51
The most important of these are Sundsvall and Hernoesand, with
about 30,000,000 cubic feet of lumber exports each in boards and
planks alone. In addition to this a considerable amount of min-
ing timbers and material manufactured from waste is exported.
These towns are situated at the mouth of Ljungman, Indals and
Angerman rivers.
The national forests are also chiefly located in Norrland in
the northern parts. In the most northerly part, in Norbotten,
51 per cent, of the total area is in government possession, in
Vasterbotten, 36 per cent. Going south, these figures decrease
rapidly. National control is doubtless of great value for the
preservation of the forests in the northern regions. A consid-
erable portion of the private forest land has changed hands in
the course of time, the peasants selling out to large corporations
which exploit these forests with their sawmills. Of course this
exploitation often consisted in a shameless destruction of the
forest, resulting in a strong sentiment against the purchase of
forest land by corporations. On the other hand it must be ac-
knowledged that many of them manage their forests in a praise-
worthy manner. The corporation forests have thus become a
typical feature of Sweden.
The total area of these forests in Dalekarlien and Xorrland is
over 6,500,000 acres. That means about 19 per cent, of the for-
ested area of these districts, which is estimated at 34,000,000
acres, two-thirds of the total forest area of Sweden. The farm-
ers here own about twice as much as the corporations. 43 per
cent, being in possession of the government and communities.
Of these community forests the "Spar" (savings) forests ex-
isting for a long time in Dalekarlien must be mentioned sepa-
rately. These were formed in the following way : After dividing
up the common forest lands, the peasants agreed to give up
a large part of their private share and unite them again into com-
munity forests. The returns from these forests are used for the
payment of taxes, schools, hospitals and other public purposes.
Some of the communities possessing "Spar" forests have be-
come famous for their prosperity, but not only that, they form
examples for the present forest protection movement, which
aside from other aims, advocates the formation of compact com-
muity forests.
The only species to be considered for the lumber export are
52 Forestry Quarterly.
pine and spruce. The southern part of Sweden contains also
beech forests which, however, are only of local importance. Still
less important is the occurrence of oak, though it does not reach
its northern extension before 6i°, i. e. slightly north of Stock-
holm. In the coniferous forests, however, birch, bird-cherry and
aspen occur quite frequently.
Even where they are being heavily exploited the forests still
show the natural types from which they have been derived.
Until lately it has been, and still continues to be in a large part
of the country the forest policy of Sweden to utilize such natural
grown forests, forest preservation and regeneration has been
aimed at with more or less good faith and success.
As private forests in the greater part of Sweden were abso-
lutely free from restriction up to a few wears ago, examples of
the worst kind of devastation are to be found all over the country.
One must consider, however, that the forests of this northern
country, which seems to be specially created for forest growth,
can stand an incredible amount of abuse and reckless cutting.
Only this can explain the fact that the prophecies by foreign
foresters of a total denudation of the entire country in the near
future, which has been spoken of in the past century, have not
come true. On the contrary the export trade has increased
steadily and by far not all of the forested regions have as yet
been attacked.
The most important species for the lumber export trade is
pine, which covers the sandy bottoms, the glacial soils, and the
dry, extensive sandhills in pure stands or mixed with spruce.
The less poor and dry the soil, the greater per cent, of spruce
in the mixture. Dry pine barrens often contain only a few
straggling spruce as an understory.
Otherwise the ground cover consists of the reindeer moss —
especially in the north — Erica and Binpetrum nigrum. Farther
south and in the moister localities of the north, mosses and species
of Vaccinium also appear. But there, too. the spruce begins to
come in, forming an understory of increasing density and, on the
richer soils, competing successfully with the main species of the
stand. Thus all phases of mixture of these two species are
found.
When the pine is cut out of these mixed stands — a method
which was commonly practiced until recently — the spruce stand
forestry Conditions in Sweden. 53
left is often unable to continue its good growth. The soil dries
up, parasites increase, growth in height decreases, diameter
growth decreases rapidly and as a result of the diminished growth
and activity of the stand the balance between the water supply
of the soil and its absorption is destroyed. The deteriorating
spruce stand is not capable of sufficiently draining the soil. The
soil grows wet and swampy, which results not infrequently in the
death of the forest vegetation and a formation of a high moor.
This process is of common occurrence in the Swedish forests,
the more frequently the farther north one progresses. The
reclamation of these "watersick" soils, especially for pine, is
often very difficult and expensive.
In the life history of the northern forests forest fires have
always played an important role. They have always successfully
driven back the thrifty spruce from the pine soils, as the spruce
and not the pine falls a victim to fires. The soil laid bare by the
fire is easily seeded with pine, resulting in an independent new
generation of pine, which after some time gradually becomes
mixed with spruce. After especially severe fires which have
robbed the soil of its entire humus and litter, the pine genera-
tion tends to come in under a preceding birch stand, which is
the only species at first able to take root. Under this protective
cover, first the pine and later the spruce stands develop.
The example of nature is imitated successfully in many of the
northern districts by using fire to establish the natural reproduc-
tion of pine.
On the swampy stretches of forest land drainage is provided
for by constructing ditches. Deteriorated and drowned forests
are cut over, the soil burned over after draining and then sowed
to pine.
On fresh moraine soils, spruce forms thrifty pure stands from
which pine has been completely crowded out. Some of the soils
formed by disintegration of the fundamental rock, i. e. the lime
and Silurian soils, grow pure spruce stands of high quality.
Until very recently spruce timber had very little if any eco-
nomic value at all, as the sawmills cut pine chiefly. But since
the growth of the wood-working industry spruce timber has found
quite a good market value. Since then it has also been possible
to so utilize the mixed spruce and pine stands as to aid the pine
in retaining its dominant position in the stand. As long as the
54 ' Forestry Quarterly.
pine only was cut out this was impossible and the old method
usually destroyed the balance between the two species, to the
great disadvantage of the pine as well as to the productive ca-
pacity of these soils which were not rich enough to produce pure
spruce stands.
Whenever possible, nowadays, in mixed stands the spruce
is cut first and the stand reproduced for pine with the aid of pine
seed trees.
More advantageous conditions for the maintenance of pine as
the dominant species were in former times only present in those
forests, which were at the disposal of the iron works for the
production of charcoal. For the charcoal industry both species
were of equal value, so that the utilization tended towards ex-
tensive clear cuttings, which were quite well reproduced by
natural seeding.
In many of these forests mixed stands of a high degree of
perfection were and can still be found, which can no longer be
classed as the virgin forest covering the country, but are more
or less the result of human activity. On the charcoal cuttings
the resulting stands showed quite an even development over
large areas, in contrast to the original irregular selection forest.
Considering forest utilization, all methods of cutting are rep-
resented from the one-sided and worthless selection cutting for
merely the largest pine logs, down to a clear cutting, taking ev-
erything, even the smallest timber. According to the good will
and knowledge of the owner the actual cutting conforms more
or less to silvicultural needs, and it must be remarked that in
most of the Swedish forests even a slight consideration of the
silvicultural needs is rewarded in a surprising manner. In central
and southern Sweden especially there are forests which are alto-
gether managed according to the European examples of arti-
ficial forest production. And on the other hand there are still
immense forests in the North which are just beginning to be ex-
ploited, and in which a silvicultural treatment is out of the ques-
tion.
The first attacks on virgin timber, excepting the charcoal
cuttings perhaps, have always been selection cuttings, taking at
first only the largest and most valuable pine saw timber. These
first cuttings were followed by others in which the demands for
size and quality of the timber steadily decreased, especially since
Forestry Conditions in Szvcdcn. 55
the forests were more and more opened up by the improvement of
rivers and streams for rafting and driving.
The demands of the sawmills were at first the determining
factor for the system of cutting. Forestry ideas as a rule did
not gain consideration until in later stages of exploitation, if it
was then still possible to consider them.
This was not accomplished generally, until the spruce found
a strong consumer in the wood-working industry, and since ra-
tional charcoal manufacturing methods and the decrease in the
expense of rafting have made it possible to utilize inferior species.
The latter find their consumers in the meilers as well as in retort
charcoal plants, since the smelters of Sweden still consume enor-
mous amounts of charcoal — furthermore in the rapidly develop-
ing export of mining timbers, in the manufacture of paper pvtlp,
chiefly by the mechanical and sulphite process for spruce, and
the sulphate process for pine. Sweden afifords a conspicuous
example of how the possibility of utilizing inferior species limits
forest destruction and advances scientific forestry.
In considerable portions of south and central Sweden, the
forests have already been through all the stages of forest utiliza-
tion. The formerly high returns have decreased and, if some
capital had not been used for care and management of the forests
they would have deteriorated much more in their productive ca-
pacity.
The extensive form of forest destruction has thus gradually
given way to the intensive form of forest management, as can
be seen in many of the forests in central and south Sweden,
where it almost approaches the German method of management.
The farther north one proceeds the more extensive methods are
employed, consisting largely in a mere harvest of the virgin
forest. The degree of misuse of the forest has always varied as
greatly as the character of utilization. The more the forests
were opened up and the more accessible they were rendered for
the places of consumption, the sooner the period was rea,ched
which might be termed that of misuse.
On the whole, the forest of southern and central Sweden
have been so misused, though in varying degrees.
Norrland, however, which contains more than half of the
forest area of Sweden, still contains large bodies of timberland
56 Forestry Quarterly.
which have not yet attained the permissible maximum degree of
utiHzation.
The development of Sweden has advanced from south to
north and the wood-industry has simultaneously advanced north
with the exhaustion of the supply in the south. But in spite
of the sins and errors on the subject of silviculture and forest
protection, and in spite of the enormous growth of the wood
industries, growth and use still seem to balance, considering the
forests of the entire country.
Statistics of this sort have been gathered time and again, of
course with various results.
According to the statistics of a committee which reported on
the forest conditions in Sweden 14 years ago, the total annual
wood consumption amounted to around 1,000,000,000 cubic feet,
thus distributed :
For domestic use of population, 560,000,000 cubic feet
For wood export, 216,000,000 " "
For wood-working industries, 54,000,000 " "
For mining industry, 190,000,000 " "
Total, 1,020,000,000 " "
To this must be added the amount of timber left in the woods
to rot, windfalls, tops, defective logs, etc., amounting, conserva-
tively estimated, to 182,000,000 cubic feet. The total annual
cut then amounts to 1,200,000,000 cubic feet, while the total
annual growth is estimated at a little more, namely 1,218 million
feet. These figures have since been contested and proven un-
satisfactory. According to recent investigations the total amount
of export material is estimated at almost 250,000,000 feet, that
of the wood-working industry has increased to 168,000,000 and
the mining industry uses over 14,000,000 feet more than origin-
ally. The most indefinite figure is the largest one, that for do-
mestic use. Since the great value of the forest has been recog-
nized and the population has become more economical in its use
of wood, at least of wood of economic value, and much of the
defective material which was formerly left to rot, is now being
utilized for domestic purposes as well as by the industries, the
Forestry Conditions in Sweden. 57
figure mentioned for 14 years pjevious has probably hardly
changed.
Contested in the same measure as the amount of material for
domestic use were the figures given on the annual yield of the
Swedish forests. There are many pessimists who claim that
1,218 million cubic feet is much too high a figure for the annual
growth and there is much to be said in favor of their opinion.
After thorough inspection and investigation, however, I should
count myself with those Swedish foresters who claim that the
annual yield should be estimated still higher. According to the
figures mentioned the annual use per acre of forest land is on
an average not more than 22.5 cubic feet.* It should be possible
to produce this result by a moderate degree of cultivation with-
out disregarding the unfavorable climatic conditions on the pro-
ductive capacity of the northern regions. The bulk of the
Swedish forest is situated in regions which can be conservatively
estimated at 35 to 40 cubic feet average annual increment.
In a few years these questions, both important for the country
itself as well as its consumers and rivals, will be definitely settled.
Jaegmastare Wedholm has submitted to the Swedish Reichstag
a bill, proposing an estimate of the total forest area of Sweden
with reference to the amount of standing timber, increment, and
total cut, the work to be completed in the next three or four
years at a cost of about $50,000.
This large task, which is similar to taking a businesslike in-
ventory, will be carried out, and the undertaking proves suf-
ficiently the serious attitude and interest with which the forest
preservation question is regarded in Sweden.
Taking part in forest utilization are, the sawmills ; the wood-
working plants ; the charcoal industry ; the mining timber and
pulp export trade ; the population itself for domestic uses, such
as buildings and fuel.
As a side issue grazing, especially of cattle and sheep, and of
a few horses, must be considered as a forest use.
The wood export figures up to about 200,000,000 cubic feet
lumber and about 400,000 tons of wood products, with a value of
about $42,000,000 and $12,000,000 respectively. Besides this
about $14,000,000 must be considered as the value of wood
* From the preceding figures the cut seems to figure out 30 cubic
feet. — Ed.
58 Forestry Quarterly.
material used in export manufactures, such as cabinet making and
other industries working for export trade.
About 1,400 sawmills and 150 wood working plants furnish the
export material. The largest item is supplied by the sawmills in
the form of pine and spruce lumber, boards, planks, and deals,
altogether about 158,000,000 cubic feet annually. About 12 per
cent, of this is planed, chiefly spruce.
The national forests of Sweden are divided into 10 inspection
districts and 90 "Revir." The government officers in charge of
the latter are called "Jaegmastare", the inspection officers
"Overjaegmastare". The central office is the royal domain
administration department with a general director, at present a
forester, at its head ; General Direktor Fredenberg. Four chiefs
of bureau work on the forestry affair.
The private forests, especially the corporation forests are
managed by technical men. Some of these have previously held
offices in the Government Forest Service and still retain their
title "Jagmastare," or else they have received their training in a
special course in the Government Forestry Institute at Stock-
holm which does not make them eligible for government work
but gives them the title of "Forstineister". The institute at
Stockholm turns out the higher forestry officials of Sweden. The
students previously attend either the forestry school at Omberg or
at Kloten. A considerable part of the training is given along
practical lines in the forest under the supervision of an instructor,
during the summer months usually on some suitable National
Forest.
The Government Forest Experiment Station, located at Stock-
holm consists of a forestry branch and a botanical-biological
branch. Jagmastare Schotte is in charge of the forestry branch,
and Dr. Hesselman of the botanical branch.
The experimental areas are distributed all over the country and
are located in government and non-government forests as well.*
*For further interesting details the reader is referred to an account
of an excursion of German foresters to Sweden in 1909, published in
Zeitschrift fur Forst- u. Jagdwesen, Sept., 1910, and ff.
THE SWEDISH FOREST CONSERVATION LAW.
By B. E. Fernow.
One of the most interesting institutions in Sweden in connec-
tion with the new poHcy of influencing- private forest manage-
ment is that of the organization of County Conservation Boards.
This institution is the result of a law enacted after an exhaus-
tive investigation and report in the year 1903. It became opera-
tive only in 1905, but has already in the five years of its operation
accomplished much in improving conditions.
Under this law, in each province or county of the Kingdom
— with the exception of the two northern, mostly settled, ones of
Vasterbotten and Norrbotten — a board of three or more persons
is constituted to supervise the work of prwately owned forests,
the State forests being under a separate, efficient administra-
tion.
This Board consists of one member appointed by the Govern-
ment, one elected by the County Council, and one member elected
by the County Agricultural Society. Upon demand of the people
additional members may be elected by the people.
This Board chooses a technical advisor from the State forest
service, whose salary is paid by the Government, and with whose
assistance and a number of rangers or inspectors the Board
applies the law.
The remarkable and eminently wise and democratic feature of
the law is, that it does not undertake to prescribe in detail what
is to be done, but leaves this to the discretion of the Boards, with
the mere injunction that a conservative treatment of the woods
must be enforced and that regeneration or reforestation must be
attended to. How this is to be accomplished is left entirely to the
Board to decide. The Board, however, working under the County
Council, has the power to enforce its rulings in the courts by
injunctions, money fines, confiscation of logs, etc.
Naturally, at first, dififerent Boards construed the law differ-
ently and applied the funds in dififerent ways, which was
undoubtedly intended by the law to give scope according to
varying conditions.
6o Forestry Quarterly.
There are, however, three directions in which eventually all
have come to work, namely, education, assistance, and police
regulations.
I may cite more in detail conditions as the}^ are developed in
the province of Varmland through the efforts of the efficient
expert, Lansjagmastare A. Nilsson. In this province, the State
owns only 4% of the forest area, 30 per cent, is owned by large
corporations, and 66 per cent, by small holders, who own at most
tracts of 6cx) to 700 acres.
The forestry expert gives three separate technical courses of
instruction to woodland owners, each lasting about two weeks,
namely, two in the fall on silviculture and mensuration, and one
in the spring on draining, the utilization of the many peat bogs
being an important problem. Two lectures a day and 6 to 8
hours demonstration in the field is the time given to these courses,
some four or five forest rangers assisting at the demonstrations.
While attending these courses the Board pays the living expenses
of those attending. The number admitted out of the 80 to 90
applications is 50 ; in five years some 200 or more men attended
these courses. In addition, literature of a popularly written but
technical character is distributed. Sometimes this instruction is
given in combination with high schools or country schools.
To those who ask for it, special advice is given in the manage-
ment of their properties by sending an expert on the ground.
To those who desire to plant waste lands or old clearings seed is
furnished up to 50 lbs., at one-tenth of its cost, and other plant
material may under circumstances be supplied free of charge.
The owner has a right to cut as he pleases, but if natural
regeneration fails to appear he is obliged to plant, the Board
determining when the necessity for such planting has arrived.
If the owner objects to the decision of the Board a special
inspection is ordered, the expense of which he must pay, and at
the same time he loses all claim to assistance. Although the
power of the Board is great, the policy is to secure cooperation
rather than to use force. By this time, owners have learned to
see the advantages of these arrangements, and only speculators
make trouble.
Protection against forest fires may also be among the func-
tions of the various Boards. In the better settled districts the
fire trouble is almost passed, the population being largely owners
Szvedish Forest Conservation Lazv. 6i
of woodlands have learned to use care, so that in V'armland no
large fire has been experienced in five years. Brush burning is
therefore here not practised, the tops being used for charcoal and
fuel generally. In other parts, more endangered, brush is burned
at an expense of about 28 cents per acre. The watch tower idea
was introduced 15 or 20 years ago in Jamtland, such towers being
distributed about 6 miles apart, and as a result since 1901 no large
fires have occurred. Incidentally, to show how the forest fires
have been reduced, it may be of interest to state that in 1888 the
area burned over in the State forests was estimated at 30,000
acres, and of private forest in four provinces at over 130,000
acres. In 1908 less than 500 acres were burned over in the State
forests of about 12 million acres extent.
Although fires have not entirely been stopped, they have
become very much rarer and less extensive. Indeed, one is
struck along the railways with the absence of recently burned
areas.
The funds to carry out the policy of conservation boards come
largely from a small duty on wood exports, namely 14 cents and
8 cents per ton respectively on dry chemical and mechanical pulp,
and half these amounts on wet pulp ; 7 cents per 100 cubic feet of
sawed material and half that amount on saw lags and fuel wood.
This is to be changed to a direct tax on all wood cut, except for
home consumption. The export duty yields altogether from
$160,000 to $190,000, or around 5 cents per 100 cubic feet of
export material. In addition, the State pays the salaries of the
experts, some $16,000, and contributions in proportion to what
the county gives. This contribution by the counties now amounts
to about $27,000, the State duplicating this, so that around
$230,000 are devoted to this policy of maintaining or securing
conservative management of privately owned forests which have
an extent of around 35 million acres, i. e. about 2/3 of a cent per
acre.
The funds at the disposal of the various Boards vary, of course.
In Varmland and Jamtland, for example, the receipts aggregate
about $30,000, but by careful financial management and by not
using the whole appropriation the latter province reported for
1909 funds at its disposal of over $60,000.
FIXATION OF THE DUNES ON THE COAST OF
JUTLAND.*
By W. J. Morrill.
Shifting sands are causing trouble along the Columbia River
in Oregon, as well as in other parts of the United States. Hence
information on the methods in Demark employed to stop the
shifting of sands will be of some interest to American foresters.
Along the west coast of Jutland, there were formerly forests of
pine and sprucet. These forests were eventually recklessly
exploited and eventually, the coast became naked, and the interior
forests became sadly depleted. The west winds now swept
across the peninsula unobstructed, the soil was dried out and lost
its humus, exposing the sandy mineral soil and immense areas
which had successfully grown forests were impoverished.
Heather gradually succeeded in occupying much ground which
had been forest clad, and the heather produced an acid humus,
which caused an impervious hardpan to form. The worst conse-
quences, however, appeared near the coast ; sand was carried by
the wind far back from the beach, as far, oftentimes as three or
four miles. In places where the sand could find lodgement in the
shelter of such obstacles as large rocks or even pieces of wood, a
small mound of sand would form, just as drifts of snow form in
similar circumstances. Sand grasses grew on these small mounds
and served to hold them in place ; as the mounds slowly grew, the
grass grew with them always keeping above the layers of sand
which slowly form new coverings for the ambitious mound. The
nearer the beach the more rapid is the growth of the mound.
Eventually the small mounds grow into veritable banks and even
into hills which do not even then cease growing. If the hills
would arrange themselves in a single row to form a huge wall for
the protection of the inner country, matters would not be so bad ;
but these hills are migratory. Like the true frontiersmen, they
no sooner become well settled and prosperous when they break up
*Adapted from an article by John Givskov of Copenhagen, Denmark.
fThis is questionable ! — Ed.
Dunes on Coast of Jutland. 63
and move on further into the interior. The grass roots which
have served to hold the growing dune for a long time will not
serve forever to keep the sand hill from breaking; the wind may
tear a hole in the west side of the hill and over the crest to the
eastward goes the dune, grain by grain. In this way the wind
can keep the dunes moving eastward quite rapidly. The dunes
are abrupt on the west side and slope gradually on the east side.
Seen from the west side they appear to be rugged mountains in
miniature. This invasion of the constantly encroaching sand
dunes has covered large areas of fertile land and even churches
and farm buildings have been buried.
In 1792 the first experiments to curb the evil were undertaken
by the government. As will be seen, many mistakes were made
before correct methods were adopted to control the situation.
At first, the government tried to fix the dunes by sowing and
planting broom, black crowberry and other herbaceous plants.
Seaweed was plowed under, or "pricked out" in the sand. Some
proposed to cut down the steep west side of the dunes and others
opposed this method. From 1838 to 185 1 no sowing or planting
was done ; the lack of success of previous experiments having
baffled those engaged in them. The first experiments at planting
trees to fix the dunes were made from 1810 to 1815 but not until
1857 did the government enact a law requiring this method of
procedure. In 1867 the tree planting of dunes was organized
under the Dune Department with a dune inspector in charge.
Previous to 1852 it was the duty of the population living in the
vicinity of the dunes to contribute work intended to hold the
dunes in check. The work was often badly done and, besides,
was a burden to the people. Often the people planted grasses on
the tops of the dunes and the result was a higher, larger dune,
much to their disappointement. In 1852 the government took the
work in hand, but not until 1867 was it governed by an inspector.
By 1870 the Dune Department had gained enough experience to
assure them of successful methods. It had by this time
determined what species of trees were able to withstand the
strong, salt winds, rigorous climate and the light soil. With
experience has come a material saving in the cost of methods.
For example in 1853 the cost per acre for formation of a plan-
tation was 262 Krone Danish, ($70.21) in 1878 it was 112 Krone
Danish ($30.01).
64 Forestry Quarterly.
Although the species successful in Denmark in the fixation of
dunes might not succeed in America, the methods successful in
Denmark, after many and costly experiments, may prove of value
to the American foresters when they shall be called upon to attack
the problem.
Coast protection is closely connected with the fixation of sand
but I shall confine myself to a description of Danish methods of
fixation of sand dunes.
The methods are modified in detail according to surrounding
vegetation which can be used to cover the sand to prevent shifting.
If heather grows in the vicinity, it is cut and spread on the sand
in the holes and low places. If there is an abrupt hill it becomes
necessary to level it in order that planting can be accomplished
and that sweeping winds around the corners may be avoided.
The heather is used to hold the sand until beach grass can be
sown and take root. Ordinarily the east slopes of the hillsides
are sown to this grass from above and downward in parallel rows
running at right angles to the prevailing west wind. The east
hillside is covered in this way only as far up as the point where
the slope does not exceed 30° to 35°. The wind gradually cuts
off the summit of the hill or that portion of it with more than a
30° to 35° slope and sifts the sand over the grassy east aspect,
where the grass, in response to its tendencies, grows sufficiently
fast to keep above the accretions of sand.
After the steep summit has blown away there remains in its
place a 30° to 35° slope which is sown to beach grass, as were the
lower slopes previously. Cut heather can be used in place of
beach grass but has to be renewed as it becomes covered. Smooth
hills and plains are generally covered with cut heather and not
sown to grass if there is plenty of heather at hand.
Heather not only serves to fix the sand but arrests seeds of
many different plants which germinate and grow, forming a
permanent cover. If this cover becomes dense enough, the sand
is held in place ; however, heather is preferred since it is strongest.
More often the beach grass is planted instead of its seed being
sown. The plants are removed by a spade which cuts the rhizome
at a depth sufficient to permit new growth to start from it. Three
or four pieces are planted in holes 8 to 10 inches deep made with a
special spade. The distance between the holes is 6 to 9 inches,
and the rows are 12 inches apart.
Dunes on Coast of Jutland. 65
Limbs of pine, spruce and fir could be used as cover but would
not obviate the necessity of sowing seeds of grasses, mosses or
other herbs. Before trees can be planted the sands must be fixed.
The limbs of conifers would serve to fix the sand until the grasses
can continue and supplement the work of sand fixation, and even
the grasses are more precarious than a tree cover and serve to
hold the sand until the tree plantation is established.
Hedges as used in coast protection might be used to advantage
to control the shifting of sand along the Columbia River. A new
method observed in 1908 at Blaavand, Jutland, although used for
coast protection, might succeed in the Columbia River and is
described as follows :
Pine limbs are put down in a row, like a hedge, on the sand
beach at right angles to the coast line, the distance between rows
being about 220 yards. For inserting the limbs in the sand a
steam pump is used, a hose with an iron pipe 8 feet long on its end
being attached to the pump. The iron pipe is pointed downward
on the sand and when the water is pumped through it the sand is
excavated by hydraulic force. In this way a trench is made about
8 feet deep in which the branches of conifers are placed upright in
three rows protuding several feet above the surface.
When the sand blows up from the sea these hedges hold it and
gradually there is formed a long embankment; later, on these
embankments beach grass is planted and finally, after the sand is
fixed, fir and pine will be planted. These hedges are made to
extend as far as possible into the water in order to divert the
currents from the shore. To further guard against the erosion
of the banks of the shore, another system of hedges, similar in
construction to that described above, is constructed to run
parallel to the beach at right angles to the first described hedges.
These hedges are placed about 7 yards apart and the depth is
only 4^ feet and i foot wide. The limbs are placed very close in
these trenches, which here were dug with spades because the
distance from the forcing and lifting pump was too great. This
system of hedges not only holds much sand from shifting inland
but acts as a buffer to the action of the waves.
The cost of the hedges where the pump is used for excavation
was $0.30 per running yard, which includes all items of expense,
cutting limbs, freight, excavation of trench and placing the limbs
in position. The excavation costs $0,088 per running yard. The
5
66 Forestry Quarterly.
cost of the trenches excavated with spades is somewhat more,
amounting to $0.40 per running yard, including all items of
expense.
If some of these coast protection methods should be applied on
the Columbia River, a series of hedges should be built at right
angles to the prevailing wind, and these connected, perhaps, with
hedges running in the direction of the wind because more shelter
would result from this arrangement and thereby sand grasses can
be planted or sown with more rapid results. In a short time the
hedges would become walls of sand on which the beach grasses
would be planted and these walls would grow for many years but
would be able to hold the sand from shifting inland. Eventually
these dunes should be planted with trees and when these have
gained a foothold the forester's work would be finished and
permanent protection from further inroads of the sand would be
achieved.
In Denmark, the tree species best adapted for dune planting
are Pinus montana and Picea alba, of which 3 or 4 year old
transplants are used. Picea alba thrives well close to the beach
where the salt cold air is harmful to most species. Abies pectinata
thrives well on the north slopes of the dunes and in deep depres-
sions. The greater part of the dune is planted with Pinus
montana especially on the west slopes. Formerly the transplants
were set about 3 feet apart and the rows about 3^ feet apart, but
expense of thinning at a time when the products of the thinning
had no value has caused the adoption of broader spacing, so that
now the transplants are placed 6 feet apart, with 12 feet between
rows.
The plains between the dunes are first sown to heather and only
after the dunes are fixed are the plains planted to trees, because
the heather grown on the plains may be required to be cut to
furnish heather to be used on the dunes as described above.
When the time arrives for planting the plains with trees, furrows
are plowed and a year or two after, holes are dug in the furrows
with a spade and the earth loosened for receiving the transplants.
Usually a mixture of spruce and pine is planted, every second
plant being a spruce. Occasionally other species are used such as
Picea excelsa, Abies balsamea, Picea sitchensis, Pinus
banksiana and, if well sheltered, Pseudotsuga taxifolia. It
is doubtful if the last two mentioned here have a future. Japanese
Dunes on Coast of Jutland. 67
larch has been used in some plantations and does better than
European larch. Experiments with every evidence of success
are being made with Quercus pedunciUata and sessiliiiora,
Fraxinus excelsior^ Betula alba and Alnus glutinosa upon moist
ground. Fagus silvatica has been used on high places. In one
case it was observed that in a mixed plantation formed in 1855 on
fine sand the oak had accumulated four inches of rich soil under
it while a neighboring pine had made but half that amount of soil.
The southwestern part of Jiitland gradually will become
forested once more after a belt of forest has been formed along
its west coast. The evil caused by previous generations will be
eventually corrected.
SUPERVISORS' MEETING AT SAN FRANCISCO.
From December 13 to 16, 1910, at San Francisco, was held a
Supervisors' Meeting for the consideration of National Forest
problems with particular reference to District 5. At this meeting
were present the Supervisors, Deputy Supervisors, and Forest
Assistants from the various National Forests in the District as
well as members of the District Office.
In his opening address District Forester F. E. Olmsted empha-
sized the fact that the Forest Service is charged with the protec-
tion and management of property valued at many hundred of
millions of dollars. Just now the guardianship is sO' feeble that
occasionally it is quite impossible to prevent a considerable
amount of the property from going up in smoke. That, of course,
will be remedied. It should be considered too that utilization at
the present time is very small in comparison to what it should be
and what it will be in years to some. From the National Forests
in California will be sold somewhat over a billion feet of timber
every year and the Forest Service will be so organized and
equipped as to make sure that future crops of even greater volume
and better quality will follow the cutting. Every forest will be
netted with roads, trails, and telephone lines and closely settled
with ranger homes. Through study and scientific practice we
shall increase the supporting capacity of range lands to double
what they are at present and this no doubt in spite of the fact that
many of the most valuable forest areas will be closed to grazing.
The supervisor will be the forester and will run his forest without
restriction except that necessary to keep his own policy uniform
with that of his brother foresters throughout the west. Instead
of supervising the work of a million or more acres he will find his
hands more than full attending to the business of his forest of
200,000 acres. The size of the ranger districts and patrol districts
will be very greatly reduced and barring hurricanes and cyclones,
fires will only occur where there is an inefficient ranger. The
income from the National Forests will then undoubtedly be more
than double the cost of administration.
T. D. Woodbury, Assistant District Forester, in charge of the
Office of Silviculture, discussed the subject of "Silviculture's
Supervisors' Meeting. 69
Future VVork." In California there are about 28,000,000 acres
of National Forest land containing a stand of timber estimated at
approximately 90,000,000,000 ft. b. m. This is to be improved
and its use regulated in such a way that the flow of streams may
not be interefered with and that a continuous supply of timber
may be available after private forest lands which are being cut
without any thought of the future, have been exhausted. With
the cutting over of the large private holdings the demand for
National Forest timber will greatly increase, market prices will
advance, and the Forest Service will be in a position to impose
conditions upon purchasers which tend toward good forestry, the
enforcement of which to-day is impracticable. This will include
the removal of insect infested and diseased trees, the cutting of
undesirable species to lower diameters in order to eliminate them
from the stand, building of fire breaks where necessary, and the
closer use or utilization of lumber now left in the tops, stumps
and limbs. The intelligent management of the Forest implies
the preparation long in advance of carefully worked out plans.
Our so-called reconnaissance work, which is nothing more nor
less than stock taking, is the first systematic step toward regu-
lation. In the National Forests of California are about 2,000,000
acres of land once forested, which is not producting timber today.
Of this it is estimated that only 400,000 acres will reforest itself
naturally from seed trees, leaving 600,000 acres to be dealt with
artificially. Great activity in the prosecution of this important
work is essential. During the past year 6,000 pounds of seed
have been collected for use on the National Forests in District 5,
and next year the amount will be greatly increased. During the
past season the seed-spot method of sowing was used entirely.
The question of reforestation is still largely in an experimental
stage. Areas where forests can not be started by seeding will be
planted. No planting work to speak of has yet been done in
northern California. However, steps have been taken to prepare
for this work, and within a few years it is expected that large
quantities of seedhngs will be available for planting in the
northern position of the State.
Swift Berry of the District Office introduced the subject
"Planting." Planting for watershed purposes on land which is
not capable of producing a comm^ercial forest is desirable only in
case the cover to be produced will be more valuable than the
70 Forestry Quarterly.
existing brush cover. Planting problems in California, especially
in the southern portion of the State, are exceedingly difficult
owing to the long dry season, unfavorable locations, and enemies
such as rabbits, squirrels, etc. The greater portion of the planting
work in central and northern California will undoubtedly consist
of direct seeding.
Dr. E. P. Meinecke discussed the matter of requiring pur-
chasers to cut dead and diseased trees in timber sales in consider-
ation of reduced stumpage rates. Disease and death of trees are
caused not only by fungi or insects. Lightning, storm and fire
are highly destructive, and man is entirely helpless as far as
lightning and storm are concerned. Lightning does far more
harm than it is commonly credited with, through injury to the
trees, which permits the entrance of the germinating spores
of injurious fungi. Aside from fire the most dangerous
enemies of the forests are insects, mistletoes, and fungi.
White fir suffers more from mistletoe than other species.
Needle diseases are far more important in California
than either in the east or in Europe. The diseases best known
are caused by wood destroying fungi. Under present condi-
tions the only means of getting rid of trees infected with these
diseases are timber sales, administrative use, and free use. At
the present time the only important help can come from timber
sales. Effort is now for the first time being made to have every
marked tree, whether merchantable or not, felled by the pur-
chaser. The felling of unmerchantable timber requires that some
fonn of compensation be made the purchaser. The most practi-
cal way under present conditions appears to be a reduction of the
stumpage rate. Ordinarily the reduction will be very small in
comparison to the great benefit that will result to the forest from
the decrease in the danger from fire and from insect and fungus
infestation, and the benefit to the composition of the forest. On
a specified sale area would be marked about 500,000 feet out of a
total of 7,000,000 feet more than would be marked under old
regulations. Two million feet of sound timber would have to be
left standing after cutting, or 10,000 feet to the acre. Out of the
extra 500,000 feet cut, which includes snags and unmerchantable,
doubtful, and undesirable trees, quite a number will contain some
merchantable timber to be paid for which would otherwise go to
waste. The great advantage will be that on the tract will be left
Supervisors' Meeting. 71
only thrifty and sound seed trees. The practice of leaving
diseased or over-mature seed trees is strictly comparable with
raising cattle and sheep from diseased stock.
The subject of insect infestation was discussed by John M.
Miller, Forest Ranger. The amount of damage caused bv insects
on the National Forests of California has never been carefully
estimated. However, on some of the National Forests the pres-
ence of dead and dying timber is presenting a problem so acute, as
to force itself upon the attention of the forest officers and timber
owners. The presence of insect damage is less striking on account
of the mixed stands, since many of the insect enemies are peculiar
to only one species of tree or are capable of doing their most ser-
ious damage on one host. The knowledge of a specialist is needed
for the positive identification of species and the scientific super-
vision of remedial work. But for the primary location of insect
damage we will undoubtedly have to depend upon that all around
man, the Forest Ranger. To assist rangers in helping to carry out
this work there is needed a publication which will contain the more
elementary portions of information relating to fungus and insect
enemies of the forest. Collections of forest insects are also
needed in the district and supervisors offices. The work of
combating damage by insects and fungus in the west is still largely
in an experimental stage, since the methods now known are
largely theoretical or are based on work that has been done in the
middle west under conditions which are materially different from
those existing on the coast. It will take at least another year of
experimentation before it can be determined what are the best
methods to pursue.
Mr. O. C. Merrill, Chief Engineer of the Forest Service, out-
lined briefly the development of water power in California and
methods of encouraging its use. Within the National Forests are
approximately 15,000,000 undeveloped horse power, of which
practically one-third is within the forests of California. The capi-
talized value of this total undeveloped horse power is, on the basis
of $100 per horse power, $1,500,000,000. In California the control
of water power will eventually mean the control of all industries,
especially after the present fuel supply becomes more nearly
exhausted. Water is slowly displacing all other sources of power.
This is evidenced by the fact that one hydro-electric company in
central California is to-day practically furnishing all the power
72 forestry Quarterly.
used in 67 cities and towns. The situation in southern CaHfornia
is largely controlled by two companies, in central California by
one company, and in northern and eastern California by several
small concerns. This situation is, however, not considered as
necessarily detrimental to the public interest, since through
consolidation and the resulting economy in the cost of power
production it is possible to furnish electric energy to the consumer
at cheaper rates. Federal and State regulation, each in its own
sphere, are, however, essential.
The subject of stream gauging was briefly discussed by W. L.
Huber, District Engineer. In order to determine the availability
of the stream as a source of water supply for municipal and
industrial purposes, for the development of power, or for irri-
gation, definite information is necessary relating to the ordinary
stream flow, range of flow, and the total yield of water in fixed
time periods. A plan of cooperation has been adopted between
the Forest Service and the Geological Survey for supplementing
existing information regarding stream flow so far as it relates to
a number of the more important streams in the National Forests.
This information will be of great value in supplementing data
independently collected by the State and by the Geological
Survey.
Mr. Coert DuBois, Associate District Forester, discussed the
question of forest fires. Unless fires can be kept out of the
forests it is impossible to practice forestry on them. To actually
protect against fire is thus the first duty of the forester. The
careful working out of a complete fire protection plan is of prime
importance in this work. The experience of the past season has
demonstrated conclusively that while preparations for fire fighting
work may be satisfactory under ordinary conditions they are by
no means as complete as they must be in order to provide adequate
protection.
The subject of "Grazing" was discussed by J. H. Hatton,
Assistant District Forester. The annual forage yield of all the
National Forests now supplies in round numbers 8,000,000 sheep
and goats and 1,750.000 cattle, horses, and hogs, and is utilized
by more than 27,000 individuals and concerns besides furnishing
free grazing to settlers, prospectors, and travelers. The manage-
ment of the grazing business in California extends to about 3,000
permittees and involves 175,000 cattle, horses, and hogs, and
Supervisors' Meeting. yT,
400,000 sheep and goats under paid permit. The private land
business within the National Forests in District 5 increases these
numbers nearly 100 per cent. Our national Forest^ control from
one-third to one-half of the public range and much of the summer
sheep grazing. A conservative use of the range under Forest Ser-
vice supervision had made better growth and better weights. It is
the business of the Government's foresters to make the cattle and
sheep silvicultural tools if possible, instead of crowding them out
altogether or allowing them to become forest enemies. Grazing
must, of course, be considered secondary to silviculture, but the
two interests must be as fully safeguarded as possible. The rigid
grazing policy of Europe can not be generally practiced in this
country on account of the great economic importance of the
stock business, which must be given full and fair consideration.
Grazing contributes toward the protection against fire by keeping
down grass and other combustible material, and the stockmen
render valuable assistance in fighting such fires as occur. There
are many different opinions as to the relation between grazing and
forest reproduction. The conditions differ so greatly that no
general statement can be made, at least not until after careful
studies have been made on many of the National Forests.
Assistant District Forester C. Stowell Smith, discussed the
subject of "Forest Products." Besides firewood and lumber, the
principal classes of forest products may roughly be enumerated
as follows : Export timber, pulp wood, cooperage stock, turpen-
tine and rosin, shingles and lath, cross ties, mining timbers, posts,
poles, and similar products. The total value of these products
amounts to about $1,075,000,000 annually. To obtain them no
less than 20,000,000 cubic feet of wood must be cut. Since 1880
over 70,000,000,000 board feet have been cut. In spite of the
substitutes for wood in the shape of metal, stone, and other
materials, the consumption of wood in civilized countries has
never decreased. On the contrary, demands in new directions
have rather increased the use beyond the saving brought about
by the substitutes. One of the first steps toward bringing about
a more conservative utilization of the forest products of the
country must be an attempt to prevent waste in the woods and in
the materials. Far more wood is wasted than is used. The
Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin, established in
cooperation with the State University, is tmquestionably the best
74 ' forestry Quarterly.
equipped institution of the kind in the world. The lines of work
•conducted in the laboratory are indicated by the names of the
sections into which the organization is divided, as follows :
Timber Tests, Pulp and Paper, Chemistry, Timber Physics,
Wood Preservation, Wood Distillation, and Pathology. The
Office of Wood Utilization at Chicago carries on such investi-
gations not of a scientific or experimental character as may be
advisable to promote the greatest economy in the utilization of
forest products. One of the important projects which is being
worked out in California is with regard to eucalyptus and involves
the study of the effect of season of cutting, season and method of
girdling, soaking in fresh and salt water, and method of piling
and climatic conditions upon subsequent seasoning. The effects
of bark peeling, and "S" irons are also being investigated as
affecting loss of moisture, checking, and shrinking. In connec-
tion with this project, and to further amplify it, arrangements
have been made with the state for the erection of an experimental
dry kiln near Los Angeles. This will be constructed within a
year, and will be of such design that the factors affecting season-
ing, such as humidity, temperature, flow of air, etc., can be
accurately controlled. Studies are also being made with regard
to the manufacture of paper from woods found in California.
Very little has yet been done along this line, but the opportunities
are very great. Redwood pulp can undoubtedly be advan-
tageously utilized for the manufacture of wrapping paper and
paper to pack fruit and lime boxes, since for these purposes the
dark color of the paper will be no disadvantage. The possibility
of this utilization will undoubtedly have a strong tendency favor-
able to the conservative handling of redwood tracts, since waste
can be utilized at a profit instead of remaining on the ground to
form a fire menace. Experiments are also in progress to deter-
mine the practicability of wood distillation for the production of
gas for generating power, light, and heat, as well as to determine
the commercial possibilities with regard to turpentining opera-
tions in western species, particularly white pine, lodgepole pine,
sugar and digger pines.
CURRENT LITERATURE.
Final Report of the Royal Commission of Inquiry on Timber
and Forestry, British Columbia, iQOQ-igio. Victoria, B. C.
1910. Pp. 116.
This most painstaking and comprehensive report is the finding
of the three commissioners appointed in July, 1909, to make
inquiry into the timber resources of the province, the preservation
of forests, the utiHzation of timber areas, and all related matters.
The first half of the report deals in detail with historical and
statistical facts having a direct bearing upon the problems of
forest policy that were studied.
A brief history of the successive legislative enactments regard-
ing grants, leases and licenses is first given. Prior to 1896 timber
lands could be acquired by purchase and Crown grant in the same
way and at the same rates as any other land, except that after
1888 a royalty of fifty cents per thousand feet was exacted on
all timber cut. In 1896, however, lands carrying 8,000 feet to
the acre, west of the Cascades, and 5,000 feet, east of the
Cascades, were defined as timber lands and reserved from sale.
The issuance of leases at a nominal rental per acre was begun
early, in order tO' encourage sawmill erection. Various changes
in the terms of lease and renewal were made from time to time,
till in 1905 the provision for granting leases was abolished. The
special license system was authorized in 1888. The first licenses
were non-transferable and were limited, one to one person for a
year and for 1,000 acres; the fee was $50 and fifty cents per thou-
sand feet royalty. In 1901, the berth was reduced to 640 acres
and the fee raised to $100. In 1903, the fees were increased to
$140 and $115, respectively west and east of the Cascades, the
license to be taken out for any period not exceeding five years
upon payment of rental for the number of years desired as a
lump sum in advance. In 1905, the license system was radically
changed, in that thereafter licenses would be transferable and
renewable yearly for twenty-one successive years ; the existing
licenses likewise for sixteen years. In 1910, as a result of the
Commission's interim report, it was provided that licenses would
76 Forestry Quarterly.
be renewed as long as there was merchantable timber on the land,
at such rates and under such regulations as the government saw fit
to impose. In 1907, the license system as far as unlicensed lands
remained was withdrawn until further notice.
Dealing next with the question of resources the report says :
"It is plain that we do not as yet possess the means of making a
sound estimate of the resources of Canada, and this lack of
reliable statistics has a serious bearing on forestry problems."
As far as could be learned, there are in British Columbia some
9,000,000 acres under license, 1,000,000 acres under lease, and in
private hands 1,245,000 acres together with the yet unsold portion
of 5,300,000 acres granted to railways, the amount of which could
not be learned. As regards the unalienated timber lands the
commissoners say, to complete any estimate of our forest
resources we are obliged to adopt ar'bitrary figures and act on the
popular belief that about one-quarter of the timber land under
provincial control, or 3,750,000 acres, still belong to the province
— a pure conjecture" ( !). The above figures, with the railway
belt ceded to the federal government, would give British Columbia
a total merchantable forest area of 26 million acres. "In the
absence of statistics based upon cruise and survey we are obliged
to depend very largely upon guesswork in estimating the amount
of merchantable timber standing on this area." The guess is 240
billion feet, (slightly less than Dr. Fernow's estimate) less than
half the probable stand of Canada.
The report next passes tO' a discussion of timber supply and
demand, with its resultant bearing on British Columbia condi-
tions. In the opinion of the commissioners "the value of stand-
ing timber in British Columbia is destined to rise to heights that
general opinion would consider incredible to-day ; and under
careful management heavy taxation need never fall upon the
population of the province — the profits from a permanent Crown
timber business should make British Columbia a country of semi-
independent means."
After some twenty pages of statistics concerning method of
tenure, forest revenue, lumber cut, rise in prices, stumpage values,
and cost of fire patrol and cruising, the commissioners proceed to
deal with their recommendations. These are classified as con-
cerning tenure, regulations and administration.
It is evident that the suggestions concerning tenure would aim
Current Literature. yy
at the removal of existing anomalies. To this end they recom-
mend a cruise of all Crown grant timber lands to arrive at a
proper valuation for tax assessment purposes ; an adjustment, on
renewal, of rentals, royalties, and regulations, as between lessees
and licensees to equalize payment ; that rates of rental and royalty
upon licenses should not be fixed more than one year in advance ;
and that holders of tanbark and pulp leases should be granted the
right to cut mill timber. Between 1901 and 1903, pulp leases
were granted to the extent of 554 square miles. These were for
21 years at a rental of two cents an acre and a royalty of 25 cents
per cord of pulpwood, and carried an obligation to erect a pulp
mill of specified capacity. This condition was seldom carried out,
the operation becoming a sawmill business with timber procured
at $12.80, instead of $140, a mile. To remove this unjust compe-
tition with licensees it is recommended that a cruise be made to
determine the amount of pulpwood and of saw timber on the
leasehold, and that the lessees be required to take out a special
license to cover their lumbering rights, the rental for this to bear
the same proportion to that paid by other licensees as the average
stand of mill timber on the lease bears to the average stand under
license in that district, less two cents an acre. The continu-
ance of the present reservation of all Crown timberland is urged,
with fire-damaged areas and fractional areas adjoining existing
leaseholds or timber limits to be licensed first. In future sales,
the berth should be surveyed and timber cruised, an upset price
fixed, and license sold at auction, the timber to be removed in five
years. The discontinuance of handloggers' licenses is recom-
mended on the groimd that the timber is cut under conditions
difficult of control.
The recommendations concerning regulations and administra-
tion have to do with a forest policy, in which the future of the
province is kept strongly in mind. In brief, these embrace cut-
ting regulations requiring the taking of all trees down to 14 inches
diameter breast high and tops to 10 inches, cutting of low stumps,
and use of the saw. In addition, royalties should be collected
upon all merchantable timber left in the woods and operators
required to dispose of debris. The organization of fire patrol
system is urged, the cost to be shared equally between the govern-
ment and the licensees. Later, when survey has delimited the
boundaries of unalienated timber lands in any district it is
yS forestry Quarterly.
proposed that the government bear the full expense of protecting
its own land and half that of the licensed land. The survey of
limits by licensees should be enforced in order to clear up the
confusion in titles, maps, and unalienated fractional areas.
The administration machinery for all the above is recommended
to take the form of a Department of Forests under the Commis-
sioner of Lands, consisting of a forester with a field and office
staff, the organization being discussed with some detail. It is
hoped that the new university will make arrangements for the
training of the technical men.
The financial aspect of the forest policy is met by the recom-
mendation that the royalty of the present year (some $26^,0,00)
be set apart as a sinking fund for the department, and that royal-
ties of succeeding years be passed to the same account, on t|he
ground that such receipts should be regarded as differing from
any other form of provincial revenue — in fact, as capital, not
current revenue. This appears to us a most wise and correct
attitude in recognizing that it is not increment but capital which
in most cases is removed by logging operations. As time goes
on and both cut and rate of royalty increases the contribution to
the sinking fund could be graded.
The report closes with an appendix of some 40 pages contain-
ing, among other things, the interim report, regulations relating
to forests, the Idaho fire law, and various data of the British
Columbia Department of Lands. J. H. W.
Report of the Superintendent of Forestry and Irrigation fori
iGog-io. Being Part VII of the Annual Report of the Depart-
ment of Interior. By R. H. Campbell. Ottawa, Canada. 1910.
Pp. 77.
The account of the work of the year ending March 31, 1910 as
reported by the various officers of the department is given in most
satisfying fullness of detail, and shows that good, steady progress
is being made.
Especially is this the case as regards the administration of the
forest reserves. These, it may be stated, are situated entirely in
the four western provinces. An additional three million acres
have been reserved on the east slope of the Rockies, bringing the
total there up to nine million acres. Work has been in progress
Current Literature. 79
marking the eastern boundary. To other reserves, temporary
reservations aggregating 486 square miles have been added.
Forest nurseries have been estabhshed on three reserves, but with
indifferent success owing to the work being delegated to untrained
men. Two more reserves have been put in charge of permanent
forest rangers. Some of the reserves have also been made game
reserves and the running of dogs at large in federal parks has
been prohibited — measures that have the hearty support of the
people. Over 700 head of buffalo now graze within the parks.
All other work on the reserves has wisely been held subservient
to that of fire protection. To this end 91 miles of boundary lines
of prairie reserves were burned before the snow was out of the
woods. In addition, guards were ploughed 8 feet wide (in some
places a double guard 4 feet wide with a rod strip between) for
a total of 37 miles ; railway companies did likewise to the extent
of 21 miles; the average cost was $7 per mile. Roads were made
along 200 miles of boundary, these averaging 9 feet in width
(ultimately to be 16 feet), at an average cost of $13. These
serve for transportation to fires, for back firing and for the getting
out of timber by settlers. Old roads within some of the reserves
were also cleaned up and 11 miles of new road, 16 feet wide, were
built at a cost of $21 per mile.
Besides this protective work the patrol system was extended,
employing 96 men. Special attention was given to patrol along
railways and construction lines, with good results.
There were taken off the reserves during the year some 2y
million feet of lumber. Of this, 4 million feet, besides poles, rails,
posts and cordwood, were cut under settlers' permits, giving
returns of some $6,300. The balance was cut under old timber
licenses. Timber seizures to the value of $3,000 attest to the
activity of the forest rangers in stopping trespass. As a further
preventive 408 miles of boundary were plainly marked with
iron posts.
The removal of hay from the reserves is encouraged. There
were issued 84 permits netting $197, under which 1,500 tons were
cut. So far, grazing has in no way been regulated on the
reserves, but already certain districts are calling for such regula-
tion. Throughout, the forestry branch evidently believes that the
reserves are for the judicious use of the people.
The work of the Division of Tree Planting on the prairies, now
8o Forestry Quarterly.
ten years in existence, has steadily grown. In the spring of 1909,
some 2,570,000 trees were distributed to 2,010 appHcants, and
the capacity of the nursery, some 85 acres, will soon be reached.
The experiment with conifers during the last three years has been
very satisfactory. Seedlings of maple and ash from seed collected
from regions farther south with a corresponding longer growing
season were a failure. A new departure was made in the demon-
stration plantations and exhibits of simple nursery methods for
farmers at the Brandon and Calgary summer fairs. The division
also carries on a general educational propaganda by preparing
articles for agricultural and horticultural publications, distribut-
ing literature, and lecturing before Farmers' Institutes. The
settler should soon reasonably be expected to grow his own nur-
sery stock for his plantations and shelter belts.
Owing to the rapid development of irrigation the work of
inspection and survey of all projects in Alberta and Saskatchewan
has greatly increased. Especially urgent is the matter of stream
measurements. Of the large projects, the Canadian Pacific Rail-
way Company now have 1,300 miles of canal and ditches built
irrigating 250,000 acres, the Alberta Railway and Irrigation
Company 238 miles covering 70,000 acres, and the Southern
Alberta Land Company 47 miles of main canal. In addition
there are 364 minor projects with an irrigable area of some
117,000 acres.
The report closes with some twenty illustrations, new and
interesting. J- H. W.
forest Fires in Canada, ipog. By H. R. MacMillan and G. A.
Gutches. Bulletin 9, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1910.
Pp. 40.
This bulletin is a review of the present situation and is evidently
issued to help in the movement, universal throughout North
America, towards a realization by the nation of the urgent neces-
sity of stopping forest fires.
A rough guess is made as to how much has been burned in the
past 300 years. Allowing 600,000 square miles for tundra,
700,000 for the semi-treeless subarctic region, 200.000 for prairie,
and 300,000 for inland lakes and area above timber line, leaves
some 1,900,000 square miles originally forested. Deduct from
Current Literature. 8i
this 92,000 square miles of cultivated land and 100,000 square
miles of cut-over lands and there remain 1,700,000 square miles of
forest, which at an estimate of 3,000 feet per acre would mean
over 3,000 billion feet. But the most optimistic guess yet given
for Canada's present timber supply is the equivalent of 1,000
billion feet. Thus the conclusion is reached that two-thirds of
the original forest has been burned — the equivalent of a solid
forest twice the size of Ontario and Quebec combined; or, to
express it otherwise, for every foot of lumber that has been pro-
duced in Canada's lifetime seven feet have been burned.
Still further to accentuate the destruction that has gone on,
quotations are given from the reports of exploration and survey
parties. These cover every province and show how widespread
has been the damage.
The effects of fires on soil, future growth and waterflow, besides
the timber destroyed, are discussed in detail.
As regards the causes O'f forest fires, there is universal agree-
ment among the provinces that, in order of their importance they
are (i) railway engines ; (2) settlers clearing land; (3) campers
and travellers. Patrol is the best means of preventing fires from
railway construction. Legislation requiring the companies to
pay half the expense of such patrol exists only with reference to
federal lands. In Ontario, however, the Transcontinental Rail-
way Commission have agreed to pay one-third. Patrol along lines
operating through timbered land is also in existence in the case of
a few railways. In Ontario these bear all the expense so
incurred by the government. The system should be extended
throughout Canada. Power to examine engines should be given
to ofiicials of the fire service, as the law regarding spark arrest-
ers and proper ash pans remains a dead letter. (We understand
this power has lately been given to federal forest fire officials.) As
regards the setting out of fires by settlers, there is legislation in
the majority of the provinces requiring the procuring of a per-
mit. Only in Nova Scotia and British Columbia is this rigidly
enforced.
The causes of fires can be guarded against only by an increase
of efficiency and extension of the patrol system covering the trav-
eled routes into timberland. A substitution of oil for wood in the
logging engines used in British Columbia would reduce the fires
there. The disposal of slash is undoubtedly the greatest prob-
82 Forestry Quarterly.
lem in forest protection to-day. That it can be solved is evi-
denced on the lands under management by the United States
Forest Service.
For the prevention of forest fires, what is needed more than
anything else is the whole-hearted support of the public. We
are only just beginning to realize the value of fire protection
from the standpoint of standing timber; from the standpoint of
the future growth that realization is still farther ofif. The de-
struction will go on till lumber prices reach the cost of production.
The remainder of the bulletin is given up to a synopsis of the
official information regarding the season's fires in the diflferent
provinces, and extracts from the provincial fire laws. A total of
1,134 fires was reported, burning over 435,000 acres, destroying
timber nominally valued at $210,400. The returns are admittedly
much below the reality, and in some provinces, notably Ontario
and Quebec, no records are available. J. H. W.
Forest Products of Canada: igop: Lumber, Lath, Square Tim-
ber and Shingles. By H. R. MacMillan. Bulletin 11, Forestry
Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1910. Pp. 30.
The statistics presented are based upon schedule reports made
directly to the Forestry Branch by 2,085 irniUs as compared with
1,409 mills in 1908. They are the first highly accurate detailed
statistics issued in Canada, and of the many interesting facts we
give the following.
The total lumber cut reported was 3,814,942 M bd. ft. (one-
tenth the annual cut in the United States) valued at about 63
million dollars. Ontario is easily the first province in lumber
production, contributing 40 per cent, of the total. In British
Columbia the cut of fir and cedar was greatly increased over that
in 1908 so that now the province stands second, producing 21
per cent, of the whole. Quebec stands third with 17 per cent.,
a decrease of 7.5 per cent, from that of 1908, despite the fact
that reports were received from 451 mills as compared with 277
mills the previous year. New Brunswick furnished 10 per cent,
and Nova Scotia 7 per cent.
Of the species lumbered, spruce formed 29.5 per cent., white
pine 27.4, Douglas fir 12.3, hemlock 7.9, cedar 5.0, and red pine
4.4 per cent.
Current Literature. 83
Tables are given for twenty species, showing for each the
quantity and vakie of the cut in each province.
In spruce himber production Quebec lead with 31.7 per cent.,
New Brunswick next with 23.7 per cent, and Nova Scotia fur-
nishing 15 per cent. While the average price in Canada was
$14.55 P^r thousand, in United States it was $16.25 (partly the
difference of the duty?), the average prices in adjacent Quebec
and Maine being $14.28 and $16.56, respectively, at the mill.
The total cut of white pine in Canada was about one-third that
of United States. Of this Ontario furnished 85 per cent., Quebec
6, and Nova Scotia 3.4 per cent. Only the State of Minnesota
cuts more white pine than Ontario. While the average price
for 1908 in Minnesota was $18.19, in Ontario it was $21.08. In
1909 the average price in Ontario rose to $22.33, and for all
Canada from $20.08 in 1908 to $21.55.
Ontario produced 53.6 per cent, of the hemlock, Quebec 18.2
and Nova Scotia 15.7 per cent. Of the red pine cut Ontario fur-
nished over nine-tenths.
Among the other species, balsam is noteworthy as being the
only wood of which Canada cut a larger amount of lumber in
1909 than United States. The cut totalled some 91 million ft.
B. M., worth an average price of $12.85. Quebec supplied
three-quarters of the cut, and now balsam stands second in the
list of important woods in that province. Evidently other woods
are growing scarcer in the East.
The remaining softwoods are supplied mainly by British Col-
umbia. The cut of Douglas fir showed an increase of 25 per cent,
over that of 1908, the average price being $14.58. Cedar, next in
importance, formed three-quarters of the total Canadian output
of that species. The cut in British Columbia was exceptionally
heavy in 1909 — some 140 million feet as compared with 115 mil-
lion feet in Washington State, the nearest approach. The price
dropped to $13.43 from an average of $17.22 the year before.
Tamarac stands fourth (after spruce) among the woods of this
province, which supplied two-thirds of the total tamarac cut in
Canada. The remainder was produced in Ontario (18 per cent.)
and Quebec (11 per cent.).
Hardwoods made up only 5.7 per cent, of the total lumber cut.
Of these, birch formed 24 per cent., maple 20, basswood 19, elm
16, ash 8, and beech 7 per cent. The birch is produced in On-
84 Forestry Quarterly.
tario, New Bruswick and Quebec; maple and elm practically all
in Ontario; bass wood in Ontario (two-thirds) and Quebec; ash
in Ontario and Quebec, equally; beech in Ontario (over one-half)
and Nova Scotia (one-quarter). Thus, besides leading in the pro-
duction of white pine, hemlock and red pine, Ontario supplied
two-thirds of the total hardwood cut in Canada. Canada is de-
pendent upon the United States for hardwood supplies, the value
of such imports in 1909 exceeding by one million dollars the
value of . the home cut. The imports are mainly oak, cherry,
chestnut, gum, hickory and tulip.
The average price for the different species at the mill ranged,
for spruce, from $11.98 to $16.21; for white pine, from $14.42
to $22.33; for hemlock, $10.15 to $13.69; for cedar, $12.29 to
$15.41 ; for red pine, $9.96 to $17.03 ; for balsam, $9.37 to $15.39;
for larch, $11.50 to $15.50; for birch, $11.59 to $21.76; for maple,
$10.27 to $18.38.
Statistics of the export of hewn square timber (which is prac-
tically equivalent to the production) show a total of only 41,442
tons (i ton = 40 cubic feet). This was chiefly white pine and
lirch, valued at $31.92 and $10.63 P^'' ton respectively. The
square timber export reached its maximum in 1877, and has since
steadily declined till now it is about one-tenth the amount. In
the decade 1871-80 the average white pine export was 15 times
and oak 200 times that of 1909. This reflects the increasing
scarcity of large -=ize& of first quality logs, as does also the price
mcrease, viz., from 12 to 38 cents for pine, from 30 to 54 cents
for oak and from 15 to 22 cents for birch per cubic foot.
The lath production amounted to 822,124 thousand pieces of
an average value of $2.46, chiefly from Ontario, New Brunswick
and Quebec. The lath cut in Ontario are white pine, in British
Columbia Douglas fir, and in the other provinces spruce.
The shingle cut was 1,499,396 thousand, averaging $1.86. The
total value was greater than that of the lumber value of any
species except spruce, white pine and Douglas fir. British
Columbia produced two-fifths of the total cut. Cedar is the
species mostly used, to the extent of 75 per cent., with spruce
next. Most of the white pine shingles were of western white
pine cut in British Columbia. J. H. W.
Current Literature. 85
Forest Products of Canada, ipop: Pulp Wood. By H. R.
MacMillan. Bulletin 12, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada.
1910. Pp. 9.
From this compactly written bulletin we quote the following
figures which refer to domestic wood manufactured into pulp in
Canada.
Reports were received from 25 mills in Quebec, ten in On-
tario, seven in New Brunswick, six in Nova Scotia and two in
British Columbia. The latter are new mills not yet running on
full time. Some ten other Canadian mills failed to report. These
fifty mills used 622,129 cords of wood and produced approxi-
mately 445,408 tons of pulp. The average value of the wood per
cord was $4.07 in Nova Scotia, $4.69 in New Brunswick, $5.72
in Ontario, and $5.83 in Quebec. In Ontario and Quebec, where
most of the wood was consumed, the price varied very little from
that of 1908.
Of this pulpwood, Quebec manufactured 51.4 per cent., On-
tario 30.1 per cent.. New Brunswick 14.2 per cent., and Nova
Scotia 4.1 per cent. The consumption by species was: spruce
82.9 per cent., balsam 16.1 per cent, (a much higher percentage
than in 1908), and negligible quantities of poplar and hemlock.
The average prices per cord were: balsam $6.26, poplar $5.81,
spruce $5.41, hemlock $4.51. These prices, however, do not rep-
resent the relative value of the different species for pulp manu-
facture, as they are not the purchase price in all cases ; in cases
where the manufacturing companies own timber limits they indi-
cate only the cost of logging and transportation to the mill. Only
one pulpmill in Canada manufactures sawmill waste.
Three reduction processes are used in Canada. Three-fifths
(60.8 per cent.) of the pulpwood was reduced mechanically, over
one-third (37.2 per cent.) by the sulphite process, and the re-
mainder by the soda process. In Quebec and Nova Scotia the
mechanical process is largely used ; New Brunswick uses the sul-
phite process mostly, while Ontario manufactures about an equal
amount of pulpwood by both processes. The soda process is
little used in Canada on account of the cost, though it can be suc-
cessfully used with a greater variety of woods than the other pro-
cesses. Of the wood used for mechanical pulp, spruce formed
nearly four-fifths (79.3 per cent.), the remainder being balsani;
86 Forestry Quarterly.
of the wood used in the sulphite process spruce formed 90.6 per
cent., balsam 8.1 per cent, and poplar 1.3 per cent.; and of the
wood used in the soda process spruce formed 71.2 per cent., pop-
lar 20.7 and hemlock 7 per cent. (In United States hemlock is
manufactured by the sulphite process entirely.)
The average production of pulp per cord of wood used in the
mechanical process was 1,651 pounds; by the sulphite process
914 pounds, and by the soda process 961 pounds.
The average yearly consumption of pulpwood per mill in On-
tario was 18,735 cords, in Quebec 12,797 cords, in New Bruns-
wick 12,636 cords and in Nova Scotia 4,179 cords.
Of the 445,408 tons of pulp manufactured in Canadian mills,
280,744 tons (63 per cent.) were exported, an increase of 41,000
tons over the preceding year's export. Of this export United
States took 68.2 per cent, and the United Kingdom 28.3 per
cent. The prices per ton paid to the Canadian exporters were:
if or chemical pulp. United Kingdom $40.04, United States $39.09 ;
for mechanical pulp, United Kingdom $10.26, United States
$16.09.
It is noticeable that more pulpwood is exported from Canada
than is manufactured at home. Annually Canada supplies about
20 per cent, of the pulpwood manufactured in United States.
Besides the wood domestically manufactured 915,633 cords were
exported in the raw state in 1909. This export, representing
three-fifths of the pulpwood cut in Canada, went to the United
States. The consideration received for it averaged $6.28 per
cord, an average value at the point of shipment of 71 cents per
cord more than was paid by Canadian mills. Nearly all this
export went from Quebec, the average price paid by Quebec
mills being 45 cents per cord less than the export price.
As the United States imports much more pulp than it ex-
ports, it would necessarily have imported this pulp from Canada
had it not imported the wood. Exporting the wood to the
United States brought in $5,752,659. Exporting the pulp which
that wood made would have brought, at the average prices paid
by the United States importers in 1909, $16,719,418. If the
manufacture were completed and the pulp made into paper in its
final form before exporting the difference would be still greater.
The pulpwood shipped from Canada in 1909 furnished 46.4
per cent, of the raw material used by the 90 pulp mills of New
Current Literature. 87
York State, 10.3 per cent, of the raw material manufactured in
the 62 pulp mills of the New England States (Maine, Massachu-
setts, New Hampshire and Vermont) and 6.1 per cent, of the
raw material used by the 16 pulp mills of Pennsylvania. A
larger quantity of pulpwood was exported in 1909 than in 1908.
The manufacture of the 915,633 cords of wood exported in
1909 kept running at full capacity for the year 69 of the 251
pulp mills in the United States. If this pulpwood had been re-
duced to pulp in Canada, it would have supplied for the year
y;^ pulp mills of the average size of those already in Canada.
The greater part of the pulpwood exported was cut in Quebec ;
if it had been manufactured in Quebec it would have kept run-
ning 71 mills of the same size as those now existing in Quebec.
J. H. W.
[All publications issued by the Forestry Branch are free on application.]
Report of the State Forester of Wisconsin for ipop and ipio.
By E. M. Grififith. Madison, Wisconsin. 1910. Pp. 136.
This report is a vigorous presentation of reasons why the state
legislature should carry out the recommendations of the special
Legislative Committee on Waterpowers, Forestry and Drainage.
This committee, after studying conditions for two years, has
joined with the State Conservation Commission and State Board
of Forestry in recommending that a general state tax of 2-10 of a
mill be levied and collected annually for twenty years ; and that
the proceeds be granted to the Board of Forestry to inaugurate
a fire patrol system and to purchase lands to consolidate the pres-
ent reserves.
The above tax will yield $600,000 yearly, and it is estimated
that the cost of the patrol system will amount to $250,000 per
year (13 million acres). The balance is to be used to purchase
more reserve land till the present reserves of 340,000 acres are
increased to two million acres, and also for their management.
That the present system of fire protection is useless is shown
by the fact that in 1908 one million acres were burned over with
a loss of $9,000,000, and in 1910 nearly 900,000 acres with a
loss of $5,000,000. The season of 1909 was very wet and the
damage was small. As the writer well says : "The American
people as a whole are uncivilized in their apparently stoical in-
88 Forestry Quarterly.
difference to the appalling annual losses from forest fires." At
present Wisconsin has the old town fire warden system based
upon the plan of putting out fires after they occur, whereas the
patrol system is one intended to prevent fires starting. The
system of patrol proposed is along the usual lines of organiza-
tion, with speedy and adequate pay for fire fighting. Ultimately
telephone lines and watch towers are to be built. In addition,
the proposed legislation requires permits for setting out fires,
and gives the State Board of Forestry power to order the burn-
ing of dangerous slash.
If anything more than the tremendous fire losses is needed to
induce the legislature to take prompt action towards a definite
future policy, it is supplied by the fact that in the last ten years
Wisconsin has dropped from first place to eighth in lumber pro-
duction. The production has decreased 40 per cent. The wood-
using industries so valuable to the state can now obtain from
Wisconsin only one-half the lumber they use.
The importance to the water power resource of the State of the
maintenance of forest cover is fully shown. The theory of the
relation of this cover to stream flow is given, with concrete ex-
amples.
The report urges a continuance of the soil surveys in order to
have a land classification of the state as soon as possible. The
establishment of a ranger school is also recommended.
Besides various other matters there is included a brief ac-
count of the work to be carried on in the new Forest Products
Laboratory, and an outline of two special reports on "Wisconsin
Wood-using Industries" and "Taxation of Forest Lands in Wis-
consin." The complete reports can be secured from the State
Board of Forestry. J. H. W.
Third Annual Report of the Oregon Conservation Commission
to the Governor. Portland, Oregon. 1910. Pp. 55.
This report is submitted in accordance with the law which calls
for "a full account of the year's work setting forth the condition
of the natural resources of the State, together with such recom-
mendations for legislation as may be deemed advisable." It
recommends, as requiring immediate legislative action, (i) the
passage of a bill to create an efficient State forestry service; (2)
Current Literature. 89
liberal and hearty co-operation between the State and those fed-
eral agencies engaged in gathering physical data on the State's
natural resources and in the dissemination of the information
so gathered. The subjects dealt with are: forests, land and
stream surveys, good roads, water transportation and water laws.
We can touch only on the first of these.
Oregon is supposed to have one-fifth of the merchantable tim-
ber in the United States. Of this, one-third is in the National
Forests, the other two-thirds mostly in private hands, the State
owning little. But as the Commissioners point out : "The interest
of the average citizen in forest protection and use is affected
very little by the passage of title to forest land ; the owner gets
only the stumpage, which is a small part of the value; the people
get everything else. Forest wealth is community wealth."
Yet, as a result of Oregon's apathy toward forest preservation,
one and three-quarters billion feet of timber were burned in 1910.
This, if saved for manufacture, would have brought 23 million
dollars into the State. The reason for such tremendous destruc-
tion is that there is no machinery for actual protection. The
only protection given, outside of the Federal protection of the
National Forests, is the more or less co-operative patrol by pri-
vate timber owners. There is a State Board of Forestry which
works with an appropriation of $250 a year and which has no
machinery for active work ( !). The forest laws, in the opinion
of the Commissioners, "amount to giving in legal language the
State's gracious permission to its forests to take care of them-
selves."
Hence, the immediate appointment of a State Forester with
wide powers is urged, and a liberal appropriation for patrol
service. The building up of a large state fire organization is not
favored, but rather the encouraging and aiding of local action by
those whose own interest insures the maximum efficiency with
the least state machinery, the State taking charge of the situation
only where this form of relief cannot be obtained. Otherwise the
State has no forest service and "the forester's entire time is
occupied by fire work which he can do no better than others and
he has no opportunity to do the things which he alone can do."
It is encouraging to come across a commission which so thor-
oughly lives up to the limit of its duties and presents the actual
conditions so plainly and forcibly. J. H. W.
90 Forestry Quarterly.
Protection of Forests from Fire. By Henry S. Graves. Bulle-
tin 82, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1910. Pp. 48.
In view of the extensive damage from fires during the past
summer, the appearance of this bulletin is most timely. The
entire subject of forest fires and fire fighting is briefly reviewed
and summarized. A discussion of the character of forest fires,
as surface fires, crown fires, and ground fires and the influence of
topography, soil, and vegetation on their behavior is followed by
an exposition of the damages caused by fire. Emphasis is here
placed on the injurious effects of repeated burning upon the repro-
duction and future condition of the forest, which is important in
view of the recent popular advocacy in some quarters of the
fallacious doctrine that the way to prevent fires is to burn
annually. Under prevention of fires such measures as disposal of
slash, lopping tops, and prevention of setting of accidental fires,
receive attention, as well as the important subject of construction
and use of fire lines, and the organization of a patrol, lookout
stations, and telephone lines. The bulletin closes with a discus-
sion of methods of fighting fire, laying stress on the importance
of organization and equipment. No attempt has been made to
exhaustively discuss the question of efficient fire protection for
any one locality, but a complete survey of the general problem is
given which cannot fail to be of great value educationally.
H. H. C.
Report of the Forester for ipio. By Henry S. Graves. (From
Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture.) Washing-
ton, D. C. 1910. Pp. 67.
The report shows a total area in the National Forests on July
I, 1910, of 192,931,197 acres, including Alaska and Porto Rico.
The changes in area made during 1909 and 1910 consisted of ad-
ditions of 453,517 acres and eliminations of 2,037,645 acres due to
field investigations which had been in progress during the pre-
ceding year.
No new forests were created.
The cost of administration and protection was $0.01894 per acre
and for permanent improvements $0.0031 per acre, a slight in-
crease over the previous fiscal year. The total receipts were
Current Literature. 91
$2,090,148.08. The yield from timber was $0.00541, grazing
$0.00512 and special uses $0.00031 per acre, a total of $0.01084 per
acre. That is to say, the expenditures are still about two and a
quarter million dollars above receipts.
A new form of permit for the utilization of water power on
National Forests has been prepared which will simplify the issu-
ance of permits for this purpose and safeguard the interests of
the Federal Government. The rate charged under the new form
of permit "will be based primarily on the value of the land occu-
pied for power purposes as measured by its capacity for the de-
velopment of power, with a deduction for distance from market
and for portions of the land to be occupied which do not belong
to the Government. A fixed rate of $1.00 per net electrical horse-
power per year is the full charge. This rate is equivalent to one
sixty-sixth of a cent per kilowatt-hour." This does not represent
more than one half of i per cent, of the investment in fixed
charges. The charge is made from the time the permit is issued,
but at a reduced rate until a ten-year period has passed, and
amounts paid during the unproductive period are credited against
the rentals which will be due during the period of partial pro-
duction. The aim of this scheme of payment is to discourage the
holding of power sites for purposes of speculation.
The executive force of the Forest Service during the year
1909-10 consisted of 2,536 persons, as follows : —
Supervisors, 140
Deputy supervisors, 106
Rangers, ^,^93
Guards, 558
Forest assistants, 97
Field assistants, timber and mining ex-
perts, engineers, etc., 156
Clerks, 186
Total, 2,536
The average area under the charge of each ranger and guard
was 104,307 acres or 163 square miles.
The estimate of standing timber on the National Forests, ex-
clusive of Alaska and Porto Rico, was revised during the year
92 Forestry Quarterly.
and is now placed tentatively at 530 billion feet. Sixty-two per
cent, of this amount is in the three Pacific Coast States ; twenty-
one per cent, in Idaho and Montana ; and twelve per cent, in Ari-
zona, Colorado, and New Mexico.
The report of losses by forest fires does not cover the autumn
of 1910, when very destructive fires passed over some of the
National Forests. The loss on National Forests during 1909-10
was 169,410,000 board feet with an estimated value of $297,275.
Eighty-four per cent, of the forest fires were due to lack of pre-
ventive care on the part of the users of the forests and the rail-
roads traversing them. The latter were especially delinquent.
Efforts are being made to eliminate the latter source of danger by
patrols, the use of spark arresters on coal and wood-burning loco-
motives, and the substitution of oil for other kinds of fuel. The
use of oil has proved especially satisfactory because the fire
danger from oil-burning locomotives has been proved to be abso-
lutely nil.
The total cut of timber on National Forests was 484,412,000
feet, a slight increase over the preceding year. The heaviest cut
was in the following states : Montana, Idaho, California, Col-
orado, and Arizona. The sales in each state were 40 million feet
or over. The number of timber sales reached a total of 5,398, an
increase of 418 over the previous year.
Timber trespass shows a gratifying decrease over previous
years, due to the increased efficiency of the force, and improved
methods of management.
Reforestation was pushed vigorously during the year. A total
of 9,745 acres were planted or seeded. This work was con-
ducted on 106 forests. It is planned to reforest 20,000 acres dur-
ing 191 1 ; 40,000 acres in 1912, and to enlarge the operations until
150,000 to 200,000 acres annually are covered.
The year marked the opening of the new forest products
laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin. The increased facilities
afforded by this laboratory has enabled the Forest Service to
broaden its work along investigation lines.
The report closes with a statement of the plans for the year
1910-11 which include the inauguration of the new water power
permit system, increased efficiency in fire protection, experi-
mental reforestation, etc. R. C. B.
Current Literature. 93
Utilisation of California Eucalypts. By H. S. Betts and C. S.
Smith, Circular 179, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C.
1 910. Pp. 30.
Much attention has recently been devoted to the exploitation of
eucalyptus plantations in California. Many companies have been
organized, some of whom in their over-zeal have exaggerated the
profits of eucalypt culture, in many instances misquoting or mis-
construing statements of the Forest Service. To supply definite
information on the various elements of uncertainty in the business
the Forest Service is conducting investigations, and this circular
presents in brief form the results of mechanical tests of the wood
which have been recently carried out in cooperation with the
University of California.
The eucalyptus is native to Australia and was introduced into
California in 1856. Of some 75 species now being grown, only
five give indications of being well adapted to the conditions.
Fully 90 per cent, of the eucalyptus in California at the present
time is blue gum {Eucalyptus globulus).
The fibers of eucalyptus wood are much interlaced, making it
tough, very difficult to split and refractory in seasoning. The
number of mechanical tests made are too few to warrant final
conclusions, but they indicate plainly that several species of
eucalyptus are equal to the better grades of hickory in bending
and crushing strength. The experiments have not yet been
carried far enough to warrant a comparison of eucalyptus and
hickory as to toughness and resilience.
Owing to the great tendency of the wood to warp, shrink and
check in seasoning, the problem of ready utilization without
undue waste is a difficult one. No satisfactory or commercially
practicable method of seasoning lumber from the California
grown eucalypts has been devised. The most satisfactory results
so far were obtained from open piling under cover with uniform
and close sticking, together with high piling to produce weight.
Three years are required for the lumber to thoroughly air season.
The greatest difficulties in seasoning are encountered in immature,
rapid-grown timber, just the class of material which in all
probability will be most widely utilized in California for lumber.
Although definite information is lacking, the indications are
that "some species of eucalypts grown in California may prove
94 Forestry Quarterly.
excellent substitutes for woods in use at present for cordwood,
piling, posts, poles, cross-ties, mine timbers, paving blocks, insula-
tor pins, furniture, finish, veneer, cooperage, vehicle stock, and
tool handles." The sap-wood, which makes up a high percentage
of an immature tree decays rapidly in contact with the soil.
Reports received from Australia state that the trees must be at
least sixty years old before their lumber is suitable for finer uses
such as finish and furniture. Should this prove true for Cali-
fornia grown eucalypts it will have a decided bearing upon the
profits to be obtained from plantations. S. J. R.
Some Results of Dead Load Bending Tests of 'Timber by Means
of a Recording DeiJectometer. By Harry D. Tiemann. Reprint,
Proceedings of the American Society for Testing Materials, Vol.
IX, 1909.
This paper embodies some of the results obtained from four
series of dead load tests made by the U. S. Forest Service with
dry longleaf pine beams during three years beginning August i,
1906. The deflections of the beams were recorded automatically
upon a revolving drum, the whole apparatus having been designed
by Mr. Tiemann who was in charge of the experiments.
Some of his deductions are briefly as follows :
1. The deflections and recoveries produced by immediate addi-
tion and removal, respectively, of live loads are the same, (up to
the elastic limit, and probably to the point of first failure) as
would have been produced had there been no dead load upon the
beam.
2. When the beams were not ruptured by the time test, and,
after resting a year without load, were tested in the usual power
machine, it was found that neither the ultimate strength nor the
elastic limit had been reduced. The stiffness (immediate modulus
of elasticity) also was not changed by the dead load.
3. The greener the wood the more plastic under permanent
load. Variations in the moisture content of the surrounding air
decidedly influence the deflections under dead load. Beams
deflect most during damp weather, and such increases are cumu-
lative instead of being recovered by subsequent drying.
4. In an atmosphere of constant humidity dry longleaf pine
beams may with safety be loaded permanently to within 75 per
Current Literature. 95
•cent, of their immediate elastic limit, and deflections under such
load will gradually diminish to zero. Increase of dampness
lowers the elastic limit so that what was at first a safe load may
thereby become dangerous.
5. After removal of a dead load, a beam's recovery from the
time effect is gradual and not always complete.
6. A beam may be considered safe under a permanent load
when the deflections diminish during equal successive periods of
time. A continual increase in deflection indicates an unsafe load
which is almost certain to rupture the beam, S. J. R.
The Silva of California. By W. L. Jepson. Memoirs of the
University of California, Volume II. Berkeley, California. 1910.
Pp. 283, plates 85, maps 3.
The object of this memoir is "to bring together in one volume
an account of the timber trees of the state which shall as nearly
as possible represent our present knowledge of the taxonomy and
geographical distribution." It is the result of nineteen years of
field studies and collections on the part of the author, and the
volume throughout reflects that basis.
The forests of California are characterized by the abundance of
conifers, both in species and individuals. The broad-leaved trees,
mainly evergreen, are rich in species but very poor in individuals.
Of these, most typically Californian and most abundant, are Live
Oak, Valley Oak, Blue Oak and Tan Oak, Laurel and Madrona
(Arbutus). A census of species indicates 92 in all, representing
22 families. Of this number, 49 species are typical of California
and 18 confined to that state.
The state is divided by the author into five natural forest
provinces, according to the character of the forest, the composi-
tion and the species.
The first of these, the great valley of the Sacramento and San
Joaquin rivers, is almost treeless, being characterized by scattered
groves of Live Oak and Interior Great Oak on the east side, and
in addition Willow. Cottonwood, Box Elder and Oregon Ash
along river banks. The present forestless condition is due largely
to the nature of the soil and climatic conditions, but also to the
earlier annual burnings by the Indians. Only fourteen species in
all are represented.
96 Forestry Quarterly.
The region of the South Coast Ranges also contains much
barren land, and as a whole is characterized by scattering groves
of Live Oak and Blue Oak. In contrast with the inner ranges
which show but four species, the seaward slopes show 13 species,
of conifers. Those of widest range are Yellow Pine, Digger
Pine, Douglas Fir and Redwood. This region has also six local
littoral conifers — in all 49 species of trees.
The North Coast Ranges district has as its most marked
feature the Redwood belt on the seaward slopes of the western
range, where the climate is marked by the low daily and seasonal
range of temperature and high rainfall. On the summit and east
side of this range only 50 per cent, is wooded — mostly with Doug-
las Fir, Tan Oak, Madrona and Oregon Oak. The inner Coast
Range above 4,000 feet supports a forest belt of Yellow Pine,
Sugar Pine, Incense Cedar, White Fir, Red Fir, and southward.
Digger Pine. This province is the richest of the five, containing
59 species.
The Sierra Nevada is the most extensive and most important
forest region of the state. The western slope is especially heavily
forested and the altitudinal zones are strikingly marked. The
foot-hills are largely barren showing only scattering clumps of
Digger Pine and Blue Oak. This is usually succeeded by a belt
of chapparal, following which is the Yellow Pine belt up to 5,000
feet; associated with the Yellow Pine are Incense Cedar, White
Fir, Sugar Pine and Big Tree. Following this is the Red Fir
belt with Red Fir, Silver Pine and Lodgepole Pine. Above 7,000
feet occur White-bark Pine, Mountain Hemlock and Juniper.
This region possesses 52 species.
The fifth region. Southern California, with 57 species, presents
largely desert conditions. Only in the valleys and unprotected
slopes above 4,000 feet are there forests, and these of the open
stand type. The species are chiefly Yellow Pine, White Fir,
Incense Cedar, Jeffrey Pine, Coulter Pine and Desert Fir, with
Black and Maul Oaks on the lower edge of the conifer belt.
In the 30 pages devoted to the subject of distribution as out-
lined above, the author goes fully into the physical, biological and
accidental factors involved.
An equal amount of space is devoted to a discussion of such
biological characteristics as stump-sprouting, leaf variation, seed
production, tree form, nanism, hybridization, and teratology.
Current Literature. 97
The remaining 220 pages contain, of course, the more important
portion of the text. Under each species is given the literature,
followed by a description which is neither verbose nor a succession
of technical terms. After this is given the distribution and
various other supplementary data which never come to the student
of mere herbarium material, but only to the field man. There are,
of course, keys to the families, genera and species.
Besides the text figures there are 85 full page plates. About
one-half of these are from photographs of tree types and forest
types, usually a desideratum in dendrological works. The
subjects of illustration are uniformly excellent, but in some cases
the reproduction is not of the highest quality. The remaining
plates are from line drawings illustrative of taxonomic charac-
ters.
For a book necessarily so largely descriptive the perusal of this
volume affords much pleasure. The author has achieved the
happy result of producing an absolutely scientific work, written in
simple interesting language. J. H. W.
Fungous Diseases of Plants. By B. M. Duggar. Boston,
Mass. 1909. Pp. 508.
Diseases of Economic Plants. By F. L. Stevens and J. G.
Hall. New York, N. Y. 1910. Pp. 513.
The substantial basis on which the science of Plant Pathology
rests has been due in no small measure to the faithful and intel-
ligent efforts of such botanists as Farlow, Burrill and Smith. It
is now practicable to deal with it as an independent subject in
the classroom, and a small army of younger enthusiasts are
actively engaged on investigations in this field. The value of this
phase of botany is also appreciated by the farmer, the horticul-
turist, the fruit-grower, the forester.
Strangely enough there has been a lack of American textbooks
and manuals on this subject. Hitherto, it has been necessary to
rely on European publications and on bulletins issued by the
various agricultural stations. It is with pleasure, therefore, that
we welcome two new books written by American pathologists.
They are conceived from somewhat different standpoints arid
hence should reach a wider circle of readers.
Duggar's "Fungous Diseases of Plants" partakes more of the
7
98 Forestry Quarterly.
nature of a textbook, and will be found an excellent aid to the
student who is striving to make his first acquaintance with Phyto-
pathology.
The subject matter is arranged under three general headings:
I. Culture Methods and Technique, II. Physiological Relations,
III. Fungous Diseases of Plants, and further subdivided into
chapters. In this connection one of the most valuable features is
the citation of literature. A list of the more important references
precedes each chapter.
The first division is intended solely for the student and young
investigator, and sufficient aid is given to enable any intelligent
student to make his own way.
The second is possibly the most unsatisfactory part, as the
matter treated is of such importance as to suffer from so brief an
account. A chapter of practical value on the methods of prepar-
ing fungicides brings this section to a close.
The bulk of the work, as one would expect from the title, deals
with the diseases themselves. The sequence adopted is based on
the classification of fungi — the most logical for the student, and
with the aid of an index arranged according to the hosts, easily
usable by the layman. The illustrations are good, the descrip-
tions are clear, and the number of diseases described fairly com-
prehensive. An approved method of treatment is given for each
malady.
This book is in no sense a classic, not even a compendium, either
of the whole or of any part of the field, nor does the author make
any such claims for it. But it is a well-written elementary text,
and should prove exceedingly useful.
Stevens and Hall's "Diseases of Economic Plants" strikes one
as being eminently practical. Both authors have been associated
for many years in joint experimental work on plant diseases and
show a thorough acquaintance with their subject. After a very
brief historical resume of Plant Pathology in America they at once
plunge into a discussion of such topics as the damage caused by
disease, symptoms of disease, prevention and cure of plant dis-
eases, fungicides, spraying machinery, cost of spraying, profits
from spraying and so on. These are all treated succinctly, within
the limits of sixty pages. The rest of the book deals with the
individual diseases, the account being arranged according to an
economic classification of plants under culture. Thus the dis-
Citrrent Literature. 99
eases of small fruits are described in one section, those of vege-
table and field crops in another, cereals in another, trees and
timber in another and so on.
Disorders due to physical or chemical agencies receive some
attention — though quite inadequate. But a wide range of
fungous diseases is dealt with. The illustrations are fair, and the
text clear. Many references to the literature are given in the
form of foot notes. On the whole, the book commends itself as a
useful reference work for students and especially for plant pro-
ducers. J. H. F.
The Isolation of Harmful Organic Substances from Soils. By
Oswald Schreiner and Edmund C. Shorey. U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Bureau of Soils. Bulletin No. 53.
The suggestion that the infertility of certain soils might be due
to organic substances injurious to plants was put forward by the
Bureau of Soils about five years ago. At that time experiments
showed that poisonous substances undoubtedly were present in
the soils, but just what they were was only a matter of conjecture.
The next step in the investigation was to determine the effect of
known decomposition products of plants, especially the decom-
position products of proteids and related substances, upon plants
grown in laboratory cultures. This was done on the assumption
that such substances or similar substances might be found in
exhausted soils. Of eighteen nitrogenous substances found in
living or decaying plant structures, twelve were poisonous, two
neutral and four beneficial to wheat cultures when applied in
concentrations varying from one-ten-thousandth to one-tenth of
one per cent. These and similar experiments were described in
Bulletin 47.
During this time the investigators were continually trying
actually to isolate the harmful substances from- certain soils of
known infertility, and they were finally successful as described in
the Bulletin under review. They obtained four organic com-
pounds, dihydroxystearic acid, picoline carboxylic acid, agroceric
acid and agrosteral, all well defined crystalline bodies, one of
which is quite injurious, one slightly harmful but closely related
to much more harmful compounds and two that are not harmful,
so far as the wheat seedlings used in the tests are concerned.
lOO Forestry Quarterly.
The first two mentioned are the poisonous substances and they
have been isolated from at least six strikingly sterile soils from
various parts of the United States. The first mentioned sub-
stance seems to be dependent upon the presence of fungi asso-
ciated with the roots of oak trees, in one instance at least.
This Bulletin is very welcome, in that it apparently pushes
aside a little the veil that hides the causes of soil sterility. While
investigations like this are, for the present, applied to farm land,
they could be undoubtedly applied with very interesting results
to heaths, moors and other barren forest land. C. D. H.
Distribution and Movements of Desert Plants. By Volney M.
Spalding. Carnegie Institution of Washington. Publication
No. 113. Pp. 144.
The area studied by Professor Spalding occupies four square
miles including and adjacent to the Desert Laboratory domain at
Tucson, Arizona. The plant associations of the area are con-
sidered under nine principal groups as follows : The river
(Santa Cruz) and irrigating ditches; the river banks; the flood
plain; the salt spots; the wash (dry water course) ; the mesa-like
slopes; the hill (including various associations on different
aspects) ; the superficial soil layers associations and the asso-
ciations of parasitic and symbiotic plants. The characteristic
plants and the habitat factors of each association are described
and discussed. Then the author passes to a detailed considera-
tion of five characteristic species, showing by topographic maps
the exact location of each individual or groups of individuals and
discussing the factors of site which determine the location of each
species. For example, the creosote bush, the most abundant
plant, occupies as its principal habitat areas of course gravelly,
whitish transported (eroding) soils. The mesquite on the other
hand occupies areas of deposition (flood plains). In addition,
the most exclusive creosote bush areas are those where the layer
of caliche (lime-hard pan) comes most nearly to the surface,
while mesquite, as a rule, is absent from such areas. After
considerations like these, the author proceeds to discuss invasion,
competition and succession on the area.
The discussions outlined above occupy the first two chapters
of the volume. The third chapter contains articles on climatic
Current Literature. loi
conditions by the senior author, on the geology by Tohnan, and
on the soils by Livingston. The latter is a continuation of the
studies reported in Publication 50 (F. Q. VI, 4, P. 3 8), and it
shows again the striking correspondence between the per cent,
water content of the soil and the distribution of the species as
well as that of the associations.
Thornber in Chapter 4 gives a list of the species found in the
groups of habitats described above. There are 442 species of
seed plants on the four square miles under discussion. It is
interesting to note that only 3% of these attain the stature of
trees, 53% being annual and 20% perennial herbs. In the most
xerophytic habitats, however, namely the hill and the mesa-like
slopes 30% of the plants are woody and 43% are short-lived
winter annual and summer annual species.
The remaining three chapters are devoted to articles by
McDougal of The Origin of Desert Floras, which is very general,
to Review and Discussion and to A Summary of Results by the
senior author. The volume is illustrated by most excellent photo-
graphic reproductions. C. D. H.
A Phyto geographic and Taxonomic Study of the Southern
California Trees and Shrubs. By LeRoy Abrams. Bulletin of
the New York Botanical Garden. Volume 6, No. 21. Pp. 300-
485.
The area studied comprises one-fourth of California. Southern
California is separated into three well defined floral divisions, the
costal slope, the mountains and the deserts. The species of the
costal slope are principally of Californian origin ; the species
confined to the mountains are boreal or of boreal ancestry and
those of the deserts are endemic or have migrated from adjacent
desert regions. In discussing the distribution of the trees and
woody plants of the region, the author follows Merriam's classi-
fication of life zones. The Hudson and Canadian zones in
Southern California intergrade, and they are characterized by
Pinus iiexilis, P. Murray ana and Populus tremuloides. Most of
Southern California belongs to the Austral Region. To the
Transition Zone of this region belong some fifty species of trees
and shrubs of which Pinus ponderosa, P. ponderosa, Jeffreyi and
Pinus Lamhertiana are characteristic. Owing to the large
I02 Forestry Quarterly.
number of endemic species in this zone in Southern California,
the author recommends that the Sierran sub-area be segregated
from Merriam's Western Arid Area. It is characterized by the
three pines mentioned above.
The Upper Austral Zone in Southern California is represented
wholly by the Upper Sonoran Area. The author divides the area
into two sections^ the costal slope and the pinon and juniper belts
of the desert mountains. The former is further divided into
three sub-districts, the Littoral, Costal and Interior. The Littoral
is composed of the various sea shore formations, while the Costal
is characterized by various evergreen oaks and chaparral. The
latter, however, reaches its highest development in the Interior
sub-district.
The Lower Austral Zone is represented by the Lower Sonoran
Area which includes all the desert regions below the juniper belt
and protrudes into some of the hot valleys of the costal slope.
The remaining portion of the paper (i6o pages) is devoted to
an annotated catalogue of the Southern California trees and
shrubs. C. D. H.
Second Annual Report of the State Forester on the Progress
of Forestry in Vermont. By Austin F. Hawes. Montpelier, Vt.
1910. Pp. 52.
Vermont has had a state forester only since April, 1909, and the
present report is an index of his activities. The beginnings of a
state forest have been made in two areas, near the central part of
the state, containing 800 acres which are used for demonstration
purposes. In the spring of 1910 the State Nursery sold 376,000
seedlings to 81 customers. Of the purchasers, fifteen were
lumbermen, thirty or more farmers, and the rest land owners in
other business. Besides this, the state planted 67,000 seedlings
on its own lands. About 122,000 seedlings from other sources
were planted by private owners, so that nearly 566,000 trees were
planted in the state in 1910. The State Nursery contains over
two million seedlings, mostly white pines. The nursery is already
practically self supporting.
The forester has published three bulletins and he conceived the
unique idea of giving concise summaries of information on
various subjects upon private mailing cards. Eight of these have
Current Literature. 103
been issued and they present data in regard to the number of
second growth hardwood trees required to make a cord ; kimber
and cordwood equivalents ; compound interest made by a log ;
shipping weights in pounds per 1,000 B. M. ; effect of moisture on
strength of timbers ; wholesale lumber prices, 1882-1908, New
York market ; approximate average rate of growth for northern
forests ; approximate current annual increase in per cent, of
volume for trees of different diameters when the average
number of rings in the last radial inch is known.
Data upon the lumber industries of the state are being gathered
and those of three counties are included in the present report.
C. D. H.
The Physical Structure of Wood in Relation to its Penetra-
bility by Preservative Fluids. By Harry D. Tiemann. Reprint
from Bui. 120, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance
of Way Association. 1910. Pp. 16. Illustrated.
This paper embodies the results of research to determine effect
of condition of wood on its permeability to gases and liquids ;
more especially the physical changes in the wood elements during
seasoning which affect their permeability.
Every cell in fresh green wood is completely separated from
neighboring cells by the primary wall — middle lamella — which is
continuous. Water may percolate through this membrane
gradually but even under high pressure the rate is slow. The
membrane is practically impermeable to gases, regardless of the
pressure. This explains why green timber cannot be successfully
impregnated with preservatives.
Seasoning of wood, whether naturally or artificially, effects
changes other than loss of moisture. One of great importance is
the opening up in the walls of the wood elements — tracheids,
fibers and vessels — of long narrow slits, visible only under high
magnification and appearing to run always spirally round the
cell. It is impossible to dry wood by any known method without
producing these slits, which increase in size as drying progresses,
and when once produced cannot be eliminated. It follows that
wood once dried cannot be restored -to its original condition. A
beamx dried and then soaked is always more brittle than the green
material.
I04 Forestry Quarterly.
One important effect of these slits is in rendering wood
permeable. The greater the degree of dryness the greater the
permeability of the wood. In green white oak it was found
impossible to force any air through a two-inch block though a
pressure of 150 pounds per square inch was brought to bear; after
seasoning air was readily forced through a four inch block with a
pressure of less than 5 pounds. In green black oak air passes
readily through all of the vessels but not through the other wood
elements. While possible to fill the vessels of certain green woods
with preservatives such treatment would of itself be of little or no
value, since the main portion of the wood structure is composed
of wood fibres and tracheids which as shown are impermeable
until seasoning splits their walls. S. J. R.
Maple-Sap Sirup: Its Manufacture, Composition and Bffect
of Environment Thereon. Bulletin 134, Bureau of Chemistry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1910.
Pp. no.
This bulletin is a report on the manufacture and analysis of
maple-sap sirup, after an extensive investigation covering the
maple producing states and Canada. Analyses were made of
nearly 500 samples collected from representative camps and form
a basis for the comparison and grading of maple sirups.
The report is replete with tables showing camp and manufac-
turing data, physical properties, chemical analysis, ash data, lead
number and malic acid value, for the different samples arranged
according to source.
The studies of the factors affecting the composition of maple
sirup include effect of the run, of cleansing of seasonal variations,
and of covered and uncovered sap buckets. It appears that sirup
made from the last run of sap is usually darker in color, contains
slightly more ash and malic acid than that from the earlier or
middle runs. It is probable that the color of the sirup is depen-
dent largely upon the presence of certain bacteria which contami-
nate the tap holes and affect the late run sap, giving the sirup the
so-called "buddy" flavor. Boring new holes or reaming out the
old ones will result in making the late run sap clean and clear,
capable of producing light colored, fine flavored sirup.
The use of milk or white of &gg in cleansing sirup affects no
Current Literature. 105
material change in its composition and their use is a questionable
benefit since the same result can be obtained by filtering.
Uncovered sap buckets allow rain, dirt and insects to enter,
which increase the impurities of the sirup and darken its color.
The report concludes with a collection of references covering
maple sap, its manufacture into sugar and sirup, and their
analysis. S. J. R.
Damage to Chestnut Telephone and Telegraph Poles by Wood
Boring Insects. By Thomas E. Snyder. Bulletin 94, Part i.
Bureau of Entomology. Washington, Dl. C. 1910. Pp. 11.
Recent investigations of the author show that serious damage
is fieing done to the bases of chestnut telephone and telegraph
poles in certain localities by the grub or larva of a wood boring
beetle (Parandra brimnea Fab., Order Coleoptera, Family
Spondylidae).
The attacks were first called to the attention of the Bureau of
Entomology in December, 1906 from Baltimore, Maryland. The
injury to the poles consists in large mines in the wood near the
line of contact of the pole with the ground, necessitating a fre-
quent re-setting or even the replacement of the damaged poles.
On lines examined in North Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia,
Maryland and the District of Columbia from 15 to 40% of chest-
nut poles set for 10 to 12 years were found to be seriously injured.
The damage is greatest and the borers most abundant in high or
level, dry ground.
The most effective method of prevention is open tank or
cylinder impregnation with creosote. A thorough brush treat-
ment of creosote, wood creosote, creolin, and some other preserva-
tives have been found efficient for several years. R. C. B.
Yield from Eucalyptus Plantations in California. By Louis
Margolin. Bulletin i. State . Board of Forestry, Sacramento,
California. 1910. Pp. 38.
The report gives in tabular form the results of measurements
of sample plots in all important eucalyptus groves in the state.
This work was carried on by the Forest Service of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture in co-operation with the California
io6 Forestry Quarterly.
State Board of Forestry. A brief discussion of the factors
influencing growth is followed by two volume tables, one of which
is in cubic feet and the other in feet board measure, for Blue Gum
{Eucalyptus globulus). Detailed data on each grove inspected
occupies the greater part of the bulletin.
The Effect of the Speed of Testing upon the Strength of Wood
and the Standardisation of Tests for Speed. By Harry D.
Tiemann. Reprint, Proceedings of the American Society for
Testing Materials, Vol. VIII, 1908.*
It has long been a recognized fact that wood has a greater
resisting power to immediate stresses than to more permanent
loads. This paper embodies results of research to determine the
fundamental laws underlying the relations of time and strength.
Following is an epitome of Mr. Tiemann's deductions :
1. Tests, in order to be intelligently compared, must take into
account the speed at which the stress was applied.
2. In determining basis for a ratio between time and strength
the rate of strain, which is controllable, and not the rate of stress,
which is circumstantial, should be used.
3. This ratio or "speed strength modulus" may be expressed as
a coefficient which, if multiplied into any proportional change in
speed, will give the proportional change in strength, at any given
speed. This ratio is derived from empirical curves.
4. Green and wet wood show greater change in strength than
dry wood.
5. The following speeds expressed as rates of fiber strain (Z)
in ten-thousandths of an inch per minute per inch of length of
fiber, have been proposed as standards :
Bending Z = .0015 in. per min. pci- in.
Compression Z =: .0015
Shearing Z = .0100 " " " "
6. At least 50 per cent, change in speed may ordinarily be
permitted without correction since the same could not cause the
load to vary more than 2 per cent. Care should be exercised,
however, to secure uniform speed throughout the test. S. J. R.
* This article was reviewed in F. Q. vol. VII, p. 100, but we bring this
addition for the information it contains.
Current Literature. 107
The Cost of Gronnng Timber. By R. S. Kellogg and E. A.
Ziegler. Reprint from American Lumberman, December 31,
1910. Pp. 18.
There are five elements of cost in growing timber; (i) The
value of the land; (2) the stocking of it with young trees; (3)
the administration of the operation and the protection of the
growing timber; (4) the taxes; (5) the rate of interest. It is
assumed that the value of forest land unfit for ordinary agricul-
ture is worth $3 per acre and a charge of $7 per acre is allowed
for fully planting or it is assumed that fully stocked land where
natural reproduction occurs is worth $10 per acre. The cost of
administration and protection will vary widely but are conserva-
tively estimated at 5 cents per acre. Taxes are assumed to be
equivalent to 10 cents per acre per year but emphasis is placed
upon the desirability of a change in method of taxation. A 4 per
cent, rate of interest is assumed in all calculations. Tables are
then given for 6 important species comprising white pine, loblolly
pine, longleaf pine, red oak, yellow poplar and Douglas fir for
which there is a large amount of reliable growth data. The
conclusions are that white pine will yield 4 to 6 per cent,
compound interest for a 40 to 70 year investment ; loblolly pine 4
per cent, for 30 to 50 years, and that red oak, yellow poplar and
Douglas fir will soon bring remunerative prices. While the
discussion is only an approach toward the ideas of proper forest
management it is a very instructive one and the tables should be
of considerable value to students in the forest schools. F. J. P.
The Conservation of Natural Resources in the United States.
By C. R. Van Hise. New York. 1910. Pp. 413.
Van Hise has considered the subject of conservation of our
natural resources under the headings of Mineral Resources,
Water, Forests, The Land, and Mankind, together with a chapter
of Appendices. He states that this modern movement is the
direct result of the work of scientific men and gives especial
prominence to the memorials of 1873 and 1890 to Congress from
the American Association for the Advancement of Science, to Mr.
Pinchot and the Conference of Governors. It is clearly recog-
nized that the work in forestry has been the forerunner in this
io8 Forestry Quarterly.
great work, but to the student in forestry it appears that too much
stress is given to the governors' conference as contrasted with the
many years of patient work by the real pioneers of conservation
in this country. The author does not pretend to be an authority
on the various subjects he has discussed and so draws most of
his material from the U. S. Geological Survey, Report of the
National Conservation Commission, Report of the Inland Water-
ways Commission and other publications.
The chapter on forests is of greatest interest to the forester
though it does not contain anything new. It is stated that the
principal needs in forestry are reduced waste in cutting, less
waste in milling and manufacture, improved methods in turpentin-
ing, preservative treatment, utilization of by-products, reduced
fire losses, reforestration of burned areas, maintenance of forests
over essential areas, stocking of forests so as to produce larger
growth, combat of insect pests, substitution of other materials for
timber, and reformed tax laws.
An interesting position is taken by the author in defending the
foresters in the present agitation over the relation of forests on
stream flow as against Chittenden representing a portion of the
engineers and Moore as representing the Weather Bureau. Cita-
tions are made from Forest Service Circular No. 176 which was
so unceremoniously withdrawn from circulation by the Secretary
of Agriculture and from the Report on the Influence of Forests
on Climate and on Floods by Moore which is recognized as being
more faulty than the report it criticises.
It is stated that scientific forestry is practiced upon 70 per cent,
of the publicly held forests and less than 3 per cent, of private
holdings while the first duty of the nation and states is held to be
the practice of forestry over their entire holdings, then pass laws
requiring the same practice upon private holdings. The waste-
fulness in our forests is characterized as unmatched in the history
of the world.
Naturally there are a few errors such as the statement regard-
ing forest fires in the Rocky Mountains or Pacific ranges where
it claimed that "as you stand on one peak you cannot see its
neighbor. The whole region is under a pall of smoke ; and this
has gone on year by year, decade after decade," or again "in the
pine forests in the north the winter stumps average not less than
five feet." A few typographical errors also occur.
Current Literature. 109
On the whole the work gives a remarkably clean cut statement
of the question of conservation and succeeds much better in this
than any or all of the publications from which material is drawn.
In some cases the lecture form adds strength and interest but
occasionally it causes weakness. The book is designed for
general readers and for easy reference for those interested in some
particular phase of the work. It fills a great purpose at the
present time when there are so many ardent so-called conserva-
tionists who know almost nothing concerning it and so many
opposed to conservation who are using false or limited arguments
against it. F. J. P.
The Indian Forester. A monthly Journal of Forestry, Agri-
culture, Shikar and Travel. The Pioneer Press, Allahabad,
India. Subscription, Rupees 12.6.
The October number of the "Indian Forester" contains a
number of articles of interest. "Forestry Education in India"
indicates that even with the schools already established, they feel
the need for greater educational facilities. "The demand for
education in scientific forestry is growing apace. In the United
Provinces a small class for training foresters was started three
years ago. It was intended for about 12 students annually * *
it has been necessary to enlarge the class to 30 students, and at
least as many again have been refused admission." This seems to
me an admirable indication of the growing importance of forestry
in India.
The scientific paper "Root Infection of Trametes Pini" is
instructive. The more work of this kind the better.
Perhaps the most interesting article in this issue is "Conference
of Forest Officers on Fire Protection, held at Poona, on July 15
and 16, 1909." It appears that the conference is to be annual,
and that in the future other matters of importance will be
discussed. Officers attending were required to submit memoranda
on the subject under discussion. These memoranda are circu-
lated beforehand, and consequently the subjects could be intelli-
gently discussed. Briefly, they decided to spend more money on
fire protection, to have severer punishments for setting fire, more
liberal rewards for extinguishing fire, systematized fire protection
plans, fire notices, more complete system of fire fines and fire
no Forestry Quarterly.
stations in order to secure the immediate detection of forest fires.
Tliis increased fire protection will be expensive, but they felt it
was well worth the money.
"Notes on Works of Improvement in the F. M. S. forests"
impresses one with the difficulty of forest administration in the
mixed evergreen forests of the tropics. "The Determination of
the Volume of Amorphous Pieces of Wood" might be used in this
country. "Fire Conservancy in Indian Forests," contains a discus-
sion in regard to the burning of fallen debris. In this connection
Mr. Latham felt that the soil would not be enriched by burning,
since the nutriment would be washed away.
The review of the "Annual Administrative Report of the Fores-
try Department of the Madras Presidency for 1908-9," indicates
progress on working plans to be "lamentably slow." There was
an increase in expenditure for permanent improvements and for
special fire protection ; but artificial reproduction seems to be far
in arrears.
The establishment of a forestry college at Coimbatore will
undoubtedly supply an adequately trained staff.
The reviews of the administration reports for the Nizarai's
Dominions for 1907-8 and the Sammu and Kashmir State, rather
indicate the administration has been financially successful, at some
sacrifice to intensive forestry.
On the whole, the issue is well worth careful study.
T. S. W., Jr.
Forest Conditions of the Ozark Region of Missouri By
Samuel J. Record. Bulletin 89. College of Agriculture, Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, University of Missouri, in Co-opera-
tion with the U. S. Department of Agriculture.* Columbia, Mo.
1910. Pp. 195-280.
The bulletin opens with a brief description of the physiographic
features of the region and a discussion of land ownership, the
taxation problem, local industries and transportation facilities. A
brief forest description by counties is given, followed by a silvical
description of the more important forest trees. The latter part of
the bulletin is devoted to a discussion of the various agencies that
*The field investigation was made in 1906.
Current Literature. ill
damage the forest, statistics of the forest products in the leading
counties for the year 1908 and a Hst of trees and shrubs common
to the region.
The author recommended the estabHshment of a course in
forestry in the State University in charge of a technical forester
who should have the direction of the forest work in the State.
A four-year course was established in the University in Septem-
ber, 1910. R. C. B.
The Woodman's Handbook. By H. S. Graves and E. A.
Ziegler. Bulletin 36, U. S. Forest Service. (Revised and en-
larged.) Washington, D. C. 1910. Pp. 208.
This new edition contains the Scribner, Doyle, Maine and
Spaulding log rules complete and a table giving a comparison of
44 log rules for the contents of 16- foot logs. Standard and cubic
measures are discussed and cord measure, with their equivalents.
Thirty pages are devoted to timber estimating, and the better
methods of estimating, with the principles underlying them, are
thoroughly covered. Growth is briefly discussed. The more use-
ful intsruments for cruising and estimating, as compass, height
measures, calipers, are described. The most important addition
to the Handbook is the appendix, which contains 57 volume tables
of important commercial species. Eastern and Western, conifers
and hardwoods, each of which is classified on bases of both diam-
eter and height. Still more important are 8 tables giving yield
per acre of paper birch, loblolly and scrub pine, white pine, and
yellow poplar. The small number of these yield tables available
for publication shows the need for investigations along this
line. H. H. C.
The Forest Resources of the World. By R. Zon. Bulletin 83,
U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 1910. Pp. 91.
Mr. Zon has presented in concrete form a summary of the
forest resources of the world. Now that conservation is of para-
mount interest, Zon's bulletin is particularly opportune. Many of
those opposed to a rational forest management in the United
States have pointed to the vast untouched timber resources of
112 Forestry Quarterly.
other countries, which at a time of shortage the United States
would be able to draw upon as a source of supply. Zon shows
conclusively that we must not look to other countries for timber
imports, since there are but three important European countries,
Russia, Finland and Sweden, which can export to a great extent
without decreasing their natural forest resources. It is true that
by more intensive management the forest productivity in Europe
has largely increased, yet this will result in a small increase as
compared with the increasing needs for wood products. Even the
substitution of cement and iron in construction purposes cannot
alter the ever-increasing demand for wood products. According
to Zion, in European countries, the total forested area is estimated
at 750,112,821 acres, and in countries outside of Europe the total
forested area aggregates 3,050,298,009 acres. The total forested
area of the world is thus almost 4,000,000,000 acres, or a quarter
of the total land area. This does not include the forests of
China, Korea, South America, nor Africa, for which there is
no available data, but we should bear in mind that most of the
species in those countries not enumerated are hardwoods, which
could never be used for general building purposes, or are species
totally unsuited on account of their composition. For each coun-
try on which reliable data is available is given the forest area,
distribution, composition of forests, character of forests, present
stand and annual growth, annual cut, home consumption, and
wood prices. Since the data is based on the best available
sources, "The Forest Resources of the World" will prove an
exceedingly valuable reference book for public speakers and con-
servationists who wish to consider forestry from a very broad
standpoint. The data is conveniently arranged, and is exceed-
ingly valuable for reference purposes. T. S. W., Jr.
Schlich's Manual of Forestry. Volume II: Silviculture. By
Sir Wm. Schlich. Fourth Edition, Revised. London. 1910.
Pp. 424.
The fourth edition of this volume, almost the only one on
silviculture in the English language, follows closely the make-up
of the third edition, which itself was constructed after the pattern
of the first edition, with a section on the foundations of silvicul-
Current Literature. 113
tiire added. Like its predecessors, it deals mainly with European
conditions and species, except for the addition of notes on some
American species.
In the systematic manner of presentation it reminds us of
Heyer and Hess. It lacks the philosophic flavor of Gayer, and
the freedom of discussion which characterizes the newer German
works of Wagner and Mayr. But, for this very reason, as a
manual for class use, it is superior, for it is brief and succinct
and gives sufficient latitude for a teacher to expand.
It is of interest to note that Douglas Fir is found in England
not to be windfirm, the wet weather occurring with heavy winds
being assigned as cause. The statement that the species requires
a moist climate and deep fertile fresh or moist soil, is due to lack
of distinction between localities of derivation, for we know its
thriftiness in the dry regions of its field of distribution. As re-
gards difiference in behavior of the green and blue form as regards
resistance to frost, it is said, that experience so far obtained is
somewhat contradictory. It should not be, if careful tab is had
as regards locality of derivation !
Although in one place the author states that this tree, as far
as experience goes at present, outgrows all European timber trees,
and reports on a special plantation of 48 years' standing, which
produced at the rate of 134 cubic feet per acre, he later doubts
whether in the long run it would do better than the European
Silver Fir. We have doubts on this, although the author is
correct in assuming that the early rate of growth does not con-
tinue. Indeed, in British Columbia, which may be compared with
western England as to climate, after 75 to 100 years the rate be-
comes ordinary rather suddenly, say 7 years to the inch, when it
was 3 to 4 years to the inch before. Thuya plicata, Tsuga alber-
tiana (our heterophylla) and Chamaecyparis lawsoniana, besides
Pinus strohus, and P. divaricata, come in for notes. The superior
value of our White Pine — its remarkable staying powers and
low shrinkage per cent. — is evidently not yet di'^covered in Eng-
land, since its wood is compared to that of spruce.
A number of additional illustrations and diagrams to illustrate
silvicultural methods (one, the well-known "Hacker's" trans-
planting machine, being twice labeled "Hackel") add to the value
of the book.
8
114 Forestry Quarterly.
Until the first book, on silviculture based on American data and
conditions is written, Dr. Schlich's volume will remain the Ameri-
can forester's handbook. B. E. F.
Die Forsteinrichtung. Von Dr. H. Martin. Third Edition.
Eerlin. 1910. Pp. 281.
Judeich's successor in Tharandt has been able in this volume not
to furnish any more complete or comprehensive volume than
Judeich's own classic work, nor has he improved on Judeich as
a text book — the absence of mathematical apparatus in that
respect being a detriment, but he has brought the discipline of
forest organization into a modern garb and up to time, with a
wide knowledge, which he has acquired not only from literature
but extensive travel. He has especially brought this discipline
more closely into relation with silviculture and other parts of
forest practice, which is an advantage although strictly not part
of a text book on forest regulation. In this respect the author
has perhaps followed French precedent.
An interesting feature is the fact that the author abandons, at
least in part, Judeich's strict adherence to the soil rent theory as
a basis for forest regulation and for the determination of the
finanical rotation in an annual management, admitting that here
matters are different from those in an intermittent management
upon which the soil rent theory is built.
This third edition is a considerable improvement over the first
and second which, as it were, might be considered preparatory to
this complete volume — it is the most modern not only as to time
but as to contents.
It is divided into five chapters. The first discusses the prelimi-
naries for making a working plan. A new beginning lies in first
ascertaining by soil expectancy calculations or other means to
determine the propriety of continuing forest growing or farming
on parcels which are not under forest ; not forgetting the protec-
tive function of forest cover.
The districting of a forest property in plain and mountain is
carefully gone into. The usual chapters on forest description
and methods of ascertaining yield data are very briefly dealt with
in 20 pages ; but their bearing on regulation requires 50 pages of
discussion. The chapter on the formulation of working plans
Current Literature. 115
introduces, what is usually only cavalierly treated, consideration
of silvicultural matters, some 13 pages out of the 60 referring to
regeneration, planting, thinnings, soil protection, etc., as influenc-
ing yield regulation.
The chapter on the methods of forest regulation which is left
to the end of the book, brings a short historical review of methods
— which in Judeich are treated broadly — and then describes the
methods in actual practice in the various German states, Austria
and France, giving a particular value to the volume.
Altogether this volume of 281 pages — as against Judeich's 575
pages — covers in a comprehensive yet compact manner the whole
subject, and for its brief, direct, yet interesting style deserves
attention of American foresters. B. E. F.
OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE.
Pidpwood Consumption, igog. Forest Products, No. i, Bureau
of the Census. Compiled in cooperation with the U. S. Forest
Service. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 15.
Cross Ties Purchased, igog. Forest Products, No. 8, Bureau
of the Census. Compiled in co-operation with the U. S. Forest
Service. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 11.
Wholesale Prices of Lumber Based on Actual Sales Made F.
O. B. Mill for each Quarter of the Calendar Year igio. U. S.
Forest Service. Washington, D. C. Pp. 24.
Insects Which Kill Forest Trees; Character and Extent of
Their Depredations and Methods of Control. By A. D. Hopkins.
Circular 125, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture. Washington, D. C. 1910. Pp. 9.
A brief discussion of noteworthy- bark beetle insect depreda-
tions in the United States is given. This is followed by a few
general rules for the control of dark beetles and specific instances
where control has been affected.
Ii6 Forestry Quarterly.
Insect Injuries to the Wood of Living Trees. By A. D. Hop-
kins. Circular 126, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of
Agriculture. Washington, D. C, 1910. Pp. 4.
Insect Injuries to the Wood of Dying and Dead Trees. By A.
D. Hopkins. Circular 127, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1910. Pp. 3.
A brief description of the insects attacking dead and dying con-
ifers and hardwoods, with brief directions for the prevention of
attacks.
Insect Injuries to Forest Products. By A. D. Hopkins. Circu-
lar 128, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Washington, D. C. 1910. Pp. 9.
A discussion of the different species attacking round timber
with the bark on ; freshly -sawed lumber ; seasoned lumber ; fin-
ished lumber, such as handles, wagon, carriage and machinery
stock, woodwork in building, tanbark, etc. Preventive measures
are discussed at some length.
Insects in their Relation to the Reduction of Future Supplies of
Timber, and General Principles of Control. By A. D. Hopkins.
Circular No. 129, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of
Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1910. Pp. 10.
Contributions totvard a Monograph of the Bark-Weevils of the
Genus Pissodes. By A. D. Hopkins. Technical Series No. 20,
Part I, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 68.
The Oak Pruner. By F. H. Chittenden. Circular No. 30,
Bureau of Entomology. Washington, D. C. 1910. Pp. 7.
A brief review of the life history, distribution and damage
wrought.
Forest Nurseries for Schools. By Walter M. Moore and Edwin
R. Jackson. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 423, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 1910. Pp. 24.
Prepared as a guide for rural school teachers.
Other Current Literature. 117
Distribution and Migration of North American Shorehirds. By
W. W. Cooke. Bulletin 35, Biological Survey, U. S. Department
of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1910. Pp. 100.
Raising Deer and Other Large Game Animals in the United
States. By David E. Lantz. Bulletin 36, Biological Survey.
Washington, D. C. 1910. Pp. 62.
Bitumens and their Essential Constituents for Road Construc-
tion and Maintenance. By Prevost Hubbard. Circular iNo. 9,
Office of Public Roads. Washington, D. C. Pp. 16.
A brief description and discussion of various bituminous mate-
rials in use in road construction and maintenance.
A Preliminary Treatment of the Genus Cctstilla. By Henr>'
Pittier. Contributions from the United States National Her-
barium, Volume 13, Part 7. Washington, D. C. 1910. Pp.
247-279.
This bulletin contains the results of a study of this genus of
rubber producing trees indigenous to Central and South America.
A few pages are devoted to a discussion of the general characters
of the genus. This is followed by a key to, and a detailed de-
scription of the various species now recognized.
History of the Cocoanut Palm in America. By O. F. Cook.
Contributions from the United States National Herbarium,
Volume 14, Part 2. Washington, D. C. 1910. Pp. 271-342.
Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, ipop. Wash-
ington, D. C. 1910. Pp. 751.
Among the miscellaneous memoirs contains : The Conservation
of Natural Resources, by J. Douglas ; Problems of Local Dis-
tribution of Plants in Arid Regions, by V. M. Spalding.
Investigation of the Department of the Interior, and of the
Bureau of Forestry. (In thirteen volumes.) Vol I: Report of
Committee. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 192.
ii8 Forestry Quarterly.
Contracts in Forest Reserve Timber Lands. (Letter from the
Secretary of the Interior transmitting information as to contracts
in farce at the time of the approval of the Act prohibiting the
selection of timber lands in lieu of lands in forest reserves (33
Stat., 1264) and requesting further information with respect to
such contracts in answer to Senate resolution of January 27,
1910.) Senate Document No. 112, 61 Congress, 2nd Session.
Washington, D. C. 1910. Pp. 485,
Ceded Chippetva Pine Lands, Minnesota. Sale of timber on
lands both inside and outside of the Minnesota National Forest,
at Cass Lake, Minnesota on September 15, 1910. Instructions,
descriptions of land, estimates and rules and regulations for the
selling, scaling, cutting and removal of the timber, approved
June 22), 1910. Washington, D. C. 1910. Pp. 84.
The greater part of the volume is occupied with a brief
description by forties of the timber to be sold.
Engineers' Field Manual, Parts I-VL Professional Papers No.
29. Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army. (Third revised edition.)
Washington, D. C. 1909. Pp. 452.
Parts I-VI include Reconnaissance, Bridges, Roads, Railroads,
Field Fortifications, Animal Transportation. This is an excellent
pocket size field manual printed on thin paper and bound in
leather. The chapters on Bridges, Roads, Railroads, and Field
Transportation, are of special interest to foresters. The latter
chapter treats of the selection, maintenance, and care of horses
and mules, including veterinary work, tractive force of animals,
detailed instructions on the use of the pack saddle, wagons, etc.
Eighth Report of the Forest Commission of the State of Maine.
Augusta, Maine. 1910. Pp. no.
Appro.vimate Current Annual Increase in Per cent, of Volume
for Trees of Different Diameters when the Average Number of
Rings in the last Radial Inch is Known. Vermont Forestry Card
No. 7, State Forest Service. Burlington, Vt. 191 1.
Other Current Literature. 119
Approximate Average Rate of Grozvth for Northern Forests.
Vermont Forestry Card No. 8, State Forest Service. Burlington,
Vt. 191 1.
Leaf Key to the Trees of the Northern States and Canada. By
R. B. Hough. Lowville, N. Y. 1910. Pp. 63.
Reforesting. By C. R. Pettis. Bulletin No. 2, Forest, Fish
and Game Commission. Albany, N. Y. Pp. 25.
A bulletin designed to furnish definite, detailed information on
how to start a forest, how to secure planting stock, the most
desirable kinds to use, when and how to plant, and results that
may be expected.
Forestry. By L. W. Goodrich, Forester of Hartford, (Conn.)
Water Department. (Reprint from Journal of New England
Water Works Association, Volume XXIV, No. 3, September,
1910.) Pp. 345-364.
A paper setting forth the forest work that has been done by
water companies in Connecticut, with several discussions. A
volume table for White Pine to a diameter of 26 inches is
appended.
Report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station
igop-io. Part V : Commercial Fertilisers. Connecticut. 1910.
Pp. 375-454-
Wood-Using Industries of North Carolina. By R. E. Sim-
mons. Economic Paper No. 20, North Carolina Geological and
Economic Survey. Raleigh, N. Carolina. 1910. Pp. 74.
Text Book of Botany for Colleges and Universities. By J. M.
Coulter, C. R. Barnes, and H. C. Cowles. Volume I: Morph-
ology and Physiology. Chicago, 111. 1910. Pp. 484.
Morphology of Gymnosperms. By John M. Coulter and
Charles J. Chamberlain. Chicago, 111. 1910. Pp. 470.
The Commercial Woods of the United States and Their Uses.
By G. T. Surface. (Reprinted from the Bulletin of the Geo-
I20 Forestry Quarterly.
graphical Society of Philadelphia, Vol. VIII, No. 3, 1910.) Pp.
34.
Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement
of Science: Meetings 59, 60, 61. Boston, Mass. 1910. Pp.
686.
The Farmers' Handbook of Explosives. By E. I. DuPont.
Wilmington, Delaware. Pp. 115.
A catalogue giving valuable data regarding the care and use
of dynamite for stump and rock removal, hardpan blasting and
other purposes.
How to Know Some Ohio Trees. By W. R. Lazenby. Agri-
cultural College Extension Bulletin, VI, 3. Columbus, Ohio.
1910. Pp. 16.
Our Conebearers and Evergreens. By C. H. Goetz. Agricul-
tural College Extension Bulletin, VII, 4. Columbus, Ohio.
1910. Pp. 16.
Fourth Annual Report of Forest Conditions in Ohio. Bulletin
223, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. Wooster, Ohio.
1910. Pp. 116.
State and Local Taxation: Address and Proceedings of Third
International Conference, ipop. Columbus, Ohio. 1910. Pp. 387.
Contains, of interest to foresters, an address on Forest Taxa-
tion Under the Direct State Tax in Maine.
Second Biennial Report of the Minnesota Tax Commission,
ipio. Minneapolis, Minn. 1910. Pp. 490.
The Determination of Humus. By F. J. Alway, E. K. Files,
and R. M. Pinckney. Bulletin 115, Agricultural Experiment
Station. Lincoln, Neb. 1910. Pp. 25.
The Woodlot for Central Indiana. By E. C. Pegg and M. B.
Other Current Literature. 121
Thomas. (Reprint from the Proceedings of the Indiana Aca-
demy of Science, Twenty-fifth Anniversary Meeting, 1909.) Pp.
21.
A discussion of the condition of Indiana woodlots and sug-
gestions for their improvement and perpetuation.
Twenty-first Annual Report of the Missouri Botanical Garden.
St. Louis, Mo. 1910. Pp. 195. Contains of interest: The
Fungous Root Tubercles of Ceanothus, Elaeagnus and Myrica,
by E. G. Arzberger ; Fungi of Clay Mines, by P. Spaulding.
Annual Report of the Minister of Lands and Forests for the
Province of Quebec, ipop-io. Quebec, Canada. 191 1. Pp. 277.
Report of Progress of Stream Measurements for ipop.
Department of the Interior, Ottawa, Canada. 1910. Pp. 207.
Progress Report of Forest Administration in the Andamans for
ipog-io. Calcutta, India. 1910. Pp. 30.
A Note on the Lac Insect (Tachardia lacca) ; its Life History,
Propagation and Collection. By E. P. Stebbing. Indian Forest
Memoirs, Volume I, Part 3, Forest Zoology Series. (Second
edition.) Calcutta, India. 1910. Pp. 82.
The Sylviculture of Hardimckia Bitiata. By D. O. Witt;
Notes on Sandal, (Germination and Growth of Seedlings), by M.
Rama Rao. The Indian Forest Records, Volume II, Part 3.
Calcutta, India. 1910. Pp. 157.
Annual Progress Report upon State Forest Administration in
South Australia for year ipop-io. By W. Gill. Adelaide, South
Australia. 1910. Pp. 12.
A Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus: Volume II,
Part 2. By J. H. Maiden. Sydney, New South Wales. 1910.
Pp. 61-100, plates 53-56.
Annual Report of the Director of Forestry of the Philippine
122 . forestry Quarterly.
Islands for igog-io. By Major G. P. Ahern. Manila, P. I.
1910. Pp. 25.
Our Waste Lands: A Preliminary Study of Erosion in
Mississippi. By E. N. Lowe, with an appended address on
Mississippi's Agricultural Potentialities, by Dr. W. J. McGee.
Geological Survey. Jackson, Mississippi. 1910.
Preliminary Examination of the Forest Conditions of Missis-
sippi. By C. E. Dunston. Bulletin 7, Geological Survey. Jack-
son, Mississippi. 1910. Pp. 76.
A discussion of the forests and forest problems of tiie State,
with suggestions for forest management. Under title of Legisla-
tion, the author gives a summary of the past legislation, and
outlines the legislation needed. This includes the establishment
of a State Forest Commission, the appointment of a State For-
ester, the creation of State Forests, and the passage of a forest
fire law. An appendix contains a proposed fire law for the State.
Official Proceedings of the Eighteenth National Irrigation Con-
gress, held at Pueblo, Colorado, U. S. A., September 26 to 50,
1910. Pueblo, Colorado. Pp. 412.
Short Keys to the More Important Trees and Shfubs of
Oregon and Washington. By Hugo Winkenwerder, University
of Washington. Seattle, Wash. 1910. Pp. 8.
Third Biennial Report of the State Forester of the State of,
California. By G. M. Homans. Sacramento, California. 1910.
Pp. 160.
Facts About True and Spurious Mahogany. By C. D. Mell.
Reprint from Hardwood Record, October 25, 1910.
Shade Trees in Towns and Cities. By W. Solotaroff. New
York. 191 1. Pp. 284.
The Principles of Handling Woodlamds. By H. S. Graves.
New York. 191 1. Pp. 335.
Other Current Literature. 123
Biennial Report of the Forestry Commission of New Hamp-
shire for I pop and ipio. Pp. 105.
Soils of the Ozark Region. By C. F. Marbut. Research
Bulletin 3, University of Missouri. Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion. Columbia, Missouri. 1910. Pp. 273.
Twenty-third Annual Report of Experimental Farms, Canada.
Ottawa, Canada. 1910. Pp. 528.
The Farmer's Plantation. Bulletin 10, Forestry Branch,
Department of the Interior. Ottawa, Canada. 1910. Pp. 23.
Report of the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry for the
Years ipo8-og. Harrisburg, Pa. 1910. Pp. 373.
Forest Resources of Arkansas. Little Rock, Arkansas. 1910.
Pp- 34-
PERIODICAL LITERATURE.
BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.
In an interesting account Dr. Knauer de-
Natural molishes various misconceptions which are
History current, regarding the Hfe liistory of moles.
of He declares the mole a decidedly useful
Moles. animal in the forest (without bringing
reasons, but probably because of its capa-
city for destroying larvae). Their voraciousness for earth-
worms, insects, snails, frogs and small reptiles is well known.
A detailed account of the life history, as usually described, is
given, the fanciful descriptions, full of error, originating in
France. A German, Dahl, and an Englishman, L. E. Adams
(Memoirs and Proceedings of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society 1902-3), are given the credit for dissipat-
ing the fancies.
They find no regularity, but great individual variety in the
structure of the mole's dwelling. Tliey deny that the remarkable
accumulations of worms are due to providential instinct, but
result from the wandering of worms to greater depth as the
ground freezes. The maiming of worms to keep them as live
food is a myth, the maiming being an incident of immuring them
in the ground.
These stores' of worms are hunted after by fishermen, especially
in December and January. It is ascertained that the claimed
disparity in numbers of males and females does not exist, and that
there is only one brood.
Neues aus der Naturgcschichte des Maiihvurfs. Centralblatt f. d. g.
Forstwesen. November, 1910. Pp. 485-492.
Periodical Literature. 125
SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION AND EXTENSION.
Forstinspektor Hauch of Denmark, whose
Density important discussion on the influence of the
and spreading habit of different species on
Variation spacing in plantations we briefed in Vol.
in III, p. 181, discusses further the spreading
Spreading capacity of species under repeated refer-
Capacity. ence to Johannsen's work on "Heredity."
He believes to have discovered a correla-
tion between this capacity and the tendency of tree species to
form straight slender stems and regular growth. The relation
between spreading habit and root system has been suggested in
the former article.
With maple, ash, alder which are characterized by small spread-
ing capacity, an upright growth is much more the rule, than with
oak and beech which have great spreading capacity, similarly
spruce and pine are distinguished.
Even in stands of the same species, but of different derivation,
the same phenomenon is exhibited : as the oak stands grown from
Danish and German acorns at the Danish Experiment Station
show, the Danish oaks showing a crooked and irregular form,
which the foreigners never develop. Several illustrations exhibit
the difference. The stands of foreign derivation also show a
larger number of dominant stems, a result of smaller spreading
habit and this habit, the author thinks, is a heritage.
Nevertheless, he contends that not too much value must be
placed upon the selection of seed material with reference to the
variation of spreading habit of the same species in different
localities. For, after all, this difference is only relative, the
specific habit great. Hence, dense sowings or plantings for spe-
cies with spreading habit cannot be avoided ; and thereby the
advantage of securing a wide variation of forms is also secured.
Most of the quantities quoted by authors for seed and plant
quantities touch the extreme limits of the needful ; what is
really necessary we do not know, and hence, to be sure, larger
quantities than are usually employed with these species are re-
quired.
In the cited oakstands, in which very large quantities were
used, (12 to 15,000 per acre) the advantage of this becomes
126 Forestry Quarterly.
more' evident as they grow older. Contrary to the fears of many,
at the age of 20 years, the great density has not produced stands
with thin weak stems, but not only high but thick stems with
strong crowns have been differentiated.
The spreading habit should not only be considered in spacing
plantations, but also in the practice of thinnings, in which the
advantages of the density must be considered and its disadvan-
tages avoided.
He inveighs against both too early (10 year) and late thin-
nings (30 to 40 year), the latter delaying too long the decision
of what is to be dominant. In a vigorously growing stand he
proposes to thin at an age of 15 years and the thinnings cannot
be repeated too often, if possible annually during the years 15
to 20. In that manner a dominant stand of well distributed trees
and a lower story of soil cover can be developed, taking out only
what is of damage to neighbors and leaving the oppressed harm-
less part.
A rather unconvincing experiment with such a thinning method
closes the otherwise suggestive article.
Zur Variation des Wachstums bei unseren Waldbdumen, etc. Forst-
wissenschaftliches Centralblatt. November, 1910. Pp. 565-578.
Bohmerle whose observations on the influ-
Moss Cover ence of moss cover on natural regeneration
and we briefed in Vol. VII, p. 200, now brings
Increment. data from the Austrian forest experiment
station showing the influence of moss cover
on increment of pine in the same forest near Vienna which is
characterized by a dry climate, especially during the period of
vegetation.
The forest is described in the previous brief.
The inimical influence had been remarked in the previous
publication but additional experiments were instituted in two
plats, in which on one-half the area the moss cover was care-
fully lifted and turned over, so that without scarifying the soil
the living moss cover was changed into a dead one, and the
vegetative activity of the moss and its use of water for the same
was destroyed.
This was done in 1907. In 1908 a decided drouthy year oc-
curred, but 1909 and 1910 were rainy years.
Periodical Literature. 127
The cross section area per cent., based on the area in 1907 in
the two experimental areas as a whole, was found as follows :
1908
1909
1910
I,
65 year
.429
4.085
3-379
II,
85 year
.177
2.782
2.830
showing a most decided influence of the dry and rainy seasons.
Differentiating now the two parts in the two areas, the one
with the moss cover turned (a), the other with the living moss
cover (b), the following difference in the cross section area per
cent, appeared; the basis being again the total area in 1907:
I
II
1908 1909 1910
a .343 2.018 1.778
b .086 2.067 I. 611
a .105 1.346 1.365
b .072 1.436 1.465
The stands with the living moss cover remain in the drouth year
behind those with the dead cover, the younger stand more than
the older. In the two wet years the opposite relation appears, the
fully saturated living moss bolsters acting favorably in hot days
of the wet season.
This showing accentuates the desirability of destroying the
living moss cover. A removal or breaking up every five years,
which in those parts may be done by the poor farm population
gathering the litter for bedding, is the proposed method.
Moosdecke und Holzs^iivachs. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. De-
cember, 1910. Pp. 523-526.
Setting out young trees of those species
Planting which develop a pronounced taproot is
with always attended by liability of injury to
Borer. this root and consequent set back in the
growth of the plant. A conical, auger-like
borer with a blade 7^ inches long and 5 inches across at the top
has proven very satisfactory for this work and very cheap in use.
128 Forestry Quarterly.
One workman with the auger is able to prepare planting spots
for two setters.
Der Spiralbohrer. Silva, October 7, 1910. Pp. 312-13.
For many years past Prussia has been plant-
Bought ing trees on waste land owned by the State
vs. and at the same time trying to influence
Homegroivn private owners to do the same. Provincial
Plant Material. agricultural societies have also encouraged
private planting, and a considerable increase
in the forest area has resulted.
In many cases plant material has been grown locally when bet-
ter stock could have been more cheaply secured from large nur-
series. Where favorable conditions of soil and labor are together
present homegrown plants from carefully selected seeds are pre-
ferable. But nurseries require a rich soil and this means the
continual use of fertilizers to replace the nutrients removed in the
young trees. And unless the necessary supply of cheap and effi-
cient labor is at hand the cost of home nursery may be three or
four fold the value of plant material secured from large nurseries.
Ein Beitrag sum Kapitel der PHansenerziehung. Silva. July 8, 1910.
Pp. 209-11.
In a very readable article with full detail
Combating Puster describes a successful campaign
May against Melolonta (relative of our June-
Beetle. bug) which had for years defied all attempts
at reforestation over a large territory. Not
less than 7,000 acres were involved, on which not only younger
and older cultures were regularly destroyed, but even old timber
was gradually killed by the larvae and beetles, there being from
100 to 300 larvae per square yard. Much money had been wasted
in replanting and in attempts to get rid of the pest, until it was
finally decided that the only salvation was in a thoroughly organ-
ized beetle-catching campaign. The beetles fly every four years,
the larvae living four years underground. By preparing bait
trees, which consist of single trees in the open, low and branched
low, of kinds preferred, oak, birch, blue beech and larch, the
beetles are attracted. In the early morning and in the evening
before the flight begins, they can be shaken from the trees into
Periodical Literature. 129
large sheets, then killed with carbon bisulphide and used in the
compost heaps. The main point lies in the organization of the
crews to do efficient work, seven boys and girls being found the
best number under a competent leader. In two flight years a
portion of the territory has been cleaned, 22.5 million beetles were
caught at an expense of about $5,000. The results have been
gratifying, and it is expected that in the flight year 191 1 a supreme
effort will be made to get the whole area cleaned.
Interesting is the calculation of the result effected in the addi-
tional increment secured, and in the decrease of the planting
expenditure for fail places. In 1899-1902, the planting cost was
$53 per acre, in 1903-6 $12, in 1907-10, after the campaign of
1907. $3-30-
In increment an annual increase to the value of $10,000 is
figured, showing that the expense is worth while.
Bin Jahrzehnt im Kampf mit dem Maikdfer. Forstwissenschaftliches
Centralblatt. December, 1910. Pp. 633-644.
MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT.
Dr. Matthes discusses at length conditions
Growth and management of a mixed beech-ash-
Rate maple-oak selection forest in Thuringia, a
in rare object in Germany. The private selec-
Selection tion forests are usually the result of an at-
Porest. tempt to convert composite forest into high
forest. There are several types, namely
that with a close stand, in which the young age classes are lack-
ing; that showing a two-storied character; and that in which
the different age classes are present in groups — the normal
selection forest, which is rare. We are mainly interested in the
growth conditions which appear in several tables.
The number of trees of different diameter on sample areas
were distributed as follows, for type I before and after a cut
intended to produce a young regeneration, for type II as it stood.
For type III no data are given.
Type I.
Diam. inch :
3-6
6-8
10
12
14
17
19
22
Total
1892
28
42
46
38
22
21
6
4
207
1905
17
20
27
23
20
13
6
I
127
Type II.
9
31
20
26
24
14
10
7
3
135
I30
Forestry Quarterly.
On sample areas of over 12 acres extent the following average
data of growth were obtained, giving actual heights and the years
per inch of diameter needed in each diameter class.
Diameter Class : 4-8
9-13
14-18
19-23 inches
Beech
Maple
Ash
Oak
Years Height Years Height Years Height Years Height
7 87
II
12
13
64
67
10
71
7
82
II
71
10
76
8
75
8
80
15
66
12
70
19
76
Of most interest is the comparison of height for beech com-
pared with timber forest conditions :
Selection
Timber
Selection
Timber
// site
HI site
Age
Diam.
Height
Height
' Diam.
Height
Height
cm
m
m
cm
m
m
20
3.86
6.64
4-3
2.5
2.25
3-
30
6.06
8.30
8.2
4-1
4.81
6.
40
10. 0
9.6
12.4
6.3
6.25
10.
SO
14-
12.3
16.4
9-5
9-25
14.
60
19.06
16.3
19.
15-7
11-75
16.9
70
27.
20.8
21.
22.1
15-30
18.9
80
33-2
23-44
23.
27.3
19-3
20.9
90
TOO
40.
25-3
25.
34.3
43-5
21.51
23-25
22.
23-
These figures would show that while in early life the height
growth remains behind, finally it is evened up.
An elaborate stem analysis of beech trees from close timber
forest and from selection forest, to determine difference in form,
and the changes in it in consequence of setting free trees which
have stood in close cover, shows that, while the width of the decen-
nial increment in diameter in the younger years of dense selection
forest trees decreases from base to top (rapid taper), in the
middle polewood stage and beginning timber-wood stage it
increases, just as in timber forest trees (becoming full-bodied).
In the tree grown in dense position of timber forest, from a
"turning point," six to ten feet above ground, the ring width of
the decennial increment increases both down and upward, in the
upper portions to 1.5 to 4 times the width at the turning point.
In the selection forest, trees which have been set free show
during the period of freedom a gradual decrease from the turning
point upward to the crown, in the given case by one-third of
Periodical Literature. 131
the ring width at the turning point, and then it sinks from crown
base to top more rapidly, in the given case to one-fifth of ring
width at the turning point.
The completely free grown tree behaves like the trees set free.
These findings of the difference of form development according
to position of trees suggests that the usual form factors are of no
avail in the selection forest and that, to secure volume growth
data, dififerentiation must be made in calipering into stems quite
free, half free, closed and crowded tree classes, and to ascertain
special form factors from sample trees of these. By the use of
diagrams the six different forms that may be found are eluci-
dated and for the increment per cent, calculation the constants
for the formula are found to vary from 350 to 940.
nd
Before these constants had been developed the increment had
been ascertained by Schneider's formula as 59 cubic feet per
acre on a volume of 2,000 cubic feet per acre or 3 per cent, nearly.
A revision of this finding after 23 years seemed, however, to
make the increment only 26 cubic feet, the correctness of which
the author doubts and dismisses without explanation, expect-
ing to make new measurements with his new method.
Several pages are filled with detail prescriptions as regards
felling practice and regeneration, which cannot be briefed.
Der gemischte Buchenplenterivald auf Muschelkalk in Thuringen. AU-
gemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung, May, 1910. Pp. 149-164.
MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT.
The financial difficulties of various German
Forest states have lately led to propositions to in-
Management crease their cut or curtail the expenditures
of ■ of forest administration. An increase in
Hesse. the number of districts and district mana-
gers, which had been installed in 1900 in
Hesse has led to an inquiry of this sort and as a result a very
interesting comparison of the results of the decade 1889-99 with
those of the period 1900-09, attained in the management of the
crown forests of Hesse has been published, which shows remark-
able advances.
The area involved is only 177,000 acres, of which only 31%
132 Forestry Quarterly.
is coniferous. The annual cut has increased from 75 cubic feet
to 84 cubic feet per acre (not counting in 12,000 acres of new
purchases). The increase is due, in part, to the thinnings, attain-
able with the increase in district managers, these thinnings,
representing 62% of the total harvest, and in part to new methods
of regulating the yield.
This regulation includes a comparison of actual and normal
increment, of actual and normal stock, of the two or three oldest
age classes as to area with the normal area for these age classes
and a ten-year felling area. The rotation is determined upon
the basis of typical "index-stands" which are carefully booked in
various districts. It is believed that the cut can still be increased
and quality improved.
In the first decade the workwood per cent was 18, in 1908 it
had risen to 30%. The gross money yield had risen from $3.93
per acre and 5.28 cents per cubic foot in the first decade to $6.43
and 7.42 cents in 1908; a total increase in income of over 2.5 mil-
lion dollars for the last 10 years. This is, in part, due to rise
of prices, but also to more careful sorting.
Expenditures also increased, but the net income increased from
$5.07 to $7.73. The total expense for personnel has since
1898 risen steadily from 69 cents to 84 cents per acre.
A comparison of yields in various states for 1907 is also given,
which credits Saxony with 95, Wiirttemberg with 96, Baden with
92, Hesse with 87 cubic feet per acre. It is pointed out that for
proper comparison these yields must be compared with stock on
hand to get the use per cent. Data for such comparison exist
only for Baden and Hesse. In Baden the stock is given as 4140
cubic feet, that of Hesse at 4,000 round: the use per cent, is
therefore 2.2%.
Die Entwickliing der hessischen Staatswirtschaft. Allgemeine Forst-
u. Jagdzeitung. May, 1910. Pp. 180-185.
Estimating stave timber refers especially to
Stave oak that is to be made into tight cooperage
Timber for 'oil, whiskey and beer barrels. The
Bstimating. trained estimator must have a good knowl-
edge of the soundness of standing timber,
the relation of sizes to number of staves and the various grades
of staves that may be cut from various portions of the tree.
Periodical Literature. 133
Where railroad ties are to be cut in conjunction with the stave
material an estimate is also demanded for them. Occasionally
some estimators give the estimate of saw timber.
In the slack barrel business the timber is estimated usually by
the cord and reduced to the number of staves or, less frequently,
by the thousand board feet. This is done because the timber for
slack cooperage is so frequently cut from small timber or scrubby
timber where the reduction factor is large and the loss great.
Where lumbering is combined with slack cooperage the estimate
is usually by the board foot.
The St. Louis Lumberman, Oct. 15, 19 10.
This rule originated at Nashville more than
~ Cumberland River 50 years ago and gives less board measure
Log Rule. than any other rule in general use. Logs
received at Nashville are rafted 200 to 400
miles on floods which naturally dirty the log and obscure defects.
Loggers usually cut the trees so as to take advantage of all swells
or even crotches and occasionally logs have been plugged or
cleated so as to keep the bulges beneath the water.
Since only one-third of the log is above water there are gener-
ally more concealed defects below water than above. The Cum-
berland rule was devised to meet these conditions, but owing to
smaller sized logs and the constant increase of price of logs with
a fluctuating price on lumber, Nashville operators found it neces-
sary to change the application of the rule from measuring mid-
dle diameter to the diameter at the small end of the log. This
is acknowledged to be little better than a guess and a more scien-
tific scale is greatly desired.
The Southern Lumberman, October 29, 19 10.
A Study of the change in prices of trees
Diameter with increasing stem diameter for the vari-
and ous German species shows that larger sizes
Price. do not always mean higher prices per unit
volume. Beyond a certain limiting diame-
ter prices cease to rise, or even fall off. This fact clearly sets a
mark for economical management. Each species should be cut
at least as soon as it reaches the diameter commanding the highest
134 Forestry Quarterly.
price. Other factors, of course, enter, but their effect is gener-
ally to lower the rotation.
Statistical data are given in the form of plotted diagrams, hav-
ing for arguments price and middle diameter of stems. The
prices are the averages obtained at public auctions during the
past three years.
Stammhols-Mittelpreise im Grosshersogtutn Hessen. Silva, August
19, 1910. Pp. 257-261.
Sooner or later our rough and ready method
Forest of determining forest values will give way
Finance to more refined ones, but it is needful to
Problems. escape the finesse which the soil rent theory
has introduced.
In a discussion on a literary war between two authorities on
forest taxation. Dr. Schiffel in his usual sane manner points out
that the first need is to come to an agreement as to "what in the
forestry business is fixed capital and what current capital?"
He shows that there is a difference in this respect between an
intermittent and an annual management. In the intermittent
business the soil alone is fixed capital, while the value of the
growing stand is at every age the interest accumulating produc-
tion fund, the current or working capital which is returned every
r years. For this condition the well-known soil rent formula is
theoretically correct. Practically it is useless, because the diffi-
culty in estimating future yields and costs, and long-time interest
rates is too problematical.
In the annual management, however, the annual income is not
a return of the current capital and soil interest, but it includes
the interest on the wood capital, which in this case, essentially
different from the intermittent management, is like the soil fixed
capital, at work in producing income. It is a forest rent, includ-
ing the soil rent and the rent on the growing stock.
From this consideration it follows that the intermittent man-
agement is not a forest management but a soil management in
which a forest rent does not result.
Only in the annual sustained yield management is there a for-
est rent developed — a real forest management. The annual returns
pay the interest of the forest capital, which includes soil capital
Periodical Literature.
135
and wood capital, and also repay the annual expense — the current
capital — without interest.
Only by the erroneous conception of dissolving the annual sus-
tained yield management into a series of r separate intermittent
managements, i. e. into soil management, does the wood stock
become interest paying production fund — current working capital,
— an unjustifiable proceeding.
This intermittent management idea is an invention of the soil
rent theory.
The application of these conceptions to forest taxation is made.
The article also contains a criticism of Speidel's Forsteinrichtung
und Reservebildung.
Ueber das Wesen dcs W aldkapitals , etc. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forst-
wesen. November, 1910. Pp. 475-485.
Taxation
of
Timber Lamds.
Tables have been prepared showing the dif-
ference in cost of holding timber according
to the present method of taxation and what
it would be if the tax were made yearly for
soil values but made on the timber when
it was cut. Under the present method of taxation the consumer
must help to bear the taxation in the increased cost of lumber
but it would prevent a great deal of cutting and aid reforestation
if the revised taxation were adopted.
TIMBER TAX TABLES FOR WESTERN WASHINGTON.
Table I.
Per Acre on Present Basis, Interest Com-
pounded Annually at 5%
On Land at loc per Total Tax on Tim-
Annum her and Land
Period imount of Tax
On Stamding Tim-
ber at 40c per
Annum
Years
1-5
I-IO
i-iS
1-20
1-25
1-30
1-35
1-40
1-45
1-50
Average
per
Annum
$0.44
• 50
• 57
.66
.76
.88
1.03
1 .21
1.42
1.67
For
Period
$2.21
5-03
8.63
13 23
19.09
26.58
36.13
48.32
63.88
83.74
Average
per
Annum
$0.11
• 13
.14
.16
.19
.22
.26
.30
-35
• 42
For
Period
$0.55
.26
.16
•31
■ 77
.64
• 03
I .
2.
3-
4-
6.
9-
12.08
15-97
20.93
Average
per
Annum
$0.55
.63
• 71
.82
•95
10
,29
51
■ 77
,09
For
Period
$2.76
6.29
10.79
16.54
23.86
33-22
45.16
60.40
79.85
104.67
136
Forestry Quarterly.
Table II.
Amount of Tax Per Acre, Timber to be Taxed When Cut, at a Percent-
age of the Stumpage Value, Land Taxed Annually.
On Standing Timber,
Yield 50 M BF
Value Rate ^ u a
PerM PerM Tax per Acre
On Land per
Acre at loc
per Annum
Total Tax on
Timber and
Land
^
;^
$2.00 2.2 $0.44 $2.20
3-00 2-3 .49 4-95
4-00 4.3 .57 8.60
S-oo 5.3 .66 13.25
6.00 6.4 .77 19.20
7-00 7.6 .89 26.60
8.00 9.0 1.03 36.00
9.00 *io.o I. 12 45.00
10.00 10. o I. II 50.00
10.00 10. o I. 00 50.00
*ActuaI percentage, 10.7%.
The Timberman, October, 1910.
2s
Q.
$0.55
1.26
2.16
3-31
4-77
6.64
903
12.08
15-97
20.93
^
^
po.55
.62
.71
.82
.96
I. II
1.29
1.50
1.77
2.08
(^
$2.75
6.21
10.76
16.56
23-97
33-24
45-03
57.08
65-97
70.93
UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY.
An important and comprehensive contribu-
Nezv tion on charcoal manufacture, based on ex-
Knowledge periments under practical conditions is fur-
on nished by Denz, who for 20 years has had
Charcoal charge of charcoal works in Hungary and
Manufacture. elsewhere. We can here give only the
results without going into the details of the
seventeen series of experiments. The author gives also a full
reference list to works on the subject in German.
The first experiment was to decide whether Violette's dictum
from laboratory experience was correct, that the output of char-
coal made with the same temperature is proportional to the dura-
tion of the process: slow coaling producing double the amount
of rapid coaling; also that the meiler must not go blue. The
conclusion from the) two series of experiments are as follows :
I. The relation, which prevails in the dry distillation of wood,
of the duration of the process to quantity does not apply to meilers.
Periodical Literature. 137
2. The usual opinion that the quahty of the charcoal is the
better and the quantity the larger the slower the process is erro-
neous. Not a slow but a progress adapted to conditions — some-
times even moderately accelerated — gives best results.
3. The smoke holes of a coaling zone must be kept open until
the smoke becomes light blue. During this stage of blue smoke
the gases escape which otherwise may cause collapse of the meiler,
and the coal then gets its proper density.
4. For a continuous progress of the coaling process a certain
amount of air is needful, otherwise quality suffers and even pro-
gress is not possible.
The results of a series of experiments on the behavior of the
different sizes of wood showed :
1. With the same amount of air coaling progresses the faster
the smaller the wood.
2. To secure the same quality of coal the progress must be
faster with small wood than with stout wood.
3. To char stout wood requires more air.
4. Quantity production is larger from young wood or from the
younger parts of stems, than from old wood.
5. The weight of beech charcoal is highest from young stem
wood, then from branch and split wood, while overmature wood
makes the lightest charcoal.
Regarding the size of meilers, it was found that:
1. The size of the meiler must be adapted to size of wood: the
stouter the wood the larger the meiler.
2. When the wood is too large the process of coaling progresses
with difficulty, and the labor cost is greatest. Split wood and
small billets coal the cheapest.
Regarding the length of billets, experiments with sizes varying
from 3 to 6 feet :
1. Both larger volume and greater weight is secured from short
wood. The difference between shortest and longest was 3.3% in
weight, and 6 to 9% in volume.
2. The coaling proceeds too quickly with long wood for good
results.
138 forestry Quarterly.
3. Long wood requires more after filling than short wood, and
this accounts for the poorer result.
4. With long wood the consolidation of the coal in the meiler
is impeded.
5. In long wood the gases circulate more easily between the
charred parts and deteriorate them.
6. The danger of explosives is greater with long wood.
7. The labor cost increases with the length of the wood.
An extensive series of experiments concerned itself with a com-
parison of the output of standing and lying meilers. The latter
are the easiest to manage, but the quality as well as quantity of
coal are inferior. The cause was found in the access of the erases
to the already charred wood, which deteriorate the coal.
The meilers had been so arranged that they permitted access
to the interior during the process.
The observations regarding the progress of the process were :
1. The progress of the charring follows the incoming air rather
than the outgoing air whenever the source of air lies under or in
front of the coaling zone. It is impossible in the lying meiler to
lead the coaling upward.
2. The charring has a tendency to progress more rapidly at the
base and towards the base. The position of the base whether
rising, falling or horizontal, influences the progress in the lying
meiler, just in the same manner as in the standing meilers.
In the lying meiler only straight wood of even length can be
advantageously used ; otherwise, labor cost becomes excessive,
hence it is altogether uneconomical where the better class wood
has another use.
As to the progress of coaling in standing meilers it was found :
1. In standing meilers the process can never be guided other-
wise than from the top downwards.
2. It requires a centre around which the whole process moves,
from which it progresses in all directions evenly.
3. Best results are obtained when the wood is seasoned or if
a "forewarming" of the meiler is made, i. e. a light glowing is
maintained in the middle of the meiler until the wood is of proper
dryness.
Periodical Literature. 139
A further investigation into the heat development and tempera-
tures in meilers leads to the following conclusions :
1. In meilers the coaling process progresses in this manner:
As soon as by the direct firing the degree of heat is reached at
which the charring of the wood takes place, the charring pro-
gresses without a further outside source of heat.
To start the charring a somewhat high initial temperature is
necessary, varying with species and size of billets from 315° to
420° C. As soon as the self charring process is begun the tem-
perature needs to be no more than 240° to 280° C in the coaling
zone ; hence
2. Charring in meilers is a burning subdued by limited access
of air, which causes shrinking of the wood to the volume of coal
without any loss of substance usual with burning — an oxidation
without light effects, the German "schwelen" (smoulder).
3. Small wood requires less heat than stout wood of the same
kind.
4. The degree of heat which the wood under access of the
proper amount of air generates itself is the most advantageous
for the coaling process.
5. Real burning, fire or glowing does not take place. Only to
initiate the process of charring is this required, and must not be
allowed to continue beyond the initiation.
6. The descriptions in charcoal literature which refer to fire,
burning, glowing, and the statement that a glowing mass is to be
found in the meiler when burned out, are to be changed as not
describing actualities.
A long and difficult series of experiments was made to deter-
mine the behavior of different qualities of wood, green, air-dry,
soaked, sour and partly rotten, etc., of beech, fir and spruce.
1. The highest smouldering heat and the most rapid coaling is
developed in the rotten or doty wood. This also develops the
largest amount of gas and causes explosions readily.
2. In green wood coaling proceeds slowly at first. But when
once begun it proceeds rapidly and shows a very high degree of
heat at the coaling zone due to the continued development of
steam.
3. Wood which has been dry and then soaked (floated) at first
140 Forestry Quarterly.
chars with high heat very irregularly. Only when the water is
driven off do progress and heat become normal.
The hygroscopic water is much more easily driven off than the
sap.
4. In sour wood, in spite of a very high degree of heat, charring
progresses slowly.
5. The lowest heat and the slowest coaling is shown by well-
dried wood.
If green, wet, sour or rotten wood is mixed with dry wood in
a meiler so that one of these qualities is placed on one side of the
meiler, the dry wood on the other side, the progress of coaling is
more rapid in the dry wood, because the steam developed on the
other part works on it.
7. Rotten or doty wood, even when mixed with sound wood,
chars more quickly than the latter.
8. Carburetted hydrogen is developed in any charring process,
the more the higher the smouldering heat; the more steam is de-
veloped, the poorer the quality of the wood. It does not produce
any injury if it can escape through the smoke holes unhindered.
If it is impeded here, then it attacks first the ready charcoal;
finally it may explode.
9. If under presence of steam and glowing carbon there is a
formation of carbon oxyd gas, this damages the process and the
result. In a fully finished meiler the coal is deteriorated, the coal
crumbles into small pieces, becomes soft and light.
10. In these respects the different species show little difference.
11. Hard woods produce more severe explosions than conifers
and light woods. Frequency of explosion, however, is a charac-
teristic of conifers, especially fir.
The notion that split wood should be set with the split side to
the interior was found of not the slightest value.
Placing the wood in lying position in a standing meiler was
found only to be more expensive, otherwise without objection.
The ease of charring — which, with the exception of the conifers,
denotes also high yield and good quality — the following qualifi-
cation of species was found :
Very good coalers : oaks, beech, ash, maple, elm, birch ; difficult,
but large yield: spruce, fir, pine; slow coaling and small yield:
willow, poplar, basswood.
Periodical Literature. 141
The volume per cent, varies between basswood with 44.8 and
oak 69.7; the weight per cent, between elm with 21.6 and oak
27-5-
1. The higher the absolute fuel value of a species, the higher
lies its coaling temperature. These species cannot produce the
needed smouldering heat as those with a higher specific heat co-
efficient, hence they count among the difficult species.
2. If species of different heat co-efficients are to be coaled
together those with the lower co-efficient should be placed in that
part of the meiler which during the whole process exhibits the
highest heat, i. e. in the quandel zone (center).
Finally, an account is given of the development of a method to
secure by-products of wood vinegar and tar from meilers.
It was found that this could not be done from standing meilers,
but a lying meiler constructed in special manner with a partially
moveable cover, produced 24 per cent, excellent coal, 38 per cent,
pure, strong acetic acid with small quantities of tar; and since
the method permits a perfect regulation of the coaling process
better results may eventually be expected. An impregnation
cylinder being attached produced perfectly treated ties at the
smallest expense.
Vorgdnge bei der Hohvcrkohlung in Meilern, etc. Centralblatt f. d. g.
Forstwesen. December, 1910. Pp. 526-548.
Charcoal burning is persistently carried on
Charcoal in the mountains of Westphalia, Germany,
Burning despite diminishing returns from the indus-
in try — returns which each year threaten to
Germany. vanish — and despite efforts of forest man-
agers to introduce culture of the spruce.
The production of charcoal began some five hundred years ago
with the smelting of the rich iron ores of the region. Until the
introduction of coal and coke, the forests of these mountains were
wholly devoted to charcoal production to supply the needs of
blast furnaces. For there was a time when this region produced
a steel highly prized throughout Europe, and ore was carried
from as far away as Sweden. What charcoal is now produced
finds but a local and uncertain market.
Charcoal is produced in pits and the charcoal burner of to-day
follows exactly the same method of preparing and piling up his
142 Forestry Quarterly.
wood and setting and burning his fires as his forefathers. The
pits are carefully located to secure wind protection. The wood
is placed on end layers, the lowest nearly erect, the upper each
lying flatter than the one below so that the vertical section of a
finished pile is roughtly a parabola. The whole is then covered
with sods and brush and finally with earth and the fire started at
the bottom of a narrow chimney left in the centre. Burning
requires from one to two weeks. Five excellent illustrations
increase the value of the paper.
Hauhergswirtschaft und Waldkohlerei im Sauerlande. Silva, July, 22,
19 10. Pp. 225-7.
Lumberjacks in British Columbia have
Improved started a movement for more sanitary
Lumber camps, contending that some camps are
Camps. splendidly equipped but in general the camp
arrangements are far behind the time.
Enforcement of "The Health Act" is requested and the following
amendments are desired: (i) bedding owned by the company
be made subject to sanitary inspection, dealt out to each man on
joining the camp and charged to him, with rebatement of cost of
same on his departure; (2) bath houses and wash houses to be
at least 50 feet from the house, and to be of modern construction ;
(3) modern and sanitary bunks with springs and mattresses, and
comfortable, well ventilated quarters for the men; (4) a fully
equipped medicine chest with bandages and splints; (5) launches
or boats in every camp to take the injured or sick to the nearest
hospital or doctor, instead of waiting the call of the regular boats,
which are in many cases once a week ; (6) that it shall be unlawful
to pay the men otherwise than in cash, or, if this be inconvenient
or impossible, by ordinary bank cheque or time cheque, payable at
par and on demand at some bank or reputable place of business in
the nearest town or city, and that the men shall, in any event,
receive on departure from camp full cash transportation to the
said town or city.
Canada Lumberman and Woodworker, October 15, 1910.
Periodical Literature. 143
Overhead cableways are particularly useful
Use for moving logs and sawn lumber from
of inaccessible forest regions to drivable
Cableways. streams or to railroads. Their mainten-
ance is economical and the cost of opera-
tion is low, depending on the fall from the woods to the delivering
station. Where the fall is great no power is required and in
extreme cases the system may itself become a source of power.
A few facts and half-a-dozen illustrations of the use of these
cableways in the mountainous countries along the lower Danube
are given in a recent number of "Silva."
A later number of the same periodical gives similar data for
the cableway connecting the wooded upper slopes of the Usambara
mountains in German East Africa with the plains below. With
a slope of 87% in places this is the steepest of its kind in the
world. The cableway is used to carry cedar wood and farm
products from the higher slopes to the plains below, and manu-
factured goods in smaller amounts form the up-going load. No
power is required ; on the contrary the system runs a dynamo for
furnishing light to the plantations below.
Zur Prage der Holsgeivinnung im franssylvanischen Alfengebiet. Silva,
July I, 1910. Pp. 201-2.
Die steilste Bahn in der Welt, eine Holstransportbahn. Silva, Novem-
ber 4, 1910. Pp. 345-6.
A novel device to replace axe and saw in
Tree felling trees and cross-cutting logs has
Felling been patented in Germany, and it has been
Machine. widely described in lumber trade journals
of that country and this. The cut is made
by burning with the heat developed from the friction of a one-
millimeter steel wire drawn back and forth across the stem at
the rate of 1,500 times a minute. Power is furnished by an elec-
tric or gasoline motor set up a hundred feet or more from the
tree to be felled. A pair of steel cables runs to the stem to be cut.
The ends of these cables have suitable clips for attaching the
wire which makes the cut. The length of this wire is about
twice the diameter of the stem. A new wire is used for each
cut. The cost of these wires is less than one cent apiece. The
operation of the felling machine requires one man attending the
motor. It is difficult to compare the time required for making
144 Forestry Quarterly.
similar cuts by hand-sawing and by machine, but such data as
are available indicate that machine-cutting is a little faster on
small trees and may be as much as six times as fast on larger
sizes.
Die Gantke'sche Baumfdlhnaschine. Silva, August 26, 1910. Pp. 267-72.
In Washington and Oregon, a good crew
Logging Costs of fellers should average seven to ten
in trees, or 50,000 feet of timber a day in
Oregon timber that averages from 5,000 to 7,000
and feet to the tree; eight to thirteen trees, or
Washington. 40,000 feet in timber that averages 3,000
to 5,000 to the tree; and fifteen to thirty
trees, or 30,000 feet in timber averaging 1,000 to 2,000 feet per
tree. Two buckers should follow each set of fellers unless there
are several windfalls or rough slope land when there should be
a third bucker. Two adjoining operators are known to have
varied 10,000 to 15,000 board feet in loss due to breakage be-
cause of carelessness on the part of fellers in one camp. This
can be easily prevented by checking each crew's work. Three sets
of fellers are needed for each two yarders, and where one set
of fellers does the work for a single yarder the yarder is working
slowly. Felling and bucking timber averaging 5,000 to 7,000
feet per tree should cost 45 cents a thousand; 3,000 to 5,000 feet
per tree, 55 cents; 1,000 to 2,000 feet per tree, 65 cents. This
includes the cost of filing, new saws, axes, and sledges.
In donkey yarding many operators lose money by using ma-
chines that were never large enough for the work or are too old.
On machines large enough so that it is not necessary to block any
logs out of the woods, the main line for a 10 by 12 yarder should
be I 1-8 inches in diameter, and for the trip or haulback line nine-
sixteenths of an inch; on a 11 by 13, or 12 by 12, compound the
trip line should be i 1-4 inches and the haulback five-eighths.
These lines should log 5,000,000 feet before breaking. All cable
breaking on yarders should be prevented by transferring the cable
to a road machine as soon as it shows signs of wear. Nine hun-
dred feet is considered a good average working distance. The
following table shows average results that may be expected from
a yarder:
Periodical Literature.
145
Board feet Am't yarded
per log per day
Cost per Board feet
2,000
1,750
1,500
1,250
90,000
78,750
67,500
62,500
thousand
$0.40
• 45
•53
• 59
per log
1,000
750
500
250
Am't yarded
per day
55,000
41,250
32,500
22,500
Cost per
thousand
$0.65
• 87
1. 12
1.60
This table makes allowances for time lost in moving yarders
from one location to another and the cost is based on a crew con-
taining one driver, one fireman, one-half wood biicker, one
chaser, one hook tender, two rigging slingers, one swamper and
sniper which costs $26 per day to which should be added $10 for
upkeep of machinery, blocks, rigging, lines, etc. In this table
it is assumed that the trip or haulback line is run 425 feet a min-
ute, the main line 225 feet a minute, but, if the machine is work-
ing at 450 feet, the actual length of time that the machine is
really hauling logs is about two and one-half hours, which with
the necessary short starts to straighten logs in the woods makes
five hours. Four hours is allowed for placing chokers, unfasten-
ing logs by chaser, pulling windfalls and changing the head block
on the trip line. One hour per day is allowed for an accumula-
tion of time in which to move the donkey engine which usually
averages about 800 feet in seven hours.
Two-and three-log pole roads should not cost more than 2'j^
cents per foot and need no care after construction if properly
built. Running chutes are estimated to cost 55 cents per foot for
large fir timber. A road engine has an average length of haul
of 3,000 feet and it is advisable to have the machine large enough
to care for the output of two yarders. If the distance exceeds
this a swing donkey is recommended. The crew usually consists
of an engineer, fireman, wood bucker, chaser and a grab man.
The average cost of labor and deterioration is about $32.50 per
day.
Size of
Cost of road
Yarding timber
Yarding to a
Yarding to a
log in
donkey work
directly to
3,000 ft.
3,000 ft.
bd. ft.
at $32.50
railroad
pole road with
pole road with
per day
two yarders
one yarder
250
$0.70
$3-95
$4.70
$5^40
500
•50
3-47
4.02
4-52
750
.40
3^07
3^52
3-92
1,000
.30
2.90
3-25
3^55
1,250
.26
2.79
3.10
3.36
1,500
.25
2.68
2.98
3^25
1,750
.21
2.60
2.86
3-07
2,000
.18
2.55
2.78
2.96
10
146 Forestry Quarterly.
In compiling the figures for the last three columns railroad
expense is computed at one dollar per thousand with an additional
10 cents allowed for svirveys, buildings, etc.
The Timberman, October, 1910.
The logging railroads of the Pacific Coast
Pacific Coast from San Francisco north to near the
Log Roads. Arctic circle represent 2,000 miles, requir-
ing $1,500,000 for repairs and replace-
ments and $1,000,000 for new lines and equipment. In 1909,
Washington had 630.75 miles, divided among 154 sawmills or an
average of 4.09 miles per mill. The longest line of 32 miles is
owned by the Poison Logging Company while three companies
own 20 miles or more. These figures do not include several
short lines which carry on general business but are dependent
upon the sawmill for 90 per cent of their revenue.
The average cost of a main line logging road in Washington
or British Columbia is $7,655 and the cost of equipping a road
which operates one yard or a standard crew of men in the woods
is $29,200. On this basis a ten mile road and the equipment
would cost $110,000. A few years ago, 15 per cent, grades were
not unusual but 4 per cent, grades are now the upper limit;
25 degree curves have been replaced by a maximum of 12 de-
grees and the standard rail is 56 pounds, although 36 to 65
pound rails are in use.
American Lumberman, November 19, 1910.
In the sixteen counties of North Carolina
Good Roads that are west of the Blue Ridge Mountains
and about three-fourths of the area is in for-
Forest Use. est and most of this land is better suited
for forest production than for any other
use. In 1909, the state forester estimated that 15 million cubic
feet of timber was hauled to market over the public roads of
these counties. The estimated cost of hauling this timber was
$750,000 which is twice as much as its stumpage value. This
cost of hauling necessitates the leaving of lower grades and in-
ferior species in the woods as well as tops and small logs that
might otherwise be used for cordwood. Good roads would mean
a closer utilization that would decrease fire danger in the smaller
Periodical Literature. 147
amount of debris left as is shown in Buncombe county where
cordwood can be hauled for six to ten miles at a profit on good
roads but on three-quarters to one mile where the roads are un-
improved. Good roads also increase the value of cut-over lands
after the lumbermen have finished cutting the merchantable
timber. Inter-county roads of good construction are recom-
mended as an important undertaking and are being rapidly con-
structed in this state.
"Good Roads and Lumbering," The Southern Lumberman, December 24,
1910.
Up to 1880, White Pine was most exten-
Cha^ge sively used for interior finish for all build-
in ings except those of highest class for
Use which hardwoods, including mahogany,
of prevailed. About 30 years ago southern
Species. pine began to encroach on White Pine
for this use, and this has been followed by
cypress and many hardwoods. Redwood, Douglas Fir, spruce
and cedar from the Pacific Coast have gained considerably in the
last ten to fifteen years but have been slow because of high freight
rates. Hemlock had been used for dimension materials for sev-
eral years in New England but did not begin to have a value in
the middle West until 1885.
Hardwoods have shown the greatest diversity. Up to 1880
White Oak was used almost to the exclusion of other hardwoods.
Then the value of Red Oak was recognized and gradually be-
came an important species. In the late 8o's Hard Maple became
important as a flooring material and now several other hard-
woods are of great importance. It was not until 1886 to 1890
that Cottonwood and gum first were considered but are now
standard box materials competing strongly with northern pines.
American Lumberman, December 17, 1910.
In the early part of the last century the en-
Square tire export of Quebec pine was squared
Timber timber, hewn with the axe. This timber
Trade was floated down to Quebec, where it was
butted and dressed. Culls were used lo-
cally for wharf timber and other similar uses. The square logs
were converted into planks and boards at sawmills in the large
148 Forestry Quarterly.
towns in England, but in county yards, pit sawing prevailed.
Jn 1861, waney pine was first allowed; the timbers were left with
3 to 6 inches en the corners to avoid waste in hewing the timber
exactly square. The first raft of square timber on the Ottawa
River left the mouth of Gatineau River June 11, 1806, and took
28 days to reach Montreal. In the early days the rafts were very
crude. Cables were made from twisted birch saplings, anchors of
wood and the wooden oars, which were 24 feet long, were hewed
from small trees. The industry has largely disappeared with
the introduction of the modern sawmill. A detailed table of the
output of square and waney timber from 1845 to 1909 is ap-
pended.
Canada Lumberman and Woodworker, January i, 191 1.
The greatest difficulty confronting hard-
Glut wood millmen to-day is how to realize a
in profit or even cover the cost of production
Low Grades. in low grade lumber. The demand for box
material has been less since the introduc-
tion of fiber and paper boxes which are rapidly replacing lumber.
Low grades are consquently piling up in various parts of the
country, especially at points remote from consumption.
This decline may cause development in use superior to that of
boxes. It is said that no other problem before the hardwood
millmen is so important and that, despite other statements to
the contrary, hardwood lumbermen have made little progress
toward effective forest conservation or economic utilization of
their product. Dry kilns at points of production would aid ma-
terially but other solutions must also be made.
Hardwood Record, October 10, 1910.
This tree is the most valuable of all the
Quebracho. species growing in Argentine Republic. It
has been used extensively for railroad ties
and fence posts, and is said to have lasted 40 years. The bark
was formerly exported in large quantities for tannin but now
the extract is shipped. The center of the quebracho trade is
Santa Fe, a city about 350 miles north of Buenos Aires on the
Parana River. During the year 1909 Argentina exported 55,493
Periodical Literature. 149
tons of quebracho extract valued at $4,226,333 in Argentina
gold (one dollar Argentina gold equals $0,965 United States
money). The principal market was the United States which re-
ceived 25,693 tons ; Germany received 6,265 tons.
The Lumber Review, November 15, 1910.
The species Chamaecyparis thyoides, is na-
Use tive to the Atlantic coastal plain from
of Maine to Florida growing mostly in
White Cedar springy swamps. Its best stand develop-
and ment is reported to be in Ocean County,
Enemies. New Jersey. The largest stand is located
at Double Trouble on Cedar Creek which
flows into Barnegat Bay, and covers 1,800 acres. The species
has a remarkable density which often prevents a man from
walking through its stands. Forest fires are practically unknown
because of swamp conditions.
The species is used almost exclusively by boat builders who
now pay $65 per M at the mill. Siding and one-half inch stuflf
demand $25 per M at the mill. It makes the highest class 4.18
and 4.24 inch shingles and is second only to tamarack for ship
knees being used for bilge timber, braces and breast hooks while
the tamarack is used for sternposts and post wells. The most
extensive use is for telegraph poles. A minor industry of great
importance in this forest type is the collection of spagnum moss
which yields $10 per ton when dry.
Many fungi affect the white cedar. The hair root fungus,
Agariciis mellens, which is coarse and bushy like an Indian's
hair, bores through the roots or knees of the cedar and cuts
them off below ground. High winds then blow the trees over
if there is enough space or against other trees. Often as soon
as the tree is felled it is attacked by Coriolus proMcans which
is distinguished by its large number of small brackets. Later
on its decay, Blfvingia megaloma and Fomes annosiis are com-
mon. A new species which is badly destructive is Steecherinum
hallouii. This species forms buff-colored fruiting bodies which
occur in the crowns of the trees but may work down on the top
portion of the trunk.
American Lumberman, November 12, 191 0.
150 Forestry Quarterly.
This species, Nyssa aquatica, is also
Utilisation known as Tupelo Gum, Cotton Gum, Sour
of Gum, Large Tupelo, Swamp Tupelo, and
Tupelo Gum. Wild Olive tree. The tupelo has an ex-
tended commercial range in eleven states,
and produced twice as much lumber in 1907 as in 1905. The
tree attains a diameter of 3 to 4 feet and a height of 65 to 90 feet.
It is chiefly associated with cypress.
The wood is close grained, compact, with thin, numerous me-
dullary rays, of a light brown or often nearly a white color.
Early settlers generally let tupelo alone. In a list of the uses
of this wood published a century ago was large wooden bowls,
wagon beds, hubs for heavy wagons and one-piece cart wheels.
The wood was one of the first substitutes for Yellow Poplar.
For 200 years Yellow Poplar was the principal stock for tobacco
hogsheads but increased prices have caused a large use of Tulip
Poplar. Plug tobacco boxes which were once made almost ex-
clusively from sycamore are now largely made from Tulip Pop-
lar. A comparatively large amount is exported to Europe as
square timber where it is resawed and used for interior finish.
The amount of veneer cut from this species in 1907 was about
15 million feet or about 4 times as much as black walnut. Veneer
trunk makers prefer it to all other woods because it may be had
in sizes large enough for the largest trunks. It is especially de-
sired as backs for mirrors when 3 or more sheets are glued to-
gether. Occasionally it is used for outside finish.
Tupelo floors in warehouses and factories are claimed to wear
smoother and longer than oak or maple. It is also used for pump
logs, conduits, tramways, sills for lumber trucks, piano cases,
piano tops, carriage bodies, many kinds of furniture, crates, bas-
kets, boxes, packing cases of grills, coffins, sounding boards for
musical instruments, slack cooperage, turned table legs, spindles,
balustrades, posts, columns, plasterers' laths, picture frames and
its cord-like roots are occasionally substituted for cork on fish
nets and bicycle handles.
The Tupelo Gum has few insect enemies but often decays
quickly from fungus attacks. It takes preservative treatment
readily and a large part of its future use may be for cross ties,
cross arms, posts, poles, mine timbers, shingles, pump logs and
Periodical Literature. 151
paving blocks. Tests have shown that it is satisfactory for pulp
which is good enough for print paper and possibly for book
paper.
American lyumberman, Nov. 26, 1910.
The use of Lodgepole Pine has increased
Value largely in the last two years because of
of the high prices for other species and a
Lodgepole Pine. recognition of the merit of this species. It
has principally a local use for rough lum-
ber, mine props, railroad ties, and fence posts in regions where
it grows naturally. Its distribution is said to have increased
greatly during the past 300 years as a result of fire. The seed
of this species, protected by serotinous cones, gives it an excellent
opportunity to establish itself after burns.
Before 1905, Lodgepole Pine stumpage sold uniformly on Na-
tional Forests at about $1.00 per thousand board feet. In 1905,
a maximum price of $2.50 was received in one large sale, while
in other cases $1.50 to $2.00 was received. In 1906, prices ranged
from $2.00 to $5.00 per thousand according to local conditions.
The yield rarely exceeds 7,000 board feet per acre, but occasion-
ally goes as high as 20,000 board feet.
Over 2,000,000 ties of this species are used annually, of which
1,800,000 are cut from National Forests. The Union Pacific and
Burlington railways prefer Lodgepole Pine ties over any other
species of western timber on account of ease of preservative
treatment. The Northern Pacific Railway is beginning to use
them. The average price for standard ties is about 50 cents
each, and for second-class ties is about 30 cents each.
Mines in Wyoming and southern Montana annually demand
300,000 to 500,000 pieces, or 3,000,000 to 5,000,000 linear feet.
Of this amount Lodgepole Pine forests furnish about 3,000,000
linear feet. Lumber in the rough sells at $14 to $16 per M ,
surfaced, at $17 to $19. Flooring sells at $18 to ^22 per thousand
and lath at $5 to $6 per thousand. These prices prevail where
the timber is easily accessible. Flooring has sold as high as $30
where long hauls are necessary.
It is believed that Lodgepole Pine will find a broader future
152 Forestry Quarterly.
market by being used for fence posts, box board pulp, telegraph
poles and telephone poles.
American Lumberman, November 12, 1910.
True burls are quite rare and few dealers
Walnut have enough knowledge to form an ac-
Burls. curate estimate of their value from ex-
terior appearances. Root burls covered by
soil are usually valuable while those growing higher up are
exposed to the elements, bark grown, and often insect infested.
Burl may take any form, but the most desired form is that of
a turnip. Burls at the surface of the ground send out roots and
the fewer roots the greater the value of the burl since the roots
are straight grained. They are sold by the pound at 10 to 15
cents and higher.
Black walnut is a very common burl tree and is more produc-
tive of the malformation where the timber is somewhat dwarfed
and stunted. Burl veneers are cut by sawing, slicing or the ro-
tary process and great skill is required in opening and cutting
in order to get the finest figure on the same block.
The Wood-Worker, October, 1910.
True mahogany, Smietenia mahogani,
Mahogany. stands in a class by itself and most of the
woods sold under the trade name of ma-
hogany are inferior. This unexcelled cabinet timber has been
exploited for about 200 years and large, accessible trees are now
scarce. It was first imported into England, unmanufactured, in
1724 and since that time the demand has been much larger than
the supply causing the use of more than twenty substitutes under
the trade name. The so-called African or Gambia mahogany
which is largely used is Khaya scnegalensis. The principal
American species used as a substitute is Cedrela. Other promi-
nent genera used are Soymida, Chnkrassia, Trichilia, Guarea,
Pterocarpus, Calophyllum, Cariniana, Persea, Swartzia, Caesal-
pinia, Eucalyptus and Tristana.
Hardwood Record, October 25, 1910.
Periodical Literature. 153
The Gilmer system of turpentining has
New Method been inspected by a large number of lum-
of bermen and turpentine manufacturers.
Turpentine This system distills crude turpentine di-
Gathering. rectly from the tree by an air-tight cup.
The tree is tapped without hacking and it
IS claimed that it does not injure the tree in the least and is as
rapid as the old method. A Union Naval Inspector made an
analysis of the ground showing that 748 pounds of crude tur-
pentine gave 530 pounds of resin and 148 pounds of spirits,
-equal to 13^ gallons to the barrel. This gave 19.78 per cent, tur-
pentine, 70.85 per cent, resin and 9.37 per cent, waste which is
.a gain of 18.54 per cent, over the old method.
Southwest, October, 1910.
A few years ago the turpentine privilege
Value sold for $3 per acre for a 3 year period
of but at present the price averages about
Turpentine $4-50. This is for stands of 10,000 to 12,-
Limits. 000 feet. Privileges are usually based on
a "crop" of 10,500 boxes at a price of $700
to $800. Many quarter sections average this number of boxes
but if more than 160 acres are required the cost varies from
^2.50 up depending upon the cost of operation. Other factors
such as swampy or high ground, condition and size of timber,
-number of trees to the acre and general accessibility greatly af-
fect prices.
American Lumberman, Nov. 12, 1910.
Apple barrels are generally made of ash,
Apple gum, or other hardwoods with elm hoops
Barrels. as a standard. The stave is 28^ inches
long with an average width of 5^ inches.
Six hoops are generally used but occasionally eight hoops are
used for special purposes. Coopers are careful to maintain the
uniform capacity of three bushels. Number 2 stock is generally
used for apple barrels ; white No. i stock is used for flour. In
the South where the heat is intense many plants use negro labor
v€xclusively.
Barrel and Box, October, 1910.
4^
154 Forestry Quarterly.
The average beer keg of eight gallons ca-
Beer pacity sells for $2.25 to $2.35 and has a
Kegs. life varying from 3 to 10 years. It is some-
times refilled as often as twice a week but
if it is assumed that the cost is $2.25, refilling 50 times a year,
average life 4 years and $1.75 for repairs on the basis of 25
cents for each replaced stave and 28 cents for each new hoop,
the cost of the package would amount to one-fourth of a cent
for each gallon as against approximately four cents a gallon for
glass bottles.
Barrel and Box, October, 1910.
One- fifth to one-sixth of all the sawmilV
Wooden output of the United States is made into
cmd boxes and most of this is low grade ma-
Piher terial that remains after sorting. In 19 10,
Boxes. the Forest Service carried out an investi-
gation in Massachusetts, Maryland, North:
Carolina, Kentucky, Illinois and Wisconsin and found a total
use of 1,137,137,000 feet or 63 feet per capita. At this rate
there was a falling off of 1,000,000,000 feet from the year 1907.
The material for fiber boxes is largely produced by pulp mills
and usually completed by box mills that glue and cut the boxes.
The size of fiber boxes, thickness of board, and minimum'
strength of board are governed by the regulations of railroads
and are strictly enforced. The three sizes specified are 60, 80 and
100 points — ^that is 60, 80, and 100 one-thousandths of an inch
respectively. The 60 point box must not have its three dimen-
sions exceed 65 inches with a filled weight of 40 pounds ; the
80 point box must not have its three dimensions exceed 70
inches and the 100 pound box must not exceed 75 inches and a
filled weight of 90 pounds. Express companies will accept
weaker boxes than railroads.
In this investigation 57 per cent of the fiber boxes were found'
to be made from chip, 22 per cent, from straw, 16 per cent, from
wood pulp and 5 per cent, from jute.
In a general way the fiber boxes cost 10 per cent, less than
wooden boxes. 90.6 per cent, of all boxes are wood against
9.4 of fiber if based on surface measure. Competition be-
tween the two kinds of boxes is active for comparatively smalt
Periodical Literature. 155
sizes only where extra strength is not required. Fiber does not
stand water well but never imparts taste while some wooden
boxes impart taste. Rats gnaw fiber boxes more than wood but
theft is more common from wooden boxes. Both boxes are
largely made from different kinds of low grade material and may
be used over and over, by re-pulping the fiber box and using the
wooden box as it is and finally converting it into fuel.
American Lumberman, Dec. 10, 1910.
The most important specifications adopted
Wood for wood block paving by 43 representa-
Paving tives of large cities from all over the
Specification^. United States are as follows:
The wood to be treated shall consist of
Long Leaf Pine, Norway Pine, Black Gum or Tamarack, but
only one species shall be used in one contract. Longleaf Pine
blocks shall be cut from sound timber, well manufactured, full
size, saw-butted, square-edged and shall be free from hollow
knots, worm holes, knot holes, through-shakes and round shakes
that show on the surface, and not have an average of less than
six annual rings to the inch measured radically. The other
species shall be of a first grade similar to that demanded for
Longleaf Pine.
The blocks may be from 5 to 10 inches long but shall average
8 inches, three and one-half to four inches in depth according to
traffic, and 3 to 4 inches in breadth. All blocks in one street or
improvement shall be of equal size. A variation of one-sixteenth
of an inch shall be allowed in depth and one-eighth of an inch
in width. The blocks shall be treated with a specified grade of
oil, and contain not less than 20 pounds per cubic foot for pines
and tamarack, and 22 pounds for gum.
The oil must be a coal tar product free from adulteration,
specific gravity of at least i.io at 38 degrees C, and not more
than 3 per cent, of the oil shall be insoluble by hot, continnous
extraction with benzol or chloroform.
Blocks are to be laid on a sand cushion one inch in thickness
laid upon concrete foundation. Pitch or fine sand is to be used
as a filler. All expansion joints are to be laid along the curb
and traverse joints one-half inch in width every fifty feet along
156 Forestry Quarterly.
the street; these joints are to be filled with a bituminous com-
position.
American Lumberman, Dec. 17, 1910.
Thickness of veneers is causing consider-
Thickness able discussion among the manufacturers
of and the users. According to reports from
Veneers. the U. S. Forest Service the greatest
quantity is cut 3-16 of an inch thick, with
■| inch thickness second, and ^ inch third. These figures show
the average thickness but are misleading as they do not show
the relative thickness of veneers used for different purposes.
At present, face veneering proper is mostly cut in thicknesses
of 1/16, 1/20 and 1/28 of an inch in both the rotary-cut and the
sawed or sliced stock. Formerly most of the sawed or sliced
stock was cut 1/16 to 1/20 of an inch thick while rotary stock
aften ran up to 1/16 or 1/8 inch for face veneering. The pres-
ent tendency, however, is toward the thinner veneers running
between 1/16 and 1/20 of an inch while it is expected that
another year or two will bring the average close to 1/20 of an
inch except in mahogany and some other valuable imported
woods which are commonly cut to 1/30 of an inch.
There is already springing up a difference in practice since
door and mill work users generally demand 1/8 inch material and
some of this is used in furniture panels. Naturally the greatest
bulk of thick veneer is used as thin lumber in box shooks and
other package making.
Woodcraft, November, 1910.
Cost With a total factory and miscellaneous ex-
of pense of '^jt, per day per machine, a log
Veneer cost of $20 per thousand and an average
Cutting. per cent, of waste that the author has
found from experience in Northern Wis-
consin, the following costs are given for
single-ply, rotary cut stock:
Periodical Literature. 157
1-28", $3.12
1-24"- 3-52
1-20", 3.87
1-4 ", 13-31
1-16", 4.71
1-8 ", 8.00
3-16", 10.25
Hardwood Record, Dec. 25, 1910.
Cottonwood was for a long time consid-
Cottonwood ered almost worthless. The demand for
Boxes. box material brought it into extensive use
and at present there is frequently a demand
for cheaper substitutes. Cottonwood varies considerably in color
from pure white to nearly the color of red gum. It takes print-
ing excellently and rivals the basswood in this respect. It is al-
most exclusively used in the middle west for high-grade whiskey
boxes which often demands one of the highest type of boxes con-
structed. Its special value is increased because of the large
sizes, tough fiber in proportion to weight and a spongy quality
that enables it to stand shocks.
The St. Louis Lumberman, Dec. I, 1910.
STATISTICS AND HISTORY.
A valuable contribution to the statistics of
Swiss the Swiss republic is furnished by Prof.
Wood DeCoppet's report on the wood trade with
Trade. foreign countries during 1885 to 1907, a
sequel to Dr. Biihler's statistics for 1851
to 1885.
For former years the custom house reports have served, but
since 1907 a regular forest statistical office has been provided.
Since 1885, the importation of cordwood and charcoal, as well
as of logs, has increased, the latter five fold. For sawed material
there is also a rise, but export has decreased much less than in
the raw product.
In 1885 pulpwood was being exported in excess of import, in
1907 the opposite is the case. The total wood import, which in
1885 was nearly balanced by export, has more than doubled.
158 Forestry Quarterly.
from 10,600,000 to 24,600,000 cubic feet, and from $2.6 to 9
million in value, while the export has fallen from $2.2 to 1.6 mil-
lion. Austria furnishes about one-half of the total import while
about two-fifths of the workwood import comes from there;
another two-fifths from Germany, while in 1885 the import from
Germany amounted to four-fifths.
Especially sawed material is for the most part furnished by
Austria, displacing Germany.
In 1907 the total consumption in the country was: workwood,
import 14,100,000, home production 35,300,000; fuelwood, im-
port 10,600,000, home production 36,400,000; or altogether over
94 million cubic feet of wood, or about 30 cubic foot per capita,
half of which workwood.
The author uses this showing to point out the necessity of bet-
ter management of the 2.5 million acres of home forest.
Statistik des Holsverkehrs der Schmeis mit dem Auslande. Schweizer-
ische Zeitschrift. June, July, 1910. P. 220; also Centralblatt f. d. g.
Forstwesen. November, 1910, p. 492.
The lumber trade of Michigan, Wisconsin
Lumber and Minnesota was slight from the early
Prices. 40's to 1862 or 1863, but the Civil War
caused a boom in the late 6o's which was
followed by a collapse in the panic of 1873. After the restora-
tion of specie payments in 1879 the white pine business improved
rapidly until the boom of 1881, but decHned in 1882 and 1883.
From 1883 there was a steady increase in prices due to the
rapid settlement farther west until the panic of 1893. At this
time stumpage values had increased to $3 or more a thousand,
lumber began to be based on stumpage values, and there was an
effort to standardize stumpage values; but this failed. Many
operators made a profit owing to the ease of handling logs and
lumber on the water even though they would have lost if stump-
age values had been considered.
The southern pineries are at present in the position of the
northern pineries during the years of 1850 to 1875, with worse
effects due to the necessity of moving the southern pine almost
as soon as manufactured,
American Lumberman, Nov. 19. 1910.
Periodical Literature. 159
In 1890, the raw pulp wood material ex-
Canadian ported from Canada amounted to $80,005
Pidpwood of which $22,808 went to Great Britain and
and $57,197 to the United States. By 1900,
Pidp. this export amounted to $902,772 of which
$38,370 went to Great Britain and $864,-
•077 came to the United States. In 1909, the total had reached
794,986 cords, valued at $4,356,391, practically all of which went
to the United States.
The wood pulp record is even more striking. In 1890 Canada
•exported $168,180 worth of pulp of which $460 went to Great
Britain and $147,098 to the United States. By 1890, this ex-
port reached $1,806,016 of which $562,178 went to Great Britain
and $1,193,753 to the United States. In 1909, the total pulpwood
export was $4,306,929. Great Britain received $1,084,720 and
the United States $3,064,879 while the remainder went to France,
Belgium, Mexico, Japan, Argentine Republic, Cuba and miscel-
laneous countries in the order named.
Pulp and Paper, October, 1910.
Spain is very sparsely timbered and de-
Timher pends largely upon importations from Nor-
Trade way, Sweden, France, Russia, Portugal and
in the United States. The latest year for
Spain, which statistics are available, 1908, shows
the value of imported lumber and staves as
$7,382,000 of which $1,515,000 worth came from the United
States. The value of staves, shooks, etc., from this country
amounted to $644,122 which is charged tariff at the low rate of
2 cents per 100 lbs. Ordinary species in logs or pieces more
than 40 millimeters thick are charged tariff at the rate of 5
pesetas (96^ cents) per cubic meter which amounts to $2.29 per
thousand board feet, while smaller material is charged 6 pesetas
($1.16) per cubic meter or $2.75 per thousand. All American
woods with the exception of walnut are classed as ordinary.
High rates are charged on all manufactured material with the
result that most of it is manufactured at home.
Most of the lumber is imported by Madrid dealers, while Bar-
celona is the center for stave material. "American style" furni-
ture, especially for offices is becoming popular, but is mostly
i6o Forestry Quarterly.
home made. White and Yellow Pine is the chief lumber im-
ported in the Valencia district; beech from Austria-Hungary and
the Balkans is preferred for furniture, coach building and cabinet
making.
lyumber Trade Journal, November i, 1910.
A comparison of present conditions in a
Silvicultural forest with the forest description and
History. working plan of a hundred and twenty
years ago is one of the interesting possi-
bilities in Germany. This stock taking and planning were made
like many since, as a preventive measure against an impending
wood-famine. On making such a comparison, the present for-
ester finds the soil has improved with the change from coppice
and mixed forest to high forest ; that conifers have been intro-
duced by way of experiment on soils which produce higher re-
turns under hardwoods; that in that day some minor species^
notably birch, were given consideration, where now they are
disregarded as timber trees.
Highly satisfactory results have come from natural regenera-
tion of spruce, and natural seeding has maintained an admixture
of cherry in oak stands. The wonder is how in the face of such
excellent results natural regeneration was in the last half of the
nineteenth century so entirely neglected and planting practiced
instead. The hope thereby to gain the four or five years repre-
sented by the age of the plants when set out seems to have been
the controlling factor.
FichtenverjUngung einst und jetzt. Silva. June, 1910, pp. 193-5.
In these days of budding forest administra-
Austria tions on the American continent the ex-
Reform tended discussion by Kubelka of the needs
of of reform in an old established organiza-
Forest tion are, or ought to be, of interest, even
Administration. though only the principles underlying the
organization are of value to us.
The article follows a monographic discussion of the same sub-
ject by Charbulas, and goes into minute details, describing exist-
ing organization and criticizing it. It discusses the division of
labor among the forest officials, and here criticizes the lack of
Periodical Literature. i6i
freedom of the man in charge of the local administration. The
method of woodsales especially he wants to see improved in com-
mercial directions, so as to enable the district managers to take
advantage of market fluctuations.
Account keeping and budget formulation is treated in detail.
Reduction of office work and of reporting work is urged so that
the manager may devote more time to the woods ; a short
monthly report, from which the annual can be compiled, takes
less time than an elaborate annual report.
The wider use of telephones is pointed out as a labor saving
device within the forest and from and to head offices.
Inspection comes in for considerable discussion, as well as the
character of personnel and advancement, the change from bureau-
cratic to collegiate form of direction. The details would lead us
too far to elaborate.
Zur Frage der Reform der Staatsforstverwaltung. Centralblatt f. d. g.
Forstwesen. October, 1910. Pp. 427-448.
The Austrian forest administration has for
Commercial the last five years instituted a commercial
Courses. course for its officials, in which a dozen or
more of the forest officials are ordered to
attend lectures for eight weeks, and at the end of the course to
an excursion to wood consuming factories under competent
guidance (Prof. Marchet).
This excursion of 12 days duration is reported upon. It
included visits to lumberyards, sawmills, planing mills, furniture
and barrel manufacturers, impregnation works, shipping yards
and harbors in leading wood markets, the excursion extending to
Brussels and Antwerp.
This is certainly a unique institution for widening the horizon
of the men who are called upon to direct eventually the forest
policy of the country.
In another place a similar course for private forest officials to
be held in Vienna is announced by one of the instructors at the
government course.
Studienreise des Kommerziellen Kurses fiir Staatsforstbeanite im Jahre
1910. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, October, 1910. Pp. 457-466.
11
i62 Forestry Quarterly.
As interesting in showing the progress of
Private private forest management in Germany, the
Forest School institution of a new private forest school
in in the neighborhood of Berhn (Neubran-
Prussia. denbury) by two Oberforster may be re-
ferred to. The purpose is to educate on
practical hnes both lower and higher grade foresters for private
employment and also sons of forest owners, somewhat like Dr.
Schenck's school. It is to be a boarding school.
Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. October, 19 lo. P. 469.
The oldest German forest high school, at
Vicissitudes Aschaffenburg, Bavaria, closed its doors on
of a July 30, 1910. It had been founded in
Forest 1807, and with an interruption of a short
School. period (1832-18/^4.) for over ninety years
prepared the foresters, wholly or in part,
for the Bavarian forest service. Since 1878 when a forestry
faculty was organized at Munich, it laid in a two years' course the
foundation for the two years at the University which now has
also been transferred to the University.
Dr. V. Furst, well known even to American foresters by his
volume on forest nursery work, its director for the last 32 years,
retiring at the age of seventy-three, writes interestingly of the
history of this institution.
When the school started the city and its surroundings belonged
to the electorate of Mainz, but in 18 14 it came into Bavaria.
Originally it was a conception of some professors of the gym-
nasium, a municipal institution with a one-year course, but in
1819 was made a State institution, when a course for the lower
and another two-year course for the higher education were organ-
ized.
This hotch-potch did not work well, and the quarrels among
the staff broke up the institution in 1832, and transfer of the
education to the University, giving up the idea of an academic
education for the lowest forest officials to the rank of supervisors.
In consequence the poor quality of these officials led to the re-
establishment of the school in 1844 with a 2-year course, an
organization of a secondary school character, the University con-
Periodical Literature. 163
tinuing its work for the higher grades, until in 1848 this part
was discontinued.
A reorganization in 1858 brought improvement, but did not
bring the institution to a satisfactory position. In 1878, the new
order of things, was inaugurated by a division of functions
between the school and the University, and the troublesome times
for the school seemed past. But it became apparent that the
duplication of apparatus at the two institutions for the few stu-
dents— by 1906 the number had fallen to 15 — was an uneconomi-
cal arrangement and the abandonment became a natural sequel
in the evolution of the forestry education of Bavaria.
The interest in the history of the school will remain as long
as the names of the eminent men who taught there are quoted as
authorities ; several of them, known even in America, like Fiirsc
himself, Gayer, Ebermayer, Weber, Schwappach, the botanist
Prantl, while Behlen, the founder of the Allgemeine Forst-und
Jagdzeitung, Mantel and Stumpf, once acknowledged authorities,
are already nearly forgotten.
Die forstliche Hochschule Aschaffenburg. Forstwissenschaftliches Cen-
tralblatt. December, 1910. Pp. 621-633.
MISCELLANEOUS.
Sawmills are run by Europeans and by na-
Lumbering tives. Usually the European mills are su-
in perintended by an Englishman assisted by
India. natives but in large Calcutta and Bombay
mills the engineer and one or two of his
assistants are also white men. Native mills are of very poor
class but some of the European mills have the finest equipment.
There is a strong demand for lumber, particularly in Calcutta,
Bombay and Madras. The railroads, contractors and govern-
ment cause a good demand "up country." Railroad rates are
cheap but wages vary greatly according to the district. In Cal-
cutta the native may receive $5.00 per month, but in the north
and south, two-thirds of this sum is an average wage.
Sawmill Operations in India, American Lumberman, Dec. 17, 1910.
164 Forestry Quarterly.
According to a newspaper correspondent
Siberian Americans "have found it necessary, on
Wood account of the expense and difficulty of
to securing wood supplies from Canadian
United States. forests, to go to Siberia and Manchuria."
While during the building of the Chinese
railroad the United States furnished large quantities of wood
material, now a company of Russians, Americans and Chinese
has been formed at Charbin which has a commission from the
Chinese government and has begun to exploit the large cedar
forests of the province Girin. The company works energetically
with large means, and "find great support on the part of the
government of the United States." Last year over 30,000 cedar
logs were ready for shipment.
Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. October, 1910. Pp. 471.
OTHER PERIODICAL LITERATURE.
American Forestry, XVI, 1910, —
The Protection of Forests from Fire. Pp. 659-667 ; 710-
717.
The Forests of Alaska. Pp. 704-709,
Abstract from Bulletin 81, U. S. Forest Service.
The Cabinet Woods of the Future. Pp. 'j22,-'j2g.
Description of suitable species, mostly Brazilian.
Where Forestry Can Be Studied. Pp. 730-733.
A list of institutions in United States where forestry is
taught, with brief statement of scope of work done in each
case.
(XVII, 1911),
Forestry Progress in New Hampshire. Pp. 19-29.
Historical.
The Protection of Forests from Fire. Pp. 41-47.
Conclusion of Bulletin 82, U. S. Forest Service.
Other Periodical Literature. 165
Shall States Regulate the Management of Private Forests?
Pp. 82-88.
The Minnesota Forester, III, 1910, —
The Forests of Costa Rica. Pp. 128- 131.
Descriptive.
Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, XLII, 1910, —
Alaska Agricultural Possibilities. Pp. 888-903.
The Botanical Gazette, L, 1910, —
Reversionary Characters of Traumatic Oak Woods. Pp.
374-380.
The reversion of pith rays of severely wounded areas to
the uniseriate condition is further evidence that the large
"primary" ray is an aggregation of numerous small rays.
The Ecology of Conifers. Pp. 394.
(LI, 1911),
The Phloem of the Juglandaceae. Pp. 131-135.
Science, XXXIII, 1911,—
Pecan Scab. Pp. 77-78.
An account of the work of Fusicladium effusum, Wint.
Varieties transferred from dry Texan conditions to the
humid conditions of the gulf coast seem more susceptible.
The Formation of Carbohydrates in the Vegetable King-
dom. Pp. 131-142.
A resume of the researches in this field.
Relation of Certain Fungi to Nitrogen Fixation. P. 191.
In culture experiments with five species no fixation was
indicated.
Spruce Burls. P. 193.
Notice of description of appearance and anatomy of burls
on white spruce in Maine and Minnesota.
l66 Forestry Quarterly.
Rust of Tsuga canadensis. P. 194.
Notice of a new species of Caeoma on the cones.
Canadian Forestry Journal, VI, 1910, —
Forestry for Municipalities. Pp. 99-104.
Ontario's Forest Fires. Pp. 107-109.
The Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada, VIII, 1910, —
Canadafs Trade in Pulp, Paper and Printed Matter. Pp.
255-258.
Detailed statistics, 1886-1910.
Statistical History of Canadian Trdde in Pulp, Paper and
Manufactures of Paper. Pp. 285-289.
Figures for 1886, 1900 and 1910 with those of United
States for 1905-1910.
(IX, 1911),
Pulpwood Supply from Private Lands, Quebec. Pp. 32-
34-
Estimates five million acres with twenty-five million cords.
Queen's Quarterly, XVIII, No. 3,—
Soil Fertility. Pp. 211-220.
A general exposition of the modern view of what consti-
tutes fertility.
Quarterly Bulletin of the Canadian Mining Institute, No. 12, 1910, —
On Methods of Making Large Scale Contour Surface
Plans of Claims or Mining Properties. Pp. 93-103.
Quarterly Journal of Forestry, V, 1911, —
Forests of the Far West. Pp. 9-17.
Interesting descriptive memoranda of a trip through Van-
couver Island and California.
The Oak Forests of Slavonia, Austria-Hungary. Pp. 27-
34-
Descriptive.
Other Periodical Literature. 167
The Conference in Belgium. Pp. 45-48.
Silvicultural notes.
Arhoricultural Society's Excursion to Ireland. Pp. 49-68.
Contains a short description of the climatic and physical
features and forestry conditions of Ireland.
Japanese Forests. Pp. 84-90.
The Journal of the Board of Agriculture, XVII, 1910,—
International) Forestry Congress at Brussels. Pp. 636-643.
Brief account of types of forest visited.
Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arhoricultural Society, XXIV,
1911,—
The Vegetation of British Woodlands. Pp. 6-23.
Ecological and silvicultural.
Forestry Education, its Importance and Requirements.
Pp. 24-42.
Contains a description of the facilities in European for-
estry schools.
Continental Notes— France. Pp. 56-66.
The Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, XXI, 1910,—
Hozv the Soil Acquires Nitrogenous Plant Food. Pp. 965-
969.
The Philippine Journal of Science, Botany, V, 1910, —
The Bamboos of the Philippine Islands. Pp. 267-281.
NEWS AND NOTES.
The death of Frank J. Phillips on February 12 at his home in
Lincoln, Nebraska, removed from the ranks of professional for-
esters a man of unusual brilliancy and attainments ; one who gave
promise of rising speedily to the very top of the profession.
Everybody with whom he came in contact grew to admire him
for his ability and to love him for his personality.
Frank J. Phillips was born 29 years ago in Michigan where his
father was and is a lumberman. Thus Frank early became ac-
quainted with forest work and naturally availed himself of the
opportunity to specialize in forestry at the Michigan Agricultural
College. He thereupon "served his time" as a Student Assistant
in the then Bureau of Forestry, followed by a post graduate
course in the State University of Michigan.
In 1906, he entered the Forest Service as a Forest Assistant
and did splendid work in the office of Forest Extension. In the
fall of 1907, he resigned to become instructor in forestry at the
University of Nebraska, where at his death he was held in the
very highest esteem not only in the Department of Forestry but
throughout the entire University.
Always a tireless worker, he was also a prolific writer sending
frequent contributions to professional periodicals.
His acute power of observation, thorough scientific training,
based on a soild foundation of common sense and knowledge
of the woods, peculiarly fitted him for his life work. But great
as is the loss to his profession the universal loss of such a virile,
sympathetic, lovable nature is infinitely greater.
A. B. Recknagel.
In the death of Mr. Phillips the Forestry QuartEri^y loses
one of its most valued collaborators. He was in charge of ex-
cerpting the Lumber Trade journals. The present issue attests
to the assiduity with which he attended to this labor of love to
the very end. — Editor.
Nezvs and Notes. 169
The Week's bill initiating the purchase of forest reservations in
the Appalachian range and the White Mountains by the Federal
Government has been enacted into law — a new stage in the
development of forest policies in the United States. The first one
million dollars provided for the purchase in 1910 has of course
lapsed, but $2,000,000 are available before July i, of the present
year; the purchase to involve in all about $10,000,000.
We consider this radical change of attitude between federal and
state authority so important, that we print the act in full.
H. R. 1 1798. Appalachian and White Mountain National
Forest Bill passed Senate February 15, 191 1.
Section i. Be it enacted, etc., That the consent of the Con-
gress of the United States is hereby given to each of the several
States of the Union to enter into any agreement or compact, not
in conflict with any law of the United States, with any other
State or States for the purpose of conserving the forests and the
water supply of the States entering into such agreement or
compact.
Sec. 2. That the sum of $200,000 is hereby appropriated and
made available until expended, out of any moneys in the National
Treasury not otherwise appropriated, to enable the Secretary of
Agriculture to cooperate with any State or group of States, when
requested to do so, in the protection from fire of the forested
watersheds of navigable streams ; and the Secretary of Agricul-
ture is hereby authorized, and on such conditions as he deems
wise, to stipulate and agree with any State or group of States to
cooperate in the organization and maintenance of a system of
fire protection on any private or State forest lands within such
State or States and situated upon the watershed of a navigable
river: Provided, That no such stipulation or agreement shall be
made with any State which has not provided by law for a system
of forest fire protection : Provided further. That in no case shall
the amount expended in any State exceed in any fiscal year the
amount appropriated by that State for the same purpose during
the same fiscal year.
Sec 3. That there is hereby appropriated, for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1910, the sum of $1,000,000, and for each fiscal
year thereafter a sum not to exceed $2,000,000 for use in the
examination, survey, and acquirement of lands located on the
headwaters of navigable streams or those which are being or
which may be developed for navigable purposes : Provided, That
the provisions of this section shall expire by limitation on the 30th
day of June, 191 5.
Sec 4. That a commission, to be known as the National
Forest Reservation Commission, consisting of the Secretary of
170 Forestry Quarterly.
War, the Secretary of the Interior, the Secretary of Agriculture,
and two members of the Senate, to be selected by the President of
the Senate, and two members of the House of Representatives, to
be selected by the Speaker, is hereby created and authorized to
consider and pass upon such lands as may be recommended for
purchase as provided in Section 6 of this act, and to fix the price
or prices at which such lands may be purchased, and no purchases
shall be made of any lands until such lands have been duly
approved for purchase by said commission : Provided, That the
members of the commission herein created shall serve as such only
during their incumbency in their respective official positions, and
any vacancy on the commission shall be filled in the manner as
the original appointment.
Sec. 5. That the commission hereby appointed shall, through
its president, annually report to Congress, not later than the first
Monday of December, the operations and expenditures of the
commission, in detail, during the preceding fiscal year.
Sec 6. That the Secretary of Agriculture is hereby authorized
and directed to examine, locate, and recommend for purchase
such lands as in his judgment may be necessary to the regulation
of the flow of navigable streams, and to report to the National
Forest Reservation Commission the results of such examinations :
Provided, That before any lands are purchased by the National
Forest Reservation Commission said lands shall be examined by
the Geological Survey and a report made to the Secretary of
Agriculture, showing that the control of such lands will promote
or protect the navigation of streams on whose watersheds they lie.
Sec. 7. That the Secretary of Agriculture is hereby authorized
to purchase, in the name of the United States, such lands as have
been approved for purchase by the National Forest Reservation
Commission at the price or prices fixed by said commission :
Provided, That no deed or other instrument of conveyance shall
be accepted or approved by the Secretary of Agriculture under
this act until the legislature of the State in which the land lies
shall have consented to the acquisition of such land by the United
States for the purpose of preserving the navigability of navigable
streams.
Sec. 8. That the Secretary of Agriculture may do all things
necessary to secure the safe title in the United States to the lands
to be acquired under this act, but no payment shall be made for
any such lands until the title shall be satisfactory to the Attorney
General and shall be vested in the United States.
Sec. 9. That such acquisition may in any case be conditioned
upon the exception and reservation to the owner from whom;
title passes to the United States of the minerals and of the
merchantable timber, or either or any part of them, within or
upon such lands at the date of the conveyance, but in every case
such exception and reservation and the time within which such
Nein's and Notes. . 171
timber shall be removed and the rules and regulations under
which the cutting and removal of such timber and the mining and
removal of such minerals shall be done shall be expressed in the
written instrument of conveyance, and thereafter the mining,
cutting, and removal of the minerals and timber so excepted and
reserved shall be done only under and in obedience to the rules
and regulations so expressed.
Sec. 10. That inasmuch as small areas of land chiefly valu-
able for agriculture may of necessity or by inadvertence be
included in tracts acquired under this act, the Secretary of Agri-
culture may, in his discretion, and he is hereby authorized, upon
application or otherwise, to examine and ascertain the location
and extent of such areas as in his opinion may be occupied for
agricultural purposes without injury to the forests or to stream
flow and which are not needed for public purposes, and may list
and describe the same by metes and bounds, or otherwise, and
oflfer them for sale as homesteads at their true value to be fixed
by him, to actual settlers, in tracts not exceeding 80 acres in area,
under such joint rules and regulations as the Secretary of Agri-
culture and the Secretary of the Interior may prescribe ; and in
case of such sale the jurisdiction over the lands sold shall, ipso
factor, revert to the State in which the lands sold lie. And no
right, title, interest, or claim in or to any lands acquired under this
act, or the waters thereon, or the products, resources, or use there-
of after such lands shall have been so acquired, shall be initiated
or perfected, except as in this section provided.
Sec. II. That, subject to the provisions of the last preceding
section, the lands acquired under this act shall he permanently
reserved, held, and administered as national forest lands under
the provisions of Section 24 of the act approved March 3, 1891,
(Vol. 26 Stat. L., p. 1103), and acts supplemental to and amenda-
tory thereof. And the Secretary of Agriculture may from time
to time divide the land acquired under this act into such specific
National Forests and so designate the same as he may deem best
for administrative purposes.
Sec. 12. That the jurisdiction, both civil and criminal, over
persons upon the lands acquired under this act shall not be
afifected or changed by their permanent reservation and adminis-
tration as National Forest lands, except so far as the punishment
of offenses against the United States is concerned, the intent and
meaning of this section being that the State wherein such land is
situated shall not, by reason of such reservation and administra-
tion, lose its jurisdiction nor the inhabitants thereof their rights
and privileges as citizens or be absolved from their duties as
citizens of the State.
Sec. 13. That 5 per cent, of all moneys received during any
fiscal year from each National Forest into which the lands
acquired under this act may from time to time be divided shall be
172 Forestry Quarterly.
paid, at the end of such year, by the Secretary of the Treasury to
the State in which such National Forest is situated, to be expend-
ed as the State legislature may prescribe for the benefit of the
public schools and public roads of the county or counties in which
such National Forest is situated : Provided, That when any
National Forest is in more than one State or county the distribu-
tive share to each from the proceeds of such forest shall be
proportional to its area therein : Provided further, That there
shall not be paid to any State for any county an amount equal to
more than 40 per cent, of the total income of such county from
all other sources.
Sec. 14. That a sum sufficient to pay the necessary expenses
of the commission and its members, not to exceed an annual
expenditure of $25,000, is hereby appropriated out of any money
in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated. Said appropriation
shall be immediately available, and shall be paid out on the audit
and order of the president of the said commission, which audit
and order shall be conclusive and binding upon all departments
as to the correctness of the accounts of said commission.
The following data on White Pine cones were collected in
September, 1907, as a preliminary to seed-bed tests. The cones
were gathered in northern Minnesota. Shortly after being picked,
they were graded into three sizes and a rounded heaped-bushel
measure of each size was then dried in a green-house at sun
temperature. The seed was extracted in the ordinary manner by
shaking in a box with a screened bottom, and the yield compared
with the yield from a bushel of cones as picked from the trees.
From two and one-half to three bushels of dry cones were in-
volved in these determinations.
YIELD OF WHITE PINE SEED FKOM CONES OF VARIOUS SIZES.
s
A
3
Number
fl
<u
as,
<u «-
c
a
o
S3
be
■^ 3
^ P.
N
.ii
3 O
Size of Conei
o a>
S'S •
O
u
J3 O
bcc-^
C ^ ^
•|sa
|l
|p.
o <v
ji
K
'^
w
m
t» CQ
Large
(over 414 in- long)
30.5
558
15.75
1925
30,800
30,318 54
Medium
(314 to 4% in " )
30.0
870
14.50
24 50
39,200
35
,525 41
Small
(under 3^4 in. " )
31.0
1639
15.75
2704
43,264
42
,588 26
Unselectf
;d, as picked
27.0
1027
14.50
2272
36,352
32
,943 32
'Average of two ounces of seed, of each bushel.
S. B. Detwii^er.
Nezvs and Notes. 173
Your recent letter of inquiry of October 31, as regards the care
of the seed of Red Cedar came to me to-day. May I say, without
boasting, that ever since 1903, I have succeeded well in growing
red cedar from seed. The germination of the seed, and the
growth of the seedlings for the spring of 1910 was especially
good. A perfect stand on about 500 square feet of bed was
secured.
The seed — which ripen in one year contrary to what I was
taught by a certain teacher of forestry — were gathered in October
and November, December or even January. They were immedi-
ately stratified without any previous treatment, such as rubbing,
soaking, etc. I used boxes six inches deep — placing a layer of
sand one inch deep, — then one-half inch of seed berries, — then
sand, and repeating this till the box is filled. Moist sand is used.
The boxes were then sunk into the ground so that the top of the
boxes were just a little above the surface of the ground. Then
over the boxes was placed about eight inches of leaves, straw or
grass, and weighted down to keep the wind from blowing this
covering away. These boxes are then left there without being
disturbed, from say October, 1910 until late February or March,
1912. They germinate very early that spring (1912), even before
winter is over. Sow the seed in nursery with the sand or sep-
arated. Cover the seed -|- inch deep with rather fine field
sand. Cover the sand with about two inches clean straw or
leaves. This protection is necessary. As soon as the seedlings
are pushing up through the sand cover at a good rate, remove all
of it except what naturally settles about the seedlings covering
the soil. This light cover, especially if of clean chaff is a great
help for the little trees. It keeps down the weeds, conserves the
moisture, and makes everything fine. I used lath-screened and
enclosed beds. I have found it absolutely necessary to use every
reasonable precaution to conserve moisture in the beds while
germination is going on. Wind is the worst enemy. A layer of
sand over soil in bed makes a better seed bed and works better —
is easily leveled down with a leveling board. This layer of sand
is leveled to within ^ inch of top of bottom framing boards.
I have not experienced any trouble with the "damping-off"
fungus. As far as light is concerned, the Red Cedar can be
grown without shade screens from the earliest stages of growth
on. Cut-worms are serious pests. I have used poisoned bran
174 Forestry Quarterly.
mash. Its efficiency seems doubtful. I believe that certain
colored lights placed in the beds at night will help, not the
"worms" but the trees. The Red Cedar transplants well after a
month old, but this may not pay. In the ordinary seed bed with-
out transplanting, one year seedlings will average six inches high.
Best success has been had by transplanting to nursery row or to
the field at that age, rather than allow them to remain in the bed
another year. Of many hundreds, possibly several thousands of
seedlings, one year o4d, transplanted to nursery row, as high as
90 to 98 per cent, lived. The spade used like a dibble aided by
your feet makes a good transplanting tool.
I have obtained a fair germination of the seed of Juniperus
pachyphloea, Alligator Juniper, by simply soaking seed in ordi-
nary water and using no other treatment.
Robert E. Eastman,
Lynchburg, Va.
A recent news item from Canada records the insurance by
Lloyds, of London, of six thousand square miles of timber lands
against loss by forest fires. This, the first insurance of the kind
ever effected on this continent, so far as we know, has been taken
out by one of the largest timber land owners in the Province of
Quebec, Price Bros. & Co., Ltd., of the city of Quebec. This new
form of insurance was brought to the attention of financial circles
in Montreal and Toronto recently when Price Bros, announced
the issue of $5,000,000 of five per cent, bonds on their properties.
The issue is to cover the expansion of their lumber business into
a paper making company, with a 150 ton newspaper mill now
being built by Jonquieres, Que., in the Lake St. John region,
where they are developing 15,000 horse-power. The insurance of
their enormous holdings of timber lands against fire is intended
as additional security to the bondholders. It covers a term of
thirty years. Insurance of timber lands against loss by fire has
been regarded as impossible except at prohibitive rates. It has
remained for the redoubtable and unterrified Lloyds to prove the
contrary.
We learn that this is not, however, a bona fide insurance, but
rather an insurance gamble, such as are generally done in Eng-
land, like the insuring of the life of the King up to a certain date
Nezvs and Notes. 175
to sustain a bet. In this case the insurance is said to cover only
the first $50,000 damage, beyond this the risk ceases.
The following description applying to much of the Eastern
slope of the Rocky Mountains in Canada comes to us in a letter.
"East of the Rocky Mountains west of the railway from Cal-
gary to Edmonton, or more accurately between the 115th meridian
and the mountains, north of the old main line of the C. P. Ry,
and south of the G. T. P. Ry., lies a vast stretch of rough land,
well watered, wtll drained, sloping northeastward between alti-
tudes of 6,000 and 3,500 feet. The soil, varied by glaciation, is,
in general, unfit for agriculture.
"From any of the bare rocky summits of the foothills and out-
lying ridges, colors of the landscape appear gray and brown with
small patches of green. Through a strong glass the gray is barred
by vertical lines, the same that is seen near by — old fire-killed
spruce and lodgepole pine still standing. The brown is mingled
with black. The brown part is dead leaves still on the trees, the
black is charred trunks.
"The few green patches are V shaped in hillside coves or
parallelograms scattered along valley sides.
"About I to 70 seems the proportion of green. Shame, shame,
shame! Instead of 15 billion feet of saw logs not over 200
million, and that scattered so it is hardly worth picking up.
"Far too large a portion of this area has been recently burned.
"A period of increased burning, beginning with the settlement
of the plains, is marked and recorded in the charred remains, the
scars of the survivors and the succeeding volunteers.
"The fading out of the forest toward the plains is generally free
from sharp lines of fire.
"The burning there has been customary for a long time and the
growth is aspen and willow in clumps.
"But in toward the mountains where the mineral prospectors
have been going and where greenhorn hunters have been swarm-
ing since the settlement of the plains there are vast amounts of
dead timber still standing — monuments of ignorance and careless-
ness.
"White, Black and Engelmann Spruce and Lodgepole Pine
grow together along the foothills. Before burning, the spruces
are largely predominant, but the pine follows the fire and in time
176
forestry Quarterly.
the spruces start under the pines. Toward the plains larch, aspen
and balsam with willow brush add meager variety to the few
species of the region." A.
The following commissary figures were secured in a cord wood
camp at Gleed, Ariz. The labor is principally supplied by Mexi-
cans but there are usually a few Americans in camp. During the
month of June, 1910, the total payroll amounted to $1,039, o^*
of which $207.80 was paid in cash while the remainder was traded
out in the commissary. Eighty per cent, is considered to be a
fair average figure of the amount traded out at the commissary.
Since the price paid for chopping four- foot wood is rarely over
$1.00 per cord and the average cut per man is i^ to i^ cords per
day, the Mexican chopper rarely makes more than a living.
LIST OF COMMISSARY PRICES.
Cost Price.
Sale Price.
Flour,
$3.95
$5.40
per
cwt.
Beans,
■OJYz
.12^
"
lb.
Bacon,
.22
• 35
"
"
Ham,
.20
•30
"
"
Candy,
.I2J^
.40
Baking Powder,
.27
.08
• 50
.20
""
"
Milk,
.09
.20
((
can
Chili,
.07
.15
"
"
Japanese Chili,
.25
1.60
tt
lb.
Potatoes,
.01
• 05
"
Table Fruit
•17
.25
"
can
Salmon,
.13
• 25
t(
"
Sardines,
.04
.10
n
box can
Corn Beef,
•13
•25
"
"
Crackers,
.10
•iS
((
lb.
Syrup,
.35
.85
*'
half gal.
Lard,
.16
.20
"
lb.
Matches,
.04
.10
it
package
Candles,
.02
.05
each
Soap,
.04
.10
per
bar
Salt,
.01^
.05
"
lb.
Tea (English Breakfast),
.30
.70
"
"
Coffee (Arbuckle's),
.16
• 25
tt
tt
Quaker Oats,
.18
• 35
tt
package
Canned corn and peas.
.09
.20
can
Rice,
.06
.i2y
2
lb.
Tobacco,
At standard
prices
Overalls,
.80
1^25
"
pair
Cotton undershirts and
drawers,
.40
• I. GO
tt
suit
Cotton Socks,
.05
•15
or
2 pr. for
Handkerchiefs,
.04
•15
each
Overshirts,
.40
1.00
"
Towels,
.10
•25
"
.•5
Nezvs and Notes.
177
Dried Fruits,
.15
• 25
per lb.
Oil,
■ 33
.60
gallon
Fresh Beef,
.07
■ 15
" lb.
Axe handles,
.27^
•SO
each
Axes,
.90
1-75
each
Saws,
4.00
6.50
"
Files,
.12
.20
**
Shoes,
2. IS
4-50
per pair
Gloves,
.90
i^75
U 11
Starch,
.08
.15
" lb.
Olive Oil,
.07
.15
" bottle
Vinegar,
.05
• 25
a a
Wagon Grease,
.07^
• 15
" can
Spices,
.07
•15
" % lb. can
Tents, 10x12,
19.00
25^00
each
Bedquilts,
I. SO
2.50
"
Oranges,
2.ooabc
)x .60
per doz.
(200 in a box)
Galvanized Pails (12 qt.),
• 55
1. 00
each
Sugar,
.06^
12;^
per lb.
Fry pans,
.20
•35
each
Canteens,
.70
1.25
per gallon
Half Soles,
.22
.40
each
Watermelons,
1.85
5^00
per cwt.
Cigarette papers,
.02
• 05
" book
Vermicelli,
.07
.20
" lb.
Onions (dry),
.03
.10
each
Onions (green).
.40
.60
a dozen bunches
Radishes,
.40
.60
" " "
Eggs,
• 25
.50
" doz.
Dried Beef,
• 25
• 50
" lb.
Few simple medicines.
At standard
prices
Garlic,
•50
1.60
per lb.
Specifications for ties filed by fifty-one of the largest railroads
in the United States and four in Canada show 78 species that
will be accepted for ties. Twenty-one of these species are soft
woods and fifty-seven are hardwoods. This list includes most of
the important woods of the country in which those marked with
an asterisk are listed for preservative treatment by most of the
larger railroad systems:
Softwoods.
Cypress*, Douglas fir*, Hemlock*, Jack pine*, Loblolly pine*,
Redwood, Shortleaf pine*, Red pine*, Sitka spruce*, Lodgepole
pine*, Longleaf pine*, Pinon pine. Southern white cedar. Spruce
pine*, Western hemlock*. Red Cedar, Tamarack, Red Spruce
(Douglas fir), Red fir (Douglas fir), Northern white cedar,
Western yellow pine, Yellow cedar.
12
178 Forestry Quarterly.
Hardwoods.
Beech*, Black g-um*, Black oak*, Bur oak, Butternut*, Black
jack oak*, Black Walnut*, Catalpa*, Cherry*, Chestnut, Chestnut
oak, Chinquapin, Cork elm*, Cottonwood*, Cow oak. Coffee tree,
Hackberry*, Honey locust*, Laurel oak*. Live oak. Locust,
Mockernut hickory*, Osage orange, Overcup oak. Pignut hick-
ory*. Pin oak*, Post oak. Red elm*. Red gum*, Red maple*. Red
mulberry. Red oak*. River birch*. Rock elm*. Sassafras, Scarlet
oak*, Shellbark hickory*. Shingle oak*, Soft maple*, Spanish
oak*, Sugar maple*, Sweet birch*. Sycamore*, Sugar berry*,
Slippery elm*, Swamp maple*. Swamp white oak, Tupelo*,
Turkey oak*, Water oak*, Water hickory*, Western red cedar.
White ash*, White elm*. White oak, White pine*. Willow oak*,
Yellow birch*.
It is assumed that a tie contains 42 board feet and has an
average value of 50 cents.
Wages for Woods Labor. The Secretary of the Western Pine
Manufacturers' Association recently sent out a letter to the
members of the association asking what wages they were paying
in the woods this winter. Replies were received from 16 of the
members and below are given the lowest, the highest and the
average of wages being paid :
Yarding hook tenders, $2.75, $5.00, $4.00; Rigging slingers,
$2.75, $3.50, $3.00; Yarding firemen, $2.25, $3.00, $2.60; Wood-
buckers, $2.00, $2.75, $2.50; Chasers, $2.25, $3.00, $2.60; Oilers,
$2.00; Headloaders, $2.75, $3.25, $3.00; Second loaders, $2.50,
$3.00, $2.66; Spooltenders, $2.50; Choker men, $2.25, $2.50,
$2.37; Signal men, $2.00, $2.75, $2.37; Knotters, $2.25, $2.50,
$2.37; Snipers, $2.50; Swampers, $2,00, $2.75, $2.40; Buckers,
$2.75; Headfallers, $2.50, $3.00, $2.75; Second fallers, $2.50,
$2.75, $2.56; Undercutters, $2.50; Road engineers, $2.75, $100
per month ; Brakemen, $2.00, $3.00, $2.75 ; Locomotive engineers,
$100 to $125 per month; Locomotive firemen, $2.75 per day to
$65 and board per month ; Boom men, $2.50, $2.75, $2.62 ; Skid-
road men, $2.75; Railroad graders, $2.(X), $2.75, $2.35; Section
men, $2.00, $2.40, $2.20 ; Landing builders, $2.60 ; Flunkies, $2.50,
$40 and board per month; Pump men, $2.50; Cooks (18 to 40
men), $50.00, $75.00, $66.66; Cooks (40 to 75 men), $60.00,
$100.00, $77.00; Cooks (100 to 125 men), $120.00; Bull cooks,
News and Notes. 179
$2.00, $2.50, $2.25; Blacksmiths, $65.00, $100.00, $82.00; Black-
smith's helpers, $2.20, $3.00, $2.40; Night watchmen, $2.00, $2.50,
$2.16.
West Coast Lumberman, November, 1910.
A very remarkable development in the wood alcohol manu-
facture has taken place during the years from 1907 to 1909. In
1907 the so-called de-natured alcohol law took effect, and as was
to be expected the price of wood alcohol dropped in 1907 to 15
cents from 34 cents in 1906. Indeed, it was supposed that wood
alcohol would be entirely crowded out of the market. Instead,
the industry of wood distillation, according to official figures of
the Bureau of the Census, has, if not increased, yet held its own,
and prices for wood alcohol at the same time have improved to 17
cents in 1908, and 24 cents in 1909. The total value of products
in 1909 was still $8,330,000 representing a consumption of 1,265,-
000 cords. The average cost per cord, $3.21, represents a rise
over the price of 1908 by 8 per cent, and by 2 per cent, over that
of 1907.
A new method of clearing logged-off lands is by the charpit.
This was worked out on the clay lands of the Pacific coast but
has also proved a success on sandy lands. The new process was
devised by Prof. H. W. Sparks and will clear the western lands
of stumps in 2 to 3 weeks at a cost of $20 per acre. An excava-
tion is made around the stump which is filled with cinders, covered
with gravel or cracked rock on which was smeared fuel oil or coal
tar. This is covered with kindling and lighted after which it
is covered with clay in order to retain the fire and heat.
It is estimated that the forest fires of 1910 in Montana and
Idaho damaged 1,871,000,000 feet of timber, most of which was
privately owned timber in Idaho. In Oregon there was less
organized co-operative fire fighting with a loss of 1,250,000,000
feet. It is also estimated that the timber owners in these three
states spent $667,000 and saved resources easily worth $4,000,-
000,000. Adequate fire protection can be given at two to ten
cents per acre if the proper co-operation is secured.
An important announcement has been made by the Ontario
i8o Forestry Quarterly.
Crownlands department that a series of experiments will be con-
ducted during the winter of 1910-11 in burning brush in the Rainy
River district. The result of this work will be watched with
interest in the United States where the northern pine forests are
so badly in need of adequate protection.
A $4,000,000 paper mill has just been established at Toma-
kamai, Japan, in which all the heavy machinery was manufac-
tured in the United States. The daily output of this mill is about
70 tons each 24 hours which is over one-half of the amount con-
sumed for news and book paper in the entire empire. The avail-
able supply of native timber is estimated to last 50 to 100 years.
It is believed that Japan will now become an exporter of wood
paper.
A shipment of 70,000 railway ties of "stringy bark" {Eucalyp-
tus obliqna) left Hobart, Australia, in October for the United
States and two shipments of the same size will be made in March
and June, 191 1. The species lasts 15 years or more as a tie where
the precipitation is 20 to 60 inches; the wood is not easily in-
flammable, holds spikes well and is comparatively immune from
the attack of white ants and other land insects.
Formerly shuttlewood was secured from Turkish boxwood
which was imported from countries near the Black Sea. About
25 years ago the makers of roller skates commenced using this
wood and increased the prices so that native dogwood and per-
simmon were substituted, the former being preferred. The
limited supply of these species has led to present experiments with
Pacific dogwood, California valley mahogany, cascara buckthorn,
madrona, goldenleaf chinquapin, Pacific yew, and red gum.
Cork oak is being experimented with at Brownsville, Texas.
It is said that a barrel of acorns is planted each year and that
wherever live oaks are found growing on the shifting sands in
this vicinity that cork oak will also thrive. The trees of cork
oak already planted are making a good growth.
Japanese oak is being used to a considerable extent along the
Pacific coast owing to the high freight rates on the better grades
Nezvs and Notes. i8i
of our own eastern oaks. This foreign oak can be supplied at
$8 to $io per thousand cheaper than our eastern oak.
Wagon hubs made from cemented sections are being manu-
factured at Batavia, IlHnois, and are said to be greatly superior
in strength to solid wood. It is proposed to use inch material
which shall be built up on edge 5 inches wide on a standard 3^
axle. In place of using solid hickory at $65 to $70 per M,
cheaper inch stock is used which may have greater defects but
still be stronger than the solid hickory. It is claimed that the
compound axle will be sold for about the same as the price for
the green one-piece stock of solid hickory.
A pronounced development of recent years is the use of fibre
material in building operations. This has already caused a
higher use for jack pine in the form of sulphite fiber. A single
order for ten million feet has recently been made by the Great
Northern Railroad company for one of these patented fiber ma-
terials to use in lining refrigerator cars.
It is reported that a new concrete railroad tie has been patented
by a resident of Stockton, California. The tie is made in two
sections, being disjointed in the middle to give elasticity. A cross
section extends out on each side, slightly leveled from center
bearing to each end of the section to allow the rail the necessary
spring. A steel bar, countersunk, is placed on top of the tie
section, which joins the rail, extending under and clamping on the
outside of the rail, while a steel clamp on the inside of the rail
resting against a boss on the steel bar and inside of the rail, is
secured to the tie by a bolt. This arrangement it is claimed,
makes it impossible for the rails to spread or turn over.
The U. S. Government has recently issued new grading rules
for all southern yellow pine sold to any department. These rules
are published in Southwest for October, 1910.
A remarkably well written, illustrated article on the "Early
Progress Made in the Manufacture of Woodworking Machinery"
is published in Wood Craft for January, 191 1. The article com-
i82 Forestry Quarterly.
prises 26 pages and includes the most noteworthy advances that
have been made since 1776.
The fifth annual convention of the Michigan Forestry Associa-
tion was held at Kalamazoo, November 16. The following offi-
cers were elected : President, Charles W. Garfield, Grand Rapids ;
vice-president, John H. Bissell, Detroit ; Secretary, Filibert Roth,
Ann Arbor; treasurer, W. B. Mershon, Saginaw.
A new department of woods and forestry has been established
at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City
with Miss Mary C. Dickerson in charge.
A bill to create a Bureau of National Parks is before Congress,
for the purpose of concentrating the "supervision, management
and control of the several national parks and national monuments,
etc."
Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vermont, has been offered
ten thousand acres of wild land for forestry demonstration pur-
poses by Joseph Battell.
Last autumn the Province of Quebec opened its new School
of Forestry which is affiliated with Laval University. Students
are admitted only after one year of training in the woods under
the direction of the Department of Lands and Forests.
At a meeting in Washington on January 13 an Association of
Eastern Foresters was formed for the furtherance of forest work
in that section. Alfred Gaskill, State Forester of New Jersey,
was chosen Secretary, the only officer, and a constitution was
adopted, limiting the membership to forest officials and forest
(?) instructors attached to universities or State schools of for-
estry in the New England and North Atlantic States, including
Maryland. Other professional foresters may also be elected.
A conservation association has been organized in Georgia with
Judge John C. Hart as president. The policy will be to protect
forests at the headwaters of streams and useless destruction of
Nezi's and Notes. 183
reproduction. There will be a strong effort to reclaim swamp
lands.
The semi-annual session of the Western Forestry and Conser-
vation Association was held December 5 and 6 in Spokane, Wash-
ington. The papers and addresses presented at the meeting are
given in the American Lumberman for December 17, 1910.
The forestry world of Canada was once more stirred up by the
Prime Minister, Sir Wilfred Laurier, who called a forestry
convention at Quebec in January of this year, the arrangements
to be made through the Canadian Forestry Association. The
meeting was well attended by many prominent men from all parts
of the Dominion, and a number of men, mostly professional for-
esters, from the States, the Forest Service being represented by
Mr. Peters. The Canadian Commission of Conservation was
holding its annual meeting at the same place and week, lending
additional prestige to the occasion. The educative value of the
convention — and that is all that can be expected of such gather-
ings— was undoubtedly considerable, not the least on the many
lumbermen present. The fire question naturally came in for
the lion's share in the discussion, and it appeared that the down-
ing of tops at least, if not the burning of brush, was admitted to
be not an altogether impractical proposition.
The Commission of Conservation of Canada held its annual
meeting in Quebec on January 17. It was a short business
session, at which the chairman, Hon. Clifford Sifton, reported
on the work done by the permanent force at Ottawa, which will
form the subject matter of a forthcoming report. Amendments
to be recommended for legislation in the law defining the responsi-
bility of railroads with regard to forest fires were discussed and
adopted. A bill to regulate the use of water powers was en-
dorsed.
Silva for July i, 1910, gives Dr. Fernow's "History of For-
estry" a highly appreciative review, lamenting only its publica-
tion in the English instead of the German laguage. The reviewer,
Dr. Jentsch, of Miinden points out that this is the first attempt
to give a careful survey of the rise of practical forestry in the
various parts of the world.
184 Forestry Quarterly.
The forty-fifth edition of Gurley's Manual of surveying and
engineering instruments is an enlargement and improvement in
make-up of this excellent publication by the well-known, leading
firm of W. & L. E. Gurley, at Troy, N. Y. The illustrations of
transits in colors add much to the ease with which the details of
the instruments can be seen.
Mr. C. S. Chapman has resigned his position as District For-
ester in the Forest Service in charge of District 6 with headquar-
ters at Portland, in order to accept the position of Secretary of
the Oregon Forest Fire Association. The position of District
Forester has been filled by the' appointment of Mr. George H.
Cecil, who formerly held the position of Associate District For-
ester, in the Portland office. Mr. Chapman entered the forest
service as a student in March, 1900, and as a forest assistant on
July I, 1902. He secured his technical training in forestry at
the Yale Forest School. Mr. Cecil entered the forest service as
a student assistant in the summer of 1903 and as a forest assistant
on July I, 1905. His technical training was secured at the Bilt-
more Forest School.
Mr. W. R. Fisher, Assistant Professor of Forestry at Oxford,
known to American foresters by the volumes on Forest Protection
and on Forest Utilization of Schlech's Manual of Forestry, died
on November 13, 1910. Mr. Fisher was in the Indian Forest
Service from 1872 to 1889, during that period becoming Director
of the School of Forestry at Dehra Dun and Conservator of For-
ests of the School Circle. In 1890, on account of ill-health, he
left India and joined the School of Forestry at Casper's Hall,
coming, in 1905, with that school, to Oxford. In connection
with his teaching every year he conducted educational tours
through the European forests. He was closely identified with
the progress of the Royal English Arboricultural Society and the
place of the Society's Quarterly Journal of Forestry in forest
literature is due entirely to Mr. Fisher's labors.
COMMENT.
After a long- and persistent struggle through several years the
measure to establish forest reservations in the eastern states under
federal authority and at federal expense has become a fact. What
a change of heart and of principles in government policy has been
wrought in the last two decades ! In 1890, we were still strug-
gling to convert the land policy of the United States to a saner
attitude with reference to the timberlands. We were then told
that it was entirely contrary to the spirit of American institutions
for the federal government to own lands, except for disposal,
that it would be entirely incompetent and improper for it to man-
age any of its own lands for continuity. At that time any one
who would have suggested that the government might buy lands
for the purpose of management would surely have been desig-
nated as fit for the lunatic asylum. At that time — it was during
President Cleveland's first administration — even co-operation on
experimental lines with a state institution was frowned upon as
undemocratic. These were, indeed, "road breaking" times !
Those of a later generation who have reaped the results of these
€arly struggles have little idea of the discouragements which
beset the forest reformer of those days.
It should never be forgotten that to John W. Noble, Secretary
of Interior, under President Harrison, (and to those who edu-
cated him up to it), belongs the credit of having first recognized
the need and having taken the first practical step towards a change
of the land policy of the United States, when he insisted in con-
ference committee at the last hour of Congress upon the insertion
into the law of the clause empowering the president to set aside
forest reservations.
That these reservations must be specially managed was then
still a matter, which needed years of educational effort to make
clear. Meanwhile, through the inconsiderate action of President
Cleveland upon the representations of the Academy of Science, in
doubling with one stroke the area of the reservations without any
provision for their use, the whole reservation policy was very
nearly abolished and the hard-earned beginnings lost. President
i86 Forestry Quarterly.
Cleveland came near impeachment through his action, and only
the ending of Congress saved the situation.
Undoubtedly, the propriety of the purchase of these lands may
be questioned in principle, but expediency, which in Aimerican
government counts often for more than principle, justified the
action as long as the individual States are remiss or financially
incapable of doing their duty.
It is to be hoped that both the purchase and the final manage-
ment of the Appalachian and White Mountain reservations will
be wisely done and recommend themselves to the people at large,,
so as to invite an extension of this policy.
If the object of Canada is what it once avowedly was, namely
"to get rid of her timber," the proposed reciprocity arrangements
with the United States will undoubtedly help it along. The
opening of a wider market cannot help but induce increased effort
to supply it. That is, of course, what the United States — some of
her people — want. As long as the individual Provinces who'
control the commercial timber area of Canada keep the restriction,
which makes the manufacture of the raw materials in Canada a
condition of their timber licenses, only the private lands will be
more rapidly stripped. Of such there are hardly more than ten
million acres in existence. But the pressure which will be
brought upon the governments to open the door may be too strong
for them to resist long.
If, before that time, the organization of strong forestry bureaus-
could be brought about and the cutting be done under reason-
able forestry regulations, the reciprocity arrangements might be
a blessing for Canada — otherwise not. Whether the United
States will be the gainers is open to question.
Here is one point that is not generally recognized in the discus-
sions and which makes the timber trade a business to be considered
by itself: In the exploitation of virgin forest the percentage of
high grades that can be secured is small, rarely more than 20
per cent. The low grades which inevitably fall at the same time
from the saw are a drag if not a drug in the market. These will
also be increased from Canadian sources as far as cost of trans-
portation does not prevent ; wasteful use must be the result.
Another point that has truck us, as strange, is that these
questions are always discussed merely with reference to the
Continent. 187
present and with little or no consideration of the future. Here
again exhaustible natural resources are on a different plane from
manufactures, and conservative policy much more required.
More attention has been paid to the forest fires of the past
year than ever before and this is especially true of lumber jour-
nals, general magazines and newspapers. The total damage
during the past year was greater than at any time in our history
notwithstanding the fact that the efforts to prevent and control
forest fires by lumbermen, states and the national government are
much greater than was true when the previous disastrous fires
occurred.
The year's experience again emphasizes the fact that our fore-
most forestry problem is adequate fire protection. The efficient
work done by the private Forest Fire Protective Association in
the northwest has greatly impressed all private owners of large
holdings and will have a salutary effect in the formation of new
associations as well as a better appreciation of state and national
work. Some of the most authentic lumber journals state that
these private organizations did better work than the ranger force
on National Forests but this may perhaps be largely accounted for
by a difference in natural conditions. Nearly every journal unites
in the demand for better appropriations for the National Forest
Service while some authors justly condemn the congressmen and
senators from the northwest who have done all they could to
limit Forest Service appropriations. The House of Representa-
tives having on February 11 passed a bill making a contingent
appropriation of $1,000,000 for fire fighting, the possibility of
more effective protection is probably given.
Yale University Forest Scliool
NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT
A two-year course is oflFered, leading to the
degree of Master of Forestry. Graduates of
collegiate institutions of high standing are
admitted upon presentation of their college
diploma, provided they have taken certain pre-
scribed undergraduate courses.
The first term is conducted at Milford, Pike
County, Penn. The session in 19 ii will open
July 5 and continue ten weeks.
For further information, address
JAMES W. TOUMEY, Acting Director, New Haven, Connecticut
The University of Toronto
and University College
Faculties of Art, Medicine, Applied Science, House-
hold Science, Education, Forestry.
The Faculty of Forestry offers a four-year course,
leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in
Forestry.
For informati«n, *pply to the REGISTRAR OF THE UNITERSITY, or
to the Secretaries of the respective Faculties.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCE
offers a two-years' course in FORESTRY leading to the degree of
Master in Forestry. The descriptive pamphlet will be sent on
application to W. C. SABINE, 15 University Hall, Cambridge,
Mass.
UNIVERSITY OF MAINE
ORONO, MAINE
Offers a four-year undergraduate course, leading to the degree of
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN FORESTY.
The Location and Equipment of the School and the Opportunities offered to
Students of Forestry are excellent.
For detailed information, address
JOHN M. BRISCOE, Department of Forestry, ORONO, MAINE.
ERIC FOREST SCHOOL
Powder Point, Duxbury, Mass. Box 213
Preparatory course in FORcSTRY leading to the Biltmore
and college courses in this subject. It requires hard, earnest
application, and develops an appreciation of nature and power of
leadership. SUMMER CLASS ; also TUTORING.
F. B. KNAPP, S. B., Director
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Some Notes on Jack Pine (Pinus divaricata) in Western
Ontario, . - _ - .
ByX. M.;EUis.
Page
I
Comfortable Camps as a Means of Increasing the
Efficiency of Woods Labor, - - 15
ByS. B. Detwiler.
How Fascines are Made, - - 18
By S. B. Detwiler.
Grade and Texture in Wood, - - - 22
By Samuel J, Record.
The Equipment and Operation of a German Seed-
extracting Establishment, - - - 26
Translation by Sidney L. Moore.
Some Facts on Forestry Conditions in Sweden, 46
By Max H. Forester,
The Swedish Forest Conservation Law, - 59
By R. E. Fftrnnw
Fixation of the Dunes on the Coast of Jutland, - 62
By W. J. Morrill.
Supervisors' Meeting at San Francisco, ~ - ;>»
Current Literature, - 75
Other Current Literature, - 115
Periodical Literature, - - - - - 124
Other Periodical Literatine, - 164
News and Notes, - - - - 168
Comment, - - - - 1^5
Volume IX No. 2
FORESTRY QUARTERLY
A PROFESSIONAL JOURNAL
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CAMBRIDGE (BOSTON), MASS.
1911
Entered as second-class matter September 28, 1909, at the post office at Boston,
Mass., under the Act of March 3, IS97.
FORESTRY QUARTERLY
BOARD OF EDITORS
B. E. Fe;rnow, LL. D., Bditor-in-Chief.
Hi:nry S. Graves, M. A., Fiubert Roth, B. S.,
Forest Service. University of Michigan.
R. C. Bryant, F. E., ^^ „ t, -^ ^
^ T7 ■ V Hugh P. Baker, M. F.,
Yale University. ' '
^ /TA -r-» » Pennsylvania State College,
Richard T. Fisher, A. B,,
Harvard University. C. D. HowE, Ph. D.,
Walter MulFORD, F. E., University of Toronto.
Cornell University. Raphaei, Zon, F. E.,
Ernest A. Sterling, F. E., p^^,^^ ^,,^i,,^
Forester, Penna. R. R. Co.
Frederick Duni^p, F. E., Clyde Leavitt, M. S. F.,
Forest Service. Forest Service.
Asa S. Williams, F. E.
the objects for which this journal is pubushed are :
To aid in the estabhshment of rational forest management.
To offer an organ for the publication of technical papers of
interest to professional foresters of America.
To keep the profession in touch with the current technical
literature, and with the forestry movement in the United States
and Canada.
Manuscripts may be sent to the Editor-in-Chief at University
of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any of the board of editors.
Subscriptions and other business matters should be addressed to
the puDlisher, Forestry Quarterly, 396 Harvard Street, Cam-
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Press of
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1911
Prof. Dr. H. Mayr, Miinchen
FORESTRY QUARTERLY
Voiv. IX.] June, 1911. [No. 2.
FORESTRY AND THE LUMBER BUSINESS.
By J. E. Rhodes.* bota;^;.
GARD£»
Forestry in its larger sense means the preservation of the
forests for use. Using the forests involves lumbering; there-
fore forestry and lumbering must eventually become one con-
sideration. Forestry which does not contemplate the use of the
forest is not practical forestry and will not appeal to practical
men. It is, therefore, necessary that the forester should know
something of the conditions and necessities of the lumber
business.
Up to the present time the United States Forest Service has
taken the majority of the graduates of the forestry schools, but
the time is not far distant when the Government will have a staff
sufficient to handle its own work, when trained foresters must
look to other fields for the exercise of their professional abilities.
Consequently, the attitude of the lumbermen and timber owners
toward your chosen profession must be of direct interest to you.
While I do not speak with authority, I am more or less familiar
with the views which are held by many of the progressive men
of the lumber industry upon the subject of forestry. It is not
strange that the generation of lumbermen now passing had but
little patience with the theoretical forester. The evolution of
economic conditions is only just now beginning to make possible
the consideration of the application of scientific forestry prin-
ciples to lumbering operations with any hope of financial gain.
While it is true that forestry methods are adaptable to lumbering
in a small way in certain localities and in certain species of tim-
ber, it is impossible to apply them to the large lumbering opera-
« — *Secretary, Weyerhauser Lumber Company.
196 Forestry Quarterly.
tions in the Lake States, in the Southern States and in the States
of the Pacific Coast.
The lumber business has gone through several stages of de-
velopment. Like everything else, it has proceeded along the
easiest and most natural lines. Up to 1897 it w^as not considered
more profitable than the majority of manufacturing industries;
indeed, not as profitable as the average. Up to that time the
views of our fathers still prevailed to the effect that the forests
should be cut as rapidly as possible in order that the land might
be opened for settlement. With the prosperity and expansion
of the nation, which began in 1898, the consumption of lumber
increased beyond all precedent, and continued in a large way up
to the close of 1907, when it was checked by the panic. During
the ten years from 1898 to 1907 the abnormal demand for lumber
was at times beyond the ability of the mills to supply. This re-
sulted in the development of new fields of timber in the South
and West, gave a value to many kinds of timber which had been
previously considered almost worthless, and stimulated the build-
ing of many new mills. This exploitation and development of
the lumber industry did not cease until the producing capacity far
exceeded all reasonably possible demands for lumber. With the
increased wealth of the people the demand for lumber increased
per capita. From 1900 to 1908 the increase in population was
estimated at 22 per cent., while the increase in the consumption of
lumber was 65 per cent. The consumption of lumber per capita
has been figured as 360 feet in 1890; in 1900 it was 460 feet, and
on the basis of the census of 1910, it was practically 500 feet.
Answering to the laws of supply and demand, the price of lumber
advanced considerably during the period between 1898 and 1907.
It was during these years that the public generally first came to
realize that the timber resources of this nation are not inex-
haustible. This realization marked the second stage in the de-
velopment of the lumber industry in this country. It, together
with the extraordinary demand for lumber, caused the value of
standing timber to advance sharply. In 1890, Northern pine
stumpage, the estimates of which included only the very best
white pine, was sold for from 75 cents to $4.00 per thousand
feet, depending upon its location and character. To-day it sells
from $6.00 to $14.00 per thousand feet, and the estimates cover
everything on the land, including white and Norway pine, tama-
Forestry and the Lumber Business. 197
rack, spruce, balsam, jack-pine and anything that will make a
saw-log. Yellow pine timber in the Southern States was con-
sidered of very little value and twenty-five years ago sold for
50 cents to $1.00 per thousand feet. To-day the production of
yellow pine constitutes nearly one-half the total lumber output
of the United States, including the hardwoods. Yellow pine
stumpage has risen from practically nothing to from $3.00 to
$5.00 per thousand feet.
In 1890, the total production of lumber in the Lake States was
over nine billion feet, while in 1910 it was only about two billion.
More than five hundred mills which were at one time or another
sawing Northern pine in Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan,
are no longer operated, because there are no more logs to saw.
While the output has declined in the Lake States, it has rapidly
increased, because of the building of new mills, in the South and
West, so that the aggregate production of the country has been
growing. The census reports show the following lumber pro-
duction of the United States in recent years :
1904. 34, 1 35 '1 39.000 feet.
1906, 37,550,736,000 "
1907, 40,256,154,000 "
1908, 33,224,369,000 "
1909, 44,585,000,000 "
The decline in the production during 1908 was due to the finan-
cial depression following the money stringency of the last quarter
of 1907. The entire lumber industry has been marking time
since that panic. It is one of the very few businesses which has
not fully recovered from the effects of the decline in prices suf-
fered at that time. But it is significant that while the prices of
lumber declined, the prices of standing timber did not. Due in
part to the completion of new mills under way, the total produc-
tion of lumber in 1909 was the largest in the history of the nation.
There is every reason to believe that the lumber production of the
country has about reached its maximum. If generally favorable
business conditions are to continue for a few years, it is evident
that with the decline in the output, the lumber business will soon
enter upon the third stage of its development ; namely, the adop-
tion of conservative methods of handling timber. It is therefore
198 Forestry Quarterly.
easy to see why lumbermen are coming to realize that something
must be done if their business is to be prolonged indefinitely. As
long as the prices of lumber have barely covered cost of produc-
tion, as has been the case with the great majority of manufac-
turers since 1907, no thought, whatever, can be given to forestry
methods. Lumbermen know that timber products are indispen-
sable to our civilization and that they can continue to be manu-
factured and consumed in the present volume but a few years at
best. When in the course of natural events prices of stumpage
have risen to the proper basis, other conditions being favorable,
scientific forestry will surely be adopted by lumbermen. They
are too intelligent business men not to undertake those methods
which will perpetuate their supplies of raw material and prolong
their business. If forestry cannot be undertaken with profitable
results it cannot be considered at all by private individuals, as
they cannot be expected to conduct a work of this kind at a loss
to themselves, no matter how much they may be prompted by
sentiment or regard for future generations. The price of lumber
must reach a point where it will pay to grow trees or forestry
cannot be thought of. The time when forestry can be seriously
considered as a business proposition, therefore, depends entirely
upon the development of economic conditions. It is to help them
hasten these conditions that lumbermen will appeal to the for-
esters. Hence, the interests of the lumbermen and the foresters
in working to this end are mutual.
Aside from the present inadequate value of stumpage, the two
great obstacles to forestry are, as you know, fire and taxation.
When these problems are solved, the field for forestry will be
open in America. If the professional forester is looking toward
a vocation in economic forestry, outside of the Government ser-
vice, he must first address himself to the task of subduing forest
fires.
A field which promises some opportunities for trained foresters
in the immediate future is in the service of the States. A num-
ber of the State Legislatures are at this time considering the
establishment of State forestry work which will require the ser-
vices of technically trained men. This work will be confined
very largely at first to fire prevention, particularly in the Lake
and far Western States. These States themselves own vast areas
of timber, for which improved protection from fires will be de-
Forestry and the Lumber Business. 199
manded as it increases in value. The first concern of the State
foresters will be the organization of efficient patrol systems, with
all that that involves; namely, securing the co-operation of pri-
vate timber owners ; educating the public by word and pen of its
interest in the forest, the fact that forest wealth is community
wealth ; impressing every citizen with the fact that every tree
which burns is a direct loss to him. The work of creating a
healthy public sentiment in favor of larger State legislative ap-
propriations for the protection and management of forests will
devolve upon the foresters. The enormous losses by forest
fires the past year have put the public mind in a more favorable
attitude for advanced work along this line than it has ever been
before. It has become recognized that the State should not only
insure its own property from loss, but that it owes its citizens
the protection of their lives and property as well. No one can
do more to impress this fact upon people than the foresters, be-
cause when the timber owner announces any such propaganda his
motives are immediately questioned. The people will recognize
the forester as a man qualified to speak and speak unselfishly.
After they have reduced forest fire losses to the minimum, the
next stage of the State foresters will be the inauguration of con-
servative methods in the handling of State timber, just as the
Federal Forest Service has done. This will also include refor-
estation, which the State and Nation alone can afford to under-
take. State foresters will also be called upon to assist in the
classification of lands suitable for the growing of trees as distin-
guished from agricultural lands. People are beginning to realize
that it is a crime to put deluded settlers upon lands from which
they reap misery and starvation instead of wealth and happiness.
Hence, there will be a field for the professional forester in State
work before there is an opening for him in private undertakings.
Some timber owners are beginning to ask if it is not possible
to put the forest upon a permanently paying basis by utilizing
its productive power. In endeavoring to figure out what must
be done in order that timber may be handled upon scientific
forestry principles, lumbermen are confronted with the fact that
the present system of taxation is an absolute barrier against the
adoption of any forestry methods, whatever. And here I will
make a distinction between reforestation and conservative lum-
bering. Lumbermen believe that cut-over lands and lands not
200 Forestry Quarterly.
suitable for agriculture must be planted, if at all, by the State
and National Governments. It is a work which cannot be con-
sidered by the present generation of business men as a profitable
enterprise or investment, simply because in most species of timber
the returns to be expected are inadequate and wholly problem-
atical. The length of time required to plant and mature a crop
of trees is too great to interest Americans. The State lives on
while individuals perish. The State can borrow money at 2 per
cent., while the individual must pay 5 or 6 per cent., and while the
individual must pay taxes in some form or other, the State is
exempt. The actual planting of trees, therefore, is for the
benefit of future generations, and must be done by the State.
Conservative logging, as lumbermen understand it, means the
cutting of virgin timber so that the forest may perpetuate itself.
This may involve the cutting of trees of certain species by
diameter limit, the leaving of seed trees, leaving stands of young
trees where under certain conditions their increase in size will
be an element worth reckoning; also the protection of water-
sheds, the cutting of timber for the creation of fire lines, ascer-
taining the rate of growth of different species in different locali-
ties, knowledge of the exact relation between the forest growth
and timber consumption, etc., all of which will have to be worked
out by the technical forester. These conditions vary in every
locality and with every kind of timber and with the changing con-
ditions of the lumber market.
In consulting the forester about conservation methods of log-
ging, lumbermen find that the cost will be very greatly enhanced
over present costs, and they are confronted with the question
of what kind of a tax they can pay and still leave a reasonable
margin for the investment and risk. Scientific forestry must
present some inducement as a business investment or it never
will be undertaken. It is useless to expect men to look at it in
any other light. It is evident that there will have to be a radical
change in the present methods of taxation, and here again the
public must be educated by the forester. He alone can show
the people that there can be no real progress toward conserva-
tion so long as the present system of taxation remains in vogue.
It is the most important question before the lumbermen to-day
and will some day be one of the most important before the
nation. While many thinking people recognize the truth of this
Forestry and the Lumber Business. 20I
statement, it is to be regretted that up to this time the pubHc gen-
erally has opposed any change in present methods of taxing tim-
ber lands. If the enthusiastic conservationists expect lumbermen
to preserve their trees they must meet them on their own ground
and show more of a spirit of harmonious co-operation than has
so far been manifested. It is plainly to the interest of the for-
esters to show the people that so long as the forests continue to
be taxed on the basis of an annual crop, holding young trees
until they reach maturity means financial loss to anyone who
attempts it. Such methods of taxation are in the end ruinous to
the community also, for they encourage devastation and aban-
donment to the State of lands that thereafter yield no revenue
either in the form of products or taxes.
At the present time the important matter of the taxes to be
levied against timber lands rests entirely in the hands of the
local assessors, whose only ambition seems to be to get the largest
amount of money they can collect from the owners of timber in
their counties. They hold that the more taxes lumbermen are
required to pay the faster they will cut their timber, hence, the
larger operations they will conduct, the more men they will em-
ploy, and the more quickly will the country be opened for settle-
ment. Timber is now taxed under the general property tax
system, the same as most other forms of wealth. Assessments
are usually made by men having no special qualification for the
work. In some localities efforts are made to cruise or estimate
the timber, but knowledge as to the amount and value of timber
on certain pieces of land is generally gained from second-hand
evidence or by very superficial examination of the property. The
increase in the values of forest lands for the purpose of taxation
has been from four to five hundred per cent, in many sections
within the past few years. The rate of taxation varies according
to the township or county in which the timber is situated, and
widely different assessments are made by different tax assessors
residing in the same towns so that there is no uniformity in either
the rate or valuation. There is nowhere in the United States any
uniformity for levying assessments on timber or cut-over lands.
The results of such haphazard methods are frequently surpris-
ing. It is latterly impossible to make anything like a definite
statement in regard to these matters because of the great varia-
tion in assessments and rates upon the timber in the same locaU-
202 Forestry Quarterly.
ties and of apparently the same value. The system of taxing
timber as other property is taxed was long ago abandoned by
every other progresive nation. To ascertain what the actual
burden of taxation on timber lands in this country is to-day, will
require an exhaustive study covering a long period of time.
I do not know that excessive taxation has as yet prevented the
adoption of forestry methods by lumbermen for the reason that
other conditions have not been propitious. The price of stump-
age has not yet reached that point where such methods can be
applied even if there were no taxes. It is significant that in the
localities and species where timber prices are the highest taxes
have correspondingly risen. This is true in the white pine of
the Northern States where the taxes are much higher than upon
timber in other sections. Conservative methods might be under-
taken in logging white pine if there was no annual taxes were it
not for the fact that physical and climatic conditions are far more
favorable for securing natural reproduction in yellow pine of
the Southern States, and in the fir of the Pacific Coast States.
This is, of course, due to the more rapid growth of the two latter
species. I believe that the pine forests of the North will have
to be sacrificed before Southern and Western timber has reached
a value which will make it possible to log it in a way to secure
successive crops. All but a remnant of the Northern forests
will be gone under present conditions inside of fifteen years. I
do not believe that the Northern States will present a field for the
activities of the forester, except in State and Federal service, to
be compared with the opportunities in the Southern and Western
States. Private forestry will offer very little inducement to the
owners of Southern and Western timber inside of ten to fifteen
years, and it never will be much of an inducement until the tax
is made to follow the saw.
A tax upon the timber crop when it is cut would make it un-
necessary for the owner to put up additional capital to sustain
his property as is necessary under the increasing annual tax. A
tax on the yield would make it an object for the timber owner to
hold his property for future speculative values as it would entirely
eliminate the principal element now entering into the carrying
charge when considering what the final cost may be of holding a
tract of timber. The problem of how best to tax timber wealth
in such a way as to encourage forestry while at the same time
Forestry and the Lumber Business. 203
making it bear its just burden of the expense of government, is
one in which the foresters can very properly interest themselves.
The question nowr arises in your minds as to what there is for
the forester to do until that time when conditions are favorable
for the adoption of private forestry upon a large scale. The
foresters who are looking to the immediate future need not
despair, although I am free to confess that the opportunities out-
side of State and National work are not as promising as many
have doubtless been led to believe. The foresters will find a
limited field with the operators who take contracts to cut timber
off Government land which require more or less forestry regula-
tions. In a short time, the States will demand the same require-
ments of those who log timber upon State lands.
If the young foresters desire to spend a few years in living in
the woods, a limited number of men can even now find employ-
ment as timber cruisers. As stumpage increases in value, the
old-fashioned haphazard methods of estimating timber are found
to be unsatisfactory. Lumbermen, especially those operating in
white pine, have found that trained foresters can estimate the
amount of timber on a given tract of land much more closely
than can the old-fashioned cruiser. A trained forester con-
sumes considerably more time in estimating timber than does the
old time woodsman because he calipers trees, but his increased
accuracy is worth far more than the difference in cost. The
forester who seeks employment with lumber companies must be
skilled in work of this kind, and the time is not far away when
those dealing in timber lands will require that the estimates
of standing timber be made in a careful and scientific manner, to
include accurate map work and detailed reports of topography,
species, and the general physical conditions of the country
covered. This work requires men of good physique who are
willing to live in the woods for months at a time. It is about the
only branch of the lumber industry, as it is at present conducted,
in which the scientific knowledge of the forester can be especially
serviceable. There are other departments of the business in
which the forester can engage, but they will only make a partial
demand for his knowledge of forestry. There are but a very
few lumbering operations of any size in this country to-day, out-
side of New England, where trees are logged with an idea of
obtaining a second crop. In some regions a greater precaution
204 Forestry Quarterly.
is taken to prevent fires than in others, which, of course, gives
natural reproduction a chance.
The history of European forestry is repeating itself in the
United States. We are progressing along exactly similar lines.
The price of standing timber abroad averages about as much as
the price of manufactured lumber in this country at the point of
production, and long before stumpage here has reached a valua-
tion equal to that in Europe, our forests will be protected, con-
served and most carefully managed. As soon as there is a sane
system of taxation of timber lands, and adequate protection from
fire, we shall begin to practice forestry more extensively. It
will accompany and be in proportion to the increase in the value
of timber. For this reason there will be no timber famine in
America.
In seeking to solve the question of fire risks and taxation, the
foresters will not only hasten the day when their own services
will be in demand but they will be at the same time performing a
service of benefit to mankind.
NEW VIEW POINTS IN SILVICULTURE.
By Raphaei. Zon.
In a sense Professor Mayr's last book on Silviculture*, which
has drawn considerable attention from the forester world abroad,
does not contain anything new to those who are familiar with his
earlier writings, such as "Waldungen von Nord America,"
"Fremdlandische Wald and Parkbdume fur Europa," and his ar-
ticles in the periodical literature. In this new book, however,
are brought together all the facts and his conclusions, and, there-
fore, a better opportunity is afforded to grasp fully the point of
view of the author.
The greatest service rendered by Prof. Mayr to silviculture
lies not in facts and conclusions advanced by him, but in the
entirely new point of view, and in the new method of dealing
with silvicultural problems. Silviculture, until a comparatively
recent time, consisted chiefly of pure empiricism, of rules and
regulations based on the experience of practitioners. There was
very little attempt to study silvicultural results in the light of
the physical factors which produced them. While one finds in
the old handbooks on silviculture hints as to the influence of
climate upon forest vegetation, they do not go very far and the
books deal as a rule chiefly with statements of silvicultural facts
which take place in the forest, without taking into account at all
the medium, the soil, and the atmosphere which condition the
biological peculiarities of the forest.
Silviculture based only on experience, no matter how valuable
the experience, could not become a science in the true sense.
Prof. Mayr was one of the few foresters who helped to estab-
lish silviculture on a scientific foundation. All his works are
marked with an attempt to understand and interpret silvicultural
problems as a result of the climatic factor. Climate is at the bot-
tom of all his explanations of biological differences in stands
which grow in different places, as well as of the application of
different silvicultural methods. One must be careful not to ac-
Waldbau auf naturgesetzlicher Grundlage. Ein Lehr-und Handbuch,
bearbeitet von Heinrich Mayr. Berlin, Paul Parey, igog.
2o6 Forestry Quarterly.
cept without critical revision all of Prof. Mayr's statements and
conclusions as undisputed laws. They are not laws yet, but
merely presentiments of such laws, merely the first outlines of
the future structure of scientific silviculture, which is bound to
grow up on the basis of a scientific study of the forest. Some of
his statements may not be based on a sufficiently solid founda-
tion, future work may and doubtless will bring in many correc-
tions and show the faultiness of some of his conclusions, yet the
idea itself which points such a fruitful path to silviculture will
never die. His investigations are those of a geographer, with
all the good and bad sides of the geographic method of investi-
gation.
He studied the forests in Europe, in Asia, and in America.
In his travels he compared the climates and forests of different
countries and his conclusions are the result of these comparative
geographical studies. Such geographical studies, while they are
extremely valuable, yet are not devoid of some subjective ele-
ment. These defects of personal observations over large fields
can be corrected only by means of intensive experimental meth-
ods of investigation over small areas.
The book consists of three large parts, each subdivided into a
number of chapters: (i) Fundamental, Natural Laws of Silvi-
culture; (2) The Reproduction of the Forest; (3) The Growing
and Care of the Forest. Of these three parts the first one if of
the greatest importance to us, since the conclusions drawn there
are based on many facts observed by him in North America,
and for this reason is helpful in understanding our own forest
conditions as well as those of the entire world ; the other two
parts are more specific and their application is narrowed down
chiefly to European conditions.
Mayr established both for the old and the new world a series
of forest regions. The basis for this division into forest regions
is the climate, which determines, not only the distribution of the
forest but its very existence. Of the climatic factors tempera-
ture and humidity of the air play the most important part. The
author considers the average temperature for the four vegetative
months as the one which determines the distribution of the
different species and the limit of forest extension. For the
northern hemisphere, the vegetative period occurs during the
"tetrahore," the months of May, June, July and August. For the
New View Points in Silviculture. 207
southern hemisphere, it includes the months of November, De-
cember, January and February. Wherever the average temper-
ature during the vegetative period is below 50 degrees Fahren-
heit no forest can exist. The line connecting the points which
have during the four vegetative months an average temperature
of 50° is the limit of forest extension or the "isohyle."
Another climatic factor which determines the existence of the
forest is the humidity of the air. The basis of his repeated
studies in the prairies of North America and Eastern Asia during
the years 1885-87 led him to consider the following figures as
the minimum amount of moisture in the air and in the ground
(precipitation) which are necessary for the existence of the
forest :
If less than 1.95 inches of rain falls in one region during the
months of May, June, July and August on the northern hemi-
sphere, and on the southern hemisphere during the months of
November, December, January and February, the natural estab-
lishment of a forest is impossible, even though the moisture of
the air may be ever so great. Such an un forested coast line
upon which the precipitation is not sufficient — even though the
moisture in the air is sufficient and, in fact, in some places quite
high — extends in North America from the fortieth degree north
latitude southward through Central and South America to Pata-
gonia. Such a coast line lies also on the west side of Africa
south of the equator. It lacks forest because the necessary water
is lacking in the soil ; if this water is supplied artificially, these
prairies can be transformed into luxuriant grain fields, orchards,
and forests.
Regions which during the four months receive more than 1.95
and less than 3.9 inches of rain, also do not support a forest when
the humidity in the air during the same time sinks lower than
50 per cent. The great prairies between the Rocky Mountains
and the immense stretch of forest near the Atlantic Ocean in
North America receive less than 3.9 inches of precipitation with
an average relative humidity of less than 50 per cent. To this
may be added the extensive steppe region of southern Russia
and western Asia; the steppes of the interior Mongolia of east-
ern Asia ; the steppes of Uraguay, Paraguay, southeastern Africa,
and Australia. At any time such tracts of country in which the
208
Forestry Quarterly.
forest is not able to penetrate by the help of nature can be trans-
formed into forests by artificial means.
If the precipitation exceeds 3.9 inches, dryness of the air can
not prevent the existence of the forest. If the land is watered
by artificial means or otherwise supplied with water by natural
means (irrigation, ground water) a forest will spring up even
though the air may be ever so dry during the period of growth.
On the basis of the average temperature, air humidity, and
precipitation during the vegetative period as well as on the basis
of the annual temperature, the dates of occurrence of the first
and last frosts, and the absolute minimum temperature, Mayr
established several forest regions or zones for Europe, America,
and Asia. Each zone is characterized by tree species, which have
about the same climatic requirements. The different zones are
arranged below in tabular form for ready comparison.
ZONES OF SIMILAR CLIMATE, ELEVATION AND WOODY
SPECIES OF THE FORESTS OF NORTH AMERICA,
EUROPE AND ASIA
[Note: The climatic data are given in the following sequence, a? denot-
ing absence of information : average temperature during growing season,
May I to Aug. 31; Humidity; Precipitation during growing season;
Mean annual temperature; First, fall frost; Last, spring frost; Lowest
recorded temperature.]
I. Cool Region of the Stunted and Dwarfed Trees, Limits of the Forest,—
The Alpine Region, — The Polar Region
Atlantic Region
(Northern Canada)
45°-48°; 80+; ?; 32°;
NORTH AMERICA.
Central Region
(Rocky Mountains)
11,500 feet
?; ?; —49° ?; ?; ?; ?; ?; ?; ?;
Betula, Alnus, Salix, Pinus flexilis, Pinus
Juniperus, Abies bal- albicaulis, Pinus aris-
smnea, Pinus banksi-
ana, Larix laricina.
tata, Picea pungens
and engelmdnni
Larix lyalii.
Pacific Region
(Sierra Nevada,
Alaska)
9,900 feet — 1,650-3,960.
46°; 90%; 6 in.; 28°;
?;?;-4°
Salix, Populus, Alnus,
Pinus balfourinana,
Larix lyalii, Tsuga
mertensiana.
New Vieiv Points in Silviculture.
209
Himalaya Mountains
Up to 13,200 feet.
■? • ? ■ ?• ?■ "? ■ ?
14°
ASIA
Japan
(From Urupp north-
east, and from sea
up.)
Middle, at 8,250 ft.—
over 3,300. — Kwilen,
over 990.
? ; ? ; ? ; ? ; ? ; ? ; 22°
?■?■?•?•■?•>.
49
Sorbiis, Abies pindrau, Sorbtts, Alnus, Salix, Scrubby specimens of
Larix griffithii. Populus, Betula, the preceding zone,
Pinus pumila, Picea
hondoensis, Picea
ajanensis, Larix kur-
ilensis, Larix leptole-
pis.
especially the birches
{Taiga), Picea obo-
vata, Larix sibirica,
L. dahurica, cajan-
deri.
Southern
( Appenines, 8,250 ft. ;
Balkans, 6,600 ft.)
EUROPE
Middle
(Northern Alps)
6,600 ft.
Northern
Above 1,980 ft.
46°— 50°; 80%; 16 in.; 34°— 37°; June; Aug.; 31° to 49°.
In the north, birch shrubs, alders, willow^s, Picea excelsa, Pinus septen-
trionalis; in middle Europe, Pinus pumila, Picea excelsa, Pinus cenibrd,
Larix europaea.
II. Moderately Cool Region of the Spruces, Firs and Larches. — The
Spruce, Fir or Larch Region.
NORTH AMERICA
Central Region Pacific Region
(Rocky Mountains, (Sierra Nevada, 6,600
over 3,300 ft. in ft. to 9,240 ft. ; Cas-
north ; over 1,650 ft. cade Mts., 4,950 ft. to
in South.) 8,910 ft.; Alaska, to
1,650 ft, up to 550.)
Atlantic Region
(Middle States, from
5,940 ft. ; Northern
States from 3,300 ft. ;
Canada, from 1,650
ft., northward to sea
coast.)
59°; 7S%— 80%; 16-23
m.; 43°; May;
Sept.; —40° (5° in
South).
Pyrus, Betula, Populus,
Salix, Abies balsam-
ea, fraseri, Tsuga
canandensis, Picea
alba, nigra, rubra.
Thuja, occidentalis,
Pinus strobus, resin-
osa, banksiana, Larix
laricina.
?. ?. ?. ■?. p. ■?. ■?
Pyrus, Betula, Picea
pungens, engelmanni,
Pinus contorta, aris-
tata scopulorum,
Pseudo-tsuga, taxi-
falia var. glauca,
Abies lasiocarpa, con-
color, Juniperus
pachyphloea, Larix
lyalli, occidentalis.
50° ; 80% ; 20 in. ; 43° ;
?;?;3°
Pyrus, Betula, Alnus,
Abies grandis, con-
color, nobilis, ama-
bilis, magnifica,
Pinus contorta, mon-
ticola, balfouriana,
Hexilis, albicaulis,
ponder osa, Picea sit-
kaensis, breweriana,
Pseudo-tsuga taxi-
folia, Tsuga hetero-
phylla, mertensiana,
Larix occidentalis.
2IO
Forestry Quarterly.
ASIA
Himalaya Mountains Japan
Eastern, 9,570 to 14,190 South, 4,950 to 8,910
ft ft; north, 3,300 to
4,950 ft; Eso, 1,650
to 3,300 ft ; Kuri-
len, over 300 ft.
Western, 8,250 to 13,200 54° to 59° ; 80 to 90% ;
ft 12 to 39 in.; 39° to
China
?;?;?;?;?;?;?.
Sorbus, Betula, Alnus,
Salix, Abies webbi-
ana, pindrau, Tsuga
dumosa, Picea mo-
rinda, Larix grif-
fithii, Abies cilicica.
45^
? ; ? ; —22°
Southern
4,290 to 7,590 ft.
Sorbus, Betula, Alnus,
Salix, Abies, veit-
chii, marie sii, sacha-
linensis, Pinus kor-
aensis parviilora,
densiftora, Picea bi-
color hondoensis,
ajanensis, glehnii,
Larix leptolepis,
kurilensis.
EUROPE
Middle
South, 2,970 to 6,930 ft.
North, 1,980 to 3,300 ft.
. , . , . , . , . , . .
Sorbus, Alnus, Petula,
Salix, Populus, Picea
schrenkiana, wilsoni,
neoveitchii, mastersii,
brachityla, likiangen-
sis bicolor, ajanen-
sis, Abies delavayi,
Fargesii, veitchii,
Pinus bungeana, hen-
ry i, sinensis, Larix
principis, rupprechtii
and dahurica, sibiri-
ca, (?) thibetica,
grimthii, chinensis.
Northern
Over 1,650 ft.
50° to 57°; 75%; 23 to 31 in.; 2,7° to 45° ; May; Sept; —31°
Sorbus, Alnus, Betula, Salix, Populus, Abies pectinata, pinsapo, cepha-
lonica, Picea excelsa; omorica, Pinus silvestris, uncinnata, cembra,
peuke, Larix europea.
Ural: Abies sibirica, Pinus sibirica, Picea obvata, Larix sibirica. Caxa-
cRsus -.Abies nordmanniana, Picea orientalis.
III. Temperate Forest Zone of the Deciduous Trees, the Cooler Half,
—The Beech Zone.
Atlantic Region
(Southern States, 660
ft to 2,640 ft.; Mid-
dle States, 1,320 ft
to 2,970 ft. ; North
& South Canada, i,-
320 ft. to 2,970 ft.)
NORTH AMERICA
Central Region
(Arizona, Nevir Mex-
ico, 3,960 ft. to 6,600
ft ; Rocky Moun-
tains, up to 3,300 ft)
66°; 6s%; 8 in.; 45° ?; ?; ?; ?; ?; ?; ?.
to 54°; May; Sept;
—13° to —31°.
Pacific Region
(Sierra Nevada, Cas-
cade Mts., Coast
Ranges)
4,950 ft. to 6,600 ft.
59° ; 80% ; 5 in. ; 45° to
50° ; March ; Nov. ;
3°.
New View Points in Silviculture.
211
Fagiis ferruginea,
Quercus alba, macro-
carpa, coccinea, pal-
ustris, tinctoria,
Carya alba, porcina,
amara, tomentosa,
Acer rubriim, sac-
charuni, Fraxinus,
Salix, Betula, Jug-
lans, Liriodcndron,
Prunus, Ulnius, Pop-
ulus, Tilia, Sorhus,
Pinus strobiis, res-
inosa, rigida, banksi-
ana. Thuja occident-
alis, Chamaecyparis
spharoidea, A b i es
halsamea, Picea, alba,
nigra, Larix larcina.
Fraxinus, P o p ul us,
Prosopis, Salix, Pin-
us chihuahua, pon-
derosa, scopulorum,
murrayana, strobi-
forntis, Abies ari-
s on i ca , mayriana,
Pseutodsuga taxifo-
lia var. glauca, Picea
engehnannii, p u n-
gens.
Quercus garryana, cali-
fornica, Acer ma-
croph., Fraxinus ore-
gona, Populus tricho-
carp, Aliius, Salix,
Pseudotsuga taxifo-
lia, Abies grandis,
venusta, concolor.
Thuja plicata, Tsuga
heterophylla, Cham-
aecyparis lawsoniana,
nootkatensis, Liboce-
drus, decurrens, Se-
quoia washingtoniana,
Pinus monticola,
lambertiana, ponder-
osa, jeffreyi, contor-
ta, Picea sitkaensis,
Larix occidentalis.
Himalaya Mountains,
Eastern, 8,250 to 9,-
570 ft. ; Western, 6,-
600 ft to 8,250 ft.
ASIA
Japan
Middle, 2,640 ft. to
4,950 ft.; north, 1,320
ft. to 3,300 ft; Eso,
660 ft. to 1,650 ft.
?; ?; ?; ?; ?; ?; not 63°; 80%; 16 in.; 45°
under 50'. —48°; May; Oct.;
-13°.
Acer, Pyrus, Tsuga du-
mosa, Abies pindrau,
webbiana, Pinus ex-
celsa, khasiana, ger-
ardiana, Picea mor-
inda, Larix grifHthii.
Fagus japonica, sie-
boldii, Quercus den-
tata, crispula, Fraxi-
nus mandshurica,
longicuspis, Phelleo-
dendron. Magnolia
hypoleuca, Cladrastis,
amureuse, Acer, Cer-
cidiphyllum Acan-
fhropanax, Ostrya,
Betula, Salix, Car-
pinus, Prunus, Po-
pulus, Tilia, Ulmus,
C h ama e c y p aris.
Thuja, Cryptomeria
Thujopsis, Sciadopi-
tys, species of pine,
Pseudotsuga ja-
ponica, Tsuga diver-
siUora, Taxus, Abies
homolepis, sachali-
nensis, Picea polifa,
bicolor, ajanensis, L.
leptolepis.
China
7. 7. ■?.■?.?. ?
Fagus sinensis, engler-
iana, Quercus den-
tata, mongolica and
others, Tilia, Acer,
Prunus, Fraxinus,
Ulmus, Betula, Car-
pinus, Populus, Salix,
Biota orientalis, Tax-
us baccata (?), Pinus
sinensis, armandi,
bungeana, henryi,
mandshurica, Pinus
koraensis, Abies,
Tsuga, Pseud olarix
fortunei, Larix.
14
212
Forestry Quarterly.
EUROPE
Middle
South, up to 2,9/0
North, up
to i,c
Northern
Southermost regions of
Scotland, Denmark,
Kurland, Livonia,
Estland.
Southern
(Appenines, 2,970 ft. South, ud to 2,970 ft.
to 4,620 ft. ; Balkans,
2,640 ft. to 3,960 ft. ; ft.
Pyrenees, 2,640 ft. to
4,290 ft.. Ural, 3,300
ft. to 4,620 ft.
61° to 64°; 70%; 10 in.; 45° to 54°; May; Sept.; —13° to —22°.
Fagus silvatica, Qucrcus pcdnnculata, sessiUUora, piibescens, hungrarica,
Acer, ulmns, Bctula, Carpinus, Primus, Alnus, Populus, Fraxinus, Salix,
Tilia, Pinus peiikc, silvcstris, austriaca, leukodermis, Picea elcelsa, Abies
pectinata, pinsapo, cephalonica.
Ural: Pinus sibirica, Abies sibirica, Picea Obovata, Larix sibirica (first
appearance).
Caucasus : First appearance of Abies Nordmanniana, Picea orientalis.
IV. Temperate Forest Zone oe the Deciduous Trees, the Warmer
Half, — the Chestnut Zone.
NORTH AMERICA
Atlantic Region
(Southern States, up to
3,300 ft ; Middle
States, up to 1,320
ft; Northern States,
up to 660 ft.)
73° to 75°; 70%; 16
in.; 5 4° to 59°;
April; Oct.; 7° to
4°-
Castena dentata, Quer-
cus lyrata, imbricaria,
alba macrocarpa, fal-
cata, etc., Carya alba,
porcina, amara, sul-
cata, olivaeformis,
Nyssa silvatica,
Fraxinus quadrangu-
lata, Ulnius alata,
Robinia pseudacacia,
Glcditsia, Acer, Car-
pinus, Cetlis, Aescu-
liis, Ostrya, Juglans,
Liriodendron, Gym-
nocladus. Sassafras,
Primus serotina, Ca-
talpa. Deciduous
magnolia, Platanus
occidentalis, Liquid-
ambar, Pinus glabra,
haeda, p alus tris,
clause, inops, pun-
gens, mitis, rigida,
Tsuga caroliniana,
Taxodium distichum,
Juniperus virgiana.
Thuja occidentalis,
Chamaecyparis,
sphaeroirea.
Central Region
(Arizona, New Mexi-
co, 2,640 ft. to 3,960
ft; Middle States.)
?• ■>■ 7- ?• ?• ■?
Quercus? Platanus
mightii, Juglans^
Fraxinus Populus,
Pinus chihuahuaana
arizonica, mayriana,
ponderosa, scopulo-
Pacific Region
(California, 1650 ft
to 4,950 ft. ; Oregon,
Washington, British
Columbia, up to 990
ft.)
59°; 85%; 4 in.; So°;
Feb.; Nov.; 21°.
Quercus garryana, cali-
fornica, densiUora,
Platanus racemosa.
Arbutus menziesii,
Aesculus, C e r c i s,
Acer, Libocedrus de-
currens, Pinus pon-
derosa, sabiniana,
jeffreyi, coulteri, at-
tenuata, r a diat a,
Chamaecyparis
nootkatensis, lawson-
iana, Pseudotsuga
taxifoila, macrocar-
pa.
Nezv View Points in Silviculture.
213
ASIA
Himalaya Mountains
7,260 ft. to ?
Japan China
(S. Japan, 1,650 ft. to
4,950 ft. ; Middle
Hondo, up to 2,640
ft.; N. Hondo, S.
W. Eso, up to 660
ft.
68° ; 80% ; 20 in. ; 54
-59°; ?;?; -4°
Cedrus deodara, De- Castanea crenata, Zel- Castenea crenata, Zel
ciduous magnolia, kozva keaki, Mag- kozva keaki, Qiier
nolia hypoleuca, ko
?•?•?•?•?■
?.?.?.?.;..;).?
Primus, Pinus ex-
celsa.
Asia Minor (Leban-
on) : 3,300 ft. to 8,-
580 ft.
?;?;?;?;?;?;?.
Cedrus libani, Juglans
regia
bushi, Juglans, Quer-
ciis serrata, varia-
bilis, glandulifera,
etc., Paulownia, Aes-
cultis, Rhus, Hovenia,
Albissia, PhcUoden-
dron, Celtis, Gledit-
sia, Cercidiphyllum,
Fraxinus, Carpimis,
Sophora, Acantho-
panax, Acer, Ulmus,
P r u n us, P i n u s,
thunbergii, densi-
iiora, Cryptomeria ja-
ponica, Chamaecy-
paris, Thuja, Thujop-
sis, Sciadopitys, Tor-
reya, Abies firtna
Tsuga sieboldii,
Juniperus rigida,
chinensis, Cephalo-
taxus.
EUROPE
cus serrata,
geana, glandulifera,
Pauliownia, Phello-
dendron, Catalpa,
Liriodendron, Rhus,
Gleditsia, Gymno-
cladus, Hovenia, Aes-
culus, Sterculia, Al-
bissia, Juglans, Cel-
tis, Fraxinus, Car-
pinus, Acer, Ulmus,
Ailanthiis, Prunus,
Cercidiphyllum, So-
phora, Liquidambar,
Cunninghamia, Libo-
dedrus macrolepis,
Biota orientalis, juni-
perus, chinensis, ri-
gida, recurva, Cu-
pressus funebris,
Cephalotaxus, Tor-
reya, Pinus sinensis,
henryi, Tsuga sie-
boldii, chinensis, yun-
nanensis, Pseudolar-
ix fortunei.
Southern
(Italy, 1,650 to 3,300 ft.; North
Italy, up to 1,320 ft. ; Greece. S.
France, Spain, Portugal, up to
1,980 ft.; S. Tyrol, up to 990 ft.)
68° to 7:i° ; 50 to 60% ; 4 to 8 in. ;
55° to 63° ; March ; Nov. ; 12°
Middle
(S. England, S. Ireland, N. W.
France.)
59° ; 80% ; 8 in. ; 50° ; April ; Nov. ;
3°.
Castanea vesca, Quercus peduncu- Castanea vesca, cultivated, Qtiercus
lata, sessiliHora, pubescens, cerris,
hungarica, Ostrya, Celtis, Platan-
us, Aesculus, Fraxinus, Ulmus,
Car pinus, Cupressus fastigiata,
Pinus maritima, aleppensis, pinea,
austriaca, corsicana, silvestris.
NORTH AFRICA (Atlas)
3,300 ft. to 6,600 ft.
?. ■?. ?. ?. •?. ?. p
pedunculata, sessiliHora, Carpinus,
etc.
CAUCASUS
660 ft. to 3,300 ft.
Cedrus atlantica, Juglans regia, Large proportion of the European
Quercus, pubescens. species, Pterocarya, Zelkowa.
214
Forestry Quarterly.
V.
Sub-Tropical Forest Zone of the Evergreen Oaks and Laurels, —
The Laurel Zone.
Atlantic Region
(Florida, coast region
of the Southern
States.)
77° to 82°; 75%; 23
in. ; i^g" to 70° ;
Jan.; Feb.; 19°.
Quercus virens, Per-
sea, Sabal palms,
Pinus cubensis, pa-
lustris, Taxiodium
distichum, Juniperus
virginiana, Chamae-
cy Paris ,t hy 0 i d e s
Magnolia grandiHora.
NORTH AMERICA
Central Region
(Lowest parts of Ari-
zona, New Mexico,
and northern Mexi-
co.)
75°; 40%; 5 to II in.;
63°; ?; ?; 23° to 14°.
Quercus grisea, Arbut-
us salapensis, Proso-
pis juliflora, Cereus
gigantetis, Cupressus
ariz 0 ni c a. Agave,
Yucca.
Pacific Region
(California, up to 1,650
ft.)
22° —14°.
61'
75%; I
?; 28°.
57^
Quercus agrifolia, Cas-
tanopsis, Umbellu-
laria californica, Ar-
b u t u s menzicsii,
Washingtonia
( Palm ) , Cupressus
macrocarpa, Sequoia
sempervirens, Pinus
insignis, muricata, at-
tenuata, s ab ian a,
Pseudotsuga macro-
carpa, Tumion cali-
fornicum.
ASIA
Himalaya Mountains
4,300 ft. to 7,250 ft.
(Climate of the cooler
situations.)
Japan
(Formosa, Riukiu Is.,
Shikoku, S. Hondo,
up to about 1,650
ft.)
1,650 ft to 6,600 ft.
59° — 66° ; 72 — 93% ; 72,° ; 80% ; 39 in. ; 63° ;
21—47 in. ; 52°— 55° ;
?; ?; 25°. March; Nov., 19°.
Quercus incana, fenes-
trata, etc., Cupressus
torulosa, Buxus, Ce-
drus deodar, Pinus
excelsa, Rhododen-
dron Evergreen
Magnolia.
Quercus acuta, glabra,
etc., Machilus, Lit-
zaea, Cinnamonum
camphora, Buxus,
Ilex, Olea, Pasania,
Trachy carpus-Palms,
Camellia, Podocar-
pus, Cryptomeria ja-
ponica, Luchuensis,
thunbergii, Juniperus
r i g id a, chinensis,
Torreya, Evergreen
magnolia.
China
So. China up to Kuen-
lun.
•?. ■?. ■?. ■?. ?. •?. ?
Quercus gualca, seme-
carpifolia, etc., Ma-
chilus, Litzaea, Cin-
namonum camphora,
Buxus, Ilex, Olea,
Pasania, Dwarf
palm. Camellia, Po-
docarpus, Cryptome-
ria japonica, Pinus
sinensis, Cunning-
hamia sinensis, Kete-
leeria, Glyptostrobus
heterophylla J uni-
perus rigida, chinen-
sis, recurvea. Biota
orientalis, Evergreen
magnolia.
New Viezv Points in Silviculture. 215
EUROPE
(South coast, islands of west coast of middle Europe)
68° — 72°; 50 — 60%; 2 — 4in. ; 61° — 66°; Dec; Feb.; 23°.
Quercus suber, etc., Q. Ilex, Larus nohilis. Arbutus Unedo, Buxus, Cera-
tonia, Olea, Cupressus fastigiata, Pinus canariensis, pinea, maritima,
aleppensis, Chamaer ops-palms.
That distribution of the forest depends in a most remarkable
degree upon humidity is clearly seen from the fact that all large
forest regions of the old and new world are confined to the
oceans and seas. Thus the European forest region owes its
existence to the Atlantic ocean ; the eastern Asiatic forest region
to the Pacific ocean ; the Indian to the Indian ocean ; and the
Eastern and Pacific forests of North America to the Atlantic
and to the Pacific oceans.
There is no doubt that temperature and especially air hu-
midity play a most important part in distribution of these for-
ests, yet it is not always possible with the aid of the climatic fac-
tor alone to explain in every case the natural treeless condition
of certain regions. The soil conditions must also be taken into
account. As an example may be cited our prairies or the Russian
steppes. Thus a large part of our prairies and of the Russian
steppes as far as the climate is concerned could support forest
growth, yet no forest grows there or if it does it is only on
definite situations. Under identical climatic conditions in one
place the forest artificially established perishes in spite of all
human care, while in another place it thrives. That the presence
of large quantities of soluble salts in the soil may be the cause
of the treeless condition of a large portion of our prairies, may
be inferred from Hilgard's studies. In California, according to
Hilgard, at a precipitation of 500 millimeters, salts of sodium
are washed out by the ground waters, while at a precipitation of
less than 500 millimeters these sodium salts accumulate to a dif-
ferent depth of the soil and become injurious to tree growth.
Mayr himself admits that the area of prairies goes outside of
the region of deficient precipitation (1.95 inches) and low air
humidity (below 50 per cent). He, however, ascribes this to the
prairie fires, which pushed the forest backward. This very often
repeated argument for the treeless condition of our prairies and
the Russian steppes was really never based on accurate obser-
vations, while the presence of soluble salts in the soil as the
2i6 Forestry Quarterly.
cause of the treeless condition has been proven in many instances
in a most convincing manner.
Furthermore, the minimum, amount of precipitation which is
necessary for the existence of the forest must vary with the
conditions of the soil, especially its moisture holding capacity.
It makes a great difference whether the moisture holding capacity
of the soil is 2 to 3 per cent, or 12 per cent. In case of sandy
soil with a very low moisture holding capacity (2 to 3 per cent.),
precipitation will penetrate deep into the ground and will become
available for forest growth, while in case of heavy, clayey soil
whose moisture holding capacity may be 12 per cent., with the
same amount of precipitation, water will remain in the upper
layer of the soil, from which it will rapidly evaporate without
becoming useful to vegetation.
Unfortunately, Mayr did not state all the facts which lead him
to decide on his minimum amount of moisture necessary for the
existence of the forest. It seems doubtful that the amount of
precipitation during the four vegetative months is really the only
deciding factor in limiting forest growth. Tree distribution often
depends not so much on the amount of precipitation that falls
during the vegetative season as upon the amount of water ac-
cumulated in the soil during the winter and fall.
Mayr's views on the mooted and complicated question of ac-
climatization, which is of such importance to the practitioner, as
well as to the theoretical man, are of interest.
Mayr radically differs from the majority of foresters on the
question of acclimatization, on the ability of transmitting certain
characteristics acquired by trees grown under new climatic soil
conditions, and on the importance of the source of seed for for-
estation purposes.
Mayr denies the possibility of acclimatizing or adapting a
species to new climatic conditions. He claims that each species
can exist only under certain climatic conditions. If it is intro-
duced into new environment in which it meets conditions to which
it was not accustomed in its native land it perishes. He further
claims that acclimatization of forest trees — if such exist at all —
requires such a long time that it has no practical value for man.
He also denies the possibility of hereditary transmission of va-
rious deviations from the mother type. He thinks that only the
typical characteristics are transmitted, but not the various de-
New View Points in Silviculture. 217
viations from the type caused by changes in environment. The
deviations from the type are of accidental nature and therefore
are not permanent. For this reason, the question of the source
of seed, in his opinion, has no significance whatever for the for-
ester. No matter where or from what trees the seed is collected
the progeny resulting from the seed, irrespective of its origin,
will possess only the characteristics which are typical for the
species as a whole.
Mayr is doubtless right when he denies the possibility of trans-
mitting qualities which are the result of soil conditions or silvi-
cultural treatment, but this is about as far as one can go with
him. There are characteristics which are the result of climatic
conditions and yet are retained and transmitted through inherit-
ance. For instance, the Scotch Pine in the Baltic provinces in-
variably has straighter trunks and yields wood of higher quality
than the Scotch Pine of central Germany.
Vilmorin in the twenties and thirties of the last century experi-
mented with growing Scotch Pine from German, French and
Russian seed. The pine of the Baltic provinces differed from the
rest in that it had a straight, cylindrical, well developed trunk;
and the seed from the plantations of the Riga variety produced
a progeny possessing the same good qualities as the first gener-
ation.
Von Sievers in the fifties of the last century made similar ex-
periments in some of the Baltic provinces. The pines grown
from seed collected in Darmstadt did not possess such straight
trunks as the pines from the native seed. The same experiments
were repeated by several investigators and with the same results.
Cieslar in Austria and Engler in Switzerland have both dem-
onstrated the importance of the source of seed upon the character
of the plantation. Seed was collected from trees of different
species grown in the valleys and in the mountains and were sown
under identical climatic and soil conditions, in order to determine
whether the characteristics of the mother trees will be retained
in the plantations made under exactly the same conditions. It
was found that the spruce of the mountains, which grows slower
than the spruce of the valleys, retains this characteristic when
planted in the valleys and vice versa; other characteristics such
as the length of the vegetative activity were found to be also re-
tained. Engler, on the basis of his experiments, came to the
2i8 Forestry Quarterly.
conclusion diametrically different from that made by Mayr,
namely, that for planting native or naturalized species the seed
must be collected in the region in which they are to be planted or
at least from localities which climatically are very similar to
those in which they are to be planted. Mayr, on the other hand,
without really disproving Vilmorin's, Engler's, and Cieslar's ex-
periments, cites his own experiments which tend to show that
only typical characteristics are transmitted and not deviations
from the type due to changed climatic conditions. This diver-
gence of opinion as to what characteristics are transmitted
through inheritance shows that the question does not allow of
general sweeping conclusions.
Engler further points out that the acquisition by forest trees
of new characteristics and their transmission to future genera-
tions does not require such an infinitely long time as is claimed by
Mayr. He mentions interesting facts with regard to the spruce.
After the retreat of the glacier into the mountains, spruce was
one of the first species which reappeared in the Swiss valley, the
climate of which at that time resembled closely the climate of the
higher altitudes. Later, when the climate of the valley became
warmer and the conditions became favorable for the growth of
hardwoods, the latter crowded out the spruce into the moun-
tains. In the historic epoch, when the forests in the valleys were
badly cut and abused, spruce descended again from the moun-
tains into the valley. With the aid of material which was found
in excavations, it was possible to determine that spruce was not
present in the valley in the neolithic time, and that it appeared
only in the helvetic period, that is, early in the middle ages. This,
according to Engler shows that it did not take such a long time
for the spruce to acquire biological characteristics which enabled
it to grow in the valley.
The climatic factor is laid also at the foundation of all cultural
operations in the forest — thinnings, planting, etc. This, how-
ever, would take us into the other parts of Dr. Mayr's most in-
teresting book, the review of which must be left for some other
THE WHITE PINES OF MONTANA AND IDAHO—
THEIR DISTRIBUTION, QUALITY AND USES.
By F. I. Rockwell.
Limber Pine — Piniis ftexilis James.
. Range: Eastern slope of Rocky Mountains from Alberta and
Montana to western Texas, and westward on high divides and
mountain ranges through Utah, Nevada, New Mexico and Ari-
zona into southeastern California on the western slopes of Sierra
Nevada Mountains. Altitudinal range from 4,000 to 11,000 feet.
Occurrence: "On dry, rocky, east slopes, summits, tops of
ridges and foothills, and sometimes on sides of moister canyons
and banks of mountain streams. Adapted to a great variety of
soils and not exacting as regards depth or moisture, but grows
best in moist, well-drained soils. Usually in dry, rocky, very
shallow soil, appearing to prefer dry, loose, gravelly loam, with
little or no humus. Reaches higher elevation on clay soils than
on sandy ones.
Usually occurs singly or in small groves among other coni-
fers, where it is of largest size ; occasionally in pure, open stands,
commonly stunted, on exposed slopes and ridges. Apparently
less frequent in Pacific than in Rocky Mountain range. In Pa-
cific region associated mainly with Lodgepole Pine and Black
Hemlock at higher elevations, and sparingly with White Fir
and stunted Sugar Pine at lower altitudes." (Sudworth.)
In the Rockies, at the lowest range of tree growth and from
4,000 to 6,000 feet elevation, it forms open scattered stands of
round topped, stunted trees of no commercial value, usually in
company with Rocky Mountain red cedar or Western yellow pine.
At timber line, from 8,500 to 10,000 feet, it assumes similar or
even more stunted form, associating with Lyall Larch or other
alpine species. At intermediate elevations, it occasionally pro-
duces merchantable timber in company with Douglas Fir, and
possibly also with Whitebark Pine, Lodgpole Pine, Engelmann
Spruce and Alpine Fir. This is a point which should be the sub-
ject of further investigation.
220 Forestry Quarterly.
Commercial Distribution in District I: Probably only on the
eastern side of the Continental Divide in Montana does this species
occur, and then only occasionally is it found of merchantable
size. When merchantable it usually forms but a small per cent
in mixture with other species. The trees are apt to be best de-
veloped when occurring in fairly dense stands of Douglas Fir,
Lodgepole Pine, or White-bark Pine, with which latter species it
is often confused. In a few places. Limber Pine has been noted
to form a considerable proportion of the merchantable timber.
On the west side of the Bridger Mountains, Gallatin National
Forest, Forest Assistant A. A. Saunders reports a mixed forest
which yields 8,000 feet to the acre, the Limber Pine forming 10
to 15 per cent, of the stand, — the remaining species being Douglas
Fir, Supervisor Bunker reports considerable bodies of Limber
Pine on the Lewis & Clark National Forest, particularly on the
North Fork of the Teton River and on Dupuyer and Birch Creeks,
extending eastward over the foothills and plains as much as 10
or 20 miles from the mountains. One body on Birch Creek
about 10 miles from the mountains comprises about 1,000 acres
Of the merchantable timber in the foothills and canyons of that
region, the Limber Pine forms i per cent. Farther from the
mountains in the vicinity of the same streams and their tributaries
it forms the major portion of the tree growth, and often exists
in pure stands. It is not certain whether this species exists in
commercial amounts in places other than those mentioned.
In most localities, however, the trees are commonly scattered
or in small groups among other species, as stated above, and it is
comparatively seldom tha.t the trees will yield merchantable
logs. Whether or not Limber Pine grows west of the Conti-
nental Divide in Montana or Idaho is not yet definitely known,
but it is probable that the trees which have there been called
Limber Pine are in reality White-bark Pine (Pinus albicaulist)
These two white pines are very similar in occurrence, habits, and
in qualities and uses of the wood, and consequently there is a
great deal of confusion among Forest officers concerning them.
This is especially true in the Rocky Mountain Forests of Mon-
tana, where the two species are apt to mingle between the eleva-
tions of 5,000 and 8,000 feet. Generally speaking, however. White-
bark Pine appears to be the tree of the higher altitudes.
Considerable stands of merchantable Limber Pine, so called,
White Pines of Montana and Idaho. 221
exist on the Madison Forest also, but whether the species is Pinus
Uexilis or Pinus albicaulis, the Forest officers are uncertain. Prob-
ably both species are represented. When grouped together as
one species they are estimated to form about 5 per cent, of the
total tree growth of the Forest. Below 6,000 feet and above
10,000 feet, as well as on exposed situations, the species are very
scrubby and of no value. Between those limits, and attaining
their best development at about 8,000 feet, the trees usually pro-
duce one, sometimes two, and occasionally three logs.
Manner of Growth: Commonly a low, stout, much-branched
tree, usually between 25 and 50 feet high, with a trunk from 5
inches to three feet in diameter. In its usual habitat the tree
is so stunted and the trunk so short as to yield no merchantable
logs. In better locations, however, it is possible to cut 10 foot
or even longer logs. When found growing mixed with other
species in sheltered canyons, it often forms a tall straight tree,
in shape somewhat similar to that of the Lodgepole Pine. As
compared with White-bark Pine, when grown in the same situa-
tions, the Limber Pine has the longer straighter trunk of the
two. The bark of large trees is comparatively thick, being dis-
tinctly furrowed and ridged. The branches are large and thick,
developing apparently at the expense of the trunk.
The characteristics which easily distinguish Limber Pine from
White-bark Pine are confined chiefly to the cones. The cones of
Pinus Uexilis are commonly considered larger and thicker than
those of Pinus albicaulis. The tips of the cone-scales of both
species are very thick, but those of the Limber Pine are rounded,
while those of the White-bark are markedly pointed. Further-
more, the Limber Pine cones liberate their seeds and fall to the
ground soon after they are ripe, so that it is most always possible
to find entire cones beneath the tree, old and weathered perhaps,
but still intact. This is in contrast to the cones of Pirms albi-
caulis, which are very persistent on the trees, and remain closed
for some time, so that by the time they reach the ground they are
apt to be torn to pieces by birds and squirrels, or else fall to
pieces from decay.
Characteristics of Wood: The wood of Limber Pine is pale
lemon-yellow in color, soft, and close-grained on account of its
exceedingly slow growth. When green the wood is extremely
heavy, and if left in water any length of time will sink. After
222 Forestry Quarterly.
being seasoned, however, it becomes extremely light. At a saw-
mill which formerly operated on Dupuyer Creek on the Lewis &
Clark National Forest, it was found that Limber Pine could be
manufactured into a good grade of lumber and shingles. The
stem of the tree was generally free from defects and knots, and
could be used for the better grades of finishing lumber. This
Limber Pine had grown mixed with a heavy stand of Douglas
Fir in a sheltered canyon, and the trees had grown tall and
straight. It is seldom, of course, that the quality of the wood
can be found as good as that on Dupuyer Creek. In its most
common habitat its scrubby growth makes it useful only for
fence posts and for fuel. Only occasionally is it fit for saw-
timber, and then a good proportion of the lumber produced would
be apt to be very knotty.
A very unique method of securing a preservative treatment of
Limber and White-bark Pine timber for fence posts as practiced
by ranchers in the vicinity of the Madison Forest is related by
Supervisor Bunker. A sapling growth the size of the posts de-
sired is selected, and in the spring as soon as the sap runs freely
so that the bark will slip easily, the rancher peels the bark from
the standing trees for the length to be used, and then leaves the
tree to Nature. The tree immediately oozes out a sujfficient quan-
tity of pitch to cover the wound and dies. Six or eight months
later the rancher cuts the tree, now thoroughly seasoned, smears
the cut ends with tar, and has a post impervious to water, insects
or fungus. Posts so treated are said to last indefinitely. Mr.
Bunker personally examined one lot which the rancher said had
been set for 20 years, and the posts seemed as sound as ever.
The Limber and White-bark pines are apparently the only species
which are treated in this way, the ranchers going tO' considerable
trouble and expense to secure these particular kinds. Presumably
the original reason for this was because the bark of the young
white pines peels so easily, although possibly in the case of these
species the outside layers of wood become more thoroughly im-
pregnated with pitch than other species would. It is quite prob-
able, however, that the treatment would succeed with Lodgepole
Pine and other species as well. Probably this method of treat-
ment might prove quite economical and practicable to bring into
common use where it is desired to thin young stands and utilize
the thinnings for posts.
White Pines of Montana and Idaho. 22^
Below are given the uses to which the wood of Limber Pine
is now being put, according to the observations of the Forest
officers without, however, distinguishing it from White-bark Pine.
Past and Present Uses.
Result — good. Result — fair. Result — poor.
1. Common lumber. 8. Mine props. 11. Shakes.
2. Finishing lumber. 9. Fence posts. 12. Carroll fences.
3. Building timbers. 10. Bridges on roads 13. Water wheels.
4. Shingles. and trails. 14. Telephone poles.
5. Flumes. 15. Cross arms,
6. Sluice-boxes. Parts of.
7- Fuel. 16. Ranch vehicles.
17. Ranch implements.
Authority — Page S. Bunker, Supervisor Flathead Forest.
Others add its use for posts, railroad ties, telephone poles.
Silviculturally, Limber Pine is valuable as a protective cover
at high elevations where the snowfall in winter is very heavy and
where the ground dries very thoroughly in summer. Forest As-
sistant Saunders mentions the fact that Limber Pine has proved
to be the most resistant of any species to the sulphurous fumes
from copper smelters, since on the Deerlodge Forest it has con-
tinued to make a healthy growth in localities where all other
species have died from the fumes.
White-bark Pine — Pinus albicaulis Engelmann.
Range. — Highest altitudes at which timber grows, from the
Rocky Mountain and Pacific ranges in Alberta and British
Columbia at latitude 53 degrees, southward through Montana and
Idaho along the Rockies at Northwest Wyoming and the Targee
National Forest, Idaho; also along the Cascade through Wash-
ington and Oregon and through the Sierras of California to
Kaweah Peaks. At elevations of 5,000 to 10,000 feet in Idaho
and Montana, and from 4,500 to 8,000 in Washington, increasing
to limits of 7,000 to 11,000 feet in California.
Occurrence. — Confined to narrow altitudinal limits on alpine
slopes and exposed ridges to timber line throughout its range.
Grows among broken, bare rocks, in disintegrated granite, and in
shallow rocky soils with little superficial moisture ; best in deep,
well-drained, moist soil.
"At north, sometimes in pure, open stands on grassy areas, but
224 Forestry Quarterly.
usually in open, park-like stands, preferably on north slopes with
Alpine Fir, Engelmann Spruce, Lyall Larch, Limber Pine and
Lodgepole Pine. On summits of Cascades, commonly pure at
timber line, and often in clusters of from 3 to 7 trees, as if grow-
ing from same root. In southern Washington, with Alpine Fir,
Black Hemlock, and Yellow Cedar; in Oregon with Black Hem-
lock, Alpine, Lowland, and Noble Firs, Lodgepole and Western
White Pine, and Engelmann Spruce. In the Sierras, forming
pure groups at timberline, on east, south, and west slopes, with
patches of Black Hemlock and Western White Pine, and at lower
altitudes with Lodgepole Pine." (Sudworth.)
In Montana and Idaho, the species occurs sometimes in pure,
open stands on grassy areas, but usually in open park-like stands,
preferably on north slopes, in mixture with Alpine Fir, Engel-
mann Spruce, Lyall Larch, Lodgepole Pine, and in the Rocky
Mountains proper, with Limber Pine. In moist localities, it is
also found on southern and western exposures. In the dense
forests of northern Idaho and western Montana, competition is so
strong that the intolerant White-bark Pine is usually crowded
onto the highest pinnacles and most unfavorable situations, and
even there its occurrence may be limited to occasional specimens.
In the somewhat drier forests of central Idaho and central and
southern Montana, the struggle is not so severe, and the species
is apt to occur in considerable stands in favorable situations.
White-bark Pine is always found in situations which undergo
great seasonal and daily ranges of temperature, and which are
subject to fierce winds, very heavy snows, and a short growing
season.
Commercial Distribution in District I. — This species does not
approach a size and quality which would suit it for commercial
purposes, except when growing in the most favorable situations,
such as on deep rich fairly moist soils in protected spots. Super-
visor J. E. Barton mentions only one locality on the Pend Oreille
Forest where it exists of merchantable size over considerable
areas. In the vicinity of Lake Darling, at an elevation of 5,000
feet, it occurs in rather dense groves of considerable extent,
forming a fringe on the alpine meadows surrounding the lake.
This basin is protected by ridges running up to 1800 feet above
the lake. No groves of importance are recorded on the Kaniksu
or the Coeur d'Alene, but on the Clearwater and Nezperce
White Pines of Montana and Idaho. 225
Forests Mr. Barton found the species in merchantable size cover-
ing rather large areas, at altitudes varying from 5,000 to 6,800
feet. This district appears to be about the middle range of the
species for Idaho, the trees being about 40 feet high, from 6
inches to 20 inches in diameter, and with an average merchantable
length of about 24 feet.
Such stands also occur on the Forests of Western Montana,
but they are almost wholly on elevations which will be inacces-
sible for a long time to come. Mr. Woodward mentions an
excellent mixed stand of White-bark Pine and Lodge-pole Pine
in the Missoula Forest, on the divide between the east fork of
Rattlesnake Creek and the west fork of Gold Creek. The species
here had a long clear bole with a short and narrow crown, a form
quite similar to that of the Lodgepole Pine with which it grows.
Along the main Continental Divide in Montana, from Glacier
Park southward, merchantable stands are quite common on the
broad ridge tops, gentle slopes, and in the basins at the heads of
streams, where the soil is deep and fairly moist and the winds not
too severe. Here, as elsewhere, the very moist soils along the
creeks are occupied by Engelmann Spruce and Alpine Fir. The
drier soils farther up the slopes are given over to mixed stands of
White-bark Pine and Lodgepole Pine, or above the range of
Lodgepole, to White-bark in pure stands. It is quite possible
that in many localities of this region, White-bark and Limber
Pine are associated, particularly between 5,000 and 8,000 feet,
the merchantable groves of White-bark Pine being found between
6,500 and 8,000 feet elevation. This point should be determined
by further investigation. Certain it is that much of the timber
which is called Limber Pine is in reality Finns albicaulis. It is
only in this region east of the Continental Divide that White-bark
Pine is sufficiently accessible to be of present commercial value.
It is now, however, being cut for commercial purposes on the
Deerlodge Forest and on others further south, and probably on
the Lewis and Clark also along with Limber Pine.
Manner of Growth. — White-bark Pine usually has a low, long-
branched, twisted or crooked trunk, ranging from 15 to 50 feet
high and from 10 to 24 inches in diameter. In the high wind-
swept home of this tree it is often merely a sprawling shrub with
enormous branches spreading over the ground. As an example
of the other extreme, an exceptionally perfect specimen of Pinus
226 Forestry Quarterly.
albicavilis was noticed growing with spruce in a creek bottom on
the Lewis & Clark National Forest that measured i8 inches d.
b. h. and had a tall straight trunk that would yield four good i6
foot saw-logs. The average merchantable stand of this species,
however, usually runs quite uniform, with a merchantable length
varying from lo to 30 feet, depending upon the situation.
White-bark Pine is usually not very straight, even at its best.
It has considerable taper and crook which is usually markedly
contrasted with the straightness of the Lodgepole Pine and spruce
growing with it. Very characteristic also is the tendency it has
to fork a foot or so above the ground. In general, this species
is very similar to Limber Pine and the two species are commonly
confused. However, the trunk of Finns alhicaulis is generally
much shorter and more crooked than that of Finns ilexilis, and
the bark of the former is usually much thinner, and more or less
scaly-smooth, rather than ridged and furrowed. The purple
cones of White-bark Pine are shorter and stubbier, and the cone-
scales very pointed. Moreover, the cones are longer persistent
on the trees than are those of the Limber Pine, and open very
slowly after they are ripe. Since the seeds are a favorite food
of the jays, magpies and squirrels which inhabit the high alti-
tudes, the cones are usually cut or torn to pieces before they are
ready to fall, and for months afterwards one may see the bare
central shaft and a few of the basal scales still remaining in place
on the tree, but no entire cones anywhere. Should the birds or
rodents not get the seeds, the cones may remain closed after fall-
ing until the scales, rotted at the bases, break away in bunches,
liberating the seeds. The fact, therefore, that under the Limber
Pine the old cones may be found entire, while under the White-
bark they are rarely or never so, affords one of the simplest and
safest ways of distinguishing between the two species.
Characteristics of Wood. — The wood of White-bark Pine is
light-brown in color, soft, close-grained, light in weight when
seasoned, and in other ways quite similar to ordinary White Pine.
It may prove to be more brittle, however. In contrast to the
brittleness of the wood of the trunk, that of the branches is
extremely tough. The grain is nearly always twisted, which
makes the wood unsuitable for matches and for some other uses
to which ordinary White Pine is put. For the commoner uses
White Pines of Montana and Idaho. 227
ox contruction, however, requiring ease of working rather than
strength, this species should answer fairly well.
The wood of White-bark is so similar to Limber Pine as to
be scarcely distinguishable, except under the microscope, and the
statements made concerning Limber Pine can be applied to
White-bark as well.
Uses of the Wood. — Common construction; Building timbers;
Flumes; Sluice-boxes; Shmgles; Building logs; Mine props;
Mining stulls; Bridge timbers; Fence posts, Cordwood (for
fuel).
Western White Pine — Finns monticola Douglas.
The Idaho White Pine of the lumberman, and occasionally
called Silver Pine by foresters and botanists.
Range. — The type tree of the North Idaho forests. Scattered
through mountain forests from the west slopes of the Rockies in
jMontana and southern British Columbia westward through nort-
ern Idaho and Washington to the Pacific coast, at elevations up
to 6,000 feet. From the Columbia-Kootenai Valley of British
Columbia, and from the mountains and southwest coast of Van-
couver Island its range extends southward along the Cascade and
Coast Ranges from sea level to 6,000 feet in Washington, at 1,500
to 8,500 feet in Oregon in the cross ranges of northern California
at 4,500 to 7,200 feet, and in the Sierras at numerous points
between 5,500 and 11,000 feet elevation.
Occurrence. — In general not confined to any definite type of
locality. At the north it is most abundant and largest in the
deep porous soils of most valleys, but is also occasionally found
growing in dry exposed subalpine regions.
"Greater development in northern Idaho, on gentle north slopes
and flats. Less frequent west of Continental Divides in Montana
and of Cascades in Oregon. In northern California, on north
slopes, and on south and west slopes in protected coves, broad
valleys, and mountain benches ; in southern California rather
abundant on high, west slope of Sierras." In regions other than
Idaho occurs commonly as scattered trees or small groups with
other species ; very rarely in pure stands and only on exposed
high slopes. In Cascades and Sierras occasionally forming 50 to
70% of stand on small areas, but through-out its range not ex-
ceeding 3 or 4 per cent. In western Washington associated with
15
228 Forestry Quarterly.
Western Hemlock, Amabilis Fir, Lowland Fir, and Douglas Fir ;
in Oregon, with Douglas Fir, Lowland Fir, and Amabilis Fir; in
California, with Douglas Fir, Lodgepole Pine, Red Fir, and
Shasta Fir." (Sudworth.)
In the humid climate of northern Idaho, Western White Pine
forms the determining feature of the forest type as a whole,
although the percentage of the species varies very widely in
different localities. It is the predominant tree in the white pine
flats between 2,200 feet and 4,500 feet elevation, and to a con-
siderable extent at somewhat higher corresponding elevation on
the moist southerly slopes. It frequently exists in almost pure
stands, but more often other species form 10 to 50% of the
merchantable volume. On northerly exposures its codominant
associates are Western Larch and, to a less extent, Douglas Fir,
Engelmann Spruce, and White Fir, {Abies grandis) ; while under
the main stand. Western Red Cedar, Western Hemlock, and
White Fir usually form a lower story, or an undergrowth. On
southerly exposures, including those sloping to the southeast and
southwest, Douglas Fir is the usual associate, while in some
localities White Fir, Lodgepole Pine, Western Larch, and oc-
casionally Yellow Pine, are found. Here as a rule there is no
understory of cedar and hemlock.
The detailed range of Western White Pine in Idaho and Mon-
tana is given below.
Commercial Distribution in District I. — Western White Pine
is of the highest commercial value of any species wherever found.
Throughout the entire panhandle of Idaho, from the Middle Fork
of the Clearwater River to beyond the Canadian boundary, it
makes the best growth of any species and produces the bulk of
the merchantable timber. The per acreage yield is far greater
than that of any other species grown in the region. In the Priest
River Valley on the Kaniksu Forest, where the species reaches
its maximum development, the white pine type occupies about
80% of the entire area. Approximately 42% of the merchan-
table timber of this type, or 34% of the entire stand of the region,
is Western White Pine, according to J. E. Lieberg's estimate. In
places the stand is found to be 90% pure, although in the
majority of typical well developed stands the White Pine forms
only 60 to 70% of the merchantable volume. Western Red Cedar
frequently forms 5 to 10%, while the remainder is principally
White Pines of Montana and Idaho. 229
Western Larch. In investigating the yield of White Pine in this
region during the summer of 1910, entire sections were examined
which were covered with a mixed stand such as described, and
which would yield no less than 70,000 feet B. M. per acre. Fully
stocked acres of nearly pure White Pine were found which con-
tained over 130,000 feet B. M. merchantable volume per acre.
This timber was all 140 years old, with an average height of
about 130 feet, yielding 6 merchantable logs to the tree; and with
an average diameter breast high varying from 14 to 24 inches,
depending on situation and density of stand. Larger trees, which
have diameters ranging up to 36 inches, height up to 175 feet,
and yielding as high as 9 logs to the tree were quite common,
however, in the same age classes. This is practically the age at
which the yield is the greatest. The trees continue to grow
rapidly for 60 or 70 years more, increasing in height and di-
ameter, but this growth is usually more than offset by a thinning
of the dominant stand, the subdominant cedar and hemlock finally
filling up the interspaces.
Upon the Coeur d'Alene the development is practically as good.
The Percentage of White Pine here is greater than that on
the Kaniksu, since the species forms a greater proportion of the
type. Supervisor Weigle estimates that 40% of the merchantable
stand is White Pine. Upon the Pend Oreille the winter type
appears to dominate at a somewhat less degree while the species
usually forms only from 25 to 50% of the type, the larch again
becoming more plentiful. South of the Coeur d'Alene, upon the
North Fork of the Clearwater River in the Clearwater National
Forest, the species grows in immense bodies, but as one proceeds
south it becomes more and more restricted to moist protected
basins and stream bottoms of about its middle range in altitude,
until on the Nez Perce it becomes reduced to single scattered
specimens or patches and finally disappears altogether.
On the eastern side of the Bitterroot Range in Montana the
same condition prevails. Although scattered over a considerable
part of the Kootenai River, the white pine type is said by Deputy
Supervisor Parker to cover scarcely more than 5% of the total
area, while the species only occasionally makes up 25% of the
forest type. On the Blackfeet and Flathead National Forests
extensive stands of this type are found in Swan River Valley,
and the various forks of the Flathead River (particularly the
230 Forestry Quarterly.
South Fork) but here the species does not appear to form over
10% of the merchantable timber. Reproduction is abundant
however, and seems to indicate that in these locaHties the species
is to become predominant.
On the Cabinet Forest, White Pine is found in small groups or
as isolated specimens, in the small basins at the heads of tributary
streams, on gentle northerly slopes. On the Lolo, MAhere topo-
graphic conditions perhaps cause greater humidity, the species
occurs in heavy stand, in mixture with Engelmann Spruce, Larch,
and other species. The type is confined, however, to the western
end of the Forest — the upper drainage of the St. Regis River, the
head of Trout Creek and the West Fork of Fish Creek, which
territory corresponds in general with that of the heaviest snow-
fall in the Forest.
Upon the Missoula Forest, Western White Pine is found only as
isolated specimens in the Clearwater Valley, probably the South-
eastern limit of the range.
Manner of Growth. — "In dense forests, in which its most
characteristic form is found, this pine has a tall, slender shaft,
with a peculiarly short-branches, narrow, symmetrical crown ; the
branches are usually slender and drooping and in early life extend
over one-half or two-thirds the length of the trunk." In Idaho,
the regions of its best development, on its best site, its height
ranges from 90 to 170 for 140 year old trees and when fully
mature, usually from 150 to 200 feet or over. It then is usually
from 2^ to 3^ feet in diameter. A white pine somewhat excep-
tionally large was cut in the Priest River Valley in 19 10. This
tree was 60 inches in diameter breast-high, was cut into twelve
16- foot logs, and scaled 7,000 feet B. M.
Outside of this region of best development, and also within the
region on poor situations, such as south slopes, ridges, and thinner
soils, "its height ranges from 90 to 100 feet. In open forests,
where the conditions are less favorable to its better development, it
is a short-bodied tree, 50 or 60 feet in height, with one or several
very long, stout horizontal branches extending from 10 to 15 feet
or more beyond the other slender branches. This striking char-
acter distinguishes the tree as far as it can be seen. The bark of
trees a foot or more in diameter is distinctly broken into peculiar
small, square blocks. No other tree associated with it has this
White Pines of Montana and Idaho. 231
bark character. The bark of mature trees is rarely over i^
inches thick." (Quotations from Sudworth.)
In general, the appearance of this species is very similar to that
of the eastern Pinus strobus, which it also closely resembles in
other characteristics. The chief difference in appearance are the
very narrow crown and thin bark of the Western White Pine as
contrasted with the broader head and the comparatively thick
deeply rifted bark of its eastern relative.
Characteristics of Wood. — Practically the equal of the eastern
White Pine commercially, and largely taking its place in markets
east of the Rocky Mountains. The wood is of a light brown
color, very soft and light, straight and close grained, easily worked,
but very strong. Heartwood fairly durable in contact with the
soil. Some lumbermen claim that this species yields somewhat
less clear lumber than does the eastern species. Others contend
that the quality is fully as good. Match manufacturers assert "that
for their purposes the eastern species is preferable, since the
Western White Pine contains more hard streaks and more bird's
eyes," defects for match manufacturers but not for general pur-
poses.
The uses of the ivood are the same as those of its eastern con-
geuer.
SEASONAL VARIATION IN THE FOOD RESERVES OF
TREES*
By John F. Preston and Frank J. Phillips.
INTRODUCTION.
One of the earliest records of the reduction of starch in the
cortex and phloem of the stems of woody plants in winter is con-
tained in a report by Mer^ in 1879. This author examined but
few trees at this time, but noted in them the winter decrease of
starch and the increase of oil globules.
A much greater contribution to the knowledge of the seasonal
condition of the stored food of woody plants was made by
Russow^ who published his results in 1882. He examined at
various seasons the cell-contents of phloem and xylem of stem and
root of 92 species, of which 51 species grew in the open at Dorpat
in western Russia. The xylem of these trees was not examined
in all cases, but, as far as examined, showed starch present in both
stem and root in both summer and winter. In the phloem, the
variation of starch content was marked, this substance being at a
maximum in late autumn, and disappearing from the most of the
trees in winter. Examinations were made in two consecutive
years, one with a mild winter and one with a severely cold winter.
In the mild winter, 10 trees kept considerable starch in the phloem
of the stem, but this was reduced to none, or but a trace, in the
cold winter. Also, of the 42 species of trees and shrubs kept in a
plant house over winter, about a half showed more or less starch
remaining in the phloem of the stem. But since nearly a half of
*( Contribution 126 from the Botanical Department of the University
of Michigan.
This paper is the result of the work of two of my former students
under whose names it is published. These two students left me good re-
ports of their work, and these reports I have edited and prepared for
publication. I should add that a third student, Mr. Nelson F. Macduff,
also furnished some of the data. — F. C. NewcombE.)
^De la Repartition de 1' Amidon dans les Rameaux des Plantes ligneuses.
Bull. Soc. de France. XXVI, 1879, P- XLIV.
'Ueber den Inhalt der parenchym. Elemente der Rinde. Sitzber. Na-
turforsch. Gesellsch. Universitat Dorpat. VI, 1882, 369. Abstract in
Bot. Centralblatt. XIV, 1883, 271.
Variation in the Food Reserves of Trees. 233
them lost all, or nearly all, their starch, notwithstanding the
warmer temperature of the house, Russow concluded that the
solution of the starch is independent of immediate climatic con-
ditions. Russow's view was that the starch was transformed
into fat.
In a report to the Versammlung russicher Naturforscher und
Aerzte, Odessa, Grebnitzky and Baranetzky^ stated that their
examination showed that the autumn starch disappeared wholly
from the phloem of the stems of trees in winter, and disappeared
wholly from the xylem of the stems of soft-wood trees, while the
xylem of hard woods showed merely a reduction in the amount of
starch. They, too, supposed that the starch was transformed into
fatty oil.
In the year 1891, following a shorter paper on the same subject,
Fischer^ published a very extensive and detailed account of his
studies of the reserves of trees. He confirmed the reports of
former observers as to the disappearance or reduction of starch
in the stems of trees as the season advanced from autumn to
winter, and summed up the whole annual transformation of the
non-nitrogenous stored material as follows : At the time of the
fall of the leaves in autumn, the stems of trees show a starch
maximum ; in winter there is a starch minimum, and in early
spring a regeneration of starch, producing a second starch maxi-
mum, followed later in spring by a second starch minimum. The
soft-wood trees in general dissolve all their starch in winter, re-
placing it in whole or in part with fat, while the hard-wood trees
in general retain a large amount of starch especially in the xylem
in winter, and show but little fat. This high percentage in winter
of starch on the one hand, or of fat on the other, allows trees to
be divided into two groups, starch-trees ( composed mostly of the
hard-woods), and fat-trees (composed mostly of the soft-wood
and conifers). The starch minimum of spring is followed by a
glucose maximum at the time of the unfolding of buds; but this
maximum soon diminishes as the sugar is consumed in the for-
mation of new tissue. Glucose may appear in some trees as a
product of starch solution in winter, but not to the extent that fat
'Bot. Centrblt. XVIII, 1884, 157.
^Beitrage zur Physiologic der Holzgewachse. Jahrb. wiss. Botan. XXII,
1891, 73-
234 forestry Quarterly.
does. Yet the total of sugar and fat is not enough to account for
all the starch dissolved.
]\Ier/ writing in the same year as Fischer and in a subsequent
paper in 1898, differed from Fischer by denying that glucose was
one of the transformed products of starch.
D'Arbaumont- examined the stems of nearly 100 species of
trees and shrubs, and came to the conclusion that the disappear-
ance of starch in winter, though influenced by the temperature
environment, is a fixed habit in woody plants, inasmuch as several
trees, kept in a warm plant house over winter, nevertheless lost
all their starch from the stem. D'Arbaumont's observations do
not seem to coincide with Fischer's as to the greater diminution
of starch in soft-wood trees compared with hard-woods, inas-
much as both hard-woods and soft-woods are found in his list
the members of which lost all their stem starch in winter, and
both hard-woods and soft-woods are found in his list the mem-
bers of which retain some starch in the stem in winter.
To the questions under discussion, Sablon^ made the next im-
portant contribution. His methods are mostly microscopical, by
chemical analysis. Fischer had suggested that the starch, on
dissolving in early winter, passed in part into an unknown sub-
stance. This substance Sablon claimed to have discovered in
reserve cellulose. Moreover, according to his analyses, reserve
cellulose constitutes by far the largest part of the non-nitrogenous
reserves, starch, sugar and fat being wholly subordinate. In
the stem of the chestnut, for instance, in proportion to the dry
weight of the stem, the maximum content of starch was, accord-
ing to Sablon, 4.6%, minimum 2.4% ; the maximum of sugar
was 4.3%, minimum 2.1%; the maximum of fat 1.1%, minimum
0.6% ; while the maximum of reserve cellulose was 20.2%,
minimum 14.4%. The presence of reserve cellulose was deter-
mined not only by extracting the finely ground powder with
boiling 10% hydrochloric acid, and subsequent chemical analysis,
but by the use of the microscope, the xylem cells showing in
winter a layer of cellulose which disappeared in spring. Some
'Des Variations qu' eprouve la Reserve amylacee des Arbres aux di-
verses Epoques de I' Annee. Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XLV, 1898, 299.
^Sur r Evolution de la Chlorophylle et de 1' Amidon dans le Tige.
Ann. Sci. Nat. 8 ser. T. 13, 1901, 319; T. 14, 125.
'Recherches physiologiques sur les Matieres de Reserves des Arbres.
Rev. gen. Bot. XVI, 1904, 401.
Variation in the Food Reserves of Trees. 235
species, Sablon believed, deposit their reserve cellulose within
rather than upon the wall of permanent cellulose.
In 1895, Schellenberg^ strengthened the position of Sablon re-
garding the annual formation of reserve cellulose in trees. In
the xylem parenchyma of Aescnlus hippocastanum, Betiila ver-
rucosa, the Beech Oak, Ash and Alder, though there was an un-
lignified inner lamella, this was never dissolved, because the cells
died at the end of the season of their formation. But in Vitis
vinifera and Robinia pseud-acacia, these xylem parenchyma cells
do not die so early, and their inner lamellae are partially dissolved
the following spring. The primary cortex of young twigs may
be used for deposit of reserve cellulose, as in the case of the
Birch, Alder, Hazel and Horsechestnut, and most probably in
Salix capraea, Quercus penduculata, Populus and Fagus silvatica
The parenchyma of the phloem was seen to dissolve partially
its cellulose in Alnus, Aescnlus hippocastanum, Betula, Pinus
montana, Larix europaea, and Picea excelsa.
The deposit of the reserve cellulose takes place from August
till October, or even to the end of November in some species, the
walls being seen to thicken. In the spring, the solution of the
cellulose is determined by an actual thinning of wall in some
cases, and by a partial solution without much thinning in others,
the loss of density in the wall being shown by polarizing appa-
ratus.
Niklewski's^ study concerned chiefly the fat content of Tilia,
Betula, Prunus and Syringa. Unlike Vandevelde,^ who found
fat not changed in amount when the starch of autumn is dis-
solved, Niklewski found fat increasing from summer into Janu-
ary, and, after that, a decrease till summer. But Vandevelde and
Niklewski agree that the amount of fat present is not directly
related to the transformations of starch. Starch can be changed
to sugar and sugar to starch by varying the temperature; but
the formation of fat is a seasonal function, largely independent
of temperature.
^Ueber Hemicellulosen als Reservestoffe bei unseren Walbaumen. Ber.
d. d. bot. Gesellsch. XXIII, 1905, 36.
'Untersuchungen iiber die Umwandlung einiger stickstofffreier Re-
servestoffe wjihrend der Winterperiode der Baume. Beih. Bot. Centrblt.
XIX, 1906, 68.
^Bijdrage tot de scheikundige physiologie van den stam der Boomen.
Ghent, 1905. (This paper w^as inaccessible to the present authors.)
236 Forestry Quarterly.
Fabricius^ investigated the varying starch and fat contents of
all parts of the Norway Spruce. The numerous transformations
as told by Fisher, Fabricius claims,, hold good for young stems
only. In older stems, he finds starch remaining in large quan-
tities in winter in both phloem and xylem. Only once in the year
is starch wholly transformed into fat, and that is in summer,
after the buds begin to unfold. Fat remains in the wood
through summer, and is converted back to sugar from September
to November. A solution of starch in April takes place only in
young twigs ; and a new deposit of starch in summer takes place
only in the phloem. In the xylem, the starch in summer is con-
verted over into fat, which persists all summer. Roots elongate
in June, July and again in October, and while they are elongating,
fat is always present in the cortex of the root.
More recently Sablon^ has published a second paper on the
reserves of trees, in which he maintains his position that sugar
and fat are of but minor importance as reserve material, reserve
cellulose being far greater in quantity than both combined. The
maximum of carbohydrate reserves falls at different times for
trees with deciduous leaves and those with persistent leaves ; for
the former, the maximum is at the fall of the leaf in autumn ; for
the latter, at the beginning of activity in spring. For both kinds
of trees, the minimum is later in spring.
In all of the foregoing work there was little attention paid to
the condition of the carbohydrates in roots, except that Russow
and Sablon extended their observations to these members.
Petersen^, however, in two papers gave the results of his exami-
Nogle Undersogelser over Traeernes Rodliv (with French Resume)
Ibid. 1898, I. _
nation of the roots of eight species of trees, according to which
the starch in general was not dissolved in the roots in winter,
though it did disappear from both phloem and xylem of the root
of Betula verrucoca and from the phloem of the root of Acer
pseudoplatanus in December. Petersen's studies extended to the
stem of a larger number of trees, but, as his results generally agree
with Fischer's, we need not dwell longer on the details.
^Untersuchungen iiber den Starke — und Fettgehalt der Fichte auf der
oberbayerischen Hochebene, 1905. Abstract Bot. Centrblt. 102, 1906, 29.
''Recherches physiologiques sur les Materes des Reserves des Arbres II.
Rev. gen. Bot. XVIII, 1906, 5.
'Stivelsen hos vore Lovtraeer under Vinterhvilen. Oversight kong.
Danske Vidensk. Selskab Forh. 1896, 50.
Variation in the Food Reserves of Trees. 237
The conclusions of the foregoing contributions may be sum-
marized briefly in the following sentences :
Starch. — (i) There is common agreement that in the cortex
and phloem of young branches reserve starch accumulates from
early summer till autumn, then gradually diminishes in amount
to a minimum, or to nothing through the winter; then in early
spring reappears in large quantity, to diminish to a second mini-
mum as the buds are unfolding.
(2)) In the xylem of young branches and trunks, it is agreed
that there is, in winter, a reduction in some trees, in some, a total
disappearance of starch.
(3) In the relatively few statements regarding the presence
of starch in roots, there is agreement that there is much less
seasonal variation than in stems. Starch remains in both phloem
and xylem of the root through the winter, and reaches a minimum
there in early summer.
(4) In the older trunks and older branches of the Norway
Spruce, according to Fabricius, there is not so great a seasonal
variation as in the younger stems. In the older stems, the starch
in both phloem and xylem remains the year through, though with
some reduction in late autumn.
Sugar. — ^According to the extensive work of Fischer, sugar
shows a maximum in December, and a lesser maximum in early
spring, its maximum coinciding with the minimum of starch.
Most authors agree with Fischer, and believe that these sub-
stances have a reciprocal action in changing the one into the other.
Mer, however, as the result of several analyses, concluded that
there is no more sugar present in winter than in summer. Sablon
also found only a small increase of sugar in winter.
Fat. — Although Fischer and one or two other authors believed,
on rather insufficient evidence, that starch was transformed into
fat in early winter, the most of the writers agree that the amount
of fat present has no relation to the transformations of starch.
The most that can be said is that fat is at a minimum in early
summer, and that it increases from this time till January, and
then begins a decline lasting till May or June.
Cellulose. — Only two authors have written on cellulose as a
food reserve — Sablon and Schellenberg. If Sablon's conclusions
are correct, then the amount of reserve cellulose is considerably
greater than the combined amounts of starch, sugar and fat.
238 Forestry Quarterly.
This reserve cellulose is claimed to be deposited in different
tissues in different species — in the primary cortex and phloem of
twigs, in the phloem and xylem of older stems and roots. The
increase in thickness and density of membranes is said to take
place in the latter part of summer and in autumn, and the thin-
ning to take place when growth starts in the spring.
OBSERVATIONS.
An examination of nine of our representative forest trees was
made at intervals of one to two weeks from the first of October,
1905, to the middle of June, 1906. This study was undertaken
with a view to gaining further information on two questions :
(i) How closely do our trees conform to the behavior of their
near relatives in Europe? (2) There having been heretofore
relatively but few trees examined for the determination of the sea-
sonal variation of the carbohydrates in the roots, what is the con-
dition of these reserves through the seasons?
The methods employed were simple, being merely a microscop-
ical examination of sections treated with iodine, Fehling's
solution, osmic acid, alkannin, or cyanin. These reagents, of
course, identified only the starch, reducing sugar, and fats. Un-
fortunately time did not allow the determination of the reserve
cellulose, nor any more accurate measurements of the starch,
sugar, and fat than could be judged by simple observation of
sections.
In making the observations here recorded, 9 trees were ex-
amined : Populus deltoides Marsh., Tilia americana L., Salix alba
L., Juniperus virginiana L., Ulnius americana L., Acer saccharum
Marsh., Quercus rubra L., Juglans nigra L. and Carya glabra
Mill. All of these trees grow wild in this region, and all except
Salix are native.
A glance suffices to show that of the 9 trees, the first 3 in the
list are soft-woods, and the 4th a gymnosperm, and hence the
four belong to the group whose relatives in Europe are said to
dissolve all or the most of their starch above ground in winter,
while the last 5 belong to the group whose European relatives
have been found by most observers to dissolve the starch above
ground in the cortex and phloem but to retain more or less starch
in the xylem throughout the winter.
Variation in the Food Reserves of Trees. 239
Starch in Twigs and Stems.
Populus deltoides. — In cortex, phloem and xylem of the parts
above grounds ; the starch passes through the phases observed in
Denmark by Petersen for Populus tremula and in northeastern
France by Mer for Populus sp. That is, in both cortex and stele
the starch is at a maximum in autumn, disappears wholly in
winter, is regenerated in the early spring, and again disappears in
May. Russow, however, found starch abundant in winter in the
phliem of P. tremula.
Tilia americana. — The behavior of starch in the stem of this
tree is nearly like that of Populus deltoides, except that in Tilia
a small amount of starch may be found in the outer part of the
phloem, in the medullary rays of the xylem zone, in the xylem,
and in the pith probably at all times in winter. It was not seen
in the cortex or phloem in the first half of January, and not in
the xylem in the last half of January, but examination each week
before and after showed its presence in the respective tissues, and
its reported absence was probably due to hasty examination. This
result agrees more nearly with the observations of Mer on Tilia
sp., and of Russow on Tilia europaea, but differs from those of
Fischer, who found no starch in winter in any part of the stem
of Tilia parvi folia.
Salix alba. — The twigs and lo-year old trunk of this tree lost
all their starch in January in this region (Ann Arbor, Mich.).
Fischer reports Salix babylonica, and Mer and D'Arbaumont
report Sali.v capraea as retaining some starch all winter.
Juniperus virginiana. — By the middle of November the twigs
and trunk of this tree up to 12 years of age had lost the most of
their starch. By the middle of January the last traces had dis-
appeared, the medullary rays retaining theirs the latest.
Compared with this, the behavior of Juniperus communis is
described by Fischer as showing no starch in any part of the stem
in winter, except for a trace retained in the xylem.
Ulmus americana. — In the twigs of this tree, the starch disap-
peared from the cortex at the middle of December, but did not
wholly vanish at any time from either phloem or xylem of twigs
or older trunks, though it was much reduced in both phloem and
xylem of these members.
240 Forestry Quarterly.
This same species presents a similar behavior when grown in
eastern France, as recorded by d'Arbaumont.
Ulmus campestris is reported by Fischer as retaining starch
in the xylem only, while both Mer and d'Arbaumont found the
same species retaining starch in both phloem and xylem.
Acer saccharum. — This tree retains considerable starch through-
out the winter in xylem and medullary rays of both twigs and
older stems. This behavior exactly coincides with that of A.
dasycarpum as mentioned by Fischer, and with that of A. pseu-
doplatanus and A. saccharinuni as mentioned by d'Arbaumont.
Juglans nigra. — In both twigs and trunk of this tree, the starch
wholly disappears from the cortex and phloem, but is retained in
the wood parenchyma and medullary rays to the extent of about
25% to 33% of the maximum content of September.
Juglans regia, in northeastern France, according to Mer, be-
haves exactly as does J. nigra, as concerns the starch in winter.
Carya glabra Mill. — This hickory loses all its starch in cortex,
phloem and xylem in smaller stems, but retains about one- fourth
the maximum amount in winter in the medullary rays of the
xylem zone, and in the wood parenchyma of larger stems.
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report as to the
winter content of starch of any of the hickories. The species
here treated ranges itself with its relatives, the walnuts, in
America and Europe.
Quercus rubra. — Both twigs and the older trunk show starch
present throughout the winter in cortex, phloem, xylem, pith and
medullary rays. In cortex and phloem, there is in winter but a
small quantity compared with the maximum of autumn ; but the
amount in the xylem and pith does not appear to diminish greatly.
It is worth noting that none of the oaks reported by the various
investigators of Europe show starch in the phloem of the stem in
winter, though all show more or less winter starch in pith, xylem
and medullary rays of the xylem ring. Such reports are made
for Quercus robur at Leipzig by Fischer; for Quercus pedun-
culata, Q. pubescens, Q. alba and Q. tinctoria in eastern France
(Cote d'Or) by d'Arbaumont.
Starch in Roots.
It has already been stated in this paper that the roots of trees
as far as examined have generally shown but little diminution of
Variation in the Food Reserves of Trees. 241
starch in the winter. However, Petersen found the roots of
Bctula verrucosa losing the starch in all their tissues in December,
while the roots of Acer pseudoplatanus lost at the same time the
starch from the phloem.
The nine trees reported in this paper were examined at weekly
intervals from October to June for the amount of starch in the
roots. The phloem of the root of Carya glabra showed some re-
duction of starch in December, but the roots of the 8 other trees
retained their starch in both phloem and xylem undiminished
throughout the winter as far as the microscopical method could
determine. All of the species showed a reduction, but not a com-
plete loss of starch in their roots in April or May.
The material taken for examination in winter was not allowed
in warm temperature before examination.
Conceiving the possibility that the retention of starch by the
roots in winter might be, at least in part, due to the protection af-
forded by their buried condition, roots of the 3 species, Tilia
americana, Uhnus americana, and Quercus rubra, were uncovered
in midwinter, and exposed to the air, while still connected with the
trees. Although these roots were frequently exposed to tem-
peratures of — 10° to — 20°, and for 6 weeks almost continuously
to a temperature below 0°, there was no perceptible effect on the
content of starch. The exposed roots and the unexposed roots
presented the same appearance under the microscope.
Sugar Reserves.
Since the analytical chemical work of Sablon, sugar can hardly
be given the place of importance assigned to it by Fischer, namely,
as a large reserve in trees. The examination of the 9 species
of trees included in this report demonstrated the presence of a
large amount of sugar in the spring only, at the time of the un-
folding of the buds. There was an increase of sugar in the late
autumn in all species ; but only Juniperus virginiana and Salix
alba showed much sugar in any part of the tree at any time except
in April and May. The roots of all 9 species showed only traces
of sugar at any of the examinations except in April and May.
Fat Reserves.
The variations in the amount of fat reported by most of
the investigators have been found to hold true for 8 of the 9
242 Forestry Quarterly.
trees here reported. {Acer saccharuin was not examined for
fat.) That is to say, fat was at a minimum at the time of un-
folding of buds, increased slowly through the summer to attain a
maximum in late autumn or early winter, to decline again to the
minimum of spring. The trees showing considerable quantities
of fat were Popuhis deltoides, Juglans nigra, Tilia americana, and
Ulmus americana; while those showing but little fat were Salix
alba and Carya glabra. The fat was in largest amounts in the
phloem and rays of the twigs ; the roots of none of the trees
showed more than traces of fat in any of the tissues.
SUMMARY.
The work reported in the present paper, and that of the
European investigators, may be summarized in the following
statements :
1. There is in the stems of all trees in temperate climates a re-
duction in November and December of the amount of starch
present in autumn, the reduction being so great in some trees as
to lead to the complete disappearance of the starch throughout the
stem, while in most trees the xylem retains more or less starch,
and in still others both xylem and phloem retain some starch
through the winter.
2. A few trees have shown a considerable increase of fat in the
phloem and xylem in late autumn or early winter; but there is
insufficient evidence for the belief that starch is transformed
into fat. In most trees the increase of fat is not marked.
3. The trees that contain considerable fat in winter are some of
them hard-woods and some of them soft-woods, as Populus del-
toides, Tilia americana, and Juglans nigra in the present paper,
the first two being soft-woods and the last a hard-wood. The
so ft- wooded Salix alba contains but little fat, but considerable
starch in its stem in winter. From these results and those of
European authors, it would hardly seem justified to name broad-
leaf hard-woods generally as starch trees, and the soft-woods
and gymnosperms generally at fat trees, as proposed by Fischer.
4. As claimed by Sablon, so the work reported in this paper
seems to indicate no great increase in the content of sugar in
stems and roots, except in the spring as the buds unfold.
5. In the root, the transformations do not keep pace with those
in the stem, and starch remains the year round, the greatest reduc-
Variation in the Food Reserves of Trees. 243
tion occurring in spring. The roots of all nine trees studied in
the present work showed much starch in both phloem and xylem
all through the winter.
6. The transformations of the carbohydrates are largely de-
pendent on the season, though the immediate conditions of tem-
perature have some effect. Thus, Russow and d'Arbaumont
found that several species kept in a warm glass-house over winter
lost their starch at the usual time; and in the work reported in
this paper, roots of trees exposed to the severity of winter by
removing their covering of earth did not appreciably reduce their
starch. On the other hand, it is known that a stem, without
starch in winter, will form starch in a few days after placing in
a warm temperature; and Russow reports several species of
trees that retained considerable starch in the stem through a mild
winter, but lost much or all of their starch in the next winter,
which was severe.
7. Fabricius reports that the older stem of Picea excelsa does
not transform its starch to so great an extent as the younger
stems. Several of the trees examined in the present work have
shown the same thing; and hence it is quite likely that it is a
general phenomenon.
8. Sablon has pointed out that the maximum for total carbo-
hydrate reserves for deciduous leaved trees is at the fall of the
leaf in autumn, whereas the maximum is at the opening of buds
in the spring for persistent leaved trees.
9. Finally, the work of Sablon and Schellenberg indicates that
the principal carbohydrate reserve of trees in winter is cellulose.
One might wish that the methods employed by these two investi-
gators were a little more convincing. Sablon obtained favorable
results by chemical analyses, and both he and Schellenberg report
seeing the walls thinned down in spring ; in other cases the walls
showed a loss of refractive properties in cases in which reduction
in thickness could not be seen. There need be nothing suspicious
in the claim of a loss of substance where loss of thickness could
not be seen ; for enzyme action produces exactly this effect at the
first solution of walls in some seeds^.
^Newcombe. Cellulose Enzymes. Ann. Bot. XIII, 1899, 49.
16
PITH FLECKS OR MEDULLARY SPOTS IN WOOD.
By Samuel J. Record.
Pith flecks or medullary spots are small, brown, half-moon
shaped patches appearing so commonly on the cross sections of
many of our woods, especially those of the four families Sali-
caceae, Betulaceae, Rosaceae and Aceraceae. All close observers
of wood are familiar with their appearance and several writers,
notably R. Hartig% Kienitz-, Nordlinger^, Stone*, and Boulger^,
have made use of them as one of the specific characters in wood
identification. The purpose of this article is to summarize in-
vestigations of the origin and nature of pith flecks, with special
reference to the taxonomic value of such occurrences.
It appears that attention was first called to these spots by Th.
Hartig^ in 1840, terming them "cellular channels" (Zellgange).
He noted and described their occurrence in birch, red alder and
hazel. He made no attempt, however, to explain their cause.
Rossmassler^ proposed the name "medullary recurrences"
(Markwiederholungen), believing the flecks to be of the same
formation as the rays.
Nordlinger'^, in preparing his wood sections, remarked the oc-
currence of the spots in several species of wood and gave them
the name "pith flecks" (Markflecke), which has been generally
accepted.
Cordes" and MohF" confirmed the statements of Th. Hartig
and Rossmassler regarding the species of woods in which the
flecks occurred. Ratzeburg" made some investigations of the
flecks which he termed "brown chains" (Braunketten) on account
of their color and horizontal distribution. He considered it pos-
sible but scarcely probable that they were due to the mining of
the cambium by the larvae of an insect which he provisionally
called Tipula suspecta.
Kraus^^ made a more detailed study of the pith flecks with the
intention of using them diagnostically as a means of identifying
different kinds of woods but came to the conclusion that at least
in the case of the conifers they were inconstant and could not
safely be used in diagnosis.
Medullary Spots in Wood. 245
Later, R. Hartig^ made use of the pith flecks in describing
woods, and Kienitz- utiHzed them in a wood key which he made
up for lecture purposes. Kienitz early came to the conclusion
that the spots were not normal developments and during the years
1881-1882 made some investigations of the cause of the for-
mations. The results were published^^ in 1883.
He discovered that the pith flecks in species of Salix, Sorbus
and Betula were tunnels — filled by new cells — of an insect larva
which obtained its nourishment from the cells of the cambium
and new growth at the time of the formation of the growth rings.
This verified the hypothesis advanced at an earlier date and
referred to above.
Kienitz observed the development of the larvae in small stems
of mountain ash and willow (Sali.v rubra Huds., S. viminalis L.,
and S. caprea L.) Unfortunately, he was unable to grow the
insect to maturity or obtain the imago. He submitted some of
the larvae to Dr. Gerstacker, who identified them as dipterous
insects.
Kienitz concluded that the insect winters in the pupal state in
the ground and that the mature insect lays its eggs singly on or in
the young sprouts or any tender stem of the woody plant. In
May or June the eggs hatch and young larva (Fig. 2) eats a path
or tunnel into the cambial zone. In the beginning the tunnel is
very narrow corresponding to the relative size of the larval body.
The larva grows little in thickness but considerably in length,
finally becoming 2-3 cm. long. The tunnel which remains very
narrow radially widens in a peripheral direction, since the larva
eats to its right and left. Only the cells of the cambium and of
the very latest formed wood are eaten, even by the full grown
larvae.
In all cases observed, the tunnels were directed downward at
first. When the larva has penetrated to a certain depth, it turns
about without building a loop, making the tunnel only a little
wider at this turning point. The location of this turning point
varies, often being at the root collar or perchance, in a lateral
root. After turning back it follows the old tunnel for a short
distance, usually about the length of its body, and then starts off
in an oblique direction so that the two tunnels make an acute
angle with each other. (Fig. 4.) The larva, as a rule, does not
go very far upwards but reverses itself and eats with its head
246
Forestry Quarterly.
^^
« -tCi <.j"Xi %) <o
Medullary Spots in Wood. 247
Explanation of Figures
Fig. I. Lateral and dorsal views of a larva of Opostega nonstrigella
Ch., taken from a twig of Ribes vulgare. (After GrossEnbacher).
Fig. 2. Young scarcely half-grown dipterous (?) larva taken from a
shoot of 5"c7/;.tr rubra Huds. (After Kienitz).
Fig. 3. Much enlarged lateral view of the head of a larva similar to that
in Fig. 2. (After KiEnitz).
Fig. 4. Lower portion of a peeled mountain ash stem (Sorbus aucuparia
L.) showing the lower ends and turning points of three tunnels of which
one reaches down into a root. On the cross-section a few pith flecks are
visible. (After Kienitz).
Fig. 5. Cross section of a stem of birch (Betula pubcscens Ehrh.) show-
ing numerous pith flecks. Natural size. (After Kienitz.)
Fig. 6. Cross section of a willow shoot (Salix rubra Huds.) showing a
portion of a tunnel deserted by the larva for a long time, (a) New
cambium which has been formed to replace that destroyed, (b) Cells which
originally belonged to the bark but later became wood cells, (c) Margin
or border of the wound formed by the walls of the destroyed cells and
excrement of the larva. (d)The layer (c) has been broken through in sev-
eral places 'by the outgrowth of the bark cells and the division of the
bubble-like 'filling cells' (tyloses?) has begun. From the woody portion
only one 'fiUing cell' (e) has emerged; it is from a ray. (After Kien-
itz.)
Fig. 7. Cross section of one-half a pith fleck from a stem of Betula
papyrifera Marsh, (a), (a'), (a"), rays, (b) Margin or border almost
obliterated, (c) The 'filling cells' are thick walled, densely pitted, and
filled with starch. (Original.)
248 Forestry Quarterly.
downward again, occasionally turns once more, and finally after
it has taken on a shorter and stouter form, bores through the
bark, forces itself slowly out through the narrow opening and
falls to the ground.
The length of the tunnels varies considerably and seems to be
determined by the amount of available food which the larva finds.
In slow-growing mountain ash stems the greatest observed dis-
tance up and down was i meter, while in a succulent willow
sprout the distance was from 20-30cm. In the latter space, how-
ever, were found three turning points.
Frequently, several larvae were found in the same slender
shoot. For example, in a small stem of mountain ash less than
I cm. in diameter were found four larvae at the same time.
Their paths frequently crossed.
Kienitz observed that in a cross section of a stem, the large pith
flecks were always found near the outer edge of the growth ring,
the smaller ones in the early wood. (Fig. 5.) From this he
concluded that there is only one generation a season, since if there
were two generations of the insects, more than one layer or
region of broad spots would be found in the same growth ring.
He also concluded that the larvae in mountain ash, various species
of willows, and Betula verrucosa were of the same species.
In the tunneling process the larva does not completely devour
the cells but seems only to tear them open, presumably using for
the purposes the hooks on the end of its mouth (Fig. 3), after
which it appears to suck up the cell contents. The torn cell walls,
which are still soft, are compressed by the advancing larva and in
this way a narrow passage is formed. These tunnels, as well as
the larva which is of the same color as the cambium cells, are at
first hard to see since the decomposition of the destroyed cells has
not begun and the radial diameter of the passages is very small.
Since cambial activity continues undisturbed on both sides of
a mine, while at the same time cell formation in the mine itself
ceases, the radial diameter of the tunnel increases after the larva
has passed. Consequently, pith flecks are larger in rapid-grow-
ing sprouts than in slow-growing shoots. In time, the cambium
layer (Fig. 6, a) bridges over the mine and afterward produces
normal xylem and phloem.
In the meantime, some of the uninjured cells on the cortical
side of the channel become rounded and increase in size in cross-
Medullary Spots in Wood. 249
section, until finally they break through the layer of cell frag-
ments (Fig. 6, c) and press like bubbles into the hollow space
(Fig. 6, d) where they grow very rapidly, divide in all directions
and soon fill the cavity. The ray cells of the bark were found to
be the most important and almost the exclusive regeneration
centers, though rarely other parenchymatous cells of the cortex
and very seldom ray cells of the xylem (Fig. 6, e) were observed
also to take part in the process.
The dissolved cell fragments and larvae excrement are com-
pressed into a narrow border (Fig. 7, b) by the rapid growth and
division of the "filling cells." The pressure tends to keep back
other cells which otherwise would soon have proliferated into the
cavity. The "filling cells" assume very irregular shapes, the walls
thicken and grow darker (probably from tannin) and are densely
pitted with simple pits. Starch gradually makes its way into
these cells and often all the cells are found filled with starch
grains which contribute toward making the pith flecks resemble
the rays. (Fig. 7, c.)
The cells which lie between the newly formed cambium and the
channel (Fig. 6, b), originally belonging to the bark but now
surrounded by the newly formed ring of wood, do not remain
unchanged, either; they thicken their walls appreciably, become
wood-like and in cross-section appear as wood cells though usually
more rounded. In longitudinal section they can be readily
recognized by their very short length in contrast with the normal
structure of the wood cells formed by the new cambium.
Kienitz found pith flecks in the following woods: Alnus glu-
tinosa Gartn., A. incana D. C, Betiila puhescens Ehrh., B. ver-
rucosa Ehrb., Corylus avellana E., almost all species of Salix,
several species of Sorbus, Crataegus oxycantha L., C. monogyna
L., a few species of Prunus, probably also in some species of
Pyrus. He believed the somewhat similar spots in conifers, of
which Kraus^^ speaks, to be of different origin than those in
broadleaf species.
A recent contribution to this subject has been made by Grossen-
bacher ^^. He made a careful study of the insect causing pith
flecks in current stems, and found that the mining was done by
the larvae of a tineid moth, Opostega nonstrigeUa Ch. (Fig i).
The larva is in many ways different from that described by
Kienitz, as may be seen by comparing Figs, i and 3, while the
250 Forestry Quarterly.
turning points of the tunnels are semi-circular instead of pointed.
The histological modifications which result from the mining of the
Opostega larva are fundamentally the same as those described
above.
Grossenbacher reports the presence of cambium miners in the
following trees : Prunus mahaleb, seedlings of P. avium, P.
serotina, P. virginiana, Crataegus oxyacantha, and other species
of Crataegus when among infested P. avium or P. mahaleb. They
were also found in P. cerasus and P. domestica of some nurseries.
The mines and larvae were present in various sized stems,
branches and shoots of the above hosts from the surface of the
ground (even underground) up to nearly 3 meters above.
Various writers have referred to pith flecks in describing wood.
Laslett^^ notes their occurrence in "many Birches, Alders, Haw-
thorns, Poplars, etc." and considers them "points of structure
that help the expert to determine the nature of a piece of wood."
Boulger^ (page 33) : "Another character of some value in dis-
crimination is the occurrence of pith flecks, or medullary spots,
dark rust-like patches, which occur in Alder, Hazel, Hawthorn
and some species of Willow, Poplar, and Pyrus. They are sup-
posed by some authorities to originate in passages bored by the
larvae of a species of Tipula (wire worm) which live in the
cambium, these passages becoming filled up immediately with
cellular tissue ; but their origin requires further investigation."
In his classification of woods Boulger makes the presence or
absence of pith-flecks the basis for separating certain species of
Acer, of Populus and of Pyrus. Acer barbatum Mich. (A.
saccharum March), for example, is said to be without pith-flecks,
thereby distinguishing it from A. campestre L. and A. pennsyl-
vanicum L. The present writer, however, has observed pith-
flecks in the wood of A. saccharum Marsh, and it is probable that
their use in the other instances referred to is equally unreliable.
Stone* recognizes the pathological origin of pith flecks but
states (pages XVI-XVH) that they "are as characteristic of the
species as any other feature because the grub is faithful to its
special tree and prefers it to all others, therefore as a series of
years can hardly pass without the presence of the grub, no log of
wood of a susceptible species of tree will be found without these
traces."
Opposed to this statement are the observations of Kienitz^^
Medullary Spots in Wood. 251
He found, for example, that some mountain ash and willow stems
have many pith flecks while other individuals of the same species
in the vicinity, often from the same root stock, did not show them.
Furthermore, he looked in vain for pith flecks in a large number
of birch and alder stems in a certain locality, though ordinarily
the wood of the Betulaccae contains them in abundance. Again,
in stems with pith flecks certain growth rings may be free of them
while others are thickly dotted.
The present writer has observed pith flecks in the following
woods : Salix laevigata Bebb., S. Uuviatilis Nutt., Betula populi-
folia Marsh., B. papyrifera Marsh., B. nigra L., Ostrya virginiana
(Mill.) Koch., Pyrus rivularis Dougl., P. sambucifolia C. & S.,
Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic, Crataegus crus-galli L.,
C. punctata Jacq., Primus americana Marsh., P. pennsylvanicum
h. F., P. ilicifolia (Nutt.) Walp., P. Mollis Walp., Acer pennsyl-
vanicum L., A. saccharum Marsh., A. saccharinum L., A. rubrum
L., Ceanothus velutinus arhoreus Sarg., and Adelia acuminata
Michx.
It is interesting to note that while pith flecks have been reported
in the woods of some fifty species and fifteen genera, no large
pored or ring porous woods are in the list. The oaks, ashes,
hickories, elms and similar woods are absent. The writer can
assign no adequate reason why this should be true, though the
character of the bark may possibly account for it.
In view of all of the foregoing, the writer has come to the same
conclusion as Gayer,^^ viz : that as pith flecks "have a pathological
origin, and may be absent they should not be used in the identifi-
cation of woods."
References Cited.
1. Hartig, R. Die Unterscheidungsmerkmale der wichtigeren in Deutsch-
land wachsenden Holzer. Munchen. 1879.
2. Kienitz, M. Schliissel zum Bestimmen der wichtigsten in Deutsch-
land cultivierten Holzer. Munchen. 1879.
3. Nordlinger, H. Anatomische Merkmale der wichtigsten deuschen
Wald- und Gartenholzarten. Stuttgart. 1881.
4. Stone, H. The Timbers of Commerce and their Identification. Lon-
don. 1904.
5. Boulger, G. S. Wood. (Rev. ed.) London. 1908.
6. Hartig, Th. Forstliche Culturpflanzen. 1840. Vollstandige Natur-
geschichte der forstlichen Culturpflanzen Deutschlands. Berlin.
1851.
7. Rossmassler, E. A. Versuch einer anatomischen Characteristik des
Holzkorpers der wichtigeren Baume and Straucher. Dresden and
Leipzig. 1847.
8. Nordlinger, H. Querschnitte von 100 Holzarten. Vol. II, p. 10.
252 Forestry Quarterly.
9. Cordes. Het Zamenstel der voornaamste Europesche Houtsoorten.
Haarlem. 1857.
10. Mohl. Botanisches Zeitung. 1862.
11. Ratzeburg, J. T. C. Die Waldverderbniss. Vol. 11, pp. 228-229. Ber-
lin. 1868.
12. Kraus. Bau der Nadelholzer. (Wurzburger naturwissenschaftliche
Zeitschrift. Vol. V.)
13. Kienitz, M. Die Entstehung der "Markflecke." Botanisches Central-
blatt, Vol. XIV, pp. 21-26; 56-61. 1883.
14. Grossenbacher, J. G. Medullary Spots : A Contribution to the Life
History of Cambium Miners. Technical Bui. No. 15, N. Y. Agr.
Exp. Sta. Geneva, N. Y. 1910.
15. Laslett, T. Timber and Timber Trees. New York. 1894.
16. Gayer, K. Schlich's Manual of Forestry, Vol. V. London. 1908.
Other References.
De Bary, A. Vergleichende Anatomic der Vegetationsorgane der Phaner-
ogamen imd Fame, pp. 507-8. Leipzig. 1877.
Haberlandt, G. Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie (4te Aufl), p. 606.
Leipzig. 1909.
Sorauer, P. Handbuch der Pflanzenkrankheiten (3te Aufl.) 1:611. Ber-
lin. 1909.
SILVICULTURAL TREATMENT OF ABANDONED PAS-
TURES IN SOUTHERN NEW ENGLAND.
By Philip T. Coolidge.
The lands used by early generations in New England for field
crops, orchards, hay, and especially for pasture, began to be
abandoned fully eighty years ago. Abandonment of lands so used
became common fifty or sixty years ago when the emigration
westward reached large proportions. The settlement of the
fertile lands from Western New York to Illinois put both agri-
culture and grazing on the worn New England soils at an
economic disadvantage. The necessity for winter feeding im-
posed by the heavy snows, also, has made New England less suit-
able than the West for the live-stock industry. As the herds and
flocks were withdrawn, the forest slowly reclaimed the land long
before won from it. Where grass land is used for pasturage
without cultivation, only severe grazing can prevent slow refores-
tation in a region like New England, naturally forest clad — a con-
dition to which the scattered Cedar and Juniper in most pastures
still in use bear testimony.
The natural regeneration of the forest was considered a
deterioration of the land until the growing scarcity of timber
reversed this sentiment. It may be now assumed that land on
which forest growth has been allowed to return is more valuable
for the production of timber than for any other purpose. There
is at present in New England a rapidly growing demand for the
practice of intensive methods of forestry on lands not suited for
other uses. Unfortunately, where land has been abandoned for
agriculture or grazing, the returning forest consists for many
years of Red Cedar, Juniper, Gray Birch, Alder and other species
of little or no value. These species not only produce little timber
of value themselves, but choke better species, whether of natural
or of artificial origin.
On all open lands — except swamps and soilless rocks — the in-
vestigations of the State Foresters of several New England
States — notably Connecticut and Massachusetts — prove beyond
doubt that plantations of White Pine, Chestnut and certain other
254 Forestry Quarterly.
rapidly growing species will yield profits as well as ordinary in-
terest. Questions as to the practicability of artificial plantations
on open lands are answered by the publication of these State
Foresters. The question which the present article discusses is
whether — granting the feasibility of planting on open lands — is
it feasible to make plantations where species of little value now
growing would choke the planted trees ? Does the added expense
of clearing away reproduction of inferior species make the plan-
tation impractical? On the other hand, this article does not dis-
cuss the treatment of pastures very long abandoned on which
valuable species, like Oak, Hickory, Chestnut, White Pine, are
well represented and have supplanted the earlier growth. Such
pastures have passed into the category of the established forest,
although extreme need of improvement and reproduction thin-
nings may veil the fact that simply the usual silvicultural methods
of treatment of wood-lots in Southern New England should be
followed.
White Pine is most commonly used for plantations in New
England. However, in the northern portion of the region
especially, Norway Spruce is more suited by its requirements to
certain situations — ^as loamy soils, on which White Pine, with its
predilection for sand, is sometimes not vigorous ; and Norway
Spruce is probably of as rapid growth as White Pine. In Con-
necticut, Chestnut is a thrifty, rapid growing species. It is easily
reproduced by coppice, and a fire, which would cause total loss in
a plantation of White Pine, would leave chestnut stools capable of
reproduction. Its stumpage value is, however, not yet as high as
that of White Pine, and the occurrence of the Chestnut disease
also makes its use temporarily undesirable.
A study of the publications of the State Foresters leads to the
following general conclusions : That at the end of a forty or
fifty year rotation, a plantation of White Pine in Southern New
England, should yield from 25 to 50 M. feet, B. M., per acre;
worth from $6.00 to $12.00 per thousand at present stumpage
prices, and that such a plantation should yield, after the cost of
planting, protection and taxes is subtracted, compound interest at
4%, and also net profits up to about $300.00, and averaging about
$150.00, depending upon the quality of the locality and the near-
ness to market. The estimated amount of the net profits on the
better situations should be noted. It will be referred to later.
Silviculture Treatment of Abandoned Pastures. 255
since it indicates that on such situations there is abundant leeway
for expenses necessitated for removal of inferior species.
It should also be noted that the estimates of financial yields are
based on present stumpage prices; the stumpage value of New
England timber will undoubtedly continue to rise, especially with
the exhaustion of the Southern timber, now a question of perhaps
a score of years only. The estimates of financial yields also allow
liberally enough for protection from fire to eliminate the danger
of loss to investments from that source. The profits so figured
are therefore most conservative.
Furthermore, on all abandoned pastures, valuable species such
as Chestnut, Oak, Ash, Hickory and White Pine are slowly reseed-
ing the ground under the species of temporary type, such as Cedar
and Birch, and forcing their way through the crowns of these
earlier trees, ultimately to suppress them. Each of the ruling
species of forest trees in time regains its former type of locality.
The presence of reproduction of these valuable species may re-
duce considerably the cost of planting. The conditions on various
pastures differ extremely, but from fifty to a hundred years may
be given as a rough average of the length of time required for a
fairly complete re-stocking with valuable species — a period long
enough for one or two rotations of White Pine.
The species which restock cleared lands promptly and abun-
dantly (in numbers) are Red Cedar, Juniper, Gray and Black
Birch, Poplar, Cherry, Scrub Oak, and Pitch Pine. Cedar and
Juniper have a stiff, prickly foliage on which stock will not browse,
and these species are the first to gain possession of the land. Birch
and Poplar, with delicate shoots, are much more liable to injury by
stock, and appear after a pasture has been partly or completely
abandoned. Where seed trees of these species occur. Birch and
its allies may rapidly suppress any Cedar and occupy the land
almost exclusively, and where seed trees of the species mentioned
above are absent nearly pure Cedar may result. All gradations
from pure Cedar to pure Birch occur, however, in the less recently
abandoned pastures. Black Birch also, is an important species in
early reforestation, and although it may be considered an inferior
species in Chestnut and Oak woods, its wood is of fair value for
both fuel and lumber. It grows rapidly to considerable size, and
is long lived, and, therefore, cannot be classed as undesirable on
old pastures.
256 I'orestry Quarterly.
The types of brush on old pastures characteristically vary on
very small areas. Frequently several kinds of brush grow to-
gether on the same quarter acre, or perhaps one quarter acre is
covered with Juniper, the next with Cedar and Birch, and the next
is mainly open. An average per acre of the cost of removal of
inferior species would, therefore, be of little value in making a
practical estimate of the cost of the work on a given pasture. A
general discussion of the conditions would be of more value.
Hence the field work on which this article is based consists mainly
of ocular observations and the conclusions have been guided by
measurements on a small number only, of sample plots.
To simplify discussion, the various sorts of brush are treated as
if they occurred separately:
Ground Juniper. — This shrub occurs abundantly on every aban-
doned pasture. It reaches a height of three or four feet and its
beds are sometimes thirty-five feet across. The cost of clearing
away, piling and burning this material — the chopping is best done
with a bush hook — so that plants can be set out 6x6 feet apart — is
at the maximum $4.00 per acre. This expense was determined by
chopping out "wells" 6x6 feet apart in Juniper patches, in which
to insert the planted stock, until one-sixteenth acre was prepared.
Fortunately it would never, in practice, be necessary to spend
$4.00 an acre on Juniper, because it never covers a pasture in full
density and even where comparatively dense, plants may be in-
serted largely between its clumps. Planted White Pine is ordi-
narily spaced 6x6 feet to insure rapid height growth and early
pruning. A large number of the trees are removed in thinnings.
Where small clumps of Juniper, not more than ten feet wide,
occur it will not pay to chop out holes in them for planting. Ten
foot spacing should, however, be the exception, not the rule, since
it would cause a growth of crooked limby trees.
Wholesale cutting away of Juniper is unnecessary, but the chop-
ping out of "wells" before inserting the plant facilitates planting
and eliminates danger of the Juniper choking out the planted trees.
The occurrence of Juniper on a pasture should never discourage
putting the land on a paying basis by planting. Juniper is seldom
dense enough to cause an extra expense of more than $1.00 or
$1.50. This amount would compound at 4 per cent, to only $8.00
or $10.00 in fifty years — an insignificant expense, compared to the
profits estimated for plantations.
Birch, the years old, 1,400 sprouts to the acre. Cost of clearing,
about $4.00.
White Pine plantation, 22 years old, in Connecticut.
Red Cedar, .6 Density.
Cutting trees large enough for posts (marked) will open stand sufficiently
for planting.
.-■*
^^''W^^^S^^^^^^^^^^I
1
1
m
m
m
1
Typical Pasture, with Cedar, Juniper, Birch and scattering Oak and
Chestnut. 1,400 sprouts to the acre.
Silviculture Treatment of Abandoned Pastures. 2^y
Red Cedar. — This species, on account of its abundance, is the
most important of those occurring on old pastures. Its density,
depending largely on the former treatment of the pasture, varies
very widely. A lightly grazed pasture may have an excellent
stand of Cedar and yet be on the poorest soil, and an over-grazed
pasture may have only a scattering of worthless bushy trees.
Cedar posts, 6 feet long and 4 inches in diameter at the small
end, are worth about 20 cents apiece ; they cost from 5 cents to 7
cents to cut and haul, and the stumpage value is therefore about 14
cents. Owing to the use of Chestnut tops for posts, the use and
value of Cedar for posts is decreasing.
A fully stocked stand (the exception on old pastures) about
forty years old will yield a maximum of 400 or 500 posts and 10
cords of firewood. The rate of growth of Red Cedar was esti-
mated from Prof. Graves' figures in an article in Forestry Quar-
ter!, y, Volume 3, page 350. Four hundred and fifty posts, worth
about 14 cents stumpage each, and 10 cords of wood, worth $2.00
a cord stumpage, give a gross return of about $70.00. If taxes
and interest for forty years on the value of the land are sub-
tracted from this amount, the net profits compare most unfavor-
ably with those of White Pine plantations. Further, it should be
carefully noted that Cedar occurs generally in irregular open
stands, and that the fully stocked stand, which will produce 400
or 500 posts in forty years, is very exceptional. Plainly, Cedar
does not commend itself as an investment.
Cedar will not interfere with the growth of the trees of a plan-
tation, except where it occurs in stands of more than .5 density.
The rapidly growing trees of the plantation soon push past the
Cedars in the more open stands. Stands less than fifteen years
old on recently abandoned pastures are seldom of more than .5
density, and stands forty years old generally contain a large
enough proportion of post trees to permit profitable thinning to
that density. The only problem, therefore, offered by Red Cedar,
is the treatment of stands of more than .5 density, between the
ages of about fifteen and forty years — or from the time the trees
are from one to two inches in diameter until they are of post size.
Dense Cedar, one or two inches in diameter, can be cut, piled and
burned with about 2^ days of labor per acre — or at a cost of about
$4.50 per acre. The trees can be cut with a brush hook or axe by
a single blow. The expense was determined by clearing one-six-
258 Forestry Quarterly.
teenth acre sample plat. Reduction of density below .5 is suffi-
cient, but in dense stands it is generally easier to cut nearly all the
trees and let them fall in windrows. They can then be burned
readily.
Chopping away Red Cedar, one or two inches in diameter, will
therefore pay on all, except, perhaps, those poor soils, like sandy
and rocky hills, where it occurs naturally and not because the
land has been cleared. On such lands, it might be questionable
whether the growth of the plantation would be rapid enough to
pay the added expense of clearing away the Cedar. If, however,
the Cedar on such lands is of less than .5 density, so that no clear-
ing is necessary, it is probably safe to make the expenditure neces-
sary for ordinary planting in the open.
After Cedar becomes two or three inches in diameter, the ex-
pense of clearing increases considerably. The trees are very bushy
and are difficult to chop. Even although a small amount of sale-
able cordwood can be produced, the net cost of clearing trees
averaging three inches in diameter, will be from $8.00 to $11.00
per acre, a sum that will compound at 4 per cent, interest in fifty
years to $60.00 or $80.00. This figure was determined by a one-
sixteenth acre sample plot.
Where there is a combination of good soil and good market, it
may sometimes pay to clear large Cedar, but as a rule, it will prob-
ably not pay to chop any Cedar after it is about two inches in
diameter. Furthermore, Cedar two or three inches in diameter
will probably yield posts in twenty years and it would be poor
business policy to undergo considerable expense to sacrifice a half-
matured although inferior crop. A practical rule is that it does
not pay to chop away Cedar after it is so large that the cutting of
a tree requires more than one stroke of the axe.
It should be noted that it is only the dense Cedar — the "Cedar
Woods" that makes clearing necessary. Such stands are not
common and the unusual, half open pastures can very easily be
converted into profitable plantations.
Gray Birch. — Gray Birch covers not only large areas of aban-
doned pastures, but also burns and other clearings. It occupies
open land quickly, and for this reason has an undeserved reputa-
tion for rapid growth. It tends to form more regular, dense
stands than Red Cedar. The age of three Birch sprouts, cut on
a large area of abandoned pasture at Mt. Carmel, Connecticut,
Silviculture Treatment of Abandoned Pastures. 259
was thirty-eight. Measurements of six of these sprouts showed
an average height of 28 feet and an average diameter of 4 inches.
The average crown space was 40 square feet, so that 1,100 sprouts
per acre would be possible. The yield was estimated to be nine
cords per acre for full density. This was in a dense stand and on
good soil. These few measurements are, of course, scarcely con-
clusive evidence of the average rate of growth of Gray Birch, but
they corroborate the ocular estimates that the short, quickly taper-
ing, early maturing trees do not make rapid volume growth.
Birch cord-wood is worth $5.00 a cord, and an allowance of
$2.00 a cord for cutting and hauHng leaves $3.00 a cord, or say
$30.00 for ten cords per acre as the net yield of forty years. In-
terest at 4 per cent, and taxes on land worth $4.00 (fairly cheap
for the region) per acre would compound in forty years to about
$27.00. In other words, natural reforestation by Birch is
financially a flat failure.
Nearly the same treatment is suggested for Birch as for Red
Cedar. Birch one or two inches in diameter can be cut and piled
for $4.00 an acre, or by two days' labor. As with Red Cedar,
after Birch becomes about two inches in diameter, it is better not
to cut it until it is large enough for cordwood, not only on ac-
count of the expense of chopping these larger trees, but also be-
cause the crop of Birch cordwood, small as it is, is only twenty
years distant and its sacrifice would not be counterbalanced by the
profits from a plantation.
An advantage of planting on land stocked with inferior species,
like Birch and Cedar, is that these forest weeds serve as nurse
trees. Planting of forest trees in the open necessitates use of well
developed transplants at least three years old, if the plantation is
to survive the climatic adversities of the first few seasons. The
cost of such planting is generally estimated to be about $7.00 per
acre. The shelter afforded by nurse trees permits the use of
one year old seedling stock. This can be raised in seed beds at a
cost of from 35 cents to 50 cents per thousand. As allowance
should be made for the death of one-third of these delicate plants,
the plantation should be spaced 5x5 feet (or 1,700 plants per
acre), instead of 6x6 (or 1,200 plants per acre) as usual. A man
can plant out two or three thousand seedlings per day with a
dibble, so that at $2.00 a day the cost of planting, the total cost per
acre — 1,700 plants — for stock and planting, should not be more
17
26o Forestry Quarterly.
than $2.50. This stock is not ordinarily furnished by commercial
nurserymen, but the seed-beds require so little room — for White
Pine, a square yard sown with two ounces of seed will furnish
enough seedlings to plant an acre — and so little care that it should
be a simple matter to raise it, especially for farm wood lots.
This type of stock should, however, be used only where there
is a density of stand of .7 or .8. The old stand should be removed
two years after planting, as the seedlings require protection only
during the first two years, and after that time will not make
straight or rapid growth without open sunshine. The old stand
can be removed without much danger of injury to the plantation
so long as the planted trees are small. With Birch, if two or three
years are allowed to elapse before cutting, the planted trees will
be given opportunity to keep ahead of the sprouts which will come
from the Birch stumps. Cutting the Birch in July or August
would of course prevent its sprouting. Two dollars and fifty
cents per acre is $4.50 less than $7.00, the usual cost of planting
per acre. Four dollars and fifty cents compounds at 4 per cent,
interest to $31.98 in fifty years, and would, therefore, add appre-
ciably to profits.
The tables in Forest Service Bulletin 22, "The White Pine,"
show that suppression retards trees about ten or twelve years.
In other words, if a stand of Birch or Cedar were large enough to
cut in ten or twelve years, the most practicable method would be
to postpone the plantation until two or three years before cutting.
Scrub Oak. — In many parts of Northern New England there
are large areas covered with entirely worthless Scrub Oak ( Quer-
cus nana.) These barrens are the result of repeated fires on dry,
sandy lands. Little forestry can be practiced where the fire
question has not been solved. Where it has been solved, however,
there is no reason why these lands should not produce their share
of timber. Probably the best species for such areas are Norway
Pine, Scotch Pine, White Pine, or Pitch Pine. Yields probably
as good as on the poorest White Pine lands should be obtained.
In many cases fire protection alone would produce a good crop of
Oak, for a large proportion of what apparently are Scrub Oaks
are Black Oaks and other valuable species of Oaks dwarfed by
the fires. Where planting is desired — and Pine should yield a
better revenue than Oak — no thinning is necessary. The fires
generally have so reduced the Scrub Oak stools that sufficient
Silviculture Treatment of Abandoned Pastures. 261
openings occur throughout them to make room for a complete
plantation. Immediately after a fire is, of course, a very desir-
able time to plant, because the available room is almost unlimited
and the new sprouts grow slowly.
Other Deciduous Brush. — Dogwood, Poplar and Alder are, also,
common species of brush. Dogwood and Poplar grow very much
like Birch and may be treated similarly that is, either cut when
young or reserved until of cordwood size. Alder may be cut like
young Birch. Sumac and Briers cast so slight a shade that their
removal is unnecessary. Where unusually dense, the planter can
hack them away with his mattock with little trouble from the im-
mediate neighborhood of each plant.
Use of Fire. — The favorable condition for planting, both on
Scrub Oak and Birch lands immediately after fire, suggests that
carefully conducted burning might be the simplest way to rid
brush from land to be planted. For several reasons, however, fire
would probably not be the cheapest way to accomplish this pur-
pose. In the first place — almost every brush stand has a scatter-
ing of valuable species in it. The use of fire prevents the alterna-
tive of expense to protect this valuable reproduction, or sacrifice
of it. Secondly — the use of fire requires planting after, rather
than before, the removal of the objectionable cover. If the fire
does not kill the stools, the new sprouts will easily overtop the
planted stock, which would have much better chance if planted
before the clearing; and thirdly — on account of the lack of
shelter, large stock — three-year old transplants — must be used in
place of the cheap one-year old seedlings.
MULTIPLE VOLUME TABLE.
By Lincoln Crowell.
In cruising, where the trees on a block or strip are taUied by
diameters and height classes, and the volume of the trees obtained
later from a table, a Multiple Volume Table, compiled in the man-
ner of the accompanying form, is very convenient as an aid in
computing the total volume of the area in question.
The total volume of the number of trees of a certain diameter
and height class may be read directly from such a table without
having to figure it out.
The Multiple Table is compiled from a volume table of the
species estimated. After it has been compiled it may be traced
and blue printed and be of service indefinitely.
(0
<
J
u
a
III
H
U
Z
<
I
LOGS
MULTIPLE VOLUME TABLE
NUMBER OF TREES
Q
NCHES
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Etc.
1
18
2
3
1
20
2
3
2
3
22
4
ETC.
SUPERVISORS' MEETINGS AT BOISE, IDAHO, AND
OGDEN, UTAH.
At Boise, Idaho, January 2 to 4, 191 1, was held a meeting of
the Supervisors of the National Forests in District 4, situated in
Idaho and Wyoming. The object of the meeting was the discus-
sion of National Forest problem''.
The discussion of grazing questions bearing upon National
Forest administration occupied the first part of the meeting. The
National Forests in District 4 in Idaho and Wyoming are for the
most part heavily stocked, particularly with sheep, and the ques-
tion of so administering the grazing business as to interfere as
little as possible with the principal objects for which the National
Forests were created is exceedingly difificult and complicated in
view of the large amounts of money invested in the stock business
and the general importance of the industry to the country as a
whole. The general tendency is toward a reduction in the num-
ber of stock allowed to graze on the National Forests and toward
closer restrictions with regard to the grazing of stock, particularly
sheep, on areas which are in process of reproduction. Great as-
sistance in the settlement of range controversies has been rendered
by co-operation between the Forest Service officials, on the one
hand and advisory boards representing associations of stock own-
ers using the National Forests, on the other.
A discussion of the points to be considered in marking different
commercial species for cutting brought out the fact that the sys-
tem of cutting theoretically preferable can not always be followed
in practice on account of market conditions which make it im-
possible for dealers to dispose of all classes of material which
would result from such operations. In pure lodgepole pine stands
which are sufficiently even aged and where markets are sufficiently
intensive, clean cutting in strips is recommended. The strips cut
and those left intact should be of equal width, generally 100 feet.
Where the danger from windfall is not great the over-mature and
defective trees may be removed from the uncut strips. The
strips should run in the direction of the prevailing winds where
danger from windfall is great. On steep slopes where there is
danger of erosion and snow slides the strips should run across
the slopes rather than up and down. In pure lodgepole stands
264 Forestry Quarterly.
where it is impossible to use the strip system the selection system
must be adopted. The aim should be either to thin the stand very
lightly with the object of making the remaining trees more wind
firm and allow a second cutting at an early date or to remove all
the mature and undesirable trees and thus leave only enough trees
to form the basis of a future cut. Between these two extremes
there are many graduations and the method to be used depends
upon local conditions entirely. The main point to be considered
is wind-firmness, seed production being a secondary consideration.
On the Targhee Forest Douglas fir is the best timber tree and
should be favored against other species on sites favorable to its
growth. Where lodgepole and Douglas fir grow in mixture it is
recommended that all merchantable lodgepole be marked for cut-
ting and only such fir trees as are defective and over-mature.
In marking fir on its own sites we should approach as near im-
provement cutting as local conditions will permit.
Engleman spruce should be encouraged wherever it grows better
than other species in mixture. The aim should be to remove over-
mature, suppressed and defective trees with a view to improving
the stand. The soil should be protected from drying out and the
trees left so spaced as to reduce windfall to a minimum.
In marking yellow pine, forest conditions should not be dis-
turbed more than is necessary, and only the mature and defective
trees should be removed. Openings should be avoided and suffi-
cient seed trees should be left to insure reproduction.
On account of fire danger the method to be followed in dispos-
ing of brush resulting from logging operations is of great im-
portance. There are three different methods of brush disposal :
( 1 ) Piling and burning.
(2) Piling and not burning.
(3) Lopping and scattering.
The first method seems advisable where fire danger is great.
However, to burn brush means that about four or five per cent, of
the area will be burned over with the possibility that some of the
stand will be injured, besides the certainty of destroying all the
seedlings on the burned spot. The second method obviates these
disadvantages, while the third is particularly applicable where the
fire danger is small. Brush cover is of decided value in preserv-
ing soil moisture and in lessening damage from early frosts. Re-
production is generally good around the edges of brush piles.
Supervisors' Meetings. 26$
Lopping and scattering is generally considered to favor reproduc-
tion in open stands, particularly of yellow pine.
A discussion of direct seeding and planting brought out the
fact that on the Cache Forest direct seeding thus far has not been
successful, owing principally to drouth and destruction of the seed
by rodents and birds. This applies directly to broadcasting of
seed on the ground and on the snow as well as to seeding in pre-
pared seed spots under cover. Planting operations have been
more successful and plants set out in the spring have made better
progress than those planted in the fall.
In connection with the discussion on methods of fighting forest
fires, the plan in use on the Clearwater Forest in Idaho during the
summer of 1910 is of particular interest. This Forest is very
heavily timbered and has an area of about 3^ million acres.
There is one telephone line into the Forest to a Ranger Station
about 20 miles from the Supervisor's office. There it branches,
one line going east 65 miles, and one north 50 miles. There are
no roads and only a few trails. Probably 15 to 20 per cent, of
the Forest was burned over and one-third of the timber on the
burned area was destroyed. In handling the fire fighting crews
the first thing sent out was supplies and equipment. The Super-
visor had carefully prepared a standard list of supplies designed
to last a lo-man crew for two weeks, and another list designed to
last a 20-man crew for the same length of time. This list of
supplies was left with the local storekeeper who forwarded the
necessary articles upon request from the Supervisor, thus avoiding
delay and making sure that all necessary articles should be in-
cluded. The supplies were forwarded by a pack train which was
owned and operated by the Forest Service, thus insuring prompt
and certain delivery. On the Forest were employed 90 Forest
officers and the existence of the pack train rendered it practi-
cable for them to remain continuously on duty in their districts,
the most of them not needing to come to town for any purpose.
The packer who was with the fire fighting crew acted as messen-
ger and every day made a trip to the telephone to report to the
Supervisor regarding the progress of the work in the field. This
procedure kept the Supervisor in touch with the situation and en-
abled him to issue promptly whatever orders were necessary.
The construction of trails and telephones is of primary importance
in connection with fire fighting work on most of the National
Forests at the present time.
266 Forestry Quarterly.
At Ogden, Utah, from January 23 to 25, 191 1, was held a meet-
ing of the Supervisors of the National Forests in the States of
Utah and Nevada.
The discussion on "working plans" brought out the fact that
wherever practicable the purchaser should be required to distribute
his cutting so as to remove a portion of the less desirable timber
in connection with the removal of that more favorably situated,
in order that the possibility of a future sale might not be de-
stroyed in case the purchaser should become bankrupt or the sale
be discontinued for any reason. In connection with timber sale
work a progress map is very desirable showing the location of
cutting areas, amount of timber marked, progress of brush burn-
ing, and all other silvicultural operations on the forest.
Under "Points to be considered in marking different com-
mercial species of marketable timber for cutting," it was empha-
sized that the character of marking of a given body of timber
depends on many conditions, some of the more important of which
will probably be made upon the forest. It is no longer the policy
of the Forest Service to adhere rigidly to certain diameter limits
or even to any given rules, the intention being to adapt the
requirements in each particular sale to the local conditions. The
most desirable species should be favored, and the other species
marked down to the lowest merchantable size. If possible, cut
the more desirable species directly after a seed year and the
inferior species just before seeding takes place. The more
accessible the timber and the better the market conditions the
more conservative should be the marking. In marking for cutting
it is of the first importance to insure sufficient reproduction and
if possible to plan for a stand better than the original. If pos-
sible, openings in the forest cover should be made gradually in
order to facilitate reproduction. In marking for cutting in stands
of juniper it has been found advantageous, in cases where there
are several boles or large branches from the same root, to cut
out some of the larger for posts or other material, leaving the
balance to continue growth. With this system of cutting sprout-
ing will also occur and make good posts. This system has been
found to work satisfactorily in young trees, but in old trees the
vitality is lower and the removal of any considerable portion of a
tree is likely to kill the balance.
In the discussion of "Conduct of timber sales," it was made
Supervisors' Meetings. 267
clear that from an administrative point of view it is best to dis-
courage the making of very small sales, or of sales to ranchers
or others who are not familiar with the best methods of con-
ducting such work. In Utah and Nevada, in the heavier stands,
brush should be lopped close and piled in moderate sized piles as
near the center of the openings as possible. The heavy limbs
and tops of trees should not be placed in the brush piles, but
should be trimmed up and left to one side. In more open stands
the question as to whether brush will be lopped and piled in small
piles or scattered is to some extent one of expense, since scatter-
ing costs more than piling in small piles. Both systems favor
reproduction, particularly piling in small piles. Unless necessary
as a fire protective measure, the burning of brush should be dis-
couraged.
The amount of forest planting done has increased very greatly
within the last one or two years. On the Wasatch Forest the
planting of a nursery stock has been a success, while direct seed-
ing has not. However, on account of the great expense of the
former it is imperative that a successful method of handling direct
seeding work be discovered. To this end a great deal of experi-
mental work is being done. On account of the immense areas of
burnt-over land, reforestation should be undertaken "m every case
rather than the afforestation of areas which have not previously
produced timber crops. In general, planting should be done
where the trees will have the best chance to succeed. Planting
under aspen has been quite successful, but sagebrush has proven
very unfavorable as a planting site.
Forest fires cannot be eliminated entirely, because of the vast
amount of highly inflammable material at present in the National
Forests. However, much can be done by patrol, co-operation
with the settlers, and the construction of telephones, roads, trails
and bridges, fire lines, lookout stations, etc. In mountainous
regions telephones and trails are of prime importance. Roads
and trails frequently serve also as fire lines. In initial construc-
tion as well as in maintenance, fire lines as such are very ex-
pensive. Emergency tool boxes should be available at convenient
points. Carefully prepared maps showing the location of roads,
trails and fire lines, as well as streams and other points from
which a fire can be attacked, aid materially in planning an attack
on the fire.
AN APPRECIATION OF DR. HEINRICH MAYR, ORDI-
NARY PROFESSOR OF SILVICULTURE,
UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH.
On the twenty-fifth day of January last, as Dr. Mayr was
closing a lecture in Silviculture in the University at Munich,
he fell from an attack of acute heart trouble and never spoke
again. It was indeed in keeping with Dr. Mayr's tremendous
energy and constant application to his work as a forester that he
should die in harness.
Dr. Mayr was born near IMunich on October 29th, 1854, his
father being a Forstmeister under the Bavarian Government.
He received his Doctor's degree in Economics in 1884 and after a
short period of practice became Privatdozent in the Faculty of
Economics in the University. In July, 1885, he came to America
under Commission from the Bavarian Government to study our
forests and report upon the trees that might be adapted for use in
Bavaria. From that time on he was a constant traveler, having
circled the globe a number of times and only a few months before
his death spent some little time in Scotland. From his first
American trip he returned through Japan, China, Java and India,
paying special attention to forest distribution and to studying the
miportant trees to determine if possible their value for planting in
Europe. In 1887 he returned to Japan as Professor of Forestry
m the University of Tokio. There he brought together the re-
sults of his trip to America in a book entitled "Die Waldungen von
Nordamerika." This book was published in 1890 and up to
that time was one of the best studies of American forests written
either in English or German. After about four years in Japan
Dr. Mayr returned to Germany, studying en route forest distri-
bution in China and Ceylon. For nearly twenty-five years Dr.
Mayr assisted Professor Dr. Robert Hartig in Botany and Investi-
gative work and during this period experimented constantly with
foreign tree species in Bavaria. From this long series of experi-
ments and from results of work in the Forest Experiment Station
at Grafrath, established by Dr. Mayr in 1894, and after a second
An Appreciation of Dr. Heinrich Mayr. 269
trip around the world with Prince Ruprecht of Bavaria, he pro-
duced a master work in the book entitled "Fremdlandische Wald
und Parkbaume fiir Europa." Nothing so extensive in either
describing distribution of species or discussing their adaptability
for European conditions had ever been prepared before. The
book is illustrated with an unusual number of photographs and
drawings, many of them by Dr. Mayr himself, and many loaned
by the United States Forest Service.
In connection with the teaching of Silviculture proper in the
University of Munich, Dr. Mayr taught Forest Utilization and
Forest Protection also. The classic work on Forest Utilization
by Dr. Karl Gayer was revised several times by Dr. Mayr, the last
edition being entitled "Die Forstbenutzung," Tenth Edition, by
Gayer and Mayr. At time of his death Dr. Mayr was at work
upon a book describing at length the results of his years of work
at the Bavarian Forest Experiment Station at Grafrath. It is a
great loss to forestry that he was not able to complete this work.
The books mentioned above were not the only products of Dr.
Mayr's great energy. He assisted in editorship of several forestry
publications and produced many pamphlets upon various questions
which have and are agitating the forestry world in Germany,
such for instance as the influence of source of seed upon future
crop.
Few men have had and used as effectively the wonderful gift
of teaching in the way in which Dr. Mayr did. His great
earnestness and power to present matters in a clear, logical way
coupled with his ever pleasing personality, gave him always a full
class room and attracted men to him from all over the world.
During the last year of Dr. Mayr's life he was ailing constantly
and yet was ever cordial and sympathetic and ever ready to help
the student and especially the stranger.
In being a silviculturist Dr. Mayr was also an ecologist and a
botanist, if the first two lines of work can be separated at all.
His memory was wonderful and he carried apparently clearly
outlined in his mind the nomenclature of the entire forest flora
of the world. His extensive travels, while making possible the
excellent books he produced, in a way caused him to over-
generalize, especially in lectures, more than a man of less wide
experience would have done. He was also at times rather em-
pirical and radical, and impatient with the opinions of other
270 Forestry Quarterly.
scientific men, and yet he will go down in forestry history as the
greatest master of silviculture of this country, because for the
first time he brought together in one book and in a definite way
the foundation principles of silviculture and that upon the only
true basis, that of natural relationships. It is safe to predict that
his book upon silviculture will continue to be an authority wher-
ever the foundation principles of the subject are studied or taught.
Dr. Mayr's death is an irreparable loss to silviculture, not only
in Germany, but throughout the world and the many foreign
students who have been enthused with the man's tremendous
energy and ability, feel his loss almost as personally as the wife,
sons and daughters who formed with him an unusually attractive
and sympathetic home. May the son who is following him in
forestry carry on the work continued so ably over so long a
period, and perfect and apply the results of the splendid Forest
Experiment Station at Grafrath, which should be given Dr.
Mayr's name.
Hugh Potter Baker.
CONSUMPTION OF BASKET WILLOWS IN THE
UNITED STATES FOR 1908.
By C. D. Mull.
The data was gathered almost entirely by correspondence with
203 willow-ware makers, and although no claim is made that the
figures are absolutely correct they are very close approximations.
They show the gradual increase or decrease in the production and
consumption as compared with former years. There are few
basket makers who have failed to reply to the inquiries, and there
are also a small number of minor establishments throughout the
country which were not reached, but the influence of their com-
bined consumption upon the total is relatively small. Making a
fair allowance for incomplete figures it is safe to state that the
amount of basket willow consumed during 1908 in the United
States was approximately 3,650,000 pounds, and that the total
value of the material ready for the basket makers' use was not
less than $225,000.
Centers of the Industry,
Basket willows are grown chiefly around cities having a large
percentage of German population to whom the advancement of
the industry in this country must be principally credited. The
chief centers in the Eastern States are New York, Philadelphia,
Pittsburg, Baltimore, Syracuse, Liverpool, Rochester, Buffalo,
Holland, Michigan, Milwaukee, Chicago, Burlington (Iowa), St.
Louis and Cincinnati. This industry has not been so well estab-
lished in the States west of the Mississippi River.
Basket makers, as a rule, are Germans who learned the trade in
Germany, locating here in the large cities. They began business a
number of years ago when there was a splendid market for
custom-made baskets. A strong demand for rods soon induced
a number of farmers near these cities to grow basket willows.
It gradually spread, however, to regions farther away from the
manufacturing centers, and at present basket willows are grown
from Maine to Nebraska and from North Dakota to Tennessee
272 Forestry Quarterly.
and Georgia. The growing industry is also being developed on
the Pacific coast. Basket Willow is now most extensively culti-
vated in New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Ohio, Indiana and
Kentucky.
Varie;ties of Wii.i,ows Used.
Only a few varieties of willows are distinguished by willow-
ware makers. The purple willow {Salix purpurea Linn.), called
French osier in New York State, is the one most extensively
cultivated in this country. In Michigan and Wisconsin it is called
Welsh willow and is almost the only variety grown. It yields
very satisfactory crops, especially in moist, fertile upland, where
it is comparatively free from injurious insects. In Ohio, Indiana
and Illinois this variety was the principal one planted about ten
years ago, but large patches have been completely destroyed by
insects, and has since been largely replaced by the American
Green {Salix amygdalina Linn.) and Lemley willows {SalLv
pruinosa var.).
American Green willow is the principal one grown in the Ohio
River valley, and it is also extensively cultivated in Pennsylvania
and Maryland, where it is highly esteemed. Fully 75% of the
basket willows grown in these two States are American Green,
while in Ohio, Indiana and Illinois fully 50% is of this variety.
Outside of western New York it is used almost entirely for
making willow furniture.
Lemley willow, known among growers in the eastern central
States as Gold Skin, produces excellent crops of rods that are
regarded among the best by basket makers. The wood is hard
though light in weight, and the rods peel very easily, remaining
almost snowy white when peeled and thoroughly dried. This
willow is also extensively grown in Maryland, but unless it re-
ceives proper attention in the holt the butts of the rods become
thick and curved, which are objectionable features.
Black German willow {Salix dasyclados Wimmer) is raised
locally in western New York and in Michigan. It possesses some
of the characteristics of the American Green willow, though it
may be readily distinguished from it by its pronounced bloom
which covers the upper half of the shoot; also by its large thick
leaves and leaf-like appendages at the base of the leaf stalk. The
rods grow eight to ten feet high in a single season, but they have
Consumption of Basket Willozvs. 2/T,
a large pith and the wood is rather soft. It is better suited for
making large hampers and willow furniture than it is for making
small basket-ware.
The following table shows the amount of basket willow rods of
each variety above named grown and consumed in 1908 :
American Green willow, 674,000 pounds.
Purple willow, 1,942,000 "
Lemley, 160,000 "
Black German, 63,000 "
Total, 2,839,000
Quality of Rods in Demand.
There is a constantly increasing demand for basket willow rods
of the best quality. Basket makers prefer to buy their willows
from growers who know how to peel and sort the rods properly.
Slender, pliable and branchless rods are in great demand and
bring good prices, while the crooked, branched or otherwise de-
fective rods are frequently sold below the actual cost of produc-
tion. The fact that growers of^er for sale a poor grade of rods
not only lowers the price for home-grown material as a whole, but
it encourages the use of imported willow rods. The quality of
rods is dependent upon the soil, the variety of willow, and the
method of cultivation. The fact that a number of growers do not
know the requirements of basket willow rods from the basket
maker's point of view has led a great many basket makers, and
particularly owners of large establishments, either to grow the
willows required in their factories or to import them from Europe.
The statistical reports from basket makers show that 13 per cent,
of the consumers grow all the stock required in their factory ; ap-
proximately 21 per cent, grow a small portion of the stock, while
the remainder, or 66 per cent., obtain their stock either from the
grower direct or from importers. Although imported rods are
higher in price they are of a better quality and basket makers con-
sider them cheaper in the end than home-grown rods which
seldom meet the requirements.
Rods should be sorted into four height and quality classes if
they vary from two to six feet in length, but when rods are from
two to eight feet long they should be sorted into five height classes.
2/4 Forestry Quarterly.
Care should be taken to have the rods of one grade as nearly
uniform as possible. The smaller the rods are the higher will be
the price. Farmers frequently discard the smaller rods because
such stock requires considerable time to peel, which renders the
margin of profit small. They fail to realize that basket makers
not only appreciate the value of small rods, but require them in
making certain ware. Manufacturers are obliged, therefore, to
order imported rods of small sizes.
A serious objection to home-grown willows is that a good many
rods are split during the process of peeling. The purple willow
splits very easily, especially if the operator is not trained in the
proper method of peeling. Proper handling of the rods must not
end with peeling, but care should be exercised after peeling. They
should be bleached quickly -in the sun and thoroughly dried in the
open air, after which they may be stored in a dry, dark place.
When thoroughly dry, they are tied in bundles about a foot in
diameter at the base, three bands to each bundle, one near each
end and the third near the middle. The rods in the bundle must
be as nearly parallel as possible.
There is constant demand, especially among willow furniture
makers, for white, sap-peeled rods in large quantities. Unfortu-
nately it is difficult to convince growers that the demand for
willow rods of highest quality is increasing. It is a phenomenal
fact that in a country where all lines of work have taken such
immense strides during the past two decades, that the willow in-
dustry has not been more fully developed, and that every year
large quantities of the best grades of willow rods and manufac-
tured willow-ware are imported from Europe.
Price of Home-Grown Rods.
The prices of willow rods are determined by a number of fac-
tors. At present imported rods cost from 7 to 10 cents per pound,
while the same quality of home-grown rods fluctuates between 5
and 7 cents. The price depends upon the following factors :
Grade and quality of the rods, the proximity to market, scarcity of
rods, owners' knowledge of the market, the cost of growing the
willows, and the price of imported manufactured ware.
A number of basket makers buy their willows green. This is
especially the case in western New York. In the fall basket
Consumption of Basket IVillozvs. 275
makers buy the stock they desire, and during the winter the rods
are cut, weighed and shipped. The price of green rods varies
from $16 to $28 per ton. Large buyers usually make a contract
with growers to sell them all the willows they can grow during a
period of three years. This arrangement is generally made to
insure a steady supply of stock.
The bulk of basket willows grown in western New York are
sold to basket makers in Syracuse and Liverpool, where they are
steamed and peeled for making clothes baskets and hampers.
The cost of steaming the green rods is about $2 per ton, while the
cost of peeling varies somewhat with the kind of labor employed.
At present practically all the steamed willows consumed near
Syracuse are peeled under contract in the State Penal Institution,
and the cost per pound is somewhat lower than if peeled by labor-
ers who receive from $1 to $1.50 per day. The cost of peeUng
the rods by hand after they are steamed varies from 2 to 3^ cents
per pound. Steam-peeled rods when thoroughly dried sell for
about 5 cents per pound but they are not used extensively outside
of the State of New York.
The price of the best grade of sap-peeled willows has been
steadily rising during the last three or four years. The best grades
sell for 8 and 9 cents per pound, and a few basket makers have
paid as high as 16 cents per pound for selected stock. Sap-peeled
willows that are straight and cylindrical will bring from 7 to 8
cents per pound with high grade willow-ware makers in the large
cities. Good grades of imported willows sell for still more, and
there is no reason why American growers should not realize as
much or more than importers do for their stock. This is only pos-
sible, however, by employing the intensive methods of growing
them and by careful sorting and bundling the rods.
Consumption of Home-Grown Basket Willow in 1908.
Table 2 gives the consumption of both steam and sap-peeled
basket willow rods in 1908 by States. It shows that approxi-
mately 66 per cent, of all the rods consumed were steam-peeled, of
which fully 90 per cent, were consumed in New York State.
Pennsylvania leads in the use of sap-peeled rods, which is closely
followed by New York, Maryland and Massachusetts. The above
figures are not the real amounts of production for each State.
18
276 Forestry Quarterly.
Massachusetts, which stands fourth among the basket-willow con-
suming States, produces probably less than any other of the willow
growing States. Nor is the annual production the same from year
to year, since a great deal depends upon the climatic conditions,
the care bestowed upon their cultivation, and the planting of new
holts.
Peeled Home-groivn Basket-willow Rods Consumed in 1908.
Average
Average
price
price
State.
Steam peeled.
per lb.
Sap peeled.
per lb.
Total.
M pounds.
Cents.
M pounds.
Cents.
M pounds.
Illinois,
5
6.5
24
6.6
29
Kentucky,
62
6.4
62
Maryland,
4
'6!o
137
6.2
141
Massachusetts,
4
6.6
131
8.5
155
New Jersey,
5
6.0
28
7-3
33
New York,
1,658
4-9
172
6.4
1,830
Ohio,
57
5-2
30
6.4
87
Pennsylvania,
53
6.4
183
7-1
236
Wisconsin,
18
6.0
39
6.7
57
Other States',
95
5.6
134
6.0
239
Total 1,899 5-0 940 6.8 2,839
'States included in "Other States" are California, Indiana, Iowa, Michi-
gan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Oregon, Virginia, and the District
of Columbia.
Importation of Basket Willow Rods Since 1905.
The value of imported basket willow rods has been steadily in-
creasing since 1905, as is shown by the figures obtained from the
Department of Commerce and Labor. These figures do not show
that there has been a proportionate increase in amount of stock
imported. The value of rods varies with the quality as well as
with the demand and quantity of stock available. The price of
imported raw material has advanced during the last four years
same as it has of home-grown stock. The increased valuation of
imported willow shows, however, that there is a shortage in home-
grown material and also that basket makers are willing to pay a
higher price for rods of the desired quality.
The table given below shows the valuation of imported basket
willows prepared for basket makers' use during the last four
years :
Consumption of Basket Willows. 277
Value of Rods Imported Since 1905.
Year.
1905,
1906,
1907,
1908,
Total,
Average,
Value.
$25,109
29,374
39,036
54,711
$148,230
37,575
The appraiser at the Port of New York has kindly furnished
estimates of the average number of pounds of willow of the dif-
ferent grades for every $100 of import value. From these figures
it was possible to calculate that the three quality classes of the
finer grade cost 7.5, 6.5 and 6.0 cents per pound respectively, and
the coarser grade costs about 3.3 cents per pound. The average
price per pound for all grades imported is about 6 cents. By
dividing this into $54,711 the result will be 911,850, or the number
of pounds imported during 1908. The actual appraised value of
the average grade of willow is probably less than 6 cents, and,
therefore, it is safe to say that the total amount imported during
1908 was about 1,000,000 pounds.
The average yield in this country is about 1,300 pounds per acre.
One million pounds, therefore, represents about what can be
grown on 800 acres. There is, however, a large quantity of manu-
factured willow-ware imported which represents approximately
1,500,000 pounds in addition to the one million pounds above re-
ferred to.
The following table shows conditions in 1907 and 1908, the
total value for 1908 of consumption being around $225,000, which
is approximately $75,000 more than the preceding year :
278
Forestry Quarterly.
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CURRENT LITERATURE.
Ecology of Plants. By Eug. Warming. Assisted by Martin
Vahl. Prepared for publication in English by Percy Groom and
Isaac Bayley Balfour. Oxford, Clarendon Press. 1909.
The scope of ecological inquiry is so well defined by Warming
that it seems worth while to quote it here: "To find out which
species are commonly associated together upon similar habitats;
to sketch the physiognomy of vegetation and the landscape; to
answer the questions : why each species has its special habit and
habitat, why the species congregate to form definite communities,
why these have a characteristic physiognomy." The last questions
are the really difficult tasks of ecology and their solution leads to
the investigation of the problems concerning the economy of
plants, the demands they make upon their environment, and the
means that they employ to utilize the surrounding conditions and
to adapt their external and internal structure and general form for
that purpose.
The result of such activities on the part of the plant is the
growth form, or in other words, the growth form is the expres-
sion of the degree of the external and internal adaptation of a
plant to the natural conditions in which it lives. On this basis the
author makes six classes of growth forms, as follows : Hetero-
trophic, parasites and saprophytes evidently derived from self-
sustaining plants; aquatic; muscoid; lichenoid (mosses and
lichens being separated by their method of nutrition), and, sixth,
all other self-sustaining plants. The latter class is divided into
annuals and perennials. The subdivision of the perennials is
based upon such points as the duration of the vegetative shoot, the
length and direction of the internodes, the position and structure
of the renewal buds, the duration of the leaves, the adaptation of
the nutritive shoot to the conditions of transpiration and the
capacity for social life. Following these lines, the author groups
the perennials into four sub-classes, renascent herbs, rosette plants,
creeping plants and plants with erect long-lived shoots (sub-
divided into cushion plants, undershrubs, soft stemmed plants,
28o Forestry Quarterly.
succulent stemmed plants and woody plants with long-lived ligni-
fied stems).
Having set forth as outlined above, the ground to be covered by
the volume, Warming proceeds to discuss in twenty-two chapters,
the factors of site, followed by seven chapters of remarkably clear
discussions of the adaptations to those factors. The larger por-
tion of the remaining chapters (lOO in all) describes the plant
formations of the earth. Warming's classification is based upon
both climate and soil as the following outline shows :
A. Soil very wet; abundant water available, (i) Formations
in water; (2) formations in marsh.
B. Soil physiologically dry ; water available only to a slight ex-
tent. (3) Formations on sour soil; sub-divided into low moors,
grass heaths, high moors, moss and lichen heaths (or tundra),
dwarf shrub heaths, and bushland or forest on acid soil. (4) For-
mations on cold soil, including chiefly the sub-glacial fell fields.
(5) Formations on saline soil, including salt swamps and deserts
and littoral swamp forest (Mangrove).
C. Soil physically dry and its slight power of holding water de-
termines the vegetation. (6) Formations on rocks ; only herba-
ceous forms are given. (7) Formations on sand and gravel, in-
cluding dune heath, bushland and forest. (8) Formations on
waste land.
D. Climate very dry and determines the character of the vegeta-
tion, the soil being of secondary import. (9) Formations of
deserts and steppes, including prairies. (10) Formations on
savannas, sub-divided into thorny savanna, true savanna and
savanna forest. (11) Sclerophyllous formations, sub-divided into
garique, maqui and sclerophyllous forest.
E. Soil physically or physiologically dry. (12) Coniferous
forests.
F. Soil and climate favorable to mesophyllous formations.
(13) Mesophytic formations, subdivided into arctic and alpinemat
grassland, meadow, pasture, masophytic bushland, deciduous
dicotylous forest and evergreen dicotylous forests.
The four classes of plant formations of the previous Danish and
German editions of Warming's Oecology of Plants have been
extended to thirteen, resulting, as it seems to the reviewer, in a
greater clearness in conception and consequently in a more logical
grouping of plant habitats. A classification based upon both
Current Literature. 281
climatic and soil conditions seems much closer to the actual
determinations than one based upon climate alone as that of Mayr
outlined above in this number of the Quarterly.
C. D. H.
Experiments in Blueberry Culture. By Frederick V. Coville.
U. S. Department of Agriculture. Bureau of Plant Industry.
Bulletin 193. Washington, D. C. 1910.
Coville's paper throws many interesting side lights upon the
characteristics of peaty soils. He distinguishes "upland peat"
from bog peat, the former being "a non-paludose deposit of
organic matter, chiefly leaves, in a condition of suspended and
imperfect decomposition and still showing its original leaf struc-
ture, the suspension of decomposition being due to the develop-
ment and maintenance of an acid condition which is inimical to the
micro-organisms of decay." Leaf mold is separated from the
above by the facts that decomposition has proceeded so far that
leaf structure has disappeared and that it is neutral or alkaline in
reaction, at least so far as tested. The upland peat of the char-
acter defined above is found beneath laurel (Kalmia) thickets,
beneath scrub pine (P. virginiana), and doubtless other pines as
well, being the leaves of these species imperfectly decayed owing
to their acidity. Freshly fallen oak leaves also were found to be
acid (0.4 normal). Oak leaves one year old and two years old
were 0.006 and 0.002 normal respectively, in acidity, that is, in
such proportions of the "normal solution" of chemists. Oak
leaves several years old beneath those of acid reaction were alka-
line and contained 3.5 per cent, of lime. It is suggested that the
lime in the leaves, remaining constant in amount and probably
having been changed to a more soluble state, had neutralized the
remaining acidity. The material then becoming alkaline, the
bacteria of decay found congenial conditions and so decomposition
proceeded with greater rapidity until real leaf mold had been
formed. The author suggests that a similar sequence of events
takes place in drained bogs and muck lands which, when first
plowed, will grow only acid resisting crops, but later as their
acidity disappears, they attain a high degree of fertility.
Coville punctures a theory of ecologists in relation to the diverse
habitats of certain heath plants, namely, the one a peat bog, the
282 Forestry Quarterly.
other a sandy, well drained and often dry upland. The usual
explanation is that such plants are naturally adapted to the drier
site, that they can grow in a bog because of the retarded absorp-
tion owing to the acidity of the soil water, that the two habitats
are essentially alike so far as nutrition is concerned, both being dry
in terms of avilable water. The author found by experiment in
the case of the swamp blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) that
no amount of dryness in an upland soil will make it flourish if
that soil is not acid. It occupies both situations because the soil
of both is acid and only in such soil does it produce vigorous
growth.
C. D. H.
Surface Conditions and Stream Flow. By Wm. L. Hall and
Hu Maxwell. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service
Circular 176.
Although this very important contribution to the subject which
its title indicates, is dated as issued January 11, 1910, it apparently
has been allowed to reach the public only long after its date of
issue. This curious time discrepancy reminds us that we had seen
the title once before, and we recall the contents as having figured
as Senate Document No. 676 about a year ago, and this again
reminds us that it was quoted and at least to the satisfaction of
the author controverted in its conclusions in the noted, if not
notorious, contribution to the literature on the influence of forests
on climate and on floods, perpetrated by WilHs L. Moore (see F.
Q. Vol. VIII, p. 74). The latter publication was perhaps mainly
inspired by the former, and was to serve as an argument against
the Appalachian Forest Reserve proposition. We expressed our-
selves at the time sufficiently strongly on Mr. Moore's untenable
attitude, and a number of other champions have demolished his
argument in general, whatever there may be left of it in par-
ticular.
Again we come to the conclusion that there is, as yet, nothing
definitely or conclusively proved as to the final efifect of forest
cover on floods, but that nevertheless our natural philosophy can-
not escape the conviction that such influence exists and what it
must be.
As the authors point out, if neither increased precipitation nor
Current Literature. 283
change in evaporation, nor changes in topography or soil itself
can be adduced for changes in water flow — we avoid the word
"floods" which may be variously defined according to Moore — no
other factor but the change in surface cover is left as an expla-
nation of the change in high and low water stages.
At any rate the practical issue in the present case, which we
take it was the policy of the federal government in securing a
forest reservation in the Alleghannies, has been fortunately de-
cided in favor of those holding that such influences exists — a
moral and a practical victory for the Forest Service over the
position taken by the Weather Bureau.
B. E. F.
Eucalypts in Florida. By R. Zon and J. M. Briscoe. Bulletin
87, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 47.
This bulletin contains the result of an investigation to learn
what species might be successfully grown in the State. The
study took the form of an investigation of the species already
planted and a comparison of conditions with those of regions in
which eucalypts have been successfully introduced.
The eucalypts are natives of Australia and Tasmania, whence
they have been introduced into the Mediterranean countries and
certain parts of America, particularly Cuba, Hawaii, Brazil and
California. As a general rule, the commercial species of
eucalypts may be introduced into any region in which citrus fruits
and the olive will grow in the open. They do best in a climate
which permits of a distinct period of vegetative rest during the
year, and are capable of withstanding temperature below freez-
ing, if the period of low temperature is not long sustained and if
it is coincident with the period of vegetative rest. The decisive
factor is the absolute maximum and minimum temperatures.
Precipitation is of less importance, the tree thriving in regions of
18 to 70 inches rainfall.
A comparison of the climatic conditions in Australia and in
regions in which eucalyptus have been introduced with those in
Florida shows that the climate of southern Florida, below the
twenty-ninth parallel of latitude, is well adapted to the growing
of eucalypts. The climate of southern Brazil comes closest to
that of Florida. In Florida, however, the period of vegetative
284 Forestry Quarterly.
rest is less pronounced and the atmosphere more humid, and hence
freezing temperatures are Hkely to do greater damage.
As regards soil, most of the eucalypts can thrive on light, sandy
soils, provided they are deep and the water table not too low.
Where rock or hardpan is close to the surface they fail. The
only species which can be safely tried in Florida are either those
which can adapt themselves to light, sandy soils, or those which
can stand superabvnidant moisture. Since most of the eucalypts
need protection from wind, Florida, possessing no mountain
ranges, is not favorably situated.
After a short account of the early introduction of eucalypts into
Florida the species now growing are discussed, mainly from the
standpoints of frost hardiness and rate of growth. Of the six-
teen species, the five, B. resinifera, rostrata, viminalis, robusta,
and tereticornis, seem best adapted to the climate of Florida. But
since these eucalypts have been planted as shade trees or wind-
breaks their rate of growth affords an unsafe basis for commercial
plans.
The bulletin throughout discourages the present tendency to
indiscriminate planting of eucalypts with the hope of large and
speedy returns. Species must be chosen suited to the particular
soil and climatic conditions. The writers explicitly point out that
the facts thus far obtained prove only that portions of Florida
are climatically suitable for growing certain species and that the
feasibility of commercial planting is wholly undetermined. The
best methods of culture, the cost of planting, and the returns to
be expected can only be settled by trial.
The bulletin closes with a summary of methods of planting,
based mostly on Calif ornian experience.
J. H. W.
The Forest Club Annual, Volume III, igii. The University
of Nebraska. Lincoln, Nebraska. 191 1. Pp. 118.
This annual publishes articles contributed largely by students
and alumni with the primary purposes of the development of the
student. The present issue contains thirteen articles in various
fields of forestry.
In the first article on "Logging and Lumbering Costs in Colo-
rado National Forests" the factors influencing the cost of each
Current Literature. 285
step of the process are discussed in detail, figures given, and com-
parisons made with the different species logged.
In the article on the "Forest Types of the Gila National Forest"
five types are described, with an interesting consideration of the
relation of these to the causes and extent of forest fires and
methods of fighting them. The method of restocking of burned
areas in each type is given.
Two articles deal with contour mapping, one describing the use
of the Roth board for quick results, and the other the use of the
aneroid barometer for very rugged country.
Under the heading "Forestry in Eastern Canada" is given a
description of the operations of the Laurentide Paper Company
of Quebec, as an example of forestry practice.
There is an article giving the results of experiments on season-
ing and preservative treatment of Western Red Cedar poles, and
Western Yellow Pine as a substitute for the former.
The account of the Nebraska forest fungi is continued, the
present section dealing with the commoner leaf-inhabiting forms.
The list of native and exotic trees of Nebraska in the preceding
volume is followed up by a list of forest trees on the Pollard
estate, comprising forty-nine species, seven of them exotic.
The Rodman tree-planting machine used by the Union Pacific
Railway Company is described in another article. This is prac-
tically the Stratton machine used over twenty years ago in the
same state. It is interesting to note the tendency towards ma-
chinery as labor grows scarcer.
There are various other articles, including a bud and twig key ;
a description of a form of Aspen with obovate leaves ; the collect-
ing of Lodgepole Pine cones by robbing squirrel hoards, with the
method of seed extraction in the field ; and a description of the
spring frost damage to some twenty broad-leaved tree species.
The publication is a creditable production and splendidly illus-
trated.
J. H. W.
Forest Products of Canada, igog. Cross Ties. By H. R.
MacMillan. Bulletin 14, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada.
1911. Pp. 8.
In 1909 the steam and electric railways of Canada purchased
14,178,241 cross ties costing $5,210,490 at the point of purchase.
286 Forestry Quarterly.
Cedar, jack pine, tamarack and hemlock are the species mostly-
used. Cedar furnishes 30 per cent., jack pine 24 per cent.,
tamarack 20 per cent, and hemlock 13 per cent., of the ties used.
Nearly all the remainder is made up of spruce and Douglas fir.
The average price was 2)7 cents per tie as compared with 38
cents in 1908. Cedar ties averaged 45 cents, tamarack 39 cents,
hemlock 33 cents, jack pine 30 cents and spruce 25 cents, each.
It is pointed out that preservative treatment of ties is being
largely adopted by United States railway companies, although
using a high perecentage of durable species, and the adoption of
this policy in Canada is urged. This would mean economy to the
railways and would lead to the use of species which have little or
no market at present, inferior as well as much fire-killed timber.
Adding 20 cents for the freight and cost of placing the tie in
place to the purchase prices quoted above, and assuming the life
of cedar ties to average 9 years, tamarack 8 years, hemlock 7
years, jack pine and spruce 6 years, the writer shows the annual
charges per tie to be 8.74 cents for cedar, 8.76 cents for tamarack,
8.83 cents for hemlock, 9.54 cents for jack pine, and 8.59 cents for
spruce (money 4 per cent.). If 30 cents be allowed as the cost of
creosoting ties and equipping them with tie-plates, on a basis of
a life of 15 years the annual charges would fall to 8.54, 8.00, 7.47,
7.19 and 6.74 cents, for the same species. The use of treated ties
would thus result in an annual saving of from $6.00 to $70.50 per
mile of track, according to the species used.
Wood-Using Industries of North Carolina. By Roger E.
Simmons. Economic Paper No 20, N. C. Geological and Eco-
nomic Survey. Compiled in co-operation with the U. S. Forest
Service. Raleigh, N. C. 1910. Pp. 74.
The value of the timber crop of North Carolina is exceeded
only by that of the cotton and corn crops. In 1908 the State pro-
duced 1,137 million feet B. M. of lumber worth $15,598,000.
Over half of this material was manufactured into finished pro-
ducts.
North Carolina supplies 96 per cent, of the 676 million feet B.
M. of rough lumber required by its 21 wood-using industries. In
all 33 different woods were manufactured, of which 18 are
Current Literature. 287
entirely home-grown, and in the case of 8 others 90 per cent is
local.
The wood most extensively used is yellow-pine — 422 million
feet B. M. or 62 per cent, of the total quantity of all kinds of
wood manufactured. It is followed by oak with 21 per cent.,
poplar 5.3 per cent., gum 3.2 per cent., and white pine 2 per cent.
The average cost at the factory of all home-grown material was
$14.13 per M. feet B. M. The average price of yellow pine
varied from $11.94 in the Coastal Plain region to $12.40 in the
Piedmont region, and $15.66 in the Mountain region. For the
same regions the average prices of oak were $19.80, $18.31 and
$10.26, respectively. The least costly wood of all was sycamore
in the Coastal Plain region — $7 per M.
S. J. R.
A Study of the Massachusetts Wood-Using Industries. By
Hu Maxwell of U. S. Forest Service under the direction of F. W.
Pane, State Forester of Massachusetts. Boston, Mass. 1910.
Pr- 38.
Manufacturers in Massachusetts convert approximately 550
million feet B. M. of rough lumber into finished products annually.
This respresents less than half of the wood used in the State for
all purposes, including construction, poles, ties, shingles, etc.
Twenty different wood-using industries are represented, using 54
different woods.
Of the total amount of timber used only 30 per cent, was grown
in the State. The most important species is white pine which
furnishes nearly 300 million feet, of which 88 per cent goes into
boxes and crates. Though Massachusetts is a white pine State
yet 56 per cent, of the pine demanded by its factories comes from
other Staces. In fact the State grows only two woods in sufficient
j.mounts to supply its manufacturers, and these are little-used
speries, — yellow oak and applewood.
The total cost of the raw material at the factory was $11,692,-
J30 an -average of $21.29 P^^ ^ ^^^^ fo^ ^^^ the wood reported.
The cheapest wood was locally-cut cottonwood, worth $9 per M
in the log at the factory. The most costly woods were mahogany
at $251 per M and rosewood at $750 per M.
The most important wood-using industry is the manufacture of
288 Forestry Quarterly.
boxes and crates which requires seven times as much wood as any
of the other industries and almost twice as much as all the others
combined. The average cost per M. for the 23 woods used in this
industry was $16.02; of white pine, native-grown, $15.60; im-
ported, $17.66.
S. J. R.
A Study of the Wood-Using Industries of Kentucky. By
Roger E. Simmons. Compiled in co-operation with the U. S.
Forest Service. 1910. Pp. 74.
"No report could better open the eyes of the people at large,
and especially the business men of the State of Kentucky, to the
importance of the State's adopting a forest policy, than a work of
this character. When one notes that Kentucky each year con-
sumes 220,000,000 feet of her own forests in the further manu-
facture of wood into final form, and brings in from other States
191,000,000 feet additional, and that nearly $10,000,000 annually
is spent in payment for this raw material, he will realize the
magnitude and importance of the wood-using industries of the
State. Add to this the great army of men who are employed by
these industries, the enormous wealth which each year is brought
into Kentucky from the sale of the products turned out by them,
as well as the industrial prosperity which ensues from so great a
commercial activity, and the economic importance of perpetuating
these industries in Kentucky will be self-evident."
"The lessons learned from the experiences of Indiana and Ohio
should, more than any other fact, convince Kentucky of the im-
mediate necessity of improving her forests. In 1900, Ohio,
Indiana and Illinois produced 25 per cent, of the hardwood of the
country. In 1908 their production of hardwood was only 12 per
cent, compelling their wood-using industries each year to seek,
more and more, new fields for their supply.
"That the drain on the forests of Kentucky is being felt ma-
terially is shown by the fact that in 1907 the lumber cut was 912.-
980,000 feet while in 1908 the production was 658,539,000, a de-
crease of about 28 per cent. Again, in 1907 Kentucky ranked
first among the States as a producer of yellow poplar lumber, but
in 1908 she was reduced in rank to third place. With the disap-
pearance of the virgin forests, which each year in this State are
Current Literature. 289
Hearing depletion, two things must happen, either the wood-using
industries will have to secure their supplies from other States, or
shut down and move to other localities."
S. J. R.
A Study of Wisconsin's Wood-Using Industries. By Franklin
H. Smith. Madison, Wisconsin. 1910. Pp. 68.
This report, prepared co-operatively by the U. S. Forest Ser-
vice and the State Board of Forestry, covers the use of lumber
which by machinery or some other process has undergone some
change in form from the rough material. The products of the
planing mill, such as siding, flooring and ceiling, were not included
in the totals of material used.
As a lumber producer Wisconsin now ranks fifth, having fallen
from first place in 1900 and 1904. The total annual production
of lumber is over 1,600 million board feet. The wood-using in-
dustries of the state use 930 million feet of lumber valued at $20,-
000,000. Very nearly half (49 per cent.) of this material was
imported. A large proportion was supplied by the Rocky Moun-
tain and Pacific Coast states, though freight rates permit the
manufacturers to draw their supplies from all parts of the country
and ship the finished products into the same sections from which
the material was obtained.
Twenty-two different wood-using industries are represented in
the state. Forty different woods are used, of which nineteen are
local. Basswood is employed in twenty of the twenty-two in-
dustries. Seventeen use white pine ; sixteen, ash and elm ; fifteen,
maple ; and fourteen birch and oak. It is interesting to note that
100 M. feet of willow lumber worth $9.70 per M. was used in the
manufacture of woodenware.
Inspections made in the various factories show a waste of from
5 to 35 per cent — average at least 20 per cent — of the total volume
of lumber consumed. The introduction of box factories as ad-
juncts to sawmills has materially decreased the waste of lumber
at many mills. One prominent concern operates profitably a
chemical plant in connection with its sawmill. The small and
defective hardwoods, together with the tops of felled trees on
the logged-off lands are utilized. The removal of the slash tends
290 Forestry Quarterly.
to prevent iires and leaves conditions favorable for reforestation
or for settlement as desired.
S. J. R.
Wood-Using Industries of Oregon. By Howard B. Oakleaf.
Oregon Conservation Association. Portland, Oregon. 191 1.
Pp. 46.
This study of the wood-using industries of Oregon was made,
co-operatively by the U. S. Forest Service and the Oregon Con-
servation Association. The report shows the amounts of material
consumed annually by the various industries (except those manu-
facturing lumber and shingles) in the state, the kinds of woods
used, and the technical properties of the native woods. Statistics
were compiled from returns from all the wood-using industries in
the state.
"The state of Oregon is reported to have nearly four hundred
billion feet of standing timber, an amount equal to approximately
one-sixth that now remaining in the United States. It would
seem that Oregon should be among the foremost lumber pro-
ducing states, but owing to the present inaccessibility of much of
the timber, its operation is greatly retarded. Oregon ranked ninth
in 1909 in the production of lumber, having cut nearly two billion
feet, and it is very probable that the 1910 cut will equal and
possibly exceed the above amount. Of the two billion feet of
lumber annually sawed in this state, four hundred million is
shipped out by water and eight hundred million by rail. Of the
remaining eight hundred million board feet consumed in the state,
approximately 25 per cent, is further manufactured into the
various products considered in this report. The balance goes into
general building and construction work.
"Oregon has seventeen commercial species, representing four-
teen genera, with woods of diverse color and texture, ranging
from the very hard deciduous trees, such as the oaks, ashes and
maples, to the soft evergreen pines, firs and spruces.
"Nineteen distinct wood-using industries are operating in the
state, and the plants comprising the various industries represent
investments of from a few thousand dollars in the small wood-
working shops to several million dollars in the pulp mills.
"The annual consumption of all of the wood-using industries
Current Literature. 291
of the state is 296,791,900 board feet, nearly two hundred miUion
feet of which is actually purchased in the form of lumber, the
balance being obtained in the form of logs and cordwood. The
purchase of this raw material represents an expenditure of about
four and three-fourths million dollars. Of the 296 million feet
annually consumed less than one per cent, is obtained outside of
the state."
"This clearly shows how well Oregon is equipped to meet her
wood demands, and that although her hardwoods are somewhat
inferior and scattering, they are highly usable, and will increase
in value as the Eastern supply is exhausted. It might be well to
mention here that the state of Maryland is forced to bring in 80
per cent of the lumber used by her wood-using industries ; Massa-
chusetts, 70 per cent, and Wisconsin, 50 per cent."
S. J. R.
The Relative Durability of Post Timbers. By J. J. Crumley,
Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio. 1910..
Pp. 36.
This report is based upon investigations of 292 fences contain-
ing 30,160 posts. These fences were situated in Ohio for the
most part ; also Indiana, Illinois, Kansas and Texas. The species
of timber studied were (arranged in order of durability as found)
Osage orange, black locust, red cedar, mulberry, white cedar,
catalpa, chestnut and oak (sp?). The investigator found that
durability apparently was not affected by seasoning, i. e. posts set
green seem to have lasted fully as long as those partially or
thoroughly seasoned. It made no difference whether the upper
or lower end of the post as it grew in the tree is put in the ground,
except that the sounder end should be put down. If both ends
are equally sound the larger should go down, since a large post
usually lasts longer than a small one of the same wood. Timber
grown rapidly did not appear as durable as slowly grown timber
of the same kind. This was observed especially in red cedar,
catalpa, and locust. It has usually been considered that rate of
growth does not oflFset durability. The wood near the center of
the tree did not prove as durable as that just beneath the sapwood.
The investigator believes this to be due to the greater age of the
center wood, to the presence of numerous small knots, and to in-
19
292 Forestry Quarterly.
cipient decay. "On the other hand, the posts spht from the out-
side of the tree have not been standing in the tree so long, have
been formed after the tree was a foot or more in diameter and
had a smooth trunk, and the wood therefore is clear of knots and
not subject to infection by being exposed to the air through knot
holes."
The bulletin is interesting and instructive but further investi-
gations and careful experiments are needed before all of the find-
ings can be accepted as conclusive.
S. J. R.
OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE.
Purchase of Land Under the Weeks Law in the Southern Ap-
palachian and White Mountains. Unnumbered Circular, U. S.
Forest Service. Washington, D, C. 191 1. Pp. 9.
The Use Book: Water Pozver. U. S. Forest Service, Wash
ington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 86.
Record of Wholesale Price of Lumber for January, February
and March, igii. U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C.
Contributions toward a Monograph of the Bark Weevils of the
Genus Pissodes. By A. D. Hopkins. Technical Series No. 20,
Part I. U. S. Bureau of Entomology. Washington, D. C. 191 1.
Pp. 68.
h,r'-^ ■ ■■
IS"
The Genotypes of the SawHies and Wood Wasps, or the Super-
Family Tenthredinoidea. By S. A. Rothwer. Technical Series
No. 20, Part 2. Bureau of Entomology. Washington, D. C.
1911. Pp. 31.
Damage to Telephone and Telegraph Poles by Wood-boring
Insects. By T. E. Snyder. Circular No. 134, Bureau of Ento-
mology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C
191 1. Pp. 6.
Summary of Report of the Commissioner of Corporations on
Other Current Literature. 293
the Lumber Industry. Part i, Standing Timber. Department of
Commerce and Labor. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 38.
Natural Vegetation as an Indicator of the Capabilities of Land
for Crop Production in the Great Plains Area. By H. L,. Shantz.
Bulletin 201, U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry. Washington, D.
C. 191 1. Pp. 100.
Danger of General Spread of the Gipsy and Brown-tail Moths
through Imported Nursery Stock. By C. L. Marlatt. Farmers'
Bulletin 453, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.
C. 191 1. Pp. 22.
Paper and Wood Pulp Statistics, igog. Preliminary Report,
Bureau of the Census. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 6.
Lumber, Lath and Shingles, ipop. Forest Products, No. i,
Bureau of the Census. Compiled in cooperation with the U. S.
Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 63.
Slack Cooperage Stock, /pop. Forest Products, No. 3, Bureau
of the Census. Compiled in cooperation with the U. S. Forest
Service. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 14.
Tanbark and Tanning Extract, igog. Forest Products, No. 4,
Bureau of the Census. Compiled in cooperation with the U. S.
Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 14.
Veneers, igog. Forest Products, No. 5, Bureau of Census.
Compiled in cooperation with the U. S. Forest Service. Wash-
ington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 23.
Tight Cooperage Stock, igog. Forest Products No. 6, Bureau
of the Census. Compiled in cooperation with the U. S. Forest
Service. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp.14.
Wood Distillation, igog. Forest Products, No. 7, Bureau of
the Census. Compiled in cooperation with the U. S. Forest Ser-
vice. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 11.
294 Forestry Quarterly.
Poles, Cross Arms, Brackets, and Insulator Pins Purchased,
ipop. Forest Products, No. 9, Bureau of the Census. Compiled
in cooperation with the U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C.
191 1. Pp. 14.
Surface Water Supply of the United States: Part X, The
Great Basin. By E. C. La Rue, and F. F. Henshaw. Water
Supply Paper 270, U. S. Geological Survey. Washington, D. C.
191 1. Pp. 192.
Denudation and Erosion in the Southern Appalachian Region
and the Monongahela Basin. By Clenn. Professional Paper 72,
U. S. Geological Survey. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 137.
Reconnaissance Soil Survey of the Eastern Part of the Puget
Sound Basin, Washington. By A. W. Mangum. U. S. Bureau
of Soils. Washington, U. C. 191 1. Pp. 90.
Reconnaissance Soil Survey of Western South Dakota. By C.
N. Coffey. U. S. Bureau of Soils. Washington, D. C. 191 1.
Pp. 80.
Soil Survey of the Woodland Area, California. By C. W.
Mann, J. F. Warner, H. L. Westover and J. E. Ferguson. U. S.
Bureau of Soils. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 57.
Water Power of the Cascade Ranges: Part I, Southern Wash-
ington. By J. C. Stevens. Water Supply Paper 253, U. S. Geo-
logical Survey. Prepared in cooperation W\\h the State of Wash-
ington. Washington, D. C. 1910. Pp. 94.
The Water Balance of Succulent Plants. By D. T. MacDougal
and E. S. Spalding. Publication 141, Carnegie Institute of Wash-
ington. 1910. Pp. yy.
This report embodies two papers, viz: Form- Alterations and
Growth of Cacti by E. S. Spalding and Variations of the Water
Balance by D. T. MacDougal. The investigations were made
near the Desert Laboratory in the Sonoran desert, attention being
chiefly directed to the great tree cactus (Carnegiea gigantea), the
Other Current Literature. 295
bisuaga {Echinocactus zvisliseni) and some of the common
pricklypears {Opuntia hlakeana and O. discata).
The Management of Vermont Forests with Special Reference
to White Pine. Bulletin 156, Vermont Agricultural Experiment
Station. Burlington, Vt, 191 1. Pp. 41.
Handbook of Conservation. By Mrs. F. H. Tucker. Massa-
chusetts State Federation of Women's Clubs. Boston, Mass.
1911.
The Chestnut Bark Disease. A Grave Danger Which Threatens
our Forest Trees, with Its Remedy. Massachusetts, Boston,
Mass. 191 1. Pp. 7.
Forest Taxation. By B. Mowry. Leaflet No. 3, Commissioner
of Forestry, Rhode Island, Providence. 191 1. Pp. 3.
Fifth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Forestry, igio.
Providence, Rhode Island. 191 1. Pp. 35.
Biennial Report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment
Station, ipop-io. Part IX: Report of the Entomologist. New
Haven, Connecticut. 191 1. Pp. 657-712.
Containing notes on various insect pests of trees.
State Conference on Taxation, January, ipii. Utica, New
York. 191 1. Pp. 23.
List of resolutions, officers, committees, etc.
Bulletin of the Neiv York Botanical Garden, Volume j, Number
25. New York. 191 1. Pp.390
Contains the various annual reports for 1910.
Landscape Gardening. By E. Kemp. New York. 191 1. Pp.
338.
Medullary Spots: A Contribution to the Life History of Cam-
bium Miners. By G. Grossenbacher. Technical Bulletin 15, N.
Y. State Experiment Station. Geneva, N. Y. 191 1. Pp. 49-65.
296 Forestry Quarterly.
What Trees to Plant and How. By J. H. Levison. American
Association for the Planting and Preservation of City Trees.
Brooklyn, New York. Pp. 4.
Forests of New York. Compiled by G. M. Riley. N. Y. State
Education Department. Albany, N. Y. 191 1. Pp. 53.
Contains Arbor Day and Forestry; The Forests of the State;
The Development of European Forestry, and miscellaneous.
Laws of New Jersey Relating to Forestry. Circular by Forest
Park Reservation Commission. Trenton, N. J. 191 1. Pp. 27.
The Forests and Their Products. By F. W. Besley. Mary-
land Weather Service. 3:305-359. 1910.
Report of the State Board of Agriculture of West Virginia.
Charleston, W. Va. 191 1. Pp. 44.
Forestry and Wood Industries. By A. B. Brooks. Morgan-
town, W. Va. 191 1. Pp. 481.
Forestry and Wood Industries of West Virginia. By A. B.
Brooks. Volume V, West Virginia Geological Survey. Morgan-
town, Virginia. 1911. Pp.481.
Biennial Report of the State Geologist, ipoQ-ipio. By J. H.
Pratt. North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey.
Raleigh, N. C. 1911. Pp.152.
Pages 53 to 105 relate to forestry.
Forest Fire Protection and Revenue, and Among Timherland
Owners in North Carolina. By T. P. Ivy. Raleigh, N. C. 191 1.
Pp. II.
Tozvn Planting; and the Trees, Shrubs and Other Herbaceous
Plants that are Best Adapted for Resisting Smoke. By A. D.
Webster. Press of E. P. Button & Co. Pp. 220.
A Study of the Wood-Using Industries of Kentucky. By E.
Simmons. State Board of Agriculture, Forestry and Immigra-
tion. 191 1. Pp. 74.
Other Current Literature. 297
Tenth Annual Report of the State Board of Forestry, Indiana,
19 10. Indianapolis, Indiana. 191 1. Pp. 154.
The Nature of Parasitic Fungi and Their Influences on Their
Host. By Mason B. Thomas. Crawfordsville, Indiana. 191 1.
Pp. 15.
Report of the Pro-Arbor and Bird Day Convention, Indian-
apolis, April I, ipii. Reprint.
Contains addresses by Governor Marshall ; Arbor Day in the
Schools, by Stanley Coulter; Women's Clubs and Forestry, by
Mrs. Grace J. Clark; Municipal Forests, by Charles W. Fair-
banks. 191 1. Pp.2.
Official Report of the Lake States Forest Fire Conference, St.
Paul, December 6-y, ipii. Chicago, Illinois. 1911. Pp.181.
Handzvork in Wood. By W. Noyes. Peoria, Illinois. 1910.
Pp. 231.
Forest Conditions in Illinois. By R. Clifford Hall and O. D.
Ingall. Bulletin 3, State Laboratory of Natural History. Pre-
pared in co-operation with the U. S. Forest Service. Urbana, 111.
191 1. Pp. 175-253.
Maple, Beech and Birch Flooring. Compiled and published by
the Maple Flooring Manufacturers' Association. Chicago, Ifl.
191 1. Pp.39.
Trees; When and How to Plant. Pamphlet No. 4, Special
Park Commission of Chicago. 1910. Pp. 15.
Transactions Illinois Horticultural Society, ipio. New Series.
Volume 44.
Contains Native Trees, Shrubs and Flowers, Their Usefulness
for Home and Public Grounds, pp. 80-84; Forestry Survey of
Illinois, pp. 93-96.
Preliminary Report of the Public Domain Commission of
Michigan. Lansing, Michigan. 191 1. Pp. 15.
298 Forestry Quarterly.
The Hardy Catalpa in Iowa. By C. A. Scott. Bulletin 120,
Agricultural Experiment Station. Ames, Iowa. 191 1. Pp.17.
Silvicultural.
The Conservation of lotva Lakes, Streams and Woodlands. By
T. H. AlacBride and Bonhumie Shimek. Reprint from Report of
the Iowa State Drainage, Waterways and Conservation Com-
mission. 1910.
The Taxation of Forest Lands in Wisconsin. By A. K. Chit-
tenden and H. Irion. State Board of Forestry, in co-operation
with the U. S. Forest Service. Madison, Wisconsin. 191 1.
Pp. 80.
Proceedings of the Semi-Annual Meetings of the Western
Forestry and Conservation Association, Spokane, Washington,
April 4-5, ipio. Portland, Oregon. 1910. Pp. 29.
Third Annual Report of Washington Forest Fire Association,
igio. Seattle, Washington. 191 1. Pp. 21.
Oregon Forest Fire Association. Portland, Oregon. 191 1.
Pp. 20.
A Flora of Western Middle California. By W. L. Jepson. San
Francisco, California. 191 1.
Ninth Annual Report of the Director of the Bureau of Science,
ipio. Manila, Philippine Islands. 191 1. Pp. 70.
Indice Alfabetico del Muestrario de Maderas de la Isla dc Cuba
presentado enla Exposition Nacional. By Tranquilino Frasquieri.
Havana, Cuba. 191 1. Pp. 15.
Fifth Annual Report of the Horticultural Societies of Ontario,
igio. The Legislative Assembly, Toronto, Ontario. 191 1.
Pp. 136.
Contains an article on Shrubs and Vines for Ornamental
Planting.
Other Current Literature. 299
Thirty-sixth Annual Report of the Ontario Agricultural College
and Experimental Farm, igio. The Legislative Assembly,
Toronto, Canada. 191 1. Pp.304.
Contains the report of the Forestry Department.
Agricultural Work in Ontario, by C. C. James ; Unsanitary
Housing, by C. A. Hodgetts. Reprinted from the Second Annual
Report of the Commission of Conservation. Ottawa, Canada.
191 1. Pp.59.
Fourth Annual Report of the Game and Fisheries Department,
igio. The Legislative Assembly, Toronto, Ontario. 191 1.
Pp. 191.
Forest Fires and Railzvays. By R. H. Campbell. Bulletin 16,
Forestry Branch, Department of the Interior. Ottawa, Canada.
191 1. Pp.8.
Forest Products of Canada, ipop: Poles Purchased. By H. R,
MacMillan. Bulletin 13, Forestry Branch, Department of the
Interior. Ottawa, Canada. 191 1. Pp. 7.
Report of the Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Convention of
the Western Canada Irrigation Association, Held at Kamploops,
B. C, August J, 4 and 5, iqio. Government Printing Bureau,
Ottawa, Canada. 191 1. Pp.155
Some West African Timbers. Bulletin Imperial Institute, 8,
No. 3. South Kensington. 1910. Pp. 231-245.
Samples of wood of a number of different timbers from the
Gold Coast Colony, Northern Nigeria, are reported on, relative to
their distinguishing characteristics, working qualities and purposes
to which they can be applied.
Note on Calorimetric Tests of Some Indian Woods. By Puran
Singh. Government Forest Bulletin No. i. Calcutta, India.
191 1. Pp. 10.
Tree Growth at Centocozv, Natal. By F. C. Fernando. Bul-
letin No. 3, Forestry Department. Cape Town, South Africa.
1911. Pp. II.
300 Forestry Quarterly.
A Research on the Pines of Australia. By R. T. Baker and H.
G. Smith. Sydney, Australia. 191 1.
Trees of the Tasmanian Forests of the Order Myrtaceae; the
Genus Eucalyptus. By L. Rodway. Bulletin 17, Agriculture and
Stock Department of Tasmania. 1910. Pp.15.
Biennial Report of the Board of Commissioners of Agriculture
and Forestry of the Territory of Hawaii, ipog-jpio. Honolulu,
Hawaii. 191 1. Pp. 231.
Contribucional Conocimiento de los Arbolcs de la Argentina.
By S. Venturi and M. Lillo. Buenos Ayres, Argentina. Pp. 127.
This consists of determinations by M. Lillo of some 371 timber
species of Argentina, based upon collections and observations
made by S. Venturi in behalf of the Argentina Centennial Exposi-
tion of 1910.
Rapport sur I' Introduction des Essences Exotiques en Belgique.
By A. Visart and C. Bommer. Brussels. 1909. Pp. 381.
This report embraces the salient features of an investigation
commenced in 1900 to determine the results which have been
secured during the past in acclimating exotic species of trees in
Belgium and to secure information relative to additional species
of possible value in developing forestry in various parts of that
country. The exotic species having greatest importance are
Populus canadensis, Quercus rubra, Robinia pseudacacia, Juglans
nigra, Picea excelsa, Larix europea, Pinus laricio, P. laricio aus-
triaca, P. strobus, Pseudotsuga, douglasii and Abies pectinata.
Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Chemischen Zusammensesung des
Fichtenholzes. By P. Klason. Berlin, Germany. 191 1.
Mitteilungen der Schweiserischen Centralanstalt filr das forst-
liche Versuchswesen. Band X, Heft 2 : Untersuchungen uber den
Blattausbruch und das sonstige Verhalten von Schatten — und
Lichtpflanzen der Buche und einiger anderer Laubholzer. Von A.
Engler. Zurich, Switzerland. 191 1. Pp. 107-188.
Forest Policy. Second edition revised and enlarged. By C. A.
Schenck. Darmstadt, Germany. 191 1. Pp. 168.
PERIODICAL LITERATURE.
BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.
Professor Mayr, whose attitude towards
Damping the recent theories regarding the hereditary
off influences which may be propagated by
Disease seeds from certain locaHties has been
Hereditary. rather heterodox, reported to the meeting
of the International Association of Forest
Experiment Stations the results of his experiments to show the
hereditariness of the damping off disease, or "Schiitte," produced
by Lophodermium pinas.tri.
In his article he discusses first the general question of heredi-
tariness. With considerable inconsistency he ridicules the as-
sumption that straight form or spiral growth, early or late leafing,
are hereditary and not merely results of climatic influences, but
that the damping off disease is hereditary, and that plants de-
rived from seeds from certain localities are liable to it more than
those from other localities.
Experiments with Norwegian and Finnish seed of Scotch Pine,
in comparison with such from middle Germany, induced the
author to consider the northern pine "not as mere climatic
variety or local race, but as a species by itself."
A further series of experiments with seeds from some eight
localities, not all quite sure of its derivation, lead him to declare,
that
(i) "the northern (Norwegian and Finnish) pine is free from
the disease. To be sure, the young plants sicken, the needles be-
coming red, but the basis of the needles remains healthy. They
bud the next year and only a small percentage succumbs, even
under most unfavorable conditions. The 12-year-old sowings are
still healthy and vigorous in the seedbed. They grow straight as
an arrow (hereditary?!) with shorter needles with reddish buds,
but they grow slower than those of the next groups ;
(2) "pines from middle Europe, including those from Scot-
land, Holland, Belgium, Germany to the base of the Alps, Kur-
land, Livland, middle Russia, are sensitive to the disease, which
under some unknown conditions fails entirely to appear or under
other conditions leads to the loss of all plants ;
302 Forestry Quarterly.
(3) "pines from Auvergne (France), Tirol and northern Hun-
gary are surely lost on clearings sowed in Germany. On these the
disease exhibits itself in its most fateful manner, namely by death
or crippling. There is, however, no reason to assume that in
Germany if the plants escape the disease they could not furnish
stands of good growth, straight and normal." (It is claimed by
others that at least the French stock grows crooked.)
He concludes that to avoid the disease, only the northern seed
is serviceable ; and that in the second group no locality difference
exists, but that sowings will or will not suffer from the disease
according to weather, soil, treatment of the seed, manner of sow-
ing or planting.
Finally, after a thrust at those who would collect seed only
from the best grown "elite" trees, without any good reasoning, he
advocates return to natural regeneration of pine with under-
planting of beech, and, with still less reason, recommends the use
of his mixed forest in small areas.
[The Editor is unable to conceive how a disease caused by an
outside agent, a fungus, can be hereditary ; but the disposition to
suffer more or less might be. Certainly there is less reason to be-
lieve a disease hereditary than the form of the plant itself.]
Schuttekrankheit und Provenienz dcr Fohrc. Forstwissenschaftliches
Centralblatt. January, 191 1. Pp. 1-14.
Confirmation of the results of Dixon and
Transpiration Roshardt is given by Overton in experi-
and ments on Cypcrus.
Sap Flow. The diminished water supply in the leaves
of plants, a portion of whose stem has been
killed by steam, may be due to the blocking of the vessels with
gum and resinous substances. The withering of the leaves in
these experiments is probably caused more by the deleterious
action of substances produced in the steamed portion than by the
lack of water. In plants whose living cells have been killed by
hot wax or poisonous substances there is less apparent disorgani-
zation of the cells, and the leaves wither less rapidly. The infer-
ence to be drawn from these experiments is that the withering of
the leaves is due chiefly to the action of poisonous substances
which destroy the osmotic action of the cells and their lifting
power. The living cells of the stem apparently are not essential
to transpiration and sap flow.
Periodical Literature. 303
Althougli it may be tme that plants are able to lift water to
the leaves through comparatively short lengths of deadened
stem (considerably less than 30 feet), it has never been shown
conclusively that the living cells of the stem of tall plants are not
essential to transpiration. Root pressure, capillarity, and the
sucking action of the parenchyma of the leaves undoubtedly play
important roles in the ascent of water in plants. But a careful
study of the anatomy and morphology of plants indicates that the
living cells of the stem also perform an important function in tall
plants.
"Relation of the Living Cells in Plants to Transpiration and Sap Flow."
Rot. Gazette, Vol. LI, No. 2, February, pp. 102-120.
I. W. B.
Cowles gives an interesting account of the
Causes development of the study of dynamic plant
of geology, and defines in a general way the
Vegetative more important vegetative cycles and the
Cycles. factors which control them. Vegetative
cycles are shown to vary greatly in their
duration. Thus climatic variations produce vegetative cycles
wliose duration must be computed geologically. Within this
climatic circle are cycles of erosion, each with its vegetative cycle.
The general trend of such a cycle can be seen by studying the
erosive process of to-day, by comparing the stages of one district
with those exhibited in another. Within the cycle of erosion are
many vegetative cycles, some so short that their stages may be
studied from year to year in a given district.
"The Causes of Vegetative Cycles," by H. C. Cowles, Bot. Gazette, Vol.
LL No. 3, March, pp. 61-183.
I. W. B.
SOIL, WATER AND CLBIATE.
A study on the relation of soil and yield was
5*0^7 made by Schoenberg in the pineries of the
and forest school at Eberswalde, which contain.
Yield. in sequence from one terrace to another, the
five site classes usually recognized for
pine — diluvial sand soil of varying character. It is interesting to
note that proceeding in one direction from the plateau to the River
304 Forestry Quarterly.
Oder, the site classes change from I to V as lower and lower
levels are reached ; again proceeding in another direction the
opposite series is found, i. e., from higher to lower levels the site
improves, except that small heads above the highest plateau
belong to site V. The explanation is found in the fact that in
the first area the groundwater lies so deep that it has no effect
on the surface cover, while in the second area the groundwater
is the determining factor and the levels to which it is most acces-
sible are the better sites.
The chemical analysis of the soil in the first series shows an
unmistakable relation between the mineral constituents and the
yield or site class. At the same time in mechanical composition
the variation is still more marked and establishes closest connec-
tion between yield and soil contents of clay or silt particles. It
should be stated that this area is located in a rain-poor district,
and, as it depends on the rainfall, the groundwater not being
available, the water capacity of the soil due to larger or smaller
amounts of silt particles becomes most important. In the second
area, which according to both chemical and mechanical analysis
should be ranged into the lowest site classes, the access to ground-
water compensates for these unfavorable conditions and pro-
duces stands of class I and II. Under such conditions almost
pure quartz soils can still be good forest soils.
Reference is also made to the influence of humus and it is
pointed out that the greater humus content of the better sites is
due to greater foliage and litter production. On the sites of class
V an increase of humus through the stand or natural flora can
hardly be expected. Yet, by underplanting of species producing
more litter than the pine, even such soils could be stimulated to
greater production, for in this way as by addition to silt particles
the physical condition of the soil would be improved, notwith-
standing deficiency in minerals. (See following article.)
As regards the use of mineral fertilizer the author explains that
many a failure in results may be explained by lack of water. It
is therefore more important to increase the water capacity of the
soil by careful preservation and increase of humus content, avoid-
ing severe opening, removing weed growth and by superficial soil
culture.
Brtragsleisfunn und Bodenheschaffenheit bei der Kiefer. Zeitschrift
fiir Forst- und Jagdzeitung. Nov., 1910. Pp. 649-656.
Periodical Literature. 305
A series of investigations, executed at the
Soil Austrian Experiment Station by Wallen-
Moisture bock, concerns itself with determining the
on soil moisture on north and south exposures,
Different forested and unforested. Mere philosophy
Aspects. sustains the following propositons :
I. The soil of a clearing receives more
precipitation than the same under the old stand (17 to 32% being
intercepted).
2. In the forest, the drying by moving air plays a greater role
than on the clearing (due to transpiration of the forest).
3. On the clearing the drying out is primarily due to insolation.
4. In wet years the drying out by insolation on clearings is
paralyzed by the frequent precipitation much more than in old
timber (the soil in the clearing has no time to dry out deep
enough).
5. Precipitation on south slope does not measurably differ from
that on the south slope (in hill country).
6. The evaporative power of moving air is not much greater
on south than on north slopes.
7. Insolation and the dependent soil temperature are very much
greater on south than on north slopes.
Corresponding to these conditions are the results of the investt
gations in soil moisture.
1. Water contents of the soil on north and south slopes are in
rainy and rainpoor years greater on clearings than under beech
cover.
2. In rainy years the clearing increases in moisture on south
slopes more, on north slopes less, than the soil under a beech stand
on the same slope.
3. The difference in water contents of clearing and forested
soil is in rainy years greater on the sunny exposure, in rainpoor
years on the shady exposure.
4. The difference in water contents of differently exposed
clearings is in dry years greater, in wet years smaller, than that
of differently exposed forest stands.
Die Klimatischen Unterschiede auf Nord- und Sudlehnen in ihrer
Beziehung sum Wassergehalte des mit Althoh bestandenen und abge-
stockten Waldbodens. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. February, 191 1.
Pp. 51-63-
3o6 Forestry Quarterly.
Prussia still possesses some two and a half
Moor million acres of uncultivated moorland and
Cultivation its means of reclamation is being carefully
in studied. The moors have been formed under
Germany. various conditions, and consequently there
is a great difference in the soil to be dealt
with, both in regard to its constitution and its quality. Where
the vegetation is poorly nourished and there is a large quantity
of water, the moors are formed for the most part by peat moss,
heather and reed grasses. On the other hand, in a soil rich
in plant food, the plants contributing to the formation of moors
are rushes, reeds and a number of sour grasses. As the former
are ordinarily formed above the water level, they are called up-
land moors, and the latter low moors, mostly grassland moors.
The latter, as shown by the following data, are much richer in
plant food material than the former. Upland moor: Nitrogen 1.2,
phosphoric acid, 0.18, potash 0.05, lime 0.2 per cent., while the low
land moor contains 2.3, 0.02, 0.15, 3.4 per cent, of the materials
in the order named. The upland moors, after being put in good
condition physically, are stimulated chemically by the addition of
lime which accelerates decomposition and the neutralization of
acids. Potash salts and phosphates are added to both types of
moors. Both types are best adapted finally to meadows and pas-
tures and as such, under improved conditions, compare favorably
in yield to the best grasslands.
Consular Report from Hamburg. The Journal of the Board of Agri-
culture. March, 1911.
ROADS AND SURVEY.
Forstrat Eberts discusses at great length,
Roadbuilding and citing many authorities, the question
in whether roads along slopes should be either
Mountains. horizontal and rounded off to both sides, or
inclined to the outside, or to the inside.
The conclusion he arrives at is that generalization is a mistake,
and that local conditions, especially soil conditions and water
conditions, make any one of the three forms more or less desir-
able.
The weight of opinion, however, leans to a location of roads
Periodical Literature. 307
with the inclination to the inside, i. e., to the mountain. On light
sandy soils (red sandstone) which are easily washed by rains
and on humid slopes especially this inclination is necessary, while
on firm stony soil the horizontal location or even a valleyward
inclination may be practicable.
Wie hat der Ausbau der Holsabfuhrwege an Hdngen su erfolgen?
Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. February, 191 1. Pp. 78-91-
Reconnaissance and valuation work over an
A area of between one thousand and two
Canadian thousand square miles of private holdings
Survey. in Canada, north of Montreal, has been in
progress for about three years. There were
no reliable maps of the area, so a preliminary survey was made by
following the main water courses and a skeleton may made from
the data thus obtained. Later, parallel base lines were run with
staff compass and chain and numbered stakes set at intervals of
25 chains. Sometimes the range lines one mile apart were used
as base lines. The cruiser and his assistant ran their lines be-
tween stakes with corresponding numbers. The ordinary data
concerning types, topography and general land-marks, were taken
by all parties in the field and checked up with one another as often
as convenient. In cruising the circular half-acre sample plot was
used. The limits of the plot were marked along the compass line
with an 83^ foot cord. The cruisers also reported on the apparent
status of the occupants of settled lots where ownership condi-
tions were liable to be cause of contention between owner and
limit holder: The maps were made on a scale of 4 inches to the
mile. An index map of the whole area on a scale of ^ inch to the
mile was also made. (Many interesting and valuable points were
omitted in the report, which would be appreciated if made avail-
able.)
Canada Lumberman and Woodworker, Feb. i, 191 1.
In making contour maps for logging operations a rod to be
used with a hand-level may be made with the zero mark near the
center and with an adjustable shoe at the bottom, so that the zero
mark may be made the same height as the topographer's eye.
The change in elevation is then read directly from the rod and
no computation is necessary.
The Timberman, February, 1911.
20
3o8 Forestry Quarterly.
SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION, AND EXTENSION.
Dr. Matthes furnishes a very interesting
Influencing and important contribution to our knowl-
Root edge of symbiotic processes which may be
System utiUzed in silviculture. It has reference to
of the possibility of influencing the root sys-
Spruce. tem and therewith the growth energy of
spruce on poor soils. Such influences
should be to increase the number of roots without too much
root competition, an increase of "anchor" roots which penetrate
more deeply into fertile soil, nourish the tree better and
make it windfirm, thereby avoid tearing of roots and the con-
sequent root rot. A series of experiments lasting through lo
years are at the basis of his conclusions.
A 1 2-year-old plantation of 4-year-old spruce transplants set out
on a heath in plats had hardly grown at all, making hardly 16-inch
height, one-half inch diameter at base, and three or four pri-
mary roots of 8 to 40-inch length with little branching. A part
of the plantation was after 4 years from planting fertilized with
ammonia-superphosphate, and the fertilizing continued for six
years. The plants grew to over 3 feet in height and 2-inch diam-
eter with a much larger root system. This fertilizing was, how-
ever, expensive, $2 per acre per year, or for the six years $12.00.
In another series the influence of green manuring and of mixing
in Black Locust and Alder was tested.
The following observation was suggestive: An 18-year-old
Spruce of 5-inch diameter and 12 feet height was surrounded by
8 alder stocks ; which altogether having still live sprouts had a
number of dead roots. Four roots of the spruce had reached one
of these dead roots. These roots were unusually stout, i to 2
inches in diameter and 32 inches to 8 feet long, while 8 other
primary roots which had not reached the alder stocks were less
than I inch and quite long, 4 to 10 feet. The former had bored
into the rotten alder roots and formed an immense number of
fibrils. There were also three "anchor" roots formed which, with
a diameter of nearly 2 inches, sunk to a depth of 8 to 14 inches.
In the experiment proposed and started, the author planted
about 2,000 spruce to the acre; after 10 to 15 years he takes out
1,200 as Christmas trees which he can sell at a net return of
Periodical Literature. 309
about $100. In their place he sets 2 to 3-year-old alder cuttings,
which after having performed the service of increasing the root
system of the spruce may be cut out in 15 years. In such a plan-
tation after six years the result was astounding. While the por-
tions left without alder showed up miserably (yellow color, low,
hardly larger than when planted 8 years before), the plants
among the alders showed a black green color, a height of 4^ feet,
a diameter of nearly 2 inches, a crown diameter of 2^ feet, with
stout, 3 to 5-foot long, fibrous root system among the alder roots.
The whole surface of the soil was permeated with very fine alder
roots bearing nodules many of which dead and in connection with
fibrils of the spruce — showing that the influence is directly trace-
able to this feature of the combination. Especially on abandoned
fields it has been observed that height growth soon ceases, caused
by the early competition of the too little extended, although much-
branched root system, as an investigation seemed to show.
Green manuring with lupine on farmland proved of excellent
influence on the root system, as several experiments showed. A
2-year-old plantation in four foot spacing had strips of 12-inch
width sowed with lupine. While the 6-year-old untreated plan-
tation was about 3 feet high with i^-inch diameter, the part
planted with lupine showed 7 to 8 feet in height and over 2-inch
diameters ; the roots in the soil not covered with lupine exhibiting
few, within the lupine area thousands of fibrils. Occasionally
roots would lengthen beyond the lupine strips and then show the
same scarcity of fibrils. Unquestionably the nitrogen of the
tubercles of dead lupine roots becomes available to the spruce.
Very characteristic for the root system within the lupine area is
the deep "anchor" rooting, which even after 6 years went down
16 inches, otherwise absent; when the tap roots of the lupine,
now descending to 27 inches, shall have died, i. e., when the stand
closes up, the root system of the spruce is expected to deepen
correspondingly. Characteristic also is the absence of side root
development, which does not exceed 30 to 50 inches, so that little
root competition is experienced.
A similar experiment made on raw humus or heath soil proved
the same beneficial influence of the lupine.
In this experiment the cost of $12 per acre is also too high, but
it is obvious that it can be much reduced by diflFerent procedure.
One way was to sow the lupine pods without soil preparation
3IO Forestry Quarterly.
on the farm soil at a cost of $2 per acre, with very satisfactory
result. Even in the heather this simple, rough method promises
to work.
All these experiments were made on waste lands. On forest
soil, after clearing, the humus accumulations seem inimical to the
success of the lupine, but it is perfect after burning over the
clearing or removing surface cover otherwise.
Finally an account is given of the remarkable influence of Black
Locust on the root and growth development of spruce. The in-
fluence is similar to the lupine, the spruce roots seeking and fol-
lowing the locust roots into the depth and forming whole nests
of fibrils alongside on their bark.
An entirely different root development was observed in a 6-year
plantation in clover, i. c, of esparsette, luzerne, etc., in mixture,
after oats. The development of the 3-year-old transplants was
very good, a height of nearly 3 feet, a diameter of nearly 2 inches
at base and a crown diameter of 2^ feet. The root system, how-
ever, was short (15-30 inches) with stout roots (|-inch) going
down to 12 to 14 inches, the depth being rather unusual, removing
the root competition.
The author then refers to the relation of root development to
disease and insect damage especially June beetle, to which old
farm (waste) lands are so often exposed and against which the
deep rooting is the best preventive.
In conclusion the author expresses his opinion that the alder
combination is best and cheapest, with 2-year-old, once trans-
planted (6 to 8 inches in the row) stock, planted 6 feet by 4 feet;
after 2 or 3 years spruce is planted, leaving the alder as nurses.
Mitteiltingen iiher Ban und Leben der Fichtezvurzeln und Untersuchung
iiber die BeeinUussung des Wtirzehvachstums durch zvirtschaftliche Bin-
zvirkimgen. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung. January, 191 1.
Hoffman relates experiences in planting wet
Planting clay soils of the Keuper formation, made
OH still more intractable by Carex and Equi
Intractable setum. Expense and lack of labor led to
Soils. the substitution of a special plow for hand
labor, with great success for the last three
years.
None of the usual forest plows were found strong enough, bu'
Periodical Literature. 311
a steel road plow intended for opening streets answered the pur-
pose. This plow, specially described, capable of cutting through
3-inch roots and throwing out 16-inch rocks, makes a balk of
lO-inch width, as deep as desired to 16 inches, and worked even
on 30° slopes with four oxen or two horses.
With the ox team, including the driver, at $4 per day, and the
man at the plow at 62 cents, nearly one day was required to throw
up the thirty furrows 4 feet apart on one acre, say $3.60 per acre
(which for us would have to be doubled). The planting was
done in the following spring on the disintegrated soil easily with
cheap labor with 3-year-old spruce at the rate of about 3,000 to
the acre on the balks formed by the sod from the plow furrows at
a cost of less that $3 per M, so that the total cost of the plantation
per M came to a little over $4, or between $12 and $13 per acre,
28% less than formerly.
In 2 to 3 years the depression between the balks vanishes.
The most important result, however, the writer finds in the
superior growth of the plants so that in two years they had out-
grown the 5-year-old ones set out without the plow furrows, not
to mention their more vigorous looks, growing like transplants in
the nursery, shoots in the second year of 12 to 16 inches being
no rarity.
Fail places were found of hardly 1% as against 10% in former
plantings.
The author then enlarges at great length on the changes in the
soil which result from fall plowing.
Die Behandlung feuchter Lettcnhoden im Walde. Forstwissenschaft-
liches Centralblatt, February, 191 1. Pp. 91-100.
It is curious reading to us that scarcity of
Machine labor in Germany is forcing the employ-
Sowing. ment of machines in silviculture operations.
Forstmeister v. Schmittburg working in
Hesse found it impossible to secure the necessary labor for plant-
ing, not to speak of the high price demanded. He found himself
forced to substitute machinery, partly self-invented, and devise
a process which would work cheaply and efficiently.
Planting hitherto had not cost less than $50 per acre !
He had to return to sowing for the hitherto practiced planting
of yearling pines, using specially constructed machines and fer-
312 Forestry Quarterly.
tilizer. Two forest plows, manufactured by Eckert, but with a
disk coulter added — which proved an absolute necessity — are
used, one to peel off the surface cover, the other, a subsoil plow,
to loosen the soil in strips or furrows.
A one-horse harrow, consisting of an iron frame with teeth
bent backward (to avoid hanging on roots), and a guiding handle,
found necessary in order to keep the harrow properly at work,
smoothes the soil in the i6-inch furrow; a specially constructed
sowing machine (to be had for $80 from A. I. Troster-Butzbach)
follows immediately, sowing seed as well as fertilizer in three
rills (preferable to broadcast) and covering it at the same time.
The special features of the sowing machine are that it runs on
wheels, with an extension axle, the one in the furrow to be sowed,
the other in the adjoining furrow ; it has in front of each seed
tube a double disk coulter which not only prevents hanging but
brings the seed into the soil. Of course, seed quantities and depth
can be gauged. Behind each seed tube follows an independent
roller, a single broad roller proving less efficient. The fertilizer,
which is to assist in a good start for the little seedlings, must be
carefully gauged and may consist of various combinations. The
author promises a further discussion on this phase, but states now
that Guano or Thomas slag, or potash-ammonia-superphosphate,
may be used. Thomas slag, 6 lbs. per acre, has proved very satis-
factory.
While hand sowing would have cost $4 to $4.50 per acre, the
machine does it for $1 to $2. While, to allow for losses, about 10
lbs. of seed had formerly been used, 5 to 6 lbs. are sufficient for
machine sowing, a considerable saving. The machine being good
for 20 years and requiring occasional repairs there are still $3.50
per acre saved by machine work. With acorns the saving has
been even $5 and $6. One horse and one man, when accustomed
to the woii:, can harrow, sow and fertilize 3^ to 34- acres per day.
Weeding between the furrows on the balk is also done by
machine, a specially designed small plow, in the fall and spring,
not between these times. This cultivation, not done until the
second and third year, helps the plants greatly.
Weeding in the rows is, however, troublesome, as it must be
done by hand, if necessary.
In the conditions where these methods are employed, this weed-
ing cost $1.50 per acre per year, the plow weeding $2.
Periodical Literature. 313
Altogether it appears that a plantation of this kind with all
the repair planting, etc., that may be needed, can be accomplished
for not to exceed $32, a saving of $18.
Die Kiefcrnkidtiir anf maschinellcni Wcge, etc. Allgemeine Forst- u.
Jagdzeitung. February, March, 191 1. Pp. 58-63; 77-84.
Walther points out the difficulty of securing
Douglas seeds from definite localities and hence the
Fir very variable appearance and behavior, espe-
in cially later or earlier budding, of Douglas
Germany. Fir, which can be specially noticed in nur-
sery beds. The original importations which
began in 1827 were undoubtedly of the green variety from Oregon
and Washington with horizontal to pendulous branch habit and
rapid growth. The gray to blue variety of slower growth from
the Rockies came in after the eighties.
For favorable localities, like Hesse, the green variety is adapted
according to 30 years' experience ; for frost situations only the
blue or gray variety suits.
This was specially observed in October, 1908, after a wet, cool
summer, with extraordinarily small rainfall in October, followed
by early frosts. In the midst of groups of the Douglas Fir single
plants, even well protected ones, froze back for one to three an-
nual shoots, especially on east exposures, the explanation being
that these were of the coast variety. The older, 20-40-year trees,
and protected ones did not suffer, even in exposed situations and
even though they were of the green variety. This is explained by
the probably more northern derivation of the plant material.
Especially on dry soils is frost danger frequent.
The variety caesia (the name given to the gray-green variety)
seems to combine the rapid growth of the green and the frost re-
sistance of the blue variety. The Douglas Fir seems to resemble
the German Fir as regards its gratefulness for shade when young,
the light shade of Scotch Pine being especially favorable. Several
illustrations accompany the article, showing excellent stands of
this Fir.
Die Doiiglasie ini Winter igo8-g. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung.
January, 1911. Pp. 11-13.
314 Forestry Quarterly.
An observation is reported in the German
Resistance Dendrological Society of the resistance to
of attack of the Nun (Lymantria monacha,
Douglas Fir L.) by the Douglas Fir. Almost wholly
to denuded shoots bud out in most cases and
Insects. only few entirely denuded individuals have
succumbed. Even two and three-year-old
plants did not suffer much from the ravages of the insect. In
view of the large quantity of foliage which the Douglas Fir pro-
duces, in order to destroy extensive Douglas Fir plantations, the
plague would have to develop in much greater numbers, than the
worst known.
Sitka Spruce, Tsuga inert cnsiana and canadensis, Pinus strobus
and koraensis have been entirely free from attacks, accentuating
the value of the introduction of exotics.
Fortswissenschaftliches Centralblatt. January, 191 1. P. 61.
Small forest owners can most profitably
Homegrown purchase such plants as their planting oper-
or ations require and purchase is best made
Nursery from some reliable firm making a business
Stock? of growing forest trees for sale. The man-
agement of a nursery is too exacting an un-
dertaking for one whose demands for plants are not large and
permanent enough to call for the employment of a skilled gar-
dener. In some cases the larger users of plant material produce
a surplus over and above their own needs and ofifer this for sale.
This class of material frequently consists of the poorest stock, the
owner keeping the better for his own use. There have been many
objections raised against the purchase of plants from nurserymen,
some of which are entirely unfounded and the rest valid against
none but a few untrustworthy producers of which it is strikingly
true that the evil they do lives after them.
Plants produced by reliable nurserymen are grown under the
best possible conditions to develope into vigorous individuals, are
sorted, packed and shipped with elaborate precautions against
damage and reach the small planter in better condition and
cheaper than he himself can grow them.
Zur Bcschaffung von Waldpflansen fiir den kleinen Grundbesits. Silva.
January 6 and 13, ign- Pp- 1-2; 9-io.
Periodical Literature. 315
Swedish foresters attribute the numerous
Preventing failures of stands planted in the sixties and
Fraud seventies of the last century to the use of
in imported seed produced in a milder climate.
Seeds. Measures to restrict the importation of for-
est seeds were inaugurated in 1888 when a
small duty was imposed. Ten years later the duty was made
much heavier. Now the demand for seeds was very strong, and
unscrupulous dealers found it profitable to import seeds and sell
them as the native product. This deception has been effectually
prevented, so far as coniferous seeds are concerned, by dyeing a
portion of the seeds in each package as it passes through the cus-
tom house. The dye used is an alcoholic solution of eosin.
Schotte, Gunnar: Ubcr die Fdrbung des Forstsamens sur Unterscheid-
ung ausldndischer Ware. Silva. February 3, 191 1. Pp. 33-34.
The question of the importance of the seed
Seed supply was also one which occupied the
Supply German Forstwirtschaftsrat at its session
Question. last fall. A resolution being the result,
which curiously is designed to restrict the
use of pine seed exclusively to that of German origin. Dr. Fiirst
in answer to strictures by Sievers explains that while seeds from
some other localities outside of Germany would be just as good
as German seed, the danger of importation through these of un-
desirable seed, as from South France and Hungary, led to the
adoption of this resolution.
Die Behandlung der Kicfcrnprovenicnsfrage in Deutschland. Forst-
wissenschaftliches Centralblatt. March, 1911. Pp. 148-152.
At the time when early in the last century
Spruce the demand for fuel wood fell on the intro-
vs. duction of coal in the industries, the study
Broadleaf of the natural history of forests had not
Forest. been developed to the same extent as mathe-
matical theories of forest management. The
consideration of financial returns indicated a change from beech
to spruce forests and such change was made, the spruce being
managed in pure stands and under a system of clear cutting with
artificial reproduction. The accepted theories justified such a
3i6 Forestry Quarterly.
course and the facts at hand were interpreted as favorable. Prac-
tical experience in handling such stands on poor, shallow soils has
shown that they do not behave as simply as anticipated and sil-
vical studies have revealed some reasons for such behavior.
Spruce stands have proven to be windfirm only on exceptional
soils and are always particularly susceptible to snowbreak. Root
rot attacks many trees and at times all the trees on a large area
are more or less rotten at the stump. The nun is by far the most
serious enemy attacking spruce stands. Losses from this moth
have been enormous and the most recent attacks (in 1909) have
been only a little less disastrous than those of fifty years ago.
But the most serious indictments against spruce stands is that
they do not conserve and improve the soil but, by permitting the
formation of a dense, dry duff, prevent water and air from reach-
ing the soil so that it dries out and is compacted. The weathering
of the rocks stops and the soil does not become richer in plant
food as it should.
This undesirable soil condition has been remedied by hoeing up
the duff every eight or ten years and by digging trenches to admit
water and air to the mineral soil. A better course is to prevent
the formation of duff by mixing beech in the spruce stands.
Beech roots deeper and makes the stand windfirm, while its roots
do not compete with those of the spruce; it carries more rain
water into the soil and carries it deeper. Its chief function, how-
ever, is to furnish a coarser straw to the litter on the ground and,
by holding it open to the percolation of rain water, to prevent the
formation of duff. The mixture of the species in the stand must
be designed to affect this end.
After studying the opinions held and the practices recommended
by other authors, viz : Gayer, Weinkauff, Wagner, Salle and some
Bavarian working plans, a method of procedure is formulated
which for mature beech stands that can be naturally regenerated
is as follows :
Fir is planted under the mature stand in favorable spots, four-
year transplants being used. With the first seed year the litter is
worked up and the ground put in condition to insure proper set-
ting of the new stand. The parent stand is lightly thinned in the
following winter. Thinnings are made at intervals during the
next fifteen years until the whole mature stand is removed and a
young growth of beech with a mixture of fir covers the ground.
Periodical Literature. 317
The spruce is now introduced using transplants and setting four
feet apart. The beech must have a start by some fifteen years in
order that some individuals may persist until maturity. In plant-
ing the spruce, groups of beech are left to grow up free from
competition with the spruce. The location of these groups will
be somewhat irregular since they will be selected to include the
most promising parts of the young beech stand. Their size will
vary from two to twenty-five square rods with an interval between
of four to six rods.
Polewood forests of beech can best be changed to the spruce-
beech mixture by waiting until they are capable of natural re-
generation. When oak occurs in mixture with beech it is removed
in the first thinning of the mature stand. In pure stands of oak
which are to be changed to spruce-beech mixture beech mast or
beech seedlings must be supplied.
Hoffman, B. E. Erschcint es rdtlich. . .schlechte Laubholsbestdnde auf
flachgrundigen. . .Boden in reine F i chtenhe stand e umsuivandeln? Bilva.
Dec, 191 1. Pp. 391-2; 399-400; 407-409.
The rich iron ores of the WestphaHan
Forestry mountains, lying in a wooded country from
Combined which the charcoal for their reduction was
ivith readily drawn, were responsible for the
Farming. early industrial development of the region.
The population was soon greater than the
agricultural lands could furnish with bread and so it came about
that between each rotation of sixteen to eighteen years in the cop-
pice stands the land was planted to rye. The demand for charcoal
has now greatly fallen ofif (F. Q. Vol. IX, p. 141), and the popu-
lation too has decreased. But it is still large enough to tax the
fertility of the sterile soil under the unpropitious climate so that
coppice management still persists, not because justified in itself —
which it is not — ^but because the short rotation permits the use of
the land for grain every sixteen to eighteen years. The effect of
this is to increase the area of agricultural land by 12^%.
The coppice, excepting the oak, is cut in winter. In May and
June when the cambium is active the bark is loosed from the oak
and left hanging, attached by the upper end. When dry the bark
is gathered, tied in bundles and carried to market. The standing
wood is then removed before the first of August. The soil is then
3i8 forestry Quarterly.
broken, frequently with hoes because too steep for plowing and
the litter raked into windrows and burned. The grain is put in
with hoes or with a light plow which may be drawn by women and
children. The harvest is usually cut with a sickle. These areas
are parcelled out to their individual owners at cutting time in a
way that is curiously primitive. The sub-divisions may be carried
so far that one man's share is but a few square feet.
Attempts to induce these communal owners to the change to
coniferous high forests meets the stubborn oposition always met in
changing long established customs, here doubly effective because
of the poverty of the owners. Purchase by the State seems the
best solution and a start in this direction has been made.
Die Landwirtschaftlichen Zwischennutsungcn der Hauhergswirtschaft.
Silva. November, ii & i8, 1910. Pp. 351-52; 359-60.
Forstmeister Tiemann advocates inexpen-
Silvicultural sive experiments which every forester may
Experiments. profitably make without much extra ex-
pense. He suggests a long list of such ex-
periments, of which we cite a few.
1. Comparative trials with untransplanted root-pruned and with
transplanted spruce on various sites; also transplanting with ball
to see whether the extra cost pays. Also see, whether thinning
out seed rills produces plant material which could be utilized a
year earlier, than if left undisturbed .
2. Trial with different planting tools under different conditions
as to rapidity and efficiency.
[Such trials were lately made by the students from Toronto
University on a loose sand soil with more or less compact sod.
A 71b., 6 inch, common hoe was found the best universal planting
tool in such ground both for rapidity and efficiency and for shal-
low planting (spruce), as well as for deep planting (pine), and
for setting into deep holes in loose dry soil.]
3. Manteuffels top planting and planting on sod with or without
balls of earth, in comparison with above.
4. Comparison in handling plants from water pails and from
baskets with fresh soil ; also water-soaked plants, soaked for
various time periods, to see whether they do not withstand drouth
better.
5. In sod, is it desirable to replace the sod, turned, around the
plant to prevent evaporation or does the sod prevent penetration
of rain water.
Periodical Literature. 319
0. On poor soil influence of various fertilizers may be studied.
7. Time of planting, fall or spring, late or early, may be tested.
S. Comparative trials with seeds of different derivation.
O. Seeds from trees with spirrd growth or other malformations
and seed of different weight.
Uber die zviinschenszverte sclbst'dndigc Anstelliing klcincr zualdbanlicher
Versuche, etc. Allgcmcine Forst- u. Jagclzeitung. March, 191 1. Pp. 86-93.
MENSURATION, FINANCE, AND MANAGEMENT.
A commission was appointed by the Gover-
A Cubic nor of Maine to recommend a standard
Log Measuring cubic foot rule for measuring logs. Its re-
Rule. ]iort advises the use of a rule based on the
length of the log to the nearest foot and the
diameter at the center outside of bark. The total volume is read
directly from the beam of a caliper graduated to show the cubic
feet for various log lengths of different diameters. The amount
of defect is left to the judgment of the scaler. For deduction of
volume of bark, a general table is recommended, which is based on
diameter at center of log and gives discount in per cent. This
table was prepared from measurements of many trees of different
kinds in different parts of the state, and is to be applied alike to
spruce, pine, fir, hemlock, cedar and hardwoods.
Per Cent, of Volume of Bark to Volume of Log.
Diam. at
Per cent.
Diameter
Per cent.
center
of
at center
of
Inches.
Bark.
Inches.
Bark.
6
14.8
16
II. 4
7
14. 1
17
II-3
8
13-5
18
II. 2
9
13.0
19
II . I
10
12.6
20
II. 0
II
12.3
21
10.9
12
12. 1
22
10.8
13
II. 9
23
10.8
14
II. 7
24
10.7
15
II-5
merican Lumb(
;rman. March 11,
igii.
320 Forestry Quarterly.
Ever since Weber's efforts to express the
Mathematics experience figures of yield tables in mathe-
of matical formulae, this subject has from time
Tree Grozvth. to time been investigated, the object being
eventually to reduce the work on yield
tables.
Dr. Wimmenauer proved that the progress of height growth, as
well as of acre-production, as a function of age x can be expressed
in the general formula y=a.\r^-\-bx--\-cx=f (x) .
By introducing three empirically determined heights with their
corresponding ages the constants a, b, c, can then be calculated.
Comparing this theoretical height curve with empirically deter-
mined ones, while culmination of both current and average incre-
ment in the former coincided approximately well with the latter,
other discrepancies made the usefulness of the formula still doubt-
ful.
Glaser attempts the solution of the constants by the method of
least squares, which is based on determining the unknown con-
stants in such a manner that the sum of the squares of the differ-
ences between calculated and empirically determined values be a
minimum. He comes to a closer approximation to the empiric
curve, the theoretical heights up to about the 40 year being some-
what larger, from 40 to 80 years somewhat smaller than the
empiric ones.
In a second article, Glaser applied this formula of third degree
to a number of empiric curves and found that the same relation
as above prevailed, but with decreasing site quality the differences
became less ; also that Wimmenauer's procedure was sufficiently
accurate to substitute for the more circumstantial method of least
squares. Yet, altogether the results are not accurate enough to be
used for yield table construction, hence the author investigated
first whether any equation of the third degree could express, and
finally whether an equation of the fourth degree would more
closely approximate the actual growth conditions.
The first inquiry gave negative results.
A closer practically sufficient approximation up to about the
150 year was secured by the use of a fourth degree equation, but
the practical use of the formula on account of the necessary ex-
tended calculations is doubtful.
Periodical Literature. 321
It remains questionable whether by any analytical method it
would be possible accurately to describe the progress of growth.
Zur mathematischen Interpretation der Zuzvachskurven. Allgemeine
Forst- u. Jagdzeitung. January, February, 191 1. Pp. 6-1 1; 48-59.
The following curves constructed by
Increment Kiinkele offer a convenient means for read-
per cent. ing off the rate of growth in diameter, area
Table. or volume, according to either Schneider's
or Pressler's formula. Schneider's incre-
200c
ment per cent, formula is p= — ry-, in which n, represents the
number of rings per inch or other unit ; D, the diameter ; and c, a
coefficient which for diameter increment is=i, for area increment
=z2 ; for volume increment varies from 2 to 3 1/3, namely as fol-
lows:
when crozvn height growth
finished moderate vigorous
h
deep, to — , c= 2^ 2 2/3 3
h
high, — , c= 22/3 3 31/3
The ordinates give the increment per cent, with these various
values of c, the abscissae are based on the values of nD. Accord-
ing to their value they are read from the different style of num-
bers. Hence, only nD needs to be ascertained and the increment
per cent, may be immediately read off.
1 00c
The same curves correspond to Pressler's formula, p= ,
tiq
in which n represents any number of rings, and q is the relation
D
, D being the present diameter without bark, and d the earlier
diameter n years before.
322
Forestry Quarterly.
Percent, " ? ?
-w - i\, c,
f*
" nO-
10
«
nO-
100
1
nD-
moo
J_
nQ-
'
nQ -
50
u.
n</~
soo
400
<oo
700
.7QQD-
900
1000
joooa.
400
JOO
'suuo
This is a convenient substitution for Pressler's table of numbers,
and as accurate as the formulae themselves.
Hilfstafel sur Zuzvachserhebung. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt.
April, 191 1. Pp. 200-1.
An extensive study of the selection forest
Value by Wernick brings much of interest, new
of and old. In the first section the question is
Selection raised whether improvement in the results
Forest. of private forest management can, as Mayr
claims, be secured by the use of the selection
system. It appears that the private forests, not in entail, which
Periodical Literature. 323
represent 36% of the total German forest area, produce almost
half the yield per acre of the State forests. The yield per acre
in timberwood of the different classes of forest property was in
1900 as follows :
Crown forests 33.7% 47 cubic feet
State forests 49 "
Private forest, entailed (10.4%) 43 " "
Other private forest (36.1%) 28 "
Of the private forest (and communal) in Prussia 87%, in
Bavaria 91%, in Saxony 93% is in woodlots of less than 25 acres,
a size which does not lend itself readily to management. Hence
the endeavor has been to associate the small holders, but this
movement has found indifferent success.
The second section brings judgments of authorities on the selec-
tion forest in general, which is mainly unfavorable.
Even Gayer comes to the conclusion "that it does not satisfy
modern requirements." Judeich calls the enthusiasm created by
Gayer in natural regeneration a fashion and a fancy to be in-
veighed against. "In general the sober practice will not be misled
by the romance of the selection forest."
Wagner in his late work, although admitting the naturalness of
this forest, calls it, considered from the economic point of view,
"a phantom, a purely silvicultural ideal, which few may not and
do not want to realize." Mayr says : "It has in full measure the
advantages of the virgin forest but renounces entirely the advan-
tages in volume and quality of the stand and area management."
Altogether while recognizing its silvicultural advantages, it is
not considered commendable as an economic proposition.
As regards the yield, the author cites some dozen definite cases
from Fankhauser's articles (briefed in F. 0. Vol. VI, p. 423)
which showed yields of from 118 to 246 cubic feet.
The next section describes a dozen different methods of budget
regulation in selection forest which is recognized as one of the
mo.'^t difficult problems. There are Heyer's, Karl's and Hundes-
hagen's normal stock formulae and a number of others, all of
which are built upon theories applicable to a compartment system.
The author singles out four as preferable, namely those of
Gretsch, Tichy and Stotzer, who ascertain actual growth condi-
21
324 Forestry Quarterly.
tions, the latter by groups or in circle method, noting at same time
the exploitable trees, ascertaining actual increment and also at-
tempting comparison with normal groups, and a French method
which he considers the most serviceable and describes in detail.
This method, mcthode dii controle, was invented by Gurnard
and worked out by Biolley, a Swiss forester, at Couvet, Canton
Neuenburg, on about 6,000 acres of communal and in part on
15,000 acres of private forest, mostly fir and spruce. In the com-
munal forest of Couvet, the introduction of a real cultural selec-
tion forest dates only from 1890, hence it is not yet all in proper
condition.
Before describing the method the author brings a lengthy pane-
gyric of the properly conducted selection forest as exhibited or
aimed at in Couvet and explains the divergence of opinions by
pointing out that such a great variety of conditions may exist in
the selection forest. He brings a table comparing production in
compartment timber forest and in the Couvet stands, which would
make it appear that the increment is larger in the selection forest
and the use per cent, with 3.5 against 3.3 not less.
According to Gurnaud's method the forest is to be divided into
compartments, a thing which for selection forest is supposed not
to be necessary ; only in this way can good statistical data for the
control be secured. The compartments are made with reference
to site and stand difference of not more than 25 acres extent, and
the areas carefully computed.
Dimension and not age is used for classification, and rotation is
not a term applicable, since age and dimension do not go parallel
here. An inventory is, however, necessary, and a repeated stock
taking at that, besides an accurate accounting of felled material,
and the stock taking is done over the whole forest in the same year.
All trees of over 7 inches diameter are calipered in 2 inch classes,
the place of measurement being marked so that they may be
measured in the same place again. This is the material principal,
the smaller growth or materiel accesoir being left out of consider-
ation or being added with 10 per cent, of the principal volume.
The diameter classes are grouped into three size classes — small,
middle, and stout.
The volumes are computed from special volume tables which
take into account the great variation in taper and give the ap-
proximate contents. This designated sv is different from the
Periodical Literature. 325
volumes determined for felled trees to be sold (fni). The par-
ticipation of the three size classes in the total volume is figured
percentically. The volume of the average tree is calculated. A
description of the character of the stand helps to bring out a
picture of the same.
The increment is determined by comparing two inventories taken
at dififerent times, keeping count also of the material cut and
removed, and also of the addition of trees to the lowest size class
(passage a la futaie). The increment is figured separately for
each size class and from the same volume table {sv) in order to
make it comparable to the stock volume. We may find, e. g. first
inventory {v) stout trees: 85 trees with 317 sv, second inventory
after 5 years {v2), 115 trees with 452 sv; removal (w), 8 trees
with 30 sv; total {v2-{-n), 123 trees with volume 482 vs ; the trees
of VI increased in v2-\-n to 85 trees with 368 sv; 38 trees were
added with 113 sv, increment for the 5 years 51 for the whole
compartment, 13.8 per acre; annual increment 2.8; increment per
cent. 3.23.
The same calculation is to be made for each size class.
The inventory shows to the judgment of the manager the size
class in which the fellings are desirable, but the cut is made with
reference to growth conditions, the vigorously growing trees are
favored, the poor and those that suppress good growth are re-
moved. Silvicultural considerations prevail, the whole area to be
cut through evenly. Every 5 to 10 years return to the same com-
partment; especially when the stand is too uniform, work for
differentation of sizes by initiating early regeneration and favor-
ing the vigorously growing stock. In old uniform stands, where
no pains will produce a proper selection stand, clear and plant.
All material felled is, of course, carefully booked, measured by the
same volume tables which are used for the inventory. At same
time the logs, etc., are also actually measured and this measure
booked in the "felling control book," and these measurements are
used as a correcting factor of the sv.
The inventory, felling control and increment calculations for
each compartment are placed in a periodic table, whereby a view
of the forest conditions, a comparison of the production is facili-
tated and a statistical material is compactly brought together as in
no other method, from which the felling budget is to be deter-
mined.
326 Forestry Quarterly.
Now to determine the felling budget by which the forest is to
be brought to normal condition of which we know nothing positive
— the normal idea of the regular timber forest is of no avail — it
is necessary to assume that with a certain amount and certain size
class proportion the ideal condition is attained. This conception
may be derived from portions of the stand which appear to the
judgment of the regulator as normal. The authors assumed 5,000
to 5,700 feet as normal volume and a composition of 20% small,
30% middle and 50% stout trees, the aim being to keep as much
as possible stout material on which to deposit increment. This is
only an assumption, but by the control gardually it will be modi-
fied to correspond to the actual increment per cent. The method
requires much judgment and calculation.
An example of the procedure in a concrete case further eluci-
dates the method.
The author's conclusion then, as to the value and application of
the selection forest for the improvement of farmer's woodlots is,
that while it would be dangerous to be dogmatic, a possibility in
that direction exists. The wind firmness secured, especially for
such small isolated lots recommends it, as well as the independence
of each parcel in its management, hence no need of the associated
effort. In this sense the Bavarian instruction also expresses
itself.
Plenterzmld. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung. July, Aug., Sept., Oct.,
191 1. Pp. 229-235; 269-273; 313-321; 353;36o.
In antagonism to the tendency to reduce
Higher rotations and to form forest reserve funds,
vs. from which to eke out eventual deficiencies
Lower in the year's budget, as has been done lately
Rotations. in Wurttemberg, Oberforstrat Frey makes
interesting arguments and calculations,
using concrete figures.
According to Schwappachs money yield tables a management
class of pine on site i in 70 year rotation, that is to say a property
of 7 hectar, one hectar each of 10, 20, 30 to 70 years of age, would
have a stock value of 2748 mark per hectar (around $264 per
acre) and furnish an annual return of 621 mark of 88.8 per hectar
(say $855 per acre). If the same 7 hectar were stocked with stands
corresponding to double the rotation, that is to say one-half acre
Periodical Literature. 327
each of 10, 20, 30 to 140 years of age the stock value would be
49418 Mark (say $680 per acre) and furnish 107.6 Mark annually
per hectar (say $10.35 P^"" acre). This is to say, the higher rota-
tion produces about $1.80 more per acre.
Now the question is whether it is more profitable if the stock
corresponding to 140 year rotation worth $680 and bringing in
$10.35 P^^ ^cre is in existence to reduce it to that of the 70 year
rotation worth $264 and bringing in $8.55 per acre, when the
difference of $416 may bring a better interest rate, namely $12 to
$16 in addition to the $8.55, say $24.
The author points out that in this calculation the sure increase
in wood value of the older stands is overlooked. For the 10- to
70-year-old stands such an increase is hardly to be expected, but
experience has shown that the 80 to 140 year old stands may even
in the next 20 years double and treble in wood value, so that
although the capital value may thereby become $2,000 per acre,
the income would be $30, or more than in the other way can be
obtained.
The idea of forest reserve funds, the author says, has become
fashionable and is considered modern, and he considers its ap-
plication undesirable from a national point of view.
Jahrliche Brzcugung wertvollsten Holzzmvachses auf kleinster Fldche.
Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. February, 1911. Pp. 7^-7^-
After nearly one hundred years of adhering
Working to the budget regulation for the Bavarian
Plans Forest Department, which was based upon
in the instruction of 1819, new working plans
Bavaria. are to be formulated with considerable
changes. In an extended article Dr. Vanse-
kow gives a historic statement of the developments and a descrip-
tion of the present proposed procedure. The "normativ" of 1819
followed closely the teachings of Hartig in the volume allotment
method with the stand as the unit. The instructions for ascertain-
ing stock and increment on which the method is based, should with
little modification even to-day be found most satisfactory.
As regards the rotation, the old instruction requires that it be
"based upon careful investigations of the age at which the highest
volume and money yield or else the required dimensions of those
sortiments can be secured which are most desired, or else at which
328 Forestry Quarterly.
the most vigorous reproduction may be secured." For a more
complete assurance of a sustained yield the rotation was as a rule
to be increased for a few years longer, and for each section of
different growth condition a special felling age was to be de-
termined, that is to say besides the general rotation for the entire
range, special rotations for different parts were ascertained. The
rotation was then divided into periods, three of four, or with long
rotations five, and the stands ranged into periodic or yield class
tables. "In this project the considerations of the most advan-
tageous use of the forests are carefully weighed against the most
rapid re-establishment of their spoiled condition and of the in-
terests of the future with those of the present," — the actual felling
age being varied from the average rotation according to these con-
siderations. At the same time in the ranging of the felling areas
a proper location of age classes was also to be provided, as well as
equality of budgets within certain limits.
A special working plan then was made for the first decade when
the yearly material and money budget could be determined. Thin-
nings or "secondary fellings" were curiously enough to reduce the
prescribed main fellings by so much.
Recognizing the difficulty of controling the sustained yield by
volume alone a first attempt of bringing the area into use as
regulator by prescribing that "all main fellings were not to be
marked out by volume but by area corresponding to the de-
termined volume."
Altogether this early regulation was in many directions sound
and serviceable. It lacked, however, proper prescription for the
detail of execution. These were furnished by later ordinances,
which are set forth in the article, but which have no special
interest for us. We will, therefore, confine ourselves to a state-
ment of the new instruction which was issued in June, 1910, just
exactly 80 years after the first order for regulating the Bavarian
State forests.
This is radically different in principles of management, in
method of yield regulation and in the technique, as well as in its
form.
A strict adherence to the sustained yield principle within each
unit of management, which formerly had been required as main
aim of forest regulation, is abandoned, although an equalization of
budgets of the whole Kingdom or certain aggregates of districts
Periodical Literature. 329
might be attempted. The economic utilization of stands at the
proper moment overrules the narrow sustained yield principle. A
broader view is to prevail.
Since only rarely normal forest is in question, the yearly felling
areas are to be so adjusted as to avoid overmature stands to be
left or unripe ones to be cut.
The sustained yield principle of volume and value production is
to find expression in regeneration at proper time and in more in-
tensive care for increment by thinnings.
The aim to secure a normal forest condition by proper distri-
bution of age classes is to be fostered only as far as it can be done
without great economic sacrifices. The maturity of the stand
carefully ascertained is to decide primarily whether it is to be cut
or not. The budget allotment for the future if age classes are
very abnormal, is to give merely an approximate idea of the
progress of felling without being binding for the future. Graphic
methods of giving insight into the actual status and changes are to
be used.
Freedom is left to determine even the annual budgets from year
on the basis but independently of the periodic felling plan, leaving
it in the discretion of the administration to anticipate or delay
fellings according to market conditions.
The economic principle finds clearest expression in the motives
by which the rotation and the maturity of the single stand are
determined.
While formerly the maximum volume production alone was the
basis of the rotation, now, without giving up the desire to produce
most desired wood quality, the maximum forest rent with reason-
able interest on the invested capital, soil and stock, is to be also
in part determining, as far as other interests or protective func-
tions do not interfere.
Extensive investigations into growth relations and value pro-
duction of younger as well as old stands are to be the basis, and
various rotations are to be figured and chosen from.
The time of the minimum forest rent is to be the upper limit of
the rotation while saleability of the produced grades or sizes is
the lowest limit; an investigation into the production of various
assortments or sizes at different ages must therefore precede.
The progress of the quality increment is another criterion, mak-
ing a difference between such species as spruce and fir where the
33^ Forestry Quarterly.
value increment from the most desired to stouter sizes suddenly
falls off and those which like pine, oak, etc., continue into old age
to appreciate. If then the rotation based on the most desired size
for any reason does not satisfy, the relation of value increment to
cost of production ascertained by use of the index per cent, may
serve. If the interest rate secured in sinking gradually, the
preference is to be given to the forest rent because for State forest
the larger income within limits is preferable to the higher interest
rate. When, however, an increase in the net forest rent can be
secured only with a considerable reduction in interest rate, and an
increase in volume and value production cannot be secured by
managerial measures (thinnings) then the lengthening of the rota-
tion would not be desirable. Besides these calculatory bases,
other considerations are to aid in determining the rotation, such
as influence of the length of rotation on soil conditions, capacity
for natural regeneration, winddanger, decrease of health with
growing age, influence of intensive thinning practice, and other
managerial considerations.
The financial question — the fundamental requirement of the soil
rent theory — as to the interest rate on the production capital enters
then only in the third place, and only when the other two con-
siderations, size and value production, do not suffice. But, after
all, the rotation of the highest soil rent cannot vary very much
from that rotation which produces in the shortest time the largest
quantity of the most desired sizes and hence best paid material ;
the value increment forms the best index for the financial felling
age. The author reproduces the following curves to show in
what relation these rotations may stand, the curves are derived
from a definite spruce stand on site II in Austria. They show
that value increment, quality (size) increment, and soil rent coin-
cides in their maximum closely.
For selection forest and coppice or coppice with standards size
alone, d. b. h. is serviceable to determine the felling age, although
quality and value increment determinations are not excluded.
As regards the method of budget regulation the new instruction
strikes out in a new direction. While in both the allotment and
the normal forest methods the budget is derived from a general
working plan with a period table — a tabular exhibit of the fellings
in area and volume from period to period bringing to view the
progress toward the ideal of the future — now the felling plan is
Periodical Literature.
331
not to emanate from a general plan, but is directly derived on the
basis of the given stand conditions, the existing stands and parts
of stands are placed in series according to managerial and eco-
nomic considerations and the area and volume of the ripe or in the
IOC
60
60
4G
zo
}0.
50
60
70
60
90
Years
m
next 20 years ripening stands are calculated. The maturity of the
single stands then assumes the first place in determining the
budget, in other words Judeich's stand management or age class
method is the method in view, — an age class comparison forming
the basis for the felling area determination.
To permit this free movement, the economic possibility of small
felling areas and the partial giving up of strict sustained yield
management are premises.
In ranging the stands in the felling plan, it is only necessary to
make the felling area for the next decade approximate its propor-
tions for a 20 year period.
332 Forestry Quarterly.
In selecting the stands for felling, the necessity of utilizing over-
ripe and deteriorating stands, sequence of a proper felling series
and finally maturity decide.
The final budget in amount is found by dividing total area
into total yield, when the average felling yield per acre is estab-
lished, which is then multiplied by the periodic felling area. In
addition thinning results are estimated, but no need of equaliza-
tion of annual budgets exists.
The rest of the article is concerned with the routine of the work
of regulation and of control.
Anweisung fur die Forsteinrichtung in den Konigl. Bayrischen Staais-
waldungen.. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. February and March,
1911. Pp. 177-199.
The need of book-keeping on the farm as
Value of far as field crops are concerned has been
Woodlot long acknowledged as proper. An anony-
Book- mous article tries to make propaganda for
keeping. control of private forests, or woodlots. The
incentive is given by the account of a Swiss
forest owner who for 14 years has kept a budget control of his
125 acres of woodlot, 3300 feet above sea level, managed for the
last 20 years in a rational selection forest form.
It is composed of .7 spruce, .2 fir and .1 beech. The area was
divided into compartments and the stock ascertained by counting
and figuring cubic contents of all diameter classes of 9 inch and
over. The cut was made from compartment to compartment and
measured. After 10 years the stock was again ascertained. The
result is interesting. Stock at beginning of period 2860 cubic feet
per acre; at end of period 3290 cubic feet. There had been cut
per acre and year 90.5 cubic feet; the increase in stock was 40
cubic feet; hence the total increment 130.5 cubic feet, or nearly 5
per cent, on the original stock.
The owner, therefore, found out that he could increase the cut
without decrease of capital.
The ease with which this control, by no means perfect, but
sufficient for the purpose, can be handled even by the inexperi-
enced man recommends it. The owner begins to realize the value
of his property and will manage it with more care.
Schweizerische Zeitschrift for Fortswesen. March, 191 1. Pp. 7Z-77-
Periodical Literature. 333
UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY.
The thrift of a growing stand is always in-
Use creased by proper thinning, but in many
of localities in Germany the material so re-
Thinning moved can not be sold at a price sufficient to
Material. cover the cost of handling. There is urgent
need for some method of utilizing this small
material. The production of charcoal appears to offer a solution
of the problem in some localities and such use is being actively
promoted by the "Forstbiiro Silva" in Darmstadt. The present
paper gives some of the general features of charcoal production in
meiler kilns in the Thiirgingerwald and outlines the author's
efforts to introduce a similar practice in the Vogelsberg. Other
possible uses for small material from thinning are indicated.
Eulefeld: Einiges von der Kohlerei und der Zuwachspflege. Silva.
January 27, 191 1. Pp. 25-27.
Ten large manufacturers of southern yellow
Cost pine timber contributed detailed cost figures
of Producing which include costs from the woods thru the
Yellow Pine saw mill and planing mill, to the buyer. The
Lumber. total costs, omitting stumpage, are peculiarly
uniform when the fact is taken into con-
sideration that the methods of cost-keeping are different, and that
the logging and milling operations are carried on under widely
varying conditions. Stumpage varies from $1.90 to $5.00 and is
not included in the following table of costs.
Total cost per M., actual averages from large manufacturers:
$12.83; $11-57; $10.68; $10.67; $10.37; $10.03; $9.84; $9-49;
$9.06 ; $8.49.
The analyses of most of these costs are very detailed but the
items vary so much that a general comparative summary would be
impossible. In a few tables contracts and company work is com-
pared. The table following was compiled by "The Lumberman"
and seems to give reliable costs, providing all of the timber cut
was put through the planing mill.
334
Forestry Quarterly.
Cost of Yelloiv Pine Lumber.
Cutting,
Skidding,
Loading,
R. R. Building,
Hauling,
R.epairing Equipment,
Railroad upkeep,
Sawing,
Sorting,
Dipping,
Yarding,
American Lumberman.
• 49
Drying,
1. 21
Planing,
.6i
Selling,
.go
Shipping,
■75
Miscellaneous,
• 31
Superintending,
• 15
Interest on plant,
1.46
Insurance,
.20
Depreciation,
.02
Taxes,
• 79
Total,
Stumpage,
March 4,
191 1. Pp. 42 & 43.
•51
.68
• 23
.18
.29
•49
.49
.18
•59
• 14
10.67
5-00
$15.67
A steam skidder with an overhead cable has
Logging been used in the Northwest about a year,
Cable and has seemed to give satisfaction. Two
in the main cables were used so that while a crew
Northwest. was logging with one of them, another crew
could be changing the other. Changing the
carriage from one cable to the other required about 45 minutes.
A strip 100 feet wide was worked from each cable and an area of
about 800 feet radius was cleared at each setting. A daily aver-
age of 40,000 feet of logs was taken out by a full crew of 15 men
at a cost of about $48.00 per day. A detail list of the cable used
shows about 10,000 feet in use, most of which lasts about a year.
The chief disadvantage was the aversion the men feel to working
around a new type of machine.
American Lumberman. February 18, 191 1. P. 581.
Many lumbermen do not have a very ade-
quate idea of just what it costs to feed men
in their camps. A lower peninsula Michi-
gan operator says it costs him 34^ cents per
day per man; while a West Virginia com-
pany shows in detail as follows that it costs him 65.62 cents. (See
also Vol. VII, p. 267.)
Feeding Men
in
Logging Camps.
Periodical Literature. 335
Flour,
5-50
Molasses,
.10
Potatoes,
4.07
Catsup,
.40
Cabbage,
7.00
Evaporated Apples,
.20
Milk.
1.08
Brown Sugar,
1-75
Cream,
.70
Granulated Sugar,
2.00
Peas,
.60
Pumpkin,
.40
Corn,
.90
Prunes,
• 40
Coffee,
1-75
Lard,
2.75
Dry salt side,
1.33
Pickles,
.40
Tomatoes,
.90
S. beans,
.90
Jelly,
.37
L. beans.
.30
Mince Meat,
.85
Crackers,
,10
Cheese,
1. 14
Ginger snaps,
.20
Oatmeal,
.60
Salt,
.15
Baking Powder,
1.60
Eggs,
.50
Blacklierries,
1-33
Tea,
.90
Syrup,
• 30
Butterine,
3- 50
Macaroni,
Onions,
.25
.40
Meat,
20.00
65.62
American Lumberman. February 25, 191 1. P. 27.
Hub timber is usually bought by the lineal
Yellozv Birch foot, ranging, for Yellow birch, from 4^ to
Wagon Hubs. 6 cents. Logs down to 8 inches can be used
thus giving the operator $16.00 to $18.00 per
M for his small timbers. Little or no deduction is made for crook
for the stock is cut into short blocks, 9 to 15 inches long. The
birch should be cut in winter, and where the mills run the year
round, the stock is kept in water. Most of the operations in the
manufacture of the hubs are automatic. It it quite essential that
the blocks are bored so that the pith of the block is the center line
of the hole. With one set of machines four men and one boy can
bore, turn and mortise 100 sets of heavy birch hubs in 10 hours.
When the machine work is finished the hubs are steamed for 18 to
20 hours and then painted, oiled or creosoted.
The Woodworker, February, 191 1.
In the Northeast about 43,000 cords of
Spool Paper Birch is manufactured into spools
Wood. annually. Only the best grades can be used
for spools, the consequent large waste is
used for fuel. The green logs in 4 foot lengths are brought to the
mill in fall or winter, where they are squared to suit the sizes of
the spools into which they are to be manufactured. These green
bars are piled and allowed to air dry under cover for several
months, and are then kiln-dried just before using. They are cut
33^ Forestry Quarterly.
to exact length of spool and turned to shape on a lathe. In most
cases the process is entirely automatic. After turning the spools
are smoothed by rolling with several balls of paraffine in a hollow
cylinder. The largest spools are made in three pieces — the flanges
fitting on the threaded end of a central cylinder.
Hardwood Record. February, 191 1.
Toothpicks are made principally from white
Toothpicks. birch. Maine produces the greatest quan-
tities, altho New York, Vermont and Massa-
chusetts have a few mills. Logs are picked by the logging boss
and cut into veneer sheets which are as wide as toothpicks are
long, then the veneers are cut into toothpicks by rotary knives. —
Hardwood Record. February, 191 1.
In Minneapolis, Minn., about 40% of all
Paving the paving since 1902 has been creosoted
Blocks. wood blocks. The blocks are 4 inches deep
by 4 inches wide and from 5 to 10 inches
long ; they were laid on a 5-inch concrete foundation with a sand
cushion i inch thick. Pitch was used for filler. Most of the
blocks were of Norway Pine and Tamarack, a little of Yellow
Pine and Hemlock. There has been no difficulty with the swell-
ing of the blocks and no repairs and no "bleeding" or oozing of
oil from the blocks. Cost varied from $2.40 to $2.90 per square
yard. Results : Yellow Pine blocks laid in 1902 show wear of ^
inch or 3.17%. Norway Pine laid in 1903 shows \ inch wear or
6.35%. Seven species laid in 1906 for experimental purposes on
a road showing a record of travel averaging nearly 4,000 teams
per day and 140 tons per foot of roadway, give the following per-
centages of wear:
Yellow Pine, 3.17 per cent.
Hemlock, 4.76
Tamarack, 4.76
Norway Pine, 4.76
Birch, 4-97
Western Larch, 9.36
Douglas Fir, 6.98
The Douglas fir was of poor quality, 2 or 3 rings per inch, and
should not be considered.
Mississippi Valley Lumberman. March, 191 1.
Periodical Literature. 337
On account of its lightness in weight, the
Utilization width of board which can be obtained and
of its cheapness, it is rapidly gaining favor as
Sound Wormy a center for veneer stock. Casket nianu-
Chesfnut. facturers are the largest consumers. Piano
and furniture manufacturers use a great
deal .
Hardwood Record. April, 1911.
Effect of the size of the pile of lumber on the rapidity with
which it dries is shown by the following figures : A pile of
12-inch oak 12 feet wide weighed at the end of 120 days, 4,240
pounds, while a pile 6 feet wide of same stock at the end of 120
days weighed 4,020 pounds.
Hardwood Record. April 10, 191 1.
A cargo of Austrian turpentine piles is to be shipped to Van-
couver, B. C, for use in dock building. Cargo will comprise
1,600 piles ranging in length from 60 to 75 feet.
Canada Lumberman and Woodworker. April i, igii.
Tasmanian Oak, Bucalyptus obliqua, is being shipped to U. S.
in large quantities for harbor building, breakwaters, etc. The
wood possesses the valuable property of repelling the white ant
and the toredo; it contains an oil which prevents its decay; and
added to this its extreme weight makes it ideal for piling in salt
water.
Woodcraft. April, 1911.
STATISTICS AND HISTORY.
The net income of the Prussian Forest De-
Prussian partment continues to increase. While in
Budget. the budget for 191 1 an increase of ex-
penditure of $450,000 is provided, namely
altogether $15,000,000, the income has grown by $2,500,000 to
$34,000,000, leaving in round numbers $2,000,000 more surplus,
namely, 18.5 million dollars from less than 7 million acres.
Besides this ordinary budget there is an extraordinary one,
which derives its income from sale of forest property figured at
a little over $2,000,000 to meet extraordinary expenditures for
338 Forestry Quarterly.
buying out rights of user, purchase of properties and certain other
improvements, the latter reducing the total net income to 17.7
million dollars.
It is interesting to note that in the decade 1 900-9 the income
for wood alone rose at the annual rate of 3 per cent, compound,
fuel wood, which represents about one-third of the whole in
value, maintaining almost the same rate as the workwood.
At the same time the expenditures in the last decade increased
at the rate of over 4 per cent., improvement of salaries probably-
accounting for most of this increase.
The personnel of the local administration consists of 33 Ober-
forstmeister, 97 Forstrate, 840 Oberforster, 5,157 Forster and
some 18 other officials.
The cut on the 6.643 million acres of forestland is placed at
357 million cubic feet, or less than 54 cubic feet per acre, of which
30 per cent, "not controlled."
Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung. March, 191 1. Pp. 103-106.
The State forests of Austria are not very
Austrian extensive; including some pastures and
Statistics. fields the State property comprises around
2.8 million acres, of which nearly one-third
is unproductive. The annual cut at present is 45 cubic feet per
acre of forest land, 53% workwood, which under the unfavorable
site conditions is considered very good. The net income for 191 1
is estimated at $950,000 in addition to free wood and other rights
of user which are valued at over $300,000. The income per
acre, including this value of the rights of user, is hardly 80 cents,
and without counting those rights less than 63 cents.
There are 197 officials of the higher grade and 1,082 of the
lower grade in the administrative service.
In addition there are 388 technical attaches to the political ad-
ministration of the provinces to supervise the forest policy of the
country and to participate in the administration of the meliora-
tion fund of 1.6 million dollars and in the reboisement work.
Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. January, 1911. Pp. 43-47-
Periodical Literature.
339
Belgium's total area is only y.2y million
Belgian acres and its forest area 1.32 million acres,
Statistics. of which less than half State forest.
These 511,000 acres bring a net yield of
$4.16 per acre. Oak wood brings 30 to 35 cents per cubic foot,
and beech even more.
The official reports for 1906 place the wood import at around
$36,000,000, a rise over the previous year of over $3,000,000, and
further rise is anticipated.
The home product of coniferous wood is mostly utilized when
fit for mine props, hence this large import of workwood. Against
the import an export of 6.6 million dollars is set. Russia and
Sweden are the largest contributors (over 50%), Russian im-
ports increasing, Swedish decreasing.
Commerce d'importation et d'exportation des hois en igo6. Allgemeine
Forst- und Jagdzeitung. December, 19 10. P. 439.
United The movement outward of timber for
States years of 1909 and 1910 may be summarized
Exports. comparatively as follows :
Lumber,
Sawed timber,
Smaller dimensions,
Total,
Net increase.
Average prices.
Increase,
All wood and
wood products.
Increase,
1909
1.509,836,000 board feet
434,985,000 "
25,472,000 " "
19 10
1,876,763,000 board feet
442,071,000 " "
23,514,000 " "
1,970,293,000
372,045,000
$21.41
.69
$72,313,280
13,475,753 or 18.6%
2,342,338,000
$22.10
$85,789,033
American Lumberman. March 25, 1911. P. 28.
POLITICS AND LEGISLATION.
In a long, painstaking article. Semper dis-
IVaste cusses the policy of the Prussian govern-
Land ment in buying up waste lands and mis-
Policy managed forests in the Polish provinces of
in West Prussia and Posen.
Prussia. A historical review recites the causes of
the devastation and also refers to the coloni-
zation commission which is instituted to supplant the restless and
often shiftless Polish land ownership by German colonists.
22
340 Forestry Quarterly.
In this connection, the rapid change of prices for the land is of
interest as exhibited by the average prices paid for farms by the
commission, namely, in 1886-1896, $55-65 per acre; in 1904, $98;
in 1906, $137; in 1909, $122.
An example refers to a change of hands of certain forest prop-
erty, which almost reminds us of our own experiences. Around
7,000 acres, the property of the Prince of Saxe-Meiningen, was
sold in 1898 to a bank for $300,000, because the forest supervisor
considered it improper to make an extraordinary felling in order
to secure $12,000. The bank immediately cut this amount from
275 acres, and in 1899 sold the property for $500,000. In 1904,
upon the death of the new owner, the colonization commission
bought it for $800,000.
A table shows the changes which have taken place in the owner-
ship of forest in the four districts involved from 1864 to 1900,
namely percentic increases in State forest, and decreases in private
forest, as follows: Danzig, -I-13, — 13-5; Marienwerder, +13.6,
— 14.9 ; Posen, +9.3, — 7 ; Bromberg, -f 8.6, — 4.8. At the same
time poor pastures and waste lands had been decreased by 250,000
acres, or about 25 per cent.
This statement shows, of course, that the private owners even
lately have continued to decrease their forest area, for the in-
creases in State forest were largely secured by planting up waste
lands. The two provinces show a lower forest per cent. 19.8 and
22.9) than the average for the monarchy (23.7) ; in spite of their
extensive poor sand areas and in spite of the activity of the forest
administration, there are still over 800,000 acres of poor pasture
and waste land left, besides poor farm land, that ought to be
under forest.
The resume of conditions states that the forest area of the two
provinces has decreased at a threatening rate, especially on abso-
lute forest soil ; the waste land resulting from forest destruc-
tion exhibits an increasingly dangerous form and extent ; in spite
of improved agriculture, reduction in sheep, and successful re-
forestation, the devastation is increasing, blowing sands threat-
ening the farm lands.
Finally the activity of the State forest administration is dis-
cussed. Private efforts in the sixties to reforest waste lands re-
mained without result. The forest protection law of 1875 also
failed to be effective, as well as the law of 1881, which was to
Periodical Literature. 341
encourage the joint management of small farm woodlots. The
provincial information bureaux, in existence since 1903 and 1904
(see F. Q. Vol. 7, p. 438), have done some good work, but not
adequate to the need.
Several reforestation associations have been formed, compris-
ing ownership of some 7,000 acres, who are assisted with plant
material, etc. But really adequate, permanent results could only
be expected from direct government activity.
In the sixties and seventies, small amounts were set out in the
forestry budget for the entire monarchy for purchase of waste
lands varying in the sixties from $35,000 to $90,000, and in the
seventies $250,000 annually; from 1882 to 1892, the annual bud-
get for this purpose was increased to $500,000 in the average,
and since 1893, all the receipts from sales of public domains were
set aside to secure waste land and forest properties ; in addition,
exchanges were made.
From 1887 special attention was given to the reforesting
schemes in the province of West Prussia, where the need was
greatest. Since the holdings were mostly small and scattered
much difficulty was experienced in amalgamating large enough
properties. Some 120,000 acres were bought in the first decade
at prices ranging from $4 to $12 per acre, about $10 in the
average.
Some large properties with well preserved forest were also ac-
quired.
Altogether by 1900, some 170,000 acres had been purchased, all
but 25,000 of which, absolute forest soil.
After 1900, when the war debts of the Napoleonic wars had
been paid up, and thus the income from disposal of public lands
which had served this purpose became available, purchases pro-
gressed more rapidly. But even this did not satisfy the situation,
and in 1902 the vote of $25,000,000 for colonization purposes was
also designated to increase the State forest property in these
provinces.
This measure, to be sure, had a political as well as economic
aspect, namely, to assist the germanization of the province in co-
operation with the colonization commission.
This fund of 25 million was nearly exhausted by 1908, and
was replenished by a further $6,000,000. By 1910, from these
two funds, about 140,000 acres of waste and poor forest prop-
342 Forestry Quarterly.
erty had been purchased, at an average cost of $42.60, while from
the annual general forest purchase fund and by exchanges addi-
tions were made, so that the table, showing the entire transaction
in detail, totals the forest territory acquired since 1900 as 258,000
acres, of which 218,000 acres pure forest land, and 64 % of this
under woods. The whole purchase money was $7,000,000, or
about $27 per acre. Around $400,000 was spent in making work-
ing plans for these new areas, which also increased the forest
ranges by 116. Lately, owing to rise of prices and other reasons,
the activity in this waste land policy has somewhat slackened.
Together with these purchases over 300 forest laborers' fami-
lies and other immigrants were colonized on the farm lands, or
about 25,000 acres, and altogether a new civilization has been
brought in.
In the reforestation, the Scotch Pine, is the only species avail-
able. Where on the devastated areas still some woodgrowth re-
mains, this is preserved, even if not of good form, as protection
against sun and wind and to some extent as seed trees. If only
cattle is kept out natural seeding succeeds readily, often beyond
expectation better than artificial planting. Where needful the
soil is scarified with a harrow; improvement cuttings are made
when the young crop needs it — a policy of waiting seems to be
encouraged by the tendency of straight slender growth which this
pine exhibits in this locality — a northern type.
If artificial planting becomes necessary, sowing is preferred
wherever poverty of soil does not prevent it. This is done with-
out scarifying the soil more than with the harrow. It is done
broadcast in strips, after burning or removing any dense soil
cover. Sometimes the old method of sowing the cones is re-
sorted to, if cheaper. In a cited case a sowing of cones, about 3.5
bushels to the acre, cost for broadcast sowing from $1.00 to $1.50
for sowing in hoed strips $3.30; and in the crop, instead of re-
pair planting, shears were more necessary.
Often, resort must be had to planting. In that case the treat-
ment of the soil is most important : no movement or loosening
of the soil must be allowed, which would make it only more
powdery. The planting must be done in earliest spring, as long
as there is still winter moisture in the soil. Only the best plant
material should be used, grown in nurseries located in the best
soils. Lately Splettstoesser's borer (see F. O. Vol. VIII, p. 467)
is largely used.
Periodical Literature. 343
On actual blowing sands, first a quieting of the soil by the cus-
tomary mechanical means is necessary.
To improve soil conditions, sometimes mineral fertilizer, some-
times a leguminous crop is plowed under, or a frugal soil im-
proving species, like Pinus rigida or divaricata, is used..
The writer cautions against the use of pure stands of Jack
Pine, which is too valueless a crop and liable to attack of root
fungi.
Altogether the question of future success of plantations on
these exhausted soils is still open.
Some of the plantations made in the early nineties show already
a retardation of growth, while natural seedings seem to thrive
better. As a consequence of these observations the spacing has
been increased to 4.5x3 feet.
To prevent fires from spreading, firelanes of 250-300 feet ( !)
width separate the plantations, and every other known precaution
is employed.
The profitableness of the undertaking is only touched and, of
course, is left uncertain, as the movement of wood prices is un-
certain. A table shows the interesting remarkable rise of wood
prices during the last half century. In the State forests of the
tour counties the yield for wood per acre has increased as
follows :
Danzig,
Marienwerder,
Posen,
Bromberg,
These figures look hopeful for financial success. It is also
shown that the consumption of log material has grown ahead of
the population; the import during 1866-71, averaging 80 million
cubic feet, had risen in 1897-1901 to around 320 million cubic
feet, and in 1908, a year of economic stagnation, to 450 million
feet.
The increase of State forests then, which since 1887 has
amounted to 435,000 acres, promises at least in part to satisfy a
need, besides making useful these waste acres.
Die Ankaufspolitik in West Preussen und Posen. Zeitschrift Forst-
und Jagdwesen. February, 191 1. Pp. 65-96.
1850
1892
1907
Cents. Per cent.
Cents.
Per cent.
cents. Per cent.
20. 100
23.6 100
52.8 100
29.5 100
127.6
176.4
181. 1
177-5
651
747
346
602
300.3 1534
398.1 1686
333 I 631
310. 1052
344 Forestry Quarterly.
MISCELLANEOUS.
Hill forests are frequently drawn upon to
Forest furnish a water supply for towns and fac-
Interests tories. Permission to enter a forest and
and construct ditches to secure a water supply
Water should be given only after a careful investi-
Supply. gation shows that the water can be spared
and after the conditions under which it is
to be taken are fully agreed upon between the forest owner and
the water user. Drainage may remove too much water and seri-
ously injure the stand; even the drainage which is a part of road
building may have deleterious results. The following are usually
the most essential points to be covered: (a) Courses: The head
ditches should be planned to remove the water from the damper
sites and should be led across the dryer to give them the benefit
of seepage water. Ditches should not pass through localities
liable to windfall, (b) Construction: Floodproof construction is
in the interest of both the forest owner and the water user.
Breaks are usually of greater permanent damage to the forest,
however, and the owner will do well to see that ditches are
properly constructed, Lattices where feeders enter the ditch serve
to catch rubbish and prevent clogging. Trow lattices are best,
(c) Bridges: Bridges are necessary to permit proper access to
the forest. Their location and construction should be definitely
agreed upon beforehand. The ditches are to be properly fenced
where they run beside the road and at other necessary places, (d)
Weirs: The streams emptying into the ditches should be provided
with weirs and the water in the natural courses never allowed to
dry up completely. Weirs should be firmly anchored to prevent
displacement, (e) Maintenance: Constant care is necessary to
remedy small damages before they become serious. Some care
can be given by the forest personnel, but the employment by the
water user of a competent person to care for the ditches is abso-
lutely indispensable, (f) Contingent Damages: The right to con-
struct ditches and take water from a forest will usually be given
at a fixed annual rental rather than sold outright. The value of
the land occupied will be calculated and a rental set, which repre-
sents interest on this value ; consideration must not only be given
the stand of trees which occupies the ground but to all other
Periodical Literature. 345
items of value such as hunting and fishing privileges which may
be rendered less valuable.
Biniges iiber Wasserabgahe aus G ebirgszvaldung en . Silva. November
18, 1910. Pp. 361-62.
Last fall with the abandonment of the
Modern forest school at Aschaffenburg (see F. Q.
Forestry Vol. IX, p. 162), the whole method of edu-
Bducation. eating foresters for the service in the State
forest administration of Bavaria was
changed and rearranged by royal decree. As we are at present
concerned in standardizing forestry education on this continent,
it may be of interest to brief this decree for comparison with our
own ways. It is especially of interest as the education in Bavaria
is carried on at a University, corresponding to what we would
call a post-graduate course. Entrance requires graduation from
a gymnasium, which corresponds to a good arts course into the
junior year.
The time of study is four years with professional work, with
two examinations, a so-called intermediary and a final theoretical
examination. The latter which concerns all forestry subjects (9
mentioned), besides law, politic economy and surveying, is oral
and public; the former, both oral and written, which may be
taken after two years of study, comprises the natural history and
mathematical, physical, fundamental and accessory subjects,
which are recited in six groups, as follows :
Group A — ^Experimental Chemistry (morganic and organic),
Forestal Chemistry, especially the chemical parts of
forest technology.
Group B — Mineralogy, Geology, Petrography, Forestal soil
knowledge, with the fundamentals of Agricultural
Chemistry.
Group C — Botany (Morphology, Taxonomy), Plant Anatomy —
Physiology — Pathology and Plant Protection.
Group D — Zoology (Biology and Systematic), Natural History of
forestally important animals, especially forest ento-
mology.
Group B — Elements of Higher Mathematics, Descriptive Geom-
etry, Geodesy with special reference to forestal needs.
Group P — General Meteorology and Climatology, principles of
weather prediction.
346 Forestry Quarterly.
Curiously enough, Physics is omitted — a somewhat serious, in-
explainable omission.
In addition, a synoptical course of lectures, on which no exami-
nation is given, "Introduction to Forestry," with excursions to
the woods, is to supplant the former requirement of eight months'
sojourn on one of the ranges.
The examinations are held not by the teaching staff but by
special commissions appointed by the Minister of the Interior.
Although part of the studies may be accomplished at other
institutions, practical considerations will probably rarely admit
of any other choice but Munich alone.
Apparently our best schools are not far behind this supposedly
most advanced curriculum.
After 19 1 4, only ten aspirants will be admitted to study for the
State Service.
Die Reorganisation des forstlichen Unterrichts in Bayern. Forstwissen-
schaftlishes Centralblatt. February, 1911. Pp. 100-108.
OTHER PERIODICAL LITERATURE.
American Forestry, XVII, 191 1, —
State Ownership of Forests, Pp. 191-196.
Advocates gradual acquirement of state forests in New
England for educational purposes and the raising of timber.
Some New Ideas in Controlling Forest Fires. Pp. 197-203.
Describes some new fighting apparatus which was used on
the Arkansas National Forest last year.
Microscopic Work on the Structure of Wood. Pp. 206-
214.
An outline of the work planned by the section of timber
physics at the Madison laboratory.
State Forests in Vermont. Pp. 253-256.
Descriptive.
Forest Fires in North America: A German View. Pp.
273-279.
Other Periodical Literature. 347
Purple Basket Willozu. Pp. 280-287.
Describes this willow with its varieties and hybrids, and
the treatment for commercial purposes.
Forest Leaves, XIII, 1911, —
Convention of Pennsylvania Foresters. Pp. 19-20.
Need of Farm Woodlots in the Central States. Pp. 21-23.
National Forest Reserves for the Bast. P. 26.
Gives the provisions of the Weeks Bill.
Sierra Club Bulletin, VIII, 191 1,—
Fire and the Forest — the Theory of "Light Burning." Pp.
43-47-
The Ohio Naturalist, XI, 191 1,—
The Classification of Plants, VI. Pp. 289-298,
The Ancient Vegetation of Ohio and its Ecological Condi-
tions for Growth. Pp. 312-329.
Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada, IX, 191 1, —
Relation of Logs to Pulp and Paper. Pp. 71-72.
The Forestry Convention at Quebec. Pp. 83-87.
Wood Pulp Trade in Scandanavia. Pp. 88-89.
The Journal of the Board of Agriculture, XVII, 191 1, —
Moor Cultivation in Germany.. Pp. 999-1002.
[XIII],-
Osier and Willow Cultivation. Pp. 12-18.
Quarterly Journal of Forestry, V, 1911, —
Forestry in Russia. Pp. 101-119.
An account of a valuation of some three hundred thousand
acres in the province of Perm.
Melampsoridium betulinum. Pp. 137-139.
Form Factors of Various Conifers. Pp. 140-145.
The Gardeners' Chronicle, XLIX, 191 1, —
American Hawthorns: Some New Arborescent Species.
Pp. 17; 36-37.
34^ Forestry Quarterly.
Descriptions of nineteen new species of the Tomentosa
Group.
Sandahvood. Pp. 20-21.
An account of the South India tree and its disease known
as "spike."
Street Trees and Gas. P. 44; 139.
A Nezv Genus of Coniferae. Pp. 66-68 ; 84 ; 253.
A description of the genus Fokienia of the Cupressineae,
from China.
Willow Trees Killed by Armillaria mellea. Pp. 100 loi.
List of the Bamboos in Cultivation at Kew. P. 115.
The Indian Forester, XXXVI, 1910,—
The State Pine Forests of the Landes and Girondc De-
partments. Pp. 633-651.
A short description with special reference to the resin in-
dustry.
The Big Game Resources of the Empire. Pp. 715-725.
Forestry in Korea. Pp. 745-746.
[XXXVII, 1911],—
Wood Pulp Testing at the Forestry Court Cellulose Lab-
oratory. Pp. 30-34.
Forest Raihvays for the Extraction of Timber in Burma,
Double Rail and Monorail. Pp. 34-54.
Forest Problems in America. Pp. 109-115.
The Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, XXII, 191 1, —
Killing Green Timber. P. 25.
Description of method of exterminating scrub growth by
chemicals.
Budding and Grafting. Pp. 59-66; 101-108.
Complete description of methods, with illustrations.
NEWS AND NOTES.
In two opinions rendered May first the Supreme Court of the
United States not only upheld the constitutionality of the estab-
lishment of the National Forests, but it settled, once for all, that
the Federal Government, and not the States, may say how re-
served public land shall be used.
The entire course concurred with Justice Lamar, who an-
nounced the opinions when settling the cases of Fred Light, who
will remain enjoined from allowing his cattle to graze in Holy
Cross National Forest, and of Pierre Grimaud, K. P. Carajous
and of Antonio Inda, who are under indictment for grazing sheep
in Sierre National Forest, in violation of Regulation 45 of the Sec-
retary of Agriculture.
"The United States can prohibit absolutely and fix the terms on
which its property may be used," said the Justice in the Colorado
case. "As it can withhold or reserve the land, it can do so indefi-
nitely. It is true that the United States does not and cannot hold
property as a monarch may for private and personal purposes,
but that does not lead to the conclusion that it is without the
rights incident to ownership, for the Constitution declares that
'Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful
rules and regulations respecting the territory or property belong-
ing to the United States.'
"All the public lands of the nation are held in trust for the
people of the whole country. And it is not for the courts to say
how that trust shall be administered ; that is for Congress to de-
termine.
"The courts cannot compel it to set aside the lands for settle-
ment, nor to suffer them to be used for agricultural or grazing
purposes; nor interfere when in the exercise of its discretion,
Congress establishes the forest reserves for what it decides to be
national and public purposes. In the same way and in the exercise
of the same trust, it may disestablish a reserve and devote the
property to some other national and public purpose.
"Those are rights incident to proprietorship, to say nothing of
the power of the United States as a sovereign over the property
belonging to it.
"Even a private owner should be entitled to protection against
willful trespasses, and statutes, providing that damages done by
animals cannot be recovered unless the land had been enclosed
with a fence of the size and material required, do not give per-
350 Forestry Quarterly.
mission to the owner of cattle to use his neighbors' land as a pas-
they have no application to cases where they are driven upon un-
ture. They are intended to condone trespasses by straying cattle ;
fenced land in order that they may feed there.
"Hence laws do not authorize wanton and willful trespass, nor
do they afford immunity to those who, in disregard of property
rights, turn loose their cattle under circumstances showing that
they were intended to graze upon the land of another. This the
defendant did under circumstances equivalent to driving his cattle
upon the forest reserve."
In the California case. Justice Lamar upheld the rules which the
Secretary of Agriculture had promulgated for the control of the
reserves. He said that the "violation of reasonable rules regulat-
ing the use and occupancy of the property is made a crime not by
the Secretary of Agriculture, but by Congress."
It was difficult, he said, to separate the legislative power to make
laws and the administrative power to promulgate rules and regu-
lations to put the laws into force.
"The offense is not against the Secretary, but, as the indictment
properly concludes, 'contrary to the laws of the United States and
the peace and dignity thereof.' "
The reforestation of treeless areas on the National forests is
to be carried out on a rather large scale by the Forest Service, as
is evidenced by the fact that broadcast seeding is to be under-
taken on about 13,000 acres and about 800 acres are to be planted
with seedlings this spring. District 6 leads in the extent of the
areas to be sown, the estimated acreage being 5,616, as against the
next highest of 3,445 acres in District 2. District i comes next
with 2,456 acres; District 3 has 1,237 acres; and in Districts 4
and 5, 177 and 306 acres, respectively, will be sown. In the plant-
ing of seedlings, District i leads with 400 acres, and the work on
Districts 2 and 3 involves 200 and 128 acres, respectively; while
the combined acreage in the other three districts will be less than
100 acres. In Florida the Forest Service has recently planted
several acres of Eucalyptus in the Everglades, in co-operation
with the State ; and another plantation has been established near
Tampa, in co-operation with the Tampa Board of Trade. The
planting of Eucalyptus on the Ocala National Forest will probably
be postponed until the rainy season begins. Several hundred
pounds of maritime pine seed are also to be sown this spring on
the Florida Forests.
Neivs and Notes. 351
Several matters of interest regarding the forest work in Con-
necticut are reported. Legislation has not advanced far enough
for a summary of the results to be given, but one bill has passed
which creates a commission composed of the State Forester and
Tax Commissioner and three others appointed by the Governor,
who shall investigate the subject of the taxation of woodland and
leport with recommendations to the Assembly in 1913. The es-
tablishment of forest plantations throughout the State has pro-
gressed favorably during the spring, although no effort has been
made to push this work because of the lack of suitable plant
material at both the experiment station nursery and from com-
mercial nurserymen. The State nursery has sold to private owners
for planting this year, approximately 300,000 trees, and the total
work the experiment station nursery will be able to supply ap-
proximately a million trees, and two private nurseries will have
several million additional. It is intended that as soon as the com-
mercial companies can supply the demand of private owners, the
station nursery will be maintained only for the production of
stock for experimental purposes and for planting on State land.
Owing to the late spring, forest fires in the East have not been as
serious as usual, and Connecticut, in common with other regions,
has had few serious fires, the largest area thus far burned over
being about 1,000 acres. By way of comparison, the number of
fires in Connecticut in 1910 is reported at 834, with a total area of
47,443 acres burned over. The estimated damage to standing tim-
ber was $148,600, the damage to forest products and buildings
$28,000, and the cost of fire fighting approximately $10,000. The
cost of the fire warden service per acre of woodland in Connecti-
cut is estimated at .7 cent for the year 1910, while in previous
years it has been as low as .2 cent. The cost in 1910 probably rep-
resents the maximum, since the season was abnormal.
Charles P. Wilbur, who has been Assistant State Forester of
New Jersey, will be State Fire Warden and organize the new ser-
vice which the amendments to the law provide for.
In addition to the amendments to existing laws, the New Jersey
forest legislation has provided for a new office of State Plant
Pathologist. The service such an official can do is evidenced by
the fact that late in April a plantation of 10,000 white pine trees
was found infected with the blister rust. The attitude of the
352 Forestry Quarterly.
people toward the forest service is shown by the fact that the
owners of this plantation promptly agreed to its destruction.
As a result of the widespread forest fire damage last year, or
as a reflection of more enlightened public sentiment, or perhaps
of both, various State Legislatures have passed, or have under
consideration, new forest laws or amendments to the old statutes
which are bound to be helpful, particularly in relation to forest
fires. In the West, California has added to its forest law of
1905 an educational office and the authorization of volunteer fire
wardens under a comprehensive fire code ; Washington has raised
its annual appropriation from $23,000 to $38,000; while Oregon
provided $30,000 a year for a State Forester and a working pro-
tective organization. Idaho made no change in the forest laws,
but maintained the Fallon law, which is considered effective in
its provisions for co-operation between the State and individual
owners on an equal cost basis. In Minnesota a new forestry law
has been passed which embodies many new features and is
acknowledged to be the best law of the kind in any of the States.
In the East, Pennsylvania has before the Legislature a bill pro-
viding a better protection for the State Reserves; and in New
Jersey, the Forest Commission is prepared to extend and reorgan-
ize the forest fire service by the appointment of four division
fire wardens and by various other changes in the laws and organ-
ization.
It is announced that Mr. F. A. Elliott has been appointed State
Forester of Oregon, with headquarters at Salem. Mr. Elliott,
prior to his appointment, was assistant superintendent of the log-
ging department of the Charles K. Spaulding Logging Company.
His thorough knowledge of the forest conditions in Oregon and
his wide acquaintance with the manufacturing and timber-owning
individuals arid organizations should insure close co-operation and
effective action in forest protection. Technical forestry and con-
servative lumbering, beyond mere fundamentals, cannot be ex-
pected in Oregon at the present time, but if reasonable control of
forest fires can be achieved, the way will be paved for the future
reforestation of burns and the cutting of second crops.
The annual meeting of the Western Forestry and Conservation
Association was held in Spokane, April 3. This association is the
Nczvs and Notes. 353
parent body and acts as a clearing house for the other organiza-
tions whose aim is the protection of the western forests. The
Spokane meeting was largely attended by representatives of other
fire protective organizations, and by railroad, State and Forest
Service officials. Mr. E. T. Allen, Forester for the Association,
presented his annual report and outlined the program of work for
the coming year. He called particular attention to the favorable
legislative action of several Western States during the year, and
to the function the association can perform in directing and ob-
taining beneficial forest fire legislation. The educational work is
being carried into the schools and taken up with the railroads, and
the scope of the fire protective associations' work broadened in
many ways. Mr. C. S. Chapman, manager of the Oregon Fire
Protective Association, reported that the organization of his asso-
ciation was perfected on January i, and is now on a good working
basis. The Washington Fire Association has as a new chief fire
warden, succeeding Mr. D. P. Simons, Mr. J. L. Bridge, a promi-
nent Seattle timberman.
Owing to the alarm created by the spread of the chestnut blight
westward through Pennsylvania, the State Legislature has under
consideration a bill providing for the appointment of a commis-
sion to study the disease and determine methods of control, and
giving authority to order the removal of infected trees when con-
sidered necessary. The commission, which is to serve without
pay, can work through the State Department of Forestry or inde-
pendently, at its option. The bill carries an appropriation of $35,-
000 for the expenses of the commission and $250,000 for the
establishment of quarantine lines or other methods of control, in
case a definite remedy is found, this latter sum being available
only upon the recommendation of the commission and under
authority from the Governor.
Rather unexpected success has followed the initial efforts of
the Pennsylvania Railroad Company to improve the forest con-
ditions on typical second-growth hardwood lands in Pennsyl-
vania. The fundamental aim in this work was to utilize the
mature and fire-damaged timber, remove the inferior species, and
leave the land potentially more productive than before. It was
not expected that the returns would much more than meet ex-
354 Forestry Quarterly.
penses, particularly since each individual tree was marked for
cutting and conservative methods followed throughout. In utiliz-
ing the timber cut, a market was developed for the low-grade
material and for miscellaneous products, such as cordwood, pin-
wood, posts, bark, etc., while the tops, small trees, etc., were con-
verted into charcoal. On the 1,200 acres cut over during the
three-year period ending January i, 191 1, material of a gross sale
value of $88,000, or $73 per acre, was produced. The expenses
amounted to about $60,000, or $50 per acre, making the average
net return about $23 per acre. It is impossible to say what the
profits would have been if the usual lumbering methods had been
followed, nor can the cost be put on an accurate board-feet basis,
owing to the miscellaneous character of the products.
Dr. Shitaro Kawai, Professor of Forestry Engineering in the
University of Tokio, Japan, arrived in Seattle on January 6, and
since that time has been on an extended tour of investigation with
Mr. Yeiichi Shigematsu, of the Japanese Forest Service, who has
been in this country since last June. Dr. Kawai is at present in
charge of the forest work in Formosa for the Japanese Govern-
ment, and in this connection visited this country to learn at first
hand our methods of carrying on lumbering operations. The in-
vestigations of these two Japanese foresters have covered visits
to saw mills, logging camps, wood-preserving plants, saw works,
wire-rope works, and in short, to representative points of interest
in connection with the manufacture and utilization of timber in
any form. Dr. Kawai is a thoroughly-trained forester, having
spent six years in Germany, during which time he took the full
course at Tiibingen and special work at other forest schools. His
first trip to this country was in 1903, when he visited the New
York State School at Cornell University.
In the forest planting operations of the Pennsylvania Railroad
Company this spring, between 400,000 and 500,000 trees, mostly
red oak and Scotch pine, will be used in establishing permanent
plantations. The work this year has been somewhat curtailed
owing to the retrenchment policy in effect on nearly all Eastern
railroads. In the Company Forest Nursery about 1,500,000
forest trees and 137,000 ornamental trees and shrubs were in
stock when spring opened. This stock will be reduced at least
Nezvs and Notes. 355
by 500,000 by the shipments for spring planting, and increased by
45,000 ornamental plants imported from France and Holland and
by 200,000 privet cuttings. The nursery area has been increased
by additions of about 5 acres to a total of 38 acres, and in the old
nursery and additions the planting this spring comprises approxi-
mately 250 bushels of red oak acorns and 50 pounds of coniferous
seed; while about 300,000 one-year-old conifers will be trans-
ferred to transplant beds. The extensive experiments in fall "
planting made last year indicate that in the climate of Pennsyl-
vania both nursery and field planting can be carried on most
successfully in the spring.
President Taft's appointment of Hon. Curtis Guild, ex-gover-
nor of Massachusetts and President of the American Forestry
Association, as Ambassador to Russia, is well received and is a
deserved tribute to Mr. Guild's work and ability. The members
of the American Forestry Association, however, and particularly
the Board of Directors, will keenly regret losing the head of their
Association, for under Mr. Guild's leadership new life and spirit
have been injected into the Association and its magazine, and
several plans for increasing the scope and value of the work are
being carried out. Not only is the Board more active than for
years past, but an Executive Committee is at work, headed by Dr..
Woodward, President of the Carnegie Institute, and an advisory
board of editors has been appointed to direct the policy and
broaden the field of the magazine. The Association and magazine
under the new regime deserves the support of the technical
foresters because it is really for the furtherance of their work
and powers that this voluntary public service organization is main-
tained.
Under the New Jersey Act of 1909, the railroads of the State
have constructed approximately 300 miles of fire lines, this work
having been done entirely at the cost of the railroads. The work
during the past year has been practically voluntary on the part of
the railroads, owing to the question as to the constitutionality of
the law, but railroad officials seem agreed that in the pine section
of the State at least, these fire lines are of great practical value,
and their construction will no doubt be continued even if the law
is not upheld in the courts. Almost no fires have been started
23
356 I'orestry Quarterly.
where the Hnes are made, and the results have been very beneficial
to both the State and the railroads.
Other items of interest from New Jersey are that forest plant-
ings in the State will this spring aggregate not less than 300,000
trees, most of them being made on private property. The Forest
Commission is also authorized to take up actively the extension of
shade-tree work, and it will do this by furnishing an assistant
forester to any community which has an organized shade-tree
commission. A campaign for the improvement of woodlots is
also planned. This will be carried out by having a man drive
from farm to farm, giving practical demonstrations to the owners
of the property. As in other States, however, fire protection is
deemed the first essential, and if fires can be suppressed, the
natural forests will yield results very quickly and at low cost.
The department of forestry of the New York State Forest,
Fish and Game Commission has sold to private parties during the
past spring 1,774,000 trees, the total number requested on orders
amounting to over two million. White pine transplants were in
greatest demand, with white pine seedlings second, while Norway
spruce transplants and Scotch pine transplants occupied third and
fourth places, respectively. The Salamanca nursery has been
nearly doubled in size, and a nursery of five acres has been estab-
lished at Saratoga, making a total of six nurseries which are
being operated by the State. In connection with the nursery and
planting work, the white pine blister rust has been found on three
importations, one of them from France and the other two from
the well-known Heins nurseries, near Hamburg. The prompt
discovery of this disease will prevent its spread from the importa-
tions this year. The 700,000 two-year-old white pine seedlings
which were imported from the Heins nursery in 1908 and trans-
planted to the Salamanca nursery have from, time to time shown
the existence of the rust, and the remaining 500,000 seedlings
were this spring condemned by the State Department of Agri-
culture and burned. In the matter of fire protection, five new
fire stations have been added, making a total of 27, in the Adiron-
dacks and Catskills. The paid force during the coming summer
will consist of 5 Superintendents of Fires, about 65 fire patrol-
men and 27 observers on mountain stations.
News and Notes. 357
Mr. F. W. Besley, State Forester of Maryland, has established
two demonstration forests this spring, one near Bowie and the
other near Princess Anne, Md. The one at Bowie contains twenty
acres of which about fifteen acres, comprising a young stand of
mixed hardwoods, will be managed as a woodlot to demonstrate
methods of thinnings and improvement cuttings. The other five
acres is an old field on which planting experiments will be con-
ducted and probably a small nursery started. A three-acre plan-
tation of loblolly pine {Piniis taeda) has been started, using
three-year old transplants. The object is to introduce this valu-
able timber tree into a part of the State where it is not indigenous
and where it may supplant the less valuable pitch and scrub pine.
The demonstration forest near Princess Anne is a portion of an
800 acre tract, and contains a variety of forest types. The
demonstration area covers about 30 acres, including the field type
now coming up in pine thicket, a pure loblolly pine stand 40 years
old, a mixed pine-hardwood stand 30 to 40 years old, and a virgin
swamp hardwood type. These different blocks will be given
scientific treatment. The old field portion which was only
partially seeded, has been fully stocked by transplanting small
trees from the heavily seeded to the open places and the other
work will be taken up this coming fall. These with the two that
were established last year make four demonstration forests
under State supervision and control. The ownership of the land
does not pass to the State, but by agreement the State Forester
makes the plans and superintends the work, while the owner
furnishes all labor that may be necessary. These demonstration
forests, together with the four State Reserves, will serve to show
what practical forest management will do in the different types
of woodland in the state. The growing interest in forest manage-
ment throughout the State is shown by the increased number of
applications for advice in handling forest lands. Since October
I St, twenty-eight woodlots and timber tracts, aggregating over
8,000 acres, have been examined by the State Forester and plans
of management proposed. A number of other applications are
yet to be acted upon.
The forest fire loss in Maryland for 1910 because of peculiar
conditions was greater than during the previous year. Sixty-five
fires were reported by the Forest Wardens as burning over
18,000 acres of woodland and causing a damage of $97,000, in-
35^ Forestry Quarterly.
eluding a few buildings. It is noteworthy that nearly half of the
acreage burned over and half of the damage was caused by one
fire in a section where forest fires rarely occur and where there
were no forest wardens. What made this fire so destructive was
an extremely dry spring, and large areas of fallen pine timber
broken and blown down by a severe storm the year previous. In
the mountain counties, where there is the most danger from fires
and where most of the wardens are located, the loss in 1910 was
comparatively small.
The Announcement of the Colorado School of Forestry of
Colorado College, issued in May, offers a four-year undergraduate
course, leading to the degree of Forest Engineer, and a two-year
graduate course, leading to the degree of Master of Forestry.
The enrollment in the undergraduate course during the past
year has been thirty-six. The School is in charge of Prof. P. T.
Coolidge, as Director. Mr. E. I. Terry, a graduate of the Har-
vard School of Forestry, was appointed as an Instructor in
Forestry in January. Since his graduation, Mr. Terry has been
in the Forest Service on the National Forest. The Ranger
course which was given last year in co-operation with the Forest
Service, until the decision of the Attorney General made its dis-
continuance necessary, will probably be given in the fall by the
Faculty of the School alone.
The Forestry Department of the University of Montana con-
templates organizing a summer cruise for foresters. The course as
planned would include visits to the best stands of western timber,
viewing the operations of the Forest Service on the National
Forests, such as nurseries and plantings, timber sales, patrols, fire-
fighting, reconnaissance, grazing, etc. It would also include visits
to some of the large private milling and logging operations. At
the various points visited appropriate lectures on dendrology,
silviculture and lumbering are to be given. As most of the time
will be spent in the woods, the cruise will serve to give men ex-
perience in camping, packing, riding, etc., and at the same time be
largely recreation. The number of persons admitted to the party
must necessarily be limited, probably to 25 or 30. It would be
organized largely for the accommodation of men in eastern
forestry schools who may desire to become acquainted with
Nezvs and Notes.
359
western forest conditions, and to see as much as possible of the
practical operations in forestry during a period of from six to
eight weeks.
The Bihmore Forest School has recently returned from its
winter quarters in Germany for its summer sojourn in America.
Following the well-known precepts of the Director, the students
have participated in silvicultural and utilizational operations in
the forest in the neighborhood of Darmstadt, estimated timber
in the Black Forest and have studied conditions and operations in
Saxony and in Bavaria, (in the latter in the Gramschatz Forest),
and in the Spessart mountains. In certain of the Bavarian
forests single white oak logs sometimes sell for $400 per M for
veneering purposes, and 400-year old trees have an average
ftumpage value of $178 per M. Many saw-mills and wood-work-
ing establishments were visited, giving an opportunity to compare
( icrman with American methods, and observations were made on
the behavior of numerous American species planted in Germany.
Nursery inspectors in the employ of the State Department of
Agriculture of New York, report to have found German blister
rust in three year old white pine transplants imported from J.
Heins' nurseries. These trees were imported this spring and
arrived in New York in March. Six trees with orange spores
were found in a single thousand. It would appear from this that
th J,?nger from importing German white pine is not passed.
Quebracho lands in Paraguay are sold for $6,000 to $7,000 per
square league (4,644 1/8 acres). Most of the capital invested is
from Argentine. The quebracho trees are so irregularly scattered
that it is deemed necessary to acquire 50 to 100 square leagues in
order to get a fair average amount per league. The stands are
so scattered that the investor usually engages in the cattle business
also. No basis so far has been determined for valuation of
Quebracho lands. The number of trees per league is a mere
guess. The handling of labor seems to govern the returns from
investment.
Water transportation is essential, for freight rates are very
high. Quebracho logs are quoted in Hamburg at $22.50 per 1,000
360 Forestry Quarterly.
kilos (2,204.6 pounds). Extract of Quebracho $7.40 per 100
kilos.
From an extract of a paper read by Dr. Allen F. Odell, Pro-
fessor of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, on A Chemical
Study of Cypress, it is learned that among the many products
obtained from various chemical and distillation processes, a com-
pound called cypressene has been isolated with the creosote oils.
It is this compound which gives cypress its great durability. The
chemist thinks that if this were used as a preservative, for in-
stance in Oak, the wood would have an indefinite life.
The report on prices issued by the Forest Service shows slight
improvement for the first quarter of 191 1 for the western
market, while yellow pine advanced considerably over the pre-
ceding quarter, other species less so. In hardwoods only the
common woods show a tendency to increase, while the standard
woods remain unchanged or declined slightly.
A patent has been granted on another cement cross tie. In the
cement a block of wood is so dovetailed that it can be easily re-
moved and replaced. This block rests on a cushion of cypress
shavings which is supposed to overcome the non-elasticity of the
concrete.
Per cu. ft. 1st class 38 to 40c.
2d " 33
" 3d " 23 to 25c.
From a report of U. S. Consul at Vladivostok, Siberia, it is
learned that in Eastern Siberia the Russian Government has been
cruising and surveying the Amur River system which comprises
about 400.000 square miles, available for logging. The stand
averages 45 trees per acre which mature in 100 years, thus ii5>-
200,000 trees could be cut annually without diminishing the
forest. There are no privately owned forests. Timber can be
taken out by water. British and German firms are asking for
square logs, planks and lumber. Prices export f. o. b. steamer
at Vladivostok for cedar lumber:
News and Notes. 361
The British Columbia Government has rescinded its order en-
forcing the use of the B. C. log scale. Pending further investi-
gation, the interior operators will be permitted to use the Doyle
scale for the payment of royalty.
Shipments of Aspen are made to Japan for use in manufacture
of matches.
COMMENT.
It is only fitting that Dr. Hugh P. Baker, one of Professor
Mayr's most recent students, should have extolled his master and
great teacher as he has in the appreciation which we have gladly
placed in the front of this issue.
No one will deny that Prof. Mayr has been most fertile and
suggestive in his literary work, but the sober critic who did not
come under his personal sway and who did not know anything of
his personality except what was revealed in his writings will
probably be inclined to discount some of the praise. The one
thing that must impress an unbiased reader of Prof. Mayr's writ-
ings is, on the personal side, the self assertiveness warring against
all others, and, on the material side, the sometimes reckless as-
sertion of facts, the argument of ipse dixit, frequent inconsisten-
cies and unjustifiable generalizations, all of which make one hesi-
tate to accept at full value his conclusions. While he sought the
truth, his personal fame seemed dearer to him. Many unpleasant
literary scraps, which the American dislikes, but the German
seems unfortunately too often to court, stand to his credit, or
rather debit, and of his new doctrines many will not survive him
long.
Mayr's last silvicultural proposition, for instance, — the mixed
forest in smallest stands — is one of them which we may designate
as stillborn, for even in the most intensively managed larger forest
administrations it would become entirely impractical. This is at
once apparent, if we contemplate that a 6,000 acre proposition in
80 year rotation, if it were divided according to Mayr into small
stands of say 5 acres, there would be 1,200 such stands, each of
which requiring, also according to Mayr's conception, thinnings
and final harvest cuts, altogether some 180 fellings annually,
besides underplantings and repair plantings of not less than 80 to
100 acres annually — a physically impracticable operation, not to
mention its cost.
Nevertheless we do not mean to detract from Prof. Mayr's un-
questionable merit in having advanced silvicultural thought in a
more modern direction, in which he has, however, a number of
notable competitors.
Comnicni. 363
The intensive management of the National Forests involves one
of the largest forest planting projects ever undertaken in this or
any other country, and at the same time it is one of the most
difficult ones, owing to the fire danger and to the unfavorable soil
and climatic conditions in many parts of the West. For several
years planting was looked upon as one of the least important
functions of the Forest Service, and, of course, during the for-
mative period of the National Forest organization, other things
were more urgent. Secretary Wilson, however, has always been
an ardent advocate of reforestation, particularly by means of
broadcast sowing, and the amount of work undertaken by the Ser-
vice in both direct seeding and the planting of seedlings is being
greatly increased each year. It is understood that definite plans
have been made for some years ahead, and that eventually the
annual reforestation program will involve a total area of 200,000
acres. While this work is commendable from nearly every stand-
point the question naturally arises whether the practical difficulties
incident to drought, fires, and poor soil will not lead to failure in
many cases unless the way is paved by extensive experimental
work. The failure of many of the earlier planting projects can be
clearly traced to lack of definite knowledge as to what could be
successfully accomplished under the varying conditions on the
National Forests, and the reduction in size and the abandonment
of several of the earlier nurseries shows the necessity for a well-
grounded plan before going ahead on a large scale. For some
time after the transfer of the reserves to the Department of Agri-
culture the people of the West were more or less antagonistic, and
since water is one of their most important assets, its conservation
by the reforestation of watersheds was undertaken at several
points. Particular attention was given to the reestablishment of
the forest cover on city watersheds, in the National Forests, and
as it has later developed, this work was started in some cases
where success was practically out of the question, owing to the
unfavorable local conditions prevailing. A notable example is
that of the work in the semi-arid mountains of southern Cali-
fornia, where a combination of drought, chaparral, and damage
by rodents made extensive reforestation a physical impossibility.
While much of this work was started experimentally, it soon went
far beyond this point, and the ultimate failure of several of the
projects was all the more apparent because of their size. These
364 Forestry Quarterly.
earlier experiences have served to put the nursery work and the
planting of seedlings on a more restricted, yet more successful
basis, and it is to be hoped that the lessons learned will be applied
to the broadcast sowing. It would be extremely unfortunate if
this work should have to be curtailed and a large part of it
doomed to failure because sufificient experimental sowing had not
been done to demonstrate by what methods and to what extent it
can be successfully carried out.
The trade situation in Southern Yellow Pine presents a rather
peculiar feature, a growing strength in prices having developed at
the beginning of the year with a rather sharp increase during the
latter part of the winter, particularly in the lower grades. This
would call for no comment if business conditions were normal and
the demand sufficient to justify a price increase; but it has come
in the face of very moderate buying and with little prospect of a
revival of brisk trade conditions in the near future. The com-
paratively small stock of material in the hands of retail dealers
and of wood-consuming plants at the beginning of the year, and
the fact that the railroads and other large consumers did not buy
heavily in 1910, led to the forecast that trade conditions would
improve during the early part of 191 1 and the demand for lumber
increase. This assumption has not been borne out, and the
lumber-consuming industries have continued to buy only in suf-
ficient quantities to meet necessary current needs ; so that the
advance in price of $2.00 to $2.50 per M. has not been justified
by the demand nor by the consequent reduction of the stock at
the mills which would result from active buying. The only
feasible explanation seems to be that the manufacturers, following
the past two years of poor business and the consequent difficulty
of meeting obligations, have been forced to put prices on a higher
basis, and having done so, are holding them up regardless of
general trade conditions. Railroad cross-tie prices have not been
advanced, but on the contrary ties have been selling during the
past winter at considerably less than during the preceding summer.
The situation as regards yellow pine stumpage is also worthy of
comment in the above connection, stumpage prices having held
firm during the past several years of depression, regardless of
the rather wide fluctuations, mostly downward, which have taken
place in the lumber market.
Comment. 365
The extended tour of this country now being made by Dr.
Shitaro Kawai, Professor of Forest Engineering in the Imperial
University at Tokio, Japan, mentioned under "News and Notes"
in this issue which has been widely commented upon in the lumber
trade journals, calls attention to the rather remarkable progress
which Japan is making in the line of timber utilization and forest
management. The American forester naturally has little detailed
or authentic knowledge regarding forest conditions in the
Japanese Empire, and the common conception of the lumber in-
dustry in that country is of two coolies sawing out boards by
hand from logs supported on an elevated platform, or of saw mills
where only the crudest kind of machinery is used and practically
everything done by hand labor. This picture is probably true of
general conditions in Japan proper, but in the face of this it is
rather startling to learn from Dr. Kawai of the distinctly pro-
gressive and extensive sawmill operations which are being in-
augurated in the Arisan Forest, in Formosa. This forest, for-
merly the property of an individual, was turned over to the
Japanese Government in 1908, and in the development and ex-
ploitation of this 25,000-acre tract, expenditures aggregating over
a million dollars are being made, and modern methods of con-
servative lumbering are to be followed. Forty-one miles of log-
ging railway have been constructed into this forest from Kagi
station, on the Government railway in Formosa, at a cost of
$50,000 a mile. A large saw and planing-mill of American
manufacture is to be constructed, and American logging ma-
chinery will be used in getting out the timber. It is expected that
a creosoting plant will be built in connection with the sawmill, and
close utilization will be the rule both in the logging operations and
at the mill. The estimated stand in the Arisan Forest is six hun-
dred million cubic feet of softwoods, of which about 40 per cent,
is Chmuaecyparis obtusa (Hinoki in Japanese), and 60 per cent,
largely Chamaecyparis formosana (Benibi in Japanese). The
Hinoki is said to be one of the most valuable softwoods in the
world, and somewhat resembles our Douglas fir. The Hinoki
will average 4 to 6 feet in diameter and 150 feet in height, while
occasional trees considerably exceed these dimensions. The
Arisan Forest is located in a wild, mountainous region inhabited
by savages. Although the best timber is found at about 6,000 feet
above sea level, the climatic and soil conditions are believed to be
366 Forestry Quarterly.
very favorable for carrying out a plan of long-time management.
At the present time Formosa imports about two million dollars
worth of lumber annually, a large part of it from the United
States ; but the work which the Japanese Government is now
undertaking is expected to greatly reduce the lumber impor-
tations and at the same time develop a region which, during the
seven centuries the island was under Chinese control, was entirely
uncivilized and isolated. We have good reason to be proud of the
progress made in the practical management of our National
Forests during the past ten years ; yet it is something of a blow to
our pride to find that the Japanese, in a forest which they have
owned only since 1908, are applying methods which are perhaps
more intensive than any we have yet inaugurated, and this in
territory which has been in their possession only since the
Chinese-Japanese war. To give all due credit, we must conclude
that the work in the Arisan forest is the most ambitious forest
project yet attempted in the Orient.
While the past year has been one of perhaps unprecedented
advance in matters of State forest legislation, the new laws have
thus far failed to provide any solution of the vexed question of
forest taxation. Probably the unvarnished truth is that none of
the volunteer associations is ready with definite recommendations ;
while the individuals who hold decided views on the subject are
not in a position to get their ideas enacted into laws, or are too
much at variance between themselves to procure definite results.
Many believe that the tax question is second in importance to that
of fires, and in certain States at least its solution would remove
one of the lumbermen's stock reasons for not cutting for a second
crop. If forest taxation were on a more rational basis, it is still
a surmise whether there would be any appreciable increase in the
amount of non-agricultural land kept under forest. Our whole
tax system is crude and in many ways faulty ; yet industry has not
allowed itself to be materially hampered ; and while better forest
taxation is needed and should be sought, there is no real reason
why forest management should not go merrily on its way pending
the solution of the taxation problem. The States are showing
more liberality in their forest appropriations, and are not only
making laws, but providing machinery to operate them ; so we
may hope that some day they will feel liberal enough to curtail
Comment. 367
present tax revenues slightly for the sake of providing a perpetual
rather than a temporary source of income from their forest lands.
The development of the forest fire association idea in the North-
west and the spirit and effectiveness with which the work is being
conducted, leads to a renewed hope that we may yet see forestry
practiced on private land. The best of it is that foresters are back
of it, and that trained men are at the head of at least two of the
big associations. Yet they are the kind of men who not many
years ago were tolerated by the lumbermen as harmless fanatics.
What would the timberland owners of Washington and Oregon
have said ten years ago if a forester had told them he could reduce
their fire losses to a minimum and apply methods of prevention
and control which were really effective? Capital to the extent of
millions was invested in timber then as now, and the fire danger
was quite as real. It took a full decade of propaganda, backed
by tangible results on the National Forests, to carry conviction
that the new methods — which are not new, but merely system-
atized— were better than the old, which were really no method at
all. The elaborate forest working plan idea failed to convert the
lumberman, the talk of an immediate timber famine failed to
impress him, because he knew better, and all the well-laid schemes
failed to make the timberland owner a forester — because it
wouldn't pay. Then came the forester with ideas on fire protec-
tion, and these have been accepted because they are practical,
necessary, and create a credit balance. In fire protection the
American forester has found himself, and incidentally been dis-
covered by the lumbermen. Following effective fire protection
will come forestry.
In regard to the article on Equipment and Operation of a Ger-
man Seed Extracting Establishment, translated by Mr. S. L.
Moore and printed in our last issue, pp. 26-44, we are advised by
a high authority from Germany, that the article contains a num-
ber of statements which do not correspond to the practice, nor
are accepted for future plans.
Especially the gradual movement of the cones into a continu-
ously rising temperature is said to be a practical impossibility.
A plan for a new, large seed extracting establishment in Marien-
werder is being worked out by Oberforster Haak, an authority
on this subject (See F. Q. vol. VIII, p. 338), which includes the
best modern idea, and we hope eventually to be able to describe it.
Yale University Forest School
NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT
A two-year course is offered, leading to the
degree of Master of Forestry. Graduates of
collegiate institutions of high standing are
admitted upon presentation of their college
diploma, provided they have taken certain pre-
scribed undergraduate courses.
The first term is conducted at Milford, Pike
County, Penn. The session in 19 ii will open
July 5 and continue ten weeks.
For further information, address
JAMES W. TOUMEY, Acting Director, New Haven, Connecticut
The University of Toronto
and University College
Faculties of Art, Medicine, Applied Science, House-
hold Science, Education, Forestry.
The Faculty of Forestry offers a four-year course,
leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in
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For information, apply to the REGISTRAR OF THE UNIVERSITY, or
to th« Secretaries of the respective Faculties.
HARVARD UinVERSITY
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCE
offers a two-years' course in FORESTRY leading to the degree o
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Mass.
UNIVERSITY OF MAINE
ORONO, MAINE
Offers a four-year undergraduate course, leading to the degree of
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The Location and Equipment of the School and the Opportunities offered to
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For detailed information, address
JOHN M. BRISCOE, Department of Forestry, ORONO, MAINE.
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CONTENTS
Page
Forestry and the Lumber Business, 195
By J. E. Rhodes, Secretary, Weyerhauser Lumber
Company.
New View Points in Silviculture, 205
By Raphael Zon.
The White Pines of Montana and Idaho — Their Dis-
tribution, Quality and Uses, 219
By F. I. Rockwell.
Seasonable Variation in the Food Reserves of Trees, 232
By John F. Preston and Frank J. Phillips.
Pith Flecks or Medullary Spots in Wood, 244
By Samuel J. Record.
Silvicultural Treatment of Abandoned Pastures in
Southern New England, 253
By Philip T. Coolidge.
Multiple Volume Table, 261
By Lincoln Crowell.
Supervisors' Meetings at Boise, Idaho, and Ogden,
Utah, 262
An Appreciation of Dr. Henrich Mayr, Ordinary Pro-
fessor of Silviculture, University of
Munich, 268
By Hugh Potter Baker.
Consumption of Basket Willows in the United States
for 1908, 271 ,
By C. D. Mell.
Current Literature, 279
Other Current Literature, 292
Periodical Literature, 301
Other Periodical Literature, 346
News and Notes, 349
Comment, 362
"WFi&ii'
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boardoj
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iv S. Graves, M. A.,
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Yale University,
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Harvard University,
WAi/rK;< ;.;'■;, !:'RD, ]'. ]',.,
Cornell Universiiy.
!.■ i;>-!,;vi ,\. ;''i]CRUNG, F. E.,
/", '. ,t/ r, Penna. R, R. ( .
Frederick Duneap, F, E.,
Forest Service.
Asa S. Wa-
,:K'r Roth, B. S..
University of Mhhiian.
i P, Baker, M. F.,
Pennsylvania State College,
Howe, Ph. D..
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Forest Service.
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Vol. IX.] September, 1911. [No. 3.
THE NEED OF A VIGOROUS POLICY OF ENCOURAG-
ING CUTTING ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS OF
THE PACIFIC COAST.
By Burt P. Kirkland, Forest Superznsor.
Much has been written concerning cutting poHcy, regulation of
annual cut, etc., on the National Forests. While most of the
writers assume to speak for the National Forests as a whole, as
a matter of fact the methods of reconnaissance, cutting regula-
tion, etc., advocated are as a rule not at all adapted to the
National Forests west of the summit of the Cascades, in Wash-
ington and Oregon. These forests are, however, destined to
furnish a far greater portion of the cut from the National Forests
than their area indicates. There is little doubt that of several
National Forests in this region, each will furnish a greater sus-
tained annual yield than the entire National Forest area in some
of the six districts among which the National Forests are dis-
tributed. It seems evident, therefore, both that discussion of
the needs of this particular region by persons familiar with the
true conditions is needed, and that the too frequent practice of
persons familiar with only a limited part of the National Forest
area speaking for the whole is one to be discouraged as not con-
ducive to a proper public understanding of National Forest con-
ditions. Before entering into the subject matter proper of this
article, a brief discussion of some of the special conditions pre-
sent in the region will aid in understanding the conclusions aimed
at.
Conditions Which Necessitate Distinct Methods oe
Cutting and Regeneration in This Region.
<y> In most of the National Forest regions what is practically a
T-H selection system is now in vogue. As the species involved are
Zl^ Forestry Quarterly.
often light demanding and unadapted to a true selection system,
it is probable that this will, as time goes on, more nearly ap-
proach a system of reproduction under shelterwood except where
a strip or group system is used. However this may be, the fact
remains that in those regions the smaller trees cannot now be*
utilized in most places, and that they are of sufficient value in
themselves and for furnishing seed to warrant saving even at
considerable cost. The small trees are at least as apt to be of the
most valuable local species for the situation as not. Moreover,
horse logging, the prevailing method, makes it entirely possible
to save them.
In Western Washington and Oregon all these conditions are
different so far as the old mature stands, covering most of the
National Forests, are concerned. In the first place, the young
and immature trees consist almost entirely of inferior species,
principally hemlock and the true firs of insignificant value for
present or future purposes as compared with the old stands. In
the second place, the logging methods necessary to remove the
enormously heavy old trees do not permit of saving young growth.
The largest percentage of this young growth must inevitably be
crushed by felling the old timber, and by dragging out the heavy
logs. It is, therefore, evident that the application of the selection
method to the present stands (which will not be duplicated under
forest management) is impossible unless the forester be satisfied
vvith a stand containing only a partial stocking of very inferior
species.
Since clear cutting methods must be used, regeneration of the
forest by natural methods can be accomplished only through the
use of seed trees in groups, or singly, or by cutting in strips.
Foresters who have had the most experience on the ground, have
come to believe that artificial regeneration is the cheapest method
of renewing forests in this region, following cutting, whether it
gives the best stands or not. The following facts are the basis
for this belief. Douglas fir, which is the most important species
to encourage in this region, contains in the stands where cutting
is now taking place on the National Forests, from 2,000 to 5,000
bd. ft. to the tree even in the smallest trees in the stand. Since,
in view of the fact that a large proportion of the trees left for
seed are sure to be blown down soon after the surrounding stand
is removed, it will surely be necessary in order to ensure even ap-
Cutting on National Forests of Pacific Coast. 377
proximately full stands of reproduction, to leave not less than two
or three trees to the acre, or the equivalent of 4,000 to 15,000
board feet worth $10 to $25 at present stumpage prices, and this
value is constantly increasing. It is safe to assume that all of
this will be lost before another cutting can take place, since, even
if a few trees should survive they will be so heavy to handle in
comparison with the relative small timber obtained at the next
cutting, that machinery which will be adapted to removing small
timber will not suffice to remove these heavy old trees.
It is, therefore, a logical conclusion that artificial regeneration
will be cheaper and probably better than natural regeneration
from scattered seed trees, even leaving out of consideration the
cost of protecting the seed trees from fir when the area is slash
burned. In some few cases, defective trees containing little
merchantable material can be utilized for seed trees ; but on many
areas no such trees are found. If such trees are left they will
soon die and constitute a serious fire danger, since dead stubs are
the worst agency for scattering sparks when fires occur. In the
case of groups of seed trees, the loss by windfall will also be
extremely heavy, and the objection to having old heavy trees to
remove at the time the next stand is ready for cutting is also
present. I have seen broad belts of windfall in Douglas fir, even
in the edges of solid sections left next to cuttings.
No sale area in this region has yet been found where it was
thought possible to require cutting in strips. The steep ground
on the National Forests makes this practically impossible in con-
nection with railroad logging, which alone is entirely satisfactory
for the removal of heavy timber from steep slopes. Requiring
purchasers to remove timber in strips would almost exactly
double the investment in railroad construction, which is already
heavy, and render logging prohibitive, unless stumpage prices
were greatly reduced. Furthermore, in the case of the
seed trees in groups or singly, the logger loses an amount
on his road construction proportionate to the number of
thousand feet left. Since road construction in the mountains
will probably create a charge of 50 cents to $1.00 for every thou-
sand feet of timber on the ground, the loss to the logger will be
$2.00 to $8.00 or more per acre in the case of leaving seed trees,
and still heavier where groups of seed trees are left, even leaving
out of consideration the cost of protecting them when the slash
37^ Forestry Quarterly.
bum is made. To cover this loss the Forest Service will, in the
long run, unquestionably have to deduct the amount from its
stumpage prices. This amount added to the loss of stumpage
through trees uncut makes the cost of natural regeneration far
too heavy in most cases, and renders artificial regeneration the
inevitable method to be followed in the case of decadent old
stands. This is true even without consideration of the fact that
the trees in these stands in many cases do not produce vigorous
seed. At first thought it appears that all this cost of artificial
regeneration must be borne by Forest Service appropriations ;
but such is not the case. It is just as legitimate to require the
timber purchaser to bear the bulk of this cost as it is to require
him to pile brush, which also is a measure on behalf of the future
stand, just as' is artificial regeneration. It will, in fact, often, if
not usually be cheaper for the logger to perform the work of
artificial regeneration under the direction of Forest officers than
it will for him to lose the profit of cutting trees that would other-
wise have to be saved for seed trees.
CUTTING POLICY.
On account of some of the foregoing and other considerations,
it has sometimes been assumed that sale of timber from the
National Forests of this region is undesirable. The chief grounds
for this opinion are, or have been, (i) Because of the lack of
local industries such as agriculture, mining and other industries
using wood in their development, local cutting has been assumed
to be unnecessary. (2) It has been assumed that timber stored
up now could be utilized later. (3) Because increased stumpage
prices may be expected later, it has been believed that it would be
good financial management to hold all the timber. Other minor
arguments have been advanced.
Timber has never been withheld from the market except when
in a limited number of cases a sale has been discouraged through
high stumpage prices, but the idea that withholding cutting for
a few years would not be opposed to good conservation has per-
sisted in some quarters. It is worth while, therefore, to show
the fallacious ground on which this idea is based. In order to
do this the grounds mentioned may be taken up in order as fol-
lows:
Cutting on National Forests of Pacific Coast. 379
(i) Is cutting needed for local industries^ Instead of the
absence of other industries being a reason for not cutting timber
on the Forests in this region, it is on the contrary, a strong reason
for encouraging cutting to take place. The local population is
chiefly dependent on the lumber industry. In some cases towns
have been established within or near the National Forests on
account of hoped for mining development; in others, on account
of the lumber industry itself. In many of these cases the mining
industry has failed to develop satisfactorily, and the population
must fall back on the lumber industry. It is evident, therefore,
that these towns are dependent entirely on the lumber industry,
and that its failure will necessitate the removal of the local resi-
dents, with a consequent abandonment of the homes which have
been created, and the destruction of much capital. Hence, where
a population dependent on agriculture could remain and secure
such lumber as is needed from outside sources, if necessary, in
the case of the population dependent on the lumber industry
the homes of the people are dependent on a timber supply and
hence on cutting from the National Forests if other timber has
been exhausted. No further argument should be necessary to
show that cutting is often even more essential in this region than
in other National Forest regions. Where no development has
taken place as yet none can take place until cutting of timber
begins. The only important bearing aside from this, that the
lack of sufficient local consumption to utilize the local timber
supply has, is its bearing on the size of sales. Since it is wholly
unnecessary to restrict the use of the National Forests here to
local consumption, as is the case in some poorly timbered regions,
sales of such size as will economically supply timber for export
to other parts of the United States should, on the contrary, be
encouraged. Horse logging and small mills wasteful in operation
cannot do this.
(2) Effect of Withholding Cutting from the National
Forests on the Future Timber Supply. Since governments
should provide equally for the present, the immediate future, and
the distant future, no system of forest management other than an
approximately sustained annual yield management can, for a
moment, be considered. It can easily be shown that if the
National Forests are to be handled on a substantial annual yield
basis, neither the immediate nor the distant future can be bene-
380 Forestry Quarterly.
fited by any system of storing up old, decadent, virgin stands of
timber. It is a well known fact that from 75% to 90% of the
area of the forests of the Pacific Slope bear stands of this
nature.
If we assume that whenever cutting does begin on a National
Forest bearing a stand of this nature, it will be on a sustained
annual yield basis, it seems self evident that if we are to use a
rotation of, for example, 100 years, and are going to have an
approximately sustained annual yield through the first rotation
under management, only approximately one one-hundredth of
the area may be cut over each year, whether cutting to the limit
of the Forest begins now or twenty or thirty years hence. More-
over, if cutting to the limit of the Forest does begin now, it is
entirely evident that we will be cutting over about one one-
hundredth of the area each year after 20 or 30 years just the
same as if no cutting had taken place in the meantime, and con-
sequently, that the yield from the Forest will be just as large
then if we cut to the limit of the Forest in the meantime as it
will if no cutting takes place. It is, therefore, almost an axiom
that if we proceed on the assumption that the Forest will always
be worked on a sustained annual yield basis, that we cannot cut
any more timber from the Forest 30 years hence if cutting is
withheld in the meantime than we can if we have been cutting
to the limit of the Forest, and consequently that all the volume
production which may be secured in the next 30 years by cutting
on a sustained annual yield basis will be irrevocably lost if cutting
is withheld. This is true, because in the recadent stands now
existing no growth is taking place, and in many cases a decrease
in the volume of the stand is occurring on account of the dropping
out of the Douglas fir in stands which have reached the maximum
age for Douglas fir, and its replacement by hemlock stands, which
never contain as large a volume per acre as do thirty stands of
Douglas fir. The conclusion is inescapable, that if we are to
have regulation of the cut on a sustained annual yield basis when
cutting does begin on any National Forest in this region, the im-
mediate future cannot benefit in any degree from withholding
present cutting from the Forest.
For example, on the Snoqualmie Forest it is calculated that
one hundred million feet a year can be removed annually for-
ever. We can begin removing this one hundred million feet a
Cutting on National Forests of Pacific Coast. 381
year at once, or we can wait 20 or 30 years. If we waited 20 or
30 years, as has been advocated by some, we could not remove
over one hundred milHon feet a year without depleting the sup-
plies of the more distant future, and creating an improper dis-
tribution of age classes in the first rotation under management,
which could not be corrected until the second rotation under
management. I take it that the foresters who will be in control
30 years hence will not contemplate over-cutting then any more
than we would now, and that therefore, we might just as well
take from the Forest the three billion feet that can be cut in the
next 30 years without injury to the future, as to leave it there to
decay, which is exactly what must happen if it is not cut.
Let us now examine the effect on the distant future. While
it is evident that the immediate future will be neither harmed
nor benefited by cutting now to the limit of the Forest, it can also
be shown that the distant future (say 100 years hence) will be
benefited by present cutting, providing cut over areas are im-
mediately regenerated, which follows as a matter of course, on
a National Forest. This benefit will come through increased
wood supplies due to the fact that large areas of decadent stands
now contain only from 20 to 30 thousand board feet of poor
hemlock to the acre, due to Douglas fir having dropped out
through long absence of fire, although these stands are often times
on the best quality of forest producing soil. If these stands are
removed and the area is immediately reforested with Douglas fir,
the Douglas fir stands 100 years old will contain fifty thousand
feet or more to the acre as against the 20 or 30 thousand of
hemlock, if the present decadent stands are stored up till that
time, as will have to be done with some of them for 100 years and
more if a sustained annual yield be followed through the first
rotation and cutting does not begin until 30 years hence.
The net results, therefore, of failure to cut to the limit of the
Forest at the present time will be that while it makes no differ-
ence in the amount of produce yielded by the Forests in the im-
mediate future, (20 to 30 years hence) there will be irrevocably
lost all timber which we fail to cut less than the sustained annual
yield, which will be a heavy present loss without any benefit to
any future generation. There will also be a loss in volume pro-
duction, which will be felt in the distant future, (100 years
hence) due to old decadent stands not having been replaced by
382 Forestry Quarterly.
thrifty young stands which would have reached maturity at that
time if cutting had taken place at the present time. These losses
are directly proportionate to the amount which we cut less than
the sustained annual yield. It is for the benefit, rather than to
the detriment of the Forest that cutting take place to the limit of
the Forest at once.
(3) Financial Considerations. It follows that if the above
deductions are true concerning volume production, the financial
returns from the Forest in the immediate future will not be de-
creased in any sense by cutting on a sustained annual yield basis
now. Since just as much volume can be removed in the im-
mediate future if we cut now as can be if we do not, just as
much timber will be available for sale at such increased prices as
we may obtain then, as will be available if no cutting or only a
little cutting takes place in the meantime. Likewise the distant
future would be benefited financially by cutting at the present
time.
When, therefore, we hear the policy of withholding greatly
over mature stands from cutting advocated by foresters, when
the National Forests of the Pacific Slope bear this class of stands
almost exclusively, it proves only that these men lack faith in
their own profession, and look upon these mature stands as one
would look upon a mine whose resources would be exhausted
whenever they are utilized, and would therefore naturally be
utilized immediately, or withheld for utilization for several years,
according to the owner's idea of which would yield the greatest
returns. This is exactly the standpoint of the lumberman, but
it is surprising that it should also be the standpoint of any techni-
cal forester. Forestry is practical and businesslike, and Ameri-
can foresters will make an irretrievable error, which will meet
certain condemnation in the future, if they disregard absolutely
the principles of forestry, which have been proven by a century or
more of European experience. I beheve it would be very difficult
to find authority in any European forest practice which would
indicate holding the cut below a sustained annual yield basis in
any area under forest management where nearly all the stands of
timber on the area are so decadent as those on the Pacific Slope,
many of which have decreased by thousands of feet to the acre
below the volume which thrifty Douglas fir stands in the region
contain.
Cutting on National Forests of Pacific Coast. 383
It is hardly necessary to state that as long as cutting is evi-
dently beneficial to the Forests, every effort should be made to
dispose of timber from each Forest to the amount of its possible
annual sustained yield. Both the Federal Government and the
States need the money which will be yielded by cutting. The
Federal Government is hampered in undertaking progressive con-
servation measures by lack of funds, and the States need all
revenues available for road and school purposes. In fact, this
need of revenue is almost a sufficient reason in itself for vigorous
encouragement of cutting on Forests, and it is fortunate indeed
that the National Forests are in such a condition as to make
cutting possible within a few years which will yield a heavy
revenue, not only without damage to the present or future of the
Forests, but with positive benefit, especially to the more distant
future.
There has been and is a great deal of criticism of the Forest
Service because more cutting has not taken place on the National
Forest. While, I beheve, it is not a fact that any effort has been
made to retard development of the Forests, and while timber
sales have been made as fast as the demand for the timber at
reasonable prices has arisen, it is nevertheless true that the best
results cannot be obtained by this passive method of handling
timber sales. Active effort is needed to increase the number of
sales on nearly every Forest of the Pacific Slope. On the Sno-
qualmie Forest about one hundred million feet of timber is now
under sale contract, and it is expected that enough more can be
sold within the next year to bring the cut of the Forest up to its
safe limit. None should, or will be sold beyond this limit.
The timber on the National Forests is so inaccessible as com-
pared with large areas of timber in private ownership, that there
is very little demand for it, and lack of cutting has been due to
this fact, although this has not been taken into consideration in
the criticisms of the Forest Service which have been made. It is
nevertheless true, that no one thing would have so favorable an
effect on local pubHc opinion in this region as increasing the cut
of the Forests to their safe cutting limit. This is true, because
it is of the greatest importance to the region that the income to
roads and schools should be increased, and that the enormous
revenue which would accrue to labor and capital through the
timber cutting should be made available. The National Forests
384 Forestry Quarterly.
of Washington and Oregon are capable of yielding an annual
revenue of $3,000,000 to $4,000,000 as soon as they can be
brought to their cutting limit. This revenue will of course
rapidly increase as stumpage prices increase. If this revenue
had to be obtained at the expense of the future, as would be the
case if the cutting had to take place in immature stands, or if the
storage of mature stands could be taken advantage of without
over-cutting in the future, there might be some reason for with-
holding cutting, or failing to encourage it. Since this is not the
case, every effort should be made to increase cutting to its proper
limit.
It is a fact that this increase in the amount of cutting will in-
crease the cost of administration, which the Forest Service can
ill afford with its present appropriations. However, there is no
doubt that as the revenue increases. Congress will recognize the
need of larger appropriations. As the cost of administering
timber sales in this region need not exceed 10 cents per thousand
feet, while timber will sell at the rate of $1.50 to $3.50 per thou-
sand feet, it is evident that the cost of administration of the sales
constitute not more than 5% to 10% of the revenue received
from them.
The problem of whether over mature Forests should be stored
up on acres to be devoted permanently to forest management is
entirely separate and distinct from that of whether stumpage on
lands not to be used permanently for forest production, or to be
sold land and all sooner or later, should be held a long or short
time. In the former case, the young stand to follow cutting has
to be considered. In the latter case, no such consideration ap-
pears. The problem of when to cut a single small tract, even if
it is to be used permanently for forest production, is also distinct
from that of tracts large enough to make a sustained annual
yield management most profitable. With a small tract to be
handled as a permanent forest producer, storage is proper as long
as increase in stumpage prices is rapid enough. In the large tract
the storage cannot be taken advantage of except by over-cutting
later. Persons who maintain that lack of cutting on the National
Forests is not undesirable are, it seems, looking at their manage-
ment from the small tract standpoint.
Cutting on National Forests of Pacific Coast. 385
Nationai^ Forests as Examples of Management.
Although the area of National Forests is large, they contain
such a large proportion of barren land that they constitute a
smaller factor in furnishing a supply of timber than may be sup-
posed by some. Hence, one of the most beneficial uses to which
they may be put is to furnish the best examples in forest manage-
ment. The storing up of old, declining stands which are de-
creasing in intrinsic value, while the annual cut of the Forest is
less than one-tenth of its producing ability, is wholly at variance
with any principles of forest management which have been found
wise in other countries.
The policy of some holders of large blocks of timber in private
ownership in Western Washington is nearly in accordance with
the principles of forestry, involving as it does the disposal of old
timber and holding young. On account of existing tax laws,
these owners are not, however, in a position to manage their
holdings according to the best silvicultural principles, although
they might be glad to do so. The State and National Govern-
ments are the only ones who can do this at present. The State
of Washington now has no technical foresters in its employ, and
with the example of an enormous area of National Forests bear-
ing heavy stands of timber not even paying expenses, it can
scarcely be expected to be attracted to forest management. Its
revenues are insufficient for its other needs, and while it is the
general opinion of State officers that forestry does not pay, and
is only of use to future generations, no very active forest manage-
ment may be expected by the State.
It devolves, therefore, upon the National Government if any
real forest management is to be undertaken in this region.
The experience of cutting large areas with the view of follow-
ing the cutting by regeneration of the Forest is needed in order
to ascertain proper methods. The forester of 20 years hence,
will, I am sure, much prefer that timber sales on a large scale
had been made for the past 20 years, in order that the cumulative
experience would be available for his use than to have a heritage
of old over-mature timber to handle, which as has already been
shown, can yield no greater revenue at that time on account of
cutting having been withheld.
It is fully realized that fine technicalities in management can-
386 Forestry Quarterly.
not be introduced now, but I do believe that not all the well tried
principles of forest management need be forsaken. The National
Foresters will be better fitted to meet the demands of the distant
future, and at least as well fitted for meeting the demands of the
immediate future, if cutting to the limit of the Forest begins as
soon as possible.
Effect of Present Cutting Policy on Future Timber Sup-
plies.
The only reasonable argument for withholding cutting from
Forest now, is that the timber stored up can be utilized later.
It has been shown that this stored up timber cannot be utilized
later without at that time abandoning in whole, or in part, a
sustained annual yield management. Even if we assume that
such management will be abandoned, what will be the effect in
this particular region of storing up timber? It is a well known
fact that the sawmill capacity of this region is far above the
market demands. Every sawmill is able to secure all the logs it
wants whenever it can sell its lumber product. In other words,
as much timber as can be marketed is being cut annually in any
case. It is quite clear, therefore, that cutting on the National
Forests west of the Cascades will simply take the place of so
much cutting on private lands. The total amount of timber
stored in the western part of the State will not be increased at this
time by storage on the National Forests. Of course, this will
not be true sometime perhaps 20 to 40 years hence, when stump-
age on private lands comes to be partially exhausted. Now,
which is the most desirable from a public standpoint: storage of
stumpage on private lands, or on National Forests? I believe
the former is far the most desirable from the standpoint of the
State and public for the following reasons. (a) Stumpage
stored on private lands bears large revenues to the State through
taxation : on the National Forests it yields no State revenues until
cut. As soon as it is cut on private lands it ceases entirely to
yield State revenue. This is true under the present system of
taxation, which, whether just or unjust, will without the slightest
doubt continue for virgin timber, (b) Cutting of timber on
National Forests will be followed by reforestation. On private
lands, cutting is in most cases followed by the land lying abso-
Cutting on National Forests of Pacific Coast. 387
lutely waste. Such land brings no revenue to the State, and
produces no future wood supply.
Every timber sale which has been made on the Snoqualmie
Forest furnishes a concrete instance of the fact that cutting of
National Forest timber displaces just so much cutting elsewhere.
Nearly every applicant is a logger or millman, who, if he does
not operate on the National Forest, will do so elsewhere. They
are usually not owners of stumpage, but can buy it when needed.
Whether or not cutting takes place on the National Forest at
the present time has no effect on the amount of stumpage stored
up in Washington and Oregon as a whole. These are facts easily
demonstrable on the ground. Hence, whether we are to have
forest management on an annual sustained yield basis beginning
now or later, or only on a periodic sustained yield basis, nothing
can be more certain than the fact that no future generation is
benefited in the slightest degree by withholding cutting from the
National Forests of this region now, providing it does not ex-
ceed a safe cutting limit. It should be unnecessary to state that it
is of vast benefit to the present generation to have cutting take
place, and that this constitutes an unaswerable argument for
encouraging cutting in every legitimate way.
Effect of Cutting of Soils of Different Qualities.
Having concluded that cutting is essential, it is worth while to
examine briefly the question of where it can best take place.
Since one of the chief advantages of cutting over-mature stands
is that they may be replaced by growing young stands, it will be
advantageous to displace poorly stocked stands on the best forest
soils first. If a stand on poor soil is replaced, little growth is
secured in the stand which follows, while the reverse is the
result on good soils. This principle should be applied locally in
confining cutting, except of dead timber, to lower slope and
bottom land types, as a rule. Broadly it indicates that it is more
advantageous to encourage cutting in stands on the Pacific Coast,
because they are on the best forest producing soils, than it is in
stands in the Rocky Mountains. This argument is partly neu-
tralized, however, by the fact that poor soils usually have smaller
stands, and hence the removal of an equal volume from them
leaves a larger area available for forest growth.
388 Forestry Quarterly.
It is certainly advantageous to have cutting take place when
possible, on areas where good growth will result in the stand to
follow. This usually means on the Pacific Slope at not over
3,000 feet altitude, as well as on favorable soils.
Effect of Prices on Forest Poucy.
The highest market prices should of course be secured for
National Forest timber. There is no reason, however, for push-
ing prices beyond the true value of the timber. The correct
policy is the Use Book policy of making prices according to
accessibility. Disregard of this leads to the prevention of sales
of timber greatly in need of sale, but inaccessible. No standard
prices should be so fixed as to defeat this result. Timber most
in need of sale silvculturally should, when possible, be sold first
regardless of its accessibility. This cannot be done unless prices
are flexible. Accessible timber will be worth just as much more
than inaccessible timber ten years hence as now. It is therefore
just as profitable to hold as the latter. The most defective
stands should always be cut first.
The Question of Comparative Prices Received Here and
IN THE Rocky Mountain States.
The Rocky Mountain states cannot produce sufficient forest
products for home use. If they export them, it will only be for a
short time, and to a short distance, to the prairie States. On the
other hand, if the United States is to produce its own lumber
supply, the Pacific Coast must always be a timber exporter.
This means that there will always be a difference in stumpage
value between timber there and in the Rockies, approximately
equal to the cost of transporting lumber from here to the Rockies,
modified by differences in the intrinsic value of timber in the two
places. Hence, timber that brings $5 stumpage there is probably
just as desirable to hold as $2 stumpage here. When stumpage
prices become $5 here, they will undoubtedly be $8 there.
Question of Waste.
In some quarters, objection to cutting now is made on the
ground that there is too much waste. All should, on the con-
Cutting on National Forests of Pacific Coast. 389
trary, be thankful that in America we have not yet reached the
point where it is necessary to utiHze decayed, excessively knotty
or other similar material for lumber, although its use as a by-
product deserves all possible encouragement. The fact that if
timber is not cut on the National Forests it will be cut elsewhere
also comes in here. The waste is greater elsewhere than on
National Forest cutting. Economic waste should be carefully
distinguished from uneconomic. The waste by decay in over-
mature forests left standing will be as great a waste by cutting
if they are cut.
Summary.
(i) Though timber on the Pacific Slope is seldom needed for
actual consumption locally, it is nevertheless urgently needed in
the development of local industry, and for shipment to other
parts of the United States.
(2) Since the Forests are covered for the most part with over-
mature stands, loss by decay is rapid, and at least offsets all
growth. The attempt to store up all of these stands cannot
therefore result in any benefit to the future. Incidentally, it
should be noted that no cuttings should be permitted in thrifty
stands less than 150 to 200 years old. If the sustained annual
yield management is to be the method used in managing National
Forests, the immediate future can in no wise be benefited by
keeping the present cut of the Forests below a sustained annual
yield basis.
(3) From (2), it follows that withholding cutting from the
Forests now merely results in the loss of the present revenue
without adding anything to future revenue. All possible present
revenue within a sustained annual yield basis, which is not taken,
will be irrevocably lost. This loss will amount to from $3,000,000
to $4,000,000 annually for Washington and Oregon.
(4) Present cutting can, without any damage to the future,
yield liberal revenues to Federal and State Governments with
consequent favorable effect on public opinion, and on appropria-
tions available for Forestry work.
(5) National Forests should be made the best possible examples
of forest management. Allowing over-mature timber to go to
waste is inconsistent with s.uch policy.
390 Forestry Quarterly.
(6) Cutting should take place on best forest soils first, where
they bear over-mature and decadent stands.
(7) Storing timber on National Forests will tend to encourage
more cutting on private lands, with the result of further decreas-
ing State revenues through taxation.
EXAMPLE OF A GERMAN WORKING PLAN.
(Extracts from Working Plan for Tegernsee Forest, Bavaria.)
TRANSI.ATED BY A. B. RECKNAGEL.
Introductory Note. — The following summary of the methods of
management form a part of the Working Plan for the Tegernsee
Forest in Bavaria, the manuscript of which is in possession of
the Yale Forest School. Since this plan, which is a revision for
the period from 1891 to 1902 inclusive, deals with a practically
virgin forest of spruce with fir and beech in mixture, it would
seem to be particularly applicable to similar conditions in
America. The Tegernsee Forest contains 13,757 acres, of which
in 1891 the division by age classes was as follows :
1st age class — merchantable — 33-3% of the stand
2nd age class — nearly merchantable — 6.1% of the stand
3rd age class — intermediate — 17.1% of the stand
4th age class — young growth — 43-5% of the stand
The object of management is the rejuvenation of the stands
now over-mature and the bringing into productive condition of
areas now unproductive by means of cultural methods described
below. The Plan is by the area method ; rotation 144 years.
The Forest was placed under administration in 1875 when the
division of the age classes was as follows :
1st age class — merchantable — 51% of the stand
2nd age class — nearly merchantable — 1% of the stand
3rd age class — intermediate — 13% of the stand
4th age class — young growth — 35% of the stand
This shows the progress made towards the theoretical ideal or
having 25% of the area in each age class.
I. Site.
The Government Forest of Tegernsee and Kreuth lies on the
slopes of the northern Alps. The absolute elevation is from 876-
25
392 Forestry Quarterly.
1,700 metres (2,875 to 5,577 feet) — the area is in general very
steep with many cliffs and canyons. The area is part of the
Communities of Tegernsee, Rottach, Wiesse and Kreuth.
2. C1.1MATE.
In general the climate is mild. The differences in elevation
cause marked local variations in climate and vegetation — early
and late frost are not common, but heavy winds, snow, thunder-
storms, hail, fog, are common and are injurious to the forest.
The prevailing wind direction is from southwest, west, or south
— snow usually falls in great masses, causes bending and breaking
and shortens the vegetative season, especially at high elevations.
Snowslides are not uncommon causing great destruction to forest
and ground cover, leaving steep, bare slopes.
The young stands experience many difficulties through snow,
stamping and grazing of cattle and grazing of game.
The average rainfall is great — greater than almost any place
in Europe. Hence, the atmospheric moisture is very high and
particularly favorable to the growth of spruce.
3. Soil.
The rock is a dolomite, a granite and in places a limestone
formation. The soil is a rich sandy loam of good depth.
4. Species.
The predominant species is the spruce with an almost universal
admixture of fir and beech, especially in the oldest stands ; in
younger stands fir and beech are less noticeable and sometimes
entirely absent, probably because of clear cuttings and injury
through game. Only in a few overmature stands does the fir
dominate. Old larches are scarce, young ones frequent. The
spread of larch has been prevented through injury by game and
cattle, and the poor choice of sites where it was planted.
As subordinate species come maple, elm, ash, alder. Still more
rare are birch, choke cherry, etc.
5. Former Management.
On account of greater accessibility and in part because of not
spreading the cuttings over a sufficient area, large areas were cut
Example of a German Working Plan. 393
over with temporary reserve of the usually worthless inferior
material as a protection. Each year's cutting usually joined on to
the previous year's. The cut-over areas were usually sown
broadcast with spruce and in part with larch seed without scatter-
ing of the brush — in part right after the logging was completed,
in part several years later.
Plantations were rare, often only with natural (wild) stock.
As a result of cuttings in stands already too light, these stands
were thinned out still further and the area because of insufficient
seeding, given over to grass and weeds.
Thinnings were generally confined to the down timber —
especially girdling of the trees reserved for protection, often with-
out reference to the need of further protection on the part of the
young growth. This neglect will mean careful planning on large
areas now without adequate young growth.
Improvement cutting should be confined to the less steep slopes,
where the getting out of the timber will not destroy the natural
or artificial reseeding, or to the steeper mountains where the cut-
ting and logging can be done on snow in winter, provided
adequate precautions be taken to prevent windfall.
6. Future Management.
The object of management is the growing of spruce stands
with greatest possible admixture of beech, fir, maple, and larch.
Ideally the spruce should occupy 70%, the other species 30%
of the total area and volume.
Fir, beech, and maple would easily reproduce naturally if
various conditions did not prevent. Even the artificial regener-
ation of these species is very difficult and should not be attempted
but every effort made to secure its natural spread up to the al-
lotted 30% of the area.
Spruce and larch could usually be reproduced naturally were
it not for the great age of the stands, and other conditions, which
make it seem undesirable to await natural re-seeding and indicate
that spruce and larch must usually be reproduced artificially.
Larch should only be planted in suitable sites — i. e., on fresh,
deep soils, on open areas and not under cover or in damp, foggy,
ravines, or canyons, nor on north, northeast and northwest slopes.
Furthermore it should be mixed with other species so that in case
the larch fails no gaps will occur in the stand.
394 Forestry Quarterly.
Balsam can well be used in mixture with spruce for planting
on southern exposures and on rocky sites ; but its area is greatly-
restricted because of damage through snow and game.
In the future management the areas at high elevations should
be distinguished from the timbered area proper.
The high elevations contain in part entirely untimbered, un-
productive (barren) areas, in part Alpine forests which are com-
posed of stunted, irregularly scattered, limby, decadent spruce,
crippled, old firs, beech, maple, and mountain alder.
The marketing of this material is very expensive and in part
impossible without damage to the lower lying stands.
The reforesting of such areas is uncertain, and very expensive.
Therefore only a very careful selection system can be used here
whereby only the oldest, most merchantable and decadent indi-
viduals with reference to liberating young growth are removed
with due precautions to retain the cover unbroken and only where
the material can be removed at an actual profit without, of course,
removing trees needed to prevent rock slides, avalanches and the
like.
Many such parts of the forest are segregated as Alpine reserves
— these must be strictly conserved.
The true forest area ranges down to 2,600 feet in elevation.
(The lower lying areas are privately owned.) Even her cliffs
and precipices occur. Just below the unproductive (barren)
areas a corresponding belt of woods must be kept intact in order
to prevent an increase in the unproductive (barren) areas.
Me;thod of Cutting.
Since these forests, as stated, are chiefly on very steep mountain
slopes, where they are not only very exposed to windstorms, but
where also the advance growth is practically all destroyed in
logging or at least rendered valueless for the basis of the new
stand, and since, furthermore, the existing methods of lumbering
as a rule require a concentration of the cuttings (coupes) the
method of selection cutting does not seem appropriate. But even
a strip method is not advisable here, despite its usual advantages,
since the stands, as a rule, have passed the seed producing stage
and the logging of the remaining strips would cause the destruc-
tion of the young growth on the cut-over areas. Furthermore,
Example of a German Working Plan. 395
the openings are very prone to come up to grass and weeds.
Therefore, this method would only delay ultimate restocking.
Again it would not be possible to scatter the brush on the cut-over
strips, since it would prevent the logging of the remaining strips.
The strip stand (shelterwood — strip) method of cutting, as
heretofore, should therefore be adopted. The progress of cutting
should, as a rule, be from the highest part of the slope to the base
thereof.
Where conditions prohibit the cutting of an entire strip in one
year, it should begin at the top of the slope and be extended to
the base in subsequent years.
The logging of the lower slopes ahead of the middle or upper
slopes and vice versa is as a rule not permissible. Only where
the material of the upper portion of the slopes can be logged with-
out touching the lower portion and without interfering with re-
production already present on the lower slopes may the logging
of the lower slopes take precedence over the logging of the upper
slopes, providing no injury through wind is caused thereby. The
usual small skidding and hauling roads from which the felled
material on steep slopes is often logged can not as a rule furnish
an excuse for this partial logging on each strip. The strip cut-
tings must progress in the direction against the prevailing wind
currents, i. e. as a rule, towards the southwest. On sunny slopes
the remaining stand must furnish protection to the cut-over
area against drying out. In such cases, therefore, the longest
dimension of the cut-over strip apart from narrow canyon-like
valleys should stretch either horizontally or diagonally across the
slope.
The cut-over strips should have a width of not to exceed 45
metres (150 feet), but a rule cannot be formulated since the local
conditions may necessitate a greater or lesser width.
The cutting strips must be narrower the steeper and sunnier the
slope is, and the more the soil is given to growing up to grass and
weeds, and the less protection there is ; whereas on the contrary
on shady slopes the cuttings can be wider.
In order to prevent a too early cutting of the adjacent strips a
cutting cycle of at least six years is indicated. In order to achieve
this end a sufficient number of stands should be indicated for the
near future where operations can be begun. Also within the
stands the preparatory cuttings must be carefully regulated ac-
396 Forestry Quarterly
cording to local conditions. Thus the preparatory cuttings can
be advantageously begun near the ditches, small ravines and the
like, although the clear cutting of strips (coulissenhiebe) must be
carefully avoided.
A new cutting should, as a rule, never be made adjacent to the
older one until the reproduction on the former is assured. For
the rest in the choice of cutting areas, besides the securing of re-
production and the productivity of the soil, the most economic
method of logging should be borne in mind. Therefore, the
cuttings should be concentrated as much as possible. Along very
steep and high mountain ridges the forest cover should be re-
tained intact, therefore, no utilization of these areas will, as a
rule, be attempted in order to prevent the injurious windfalls
and snow slides.
On the cutting areas all the weaker material, the small sizes,
especially beech and fir of advance growth and weak growth
should be left as protection material whose logging in later
operations can well be waived. Where it is possible, however,
to remove these protection trees in the next cutting this should be
done. On the shady slopes the amount left for protection can
be greatly lessened. The protection material, of course, must
not be removed in early cuttings, thinnings, preparatory cuttings,
and in the execution of the first removal cuttings. Advance
growth of all kinds must be carefully protected. On the steeper
slopes where protection material is lacking, beech and fir must be
left for protection where it can later be logged either by itself or
in connection with an adjacent cutting. The leaving of a denser
stand is often permissible in certain places where the subsequent
logging can be done in winter or spring on snow. In certain
stands containing a large percentage of beech on moderate slopes,
reproduction of beech can be secured from the mature trees re-
maining in the uncut portion. When the area has seeded
naturally and the young seedlings have developed sufficiently to
ensure a stand of beech, the adjacent mature stand should be
cut tmder the strip stand method until an area suitable for spruce
is reached. Occasionally, the adjacent area can be cut clean and
the area, as far as spruce reproduction is not already present in
sufficient quantity among the beech naturally, sown with spruce
seed so long as the beech is still small and will not choke out the
spruce.
Example of a German Working Plan. 397
If the beech stand is heavier it will have to be interplanted with
thrifty spruce and larch. The larch should only be planted where
the young stand of beech and spruce is not appreciably larger
than the larch seedlings and where the soil and the site is suitable
(see supra).
At the end of the cutting and the logging of the wood the re-
maining brush must be scattered in order to hinder the grazing
by cattle during the first period of the young growth. This
matter must be given special attention where there is much graz-
ing and where the soil is loamy and wet, and also where the re-
produced stand is very young. Barricades can be built of brush
across cattle trails to good advantage, where these trails lead
across the cutting area.
Reproduction of the Cut-Over Areas.
As already stated, since the spruce in general is overmature,
sufficient natural seeding cannot be expected of it, and therefore,
the spruce must, as a rule be reproduced artificially. This can
be done through the seeding of the cutting areas with approxi-
mately 15 kilogrammes (33 lbs.) of spruce seed per hectare
(13 2/5 lbs. per acre), and that as soon as possible after the cut-
ting which here, as is well known, takes place in summer and after
the hauling out of the material in the fall. Therefore, the seed-
ing should be done in the spring succeeding the cutting.
The seed should be scattered as uniformly as possible over the
cutting area in favorable places on mineral soil ; undecomposed
humus should be removed. The individual sowing areas should
not be too close together and must be covered with brush for pro-
tection. On very steep slopes where, in consequence of the log-
ging, the bare mineral soil has been exposed, success from seed-
ing can be expected only after the appearance of a light grass
cover.
Where the soil cover has not decomposed sufficiently and bodies
of raw humus are found, a superficial working of the ground
must be done in order to remove the humus. Where certain
areas of the cutting, or whole cut-over areas even before the
cutting, are covered with weeds no good results can be expected
of the seeding. Here the restocking should be done through
planting of spruce. For planting the areas should be carefully
398 Forestry Quarterly.
chosen as in seeding. The spacing should not be too far apart
since cattle and game will destroy many plants. The use of poor
stock should be most carefully avoided. As a rule, only plants
grown in seed beds should be used. Where weeds have not taken
possession of the ground, 2 to 3 year old, not too slim, seedlings
can be used; on a very weedy place stronger plants, preferably 3
to 5 year old transplants should be used. Where on middle slopes
seed beds can be placed, plants grown there would be preferable
to those grown at lower elevations in regular nurseries.
As rapidly as possible newly cut-over areas should be restocked.
After these, the fail places in those stands which will soon form a
canopy, and last the larger areas which have grown up to weeds.
The reproduction of cut-over areas by means of seeding should
only be attempted where good results can be expected under con-
ditions of grass and weeds, and as a rule seeding should only be
attempted once and then planting resorted to. On the upper
slopes which cattle frequent and on wet areas it will frequently
be necessary to fence in the cut-over areas, if reproduction is to
be secured. Where wood is lacking for this purpose wire fence
should be used. The patchy character of young growth on many
of the cut-over areas, the large areas at present without young
growth, the failure of reforestation on large unprotected areas,
the necessity of cleaning up the old over-mature trees, all make it
necessary to do a lot of intensive artificial reproduction during
the immediate future, and with the high wages prevalent in this
region and the high elevation of the areas to be restocked, re-
quiring great effort to get the plant material there, make a large
expenditure during the immediate future imperative. It is in-
advisable to attempt reproduction, either by seeding or planting,
of beech or fir, since adequate results are not to be expected.
The introduction of larch can be secured through seeding in
mixture with spruce seed. On places where grazing is heavy
and there is much game no attempt should be made to introduce
larch.
Later Removal Cutting and the Finae Cutting.
The trees left for protection as mentioned above — provided
they cannot and should not be logged in the next succeding cut-
ting, should not be felled (or where this is impossible the Hmbs
taken off, or the tree girdled) until they have become suppressed
Example of a German Working Plan. 399
or are no longer needed. The girdling can naturally only be
used in hardwoods and where it is better and cheaper than felling.
Where artificial reproduction has been satisfactorily achieved the
protection of trees may be removed all at one time. However, as
a nde, especially on sunny slopes they should only be removed
gradually in accordance with the needs of the young growth.
Thinnings.
If there is an opportunity to make thinnings at a profit light
thinnings up to moderately heavy ones should be made but should
be confined to the entirely or partially suppressed trees, to be
intensified later but not so as to jeopardize the future shelterwood
cutting.
As far as possible diseased and non-thrifty material should be
removed. In all cases, care should be taken to preserve second-
ary stands of beech and fir in order to have trees needed for pro-
tection in the future cuttings.
Final removal cuttings and selection cuttings, since the re-
sulting material, as a rule, cannot be logged without injury to
the remaining trees, should not be attempted except on a very
moderate scale and on suitable areas where they can be executed
without danger to the remaining stands.
Signed,
Tegernsee, July 10, 1889.
Per Haag, Royal Forstrat.
Per Wild, Royal Forstmeister.
Per Kiechbe, Royal Forstassessor.
A CANADIAN FOREST SURVEY.
By James W. Sewall.
During the last winter it fell within the province of the firm
of which the writer is a member to map and estimate some two
hundred and thirty square miles of timber land in the Province
of Quebec on the rivers a Mars, du Moulin, Cyriac and Mon-
couche, which enter the river Saguenay near the town of Chi-
coutimi, below Lake St. John. This would have been a simple
piece of work were it not that the limit of time allowed for the
completion thereof was between the first of February and the
first of May, namely three months, which in fact coming spring
shortened to about two and one-half months.
As soon as the work was definitely decided upon, an office was
established at Chicoutimi, a town of some six thousand people;
this office served as a draughting room, and as the headquarters
for hiring and paying men as well as for a central bureau where
the field crews obtained information and ordered supplies. By
telephone this office was connected with the depot camps of the
Chicoutimi Pulp Co. (for whom the mapping was done), these
depots being by chance stragetically located for the purposes of
the survey ; from them the pulp company furnished supplies, thus
doing away with considerable cartage. They are located on the
river du Moulin and on Lac des Ilets, on the northerly end of the
mapped territory.
Our field force of some forty-five men was divided into three
parties, at one time augmented by a fourth party for sledding.
The magnetic needle was used in all surveying, and the calipered
strip system in obtaining estimates. The duties of the parties
were immediately laid out, and very few variations from the first
plan of campaign occurred.
Party No. i was a surveying crew only, on it fell the recon-
naissance and boundary work of a large part of the job. Starting
from the Chicoutimi Pulp Co. depot at Lac des Ilets it was
hauled by team nine miles, hand sledded some eight more up the
river Cyriac valley, and began its survey by running a boundary
line eastward toward the river du Moulin ; on reaching the du
Moulin it used the stream as a base on which to haul supplies.
A Canadian Forest Survey. 401
and continued running a watershed line about this latter river;
after reaching its head it hauled across the divide into the river
a Mars valley, and ran a watershed line around the head of that
river. At its final point it was some forty-five miles from the
depot, about thirty-five miles of which were covered by hand-
sled.
Party No. 2, a surveying and estimating crew, started at the
mouth of the river Moncouche, ran a stadia traverse from there
to the starting point of Party No. i on the Cyriac, returning to
the Lac des Ilets depot, shifted itself, and ran a base line twelve
miles southerly from a point near said depot, thereby intersecting
Party No. I's first line; by the line it had begun its course south,
certain work had already been done by Party No. 3, so that
Party No. 2 could also, using its line, as fast as run, as a base,
send out caliper crews east and west, and cover an allotted terri-
tory, exploring and surveying at same time. Incidentally, hauling
on hand-sled was the big problem of the work, where supplies
had to be kept in to rapidly moving crews far from their base.
After reaching the line of Party No. i, Party No. 2 followed up
the river du Moulin, resolving itself into a calipering party en-
tirely, covered the territory already bounded by Party No. i, fol-
lowed that part onto the a Mars shed, and covered that territory.
Party No. 2 kept in connection with the base of supplies, con-
tinually pushing sled loads inland toward No. i, so that No. i
could send men back and draw from the caches so established ; by
this means a good sled beat from the Lac des Ilets depot to the
farthest point surveyed, with hauling in separate average lengths,
was wide and held open.
Party No. 3, also a combination line and estimating party, ran
an arbitrary base line from the Lac des Ilets eastward to the river
du Moulin, re-stocked at that river's depot, turned, and ran
southerly to a line already established by Party No. i, thus bound-
ing a part of the tract it was to estimate ; on the Party No. i line
it set itself over and ran back to the first base line, estimating at
the same time it made line.
After each of these parties had completed the above mentioned
work they reported to the Chicoutimi office, and were turned onto
the final tract, a small area nearer the village. So well did all
plans work out that there was not a week's difference in the
ending of the surveys of the three parties, and by massing the
402 Forestry Quarterly.
men on this last area the contract was easily completed just before
soft snow made traveling almost impossible.
As may be inferred the men in charge of the different parties
were depended on to push ahead their respective works, without
any immediate supervision of detail. The firm was enabled to do
this by reason of having experienced men who were familiar with
woods conditions in the State of Maine — conditions which
resemble those of Quebec to a great extent. Without these
efficient men in charge the speedy carrying out of the contract
with any degree of exactitude would have been impossible.
They enabled the writer, in general charge, to devote himself to
travel among the parties, and to office work.
As before stated, hauling, that is the question of supplies, was
the most difficult problem, increasing as each party got farther
from its base. Five sled-men to each party were kept busy, and
at times this number had to be considerably increased. The sleds
used were made with spruce board sides, runners of iron, and
hardwood rounds, securely bolted from side to side and from
runner to top, this being the construction of the ordinary Maine
moose-sled. It behooves the purchaser to look over his sleds
carefully ; they are subjected to hard usage, and unless well and
properly built will be a source of continual vexation and delay.
The dimensions of the best sleds we had were : length six feet,
width sixteen inches, height six inches, width of iron runner three
inches, thickness of board sides one and one-eighth inches, and
rounds six inches apart. The sides must be solid, not built with
standards, as bushes will catch in the open spaces, if such are left,
and retard progress. A sledman, in ordinary going on a snow-
shoe trail well beaten down, can haul from 150 to 200 pounds a
fair day's travel. The snow-shoe trails should be well marked by
bushes stuck in the snow, wherever open places subject to winds
are encountered.
We adopted the short round highland snow-shoe, using lamp
wick fod thongs. We found the local shoes of this type satis-
factory in model but not strongly enough made for survey work.
The dimensions of the average shoes are : length two feet and
seven inches, and width one foot and eight inches, with close
mesh. If one would have some reliable maker follow this model
he would obtain an almost ideal shoe for surveying work,
especially in hilly country. The trouble with the Canadian shoes
was in the inferior quality of the bows.
A Canadiati Forest Survey.
403
Ordinary wall tents (without flys) of ten ounce duck were used,
one for the men and one for the chief of party with his American
help. As a rule the cook also stayed in this latter tent. At first
a third tent for wangan was carried, but these were soon given up
on account of bulk and weight. Everything possible was sacri-
ficed to lightness and compactness, as so much moving over step
long hauls had to be made.
We used the regulation box stoves, those made with a small
oven for cooking purposes. So far as these latter with ovens are
concerned a better arrangement is the one found in Alaine, where
box stoves are made with a rod across the top, on which are hung
the ordinary open baker for ovens. The ovened stove has of
necessity a small fire box, which is, to say the least, a nuisance
on cold wet nights. With the simple box stove, pitched on six
feet of snow, after the tent was well boughed down, we were
warm and comfortable. Cold was not a hardship to be reckoned
with, outside of a nipped nose or ear now and then.
Sleeping bags are not so satisfactory as the ordinary lumber-
man's spread, and are much more expensive. Mr. Lyford, of the
Riordan Paper Co., informs me that he uses down robes with
gratifying results. These latter are expensive, but would be
recommended for the heads of party and their chief assistants.
The native help in our district furnished their own blankets.
Our provision list has been reduced to the following statement,
per man, per week. It is based on about 6,000 meals, and we
think is fairly reliable for winter work, when meat can be taken
and kept indefinitely by freezing.
Dried Apples
.45
pounds
Onions
■ 27
pounds
Allspice
.001
"
Oatmeal
.10
"
Baking powder
.18
"
Pepper
.02
"
Beef (fresh)
5.32
•'
Prunes
.48
"
Beans
1.82
"
Potatoes
364
"
Corn meal
.14
"
Peas
■59
"
Cheese
•95
"
Pork (salt)
1.30
"
Cream 0' Tartar
.06
«
Pork (fresh)
2.75
"
Cassia
.003
"
Pickles
.02
gallons
Candles
.76
"
Rice
.12
pounds
Flour
4.85
"
Raisins
•24
"
Ginger
.007
"
Soda
.07
"
Hardbread
1.78
"
Salt
..36
"
Kerosene oil
.01
gallons
Sugar
2.13
«
Lard
.65
pounds
Soap
.19
bars
Mustard
• oi.s
■'
Tea
• 17
pounds
Molasses
.10
gallons
Bread (frozen)
1-25
"
Matches
• 03
gross
404 Forestry Quarterly.
All payments were made from the Chicoutimi office, no time or
supply bill being honored unless countersigned by a chief of party.
For time slips a printed, non-negotiable form, showing the
payee's name, time, and amount due less credits was used ; this at
the same time constituted a receipt to be signed by the payee.
Inventory and requisition sheets were furnished the men in
charge, on which they listed all supplies and outfit taken, received
or returned. By this method a fairly accurate check was obtained
on purchases. Moreover a ledger account of articles against each
crew was possible, whereby the Chicoutimi office was enabled to
locate and tell the number of all articles in the field ; credit was
given on this account as articles were returned, and if not re-
turned the articles were charged against the loser.
The magnetic needle answered our purpose well (barring
scattered local attraction) for the surveys. We found the most
expeditious method of making traverses to be with transit and
stadia, employing two rodmen.
While the strip system of estimating gave satisfactory results,
we should recommend hereafter the evenly distributed sample
plat, as being less cumbersome, allowing more time for looking
up bunches of timber and topographical details, and permitting
less opportunity for errors in acreage measured. In our strips we
used the ordinary four men crew, taking topography at the same
time as estimates. The aneroid barometer, checked by level lines,
gave the contours, a fifty foot interval being employed.
Naturally with a new country, a comparatively large crew, and
necessary haste in the completion of the work, a certain amount
of waste, both in effort and expenditure was made. The survey,
as a whole, confirmed and taught several things, namely:
(i) Experienced men to take charge of all field parties, on a
survey covering large areas, where immediate supervision cannot
be had, are an absolute necessity.
(2) The smaller the crew and the longer the time taken, the
better and cheaper will be the work.
(3) Country far from the base of supplies, especially where
canoeable streams are few, will best be attacked in winter.
*The men who had charge of the three parties of this survey were
K. McR. Clark, of Boston, Mass., James A. Conners. of Old Town, Me.,
and O. A. Wakefield, of Andover, Me. L. J. Freedman, of Houlton, Me.,
handled the office.
A Canadian Forest Survey. 405
(4) Transportation of supplies is the great problem; a native
boss sledman can obtain the best results from the haulers, but he
must be trustworthy and interested in the work.
(5) The sample plot is preferable to the strip system in map-
ping and estimating large uncontrolled areas.
(6) A definite head of affairs with final authority must be
within easy reach, to decide changes in plans, and direct the
general course of the work.
THE BILTMORE STICK AND ITS USE ON NATIONAL
FORESTS.
By a. G. Jackson.
Every forester has felt the need of a simple and portable
diameter measure. Calipers, which are widely used and give
good results, are awkward instruments to carry in the timber.
They become coated with pitch, or swelled when used in the wet,
so their manipulation is difficult and unsatisfactory. The use of
calipers large enough to measure the trees of the Pacific coast
forest of Douglas fir, western red cedar and sugar pine, not to
mention the big sequoias, is impractical, to say the least. How-
ever, for use on trees in sample plots and wherever close accuracy
for individual trees is more important than speed or convenience,
calipers will always be in demand. For cruising and reconnais-
sance work their use will be limited to forests where the trees
are of a diameter permitting the use of small sized calipers. Even
in such forests a lighter and handier instrument will eventually
displace them.
The diameter tape comes in for some use in measuring
occasional trees, especially those too large for the ordinary cal-
ipers, but it is too slow ever to be generally used in cruising,
Its results are usually too large due to its passing over local
irregularities of bark and the tendency to depart from a true
horizontal in passing around the tree trunk.
After trying both calipers and diameter tape, the forester
realizes that something better is necessary for general practical
use. In the summer of 1908, the writer's attention was called
to the Biltmore stick by Supervisor Kirkland of the Snoqualmie
National Forest, who furnished him the tracing of a scale to be
used on a stick for measuring diameters. How this scale was
constructed, whether from diagrams or by use of mathematical
formula, was not known. Neither was the proper arm length
noted on the scale. An arm length of twenty-six inches was tried
and a stick bearing this scale used in reconnaissance work on the
Snoqualmie National Forest during the field seasons of 1908 and
1909, giving fairly satisfactory results and proving the advantages
The Biltmorc Stick.
407
of such an instrument over calipers and diameter tape in this
kind of work.
As the name indicates, the Biltmore stick idea undoubtedly had
its origin at the Biltmore School of Forestry. Dr. Schenck
mentions it in his "Forest Mensuration" but gives no description
or explanation of its construction.
Knowing of no published explanation of how the above men-
tioned scale was constructed and used, and believing that such an
explanation would be of interest to the profession, the writer
determined : ( i ) To derive a formula which might be used to
construct an accurate scale, (2) to use this formula in the con-
struction of such a scale, (3) to check up this scale for various
diameters by comparing its readings in actual field work with
caliper readings, and (4) to write an account of this investi-
gation.
The problem resolved itself to this proposition : To derive a
formula for a scale which applied tangentially to a circle at a
fixed distance from the observer will give the diameter of the
circle.
Assuming 25 inches as the fixed distance from the observer
and applying the geometrical principle of similar triangles having
proportional sides, we have
AB
BC
AB^
B^
AB=25 inches, and B'C
Substituting these values
Diameter, or D
26
4o8 Forestry Quarterly.
-^ = ^,^=AB^xBC.and
BC D 2
(I) BC
25D
2
AB^
(AB^)^ = (AC^)'— {B'Cy
By substitution,
(AB^)^=(25+ ^^r -(^~)' =(25)^+25D=25(25+D),
(II) AB>r=V25 (25+D)
Substituting this value for AB^ in equation (i)
-'5D
V25 (25+D)
Since BC is the scale for ^ of the diameter of the circle, the
formula for the scale for the whole circle is
Scaler !5D ^ •
V25 (25XD)
If it is more convenient to use a different arm length than 25
inches, this formula may be adapted by substituting the length
desired for the 25 wherever that number occurs in the formula.
Using this formula for diameters of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70,
80, 90 and 100 inches, scale lengths for these respective diameters
were obtained. Points representing these lengths were plotted on
cross section paper where the abscissae represented inches in
diameter and the ordinates represented inches on the scale.
Through these points a smooth curve was drawn. From this
curve the scale was read for each even diameter from ten inches
to one hundred inches. This scale was then laid off and carefully
drawn on tracing linen. Strips an inch wide were cut length-
wise of this tracing thus producing the scale in a convenient form
for carrying or mailing.
If it is desirable to indicate diameters smaller than ten inches
or larger than one hundred inches they may be derived directly
from the formula and marked on the scale.
A check was made on the accuracy of the formula by construct-
l^he Biltmore Stick. 409
ing diagrams for several diameters and applying the scale for
these diameters.
For actual use a straight stick four and one-half feet long, an
inch wide and three-fourths of an inch thick with a slight bevel
on one side should be selected and the scale marked or burned
upon it so that the graduations occur on the bevel edge. The
stick should be capped or shod at each end with a light metal
ferule to prevent wear. The stick length, four and a half feet,
may be used to check the breast height point on the trees meas-
ured. The twenty-five inch point should be marked on the back
of the stick so the user may check up his arm length occasionally.
To use this stick the observer holds it horizontally against the
tree four and a half feet from the ground and twenty-five inches
from his eye which should be at the same level as the stick itself.
The zero end of the stick should lie in the line from his eye to
one outer edge of the tree. Then, turning his eye, the observer
should note where the line of sight between his eye and the other
edge of the tree crosses the scale. The reading on the scale at
this point gives the diameter of the tree.
When the diameters of only a few trees are to be taken, the
tracing scale may be attached to a suitable stick with thumb tacks
and the readings made without taking the trouble to mark the
scale on the stick itself.
The writer made a Biltmore stick out of white oak according
to these specifications except that the ends were not shod and
the stick itself was only four feet long. The gradations and
figures were burned on the stick with a pyrographic needle after
which the instrument was coated with shellac.
To test the accuracy of this stick the writer with two assistants,
one equipped with the Biltmore stick and the other with sixty
inch calipers, examined 975 trees of four different species in the
cedar-fir-hemlock forest near Berlin, Wash. The diameter of
each tree was taken at the same point with the stick and with the
calipers, the stick man calling his reading first. These diameters
ranged from ten to sixty inches. The average diameter for the
975 trees was 28.56 inches measured with the calipers, and 28.66
inches measured with the Biltmore stick thus giving an average
difiference of only one-tenth of an inch.
Both regular and irregular trees were measured just as they
occurred in the stand. Fifty-nine of these measurements were
4IO Forestry Quarterly.
taken on windfalls and other down timber. On these the stick
readings checked as closely with the caliper reading as on the
standing trees.
The following table gives the number of trees and total diame-
ter inches of each species, and shows the very slight discrepancy
between the two instruments by species and for all four species.
TABLE SHOWING COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS OF 975
TREES WITH BILTMORE STICK AND CALIPERS.
Number of Trees Total Diam. In. Total Average
Down. Standing. Total. Bilt. Call- Differ- Differ-
Species Reg. Irreg. Stick pers ence ence
Douglas Fir (Pseu-
dotsuga taxifolia) 26 210 24 260 9481 9520 — 39 — .15
Western Red Cedar
(Thuja plicata) ... 22 112 21 155 2474 2510 — 36 — .23
Western Hemlock
(Tsuga hetero-
phylla) II 298 49 358 10555 10452 +103 +.28
Amabilis Fir (Abies
am-abilis) 194 8 202 5443; 5369 +74 +.31
Total four species .. 59 814 102 975 27953 27851 +102 +.1
In 1910 the Forest Service had a small quantity of Biltmore
sticks made bearing this scale. During the field season of that
year these sticks were used on the Crater, Olympic, Snoqualmie
and Umpqua National Forests in intensive reconnaissance work
and met with great favor as convenient and practical instruments.
Tests of the Biltmore stick made on the Crater, Olympic and
Umpqua Forests gave the following results:
Crater National Forest; data furnished by Mr. H. D. Foster.
One hundred trees ranging from ten to sixty-four inches in di-
ameter were measured with Biltmore stick, calipers and diameter
tape.
Olympic National Forest; data furnished by Mr. W. H. Gib-
bons. One hundred and eighty trees ranging from ten to fifty
inches in diameter were measured with Biltmore stick and cal-
ipers.
The following table shows the results of these tests, which, to
be sure, are not very conclusive owing to the small number of
trees measured in each case, but at least indicate the Biltmore
stick's practical value as a field instrument. The data secured
on the Snoqualmie National Forest is repeated for the purpose of
comparison.
The Biltmore Stick. 411
TABLE OF COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS WITH BILTMORE
STICK, CALIPERS AND DIAMETER TAPE.
Total Ave. Total Ave.
Dif. Dif. Dif. Dif.
Stick Stick Stick Stick
No. of Total Diain. Inches & & & &
Forest Trees Stick Cal. Tape Cal. Cal. Tape Tape
Crater 100 2915 2820 2881 95 .95 34 .34
Olympic 180 5300 5276 24 .13
Snoqualmie .. 975 27953 27851 102 .1
On the Umpqua Forest no test was made in which a large num-
ber of trees were measured with both the calipers and Biltmore
stick. However, a number of tests made to check the accuracy
of the work showed that measurements made with the Biltmore
stick of diameters up to about 42 inches fall within the same inch
class as those made with calipers. Above this diameter, measure-
ments would fall within the same two-inch class. This data was
furnished by Mr. E. H. MacDaniels who also says, speaking of
the Biltmore stick: "This instrument is thoroughly practicable.
An average man can work with a degree of precision in keeping
with the object of an ordinary timber estimate, and its con-
venience makes it a very desirable substitute for calipers."
Errors in using the Biltmore stick are due to irregularly shaped
trees. The more nearly the bole in cross section approaches a
circle the more accurate will be the Biltmore stick readings.
This is also true when calipers are used. A varying arm length
causes erroneous readings. Errors may be caused by the stick
not being straight or by the observer holding it against the tree
in some position other than horizontal. Turning the head instead
of the eye while making the reading, or having the eye too high
or too low are other sources of error. However with care these
errors may be practically eliminated and the stick will prove an
extremely convenient instrument which will give very satisfactory
results. Its convenience and accuracy should bring it into general
use wherever careful cruising is being done.
A METHOD OF ASSESSING FIRE DAMAGES IN THE
SOUTHWEST.
By Robert Rogers and Barrington AIoore.
The methods of assessing forest fire damage which have so far
been employed in the West have, from a technical standpoint,
been far from satisfactory. It is not the intention here to go into
a discussion of past methods or the principles of this important
subject, but rather to present a detailed statement of a suggested
method for finding the value of forest products destroyed by fire
in the Southwest. This method has been devised by the writers
in connection with their work in District III of the U. S. Forest
Service, and is published here purely as a personal article, not
with the claim that it is an entirely satisfactory method, but rather
in the hope that it may constitute a progressive step which will
not only serve in practical application, but also in securing recog-
nition in the courts of the inherent forestry principles involved,
in the valuation of the forest as a growing crop. It will have
served a purpose if it starts at least discussion of this important
subject.
We are badly hampered to-day, of course, on account of the
lack of silvical data, and this fact has influenced the shaping of
the plan herewith presented. The aim has been to take the data
available, and secure a method embodying forest principles cap-
able of application. The interest rate used, it is felt, should con-
form as nearly as possible to the interest rate of the locality.
However, if the principles are accepted the adjustment of the
interest rate is a minor consideration.
It will be noted that an estimate of an increase of ioo% in the
stumpage rates at the end of a twenty year period has been used.
It will be agreed, we believe, that in valuations of this character it
is only right that a certain increase should be considered. Just
what this increase should be in each case should be determined
by a careful study of the particular region concerned. The
whole subject of estimated future increase in stumpage cannot
be properly considered in the space at command here. Suffice it
to say that considering an average valuation of $3.00 per M. ft.
Assessing Fire Damages in Southwest. 413
B. M. for the timber of the region for which this method of
valuation has been devised an estimated increase of 100% at the
end of 20 years is considered thoroughly conservative.* That
this increase will occur uniformly throughout the period is not
to be expected. Granted, however, that the increase of 100%
does occur at the end of 20 years it can be reasonably assumed
for the purpose of valuation that the increase will amount to 25%
for each 5-year division of the period. The following figures
have accordingly been used.
Estimated Increase in Stumpage.
Period.
Per cent, increase in stumpage of
rate charged in ipii.
1912-17
25
1917-22
50
1922-27
75
1927-32
100
The Classification of Products Destroyed by the fire will fall
naturally under four headings :
1. Merchantable timber (all trees above 12" D. B. H.).
2. Pole stand (all trees between 6" and 12" D. B. H.). These
will form the basis of future cuts for the next 10 years.
3. Reproduction (both seedlings and saplings, i. e. everything
up to 6" D. B. H.).
4. Forage; the actual amount of grass on the area.
The Method of Bstimating must, to a certain extent, vary with
the topographic conditions ; but the following points should be
strictly adhered to:
1. All four classes of damage can be estimated at once, but a
separate tally must be kept for each.
2. Estimating should be done by strips rather than by sample
acres, either circular or square. Single acres may be taken if in
strip form not more than two chains wide ; one chain wide is
preferable.
3. The strips should be run through the burn in such a way that
their result will give as near the average conditions of the burn
as possible.
*The value of stumpage at the end of 20 years in District III. U. S.
F. S. has been estimated at $6 per M. ft. B. M. by T. S. Woolsey, Jr.
414 Forestry Quarterly.
4. Obtain the area of the burn as accurately as possible. A
suggestion would be to find the average length and average width
by means of strips run at right angles through the length and
breadth, respectively, of the burn.
Find the proportion of the total area represented by the strips
and multiply this proportion by the total area: e. g. with an area
of 120 acres, strips aggregating 15 acres represent 1/8 or 12.5%
of the total; therefore, multiply the totals obtained from the
strips by 8.
The estimate of damage to the merchantable timber, poles, and
reproduction, should not be made until at least four months after
the fire, since then the trees which will live or die can be dis-
tinguished with a greater degree of accuracy.
The area for estimating the amount of damage to the forage
should be determined at the time the fire is extinguished.
In cases which may be brought into court, great care should be
taken in making the estimate so that the amount of damage will
be the actual loss suffered.
For the sake of clearness and simplicity, a single, specific case
of 500 acres, yellow pine forest on which everything, mature
timber, poles, reproduction, and forage, have been destroyed by
fire, will be taken as an example.
The are contained before the fire: 1,500,000 feet of merchant-
able timber, 10,000 poles, 250 acres of good reproduction, and
250 acres of scattered reproduction, or a total of 300 acres* fully
stocked with reproduction ; and sufficient forage for 50 head of
cattle for one year.
I. Value of Merchantable Timber: The area contained before
the fire 3 M. ft. B. M. of merchantable timber per acre, or i,-
500,000 feet. All this has been destroyed. The practice in this
country has heretofore been to consider the present stumpage
value of the timber destroyed as the loss incurred. This ignores
two factors : First, that the timber is generally inaccessible at
present ; and, second, when it does become accessible stumpage
rates will have risen. Ignoring these two factors generally re-
sults in giving too high a value to the timber lost. Taking these
two facts into consideration, a more correct present value will be
found, as follows :
*See page 416.
Assessing Fire Damages in Southwest. 415
(a) Determine as near as possible the length of time within
which the timber upon the burned area could have been sold. In
deciding upon this figure it will be necessary to depend upon the
reconnaissance maps of the Forest and upon the judgment of
the Supervisor. A minimum figure within the nearest five years
should be used. For example: If the timber is at present in-
accessible but there is some possibility that the country will open
up in the future, it would be justifiable to say that the timber will
not be sold for 15 years at least, perhaps not that soon, and use
15 years as the basis.
(b) Find the rise in stumpage value, from the accompanying
table,* for the period above decided upon, and add this to the
present stumpage value. Then multiply the volume destroyed by
the increased stumpage price to find the value of the timber at
the time when it would have been sold. The present stumpage
price will vary on each part of each Forest, according to quality
of timber and logging conditions. This basis can generally be
determined from reconnaissance maps.
(c) Discount the value thus obtained for the period decided
upon under (b) to the present by multiplying by the proper
factor from a discount table. This will give the true future
value, discounted to the present at 5%, compound interest,
a conservative rate of interest. Since this result takes into con-
sideration a minimum rate of stumpage, and a reasonable time
within which it could be sold, it represents more nearly the actual
present value of the timber.
Example: 1,500 M. of merchantable timber destroyed; 15
years is minimum time before a sale is possible; 7S% '^^ rise of
stumpage in 15 years; $2.00 per M. is present value of stumpage
on that part of Forest burned over; hence $2.00X1,500 M.=
$3,000, present stumpage value of timber destroyed ; $3.50 per M;
= value of stumpage in 15 years; to discount $5,250, 15 years to
the present at 5% we multiply by .481; $5,25oX.48i=$2,525.25
is the present (or expectation) value of the timber destroyed.
From the above it will be seen that, even though we allow for
a rise in stumpage of 75%, the present value of timber which can-
not be cut for 15 years, found by the above method, is consider-
ably below the present stumpage value.
*See page 413.
4i6 Forestry Quarterly.
2. Value of Poles Destroyed: The value of the poles is the
value of the merchantable timber which they will make dis-
counted for a period equal to the difference between 75 years
(the average age of a 12" tree)* and the average age of the poles
at the time of the fire. This does not allow for the death of
suppressed poles because the openness of a yellow pine stand
is such that but few poles die of suppression. Where the stand
is dense the suppressed pole can be counted out in the estimate.
The average of these poles can be found by getting an average
diameter and looking up this diameter in the growth table.
The stumpage value should be the stumpage value of that part
of the forest on which the burn is located, increased by the per
cent, given for the number of years between the average age of
the stand and 75. (See page 413.)
These poles form the basis of future cuts for the next 100
years, and, if the data were available we should figure the expec-
tancy value of the pole stand for each felling period e. g., 30, 60,
90, 120, years, etc.f
But since such data are not available, the above method, of
which the following example is given, is used for simplicity :
Bxample: 10,000 poles destroyed ; volume of a 12" tree equals
70 board feet (Woolsey's tables) ; volume of 10,000 poles equals
700 M. Board feet; average diameter of poles equals 9"; average
age of poles equals 55 ; 20 years is time required for poles to
become merchantable ; $2.00 increased 100% equals $4.00 the
stumpage price in 20 years; 70oX$4-00 equals $2,800, the value
of the poles in 20 years ; to discount $2,800 for 20 years to the
present at 5% multiply by .377; $2,8ooX-377 equals $1,055.60
the present value of the poles destroyed.
3. Value of Reproduction Destroyed: Determine the actual
area of forest fully stocked with reproduction which has been
burned over. Add to this the area of scattered reproduction
reduced to acres fully stocked. The result will be the actual
number of acres fully stocked with reproduction which have been
burned over.
Multiply the number of acres of fully stocked reproduction by
4,300 feet, the average volume on a fully stocked acre 75 years
*From an average of growth tables collected by Mr. T. S. Woolsey, Jr.
fThis presupposes the group selection system, the one adapted to
Western Yellow Pine.
Assessing Fire Damages in Southwest. 417
old, the age at which the stand becomes merchantable.* The
fully stocked instead of the average acre must be taken because
the reproduction destroyed has been reduced to terms of fully
stocked acres. The result will be the volume which the repro-
duction destroyed would have produced at 75 years.
Increase the present stumpage price for the region of the burn
by the per cent, given for 20 years;** multiply this price by the
total value found above; find the average age of the reproduc-
tion destroyed, and deduct from 75 ; discount the total value of
the stumpage found above for the difference between 75 and the
age of the reproduction at the time of the fire, to get the expec-
tation value of the reproduction when burned.
Example: 250 acres of forest fully stocked with reproduc-
tion burned ; 250 acres of forest with scattering reproduction
equivalent to 50 acres of fully stocked reproduction burned ; 306
acres is actual number of acres fully stocked with reproduction
that have been burned ; 4,300 feet per acre is the average mer-
chantable volume on a fully stocked acre 75 years old.
4,300X300= 1, 290,000= total volume which the reproduction
destroyed would have produced at 75 years ; $2.oo=the present
stumpage of the region ; $4.oo=the present stumpage price in-
creased by 100%, the per cent, given for 20 years.
$4.00X1,290 M. =$5, 160.00 total value of reproduction at 75
years; 15 years=average age of reproduction; 75 — 15=60 is the
period for which to discount the value of the reproduction ;
.0535=the factor for 60 years at 5% compound interest ; $5,-
i6o.ooX-053S=$276.o6, the present value of the reproduction
destroyed.
4. Value of Forage Destroyed: (i) Determine as nearly as
practicable the total number of acres of range burned over and
the number of months during which time forage on this area is
lost. Ordinarily in the Southwest grass may be considered to
replace itself within one month after the start of the summer
rains.
(2). Determine from standards which are based upon adopted
*From Mr. T. S. Woolsey, Jr.'s tables on fully stocked Black Jack stand
based on two 5-acre plots on the Datil National Forest on soils of moder-
ate fertility.
**Though the period will be greater than 20 years it is considered unsafe
to predict even a minimum rise of stumpage for periods longer than 20
years.
41 8 Forestry Quarterly.
standards of the locality the average carrying capacity before the
fire of the range burned over. Express this in terms of the
number of acres which it will take to support one animal for one
year.
(3). Divide the total number of acres of range burned by the
carrying capacity factor determined under (2). This gives the
total number of head which the range area previous to the burn
would have carried for one year or its fully carrying capacity.
If the period for which the forage is lost is less than one year
determine the carrying capacity of the area for the period for
which the forage is lost. This is obtained by multiplying the
total number of head which the area would ordinarily carry for
12
one year by — where x equals the number of months for which
X
the forage is lost.
(4). Based upon the prices paid by stockmen for the use of pri-
vate lands and for permits on the Indian Reservations, $1.50 per
head per annum for cattle and horses, and 30 cents per head per
annum for sheep and goats, is a fair estimate of the actual value
of the forage. Where the forage is lost for a period of less than
a year, as will generally be the case, it is suggested that the
monthly rate be determined under the general rule for fixing the
rate for short grazing periods, adopted by the U. S. Forest Ser-
vice, which means that where the forage is lost for a period of
more than four months and less than one year, the charge will
be at the rate of 15 cents per month on cattle and horses or 3
cents per month on sheep and goats, with an addition of 20 per
cent, for periods of from one to four months. All periods of
less than a year should be expressed in terms of whole months.
(5). Multiply the total number of head which could have
grazed on the area during the period for which the forage was
lost by the monthly rate per head as determined in accordance
with the provision of (4). This gives the total value of the for-
age destroyed.
Example of Valuation of Damage to Cattle Ranges: Area of
range burned equals 500 acres ; carrying capacity of area at the
rate of 10 acres to i head equals 50 head ; forage is lost for a
period of 3 months ; carrying capacity of range for period for
1 2
which forage is lost is equivalent to 50X — equals 200 head, i. e.,
3
feed for 200 head 3 months has been destroyed.
Assessing Fire Damages in Southwest. 419
The rate charged for periods of 3 months for cattle is 3X15C.
equals 45c. which is further increased 20% since the period is
less than 4 months to 54 cents.
The valuation of the forage lost is then 20oX$.54 equals $108.
The total valuation of the damage to the forest products on the
500 acre burn is thus:
1. Damage to merchantable stand, $2,525 25
2. Damage to pole stand, ij055 60
3. Damage to reproduction, 276 06
4. Damage to forage, 108 00
$3,964 91
RESULTS OF "LIGHT BURNING" NEAR NEVADA
CITY, CALIFORNIA.
By M. B. Pratt.
It is a common practice for ranchers living in the vicinity of
Nevada City to burn over their wood lands in the spring, gen-
erally in early April. They contend that the burning does not
damage the timber to any extent and affords protection against
fires in the dry season. The land burned over is stocked with
second growth yellow pine of very rapid growth, with here and
there a large tree of the original virgin stand.
On the afternoon of April 4, 191 1, a rancher living about two
miles from Nevada City was burning brush along the creek in
front of his house. There was a brisk wind blowing and the
fire spread in the dry needles of the wooded slope bordering the
creek. According to the rancher's statement, it would have been
a very easy matter to put out the fire, but as long as it was
started, he thought he might as well let it run and burn off the
litter and underbrush. With the assistance of the man helping
him burn brush he spread the fire along the lower edge of the
slope. The wind carried it at a rapid rate through the ground
cover and litter which was drier than usual at this time of the
year on account of the unusual warm weather of the preceding
two weeks.
The fire burned up the slope to the top, where it burned fiercely
in manzanita brush and a thick clump of yellow pine.
Since there was some wood cut a short distance beyond, the
rancher and his man stopped the fire at night-fall when it had
died down considerably, by scraping away the needles from a nar-
row trail along the upper part of the slope. He stated that it
probably would have gone out of its own accord.
This burn came to my attention as I was passing along the road
on account of the number of burned young trees. The condition
of the stand seemed to denote that the fire was accidental rather
than by design since it hardly seemed possible that the owner
would deliberately let fire burn up so much young growth. Upon
being questioned, however, this gentleman stated that he con-
Results of "Light Burning." 421
sidered conditions after the fire very satisfactory and that the
young timber killed did not amount to much as it was too thick
anyway. His contention was that the timber left will now grow
better and that he will have more in the long run than before
the fire. He stated that the area had not been burned over for
20 years at least.
To show the results of this so-called beneficent light-burning,
a sample ^ acre plot was taken in a clump of young trees averag-
ing 50 feet in height and 40 years of age which fairly represents
conditions on the 15 acres burned over.
Results of burning on ^ acre plot of yellow pine: (a) The
ground litter of pine needles was partially consumed. (b)
There was no chapparal on the ground, (c) Effect on tree re-
production by age classes :
Alive Dead
Class I — I to 5 years
Class n — 5 to 10 years
Class HI — 10 to 20 years
Class IV — 20 to 40 years
Class V — over 40 years
This count on this plot shows that all of the growth up to 10
years of age, three-fifths of the growth from 10 to 20 years of
age, and two-sevenths of the growth from 20 to 40 years of age
was killed. Seedlings younger than five years of age were absent
on this plot owing to the density of the stand. Observations on
other parts of the burned area, however, showed that all of this
age class had been killed.
The average diameter of the class from 20 to 40 years of age
was about 10 inches. Many of the poles killed in Class HI
were over-topped and would eventually have died out.
The fire burned the hardest where there was manzanita brush.
In one place a yellow pine tree 40 inches in diameter and 115
feet high, which was surrounded by this brush, was killed. The
flames had run up the bark which was pitchy to the very top of
the tree.
The stand of poles and old trees before the burning averaged
about 8,000 board feet per acre. Practically one-third of this
amount was killed as well as the majority of the young growth
I
23
28
46
59
24
422 Forestry Quarterly.
up to 20 years of age. A few sugar pines 30 to 40 feet in height
were killed, the trees burning like torches.
If the young growth had not been killed, it would have devel-
oped into a merchantable pole and cordwood stand in about 20
years. Cordwood is being cut from timber up to 20 inches in
diameter on an adjoining tract. After the second crop had been
removed, it would have taken fifty years for the third crop to
develop since the nucleus for that crop was badly lacking. The
second crop would yield about 10 cords or 5,000 board feet to
the acre in 20 years and the third crop that amount after fifty
years.
This burn has affected the second crop of timber by destroy-
ing trees that would have been ready for the ax in a few years
after the largest trees had been cut out. The third crop is about
totally ruined, and it will take at least five years to get any kind
of a beginning of the fourth crop.
The burning has not furnished the older trees a protection
against fire since the brush will soon sprout again and come
in denser than ever as a result of the fire. The dead needles
resulting from this fire will fall and the foundation laid for a
hotter fire than ever.
Last year a piece of light burning near this tract came to my
attention. It was an ideal fire from the light burner's standpoint,
burning slowly along in the pine needles and tar-weed. Of
course it burned up the tender seedlings since the tar-weed makes
a hot, pitchy fire, but it did very little damage to the clumps of
young growth from 10 to 12 feet high or the older trees. This
spring I looked over this piece and found it covered with a thick
layer of pine needles. The tar-weed was all coming back and the
conditions for figures were just as dangerous, if not worse, than
last year. This piece will doubtless be burned over again and
again and the condition reached such as is found in the vicinity
of Camptonville where there are stands of large yellow pine trees
under which there is very little reproduction on account of the
dense carpet of tar-weed which has developed as a result of re-
peated burnings.
This light burning was done in the vicinity of the Rock
Creek fire last summer which burned about 250 acres of second
growth timber and brush land. The land it burned over had
been repeatedly light-burned but the results attained interposed
no barrier to the progress of the crown fire of last summer.
NOMENCLATURE OF DIVISIONS OF AREA IN WORK-
ING PLANS.
By Barrington Moors.
There has been Httle time for the consideration of working
plans in America. Not only educating men for the profession,
so new in this country, and bringing the public to an apprecia-
tion of the aims of the profession, but also the gathering of
fundamental data on which to build the practice of the profes-
sion have absorbed the efforts of fortesters. Progress has, how-
ever, been astonishingly rapid, and we are now in a position to
begin to apply this education and accumulated data to the man-
agement of our forests.
An article dealing very generally with working plans was con-
tributed by the author to the last number of the Proceedings of
the Society of American Foresters (Vol. VI, No. 2). Much
space was spent discussing the necessity of dividing the area
into working circles and of making separate working plans for
separate forests and parts of forests ; it was therefore impos-
sible, in necessarily narrowed limits, to give as much space as
desired to a clear cut definition of the basis of each division of
the area required in working plans.
The first point to settle is the scientific designation of the
divisions to be made ; the second and most important, to deter-
mine the fundamental principles on which the divisions shall be
based.
In the following definitions the term "working circle" will be
used to designate any area from which it is possible to obtain a
sustained yield. Although there has been some discussion as
to the advisability of the term, it has been commonly accepted
and is generally used by the English, the only people speaking
our language and practising forestry ; for it conveys the proper
meaning clearly and concisely, the word "working" implying a
utilization and development of the forest, and the word "circle"
conveying the idea that the working is done according to a "ro-
tation" or "cycle of years" which will bring you back to the same
starting point and thereby insure an indefinite use of the forest
27
424 Forestry Quarterly.
resources. Some foresters have, however, expressed a disHke
for the term and have attempted to substitute the term "working
unit." Some of these, however, admit that they do not know a
reason for their disHke: "perhaps it is because of the foreign
origin of the term," one suggested, but this is manifestly not
an argument at all. Others fear that the word "circle" may give
the idea of a circular area. But certainly those who advocate
the term "working unit" can not claim that it conveys the idea
any better if as well as does "working circle." The word unit
expresses so many divisions both of land and material inside
and outside of the profession that its use here must be carefully
defined and restricted: and also it must be universally accepted
"before we dare hope to escape confusion. Are we then going
to beat about the proverbial bush merely to avoid a really excel-
lent term used by people whose language is ours, and who for
many years have practised a very effective and highly developed
kind of forestry?
The word "block" for the subdivisions of the working circle,
and "compartment" for the subdivisions of the "block" are so
clear and expressive that there should be but little question of
their general acceptance.
The principles on which divisions of the area in working plans
should be based are the following :
Division into zvorking circles. The basis for this division is :
geographic situation, markets, and ability to produce sustained
yield ; the boundaries will generally, but not always (e. g. not in
flat country), be topographic. That is, two distinct parts of a
forest, capable of producing a sustained yield, tributary to dif-
ferent markets, and possibly separated by distinct topographic
boundaries, will form different working circles. A working
circle thus formed should be called a "Division" and given a suit-
able local name, e. g. "the Bear River Division of the Olympic
National Forest" or "the Crystal Lake Division of the New York
Forest."
As the management become sufficiently intensive, forest types,
silvicultural systems and product may also form a basis for
working circles ; thus in a coniferous working circle managed
under the shelterwood compartment system for a sustained yield
of saw-timber, there may be certain areas of hardwoods or of
inferior coniferous species which, under a different silvicultural
Nomenclature of Divisions of Area. 425
system, would give a sustained yield of cordwood or mining
timbers. In this case, as soon as 'the management prescribes a
separate silvicultural system and separate regulation of the cut
for part of the already existing working circle, a new working
circle is formed. The new working circle should, however, not
be called a Division, but be named after its product, e. g. "the
mining timber working circle of the Bear River Division" or
the cordwood working circle of the Crystal Lake Division.
Where two distinct working circles are tributary to markets
which do not require sustained yield — as, for example, export
markets, — the working plan may be simplified by combining the
two Divisions, at least in so far as the regulation of the cut is
concerned. When, however, one or both begin to need sustained
yield, a separate regulation must be made for each.
Division of the Working Circles into Blocks. This division is
made to assist in regulating the cut, and should be on the basis
of logging units or groups of logging units, the boundaries de-
pending entirely upon topography. The Block should receive
a suitable local name, generally taken from the watershed of the
stream which it covers.
Division into Compartments. The basis will be a single log-
ging unit or year's cut. The designation should generally be by
means of numbers. This division need be made only in the more
intensive working plans.
There can not be too much emphasis laid on the importance
of deciding upon these divisions of the area, both during the
progress of the field work and in drawing up the working plan.
There should be a complete knowledge of such matters as pres-
ent market conditions, lines of transportation, outlets for the
timber and the probable changes and developments in all three.
Changes of divisions once decided upon, except in the inaces-
sible parts of a forest may involve a complete overhauling of the
working plan and cause much confusion. Because of this, if
changes in market conditions, transportation systems, or out-
lets are liable to occur and can be foreseen, it is well to provide
for them in the working plan. This may sometimes require a
separate regulation of the cut with a different annual yield for
two possible contingencies. For example, given an area at
present tributary to a certain market; this area now forms a
working circle. But there is a possibility of a railroad being
426 Forestry Quarterly.
built in such a way as to pass by this area on the side furthest
from its present market. Manifestly, certain logging units of
this present working circle will then become tributary to the
railroad. In this supposed case it should be possible noiv to
foresee with greater or less exactitude those larger logging
units which will become tributary to the future railroad. Hence
the regulations of cut should be drawn up now for the entire
working circle tributary to the present market, and also for
the working circle minus the logging units which will be cut off
by the possible railroad.
Inaccessible areas will frequently cause difficulty in making
working plans. For it will be possible on many forests to cover
only the accessible portions with a reconnaissance sufficiently
thorough to obtain detailed data; while the only information
with regard to the inaccessible areas will be very rough esti-
mates and crude, often inaccurate maps. But in drawing up the
working plan resulting from this reconnaissance the inaccessible
areas should also be included. Each inaccessible part of the
forest should be placed in its proper working circle according to
its geographical situation and the market to which it is tribu-
tary; inaccessible areas should not be allotted haphazard to
various working circles. The plan can, therefore, provide for
the accessible part of the working circle in detail, and outline
a rough policy from the best available estimates, maps and silvi-
cultural information, for the inaccessible part. For example,
if the inaccessible portion of the working circle is 80 per cent,
of the total working circle i. e. (contains 80 per cent, of the
timber), and the rotation is one hundred years, and further if
it is probable that the inaccessible timber will commence to be
opened up within at most twenty years, the present working
plan could provide in detail for the cut during the next twenty
years and give a rough outline of policy for the remaining eighty
years. Within ten or twenty years it will undoubtedly be neces-
sary to revise the plan (revisions are generally made every ten
years in Germany), and it will then be possible to secure detailed
data on at least a part of what is now inaccessible.
In making his divisions of the forest for purposes of regulat-
ing the cut the working plans officer should always consider
administrative divisions (ranger districts), fire protective units,
and grazing units, and should make a very strong effort to co-
Nomenclature of Divions of Area. 427
ordinate as far as conditions will allow these divisions with his
working circles, blocks and compartments. But he should by-
no means sacrifice working circles and blocks too much for the
sake of administrative units because, as forests are developed,
and as more men become available, these uits are liable to un-
dergo changes.
The ideas herein expressed are more or less in the nature of
suggestions and are open to crticism. Criticism in fact is ear-
nestly desired, for it is obvious that only through an interchange
of mature thought and the most free discussion can progress be
made.
We are glad to see discussion on these formal and yet techni-
cally important matters of nomenclature taken up anew which
have been left untouched since the appearance of the Forestry
Bureau Bulletin No. 61, six years ago, and the review of it in
the Forestry Quarterly, Volume III, which we think will bear
re-reading by would-be terminologists.
We hope Mr. Moore's call for criticism may be heeded for it
is useful early to establish an acceptable terminology as it is
difficult to eradicate poor terms once in the world. To con-
tribute towards this end we would refer to what we said in that
review regarding terms in general and accentuate especially the
desirability of term quality in the words selected. While the
existence and use of a term in the literature of another nation,
especially of the same language, is strong argument for its reten-
tion, it is still open to question whether a change is not desirable.
In the end, we must admit also the use of synonyms, for, after
all, language is partly a matter of taste and only partly of rule.
As stated in the review referred to, the English of the Britons
appears to us often unfortunate and cumbersome from the stand-
point of term quality.
We side with those who object to the use of 'working circle,'
not, of course, because it is English, but because it is not very
expressive. The explanation of the word circle as referring to
rotation seems to us fanciful, probably a mere area managed
from one center suggesting the term. We do not know, but
suspect, that it is a translation by the first Indian adminstrators
from the German "Kreis," which is a subdivision of Bezirke. Mr.
428 Forestry Quarterly.
Moore, on p. 43. vol. Ylll, of the Quarterly has given the defi-
nitions of area division in India, and on the following page sug-
gested the substitution of "block" for circle. A "working block''
i. e. an aggregation of stands to be managed under one system,
that is a managerial unit or management class, seems to us neat
and more explanatory and we have used it for a long time.
It is unfortunate, however, that Mr. ]\Ioore, in his definition
as it appears to us. somewhat mixes up two classes of area divi-
sion, which should be for obvious practical reasons, kept separate,
namely, the administrative divisions, which are geographical loca-
tions, and the managerial divisions, which are based primarily on
ideas of management.
If this is done, the problem of ranging hitherto unused parts
into working plans, will solve itself more easily, although it will
always remain a problem requiring revision of original plans. —
The Editor.
REPORT ON SUPERVISORS' MEETING AT DENVER,
COLORADO.
The meeting of the Supervisors of District 2 was called to
order at 9 a. m. on January 23, 191 1, by District Forester Riley,
acting as Chairman.
The first day's proceedings consisted of a brief discussion of
the important work which had been carried on on each Forest
since the last meeting with special reference to special problems
and improved methods.
Mr. Riley opened the meeting with an address, quoted in part
as follows :
"We have made great progress since our last meeting and
still greater progress must be made to get the forestry work of
this region to the proper standard in the near future. You are
guardians and business managers for 20,000,000 acres of public
lands upon which are natural resources with an actual cash
value of over $200,000,000. The value of property directly and
indirectly dependent upon a wise conservation of these resources
is several hundred millions of dollars more. All of this wealth
is under your immediate charge and you are responsible for its
protection and development.
The timber, range and waters of the West should be developed.
They are all meant for use, profit and enjoyment. It is pos-
sible to use them in two ways : We may turn them over to pri-
vate or corporate owners without restriction, or we may keep
them in Government ownership with provision for their restricted
or conservative use. In the first case, development would pro-
ceed with the object of financial gain to their owners. This would
result in a kind of development making little or no provision for
sustained productiveness. It would tend toward a monopoliza-
tion by a few powerful hands to the probable detriment of the
ordinary citizen. It would bring about the use of a resource
without regard to its effect upon the others, or upon the closely
related interests. In the second case, permanent ownership being
with the people, development could proceed with provision for
both financial gain to private enterprise and sustained productive-
430 Forestry Quarterly.
ness. The Government could well afford to sacrifice a part of
its immediate revenue for the sake of getting continous future
returns. That sort of monopoly which hurts the ordinary citi-
zen could be prevented. We can not use the timber and range
in a thoughtless or prodigal manner without working a serious
injury to the water supply. If the water supply suffers, loss
will come to the interests dependent upon irrigation and navi-
gation. Regardless as to whether the present profits of lumber-
ing are large or small, the essential point is that we should keep
the land producing timber without cessation.
The future man of weight in the Forest Service will be the
Supervisor. Within twenty years the Supervisor will be the
Forester with an administrative unit of from 50,000 to 350,000
acres yielding from $3 to $12 per acre per year. The Ranger
will have his hands full with a district of from 5,000 to 10,000
acres. Through study and scientific practice, we shall increase
the supporting capacity of the Forests to double what they are
at present. The land troubles will be over, because forest, agri-
cultural and mineral lands will have permanently settled them-
selves into their proper classes and uses. The Supervisor will
make 100,000,000- foot sales with no more concern than he now
makes a $50 sale of fence posts. This will be made possible
by the complete working scheme that will be in effect for all
timber tracts.
It is the object of this meeting to count big in a step forward.
Here are a few of the questions before us :
Why has so much lumber been destroyed by fire?
Can we get and hold an even more effective Ranger force?
Why are we not selling more timber?
Why are we still in doubt whether we shall get a satisfactory
crop of trees on the cut-over land ?
Are we permitting sheep and cattle to graze on forest land to
the detriment of forest growth?
Do we practice what we preach in regard to preservatives?
Why not?
Do we use and distribute our annual appropriation to the best
advantage from an ordinary business standpoint, considering the
actual value of conservation of each particular Forest? How
can we determine this question?
This meeting is your meeting. If you return to your Forests
Report of Supervisors' Meeting. 431
with a broader, clearer, happier view of the work before you, its
object will be accomplished.
SILVICULTURE
January 24, 191 1. Chairman, Mr. Moore.
Supervisor W. J. Morrill, of the Rio Grande, read a paper
on Silvicultural Systems on the National Forests, which is sum-
marized as follows :
As a general rule, protective forests call for the selection
system of silvicultural treatment. The first requirement of our
Forests is that they shall serve for protective forests, and only
secondarily, as a source of supply for lumber, hence the selec-
tion system promises always to be the system most commonly
used on our forests.
The Selection System Under Sheeterwoods.
The disadvantages of this system are:
1. The cost of logging is high, because a large area must be
covered for the crop.
2. It is claimed that growth is 10 per cent, slower than in other
systems of silviculture.
The advantages are:
1. Less skill is required to carry out the system, and therefore,
less liability to make silvicultural mistakes.
2. The timber is usually of large size, and, therefore, is mar-
ketable in places where small timber is not.
Sheeterwood Group System.
Advantages :
1. This method can be used to best advantage only where a
market exists for small lumber and cordwood.
2. It is claimed that it protects young growth satisfactorily
from frost and snow and against drought.
3. No data is available to show how it compares with other
systems in the relative production of wood.
Disadvantages :
I. It opens up the soil to drying influences more or less accord-
432 Forestry Quarterly.
ing to the size of the clearing, whereas the selection system by
single trees disturbs the forest conditions the least of any system;
hence for protection, the group method is not as desirable as the
single tree method.
2. Since the group method aims at disposing of the old stand
within a comparatively limited time, many years must elapse after
the young crop is formed before a supply of saw timber is again
available. This would be a disadvantage if the stand is expected
to supply a steady demand always present, or is not of an area
large enough to be divided into compartments which are treated
successively, and enough compartments to round out the cycle
of rotation.
Under present economic conditions, it seems that the selection
system by single trees is generally preferable to the group sys-
tem.
Since it is not profitable to cut over a selection forest annually,
a period of years must elapse between cuttings. This should be
obtained by the Van Mantel formula expressed as follows :
S .
b=- in which "b" represents the amount of timber in board
ia
feet or cord which should be cut annually; "S" represents the
actual amount of timber per acre in board feet or cords in the
stand ; "a" represents the most profitable age at which the timber
is ready for the ax. To illustrate : Suppose an Engelmann spruce
stand averages 10,000 feet per acre, the total stand per acre.
Suppose that we assume the trees average 200 years when it
appears most profitable to cut them.
10,000
then b = = 100 ft. B. M.
I of 200
Since no purchaser would be willing to cut over the area annually
for only 100 ft. B. M., we must determine the smallest amount
which would justify a cutting. Suppose this amount is 2,500
feet B. M. Then 2,500 divided by 100 equals 25, the number
of years which should intervene between cuttings. These figures
only hold good for a normal forest, but in the above illustration,
if 1,000 feet is a greater wood capital than is normal, 100 feet is
more than grows annually, and we would reduce the wood capital
or if less, we would add to the wood capital. The advantage of
Report of Supervisors' Meeting. 433
this formula is that in the course of time normal conditions are
at least approximated in regard to wood capital.
The seed tree system of cutting is a poor system on account of
the windfall. Clear cutting by the compartment plan is not
feasible on our Western National Forests on account of cost of
artificial regeneration. The true compartment system under
shelterwood may be preferable. Several preliminary thinnings
and one seeding thinning should take place.
The advantages are :
1. The production of wood and quality are unsurpassed.
2. The shelter trees may be grown into larger timber than the
bulk of the crop and the annual increment laid on the shelter trees
is large.
3. The soil, humus and moisture conditions are not as much
affected as in clear cuttings.
Disadvantages :
1. Danger to the seedlings from frost, insect, weeds and grass
is larger than in the selection system.
2. The shelter trees may be windthrown.
3. Great care is required to successfully manage this plan.
4. Moisture and soil conditions are more disturbed than in the
selection system.
Clear cutting in lodgepole may be advisable.
In conclusion the value of the selection sytem should be em-
phasized and to urge that our shelter forests be regulated to a
sustained yield basis and that we aim toward attaining normal
forests.
A general discussion of this paper followed.
Mr. Shaw and Mr. Morrill were of the opinion that under good
management the rotation of Engelmann spruce could be reduced
at least 20 per cent.
Marking SampIvE Areas
During the past year, the trees on a sample area on a proposed
green timber sale have been carefully marked for cutting prior
to the singing of the sale contract. Supervisor John McLaren, of
the Sopris National Forest read a paper which endorsed this pro-
cedure and mentioned the following advantages of it :
"The first good that results from this plan is that the pur-
434 Forestry Quarterly.
chaser must visit the area, and since he certifies that the marking
is done satisfactorily, he goes into the matter more thoroughly
and gets a definite knowledge of the restrictions which will gov-
ern the sale by a full discussion. It has been hard to get the pur-
chaser, in many cases, to take sufficient interest in a timber sale
transaction, and he is inclined, in general, to sign up a contract
without giving it material thought and noting its contents.
The second important factor in connection with this requirement
is that it developes more care on the part of the examining officer
as he is inclined to give a proposed sale more thought and time,
and will arrive at a better understanding of the existing condi-
tions on the sale area than when working under pressure and cov-
ering the field work hurriedly with the feeling that the timber
to be cut may more closely be considered after the sale is made
and when the final marking is done."
Supervisor Bushnell feared that he would not be willing to
abide by his sample marking, after he had occasion to see how
some of the area looked after being thinned.
Supervisor McLaren replied : "We must get away from the idea
of going back and changing our marking. We should go into it
more carefully in the first place, study timber that has already
been marked, and then the probabilities are very small that we
will have to make any change after a sale has started."
Supervisor Cook said : "We have tried out sample marking on
two sales on the Arapaho of about 20 acres. The chief value
we found was to ourselves. It helped the marking board to get
together and discuss things when the purchaser was not present,
and we wrangled it out among ourselves."
Deputy Supervisor Miller said that it was difficult to get the
purchaser to look over the sample area ; that they were always
satisfied with the marking and that little good resulted from it.
Supervisor Bushnell objected to marking the whole sale prior
to cutting for fear of mistakes, but, on the whole, the sentiment
of the meeting was strongly in favor of the practice.
Marking Boards
This subject was introduced by Supervisor Philips, who said:
"A marking board was organized on the Montezuma Forest soon
after the instructions came out last spring. The board is com-
Report of Supervisors' Meeting. 435
posed of the Supervisor, Deputy Supervisor and Forest Assistant.
These three members always go out together to do the marking.
If possible, rangers from adjoining districts where conditions are
practically the same are called in to go out with the marking
board. The scheme has worked well and we feel that a great
deal of good has come from it. A more uniform policy is estab-
lished on the forest, and mistakes are avoided."
Assistant District Forester Moore closed the lengthy discussion
with a summary of the points brought out, as follows :
"Mr. Lovejoy has laid stress upon the fact that the purchaser
wants to know how much timber he is going to be allowed to cut
rather than the kind and number of trees. I think that these
two points are very closely related and that by means of marking
sample areas under the direction of the forest marking board, we
are going to be able to tell the purchaser more accurately how
much timber he will get. We have had some pretty wild esti-
mates on sales made in the past, which is evidence that sufficient
attention was not given in advance to the manner in which these
timber sales were to be marked. It is very clear that we should
give more consideration to the marking at the beginning of a sale
and determine as accurately as we can the number of trees that
will be marked and the kind; then we are going to be closer in
our estimates. There are a great many reasons why we should
get the purchaser on a timber sale in advance of operations and
it seems to me absolutely essential that this be done. The pur-
chaser should certainly know the boundaries of his sale area on
the ground. All the points likely to come into controversy should
be settled before the sale, particularly with a new purchaser."
Brush Disposai,
Supervisor Lovejoy opened the discussion and the following
is a condensation of his paper :
"The principal benefit of any form of brush disposal is the fire
protection which it is presumed to give. In addition to the fire
protection, there may be a secondary benefit in the increase of
reproduction. The undesirable factors are principally the loss
to the soil of the material which should go into it, the danger to
standing trees left after the cutting from the injury by fire and the
cost. Any brush disposal or brush piling is good disposal or
436 Forestry Quarterly.
piling if it allows of the complete destruction of the brush without
injury to the standing trees, and cheaply. With reference to the
camparative advantages of scattering or piling brush, this would
probably depend on local conditions; that is, the preference of
scattering over piling would depend principally upon the fire risk
involved, the silvicultural condtion of the stand, the species, and
the locality, particularly with reference to slope and possible ero-
sion. In brush piling, all sorts and shapes of methods have been
tried, and the kind of brush piling which will prove best for any
given stand must finally be worked out for each locality or stand.
For instance, in clean cutting where cordwood is utilized and
nothing but the top branches go into brush, or where the stand is
nearly clean cut and cordwood taken, I believe that the wind-row
method is much preferable to brush piles. One thing I think is
necessary to be considered in deciding on the type of brush dis-
posal, and that is, the period intervening between the piling and
the time when the brush will be burned. If there is any chance of
the brush having to go through a snow before it is burned, you
can not pile it low nor spread it out. You must protect it by the
heavy pieces around the outside. If this is done properly, and
the pile is symmetrical, such a pile will go through two or three
heavy snows without losing its shape. It may settle a little,
and the brush fall away from it, but it stands up, and can be
burned under almost any conditions. If deemed desirable,
care may be taken to make the pile symmetrical, or to place
sticks around the outside in such a way that the pile will shed
snow. Where properly built, such a pile can be burned in
snow four or five feet deep with good results. The injury to
trees left depends on a lot of factors, primarily, of course, on
the number of trees left to the acre and the number of brush
piles to the acre, the size of the piles, the condtion of the
brush at the time it is burned and the depth of the snow. With
fairly deep piles, and the brush in prime condition, cutting from
a stand of lodgepole of about 12,000 to 15,000 to the acre from
which is removed from 2,000 to 5,000 feet to the acre, you will
run perhaps 25 piles to the acre. Under other conditions you may
get as high as 100 of these piles. The number of piles lighted and
the number of piles not burned will, of course, vary. Mr. Gregg
conceived the scheme of plastering the trees nearest the piles with
snow at the time of burning. By adopting this plan we found it
Report of Supervisors' Meeting. 437
possible to burn piles which were within a few feet of good seed
trees without any injury to the trees except a httle scorching of
the lower branches. The action of the heat melts the snow, the
water runs off, and the tree is not scorched. When your large
piles get going you can not get close enough to the trees to throw
enough snow to hold it back, whereas, on a small fire a few
shovelfuls of snow will do the work. Where such burning is
going on, a man can not attend to more than 20 piles at once, and
he can not set off a lot and leave them. Of course, all the time
he spends on a given brush fire increases the cost per acre; but
it is pretty easy to determine for any given job of burning how
many trees you can afford to lose and whether it is cheaper to
burn the trees up than to save them from fire. I do not think it
pays, as a rule, to burn trees to save them from fire. In the past,
the time of burning brush on large sales appears to have been
determined by the time you found most convenient to burn. I
think that any of us who have had to fight fire during the summer
on a timber sale where the brush had been left unpiled or piled and
not burned would never lose another chance of burning brush
which was in a pile, or of having brush piled rather than
scattered. I do not know of any area where it has seemed to me
safe to leave brush on the ground. I might state that lodgepole
brush does not go to pieces so as to reduce the fire danger abso-
lutely inside of fifteen years. Our fire risks are so tremendous,
and our preparation for the suppression of fires so inadequate,
that taking into account the damage to the soil and all the other
resulting disadvantages, I am afraid that we have not yet reached
a point where we dare leave brush on the ground. While the
cost of burning is a factor, I do not think that it is a very im-
portant one, as we can not afford the fire risk which comes from
leaving unburned brush on the ground, and the additional pro-
tection resulting from the burning of the brush fully offsets the
additional cost of burning. In wind-row burning, practically clean
cutting, the cost is approximately 10 cents per 1,000 feet or $1
per acre under the worst conditions. Where approximately one-
tenth of a stand of trees had been cut, and the brush on that
stand piled, the piles averaged from 15 to 25 to the acre, and the
cost runs up approximately to $2.50 per acre. I do not believe
that I could permanently insure the area from destruction by fire
any cheaper than that. The display of brush burning torches on
438 Forestry Quarterly.
the table brings up a considerable number of questions. A good
torch is one which does its work as cheaply as possible ; it should
also be light, durable and convenient to handle, and should not
leak. It should burn as little oil as possible, and still throw a
flame of the size desired. Further, it should be able to reach to
a greater or less degree to the inside of the pile, and the cost of
the torch itself should be taken into consideration. I have found
that temporary laborers are sometimes inclined to put the torch in
the pile and leave it."
Mr, Moore: We heard from the Forester some time ago that
there was a standard torch on requisition at Ogden, but the
Property Clerk informs me that this was not a standard torch and
that it had been decided to purchase torches locally. (Committee
appointed to report on the selection of a proper torch at the end
of meeting.) There is one point in connection with the brush
burning business that we have not gone into very much ; that is
the question as to whether the brush burning on the forest should
be handled by the regular ranger force or whether we must con-
sider the employment of temporary men.
Mr. Lovejoy replied: I believe that matter is entirely dependent
on local conditions, and that in many cases it is impossible for the
local force to make any showing with the amount of brush there
is on the ground, and it is evidently necessary in such cases to
hire outside help. In cases where the sales are small, and the
local rangers can handle the work, they should do it.
Mr. Imes said : I think it would cost but little more to have the
Forest officers burn the brush. I can get guards at $75 a month
who will do better work than the average laborer, and who also
have a certain interest in their work. The only objection that
I find to this plan is that I do not have sufficient salary allotment
for brush burning.
Supervisor Morrill said that he believed in lopping and scatter-
ing the brush in the majority of sales on the Rio Grande Forest.
The danger from fires was remote there, judging from the record
in the past five years, and it is thought that the benefit to be
derived from soil improvement due to decaying leaves and twigs
outweighed, locally, the danger from fire incurred by leaving the
slash on the ground. Engelmann spruce is the principal timber
cut on the Rio Grande Forest, and the moisture conditions miti-
gate against forest fires. However, as a precautionary measure,.
Report of Supervisors' Meeting. 439
a zone two or three hundred feet wide, on which the brush is piled
and later burned surrounds a considerable area of cuttinsr where
the slash is scattered.
It was determined by expression of all the Supervisors that
brush scattering was practiced to some extent on all of the
Forests in the District.
Fre;e Use.
It appears that free use for green timber was not granted on
a majority of the Forests in the district, and that the policy is to
restrict the free use of green timber as rapidly and as far as
possible. Free use must be handled on each Forest according to
its local conditions.
The question was asked whether any fire lines had been built
through granting free use of timber, either living or dead, along
roads.
Supervisor Imes of the Black Hills (S) Forest said: ''We
had a fire in the Black Hills last summer that jumped a plowed
field 300 yards wide. I decided that if we are going to have fire
lines that will be any advantage, they must be pretty wide. We
have numerous roads through the Forest, but think it will be
necessary to widen them, if they are to be of any great advantage
in case of fire. So I have told the ranger that when an applicant
was entitled to a free use permit, he should confine the cutting
to within 100 feet of the road, and I have endeavored to confine
all free use permits to such places."
Reconnaissance.
The practice of employing forest school students for recon-
naissance, as has been the practice for the past five years, was
favored by a large majority of the Supervisors. Some were of
the opinion that the rangers could do the work better, but they
could not be spared from other work during the summer; others
believed that the inexperience of the forest school men was out-
weighed by the interest they took in forest work.
Method of Coeeecting Cones.
Supervisor Wheeler of the Colorado Forest said that Western
Yellow Pine cones were gathered on that Forest by picking by
28
440 Forestry Quarterly.
hand, since squirrels did not gadier and hoard the cones. Some of
the pickers became very expert, averaging two bushels an hour
each ; however, the average individual would gather only three or
four bushels a day. Hooks and pruners were used to some
extent, but the majority preferred to pick by hand. Picking by
hand was encouraged because less injury was done to the trees.
Wherever the squirrels hoard cones, robbing the hoards was
the most satisfactory method of getting the cones. Supervisor
Sweitzer said that without the assistance of the squirrels, gather-
ing Douglas fir cones would be impracticable. The same may be
said of Engelmann spruce.
It was the consensus of opinion that purchasing cones by
measure was preferable to buying by weight. Mr. Sweitzer paid
75 cents per bushel for Douglas Fir cones purchased from ranch-
men and delivered at his headquarters. He thought the price
was fair, since cones gathered by laborers working for him by
the day cost him 80 cents per bushel. It appears that Engelmann
spruce cones cost about the same, and Western Yellow Pine
cones should be obtained for about 50 cents per bushel.
On the San Juan (E) Forest about | pound of clean seed per
bushel was obtained. The same amount of Engelmann spruce
seed per bushel of cones should be obtained. The clean Douglas
Fir seed cost Mr. Sweitzer about $1.10 per pound. Mr. Wheeler
said he expected to reduce the cost of clean Western Yellow Pine
seed to 60 cents per pound or less, in the future. Seventy-five
cents per bushel of cones was paid for 2400 bushels in the Black
Hills (N).
Supervisor French said, by using ranger labor, the cost of
lodgepole pine cones was reduced to 60 cents per bushel.
Supervisor Langworthy was fortunate in having a large crop
of Western Yellow Pine cones and paid 50 cents per sack. He
failed to state the size of the sacks but presumably they were the
■bushel sacks. Conditions being different on the San Isabel
Forest than on Forests where the cones were delivered at central
points, he maintained field camps, five or six in number, to which
the cones were brought and the seed extracted. He says : "A
great many of the cones opened in the sacks. The last cones we
picked opened up within four days after they were placed on the
sheets. Cones picked before that took about eight days. We
began at that camp gathering cones on September 15. We waited
Report of Supervisors' Meeting. 441
until we thought tlie cones were ripe. We finished our extrac-
tion of seed on October 12, being less than a month at that camp.
There were three of us, and we cleaned up 1,272 pounds of seed.
This seed was floated for a few minutes in cold spring water.
The amount of chafif and refuse we skimmed off after floating the
seed was 22 per cent, in weight. We float the seed twice; after
floating them the first time, we skimmed off the chaff and then
floated it over again. After that we had 22 per cent, chaff; this
includes the si f tings which fell on the sheet when we screened the
cones to get rid of the dirt.
In all of the cases I have mentioned the seed was gathered
from thrifty young trees about eight or ten inches in diameter,
and 25 or 30 feet high. We also gathered seed from old matured
trees, such as spike tops, etc. The cones from these trees were
found to be a little different in shape, being longer and more
pointed. These trees are termed by the lumbermen yellow pine,
while the others are called jack pine. The cones gathered from
the old trees yielded four pounds of clean seed per bushel.
When we had the seed extracted we put a bushel of the winged
seed in a seamless sack, laid them on a wagon sheet on the ground
and tramped the sack under foot for about ten minutes with a
sort of rotary motion. We then winnowed the seed in the wind,
and allowed them to drop into a box with a wire screen bottom.
We would then shake the box, and get rid of the little particles of
chaff attached to the seed. The seed was fairly clean after that
operation, except for the shoulders or clips. The floating oper-
ations were done in cold spring water, and the seed were not al-
lowed to remain in the water over eight minutes. When we put
them in the water, and stirred them up briskly, it removed all the
wings and clips, and it was absolutely clean. Our cleaned seed
cost us 58.9 cents per pound which includes everything."
While discussing seed extraction, Mr. Imes said : "I am still
endeavoring to find out just what is the best method of extract-
ing seed by artificial heat. We have worked at it since Septem-
ber, and I think I have found out a few things that should not be
done, and a few things that should be done. I can best explain
by describing our operations from the time they started. I had
never seen a pine cone treated by artificial heat, and knew noth-
ing about it. I thought it was simply a matter of applying the
heat, but soon found it was quite a different proposition.
442 Forestry Quarterly.
We rented a two-story building at Custer with a good base-
ment. This building was 50x25 feet. My original plan was to
store the cones upstairs, making a drying room on the ground
floor, and have the furnace in the basement. The drying room
which was on one side of the ground floor was very tight, and
after I got it arranged, I filled it with green cones. I expected to
take them out in 36 hours. I had them in there seven days, and
they were closed as tight when I took them out as when I put
them in. The reason was there was too much moisture by
evaporation from the cones which filled the room with steam,
and I found the cones never would open in that way. By that
time I saw I was going to get such a quantity of cones, I would
have to enlarge my drying room. I tore down the first drying
room and made a new one 30 feet long by 20 feet wide. The
arrangement of this drying room was about as follows: I first
made what I called a false floor, constructed of 2-inch slats laid
on joists. The spaces between the slats were about f of an inch.
The trays first constructed were seven feet long and four feet
wide. They were constructed by simply taking wire meshing and
nailing on each side two strips 1x2 inches. There were no shelves
made to place them on, but to strengthen the trays we nailed cross
pieces across the corners. That gave us a 4-inch space between
each tray, and the trays were stacked one on top of the other.
These trays held about two bushels of cones. After I had con-
structed this new drying room, and got it finished, it worked in
pretty good shape. I found by leaving the cones in three nights
and two days, they were ready to come out, that is, they were
sufficiently opened on these trays that practically all of the seed
would rattle out. After the cones had opened, I built what we
called a "flying machine." It was nothing more than a cylindrical
box which was rotated by a gasoline engine. It was constructed
by using a piece of gas pipe 16 feet long with four cross pieces
set on the pipe, and covered with wire meshing. This was rotated
at just the right speed to allow the cones to work out at the lower
end, and the seed to fall on the floor. It was set on a slope so
that the cones were put in at one end and rolled out at the other
end of their own accord.
After the seeds shaken out of the cones are gathered up we
run the winged seed out through a fanning mill. The fanning
mill sits in the basement of the building. The seeds pass over the
Report of Supervisors' Meeting. 443
screen, and the very fine dirt, dust, etc., passes through the screen,
and the winged seeds remain in the fanning mill. They are, you
might say, cleaned winged seed, that is, seed with the wings on.
In running a fanning mill, I find the light seeds are blown out of
the mill. The heavy seeds stay in it, which to a certain extent
reduces the necessity of water floating to get the light seed out.
The light seeds are not fertile. They are small seeds with a
wing, and a very small kernel of no value at all. After the seeds
are first fanned that way, they are put in what is called the wet
box. Water is poured over them, then the seeds are stirred up
until thoroughly moist; after that they are placed on a second
screen, which is sufficiently large to allow all seed to go through
by rubbing. The second screen is horizontal. A quantity of
moist seed is placed on there and rubbed; that loosens all the
wings from the seed. I might state here that we are
experimenting with the view of possibly doing away with the
rubbing or second handling. I found from one of our experi-
ments that it is not necessary to rub these seeds over the screen.
I think it is sufficient to moisten them and dry them. You might
not get as clean seed, but it will be clean enough for all practi-
cal purposes. By wetting them and getting them dry, you can
get the wings from the seed by simply running them through the
fanning mill. After the seeds have been wet, they are dried by
placing them on sheets in the sun, which requires from two to
four hours. Now we dry them in our cylinder, which is covered
with window screen set before the furnace. We put about 100
pounds in the cylinder and set it up before the furnace, and
rotate it a few minutes. We dry in one night 400 pounds of seed.
This makes four different dryings, but they are not wet any great
length of time and not very wet at all.
The first furnace we used was simply a big boxwood stove that
had a cement floor underneath it, and outside of the stove we
built a wall of fire-brick, put a lot of cement over this, and allowed
an opening in the top to go through into the bottom of the drying
. room on the same principle as any hot air furnace. From the
bottom of the floor, we had cold air pipes which lead into this air
chamber around the boxwood stove. I found the boxwood stove
would not stand the heat for the length of time required, and I
have since built a furnace of fire-brick on exactly the same princi-
ple as I used in the boxwood stove. We have a great many
444 Forestry Quarterly.
problems to work out yet, and I think the most important one is
the effect of moisture on the opening of the cones. To overcome
that we installed a blower which was intended to force the hot air
through the furnace into the drying room, and it was so arranged
that we could draw the moist air out of the drying room. Our
blower was a little too small, and we have never successfully
worked it yet, but I am satisfied that in any modern cone extrac-
tion plant we have got to arrange some contrivance so that we
can get rid of the moist air in the room. My intention now is to
run pipes along the roof of the room, where the steam and moist
air is, letting them run through the floor to a blower and draw
all the air out of the top of the room, which would take out the
moisture, and I believe I can reduce the length of time required
to open the cones almost one-half."
The question was asked whether a threshing machine could be
used for extracting seed from cones, and Mr. Imes, who had tried
it, said it was not practicable ; too many of the seed were broken,
and the results were in every way unsatisfactory. Referring to
the amount of clean seed obtained on the Black Hills (N") last
season, he said that about 27,000 pounds of Western Yellow
Pine was obtained.
Supervisor Pierce discussed Methods and Seasons for Planting.
He gave the history of the Halsey Nursery. Experiments proved
that commercial fertilizers for seed beds were of little value, but
animal manures should be used. The seed is sown in the spring
at a rate unit to produce 100 seedlings per square foot. Great
loss resulting from damping-off, fungi and blight. Blight could
be lessened first, by increased use of water, second, by preventing
too rapid evaporation and withdrawal of moisture from the
ground, by cultivation of the soil, by shading, by increasing the
spacing of the trees ; third, by preventing too rapid transpiration,
obtained through shading and by spraying; fourth, by increasing
the fertility of the soil ; fifth, by increasing the vigor of the trees,
by using seed of high germinative ability, and thin stands from
75 to 100 per square foot; sixth, by the transplanting of thrifty
seedlings. The transplant stock gave better results than seed-
lings planted in their permanent site. Supervisor d'Allemand
had better success upon the Kansas Forest with conifers than he
did with hardwoods. Yellow pine seedlings were less liable to
damping-off. Mr. Riley stated that in New York Pettis had
Report of Supervisors' Meeting. 445
practically eliminated damping-oft from his seed beds. No seed
beds are planted without surfacing them. He first puts on the
amount of moisture he wants and then puts in the seed, the soil
used being brought from a distance and free from the spores of
fungi.
Supervisor Kelleter stated that he had had success in direct
sowing and has covered 3,000 acres. The rodents bothered him,
but this was overcome by poisoning the seed areas with wheat
containing strychnine.
Supervisor Allen stated that he used the Cyclone seeder in
broadcasting the seed and found it very useful. They cost $2.50
each.
Slavics.
Mr. Bates asked for results of experiments in planting.
Mr. Reinsch stated that he had better success in using a drill
built on the principle of a garden hoe than of any other method
of seeding. The seeds were dropped one inch apart in the drills
and covered with a garden rake. This cost about $8 per acre.
Mr. Bates emphasized the fact that a complete record should be
kept in detail of the experiments. He also spoke at length upon
the need of growth studies, and advocated an empirical stand
table to be compiled by as big a representation of ages and rates
of growth from the dififerent Forests for each species as could
possibly be obtained.
Products.
January 25, 191 1. Chairman, Mr. H. S. Betts.
Mr. Betts requested that the discussion take the form of ques-
tions. The following points were brought out :
The treating tanks weighed 480 pounds, and held from 10 to
15 po-sts. In a very rough country, cost of treatment was about
25 cents per post, including transportation.
Care should be taken that the tank does not catch fire.
The brush method of treating is not especially good, but better
than no treatment.
That a treating plant brought into demand a large amount of
dry timber.
Crude oil has value as a preservative, but does not compare
with creosote.
446 Forestry Quarterly.
Mr. Betts stated that he intended to carry on some experi-
ments in regard to obtaining turpentine from Western Yellow
Pine and Pinion pine. That the supply of turpentine was becom-
ing limited and that it might become a commercial proposition in
the West.
Grazing.
January 25, 191 1, 4 p. m. Mr. Nelson, Chairman.
Supervisor Kavanagh read a paper on the results accom-
plished on the National Forests in District 2 through grazing
administration, summarized as follows :
The administration of the grazing lands within the National
Forests by the Forest Service is rapidly growing in favor with
the people. Successful grazing administration has brought the
subject of forestry to the attention of thousands of people who
under other circumstances would have given it only passing at-
tention. Grazing promotes reproduction by working up the soil.
Many improvements to the National Forests in the way of roads,
trails, telephone lines, etc. are brought about by grazing. The
stockmen put out thousands of fires. The consumption of the
grass greatly lessens the danger from fire. The existence and
welfare of the small cattlemen in the West depends to a large
extent upon the National Forest range.
Here followed a general discussion of range problems.
A plan of experiments was advocated that would determine the
effect of grazing on reproduction.
January 26.
Supervisor Blackball stated that sheep on his Forest were
trailed over fire guards thus increasing the efficiency of the fire
lines.
Supervisor Ratliff read a paper on Advisory Boards. The
following points were brought out.
Stock associations are formed (i) in order to compete with
monopolistic large owners; (2) by the need of range adjust-
ment among themselves; (3) by realizing the necessity of some
form of legal regulation of the use and conservation of the range.
Advisory boards have proven a great help in settling range
difficulties. It is much easier to come to an understanding with
an advisory board than a whole community and considerable time
Report of Supervisors' Meeting. 447
is saved. The advisory usually consists of level-headed men
with whom the Service can readily adjust matters pertaining to
grazing.
To sum up, advisory boards mean a better enforcement of the
regulations, increased benefits to the users, the adjustment of
misunderstandings, and a means by which information concern-
ing present and future difficulties may reach us.
Here followed a general discussion on advisory boards.
Range improvements were then taken up and discussed. Some
of the Supervisors had marked success in sowing timothy upon
the range. It was the sense of the meeting that separate dates
should be advertised by which grazing applications should be
received for the dififerent classes of stock. It developed that a
large amount of work had been done on grazing reconnaissance
upon the different Forests, also a large number of forage plants
had been collected.
The game question was taken up and discussed.
Supervisor Kavanagh stated that a plan of restocking the range
with wild game had been carried out on the Big Horn as a car-
load of elk were shipped in from the Jackson Hole country. It
was the opinion of the meeting that a law should be passed, com-
pelling people to screen their headgates, and a greater effort
should be made to protect game.
Operation.
January 26, 191 1, 3 P. M.
A lengthy discussion took place in regard to systematizing the
field work, and what was needed in the way of trails, telephone
lines, and fire lines for patrol purposes.
A majority of the Supervisors were in favor of some sort of a
written plan for future work for every officer on the Forest.
Supervisor Gregg stated that the best tool for fighting fire, in
his opinion, was a hoe having a blade 6"x6", catalogued as a
"hazel hoe."
A lengthy discussion of fire prevention followed and a com-
mittee was appointed who made the following recommendations
for the suppression of Forest fires :
Increased field force.
Increased funds for:
44^ Forestry Quarterly.
Properly equipped lookout stations.
The purchase and distribution of fire tools.
An adequate system of roads and trails located with respect to
their use as fire lines.
Fire lines to be kept clear by using as stock driveways and
located with respect to their use as roads and trails.
Intensive and systematic patrol, with adequate telephone
systems.
The reduction of inflammable material by the removal of dead
and down timber and the disposal of brush on timber sales by
piling and burning.
Smaller administrative units for Rangers and Supervisors.
Definite and intimate cooperation between Supervisors of
neighboring Forests, and Rangers of neighboring districts.
The following measures are recommended for immediate
adoption :
Increased field force.
Increased funds.
The complete equipment of the more commanding lookout sta-
tions.
The systematic extension of roads, trails, and telephone lines.
Intensive and systematic patrol.
The heavy grazing of areas where it would reduce fire danger.
Smaller administrative units.
The proper equipment of all railroads operating through the
Forests.
Definite and detailed cooperation between neighboring Forest
officers.
After a lengthy discussion on examinations for rangers a
motion was carried to request the Civil Service Commission to
extend the probationary period for Assistant Rangers to one year.
January 27, 191 1.
A lengthy discussion on claims took place. Many individual
cases were discussed and Mr. Mclnery, Chief of the Fifth Field
Division, stated his opinion in numerous land cases. He also
stated that the Department of the Interior wished to cooperate
with the Forest Service in every particular.
Superintendent Ainsworth, of the Bureau of Fisheries of Colo-
rado, took up the fish question with the Supervisors. He sug-
Report of Supervisors' Meeting. 449
gested that each Supervisor make up a Hst of the number of fry
needed and send them in as soon as possible.
The subject of Uses and Settlement was discussed. It was the
opinion of many of the Supervisors that legislation should be
passed whereby a permit could be made to operate for five or ten
years.
Supervisor Lowell opened the discussion on Settlement. He
thought that it would be better to have the lines run out with a
transit although good results had been obtained with the compass.
Meeting called to order at 9 a. m., January 28.
The discussion of Settlement was continued.
Supervisor Bushnell stated that oftentimes one man made sev-
eral applications, and several different tracts of land were listed.
He believed this to be undesirable, and thought a regulation or
law should be made to prevent it.
In Superivisor Imes' opinion, it did not make any difference as
he thought that the quicker the agricultural land was listed, the
better it would be.
Mr, Riley stated that the present policy was not to concern our-
selves in any way with the intention of the applicant, and that the
Service should not hesitate to examine a second application for a
man who is not satisfied with the first. Arrangements were made
whereby several men would be detailed to the various Land Offices
to obtain the status for all the Forests.
After a discussion of Law and Accounts, the meeting was
closed by an address by Mr. Riley.
He complimented the Supervisors on the work they had ac-
complished and emphasized the fact that the further progress of
the work depended to a larger extent upon their initiative. The
man of the future is the Forest Supervisor. The District Office
is an organization fori the purpose of assisting Supervisors with
their problems.
Mr. Wheeler moved that the Supervisors express their appre-
ciation of the help given by the District Office, not only in the
meeting, but also during the past year.
The motion was seconded and carried.
FRANK J. PHILLIPS.
An Appreciation.*
When American forestry lost Frank Jay Phillips it lost one of
its rising beacon lights. Alas for the futility of our hopes ! For
one brief moment, like a brilliant falling star under the desert
sky, his life flashed across the heavens of our science, and was
gone. But the afterglow is with us still. It will be with us for
years to come. It can never be entirely effaced, but will live on
and on, though mayhap receiving new auroral coloring from
other minds and souls, to generations yet unbortn.
Born and reared in the forests of Michigan, thoroughly
grounded in the problems of the farm and the woodlot at the
Michigan Agricultural College, his training was carried to a high
standard of completion in the forestry courlses of the University
of Michigan. Ever striving for a higher mark, however, he pur-
sued work for a doctor's degree, and had intended to go abroad
this present summer to carry on his forestry studies. He was
also a leader in other lines, holding some excellent track records,
and winning a high place in inter-collegiate oratory. After a
period of hard and effective work in the United States service,
covering many states, he was called to the head of the forestry
department in the University of Nebraska, which position he held
on the date of his untimely end, February 12, 1911. At this time
he had been offered a position on the forestry faculty at Ann Ar-
bor. At a previous time, his powers of observation were recog-
nized by the offer of the position of triaveling dendrologist in the
forest service. Again, his capacity for organization and leader-
ship won high recognition by the tender of the position of chief
sf the Indian forest service under the national government.
In addition to his arduous and successful labors as head of a
growing department in a great univerisity. Professor Phillips set
himself with a vim to the task of turning out original research
work, and it was his intention to publish at least two articles
*Although we have printed on p. 168 a brief reference to Mr. Phillip's
decease, we gladly give additional space to the above appreciation of a
worthy member of our profession — Editor.
Frank J. Phillips. 451
each year. His papers on "Bird Dissemination of Juniper
Seed," and "Hail Injury to Forest Trees" are unique and excel-
lent pieces of obserVational work. His "Study of Pinyon Pine,"
published in the Botanical Gazette," is a fine type of dendorlogical
study. He was associated with Dr. Fernow as one of the contrib-
uting editors of the "Forestry Quarterly," and had in mind the
establishment of a "Planting Magazine." At the time of his
demise he had in preparation several articles, including one on
the trees of the Mexican boundary. A very interesting note on
branchless conifers has appeared posthumously in the "Plant
World." During the summer of 1910, the writer had the pleas-
ure and inspiration of being associated with him for six weeks
in the field in southern Arizona. One day his sharp eyes detected
mistletoe growing upon whiteleaf oak, a fact fori which the
writer had been looking in vain for some three years. He had a
remarkable capacity for assimilating the facts of nature in gen-
eral, and those bearing upon his specialty in particular. His en-
thusiasm was inspiring, his avidity to look and learn boundless,
his keen eye perspicuous and probing for the best of things.
One of his finest characteristics as a forester was his breadth
of view. While ever loyal and strenuous to the last degree to
attain the immediately practical results that in the minds of some
are the only measure of success, he had boundless admiration for
related branches of scientific inquiry, whose practical application
does not always lie on the surface, but which in the course of time
are often fraught with unforeseen and incalculable value. As
Professor Peirce has recently well said: "From the beginning,
the study of plants in this country has been strongly influenced
by the requirements of its inhabitants." He might have added,
and by the ultra-materialistic American habit of mind. "Pure
science has found scant support and still less understanding
sympathy. We may deplore the fact, but we must recognize its
adequate and persisting cause." While this is only too true,
future progress in forest work in this country must lie along
the lines of greater breadth and deeper foundations, a necessity
that is gradually coming to be recognized, and is already taking
concrete form in the establishment of thorough research work
and permanent experiment stations. Professor Phillips was a
live and enthusiastic exponent of this movement.
452 Forestry Quarterly.
Phillips was deeply interested not only in dendrology and
forestry proper, but in mycology, and was rapidly forging to the
front as a teratologist. For years he had studied eccentricity and
abnormality of growth. This was perhaps the natural outcome
of much forest service practice in the counting of annual rings
and the measurement of tree growth. He was a master of stem
analyses. His quick and incisive definiteness, never satisfied with
a haphazard or approximate result, no matter what the personal
hardship incurred, won for him a measurfe of proficiency in this
line that has perhaps never been excelled among American for-
esters. His rapid fire figures could be recorded with the greatest
ease, for they rung out always clear, definite, and in order. His
data had the only too rare quality of being high scientific value.
His life was sacrificed at white heat on the altar of high duty.
He was a live wire, and his restless ambition drained his reserve
energy faster than it could be supplied. When dread la grippe
visited him it found him an easy prey. His was a noble ambition,
unswei^vingly devoted to the main chance, the task of advancing,
at the sacrifice of personal comfort and under other difficulties,
his chosen life work and the interest of his science. He threw
himself, heart and soul, into even the smallest task. With bril-
liant ability, and the most strenuous conscientiousness, his every
energy and resource were bent to his work. Thus he achieved
in a brief space of time some remarkable results, thereby giving
the greatest promise for the future. But the possibilities of life
are of infinite variety, and our best prognostications ar)e but
groping in the dark.
He cultivated intimate and painstaking personal touch with his
students. He was a devoted husband and father, and the truest
of friends. On one occasion, while on a long march in the moun-
tains, the writer's feet became sore, and he had to stay behind.
Nothing would do but Frank would exchange boots and send
horses. And he did.
It is now some little time since he left us, but these few inade-
quate words in tribute to his memory may not come amiss, for
such a memory deserves abundantly to be kept alive. His was a
personality that can never be replaced in kind. We cannot but
mourn deeply long after the world has forgotten. But by his life,
though so brief, our life has been enriched, and quickened. To
Frank J. Phillips. 453
have lost him is a sorrow, never to have known him would have
been a inisfortime. We are profoundly thankful that Tennyson's
words are true once more :
'Tis better to have loved and lost,
Than never to have loved at all.
J. C. Blumijr.
Tucson, Arizona, May 23, 191 1.
CURRENT LITERATURE.
The Principles of Handling Woodlands. By Henry Solon
Graves. New York. 191 1.
Mr. Graves' volume is one of those semi-popular technical
books, which are needed not so much by the professional man, as
by that most important class of woodland owner's in whose hands
finally the future fate of the forest lies.
It is the first attempt in print to discuss systematically silvicul-
ture with special reference to American conditions.
In simple and direct language the reader is briefly informed
in some 40 pages of the undesirable conditions of American
for'ests, the objects of silviculture, and its methods in general.
It is interesting to note that the author places the extra cost of
operating in the hardwoods under forestry methods as from 25
cents to $1 per thousand feet, the cost of reproducing at from
$2 to $10 per acre, and the annual cost of protection, supervision
and administration as from 2 to 10 cents per acre. It would be
interesting to know how these figures are arrived at. He admits
that forestry cannot be profitable to all private owners, but for
some under favorable conditions it might, as for instance the
plantings in New England have produced over 6 per cent, on the
investment, and investments in second growth are also certain
to pay well.
In the classification of silvicultural systems it appears to us a
curious mix-up of conceptions to place under clear-cutting system
the various methods which reserve seed trees, scattered or in
groups or in blocks or patches, and which we would class sepa-
rately as seed-tree methods.
The details in the operation of the four different systems or
as we would prefer to say methods of silviculture are clearly
described, namely, selection, clearcutting, shelterwood method
and coppice, and examples are given from localities in the states
to show under what conditions they are applicable. We arte glad
to find that the selection forest is not any more the only ap-
plicable one.
We are informed that the cost of marking in selection forest
Current Literature. 455
has ill the United States (presumably in National Forests) varied
from, 2.5 to 10 cents per M feet. The diameter limit is broadly
discussed.
The strip system with marginal seeding described under alter-
nate cleared strips, is perhaps more widely applicable than is
intimated, namely, wherever uniform stands of light-needing
species, e. g.. Southern pineries, are to be operated and systematic
transportation can be cheaply provided.
It seems to us a misconception of terms to place the proposed
treatment of Longleaf pine in two cuttings separated by a period
of from 10 to 20 years under shclterzvood method. As the name
implies, this is a method of providing shade or shelter for the
young crop and certainly the Longleaf pine would resent such
shelter even more than the Scotch pine. The description of the
procedure answers rather more a seed-tree method, or according
to the author, a clear-cutting, reserving seed trees.
While fori a layman's easiest comprehension it might have been
better to classify these operations more subordinately by genus,
species and variety of procedure; the reader will by the more co-
ordinate classification be more impressed with the fact that there
are many ways of doing, dependent in their applicability on
natural and economic conditions.
The chapter on improvement cuttings (thinnings) brings all
that is essential. Over 80 pages, one-quarter of the volume, is
taken up by a discussion on protection against fire; and 12 pages
on protection from other injurious agencies.
One is left with the impression that a number of the silvicul-
tural methods described are in actual operation in this country.
It would be a useful piece of work, of more than historical value,,
for the Forest Service to collate with sufficient detail all the
cases, where actually and consciously silvicultural methods have
been applied.
We can only hope that this volume will come into the hands
of many woodland owners wdio can make use of it. It will be
first class reading for all underforesters, and even the students of
higher degree can only benefit from its perusal.
B. E. F.
Light in Relation to Tree Grozvth. By Raphael Zon and Henry
29
456 Forestry Quarterly.
S. Graves. Bulletin 92. U. S. Forest Service. June 191 1.
Pp- 59-
>
As stated by the authors, the aim of the Bulletin whose title is
given above, is to bring together the principal facts with regard
to the part which light plays in the life of the forest, and the
different methods of measuring it. To this end the principal sub-
jects discussed are : Light Intensities and Tree Gr'owth, Tolerance
and Intolerance of Trees, Factors Influencing Tolerance and
Methods of Determining Tolerance.
That tolerance and intolerance have a physiological basis is
shown by the experiments of Lubimenko who found that the
chloroplasts of different species are sensitive to light in different
degrees, the chloroplasts of shade enduring species being more
sensitive than those of light needing species ; that species with the
more sensitive chloroplasts begin to decompose carbon dioxide
and reach a maximum of assimilative energy in light of much
lower intensity than species of less sensitive chloroplasts. The
same fact was demonstrated by Grafe who found that when ex-
posed to a light intensity of 1-50 full sunlight, birch leaves showed
no presence of starch while beech leaves still continued vigorously
to form it. A physiological basis for tolerance and intolerance
of trees is also indicated by the experiments of Zederbauer who
found that the crowns of various species exercise a selective
power of absorption of light rays. The species generally recog-
nized as most light demanding absorb, in addition to the red,
only small portions of the blue and violet rays, while the shade
enduring species absorb, besides the red, some orange and a large
amount of the blue, indigo and violet rays. It may be that, as
it were, the shade endurers make use of the crlimbs which fall
from the tables of their more fortunate neighbors.
The authors discuss the methods of determining the relative
tolerance of the various species under three heads, namely : Obser-
vational, anatomical and instrumental methods. Under obser-
vational methods, one notes the density of the crbwn, self-pruning,
number of branch orders, natural thinning of the stand, conditions
of reproduction, relative height and the results of artificial shad-
ing. The anatomical method consists in comparing leaf struc-
tures, it being assumed that a high development of palisade tissue
is due to exposure to strong light. The Bulletin closes with de-
Current Literature. 457
scriptions of various photometers, notably those of Clements,
Wiesner and Zederbauer with some results of their use in America
and Europe.
A plant physiologist might question the statement of the au-
thors that the measurement of the chemical light intensity by
photographic paper remains for the present the nearest approach
to the ideal in determining light values in a forest, for it is experi-
mentally known to him that the greatest activity in starch manu-
facture takes place under the influence of the r^ed rays whose in-
tensity, if measured at all, is measured but feebly by photographic
paper. And, moreover, according to investigations quoted in the
Bulletin, the rays of high refrangibility, whose intensity is meas-
ured by photographic paper, are absorbed by the superficial layers
of the leaf, but in the ordinary leaf most of the starch manufac-
ture takes place in the mesophyll which absorbs the rays of low
refrangibility screened out for it by the superficial tissue. Pho-
tometers, Ideally actinometers, may be nearest the ideal but they
have a long way to travel before they overtake it.
American silviculturists and plant ecologists are greatly in-
debted to the authors for bringing together so much valuable data
concerning the fundamental but elusive problem of the light rela-
tions of trees. The Bulletin shows incidentally the position of
Americans as investigator's in the subject for it quotes two of
them and no less than twenty-five Europeans.
C. D. H.
This bulletin does not bring anything essentially new (except
record of a few measurements) and contains mainly what a good
course in biological dendrology or silvics should (yet perhaps
does not often) contain, but it is a very useful compilation of the
knowledge on a subject which is of great importance to the for-
ester. All the important data is assiduously brought together in
a clear and simple language and concisely and critically presented
on less than 60 pages.
Half the space is occupied with an account of the attempts to
remove the determination of relative tolerance of species from
the realm of personal judgment or empirical methods to that of
actual measurements, physiological or physical. The authors
seem to be inclined to consider the photometric methods, such as
developed by Wiesner, Clements, Zederbauer and others, as most
458 Forestry Quarterly.
promising, without realizing that by the addition of one sentence,
they have destroyed the hope of ever arriving at a mathematical,
practically useful, statement of light requirements, namely : In
interpreting the results of the light readings, account must be
taken also of other factors of tree growth, such as moisture con-
tent of the soil, age and vigor of the specimen, quality of the soil
and relative humidity."
While, then, physical measurements should by all means be con-
tinued and may be expected to make us clearer as to the role
which light plays in the economy of the tree and the forest, for
practical purposes it would appear that the development of physio-
logical methods, such as Medevev's, will bring us much sooner
to a rational check on our personal judgment, which after all can
never be dispensed with in silviculture and, indeed,, in all opera-
tions which have to do with nature's creative forces.
To the very valuable literature reference we may only add Dr.
McDougall's work which has been overlooked, and Dr. Engler's
contribution briefed in this issue. B. E. F.
Chaparral Studies in the Dzvarf Forest or Blfiii-ivood of
Southern California. By Fred G. Plummer. Bulletin 85. U.
S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 48.
The area within the United States covered by the true chaparral
amounts to about 5^^ million acres. It protects about three-fourths
of the upper water-sheds of the streams along the coast in Califor-
nia for a distance, along the axes of the Sierras, of 450 miles. The
forests are on the high elevations. Below is the chaparral. Still
farther down is the sagebrush country, the growth becoming thin-
ner and thinner toward the bare, arid or semi-arid, sandy belt
bordering the ocean. Along the coast the average rainfall is
thirteen inches, insufficient to support a for'est, and only in a few
places is it enough for a scattering woodland of oaks. The point
where the rainfall, increasing with the altitude, is sufficient to
support a forest averages about 2,000 feet. The topography is
exceedingly diversified and it is said that between the ocean and
the mountain summits, five distinct climates may be defined.
The author lists 16 species which dominate the chaparral and
55 species holding a secondary place. Besides these 46 species are
listed as important. Greasewood or chamisal {Adenostoma
Current Literature. 459
fasciculatum) is the most abundant and widespread, on the aver-
age composing 33 per cent, of the stand. It is exceedingly in-
flammable, is a poor soil binder and does not protect the ground
from dry winds. The next most common species is the Califor-
nia scrub oak {Quercus dumosa) and in the region as a whole
it makes up 13 per cent, of the chaparral. It is a very desirable
member of the formation, since it is evergreen and grows on all
kinds of soils and sites. If not too severely burned, it will pro-
duce a fair coppice within three years, a much shorter time than
the average for chaparral species. Other leading species are deer
brush (Ceanothus divaricatus) , spasm herb (Adenostoma sparsi-
folium) and the big berried manzanita {Arctostaphylos glauca).
Only the latter is considered a desirable species from the stand-
point of soil cover.
Water is the most valuable mineral in Southern California.
The supply for Los Angeles is brought 200 miles. Certain land
without water or the prospect of it is not worth 50 cents an acre,
but with water upon it would be worth $3,000 per acre. Those
who are skeptical of the beneficial role of forest cover, even
chaparral, upon the run-off and water supply in a semi-arid region
should read this bulletin.
For the most part, the commercial species which occur in scat-
tered patches over the chaparral and at the upper limits of the
formation, are unable to extend themselves on areas dominated
by the smaller growth. The Forest Service has made several un-
successful attempts by sowing and planting to establish native
commercial species on the exposed slopes. The author suggests
the trial of Eucalyptus, C. D. H.
The Aspens: Their Growth and Management. By W. G.
Weigle and E. H. Frothingham. Bulletin 93. U. S. Forest Ser-
vice. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 35.
The aspens discussed in the bulletin are Populus tremuloides
and P. grandidentata. They stand third as contributors to the
pulpwood supply in the United States, but that is only 6 per cent,
of the total used. Aspen pulp is the most important source of
supply for the manufacture of books and magazines. Aspen pro-
duces a high grade of excelsior and it furnishes a large part
of that commodity on the market. In Europe aspen wood is used
460 Forestry Quarterly,
extensively in the manufacture of matches and for the charcoal
employed in making gunpowder. Because aspens mature early,
and so require a short rotation as compared with other forest
trees ; because small sizes suffice for present uses so there is little
waste in utilization ; because the pulpwood logging has already
badly depleted the merchantable stands in Northeastern United
States the Forest Service has been led to make a study of their
growth and management. The principal sources of supply of
commercial aspen in the East are in Maine and New Brunswick
and the stands arose after the fires of 1825 which burned over no
less than five million acres. It is estimated that this area contained
10 million cords and that not one half of it has yet been cut or
burned. Tables showing the development and decadence of
aspen stands in Maine are given. The average age of dominant
trees probably falls between 70 and 80 years. The stands origin-
ating from Miramichi and other fires of 1825 are so rapidly de-
teriorating from white rot (Fames igniarius) that the pulpwood
bolts are now culled from 5 per cent, to 20 per cent. Ten years
ago culling for this cause in the same region was unknown.
The authors suggest a rotation varying between 50 and 80 years
according to the condition of the stand. Owing to the vigor of
reproduction both by seeds and root suckers, clean cutting and
burning the litter to facilitate seeding are advised.
C. D. H.
Properties and Uses of Douglas Fir. By McGarvy Cline and
J. B. Knapp. Bulletin 88, U. S. Forest Service. Washington,
D. C, 191 1. Pp. 75.
"Douglas fir may, perhaps, be considered as the most important
of American woods. Though in point of production it ranks sec-
ond to southern Yellow Pine, its rapid growth in the Pacific coast
forests, its comparatively wide distribution, and the great variety
of uses to which its wood can be put place it first. Estimates of
the available supply range from 300 billion to 350 billion feet
board measure. It is very extensively used in the building trades ;
by the railroads in the form of ties, piling, car, and bridge ma-
terial ; and by many of the manufacturing industries of the coun-
try. As a structural timber it is not surpassed, and probably it is
most widely used and known in this capacity."
Current Literature. 461
Lumbermen commonly recognize two varieties of the timber —
red fir and yellow. Experiments show that they have practically
the same strength; the yellow variety, however, contains fewer
defects and is of more even grain.
The average weight per cubic foot of Douglas Fir is, oven dry,
28.8 pounds; thoroughly air seasoned, 33.1 pounds; green, 38.4
pounds. Within limits, strength varies directly as the drv weight
of the wood. The greatest strength in small specimens is most
frequently associated with an average rate of growth of twelve
to sixteen rings per inch of radius. In grading structural timbers,
however, average rate of growth has little significance.
The bulletin is replete with tables, figures and diagrams, show-
ing the relation of the physical characteristics of Douglas Fir to
its mechanical properties. Of special interest is the comparison of
different grading rules and specifications for Douglas Fir, based
on data secured from tests on green material, with pertinent sug-
gestions for their modification in order to secure the best results.
S. J. R.
Preservative Treatment of Poles. By William H. Kempfer.
Bulletin 84, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C, 191 1. Pp.
55-
This bulletin embodies in convenient form the results of the
investigations by the Forest Service of methods for prolonging
the life of poles. Though most of the data has been previously
published in separate circulars, there is included additional infor-
mation gained by more recent experiments.
In treating poles it Is seldom considered practicable to impreg-
nate the wood throughout, an outer protective envelope around
the untreated interior wood proving sufficient. The antiseptic
should penetrate deeply enough to prevent exposure of the un-
treated wood by abrasion, checking or other action. It has been
the aim of the Forest Service to perfect cheap and simple methods
for applying such creosote treatments locally and without expen-
sive plants, thereby overcoming the chief hindrances to general
adoption of the practice.
The more important conclusions from the investigations dis-
cussed in the bulletin are summarized as follows :
"Seasoning poles reduces their weight, commonly from 16 to
462 Forestry Quarterly.
30 per cent., and even more for some species, with a correspond-
ing decrease in the cost of transportation. Thorough seasoning is
essential if the poles are to be treated with preservatives.
"In general, poles cut during the spring and summer lose
weight most rapidly. Poles cut during autumn and winter lose
weight less rapidly but more regularly. Too rapid seasoning may
be detrimental to the timbei" by causing excessive checking.
"Shrinkage of poles during seasoning is very slight and does
not exceed one per cent, on the circumference.
"A simple and inexpensive way of using a preservative con-
sists in applying it to the surface of the pole with a brush.
Treatments made in this manner with a good preservative may be
expected to add two to three yeafs to the life of the poles and
more than repay their cost, but are not as effective as impregnat-
ing the wood with the preservative.
"Impregnation of many pole timbers, especially the sapwood
of round timbers, may be successfully accomplished in open tanks,
without the use of artificial pressure, by immersion in hot and
cold preservative, the cold following the hot.
"The open-tank process for the treatment of poles has the ad-
vantage that it is possible to apply the preservative to the butts
only, with a great saving in the amount used. Plants for butt
treatments may be constructed in a simple and inexpensive man-
ner.
"Preservative treatment is profitable financially, the increased
durability of the timber decreasing the annual service charge.
Relatively greater benefits are derived from the treatment of non-
durable woods than from the treatment of those which possess
great natural durability.
"Preservative treatment makes possible the use of poles of
smaller butt circumference, since allowance usually made for de-
terioration need not be considered, when it is certain that the full
size and strength of the poles will be retained through a long
period of years.
"By the application of preservative treatment, many species of
timber not naturally durable and formerly not considered suitable
for poles may be used for this purpose, thus opening up new
sources of supply, and greatly relieving the pole situation from the
threatened exhaustion of those woods now most commonly used."
S. J. R.
Current Literature. ■ 463
Sixteenth Annual Report of the Forestry Commission of Minne-
sota, for the year ipio. 184 pp.
With this report closes the long and valuable service of the
forestry commissioner, formerly chief fire warden, General C. C.
Andrews, whose interest in forestry began some forty years ago,
when Minister to Sweden. On April 12, 191 1, the office was
legislated out and a state forester with scientific training under a
Forestry Board, similar to the Wisconsin arrangement was sub-
stituted. Thus closes the first mainly educational stage of estab-
lishing forest policy in Minnesota, which General Andrews effic-
iently and fearlessly pursued, and it is to be hoped that the states-
manlike, cheese-paring attitude of the legislature which hampered
the chief fire warden's work may have also come to an end.
With reference to the unprecedented dry season of 1910, cul-
minating in the tornado-swept fatal Baudette forest fire of Octo-
ber 7th, in which 29 people perished and a million dollars worth
of property was destroyed, he thinks that if the legislature of 1909
had apropriated the $39,000 he asked, instead of only $21,000, he
could have continued ranger service after September first and
that probably the calamity would not have occurred.
For pay and expense of patrols and rangers and necessary fire
lines, lookouts and telephones and for suppressing fires, he rec-
ommends an annual appropriation of $200,000, and $30,000 in
addition for prosecutions. "The forest fire laws" he says, "will
not be respected unless enforced. The state cannot keep a watch-
man over every heedless person in the forest regions. Examples
must be made of those who violate the law, so that others will be
restrained from negligence in the use of fire."
Of special interest are the references to the practicability of
burning slash, quoting especially Mr. F. E. Weyerhaeuser, who
having had experience with this practice in the Leech Lake Indian
Reservation logging, believes such legislation as was defeated in
1908 would now be supported by lumbermen and the proposition
is supported by a majority of the fire wardens as practicable. Yet
the bill of the Forestry Commissioner providing for such slash-
burning was not pressed in the legislature for 191 1, but the law
instituting the State Forester places properly in his discretion the
ordering of such burning.
Altogether this bill, which provides for an annual appropriation
464 Forestry Quarterly.
of $75,000, of which $4,000 salary for the State Forester, which
was drawn by the Forestry Board, seems judiciously constructed
in leaving discretion with the State Forester in almost all points.
Nearly two-thirds of the report is taken up with descriptions
of the forestry practice in twenty countries of Europe secured by
correspondence. B. E. F.
Forest Products of Canada, iqoq: Poles Purehased. By H. R.
MacMillan. Bulletin 13, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada.
191 1. Pp. 7.
The total number of poles reported as purchased in Canada
during 1909 was 358,225, an increase of 172,448 poles over 1908,
due to an increase in the purchase of short cedar poles by tele-
phone and telegraph companies. For the same reason the aver-
age price of all poles fell from $1.53 in 1908 to $1.39 in 1909.
Of the poles purchased, 94.5 per cent, was cedar, 4.5 per cent,
larch, and the remainder spruce, Douglas fir, and unspecified
species.
Telegraph and telephone companies bought 83 per cent, of the
poles used in 1909, nearly one and one-half times as many as in
1908; steam roads used 12 per cent; with the electric roads,
power and lighting companies the least important users.
The average prices, by five-foot classes from 20 feet up, were :
Cedar, $1.02, $1.90, $3.15, $3.99, $5.77; larch, $1.23, $2.50, $3.50;
spruce, $0.79, $1.82, $2.51, $4.00, $5.00.
The preservative treatment of poles in Canada is recommended,
resulting in economy of money and forest resources. Although
cedar poles are cheaper in the United States than in Canada many
American companies give them preservative treatment. Thus
the steam railroad companies of the United States treated 31 per
cent, of the poles they purchased in 1908, the electric companies
14.7 per cent, and the telephone and telegraph companies 8.5 per
cent. Assuming labor $1.75 per day, creosote 8 cents per gallon,
and fuel $15 per cord, poles can be thoroughly creosoted for
$1.40 each. The annual charge on untreated cedar poles, cost-
ing $9 set in the line, and lasting 12 years (the average given by
Canadian users), is $1.07 (money 6 per cent.). Treated cedar
poles will cost $10.39 set in the line, but will last 20 years or
Current Literature. 465
more, and will then cost only 91 cents for each year of service.
This is an annual saving of $6.40 on each mile of line.
J. H. W.
Forest Products of Canada, ipop: Tight and Slack Cooperage,
Boxes and Box Shooks. By H. R. MacMillan. Bulletin 19, For-
estry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 191 1. Pp. 12.
Tight Cooperage. — Canada possessing practically no oak, the
tight cooperage manufactured is not high grade. The industry is
chiefly concerned with supplying barrels for the shipment of fish,
packing house products, syrups, molasses and glucose. For the
handling of these, barrels of elm, spruce, Douglas fir, basswood,
and ash, are used. The shippers of alcohols and oils import from
the United States either their barrels, or their staves and headings,
or the logs. Nearly four-fifths of the tight staves used in Canada
are imported in the manufactured state.
On account of the species used, the great bulk of the tight
staves manufactured in Canada are sawed ; bucked and split staves
formed only 6 per cent, and ale and beer stock 1.5 per cent, of
the total. The relative qualities of these are reflected in the
average prices: $16.94 for sawed staves, $73.14 for ale and beer
staves, and $86.88 for bucked and split staves, per thousand.
The manufactures totalled 9,071 thousand staves, valued at
$199,204, and 425,014 sets of heading, valued at $47,912, a total of
$247,116. The tight cooperage import was valued at $292,013.
Slack Cooperage. — The Canadian woods are better adapted for
slack cooperage, and in 1909 there were manufactured 103,982
thousand slack staves, valued at $809,649; 8,310 thousand sets of
slack heading, valued at $432,343 ; and 35,771 thousand hoops,
valued at $353,127; a total of $1,595,119 for the slack cooperage
industry.
As regards the species used in the manufacture of slack staves,
elm furnished 64 per cent, spruce 16.5 per cent., and poplar 6.1
per cent. O'f the staves.
Basswood, elm, and poplar staves at $10.83, $8.46, and $7.28,
per thousand, were the most valuable, these being largely used
for flour and sugar barrels. Spruce and balsam being used for
the roughest class of cooperage, were the cheapest, at $5.80.
Of the heading manufactured 31 per cent, was of poplar, which
466 Forestry Quarterly.
is rapidly replacing basswood, 27.7 per cent, elm, 21.2 per cent,
basswood, and 19. i per cent, spruce. The average prices of these,
per thousand sets, were, respectively, $70.00, $42.65, $57.43, and
$30.68.
Of the hoops, 82 per cent, of the entire output was of elm, the
remaining 18 per cent, being of basswood, birch and beech, maple
and spruce, about equally. All species sold for about $10 per
thousand, except spruce which brought $5.94.
Most of the slack barrels used in Canada are of domestic manu-
facture. The chief imports are oi hoops together with small
quantities of gum and sycamore for flour barrel staves.
Slack cooperage brings higher prices in Canada; the United
States prices per thousand were, for 1908: staves, $5.72; heading,
$45.71 ; hoops, $6.91 ; as contrasted with $7.78, $52.03, and $9.87
in Canada for 1909.
Boxes and Box Shooks. — The figures of boxes and box shooks
are incomplete, representing about 60 per cent, of the quantity of
lumber used during 1909 by the box manufacturers of Canada,
and do not include the lumber used by shippers who manufacture
their own special crates and packages.
The reported consumption was 82,972 thousand feet of lumber
valued at $1,264,376. Of this amount spruce furnished 52.7 per
cent, and pine 30.3 per cent., with an average value of $15.15 and
$15.09 per M, respectively. "Allowing for the amount used by
factories not reporting, it is probable that about 140 million feet
of lumber, worth about $2,100,000, is used annually for the manu-
facture of boxes. About 50 per cent, of this is used in Ontario,
30 per cent, in Quebec, and the remaining 20 per cent, in British
Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.
A comparison of the mill run price of the chief lumber used for
boxes in a province with the price paid for the same species of
lumber by the box manufacturers of that province brings out
the fact that in Quebec and British Columbia the latter price is
higher and in Nova Scotia almost equal. This means that cull
lumber and mill waste are not used for boxes. This is because
of lack of competition from other woods, and because good
spruce can be bought as cheaply as cull pine. The utilization of
lower grades and of species not now desired for other purposes
has no place in Canada as yet. J. H. W.
Current Literature. 467
Forest Products of Canada, ipog: Tan Bark and Tanning Ex-
tract Used. By H. R. MacMillan. Bulletin 20, Forestry Branch.
Ottawa, Canada. 191 1. Pp. 6.
The total value of the vegetable tanning materials used by
Canadian tanneries in 1909 was $1,126,004, consisting of 76,792
cords of bark, valued at $646,679; 17,313,500 pounds of liquid
extract, valued at $428,283; and 1,372,470 pounds of raw tannins,
valued at $51,042. This represents about 90 per cent, of the real
consumption.
The tanning industry is confined chiefly to the eastern prov-
inces. Ontario with 36 tanneries used materials to the extent of
66.7 per cent, of the total value of all materials used in Canada;
Quebec with 26 tanneries, 23.6 per cent. ; Nova Scotia with 2 tan-
neries, 6.5 per cent. ; and New Brunswick with 3 tanneries, the
remainder.
The supply of easily accessible hemlock has been used up and
the importation of tanning materials has become common. Thus,
in 1909, bark represented only 57.4 per cent, of the value of the
total tannins used. The use of hemlock bark was most general in
New Brunswick where it constituted 73.4 per cent, of the value
of the materials used in that province ; in Quebec it constituted
64.5 per cent., in Ontario 54.5 per cent., and in Nova Scotia 44.1
per cent. The average cost per cord at the tannery was $8.42.
Liquid extracts represented by value 38 per cent, of the ma-
terials used in 1909. The average value was 2.5 cents per pound.
The most largely used were quebracho, oak, hemlock, and chest-
nut, all being imported except the hemlock extract. A few tan-
neries import their materials in the raw, chiefly quebracho.
The two chief tanning agents used in Canada are hemlock and
quebracho. The former is the only home produced tannin, con-
stituting 61. 1 per cent, of the value of the total tannins used. The
other 38.9 per cent., over half of it quebracho, is imported chiefly
from the United States and South and Central America.
Besides the above materials used at home, Canada exports hem-
lock bark and its extract, the former going all to United States,
and the latter, to the extent of 90 per cent, to the United King-
dom. In 1909 there were exported 19,659 cords of bark valued at
$122,118, and 3,299,500 pounds of extract valued at $79,437,
Both exports are steadily falling off. The total value of tanning
468 Forestry Quarterly.
materials produced by the forests of Canada in 19C9 was thus
$889,894.
A comparison with the hemlock lumber cut shows that western
hemlock bark is not utilized at all, and eastern hemlock bark only
to the extent of two-thirds. J. H. W.
Report on Timber Conditions Along the Proposed Route of the
Hudson Bay Railway. By J. R. Dickson. Bulletin 17, Forestry
Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 191 1. Pp. 27.
This report covers the territory from The Pas to Split Lake,
a distance of some 235 miles. The dbject of the inspection was
the estimation and location of areas of commercially valuable
timber that could be made use of in the construction of the rail-
way. Any such timber within eight miles of the line was classed
as available, and beyond that distance wherever waterways give
access ; timber under eight inches breast-high was conisdered not
merchantable. The method followed was to run lines back into
the country adjoining the route at three to six mile intervals ; field
glasses were carried and tall trees climbed at advantageous points.
The report summarizes thus : "In the region we traversed, only
five species — spruce, poplar, tamarack, birch, and jackpine — have
any possible commercial value, and of these, speaking generally,
only the spruce is large enough for sawmill purposes or tie ma-
terial.
"The poplar, birch and jackpine are invariably too short,
spindly, limby and crooked for any use save fuel or pulpwood,
and what mature tamarack there was is now standing dead from
insect attack. We did not find over 200 green tamarack above 10
inches in diameter all summer. Black spruce is easily the pre-
dominant species in all that region ; except on very occasional
well drained tracts where it reaches 10 to 14 inches breast high it
is a small spindly tree, only 4 to 8 inches diameter breast high at
maturity, useless even for second class ties. This is the condition
in which the jackpine also occurs.
"The white spruce therefore is the only species large enough to
furnish construction timber, sawlogs or even railway ties, and
the supply is very limited. In the first place this species occurs
only on the best drained spots, and in the second, the fires of
the past 100 years have destroyed nearly all the old stand.
Current Literature. 469
"To sum up, then, only a mere fraction of one per cent, of
the area we surveyed now carries merchantable timber. There
is probably enough timber available to build the rough construc-
tion work of the Hudson Bay Railway."
The territory inspected was some 8,000 square miles. The
total timber found was 361,300 ties and 9,424,000 feet of lumber,
and one-half of this is believed to be commercially inaccessible
to the railway. J, H. W.
Uses of Commercial Woods of the United States-' I. Cedars,
Cypresses and Sequoias. By W. L. Hall and Hu Maxwell. Bul-
letin 95, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 191 1.
Pp. 62.
This is the first of a series of bulletins in which it is planned
to bring together the available information on the uses of the
different commercial woods.
Each species is considered separately. The physical properties
are first given, namely, weight, specific gravity, ash, fuel value,
modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity, and character and
qualities of the wood. This is followed by a discussion of the
commercial range and supply, uses, manufacture and products,
by-products, etc. Each topic is elaborated in great detail, the
treatment resulting in what one might term the historical tech-
nology. The bulletin is accordingly replete with information
gathered from very many and widely scattered sources, covering
the period from the earliest settlement of the country to the
present. . It forms most interesting reading.
The present issue deals with the species of Thuja, Chamae-
cyparis, Juniperus, Libocedrus, Taxodium and Sequoia.
J. H. W.
Economie Forestiere. Par G. Huff el. Vol. i, 2nd ed. Paris.
1910. 342 pp., fr. 10.
This second edition of the first volume of Huffel's great work,
the first edition of which we reviewed on its appearance in 1904,
has been largely rewritten and is considerably enlarged, com-
prising, as it does, only the first two studies of the original vol-
470 Forestry Quarterly.
ume, with 342 pages as against 422 pages, a second part to bring
the other two studies.
Especially the study on the utility of forests is very much im-
proved and enlarged, while the history of the development of
forest legislation and property conditions has experienced ex-
tensive additions.
The author does not hesitate to ascribe to a forest cover a con-
siderable influence on rainfall.
In a review of the historical part by Schwappach, the learned
reviewer takes issue with the conclusion of the author as to the
non-existence of the mark communities in France, and adduces
good arguments that at least in the part occupied by Alemanni
and Franks this institution was developed.
That this is a standard work was recognized in our previous
review, and with this enlargement it is even more so.
B. E. F.
OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE.
Wooden and Fiber Boxes. By Hu Maxwell and H. S. Sackett.
Circular 177, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 191 1.
Pp. 14.
The Growth and Management of Douglas Fir in the Pacific
Northzvest. By T. T. Munger. Circular 175, U. S. Forest Ser-
vice. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 27.
Fustic Wood, Its Substitutes and Adulterants. By G. B. Sud-
worth and C. D. Mell. Circular 184, U. S. Forest Service.
Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 14.
Gives the distinguishing physical and anatomical characteris-
tics of genuine fustic wood and of its common substitutes.
The Olympic National Forest: Its Resources and their Man-
agement. By F. Burns. Bulletin 89, U. S. Forest Service.
Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 20.
Forest Products of the United States: igop. Bureau of the
Census. Compiled in cooperation with the U. S. Forest Service.
Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 178.
Other Current Literature. /i^yi
Studies in the Sazvfly Genus Hoplocampa. By S. A. Rohwer.
Technical Series, No. 20, Part IV, Bureau of Entomology.
Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 139-148.
A Revision of the Pozt^der-post Beetles of the Family Lyctidae
of United States and Europe. By E. J. Kraus. Technical
Series, No. 20, Part III, Bureau of Entomology, Washington,
D. C. 191 1. Pp. 111-138.
Progress of Game Protection in ipio. By T. S. Palmer and
H. Oldys. Circular 80, Bureau of Biological Survey, Depart-
ment of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. Pp. 36.
Seed-Bating Mammals in Relation to Reforestation. By N.
Dearborn. Circular 78, Bureau of Biological Survey, Depart-
ment of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 5.
Contains the results so far obtained in devising methods of
protecting forest seeds from destructive rodents. Instructions
are given for the preparation and application of poisoned baits.
Food of the Woodpeckers of the United States. By F. E. L.
Beal. Bulletin 37, Biological Survey. Washington, D. C. 1911.
Pp. 64.
The Use of Soils Bast of the Great Plains Region. By M.
Whitney. Bulletin 78, Bureau of Soils. Washington, D. C.
191 1. Pp. 292.
Crown-gall and Sarcoma. By E. F. Smith. Circular 85, Bu-
reau of Plant Industry. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 4.
Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters. Vol. VI,
No. I. Washington, D. C, 191 1.
Contains: In Memoriam — Frank J. Phillips; Working Plans
for National Forests of the Pacific Northwest ; Strip Thinnings ;
Hardy Catalpa — A Study of Conditions in Kansas Plantations ;
Forests and Stream Flow — An Experimental Study ; The Philip-
pines as a Source of General Construction Timbers ; Economic
Possibilities of Pinus sabiniana; History of the Investigations
of Vessels in Wood; Experiments in the Preservation of Forest
30
472 Forestry Quarterly.
Seeds ; Eucalyptus Possibilities of the Coronade National Forest ;
Notes on the Management of Redwood Lands ; Efficacy of Goats
in Clearing Brushland in the Northwest.
Instructions to Forest Fire Wardens and Woodland Owners
Regarding Forest Fires. By A. F. Hawes. Forest Service
Publication No. 7, Vermont. 191 1. Pp. 19.
A Summer School of Forestry and Horticulture. Forest Ser-
vice Publication No. 8, Vermont. 191 1.
Landscape Gardening, How to Lay Out a Garden. By Ed-
ward Kemp. Edited, Revised and Adapted to North America
by F. A. Waugh. New .York. 191 1. Pp.292.
Bulletin of the Harvard Forestry Club, Volume L Cambridge,
Mass. 191 1. Pp. 45.
Contains : An Account of Operations in the Harvard Forest,
1908-9, by R. T. Fisher; Trees and Other Woody Plants found
in the Harvard Forest, by J. G. Jack ; Growth of Western Yel-
low Pine in the Black Hills, by G. W. Parker; Lumber Flumes,
by F. R. Steel; Land Surveying in Forestry, by U. S. Howard;
A Forest Fire Wagon, by H. O. Cook; Investigations Concern-
ing the Ratio between D B H and D I B at Stump for White
.Pine in Massachusetts, by H. F. Gould.
The Wilt Disease, or Flacherie, of the Gypsy Moth: How to
Aid the Spread of This Disease. By W. Reiff, under the direc-
tion of F. W. Rane. Boston, Mass. 191 1. Pp. 60.
Fifth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Forestry Made
to the General Assembly at its January Session, ipii. Provi-
dence, Rhode Island. 191 1. Pp. 46.
Biennial Report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment
Station, igog-io. Part XI: Report of the State Forester. New
Haven, Connecticut. 191 1. Pp. 775-804.
The Treatment of Telephone and Telegraph Poles for Pre-
venting Decay as Practised in Europe During the Year ipio.
Other Current Literature. 473
By H. von Schrenk. Read before National Electric Light Asso-
ciation Convention at New York, May, 191 1. Pp. 20,
Trees, Forestry and Lumbering: A List of Books and Refer-
ences in the Brooklyn Public Library. Brooklyn, N. Y. 191 1.
Pp. 40.
Penn State Farmer: Volume 4, Number v. Forestry Annual.
Pennsylvania State College. 191 1. Pp. 50.
Report of the West Virginia State Board of Agriculture for
the Quarter Ending December 20, ipio: Forestry. Charleston,
W. Va. 191 1. Pp. 14.
Biltmore Timber Tables. By H. R. Krinbill. Biltmore For-
est School, Biltmore, N. C. 191 1. Pp. 12.
A Sesquiterpene and an Oleiine Camphor occurring in Southern
Cypress. By Allan F. Odell. Reprint Journal of the American
Chemical Society. Vol. XXXIII, No. 5. May, 191 1. Pp. 755-
758.
The fractional distillation of saw dust of Southern Cypress
(Taxodium distichum) yielded the writer two new compounds
which he terms Cypressum and Cypral. The former is a yellow-
ish-green, viscous and almost odorless oil, while Cypral is a light
yellow, mobile and very fragrant oil.
Preliminary Study of Forest Conditions in Tennessee. By R.
Clifford Hall. Extract (A) from Bulletin No. 10, Forest Stu-
dies in Tennessee. State Geological Survey in Cooperation with
U. S. Forest Service, Nashville, Tenn. 1910. Pp. 56.
Preliminary Report on Storage Reservoirs at the Headzmters
of the Wisconsin River and Their Relation to Stream Flow. By
C. B. Stewart. Wisconsin State Board of Forestry, Madison,
Wis. 191 1. Pp. 60.
Practical Forestry in the Pacific Northzvest. By E. T. Allen.
Western Forestry and Conservation Association, Portland, Ore-
gon. 191 1. Pp. 130.
474 Forestry Quarterly.
Second Annual Report of the Commission of Conservation,
Canada. Ottawa, Canada. 191 1. Pp. 230.
Contains the following- papers of forestry interest : Conserv-
ing the Forests, by J. Hendry; The Swedish Forest Conserva-
tion Law, by B. E. Fernow ; The Forestry Problems of British
Columbia, by A. C. Flumerfelt.
Commission of Conservation: Report on Lands, Fisheries and
Game, and Minerals, for igii. Ottawa, Canada. Pp. 519.
Forty-first Annual Report of the Entomological Society of
Ontarid^ ipio. The Legislative Assembly, Toronto, Canada.
191 1. Pp. 124.
Contains several articles on insects injurious to forest trees.
Report of Boundary Survey of Rocky Mountains Forest Re-
serve. By G. H. Edgecombe and P. Z. Caverhill. Bulletin 18,
Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 191 1. Pp. 2y.
Successful Tree Planters, Letters of Testimony from the
Prairie Provinces. Unnumbered Bulletin, Forestry Branch.
Ottawa, Canada. 191 1. Pp. 37.
Afforestation in Scotland: Forest Survey of Glen Mor and a
Consideration of Certain Problems Arising Therefrom. By Lord
Lovat and Captain Stirling, of Keir. (Issued as Volume XXV
of the Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society,
Edinburgh). 1911. Pp. 91.
Note on the Relative Strength of Natural and Plantation
Grown Teak in Burma. By R. S. Pearson, Government Forest
Bulletin, No. 3, (new series). Calcutta, India. 191 1. Pp. 9.
The conclusions derived from a number of tests is that it "may
provisionally be assumed that as regards the strength of natural
and plantation grown teak from the Zigon Division, there is little
difiference" while in any event "the strength of the latter is so
high that little apprehension need be felt as to its excellent
quality."
Memorandum on Teak Plantations in Burma. By F. A. Liete.
Other Current Literature. 475
Government Forest Bulletin No. 2 (new series). Calcutta, India.
1911. Pp. 21.
Review of Forest Administration in British India for the year
ipo8-op with a Quinquennial Summary. By F. Beadon Bryant.
Calcutta, India. 1910. Pp. 58.
Die Prdrien in Zentralnordamerika und ihr Wert fiir Forst-
kultur. By H. P. Baker. Dissertation. Miinchen, Germany.
191 1. Pp.94.
PERIODICAL LITERATURE
FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION.
This part of Russia is forestally useless,
Forests only in the very valley of the Kamtschat-
of ka river is found coniferous forest
Kamtschatka. Picea obovata and Pinus cembra, as yet
inaccessible, so that Petropawlow^sk is
short of building timber. The growth on the mountain slopes
is Betula ermani, 40 to 50 feet high and 12 to 14 inches
diameter : Betula albo var. japonica with a dense thicket
of Pinus puwila, Alnus alnobetula and Sorbus sambuci-
folia. Along watercourses Salix and Alnus hirsuta are found,
Betula nana and Vaccinium species with Lonicera edulis, Grossu-
laria and Ribes are common. Fire is rare, the nations being
careful. Labor is scarce and is imported from Japan as well
as wood.
From Lesnoj Journal, 1910. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung. April,
1911, P. 133.
BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.
Based upon phenological observations con-
Shade tinued for 12 years at the Swiss Experi-
and ment Station, Dr. Engler has come to
Light interesting data regarjding the phenome-
Plants. non of budding in beech and other species,
but especially on the difference in behavior
of plants grown in shade or in light.
Young beech, maple, ash and oak under cover of old stands
open their buds earlier and are in full foliage earlier than young
plants without cover or medium and old trees. In the decidu-
ous forest, generally speaking, the foliage develops from the
base to the top, first the regeneration under cover, then the lower
branches and twigs of the old stand, the most shaded parts of
the crown become green from 3 to 7 days later, then the tops,
and last the uncovered regeneration, for beech from 11 to 15
Periodical Literature. 477
days later; the other species showing different differences.
Again, on north slopes, the buds in beech start 6 days earlier and
complete their foliage 9 days earlier in the average than on south
slopes.
Calling the buds formed and plants grown in the open "light
buds" and "light plants," and those grown under cover "shade
buds" and "shade plants," the investigator found by transplant-
ing experiments with young trees that this progress of budding
is due to the characteristic of buds formed in the shade to bud
earlier than those formed in stronger light ; in other words, the
tendency of earlier or later budding is not merely due to eco-
logic conditions, but it is inherited in the bud, and only gradu-
ally, after several years, does an adaptation to new light condi-
tions take place: the shade plants for several years bud earlier
than the light plants and vice versa. Also leaf and twig posi-
tion and the specific anatomical structure of the leaves of shade
and light plants persist: the effect of a certain light intensity
outlasts the cause. On the other hand, seedlings of beech grown
in the shade while budding earlier than unshaded ones, did not
show in I to 3 year olds, much of this influence : the shade and
light plants can be without danger, transferred to opposite con-
ditions, although a small advantage of light plants was observed.
Light buds are larger, heavier, stouter and more closely cov-
ered with more numerous scales and have the anlage for a
longer shoot with denser foliage and of the structure of light
leaves, as the shade leaves are also recognizable in the struc-
ture of the bud.
Some practical conclusions for silvicultural treatment are de-
duced and some of the practices receive new explanation from
these observations, as, for instance, the damage resulting from
too rapid removal of nurse trees above a young regeneration,
creating light conditions to which the young plants are not
adapted. Too slow removal on the other hand, produces de-
cided shade forms, which, when freed, only slowly or not at all
recuperate. The spreading habit, which Hauch lately made the
basis for determining the spacing in plantations, the author finds
variable according to climatic differences and consequently dif-
ference in light intensity.
In planting fail places with material secured from natural
regeneration, no shade plants should be used and for under-
47^ Forestry Quarterly.
planting light plants of some age are to be avoided, although i
to 3 year olds from seedbeds, as stated before, may be used in
any condition, while transplants that are to be used after several
years should be grown under conditions similar to those in re-
gard to light as they are to be used in.
Untersuchungen iiber den Blattausbruch und das sonstige Verhalten von
Schatten- und LichtpAanzen der Buche und einiger andrer Laubholzer.
Mitteilungen der schweizerischen Centralanstalt fiir das forstliche Ver-
suchswesen, 191 1. Banx, pp. 107-175.
Professor von Schermbeek publishes a con-
IVater tribution to the explanation of water move-
Movement ment in trees, based in part on older theo-
in ries, in part on manometric measurements
Trees. of his own on live and dead wood. He
concludes :
1. The cause of the ascent of water in the living tree is caused
by a difference in pressures (deficit) which is provoked in a
higher part of the tree trunk relatively poorer in water as long
as a lower part can still enrich the cell walls of its tissues with
water by imbibition.
2. The degree of volume increase of the imbibing tissue is
determined by the ion contents (i. e. amount of soluble salts) of
the imbibed water.
3. Transpiration and assimilation maintain the necessary dif-
ference in the relative water contents of the neighboring higher
and lower parts.
4. Conducting vessels can be supplied with water from their
cell walls. When these organs come under the influence of this
pressure difference, an accelerated movement of water sets in,
provided, that the eventually present gaseous substances are
absorbd by the imbibed water.
5. The imbibition proceeds fully only as long as the colloidal
cell wall substance is still capable of swelling.
6. If this is not the case, then a part of the trunk can secure
its water only by conduction, equal volumes of gas and water
being exchanged.
7. The conduction is the slower, the greater the resistance
which is opposed to the movement of gases. Hence the water
absorption in a slowly dying part is smaller in a given time than
in a killed part by destruction of tissues.
Periodical Literature. 479
8. The gradual dying is a kind of preservation of wood, the
artificial killing causes an accelerated decomposition.
Ueber die Krdfte welche das Emporsteigen des Wasscrs in unsren Nadel-
holzern und Lanbholzeni vernrsachen. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung.
June, 191 1. P. 204.
The removal of the litter from the forest
Insects floor reduces, according to Dolles, the va-
and riety and number of insects in the forest.
Forest Floor. This is a detriment, since the reduction is
least among those insects which are injuri-
ous to the forest because their food supply remains undisturbed.
It is greatest among those neutral species which live in the leaves
and grass on the ground. These species are called neutral be-
cause they neither attack trees nor prey upon other insects which
are injurious. But they have an important function in that dur-
ing the absence of noxious species they serve as hosts upon
which beneficial parasitic insetc are propagated and as prey
for predatory species keeping these alive in sufficient numbers
to render effective service in combating a sudden outbreak of
injurious insects.
Parasites do not confine their attacks to weakened individuals,
but once parasitized, the insect is weakened to a degree which
prevents it from pushing deeply into the soil to pupate. Most
parasites accordingly develop in the ground cover or on the
surface of the soil and are either removed with the litter or
are eaten by birds after the litter is removed. The healthy
individuals of the injurious species are undisturbed because they
pupate deep in the soil.
The preservation of the ground cover further checks the de-
velopment of insect pests by affording nesting-places for many
insectivorous birds and ants and by harboring entomogenous
fungi.
EinHuss der Streunutsung auf die Vermehrung imserer Waldschddlinge.
Silva IV. Feb., 191 1. Pp. 49-50; 59-61.
480 Forestry Quarterly.
Forstrat Seitner gives a lengthy account.
New with illustrations, of the bark beetle, which
Genus has Pimis ceinbra for host plant. While
of this beetle had formerly been supposed to
Bark Beetles. be Polygraphus poUgraphus L., specific on
spruce, Seitner adduces features to show
that this is not only a different species, but should be made into
a new genus which he calls Pseudopolygraphus. The character
of the galleries and breeding chambers is curious and entirely
different from those of any other European species ; the beetles
have distinctive features. A full description is given. Inci-
dentally, the occurrence of Polygraphus grandiclava on Pinns
strobus as well as on ceinbra and on cherry is mentioned, and
an interbreeding of various bark beetle species suggested.
Bemerkungcn zur Gattung Polygraphus und Aufstellung der Gaftnng
Pseudopolygraphus n. gen. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. March,
1911, pp. 99-109.
SOIL, WATER AND CLIMATE.
A further interesting contribution regard-
Relative ing influence of litter on water conditions
Soil of the soil comes from the long continued
Humidity experiments carried on by the Austrian
and Experiment Station. The first contribution
Moss cover. was briefed in F. Q. Vol. IV, p. 161. Now
Dr. Wallenbock reports additional data
corroborative of former results and discusses also methods of
procedure. He develops the idea of the "relative soil humi-
dity," a conception similar to relative air humidity, namely the
percentic relation of the actual water contents to the absolute
water capacity of the soil, with which the loose terms based on
individual notions and judgment, wet, moist, fresh, dry, arid,
might find a more precise expression and conveying more clear-
ly than weight or volume per cent, of soil humidity the fact
whether a wet or dry soil is under consideration.
Without going into the interesting details of method and
results, we may summarize the experiences. In dry years, the
area covered with moss dries out more slowly than the one that
is yearly deprived of its cover by raking, but light sum-
mer rains do not become available because the moss
Periodical Literature. 481
and surface layers of soil of higher water capacity prevent pene-
tration. On the other hand, the naked soil can derive use of the
lightest precipitation and thus in the very most dangerous sea-
son supplies moisture to the roots. On this area the drying
out, but also the watering is most intensive, hence in very dry
years, the moss cover is a disadvantage, the interception being
more dangerous than the prevention of evaporation effective.
Hence, as briefed before, the raked area had in the dry year
1904 shown less loss in increment than the unraked. Yet the
damage of moss cover in dry years appears much greater than
its advantage in wet years.
Vergleichende Bodenfenchtigkeitsbestimmungen, etc. Centralblatt f. d.
g. Forstwesen, May, 191 1, pp. 187-269.
The large and growing area of bog land
Cause in northern Sweden seriously lowers the
of productivity of the forests in that region.
Bog Formation. It is according to H^sselmann, not the
water which prevents vigorous forest
growth on these bogs, but the fact that the bog-water carries
very little or no oxygen in solution. What oxygen is absorbed
from the air is fixed by the humus the water contains. It has
been shown that humus, especially when wet, absorbs oxygen
very rapidly; also that trees grow well in those bogs where con-
ditions permit a normal amount of oxygen in the water. Re-
moval of the water by drainage is being undertaken to remedy
this condition.
Ueber den Sauerstoffgchalt dcs Bodenzvassers und dessen Einwirkung
auf die Versumpfung dcs Bodens und das Wachstum des Waldes. Silva
IV. Pp. 65-6. (March, 1911.)
SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION AND EXTENSION.
As a result of an inspection visit of a
Selection number of prominent forest managers to
Strip Gaildorf, the district in which Wagner de-
Method. veloped his now well known method of
regeneration a somewhat detailed report of
their findings is given by Miiller.
The main object of Wagner's method is to obviate large felling
areas and progress as far as possible by use of natural regener-
482 Forestry Quarterly.
ation slowly in strips, with conifers from north to south, with
broad-leaf species from northwest to southeast, treating each
strip in selection method with regard to the need of the young
growth, removing the old growth when the regeneration is knee
high; and planting up fail places or to secure a mixture. The
method is mainly applied to spruce and pine.
The resume is that in the locality referred to the method has
been successful, although "the condition of the strips is very
variable according to soil, age and exposure," the regeneration
was found very ample and on north sides on better soils ideal,
but also good on other soils and exposures.
Of course, the method is not applicable everywhere. Where
climatic and soil conditions are favorable and appropriately
mixed stands exist, and a well considered road system and market
for small material permitting the many small felling areas, and
small districts under competent managers are involved — there it is
a first class method.
Der Wagner'sche Plentcrsaumhetrieh, etc. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagd-
zeitung. April, 1911, pp. 113-118.
Further experience in the use of Splett-
Perfection stosser's new planting tool described in F.
in Q. vol. VII, p. 467, and also referred to in
Planting. vol. VIII, p. 504, sustains the enthusiastic
dictum of Dr. Moeller, director of the
Forest Academy at Eberswalde, that it is unquestionably techni-
cally perfect and approaches as near as possible the ideal of pine
planting. Its most significant advantage is the cheapness of its
work.
Kranold records in tabular detail the experience in 74 plan-
tations made in 1910 in West Prussia, comprising about 1,900
acres on old forest soil, and over 2,000 acres on waste lands.
The cost of these plantations, including plants and every outlay
varied between $2.20 and $8.50 per acre, most of them having
been spaced 1.3X.5 to .8 meter i. e. 4,000 to 6,000 plants per acre.
The making of holes and setting of plants varied between 21
cents and $1.23 per M plants, wages being for men 43 cents, for
women 28 cents, for boys 24 cents. (Considering the higher
wages but the greater efficiency of American male labor this cost
Periodical Literature. 483
should be multiplied by between 3 and 4, for American con-
ditions, say from $1.00 to $3.50, average $2.50).
In most cases man labor is not required, except on stony and
rooty soil, and the boring of the plant holes if the tool is properly
used not hard work.
The manipulation of the three tools which complete the outfit,
namely the borer, the plant holder and the presser (to be had
from Bach and Mahlow, Berlin, Sophienstr. 32, for $5 to $6 ac-
cording to size, diameters 8 to 15 cm, 10 cm being the most
usually applicable), is given in minute detail.
In boring the holes the smallest amount of force is to be used;
how many turns are to be made and how often the borer is to be
emptied depends on soil conditions and length of root; the hole
should be made as deep but not deeper than the roots. If boring
in loose sand which has a tendency to flow out, the boring must
be made into the more solid ground, which will cork the bottom.
The plant holder can be widened for stouter plants ad libitum.
Its manipulation is the finesse of the operation; it permits the
placing of the plant in the middle of the hole at the appropriate
depth, while the planting is done by hand comminuting the soil
with the fingers. After a third of the hole is filled the presser
is used by carefully firming without pounding, close to the wall
of the hole, so that the soil in the center remains somewhat loose ;
a second pressing is done after two-thirds of the hole is filled, and
after the final filling the soil is firmed with the hands, and the
holder is carefully withdrawn. Precision in every part of the
manipulation is needful also keeping the borer sharp. The little
troubles that first occur with green hands are explained.
It is important that the planting proceed as fast as the boring
i. e. it is undesirable to let the boring get much ahead. How
many planters one borer can keep busy depends upon the soil con-
ditions. In easy conditions four planters, in difficult one to two
can be kept going by one planter (one man and two women can
plant 180 plants per hour).
The applicability of this tool is very general, although not
unlimited ; heavy loam and very stony soil are excluded, because
of the expense. On sandy soils, even when rooty, it is most use-
ful, with or without previous soil preparation (furrows or plats)
to remove the surface cover. It is difficult to judge when such
preparation is necessary and how much. The writer considers
484 Forestry Quarterly.
that the indination is to do too much in this respect. Often a
slight burning of the cover is sufficient. When proper judgment
in this direction has matured by experience he expects the plant-
ing to become still cheaper.
We repeat the illustration from Vol. VII on p. 513, and recom-
mend to our readers trials with this new tool so highly recom-
mended, accentuating that all new tools must first be carefully
studied in their operation before they appear practical.
Die Kiefernzangenhohrer-pAanzung. Zeitschrift fiir Forst u. Jagdwesen.
April, 191 1, pp. 358-367.
A heavy, wedge-shaped steel planting iron
A has been designed by Dr. Raess, of Darm-
Nezv stadt, to replace the dibble used in forest
Dibble. planting. It consists of a solid steel blade
seven inches long, six inches wide and two
inches thick, with a shank about three feet long, at the top of
which then is a cross handle like that of a ship's auger. The tool
weighs fourteen pounds. It is used in much the same way as the
dibble, and the advantages it possesses over the lighter instrument
are not given. Two persons work together in setting out trees
with this planting iron, one handling the tool while a helper holds
the plant made by the first stroke of the instrument until a second
stroke closes the earth firmly about its roots.
Der Stahlkeilspaten. Silva, IV. April, 191 1. Pp. 105-6.
In a very readable article Dr. Kienitz pre-
Races sents observations and thoughts of thirty
of years on the great variability in form of
Pine Scotch pine and points out the important
and silvicultural deductions from this fact.
Silviculture. The article is illustrated by 20 figures
drawn from photographs, which exhibit
this form variety of the most important European forest species.
Considering that the field of distribution of this species extends
from the North Cape in Norway to the southern slope of the Alps
and to Spain, and from Cape Finisterre to the Amur, a field of
the most varied climate, this highly developed variability of form
is to be expected, and, since to a certain degree these forms are
hereditary, the importance of securing seed from given localities
Periodical Literature. 485
is accentuated, since one race may in a given locality be quite
worthless which elsewhere would have good value.
The forms differentiate by morphological characteristics of
needles, buds, cones, ramification, growth, probably of root-
system, as well as different response to soil and climate. The
author confines himself mainly to a discussion of crown and shaft
form.
The pictures gathered from many points of the botanical field
and different situations exhibit the variety. They show that the
old pines from southern and middle Scandinavia, from Livland,
but also from the Black Forest, those from the Bavarian Alps
and the mountains of southern France are alike in the straight
erect bole which holds out to the very tip like a spruce, with thin,
relatively short branches and short stout, vigorous needles — so
much like spruce in form that in a picture they are apt to be con-
founded. Quite different is the short stout tree of the Mark
Brandenburg with an immense, rounded off, paraboloid or hemis-
pherical form, with stout, gnarly, often bent and broken branches
and bushy long needles. While in each locality one or the other
form is prevalent, the most varied forms can and do occur in the
same locality. The greatest variety of form is to be found in the
lowlands with mild climate, where only rarely here and there the
desirable spruce-like form occurs. The severer the climate, the
farther north and northeast, the higher in altitude the more
slender, spruce-like becomes the form. Since, however, every-
where different forms are found together, these cannot be varie-
ties or races specially adapted to the site, but for each site a form
developes from the variable species, which is specially favorable ;
hence where all ecological conditions are favorable, the greatest
variety of form is found ; where broad crowns are an advantage,
these will prevail, and where this broad form is disadvantageous
as in the snowy mountains and northern latitudes, this form will
be scarce. The influence of snow pressure in causing form is
argued at length; on the other hand Mayr's dictum, that the
higher air humidity on good soils causes trees to grow not only
higher but more slender, is combated as regards the latter propo-
sition.
The spreading habit, to be sure, can to some extent be corrected
by education — dense planting and by mixing with spruce, pro-
vided the latter is as well fitted to the locality as the pine. On
486 Forestry Quarterly.
sites on which naturally the pine developes the slender form, it
will do so in pure plantations. In localities where the tendency
is to develop spreading form and pine and spruce in mixture is to
be grown, the former must be planted so close as to form a dense
stand, when later the spruce, first undergrowth, may force its
way through, otherwise spreading valueless pine will develop.
Soil has an influence on crown only as far as it accelerates or
retards growth. On the poorest soils the straight growing form
with a bole holding out to the tip will develop although remaining
low, but on fertile moist soil the coarse and spreading form will
only become more so. Even in open position the two forms will
follow to a degree their inherited character.
Unfortunately it has not yet been possible to recognize cones
of the various forms. A little better success is promised in mor-
phological and physiological character of branchlets, buds and
needles, by which Schott tentatively recognizes nine forms in
West and Middle Europe alone. A peculiarity of the East
European pines is mentioned, namely the assuming of a pro-
tective color by one year seedlings in September, later and later
when going westward until finally the habit is lost.
Results of trial sowings with seed of varied derivation insti-
tuted through the International Association of Experiment Sta-
tions, are recited. Race differences were evident in the seedlings
during the first summer, namely in the size of plants, color and
length of needles, and time of cessation of development in the
fall, and winter color of plant.
Very considerable differences in size and weight of the plants
were found, namely up to 40% in length, and nearly 400% in
weight. In the transplants, after a years growth the general
relation of the different races in length remained practically the
same, although the amounts varied, the greatest difference being
100%. Scotch, Russian and French plants remaining smallest,
Belgian and Rhenish plants the largest. The color variation also
persisted through the second winter while in the third season the
relative position as regards length remained practically the same,
the rapidity of development during the season, however, was
essentially different, the Scotch and Russians having made by
May 8 about double the length of shoot of the Belgian and
Rhenish.
The fourth year shoot being longer in all races, accentuated
Periodical Literature. 487
still further the difference in total height the rapid growing races
making nearly twice the length of the slow growing , but a ten-
dency to broaden is already noticeable in the Rhenish race.
Altogether the rapid growers make a stouter appearance due to
stouter needles. The winter coloration of the eastern race is
striking, while the western remain practically green.
Deductions for silvicultural practice follow. First we must
break with the usual assumption that the pine makes the straight-
est branches where in mild climate it finds the most favorable con-
ditions of growth and is the dominant species. Just where in a
harder climate it has to battle for centuries against storm and
snow, the form most suitable with short branches, a race of
slender form is developed which with considerable assurance
propagates itself in the progeny, no matter whether grown in the
open, in loose or dense position, and which persists if transplanted
into soil and climate not too different. To be sure, they take with
them other characteristics which may not be desirable, like slow
growth of northern and alpine races. The races with spreading
habit can only in dense stand produce straight boles. In mixture
with other species when more rapid growing than these they
grow into broad crowns, if not in advance they are shaded out.
The seed of a perfectly formed tree in the locality of mixed
form.s may have been fertilized by an inferior form, hence may
not propagate the better form of its one parent. Here is a
dilemma as to what locality to choose seed from.
Broad crowned trees, to be sure, have other advantages, they
have a very much larger increment, as measurements on properly
selected specimens of slender and broad crowned forms, both
dominant show. In a 58 year old stand the large crowned
averaged nearly 40% larger diameter than the small crowned
trees ; in older stands even more, and the contents were nearly
double. The value per acre of a fully stocked acre of the broad-
crowned the author estimates, would be one-third more. Hence
there is no reason why in a pine region other than the home form
should be used for pure pine forest. But then it is necessary to
be circumspect in growing them densely, and especially attending
to the timely removal of the worst forms. Where, however, the
pine is not at home it would be proper to secure the seeds of the
best form from a region similar in climate to the locality where
they are to be used. The character of the progeny shows itself
488 Forestry Quarterly.
quite early, and of plants which lag in the first few years not
much is to be expected, while those that start out properly have
the promise of success in them.
Formen und Abarten der germeinen Kiefer. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- u.
Jagdwesen. Jan., 191 1, pp. 1-32.
The question of the influence of the
Seed derivation of seed is being carefully looked
Supply. into by the Swedish Forest Experiment
Station. Gunnar Schotte reports on ex-
periments started in 1903 with pine seed from different localities
in Sweden. The results are not yet definite in all respects, but it
is evident that the far northern form of Pinus silvestris (lap-
pa nic a) iurnishQS smaller plants than the seed from more south-
ern localities. Whether the age of trees from which seed is
secured is of influence on the resulting plants could not be fully
decided, except that the oldest seed trees with a few exceptions
furnished the poorest plants. The stoutest plants were secured
sometimes from middle aged, sometimes from the youngest
mother trees. Nevertheless the author thinks that the prejudice
against seed from young trees is justified. In the form of plants
a strong variation is visible, the Norrland pines having very much
shorter branches and generally narrower form with shorter but
broader leaves.
Om bctydclscn af froets hemort och modertr'ddets alder vid tallkultur.
Meddelanden fran Statens Skogsforsoksanstalt. H. 7, 1910.
In the annual report of the Swedish Forest
Coloring Experiment Station for 1910 appears an
of article by Gunnar Schotte which should be
Imported of interest to x\merican foresters in view of
Forest Seed. the fact that we are inclined to ignore the
influence of the source of seed in artificial
afforestation. The article is devoted largely to a description of
the methods employed by the Government for limiting the impor-
tation of southern seed, rather than to a demonstration of its in-
feriority for Swedish culture, the latter point apparently having
teen already established. It is the latter phase of the subject,
however, which is of special interest to us.
It has been found in Sweden that pine forests {Pinus sil-
vestris) established from seed imported from southern coun-
Periodical Literature. 489
tries, especially Germany, although appearing very thrifty in the
early stages, usually die at an age of from twenty to thirty years.
Large quantities of pine seed were imported from German seed
firms during the decade i860 to 1870, and considerable quantities
were imported in the years following this period. So universally
disastrous were the results from this seed that in 1886 steps were
taken by members of the Riksdag to place a prohibitive tariff
upon imported pine seeds. In 1888 the Riksdag decided upon a
moderate tariff of 50 ore (about 13 cents) per kg. for pine and
spruce as well as all other forest seeds.
In the discussion preceding the adoption of this tariff, in-
stances are cited where extensive pine plantations from twenty to
twenty-five years old present a very unpromising appearance
while adjoining stands from native seed are healthy and vigorous.
No conclusive facts are advanced against the use of foreign spruce
seed, but spruce is included in the tariff as a measure of precau-
tion.
Despite the tariff, the importation of pine and spruce seed in-
creased at a rapid rate during the following decade, with the
result that in 1898 the tariff on pine was raised 3 kr. (about 80
cents) per kg. while the tariff on spruce was raised to 1.5 kr.
(about 40 cents) per kg. In the discussion over the adoption of
this increased tariff, reference is made to the occurrence of large
areas of pine plantations grown from German seed in different
parts of the country which died at an age of twenty to thirty
years, and which, upon investigation, proved to be infested by a
fungus disease heretofore unknown in Sweden, and evidently in-
troduced with the German seed. As a result of this experience,
the Government prescribed that in all state forests, only Swedish
seed should be used.
In practice the tariff was extended to all seeds in the names of
which the words "pine" or "spruce" entered, thus covering a great
many species of Pinus, Picea and Abies. Vigorous protests were
entered by forest men, on the ground that there was no reason
for imposing the tax upon anything but the ordinary pine and
spruce {Pinus silvestris and Picea abies), but that on the con-
trary the introduction of many of these trees should be en-
couraged. The Riksdag, however, finally decided to retain the
tax, on the ground that new foreign seeds whose adaptability was
490 Forestry Quarterly.
not known might be imported in large quantities with disastrous
resuhs.
In recent years, owing to the high price of Swedish pine seed,
it has been the practice among some dealers in spite of the high
tariff to import German pine seed and sell it as the Swedish
article. In order to protect the public against such frauds the
Government has adopted a system of coloring all imported con-
iferous seed. This coloring is accomplished by injecting an
alcoholic solution of eosin into the seed sacks, at sufficient close
intervals to color approximately 15% of the contents.
It has been found that the eosin solution, through the action of
the alcohol, reduces the germination per cent, in various degrees.
Fresh seed is less affected than old seed. Considering the fact
that only 15% of the seeds in a sack are actually colored, the
actual loss through the treatment was found to be only from .6
to 3.6 per cent, for four different species of coniferous seed
tested.
On April 4, 1910, a proclamation was issued by the King, re-
quiring that all foreign seeds of the genus Pinus, excepting P.
cenihra and P. siberica, and all species of the genus Picea, may
be imported only in sacks marked plainly on the outside with
the words "Foreign Seed"; and further, that all such seed must
be treated with the eosin solution in accordance with a prescribed
method. G. A. P.
Om fdrgning af skogsfro i syftc att utmarka utldndsk vara. Meddel-
anden fran Statens Skogsforsoksanstalt, Haftet 7, 1910.
Dr. Walther reports on the success of
American planting exotics in Hesse during the last
Species 25 years or more. Most of the species
in used are American. Among broadleaf
Germany. trees, the Red Oak is specially praised on
account of its adaptability to less favorable
sites and more rapid growth than the native oak, both in rate of
growth and quality excelling on such sites. The older plantation,
on run-out oak-coppice soil, now 47 years old, showed in 1907,
when 42 years old an average height of 57 feet and diameter of 5
inches with 4,000 cubic feet to the acre. Thinnings in 1905
brought over 10 cents per cubic foot. In spite of frost, the
species outgrows the native oak.
Periodical Literature. 491
Of nut trees, Juglans nigra, cinerea and Carya alba are said
to be useful only in protected situations on account of frost
danger. Hickory 20 years old is 16 feet, Walnut 10 years old, 7
feet No special advantages are attached to the American maples,
except perhaps the Sugar Maple.
The American Ash is said to recover from overflow more
readily and resist late frosts better than the German. Curiously
enough our Black Cherry is supposed to be outranked in value by
the native cherries, evidently a misconception.
Of conifers, next to Pinus Strobus, which is considered almost
a native, the palm is given to the Douglas Fir. Much distinction
is made between the green (from the Pacific Coast), the slow
gray glauca from the dry (Rockies) and the rapid gray variety
caesia (from the transition zone) The species is found not
adapted to dry and to heavy clay soils, indeed, makes consider-
able demand on both soil and air humidity. It recovers remark-
ably from attacks of Schiitte, a lo-year Douglas Fir, entirely de-
foliated by the disease recovering entirely.
Picea pungens, the species of our driest mountain slopes, is
found successful in boggy situations where P. sitchensis had
failed, and is generally hardy, but requires patience as it grows
slowly (3 feet in 8 years). Its seed comes often mixed with P.
engelmanni.
Picea alba is outgrown by the native spruce. With 18 years
the latter is 16 feet against 13 feet for the former; besides it
suffers from late frost, and is no better on moor soils than the
native.
Pinus Banksiana is greatly preferred to rigida, especially on
poorest sands and on wet cold, higher elevations, where it does
better than the native silvestris.
Of firs, Abies concolor is declared the most desirable introduc-
tion, growing more rapidly than the native pcctinata both in plain
and mountains. It does not stand wet feet, especially not wet-
cold clay soils. Seven year old plantations average 4 feet in
height, with leaders of 10 inches. Abies Nordmanniana, while
less liable to frost than the native fir, is much slower (20 inches
in 6 years, 13 feet in 21 years, etc.).
Chamaecyparis Lazusoniana adapted to sand soils and loess,
but not to frost holes and wet-cold clay, at first slow, soon ac-
492 Forestry Quarterly.
celerates and makes 15 feet in 17 years, and has the useful
quahty of being shunned by game.
Juniperus mrginiana is very Hable to be injured by game and
needs warm situation or protection.
Sequoia gigantea does very poorly on dry soil and is not quite
frost hardy.
Anhau fremdldndischer Holzartcn. AUgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung.
May, 191 1, pp. 154-167.
Dr. Laspeyres brings evidence from a very
Combating extended trial of insect lime against the
the nun on some 30,000 acres in East Prussia,
"Nun." of its ineffectiveness, and combats the posi-
tion taken regarding this theme by Putscher
in the November number of the same magazine.
Two other contributions on the theme from Saxony from
which state Putscher secured data to prove effectiveness of the
insect lime also negate the evidence and agree with Dr. Laspeyres
Other more favorable experiences were recorded at a meeting
of the Saxon Foresters' Association.
Zum Kampf gegen die Nonnc.
Zur N onnenhckdmpfung hi Sachscn.
Zum Nonnenkricg in Sachs en.
Zeitschrift fiir Forst- u. Jagdwesen. May, 1911, pp. 424-435.
Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, May, 191 1, p. 235.
As a contribution from the mycological
"Schiltte" laboratory of the forest academy at Ebers-
Fungus. walde, the result of three years' work,
Oberforster Haack publishes an extensive
article of over 75 pages on the biology of the fungus which causes
tne dreaded damping off or "Schiitte" and which in Germany at-
tacks plantations as well as nurseries, with practical deductions.
When in 1852 Goppert suggested a fungus as cause of the
phenomenon practitioners refused to accept the explanation, and
even until 1884 this position was maintained. Nevertheless it
remained for practitioners to suggest the remedy, copper sul-
phate spray, in 1898 and 1900.
It is now absolutely certain that the disease is occasioned by
Lophodermium pinastri, which attacks the healthy needles of 1-7
year old pines and causes their death, the first signs being found
Periodical Literature. 493
the end of September. The reddening increases through the fall
and winter, until in April-May not a green needle may be seen ; a
large number of plants, however, recover themselves with green
shoots. When the needles fall, as yet no fruit bodies are to be
seen, which form later. The principal time of infection takes
place the end of July until middle of September, when alone
spraying is of use.
A number of questions remain to be solved. The ftmgus occurs
also on old trees but is then comparatively harmless, seemingly
saprophytic. Is this a different form or species, or is there
danger of its propagation to be transferred to seedbeds in their
neighborhood and become parasitic, or are the needles of old
trees immune. Authorities differ, and it appears that the biology
of the fungus is but little known.
By careful cultures under investigation, explained in great
detail, the author has been enabled to show up various fallacies
of Tubeuf and Mayr and develop very fully the biology of the
fungus, which shows it to be a parasite, to be sure, but little
adapted to parasitic life — just emerging from the saprophytic
stage ; but in its ability to penetrate into healthy needles and to
exist there untroubled by competitors lies its strength.
We can from the very interesting detail select only a few
points.
The fungus on old trees is the same as that which attacks the
young, but here, probably due to different physiological character-
istics, it does not do damage. Practically it is therefore desirable
to locate nurseries out of reach of old infested pine. Immunity
is gradually attained in the 7th to loth year, but needles which by
girdling are weakened succumb even in older trees to the fungus.
The needles which drop in the spring are the ones that spread
the disease in late summer. The infection takes place within a
short time. Only on young plants are the healthy needles at-
tacked,— it is an infantile disease.
By spraying only those spores may be rendered innocuous,
which have located a few days before or those which locate while
the liquid hangs on. Spraying is of use only on older seedlings.
The needles of yearlings are covered by a fine waxy cover which
prevents the spray from sticking. An attempt, successful, to
first dissolve this waxy film by soap or other solvents, which per-
mitted the spraying mixture to hang on well, led to a drying up
494 Forestry Quarterly.
of the seedlings ; the cover is a necessary protection against
excessive transpiration.
The author combats the idea that the use of heat in securing
the seed from the cones predisposes them to the disease. As re-
gards influence of the locaHty from which the seed is derived on
the susceptibility of the plants to the disease the author comes to
somewhat different conclusions from Prof. Mayr (see p. 301 of
this volume), especially, he denies that there are immune races;
simply more or less predisposition to the disease can be claimed.
The practical results of the careful work are summarized as
follows :
1. For choice of plant material, the best homegrown seed of
high germination per cent, should be relied upon.
2. Infection takes place mainly from middle of July to end of
September.
3. The spores develop on old as well as young needles, but the
heaviest infection is found in young plantations, the least -in
vigorous mixed growth.
4. The infection may be either at a distance (by flying spores
uniformly over large areas) or in proximity (by contact in close
plantations).
5. To avoid infection, seedbeds should be located away from
infected places.
6. To avoid infection by contact, sowing and transplants
should not be placed side by side; only the healthiest most
vigorous material should be transplanted ; the poor material
should not be left lying, but be burned or buried. In the
forest dense sowings are to be avoided, or planting substituted
for sowing.
7. It is desirable to make plantations so that they will rapidly
grow out of the danger period and close up, avoiding the necessity
of planting up fail places, such plantings being especially liable
to infection and propagating it. Hence good soil preparation,
the use of the best seed or plants from good soil help to secure
immunity.
8. Spraying when the first apothecia open may be necessary
every year, especially when plantations are still quite young and
on the most endangered places, if thorough work cannot be done
on all.
Drr Schiittepilz dcr Kiefer. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- u. Jagdwesen. April,
May, June, 1911, pp. 329-357, 402-423- 481-505.
Periodical Literature. 495
MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT.
According to Forstamtsassessor Wild, of
New Lindenhardt (Ober Franken) the existing
Self-recording self-recording calipers have not found
Caliper. entrance into general use because they are
too complicated and hence get easily out of
order. The reason for their complication
he finds in the fact that they have counting register, which re-
quire not only a large number of wheels but as many springs, so
that for a caliper with 30 diameter graduations 90 wheels and 90
springs are required, if constructed for one species only, and
three times as many for three species. The inventor overcomes
the difficulty by substituting for the counting apparatus an ar-
rangement in which small steel balls, for different species of
different size, register the number of trees of different diameter
and can be sorted afterwards by size (species) and counted.
To do this the moveable arm at its base has attached receptacles
for the balls, as many as species to be measured, each recep-
tacle being provided with a press button to release balls and let
them fall into another receptacle which is divided into as many
compartments as their diameter graduations, the proper com-
partment being automatically presented for the ball to fall into.
To sort the balls sieves of different size are used, and to count
them they are measured by 25s in cartridge-like boxes, which
operations require a few minutes only. The ball supply recep-
tacles must, of course, be marked for the species they represent;
the smallest caliber for the most frequent species, and, of course,
for use with a single species only one supply receptacle is needed.
The weight when loaded is less than four pounds ; the construc-
tion is sim.ple, and the instrument works in any kind of weather.
So far the instrument is not 3^et manufactured generally, in-
deed, not yet patented. The inventor invites correspondence as
regards furnishing instruments.
Bine Sclhstregistrirekluppe fiir meltrere Holsarten. Forstwissenschaft-
liches Centralblatt. June, 191 1, pp. 305-308.
496 forestry Quarterly.
In a most enthusiastic and, with 20 pages,
Nezv most complete article does Oberforster Dr.
Increment Heck introduce the reader to a perfected
Borer. increment borer and to the incalculable
value of self -instruction by the persistent
use of such borer, reviving Pfeil's noted advice, "Ask the trees !"
As is well known Pressler was the originator of the brilliant
idea of the increment borer, but the instrument left much to be
wished for. An improvement was made by Bretschneider,
especially in the handle, but the perfect borer is made in Sweden
by Mattson, and the most perfect type of this only since August,
1910, as a result of Heck's suggestions.
The superiority of the Mattson over the Bretschneider was
shown by trial as follows :
Species.
Nwnber
■of
Time
Length of
half turns.
M mutes
Cylinder
mm.
B.
M.
B.
M.
B. M.
Elm,
90
22
7
3
89 137
Walnut,
90
21
5i
2i
82 137
Spruce,
15
21
4
H
91 130
Originally, different borers for hard and for soft woods were
necessary and especially the former got often into trouble ; the
new type, Alattson's No. 3 works perfectly in both soft and hard
woods, a faultless tool, and the only improvement the writer can
think of is some electric power to do the boring. Yet, with this
instrument the. writer could extract 25 cyHnders from 40 year old
spruce 4 to 5 inch long in 57 minutes ; in hardwoods, to be sure,
the effort is much greater, three to four minutes being required
for the hardest.
The instrument is extremely practically arranged, works rapidly
and surely, makes beautiful cylinders, much better than Bret-
schneider's, and long, and so smooth that only in few cases a
magnifying glass is required.
There are four types made by And. Mattson, Mora, Sweden,
varying merely in length of bore by two inches from 4 to 10 inch,
and for use in hardwoods (as well as soft woods) being of harder
steel the prices run from $3.50 to $8.50.
Merely to show what interesting data as regards increment and
Periodical Literature. 497
the influences upon it, the author tabulates the results of some 80
borings.
He points out that in Sweden over 1,000 borers are in use — the
reviewer can attest that every forester he met there had his borer
handy and was on the qui vive to use it — and enlarges upon the
value of its uses for self education. "It belongs to a forester's
outfit as the plane to the carpenters," and whoever has once begun
to use it will, like the author, find such fascination in it as to make
its use a mania !
A few remarks on the increment per cent, according to Sch-
neider's formula explains the relative reliability of the latter.
A table gives comparison of the detail of the various makes.
A few hints regarding the use of the instrument are given.
Oiling (with fat pork) is not at all necessary in soft woods and
not absolutely necessary in hard woods but makes the work easier.
It is easiest to bore at the height of the elbow ; first bore horizontal
and to the center, with force but slowly as far as the thread goes,
then, when the instrument is solidly in, turn rapidly until towards
the end when the turning becomes slower ; then after a short back
turn introduce the needle, which is very easy in soft woods, in
hard woods requires some coaxing or rather trying for a place
where it goes readily. In 700 borings the author did not breaK a
needle. Close the bore hole with a twig end tightly. No un-
favorable results of the boring having been observed in 10 years.
Recording the cylinders and keeping them best in a flat pencil
case, and cleaning the instrument like a gun and careful protec-
tion of the cutting edge are also necessary.
Neues und Altes voni Zuzuachshorer. Forstwissenschaftliches Central-
blatt. May, 191 1, pp. 247-268.
The Russian Medwiedew, the originator of
Measure. the idea of relative height which he used to
of determine relative tolerance of species, has
Crown developed an interesting new method of
Density. determining density classes by a careful in-
vestigation. After a discussion of gener-
alities regarding height growth and influence of light and density
on development of stands, he comes to the conclusion that the
diameter increment in open position exceeds that in dense position
498 Forestry Quarterly.
by one and one-half, even on best sites, while the height growth
corresponds here to that of the poorest sites.
Calling the relation of height to diameter the relative height, he
finds this relation to be dependent on the light enjoyment, and it
is largest in dense cover. In the average of a large number of
stems, if grown under persistent thinning practice this relative
height was found for pine 24.9, spruce 39.8, beech 38.4 ; if grown
in densest cover for pine 126, spruce 130, beech 157.6. The rela-
tive height sinks with age and rises with decrease in soil quality.
To classify densities, the author proposes to use the relative
height and the sum of the cross-section areas on a given area unit.
The higher the former the smaller the crown and the denser the
cover; also the older the stand the lower the relative height and
the larger the total of cross-section areas. Multiplying the latter
per acre with the relative height for a given age and soil class, a
tolerably constant result is found for each species, which may be
used as density factor.
The author constructs a table for pine under given conditions
from 60 to 140 years old, and by using this multiplication of rela-
tive height and cross section area, he finds at all ages the density
factor to be 343 for I site class, 326 for II site, 304 for III site.
Hence the procedure: Determine on sample areas (average
trees) age n, diameter d, absolute height h, cubic contents per acre,
hXc
relative height and sum of cross section areas c, then gives
hXc
the site class, the density factor (supposedly to be compared
d
with normal figures for these).
From Lesnoj Journal, 1910. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung. April,
191 1, pp. 135-136.
Hufnagl makes a very interesting contri-
Value bution to forest valuation. He points out,
of that it is necessary to distinguish between
Increment value of increment and quality or value in-
ane? crement. While in a sustained yield man-
Quality agement it is usual to assume correctly that
Increment. in a normal management class the sum of
the current increment on all age classes is
equal to the volume of the oldest age class, this is not true for the
Periodical Literature. 499
values. The volume increment which takes place as the annual
ring can have only the unit value which pertains to the age class
or dimension class on which it occurs ; if the increment occurs on
wood worth 5 cents a cubic foot it can not be worth more than 5
cents, except as with the increase in diameter an increase in use
value and in money value comes about. Multiplying the volume
increment in each age class with the value pertaining to that age
class and adding up, one secures the value of the increment of
the management class. This value can be influenced by influenc-
ing, through thinnings, etc., the volume increment.
Regretting the unfortunate mixing up of the terms "value in-
crement" and "price increment," the latter dependent on market
fluctuations, without any change in the sale object itself, he points
out that in the forester's value increment or quality increment,
the volume increment is involved: by the mere year's increment
suddenly without any effort of the manager the whole tree re-
ceives a higher value per cubic foot — a value increment.
It is not 100 year old wood, which comes to sale when a 100
year old stand is cut: only the first year's smallest growth is 100
years old, each annual layer, however, has experienced a value
increment, which in a way exhibits the progess of value increment
in all I to 100 year old stands of a management class, and the
amount of this increment is expressed by the difference of the
value of the oldest age class and the value of the current incre-
ment.
In a tabulated example referring to given market and price
conditions, in a pine forest on III site the value of the 80 year
stand is figured as 12,500 cubic feet X 4-5 cents=$562 ; the values
of the increment of each 10 year age class, calculated with the
price per unit of the age class, added up, give $356, hence the
value (quality) increment of the whole management class is 562
— 356=$2o6. Similarly, the value of a spruce management class
in its oldest member at 80 years is $1,336, the value of the age
class increment adds up to $706, hence the value (quality) incre-
ment of the management class (normal stock) is $630. In both
cases this value is much less than half the stock value of the oldest
age class. In these examples, there are of this total annual value
increment of the normal stock, in case of the pine, 63% repre-
sented by increment value, 37% by value increment, in case of the
spruce, 53% by increment value, 47% by value increment.
500 Forestry Quarterly.
The significance of this distinction is shown in an example of
the soil rent theory and another in taxation of forests.
Der Wert des Zuwachses und der Wertssuwachs. Centralblatt f. d. g.
Forstwesen, March, 191 1, pp. 109-112.
Schickhardt makes an elaborate calculation
Valuation to determine the value of the 450,000 acres
of of productive areas of State forests. An
Wiirttemberg official calculation had made the value
Forests. around $97,000,000 with a 3% return, while
Dr. Wagner believing the used interest rate
too high makes the capital value over $110,000,000.
The author in determining the forest capital makes volume
calculation for 20 year age classes, reducing the yield table data
by estimated actual average degree of full stands. For the two
youngest age classes, stand cost values are used, for the others
sale values determined by a special index method. The data is
tabulated. They show the youngest two age classes to occupy
each 22 per cent, of the area, the subsequent age classes represent-
ing 16, 15, 13, and the one over 100 years, 12 per cent., Site
classes by species show spruce and fir as representing 60%, pine
10%, beech 30%, mostly in II and III site class, the average pro-
duction for each of these three types 105, 57, and 55 cubic feet
per acre respectively. Both main and intermediate stand are de-
termined in volume., the latter ranging from 4 to 5% of the main
stand.
The total stock including intermediate stand, without deduc-
tions for quality of stands figures out from yield tables 1,588 mil-
lion cubic feet. The main stand therefore, 3,350 cubic feet per
acre average, while the normal stock would be 3,575 cubic feet.
This makes the actual average rotation 95 years and not the calcu-
lated 103 years. Various considerations lead to a reduction
figure of .75 on the average for incomplete stands making the
actual stock on hand 1,190 million cubic feet or say 2,600 cubic
feet per acre.
Authorities differ as to how to evaluate large forest areas like
the one involved.
According to Judeich the cost value of stands should be the
basis ; according to Martin, stands up to 40 years should be figured
at cost value, the older according to sale value with interpolation
Periodical Literature. 501
for the middle age classes, and he advocates estimating since ab-
solute certainty is unattainable. Wimmenauer calls for expect-
ancy values for the younger stands. Other methods are cited.
The author choses a method like Martin's, using cost value for the
age classes i to 40 years, constructing a sale value curve for the
rest and correcting this curve by a tax value curve, which connects
the space from 40 to 60 years. Prices were secured by average
of actual sales for 8 years. The total capital value of the stock is
then figured to be $130 million. The cost of production is then
set in with 35% of the gross wood value and the final stock value
of the Wiirttemberg forests is set down as around $93 million,
to which is to be added the soil value with $19 million, making the
entire forest value $112 million.
As regards interest earnings, either the material stock may be
compared with the annual felling budget or the forest value with
the annual income.
While the normal volume increment per cent, is figured at 3.1%,
taking the cut for 1908 with 86 cubic feet per acre the relation to
actual stock was 2)-Z%y that is to say higher than that corres-
ponding to the rotation of 103 years — an over cutting of .2%.
The annual net money returns represent the interest not only of
the stock capital but of all other investments involved. For 1908
the total income was $3.2 million ; this related to the forest value
of $112 million gives the interest rate of a little over 2.'/%. But
if note is taken of the over cutting, this rate is reduced to 2.5%.
Der Kapitalwert der zvurttembergischen Staatsforsten. AUgemeine
Forst- u. Jagdzeitung. April, 191 1, pp. 1 18-126.
The income of small forest owners in the
High Forest Schwarzwald depends upon which of the
Versus two sharply contrasted forms of forest they
Coppice. possess. The owners of the higher slopes
which are clothed with conifers, have a de-
pendable income large enough to well repay this labor. Their
forests are well stocked and well managed. The owners of the
lower forests adjoining the meadows and farm lands in the nar-
row valleys are less fortunate. Here coppice management
obtains with crops of grain interspersed. Now the income from
coppice stands has declined markedly in the last quarter-century
and there is no prospect of a rise. The growth of transportation
502 Forestry Quarterly.
facilities has broadened market conditions and removed depend-
ence on local supplies of material. The importation of tanning
materials has made the production of tanbark in managed forests
unprofitable.
To secure a reasonable income from these areas which are
under coppice a change to high forest is necessary. Such a
change will preclude the use of the ground for grain every fifteen
or twenty years — a fact which complicates and retards the change.
This complication has been removed by making the change to
high forest on but half of the area, continuing and improving the
present practice of coppice growth on the other half.
Bduerliche Privatzvaldzvirtscliaft im Wolf- und Kinzigtal dcs badischcn
Schwarzivaldes. Silva IV. April, 191 1. Pp. 113-4.
The history of a communal forest of about
Production 250 acres, located in the Black Forest,
of of Wiirttemberg, near Rippoldsau, exhibits
Selection conditions such as may be repeated in our
Forest. country.
In the forties, the whole forest was thor-
oughly logged, so that only polewood and smaller trees with a
few trees of advance growth had been left — such condition as our
loggers would leave the woods. In the fifties a wealthy man
bought the forest and treated it conservatively ; yet, during the
25 years while in his possession he cut annually at the rate of
75 cubic feet per acre in the average. After his death the forest
was offered for sale, and various valuations were made which
showed stock varying between 3,cxx) and 3,575 cubic feet per
acre. In 1879 the sale was effected for $36,000 or $144 per
acre, of which $30 may be figured for soil value, and $114 for
wood value.
In 1899 the whole stand was calipered and showed 7736 cubic
feet per acre, while during the period 1072 feet per acre had been
cut; hence the total production during the 21 years had been at
the rate of 250 cubic feet.
Since according to prices prevailing in 1900 (when this calcu-
lation was made), the value of the stand was close to $700, its
value increment per cent, for the 21 years was 8.8!
From Piihrer sur Excursion in Waldungen von Rippoldsau, 1900.
Periodical Literature. 503
UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY.
Dr. V. Almbiirg developes with great mathe-
Dynamics matical apparatus the dynamics which are
of of interest in the operation of the logsHdes
Logslides. such as are in common use in mountain
country, especially the influence of the
grade on the velocity of the movement of logs ; the effect of
brakes to slow down the movement, in which he shows the low
efficiency of the so-called "wolf," a brake consisting of a sus-
pended log which must be lifted by the sliding log ; the influence
of curves and the form of the slide on the velocity ; the minimal
radius of such curves.
Beitrag sur Kenntniss der dynamischen Vorgdnge bciin Abricsen des
Holses in Holzriesen. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. April, 191 1, pp.
161-179.
An experience of 30 years in the use of
Wire Rope wire rope ways for the purpose of trans-
Ways porting logs from steep mountains to val-
in leys, has, according to Schmid, developed
Switzerland. their usefulness, not only for temporary
exploitation of two or three years' duration,
but for permanent use in forest work. While the author holds
that the ideal way is still to build roads, there are conditions
where this is too difficult and too expensive, and here the rope
way is in place.
The community of Roveredo owning a 5,000 acre tract with
an annual cut of 70,000 cubic feet installed in 1908, one per-
manent rope way of about 2 miles length, with an impermanent
portable rope feeder of i mile in length, and several simple wire
ways for conveyance of cordwood.
A road would have cost $20,000; the rope way cost $5,500
for the permanent and $2,400 for the movable one. The cost of
transportation, including amortization at 4.5% in 10 years and
repairs have cost $2.44 per 100 cubic feet, while on a road which
with 10% grade would have had to be about 6 miles long it all
would have been at least $354 for teaming alone.
Another ropeway of i^ mile length, now 10 years in use, cost-
ing $3,600, intended to transport 35,000 cubic feet for 10 years^
made the cost of transportation $2.46.
32
504 Forestry Quarterly.
A few illustrations show the construction of these very simple
ropeways. If constructed of good grade material and carefully
supervised, the structure may last 20 years. The steel ropes
which are required to carry heavy loads with 3,200 feet spans,
are made of six strands of seven wires, the main carrying rope
I inch in diameter and a tensile strength of 60,000 lbs., the
return carrier 3-5 inch and 30,000 lbs., the return haul rope
■^ inch and 16,000 lbs. strength. The legs are carried in a cradle.
Usually only the upper station has a brake which works accord-
ing to the grade with one or two 3.5 foot disks moving in the
same plane, moved by a double lever.
Die Dratseilriesen im Forstkreis Misox. Schweizerische Zeitschrift,
April, 191 1, pp. 105-113.
Schullerman reports on a series of trials
Kiton with the new road material Kiton, which
Roads. makes a dustless road, with a view to deter-
mine its wear and cost. Kiton is a mix-
ture of 60% tar, 30% water and 10% clay, which mixture has the
property of not taking up water after once having been dried.
The price at the factory in Ludwigshafen is about $15 per ton.
It requires from 7 lbs. per square yard up to make a good road,
the maximum being for every inch thickness of cover 55 lbs of
Kiton, an emulsion of 40 to 60% Kiton being used. Broken
stone as in macadam, rolled, is the basis and a sand cover tops
it off; in a remarkably short time the cover becomes solid and
in a few weeks it is ready. For country roads the broken stone
is not necessary, any gravel or even coarse sand being sufihcient.
The experience with the eight trial sections, differently con-
structed in 1910, are summarized as follows:
1. With a soft sandstone the result was unsatisfactory, especi-
ally on high grades.
2. Mending poorly kept roads with a thin layer of coarse sand
and Kiton makes first a good appearance, but does not promise
well for long.
3. Roads unfavorably located as regards drainage can be satis-
factorily changed into dry, hard roads.
4. If gravel is somewhat expensive the use of Kiton cheapens
the road, because a smaller amount of gravel will do, and the
rolling is by 25% cheaper with Kiton.
Periodical Literature. 505
Interesting data regarding labor require-
Labor ments in forestry work are furnished by
in the forest department of Bavaria, referring
Forestry. to the average results of 358 forest districts
into which the two million acres of Bavarian
State forests are divided. While altogether 74,656 people had
been occupied with forest work in 1908, only 22% of the man
workers or 12.7% of all workers made forest work their main
occupation ; only 6% of the laborers are occupied for 2-3 of the
year, 12% for at least half a year, and the bulk, or 9-10 of all
workers are occupied less than half a year. Only 58% of these
workers are men, 2^% are women and 19% children. Only 89
work days per laborer is the average. For each 100 acres of the
productive forest area, 22.4 days of labor are required. Of the
4.5 million total day's work, 59% were taken up by logging, 11%
by road building, 24% on cultures and 6% on miscellaneous work.
A ten-hour day prevails from April to October, 9 hours for spring
and fall and 8 hours in winter.
The average pay for men was 58 cents (up to 72 cents), for
women only 40 cents (up to 52 cents), and this is mostly higher
pay than for other rural labor. In piecework, however, the earn-
ings are better, for summer felling 92 cents, in winter felling 70
cents, in thinnings 64 cents on the average.
Mitteilungen aus der Forstverwaltung Bayerns, 1910, 157 pp.
The following calculation of the distribu-
Labor tion of effective work by hours and days
Distribution for one month, from April 15 to May 15
iti inc., 191 1, refers to performance of the
National Forests, crew in the Deerlodge National Forest,
U. S.
Labor
Class. Hours. Days. Per Day. and
Expense.
Planting i-o, 118 14 s/8 63.67
Planting 2-0, 417. S 52 3/16 225.29
Cornplanter, 396 49 4/8 213.68
v^eed Spots, 86 10 6/8 46.41
Broadcast plain, i 1/8 .54
Broadcast brushed, 5 5/8 2.70
Broadcast disked and brushed, 9 i 1/8 4.86
Surveying (all areas), 151 18 7/8 81.48
Poisoning Call areas). 38 4 1/8 17.80
Fencingf all areas), 120 15 64.75
Planting totals, 1336.5 167 1/16 4.3168 721.18
5o6 Forestry Quarterly.
Reconnaissance survey,
Reconnaissance estimating,
Office work,
40
io8
100
5
13 4/8
12 4/8
31
21.58
58.28
53-96
Total other effective vi^ork,
248
133-82
Total all effective virork,
]
1584-5
[terns of
Cost
198 1/16
855-00
Salaries (nine men),
Food,
Salary (cook).
$615
165
75
00
00
00
Total for period, $855 00
Total cost per effective day of all classes of work was therefore
$855.00^198.0625=4.3168.
DETAILS OF PLANTING COSTS AT BERNICE ARE REPORTED
AS FOLLOWS :
Place Sj"« ?^"Q -2 s ..b^.S ^ '^ ^ "J^ V,
-^ g^ ^^ 50, gCi, gcq ocqq -^
OI-iO^io c^cqc5l-i
Acres 3.76 12.47 5.90 66.26 i 2 i 92.39
Labor and ex-
pense days 14.66 52.18 10.66 49.50 14, Ys i^
Labor and ex-
pense 63.67 225.29 46.41 213.68 .54 2.70 4.86 557-15
Survey marking 3.31 11.00 5.21 58.44 .88 1.76 .88 81.48
Fencing 2.63 8.74 4.14 . 46.44 .70 1.40 .70 64.75
Poisoning 1.81 20.28 .30 .61 .30 23.30
Cost of
Seedlings 9-55 33-00 42-55
Cost of
Seed 9.00 102.00 6.00 10.00 5.00 137.00
Cost of
Equipment 1.3S -QO
Totals 76.16 278.05 66.57 442.19 8.42 16.47 11-74 907-13
Cost per Acre 21.05 22.29 n.n 6.67 8.42 8.23 11.74 9-8l
From The Deerlodge Ranger.
STATISTICS AND HISTORY.
A most interesting compilation of statisti-
German cal data are contained in Forstassessor
Forest Sempor's review of conditions in Germany
Conditions. for 1909, similar to the one for 1908, briefed
in F. O. vol. VIII,, p. 549, the latter a year
of depression, the latter year improving towards the end. Some
of the data are outside of direct forestry interests, such as the
monthly statements of the status of the national bank, of the
Periodical Literature. 507
labor market, of the railroad earnings, of the prices of grain and
various others adduced for discussion of the general economic
condition of the empire.
Of forestry statistics we may abstract the following of inter-
est in the distribution of private forest properties, according to
size. Dividing the private forest area of 16.5 million acres into
five size classes, namely below 25 acres, between 25 and 500 acres,
500 to 2,5(X), 2,500 to 12,500 acres, and those above 12,500, it
appears, that over 50 per cent, falls into the two smallest classes
with nearly one million owners, and only 59 owners hold over
12,500 acres, namely altogether a little less than 1.2 million
acres. The bulk of the government forests falls, of course, into
the last two classes, yet there are over 700 districts in small par-
cels. The corporation forests are found mostly in the third size
class. Taking all forests together, nearly 52 per cent, are held
in parcels of less than 2,500 acres, and over one-third of the
area is managed in aggregates of between 2,500 and 12,500 acres.
A complete table of property distribution is given for Prussia by
provinces.
Generally speaking. State forests and large private holdings
prevail in the Eastern provinces of Prussia and in Hanover
and Hesse, communal forests in the middle provinces and small
private ownership in the western provinces. In this State 13 per
cent, are found in large properties, mostly in fidei-Kommiss, i. e.
under State surveillance by contract.
The increase of State forest property during the last 40 years
is striking, namely, nearly one million acres, and the end of
purchases is not yet. These purchases took place mostly in the
eastern provinces ; unfortunately in the west, this policy of eradi-
cating the undesirably mismanaged, because too small, private
forest properties is not applicable policy, hence attempts at con-
solidated or associated management and other persuasive meas-
ures through the provincial forestry bureaus (see F. Q. vol. V, p.
438). A table exhibits the activities of these bureaux in the way
of acting as temporary or permanent advisors, making working
plans, furnishing or negotiating plant material, giving assistance
in reforestation, etc.
Some $200,000 were spent in Prussia in combating obnoxious
insects, especially the pine geometra and the nun, which latter in
East Prussia alone necessitated an extraordinary cut of 124 mil-
5o8 Forestry Quarterly.
lion cubic feet of spruce. "Extensive" forest fires are reported,
34 of them having destroyed 2,200 acres entirely or partially !
The annual cut in the Prussian State Forests has increased
since 1870, almost regularly, from year to year, so that now it is
almost double what it was 40 years ago, with now 58.3 cubic feet
timberwood and about 12 cubic feet other inferior wood, and the
timberwood per cent, increased from 30 to 63 (75% in conifers),
showing most strikingly the improvement of the forests. But
the income has more than doubled, the gross income having risen
from $1.66 to $4.35, the net yield, however, only from 87 cents to
$1.94. Indeed, 1907, the net yield was higher, namely $2.42;
this decrease is largely due to the generous improvement of the
salaries. The rise in wood prices has been since 1895 when they
were at a lower level than the two previous years from 7 cents
per cubic foot for workwood to 9 cents in 1909, and for fuel-
wood from 2f to 3^^ cents per cubic foot. But these are also
decreases from conditions in 1907, when the corresponding
prices were 10.6 and 3! cents. This loss is due to general depres-
sion and increased importations from Russia, in some districts
also to the increased cut occasioned by the ravages of the nun.
A further depressing influence is found in the increased use
of metal ties, so that now 35% of the railroads are on metal, the
purchase of wooden ties having fallen from 7.6 millions in 1906
to 3.3 millions in 1910, and this mostly (over 70%) imported, at
fuelwood prices. In the direction of mine timber as well as build-
ing timber, the competition of iron is also felt.
The movement of wood of all kinds on the German railways
amounts now to around 19 million tons, mostly (except 2 mil-
lion tons) home product, as imports are mainly carried by water.
The imports have increased until in 1907 they amounted to over
7.5 million tons, then sinking to 7 million in 1909, which is still
between 40 and 50% more than the first quinquennium of the
century.
This import translated into cubic feet represents around 380
million cubic feet of round material. Over 50 per cent, of the
import of sizeable material comes in logs to be manufactured in
the country. The imports are discussed in some detail, showing
that Russia increasingly ships to Germany, now furnishing over
one-half of the workwood, and Austria sending over one-quarter,
Periodical Literature.
509
Sweden only 6% and the United States without much change
for the last 10 years less than four per cent.
Forstwirtschaftliche Riickblicke anf das Jahr igog. Zeitschrift fiir
Forst- u. Jagdwesen. June, July, 191 1, pp. 459-481, 545-563.
Szviss
Forest
Administration.
As is well known, the Confederation as such
does not own forests, hence its entire ac-
tivity in forestry matters is directed towards
encouragement and restriction of the forest
use of cantons, municipalities, or private
owners.
The character of this activity may be seen from the budget for
191 1 which reads as follows:
1 Salaries Francs 54.900
2 Traveling expenses
Francs 14,000
3 Office expenses Francs 3,000
4 Printing Francs 2,000
5 Photography Francs 1,000
6 Contributions to salar-
ies of cantonal and
municipal foresters
Francs 380,000
7 Contribution to acci-
dent insurance of
these Francs 10,000
8 Examination of higher
grade foresters
Francs 4,000
9 Instruction of lower
grade foresters
Francs 9,000
10 Surveys Francs 25,000
11 Subventions for re-
boisement Francs 450,000
12 Do. for roads, etc.
Francs 90,000
13 Amalgamation of small
holdings for common
management Francs 3,000
14 Subvention to forestry
association Francs 5,000
15 Do. to underforesters'
association Francs 1,000
16 Do. for alpine gar-
dens Francs 4,000
17 Do. for seed establish-
ments Francs 3,000
18 Do. alpine museum
Francs 500
19 Do. Swiss forest sta-
tistics Francs 6,500
Total
Francs 1,065,900
=$213,000
Assisting in the payment of salaries for competent foresters
and subventions for reboisement represent four-fifths of the total
outlay. There were employed in 1910, foresters of the higher
grade to the number of 193; of the lower grade, 1904; the fed-
eral government contributing somewhat over one-quarter of the
salaries of the higher grade and one-seventh of that of the lower
grade.
In order to secure employment in the higher grades (by elec-
tion) certain requirements are made by the government, a spe-
cial commission being appointed to hold examinations. There
are a number of ranger courses carried on bv the federal sfovern-
Sio Forestry Quarterly.
menl, lasting 8 weeks in two sessions, also fire ranger courses of
one to two weeks duration.
A triangulation is still in progress under federal authority, but
forest surveys are also at least checked by it, and especially the
segregation of protective forests, which are made by the cantons.
The subvention for reboisement work represented in 1910 over
one-half the actual outlay of nearly $150,000. An interesting
educational feature is an excursion of forest officials through the
Confederation to which the government contributes.
Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen. Jan., Feb., May, 191 1, pp.
21-29. 55, 57-64, 157-160.
A very comprehensive account largely in
Statistics tabular form of the results of management
of through the 20-year period of 1885-1905
Bern of the cantonal forests of Bern is of inter-
State Forests. est in showing how management of a small
property pays. The area involved is only
34,300 acres, having increased through purchase by 2,000 acres
in that period, its value for taxation purposes being $3.2 million.
The growing stock is placed at 2,860 cubic feet per acre and the
yield at 57 cubic feet. These low figures are accounted for by
the large area of newly forested (purchased) lands. The aver-
age rotation in 1885 was 100 years, but in 1905 had been in-
creased to 114 years, due to the need of the protective alpine
forest. O'f the 60 cubic feet of average cut, 43 per cent, was
taken in thinnings. While in the first decade the workwood per
cent, was 29, in the second decade it had increased to 38. The
price movement is interesting. A sudden jump of prices in 1876
was followed by depression with lowest level in 1884, then fol-
lowed a steady rise for the 20 years from 6.6 cents per cubic
foot to 10.3 cents in 1905, a rise of 3^ per cent, in gross receipts,
meanwhile the logging cost also rose from 1.5 to 2.4 cents. Alto-
gether expenses rose from $64,000 in the average in the first
decade to $81,000 in the second, but the net yield from $111,400
to $144,200 ; in either case 64 per cent, of the gross income.
Great differences in cost and returns are shown in different dis-
tricts. In Bern itself, for instance, the net yield is 71 per cent,
of the gross or $6.90 per acre and year, while in a mountain dis-
trict the net yield represents only 43 per cent, and $1.44.
Periodical Literature. 511
Taking the capitalization estimated for tax purposes as above
the management has paid 4f per cent, interest.
Staatswaldungeii des Kanton Bern. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir
Forstwesen. April, 191 1, pp. 124-126.
MISCELLANEOUS.
From a review of a vohime by Dr. Erler
Value discussing in a most exhaustive manner
of the economic significance of the hunt in
Hunting Germany we abstract the following inter-
in- esting data :
Germany. The meat value of the annual kill of
game in Prussia, which in 1886 was about
3.7 million dollars has risen in 1910 to 5 million dollars, 46%
of which is furnished by hares, 16% by roebuck, 18% by par-
tridge, only 5% by stags (elk) and 2% by wild boar. The value
of skins adds about $250,000. The attempt to figure what the
production of these values costs, stands naturally on very slender
basis. The author disclaims damage from the hare, only wild
boar is considered very damaging and next to it, elk. In the
main he considers the low game as alone economically valuable.
Higher values than in this meat production are now-a-days
secured from renting the hunt. These leases amounted in 1907
to around 4 million dollars or 7 cents per acre, while hunting
permits in 1906-7 brought in Prussia over $600,000, and in the
other states of the federation nearly $900,000.
Zeitschrift fiir Forst- u. Jagdwesen. May, 1911, pp. 453-455.
The first general association of professional
Forestry foresters in France was formed in 1910
Association under the name Association des Agents des
in Eaiix et Forets, the first meeting being held
France. in Paris on July 16, with over 500 members
It appears that at least two-thirds of the
members are officials of the forest service and that the associa-
tion will be largely used to advance the interests of these.
Revue des Eaux et Forets.
5P2 Forestry Quarterly.
OTHER PERIODICAL LITERATURE.
Canadian Forestry Journal, VII, 1911, —
Forest Statistics of Canada for ipop. Pp. 73-75.
Synopsis of statistics of lumber, square timber, laths,
shingles, pulpwood, ties, poles, cooperage, boxes and shooks,
tan bark and tan extracts.
Forest Fires in May and June, ipii. Pp. 75-77.
Detailed facts of all known fires in Canada and United
States.
The Botanical Gazette, LI, 1911, —
Two Sprouting Conifers of the Southwest. Pp. 385-390.
Describes the sprouting habit of alligator juniper (/.
pachyphloea) and Chihuahua pine {P. chihuahuana) .
The Terminology of Soil Bacteria. Pp. 454-460.
Suggested changes in classification in accordance with
physiological functions.
Science, XXXIV, 1911,—
Blue Stain on Lumber. Pp. 94-96.
Shows that the uncertainty of the soda dipping process
is related to the varying acidity of the boards. One at least
of the fungi concerned is sensitive to alkalies. Experiments
on a large scale showed that freshly cut red gum and yellow
pine sap boards required 8 per cent, sodium carbonate or
10 per cent, of the bicarbonate to prevent stain by this
fungus.
The Ohio Naturalist, XI, ,1911,—
The Evaporation Gradient in a Woodlot. Pp. 347-349-
Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Science, X, No.l,
1911,—
The Twisting of Pines. P. 9.
The author attempts to explain the occurrence of spiral
grain of trees thus: "The branches on the south side or
sunny side of the tree aie usually markedly better developed,
Other Periodical Literature.
513
with denser foliage. The trade winds blowing steadily and
strongly from the west all summer bear greatest pressure
on the larger and denser limbs so that the natural grain of
the wood becomes twisted towards that side on which the
wind produces the greatest pressure. When a number of
trees grow closely in a group only those on the outside show
unilateral development and those twist left or right accord-
ing to the position of their heavier branches.
The Journal of the Board of Agriculture, XVIII, 1911, —
The Use of Manures in Forestry. Pp. 139-140.
Planting, Cleaning, and Cutting Willows. Pp. 207-214.
Increasing the Durability of Timber. Pp. 281-288.
Quarterly Journal of Forestry, V, 1911, —
The Sweet Chestnut as a Timber Tree. Pp. 205-220.
Planting Distance. Pp. 226-231.
Mountain Pines ivith Split Branches. Pp. 263-265.
Bulletin de la Societe Dendrologique de France, No. 20, 1911, —
Les Cedres du Liban dans Cur Pays d'origine. Pp. 125-
134-
Graines et Planttdes des Conifcres. Pp. 134-205.
Keys for identification.
ex.
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Splettstosser Planting Tools.
From Vol. VII, p. 483.
NEWS AND NOTES.
Senator Smith, of Maryland, a lumberman of many years' ex-
perience and a member of the National Forest Reservation Com-
mission, has introduced in Congress a bill providing for the
appropriation of $500,000 annually to acquire lands along the
Potomac River adjacent to Washington, for a national park and
forestry purposes. The provisions of the bill in regard to the
acquirement of the land and other legal phases are similar to
those of the Weeks' bill. Five per cent, of the receipts from
timber sales are to be paid to the States in which the forest may
be located.
Press reports indicate that serious insect devastations are occur-
ring in the spruce forests of Maine, the damage being caused by
the sawfly, which destroyed most of the tamarack in Maine in
the early 8o's. It is reported that the present outbreak is con-
fined to spruce and for this reason it was not believed that the
insect could be the sawfly. The State Department of Agricul-
ture, however, has identified the insect as the sawfly, claiming
that the damage is due to slits made in the smaller twigs by the
female insect in preparing a place to deposit her eggs.
New York has added another nursery to its list of State forest
activities. It has put under cultivation at Geysers, about two
miles from Saratoga Springs, about six acres in charge of F. A.
Gaylord, with M. D. Steele as local superintendent. Of the
1,400,000 seedlings transplanted, 1,100,000 were white pine, 250,-
000 Scotch pine, and 50,000 tamarack.
The New York State Superintendent of Weights has notified
his scalers that 16-inch sticks piled 4x8 feet do not make a cord.
A full cord is 8x4x4 feet. Since the sticks in a ship cord are 52
inches long, it is likely that the woodsmen will be legally sus-
tained in a demand for the extra value of their cords over and
above the 4-foot lengths.
The New York State Conservation Commission, created by a
Nezvs and Notes. 515
recent act signed by the Governor on July 12, will carry on the
work formerly handled by the Forest, Fish and Game Commis-
sion, the State Forest Land Purchasing Board, the State Water
Supply Commission, and the Black River Water Power Commis-
sion. The three members of the Commission are each to receive
a salary of $10,000 per year, under appointment from the Gov-
ernor for a tenn of six years. The Commission is to appoint
three deputies and a secretary, each at $3,500 per year, and a
chief engineer and a counsel each at a salary of $7,500 per annum.
The members appointed are : Hon. George E. Van Kennen,
Chairman, ex-Mayor of Ogdensburg, New York ; James W.
Fleming, of Troy, a successful business man ; and John D.
Moore, of New York City, a hydraulic engineer.
The law provides for the establishment of divisions under the
Conservation Commission to cover Lands and Forestry, Fish and
Game, and Inland Waters. The first division wll not only have
the care and administration of the State Forest Preserves, but
also of other lands owned by the State. The forestry work is
to be developed to the fullest extent and an effort made to estab-
lish the principles of forestry in the handling of woodlands on
both State and private property. The work of the second divi-
sion will include the propagation of fish, the protection of game,
and the enforcement of all fish and game laws. The third divi-
sion. Inland Waters, comprises not only the maintenance of
proper water supplies, but the development of water power and
the drainage of woodlands.
At the meeting of the Board of Directors of the American
Forestry Association at Bretton Woods, N. H., August 2-3, Hon.
Robert P. Bass, Governor of New Hampshire, was elected Presi-
dent of the Association to succeed Hon. Curtis Guild, whose
resignation followed his appointment as Ambassador to Russia.
A very interesting forest conference was held at Bretton
Woods, N. H., on August 3, under the auspices of the Society
for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests. The program,
however, was not liniited to the New England Society, but in-
cluded several members of the U. S. Forest Service, the U. S.
Conservation Commission, the New Hampshire Timberland
Owners' Association, Directors of the American Forestry Asso-
5i6 forestry Quarterly.
ciation, several State Foresters, and railroad representatives.
Hon. F. W. Rollins presided at the general conferences and
among the speakers were Hon. Robert P. Bass, Governor of
New Hampshire ; Mr. Thomas Nelson Page ; Congressman Haw-
ley, of the National Conservation Commission ; Messrs. Henry
S. Graves and William L. Hall, of the U. S. Forest Service;
Messrs. W. P. Brown and F. H. Billard, of the New Hampshire
Timberland Owners' Association ; and Messrs. E. C. Hirst, A. F.
Hawes and S. N. Spring, State Foresters of New Hampshire,
Vermont and Connecticut, respectively. Mr. Philip W. Ayres,
Forester of the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire
Forests, presented his annual report and spoke on the forests in
the White Mountains.
Announcement is made that "American Conservation," the
official magazine of the National Conservation Association, will
be discontinued after the August issue and "American Forestry,"
the organ of the American Forestry Association, will be sent to
all subscribers to "American Conservation." This will bring
about a desirable consolidation of the current conservation liter-
ature, and it is quite in keeping that "American Forestry," since
forestry was the basis of the conservation movement, should
represent all of the conservation interests.
The law relating to forest fires passed at the last session of
the Washington legislature provides that where wood-waste
material is destroyed in incinerators, they shall be equipped with
effective spark arresters, and the same applies to smokestacks,
chimneys, or any other outlet for sparks. Where forest products
are being manufactured within one-quarter of a mile of forest
material, the destruction of slabs and refuse must be provided
for in a manner which will not endanger surrounding property.
Locomotives, donkey engines, etc., must be provided not only
with an effective spark arrester, but with devices which will suc-
cessfully prevent the escape of live coals from fire boxes and ash
pans. The felling of trees so that tops lie in adjoining timber is
prohibited, unless the permission of the owner of such timber
is procured. Whenever rights of way are cleared, the slashings
must be piled and the burning done at such time as the fire
warden considers safe. Watchmen must be kept at donkey en-
News and Notes. 517
gines for two hours after operation ceases, and all snags over 25
feet in height within 50 feet of each donkey engine must be
felled.
At a discussion of spark arresters by members of the Oregon
Forest Fire Association and others interested, it was brought
out that the railroads are inclined to burn coal rather than oil
because they find it cheaper and less damaging to their fire boxes.
It was reported that on logging railroads oil was used because it
was found to be as cheap as, if not cheaper than, wood. The
desire on the part of all railroad operators to maintain efficient
spark arresters and to do everything possible to prevent forest
fires was evident.
At the committee hearings on Wisconsin forestry legislation,
the lumbermen made it clear that the expense for fire patrol
should be met by a direct appropriation from the State Treasury
out of the funds raised by the State, since it is so generally con-
ceded that the stoppage of forest fires is a matter of public con-
cern. The proposal in the bill under discussion was to levy
a special tax of 2^ cents an acre upon all wild and unoccupied
land in the northern twenty-two counties of the State.
China's first trained forester, Ngan Han, who spent four years
at Cornell and two years at Michigan, is preparing a book on
elementary forestry in the Chinese language. In the press in-
terviews, Han says : "The forests of my country are badly cut
and wasted. We've been as reckless as the Americans in the
waste of our trees. Our forests are practically all cut over ex-
cepting in the northern part of Manchuria, where there are some
left, and in the mountains in the west and north where it is diffi-
cult to go. I have studied American forestry, and now I must
work on the forestry problem in China. It is an unknown prop-
osition. We do not know what trees we have in China. I must
first find what does grow, or has grown there. I must experi-
ment with foreign trees to find what is best to introduce into the
country. It is to be all experimental for the next thirty years.
Thirty years is a long time to wait for Americans, but we are a
race schooled to wait; we are not impatient for results."
5i8 Forestry Quarterly.
Dr. Hopkins has located a forest insect field station at Spar-
tanburg, S. C, for the purpose of more effectively co-operating
with timber owners in eradicating the southern pine beetle, about
which he says : "It has been known for more than forty years
that this particular beetle has existed in the Southern States,
and our extensive studies of it within recent years indicate that
it has occupied the region since time immemorial. It appears,
however, that only at long intervals does it increase to such num-
bers as to cause widespread depredations, such as, for example,
the great invasion of 1890-1893 in the Virginias. Under the
normal conditions of its life and habits, a few scattering trees are
killed by it each year in nearly every county throughout the
Southern States where the pine is common. If, however, there
are from any cause favorable conditions for the multiplication
of the insect, it is thus able to kill groups of trees, and if these
groups increase in number and size the following year, they
constitute the danger signal of an outbreak with resulting wide-
spread depredations. These are just the conditions found in the
localities observed, and, from the reports received from differ-
ent sections of the South ranging from Texas to Virginia, it is
evident that they prevail throughout the greater part of at least
the shortleaf pine belt. Therefore there is every reason to be-
lieve that unless prompt and properly directed action is taken by
owners of pine timber throughout the region during the coming
winter, a large percentage of the best old as well as middle aged
and young pine will be killed within the next two or three years."
At the last session of the Pennsylvania Legislature, a bill was
passed providing for the appointment of a commission to investi-
gate and combat the chestnut blight. The sum of $25,000 was
appropriated for the expenses of the commission, whose members
shall serve without pay, and there is a further appropriation of
$250,000 available on the approval of the Governor for the
performance of the duties required, as for quarantine, removal
of diseased or other trees, etc. The commission, which is to be
called "The Commission for the Investigation and Control of
the Chestnut-tree Blight Disease in Pennsylvania," is composed
of Mr. Winthrop Sargent, Chairman ; Mr. Harold Pierce, Secre-
tary; and Messrs. T. N. Ely, Samuel T. Bodine and George F.
Craig. Mr. S. P. Detwiler, Assistant Professor of Forestry at
News and Notes. 519
the University of Minnesota has been engaged by the Commission
as its forester. Offices have been secured in the Morris Build-
ing, Philadelphia, and the work will be pushed vigorously.
The rapid westward spread of the chestnut blight in Pennsyl-
vania is indicated by the report to the department of forestry of
its existence in Adams, Centre and Snyder counties. This dis-
covery may cause a revision of the plans of the commission, as
the disease was unknown west of the Susquehanna river except
in York county, where the commission is now combating it.
The National Irrigation Congress will hold its nineteenth ses-
sion in Chicago December 5 to 9, when it will have formally
brought to its attention by the Western Forestry and Conserva-
tion Association the need for its assistance in spreading the
gospel of fire prevention. On this subject E. T. Allen says:
"One of the worthy objects of the Congress is to 'save the
forests,' and next to food itself, no product is so necessary to the
human race as wood. People must have it for fuel, for their
houses, barns, and fences, to build ships, railroads, and irrigation
flumes, and for almost every article used by civilized man. Hav-
ing plenty of it, we not only get all these things cheaper our-
selves, but can sell it to those states and countries that have no
forests.
"Lumbering is an important industry in the Pacific Northwest.
It brings about $i25,ooo,cxx) a year, or more than $332,000 a
day, into the five states of California, Oregon, Washington,
Idaho, and Montana, and nearly all of this money is paid out for
labor and supplies so that every family shares it. It contributes
to every line of industry as well as to the farmer, the merchant,
the mechanic, and the professional man. No other product of
these states furnished employment for so many people or brings
in so much money. Lumber makes up 75 per cent, of all the
freight we ship out of these states by rail or boat.
"Our forests are useful and necessary, as they keep the flow
of our streams even, preventing floods in the wet season and
furnishing water for irrigation and power during the dry season ;
they pay taxes to support our roads, our schools, and our gov-
ernment ; they shelter our wild game and fish, and in many other
ways make our country healthier and pleasanter to live in. In
33
520 Forestry Quarterly.
most of our western states, the public schools are supported
largely by the sale of timber from state forest lands.
"Although not always as serious as they were last year, forest
fires in Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Montana, and California
annually destroy timber which, if saved for manufacture, would
bring in $40,000,000. We not only lose this income, but we
have to pay higher taxes on the rest of our property and higher
prices for the forest material which escapes. These fires kill the
young trees, so new forests cannot follow the old ones, and, by
leaving the ground bare, also hasten the rapid run-off of snow
and rain and make our streams low in summer. Other losses
are human lives and the destruction of buildings and stock.
"Primarily, our chief work is to encourage legislation to pro-
tect our forests and secure the appropriation of state funds to
carry out the laws, also to provide for fire patrols, and to teach
men, women and children the value of knowing what to do, not
so much in the way of fighting fires as in preventing them. We
need the support of the National Irrigation Congress to assist
us in spreading the gospel of fire prevention, and with that end
in view hope to bring the matter to the attention of the Congress
in a formal way at the Chicago convention.
"Forests are necessary to successful irrigation, as the trees
retain the rain and snowfall and thus assure sufficient moisture
for crop purposes during the dry season. Irrigation, which
makes intensive farming possible, is largely responsible for the
well developed country districts in the Northwest, where the
rural communities are so thickly populated they resemble suburbs
of cities."
Consul General Thackara has reported from Berlin another
tree felling machine, in part as follows :
"A machine for felling trees has been invented by Hugo
Gantke, of Berlin. The principle of the invention is that by pull-
ing an ordinary steel wire rapidly back and forth around the
tree to be felled, sufficient heat is developed by the friction to
burn a smooth groove through the stem of the tree. The ma-
chine has been patented in Germany, Great Britain, Austria, and
a number of other countries, and a patent has been applied for
in the United States.
"The inventor illustrates his invention by means of an ordi-
Neivs and Notes. 521
nary steel wire about a yard in length, which is provided with a
single handgrip at each end, which he pulls rapidly back and
forth around a chair or table leg, the wire thus burning a groove
into the wood.
"A small wire is used on trees, to the end of it being attached
cables run by an engine or motor.
"In cutting down trees the cable is chosen long enough to
make it possible to place the machine out of reach of the falling
tree. The machine may also be used in cutting logs or timber
already felled, in which case a shorter cable may be used. The
power required for European varieties of wood range from 1.5
to 7 horsepower, depending upon the hardness and dimensions of
the timber. A 4-horsepower machine is said to cut down a pine
2 feet in diameter in about 5 minutes. The machine requires
less than one-half of the time required for sawing down a tree
by hand and about two-thirds of the time required for sawing
logs or timbers that are lying on the ground. In the case of
larger stems the machine requires only about one-fourth the time
for sawing by hand.
"The wires are cheap and the whole machine with motor costs
$650."
A manufacturer of wood block paving machinery has sug-
gested that "the most economical way to get out blocks is for
several miles in one city or, say, within a radius of ten to twenty
miles, to put in small block machines right near the edger where
the regular crew can do the cutting. Then, by shipping their
blocks to a central creosoting plant, all the mills so doing can
save a great deal in fixed charges, fuel, and many other ex-
penses which otherwise would be incurred."
A. O. Vorse, Yale '10, has left the Delaware & Hudson Rail-
road to develop the forest management work of Peters, Byrne &
Co., entomologists and landscape architects, of Ardmore, Pa.
F. E. Olmsted has resigned his position as District Forester
in District 5 of the U. S. Forest Service to join the consulting
firm of Fisher & Bryant at Boston, Mass'., which will now become
Fisher, Bryant & Olmsted.
522 Forestry Quarterly.
A forward step in the conservation of Missouri's resources has
been taken by the University of Missouri in the appointment of
Professor J. A. Ferguson, of State College, Pennsylvania, to the
position of Professor of Forestry in the College of Agriculture.
Professor Ferguson is a graduate of Yale Forestry School, and
has for nearly two years been acting head of the Department
of Forestry at State College, Pennsylvania.
The College of Agriculture owns fifty thousand acres of for-
est lands in the southern part of Missouri. It is planned to
utilize these lands as an out-door laboratory for the instruction
in practical forestry. It is probable that a portion of the forestry
instruction will be given on these forest lands.
Additions have been made to the teaching staff in the Depart-
ment of Forestry at Pennsylvania State College by the appoint-
ment of J. B. Berry, of the University of Minnesota, and R. R.
Chaffee, of Harvard. Both of these men are graduates of the
forest schools of their respective universities, and each has been
engaged in field work for the Forest Service. These changes
are the result of the resignation of Prof. J. A. Ferguson to take
charge of the forestry department of the University of Missouri
and of the necessity for enlarging the teaching staff because of
the increased number of. students.
Two changes have been made in the faculty of the Forestry
Department of the University of Nebraska. The vacancy left
by the death of Professor Frank J. Phillips was filled by the pro-
motion of O. L. Sponsler from Adjunct Professor and W. J.
Duppert was appointed Adjunct Professor. Mr. Duppert re-
ceived both his Bachelor's and his Master's degrees in Forestry
from the University of Michigan. His experience along forestry
lines extends over several years in New York, Ohio, and as Forest
Assistant on the Coconino Forest, Arizona.
After a lapse of eight years, there is again a forestry depart-
ment at Cornell University. The new work is a department of
the New York State College of Agriculture at the university.
The following lines of work are to be conducted by this depart-
ment during the year 1911-1912:
( I ) . Help for the farmers and other forest owners of the state
News and Notes. 523
in the care of their woodlands. This will include instruction in
farm forestry and in general silviculture at the University; ex-
tension work to reach the people of the state; and field studies
of woodlot conditions and needs. (2) Experimental work re-
lating to the woodlot and general forest problems of the state.
The courses in forestry to be given the present year (silvicul-
ture, farm forestry) are not planned for students intending to
make forestry a profession and do not lead to forestry degree.
The woodlands of the university farms and some open land
have been put under the management of this department, and
will be used as experimental and demonstration areas.
Mr. Walter Mulford is Professor of Forestry, in charge of the
work. An assistant professor of forestry is also authorized, and
is soon to be appointed.
The Commission of Conservation of Canada issues the fol-
lowing Bulletin:
Considerable uneasiness and even alarm has been felt by lum-
bermen and others interested in forest products, over the dep-
redations in different parts of Canada, of the spruce bud-worm
(Tortri.v fumiferana). It was feared that the spruce might
suffer a fate similar to that of the tamarack which was killed by
the larch sawfly about twenty-five years ago. As a result, how-
ever, of careful investigations begun by the Division of Ento-
mology of the Dominion Department of Agriculture during 1909
and still in progress, the situation appears to be much more sat-
isfactory and reassuring than was first considered possible.
The destructive work of the budworm was first reported two
years ago from Vancouver Island, where the Douglas fir was
attacked ; and from Quebec, where the spruce and the balsam
suffered chiefly. In the case of Quebec, the pests were at first
confined to the west-central portion of the Province, but during
1910 areas on the east of the St. Lawrence were also attacked.
It was this latter circumstance that roused timber owners to a
sense of the possible extent of the danger.
While in the caterpillar stage these insects destroy the buds of
the spruce and balsam, especially at the tops of the trees. They
al'so bite off the leaves, which, together with the excrement of the
caterpillars, cause the tops of the trees to assume a reddish brown
524 Forestry Quarterly.
appearance. When a large area is attacked it appears as if it had
been swept by fire.
As such plagues of air insects can only be controlled by natural
means, the Dominion Entomologist visited a number of the in-
fected districts for the purpose of discovering a natural remedy
that would meet the situation. Various enemies or parasites were
found, that prey upon the budworm, and these are being used
to destroy the pest. As the percentage of important parasites,
especially of the minute species which attack the eggs of the
budworm, is unusually large, there is abundant reason for hoping
for the extermination of the latter. Judging by previous expe-
riences in studies of this nature, it is not improbable that the
insect will be controlled by its natural parasites in the course of
a year or two, that is, before it has inflicted any serious damage
to the spruce and balsam by repeated defoliation.
In May the federal Parliament of Canada passed a new Forest
Reserves and Parks Act repealing the Act of 1906. The pro-
visions relating to the withdrawal of lands from sale and occu-
pancy for the purpose of creating reserves, to the constitution of
these and provision for control, are left unaltered. The Gover-
nor-in-Council is given power to expiopriate private land within
a reserve, this method replacing the former one of exchange.
Denuded timberlands may be withdrawn from leased or licensed
areas within reserves upon notice being given. Railway com-
panies must pay one-half the cost of fire patrol along their lines
under construction. The powers of rangers are greatly in-
creased. They are given summary power to arrest ; to seize
timber, minerals and game taken from the reserve ; and the
right of search of buildings, etc., in the reserve and ten miles
beyond. Various changes in the boundaries of the reserves and
parks leave the aggregate area now 25,186^ square miles (of
which the Rocky Mountain Reserve comprises 18,213 square
miles) as compared with 16,312^ square miles formerly. The
chief officer is henceforth to be known as Director of Forestry.
During the same session two important amendments have been
made to the Dominion Railway Act.
By one amendment the Board of Railway Commissioners are
given power to require any railway company "to establish and
News and Notes. 525
maintain an efficient and competent stafif of fire-rangers, equip-
ped with such appliances for fighting, or preventing fires from
spreading, as the Board may deem proper, and to provide such
rangers with proper and suitable equipment to enable them to
move from place to place along the line of railway with all due
speed." The Board may also require the company "to maintain
an efficient patrol of the line of railway and other lands in the
vicinity thereof to which fires may spread, and generally define
the duties of the company, and the said fire-rangers, in respect
thereof." "The Board may require the company," the clause
continues, "to make returns of the names of fire-rangers in its
employ in the performance of the above-named duties and of
the places or areas in which they are from time to time engaged.
For the purpose of fighting and extinguishing fires, the said fire-
rangers may follow the fires which spread from the railway to,
over and upon the lands to which they may spread."
Another amendment of much importance is the rendering of
the railway company liable for damage to "any property," in-
stead of merely for "crops, lands, fences, plantations or build-
ings and their contents," by which amendment timber lands are
clearly brought among those things for damage to which the
company is liable.
An idea of the active forestry life in Germany may be gained
from a table of details in the Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagd-
wesen in which we find enumerated 15 forester's associations
with 5,483 members. These are all higher grade professional
foresters or large timberland owners.
The oldest, the Badische Forstverein, dates from 1839, the two
youngest are the Harz-Solling Verein (1910) and the Deutscher
Forstverein (1899) which is a general association with 2,065
members, while the others are more or less local.
Each of them publishes an annual report, among which that of
the Schlesische Forstverein (since 1841) at least takes high
rank.
An association of private forest officials in Germany was or-
ganized in 1903, which, besides maintaining a school for under-
foresters (at Templin) provides occasional courses in special
branches for its members.
526 Forestry Quarterly.
The question of proper seed supply has become so important
in Germany that the Forestry Council has instituted a standing
commission to work out and supervise regulations for this pur-
pose. Such have been formulated and approved. Seven firms
and all the seed establishments of the Mark Brandenburg and
others have obligated themselves to furnish only German pine
seed. The necessary precautions to insure this by way of inspec-
tion of books, establishments, freight receipts, etc., have been
organized. A fine up to $1,200 and loss of membership to this
association of seed dealers formed and maintained through the
Forestry Council is provided for breach of conditions.
COMMENT.
The desire and need for exchange of thought and opinion and
thereby co-operation is growing apace with the increase in pro-
fessional work that comes to the practicing foresters. This nec-
essarily concerns often more local interests which only indirectly
may have a bearing on problems in other localities or districts.
Nevertheless we believe that a few minutes spent in reading the
reports of transactions of Supervisors meetings will often throw
light on our own problems unlooked for and repay the effort.
The Quarterly has, therefore, gladly undertaken to publish
these proceedings and wishes to extend its thanks to those who
kindly have undertaken the labor of preparing the reports. This
exemplifies the spirit of co-operation which our budding — almost
flowering — profession needs.
In this connection we should also make reference to another
expression of the desire for inter-communication, namely, the
publication of strictly local journals.
There comes to our desk from time to time, apparently as near
as possible monthly. The Deerlodge Ranger, which is a means of
keeping the force of the Deerlodge National Forest, some 38
persons, informed of local happenings, social as well as official,
also technical notes, fostering thereby the feeling of community.
The contents are typewritten, some 6 to 8 pages, multiplied,
in a simple brown printed cover. From a statement in the head-
ing we find that this journal was originated by Mr. C. C. Hall
in 1909, it is, therefore, in its third year. Mainly to give an idea
of how useful the occasional notes can be, we print on page 505
an extract from the Ranger of May, 191 1.
This reference to a monthly publication makes us think of the
time when the Quarte^rly must become a monthly journal. It
will be observed that, without any attempt on the part of the
editor — and indeed to the financial loss of the publisher — the
quarterly issues are growing in size (and we hope in quality)
until now two issues contain as many pages as the whole volume
528 Forestry Quarterly.
five years ago. Is there any standard to the size of a quarterly
publication and is there any virtue to a monthly magazine above
the quarterly? The reading capacity of the average subscriber
and the variety of interest represented and the activity of pro-
fessional development would appear factors which must play
part in answering the first question, as well as the character of
the contents. The average practicing forester can probably not
devote much more than 3 hours of professional reading, if that
much, per week, and if he wants to digest and think over what
he has read, he will be satisfied with say 200 pages a year.
Whether this be presented in four instalments or in twelve, does
it matter from the standpoint of the reader, and from the stand-
point of editor and publisher? We would like to hear from
readers whether they would prefer 100 pages every month, or
300 pages every quarter.
To us, it would seem to be somewhat as the diflference between
a book and a magazine, a more serious attitude towards the
bulkier, a less intent consideration of the smaller issue. And
this difference of attitude would also likely develop in the con-
tents a more ephemeral, less solid supply of matter; for the
editor a more strenuous time to get copy ready. Indeed, what
can now be done by a few devoted unpaid devotees would have
to be done by paid employees with financial backing. Yet, as the
profession grows not only in numbers but in diversity of occu-
pation and interests, literary as well as practical, and especially
in lively activity, we expect to see our quarterly superseded by a
monthly in the natural development of events.
Forester Wanted
m,r,irmmiiutmii.>tiin<,wfHfmiMlnjimmm
General Superintendent, Canadian preferred.
Wanted to take charge of development of large
Canadian holdings acquired by old established
concern. Good Salary. Must have thorough
woods experience, first class organizer, compe-
tent to undertake heavy responsibility. Appli-
cants warned to submit some proof in support of
statements; otherwise applications not replied to.
Only first grade men with education need apply.
Send photo.
G. FINCH
Box A. V. 242 Ore^onian, Portland
Baek: Numbers
OH
FORESTRY QUARTERLY
For Sale at 50 cents per Number
Address Forestry Quarterly, 396 Harvard St., Cambridge, Mass.
MANUAL FOR NORTHERN WOODSMEN
By AUSTIN CARY, Harvard University Publisher, Cambridge,
1910; Pages, 250. Price, $2.00.
A newly revised and improved edition of the above publica-
tion, highly recommended by the editor of this journal, can be
had at the above price by addressing Forestry Quarterly, 396
Havard Street, Cambridge, Mass.
Yale University Forest School
NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT
A two-year course is offered, leading to the
degree of Master of Forestry. Graduates of
collegiate institutions of high standing are
admitted upon presentation of their college
diploma, provided they have taken certain pre-
scribed undergraduate courses.
The first term is conducted at Milford, Pike
County, Penn. The session in 191 1 will open
July 5 and continue ten weeks.
For further information, address
JAMES W. TOUMEY, Acting Director, New Haven, Connectic»t
The University of Toronto
and University College
Faculties of Art, Medicine, Applied Science, House-
hold Science, Education, Forestry.
The Faculty of Forestry offers a four-year course,
leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in
Forestry.
For information, apply to the REGISTRAR OF THE UNITERSITY, or
to tht Secrataries of the respective Faculties.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCE
offers a two-years' course in FORESTRY leading to the degree of
Master in Forestry. The descriptive pamphlet will be sent on
application to W. C. SABINE, 15 University Hall, Cambridge,
Mass.
UNIVERSITY OF MAINE
ORONO, MAINE
Offers a four-year undergraduate course, leading to the degree of
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN FORESTRY.
The Location and Equipment of the School and the Opportunities offered to
Students of Forestry are excellent.
For detailed information, address
JOHN M. BRISCOE, Department of Forestry, ORONO, MAINE.
ERIC FOREST SCHOOL
Powder Point, Duxbury, Mass. Box 213
Preparatory course in FOR EST R I leading to the Biltmore
and college courses in this subject. It requires hard, earnest
application, and develops an appreciation of nature and power of
leadership. SUMMER CLASS ; also TUTORING.
F. B. KNAPP, S. B., Director
Seedlings and transplanted; Millions in stock. All very fine
stock, hardy, well rooted and free from disease. Catalogues and
Forest Planters' Guide free on application.
Shipments of 160 Millions of Plants Annually. Largest
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J. H BINS' SONS
Halstenbek: 153
IVr. Hamburg, (Germany)
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GRAVES— The Principles
of Handling Woodlands.
By Henry Solon Graves, Chief Forester, Forest Service,
U. S. Department of Agriculture. Large 12 mo, 335 pages, pro-
fusely illustrated w^ith line and half-tone cuts. Cloth, $1.50 net.
SOLOTAROFF— Shade-Trees
in Towns and Cities.
Their selection, planting, and care as applied to the art of street
decoration ; their diseases and remedies ; their municipal control
and supervision. By Wieliam Soeotarofe, B. S., Secretary and
Superintendent of the Shade-Tree Commission of East Orange,
N. J. 8vo., xviii-(-287 pages. Cloth, $3.00 net. Beautifully
illustrated with original photographs by the author consisting of
46 full page plates and 35 figures in the text, comprising 229 half
tones and 22 line illustrations.
Field Book for Street-Tree Mapping.
Blank Field Books for enumerating street trees when taking a
tree census, may be obtained from the publishers. Field Books
4^ X 7f inches, 160 pages. Price, 75 cents net each, and $8.00
net in lots of one dozen.
NEW EDITION REWRITTEN
KEMP— WAUGH— Landscape Gardening.
How to Lay Out a Garden. By Edward Kemp, Landscape
Gardener. Edited, Revised and Adapted to North America by F.
A. Waugh, Professor of Landscape Gardening, Massachusetts
Agricultural College. Fourth Edition. i2mo, xxii-l-292 pages,
30 full-page half-tone plates and 70 figures. Cloth, $1.50 net.
43 and 45 East 19th Street,
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London: Montreal:
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The Care of Trees in Lawn, Street and Park
By
B. E. Femow
American Nature Series. Working with Nature.
Published by
Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1910
392 pp. 8.° lUustrated. Price, $2.00 Net
For Sale by
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FORESTRY
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of Political Economy and Pro-
fessional and Lay Student
By B. E. FERNOW
12mo., $1.50 net. By mail $1.65.
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important work on forestry
which deals with American
conditions."
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estry with as much enjoy-
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tage that it is readily absorbed by the wood and hence cheaply applied."
(Statement by a forester of acknowledged reputation.)
"It is a tree wash of great value in preventing the various diseases and
affectations of the trunk and branches." JOHN B. SMITH
New Jersey State Entomologist.
Circulars and Bulletins upon request.
CARBOLINEUM WOOD PRESERVING CO.
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STETSON & ALPAUGH
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Prof. Fisher of Oxford says: "Dr. Fernow's History of For-
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Fernow writes admirably about German forestry, with which
he is thoroughly acquainted."
Dr. Fankhauser of Switzerland says: "With great skill has
the author brought the voluminous material into a relatively
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in clear and easily intelligible exposition. The chapter de-
voted to Switzerland shows us clearly how exhaustively the
author has utilized the most important literature and how ex-
cellently he has understood how to orient himself in compli-
cated conditions."
A new and revised edition of this work is
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Please meotion this Maif<2ine wh*n •writiti;^ .
CONTENTS
)ns Jr'oiic)' of encouraging Cut-
ting on the National forests of the Pacific
Coast,
By Burt P. I<arkland.
cample of a German Working Plan.
Tranj^lr.tcd by A. B. Recknagel.
Canadian Forest Survey,
P)y James W. Sewall.
Hie Biitmore Stick and Its ^.'^ <
V
n T-r1--.-
National Forests,
>amages m tne boutli-
,' ^'^ ' ctiTod 01 Assessin,u
west,
By Robert Rogers and Barrington Moore.
Results of ^'Light Burning" near Nevada City, Cal.,
By M. D. Pratt.
Nomenclature of Divisions of Area in Working Plans,
By Barrington Moore.
Report on Supervisors' Meetings at Denver, Col.,
Frank J. Phillips — An Appreciation,
]1y J, C, Bhimcr,
Current Literature,
Other Current Literature.
Other Periodical Literaturr
News and Notes,
Comment.
375
39 T
406
4i~'
425
450
454
470
47^;>
512
5M
-.2;
Volume IX No. 4
FORESTRY QUARTERLY
A PROFESSIONAL JOURNAL
Subscription Two Dollars per Annum
CAMBRIDGE (BOSTON), MASS.
1911
Entered as second-class matter September 28, 1909. at the post office at Boston.
Mass., under the Act of March 3, 1897.
FORESTRY QUARTERLY
BOARD OF EDITORS
B. E. Fernow, LL. D., Bditor-in-Chief.
Henry S. Graves, M. A., Fiubert Roth, B. S.,
Forester, Forest Service- University of Michigan.
R. C. Bryant, F. E., Frank J. Phillips, F. M.,
Yale University. University of Nebraska.
Richard T. Fisher, A. B., Hugh P. Baker, Ph. D.,
Harvard University. Pennsylvania State College.
Walter Muleord, F. E., C. D. Howe, Ph. D.,
University of Cornell. University of Toronto.
Ernest A. Sterling, F. E., Raphael Zon, F. E.,
Forester, Penna. R. R. Co. Forest Service.
Frederick Dunlap, F. E., Clyde Leavitt, M. S. F.,
Forest Service. Forest Service.
Asa S. Williams, F. E.
THE OBJECTS for WHICH THIS JOURNAL IS PUBLISHED ARE :
To aid in the establishment of rational forest management.
To offer an organ for the publication of technical papers of
interest to professional foresters of America.
To keep the profession in touch with the current technical
literature, and with the forestry movement in the United States
and Canada.
Manuscripts may be sent to the Editor-in-Chief at the Uni-
versity of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any of the board of
editors.
Subscriptions and other business matters should be addressed
to Forestry Quarterly, 396 Harvard Street, Cambridge, Mass.
Press of
Watchman Printing House
Bellefonte, Pa.
1911
Women stringing Plants. The stand upon which the board is placed
should be of proper height to facilitate easy stringing and should be
protected from the sun and wind.
Two "trcnciicrs," two filling in about the plants, and two carrying the
boards. Four women "stringers" were employed with the above crew.
Yau\ Transplanting Board in Operation.
FORESTRY QUARTERLY
Voiv. IX.] December, 1911. [No. 4.
THE YALE TRANSPLANTING BOARD.
By J. W. TouMEY.
The cost of planting forest trees in this county for the purpose
of the production of forest crops is, in most cases, excessive. If
regeneration by planting is to rapidly increase in the near future,
methods must be devised looking toward the reduction of cost.
In planting operations the cost may be distributed as follows :
(i) The cost of producing nursery-grown seedling stock.
(2) The cost of producing transplants from seedling stock.
(3) The cost of the preparation of the planting site and of
planting.
In these three items of expense the second can be greatly reduced
by the use of special tools or implements.
The trade catalogues of American dealers in forest nursery
stock of coniferous species show that the price of one and two
year old seedling trees vary from $2.00 to $4.00 per thousand,
while for three and four year old transplants the prices vary from
$8.00 to $20.00 per thousand, a cost which practically prohibits
their use for forestry purposes. Because of the larger size and
heavier root system of coniferous transplants as compared with
seedlings, they are much preferred for planting oh most sites.
Heretofore their excessive cost has forced many planters to use
seedling stock with a consequent high loss from planting ope-
rations.
The planting of coniferous species in this country with reason-
able assurance of profit demands the production of transplant
stock at far less cost than in the past. It is the opinion of the
writer that such stock must be purchased or grown at a cost not to
exceed $4.00 to $7.00 per thousand in order to make planting at-
tractive under present conditions.
540 Forestry Quarterly.
Four years ago, the writer in an effort to reduce the cost of
making transplants, devised the implement known as the Yale
transplanting board herein described. This board has now been
used for four seasons at the Yale Forest School and for one or
more seasons by various state foresters and others in eastern
United States. The important place that this board has taken is
shown in the following letters which are but a few of those re-
ceived in reference to it.
August 4. 191 1.
Professor J. W. Tourney,
Director, Yale Forest School,
New Haven, Conn.
My dear Tourney: Your letter of August ist in regard to Yale Plant-
ing Board received. We have used your board for two years with great
success. I believe the best estimate of its usefulness is that we have been
able to reduce the cost of transplanting from $1.40 to, approximately,
60 cents per thousand. When our transplanting approximates five million
per year, you can readily estimate the value of this board. It also practi-
cally precludes any doubling of the roots. Under the old trowel method,
the roots, especially tap roots of the tap root varieties, were doubled, which
greatly interfered with the future growth. In this case the roots are all
straight and no injury of this nature results.
We are also able to accomplish more in the same amount of time,
therefore, during the season when the time for planting is short, the
value of the board is again demonstrated.
A spade is used in conjunction with the board for digging trenches
and therefore one-half to three-fourth inch of frosts in the surface of
the soil does not interfere with the work and permits planting, whereas
if trowels were used, it would be necessary to suspend the work until
the ground had thawed out. Similarly, the men are not required to be
upon their knees and are therefore able to work during light rains and
at other times when they would ordinarily quit if they were using trowels.
These are all important factors, because time is of great importance
when a large number of trees have to be planted in a very short period.
I wish to congratulate you on the success of the board.
Very truly yours,
C. R. Pums, Supt, State Forests, New York.
Professor J. W. Toumey,
Yale Forest School,
New Haven, Conn.
Dear Prof. Toumey: We used the Yale planting board at our Morris-
ville Nursery this spring and found that for transplanting one and two
year old coniferous seedlings it is very efficient. By its use the cost of
transplanting was reduced fifty per cent.
We used a crew of four men, one stringing seedlings, one digging a
trench, one handling the planting board and one filling in the soil and
smoothing the ground.
We shall certainly continue the use of the board in the future.
Very sincerely yours,
E. A. Sterling, Forester of the Pa. R. R. Co.
The Yale Transplanting Board. 541
Professor J. W. Tourney,
Yale Forest School,
New Haven, Conn.
Dear Prof. Tourney: We like the Yale planting board very much, and
find that it has reduced the cost of transplanting a great deal and the
plants are put into the ground much better. The cost of transplanting in
the State nurseries vv^ith the board has varied from about 35 cents to 50
cents per thousand. At the Pembroke nursery where we use French
labor, a crew of five planted 18,000 per day. This was the first time we
used the board. The crew consisted of 2 boys at 75 cents per day each,
2 men at $1.50 per day each, and i man at $2.00 per day. The average
cost on this job was z(> cents per thousand. At the Boscawen nursery
we had soil conditions that were not favorable for fast work, but we had
better labor and were able to plant from 20,000 to 23,000 per day. Average
cost per thousand, 45 cents. ,
Yours very truly,
E. C. Hirst, State Forester, New Hampshire.
In the past, coniferous seedlings have been set in the transplant
beds in this country chiefly by use of trowel or dibble. In a few
instances transplant boards of European origin have been used,
but with indifferent success. The superiority of the board herein
noted over others seen by the writer, is chiefly due to the follow-
ing:
(i) The firmness with which the plants are held in the board.
(2) The attachment of the strip which holds the plants in
place, directly to the handles, making its action rapid and certain.
(3) The certainty of the depth of planting, resulting from the
handle strips on the back of the board fitting over the trenching
board when the transplanting board is in position.
(4) The rapidity of filling the trench after the plants are in
position because of the protection afforded the tops by the strip
holding them in place.
In using this board the transplant beds can be laid out 6 ft.
wide and of indefinite length, the rows running crosswise of the
bed or the bed can be of indefinite width as well as of indefinite
length. In the former case the rows are usually 6 in. apart where
white pine and similar conifers are transplanted. In this case the
beds are kept clean by hoeing and weeding. In the latter case
the rows are usually 10 in. apart which permits the working of a
hand cultivator. In either type of bed a board 5 in. wide and of
proper length should be used on which the men stand in trenching.
In the process of trenching, a nearly straight spade should be
used, the "trencher" standing with one foot on the board and the
other on the bed. By inserting the spade vertically by the side of
542 Forestry Quarterly.
the board, a V-shaped trench can be made of the proper depth.
The rapidity of trenching depends very largely upon the condition
of the transplant bed. It pays to have the bed in good tilth, the
soil loose and free from stones. When the trench is made and
the trenching board still in position, the transplanting board filled
with plants is brought to the trenching board and placed in posi-
tion so that the ends of the handles on the back of the trans-
planting board fit over the edge of the trenching board. This
will permit the roots of the seedlings to hang down in the trench
at the proper depth and will require no attention on the part of
the man handling the board to adjust it so that the seedlings will
be planted at the proper depth. When the board is placed in
position the earth can be quickly filled in about the seedlings and
firmed down with the feet. The keys on the transplanting board
are released and with a slight upward movement the board re-
moved.
In filling the transplant boards the "stringers" should hold a
bundle of plants in the left hand, and beginning at the right end
of the board, put the plants in position in the board with the right
hand, being careful to adjust them to the proper depth. When
!the board is filled, the upper strip is swung into position over the
plants and fastened. The man who takes the transplanting board
to the trench should seize it with both hands, facing the board
from the front, lifting it so that his thumbs point toward the
upper end of the handles. If five persons are working in a crew,
it is usually best for two to trench and fill in about the plants,
two to string, and one to handle the transplanting boards in
placing them in position. Where ten persons work in a crew,
there will ordinarily be two trenches, two men filling in about the
plants, two carrying the boards, and four stringing.
In working these boards it is very necessary for the foreman
to eliminate as many unnecessary motions as possible and de-
velop rapidity of movement in the workmen. The work is light
and rapidity of movement is absolutely necessary in order to
reach high efficiency. With a well-trained crew of five persons
working on loose soil free from stones, from 25,000 to 35,000
coniferous seedlings should be set in the transplant bed in a
single day. If properly handled, this board will set plants better
and more uniformly as well as much more rapidly than they can
View of transplant oeds of White Pine two weeks after setting with
the Yale transplant board. The rows are lo inches apart which gives
space for the working of a hand cultivator.
View of transplant beds of Scotch Pine one month after setting with
the Yale transplant board. A crew of six men and four women set from
50,000 to 65,000 plants per day.
The Yale Transplanting Board.
543
be set with a trowel or other tool or implement known to the
writer.
Rear View.
Open View.
Front View.
Note: It may be of interest to note in this connection that the idea of
using a transplant board for placing seedlings in the trench is a feature
of Hacker's Transplanting Machine which has been in use in Europe for
a number of years (See F. Q., vol. IV, p. 154). The machine makes the
trenches and also plants and iirms the seedlings. This machine is largely
used in Austria and Germany, and, for demonstration purposes, has been
used at the Toronto forest school. It sets 30-40 thousand plants per crew
of five. The main or only objection to it, is that the plants are not neces-
sarily, but usually set across a 4-5 foot bed, which prevents or impedes
weeding by machinery. — Ed.
THE RISE OF SILVICULTURE.
By Dr. Jentsch.
Translated by Frederick Dunlap.
A new era has just dawned in forestry. A hundred years ago,
when Hartig, Cotta and Hundeshagen put the practice of forestry
on a scientific basis, there were two problems to be solved : Some
system had to be introduced into the natural woodlands they
found at hand, and the yield had to be permanently increased.
These pioneers, and especially those who followed them, solved
both problems by establishing pure stands of even-aged high
forest and by clear cutting and artificial reproduction. These
practices constituted a real solution, for the fellings were system-
atized and the yield increased, while its perpetuity was assured.
Accordingly, we find that the high forest, clear cut and replanted,
is the common form, at least in northern and central Germany,
since the middle of the last century. The effort of modern
foresters to meet the growing demand for structural timber by
increasing the production of spruce and pine has greatly favored
this form of forest.
The management of this new sort of forest made new demands
upon the knowledge and ability of foresters and led to the formu-
lation of theories of forestry, especially of mathematical theories.
The regulation of the yield and the bases therefor have been the
chief topics discussed in technical circles for fifty years and more.
This period was one of substantial, permanent progress, yet the
science of forest production was neglected. For reproduction by
planting appeared to so completely fulfil all demands that further
study in this direction seemed unprofitable. At first glance, it
may appear that the issue between forest rent and soil rent,
between compartment and stand management, is as sharp as ever ;
yet a certain understanding has been reached, for all parties have
recognized the rent theory as applicable in forestry, as elsewhere.
Even while these mathematical discussions were progressing,
practical foresters were meeting new problems. The pure, even-
aged high forest approached maturity and disclosed inherent
The Rise of Silv-i culture. 545
defects which, in spite of all its advantages of simplicity in
management, easy regulation of the fellings, and perfect,
schematic reproduction, made the outcome uncertain and threat-
ened the very existence of the stand. It came to be recognized
that the simple, self-evident formula after which the forest was
managed had become unexpectedly unelastic, and in many ways
encountered the relentless antagonism of the natural requirements
of forest growth. Thus a new era was inaugurated — an era
which brought the natural sciences to the aid of forestry, and
broadened and elaborated those branches of science concerned
with the production of marketable material in the forest. At
first, but a few far-seeing students emphasized the necessity of
ultimate reliance on Nature. In 1878, Gayer set forth the advan-
tages of mixing species and later developed the formation of un-
even-aged, mixed stands. "Not unpunished may we depart from
the basis of long-continued development for centuries under
natural laws." In 1885 Borggreve pointed out the evils of clear
cutting and the advantages of natural seeding over the expensive
practice of planting. The conflict of theories lost interest, and a
large amount of painstaking and richly productive research was
directed toward the study of the natural laws underlying silvi-
culture. These activities characterize the latest epoch. It may
be called the epoch of the development of the theory of forest
production from the underlying sciences. This movement has
resulted in quite a number of recent publications, largely original.
The International Congress of Agriculture and Forestry at its
meeting in Vienna in 1907 took occasion to outline the prevailing
theories of silviculture. In conclusion, the object of silviculture
was declared to be the intelligent cultivation of forests for pro-
ducing wood and conserving the soil under practices which give
due recognition to all relevant facts revealed by the latest advance
in the natural sciences. There was perfect agreement that these
fundamental sciences give no hope for the formulation of general
rules — ^that no form of reproduction was adapted to all conditions.
The simplest method of producing a crop without sacrificing the
soil was to be the sole criterion between natural and artificial
reproduction and between pure and mixed stands. Reuss, who
was a member of this committee at Vienna, thoroughly established
this thesis in his splendid manual of forest reproduction published
in 1907.
546 Forestry Quarterly.
Two more recent books, Wagner's "Blendersaumschlagwirt-
schaft" and Mayr's "Waldbau auf naturgesetzlicher Grundlage,"
have taken a much more radical stand. Both have been widely
discussed and the ideas they advocate are now generally known.
Both Wagner and Mayr are opposed to managing large areas as
a unit. Wagner prefers natural reproduction to any artificial
means because this produces a race of trees adapted to the site
and gives rise to mixed stands. His practice is to cut the forest
in narrow strips running east and west, beginning at the northern
edge of the forest, a narrow strip being thinned in advance of
cutting, to start the natural reproduction. There are thus, "at
least in theory," three strips along the northern edge of the uncut
forests; (a) a thinning to set the crop of seedlings, (b) young
seedlings under nurse trees, (c) the clear cut strip on which re-
production is complete. Artificial reproduction when used as a
makeshift. Mayr's ideal is quite contrariwise, a small pure
stand. Species are not to be mixed as individuals but as stands
of from 0.3 to 3 hectares. For soil protection, he resorts to
underplanting in about the fifth decade. His ideal stand can be
established by planting after clear cutting, as well as in any other
way. It should be perpetuated by natural reproduction, though
no advantage is anticipated in the production of a race of trees
adapted to the site. Wagner has developed and tested his method
in the forest, and advances it as the most advantageous method
of reproduction — the only one worth practicing — yet he recog-
nizes the difficulty of carrying it out under unfavorable site con-
ditions. Mayr deduces his procedure from purely theoretical
grounds and accordingly claims universal applicability for it.
It is not only suited to German conditions, but works just as well
throughout Europe, in Africa or in the East Indies. He at-
tempts to establish silviculture as a science dependent on other
sciences and thus give it the sufficient and necessary conditions
for world-wide service and to show that theoretical knowledge
and logical thought are all that is necessary to apply this science
of silviculture to each and every problem.
These carefully thought out and well elaborated books have
indeed ushered in a new epoch during these past few years ; they
have not only given silviculture a distinctly novel turn, but have
interpreted our existing knowledge in a new way, and used the
old ideas along with their new conceptions in building up the new
TJie Rise of Sihn culture. 547
silviculture. The lively opposition with which they have met
among foresters only proves the point. The hard-headed prac-
titioner balks at both because they each claim general applicability
and universal validity. The new ideas submitted and the old
ideas rehabilitated in these books are of permanent value, just as
were for example the epochal works of Borggreve and Pressler.
These theories must expect the same treatment accorded to those.
They will not be swallowed whole, but will be accepted and as-
similated only in so far as they prove of service to the conserva-
tive practice of forestry working on a great variety of sites and
with long-lived stands, worked by short-lived men.
A closer scrutiny shows that these two are not alone in the field,
though receiving first notice. A great many others, both before
and since, have published the results of their reflections and ex-
periences in silviculture. To me it is a significant and gratifying
sign of the times that men deep in practical problems should do
this. Their ideas may attract less attention because they modestly
limit them to local conditions ; by some they may be disregarded.
Yet, it is quite possible that the new but tested ideas they contri-
bute may have greater value than those pretending to world-wide
validity. A few only of essential and unusual importance in the
development of forestry will be here mentioned.
In the West, interest centres about the heath and its conversion
to forest, in ithe East, the problem is the reduction of the areas
under pure stands and of the practice of clear cutting. In the
West are the thoughtful, but abstruse Dutch, van Schermbeek,
the theorist Grabner, and the practical Erdmann ; in the East,
Godberssen first wrote in 1907, Diiesberg, and Dittmar more
recently. Van Schermbeek, now lecturer in the Dutch high school
at Wageningen got his ideas in practical work, and put them into
practice on the heath at Breda. It is a pity his writings are
hardly understandable, partly due to differences in language,
partly due to his ever increasing tendency to encumber them with
insufliciently explained fundamentals of soil chemistry and
physics. Foresters have avoided his writings instead of seeking
them out, and they have been the butt of undeserved sarcastic
criticism. But no one who has visited him and seen what he has
accomplished and attempted, and has heard his explanation of it
all will deny its importance in the development of silviculture.
A resume of his work has been attempted in "Forstwissenschaft-
548 Forestry Quarterly.
Hches Centralblatt" for 1901, page 225. His problem was to
change the run-down and moribund pure stands of pine on the
heaths of Holland into profitable forest. He first set about to
discover the reason for the failure. He diagnosed the trouble
as soil sickness, due as Ramann and others have shown, to caking
and souring of the sandy soil and insufficient aeration ; these all
due in turn to the presence of pure pine stands or of the exposure
of the bare soil. Restoring the healthy, flocculated condition to
the soil is the complete remedy. His work is noteworthy, even
though it neither has led nor can lead to hard and fast formulas.
He specifically points out the danger of cure-alls ; each case re-
quires individual attention. The only broad rules he suggests
are : beware of pure stands ; avoid clear-cutting large areas ; and
when planting in heath soils never cultivate deeply. Even on sites
where only pine can be planted and expected to thrive, he plants
broadleaf species until the soil is improved. Moreover, according
to circumstances he sows or plants or regenerates naturally, uses
clear cutting or some shelterwood system, sometimes devotes the
soil to farm crops for a few years ; he cultivates the soil in
various ways, provides a soil cover by some crop, or indeed may
even apply fertiUzers.
Forstmeister Erdmann in Newbruchhausen has also developed
a solution under similar circumstances for a local and closely
related problem. His practices are the result of clearsighted and
diligent studies analyzing the factors of silviculture into their
ultimate components. The thorough study of the intimate and
changing relations between soil and stand has led Erdmann to
novel results regarding the action of stands of forest trees upon
heath soils. The salient features of his practices are a strong
preference for mixed instead of pure stands, steady regard for
the economic influences of silviculture, avoidance of clear cutting,
and finally partial reproduction under high forest and under-
planting with relatively short rotation.
The writings of Godberssen, Dittmar, and Diiesberg deal with
the plains of northeastern Germany where the pine prevails.
They also wisely lay no claims to universal validity. All three
are experienced, ithoughtful and earnest practitioners, each giving
independently the theories he has formulated from wide ex-
perience and careful reflection.
Godberssen's book, "Die Kiefer," published in 1904 pretends
The Rise of Silviculture. 549
to nothing new, but attempts to set forth the accepted principles
of managing pine forests for private forest owners in a way to
help them handle their property with profit. The position an ex-
perienced practitioner takes upon the most important silvicultural
question gives this book its interest. We are told that mixtures
are per se better than pure stands, that there are dangers in clear
cutting, but on the other hand that natural reproduction is far
from an ideal practice and that after all is said the fact remains
that the current practice of clear cutting and planting has pro-
duced good results and will continue to do so. Dittmar is more
critical in his book written especially for young foresters, but
not unsuited for older foresters and for forest owners to read
and refer to. Experience, observation and reflection have con-
vinced him that clear cutting is unnatural and that natural repro-
duction is best because it approaches nearest to nature's method.
And next comes Diiesberg, the most logical, the pithiest and the
most original of Prussian writers on silviculture. His present
views were published in substance as early as 1898 in the "Miin-
dener forstlichen Heften." The very title of his book "Der
Wald als Erzieher" arrests attention. For this form of title has
been popular since J. Langbehn published his "Rembrandt als
Erzieher" two years ago, and set the reading public agog. Lang-
behn emphasizes the value of personality in every manifestation
of the mind and inveighs against adherence to custom and the
blind following of a beaten path, and prizes a new thought not
only for its own sake but because it means there is a thinker busy
somewhere. Diiesberg's book exemplifies this attitude. It is in
a class by itself. It is not merely silviculture, nor yet a mere
textbook of forestry. It might be termed a philosophy of the
forest. The rules and principles which this painstaking thinker
has developed in the narrow field of his professional activities,
the pine forests of eastern Prussia — developed with due regard to
the intricate historical, economic, legal, ethical and aesthetic cor-
relations in nature and in society — unite in his mind to produce a
theory for the natural and logical improvement of these pine
forests; but this is not all. They lead him further to an ideal
business and social system for his country and its people. How-
ever dispassionately Diiesberg deals with facts, however causti-
cally he criticizes deeds, his radiant idealism, his warm love for
his woods, his people and his country, his noble enthusiasm for
550 Forestry Quarterly.
truth, virtue and beauty shine through it all like the eyes of the
fairy prince shone through the shaggy muzzle of the bear into
which he had been changed. The book has a fascination none
can withstand, and a value which remains, even if the sober and
conservative statesman decide against the changes Diiesberg
calls for in the forest and in society and be forced to oppose his
scheme in detail. "Der Wald als Erzieher" has sounded the alarm
which, however scantily its own ideals are realized, will drag out
many practices now accepted on avithority or through thought-
lessness or indolence or which are merely conventional, and
scrutinize them, test them and finally improve them. The in-
dififerent, the self-satisfied, he who is contentedly jogging along
in the same round of work and duty his father trod must needs
heed this scolding, urging, warning, and withal seductive voice out
of the Pomeranian pine forests, and even though, having attended,
he returns to his day's work with much head-shaking he will have
had his eyes opened to many things and henceforward will regard
himself and his work in a dififerent light.
Diiesberg avowedly intends to introduce something better in
place of what he censures without reserve and opposes vigorously.
After a short sketch of conditions in the forests of eastern
Prussia he outlines the development of forestry. A hundred
years ago the mismanaged native forests were turned over to
political economists, trained after the fashion of the time but
ignorant of any natural science, and by these men their regulation
and use were determined upon. The simple, comprehensive style
of subdivision into cutting areas and cutting periods was their
solution. This plan of necessity resulted in pure stands differing
from one another in size, age and species, and since the discon-
tinuance of pasturage in the middle of the last century, has also
resulted in clear-cutting and planting. Continuing, Diiesberg
describes how forest regulation lost its subservience and became
a set formula, monotonous and tedious and despised, and how the
forest lost its native beauty.
The following section, "Aufbau des Waldes," treats of the
reciprocal relations between the tree and the soil, the principles
of tree growth, the interdependence of stem, branches and roots,
the root habitus in close and open stands and when isolated, and
the productivity of even-aged stands. Every page of this section
contains new and shrewd observations and a wealth of detailed
The Rise of Silviculture. 551
experiences, the significance of which Diiesberg points out, the
complete explanation of which he persistently seeks, setting each
in proper relation to all the rest and to whatever facts scientific
investigators have contributed either to support or contradict.
In the light of this critical examination of the interdependence of
forest and soil he shows how the even-aged high forest outrages
nature. And "Every offence comes home in time." Unguided
Nature produces a prosperous harmony from the reaction of soil
and plant and animal life in the forest. Man is not to interfere
with a high hand in Nature's work, but must exert himself to
understand the growth of an unmanaged forest and observe the
natural laws of its development, and then, with conscious design
and a clear understanding of the proper methods, try to further
this natural growth, to lend a hand and direct it towards the pro-
duction of economic values. Following such a course Diiesberg
— to our astonishment — developes the selection forest. "Beauty
vigor, soil, protection and freedom from disease, and, as a result
of all these things, high yields are the characteristics of the selec-
tion forest and the reasons for advocating it." Merely because
it does not lend itself so readily to forest management and ad-
ministration, as do less cumbersome though less productive forms
of forest, most foresters have hesitated to advocate this, the most
natural kind of a forest. To remove this hesitancy Diiesberg
proposes a simple type of selection forest which recognizes every
essential feature of the uneven-aged forest, produces the highest
yields and is most simply managed. His selection forest has for
its units small areas of a size determined by the diameter of the
crown of a full grown tree in the virgin forest. These areas thus
differ with different species. Their typical shape is that of the
regular hexagon. Seven of these hexagons, one central and six
peripheral are termed a Group (Gruppe) and form the cutting
area for one complete rotation. Cuttings are not made in each
group every year, but only at regular intervals. If cuttings are
made at intervals of five years five groups epitomize the whole
forest. Each one of the seven hexagons in a group is termed a
Clump (Trupp). The clump is 2-, 3-, 4-, 5- or 6- partite ac-
cording to the number of age-classes it contains. If in a mixture
all species are eventually to be introduced into each group, the
sizes of the group and of the clump are determined by the crown
breadth of the broadest-crowned species. The Pedunculate oak
552 Forestry Quarterly.
has the broadest crown of any German species with a diameter
of ten meters making 646 square meters to a group and fifteen
groups to a hectare. The felhng age is always equal to the
number of age-classes in each group multiplied by the number of
years intervening between successive returns to a group. For
pine under a rotation of 168 years and with a four-year return
there are =42 age classes in each group and each of the seven
4
clumps is six-partite. These six parts are arranged like the stories
of a building, the young under the older. The high yield of 15
festmeters per year and hectare (210 cubic feet per acre) can be
obtained in the productive twilight of such a stand. Practically
every tree cut in such a forest is mature and of high value, the
amount of small and cheap material being reduced ito a minimum.
The money return is large accordingly. Diiesberg without ap-
parent good reason expects gross yields of 600 marks instead of
100 and net yields of 540 marks instead of 50 to 60 per year and
hectare (i mark per hectare:=io cents per acre nearly). Poorer
sites can be managed on a lower rotation and with smaller yields
by reducing the number of parts in a clump and by lengthening the
period of return to a particular group. Thus for pine in four-
partite clumps and a return every fifth year we have twenty-
eight age classes in a group and a rotation of 140 years with an
annual production of 1.44 festmeters per hectare (20 cubic feet
per acre). Carefully considered and cletailed instructions are
given for converting existing, even-aged pure forests into this
form of selection forest, for their care and management and for
regulating their yield.
Of course, the question keeps asserting itself: Should we ever
undertake to convert any large forest or the forest of any con-
siderable region as Diiesberg advises, will no new Diiesberg arise
in the course of the century or more necessary to make the
change, and, criticizing what we have already accomplished, ofifer
something better? This is the heel of Achilles common to all
methods of forestry and particularly characteristic of such as
Diiesberg's which so frankly rests on newly deduced principles of
biology and political economy, regarding them as the best.
The question now arises : Is this policy Diiesberg so clearly
and enthusiastically proposes so well founded and free of fault
that every open minded forester will accept it as his guide, and
The Rise of Silviculture. 553
if such is the case, is this policy so readily inaugurated and
carried out as he declares. History answers, "No" to the first
question. Let us admit for the sake of argument that the pre-
valent formalities of red-tapery, that mere convenience and want
of thought are largely to blame for the truly serious and ominous
conditions to which German forests have come under the con-
straint of the inflexible clear-cutting system. Still we cannot
assume that all the leaders in the theory and practice of forestry
during the last sixty years have been out of touch with the mass
of their colleagues and misunderstood by them, or that they have
been either dunces or drones. All, or nearly all of them, have
honestly and earnestly striven to advance forestry and to make
use of newly found scientific facts and the demands of political
economy to this end. To-day the same as a half century and a
century ago Germany enjoys the reputation of standing first in
the theory and practice of forestry and especially in silviculture.
The condition of German forests bears out this reputation in spite
of obvious shortcomings. Even the most ardent advocate of
natural reproduction, uneven-aged and mixed stands, must admit
that the much abused practice of clear-cutting and the objection-
able custom of planting yearling pine seedlings have given rich
yields and promising, thrifty stands over large areas. Neither
indifference nor custom nor blind devotion to Pfeil has prompted
the change, under way since the forties of the last century, from
natural regeneration to the artificial reproduction of pure forests.
Weise has shown (Miind. forste. Hefte. V. p. i, 1894) how
gradually Pfeil himself abandoned natural regeneration and how
hesitatingly at first he advocated planting and how he gave the
reasons for this change in his writings. This change has in-
creased the yield of the State forests and promises to continue to
do so for generations to come in spite of the greatly increased risk
and damage it entails. It is my conviction that the clear-cut high
forest is distinctly worth continuing ; that it is a valuable and con-
venient form of forest. It is no more a sovereign remedy than
Diiesberg's selection forest, and it must never fail to properly
respect the natural laws of forest growth. But wild nature and
man's culture are irreconcilable and any attempt to return to
nature in managed forests must needs fail. Economic efificiency
is the criterion for managed forests, and earlier ages made quite
different demands than does the present. Fuel and forage were
554 Forestry Quarterly.
once its chief products, but coal mining and potato culture have
changed all this so that structural timber and saw stuff are at
present the most important forest products. If Diiesberg advises
a return to forest pasturage I am sure his words will fall on deaf
ears. Modern herd management no longer needs or asks such
privileges — with rare exceptions. If Pfeil and the men of his
day turned from natural regeneration to artificial they did so in
response to the economic needs and demands of the times. And
it behooves us in our generation to make further changes in the
principles of forest management to meet changed conditions. If
our more intimate knowledge of the laws of nature and our
experience of sixty years shows that clear cutting and even-aged
stands are inherently wrong and invite disaster, or that they are
not the most advantageous for all times and conditions as we used
to think, our task is to make the change to better forms, where a
change is desirable; in other places to free the old forms of
their impediments and develop them to their best. That im-
provement is possible and practical has been pointed out by
Gayer, Ney, Borggreve and Wagner among others, and practical
experience has warranted their opinions.
Thoughtlessness and mere formalities are to be opposed every-
where and all the time. Diiesberg's clear warning deserves at-
tention and will receive it. But bureau chiefs can never dis-
regard the fact that rules and regulations which are to be applied
to such a large area as the Prussian state forests cover and for a
long period of time must not be addressed solely to the ever
present zealous and capable few, but must rather be addressed to
the average forester who does his routine duty each day and ac-
complishes little more. Individual freedom to alter prescribed
regulations can be and is recognized. This is true throughout
Prussia. Call the regulations as unyielding as you will, the fact
remains that to each one who undertakes to develop a new and
improved practice is given opportunity to test his ideas. Heyer
and Borggreve, Homburg and Mortzfeld, Erdmann and Metzger,
and finally Diiesberg himself bear witness to the fact. A code of
general regulations must be prepared to serve the purposes of the
whole organization. Diiesberg recognizes this, and formulates
general rules for the application of his system. But his system
impresses one as too complex for general introduction ; too diffi-
cult to insure its success in the hands of the average forester.
The brief sketch given above is sufficient to show this.
The Rise of Silviculture. 555
A consideration of the technique of silviculture opens more
questions. The assumption that the growth of the younger age-
classes in the partial shade of the older will continue thrifty until
the removal of the older trees or that there will be any growth at
all, is possibly warranted for good sites but not for all sites, cer-
tainly not for the sterile sandy soils which cover so large a part
of northern Germany. Pfeil who is recognized as a careful
observer, has concluded that the Scotch Pine does not endure
shading after the fifth year, that continued shading reduces its
vitality, and that stands which have been regenerated naturally
contain too little saw timber to make natural regeneration appear
advisable. Again it is possible in the high forest to make such
mixtures of species as may be desirable for soil protection on
poor sites. The ways to accomplish this have been pointed out
by Erdmann and von Schermbeek in the moist climate of the
West, in the East, by Frick and by many others, notably by God-
berssen and Dittmar. It is neither desirable nor possible to think
of disregarding these methods and to follow Duesberg alone.
The proper course to pursue is to let all practices persist side by
side and by careful experiment to determine what procedure leads
most certainly to given results on different sites, under different
forms of forest and with different objects in view.
The profusion of excellent observations and admirable con-
clusions with which Diiesberg's book abounds contribute no less
strikingly and effectively to the theory and practice of forestry
because the hopes of an enthusiastic advocate of the selection
forest remain unfulfilled. The value of his work is not to be
measured by the extent to which the forest of Germany or of
north-eastern Prussia are converted into "Groups" and "Clumps."
His scheme is just as artificial and rests on a few happy experi-
ments just as much as did Gayer's "Femelschlag," Ney's "Ring-
femel," or Wagner's "Blendersaiimschlag." The important point
is that every trained forester should learn to consider well what
technical methods and what business procedure are best adapted
to the fundamental laws of nature and the economic demands of
the community. Once understood, these methods and procedure
become the ideal toward which he should move steadily but
slowly and without seriously disturbing the existing state of
affairs in the woods. Diiesberg's book is a good guide in this field
because it contains a detailed, incisive criticism of the purely
556 Forestry Quarterly.
formal treatment of the forest, a penetration to the bottom of the
basic principles of silviculture and the relation between particular
practices and the results produced, and finally directions and
advice based on all these things. And what goes far to further
make the book an agreeable and ingratiating companion is the
enthusiasm and love for the forest and for the beauties of nature
which permeate it.
It is to be hoped and there is reason for anticipating that the
immediate practical effect will be that more attention will be
devoted to natural regeneration than heretofore and to the for-
mation of uneven-aged, mixed stands. That such is locally possi-
ble and is necessary to maintain and advance the productivity of
the forest is sentiment which like a golden thread, runs through
all discussions of silviculture and their journalist reviewers.
The second section of the book treats of the woods as a
monitor in the realm of industry and sociology. Here even more
than in the first section the reader feels himself carried off his
feet on the hobby of this genius, who as he looks out of his quiet
Pomeranian forest lodge sees every thing, his fellows, his country
and the whole political and business world, through the trees of
his selection forest. Diiesberg advocates in business and in
government a harmony borrowed from his ideal forest, takes up
the cudgels against individualism and the undue emphasis given
to selfishness under the capitalistic regime, and constructs a new
business and social order mainly on physiocratic bases, though
in part on land reforms. He would emphasize and advance ser-
vice as fundamental and reduce capital's income from industry by
heavy taxation, employing productively the means thus made
available. Diiesberg had already set forth these ideas in a small
(brochure, "Reform in Taxation and Administration for the
German Empire" (1905) — a pamphlet which has attracted little
attention. It is a glowing picture he paints of a state of society
where equal opportunities are afforded each one, yet the whole is
securely held intact by a genuinely German aristocratic view of
life. Only too gladly would we follow the enthusiastic and in-
spiring teacher of these doctrines ! Even if the hard-headed,
matter-of-fact reader balks at following he will unreservedly give
assent to the closing sentences. "The ideas and proposals here
developed may seem too ambitious to many, and many of the
opinions may seem too incisive, but they are sprung from sincere
convictions. There is no taint of servile-mindedness."
WINTER RECONNAISSANCE IN CALIFORNIAN
MOUNTAINS.
By R. F. Ham matt.
In the winter of 1909-10, three Rangers, running lines on
skis in a flat country, discovered a timber trespass which, upon
further investigation, proved to amount to a little over 5,000,000
feet B. M. This ski work was done in a country so brushy that
it is practically impossible to travel the country in the summer
except on the trails. Thus was born the definite idea of winter
reconnaissance in California.
In the summer of 1910, at an elevation of 5,500 feet, a log
cabin 14 by 20, with three good-sized windows, was constructed.
It was well daubed with sand and cement (excellent material for
this work), and was tightly ceiled. Three double bunks were
provided. The cabin complete cost $225.00.
The snow held off until late, and on January 3 about 2,000
pounds of bedding, provisions, stoves, etc., were hauled to Deter
Camp. On January 5, the crew of five Rangers, with a Forest
Assistant in charge, also left town. The first thing done after
reaching camp was to choose a cook for the first week. On
January 7 we had our first storm. For the rest of this month the
weather was extremely bad, and the work proceeded pretty
slowly. In spite, however, of the loose snow and stormy weather,
the men blocked out, by retracing survey lines, three solid weeks'
work. This and about five days' estimating was all the work the
weather would permit during January. During February and
March the weather cleared considerably, and the winter became
more normal, although the snowfall had been, and remained
throughout the winter^ much heavier than usual. These months
gave a very fair indication of what can be done in future years
and under what conditions it is possible to do winter reconnais-
sance.
At first the camp was divided into one crew of three men and
one of two. Ordinarily each crew worked on a section of its
own. It soon became the general rule in camp that no crew was
to show up at night until its section had been completed, and this
558 Forestry Quarterly.
rule, except in bad weather, was pretty well adhered to. After
a short time the cook also worked, for he soon got tired of stay-
ing alone in camp all day, and thereafter three crews of two men
each were formed. The crew in which the cook worked generally
took the section nearest headquarters.
The compassman carried, besides his standard compass, a chain,
note book, aneroid barometer, and tally register. The cruiser
had his tally book, a diameter tape (which is much easier to
carry on the snow than calipers) and hypsometer. In extra heavy
timber, or at long distances from camp, three men were used to a
crew, and it was found, throughout, that the compassman always
had to wait for the cruisers. The strip method was used, the
strips always run across the contours, and four strips were taken
to each section. In this way a very good topographic map was
secured. The compassman ran the lines, and generally paced
rather than chained. He made topographic and type maps and
took notes on the quality and condition of the timber, amount of
fire, fungus and insect damage, etc. The estimator in the two
man crew, following the compassman's snowshoe tracks, esti-
mating for a chain on either side, and checking up frequently on
his diameters, heights, and the width of his strips. In the three-
man crew, each of the estimators took strips one and one-half
chains wide on either side of the compassman. One beauty of
the winter work is the ease with which the compassman's tracks
can be followed by the cruisers, and the corresponding ease in
checking on widths of strips and on corners, without holding the
compassman back.
But the general methods of reconnaissance work are well
known, and there is no need of further discussing them here. I
wish to give an idea of the conditions under which the work was
done, the equipment in the way of snowshoes, etc., used, the
actual results obtained, and the cost of the work as far as it has
gone.
During February and March, on the ground covered, the snow
was from four to eight feet deep. , By this time it had settled
somewhat, so that, except for a few days just after each new
storm, we did not have to contend with much light, flufify snow.
Only few times, however, was the snow hard enough to make
walking without webs possible. Each crew left camp between
six-thirty and seven-thirty in the morning, and the walking was
Winter Reconnaissance in California. 559
fine until eleven o'clock. From eleven till three in the afternoon
the snow became sticky, the shoes loaded up badly, and the walk-
ing was difficult. After three o'clock the snow hardened again,
and the work was nearly as easy as in the morning.
Right here there are two points about which questions will be
asked and which I want to explain, (i) How can the work be
tied to existing survey lines and corners with from four to eight
feet of snow on the ground, and, (2) How can diameters breast
high be obtained? As a matter of fact over two-thirds of the
work done was tied absolutely, — not to the exact corners, but to
the place where the corners should be between two, three or four
witness trees. In other words, in by far the majority of cases
the witness trees for the section and quarter corners were found,
and it was very easy to follow the old line blazes. In fact, our
compass and line work was done so accurate that we felt no
hesitancy in using corners and lines established during the winter
unless they were more than three miles from a corner, the witness
trees to which had been actually found on the ground. The fact
that so many corners were found and so many lines followed
was due to the settling of the snow around all trees. This point
may be illustrated by the following experience : A stake, mark-
ing a corner, was set so that it projected one and one-half feet
above the snow. Two hundred yards from this stake was a large
yellow pine, with a line blaze about six inches above the snow
level. One day after the stake was set, a new fall of snow
covered it entirely, but the blaze on the yellow pine (and other
blazes for two miles) was still visible. We found that it was
very easy to pace accurately with the webs — although we had, of
course, to be careful on account of changing snow conditions.
As a whole the chaining, pacing and compass work was easier
and more accurate on the snow than it was on bare ground in
the summer.
The fact that old survey lines were followed, and witness
corners found — during a winter when there was more snow than
the "oldest inhabitant" remembers for twenty-five years — answers
the question of getting diameter at breast high. The snow is,
of course, of somewhat different depths on different exposures,
but if the depth is measured at the base of trees and an average
taken, I doubt if the estimate suffers materially.
Another question which naturally arises is, "How far from
560 Forestry Quarterly.
camp — for it is well to have a well established camp — is it practi-
cable to work?" Our work was clone in a country where every
alternate section is patented to the Central (Southern) Pacific
Railway Company — and in addition there is considerable other
patented land. It was found that work could be done to good
advantage in such country within a radius of five miles from
camp. With good going in the morning, three miles an hour was
made while walking to the work. At night, with the men tired
and the walking a little more difficult, the speed was, of course,
considerably less. At the five-mile limit, unless under exception-
ally favorable circumstances, it was very seldom that a two-man
crew completed a full section in a day.
It may be interesting to outline briefly an actual day's work
near the five-mile limit for a three-man crew. Work was started
at seven A. M. and from a section corner previously determined.
Two miles of line was run using a compass and pacing distances.
All the corners on this line were found. From the section corner
thus found two more miles of line were run, and the country
traversed was mapped. From this point, which was established
on vacant government land, the actual reconnaissance work began
and an additional two and one-half miles of line was run and all
the timber within a strip three chains wide was estimated. Within
the last one-half mile the elevation varied from 4,700 to 5,300
feet. The work stopped three miles from camp and the cabin was
reached at five-thirty that night.
With much patented land it is impossible to work for three
months from one camp. Moving camp on the snow — by man
power — is, however, entirely practicable. On February 16 and
17, seven men moved 2,400 pounds of provisions, bedding, cooking
utensils, instruments, clothes, etc., twelve miles on two sleds.
The snow was soft and sticky — in fact the webs sunk in about two
inches throughout most of the day. One sled, which had narrow
runners, had to be left at two o'clock on the first day, but was
rescued the iicxt morning when the snow was harder. Light
loads from 100 to 250 pounds can be hauled by three men (with
the snow in fair condition) if the country is not too rough and
broken and the grades too heavy. For loads over 250 pounds,
more than three men are needed, unless the country is fairly level
or there is a down-hill pull.
Skis will not do for this work. With them it is impossible to
Winter Reconnaissance in California. 561
survey lines up steep slopes or across rough and broken ground,
or to pace accurately — except possibly on level ground. It is
almost impossible to work with them when the snow is wet and
sticky in the middle of the day, and they require constant
"doping."
Webs can be used in rough country or in smooth. Accurate
pacing can be done on them. You can work with them whether
the snow is dry or whether it is wet and sticky. If they break
it is comparatively easy to fix them up. The only thing needed
is a couple of extra rawhide thongs in your pocket. Last but not
least — no learning is required with webs. Anyone can walk all
day and every day, provided he is physically sound.
We tried webs from three different firms, and webs of various
sizes and shapes. The poor webbing in the New York shoes
makes them worse than useless for work under California condi-
tions. The Alaska Trapper shoe from Tacoma, Washington, — a
shoe 60x12 inches — at $8.00 per pair, is a very fair shoe, although
the toe is a little too large and full and the webbing stretches too
much. The best all round shoe — and one which is extremely sat-
isfactory— is obtained from A. M. Dunham, Norway, Maine.
This is a hand-made shoe throughout, and has a coarse webbing
which resists wear extremely well, and which absolutely will not
stretch or sag under any conditions. Mr. Dunham guarantees the
webbing in this respect and everyone of his shoes (eight pairs)
have stood up perfectly. Of Dimham's shoes we got four pairs,
14x48 inches, model four ($5.50) and four pairs 12x60 inches,
Peary Model ($8.00), both with toe clips. Of the two I believe
the 14x48 inch shoe is the best, because it has more surface and
will support a man better in loose snow and because it is a little
easier to handle in rough country and particularly in heavy timber
and thickets of young growth. If, however, it is known that most
of the work is to be in light powdery snow, I believe Model No. 2
— 15x54 inches would be best; while if hard snow is to be ex-
pected for most of the time a shoe 12 inches wide would be
best. The Dunham webbing and toe clips make these shoes far
superior to any I have seen — although even with them, extra
webbing should be ordered, or a rawhide bought, for repair work.
A very good sled can be bought of the Seattle Hardware Com-
pany— the Yukon Sled — for $6.50 at Seattle. This sled has one
and three-quarter inch steel shod runners. For the work in Cal-
562 Forestry Quarterly.
ifornia it is absolutely essential to have three-inch runners, and
a width of four inches would be better. The sleds can be re-shod
by any local blacksmith, although a hard maple runner, well
doped, is better than iron, steel or brass. Ordinary skis were
found very satisfactory as sled runners by one crew.
The crew of six men covered forty-five and one-half sections
of vacant government land and mapped in addition fifty sections
of patented land. In other words, they worked over an area
14x16 miles in extent. One-half of the estimates and type and
topographic maps were also finished in the field. Throwing all
the cost of the work on the government land alone, the work
cost $34.37 per section or $.054 per acre. Five of the men were
receiving $91.66 per month and the sixth $100.00 per month.
Had we worked men getting the same salaries as the men for
summer work, the cost would have been $.032 per acre.
Next winter, knowing conditions and being sure that the work
can be successfully done, we can reduce the figure of $.054 per
acre considerably.
A word in closing. It is too early yet to give figures showing
the final cost of the work, since the notes on reproduction, ground
cover, humus, etc., must be obtained in the summer — preferably
by some member or members of the original crew. It has, how-
ever, been demonstrated that winter reconnaissance on webs is
entirely practicable in California — and, I think, anywhere where
there is a good fall of snow on the Pacific Slope. Then, too, it
can be done during the slack season when the District and other
Rangers are not pressed for time. It means that, if necessary
and advisable, the full summer force can be kept employed to
good advantage throughout the entire winter, and it means that
our reconnaissance work can be finished much sooner than other-
wise.
In addition, the work can be done from tents, as was demon-
strated by another crew, which worked from tents entirely and
moved camp more often, although otherwise working under con-
ditions similar to those already described.
On the whole, this is the finest, cleanest, most wholesome and
satisfactory work that I personally have done for some time. We
plan to continue it here in the future.
THE "HAND-LOGGERS" OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.
By Louis Margolin.
A unique form of forest exploitation, little known outside of
the region where it is practiced, is the so-called "hand-logging"
in the immediate coast region of British Columbia. Trees, often
from 5 to lo feet in diameter, are felled, bucked, shot into the
sea and made up into booms or rafts without the help of any ma-
chinery or animals such as are commonly used in logging opera-
tions. This method of logging receives its sanction from the
Provincial Government under Section 60 of the "Land Act,"
which reads substantially as follows :
"The Chief Commissioner may, upon payment of the sum of
twenty-five dollars therefor, grant a general license to cut tim-
ber from Crown Lands, not being timber limits or leases, and
within such area as may be specified or designated in such license
or lease; but such license shall be personal, and shall only grant
authority to the person named therein to cut timber as a hand-
logger, and such license shall be in force for one year from the
date thereof, and no longer.
"The holder of a license granted under this section shall not
use steam power or machinery operated by steam power, in car-
rying on lumber operations under such license."
The most peculiar feature of the above section is the prohibi-
tion of the use of steam or steam-power machinery in the opera-
tion, whence the term "hand-logger" is derived. Nothing is said
in the act about the use of horses or oxen but the topography of
the country is such that the use of animals in logging is practi-
cally precluded. Before proceeding with the description of the
operations, it may be well to describe briefly the physiography and
the forests of the region under consideration, which make hand-
logging possible.
The coast of British Columbia consists of an almost uninter-
rupted chain of mountains rising directly out of the ocean, and
having an elevation of from one or two hundred to several thou-
sand feet. Flat land in the immediate vicinity of the sea is so
scarce that logging camps, and even entire settlements, are some-
564 Forestry Quarterly.
times built on rafts of logs held in place by boom-sticks and chains
fastened to the shore. The slope of the land varies from 5 to 10
per cent, to 50 degrees or more, and the surface is often broken
by rocky bluffs and ledges.
The forest along the coast consists principally of a stand of
Douglas fir, Western red cedar {Thuja plicata), Western hem-
lock (Tsuga heterophylla), grand fir {Abies grandis) locally
known as larch, Sitka spruce {Picea sitchensis) , yellow cypress
{Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) and occasionally Western white
pine. Douglas fir and cedar are the two principal species, the
former occurring in almost pure stands at the lower elevations
and south of Cracroft Island in Johnstone Strait (50° 30' North
Latitude), while the cedar predominates at higher elevations and
farther north. The trees of these two species are of large size,
individuals of from 6 to 12 feet in diameter being frequently
found. Single trees scaling 24,000 board feet are on record. The
per acre stand is heavy, usually averaging from 25 to 60 M board
feet over large areas, and logs scaling 200 to 300 M are said to
have been cut from exceptional individual acres.
In hand-logging the trees on the steeper slopes are felled in
such a manner that they can be made to slide into the water by
force of gravity. If the slope is steep enough the tree, in falling,
will jump and slide a long distance and may reach the sea with-
out any more effort on the part of the loggers. In most cases,
however, the tree will stop before it reaches the "salt-chuck" (or
ocean) and it then becomes necessary to help it along in its down-
ward course by means of a jack-screw. When once it gets a good
start there is nothing that will stop it, except a depression in the
slope, and it will cut a clean swath down hill by its own weight,
sweeping away all obstacles, uprooting stumps and shattering
good-sized trees. In the process of sliding the tree effectively
limbs and trims itself, at least on one side. Should the tree slide
into a depression in the surface of the ground, it will either be
smashed or else it will bury itself for a distance in the ground.
By judicious bucking and lifting with the jack-screw, it may be
possible to save such a tree, but in many cases the hand-logger
will prefer to let it go to waste, and spend his time and energy
on a new tree.
The distance which a tree can be made to slide by this opera-
tion is trulv remarkable. In favorable situations records of half
''Hand-Loggers" of British Columbia. 565
a mile and even 3,000 feet have been made, though the average
distance logged in this manner is probably less than 1,000 feet.
The amount of timber cut by the hand-loggers is considerable.
A crew of two men will usually put in from 2 to 4 thousand board
feet of logs per day, or about ten "swifters" (each containing
from 35 to 50 thousand feet) in a season of eight months. In
exceptional cases 700 and even 800 thousand feet have been
boomed in a season, by the more capable crews. In 1907, when
this industry was at its height, there were about 1,000 hand-
loggers' licenses in force, and the cut of timber under this system
must have approximated 100,000,000 feet in that year, — a not
inconsiderable quantity.
The logs are usually sold in the boom at the camp, and the pur-
chaser assumes the cost and risk of towing them down to Van-
couver or some other mill-site. They bring the hand-logger $5.00
and up per thousand board feet. In the highly prosperous days
of 1907, prices as high as $8.00 and $10.00 were paid. Thus, for
a season's work a crew of two men will normally receive from
about $1,500 to $3,500. If the log market is unusually dull the
more thrifty logger will hold over his cut for a season, towing
his logs for this purpose into fresh or brackish water in order
to protect them from the attack of teredoes, to which both the
fir and cedar are subject.
It takes a capital of about $300 to start in this business. The
complete outfit consists of a saw for felling the trees, a saw for
bucking them into logs, axes, wedges, a sledge, a jack-screw
(which costs about v$45.oo), and a row boat. A certain amount
of "grub," mostly in the form of canned food, is necessary to
start with, though the hand-loggers draw a large part of their
subsistence from the forest and water. Venison, squirrels, ducks,
trout, salmon, rock cod and clams form a considerable part of the
bill of fare. A stove, cooking utensils, etc., make up the rest
of the outfit. Since there are practically no roads or trails in this
country, and since, furthermore, the operations are often con-
ducted on isolated islands, a boat is indispensable. Every outfit,
therefore, possesses at least one row-boat, while often each man
in the crew will have his own boat. In the last year or two some
of the wealthier and more ambitious loggers have obtained inex-
pensive gasoline launches.
As soon as the tract to be logged is chosen and the required
566 Forestry Quarterly.
license is obtained, the men build themselves a house, usually con-
structed of shakes or split clap-boards, and placed on a raft or
boom which can be towed from place to place. With this as
a center the operation begins, and day by day the boom grows, as
log is added to log and "swifter" to "swifter." The loggers most
often work in pairs, and theirs is a lonely life. Far removed from
all lines of communication, scores of miles from the nearest other
human habitation or post office, and hundreds of miles from the
nearest railroad, telegraph or telephone station, their isolation is
complete. Occasionally they may be visited by a launch belong-
ing to some prowling timberman or by a tug-boat in search of
logs, but outside of these rare visitors they are alone.
The men who engage in this industry are usually the younger
and more ambitious "lumber jacks," tired of working in the log-
ging camps for a wage, and eager to strike out for themselves, —
to be their own "boss." Their chief ambition is to save up enough
money to purchase a steam "donkey" and go into "legitimate"
logging. Few of the men, however, reahze this ambition, for,
after the solitary life in the wilderness, often eight months at a
stretch, the saloon lights and the red lights of the city shine with
an irresistible brightness, and the earnings of the whole season
are spent in a few days.
From an economic standpoint this system of logging is of con-
siderable importance. Like the small logging-contractor in the
East, the hand-logger, by dint of personal effort and personal at-
tention is able to deliver the logs at a minimum cost, and can thus
successfully compete with the larger camps employing hired men.
As has already been stated, they furnish a considerable per cent,
of the logs cut on the coast of British Columbia.
From the timber owners' and the foresters' point of view the
hand-logger is an unmitigated nuisance. Like the shake-maker
in the California Sierras he selects the best and most accessible
trees in the forest, wastes enormous quantities of timber to get a
relatively small amount of merchantable logs, and by leaving
slash and debris on the ground greatly increases the danger from
forest fires. Hardly a "limit" in the immediate vicinity of the
coast but has been partly cut over by the hand-loggers, for they
do not always confine themselves strictly to the tract of Crown
timber specified in their Hcenses. Formerly, when timber was
considered practically of no value in this country the hand-logger
"Hand-Loggers" of British Columbia. 567
plied his trade almost anywhere he saw fit — on private holdings
as well as on the Government Reserve. With the increase in
the values of timber, however, and the stricter watch on privately
owned tracts, the hand-logger finds his field of operation greatly
curtailed. The number of hand-loggers operating this year is
insignificant when compared with the number engaged in this
industry three or four years ago. With the more easily accessible
timber already logged, and with the stricter watchfulness on the
part of the private owners of timber, the hand-logger will soon
disappear. His exploits, however, will be long remembered on
the Coast of British Columbia.
ROTATION OF CUTTING TO SECURE A SUSTAINED
YIELD FROM THE CROWN TIMBER LANDS
OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.
By Leonard S. Higgs.
British Columbia is to be congratulated upon the fact that un-
like many countries in a like stage of civilization it has not as yet
mortgaged the future of its forests : and there is little room for
doubt, if the Government acts vigorously and at once, that a way
of escape may be found from the menace of the permanent timber
scarcity that is already felt in so many portions of the earth. The
eventual fate of our fifteen or twenty million acres of forest
will be of little import to the markets of the world, but to us and
our descendants it will be pregnant with the gravest issues, and
the responsibility of initiating a thoroughly conservative policy
with regard to it rests with the present generation.
We are still in the enviable position of having used only a small
fraction of our forest heritage, for although till the present time
logging operations have been carried on with a reckless disregard
for the sound business principles of forestry, the area of forest
destroyed, and the total amount of timber cut, are still inconsid-
erable when compared with the whole area of merchantable tim-
ber, and the available stumpage therein contained.
This may be plainly seen from the following figures : the total
cut from the earliest days of lumbering in the Province until
1910 has been roughly 5,745,000,000 board feet, representing
at an average of 13,000 b. f. per acre, 430,000 acres. A conserva-
tive estimate of the entire stand of the Province made by the
Forestry Commission in 1910 gives it as 200 billion feet on about
15 million acres, excluding the Dominion timberlands in the rail-
way belt, and the holdings of the C. P. R. in the Kootenays.
That is, the forest has been only depleted to the extent of about
one-thirty-fifth of both area and quantity.
A constant annual yield of timber making possible a sustained
rotation of cutting depends in great measure upon the methods
used in logging operations now and in the future, and the institu-
tion of stringent regulations governing those operations is of the
first importance. In this matter we are lucky enough to be in
a position to benefit by the collective experience of other countries.
Rotation Cutting in British Columbia. 569
and notably that of the United States in the Rocky Mountain and
Pacific Coast forests where the conditions and species dealt with
are in many instances similar to those of British Columbia.
Rotation-cutting demands that the forest shall produce annu-
ally an amount of timber equal to that of which it is denuded,
and that there shall be a proper proportion of trees of the requis-
ite ages remaining in the stand. Briefly, the forest problem for
the Province to solve is to induce and maintain upon logged-oflf
lands an adequate second growth ; and wherever possible, to se-
cure the reproduction of Douglas fir to the exclusion of less valu-
able species, and at all costs to protect the growing forest from
even the menace of fire.
Our ignorance of the actual stand of timber is distressing. Ex-
perience teaches us that the estimates of stands of merchantable
timber rise decade and decade as new areas are discovered, and
the definition of the term "merchantable" admits a more liberal
interpretation. Timber becomes merchantable by lapse of time
as the minimum cutting limit is lowered, and timber of poorer
quality, lighter growth and less accessibility is pressed into use.
The following figures are taken from "The Timber Supply of the
United States," Kellogg, 1907. U. S. Census estimate, 1880,
gave total stand as 856 billion feet. After 25 years cutting and
burning "The American Lumberman" in 1905 estimated it at
1970 billion feet. The U. S. Census estimate for conifers in 1880
was 420 billion feet. Five hundred billion feet have already been
cut, and it is estimated that there are still 1,400 billion feet in the
two western forests alone. The "Pacific Lumber Trade Journal,"
1907, credited British Columbia with 150 billion feet. Fernow's
estimate in 1908 was 300 billion. These are some of the most
glaring under-estimates which have been officially made.
In discussing the question of rotation-cutting it is necessary to
use arbitrary figures for the area of our forest and our stand of
timber as a hypothetical basis upon which to work. The Forestry
Commission has had the best possible facilities for arriving at
these figures, and therefore greater reliance may be placed upon
the probable correctness of their interpretation, than upon that
of others originating in less authoritative sources. For the pres-
ent purpose, therefore, 15 million acres will represent the area of
forest to be dealt with, and 200 billion feet the entire stand of
timber. It may be objected with reason that the future forest
570 Forestry Quarterly.
regulations as to cutting, etc., will not apply to the areas held
under Crown grants, nor to the E. & N. Timber belt, which to-
gether amount to 1,200 thousand acres. There may also be a cer-
tain percentage of Crown timber held under license and unrenew-
able lease, which when logged-off will be found to be fit for agri-
cultural settlement. To this it may be answered that, to offset
these areas, there is an unknown number of millions of acres
(but probably not fewer than five) upon which the stand is at
present either immature, inaccessible by available methods, its
yield below eight thousand feet to the acre, or the quality poor,
which has now no commercial value and is therefore still the
property of the Crown,
Furthermore, an attempt must be made to find answers to the
three following questions :
(i) What will be the duration of the visible supply of timber?
(2) What will be the possible constant annual yield per acre?
(3) What will be the probable legitimate period of rotation?
(i) Until 1910 the scaled output of our forests was under
700 million feet per annum, or less than 50 feet per acre. A
reasonably liberal figure must be assumed for the probable in-
crease of the demand which governs the supply. The annual in-
crease in lumber consumption has been spasmodic rather than
constant. Between 1888 and 1892 the output doubled; remained
stationary till 1894; doubled in 1898, 1902 and 1905, and in-
creased nearly 40% in 1909, when the production reached 607
million feet. If the demand were to keep on increasing 10%
each year the available supply would be exhausted in sixty years,^
even at Fernow's estimate of 300 billion feet. If, however, an
increase of only 5% be conjectured, the time-limit of exhaustion
of the present stand would extend to 120 years.
During the century from 1807 to 1907 the output of lumber
in the United States increased from perhaps 100 million to 35
billion feet, representing a cumulative annual increase of about
8%. The anology is far from perfect, owing to altered condi-
tions, and especially to the introduction of steam. But he would
be bold indeed who would assume that the present crop of our
British Columbia forest would last more than 100 years.
(2) Unfortunately, in speculating upon a possible sustained
annual yield per acre, we have no data gathered from our own
forests bearing upon the subject, and therefore it will be neces-
Rotation-Cutting in British Columbia. 571
sary to rely upon the experience of European countries which
practice intensive forestry, and upon certain data for the Pacific
Forest published by the Forest Service of the United States.
It has been fully proved, firstly, that only a high standard of
technical management and commercial methods combined can
secure a sustained yield without depletion of capital, and, sec-
ondly, that, with these advantages, forests conservatively man-
aged will produce timber of greater density, less unsoundness,
and more desirable species, and of a four times greater yield.
Thus, in seven million acres of Prussian forest the constant an-
nual yield is 65 cubic feet an acre, with a net revenue therefrom
of $2.50 per acre. Saxony surpasses this with 430,000 acres
whose yield is 95 cubic feet, and revenue $5.30. In the state
forests of France the yield is 40 cubic feet; revenue $1.75.
Let us now turn to conditions and species which approach
closely those in existence in our own Coast Timber Belt. The
(following data were gathered and tabulated by Thornton Munger,
U. S. Forest Assistant, in the western foothills of the Cascades
in Oregon and Washington, and were published in May, 191 1.
They were based upon even-aged stands of Douglas Fir in va-
rious stages of growth, upon 361 sample plots, aggregating 252
acres, on first class soils. They show in his own words, "that a
piece of land cut over this year and properly managed, will yield
60 years from now 41,000 feet of saw-logs to the acre ; 100 years
hence it will have 79,800 feet; that is, 800 feet of lumber will
grow on that acre every year. Expressed in cubic feet the yield
is also surprisingly large. Between 40 and 60 years of age a
stand of Douglas fir produces upon each acre annually 200 cubic
feet of wood."
Now, assuming that no artificial re-afforestation can be under-
taken, and that it is only worth our while to assist natural re-
afforestation on three-quarters of the fifteen million, or 11,250,000
acres of our B. C. Forests ; and that owing to inferior soil, poor
location, and the growth of less desirable species giving a smaller
yield, or finally through accident by fire, the annual yield per
acre will be diminished by one-half of that above quoted, we ob-
tain a constant annual production of four and a half million
board-feet. Although that amount is over five times greater than
the demand calls for at the present time, at the rate of 5%
yearly increase, it would hardly suffice for the annual supply 40
years hence.
572 Forestry Quarterly.
(3) The legitimate period of rotation which appears to be
indicated from the above considerations, may be said to be in
the neighborhood of 100 years. That would allow the felling of
112,500 acres a year, carrying a yield per acre of 40,000 b. f., or
4-| bilHon b. f. altogether. The actual period of rotation may
prove in the end to be either greater or less than 100 years. If
it should prove to be 120 years, the area available yearly would be
94,000 acres with a production of 4,747,000,000 feet ; and if, on
the other hand, the visible supply should be depleted in 80 years,
the acreage available each year would rise to 140,000, yielding
4,200,000,000 feet.
Although there would not be so great a difference in the total
annual yields for the two periods, as might be expected, owing
to the compensating effect of the change in area available, it may
be said that the longer rotation period would be the more ad-
vantageous, not only on account of the greater proportional pro-
duction and higher stumpage value, and therefore increased reve-
nue, but also because at 120 years there would be a greater per-
centage of clear lumber and a finer quality.
Again, it is hardly an exaggeration to say that the strictest
economy in logging might conceivably lengthen the rotation period
by at least ten years. The average yearly output for 100 years
would be two billion feet. The waste is represented by 10%
which is left in the woods, or 200 million feet a year, which for
100 years would be 20 billion feet, representing ten years supply.
The value of the crop in any particular decade must be based
upon an assumption of the probable rate of increase in stumpage-
values. Authorities differ widely on this question : some going
as high as 25c a year. The assumption has been published by
authority of the U. S. Forest Service that the value will have
increased to $5.00 a thousand in 40 years time, and that there-
after the price will increase 50c every ten years. At this very
conservative estimate we find that the gross value of our stump-
age would be, at 80 years $213 an acre; at 100 years, $320; at
120 years, $454; or a gross revenue from the areas available for
cutting of those years of 29 million, 36 million and 42 million
dolars respectively.
Many difficulties will have to be overcome before a sound
scheme of rotation-cutting can be established. For instance,
112,500 acres represents an area probably three times greater than
Rotation-Cutting in British Columbia.
573
that now annually felled. How then shall 112,500 acres ripe for
felling be obtained 100 years hence if only a small proportion of
the 430,000 acres already denuded be found to be satisfactorily
re-stocking? Again, only by continuous and patient investigation
of young growth of known ages can the probable average in-
crease in the growth per acre be determined with any certainty;
and the dividing-up of the entire forest into a proper number of
tracts carrying trees of the requisite ages will be an arduous and
lengthy task for the forest service which is about to be established.
All that we can do now to prepare the way for the establish-
ment of sound business methods such as these is to devote a pro-
portion of the income derived from the forests at the present
time to that purpose, together with whatever contribution may
be drawn from owners of timber lands in part payment for pro-
tection from fire. The expenditure of this proportion of forest
income has been strongly recommended by the Forestry Com-
mission. The forest expenditure for the fiscal year 1909-1910
was 3-5C an acre, and for 1910-1911, i 7-ioc an acre. It may
be noted that Saxony spends $3.00 an acre in the administration
of her forests ; France 95c and Austria 56c.
In the opinion of the present writer the Crown Forests are
capable of supplying a constant annual yield as great as the total
amount taken from them in the course of the last 30 years, and
from six to eight times greater than the present yearly supply :
and to devote to their conservation every cent that can be reason-
ably spared is absolutely essential for the future of the lumber
industry and the prosperity of our Forest Province.
The appended table reveals the possibilities of yield and reve-
nue for rotation-periods of from 50 to 120 years.
Possible Yield of Fir, Spruce, Cedar and Hemlock.
(One-half Hunger's Bstiniate of Douglas Fir.)
Stumpage value calculated at $5.50 in 1902, increasing 50 cents per decade.
5j
Roialtion
Million
f.
s
1
4
0
S
V
•c^
1^
s
-• '^ •
ci
1§
s ^
Q
0
^
a-^H..
2
0
V
5) s b
<5 ^
0 e
CQ
"3
•2 "^^^
s ?^ 0
0
^ <3 QpiJ
^'
^
&;
^i.
^
^
^
1962
50
225,000
14,000
77
5 50
3150
17325
1972
60
187,500
20,500
123
6 00
3742
23062
1982
70
160,700
25,800
167
6 50
4160
26837
1992
80
140,000
30,500
213
7 00
4200
29820
2002
90
125,000
35'000
262
7 50
4375
32750
2012
100
112,500
40,000
320
8 00
4450
36000
2022
110
102,000
45,000
382
8 50
4590
38964
2032
120
94,000
50,500
454
9 00
4747
42676
A CONFUSION OF TECHNICAL TERMS IN THE STUDY
OF WOOD STRUCTURE.
By C. D. MEhh.
The anatomical structure of wood is essentially a technical sub-
ject. The pivotal point in this study is the correct knowledge of
the elements composing wood, and inseparable from this knowl-
edge are the names of these elements. In other words, as the
student is acquiring a definite notion of wood elements he ought
to have a name that will be definite, approximate and above all
constant. At the same time there should be a clear limitation or
line of demarkation between certain elements that are sometimes
difficult to distinguish, as, for instance, between wood fiber and
tracheids, or between tracheids and vessels.
There are at present no text books dealing especially with this
subject, though numerous authors have written extensively along
lines relating to it. No two writers agree absolutely in termin-
ology. The majority of investigators differ so widely that it con-
stitutes a very serious hindrance to students. In the^days of the
early plant anatomists, Grew and Malpighi, who worked with
very defective microscopes, there was an excuse for this widely
differing nomenclature, for the reason that no two observers
saw the same thing exactly alike. At present, however, the mi-
croscopes have reached such a degree of perfection that there
should be no difficulty for all investigators to see the structure
of elements exactly alike. Now is the time to remove the bar-
riers that perplex the student, for the condition of nomenclature
is such that it will greatly depreciate or even preclude effective
work of beginners. A number of terms now used are obsolete,
unscientific, and unnecessary. The student is obliged to devote
much time learning what certain names mean. Of course, all
names are more or less arbitrary, but any particular name should
be associated with only one kind of wood elements. At present
the student does not find, for example, that the term tracheae is
constantly associated with elements having their abutting ends per-
forated, but also with elements known as tracheids having both
ends closed. This confusion of names is true especially in the
Study of Wood Structure. 575
writings of earlier authors, as above mentioned. When the stu-
dent takes up another author he is obHged to spend a good deal
of his time in learning the different names the author uses. Un-
fortunately writers on wood structure do not hold themselves
bound to employ a recognized set of terms, but they feel them-
selves privileged to invent terms unfamiliar to a large body of
readers.
One unfamiliar with the results of investigations published be-
tween the years 1800 and i860 can not appreciate the hopeless
confusion met with, and it is very difficult for a student to master
all the terms used during that time. Any student, and particu-
larly the young student, considers the name of an element he once
learned to be a part of that element, and it is not until his mind
is mature when he sees a certain structure exactly alike under
three or more different names. Give a student the name trachea
for a tracheid, which is what some writers are doing, he will
naturally change his notion of one or both of these elements.
This chaotic condition of nomenclature was thought to be prac-
tically settled when Sanio in 1863 published his work entitled
"Vergleichende Untersuchungen iiber die Elementarorgane des
Holzkorpers." Although he had his opponents, the majority of
writers and investigators followed him, and even to-day there
are a number of investigators who do not propose to accept any
other nomenclature and classification. Since 1863 a great many
discoveries were made, and Sanio's terminology of necessity suf-
fered changes to a certain extent, especially in as far as the gen-
eral grouping of the elements is concerned. For example, the
elements of the pith rays can not be classed with the wood-
parenchyma fibers. The pith-ray cells are a slight modification
of primary tissue, while wood-parenchyma fibers are elements
that may be classed more appropriately with wood fibers and
tracheids (wood prosenchyma) . The following are lists of
names used for the same elements :
Vessels. — Other names in use : tracheae, ducts, tubes, pores,
fistulae, vasa, and wood-vessels.
Tracheids. — Other names in use : tracheae, fibrous elements,
wood fibers, and vascular fibers.
Wood Hhers. — Other names in use: libriform fibers or cells,
fibrous cells, fibrous elements, xylem elements, woody fibers, pro-
senchyma fibers, and wood prosenchyma.
576 Forestry Quarterly.
W ood-parenchyma fibers. — Other names in use: fiber cells, cell
fibers, parenchymatous-wood cells, starch-containing cells, and
parenchyma cells.
The above list of synonyms gives in part the various names of
elements used at present in works dealing with wood structure,
and from among these an investigator could select standard terms
to be used in future publications on this subject. To work out
and adopt such a terminology would probably wound the feelings
of some few recent authors who have pet names for certain struc-
tures, but the aim should be to select terms most familiar to the
majority of students of wood structure. It is important to avoid
all useless technicalities, in order to render the subject matter as
clear as possible. A number of authors would be willing to
make a sacrifice of their favorite names when the general good
of the subject requires it. There are numerous laymen interested
in wood structure, and the less technical the terms are the more
attention will be directed to the subject and a great many difficul-
ties will disappear if a uniform terminology can be determined
upon.
REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON FOREST FIRES, CANA-
DIAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION.
Your Committee on Forest Fire Laws, having collected with
the aid of the Secretary all the existing forest fire legislation in
Canada and most of the United States, as well as literature on
the same, and having received expressions from competent per-
sons as to the working of these laws and suggestions as to their
improvements, begs to report as follows —
A. Existing Legisi.ation.
We find that while every province and the Dominion has legis-
lation to protect forests from fire, the laws vary greatly in detail
and their efficiency probably varies as much. Briefly reviewing
and comparing these laws we may make the following statements :
Nova Scotia. The law is designed primarily to protect private
forest property which comprises the bulk of the forest area. It
provides efficient machinery with appointed wardens in each
county of the province to which it applies. It is based on the
municipal organization, and secures the expense of the service in
part by a pro rata assessment on the properties, except the salaries
of chief rangers and of the provincial chief ranger, which are
paid from the provincial treasury. This is probably the most
efficient fire protection so far designed in Canada, fitting the con-
ditions of the province, and needing only to be applied generally
throughout the province and further to be elaborated.
Netv Brunszvick. This law seems to make no distinction be-
tween private and public forest, although the latter comprises the
larger part of the forest area. The machinery is indefinitely left
to be provided by the Surveyor General, the law authorizing the
employment of special officers, but limiting the expense to be
paid for such service from the provincial' treasury to $2,000.
Quebec. The law is primarily designed to protect the Crown
domain. The declaration of certain territory as "fire district"
and the organization of a service is left to the discretion of the
Minister of Lands and Forests, except that the law provides the
appointment in each established fire district of an inspector paid
by the province, and for the purpose of the law all agents for
the sale of Crown lands, all employees of the Department, all
sworn land surveyors and all fire and wood rangers employed by
the Department are ex-officio justices of the peace, authorized to
impose penalties for the contravention of the law. In practice,
the wardens are nominated and paid (in lieu of a fire tax for-
merly collected) by the limit holders, the government clothing
578 Forestry Quarterly.
them with authority; and half of all labor in extinguishing fires
on timber limits up to $2 per diem is paid by the province. In
case railroads are involved each of the three parties pays one-
third. A superintendent to direct the service and assistant super-
intendent are also instituted and paid by the province.
Some useful amendments to the law are suggested by the Su-
perintendent, a member of this committee, providing for con-
tinuous patrol by fire rangers ; for determining the number of
rangers to be employed by the limit holders, and for the substi-
tution of government rangers in case of failure to employ the
proper number; for arrest of offenders, and for forcing assist-
ance in extinguishing fires; for screening smoking cars and mill
chimneys ; for fixing responsibility of escaped fires on owner of
land ; for railway patrols ; and for various minor objects.
Ontario. This law is primarily designed for the protection of
Crown lands. This province was perhaps the first to recognize
the necessity of machinery to carry out the law and of making
limit holders in part responsible. As in Quebec, the declaration
of fire districts, within which the law applies and the organization
of a service of fire rangers not only licensed but also unlicensed
territory, is in the discretion of the Minister of Lands, Forests
and Mines, but the law differs from Quebec law in that it con-
tains sections defining duties of fire rangers.
The appointment of rangers on licensed lands is primarily made
at the request and upon the nomination of candidates by the limit
holders, unless the Minister determines without such request the
necessity for their employment. The appointment of these and
other officers as justices of the peace is also forseen.
In Ontario, not only are half the wages of fire rangers paid by
the limit holders, but also half the salaries of supervisors and in-
spectors. The same arrangements holds with railway construc-
tion enterprises, the railway paying half the expense of fire pro-
tection. There are also fire rangers appointed and fully paid by
the province to range on forest reservations and unlicensed lands.
In the Manitoba law, the principle of municipal interest is defin-
itely carried out, every rural municipal council being authorized
to appoint fi.re guardians, and these may co-operate with the fire
guardians of adjoining municipalities in carrying out -the law;
municipal councils make rules and regulations under the law and
pay the bills. Here also the salutary provisions of penalties for
neglect of duty on the part of fire guardians is met for the first
time, and the liability of the municipality for damage, if not
otherwise recoverable. Moreover, the provincial fire commis-
sioner may under circumstances work into the organization.
In Alberta and SaskatcJiezuan the provinces themselves,
through the Commissioner of Agriculture, appoint and pay fire
guardians or wardens with sheriff's power, and all members of
Report of Committee on Forest Fires. 579
the North-West Mounted Police are ex-officio fire guardians. The
details of the organization are, however, left obscure as well as
the question of liability for damage or cost of fire fighting.
British Columbia. The law makes the declaration of fire dis-
tricts a matter for an order in council. It makes it the duty of
various officials to prosecute contraventions, besides that of a
special officer or chief fire warden under the Chief Commissioner
of Lands. Such an officer may be appointed and rules and regu-
lations made by the Lieutenant Governor in Council. Divisional
and district or assistant fire wardens, and the cost of fire fighting
are also paid by the Province, although not mentioned in the Act.
For the Dominion, with the exception of the Railway Act,
which prescribes requirements for preventive measures to be
adopted, the protection of forest reserves and other timber lands
is a matter of executive administration purely, and otherwise the
laws of the province prevail.
All the laws have more or less specific regulations for preven-
tion of fire from locomotives, but as it is doubtful how far such
provincial laws apply to transcontinental or interprovincial rail-
ways, their effects cannot reach far.
In almost all the provinces the setting of fires is permitted
under the futile injunction of caution ; only in Nova Scotia, Man-
itoba, and British Columbia does the requirements exist of a
permit from proper authority, at least for clearing fires.
In the five provinces (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Manitoba,
Alberta and Saskatchewan) the fire guardians can call out any
able-bodied citizen for assistance.
The principle of placing the burden of disproof as to responsi-
bility for a fire upon the accused is adopted, at least in part, in
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, British Columbia, Alberta and
Saskatchewan.
B. Generalities.
1. It is evident from the experience of the past that legislation
is ineffective unless a thorough organization for the carrying out
of the law exists. Moreover, it should be realized that no half-
hearted or partial measures but only a supreme effort which in-
cludes a change of attitude on the part of the people at large will
ever stop the fire evil. Hence, besides legislation and enforcement
of law, special means for popular education are needed.
2. It must be realized that the same methods which are efficient
in one section are not necessarily applicable and efficient in other
sections with different conditions. Hence, a general forest fire
law with details cannot be formulated. The excellent results of
the forest fire service of Nova Scotia are possible only because
the country is settled in all parts and the woodlands mostly in
possession of small resident owners, who have a personal inter-
est in their protection. In unsettled parts of the country, in the
580 Forestry Quarterly.
backwoods of Quebec and Ontario, this system would not work.
3. It is, therefore, apparent that different laws and organiza-
tions even for different parts of the same province may be desir-
able, or else a law which divides the province into fire districts
and leaves latitude to executive officers to devise methods applic-
able in the different districts. Altogether, it is wisdom to make
laws as little as possible specific in prescriptions, but place author-
ity in competent hands to frame rules for the execution of the
law, which may be changed as circumstances suggest.
4. Preventive measures, including the rapid discovery and ex-
tinction of incipient fires, are the most needful ; legislation and
organization to prevent or reduce the chances of fires are of more
moment than the threat of punishment and attempts at extinguish-
ing fires after they have spread. All provinces have laws de-
signed to deter incendiarism, but in the majority of cases the
legislation is negative rather than positive, permissive rather than
mandatory. In view of the gravity of the situation and of the
careless attitude of the public more restrictive and special edu-
cative measures are needed.
5. Three different agencies are mainly responsible for forest
fires, and must be provided for separately, railroads, settlers, and
other persons coming into the woods for various purposes. The
first two are readily found out and made responsible ; special
means are necessary to find out and make responsible the casual
visitors.
C. Railroad Legislation.
An exhaustive report by the Public Service Commission of the
state of New York made in 1909, discussing in great detail, sup-
ported by expert testimony, the possibilities of preventing fires
from locomotives, which seem to be responsible for somewhat
less than 40% of forest fires in the Adirondacks forms an excel-
lent basis for discussion of this problem. The report declares :
"The remedies proposed by the railroad companies which include
improvements in coal burning locomotives, cleaning right of way,
patroling, telephone system, fire trains, are inadequate, because:
"First, the improvements in coal burning locomotives are not
sufficiently radical to meet the conditions ;
"Second, the remedies proposed are complex, involving con-
tinuous and effective supervision, and past experience has shown
that such supervision may not be efficiently exercised when most
needed ;
"Third, the legal restriction mentioned (in cleaning right of
way, peculiar to New York) handicaps the railroads in the effec-
tive application of their remedies."
The Commission orders the installation of oil-burning locomo-
tives during the day time, while the dangerous season lasts, it
having been shown that no fires start at night.
Report of Committee on Forest Fires. 581
While your Committee recommends the study of this report
in detail for its careful analysis of the causes of fires originating
from locomotives and for its valuable suggestions, it does not go
so far as to suggest the necessity of such radical change in fuel,
especially as it was declared by experts that safe coal-burning
locomotives can be constructed, although difficult to keep in safe
condition. Possibly, however, the use of oil-burning engines
might in the end prove as cheap, or cheaper, than other modes of
preventing fires from locomotives. No legal restriction in burn-
ing of right of way existing in Canada, it would appear that the
methods suggested by the railroads themselves, if properly carried
out, would answer.
The improvement of locomotives to prevent sparks from stack
and ashpan escaping is fully discussed in the report by two loco-
motive experts, and it is stated that, without loss of draft, screens
can be used if properly constructed and placed, but that no abso-
lute safety may be expected except by unusual care in fitting
and keeping in order on the part of the round-house crew. It
would appear from discussion that the stereotyped prescription
of several Canadian laws as to the use of a certain mesh screen is
not justified, since other matters like the character of coal, the
position of exhaust nozzles, etc., must be related to the screen.
The necessity of frequent inspection of locomotives by an expert,
or at least a thoroughly instructed fire ranger not only as to
screens, but also as to ash boxes and other conditions was ac-
centuated by locomotive experts. The proper construction of
ash boxes is as important as the screens since it is declared that
50 per cent, of locomotive fires are due to the faulty construction
and use of these. Finally firemen and engineers must be willing
to use their tools properly and keep them effective.
As to clearing the right of way, the evidence brought out that
fully 90 per cent, of fires start within fifty feet on each side of
the right of way ; hence, hardly any greater width need be cleared.
It is, in the opinion of your Committee, a mistake to clear a broad
fire strip along the right of way. Such a strip, even if cleared as
well as is practicable, is dangerous in two directions besides being
unnecessarily expensive ; it dries out under the influence of the
sun and wind and if between tall timber creates a draft which
will fan any incipient fire rapidly into action. Instead, a strip
of fifty feet outside the right of way and under forest shade from
which the easily inflammable material is removed would serve
a better purpose. This proposition advanced some years ago by
the Chairman of this Committee was generally accepted by the
experts as a most efficacious measure. The cost, it was estimated,
would be in the neighborhood of $250 per mile for the first clean-
ing. In Pennsylvania it has been done for $180 per mile. It is
open to question whether the cleaning of this part should not be
582 Forestry Quarterly.
made the duty of the forest owner rather than of the railroad
company. The location of drain ditches on the outer side of the
right of way instead of as is usual near the track would in many
cases help to prevent the spread of fires.
The only effective way in cleaning right of way is by burning
it over, which is dangerous and should be done as soon as the
snow leaves, but most probably be repeated when the chances of
the fire spreading are greater. To make this operation easier, the
cleared strip should be sodded, when the grass could readily be
cut and burnt. That the local fire warden, if any, should have
supervision of this burning goes without saying.
The most important precaution is the fire patrol, when properly
'organized. Since only during the hours of 9 a. m. to 5 p. m. is
there danger of fires spreading, and since rainy days reduce the
time, the hours would be short, and by proper organization the
cost of such patrol can be reduced to a minimum, the patrolman
to be also employed otherwise. If all the other precautions are
taken two men with a gasoline car equipped with a fire ex-
tinguisher, following every train, say, within 15 minutes, could
ordinarily probably protect five miles of right of way and attend
to other track work besides. This patrol as to time of the year
during which it is to be maintained should be made under orders
of the officer in charge of the fire service. In the absence of such
patrol by the company the Forest Fire Service should have the
right to do the patroling at the expense of the company. It
should also be a requirement that the railroads are to transport,
free of charge, men needed in extinguishing fires along the line.
The requirements of the New Brunswick law that the railway
company shall keep section men to watch and extinguish all fires,
and that these men shall pass over the road at least once a day is
one of the loose requirements which is insufficient in time of
actual danger and needless in rainy days and seasons.
Other minor precautions might be suggested like the screening
of smoking cars or compartments, the placing of barrels of water
on steep grades, where sparks are apt to be emitted under forced
draft, etc. A valuable suggestion is that specially dangerous
places along the road be so marked by signs, and that special at-
tention be bestowed on them by the men in charge.
The legal prescriptions regarding the placing of responsibility
upon the companies and their agents are well taken care of in the
legislation proposed by the Commission of Conservation. It
should also be compulsory for all train crews to report fires at the
first stop at a telegraph station and the operator to report same
to the proper officer.
The provision advanced by the Commission of Conservation
to make railways liable to a fine of one thousand dollars for every
fire set and placing the burden of disproof on the railway com-
Report of Committee on Forest Fires. 583
pany is endorsed by this committee. It should, however, be
pointed out that the existing legislation which limits liability for
damage on the part of the railway company to $5,000, unless neg-
lect is proved by the damaged party, may work hardship.
Your Committee would suggest that besides penalties provided
against neglect by the employees the co-operation of these men
could undoubtedly be secured by proper education and premiums
for immunity from fire damage.
In justice to the railway companies it should be stated that of
late they have waked up to their responsibility and are attempt-
ing to improve fire protection, as may appear from the following
extracts of the instructions issued last summer by one of them
to their employees, which will at the same time show some of
the practical needs of preventive measures.
"Ash pans must be equipped with nettings. Nettings and plates
in front end must be examined throughout the entire year at
intervals not exceeding one week. Engines must not be allowed
to leave terminal unless nettings and plates are in proper condi-
tion. Ash pans and dampers must be examined throughout the
entire year on every engine entering their home. . . .or on branch
lines or work train service on every trip. Men appointed to make
inspection of nettings and dampers must sign for each engine
inspected. This form to be initiated by locomotive foremen to
prove that they have supervised the work."
D. Legislation Regarding Settlers.
The case with the settler is comparatively simple, since he is
definitely located, although carelessness in handling fires when
burning brush and clearing has been the cause of many most
destructive fires. Here, an educational campaign ought to do
much. The province of Quebec is to be congratulated in having
the assistance of the clergy in this campaign of education, the
bishops authorizing the reading of letters of caution from the
pulpits.
AH laws contain sections prescribing a closed season when
fires may not be set. Such close seasons are at present given in
the laws by definite dates. This is not good practice as the danger
ceases or commences within the same province at different dates
and in the different years also, which can be however, more or less
predetermined. Discretion on the part of the Forest Fire Service
in fixing these dates variably is desirable. Some (Nova Scotia,
Manitoba and British Columbia) but not all require that a per-
mit to set fires at other times be obtained from an officer in
charge, and some require that notice of the intention to burn
brush be given to neighbors to keep them on the alert or posted at
the nearest schoolhouse seven days beforehand. Both these latter
requirements seem desirable. The only objection appears to be
584 Forestry Quarterly.
that communication with the officials is not always easy for the
distant colonists. This could be overcome by having special pa-
trols at the proper season make a circuit of the district to afford
the opportunity of making the necessary arrangements for per-
mits. This requirement, to be sure, is mainly of educational
value accentuating the feeling of responsibility.
E. LEG1S1.AT10N Regarding Other Persons.
The most difficult, and at the same time the most dangerous
class of persons responsible for forest fires are the many different
people who visit the woods for business or pleasure, or who are
merely passing through. The laws make distinction of railways
and settlers, but this third class remains, as a rule undifferentiated.
It would appear that at least three classes may be made, namely
those who are in the woods for business connected with the
woods, loggers and the like ; those who are engaged in business
other than connected with the woods, such as prospectors and
miners ; and lastly visitors of various descriptions, hunters,
campers, etc. It would appear that the first two classes should
and could be dealt with separately, for they are, as a rule, defi-
nitely located, although for a shorter time than railroads and
settlers.
Is there any reason why the lumber company should stand on
a different footing towards the community at large as regards
responsibility for forest fires, than the railroad company? Is the
logger or the miner or prospector in any different condition than
the settler excepting perhaps permanency of location? The con-
ditions and needs of these two classes are known and, therefore,
definite prescription is as possible as for the railroad company
and the settler. It is our opinion that the lumberman have been
in the past, and are still, indirectly at least, the greatest cause for
destructive conflagrations, simply because of the debris which
has been left after their operations. It is tolerably certain that
without the debries and the opening up to the sun and wind of
large areas the virgin woods would usually be without extensive
fires. Just as the railway company is to be forced to reduce the
danger from fire, since fire is one of its tools, so for the opposite
reason the logger should be forced to reduce the danger from fire,
because he creates the condition for its most destructive force.
It is needful to accentuate that the worst damage to the coun-
try at large does not come from the burning of the timber — which
can usually be utilized — , but from the burning of slash which
consumes not only the young growth and seed trees, but often the
soil itself, leaving it barren and useless forever.
There are two methods of reducing the danger from slash in
logging operations, namely, systematically burning it while the
logging is going on, and 'downing' tops and branches so that they
Report of Committee on Forest Fires. 585
may lie close to the ground and rapidly decay. Both methods
have been tried and found practicable and not too expensive.
Brush burning has been applied in Minnesota with success in
the pineries. Lopping of tops has been employed in spruce
forests, under law, in the Adirondacks with entire satisfaction.
The cost of brush burning can under favorable conditions be
kept within 25 cents per M. feet ; the cost of downing tops is from
10 to 15 cents per cord of pulpwood in ordinary conditions, and
often the cost is balanced by the easier skidding and gain in wood.
In some places the one, in other places the other method is pre-
ferable, and there may be places where neither can be entirely, or
only partially applied. Hence, any legislation requiring the re-
duction of debries must not be specific but leave discretion to the
officials as to how the object is to be obtained in each case. When
these precautions are taken the government can well afford to
furnish fire protection even without charge to the limit holder.
It must not be forgotten that the timber limit holder is not the
owner of the forest property, and cannot therefore be expected
to take much interest in the future, and fire protection in these
slashes is a provision for the future. Heavy penalties for fires
set by employees of lumber companies should be levied on the
employers. At least a limited liability should be established for
such fires.
In order to hold miners, prospectors and, indeed, all others in
proper check, it should be required that everybody who sets a fire
in the woods be provided with a permit from a proper officer, such
permits to be for stated periods and renewable only to those who
have not offended, even though refusal to others might appear
harsh. In fact it may be justifiable to demand such a permit for
the mere entering of any woods.
There is no reason why at least, prospectors should not be
placed under obligation of obtaining a permit for entering the
woods for this purpose whereby a check on their presence is
established. They may also properly be required to take under
the direction of the Forest Fire Service precautions to prevent any
fires from originating on their claims. The throwing or drop-
ping of burning matches, ashes from a pipe, lighted cigar, or any
other burning substances, or discharge of firearms with wads
during the close season without extinguishing any such burning
material should be forbidden.
F. LitOAL, Points.
On the legal side some new principles should be established by
statute regarding prosecutions, fines, penalties, and damages.
I. The burden of disproof of responsibility for the origin of a
forest fire should be placed upon the defendant, be it corporation
or individual.
586 Forestry Quarterly.
2. Forest Fire Service ofificers should have not only power to
arrest without warrant, but to prosecute and secure convictions in
a summary manner before any justice of the peace. This not only
when a person has actually committed, but when there is a reason-
able suspicion that he has committed or is about to commit an
offense against the fire laws.
3. Fire rangers should have authority to trespass in case of
necessity, to build back fires, and place guards to prevent the
breaking out again of fires that have been extinguished.
4. Fire rangers should have power to command witnesses with
a view of finding out cause, origin and nature of fire and the
damages.
5. In the estimation of damages the cost of reforestation should
be included.
G. Organization.
There is no hope of any adequate result of legislation unless
sufficient and efficient machinery and organization exists to apply
it. With the attitude of the people as it is, a supreme effort in
the beginning will be necessary to change that attitude; then,
when better habits have been inculcated the machinery may be
considerably reduced.
Such organization must be of a central, permanent and fixed
character, as only the government can institute, but it may act
very well in co-operation with municipalities, local boards, timber
limit holders, private woodland owners, or associations with
similar interests. Where the government is the largest owner
and has therefore the largest interest, it should naturally take the
lead ; but even where this is not the case, the broad scope of
governmental interest, and the economy which comes from
patrolling, irrespective of ownership, makes a provincial organi-
zation preferable. Yet that even private owners or timberlimit
hoders alone could cheaply and efficiently protect their own hold-
ings is shown by the Forest Fire Associations in the United States,
of which there are ten in the West.
The Washington State Forest Fire Association is one in which
owners of from twenty acres up to hundreds of thousands of
acres are clubbing together and assessing themselves by acreage
for co-operative fire patrol. A chief fire warden is at the head of
the organization. The territory is divided into districts, each having
its local patrolmen. Eight to twelve districts are formed into a
group, with an inspector for each, whose duty it is to travel
through the districts in his group, supervise the patrolmen, em-
ploy additional ones where necessary, and in general keep the
machinery moving. The state merely clothes the officials of the
association with authority and places, as in Idaho, its own hold-
ings under the system. With such an organization, in 1909, the
driest season in Washington State for 41 years (except perhaps
Report of Committee on Forest Fires. 587
last year), the owners of three milHon acres lost only 1,600 acres
or 1-20 of one per cent. Of over 1,100 fires extinguished only
200 were of sufficient size to permit of description, all others being
put out in their incipiency.
In the Idaho Association there is spent for patrol alone only i^
cents per acre, but as this association extensively builds trails and
installs telephones the assessment reaches up to 2 to 5 cents per
acre. The Coeur d'Alene Timber Protective Association with
1,200,000 acres, at 2 cents an acre lost only $40,000. The Potlach
Association spent 4^ cents per acre for patrol, purchase of tools
and making trails. The United States Forest Service in District
I, the Northern Rockies, which lost so heavily in 1910 spent less
than ^ cent on thirty million acres, losing $40,000 worth of timber.
All these lands are located in difficult territory, and for several
years this system has given satisfaction, except during the unusual
drought of last summer.
In the disastrous season of 1910 the association staved ofif
serious trouble for two months by special effort, but in August,
due to indifference and lack of protection of intervening proper-
ties,— accentuating the need of state-wide co-operation — the
system broke down. Yet the report of the secretary of the
united associations is, first, that the 'losses were few and insig-
nificant when the area involved is considered ; second, that had it
not been for the timber owners' effort the contrary would have
been true. The really bad fires can be counted on the fingers,
while those extinguished number by thousands.'
The essentials of a proper organization are : —
1. A proper head, an officer with experience and with well de-
fined powers and duties, but with large discretionary powers, who
shall devote himself to this interest alone.
2. A proper personnel carefully chosen — not necessarily nomi-
nated by limit holders — of permanent, paid rangers with con-
stables' power and the right to arrest without warrant any one
suspected of having contravened the law, who during the off
season can work in preparing for the dangerous season. The suc-
cess of the organization depends on the character of these men.
3. Additional paid patrolmen during the dangerous season, a
variable number according to needs, and obligation on every
citizen to aid under penalty when called upon, in extinguishing
fires ;
4. Responsibility properly divided, enforced by penalties, and
inspectors, active in looking after the rangers, and concerned in
educating the people and improving the service ;
5. Districting the country with a view of collocating similar
conditions in such units as a patrolman can readily oversee, or
an inspector inspect, and making these officers responsible for the
safety of their unit ;
6. Early discovery of an incipient fire is essential ; hence there
588 Forestry Quarterly.
should be watch towers or lookout stations, properly distributed.
Such watch towers fully equipped cost, with shelter house, be-
tween $300 and $500 ; one every 20 miles even would save its cost
the first year by reducing the number of wardens necessary.
7. Rapidity of getting to a fire is essential, hence building of
trails to make districts accessible and connecting watch towers by
telephone lines, which can be built and equipped for $25 to $50
per mile.
8. Ample funds by special taxes to organize, equip and keep
up the service and enforce the law.
The main requirement is the head man who, if a capable
organizer, would work out the detail fit for each condition, and,
if left to act with authority and considerable latitude, would soon
have the whole community assisting his efforts.
Your committee believes that the country is ready for this
supreme effort to get rid of the fire evil and thereby to make the
beginnings of forestry, a rational management of forest lands,
possible.
The Committee:
B. E. Fernow, Chairman,
Thomas Southworth,
JuDSON F. Clark,
G. C. PiCHE,
W. C. J. Hai,l,
Frank Davison,
Ellwood Wilson.
CANADIAN VOLUME TABLES.
By E1.1.WOOD Wilson,
Forestry Division, Laurentide Paper Company.
The measurements on which the following volume tables were
based were made thruout the Valley of the St. Maurice River in
the Province of Quebec between latitude 46° 30' and 48°, and
west longitude 74° 30' and 76°, during the winter of 1910-11.
The sawyers were followed and as soon as a tree was felled
and sawed up into logs it was measured as follows : — ^height of
stump, diameter inside and outside the bark on the stump, at each
thirteen and one-half feet cut, and total length of top. Diameters
were measured to nearest millimeter, heights of stumps to nearest
centimeter and lengths of tops to nearest decimeter. Metric
measures were used as being easier to make and as facilitating
calculations. Diameter breast high, outside bark was also
measured and the trees arranged in inch classes according to
breast height diameter, f inch to f inch representing whole inch
class, i. e. trees having diameters between 6f and 7f inches were
put into the seven inch class.
For the board feet tables, the number of board feet corres-
ponding to the diameter inside the bark at the small end of each
log was taken from the official Quebec table and volumes of logs
added to get volume of tree.
The volume in cubic metres was calculated for each tree by the
following formula :
vol.=l(a+2b+2c+d)i
in which a=basal area on stump, b^basal area at first cut, c=
basal area at second cut, and d=basal area at third cut, and 1^
length of log.
To facilitate calculations, which were all done by machine, a
table was prepared giving the basal area corresponding to each
millimeter in diameter, multiplied by half the log length. Cubic
metres corresponding to the diameters could thus be taken direct
from the field sheets and added on the machine.
All the values for each inch class were then added together
590 Forestry Quarterly.
and divided by the total number of trees in that class. These
average volumes were then plotted and curves drawn from which
the values given in the tables were taken. Total heights were
averaged and plotted in the same way and final values taken from
the curves.
These tables give merchantable lengths according to local
practice, merchantable volumes and total heights corresponding;
average volumes and average heights corresponding to diameters
breast high.
I am indebted to Mr. E. H. Roberts for field measurements and
help in the calculations and to Mr, R. H. Stephenson for some of
the computations.
"Height of Trees in feet" means that no tree whose volume is given
under the figures had a total height from ground to tip of over the
larger or under the smaller figure in the heading.
"Merchantable Length (feet)" means that no tree had a merchantable
length more or less than number of feet in heading.
The Quebec log rule for small sizes as here involved is almost iden-
tical with the Scribner rule ; if anything a little more favorable.
WHITE SPRUCE, Picea Canadensis.
St. Maurice Valley, Quebec.
Volume in Cubic Feet, Merchantable, without Bark.
Average Stump Height 25" ; Diameter of Top inside Bark 4".
y^" to ^"=1" class.
Total Height of Trees (Feet)
51-61 60-66 71-80 82-91 95-100 97
Merchantable Length (Feet)
54 67.5 81 94.5 Aver. Aver. Basis
Cu. Ft. Height Trees
6.00 53.3 6
9.08 62.5 18
15.18 12.54 65.8 25
18.72 16.39 67.5 47
22.25 23.66 20.48 69.5 72
25.96 29.84 24.65 71.3 76
28.78 34.96 28.46 73.6 43
31-85 39-55 33-20 75.8 43
36.44 43-82 39.02 76.5 30
40.86 49.44 44.85 76.6 25
44.85 53.96 50.96 77.5 19
49.09 59-61 69.75 57-21 78.5 18
54.74 66.92 77.55 63.92 79.5 7
73.28 85.46 73.28 90.6 4
93.41 89.52 96.0 2
loi.io 102.76 100. 0 2
108.94 III -77 100. 0 I
116.54 119-01 115-05 99-0 I
124.69 117.84 97.0 2
D. B. H
Inches
• 27
40.5
7
5.65
9-89
8
7-42
10.59
9
10
9-53
12.54
15.18
II
17.52
12
19.60
13
14
22.53
26.31
15
16
17
18
31.43
39-02
48.38
19
20
21
22
23
24
Canadian Volume Tables.
591
WHITE SPRUCE, Picea Canadensis.
St. Maurice Valley, Quebec.
Volume in Board Feet by the Quebec Rule.
Average Stump Height 25" ; Diameter of Top
Total Height of Trees (Feet)
51-61 60-66 71-80 82-91 95-100 97
Merchantable Length (Feet)
D. B. H. 27 40. 5 54 67.5 81 94-5
Inches
7
19
38
8
24
38
9
32
44
53
10
55
69
II
65
86
97
12
76
105
131
13
90
120
154
14
III
136
171
15
132
153
191
16
173
221
17
195
245
18
208
270
19
217
309
20
353
21
470
22
511
23
596
24
643
25
666
inside
Bark 4".
Aver.
Aver. Basis
Bd. Ft. Height Trees
21
53.3
6
22
62.5
18
45
65.8
25
60
67.5
47
78
69.5
72
99
71-3
76
120
73.6
43
142
75.8
43
170
76.5
30
200
76.6
25
230
77-5
19
258
78.5
18
287
79-5
7
325
90.6
4
414
96.0
2
495
100. 0
2
610
lOO.O
I
643
99.0
I
666
97.0
2
BLACK SPRUCE, Picea Mariana.
St. Maurice Valley, Quebec.
Volume in Cube Feet.
Average Stump Height 26" ; Diameter of Top inside Bark 4".
Total Height of Trees (Feet)
46-47 55-60 64-68 76-78 81-89
Merchantable Length (Feet)
D. B. H.
13
.5
27
40.5
54
67.5
Aver.
Aver.
Basis
Inches
Cu. Ft.
Height
Trees
7
3-
53
5. 58
8.23
5.76
57
46
8
4
.84
6.96
9.64
8.23
60
61
9
8.26
11.26
10.81
63
71
10
9.22
13-42
18.05
13 60
66
52
II
16.07
20.31
17-13
69
40
12
18.89
23-45
21.36
72
14
13
21.26
26.66
25-36
75
16
14
29.77
29.13
77
10
15
33-80
33-55
78
4
16
39.16
40.36
37-79
81
2
17
41.92
41.14
81
18
43-51
43-51
81
I
19
45-77
20
48.10
592 Forestry Quarterly.
BLACK SPRUCE, Picea Mariana.
St. Maurice Valley, Quebec.
Volume in Board Feet by the Quebec Rule.
Average Stump Height 26" ; Diameter of Top inside Bark 4".
Total Height of Trees (Feet)
46-47 55-6064-68 76-78 81-89
Merchantable Length (Feet)
D. B. H. 13.5 27 40.5 54 67.5 81 94.5
6
9
15
7
12
19
29
8
19
24
35
9
29
42
10
34
50
72
II
36
60
82
12
70
95
13
14
82
108
128
15
158
16
213
17
192
18
208
19
20
Aver.
Aver.
Basis
Bd. Ft.
Height
Trees
14
54
7
20
57
46
29
60
61
39
63
71
51
66
52
65
69
40
83
72
14
102
75
16
121
77
ID
145
78
4
171
81
2
192
81
I
208
81
I
225
242
171
SPRUCE — Picea Canadensis & Mariana.
St. Maurice Valley, Quebec.
Volume in Board Feet by the Quebec Rule.
Average Stump Height 26" ; Diameter of Top inside Bark 4".
Total Height of Trees (Feet)
44-47, 52-56, 59-65, 68-78, 83-88, 96-100, 112
Merchantable Length (Feet)
Inches
Bd. Ft.
Height
Trees
6
6
15
II
54
9
D. B. H.
13-5
27
40.5
54
67.5
81 (
34-5
Aver.
Aver.
Basis
7
9
19
27
21
55
82
8
18
23
34
44
30
57
161
9
•
28
42
56
39
59
208
10
34
55
71
55
63
187
II
40
68
88
lOI
76
67
189
12
80
104
132
94
70
161
13
92
118
154
112
72
14
no
132
172
138
75
99
15
130
149
197
164
79
91
16
169
227
190
83
47
17
193
251
294
225
87
47
18
211
278
331
256
86
36
19
226
309
272
280
85
16
20
340
413
324
90
ID
21
470
414
96
2
22
5"
495
100
2
23
596
610
100
I
24
643
643
99
I
25
666
666
97
2
Canadian Volume Tables.
593
BAIySAM — Abies balsamca
St. Maurice Valley, Quebec.
Volume in Cubic Feet.
Average Stump Height, 23" ; Diameter of Top Inside Bark,
Total Height of Trees (Feet)
56-63, 63-67, 74-83, 89-91
Merchantable Length (Feet)
D. B. H.
27
40.5
54
67.5
Aver.
Aver.
Basis
Inches
Cu. Ft.
Height
Trees
7
6.00
8.47
6.71
58
140
8
7.42
10.24
1342
9-53
60
390
9
8.47
12.36
15.89
12.01
63
537
10
9.89
14.12
18.72
14.48
66
350
11
10.59
16.60
21.54
18.01
68
208
12
11.65
18.36
24.72
21.54
70
108
13
20.83
27.90
28.96
25.78
73
58
14
22.60
31 .08
41-32
3i.o8
76
63
15
24.72
3496
48.30
34.61
79
19
16
37.08
50.50
39-90
83
I
17
40.96
52.62
44.50
3
19
44.14
48.38
I
BALSAM — Abies balsatnea
St. Maurice Valley, Quebec.
Volume in Board Feet by the Quebec Rule.
Average Stump Height, 23" ; Diameter
Total Height of Trees (Feet)
39-52 56-63 63-67 73-83 89-91
Merchantable Length (Feet)
of Top Inside Bark, 4".
B.H.
nches
13-5
27
40.5
54
67.5
Aver.
Bd. Ft.
Aver.
Height
Basis
Trees
6
9
12
12
49
15
7
II
20
29
23
60
139
8
13
26
37
50
33
63
347
9
15
29
46
62
44
66
541
10
34
57
75
57
68
355
II
51
67
90
73
70
213
12
85
75
106
91
73
108
13
84
123
147
112
76
59
14
95
^37
175
133
79
65
15
107
154
203
159
83
19
16
172
233
189
83
I
17
189
262
211
82
3
18
206
222
I
19
232
20
244
21
255
22
266
594
Forestry Quarterly.
WHITE mnZ—Pinus Strobus
St. Maurice Valley, Quebec.
Volume in Board Feet, Quebec Rule.
Average Stump Height, :^2" ;
Total Height of Trees (Feet)
60 62-86 71-100
Merchantable Length (Feet)
D. B. H. 27
Inches
Diameter of Top Inside Bark, 8".
96-100
10
II
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
^2
24
25
26
27
56
40.5
54
67.5
Aver.
Aver.
Basis
Bd. Ft.
Height
Trees
54
69
99
84
76.5
3
104
106
70.7
4
112
163
130
69.2
3
131
193
160
71-3
2
159
221
192
69.7
2
204
242
224
77.0
6
276
252
250
81.8
I
353
272
293
284
90.7
3
433
330
336
342
91. 1
8
381
388
384
0
411
444
411
95-3
3
438
438
93-4
2
479
479
0
520
520
0
562
562
603
99.4
I
CURRENT LITERATURE.
Phytogeographic Survey of North America. By John W.
Harshberger. Leipzig and New York. 191 1. Pp. 790, plates
18, figures 32, map i.
The book with the above title is Volume 13 of Die Vegetation
der Erde series of Engler and Drude. The contents of the
volume are divided into four parts. Part first : History and
Literature of the Botanic Work and Explorations of the North
American Continent. Part second : Geographic, Climatic and
Floristic Survey. Part third : Geologic Evolution, Theoretic
Considerations and Statistics of the Distribution of North Ameri-
can Plants. Part fourth : North American Phytogeographic
Regions, Formations, Associations.
The geographical, historical and theoretical considerations, ex-
clusive of the very complete index, occupy approximately one-half
of the volume. From these one might select some interesting
speculations. For example, there were three great waves of
vegetation after the retreat of the ice sheet, being in order of
progress, the peat bog, the tundra and the coniferous forest. The
northern extension of the conifers in the West was much slower
in point of time than in the East, because of the longer continu-
ance of local glaciation. That is to say, the boreal climate per-
sisted so much longer in the West that the coniferous forest had
time thoroughly to establish itself over the whole region before
the present climatic conditions obtained. Once established it
held the ground by mere pre-emption.
The author describes the probable advance of the members of
the Atlantic Forest from their post-glacial centre of distribution
in the Southern Alleghanies. His order of northern extension,
however, does not correspond with the northern limits of the
same species as given in Sargent's "Manual," or in the publi-
cations of Canadian botanists. He believes that the Bald Cypress,
Longleaf Pine and the Loblolly Pine came down from the hills
to the westward and occupied the Costal Plain.
The treelessness of the prairies is due, according to the author,
to the previous pre-emption of the soil by the matted grasses, and
596 Forestry Quarterly.
to the natural compactness of the prevailing loess. It would
seem that Schimper, and other foreign botanists, had a clearer
conception of the conditions in the treeless region for they per-
ceived the floristic and ecological differentiation of the great
plains and the prairies which the present author has failed to do,
since he uses the two terms interchangeably.
It is, however, by the phytogeographical discussions that the
value of the present volume will be judged. The author states that
the classification of the North American continent into zones and
sections is to demark geographical locations, while the regions,
districts, areas and formations differentiate natural phytogeo-
graphical entities. With this statement clearly in mind, let us,
proceed to analyse Harshberger's conception of such distributional
groups of vegetation.
The subarctic forest region of North Canada and Alaska is sub-
divided into the Labrador District, the Hudson Bay-Keewatin
District, the McKenzie District and the Alaska District. With
the exception of the last, where Pinus murrayana is substituted
for P. banksiana, and Abies lasiocarpa for A. balsamea, these
divisions seem to be merely geographical, at least so far as the
forest trees are concerned, and the differences in the other vege-
tation are not made clear in the text. The Atlantic section of
the north temperate zone is divided into three regions, namely:
the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes Region; the Atlantic-Gulf Coast
Region and the Piedmont-Appalachian-Ozark Plateau-Mountain
Region. The St. Lawrence-Great Lakes Region is further sub-
divided into the Maritime District and the Lake District. Practi-
cally the whole of New England and that portion of Canada south
of the subarctic forest and east of the Ottawa River are included
under the "Maritime District," while the region west to the prairies
is comprehended in the Lake District. By this arrangement the
forests of the Adirondacks and of the Green Mountains, practi-
cally identical in their composition, are placed in different phyto-
geographical entities. Surely this must be merely a geographic
division.
The New Brunswick Area, a subdivision of the Maritime Dis-
trict, is made to include : "The northern portions of Maine, New
Hampshire, and Vermont (including their mountain ranges), its
southern boundary being determined by the southern limit of
Pinus banksiana, Picea alba, as well as the northern limit of the
Current Literature. 597
tulip poplar, Liriodendron tulipifera" (p. 361). The southern
limit of Piniis banksiana in Maine is Penobscot Bay and that of
Picea alba, Casco Bay, points that can be located in "The northern
portion of Maine" only by one woefully careless in his statements.
If the sentence quoted above be taken literally, the northern limits
of Liriodendron should be found in the northern portions of the
three states mentioned. According to Sargent's, and other tree
manuals, the northern limits of the Tulip, in England, may be ap-
proximately determined by drawing a line from the northeast
corner of Rhode Island to the southwest corner of Vermont. If
this were the southern limit of the New Brunswick Area, then
the forests of White Oak, Black Oak, Chestnut and the hickories
of southeastern Vermont and eastern Massachusetts would be
placed in the same phytogeographical entity with those of New
Brunswick where none of these species occur! If the southern
limit of the Banksian Pine were the boundary, then the greater
portion of the Green Mountains and the White Mountains would
be excluded from the New Brunswick Area, a thing which the
author did not do, as shown by the parenthesis, "including their
mountain ranges" in the first sentence of this paragraph.
If, as Harshberger states, the forests of New Brunswick and
Nova Scotia are identical, he may give an erroneous impression
of both, but he surely does for those of Nova Scotia (p. 362). The
mixed forest is the prevailing type, but Sugar Maple and Paper
Birch are not the dominant members. Taking the Province as a
whole, the Beech is more prevalent than the Sugar Maple and the
Yellow Birch is more abundant than the Paper Birch. And, more-
over, the conifers (Red Spruce, Balsam and Hemlock) and not
the hardwoods are the dominant members of the mixed type.
The author must have been only looking at the peat bogs and their
low separating sandy ridges when he got the idea that Black
Spruce, White Pine and Larch were the controlling members of
the forest in Minas Basin (p. 364). The only place specifically
mentioned in Minas Basin is Grand Pre, and this is unfortunate
from the standpoint of forest description for, as the name sug-
gests, the place is a prairie. The forests in sight, however, on the
tops of the adjacent mountain ranges, are of the mixed type with
Red Spruce and Balsam predominating. The description of
other places mentioned in Nova Scotia are nearly as far from
59^ Forestry Quarterly.
the mark. In order to get a correct impression of the Nova
Scotia forests, one must get away from the main routes of travel.
In discussing the formation of Mt. Washington, the author
makes this statement: "South of the northern forest mentioned,
the flora belongs to the New England Area, but it may be stated
here that some of the southern species like the White Oak,
Quercus alba, and the Red Oak, Qncrcus rubra, here reached
their northern limits and mingled with those more characteristic of
the north" (p. 374). It is to be hoped that he had in mind only
the state of New Hampshire for then the statement will not be in
such glaring contradiction to the well-known facts that the White
Oak extends as far north as the city of Quebec, and that the Red
Oak reaches the Hudson Bay watershed in Ontario and Lake St.
John in Quebec. The statement in regard to the White Oak,
however, is repeated further along in the text. (See the next
paragraph.)
The phytogeographic conception of the New England Area,
the second subdivision of the Maritime District, is as confused as
that of the New Brunswick Area for the author says : "The
flora of this area is characterized by the absence of Picea alba,
etc." In the very next paragraph, however, he gives the White
Spruce as one of the characteristic species of his first subdivision
of the Area, namely. Sea Island (coast of Maine). To quote
further: "But its (New England Area) chief characterization
depends on the presence of such trees as Quercus alba, Q. prin-
oides, Q. coccinea, Juniperus virginiana and Castanea dcntata,
which here reached their northern limit," etc. (p. 378.) For the
northern limit of Quercus alba, see the paragraph above. Q.
prinoides never becomes a tree in New England and is unknown
in Maine. Quercus coccinea and Castanea dentata are found
only in the southeastern part of Maine, yet according to the
author's delimitation of the New Brunswick Area (p. 361), nearly
the whole of the state is included in the New England Area.
The Lake District of the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes Region is
subdivided into the Lacustrine Area and the Adirondack Area.
As stated above, the Maritime District is defined as extending
westward to Lake Champlain and the Ottawa River. One would
expect, since the Ottawa River is its western boundary, that
Quebec province belonged to the Maritime District, but its flora
is discussed under the head of the Lake District !
Current Literature. 599
The reviewer has pointed out the author's inaccuracies only for
those regions with which he is famihar. It is to be hoped that
they are not so frequent in other portions of the book. While
appreciating the difficulties of the task, the careful reader of the
volume can hardly refrain from wishing that the author had more
thoroughly digested his data and more critically read his manu-
script before publication. The work under review may be an
example of the present unfortunate tendency to rush into print
without proper preparation, owing to the existing standards of
valuation in academic life which make publication rather than
the quality of teaching the criterion of success.
C. D. H.
Windbreaks: Their Influence and Value. By Charles G.
Bates. Bulletin 86, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C.
191 1. Pp. 100.
The Forest Service has conducted experiments to obtain data
on the influence of windbreaks upon the atmospheric and soil
conditions which affect the growth of plants. The object of the
author's investigations was to find out whether the combined
protective and timber value of windbreaks were equal to the value
of field crops which might be grown on the area occupied by the
trees. The Bulletin is divided into four parts whose headings
are : A synopsis of Conditions ; Measurement of Physical Fac-
tors ; Direct Results of Windbreak Planting — Timber Yields ;
Summary.
In the second part, we find that the amount of light used by
trees in the north-south row is considerably greater than that
taken up by trees arranged in east-west lines and the shading is
not only greater in volume but greater in extent. This is due to
the fact that north-south windbreaks receive sunlight from one
side or the other during about two-thirds of the day, while in the
east-west row, especially in midsummer, the shadows fall outside
of the area covered by the branches. Crops adjacent to a north-
south row will, therefore, suffer more from shading than those
adjacent to an east-west windbreak. The author recommends the
east-west arrangement in the middle West where most of the
winds are northerly or southerly and in the northern prairies and
Lake States, the north-south rows.
6oo Forestry Quarterly
The probable competition for water between the roots of trees
and the roots of crops was only approximated by determining"
the average root extent of the various species used for wind-
breaks. Contrary to the general opinion, it was found that the
Cottonwood has the least extensive roots of any of the broadleaf
species and hence has the least power to damage crops in dry
seasons. In regard to the efficiency of windbreaks in checking
evaporation, the author states that the area protected is pro-
portional to the height and density of the windbreak and the
distance to which protection is felt increases with the velocity of
the wind. The protection is appreciable to a distance equal to
five times the height in the windward direction and to fifteen or
twenty times the height to the leeward. The windbreak in
extreme cases, may save 70% of the moisture ordinarily lost by
evaporation. Portions of certain wheat fields in the protection of
windbreaks showed a gain in yield of 60% over the general aver-
age of the entire field.
In respect to temperature, the author makes this statement:
"Other conditions being equal, both the highest maximum temper-
ture at midday and the lowest minimum temperature at night are
found at the same point relative to the windbreak and exceed
about equally (in this case about 4^° F.) the maximum and
minimum temperatures in the open." (p. 58.) A windbreak, ac-
cording to the author, produces a hot house condition on a large
scale, and once it reduces evaporation at the same time, its total in-
fluence is clearly favorable to vegetation. A cornfield in Nebraska
on the north side of a dense windbreak 38 feet high, made a yield
in the 18 rows nearest the windbreak at the rate of 18 bushels per
acre greater than the general average of the unprotected portions.
Similar results are shown in the case of orchards. In a season
which had been preceded by three frosts in May, twenty-eight out
of thirty unprotected orchards gave a yield ranging from less than
one to three pecks per tree. Partially protected orchards gave an
average yield per tree of one-half bushel to three bushels, while
well protected orchards in the same locality gave an average yield
of 4.9 bushels. The value of the windbreak in this case is given
as four-fifths the value of the orchard per acre over a belt ten
times as wide as the height of the windbreak.
Practically all of the author's investigations point to the con-
clusion that windbreaks pay for themselves, without considering
Current Literature. 60 1
their fuel or timber value, by the increased yield of crops due to
their protection.
The Bulletin closes with recommendations for the proper
species in different soils in the various regions of the United
States.
C. D. H.
Forest Conditions of Illinois. By R. Clifford Hall and O. D.
Ingall. Bulletin, Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History,
Volume 9, Article 4. Urbana, Illinois. 191 1. Pp. 175-253.
The survey leading to the present report was made by the
Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History in co-operation with
the Forest Service, and is based upon investigations conducted in
the winter and spring of 1910. For purposes of description and
authors divide the State into the Northern District and the South-
ern District, the dividing line being approximately the southern
limit of the middle Illinoisan and early Wisconsin glacial drift,
being roughly located by a line running from St. Louis to Shelby-
ville and thence east to the northeastern corner of Clark County.
South of this drift margin, the State was originally chiefly forest
with little prairie, while north of it the region was chiefly prairie
with little forest.
The Southern District is divided into the Bottomland type, the
Upland Hill type and the Upland Plain type, while the Northern
District contains only two types, namely, the Bottomland type and
the Upland type. The composition of each type with its vari-
ations in different localities is given in detail, including tables
giving the composition percentage for each county studied. From
these tables it is shown that the Bottomland type of the southern
counties is controlled by Pin Oak, Sweet Gum, Elm and Hickory,
while that type in the northern counties is dominated by Elm, Soft
Maple, Cottonwood and Willow. The Upland Hill type is an
extension of the Ozark Plateau of Missouri and is dominated by
Black, Spanish, Red, White, Post and Chinquapin oaks, which
form 60% of the stand. In many places, the drier slopes and
upper south slopes are controlled by the Post Creek, mixed with
Black-jack Oak, Black Oak and Pignut Hickory. The Upland
Plain type is characterized by oak-hickory associations on well-
drained undulating country having a yellow-gray or a yellow silt
6o2 Forestry Quarterly,
loam soil and by the post-oak association on poorly drained
shallow light gray silt loam having a light clay subsoil. The
forests of the northern Upland type are similar to the oak-hickory
type of the southern region but are characterized by an increase
in proportion of Basswood, Black Walnut and Sugar Maple. As
the extreme North is reached, the presence of Aspen, Black Birch,
Paper Birch and the sporadic occurrence of White Pine mark the
overlapping of the more northern tree associations.
The present forest area of Illinois is estimated at two million
acres, or 5^% of the total land area.
The considerations outlined above occupy approximately one-
half of the bulletin, the remaining half being concerned with such
subjects as ownership and taxation, timber industries and forest
management. We find that 115 million feet, exclusive of fuel,
post and ties, were cut in the State in 1909.
It is unfortunate that a deficiency of funds did not allow the
publication of the map of forest types which was submitted by
the authors but not published.
C. D. H.
The Blister Rust of White Pine. By Perley Spaulding. Bulle-
tin 206, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 88.
The issuing at this time of an exhaustive bulletin on the "blister
rust of the white pine" seems to be timely, for legislation aided
by the intelligent co-operation of importers of pine seedlings,
promises to prevent this pest, which has made such serious
ravages in Europe, from getting a foothold in America. The
fungus itself, is probably native to Eurasia, where it has been
long known. It passes its life history on two hosts, the aecidial
stage on some few species of pines (possibly originally on Pinus
cembra only) and the uredo — and teleuto — stages or various
species of currents and gooseberries (26 species of Ribes in all,
and none is known to be immune). The attention of Europeans
was first seriously directed to this disease by the damage wrought
to white pine, which has been so great in many places as to
actually interfere with its successful culture. The blister rust
fungus is essentially a bark disease of seedling pines and young
branches of older trees. It reveals its presence by swellings of
Current Literature. 603
infected portions of the stem, and by the appearance on these
regions first of blister-like patches of bark, which soon crack, per-
mitting the escape of small drops of a sweet, sticky, colorless
fluid, and later of yellowish-white pustules, aecidial fructifications.
Diseased seedlings and young trees are usually killed by the
fungus. Once a seedling or tree is infected there is no known
way of eradicating the disease without destroying the host. The
five-leaved pines are peculiarly susceptible.
In order to guard against the establishment of the disease in
America, it is recommended that importation of European stock
be stopped or permitted only by special license, that Ribes stock
be inspected, and, if suspected, planted at least 500 feet from the
nearest white pines, and finally that diseased plants, whether of
Ribes or Pinus, be rooted out and burned. It is of interest to
note that the Canadian government have already adopted pre-
cautionary regulations relative to imported European nursery
stock. The bulletin closes with a complete bibliography on the
subject.
J. H. F.
The Timber Rot Caused by Lenzites sepiaria. By Perley
Spaulding. Bulletin 214, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 46.
Lenzites sepiaria (Wulf.) Fr. is cosmopolitan, having been re-
ported from every continent in the world. In the United States
alone, it is estimated that about one-quarter of the structural
timber brought into use annually is attacked by this fungus. Its
attacks are all but restricted to coniferous woods, and of these
few, if any, are immune. Lenzites is a saprophyte; there is no
clear record of its occurrence at any time on living wood. The
disease is mainly disseminated by means of spores, which are pro-
duced in vast numbers by the fruiting bodies. These infect the
wood mainly through season cracks or checks. Interesting details
are given in the article relative to the development of the fruiting
body, germination of the spores, methods of culture of the fungus,
inoculations of sound timber, and the gross and microscopic ap-
pearance of the affected wood. There is also a review of the
factors favorable to the growth of wood-rotting fungi, with which
everyone having anything to do with the handling of timber
6o4 forestry Quarterly.
should be acquainted, and on which methods of preservation are
based. In order to prevent decay caused by Lenzites the follow-
ing advice is given: (i) cutting during late summer, fall and
winter; (2) floating of timber; (3) good drainage of ground on
which the wood is used; (4) rapid seasoning followed by painting
with preservative substances; (5) the use of composite timbers
instead of single large ones. But the most effective way is by
treatment with solution of chemicals of which creosote is the best.
The collection and burning of the decayed wood is also advisable.
An exhaustive bibliography is appended.
J. H. F.
A Biologic and Taxonomic Study of the Genus Gymnospor-
angium. By F. D. Kern. Bulletin 26, New York Botanical
Garden, Volume VII, 191 1. Pp. 392-494.
Part I deals briefly with problems of distribution, culture
methods, life histories and pathological phenomena. The attacks
of these fungi on apple, pear, and quince trees are sometimes so
severe as to cause considerable damage. Orchardists have tried
spraying, but with very indififerent results. The conifers affected
belong exclusively to the genera Juniperus, Chamaecyparis,
Lihocedrus and Cupressus. Part II is an important contribution
to the taxonomy of the genus, successfully attempting as it does
"to present a systematic treatment of all the species known to
occur in any part of the world." Forty species in all are de-
scribed. Complete analytic keys and an extensive bibliography
constitute a valuable part of the paper.
J. H. F.
Volatilisation of Various Fractions of Creosote after their
Injection into Wood. By C. H. Teesdale. Circular 188, U. S.
Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory Series. Washington,
D. C. 191 1. Pp.5.
In this experiment, forty-eight specimens of sap loblolly pine
were treated with five fractions of creosote obtained by redistil-
ling a good commercial grade of coal-tar creosote. Weekly
weighings determined the volatilization, other experiments show-
ing that the loss in weight was not related to the moisture con-
Current Literature. 605
tent of the pieces. One set of specimens was treated with creo-
sote similar in composition (as shown by fractional distillation)
to the creosote from which the fractions were obtained.
The results indicated that "the lig-hter fractions of creo-
sote, when separated by distillation and separately injected into
sap loblolly pine, will volatilize much more rapidly than the frac-
tions combined in the original creosote. This might be explained
by the supposition that when creosote containing both low-boil-
ing and high-boiling oils is injected into wood, the light oils
volatilize chiefly in the outer portions of the wood and leave oil
that is much less volatile. The outer cells thus become more or
less sealed and tend to prevent the volatilization of the lighter oils
in the interior of the wood.
"It is possible that with a light treatment, where the ducts and
cells are not filled with creosote, but the cell walls are simply
coated with oil, the tendency here noted would be very much less
apparent. Nevertheless, it may be inferred that a creosote, to
be of most value, at least for treating loblolly pine, should con-
tain considerable quantities of high-boiling fractions, which ap-
pear to plug up the outer cells, and so insure the retention of the
lighter oils in the interior of the wood."
Biennial Report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment
Station, igop-igio. Part XI: Report of the State Forester.
New Haven, Connecticut. 191 1. Pp. 775-804.
This report deals entirely with forest fires and is a resume of the
progress made during 1909-1910. The present number of town
and district fire wardens is given as 605, with an average district
of 2,480 acres. A marked increase in efficiency of wardens from
year to year is noted, especially in the matter oif organizing to pre-
vent and quickly suppress fires. The use of simple fire fighting ap-
paratus, especially bucket pumps for one or for two men, is advo-
cated, and is made possible by the absence of mountain topography
and abundance of running water. A cut is shown of the two-
man bucket pump. This has been of use both in extinguishing
light fires and in controlling back fires in a heavier blaze. The
report discusses the question of railroad fires and methods of
control, and the operation of the brush burning permit law.
H. H. C.
6o6 Forestry Quarterly.
Sixth Annual Report of the Forest Park Reservation Commis-
si\on of New Jersey, for the Year Ending October ^i, igio.
Patterson, N. J. 1910. Pp. 74.
The subject of forest fires is given full discussion. The con-
clusion is reached that the State should supplement her present
system of town wardens by employing state patrolmen to devote
their whole time to the work of fire prevention. An exceptional
record is shown of convictions secured for violation of fire laws,
but it is held that without the above modifications, the present
system will not successfully prevent fires. The state forest re-
serves aggregate 13,720 acres, and will not be increased until
better fire protection has been made possible. Co-operative work
with individuals, and shade tree work is touched upon. The sug-
gestions regarding extra state wardens were acted upon by the
legislature, and six division fire wardens were created, thus giving
New Jersey an organization resembling that of such states as
Minnesota, Maine and New York, where great efficiency has been
reached in fire prevention.
H. H. C.
Relation of Light Chipping to the Commercial Yield of Naval
Stores. By Charles H. Herty. Bulletin 90, U. S. Forest Ser-
vice. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 36.
This bulletin contains an account of recent experiments made
by the U. S. Government to conserve the naval stores industry of
the South. Experiments begun in 1902 demonstrated so con-
clusively the superiority of the cup and gutter system over the old
and destructive box method that the commercial introduction of
the system resulted.
The next important feature of turpentining presenting itself for
investigation was in regard to the proper depth, width and height
of the wound made on a tree in chipping. Some of the results of
the comparative experiments conducted on a commercial scale
under normal conditions demonstrate that combined shallow and
narrow chipping increase the yield ; that the number of trees
killed is decreased ; and that the damage to the lumber in the butt
cut of chipped trees is reduced. Light cupping, that is, restrict-
ing the operation to timber over twelve inches in diameter, and
Current Literature. 607
closely limiting the number of cups per tree, has proved to be
highly advantageous since it prolongs the period during which a
crop can be worked and by exempting the young trees prevents
the exhaustion of the timber available for turpentining in future,
thus assuring stability and perpetuity to the naval store industry.
The author refers to the so-called "secondary resin ducts which
pour out crude turpentine over the wounded surface as a healing
balsam." In this connection the investigations of' Dr. Simon
Kirsch* are interesting. They appear to show conclusively that
the vertical strands of cells containing the resin ducts are the
same in character as the rays and perform the same primary
functions, viz: the conduction of elaborated foodstuffs to the
growing wood cells and the storage of food ; that the duct is
merely an intercellular space of schizogenous origin and owes its
existence to the different tensions present in the various elements
of the tissues; and that resin is excreted (not secreted) during the
vital processes of both the ray cells and their counterparts — the
vertical parenchyma cells, and is not a substance manufactured
especially for antiseptic purposes, or in traumatic phenomena for
healing wounds. The wounding due to chipping stimulates the
vital processes at the seat of injury and greatly increases the by-
product— resin; and in consequence there is an increase in the
number of ducts or passages necessary to contain it. The phe-
nomena which the author of this bulletin cites as confirmation of
the other theory are in entire harmony with the view just cited
and which to the reviewer seems the more likely.
S. J. R.
Proceedings of the Third Annual Session of the Pacific Log-
ging Congress. Compiled and issued by the Timberman, Port-
land, Oregon. Pp. 68. Illustrations 121.
A valuable publication containing many papers of great in-
terest to both loggers and foresters. One of these deals with the
Regulations Governing the Removal of Timber from the U. S.
National Forests ; another with British Columbia's Forest Policy ;
* The Origin and Development of Resin Canals in the Coniferae, witJh
Special Reference to the Development of Thyloses and their Correlation
with the Thylosal Strands of the Pteridophytes.
Paper presented before the Royal Society of Canada at Ottawa, May,
1911.
6o8 Forestry Quarterly.
and there are two papers dealing with logging conditions in
British Columbia.
Other subjects dealt with are the Construction of Logging
Engine Fire Boxes ; Increased Life and Efficiency of Donkey
Boilers which are kept covered ; The Use of Three-Drum Don-
keys in Redwood Logging; The Part Played by Wire Rope
Makers in the Development of the Logging Industry; Causes of
Inefficient Service Charged to Wire Rope ; Gasoline Logging
Engines ; The Adaptation of Electric Energy to Logging and
How to Obtain the Best Results. There are also papers dealing
with the probability of the loggers becoming large users of
electric energy and the use of electric lighting in the camps.
Overhead Cable- Way Systems are dealt with at considerable
length in no less than four admirable papers. The necessity of
railroads for the future development of the logging industry in
Montana is dealt with, and there are two good papers dealing with
the subject of Topographic Maps for the Laying Out or Logging
Railways. On the subject of Cable Locomotives on Steep Grades
there are two papers, and there is one dealing with Objections to
Compressed Air. The subject of keeping systematic logging camp
records is dealt with in an admirable fashion and shorter papers
deal with methods of increasing camp efficiency by the creation
of better sanitary conditions, etc.
The subject of Personal Liability Legislation created consid-
erable discussion, as did also that of Forest Fire Legislation.
Timberland Taxation did not come in for its usual share of at-
tention. Other papers dealt with such subjects as the Need
for Uniform Methods of Grading Logs: The Charpitting of
Stumps ; The Profitable Utilization of By-Products of Camp and
Mill ; and the Development of Logged-Off Land.
A. H. D. R.
Timber Bonds. By T. S. McGrath. Chicago, 111. 1911. Pp.
504-
This volume deals with a subject comparatively new in the
United States. Timber bonds were first issued in the country in
1902 by Southern lumbermen to provide funds for the develop-
ment of their property, which would not be callable at short notice
and which could be repaid as fast as the product offered as
Current Literature. 609
security, was marketed. Since 1902 many bond issues have been
floated, some of them sound, some unsound.
The author aims in the present book to bring out the different
phases of timber bonds and to provide sufficient information to
guide prospective purchasers past unsafe investments. A large
part of the book is taken up with two sample trust deeds and
copies of bond circulars.
The author appears to have furnished but little original material
for the work, but it is of interest to those desirous of learning
something of timber bond issues.
The volume closes with a chapter on "Words and Phrases"
taken from Bulletin No. 61 of the Bureau of Forestry. This
contains the terms used in forestry and logging arranged in alpha-
betical order and is for the purpose of supplementing the vocabu-
lary of bond agents when selling their wares.
The author would have better met the needs of such men by
eliminating the technical forest terms from his list, since very few
lumbermen or bond purchasers are conversant with them.
R. C. B.
The Bradley Bibliography. A Guide to the Literature of the
Woody Plants of the World, published before the beginning of
the Twentieth Century. Volume I, Dendrology. Part /. Com-
piled at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, under the
direction of Charles Sprague Sargent. By Alfred Rehder.
Cambridge, Mass. 191 1.
This bibliography is intended to contain the titles of all publi-
cations relating wholly or in part to woody plants, including
books, pamphlets and articles in periodicals and other serials in
all languages published up to the end of 1900.
The work will be published in five parts, of which the first, on
dendrology, is now available. The second volume will contain
references to literature on woody plants restricted to a particular
family, genus or species. Volume HI will deal with the economic
products and uses of woody plants, and with arboriculture. The
fourth volume will be devoted to forestry, and the fifth will con-
tain an alphabetical index to all titles enumerated in these four
volumes.
The author has spent more than ten years in the exploration of
6io
Forestry Quarterly,
the principal libraries in the United States and Europe, and has
brought together a most valuable reference list.
Volume I on Dendrology is classified by subjects and is the most
comprehensive work of its character yet published.
The coming volumes will be awaited with great interest.
R. C. B.
Output and Consumption of Forest Products in the United
States for the year ipop. U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service.
This is an interesting compilation showing at a glance on small
maps the distribution in quantity of the single items of forest pro-
ducts ; in the various states, 14 maps being combined into one
LUMBER
CONSUMPTION or njLFWOOO
CD
CD
mm
LESS THSn 29,000 COHOS
25,000 TO 50,000 COKOS
50,000 TO 100,000 00HD8
100,000 TO 500,000 OOBO8
OVER 500.000 00B08
I I LESS THAN 100,000 M FEET
F-''-?] 100,000 M TO 600,000 M rEET
(0^ 600,000 M TO 1,000,000 M FEET
^^ 1,000,000 M TO 2,000,000 M recT
^B 2,000,000 M TO 3,000,000 M FEET
BB oven s, 500,000 M feet
sheet. A similar sheet showing distribution of lumber production
by species has also lately been prepared. We reproduce the two
maps showing the production of lumber and consumption of pulp-
wood, the two most important items.
Die Rotbuche. Wirtschaftliche und. statische Untersuchungen
der forstlichen Abteilung der Hauptstation des forstlichen Ver-
suchswesens in Eberswalde. Von Dr. Adam Schwappach, 191 1.
Pp. 231.
This very important contribution not only to the silvicultural
management of the beech and silviculture in general, but to the
Current Literature. 6ii
methods of investigation discusses the influence of the method of
treatment on increment and profitableness of the species, all based
on extensive tabulations of measurement.
The most valuable basis is furnished by an area for 36 years —
from the 48th to the 84th year — under systematic management by
thinnings in three different degrees of severity. During this
period of 36 years the total volume production with light, medium
and severe thinning was 7,823, 8,483, and 8,420 cubic feet respec-
tively, showing the moderate thinning most effective.
In another case, the performance with the severe thinning was
the same as that with moderate thinning.
Generally speaking, Schwappach finds that between the limits of
a cross section area of 225 and 265 cubic inches lies the optimum
of the increment of beech. Schiffel in reviewing the work and
combining the data differently, namely making allowance for dif-
ference of conditions of stands at the beginning of the investi-
gations, finds that this statement in its generality is not always
borne out. Schiffel's tabulation seems to prove that, as with
other species, the open position, if the opening does not exceed the
limit of the ability of the stand to close up again without regard
to age or cross section, does not produce more volume than the
close position. The opening produces merely an improvement in
quality and value increment.
Other deductions are, that the current volume increment under
proper treatment can be maintained for decades at about the same
amount (see same for pine, F. Q., Vol. VI, p. 432), and that it
is even in older age higher than has been usually believed; that
larger intermediary returns from thinnings without damage to
the stand can be secured than has usually been assumed. Based
on these experiences yield tables for open and usual density are
constructed.
Schiffel throws some doubt on these tables also, and thinks
that the intermediary harvests are stated too high.
B. E. F.
Au Pays Landais. Par J. H. Ricard. 191 1. Pp. 250.
This is a full history of the remarkable reclamation work of the
Landes in south-western France, their past and present condition,
and proposals for their proper management.
6l2
Forestry Quarterly.
It appears that Bremontier, who is usually recognized as the
father of this reclamation work, was preceded by Baron Charle-
voix de Villiers and by M. Desbiey. The last mentioned had as
early as the year 1776 first proposed the use of the Maritime Pine
and had planted it in various places.
De Villiers, an engineer, was the first to claim the fixation of
the sand dunes as necessary for the protection of the pine plan-
tations which he recommended for the reclamation of the Landes.
He never had a chance to put his propositions into action. Nor
did Bremontier quite solve the problem of the dunes. It was
Peychan who invented the idea of the front dune and of the
mechanical covering of the shifting sands.
The largest amount of the work of establishing the pineries was,
however, called forth when the war of the rebellion stopped the
naval store supplies from the United States, and prices for these
rose to four times their present average. Some one and three-
quarter million acres were planted with Maritime Pine.
These pineries, as far as managed by the State, only 130,000
acres, are under a rotation of 75 to 80 years, which will probably
be reduced to 60 years, in 5-year periods. In the periodic age
classes I to IV (1-20 years) weedings go on; in the areas V to IX
(20-45 years) all trees which interfere with the development of
the main stand are bled to death {gemmage a niort), and, of
course, removed in thinnings. In the older age classes X to XIII
(45-65 years) only the smaller trees are bled to death, the others
are carefully bled. The last age class (70-75 years) is bled to
death in five years, and a clearing is then made, natural regener-
ation having been secured in the last years.
Private owners who control the bulk of the area, and corpor-
ations work under no such well planned management, their inter-
est centers in the largest rosin production.
The conservative method of bleeding with the use of pots was
devised by Hughes de Tarnos in 1844, but did not find general ap-
plication until much later. The bleeding begins when trees are
only 6 inches in diameter; 1,000 pines furnishing 6 to 10 casks
(chalosse) of 340 liter, worth usually 70 francs, in 1907 over 112
francs.
Mine props furnish the most important return freight for
English trading vessels from Bordeaux, over 50 per cent, of the
Current Literature. 613
export trade from that harbor being the products of these
pineries.
B. E. F.
Indian Forester, July, igii.
An unsigned article on "Pensions" reviews and criticises the
present scale and system of Indian Forest Service pensions. The
writer beheves that after retirement a European pension of £500
is too small and advocates pensions after a definite age limit rather
than after a period of years service. Assuming the average
forest officer to enter at twenty-three years, it is recommended
that the retiring age be placed at forty-eight with a possibility of
continuing service in meritorious cases provided that additional
pension funds can be secured. The new plan advocates con-
tinuing an officer's service say to the age of 55 with the maximum
pension for Conservators at ^750, for Chief Conservators at £800
and for Inspector Generals at £850.
A reprint from the "Pioneer" entitled "Provincial Forest Ser-
vice" gives the new regulations in regard to the pay of the Pro-
vincial Forest Service.
"Influence of Forests on Atmospheric and Soil Moisture" indi-
cates that the Government of India is considering experiments to
determine :
"The local differences in the rainfall, temperature and humidity
inside and outside forest areas."
"The local differences in the level of the underground water
table in areas near to, and far from, forest lands, respectively."
"The local differences in the height and duration of floods after
similar amounts and durations of rainfall in channels fed from
forest and non-forest areas, respectively."
The article is concluded by a note by Dr. G. T. Walker on the
effect of forests on climate and rainfall.
"Want of a Definite Forest Policy in Burma" makes a plea for
the establishment of a definite forest policy and particularly
emphasizes present abuses. The writer urges the establishment of
experimental forest gardens, closer regulation of the annual cut,
provincial schemes for roads, closer forest preservation, restric-
tion of cultivation, better regulation of improvement work on
forests not under working plans and in addition the creation of
6i4 Forestry Quarterly.
a staff to assist in forest engineering, marking of timber and col-
lection of revenue.
"Review of Forest Administration in British India for the year
1908-1909" (with a quinquennial summary) is an appreciation of
the work initiated and carried out by Inspector General Eardley-
Wilmot during five years of his service as inspector general. It
appears that progress has been made in securing better salaries,
more permanent improvement work, better fire protection, larger
grazing facilities, increased value of minor forest products and an
increase in the annual net revenue.
Under the title "Fire Protection of Chir Forests" is a note by
M. R. K. Jerram calling attention to the fire damage and a letter
from V. A. Stowell advocating regulated burning.
The issue, in addition, contains the usual correspondence, and
notes on shooting.
T. S. W., Jr.
OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE.
Calif orrvia Tanbark Oak: Part I. Tanbark Oak and the Tan-
ning Industry, by W. L. Jepson; Part II. Utilization of the
Wood of Tanbark Oak, by H. S. Betts ; Part III. Distribution
of Tannin in Tanbark Oak, by C. D. Mell. Bulletin 75, U. S.
Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 34.
Shows how the complete product — wood as well as bark — may
be utilized, with a view to discourage the present waste.
Grazing and Floods: A Study of Conditions in the Manti
National Forest, Utah. By R. V. R. Reynolds. Bulletin 91, U.
S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 16.
Leads to the conclusion that the floods in this region have been
due to overgrazing in the Forest.
Scrub Pine, (P. virginiana). By W. D. Sterrett. Bulletin 94,
U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 27.
A monograph dealing with the silvical character, characteristics
of the wood, silvicultural management, etc.
Uses of Commercial Woods of the United States: II. Pines.
Other Current Literature. 615
By W. L. Hall and Hu Maxwell. Bulletin 99, U. S. Forest Ser-
vice. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp.96.
This issue is a treatment along the same lines as the first of the
series, reviewed in F. Q. vol. IX, p. 469. All the species are con-
sidered.
"Calombicm Mahogany f Its Characteristics and its Use as a
Substitute for True Mahogany, by G. B. Sudworth and C. D.
Mell ; With a Description of its Botanical Characters, by H.
Pittier. Circular 185, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C.
1911. Pp. 16.
Gives the distinguishing characteristics in detail.
Consumption of Wood Preservatives and Quantity of Wood
Treated in the United States in ipio. By H. S. Sackett. Circu-
lar 186, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 4.
The statistics show a great increase in the amount of material
treated and a growing tendency toward the treatment of certain
classes of material heretofore seldom treated, with creosote gain-
ing steadily in favor. Only 29 per cent, of the creosote used was
of domestic source.
National Forest Fire-Protection Plans. By Coert Du Bois.
Unnumbered Circular, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, D. C.
191 1. Pp.8.
Record of Wholesale Prices of Lumber (PerM. Ft. B. M.)
based on actual sales made f. o. b. each market for, April, May
and June, 191 1. List A., U. S. Forest Service. Washington,
D. C.
Regulations and Instructions for Officers in Charge of Forests
on Indian Reservations. Office of Indian Affairs, Department of
the Interior. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp.64.
Fire Prevention and Control on the National Forests. By. F.
A. Silcox. Reprint from Yearbook of Department of Agriculture
for 1910, pp. 413-324- 1911- Washington, D. C.
Progress in Saving Forest Waste. By Wm. L. Hall. Reprint
6l6 Forestry Quarterly.
from Yearbook of Department of Agriculture for 1910, pp. 255-
264. 191 1. Washington, D. C.
The Management of Second Growth Sprout Forests. By
Henry S. Graves. Reprint from Yearbook of Department of
Agriculture for 1910, pp. 157-168. 191 1. Washington, D. C.
The Agricultural Duty of Water. By W. J. McGee, Soil Water
Expert, Bureau of Soils. Reprint from Yearbook of Department
of Agriculture for 1910, pp. 169-176. 191 1. Washington, D. C.
The Forests of the Philippines. By H. N. Whitford, Part I,
Forest Types and Products. 94 pp. Part II, The Principal Forest
Trees. 113 pp. Bulletin 10. Bureau of Forestry, Manila, 191 1.
The Game Markets of To-day. By Henry Oldys, Assistant
Biologist, Biological Survey. Reprint from Yearbook of Depart-
ment of Agriculture for 1910, pp. 243-254. 191 1. Washington,
D. C.
The Utilization of Logged-Off Land for Pasture in Western
Oregon and Western Washington. By Byron Hunter and Harry
Thompson. Farmers' Bulletin No. 462, U. S. Department of
Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 19.
A discussion of the preparation of logged-off land for pasture ;
pasture plants ; pasture mixtures ; when to sow the seed ; manage-
ment of the pasture ; winter feed and stock to pasture.
Letters from the Secretary of War transmitting, with a letter
from the Chief of Engineers, Report on Preliminary Examination
of Merrimac River, Mass., from Haverhill to Lowell, together
with a Report on an Investigation on the Influence of Forests on
the Run-off in the Merrimac River Basin. House of Represen-
tatives. Document No. 9, 62nd Congress, ist session. Pp. 123,
plates 25. Washington, D. C. April 11, 191 1.
The Movement of Soil Material by the Wind by E. E. Free,
With a Bibliography of Eolian Geology, by S. C. Stuntz and E. E.
Free. Bulletin No. 68, Bureau of Soils. Washington, D. C.
191 1. Pp. 272.
Other Current Literature. 617
Crop Plants for Paper Making. By Chas. J. Brand. Circular
No. 82, Bureau of Plant Industry. Washington, D. C. 191 1.
Pp. 19.
A brief review of the experimental manufacture of paper from
cellulose producing plants. The author has made paper from
various plants, but he is not yet prepared to state that paper can
be profitably manufactured from any of them. In any case, it
will be possible to find only a partial substitute for wood. The
circular is printed on five different kinds of paper: namely
shredded corn stalks (80 per cent.) and cotton hull fibre (20 per
cent.) ; shredded broom corn stalks; rice straw soda pulp {yy per
cent.) and sulphite spruce pulp (23 per cent.) ; broom corn soda
pulp (50 per cent.) and poplar soda pulp (50 per cent.) ; pure
long fibre pulp of corn stalks.
Birds of Arkansas. By A. H. Howell. Bulletin 38, Biological
Survey. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 100.
Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters. Vol VI,
No. 2. Washington, D. C. 191 1. Pp. 117-270.
Contains : The Essentials in Working Plans for National
Forests, by Barrington Moore; Conservation and Chemical Pulp,
by Dr. B. Herstein ; Seed Production and How to Study it, by
Raphael Zon ; Better Methods of Fire Control, by W. B. Greeley;
Fire Problem on the Florida National Forest, by I. F. Eldredge;
In Memoriam — William Russel Dudley: Bibliography of South-
ern Appalachians, by Helen Stockbridge ; Amended Constitution ;
List of Members.
Four Insect Pests. By O. A. Johnson. Maine Agricultural
Experiment Station, Orono, Maine. Pp. 24.
The Typhoid Fly and its Allies, one of the subjects treated, is
of interest to foresters concerned in the care of men in logging
camps.
Seventh Annual Report of Newark Shade Tree Commission.
Newark, New Jersey. 19 10. Pp. 66.
6i8 Forestry Quarterly.
Report of Committee on Preservative Treatment of Poles and
Crossarins. Read before the National Electric Light Association
Convention at New York, May, 191 1. Pp. 122.
The report discusses at length the specifications covering coal-
tar creosote oil, and method of analysis ; methods of treatment and
standard appliances; damage to poles by wood-boring insects;
and statistics of poles, crossarms, brackets and insulator pins,
1909.
Lumber Freight Rates from Minneapolis to points having
lumber yards in the follozuing State: Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota,
Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota. 191 1. Pp.
122.
Prepared by the Northern Pine Manufacturers' Association,
Minneapolis, Minn.
A Bud and Twig Key. By O. L. Sponsler. Reprint from
Forest Club Annual, University of Nebraska, Volume III. 191 1.
Lincoln, Neb. Pp. 61-79.
Windbreaks and Hedges. By C. B. Waldron. Bulletin No.
88, Government Agricultural Experiment Station. Fargo, North
Dakota. 1910. Pp. 10.
Oregon Forest Fire Law, enacted by the Twenty-sixth Legis-
lative Assembly, 191 1. Salem, Oregon. Pp. 16.
Proceedings of the Third Annual Session of the Pacific Logging
Congress Held at Vancouver, B. C, June, ipii. The Timber-
man, Portland, Oregon. 1911. Pp.68.
Eucalyptus Culture in Hawaii. By L. Margolin. Bulletin i,
Division of Forestry, Board of Agriculture and Forestry. Hono-
lulu, Hawaii. 191 1. Pp.80.
A Brief History of Forestry. By B. E. Femow. Second, re-
vised and enlarged edition. Toronto, Canada, and Cambridge,
Mass. 191 1. Pp. 506.
The inaccuracies of the hastily prepared first edition are cor-
rected, and the chapter on France entirely rewritten. A very
full index has also been added.
Other Current Literature. 619
Treatment of Artificial Tree Plantations. By E. Secrist. Cir-
cular no. Ohio Agrucultural Experiment Station, Wooster. Pp.
21, figs. 16.
The Elm Leaf Beetle. By G. W. Herrick. Circular No. 8,
Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y. Pp. 6,
figs. 9.
Forests of New York. By G. M. Wiley. Arbor Day Annual
New York State Educational Department, Albany, N. Y. 191 1.
Pp. 53, pi. I, figs. 31.
Outlines are given on the teaching of forestry along with geo-
graphy, agriculture, civic and physical geography. A list of
forest schools and a reference list of books on forestry are in-
cluded.
Memorandum on Teak Plantations in Burma. By F. A. Leete.
Bulletin No. 27, Indian Forest. 191 1. Pp. 21, dia. 4.
Notes on the relative Strength of Natural and Plantation —
Grown Teak in Burma. By R. S. Pearson. Bulletin No. 3 (new
series), Indian Forest. 191 1. Pp. 9.
Seasoning Wood by Electricity. No. 149, Daily Consular and
Trade Reports. U. S. 14, 191 1. P. I373-
A brief description of a new process of seasoning wood by
electricity in France.
PERIODICAL LITERATURE.
BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.
An interesting, although not yet completed,
Self series of experiments in self-fertilization of
Fertilisation. pine and spruce is reported by Nils Sylven.
The method pursued is the usual one of
isolating fruitbuds by means of paper bags. On the pines, the
cones were poorly developed (perhaps on account of improper
tieing with iron wire) ; the cones did not open, and the seeds
were all imperfect and non-germinative.
In spruce, the isolated branches having been twice shaken to
assist poUinization, four out of five trees developed good cones
and contained good germinative seeds so far as not destroyed
by the gall wasp; but with the exception the germinating per
cent, was lower than that from open branches. Of one of the
trees, however, 72 plants were grown from self-poUinized seed,
36 or 33 1/3% having died during the summer, while only 9.9%
of plants from other seed were lost ; the surviving plants of either
derivation being equally vigorous.
It is pointed out, that while self-fertilization depresses the
germinating per cent., the growing of special favorable races,
e. g. the green-coned, late-budding spruce, will only be accom-
plished by this means. This consideration lends practical value
to this kind of inquiry.
Uebcr Bestdiibungsversuche mit Kiefcr und Fichte. Mitteilungen
aus der forstlichen Versuchsanstalt Schwedens. Heft 7, 191 1.
Interesting observations, continued for 15
Phenology years on the influences which determine the
of flowering of plants in the neighborhood of
Flowering. Brussels are reported by Vanderlinden.
The greatest variation in the date of
flowering is observed in the very early and the very late flower-
ing plants, while the amplitude of those flowering in May is
very small. The reason is, that with all early flowering plants
Periodical Literature. 621
the buds are perfected in the summer and their volume increased
at the expense of reserve materials.
Small temperature rises (light is not an element of influence)
above freezing point induce their opening, especially if the higher
temperature continues for some time. The later bloomers rely
upon the food materials prepared in the flowering year and
hence upon the foliage of that year. Here light plays a great
role as it is needed for assimilation. The later the blooming the
more dependence on the presence of foliage to prepare food ma-
terials. In all cases temperature and humidity are the main
factors.
Plants flower preferably on given dates fixed by heredity. The
climatic conditions of fall or winter are without recognizable in-
fluence on the flowering in the following spring and summer.
The second flowering in summer or fall is said not to be depend-
ent on the climatic conditions of the preceding season. Sun-
spots have no influence on flowering.
To permit a plant to flower it must have passed a rest period
to make it responsive to outer stimuli. While such plants can be
brought to premature flowering by immersion into warm water
of 28° to 30° C, those that have had no such rest period will
not respond to that treatment.
Die periodischen V egetationserschcinungcn in ihren Beziehimgcn zu den
Klintatischen Variationen. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. August,
September, 191 1. Pp. 420-422.
At the University of Chicago, Fuller is
Bz'ap oration studying the rate of evaporation within var-
Bxperiments. ious plant associations on the Lake Mich-
igan sand dunes and adjacent areas. From
a preliminary report of his investigations, we find that the pioneer
tree association on the dunes is dominated by the Cottonwood ;
older dunes by conifers. Jack Pine in the case of the one studied.
In time the conifers are displaced by Black Oak and White Oak.
The amount of evaporation beneath these three kinds of stands,
as measured by the porus-cup atmometer was compared with that
beneath the climax beech-maple forest.
Upon a percentage basis, the average rate per day through-
out the season in the beech-maple forest taken as a unit, the
comparative evaporation rate in the oak dune is 127%, in the
622 Forestry Quarterly.
pine dune 140%, and in the cottonwood dune 260%. The aver-
age amount of water evaporated per day beneath the beech-maple
forest vi^as 8.1 cc. The evaporation in the various associations
varies directly with the order of their occurrence in the succes-
sion, being greatest in the youngest and least in the oldest asso-
ciation. Thus it may be said that the atmospheric conditions in
the lower stratum of the cottonwood dune association during the
growing season are 2.6 times as severe for plant life as those in
the same stratum of the beech-maple association during the same
period.
Bfaporation and Plant Succession. The Botanical Gazette,
September, 191 1. Pp. 193-208.
SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION AND EXTENSION.
Of more and more intense interest are the
Results experiences with exotic species in Germany,
with which are now for 30 years continued, and
Exotic permit now the establishment of sample
Trees. areas to secure data for an estimate of for-
est production.
Dr. Schwappach brings together these experiences from all
the trial planting in Prussia, discussing species by species with
estimate of the value of each and giving a tabulation of all the
trial plantings with measurements — a very full report, worth
studying.
Out of 1,600 acres of exotic plantations in 1900, 1,040 re-
mained in 1910; the Douglas spruce leading with 325 acres.
Of the six Abies species tried, amabilis, concolor, Urma,
grandis, nobilis and Nordmanniana, Abies concolor has proved
the best, being the most rapid grower, rivaling even the Norway
spruce on fresh, humose loam soils. It differs from the other
firs by being less tolerant, especially of overhead shade; it is
almost light-needing. Its resistance to frost and heat and to
damage by mice and game is also praised. It is the only Abies
of special value.
Of Picea five species, ajanensis, alcockiana, engelmanni, pun-
gens, sitchensis, have been tried ; only the last is found forestally
of value, and especially near the seashore in the northern lati-
tudes, where on account of its freedom from Schiitte, as well as
Periodical Literature. 623
of resistance to seawinds, it is destined to supplant the native
spruce. It also is fit for peaty, moist soils. It produces larger
amounts than the native spruce ; a sample area showing the
enormous increment of 380 cubic feet timberwood in five years.
It thrives on sites to which the native spruce is not adapted, and
is altogether highly recommended.
Of the five pines, banksiana, jeffreyi, ponderosa, laricio, rigida
(strobtis is considered fully established) the first is only fit to
cover the poorest soils and perhaps to serve as nurse crop and
filler. It bears seed from the 8th year on. It suffers from the
game, tortrix and "nun" very much.
The two Rocky mountain species have not developed any points
of distinctive value for North Germany ; nor is laricio of special
value except where silvestris is not at home.
Pimis rigida has behaved very badly, most of the trees died,
broken down by snow and killed by fungi. Only scientific inter-
est is attached to it. Its value as an admixture to silvestris on
poor sites on account of its more plentiful leaffall is, however,
recognized.
Juniperus virginiana has not proved of value in North Ger-
many.
Of larches, Larix leptolepis from Japan continues to be favor-
ably reported on. It grows more rapidly than the native larch
for the first 25 years, but its height growth culminates early (50
to 55 feet and 7 inch diameter at 23 years recorded). Its resist-
ance to the larch moth and to fungus disease is an additional
recommendation .
Of Cypresses, three Chamaecyparis were tried, namely obtusa
and pisifera from Japan, and lawsoniana from United States.
The former two are found most subject to damage by mice, yet
on account of its superior wood quality obtusa is useful as an
admixture on better sites in mild climate. Lazvsoniana thrives
most excellently in most varied situations ; average fresh loamy
soil is best; on dry soil forking seems more frequent. It is an
intolerant species, but requires side protection, and is entirely
unfit to be used on large cleared areas, but is recommended for
filling out openings. Branches remain alive a long time, since it
has no spreading habit. Fungus diseases and damage by mice
are not infrequent, but on account of its excellent wood it should
be used more freely. "Pseiidotsuga douglasii has fulfilled in full
624 Forestry Quarterly.
measure the high expectations which were placed on it, if seeds
are secured from proper localities. It is the most valuable of
the introduced exotic species, and has paid completely for all
the expense incurred in finding it out. This refers to the green
variety from Oregon and Washington, not to the gray one
from Colorado. It is found best on fresh sand to mild loam,
except near the seashore. Some records of its being frost killed
when 20 years old were found to be due to the sudden removal
of a protective stand, when drouth from exposure to winds re-
sulted.
Only in seedbeds and transplant beds does frost affect es-
pecially the habitual second shoots which do not find time to
ripen their wood; but the damage is readily repaired.
The question of seed supply is discussed in favor of the green
rapidly growing variety from the Fraser River. Growth data
are given showing remarkable production. The stand, to secure
both height and diameter growth, must be kept open. In planta-
tion no closer spacing than 4.5 to 5 or even 6 feet is desirable,
and four-year old transplants are best used. Smaller stock may
be used and closer planting (3.5-4.5 feet) for mixture with pine
and spruce, saving expense; the Douglas spruce from the eighth
year on shooting ahead and finding good growing space. Thin-
nings should be made early and at once severe. Certain experi-
mental plats showed that the second thinning in the 28th year
should remove as much as 50% of the stem number, the stand
at 30 years retaining 360 to 400 trees.
A few figures of production are given below.
Thuya gigantea, if grown on suitable, i. e. better soils, loamy
sand or fresh mild loam, and with side protection, has been
found better than expected a decade ago; it is somewhat liable
to succumb to drouth, and being very tolerant, it clears itself with
difficulty. Early, severe thinnings, however, are necessary after
the clearing.
Of hemlocks, Tsuge heterophylla (Mertensiana) loses its last
shoots readily by frost but as readily recuperates, and on ac-
count of its silvicultural characteristics (shade endurance?) and
good quality of wood ( ?) is considered worthy of use. Beauty
is all that can be claimed for T. canadensis.
Of broadleaf species as unquestionably commendable with due
consideration of the requirements on the site are cited Carya alba
Periodical Literature. 625
and porcina, Juglans nigra, Quercus rubra, and Magnolia hypo-
leuca. Qf only limited value are Betula lutea, Fraxinus ameri-
cana, and Prunus serotina, and for their esthetic value only our
maples, although Acer saccharum is considered excellent in cop-
pice with standards and selection forest.
Tables showing in detail forest conditions and measurements
of some 26 areas from 20 to 30 years old are given, in which
some II different species or combinations are shown. Of these
perhaps of most interest is the large volume increment for the
third decade in Pseudotsuga, namely from 320 to 388 cubic feet
of workwood (over 3 inch) per acre.
The figures for the best stand show in the 27th year 499 trees
with an average diameter of 7 inch and height of 53 feet, a vol-
ume of workwood of 753 cubic feet, the thinnings having re-
moved 454 trees with 345 cubic feet, the average increment dur-
ing the last 5 years being 382 cubic feet of workwood. (See
experiences in Hesse, p. 490 of this volume!)
Die weitere Entzvicklung der Versiiche mit fremdlandischen Holsarten
in Preusscn. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- unci Jagdwesen. August, September,
191 1. Pp. 591-617; 7S7-7^2.
Burkhardt breaks a lance for this rare and
Plantations usually unconsidered species. Citing the
of literature of the species he gives a brief
Taxus life history of its development. It reaches
haccata. a height of over 60 feet, and diameters of
over 4 feet are on record. An account of
various trial plantations is given, and on account of its excellent
wood for special uses its occasional employment is recommended.
Anbauvcrsuchc mit dcr Eibc. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt
August, September, 191 1. Pp. 457-468.
In a long article continued through sev-
Management eral numbers of the journal Forstmeister
of Wiebecke gives an account of the methods
Pine pursued in Eastern Germany in the culti-
Forest. vation of the Scotch Pine. Hardly any-
thing short of a translation will do justice
to the account which covers every detail. We can, therefore,
only refer to it as a useful reference article.
Ostdeutscher Kiefernwald, seine Ernenerung und Erhaltung. Zeitschrift
fiir Forst — und Jagdwesen. September, 191 1. Pp. 686-708.
626 Forestry Quarterly.
Dr. V. Lorenz reports on an experiment of
Fertiliser 7 years duration on 10 areas to find out
in whetlier the substitution of a commercial
Forest fertilizer (Thomas slag, Chili saltpetre and
Production. potash salts), as much as could be pur-
chased for the amount which was secured
from the sale of litter in a rather dry pine forest (Vienna Forest),
70 years old, namely $6.00, would compensate for the loss of the
litter by increased wood production.
There was an actual increase of from 175 to 250 cubic feet on
the area involved, but the money returns were such as to leave
an annual deficit of about 20 cents per acre per year.
The deduction is that, at least on dry soils, fertilizers do not
pay.
Bin Dungungs versuch in Schwarzfdhren-Stangenhols. Mitteilungen aus
dem forstlichen Versuchswesen Oesterreichs. Heft XVI, 1911.
Experiments reported by Gunnar Schotte
Seed show that the age of seed trees of pine do
Supply. not appear to influence the progeny appre-
ciably.
From the extensive tabulated results with seeds of different
derivation it is again proved that seeds from northern localities
furnish generally smaller plants than from southern. Their
annual shoots are shorter, as well as their branches, hence the
habitus is a more slender, narrow one. The needles of the north-
ern stock are generally shorter, but a little broader, and more yel-
low in winter ; the bark somewhat lighter than those of the plants
from southern Sweden.
Uebef die Provenienzfrage und das Alter des Mutterbauines bei Kief em
Kultur. Mitteilungen aus der forstlichen Versuchsanstalt Schwedens.
Heft 7, 1911.
An anonymous G. Z. pointing out that in
Selection Switzerland private forests, mostly in small
Method holdings, are not managed as they should
for be, and that increase in production is highly
Private desirable, advocates for this purpose the
Forest. selection forest method.
His arguments consider the soil, the
stand, the conditions of the owner and requirements of political
economy.
Periodical Literature. 627
For the maintenance of favorable soil conditions the selection
forest has many advantages and no disadvantage.
Size of property is a requisite for a compartment system of
silviculture, while the selection forest is adapted to any size of
property; the soil is not only protected but is improved and, as
the author claims, made ready for natural regeneration. The
selection forest is the treatment most independent of a neigh-
bor's doing, and increases the interest of the owner by requiring
him to select and pay attention to the young growth, while a
compartment system is apt to lead to neglect of the felling area.
In furnishing the requirements of the farm and occupation in
winter for men and animals the selection forest furnishes the
best opportunity and permits to satisfy the variety of wants for
different kinds and sizes.
The author thinks that the selection forest, because of the dis-
tribution of sizes and kinds provokes less to speculation than the
concentrated even-aged forest, and less to overcutting because
the speculator cannot as readily determine quantities, as in the
simple compartment. Hence in Switzerland the worst condi-
tions of private forest is found where a clearing system has been
introduced, and the best in the selection forest.
The author agrees that to carry on a rational selection system
more knowledge and skill is required than in simpler clearing
systems, but does not place much weight on this objection. There-
fore, gross mistakes will be rarely made.
The protective value of the selection forest is then accentuated,
which in the mountainous country of Switzerland is of great im-
portance.
Privatwald und Plcnterbctrieb. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forst-
wesen. September, October, 191 1. Pp. 247-255.
The literature on this dangerous enemy of
Combating the spruce and pine is still growing. A
the long article on the polyeder disease of the
Nun. Nun (Lymantria monacha L.) by Dr.
Wahl runs through various numbers of the
Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen ; an article by Klock also en-
larges from the practical side on the use of this disease, in the
Forstwissenschaftliche Centralblatt.
Dr. Sedlaszek reports on experiments through four years in
628 Forestry Quarterly.
Bohemia with the use of insect Hme. The results of this series
of experiments show that the use of insect lime is only a partial
protection and not reliable. The shorter the duration of the
invasion, the sooner the disease appears and other enemies deci-
mate the caterpillars, the more effective the lime rings.
In the same Mitteilungen, Dr. Zederbauer discusses the influ-
ence of climatic conditions on the propagation of this insect and
a few others.
It appears that there is a relation between rainfall and cater-
pillar multiplication. In rain-poor regions and rain-poor, dry
and warm periods the mass multiplication of these insects is fa-
vored. Such enormous multiplication is limited toward the north
and vertically by the July isotherm -|- 16° and the rainfall of 60
to 100 an. The most endangered regions are those having less
than 60 cm. rainfall. Regions with rainfall above 100 cm. do
not know the pests, while those having rainfall of 70 to 100 cm.
show large development only in dry years.
Ucber die Polyeder Krankheit dcr Nonne. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forst-
wesen. June, 191 1. Pp. 247-268, and earlier numbers (1909.)
Neue Anregungen aiis der forstlichen Praxis zur Bck'dmpfung der
Nonne. Forstwissenchaftliches Centralblatt. July, 191 1. Pp. i77-2)92)-
Versuche zur Bek'dmpfung der Nonne mittelst Leimringen; and Kliina
und M assenvermehrting der Nonne vnd einiger andrer Forstsch'ddlinge.
Mitteilungen aus dem forstlichen Versuchswesen Oesterreiches. Heft
XXVI, 1911.
MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT.
Schiffel discusses at great length and with
Effect much mathematical detail the influence of
of faulty measuring of the factors on the re-
Brrors suiting volume of round wood.
in Price, i. e. value, depends in the first
Measuring. place on volume, and with the increase of
price per unit the question of correct meas-
urements is becoming more and more important. While at pres-
ent the middle diameter and length of a log is supposed to suf-
fice for a determination of volume, the author expects eventually
the use of several diameters and formulas, as developed by him.
(See F. Q., vol. II.)
Periodical Literature. 629
/. Errors in Diameter Measure.
1. Errors in diameter measurements with calipers come most
frequently from the fact that one, or both of the arms are not
at right angles to the scale. This error, if the scale is pushed
close to the stem or log, is proportional to the angle by which
the arm or arms are not at right angles, and are in direct relation
to the true diameter, i. e. the diameters of large and small logs
are read off faultily in the same proportion.
The following table gives the errors in per cent, of the true
diameter for different angles of error:
angle of error o°3o' 1° 2° 3° 4° 5° 6°
per cent of error: 40 .871.742.573.494.375.26
If, therefore, the angle of error on one, or both caliper legs
is 3°, the diameter will be measured 2^% short. With this table
it is possible to correct caliper results obtained by a faulty caliper.
The error is different when, as most frequently with small
logs, the scale cannot be pushed close to the log. Here the error
is uncertain, depending on the vertical distance of the scale from
the log. Hence, for practical work the caliper should be so con-
structed (short arms) as to permit close contact of scale to log.
If this is not done, the same faulty caliper measures the smaller
logs with absolutely and still more relatively greater error, than
the larger; and the error can be quite considerable. For in-
stance, for an error of angle of only 2^ and a true diameter of
4 inches with a distance of the scale from the log of 10 inches
'the error would be 8.7%, while if the scale could have been
pushed close to the log it would have been only 1.44%.
2. Another frequent error arises from applying the caliper
so that it will not be at right angles to the plane in which the true
diameter lies, when the measured diameter is necessarily larger.
The amount of error depends, of course, upon the angle at
which the caliper deviates from the right angle. From the fol-
lowing table it appears that the error is not great until about 7°
deviation is attained.
angle of error, . 1° 2° 3° 4° 5° 6° 7° 8° 9° 10° 12° 16°
per cent, of error: .02 .06 .14 .24 .38 .55 .75 .98 1.25 1.54 2.23 4.03
This error works in opposite direction to the first one dis-
630 Forestry Quarterly.
cussed, hence these errors may compensate. But this is not to
be relied upon, since an error of 4% due to a loose caliper arm,
would not be compensated by a less than 15% shifting of the
caliper from the diameter plane.
3. The error resulting from omitting fractions of inches (cen-
timeter) and rounding off downward, is, of course, percentically
less for stout, than for small diameters ; it is a function of the
diameter, and assuming that the average neglect is .45 cm., the. per-
•45
centage of error is p = ~ . Translating 5 centimeters into 2
inches the following relations appear:
diameter, 4 6 8 10 12
per cent, of error, 4.5 3 2.25 1.8 1.5
The error is decreasing with the diameter, but at 18 inches it is
still 1%, if only 1/5 of an inch is dropped.
When measuring two diameters of the same cross section the
dropping should be applied not to each but to the arithmetic mean,
when the error is minimized. This double measuring also checks
errors in mere reading of the scale.
//. Errors in Determining Cross Sections.
If measuring two diameters and the result is nearly the same
the cross section may be assumed to be a circle; but if the dif-
ference is great, the question may arise how to determine the
area. Three ways are practicable : namely, to determine the. area
for each diameter and take the mean ; calculating the area from
the mean of the two diameters; or taking the diameters as the
axes of an ellipse and calculating its area. Usually the second
method is used. G. Heyer proved long ago that the calculation as
ellipse gives always the smallest areas. That is to say, the usual
practice of calculating the cross section area from the mean of
two very unlike diameters as circle gives too high results. An
investigation shows that, as a rule, the error is so small that it
does not call for correction. Only with small diameters and
great difference of the two does the error appear significant :
e. g., if d = 4, d2 = 6, then p = 4.17%.
///. Errors in Measuring Log Lengths.
These are too simple to require discussion.
Periodical Literature. . 631
IV. Influence of Dimension Errors on Volume.
Errors of diameter measurement. These depend on whether
only one or several cross section areas are used.
If the cubing is done by the use of the middle cross section, as
is usual with logs in Germany, the volume errors are in direct
proportion to the diameter errors and the volume error per cent,
is double the diameter error per cent. If, e. g. in measuring a
diameter of 12 inches, an error of ^ inch or 4% has been made
the error in volume will be 8%.
It can also be shown that the volume error per cent, grows
with the same diameter error as the diameters, or with equal
diameter error per cent, the volume error per cent, grows with
the diameter. Practically this means that the dropping of frac-
tions, the rounding off, should be gauged according to diameters,
if a certain volume error per cent, is not to be exceeded.
If, for instance, a volume error of 5% is to be the limit, then
the following must be the maximum diameter errors :
diameter, 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
permissible error, 3.75 5 6.25 7.50 8.75 10 11.25
The error increases in arithmetic progression. The errors
resulting in the use of different formulae for cubic contents are
similarly traced.
It appears that by cubing logs on the basis of two cross sec-
tions errors of measurement are largely compensated, at least as
far as the faulty choice of place for measurement and the
measuring of diameters in an oblique plane to the diameter is
concerned.
Errors in length measurement produce the same error in vol-
ume, that is to say, if a log has been measured 2% short it will
be calculated 2% short in volume if only one cross section area
has been used in the computation, and the same if several areas
are used. In the latter case, the error in length measurement
may also shift the position of the area whose diameter is to be
measured and complicates matters.
In sumimarizing, the need of properly constructed calipers, the
close contact of scale stick of the caliper to the stem or log, are
accentuated.
An example shows the importance of looking after little things.
632 Forestry Quarterly.
By the faulty caliper arms the small error of 1% may be ex-
perienced, by oblique application an error of 2%, by rounding
off the diameter an average error of 2%, altogether 5%, which
results in an error in volume of 10%. Add 1% in length meas-
urement and over 10% on price is lost.
Ueber den Einfluss fehlcrhafter Bestimmungen dcr Dimensioncn auf den
Ijihalt von Rundhoh. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. August, Septem-
ber, 1911. Pp. 371-390.
While we are accustomed, estimating by
Volume board feet, to find as a rule the mill cut
Tables overrun considerably even the closest esti-
and mate or the best log scale. Gayer states the
Felling interesting fact that in Germany, notably
Results. Baden, the felling results almost invariably
remain below the measurement of the
stands made by use of general volume tables, the reason being
that the latter are made as accurate as possible, while in working
up the stand there are practically various losses, of which the
volume table does not or cannot take cognizance.
Determining the volume of logs by middle diameter gives from
2-4% lower results than the sectioning usual in constructing
volume tables; the usage of dropping fractions in the diameter
measurement may amount to 5-1 1 % loss ; the full length of the log
is not always measured ; a bark per cent, allowance of 10% does
not in all species tell the story ; the stump which for volume tables
is allowed to be one-third of the stump diameter is frequently too
low for logging practice ; while volume tables are made on green
stands, the logscale and cordwood are measured half dry, entail-
ing a loss of four or more per cent. ; brushwood below 3 inches
is always many per cent, below the xylometric measurements ;
and loss by chips, etc., does not appear in the volume tables. In
the literature all these losses are stated at from 6 to 15 and even
20 per cent.
The author has made careful comparisons on 13 sample areas
of pine from 61 to 100 years old, in which the difference between
the stock by volume tables, checked by Schiffel's form quotient
measurements, and the logging results varied between 2.4 and
14.7%, in the average about 8%, and including the cordwood
up to 15%. In another investigation on selection forest material
Periodical Literature. 633
of spruce and fir the difference was 12.5 to 16% of the meas-
ured stand.
In order to obviate these discrepancies between tables and
actual result the forest administration of Baden last year ordered
for all conditions a reduction of 10% in the use of volume tables
for working plans.
In Bavaria on the other hand, the new regulation for working
plans, of 1910, calls for the opposite method, namely addition
to the actual felling results.
The author points out that by these arbitrary methods the pos-
sibility of comparison of results is vitiated. Especially if deduc-
tions are to be made as to changes in stock and increment, con-
clusions become dangerous, since a lo-year increment per cent,
may be entirely lost in these allowances. Such inquiries, there-
fore, must be separately conducted and not be based on this kind
of booking.
Ueber Bestandesmassenberechnung nach Massentafeln und Schlager-
gebnisse der Praxis. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. August, Sep-
tember, 191 1. Pp. 430-441.
An article by Japing with elaborate tabula-
Relative tions and diagrams as a result of measure-
Increment ments continued for 18 years in a spruce
of stand, at the time of beginning 47 years
Tree Classes. old, brings data to show the participation
of different tree classes, differentiated either
according to Kraft (see F. K., vol. Ill, p. 41), or simple diam-
eter classes arranged by equal numbers, in the progressive vol-
ume production, and the changes in position of the different tree
classes.
The five diameter classes — the same number of stems in each
class — beginning with the stoutest, participated, varying at seven
different measurements, to the following extent in the total incre-
ment percentically :
Class I, 35 to 41% ; class II, 24 to 30% ; class III, 16 to 23% ;
class IV, 10 to 14% ; class V, 4 to 9%.
It was found again, as previously by Weise on the same sample
area that "the stoutest stem classes participate in the total incre-
ment with the same per cent., that they have in the total volume;
634 Forestry Quarterly.
the lower classes, however, not even with the small per cent,
which they form of the total volume."
The remarkable fact is that in a lo-year increment period
more than half the stems changed their position in class. If a
stem in one period of five years did not keep its place in relation
to the increment increase of all other stems, i. e. lapsed, it would
still further lapse in the next period. The same tendency in the
opposite direction was observed for stems which got ahead.
The middle stem classes showed the greatest variation in growth
energy, while the stoutest and the slimmest trees showed the least
or altogether no change in position in these five- and ten-year
growth periods. The change in relative growth energy of the
single trees of a stand appears much greater than has been usually
assumed.
As regards the stem classes according to Kraft's prescription
they show more sharply these changes and contrasts.
The author points out that in the practice of thinnings the Kraft
tree class differentiation is the best one by which to determine
the laggards to be removed and the vigorous growers to be fa-
vored.
Ueber das JVachstum dcr Kraftschen Stammklassen im Verlauf einer
sehnjahrigcn Ztizvachsperiode. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Jagdwesen.
September, 191 1. Pp. 663-686.
In a very thoughtful article, Eberbach
Relations proves mathematically that the money rate
between per cent, at which a management class under
Volume sustained yield works is always less than the
and volume increment per cent. The latter,
Value however, gives an approximate idea of the
Production. money interest (p) attainable, which as a
rule, remains 20 to 30% under the volume
interest (q). Therefore, to improve p, one must improve q, which
can only be done by either raising the felling budget or reducing
the stock capital, and as the latter alternative rarely recom-
mends itself, all effort must be made to increase the increment,
which can be mainly done by a proper thinning practice, generally
speaking by taking out the trees which do not grow at a profitable
rate and leaving those which do, no matter how old or stout they
Periodical Literature. 635
are — a change from compartment clearing to a form resembling
the selection forest.
If q, i. e. the volume increment, is not any more capable of
being increased, then the growing stock (capital) must be reduced
to secure a higher p.
The objection usually made to this, that\his means a reduction
of rotation and, therefore, of older valuable age classes, is refuted
by the author by means of two diagrams, triangles as usually
used to represent growing stock, and showing that the reduction
can be done in two ways, namely by cutting off the end of the
triangle, i. e. reducing the last age classes, shortening the rota-
tion, or else curtailing the area of the older age classes from the
40th year on, but preserving all the age classes of the original
rotation (shaving off a part of the triangle so as to make an un-
equal quadrangle).
The diminution of the stock in this way can be accomplished
even with a lengthening of rotation. In this way p may be in-
creased not only due to the reduction of capital, but by the very
probable increase of increment of felling budget.
The only other way to raise p is to secure better prices or better
financial results by more careful utilization, reduction of ex-
penses, generally economic administration.
Soil values exercise a compensating influence on q. High soil
values depreciate, (low values favor), p. until it may reach zero;
the soil is too expensive to practice forestry on.
The author then develops the relation between volume and
money interest in the crown forests of Baden for the year 1907.
The budget was 577,950 fm, the stock capital 25,820,990 fm,
hence the increment per cent, (budget per cent.) 2.24. Having
established an average net value per fm of 8 Mk (5.4 cents per
cubic foot, of which 41.4% is workwood) for the net yield of the
felling budget (21.2 million cubic feet), against which all ex-
penses of management have been charged and 10.4 Mk (7 cents
per cubic foot) for the standing stock of wood (stumpage value
without cost of administration) over 40 years old (89% of the
total stock), and figuring the soil value at 58% per acre, for the
round 220,000 acres, the value per cent, which has been attained
is only 1.44, or 36% less than the volume per cent. — a poor show-
ing!
636 Forestry Quarterly.
The argument that the forest value has been figured too high
because it could not be secured by a forced sale the author de-
molishes very cleverly by pointing out that the condition of forced
sale is not likely to occur, and that his values have been secured
from actual sales of parcels, and he nails the method of calculating
the forest value by capitalizing the present net yield of about 1.3
million dollars with an arbitrarily chosen 3% interest rate to
about forty- two million dollars instead of the eighty million dol-
lars as above.
The author then deplores the lack of sufficient data regarding
increment on which to base closer calculations as to whether the
best relation between stock and increment is attained. He advo-
cates the establishment of a reserve fund to eke out uneven felling
budgets, and to this end a reduction of stock capital by withdraw-
ing double the present felling budget for a number of years
(amounting to 46 million cubic feet) and placing the 3.6 million
dollars thus derived from the forest on interest, thereby easing
the silvicultural management and booking the interest to the
forest credit.
In the further discussion the subdivision of costs is of interest.
The total cost of producing 100 cubic feet is $4.17, of which $1.31
goes for personnel of the administration; $1.50 for wood chop-
pers ; 24.6 cents for cultures ; 64 cents for roads, new construction
and maintenance ; other general expenses, including labor, in-
surance, etc., 47.4 cents.
In these items the author thinks that really only the cost for
roads (new construction, not maintenance) can be reduced; he is
doubtful as to whether expense for cultures can in the end be
profitably reduced by fostering natural regeneration; he suggests
keeping the personnel costs from growing by applying the prin-
ciple of not letting an expensive man do what a less expensive
man could do as well, i. e. the mechanical work of the forest.
The whole article is worth pondering over; the article itself
speaks in simple mathematical formulae developing this forest
value theory, which we have translated into common language.
In a short note in the same journal Wimmenauer takes ex-
ception to the idea that to the material of the felling budget should
be given a lower value than to that of the standing timber. He
has come to the conclusion that the cost of administration is
Periodical Literature. 637
covered by intermediary incomes, so that forest net yield and
felling budget net yield exceeds mostly from i to 10% the net
stumpage value of the felling budget. With this assumption the
stumpage value of the stock capital comes in the large average to
.6 per unit of the ripe wood, and the interest rate varies between
.6 and 2.5, so that it can be higher than the volume per cent.
Ueber die Bezichungen der Massen-und Geldverzinsung in Hochwald-
betriebsklassen niit besondrer Beriicksichtigung der badischen Domanen-
waldungen. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. July, 191 1. Pp. 357-
277; also October, 1911. Pp. 541-542.
In a rather convincing, and short argument
Forest Oberforstrat Frey points out that exchange
Valuation. values, i. e. present market prices de-
termined by present offerings and demands
are the only tenable ones in forest valuation ; that both, stand cost
values dealing with the uncertain past, and expectancy values
dealing with the still more uncertain future, are mere theoretical
valuations without any practical value, unsafe and dubious, all
factors entering the calculation being unsubstantiated estimates,
and hence leading to wide differences. The question is how to
secure acceptable exchange values, which are the true present
values.
Incidentally, the author accentuates the fact that all values are
estimates of buyer and seller, approximations to a true value, one
bidding up, the other down, until, when an agreement is reached,
the exchange value is determined.
For forest valuations he proposes the construction of local
wood-money-yield tables, which for stands of different age near
the age of ripeness approximate their actual stumpage sale value.
It "s evident that the exchange value of a forest cannot be less
^han the exchange value of the stands composing it ; hence the ex-
change value of each stand may be ascertained from the table and
the soil value added. For the older stands near ripe age, the
present felling results may furnish the basis for the calculation.
For the younger stands he proposes to take the average value
increment at the age of ripeness and multiply it by the age and
acreage of the stand. Since they can only be cut at that later age
the increment corresponding to that age and not their present
638 Forestry Quarterly.
average increment is to be taken. (This after the precedent of
K. Heyer.)
The sum of the stand values (or stock value) thus determined,
which gives the owner the possibility with a given rotation to
continuously reap the annual wood value increment upon which
the calculation is based would then form the loivest price at
which to buy or sell. To this may then be added the soil value,
also as present exchange value, either based on actual present
market value of farm soils of lowest valuation, or by capitalizing
the net yield of the forest determined in the above calculation
with varying interest until buyer and seller agree. The seller will
ask perhaps 50 to 100 times the net yield as capital value (i. e.
figure with 1-2%), the buyer probably will ofifer 25 to 50 times the
net yield (figuring at 2 to 4%). By using the proposed wood-
money tables the soil value is indirectly found by subtracting the
sum of the stock values as determined above from the capital
value of the net yield that can be secured, which difference gives
the soil value.
The idea of introducing values for by-products is dismissed
as irrelevant.
Ueber den Gcgensats zzvischen Tauschwert, Kostenzvert tmd Erzvar-
tungszvert. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Jagdwesen. August, 191 1. Pp.
637-643-
According to a canvass of loan banks in
Loans Germany made some 9 years ago, the basis
on for the loans varies with different banks :
Forest only two base the "loan value" yield of
Property. forests under sustained yield management
upon the wood yield ; others base their loans
upon the value which has been ascertained for taxation purposes ;
some take into consideration the actual stumpage value, if a syste-
matic sustained yield management is possible ; some do not give
any loans for forest properties, and others again loan on the soil
value only. Small woodlots or stands, and woods not in connec-
tion with farm property are not objects for loan by any bank.
Forestry Associations have discussed and recommended a more
uniform practice for negotiating loans on forest property without
coming to very definite conclusions as to the method of ascertain-
ing the loanable value.
Periodical Literature. 639
A circular inquiry from 60 German credit institutions sent out
this year elicited further information which Tafel summarizes.
The same variety of attitude still prevails. It is interesting to
note the figures which are communicated in some cases. In West
Prussia the soil credit bank loans according to tax assessments
from $1.20 to $9.30 per acre (farm soil assessment ranging from
$4 to $60). In Saxony 8 tax classes are made for farm soils
assessed at from $20 to $200, but the tax is about half the above.
In Westphalia, banks also usually loan on tax assessments, but in
two cases where a property was mostly forest, the bank loaned on
the capitalized annual yield technically determined and capitalized
at 4% ; in the one case the yield value figured about $185, in the
other $82 per acre.
In Pomerania, Posen and East Prussia only the oldest age class
(20-year period), or as much of it as can be cut during the next
20 years is considered loanable property, the loan being based on
the yield. From the money value of the felling budget in
coniferous woods 10% is deducted to reduce the risk, also all
costs of administration and culture according to a settled schedule,
and the rest is capitalized with 3 1/3 to 5%, according to the
length of the rotation, to ascertain the loanable value.
The newest method is devised by the soil credit institute of
Silesia, where the yield of the two oldest age classes or periods,
say the oldest 40-year stands are considered loanable, even if the
felling budget consists only of thinnings, but the latter must not
exceed 20 cubic feet per acre in the unripe stands under a thinning
plan devised for five years. Selection forest is nowhere an object of
loans according to yield; and to be loanable at all, the property
must contain at least 125 acres in some, and 250 acres in other
provinces. Coppice must be at least 125 acres to be loanable.
Only in East Prussia are forests from 12^ acres upward loanable;
in these small areas the soil value is determined in four quality
classes with maximum in values of $8 to $50, which may be in-
creased up to 50% in consideration of the determined stock value.
This increase in value may in forests up to 250 acres and stands up
to 50 years old be not more than 60% of the cost of cultures ; for
stands over 50 years and selection forest not more than 15% of
the wood value; for forests over 250 acres with stands up to 50
years not more than 45% of the cost of cultures, and with stands
640 Forestry Quarterly.
over 50 years and selection forest not more than 9% of the stock
value.
The original cost of cultures is set for pine at $10 per acre, for
spruce at $8, for the better class of broad leaf species at $15 and
for other broadleaf species at $7 ; and the figuring is done at 3%
interest rate.
The stumpage value is ascertained by using the official yield
tables reduced by 15% and multiplying with local prices.
Of the 60 banks canvassed, 26 make no loans on forest prop-
erty, 13 base loans on soil values; 14 base loans for regularly
managed forests on the yield, with a working plan as basis, and
some making conditions as to the personnel of the administration,
fire insurance, etc. ; two banks have special prescriptions how the
yield is to be ascertained and capitalize it at 5% interest rate. It is
of interest to note that the credit institutions which are mutual, i. e.
not organized for money-making, loan only on stumpage at pre-
sent exploitable. Altogether in bank circles only present values
appear loanable. Future values do not appeal to practical finan-
ciers.
The reason why most of the banks do not loan except on
forest property in connection with farms is explained by the fact
that the latter are more readily saleable and they can be rented.
Especially forests in intermittent management do not offer satis-
factory security for loans and only their soil value may form a
basis for them. In the valuation of 21 forests containing 23,000
acres the soil value figured out $17.70 per acre, while the yield
value was $61.70.
The author then declares and defends the position that a forest
which does not contain any usable stock furnishes no solid basis
for a valuation which would be acceptable to bankers, the soil
rent theory not furnishing such a basis. This theory is based
upon one equation with two unknown quantities, the forest value
itself and the interest rate.
With the usual interest rates too low or even negative values
result, and the use of a lower rate on the ground of the increase
in wood prices is looked at doubtfully by financiers. He sees this
rise in prices partly in a lowering of money value, partly in de-
velopment of means of transportation which cannot go on for a
much longer time. He even foresees the possibility of a lower-
Periodical Literature. 641
ing of prices due to hereto unopened sources of supply in export
countries becoming accessible (!).
Die Belcihiing von Waldiingcn. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt.
October, November, 191 1. Pp. 523-535.
An excellent article by Mathey, describing
Yields a typical composite forest or coppice with
of standards gives a clear insight into this
Coppice form of management which is most highly
with developed in France. Since we believe that
Standards. this same form will serve in this country
as a transition to timber forest in many
Eastern woodlots, it is worth while to pay attention to the same
as practiced elsewhere.
In France the production of oak workwood is perhaps the
principal aim of this management.
The main problem is the determination of the overwood
amounts.
Formerly, a large number of stems was supposed to be the
desirable aim, and the three age classes were distributed in num-
bers as 1 :2:3, etc., when 150 to 160 trees per acre were a maxi-
mum. Later, volumes were substituted for numbers ; but, as in
that case one stand of branchy overwood might produce a large
amount of mere fuel wood, another with the same volume a larger
amount of workwood, it became necessary to introduce a quality
consideration, if the description was to furnish a true picture, so
that Broillard introduced the distinction of stands rich in volume
(bdlivages riches) and those rich in numbers (balivages serres).
Experience showed that the maximum of workwood production
could be attained when the three overwood classes were distri-
buted as follows : 5-10% of the youngest ; 25-30% of the middle-
aged; 60-70% of the oldest of 17 inch diameter and over; alto-
gether averaging around 50 trees. In this composition the oak
standards produce 30 to 40 cubic feet of workwood per acre and
year, or in value say $8 to $12. In the alluvial soils, south of
Dijon the total wood production varies between 72 and 115 cubic
feet, or 93 cubic feet per acre, and experience shows a workwood
per cent, of 66, i. e. 62 cubic feet. With the lengthening of the
rotation in the coppice the workwood per cent, increases; e. g.
642 Forestry Quarterly.
if in a rotation of 20 years the product is 34 cubic feet in a 30-
year rotation it will be, say 60, and in a 40-year rotation, 65 cubic
feet per year ; and the shaft length will also be improved.
To attain such remarkable production (in the balmy climate
and first-class soil of France. Ed.), i. e. the maximum of work-
wood in shortest time and with the least working capital, the
following rules should be followed :
1. Avoid leaving too many trees for overwood in the younger
age classes.
2. Leave the largest number in the oldest age class, the elite or
batallion sacre.
3. Avoid the leaving of the less valuable and shady beech,
which smothers underwood and oak.
4. In the underwood favor the rapid growers, elm, ash, birch,
which furnish good enough fuelwood and do not impede the oak.
Mathey himself agrees that this form (as a permanency!) be-
longs to the fertile soils and can by no means be substituted for
the timber forest everywhere.
The average results which are being attained in these, as yet
imperfect, forests near Dijon are stated as $2.50 to $5.00 per
acre, which the author thinks can be doubled.
Schweizerische-Zeitschrift fiir Forstwescn. September and October,
1911. Bulletin Societe forestiere de Franche-Comte et Belfort, 1909.
UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY.
Laris very briefly discusses critically the
Raping Riiping process of impregnation, introduced
Process in 1903, which has in view the cheapening
of of treatment with tar oils.
Impregnation. After pointing out that of the many anti-
septics proposed, only zink chloride, carbolic
tar oils and chloride of mercury remain practicable and that zink
chloride by itself is unsuitable because readily washed out and
being injurious by its free acid to the rails, while tar oil impreg-
nation is expensive (60 cents per tie) and the combination of tar
oil with zink chloride costs only 15 cents — he formulates the re-
quirements of a faultless method of impregnation as follows :
I. The liquor used, besides its antiseptic qualities, must have the
Periodical Literature. 643
property of entering such an intimate chemical compound with
the cell walls and any remaining protein contents, that all cells or
vessels are permanently, mechanically closed on the outside to
prevent effectively the entrance of atmospherilia and their con-
comitants ;
2. That the metal parts coming in contact with the wood are not
attacked by acids becoming free, since then the antiseptic effect
is offset by mechanical wear.
The Riiping method (see F. Q. vol. Ill, p. 321) intended to
cheapen the process and introduced on the Prussian and Imperial
railroads, consists in fully impregnating the tie with tar oils and
then partially evacuating them again, so that a normal beech tie
contains only 45 lbs. of oil instead as formerly, 80 lbs. The re-
moval of the surplus leaves the lumina of cells and vessels empty,
and hence there is nothing left to seal these openings by the sub-
sequent thickening of the oils ; only the walls profit by the
absorption of the phenyl acid.
That the full amount of tar oil is needed may also be deduced
from the fact that the amount of a mixture of tar oil and zink
chloride which a tie will take up amounts to y6 lbs.
The author doubts whether the impregnation of the cell walls
alone suffices.
Kritische Beleuchlung des tieuen Riipingschen Schwellen-Trankungs-
verfahren. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen. September, Octo-
ber, 191 1. Pp. 255-259.
STATISTICS AND HISTORY.
Students of the early forest history of
Forest Germany will welcome the verbatim repro-
Ordinance duction of the forest ordinance of Bishop
of Julius for the cloister forests of Wtirzburg
Wiirzhurg. from the year 1574, the property compris-
ing at some time over 150,000 acres. This
ordinance laid down the principles under which the property and
other broadleaf forests were managed for centuries.
Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. August, September, 191 1. Pp.
476-496.
644 Forestry Quarterly.
POLITICS AND LEGISLATION.
An article by Kruk on this subject is in-
Correction teresting in showing by figures the influence
of of forest cover on waterflow, and in con-
Torrents tributing to the evergrowing problem of
in waste land reclamation.
Galicia. The Austrian government has begun in a
small way to regulate the flow of Galician
streams, but has not yet done much to correct the forest conditions
which are claimed to be the cause of the irregularity of the river
flow.
The writer claims that the forest per cent, of the watershed of
the Dnjester and of the Vistula has in the last three decades been
reduced from 37% and 25.8% to 25% and 18% respectively. At
the same time destructive floods have appeared more frequently.
While in the first 80 years of last century only four such floods
were experienced (in 1813, 1843, 1867 and 1875), in the last 30
years 10 such floods have occurred (1882, 1884, 1889, 1895, 1899,
1901, 1903, 1906, 1907 and 1908), not counting minor annual
floods occasioning small damage. He estimates the damage in the
last 30 years as exceeding one hundred million dollars. Details
are given of the 1884 flood, which inundated over 560,000 acres
affecting some 400,000 people. Official data record
3,541 industrial concerns, damaged .Kr. 462,240
7,000 acres entirely washed away, . . 1,224,716
12,500 acres covered with gravel and
debris, i,359>78o
Damage to riparian works, 24,492,340
Damage to roads, 439,386
Damage to railroads, 1,994,522
Kr. 29,972,984
or around $5,500,000, a loss occasioned within a few days. This,
for a generally poor country, enormous loss has been several times
repeated within these 30 years. While in well-forested water-
sheds the experience is that 30 to 35% of the precipitation reaches
the rivers, on naked slopes some 25% more is shed over the sur-
face.
Other Periodical Literature. 645
In the Vistula watershed there are some 25,000 acres of abso-
lute wastelands and nearly 330,000 acres of poor pastures bring-
ing not over 20 cents taxes per acre. In the Dn jester watershed
the area of wasteland is 17,000 and of poor pastures 280,000
acres. If the pastures were reforested the forest per cent, would
rise to 46 and 32 respectively, and the regulation of waterflow
would be increased to double its efficiency.
The character of the torrents and watersheds is described at
length. The government has so far spent fifteen million dollars
to merely regulate the flow in the rivers without taking recourse
to reforestation.
Die volkszvirtschaftliche Bedeutung der Wildbachverhauung in Galizien.
Centralblatt. f. d. g. Forstwesen. August, September, 1911. Pp. 361-370.
OTHER PERIODICAL LITERATURE.
American Forestry, XVII, 1911, —
The Forest Ranger. Pp. 445-455.
An account of his work.
Forestry and the Utilization of Land. Pp. 456-462.
A Forest School in the Philippines. Pp. 517-521.
Description of the training given in the new school opened
in June, 1910.
Public Aspects of Forestry. Pp. 525-530.
Forest Schools in the United States. Pp. 479, 522, 537,
542, 549-
Description of the courses and training in different schools.
Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, XXIV,
1911,—
The State and Private Woodlands. Pp. 121-131.
The State in Relation to Afforestation. Pp. 150-153.
646 Forestry Quarterly.
Larch Seed. Pp. 179-185.
Continental Notes — Germany. Pp. 194-208,
Quarterly Journal of Forestry, V, 1911,—
Experiments with Scots Pine Seed from Various Sources.
Pp- 303-312.
How Big Timber is Felled and Manipulated in British
Columbia. Pp. 317-335.
The Gardeners' Chronicle, L, 1911,—
Indian Loranthuses and Their Hosts. Pp, 104-105,
The Germination of Juniper Seeds. Pp. 127.
Recommends plunging into boiling water.
Graft Hybrids. Pp. 161-163 ; 185-186.
Juglans cathayensis. Pp, 189.
Description.
European Elms. Pp. 202-203 ; 221,
The Indian Forester, XXXVII, 1911,—
Recruitment of the Imperial Forest Service. Pp. 403-413.
The writer claims the new rules to be framed rather to
encourage British universities to found chairs of forestry
than for the benefit of the Indian Service.
A Method of Measuring the Height of Standing Trees.
Pp. 454-458.
A modification of the Christen method.
Progress Reports of Forest Administration in the Central
Provinces ; in the Lower Provinces; in the United Provinces;
in Jammu and Kashmir State; in Burma; in Mysore; in
Bombay and Sind, for 1909-1910. Pp, 458-469; 500-507;
575-579-
Other Periodical Literature. 647
Indian Forester, XXXVII, 1911,—
Influence of Forests on Drought. Pp. 477-489.
One more reply to Mr. Moore's assertions.
Journal of the Board of Agriculture, XVIII, 1911, —
Forestry in Norway. Pp. 385-394.
An historical account of the progress of scientific forestry.
School of Working Foresters, Forest of Dean. Pp. 498-
500.
Statement of the course of training.
Willows and Their Cultivation. Pp. 557-562.
Conclusion of the series on this subject.
The Philippine Journal of Science: Botany, VI, 1911, —
Philippine Gymnosperms. Pp. 149-177.
Minute description of twenty-six species, with keys, dis-
tribution, bibliography, synonymy, and eight plates.
Two Important Borneo Timber Trees. Pp. 179-180.
Philippine Dipterocarpaceae. Pp. 231-287.
A treatment of this group along the same lines as the same
author's account of the Gymnosperms (above).
Forest Leaves, XIII, 1911, —
The Saxon State Forest Academy of Tharandt. Pp. y2-
74-
Description of the method of instruction.
Ehodora, XIII, 1911,—
Populus virginiana. Pp. 195-199-
Taxonomic.
Range of Betula lenta. Pp. 206-207.
648 Forestry Quarterly.
Canadian Forestry Journal, VII, 1911, —
Ontario Shade Tree Legislation. Pp. 91-93.
Given in detail.
Notes on Some Bavarian Forests. Pp. 101-107.
Log Scaling in British Columbia. Pp. 111-112.
NEWS AND NOTES.
The Forestry Branch of the Dominion of Canada has lately
began to follow the methods of the U. S. Forest Service in send-
ing out press bulletins. From these we cull the following facts of
interest :
The survey work of the Riding Mountain Reserve has been
completed by the Dominion Forestry Branch but there is still
necessary a program of improvement work which will cover four
or five years. To protect the timber from fire the trails must be
extended so that every part of the Reserve may be reached quickly
by the rangers and fire fighters; fire guards must be kept cleared
every year, the rangers must be located permanently on the
Reserves at suitable ranger stations where cabins, stables and cor-
rals will be built by the Forestry Branch, and every ranger station
must be connected with headquarters by telephone, so that news
of a fire and a call for assistance may be sent quickly.
In outlining a policy calling for the protection and improvement
of the Forest Reserves, the Canadian Forestry Branch is follow-
ing the example of the most progressive countries in the world.
Fortunately it is not necessary for Canada to depend upon experi-
ments for experience in forest administration. The United States
Forest Service, employing over 2,000 trained men and spending
about $5,000,000 yearly, has during the past few years developed
in the National Forests of the United States an almost perfect (?)
system of fire protection, reforestation and timber administration.
It is the intention of the Forestry Branch to benefit largely by the
experience of the United States ; a proof of this is that one of the
officers of the headquarter's staff together with Mr. Albert Mc-
Leod, Chief Forest Ranger in charge of the Riding Mountains
Reserve, will spend a portion of October studying the methods of
administration and protection developed in the Superior National
Forest in Minnesota.
Sixty per cent, of the hardwood used in Canada was imported
from the United States in 1910. The United States, although
with a much larger supply of hardwood on hand, is also seeing
650 Forestry Quarterly.
that the annual consumption far exceeds the annual growth and
that the virgin supply is being rapidly reduced. To stimulate at-
tention to the growing of hardwoods, the Forestry Branch of the
Dominion is taking a practical interest in the farmer's woodlots
of Ontario, in an effort to make otherwise useless land supply
hardwood lumber to an eager market, with profitable returns to
the woodlot owner. Foresters will be supplied by the Depart-
ment to look over tracts of timbered land, estimate the quantity of
timber, advise as to what species to encourage or plant according
to the locality and general conditions, and suggests a general
working plan.
The exportation of pulpwood in a raw form from Canada into
the United States is increasing yearly, and by just so much as this
is so does Canada lose the benefits to be derived from manufacture
and the increased value of raw products. Over a million and a
half cords of pulpwood were cut in Canada during 1910, worth
nearly nine million, eight hundred thousand dollars. Over sixty
per cent of this amount was sent out of Canada without further
labor being expended on it. The value of this pulp, derived from
this wood, for which Canada received six million, two hundred
and ten thousand dollars as pulpwood, is figured by the Forestry
Branch at over thirteen and a half million dollars at the average
prices paid in 1910 by United States importers of pulpwood.
Thus Canada did not get one-half the amount she would have
received if all pulpwood were converted into pulp on Canadian
soil.
Within two years, the number of the kinds of wood used for
laths in Canada has been doubled, statistics collected by the
Dominion Forestry Branch for 1910 showing that twelve species
of wood were used in the production of the 852,000,000 pieces of
lath produced worth $1,943,000. The first six species in import-
ance were spruce, white pine, cedar, Douglas Fir, hemlock and
balsam which also are the woods used for some time in the manu-
facture of laths. The remaining six; jack-pine, red pine, yellow
pine, poplar, basswood and larch are the new species increasing in
importance. Spruce and white pine laths, the two most impor-
tant species, show a decrease in 1910 from the year previous, but
together form nearly seventy per cent, of the annual output.
Nezvs and Notes. 651
Some million and a half more pieces of cedar were cut in 1910
than in 1909, and the amount for this species of seventy million
pieces made up one-twelfth of the total. Prices ranged from
$1.25 for yellow pine to $3.18 per thousand for poplar.
Over nine-tenths of the two billion shingles produced in Canada
during 1910 were of cedar and over one-half of these were
western cedar cut in British Columbia. The consumption of
spruce and White Pine, for shingles has decreased suddenly in
1910, eighty-two per cent, less of the former being made than in
1909, and scarcely one-fifth the usual amount of white pine being
produced. Nova Scotia and Quebec cut most of the spruce
shingles. The White Pine shingles are mostly of the species Pinus,.
monticola and are cut in British Columbia. Nearly three million
more of hemlock shingles were produced in 1910 than during the
year previous and of the total of fifteen million pieces, over nine-
tenths was produced in Ontario and Quebec. The above four
species furnished over ninety-eight per cent, of the wood used in
shingles. Balsam, Dougles Fir and Jack Pine, although of less
importance, were used during 1910 in increasing quantities and
for the first time ; tamarack and red pine were reported as shingle
wood. There was less fluctuation in the value of the species than
formerly. Balsam shingles were the cheapest at $1.48 per thou-
sand and tamarack the most expensive at $2.49.
The Commission for the Investigation and Control of the Chest-
nut Blight in Pennsylvania has issued very rigid instructions to
all nurserymen and common carriers in regard to the inspection
of all chestnut nursery stock. The instructions provide that no
shipments shall be made until the stock has been examined by
the Commission, and no trees can be forwarded which do not con-
tain a certificate of inspection. Uninfected stock will be per-
mitted to go out after it has been dipped in an approved fungi-
cide, preferably Bordeaux mixture ; while diseased trees will
be burned.
The question of scientific management is at present receiving
a great deal of attention from engineers and the administrative
heads of industrial concerns, and its principles will no doubt even-
tually be given consideration in connection with forest manage-
652 Forestry Quarterly.
ment. In October, the Amos Tuck School of Finance and Ad-
ministration of Dartmouth College held a conference on scien-
tific management at Hanover, N. H., which was attended by the
leading exponents of scientific management in America and by
some two hundred prominent manufacturers in New England.
Among the various subjects discussed was one on the management
of timber properties and lumbering by W. R. Brown, of the Ber-
lin Mills Co. Informal addresses were also made by visiting
foresters and lumbermen.
A reunion of the alumni of the Yale Forest School is to be
held in New Haven on December 20 and 21, 191 1. A brief pro-
gram, class smokers and a banquet will comprise the chief fea-
tures of the entertainment. Although the number of forest school
alumni is comparatively small and they are scattered throughout
the United States, the attendance, from present indications, prom-
ises to be surprisingly large.
Mr. Nelson C. Brown, Deputy Supervisor on the Kaniksu
National Forest in Idaho has accepted the position of Assistant
Professor of Forestry at the Iowa State College, at Ames. Mr.
Brown received his collegiate training at Yale, graduating in 1906.
He immediately took up graduate work in the Yale Forest School
and in 1908 received the degree of Master of Forestry.
It is reported that Jas. O. Hazard, Yale Forest School '10, has
been appointed assistant to Alfred Gaskill, State Forester of New
Jersey, to have charge of shade tree work.
An interesting publication by the Department of Commerce
shows the progrees of the United States — changes of conditions
during the century — "in its material resources" from 1800-1911.
It does so, however, only as far as financial changes express it.
The population has grown from 51-3 million to 93! million (at
the rate of 2| per cent, annually) ; the public debt advanced from
$83 million through $2,675 million in 1865, to $1,015 million in
191 1, a gratifying reduction per capita from $15.63 to $10.83.
Money in circulation advanced from $4.99 to $34-35 (less than
2% annually.) Bank depositors have increased since 1820 from
9,000 to over 9 million ; deposits from 2 billion dollars in 1875 to
15 billion in 1910 (Government receipts, from $2.04 per capita
Nezvs and Notes. 653
to $7.45, one-half of what they were in 1866 (about 1% per an-
num.) Exports rose from $32 milHon to $2 bilHon — about 3f
per cent.; while imports rose from $91 million to $1.5 billion —
little over 2.5%. It is in these last two items that the story is
mainly told, but an analysis of the make-up of exports and im-
ports is necessary to make out whether this denotes progress or
diminution of natural resources. We hope to return to this vol-
ume again.
A circular of the Department of Commerce and Labor shows
the extraordinary increase in prices of many imported articles, like
cofifee, tea, rubber, wool, flax, hemp, tin, many of them having
increased in price 80 to 90 per cent, in the last decade, showing
change in conditions of supply in the countries from which
shipped.
The Commission for the publication of an international forestry
bibliography (see F. Q., vol. VIII, p. 270) announces, that it has
at its disposal Mk 19,566, an amount just barely sufficient to ven-
ture on the work of compiling the bibliography of former years.
The payment of subscriptions is being called for. The Forestry
Experiment Station of Switzerland will do the editing at the
expense of the Federal Government.
For the card catalogue of the new bibliography only 109 sub-
scriptions are so far received which makes the cost on white cards
$10 per 3,000 cards per year, beginning with the year 191 1.
Professor Dr. Biihler Tubingen is the chairman of the Com-
mission.
COMMENTS.
In a speech at Yellowstone Park, Walter A. Fisher, Secretary
of the Interior, rather clearly stated that it was his conviction that
the Forest Service should be in the Department of the Interior.
This, coming from a man who is supposed to be friendly to the
interest of the Forest Service, leads to rather serious doubts as
to whether the position of the Forest Service is as stable in the
Government administration as could be wished. If the question of
the transfer of the Service is raised at the coming session of Con-
gress, it will at least give an opportunity for the opponents of
Government forestry to attempt a change, in the hooe that it
will be detrimental ; while the friends of the Service may have
difficulty in proving that the present organization is a correct one.
To all who are familiar with the situation, it is evident that the
remarkable development in National Forest work has followed —
in part, at least — from its being carried under the Department of
Agriculture. On the other hand, this department is fundamen-
tally a scientific one whose function is mainly advisory, with little
administrative authority outside of its own departmental func-
tions. Yet, under it has developed the Forest Service, which has
administrative jurisdiction over large areas of public land. In
the Department of Interior, on the other hand, is vested the con-
trol of most of our public lands, and, theoretically, the Forest
Service would logically fall under its jurisdiction. If all our
government departments were the smooth-running, well-man-
aged organizations they should be, it would make very little dif-
ference in our forest policy whether the Forest Service was trans-
ferred to the Interior Department. But, unfortunately, the tradi-
tions of the Department of the Interior, and particularly the Land
Office, are against an able business administration of our public
lands such as the Forest Service has inaugurated, and the trans-
fer to this department would probably retard the development of
a national forest policy to a very great extent.
The very thoughtful and readable article of Dr. Jentsch, one of
the sanest foresters of Germany, made accessible by Mr. Dunlap
in this issue, brings home to us the enormous advantage under
Comment. 655
which the young generation of American foresters are starting
their work, when compared with what the conditions were when
Hartig and Cotta began their labors of reclaiming mismanaged
forests. We have the entire theory and experience with an ap-
paratus of knowledge, which was unknown to the early workers.
For, whatever may be said against Mayr's ambitious attempt to
write a volume of silviculture for the whole world, he is right in
his contention that silviculture as far as it is based on natural
laws, is universal ; the fundamental principles involved are the
same anywhere. But, to be sure, judgment as to their practical
application under given conditions cannot be dispensed with any
more than in any other business.
We have the advantage that we have nothing to unlearn or to
undo. There is a German proverb, "the good is the enemy of the
better." Having in silvicultural lines nothing good we have a
chance to apply the better, provided we have an open mind and do
not fall into the error of the early empiricists, of generalizing and
limiting ourselves to the belief that one medicine can be the
remedy for all evils.
The strenuous work of American foresters and pathologists in
arresting and trying to prevent the introduction of so destruc-
tive an enemy as the White Pine rust could readily become de-
serves our highest commendation.
At the same time, it is only just to point out that the danger is
to a large extent minimized, if not entirely removed, by the ac-
tion of the German nurseries from which the disease was im-
ported.
In 'Dr. Spaulding's bulletin, reviewed in this issue, the one nur-
sery which probably has the largest trade of nursery stock for-
forest planting, Heins & Sons at Halstenbeck, is repeatedly quot-
ed as the source of the evil. It is, perhaps, if not the only nursery
which ships material of this description,, yet the one which does
so in the largest amounts.
From a representative of the firm we learn that to obviate any
further propagation of the evil not only was the entire remaining
stock of infected White Pine seedlings destroyed, but the nursery
for growing this material removed six miles from the original
location, and a German official of the pathological bureau em-
ployed to inspect the new plantation and make sure that no traces
656 Forestry Quarterly.
of the fungus or its needed host-plant, Ribes, were to be found in
or near it.
Knowing that the firm is a thoroughly honest and efficient
one — as everybody who may have had dealings with them will
attest — these statements may be relied upon. Self-preservation
and the desire to keep its world-fame for reliability must be suffi-
cient motives for such a concern not to remain under a cloud.
A man who has been sick, is not necessarily a sickly man.
The above comment was communicated to Dr. Spaulding, and
he takes issue with it.
It is fair that we should advise our readers of his strictures,
which are that he is not satisfied with the representations of the
representative of Heins Sons, and that, as late as 191 1, fruiting
bodies of the fungus were found in shipments from this nursery,
and he considers this nursery a chronic case.
We are, of course, quite unable to decide whether or not the
claims of the firm are now truthful, and agree with the writer that
positive proof of the health of their stock must be forthcoming to
remove all suspicion.
ERRATA
By inadvertence of printer and proof reader on page 408 of
this volume in the last formula for the Biltmore stick the + sign
has become a X sign, which readers will, please, correct.
LIDGERWOOD
Cableway Skidders
Have Beaten All Others for Economy and Continuous Operation.
Are Independent of Ground Conditions. Handle Bundles of Small
Logs as Readily as Single Logs.
( Tree Rigged Cableway S^idder Pulling and Loading Logs)
Delivers Logs Free From Sand and Gravel. Doing Remarkable
Work Everywhere from Middle States Flat Lands to Pacific Coast
Mountain Logging.
Less Destructive to Young Growth Than Any Ground Skidding System
LIDGERWOOD M'F'G CO.
96 Liberty Street, New York, N. Y.
Chicago, III.
Seattle, Wash.
Woodward, Wight & Co., Ltd.
New Orleans, La.
Allis-Chalmers-Bullock, Ltd.
Canada
Yale University Forest School
NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT
A two-year course is offered, leading to the
degree of Master of Forestry. Graduates of
collegiate institutions of high standing are
admitted upon presentation of their college
diploma, provided they have taken certain pre-
scribed undergraduate courses. '
The first term is conducted at Milford, Pike
County, Penn. The session in 191 2 will open
July 5 and continue ten weeks.
For further information, address
JAMES W. TOUMEY, Director, New Haven, Connecticut
The University of Toronto
and University College
Faculties of Art, Medicine, Applied Science, House-
hold Science, Education, Forestry.
The Faculty of Forestry offers a four-year course,
leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in
Forestry.
For information, apply to the REGISTRAR OF THE UNIVERSITY, or
to the Secretaries of the respective Faculties.
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCE
offers a two-years' course in FORESTRY leading to the degree of
Master in Forestry. The descriptive pamphlet will be sent on
application to W. C. SABINE, 15 University Hall, Cambridge,
Mass.
UNIVERSITY OF MAINE
ORONO, MAINE
Offers a four-year undergraduate course, leading to the degree of
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN FORESTRY.
The Location and Equipment of the School and the Opportunities offered to
Students of Forestry are excellent.
For detailed information, address
JOHN M. BRISCOE, Department of Forestry, ORONO, MAINE.
ERIC FOREST SCHOOL
Powder Point, Duxbury, Mass. Box 213
Preparatory course in FORcSTR I leading to the Biltmore
and college courses in this subject. It requires hard, earnest
application, and develops an appreciation of nature and power of
leadership. SUMMER CLASS ; also TUTORING.
F. B. KNAPP, S. B., Director
FOREST TREES
Seedlings and transplanted; Millions in stock. All very fine
stock, hardy, well rooted and free from disease. Catalogues and
Forest Planters' Guide free on application.
Shipments of 200 Millions of Plants Annually. I,argest
Nurseries in the World.
J. HEIMS' SONS
HALSTENBEK 153 Nr. Hamburg, (Germany)
American Representative: Otto Heinecker, 287 Broadway, New York City
Please write for price list, etc
Experts
IN
Reforestation
The North-Eastern Forestry Co.,
Box I 131
New Haven, Conn.
FOREST TREES !
FOREST SEEDS!
F. O.B. ROTTERDAM
Seedlings and Transplanted. By the Million
PETER SCHOTT, KNITTELSHEIM
Rheinpfalz (Palatinate), GERMANY
Wholesale Seeds and Nurseryman
ESTABLISHMENT FOR DRYING CONIFEROUS SEEDS
ESTABLISHED 1784
The oldest established Seed and Nuraery BusineBa in Germany
DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUES POST FREE ON APPLICATION
EVERGREEN AND FOREST TREE
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Immense quantities of following hardy valuable sorts. White
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Pine, Douglas Fir, Balsam Fir, Norway Spruce,
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Hemlock, etc., etc.
Deciduous Trees
Larch, Beech, Birch, Maple, Ash, Walnut, Locust, Elm, Oaks,
Catalpa, Speciose, Wild Cherry, Linden, etc., etc.
Tree Seeds — Guaranteed New Crop
A complete assortment of all valuable species, both Native
and Foreign. High Germinatioiv Quality.
WRITE FOR PRICES
Mention this Magazine
THE D. HILL NURSERY CO.
EVERGREEN SPECIALISTS
L>ars:est Growers in >\merica
F». o. Box soo Dundee, III,
F'osjjidecl— tSSS
WOULB YOU LIKE
to receive regularly the Bulletins and Circulars pertaining to the actual
practice of preventing the decay of wood? While these frankly advocate
the use of Avenarius Carbolineum for the brush or open tank treatment of
timber they are none the less interesting on that account but rather
MORE so, for Avenarius Carbolineum is, without doubt, the one preserv-
ative that has demonstrated its decay preventing qualities during thirty-
five years. The Bulletins and Circulars are sent free.
Circ. 5(5 contains a Bibliography of Technical references.
Circ. 58 covers Treating Tanks for Fence Posts, Shingles, etc. Address
CARBOLINEUM WOOD PRESERVING CO.
185 Franklin St., New York, N. Y.
Back Numbers
OF
FORESTRY QUARTERLY
For Sale at 50 cents per Number
Address Forestry Quarterly, 396 Harvard St., Cambridge, Mass.
20,000,000
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AMERICAN FORESTRY COMPANY
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NURSERIES AND SEEDS
South Framingtiam Massachusetts
THEODORE F. BORSI, Forest Engineer
The Care of Trees in Lawn, Street and Park
By
B. E. Fernow
American Nature Series. Working with Nature.
Published by
Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1910
392 pp. 8.° Illustrated. Price, $2.00 Net
For Sale by
Henry Holt & Co., New York
Economics of Forestry
A Reference Book for Students of Political Economy
and Professional and Lay Student
By B. E. RERINOW
13mo., $1.50 net. By mail $E.6S
"It is by far the best and most important work on forestry which deals with
American conditions." EDWARD M. SHEPARD,
New York.
"I find it as I expected meaty and complete. It fills the place it is written for."
PROF. F. ROTH,
University of Michigan.
"I have read few books on forestry with as much enjoyment."
PROF. DR. SCHWAPPACH,
Eberswalde, Germany.
F^or Sale by
T. Y. CROWELL & CO.
NEW YORK
MANUAL FOR NORTHERN WOODSMEN
fiy AUSTIN CARY, Harvard University Publisher, Cambridge,
19/0; Pages, 250. Price, $2.00.
A newly revised and improved edition of the above publica-
tion, highly recommended by the editor of this journal, can be
had at the above price by addressing Forestry Quarterly, 396
Harvard Street, Cambridge, Mass.
fOREST PHYSIOGRAPHY
PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STiVTES
AND PRINCIPLES OF SOILS IN
RELATION TO FORESTRY
BY
ISAIAH BOWMAN, Ph. D.
Assistant Professor of Geography in Yale University
8vo. xxii — 759 pages. 292 figures (many full pages) and 6 plates
(3 printed in color, including a new Geologic Map of
North America.) Cloth, $5.00 net (21/ — net)
The title, " Forest Physiography," does not imply a book on
forestry but rather a book on physiography for students of forestry;
and, as nearly as has seemed advisable from the nature of the sub-
ject, it has been prepared for their special needs. It is hoped,
however, that the book may be of service to historians also, and
to economists, since a knowledge of the physiography of the
United States has heretofore depended upon one or two short and
general chapters on the subject, or upon a study of hundreds of
original papers and monographs.
Descriptive Circular Upon Application
JOHN WILEY & SONS
43 and 45 East 19th Street NEW YORK CITY
London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Ltd. Montreal, Can.: RENOUF PUBLISHING CO.
REVISED AND ENLARCED EDITION
History of Forestry
IN
Germany and 0(her Counfries
By B. E. Fernow
About 500 Pages, 8° Price, $2.50 Postpaid
Dr. Schwappach says: "The study of these conditions under
the guidance of the interesting expositions of Fernow is very
instructive."
Prof. Fisher of Oxford says: "Dr. Fernow's History of For-
estry is a welcome and important addition to our Hterature * * *
Fernow writes admirably about German forestry, with which
he is thoroughly acquainted."
Dr. Fankhauser of Switzerland says: "With great skill has
the author brought the voluminous material into a relatively
small volume and yet has everywhere brought out the essentials
in clear and easily intelligible exposition. The chapter de-
voted to Switzerland shows us clearly how exhaustively the
author has utilized the most important literature and how ex-
cellently he has understood how to orient himself in compli-
cated conditions."
A new and revised edition of this work has
just come from the press. Orders may be
placed with
FORESTRY QUARTERLY
396 Harvard Street Cambridge, Mass.
OR
UNIVERSITY PRESS, Toronto, Canada
Established 1845. Incorporatbd 1900.
W. & L. E. GURLEY
TROY, N. Y., U. S. A.
Largest Manufacturers in America of
Instruments for Civil, Mining and Hydraulic
Engineers and Land Surveyors
Foresters' Instruments, Compasses, Plane=
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Please mention this Magazine when writing.
CONTENTS
The Yale Transplanting Board,
By J. W. Tourney.
The Rise of Silviculture,
By Dr. Jentsch, Translated by Frederick Dunlap.
Winter Reconnaissance in Californian Mountains,
By R. F. Hammatt.
The "Hand-Loggers" of British Columbia,
By Louis Margolirt.
Rotation of Cutting to Secure a Sustained Yield from
the Crown Timber Lands of British
Columbia,
By Leonard S. Higgs.
A Confusion of Technical Terms in the Study of
Wood Structure,
By C. D. Mell.
Report of Committee on Forest Fires, Canadian
Forestry Association,
Canadian Volume Tables,
By Ellwood Wilson.
Current Literature,
Other Current Literature,
Periodical Literature,
Other Periodical Literature,
News and Notes,
Comments, ^
' - ■ ' r •
Page
539
544
557
563
568
574
577
588
595
614
620
645
649
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