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FORESTS WOODS AND TREES 


IN RELATION TO HYGIENE 


THE CHADWICK LIBRARY 


RAINFALL, RESERVOIRS AND 
WATER SUPPLY. 


By Sir ALEXANDER BINNIE. Qs. net. 


VITAL STATISTICS EXPLAINED. 
By Joseru Burn, F.1.A., F.S.I. 4s. 6d. net. 


HEALTH IN CAMP. 


By Austin T. NANKIvELL, M.D., Capt., 
R.A.M.C., with an Introduction by Sir SHIRLEY 
Murpny, F.R.C.S., R.A.M.C. (T.) 

Paper 1s. net; cloth 1s. 6d. net. 


THE FUTURE CITIZEN AND HIS 
MOTHER. 


By Cuarres Porter, M.D., B.Sc., with a 
Foreword by Sir JAMES CRICHTON BROWNE, 
M.D., D.Sc, 3s. Gd. net. 


ALTITUDE AND HEALTH. 
By Professor F. F. RoGer. 


Chuyjsalog ysuveg fo ywoudopavag a], ‘Soqloy “OD “Wy WoT) 
‘|LOG aoRJANG JO papnuiop pury ureyuno, 


YAM “M “YI NG O70UT 


THE CHADWICK LIBRARY 


FORESTS WOODS AND 
TREES 


IN RELATION TO HYGIENE 


BY 


AUGUSTINE HENRY 
M.A., F.L.S., M.R.LA. 


PROFESSOR OF FORESTRY, ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, DUBLIN 


LONDON 
CONSTABLE AND COMPANY Lop. 
1919 


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VOD oe 


Var 


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cathe, fay iin) eae i, 


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PREFACE 


THE subject matter of this book was briefly dealt with by 
me in three Chadwick Public Lectures, which were de- 
livered at the Royal Society of Arts, London, in May 1917, 
under the title of “ Forests, Woods, and Trees in relation to 
Hygiene.” 

An effort is made in this book to interest the statesman, 
the student of economics, the engineer, the physician, and 
the layman, as well as the forester, in certain aspects of 
forests and trees, about which vague notions are prevalent. 
An endeavour is made in the first two chapters to recognise 
and describe the far-reaching influences of forests and trees 
on climate, flow of water, erosion of the soil, shelter from 
wind, purity of air and water, etc. Such influences affect 
directly the health and comfort of man. The value of 
forest districts as sites for sanatoria and the history and 
utility of parks, open spaces, and trees in towns are then 
discussed. The afforestation of the desolate pit mounds in 
the Black Country and other districts is shown to be a 
movement of great interest, especially when, as in some 
cases, it is taken up by school children, 

One effect of the war has been to bring home to think- 
ing people the extreme importance of afforestation. The 
ancient warning, “La France périra faute de bois,” is now 

Vv 


vl FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


applicable to this country. The concluding chapters of the 
book are accordingly, with great fitness for the times, 
devoted to a study of the afforestation of the extensive 
gathering grounds, from which so many of our great 
centres of population obtain their supplies of water. No 
pains have been spared in obtaining statistics and informa- 
tion as to the physical features, ownership, and extent of 
these gathering grounds. The work of planting suitable 
portions of these areas with the aid of disbanded soldiers 
might be undertaken at once, without any disturbance to 
other industries. Their afforestation in any case should be 
linked up with the general scheme of afforestation of the 
waste lands of Great Britain and Ireland, which it is con- 
fidently expected will be undertaken by the State as soon 
as peace is made. Scattered as the gathering grounds are 
throughout the country, they will form convenient centres 
for planting, more especially in the cases where their 
ownership has been acquired by local authorities. The 
compulsory purchase of catchment areas, which are not 
already owned by municipalities, is advisable for sanitary 
reasons; and the necessary legislation may possibly be 
introduced when afforestation by the State becomes a 
reality. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 


Much information concerning water catchment areas has 
been supplied by town clerks, engineers, and other municipal 
officers throughout the country, and to them my grateful 
thanks are now tendered. Messrs. J. & A. Leslie & 
Reid, Edinburgh; Mr. Joseph Parry, M.Inst.C.E., Consult- 
ing Engineer, Liverpool Waterworks; Mr. David A. Donald, 
Burgh Engineer, Grangemouth; Mr. C. H. Priestley, 


PREFACE vii 


M.Inst.C.E., Cardiff; Mr. Frank Howarth, M.Inst.C.E., 
Plymouth ; Mr. S. Chapman, M.Inst.C.E., Torquay ; Mr. 
J. H. H. Swiney, M.Inst.C.E., Belfast ; and Dr. P. C. Cowan, 
Local Government Board, Dublin, contributed valuable 
information and aided my researches in various ways. 
Prof. Percy F. Kendall, Leeds University; Mr. W. B. 
Crump, M.A., Rastrick; Mr. Frank Elgee, Middlesbrough ; 
Mr. G. P. Gordon, Lecturer in Forestry, West of Scotland 
Agricultural College, Glasgow; and Mr. James Whitton, 
Superintendent of Parks, Glasgow, furnished me with plans, 
photographs, and lantern slides, which proved very useful 
in the lectures given before the Chadwick Society and in 
the preparation of this book. 

The plates illustrating the work have been borrowed 
from various sources, and acknowledgements and thanks 
are now tendered for the loan of blocks to Mr. Edward 
Arnold, Frontispiece, from A. C. Forbes, Development of 
British Forestry, and Fig. 6, from Cohen and Ruston, 
Smoke; to Mr. John Murray, Figs. 14 and 16, from E. P. 
Stebbing, British Forestry; to the Council of the Royal 
Irish Academy, Fig. 13, from Pethybridge and Praeger, 
Vegetation South of Dublin; to Mr. P. E. Martineau, 
Secretary, Midland Reafforesting Association, Figs. 7, 8, 
9, from Annual Reports; to Superintendent, Linford Sana- 
torium, Fig. 1, from Booklet; to Town Clerk, Bournemouth, 
Fig. 2, from Handbook ; to Mr. W. H. Morter, Superin- 
tendent, Parks of Birmingham, Fig. 4, from Handbook ; to 
Mr. Robert Anderson, Printer, Glasgow, Fig. 5, from Municipal 
Glasgow; to Mr. R. Galloway, Secretary, Figs. 15, 17, 22, 
26, 31, 32, 33, from Transactions of the Royal Scottish 
Arboricultural Society; to Prof. W. Somerville, Editor, Figs. 
12, 24, 25, 27, from Quarterly Journal of Forestry ; to 
Editor, Gardeners’ Chronicle, Figs. 21, 28, 29, 30; to 


viii FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Editor, Country Infe, Figs. 18, 19, 20, 23; and to the 
Council of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Figs, 37, 43, 
44, 46. 


AUGUSTINE HENRY. 


RoyaL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, 
DUBLIN. 


CONTENTS 


Il. THe INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE 


II. THe Sanirary INFLUENCE OF FOoREstTs 


III. Forests Aas Sites FoR SANATORIA 


IV. Parks In Towns AND Monicrpat ForEsts 


V. Trees In Towns 


VI. AFFORESTATION oF Pit Mounps 


VII. AFFORESTATION OF WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 


VIII. ConpiITIONS AFFECTING 


CATCHMENT AREAS. 


THE 


PLANTING OF WATER 


IX. Trees FoR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS AND FOR 


GENERAL PLANTING 


X. WatTER CATCHMENT AREAS IN ENGLAND AND WALES . 


XI. Water CatcHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 


XII. Water CaTtcHMENT AREAS IN IRELAND 


INDEX . 


1x 


PAGE 


105 


ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS 


FIG. PAGE 
Mountain Land denuded of Surface Soil . . Frontispiece 
1, Sleeping Chalets in Wood at Linford Sanatorium, New 
Forest : ; : Facing 20 
2. Pine Walk in Central Pasdens Srueneblouti : a) 
3. Map: Mid-Lanark, Camps Catchment Area Afforestation 
Scheme : aie task 
4. Students’ Garden, parton: Hill Park, Birmingham Facing 40 
5. Ardgoil Estate, Head of Coilessan Glen. aia | 
6. Stoma of leaf of Silver Fir, showing deposit of soot Ay oe 
7. Map: Parks and Spoil Banks, Black Country ‘ bani SOE 
8. Typical Pit Mound at Littleton Street, West Brom- 
wich . : : : Facing 64 
9. Doulton Road School Plantation : sgl 
10. Map: Liverpool Corporation, Lake Via Plarttations nena 8) 
11. Map: Manchester Corporation, Thirlmere Plantations . 97 
12. Plan: Leeds Corporation, Afforestation Scheme of Wash- 
burn Valley . : : . Facing 100 
13. Agrarian, Dwarf Furze, and Ponthes Zones, Dublin Moun- 
tains . : : . Facing 106 
14. Thirlmere Bnichancrt Ain general view . : oe LIS 
15. Mattock Planting on Thirlmere Catchment Area . See ¥ iC 
16. Talla Catchment Area, planting, April 1914 : Pee 
17. Belgian Method of planting Peat: four rows of inverted 
turfs between the drains i ; . Facing 113 
18. Maritime Pine, three years old, sown on bog at Abbey- 
leix . : . Facing 126 
19. Maritime Pine, five years old, sown on bog at Abbey- 
leix . ; : . Facing 126 
20. Maritime Pine, forty-seven years ste at Mullaghmore hs Cee 
21. Douglas Fir plantation at Taymount ; : ‘a geen 


xi 


FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 
. Plantation of Tsuga Albertiana at Murthly . Facing 
. Forest of Western Larch in Idaho : : us 
. Japanese Larch, planted nine years : ; . 
. European Larch at Langley Park . 4 : e 
. Sitka Spruce at Durris, Kincardineshire . : if 
. Beech at Ashridge Park . ; 3 
. Abies nobilis plantation at Durris, with a ie oak saudards 


overhead ; Japanese Larch in the background. Facing 
. Cupressus macrocarpa, nineteen years planted, in Phoenix 


Park, Dublin. : : : . Facing 
. Thuya gigantea plantation at Benmore. : ‘3 
. Thuya gigantea as shelter tree on plantation margin 4 
. Populus regenerata at Glasnevin . ; . _ 


. Populus Eugenei at Kew . : ty 
. Map: North of England Catchment ey 

. Map: Lancashire Catchment Areas 

. Map: Yorkshire, Cheshire, and Derbyshire Gaetan 


Areas 


. Plan: Blackburn. Brennand and Whitendale Catchment 


Area. 


. Map: Eonpilen dude: Derwent Valley, and neighbouring 


Catchment Areas 


. Map: Midland and Severn Valley. Cat dtes uk po 

. Map: Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall Catchment Areas 

. Map: Wales Catchment Areas 

. Map: West, Central, and South Scotland Catehnieit see 
3. Plan: Edinburgh. Glencorse Burn Catchment Area 

. Plan: Edinburgh. ‘Talla Water Catchment Area. 

. Map: Clackmannan, Fife, East Perth, and Forfar Catch- 


ment Areas 


. Plan: Kirkealdy Ditch Slateford Burn and River Farg 


Catchment Areas 


. Map: Inverness, Ross, and ees Gatliictt ine 
. Map: North Ireland Catchment Areas 
. Map: South Ireland Catchment Areas 


CHAPTER I 
THE INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE 


THE influence of forests on climate is undoubted, though 
perhaps less than is generally supposed. The subject is a 
difficult one to study; and on many points no agreement 
has been arrived at amongst engineers and foresters. The 
latter usually hold that the presence of forests is beneficial, 
in increasing the amount of rain in a district or country, 
and in diminishing the erosion (Frontispiece) and the con- 
sequent great losses of the soil on hill and mountain slopes. 
The foresters agree with Humboldt’s saying: “ How foolish 
is man in destroying the mountain forests, as thereby he 
deprives himself of wood and water at the same time.” 

The desolation that now prevails in parts of Spain, 
Algeria, and other Mediterranean lands is generally ascribed 
to the gradual drying up of the climate, consequent on the 
lessened rainfall brought about through the steady clearing 
of the forests by human agency. It is, however, well 
established that great climatic changes of cosmic origin 
occur in the course of centuries; and the disappearance of 
the forests in those countries may be possibly not the cause 
but the result of lessened rainfall in the present epoch as 
compared with Roman times. 

Numerous observations taken over short periods of years 
in France, Germany, and the United States show that 
forests exert in the districts which they cover a definite 
influence on the temperature of the air and of the soil, on 
the rainfall, on the melting of the snow, on the water supply 

1 B 


2 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


and stream-flow, and on the erosion of the soil on slopes of 
hills and mountains. The positive results of these observa- 
tions, which are detailed below under separate headings, 
may be considered to hold good with regard to the British 
Isles and temperate regions generally. It is only fair to 
state that the beneficial action of the forest in increasing 
the rainfall, in diminishing the run-off water, and in pre- 
venting the erosion of the soil is not universally admitted. 
The main arguments against the ordinary view were 
published by H. M. Chittenden (1) in 1908. The attention 
of foresters and engineers may also be directed to the im- 
portant monograph, entitled Boschi e Acque, which was 
published at Rome in 1916 by M. Giandotti (2), Director 
of the Hydrographic Office of the river Po. This is a 
complete study of the whole question of the relation of 
forests to rainfall and stream-flow. 

The investigations carried out in India on the influence 
of forests on atmospheric and soil moisture, which have 
been the subject of a recent official report (Indian Forest 
Bulletin, No. 33, 1916), throw no new light on the problem 
as regards tropical regions. The general conclusions arrived 
at in India were: “The influence of forests on rainfall is 
probably small, but the denudation of the soil, owing to 
the destruction of forests, may be regarded as an established 
fact in India.” Dr. Gilbert Walker, in an appendix to 
this bulletin, points out the difficulty of such investigations, 
one cause of error being the tendency of the annual rainfall 
to run in spells of excessive and deficient years, so that the 
exact influence of forest growth or of forest destruction is 
not readily arrived at. Dr. Hugh R. Mill, in Nature, 
2nd August 1917, p. 446, advocates a study of the relation 
of the isohyetal (3) lines to the configuration of the land 
on wooded and treeless districts of similar character; and 
instances from the report of the rainfall in the Geological 
Survey’s Water Supply Memoirs on Hampshire that the 
district of the New Forest shows a considerably higher general 
rainfall than its elevation above sea-level appears to suggest. 

It will be convenient to state now under four distinct 


INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE 3 


headings the various ways in which forests affect climate in 
temperate regions, as determined by observations taken in 
France, Germany, and the United States. 

1. The Influence of Forests on Temperature of the Air and 
of the Soil—The mean annual temperature of the air inside 
a forest is lowered about 1° F. on an average. This cooling 
effect occurs mainly in summer, and is not noticeable in 
winter. It is owing to the lowered temperature of the air 
over wooded areas that balloons are observed to sink im- 
mediately after they begin to move over a forest. The 
temperature of the air inside a forest is, however, raised at 
night; and as a result, spring and autumn frosts are much 
less frequent and less disastrous in wooded tracts than in 
the open country. <A richly afforested country has a lower 
temperature in summer than a neighbouring country that 
is bare of trees in the same latitude. Bosnia, which is 
covered with forests, is 4° Fahr. cooler in summer than 
denuded Herzegovina. The soil of the forest is warmer in 
winter (about 2° F.) and cooler in summer (about 5° to 
10° F.) than agricultural land outside. The relative humidity 
of the air in the forest is greater than that in the neighbour- 
ing open country. 

2. The Influence of Forests upon Rainfall——trThis is a 
difficult and complicated subject, as the effect of forests on 
the total amount of rainfall over a whole country is doubt- 
ful. In the British Isles and Western Europe, where the 
evaporation from the Atlantic Ocean plays the most im- 
portant part in the precipitation over the land, the effect of 
afforestation in increasing the general rainfall is probably 
negligible. Where the precipitation over the land comes 
from the land itself the effect of forests may be considerable. 
The forest evaporates more water than any other kind of 
vegetation cover, and much more than free water surfaces, 
like seas and lakes. “An oak forest at Mariabrunn near 
Vienna, which was 115 years old, was found to evaporate 
daily, by transpiration through the leaves, about 2500 
gallons of water per acre, corresponding to a rainfall of 
3°5 inches per month, or a rainfall of 17:5 inches during a 


4 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


growing period of five months.” This shows how much 
moisture is passed into the air by a wooded area. Forests 
thus enrich with moisture the winds that pass over them, 
and contribute to the humidity of the regions into which 
the prevailing winds pass. The usefulness of large forests 
in the interior of great continental regions like the United 
States, in regard to rainfall, is thoroughly explained by Dr. 
R. Zon, in an important article on “ Forests and Rainfall ” 
in Science, xxxvili. p. 63 (1913). He advocates the pro- 
tection of such forests; whereas swamps, which contribute 
less to the moisture content of the air, ought to be drained. 
When a forest is cut away, he recommends that the cleared 
ground should be devoted to intensive cultivation, as after 
trees, crops contribute most to the moisture of the air. 
Vezozkii (4) holds similar views in regard to Russia, namely, 
that the forests ought to be preserved in the regions which 
abound in moisture and lie in the route of the air currents 
carrying moisture. 

The influence of forests upon local precipitation has been 
determined by observations taken at Nancy in France over 
33 years. These show an excess of precipitation in the 
forested areas of 12 to 23 percent. As Huffel says, the 
forest always increases the frequency and abundance of 
atmospheric precipitation. It rains more in the centre of 
a great forest than at the margin, and more on the edge of 
the forest than at some miles distant over agricultural land. 
This action of the forest in increasing rainfall is much more 
marked in the mountains and at high altitudes than in the 
low and level plains. This is well shown by the following 
table, taken from over 200 stations during a period of ten 
years in Prussia: 

ALTITUDE OF STATIONS 


Below | 330 to | 780 to | 1970 to | 2300 to | 3000 to 
300 ft. | 650 ft. | 1300ft. | 2300ft. | 2600 ft. | 3250 ft. 


Rainfall in inches of 
stations in the forest. | 25°9 | 26°2 | 29-4 | 42°9 | 55°5 | 69°9 
Rainfall in inches of 
ordinary stations . . | 25°5 | 22-9 | 27-4 | 36-0 | 38°6 | 37°9 


INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE 5 


This shows that at elevations of less than 300 feet the 
rainfall was the same as in the open country; but that with 
increasing elevations the rainfall in the forest exceeded 
more and more that in unforested localities; thus at 5000 
feet elevation the rainfall was 84 per cent more in the 
forest. 

The effect of local afforestation is to increase the rainfall 
in the district. This has been proved by observations taken 
in several localities, one being a moorland in Hanover, and 
another a considerable area in the southern steppes of Russia, 
which were planted with trees. Rain-gauges were placed 
inside the planted tracts and in the surrounding country ; 
and as the plantations were increased year by year, the 
rainfall recorded in them was found to be gradually 
augmented. 

3. The Influence of Forests upon Melting of Snow.—Prof. 
J. E. Church (5), Director of the Mount Rose Observatory, 
Nevada, U.S.A., has made interesting researches into the 
restraining effect of forests on the melting of snow. He has 
devised new methods of rapidly and economically measuring 
large areas of snow at high altitudes. In the Sierra Nevadas 
a larger quantity of snow accumulates in forests than on 
bare slopes, the forests that retain snow best being those 
with open narrow glades. There can be no longer any 
question of the direct influence of forests in delaying the 
melting of snow and in retarding stream-flow at the very 
time when floods normally occur. The forested slope 
contains an average water-content (the snow being converted 
into an equivalent amount of water) one-fifth greater than 
the bare but protected slope above it, nearly twice as much 
water as the cornice at the edge of the mountain, over 
fourteen times the moisture conserved by the wind-swept 
slope, and more than twice the average water-content of all 
three areas combined. Prof. Church advocates the planting 
of timber screens at strategic points on exposed slopes in 
order greatly to increase their capacity to store more snow. 
There are thus two types of reservoirs: the snow reservoirs 
formed by the forest to hold the snow in its original form, 


6 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


and the water reservoirs below to impound the flood waters 
of the stream. The development of the former is the 
immediate and feasible task of the forester, the construction 
of the latter is the work of the engineer. Prof. Church’s 
investigations open up a new field for planting trees at high 
altitudes with a view of lessening the volume and frequency 
of disastrous floods, which are due to rapid melting of snow 
in the mountains from which they take their source. 

4. The Influence of Forests on Water Supply, on Floods, 
and on Sotl Hrosion.—The most important action of the forest 
probably is its influence on water supply or stream-flow. 
We must distinguish the great difference of this influence 
in the plain and in the mountain. 

Only a part of the precipitation is available for water 
supply. Of the total rainfall over an area, 

(1) a part is intercepted by the foliage of the trees and 

evaporated ; 

(2) a part is evaporated from the soil; 

(3) a part is absorbed by the trees and other plants, 
and is partly transpired by them ; 

(4) a part flows directly off the ground, joining im- 
mediately a stream or river; this is known as the 
run-off ; 

(5) the remainder of the rainfall sinks into the ground, 
and joins the stratum of underground water, 
ultimately going to supply springs and streams. 

On level land the total loss of water from these various 
causes, interception, transpiration, and evaporation, is some- 
what greater from the forest than from any other cover, and 
is less from bare soil, where it is about 50 per cent of the 
rainfall. The surface run-off in level country is negligible, 
and a bare soil would retain the greatest amount of water 
for wells, etc. As a net result, in the plain, the forest acts 
as a drainer of the soil. Hence, the action of plantations 
of woods and trees in draining marshy ground is often of 
considerable hygienic value. The total effect of forests or 
woods on the springs and water supply in the level country 
may, however, be looked on as of little importance. 


INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE | 


In hilly and mountainous regions there are numerous 
springs, and the underground water is in motion. On 
slopes the run-off water, that is ni or negligible in the 
plain, becomes large in quantity. The action of the forest 
is to reduce the surface run-off to percolation. This action 
depends on the litter and humus of the floor of the forest, 
which act like a sponge absorbing four or five times their 
weight of water. There is practically no surface run-off 
from wooded watersheds having an abundant leaf-mould 
and litter. This water then sinks slowly into the ground, 
ultimately to re-appear in the springs lower down the 
valley. Similarly, forests preserve the snows many days 
longer than in the open country; their melting becomes 
very gradual, and the run-off is stopped or diminished. On 
a bare slope, on the contrary, the run-off is very great, so 
that immense quantities of water reach the rivers in a short 
time, causing often disastrous floods. Forests thus, by 
diminishing or stopping the run-off, increase in hilly and 
mountainous regions the quantity of water that percolates 
into the ground and ultimately re-appears as springs. At 
the same time the forest preserves the soil on slopes from 
erosion. In deforested mountains torrents carry enormous 
quantities of soil, rocks, and stones into the rivers, which 
may become silted up and useless for navigation. 

Floods, besides being very disastrous financially, as they 
may cause much destruction of buildings, bridges, railways, 
etc., as well as permanent injury by silting over tracts of 
good land, are often serious to public health. There may 
be loss of life and suffering and sickness caused by exposure 
and privation. Damage may be done to systems of drain- 
age, sewerage, and water supply, thus affecting injuriously 
the health of a city or community. Not unfrequently an 
epidemic follows a flood. 

The great diminution of the run-off water in forests is 
due to various causes. The rain falls more gently, owing 
to the obstruction of the foliage; its flow is impeded by the 
roots of the trees; and it is absorbed as fast as it falls by 
the deep layer of humus and litter on the soil. It must be 


8 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


remembered that when there occur abnormally heavy 
precipitations or long-continued rains, the forest floor will 
become saturated and be unable to absorb more water, so 
that disastrous floods may occur even in the best forested 
areas. The forest, however, plays an important part in 
preventing a certain proportion of the otherwise inevitable 
floods ; and its effect on the supply of water to springs is 
undoubted. Forests are efficient to a high degree in pre- 
venting erosion of the soil, formation of torrents, disastrous 
floods, and the filling up of the beds of rivers with silt. 
In channels filled with sediment even a slight rainfall may 
cause a flood, hence the utility of the forest in keeping 
streams and rivers deep and capable of carrying away 
unusual quantities of rain. 

The effect of deforestation in increasing the number and 
seriousness of floods was well shown by M. O. Leighton (6) 
in 1909, who proved that floods in the United States had 
been increasing in most rivers, no other cause being dis- 
cernible than the continuous felling of timber in the upper 
part of their watersheds. 

It is the absorbent nature of the ground that determines 
whether or not a larger or smaller proportion of the rainfall 
and snow will run off directly into the river. A large 
proportion is a flood. None of the conditions in the river 
basins studied by Leighton appeared to vary, except the 
surface vegetation, as the climate, topography, geology, etc., 
remained unaltered. The variation in the surface vegetation 
was the continuous reduction of the forest area by felling 
timber in the river basins. The watersheds studied were 
those of three tributaries of the Ohio River in its upper 
drainage area. During the last 20 to 30 years, there was 
an increase of floods; and when the variation in the annual 
rainfall has been allowed for, Leighton’s diagrams show that 
the only factor that could have had any influence in 
increasing the floods was the constant and rapid deforesta- 
tion that had been carried on during the period in the 
three river basins. 

Hall and Maxwell (7), who studied the conditions of 


INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE 9 


the watersheds in the Appalachian Mountains, confirm 
Leighton’s conclusions. These investigators attribute the 
great increase in the frequency and duration of the floods 
in the rivers originating in this region, to the clearing away 
of the forests on the mountain watersheds of the streams. 
They strongly urge the preservation of the forests around 
the headwaters of the rivers. Their researches brought out 
the interesting fact that the increased run-off due to forest 
clearance diminished the evaporation over the watershed, 
and in consequence lessened the local rainfall. In other 
words, the rivers were found to discharge more water, 
though the rainfall over the watershed had decreased. This 
result, however, was to be expected, because if, as already 
shown, the presence of forests increases local rainfall, then 
their clearance will diminish it. 

Forest cover has been lately shown to have a distinct and 
measurable effect upon navigable streams in Pennsylvania. 
This question had to be decided by the U.S. Geological 
Survey before the Forest Service could purchase under the 
Weeks Law any land in the White Mountains. The report 
drawn up by Mr. Leighton (8) gives the result of his 
observations on two small adjoining watersheds in this 
region, precisely similar in area, shape, aspect, and geology, 
but differing in vegetation. One watershed was covered 
with virgin forest; the other, which had been cleared of 
all its timber and burnt over subsequently, bore only a 
cover of brushwood. Measurements of precipitation over 
the areas and of the run-off of the respective streams show 
that not only was the snow held better in the forested area, 
but that during a period of 17 days in April, including 
three extended storms, the run-off of the stream in the 
deforested area was a comparative flood, practically double 
that of the stream flowing through the forested area. 

The action of forests in diminishing floods of rivers is 
not universally admitted. The observations of E. V. 
Oppokov (9) on the relation of the river Dnieper to rainfall, 
etc, from 1876 to 1908, seem to controvert Leighton ; but 
are probably explained by the difference between the 


10 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Russian river in the plain and the American rivers in the 
mountains. Oppokov’s conclusions are as follows: The 
flow of the Dnieper is closely related to the amount of 
rainfall in the whole basin. Rainfall and evaporation are 
the most important factors influencing the level of the 
river. The influence of woods and also of peat-bogs has 
been greatly over-estimated. He even believes that a 
considerable amount of vegetation in a river basin may 
lower the level of a river owing to the amount of evapora- 
tion set up, and says that the best conservers of water are 
not peat-bogs or forests, but beds of sandstone. 

Mr. Cecil H. Roberts, C.E., has made investigations on 
the climate and physical features of the basin of the river 
Dee, in connection with proposals for the extension of the 
Aberdeen Waterworks. These investigations are described 
in a paper as yet unpublished. Mr. Roberts has not been 
able to trace any influence either of forests or of the felling 
of large areas of wood on the maximum or minimum flows 
of the river (10). 

As the results of observation are capable of varied 
interpretation, it is of interest to record that the influence 
of forests on stream-flow is now being experimentally 
studied (11). This important experiment, which will 
probably settle the question, was inaugurated in 1910 in 
the Rio Grande National Forest in the Rocky Mountains of 
Colorado. This experiment involves the careful measure- 
ment for a number of years of two streams flowing out of 
two well-wooded watersheds; and later a comparison of 
the flow of these streams after the forest cover has been 
removed from one of the watersheds. Dams, weirs, and 
recording instruments for measuring the flow of the streams 
have been installed, as well as instruments for measuring 
temperature, rainfall, evaporation, humidity, and other 
atmospheric factors that may affect the flow. All outside 
factors will be eliminated; and the records at the end of 
ten or twenty years are expected to throw much light on 
the relation of the forests on mountain watersheds to the 
flow of the mountain streams. 


INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE 11 


The most important publication on the influence of 
forests on climate is a memoir of 197 pages, entitled 
Forest Influences, by E. B. Fernow and other writers, which 
was issued in 1893 as Bulletin No. 7 by the Forestry 
Division of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The 
reader may also peruse with interest the paper (12), 
On the Thermal Influence of Forests, read by Robert Louis 
Stevenson, the famous novelist, at Edinburgh in 1873. 
Stevenson suggested systematic observations at three sets of 
stations, in plantations, just outside them, and at a distance. 
Such researches (13) had, however, been begun in 1866 by 
Mathieu in the neighbourhood of Nancy, where observations 
at three stations were carried out continuously till 1899. 
The German Meteorological Forest Service, which was 
established in 1875, has made similar observations at 
various stations from that date onwards, 


NOTES 


1. In Proc. Amer. Soc. Civil Engineers, vol. 34, pp. 924-927 (1908). 

2. Giandotti’s monograph appeared originally in Giornale del Genio 
Civile, Rome, 1915, pp. 325-408 and 425-487. It is divided into two 
parts: (1) the influence of forests on climate in general and on precipitation, 
and (2) the influence of forests on the regulation of surface water and under- 
ground water. A full account is given of the researches of Ototzky in Russia 
on the influence of forests on underground water. Floods in rivers, where 
the forests are preserved and where they are cleared, are discussed. A final 
section is devoted to Italy. 

3. Isohyetal lines or isohyetals are lines drawn through and connecting 
places having equal amounts of rainfall. 

4. In Internat. Bull. Agric. Intelligence, iii. p. 444 (1912). 

5. See J. E. Church, in Engineering Record, 13th June 1914 and 17th 
April 1915; Scientific American Supplement, 7th Sept. 1912, p. 152; 
Sonderabdruck Meteorol. Zeitschr. xxx., 1913, Heft 1; Quarterly Jowrnal 
R. Meteorological Society, xi. 43-55 (Jan. 1914); S. P. Ferguson in Science 
Conspectus, April 1913, pp. 152-157; Norman De W. Betts, in Proc. Soc, 
Amer. Foresters, xi. 27-32 (1916); Journ. of Forestry, xvi. 585 (1918). 

6. U.S. Geol. Survey, Water-Supply Paper, 234, p. 11 (1909). 

7. Hall and Maxwell, U.S. Forest Service Circular, 176, p. 11, and Proce. 
Soc. Amer. Foresters, iv. 183-150 (1909). 

8. See Austin F. Hawes, ‘‘Influence of Forests on Water Storage and 
Stream-Flow,” in Proc. Vermont Society of Engineers, 12th March 1914, 
p- 29; and Science, 21st June 1912, p. 959. 

9. See Meteorological Office Circular, No. 6, p. 4 (Nov. 1916). 

10. At the Annual Meeting of the British Waterworks Association at 
Birmingham, 1918, Mr. C. H. Roberts said: ‘‘ Records in Aberdeen went 


12 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


to show that forests had not reduced the river floods. Dry weather flows 
appeared to be higher than 100 years ago, when the forests were greater.” 


See Timber Trades Journal, 19th October 1918, p. 503. 
11. C. G. Bates, in Proc. Soc. Amer. Foresters, vi. pp. 52-63 (1911). 


12. Proc. Royal Soc. Edinburgh, viii. pp. 114-125 (1875). 
13. Huffel, Heonomie Forestiére, i. pp. 67-73 (1904). 


CHAPTER II 
THE SANITARY INFLUENCE OF FORESTS 


THE protection afforded by forests or even by belts of trees 
makes life more bearable in districts where cold and humid 
winds prevail. Crops are enabled to grow which would 
not otherwise succeed; and domestic animals enjoy 
vigorous health, fatten, and produce an increased supply of 
milk (1). Very few persons, not excepting scientific men 
interested in ecology, have recognised the full severity of 
the effect on all living things of humid winds conveying 
air at a low temperature and persisting for a long period 
of time. The effect of such winds on trees themselves is 
most marked. Their stems are greatly shortened in height, 
becoming under extreme conditions unable to rise above the 
ground, as is well seen on the west coast of Scandinavia, 
Denmark, Holstein, Scotland, and Ireland. It is not the 
cold alone of the mountain summits or of the Arctic plains 
that stops tree growth, but the combined effect of wind, wet, 
and cold. 

In regions of extreme cold, if the air is still, there may 
occur large forests as in Siberia. Trees exposed to winds 
are not only lessened in height, but are also altered in 
shape, as they produce branches which grow best on the 
leeward side; and assuming what may be designated the 
‘flag’ form, they indicate the direction of the prevailing 
wind, which may be determined by the feeble or absent 
growth on the windward side. The injuries to trees, which 
are commonly ascribed to salt spray (2), are probably due 
entirely to strong wind, as may be ascertained by examina- 

13 


14 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


tion of the leaves. It is the force of the wind which, 
at the same time that it hurls the salt spindrift inland, 
damages the tissues of the trees (3). The favourable wind- 
break effect of screens of trees, or forests, is perhaps one of 
the best arguments for locating sanatoria for tuberculous 
patients in forest districts. 

Dr. W. Gordon (4) proved that the strong prevailing 
westerly and south-westerly winds in Devonshire are 
harmful in phthisis, mainly owing to their chilling and 
depressing effect, though they tend in a lesser degree to excite 
bronchial catarrh in feeble persons. What I wish to 
emphasise is the invariable action of cold wet wind on 
plant and animal life in reducing vitality. To these winds 
are due the formation of peat on wind-exposed sites in 
localities with a high rainfall, as in the mountains of this 
country above a certain elevation. The further west, the 
greater the exposure to the wind and the higher the rainfall 
at low elevations; so that this kind of peat, known as 
mountain peat (5), is prevalent in the west of Ireland on 
land not much higher than 100 or 200 feet above sea- 
level, while in the east of Ireland, as in the Dublin 
mountains, peat scarcely occurs below 1000 feet altitude. 

The advantage of forests and shelter belts to human 
beings, cattle, and crops in wind-swept districts must be 
admitted. .In the western parts of Scotland and Ireland, 
and in Wales, the gardens of the gentry, which are 
surrounded with plantations and belts of trees, are remark- 
able for the luxuriance and variety of their shrubs, flowering 
plants, fruit trees, and vegetables, rivalling often the 
choicest gardens of the Riviera. Outside these sheltered 
erounds the neighbouring peasants in their exposed fields 
can never fatten cattle, and in some seasons lose by 
wind a great part of their corn crops. In the absence of 
protection from wind, they are unable to raise fruit like 
apples, which might be one of the most profitable industries 
in counties like Donegal, Galway, and Kerry. For profitable 
horticulture in these wind-swept districts, the provision of 
shelter by trees is essential. 


THE SANITARY INFLUENCE OF FORESTS 15 


Shelter belts are of great economic importance, but this 
view of the subject scarcely comes within the scope of this 
book. I may advert to one or two points of interest. 
The utilisation of mountain pasture by sheep is a large 
industry. In the Highlands of Scotland extensive areas 
of the sheep farms are covered with bracken and are 
consequently of no value at present for grazing. Bracken 
land can always be covered with trees. It is believed that 
of the total acreage of mountain pasture in the Highlands, 
at least 10 to 20 per cent could be afforested without 
producing any reduction in the number of sheep, merely 
by planting up the bracken areas. Furthermore, the 
shelter provided would enable the grass to grow better and 
the sheep to thrive more, and would actually in the end 
increase the output of mutton considerably. 

Throughout Ireland in the central plain and other low- 
lying districts, and in parts of Scotland, there are extensive 
tracts of peat, which were formed after the retreat of the 
Ice Sheet, by the gradual filling up of the shallow lakes 
that were due to the disturbance of the natural drainage 
by glacial deposits. The chilly effects of these peat-bogs is 
well known (6). They act as centres of cold, often giving 
rise to severe spring frosts in the adjoining farm land, so 
that early kinds of potatoes cannot be grown, while grass is 
later in spring in the pasture fields. In order to mitigate 
these effects, peat-bogs should be surrounded with plantations 
which can be easily and cheaply established in the cut- 
over margin of the bog. This part of the peat moss is 
either already drained or can be drained at a small expense ; 
and on it spruce, maritime pine, Scots pine, and larch can 
be profitably grown (7). 

It was formerly believed that the leaves of the trees, by 
their absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and 
their exhalation of oxygen, made the air in a forest healthier ; 
but Ebermayer showed that the oxygen exhalation of a 
forest in proportion to the needs of human respiration is 
insignificant, and is perhaps offset by the increase of carbon 
dioxide which results from the decomposition of organic 


16 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


matter in the floor of the forest (8). The occurrence of 
ozone in the air of forests, of mountains, and of seaside 
places, and its absence from the air of streets in towns and 
of inhabited houses, has given rise to the idea that this gas 
has some health-giving properties. It may purify the air 
by oxidising animal or vegetable matter in the course of 
decay and by uniting with the gases produced by their 
decomposition ; but the minute quantity of ozone found in 
the air of forests can have little effect of this kind, and is 
evidently of no hygienic importance. Recent experiments 
have shown that ozone is useless as a disinfectant, since 
the quantity necessary to kill pathogenic bacteria is very 
uritating to the lungs and proves fatal to animals 
experimented on. Hydrogen peroxide also exists in minute 
quantities in the air of forests; but there is considerable 
difficulty in distinguishing by its effects this substance from 
ozone. 

Forests depress the level of the underground water; and 
drainage can often be done effectually by planting trees. 
Diseases like phthisis, bronchitis, rheumatism, neuralgia, 
might then be diminished in forest areas. In damp marshy 
soils, pools are common, and serve as breeding grounds for 
mosquitoes. The planting of Eucalyptus trees in the Cam- 
pagna Romana diminished malaria undoubtedly, by the 
permanent lowering of the subsoil water, which dried up 
the pools that bred the mosquitoes. ‘The réle of the forest 
in draining marshy places, where water stagnates for some 
months of the year, is not doubted by the French, who have 
seen this effect in the pine forests of the Landes and Sologne. 
In the forest of Mondon near Nancy the level of the under- 
ground water is throughout the year at least 12 inches 
lower than in the cultivated land adjoining, to cite only one 
of the extensive series of observations that were carried out 
by Prof. E. Henry of the Nancy School of Forestry. Similar 
results have been established by Ototzky in the forests of 
the steppes of Vorone} province in Southern Russia. 

The most important hygienic asset of the forest is the 
purity of the air therein. Smoke, particles of dust, injurious 


THE SANITARY INFLUENCE OF FORESTS 17 


gases, and bacteria, which are all found in the air of cities, 
are rare or completely absent in that of forests. Micro- 
organisms are carried into the air from ordinary soils, when 
their upper layers are dried and dust is formed, which is 
easily moved by the wind. In the forest there is less 
movement of air, and fewer microbes in the atmosphere, as 
was verified by the observers Serafini and Arata, who found 
all kinds of bacteria less numerous in the forest air than on 
its outskirts, generally 23 to 28 times less. The foliage 
of the trees acts as a kind of filter, and retains the dust and 
other particles which are contained in the air that passes 
over a forest or belt of trees. 

Apparently no experiments have been carried out with 
respect to ionisation, dust, and nuclei in the air over forests. 
Prof. A. S. Eve in a letter says: “The factor which 
differentiates pure bracing air from relaxing air remains 
obscure. No doubt the absence of dust and nuclei is a 
factor, but there are probably other causes. Air which is well 
cleaned by rain or snow, with all the water present as vapour, 
and not as fog or mist, is bracing. Scots pine woods in 
Surrey are better than mixed woods in, say, Bedfordshire. 
In many cases the air passes from one state to the other in 
afew hours. What are the changes which take place ?” 

With regard to the soil of the forest, Ebermayer showed 
that it contains less albuminoid matter and salts suitable 
for bacterial growth, and that the humus produced by the 
erowth of trees is antagonistic to pathogenic bacteria, which 
have not been found up to the present time in the soil of 
forests. Both the soil and the air of forests may then be 
looked upon as pure from the point of view of health. 

It is stated that in India villages surrounded by forests 
are never visited by cholera; and troops are removed to 
forest stations to arrest the disease. Huffel (9) confirms 
this by the statement that the town of Haguenau in Alsace, 
which is encircled by a magnificent forest nearly 50,000 
acres in extent, was always free from the epidemics of 
cholera which in the last century attacked several times 
the other towns in the same district. The classic example 

C 


18 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


of improvement in public health due to forest conditions is 
that of the Landes in Gascony. This was formerly a bare 
sandy tract, interspersed with marshes, and reputed to be 
the most unhealthy region in France, the inhabitants being 
very subject to malarial fever, scrofula, and pellagra. Since 
about 1850 the greater part of the Landes, some 1,800,000 
acres, has been afforested with maritime pine; and these 
diseases have practically disappeared, and the district is 
now one of the healthiest in France, the decrease in the 
death-rate being remarkable. This improvement in health 
is no doubt due to various causes, such as the drainage of 
the marshes, the better supply of drinking water, etc., but 
the presence of the pine forest must be recognised as a 
factor which has contributed to the sanitation. Even the 
abundance of cheap firewood has a hygienic effect, as every 
house is now free from damp all the year round, and the 
labourers are able to dry their wet clothes. 

Parks in cities are like the forests. They do not purify 
the air, as was formerly believed, by the functions of the 
leaves. Nevertheless, the air in parks is purer than in the 
dust-laden atmosphere of the streets adjoining, and contains 
fewer bacteria. Belts of trees act as screens, and intercept 
dust and other impurities coming from outside; and it is 
of some importance on this account to make a wall of trees 
around any park or large open space in a city. 

In the preceding pages the direct effects of the forest 
condition upon hygiene are briefly described ; but there are 
many ways in which the presence of woods and trees affect 
indirectly the health of the public, and these will be dis- 
cussed in the subsequent chapters. A great deal might be 
said in praise of the aesthetic value of forests and trees, 
which influence favourably the spirits and consequently the 
health of the people; but a mere mention of this aspect of 
the subject is sufficient. Few will deny its importance. 


NOTES 


1. Frank B. Kellogg, in Proc. Soc. Amer. Foresters, x. 51 (1915), says it 
is well known among dairymen having ranches in Oregon much exposed to 


ae ee ie 


THE SANITARY INFLUENCE OF FORESTS 19 


the north-west wind that the milk flow is decreased on windy days. A large 
dairy owner north of Smith River, who weighs each day the amount of milk 
produced by his herd, states that in spring and summer the amount of milk 
falls off as much as 16 per cent during the windiest days when the cattle are 
pastured on exposed fields. 

2. Don and Chisholm, Modern Methods of Water Purification, p. 278, 
give a map showing the way in which salt is carried inland in the west of 
Scotland. See also W. Barr, in Jowrnal of Hygiene, xiv. 119 (1914), on the 
laws regulating the blowing inland of salt spray and spindrift. 

3. Observations were made by L. A. Boodle of the Jodrell Laboratory, 
Kew, on the foliage of seven species of trees and shrubs injured at Llanishen 
in Wales, five miles inland from the sea, by a severe gale accompanied by salt 
spray. Examination showed that the leaves of all the species, whether 
injured or uninjured, contained much more sodium chloride (common salt) 
than the foliage of the same species growing in Kew Gardens. Injured and 
unharmed parts contained the same amount of salt. This is taken up by 
plants from the soil, which in districts close to the sea and for some miles 
inland contains much sodium chloride brought by gales. The distribution 
of the brown discoloration on the leaves indicated wind-withering, due to loss 
of water, and did not seem to be due in any way to the direct effect of salt 
spray. Cupressus macrocarpa and Euonymus japonica were unharmed, whilst 
Thuya, yew, Lawson cypress, common laurel, and Portugal laurel were all 
injured. See Gardeners’ Chronicle, 26th Feb. 1916, p. 119. 

4, See British Medical Journal, 12th Jan. 1901, p. 69, 23rd May 1908, 
p- 1189, 4th Jan. 1905, p. 62, and 3rd Nov. 1906, p. 1165, and The Lancet, 
7th and 14th Jan. 1905. 

' 5. The mountain peat probably did not begin to form till late in the 
Bronze Age. In the Neolithic period the temperature seems to have been 
4° F. higher than now, and the British Isles enjoyed a continental climate 
with prevailing cold dry winds from the north-east. After this, some time 
during the Bronze Age, the climate altered, and has gradually become wetter 
with prevailing westerly winds. Plunkett, in Kilkenny Jowrnal of Archaeo- 
logy, xiii. 587 (1875), states that the cairns, pillar stones, and stone circles on 
Topped Mountain in Fermanagh, which he dates as 1600 B.c., were built on 
the original rock surface, and since then have been covered with peat of the 
thickness of eight feet. He concludes that in the cairn-building time the 
climate was much warmer and less humid than now. The cairns on the 
Dublin Mountains are also covered with peat. The existence of the optimum 
climate in the Neolithic Period and early Bronze Age has been proved in 
other ways. 

6. See Geo. B. Rigg, in Bot. Gazette, \xi. 159 (1916), where comparative 
tables are given of air and soil temperatures of peat-bogs and of arable land 
adjoining. 

7. See A. Henry, “Afforestation of Peat-Bogs and Sand-Dunes,” in Country 
Life, 22nd April 1916, p. 497. This article contains an account of a cheap 
method of establishing maritime pine by sowing seed on cut-over bog at 
Abbeyleix. It was republished, without the illustrations, in a book by P. 
Anderson Graham, Reclaiming the Waste, pp. 118-127 (1916). 

8. See Fernow, U.S. Forestry Bulletin, No. 7, p. 170 (1893), and 
Economics of Forestry, p. 77 (1902). 

9. Economie Forestiére, i, 199, note (1904). 


CHAPTER III 
FORESTS AS SITES FOR SANATORIA 


As stated above, Ebermayer showed that forest air, like 
that of the seas and mountains, is free from injurious gases, 
dust, particles, and bacteria. The forest soil is hygienically 
pure. These facts are excellent reasons for locating sanatoria 
for tuberculous patients and convalescent homes in forest 
districts (Fig. 1). Such patients require open-air treat- 
ment, which necessitates protection against cold or severe 
wind. Wind raises dust, which increases cough and dyspnoea 
if the lungs are affected (1). The progress of patients is 
often best in mountain resorts in winter, when the snow 
lying on the ground prevents dust. Even when forests are 
not accessible, the occurrence of belts of trees around the 
grounds of sanatoria are useful for protection against wind. 
Walks in a wooded country are most agreeable, and the 
psychic effect of beautiful woodland scenery is beneficial 
in many cases of illness. As hay fever is due to a peculiar 
poison in the pollen of certain grasses and closely allied 
plants, places where these plants are rare or absent, like 
pine forests and heaths, may be resorted to with advantage 
by patients suffering from this distressing malady (2). 

It has been the universal belief, from ancient times till 
now, that forests of conifers exercise a beneficial and curative 
effect on consumptive patients. The physicians of Rome, 
in the time of the Caesars, sent patients with ulcerated 
lungs to the pine forests of Libya. Pliny (3), in a state- 
ment that sounds quite modern, remarks: “ Forests, especially 

20 


Le 


TAS 


asl 


Bes, 


al °: ides GSE 


orest. 


4 


New F 


orium, 


t 
) 


rd Sana 
Lilt} 


rd Sa 


—Sleeping Chalets in Wood at Linfo 
(From Linf 


IN 


Fic. 


Jentral ( 


hie. 2.—Pine Wall im 


ardens, Bournemouth. 


ruth.) 


(From Oficial Guide to Bou 


FORESTS AS SITES FOR SANATORIA 21 


those which abound in pitch and balsam, are most beneficial 
to consumptives or to those who do not gather strength 
after a long illness; and they are of more value than a 
voyage to Egypt.” Most of the descriptions in text-books (4) 
of sanatoria on the continent, and even in the British 
Isles, lay stress on the woodland or forest nature of the 
situation. In the United States Dr. A. L. Loomis of New 
York was one of the first to send tuberculous patients 
systematically to the Adirondack Forest, that they might 
have the benefit of the purest and most invigorating air (5). 

The main features of the open-air treatment of phthisis, 
perhaps insisted on earliest by Dr. Geo. Bodington of Sutton 
Coldfield, Warwickshire, in 1840, and by Dr. Henry 
MacCormac of Belfast in 1856, were first systematised at 
the Nordrach Colonie Sanatorium, which, founded originally 
by Dr. Walther, was acquired by the Baden Insurance 
Company in 1908. “It is a hamlet, not an institution, 
in a sheltered valley surrounded by pine-clad heights in 
the midst of the Black Forest.” The Nordrach treatment 
consists in an absolutely open-air life, day and night, and 
in sunshine, fog, and rain; abundant diet; rest before 
meals; and exercise regulated by the bodily temperature. 
Graduated labour, at ordinary kinds of outdoor work, seems 
to be the best form of exercise (6), and has been introduced 
at the Brompton Hospital Sanatorium at Frimley. In pine 
forests these conditions are readily satisfied, as patients get 
pure air and an attractive milieu for exercise, while useful 
and interesting forestry work can be carried on in the 
winter. Intense cold, fogs, etc., do not interfere with the 
open-air treatment ; but this could not be carried on without 
danger in windy places. 

Walther believed in the paramount importance of purity 
of air, and associated with it paucity of population, which 
is the rule in forest districts. Where pine trees abound, 
the soil is usually dry and is often sandy. A treeless site 
is a great disadvantage for a sanatorium; but the trees 
must not be crowded around the building so as to interfere 
with ventilation. 


22 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


There now appears to be a reaction against the sup- 
posed beneficial effect of pine forests, based, I suppose, on 
Prof. Leonard Hill’s campaign for unlimited movement of 
the air (7). It will be best for me to give some extracts 
from letters received from medical superintendents of noted 
sanatoria. 

Dr. David Lawson tells me that “Dr. Walther adver- 
tised the merits of the situation of the Nordrach Sanatorium 
in a pine district, where the terebene vapours, exuded more 
particularly in the spring months, added a special value 
to treatment obtained there, as contrasted with that avail- 
able at Falkenstein and other rival institutions which were 
not located in pine forests. In the early days of founding 
sanatoria in this country we accepted without examination 
the claims made for the specific benefits of treatment in 
pine districts. Personally I made a point of it to such 
an extent that I selected a pine wood in which to build 
Nordrach-on-Dee, Banchory. Whether the claim is right 
or wrong I cannot now say. I am perfectly convinced, 
however, that a sanatorium (8) ought to be in its immediate 
vicinity surrounded by trees to provide shelter from strong 
winds in winter which are injurious to the less robust 
patients. Pine forests for the most part are located in 
healthy districts, far removed from large centres of popula- 
tion, and are therefore usually associated with those genial 
atmospheric conditions which undoubtedly have a very high 
value in the open-air treatment of phthisis.” 

Dr. W. O. Meek, of the Brompton Hospital Sanatorium at 
Frimley, says: “ At one time the presence of Scots fir trees 
was considered of value on account of the exhalations of 
turpentine, etc. I think this idea is now almost obsolete. 
Scots firs seem to grow on elevated gravelly soils which are 
very suitable for sanatoria; and they are also very valuable 
as a shelter from wind and rain both winter and summer.” 

Both these experienced men believe in the value of pine 
woods as shelter; let us hear the other side. Dr. F. 
Kineaid Etlinger, Medical Superintendent of the Pinewood 
Sanatorium, Wokingham, writes to me: “ When I came here, 


FORESTS AS SITES FOR SANATORIA 23 


nearly four years ago, the estate of some 80 acres was 
densely covered with pines, growing close up to the buildings 
on all sides. As a result, the atmosphere was gloomy and 
depressing, and the ground immediately surrounding the 
sanatorium was cold and damp, being too well sheltered 
from wind and sun. The results of treatment in the 
sanatorium were not good, and there was a remarkable pre- 
valence of a special symptom, namely, hemorrhage from 
the lungs. After discussion with Prof. Leonard Hill, I 
concluded that it was necessary for the welfare of the 
patients that the grounds surrounding the sanatorium should 
be heroically cleared of trees to as great a distance as 
possible. This has been done. The estate is now largely 
open ground, and many acres of pinewoods on the surround- 
ing estates have also been cleared. The resulting improve- 
ment is quite definite. Sun and wind have freer access to 
the sanatorium. The general atmosphere has been greatly 
altered, and the ground immediately surrounding the 
buildings is drier and warmer. The results of treatment 
are much more satisfactory, and the incidence of the special 
symptom referred to above has decreased to a striking 
extent, and is no longer the serious matter which it was 
during the earlier days of the sanatorium.” Dr. Etlinger is 
of opinion that there is no evidence that pine trees per se 
have any curative effect on consumption; and that the 
value of pines in the cure of phthisis depends on the fact 
that they are the only trees which provide shelter at high 
altitudes ; but that “low altitude may be quite satisfactory, 
provided that the country for many miles around is equally 
low or lower and very barren of trees.” 

Dr. Etlinger believes with Prof. Leonard Hill that the 
rationale of the open-air life in the treatment of consumption 
lies in the improvement which takes place in general health 
owing to constant exposure to moving air rather than to 
fresh air. Prof. Leonard Hill is opposed to the growing of 
trees and close shrubberies at all near buildings. 

Dr. Horace Dobell, who was in practice for many years 
at Bournemouth, believed strongly in the curative effect on 


24 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


pulmonary diseases of the pine plantations, which are so 
extensive in and around this famous health resort (Fig. 
2). In his book on Yhe Medical Aspect of Bournemouth, 
published in 1886, he devotes a chapter to this subject. 
He recognised the useful effect of trees as the best form of 
shelter from wind, being much superior to walls, banks, 
and rocks for that purpose, owing to the absence of the 
back wind which ricochets from these obstructions, and is 
often more destructive than the direct wind. Moreover, 
trees admit free circulation of air. He considered, however, 
that the main hygienic value of pines was due to the 
emanations from their leaves, which caused the atmosphere 
of a pine forest to have decided antiseptic and disinfectant 
properties. 

Dr. A. D. Edwards, Medical Officer of Health, Bourne- 
mouth, thinks that emanations from the pine trees largely 
planted there “have a cleansing effect on the atmosphere, 
and also have a sedative effect on the respiratory mucous 
membrane. It is doubtful whether the emanations have 
any effect on the actual germs, as the proportion of turpen- 
tine in the atmosphere would be too small to have any 
effect.” 

I have been unable to find any statistics to show the 
incidence of tuberculosis in pine districts ; and such statistics 
would be valueless, as there are so many other factors in- 
volved, such as ventilation and size of the bedrooms used 
by the inhabitants in such districts. 

It is needless to enter into a defence of the beneficial 
effects of the shelter afforded by forests and plantations. 
In the country, whatever may be the case in large towns, 
the stagnation of the air so ardently combated by Prof. 
Leonard Hill does not exist, except in low-lying and often 
badly drained depressions, where no one would locate a 
sanatorium. There is no fear of stagnation of air in the 
British Isles, even if the proper share of forests was 
established. The question, however, remains, what are the 
emanations of pine forests, and what effect have they, if 
any, on phthisis? A statement that “the balsamic emana- 


FORESTS AS SITES FOR SANATORIA 25 


tions are so dilute that their effect is more psychical than 
physical” is not scientific. 

Most people write of the turpentine emanations of pine 
forests, but the large amount of resin and turpentine stored 
in the wood and bark of the stems and branches is not 
exhaled into the atmosphere, except in the case of wounds 
or disease of the trees, which cause a flow of resin. The 
odour of pine woods is due, in great measure, to a volatile 
oil contained in the leaves. This is variable in composition, 
containing pinene (the main or often sole constituent of 
turpentine oil), sylvestrene, phellandrene, and a notable 
percentage of bornyl acetate, which gives to it a character- 
istic odour. Pine-needle oil, produced by distillation, is a 
clear odourless fluid used as a deodorant in baths, hospitals, 
etc., and is sold all over the world for rheumatic com- 
plaints (9). 

No scientific study of the odours of the air from a 
therapeutic point of view has, I believe, ever been attempted. 
We are, moreover, quite in the dark as to the curative effect 
of change of air in many cases of illness, which is in our 
ignorance ascribed to psychic causes. 

Two suggestions have been made in explanation of the 
curative effects of the odours of pines on tubercular diseases 
of the lungs. Dr. Horace Dobell relied on Kingzett’s ex- 
periments (10) on the oxidation of volatile oils under the 
influence of air and moisture, when peroxide of hydrogen 
and camphoric acid were produced, the former being a 
powerful disinfectant and the latter an antiseptic. The 
volatile oil exhaled by pines being converted into these 
agents was supposed to render the atmosphere destructive 
to bacteria. No such germicidal action of the air in pine 
forests has, however, been proved to take place; and Dr. 
Dobell’s theory is no longer tenable. 

The researches in phagocytosis carried on by Prof. 
Hamburger (11) of Groningen University, Holland, possibly 
afford an explanation of the therapeutic effects of the odours 
of pine forests. He exposes on slides under the micro- 
scope drops of blood which have been put into various 


26 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


media containing minute particles of carbon. Turpentine 
and allied substances, used in minute quantities as media, 
greatly increase the number of carbon particles that are 
swallowed by the leucocytes. In a dilution of 1: 100,000 
an increase was found of 24:7 per cent. In the presence 
of turpentine the percentage of the white cells that have 
taken in carbon is greater than in the case where no 
turpentine is added. This explains the remedial action of 
a subcutaneous injection of turpentine in the treatment of 
pneumonia in horses, as minute quantities of the turpentine, 
dissolving in the lymph of the tissue spaces and afterwards 
entering the blood circulation, promote the phagocytic 
power of the white corpuscles in the lung. 

Hamburger says that the cause of the remarkable in- 
fluence of a sojourn in high mountain regions on metabolism, 
on sleep, and on the state of the mind is entirely unknown. 
It has been proved that these phenomena are not due to the 
altitude as such, for in balloons they do not occur, nor are 
they found in all mountain regions, but only in those parts 
with coniferous woods. He thinks that it is due to the 
stimulating action of the odour of resin, turpentine, etc., on 
the nerve cells. The exhalations of the trees reach the 
lungs by inspiration, and are transported by the blood 
current through the whole body, and in consequence to the 
nerve cells, thus promoting metabolism, sleep, ete. May 
not such vapours, however, brought directly into contact with 
the white blood corpuscles in the lungs by every breath 
taken in, stimulate these to vigorous attacks on the tuber- 
culosis bacteria ? 

It is probable then that Pliny was right in his view of 
the curative influence of pine forests; but at the same time 
we must not forget the injurious effect of screens of trees 
and shrubs close to a dwelling in blocking out sunshine 
and in stagnating the air. 

As forestry work, varied in character and in muscular 
effort, can be carried on out-of-doors in all seasons, it is now 
utilised in the sanatorium treatment of consumptive patients. 
This is one of the features of the interesting afforestation 


FORESTS AS SITES FOR SANATORIA 27 


scheme (12) devised by the authorities of Mid-Lanark for 
their water catchment area at Camps, in conjunction with 
the formation of a large permanent nursery at Hairmyres. 
This scheme will serve many useful purposes, some of which 
are novel. The Middle Ward of Lanark District Committee 
have established what is known as the Hairmyres Colony 
for the treatment of tuberculosis. Experience has shown 
that treatment in an ordinary sanatorium for a few months 
gives disappointing results in a large percentage of cases. 
The colony system provides along economic lines for an 
extension of treatment to patients who are liable to relapse 
on return to their former unhealthy environment. The 
Hairmyres Colony embraces an area of about 200 acres, 
and includes several working industries, with a competent 
head to give instruction in each department. The colony 
was founded to admit two classes of patients, namely, 
children and selected adult cases who have shown such 
improvement in other sanatoria that a further treatment of 
a special character is desirable. This includes special train- 
ing in work on the land, market gardening, the rearing of 
pigs and poultry, and the early stages of forestry. Children 
work in the Forest Nursery for two hours daily in suitable 
weather, and adult patients do a full day’s work. 

The practical training in forestry embraces all branches 
of nursery work, such as raising forest trees, shrubs, and 
ornamental plants in Hairmyres nursery, and felling and 
conversion of timber on the Hairmyres estate during the 
winter months. On certain parts of the estate, planting 
trees on peat and underplanting of old plantations are 
carried out, operations which are valuable from the point of 
view of training men in forestry. Lecture courses at Hair- 
myres are arranged in connection with the Forestry De- 
partment of the West of Scotland Agricultural College, 
Glasgow. When the scheme is in full working order, con- 
valescent tuberculous patients no longer requiring close 
medical supervision will be transferred from the Hairmyres 
Colony to the Camps area. Up to June 1918 only two 
have been sent. Both were notified cases of tuberculosis 


28 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


that had been under treatment for about a year. They did 
so well at Camps that when they reported for military 
service they were accepted and are now in the army. ‘The 
high altitude of Camps is suitable for cases of tuberculosis 
that have passed the acute stage and those with catarrhal 
complications. 

It will thus be seen that the scheme admirably fills two 
functions. It provides the proper kind of employment that 
aids in the cure of tuberculous patients; and it forms a 
practical training centre for such patients as intend making 
forestry their avocation in the future. Another useful and 
patriotic work embraced in the scheme is the teaching and 
employment in forestry work of disabled soldiers, who, when 
their training is completed at Camps, will be placed on 
estates in different parts of the country, through the co- 
operation of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society. 

At present (May 1918) the nursery at Hairmyres, 
which was started in October 1913, is about 12 acres in 
extent. In addition there is a demonstration wood and 
planting ground attached, amounting to some 20 acres. 
About 15 students from the West of Scotland Agri- 
cultural College in Glasgow, 6 discharged soldiers who 
are being trained in forestry, and 20 to 25 child 
patients are engaged in nursery work. In addition to 
the above, a four-weeks’ training course in forestry for 
women is being conducted; and 40 trained women, who 
have passed through this course, have been sent out to 
various estates. These women are selected by the Ministry 
of Labour; and, in addition to nursery work, they are taken 
to felling areas in the vicinity, where they are trained in all 
branches of timber work. ; 

Dr. Macpherson, the Superintendent Physician, states 
that the Forestry Department at Hairmyres is especially 
useful in providing different grades of labour for convalescent 
tuberculous patients. It is also a most suitable occupation 
for patients convalescent from neurasthenia, whether due to 
shell-shock or other causes, or for the soldier who has been 
gassed. Both patients and ordinary workers derive much 


FORESTS AS SITES FOR SANATORIA 29 


improvement in health from forestry work. It is valuable 
as a sedative in excitable cases, and as a stimulant to 
respiration and circulation in those convalescent from acute 
and chronic illnesses. 

All this special work at Hairmyres and on the Camps 
water catchment area will not of course interfere with the 
main objects of the scheme, which is defined as “the con- 
servation and maintenance of the purity of the water supply.” 
The afforestation will have as another object the production 
of timber suitable for the extensive local markets in the 
‘Lanarkshire coal-fields and the city of Glasgow. The work- 
ing plan provides for this object with the minimum disturb- 
ance to sheep-grazing and shooting. No considerations, 
however, of sporting interests or of amenity will influence 
the forest policy, which is to produce the greatest net income 
from timber and wood. 

The Camps water catchment area is situated in Crawford 
Parish, Lanarkshire, and has an extent of 6800 acres, com- 
prising the gathering ground of the Camps and Grains 
streams. This area, with all rights, is the sole property of 
the County Council of Lanarkshire and of the District 
Committee of the Middle Ward of this county. It consists 
of an elevated tableland, at an average elevation of 1500 
feet, composed of rounded hills covered with soil and grass 
or heather. The valleys are deeply cut down to levels of 
800 or 900 feet in places. In the valleys erosion is taking 
place, including the breaking away of peat, thus tending to 
silt up the reservoir and render the water supply impure. 
Probably not more than one-third of the whole area will 
ever be afforested. It is proposed in no case to plant above 
the 1500 feet contour line, the considerable area above this 
line being permanently reserved for grazing and shooting. 
As soon as possible a belt of plantations will be established 
on the sides of the streams and reservoirs. Some land good 
for wintering sheep will be immediately taken up for plant- 
ing; but when the scheme has been established, as soon as 
each block of wintering ground is enclosed, there will be a 
considerable block of forest thrown open to sheep. This 


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FORESTS AS SITES FOR SANATORIA dl 


will have an enhanced wintering value on account of the 
shelter afforded by the plantations. The soil all over is of a 
good depth ; and at elevations of 1400 feet a uniform depth 
of 18 to 24 inches is obtained. The land is used for grazing 
black-faced sheep entirely; and the natural herbage is heather 
and short hill grasses, with bracken in places. There are 
no woods on the area; but there are two plantations, both 
55 years old, on adjacent similar land. The Campside 
wood of Scots pine, at 900 feet elevation, with a volume of 
4000 cubic feet per acre, indicates third quality for this 
species; while the Tee wood of spruce, at an elevation of 
1200 feet, has a volume of 5360 cubic feet of timber and 
small wood per acre, indicating second-class site for spruce. 
These woods are not, however, fully stocked; and more 
timber would be grown under a proper system of sylviculture. 
As elsewhere, the fact is established that spruce is the 
timber-producing tree at high altitudes. This species mixed 
with silver fir will be the main crop. Larch and Douglas 
fir will be planted on selected sites. For the first five years 
the plan provides for 527 acres to be taken in hand and 
planted. These particulars show how much care has been 
taken in the drafting of the Camps Afforestation Scheme by 
Mr. G. P. Gordon; and great praise is also due to the 
public spirit and large views of the Mid-Lanark District 
Committee. 

Planting was begun on the Camps area in March 1914, 
and two nurseries have also been established. At the end 
of May 1918 the plantations amounted to 350 acres, and 
included 163 acres of spruce, 105 acres of larch, and 43 
acres of Scots pine. All the planting was done by German 
prisoners. 

In 1915-1916 the Development Commissioners recom- 
mended a loan of £4962 to the District Committee of the 
Middle Ward of the County of Lanark in aid of the afforesta- 
tion of 1327 acres of the water catchment area at Camps. 
The Treasury, however, did not assent to this recommenda- 
tion in view of the urgent necessity for conserving the 
resources of the country for war purposes; but sanctioned 


32 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


a loan of £600 in order to save the Committee from loss 
on the plants already purchased in connection with the 
scheme, and reserved for a later date consideration of the 
scheme as a whole. 


NOTES 


1, A. Haviland, quoted by Weber, Climatotherapy, p. 47, says: 
‘Regions exposed to high winds have increased mortality from phthisis, 
as people stay indoors more and in stuffy rooms. High winds hurt feeble 
people and persons suffering from bronchial affections.” 

2. See Glegg, in Journal of Hygiene, 1904, pp. 369-403. 

3. Hist. Nat. lib. xxiv. cap. 6. 

4, See F. Rufenacht Waters, Sanatoria for the Tuberculous (1913) ; 
Weber, Climatotherapy ; Wood, Health Resorts, etc. 

5. See Dr. Guy Hinsdale, Atmospheric Air in relation to Tuberculosis, p. 
3 (Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 1914). This book is an admirable 
résumé of the subject, beautifully illustrated. 

6. The scientific basis of this treatment is set forth by Dr. A. C. Inman, 
On the Effect of Exercise on the Opsonic Index of Patients suffering from 
Pulmonary Tuberculosis ; a study made possible by the brilliant work of Sir 
Almroth Wright, who showed that nature cures bacterial infections through 
auto-inoculation. 

7. See Local Government Reports, New Series, No. 100; Report on 
Ventilation and Effect of Open Air and Wind, by Leonard Hill (1914). 

8. In the Nordrach-on-Dee Sanatorium booklet, the advantages of the site 
in a pine forest are insisted upon. The Deeside atmosphere is claimed to 
possess relative dryness, bracing qualities, and exceeding richness in ozone. 
The other advantages are: ‘‘its comparatively mild temperature during the 
winter months; the high percentage of sunshine which prevails ; and the 
therapeutic vapours exhaled by the pine forests.” 

9. See S. J. Record, in Scientific American, 22nd January 1916, p. 200. 
French turpentine oil is almost entirely laevopinene, and American turpentine 
oil nearly all dextropinene. 

10. Kingzett, Nature's Hygiene, pp. 185-188 (1880). 

11. See British Medical Journal, 8th Jan. 1916, p. 37, and Proc. Royal 
Society of Netherlands, xvi. 609 (1913). 

12. See Mr. G. P. Gordon’s account of the scheme in Trans. Roy. Scot. 
Arbor. Soc. xxix, pp. 55-62 (1915). I am indebted to Mr. Gordon for a 
copy of the Working Plan of Camps Area and Hairmyres Nursery, as well as 
for many beautiful photographs and lantern slides illustrating the splendid 
work, in the inauguration and carrying out of which he has taken a large 
part. 


CHAPTER IV 
PARKS IN TOWNS AND MUNICIPAL FORESTS 


THE real history of public parks in towns begins about 
1840. Before that time there were no municipal parks, 
except perhaps Glasgow Green. The parks of London 
were originally the private property of the Crown, and, 
besides, were in early days not open spaces preserved in 
the city, but were far away from it in the country. St. 
James Park, Green Park, Hyde Park, and Kensington 
Gardens were at a considerable distance from the city of 
London. Even Glasgow College Green was originally 
outside the city. In 1845 the Health of Towns Com- 
missioners made recommendations about public parks and 
open spaces, which laid the foundations of modern pro- 
gress in this important measure of public hygiene. The 
Commissioners said: “In our enquiry into the sanitary 
condition of large cities and populous districts, where a high 
rate of mortality and much disease is prevalent, we have 
noticed the general want of any public walks, which might 
enable the middle and poorer classes to have the advantage 
of fresh air and exercise in their occasional hours of leisure. 
With regard to all open spaces, especially well-ordered 
squares ornamented by trees or gardens, which already 
exist in the metropolis and large towns, we strongly 
recommend their preservation from any encroachment by 
public or private buildings. Although not open to the 
public, they contribute largely to the general health of 
the people. The great towns of Liverpool, Manchester, 
33 D 


34 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Birmingham, Leeds, and many others have at present 
(1845) no public walks. Shrewsbury, Newcastle-under- 
Lyme, Derby, and few more possess them. The metropolis 
except at the west and north-west, where the different 
parks minister so much to the comfort and health of the 
people, has no public walks, though Victoria Park, now in 
progress, will supply the want to the east. The large 
populations of Southwark and Lambeth to the south are 
yet without such a source of enjoyment and salubrity. 
The Select Committee of the House of Commons in 1835 
recommended that steps should be taken to supply the 
want. In 1840 the sum of £40,000 was voted by 
Parliament to assist local efforts for this purpose in 
provincial towns, and a few places have had grants from 
this sum.” 

The Commissioners in conclusion strongly recommended 
“that for the purpose of establishing public walks, in 
addition to legal facilities, the local administrative body 
be empowered to raise the necessary funds for the manage- 
ment and care of the walks when established.” 

Prof. James Thomson in a lecture (1) at Belfast on 
2nd March 1852, “On Public Parks in Connection with 
Large Towns,” said that Manchester then had three parks, 
though at the time of the Commissioners’ report it had none, 
and Victoria Park in the east of London had just been opened. 
This lecture led to the purchase, for the town of Belfast, of 
the large Ormeau Park. j 

Thomson pointed out that the rapid extension in the 
size of towns, while increasing the happiness of the rich, who 
escape to the outskirts, had entailed on the inhabitants 
new discomforts, of which the chief were smoky air and 
increased distance of their residences from the country. 
The establishment of public parks was a just claim on 
those who had been made rich by manufactures of towns. 
He advocated the laying of a tax on owners of vacant land 
near a town, as soon as it was first built on, the object of 
the tax being to supply funds for the establishment of 
permanent open spaces, as a compensation for the evil 


PARKS IN TOWNS AND MUNICIPAL FORESTS 35 


inflicted on towns by buildings erected on their outskirts. 
Inasmuch as proprietors obtained accession of value as the 
town spreads, through no exertion of their own, such a tax 
would be equitable. Thomson, however, being a practical 
man, did not desire people to stand idly by till such a tax 
was imposed, but to proceed by private subscriptions to 
acquire land for public parks, aided by public grants. 

The creation and development of the numerous public 
parks and open spaces in Birmingham illustrate well the 
enlightened progress of a great municipality, since 1852, 
“ when there were no public walks in Birmingham.” It will 
be seen how voluntary effort stimulated and brought into 
being the necessary municipal enterprise. The story of the 
Birmingham public parks is doubtless typical, and will 
stand for the history of this movement all over Great 
Britain. 

It was not until 1851 that an Improvement Act gave 
the Corporation powers to acquire land for purposes of 
health and recreation. Adderley Park, the first public 
park of Birmingham, was laid out in 1856 on a plot of 
building land of about 10 acres, which was a gift for this 
purpose to the Corporation by Mr. Adderley. Calthorpe 
Park, 31 acres in area, was opened in 1857; but the fee 
simple on the ground was not conveyed to the Corporation 
until 1894. Aston Park, now 49 acres in extent, first 
opened as a recreation ground by a private company in 
1858, was purchased for £26,000 in 1864, the Corporation 
contributing to the price £19,000, and seventeen citizens 
the balance of £7000. Miss Ryland presented the city 
with Cannon Hill Park in 1873. It was then pasture 
land with fine old trees, and has since been abundantly 
planted with shrubs and trees, and enriched by an arboretum 
and beautiful gardens, one of which (Fig. 4) is set apart 
for the use of botanical students. The area, at first 57 
acres, has been increased gradually to 73 acres. Highgate 
Park, 8 acres of waste land, was purchased by the Corporation 
for £8000 and opened in 1881. Summerfield Park, a 
well-wooded demesne, originally 12 acres in area, was also 


36 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


obtained by purchase. Opened in 1876, it has been 
extended to 34 acres, the total cost amounting to £26,330. 
Miss Ryland presented as a second gift to the Corpora- 
tion 43 acres of partly wooded land at Small Heath, and 
£4000 to lay it out as a park, which was opened as 
Small Heath Park in 1879, and renamed Victoria Park 
in 1887. 

The most important event in the history of the parks 
of Birmingham was the securing for public use of the 
Lecky Hills, the only range within easy access of the city. 
A few building plots had been sold on one of these 
hills, Rednall Hill. Mr. Grosvenor Lee, the Secretary 
of the Birmingham Association for the Preservation of 
Open Spaces, in 1887, with the help of several prominent 
citizens, purchased the rest of the hill, 32 acres, which was 
conveyed to the Corporation in 1889, as a place of public 
recreation for ever. The other two hills, Beacon Hill, 
33 acres, and Bilberry Hill, 49 acres, were afterwards 
secured. Beacon Hill rises to 1000 feet elevation and 
commands a view of ten counties. The acquisition of this 
hilly tract, covered with pine and larch and heather, was 
a great achievement. The learned American blacksmith, 
Elihu Burritt, gives this description: “Any summer day in 
the year when the sun shines on them, these hills are set 
to the music of merry voices of boys and girls and older 
children who feel young on the purple heather at fifty.” 

Of the parks in the added areas, not formerly included 
in the district under the control of the Birmingham 
Corporation, there may be mentioned Handsworth Park, 
63 acres, at Handsworth; Queen’s Park, 14 acres, at 
Harborne ; and Sparhill Park, 19 acres, at Yardley, mostly 
acquired by purchase. In the well- wooded district of 
Warley, Lightwoods Park and its extension, some 50 acres, 
were the gift of several citizens from 1903 to 1915. 
Warley Park, a fine natural woodland of 109 acres, was 
partly acquired by gift and partly by purchase, the cost to 
the Corporation being £50,472. Perry Park and Reservoir, 
about 100 acres, of which 88 acres was purchased for 


PARKS IN TOWNS AND MUNICIPAL FORESTS 37 


£7095, the rest being rented from the Water Department, 
constitutes an attractive park. 

There are 25 parks under the control of the Corporation, 
with a total area of 876 acres. Besides the parks there 
are 36 recreation grounds, 532 acres in extent, and 19 
open spaces with an area of 16 acres. Mr. W. H. Morter, 
the Superintendent of Parks, tells me that to each acre 
of land in the parks and open spaces of Birmingham there 
are 625 inhabitants. 

In these parks and open spaces many innovations have 
been made. Concerts of good music and band playing are 
given; and in 1915 dancing in the open air was introduced 
with great success, Provision for organised games, whereby 
the children are taught how to play, was begun in 1912 at 
a cost of £250 to the Parks Committee, which was increased 
to £564 in 1914. The games are commenced on Ist May 
and last till the end of September in each year. In this 
movement, which has spread in the United States (2) with 
the most wonderful effects, Birmingham has been the 
pioneer in England. The poorer children in the slums, who 
knew nothing of the common games played by children in 
country districts, are now taught various games in most of 
the parks and recreation grounds. ‘This service is rendered 
by elementary teachers carefully chosen for their personality 
and their enthusiasm for games. Mr. Norman Chamberlain 
reports a marked effect of these games in improving sports- 
manship, manners, and cleanliness. Parents and friends 
attend in large numbers; and the children are drawn from 
the streets to the parks, with consequent improvement in 
their physical well-being. The play in the parks can be 
indulged in with greater freedom and less liability to 
accidents than that in the streets and waste grounds ; and is 
carried on in more cheerful and health-giving surroundings. 

The general policy of the Birmingham Parks Committee 
is worthy of imitation by similar bodies, and is summed up 
as follows by Mr. Norman Chamberlain : 

1. To save on administration and decorative effects and 

to spend on new sites. 


38 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


2. To use method and foresight rather than to wait for 

public agitation at the last moment. 

3. To secure the fullest use of the parks by catering to 

all tastes. 

4, To trust the public as much as possible in the enjoy- 

ment of what is after all their own property. 

To these counsels may be added others suggested by 
Mr. Basil Holmes, the Secretary of the Metropolitan Public 
Gardens Association (3). The most important is, in every 
city and town, to get voluntary Open Spaces Associations 
to work, who will exert continuous pressure on the 
Corporations in regard to the laying out of parks and open 
spaces. Such voluntary agencies can plan skilfully for the 
future, and see that land is acquired before it is built over. 
Corporations will often maintain what is handed over to 
them by the gifts or forethought of such associations or 
individual citizens. 

The great advantage of the Town Planning Act is that 
an area, developed under a plan, will have parks and open 
spaces greater In amount and more evenly distributed than 
the haphazard systems of the past. Three zones should be 
clearly recognised in a town, in order to plan skilfully for 
its needs of parks and open spaces, namely, a central 
district, the more modern parts adjoining, and the suburbs. 

Encroachments on public lands, burial grounds, and the 
like should be checked by the watchful care of the voluntary 
associations, and suitable parks should be suggested for 
acquisition by gift or purchase. Several large towns are 
still in need of parks and recreation grounds, and voluntary 
associations should be started in such places. Any house 
in a park acquired should be utilised for some public 
purpose, as library, museum, shelter, refreshment room, etc., 
and not be afterwards allocated for some special class of 
people, involving a portion of the open space being cut off 
to form a separate garden for the house. The whole of 
Golders Hill was secured for the public by private and 
public subscriptions; and it was with great difficulty after- 
wards that the London County Council was prevented from 


PARKS IN TOWNS AND MUNICIPAL FORESTS 39 


using the house and a large strip of adjoining ground as a 
permanent convalescent home. The free use of common 
lands is occasionally interfered with by letting portions for 
golf and other games. Much good work has been done by 
the Commons and Footpaths Preservation Society, which 
was founded, as a result of the report of the Committee of 
the House of Commons appointed in 1864, to inquire into 
the best means of preserving the forests, commons, and open 
spaces in and near London for public use. Wimbledon 
Common, Hampstead Heath, Epping Forest, etc., which were 
in danger of being enclosed, have been kept for the people. 
The Metropolitan Public Gardens Association, which was 
founded in 1883 by the Earl of Meath, has done much 
useful work in continuously drawing attention to the 
necessity of providing town dwellers with parks, gardens, 
and recreation grounds within easy reach of their homes. 
The Association has laid out numerous disused churehyards 
and burial grounds, enclosed squares, and waste places. 
These, according to circumstances, are either laid out as 
gardens, or as gardens and playgrounds combined, or as 
playgrounds pure and simple. The extent of this work is 
shown by the fact that from 1884 to 1912 the Associa- 
tion spent £44,248 in laying out 115 open spaces, and 
contributed £9679 to the acquisition or formation of 
47 gardens, playing fields, etc. Before laying out each 
ground, the Association arranges for its permanent main- 
tenance by securing its transfer to the London County 
Council or local authority, under the Open Spaces Acts, or 
by obtaining special grants from public bodies or private 
individuals. The Association plants trees in suitable 
thoroughfares, and gives advice in pruning which is greatly 
needed, owing to the way in which trees are often maltreated 
by unskilful pruning and lopping. It has promoted further 
legislation for giving public bodies all over the country 
increased powers for purchasing land for public recreation, 
as the Open Spaces Acts of 1887, 1890, and 1906, ete. 
One of the questions (4) to be considered in town 
planning is what proportion of the area of a city should be 


40 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


set apart for its lungs and for recreation grounds. Good 
water supply and sewage, fewer people per house, and good 
ventilation have undoubtedly kept down the death-rate of 
large towns; but there is no means of determining exactly 
how much of this improvement may be due to the extension 
of parks and open spaces. The influence of parks, especially 
if the trees form real woodlands, and give children and 
tired workers pure air, must be considerable. The amount 
to be apportioned in a city, and how much of each park 
should be under trees, is as yet undecided (5). Mr. Holmes 
has secured returns from the fifty chief towns in the 
kingdom, showing that in 1883 they possessed in the 
aggregate one acre of parks and open spaces to 760 people ; 
whereas 20 years later, in 1903, notwithstanding an 
increase in population of 50 per cent, there was one acre 
of parks and recreation grounds to 635 people. In the 
County of London (6) there was in 1883 one acre of open 
space to 950 persons, whereas in 1910 there was one acre 
to 750 people. Birmingham in 1917 had one acre of 
parks and open spaces to 625 inhabitants. 

Mr. Holmes condemns the ordinary school playground 
with its hard surface and high walls as being like a prison 
yard, and no wonder the children prefer the streets. He 
agrees with me that the best form of playground is a grove 
of trees, with a bare sandy surface beneath. The natural 
feature of the larger parks and commons should be carefully 
preserved ; the less elaborate the treatment the better, as 
the public love areas over which they can wander at will, 
and are too often hindered in their games and exercise by 
enclosures, railings, and notices. 

The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest and 
Natural Beauty has done admirable work since 1895 in 
acquiring for the enjoyment of the public many properties 
of interest. Some of these are woodland and of value in 
the wide sense to public health. The most interesting is 
perhaps Box Hill, 234 acres in extent, which was presented 
to the National Trust by Mr. Leopold Salomons in 1914. 
Others are Ide Hill, near Sevenoaks, 21 acres, purchased in 


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“Ud]+) UGSS9[ LOD) JO prvofT OYRISH [Los pay - GC “OLS 


PARKS IN TOWNS AND MUNICIPAL FORESTS 41 


1899 and 1914; Manesty Wood, Derwentwater, 105 acres, 
purchased in 1902 and 1913; Leigh Woods, Bristol, about 
80 acres, presented to the National Trust by Mr. George 
Wills; Hydon Heath, a tract of beautifully wooded land 
about 92 acres in extent, near Godalming, purchased in 
1915 and dedicated to the memory of the late Miss 
Octavia Hill. 

Glasgow, renowned for its municipal enterprise, is the 
first city to acquire a forest area for the recreation of its 
inhabitants. The estate of Ardgoil (Fig. 5), 14,740 acres, 
in the Highlands of Argyllshire, about 40 miles distant 
from the city, was presented to the Glasgow Corporation in 
1906 by Mr. A. Cameron Corbett, now Lord Rowallan. It 
is situated between Loch Goil and Loch Long, and rises on 
Ben Donich to 2774 feet and on Ben Ime to 3318 feet 
elevation. A great deal of the land is over 1000 feet 
elevation, and none of this can be afforested. There are 
approximately about 4000 acres under 700 feet elevation, 
which could possibly be planted with trees. Some of this 
is covered with coppice and natural woods of oak anu hazel, 
intermixed with ash, alder, and birch. It is proposed 
gradually to improve these areas by cutting away the 
existing poor woods in groups of one to five acres, then 
planting with fast growing and remunerative conifers like 
European and Japanese larch, common and Sitka spruce, 
Douglas fir, Scots pine, etc. (7). A nursery has been 
established, and by October 1918 about 500 acres had 
been planted with 1,000,000 trees. The species mainly 
used were larch, Scots pine, and Douglas fir, and the 
plantations are now very flourishing. In the nursery there 
are about 1,000,000 young trees which will be put out 
during the next four years (8). 

By the deed of gift, due consideration must be given to 
the amenities of the Ardgoil Estate in any scheme of 
planting, as the greater part is free to public access. 
Mr. Whitton’s plan of afforestation fulfils this condition and 
increases the amenities of the estate. In addition, the plan 
does something to help our National Timber Reserve, which 


42 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


is going to be created for supplies of timber in the distant 
future. In this region, moreover, certain timber trees grow 
fast, and surprising financial results have been obtained a 
few miles off at Gairletter, on Loch Long. In 1912 a 
plantation here of Douglas fir and Thuya, 35 years old, was 
blown down (9). The timber amounted in volume to 
7430 cubic feet per acre, and was sold in the very 
accessible market of Glasgow for £130 per acre. 


NOTES 


1. Collected Papers by James Thomson, 464-472 (1912). 

2. The organised Playground Movement in the United States is about 30 
years old. In 1912, 332 cities were conducting organised play under qualified 
play leaders, and 257 cities and towns were spending $3,500,000 a year on 
the maintenance of playgrounds. In all those cities, places are set apart 
where children can play under supervision, not mere school yards. The play 
leaders are as a rule better paid than the school teachers, and constitute a 
new and independent profession. At Chicago a Training School for play- 
ground workers, at which 17 subjects are taught, was opened in 1911. A 
Professor of Play was appointed at Pittsburgh University in 1910. The 
effects of the movement on the moral and physical health of the population 
are manifold and far-reaching. Tuberculosis is prevented by the pulling 
down of tenement houses for the erection of children’s playgrounds in the 
congested areas. The effect of the organised play in increasing school 
discipline and efficiency is well marked. There is a notable decrease in 
school truancy and juvenile delinquency. The school curriculum has become 
widened and carried a little into the open air. Children’s gardens and 
libraries founded by the playground associations have become school gardens 
and libraries. See Board of Education, Educational Pamphlet, No, 27 (1913): 
“The Playground Movement in America and its Relation to Public 
Education” ; and City of Birmingham Parks Department, Reports on 
Organised Games, 1912, 1913, and 1914. 

3. I quote here largely from papers furnished by the Metropolitan 
Public Gardens Association, including their Annual Reports, an article in 
Journ. Sanitary Inst. xxiv. 604 (1903), and a paper read at Bradford in 
1903. The history of the movement is described fully by Mr. Basil 
Holmes in a paper entitled ‘‘Open Spaces, Gardens, and Recreation 
Grounds,” read before the Town Planning Conference, convened in London 
by the Royal Institute of British Architects in October 1910, 

4. See Bazalgette, in Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers, vol. 76, p. 2 (1884). 

5. Though parks and gardens are a primary necessity for large towns, 
yet their good influence is felt in small towns as well. See G. T. Hunt, 
Borough Surveyor of Dorchester, ‘‘On the Provision and Laying out of 
Pleasure Grounds in Small Towns,” in Jowrn. Sanitary Inst. xxi. p. 113 
(1900). 

6. Sir Gilbert Parker stated in 1910 that there is only one acre of open 
space to 15,000 people in Shoreditch, and one acre to 14,000 people in 
Southwark. 


PARKS IN TOWNS AND MUNICIPAL FORESTS 43 


7. See Mr. James Whitton’s Reports on the Ardgoil Estate to the Glasgow 
Corporation, dated 14th Oct. 1907, 24th Oct. 1912, and 15th Jan. 19138 ; 
and Address to the Rotary Club, Glasgow, on 31st Oct. 1916. 

8. See Timber Trades Journal, 28th September 1918, p. 395. 

9. See Trans. Roy. Scot. Arbor, Soc. xxviii. pp. 107 and 176 (1914). 


CHAPTER V 
TREES IN TOWNS 


In foreign countries with a warmer climate than ours, like 
France, Italy, and the United States, trees are almost a 
necessity in the wider streets of towns on account of the 
shade which they provide in summer. They do away with 
the hot and dazzling pavements, which are not merely 
unpleasant but are highly dangerous to health. The New 
York Medical Society placed on record (1) their opinion 
“that one of the most effective means for mitigating the 
intense heat of the summer months and diminishing the 
death-rate among children is the cultivation of an adequate 
number of trees in the streets.” 

In the streets of our own towns the need to plant trees 
as a protection from injurious heat is not so imperative, 
and the arguments for the practice are mainly aesthetic. 
Trees add much to the beauty of a city. They soften the 
harshness of a row of bare houses. They have a restful 
effect, yet are intensely interesting in their variety, as they 
change from day to day and from season to season. In the 
winter we see their beautiful outlines formed by the tracery 
of their twigs, and admire their bark. In the summer 
they are varied in their foliage, which changes its tints 
often to magic colours in autumn. Trees are on the whole 
more suited for suburbs than for the central or business 
quarters of a town. They add greatly to the happiness of 
the inhabitants of mean streets. They have in this way a 
hygienic effect. 

44 


TREES IN TOWNS 4 


on 


Trees should never be planted in narrow streets, and 
can only safely be planted when the footpaths also are not 
narrow. It is objected to trees that they render the 
thoroughfare moist ; but such moisture as they occasionally 
cause does no harm to the surface of the roads, and on the 
contrary keeps them in better condition than dry dust 
would do. Some people do not like the fallen leaves of 
trees, but the trouble of removal is very slight. 

That towns are unhealthy to vegetation and especially 
to trees is well known; and this subject is relevant, as 
illustrating the strange fact when one thinks of it, that 
towns owing to various causes are unhealthy, just in the 
same way to human beings as they are to trees. First, 
there is the smoke of towns, which is a wicked waste of 
coal and entirely preventable. Evergreen trees in London 
are quickly coated over in winter with a dark shining 
carbonaceous product (2), soot, and need washing in the 
Botanic Garden of Regent’s Park. The smoke of towns (3) 
causes the pores of the leaves to be blocked, thus checking 
transpiration. Every dirty plant is practically living in 
twilight, as the soot reduces the assimilation of carbon 
dioxide by the leaves, depriving them of their most 
important source of food. Last of all, the sulphur contained 
in ordinary coal when burned is changed into sulphur 
dioxide, which ultimately forms sulphuric acid, a deadly 
corrosive poison to the leaves (4). 

The soil under streets in towns is unfertile, and is often 
very poor, being composed of building debris, ete.; but its 
main defect is its dryness, as owing to the modern 
pavement all the water, which falls as rain, runs off into 
the sewers, finding its way into the sea, and never reaches 
the soil, where the roots of the trees are. Drought is the 
greatest enemy of trees, as the latter, owing to their 
extensive surface of foliage, require enormous quantities of 
water. The only trees that thrive in streets in towns are 
those able to resist drought. 

The soil, according to Wieler, being made acid by the 
action of the sulphur compounds in the soot, loses its 


46 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


bacterial activity, and becomes unfertile. The addition of 
new soil is often favourable, as it inoculates the old soil. 
Chemical works in towns, which pour into the atmosphere 
fumes of hydrochloric, nitric, and sulphuric acids, are fatal 
to all trees within a certain radius. The new methods of 
oiling and tarring roads are probably injurious to trees ; 
but this fact is not yet quite established (5). Trees are 
also killed in towns by the escape of ordinary lighting gas, 
if their roots are exposed to the leak for some time. Trees 
are also injured by the escape of electric currents. All 
these make a long list of evil conditions to which trees are 
subject in cities; and there is little doubt that fine trees 
in the centre of modern towns are decaying rapidly and 
disappearing. I still think that the great enemy is drought, 
want of water in the soil. To all these evils must be 
added the injury often done to trees when the level of a 
street is altered, when pipes are laid or changed, etc. In 
fact trees in towns are in constant danger from ignorant 
workmen. 

In the central or business quarter of a city or town, 
where the ground is covered with buildings and pavements 
involving the worst conditions of soil, the species that have 
proved successful in the streets are very few in number. 
Thus, the list of desirable street trees in Paris comprises 
only eleven species, and in Washington twelve species. 
In England the choice is even more restricted. Prof. Farmer 
could recommend to the Kensington Town Council only 
four trees, namely, plane, Ailanthus, Jersey elm, and 
Lombardy poplar, though he suggested the trial of four 
others, namely, common lime, single-leaf ash, red-flowering 
horse-chestnut, and Bolle’s poplar. 

In the residential area or suburbs, where gardens or small 
plots often intervene between the houses and the pavement, 
the roots of the street trees find copious supplies of air and 
water at no great distance. The soil conditions are much 
more favourable than in the centre of the town, and the list 
of species that can be successfully planted is considerably 
augmented. In parks and open spaces, where the soil is in 


TREES IN TOWNS 47 


a natural state, numerous species may be grown, if the 
smoke nuisance is slight. 

As regards planting in towns generally, the choice of 
trees should be restricted to really hardy species, which can 
live and thrive in the climate of the district, and which 
are capable of withstanding wind, if the situation is at all 
exposed. Species not liable to attacks of fungi and insects 
are also very desirable. The difference in the climatic 
requirements of trees is much greater than is generally 
supposed. For example, some American trees, like the 
black walnut and the tulip tree, which make noble specimens 
in the Thames valley and farther south, are often poor and 
stunted in the north of England and Scotland. The 
Chinese Paulownia imperialis, which is magnificent in Paris, 
is unlikely ever to succeed in any of our towns. New and 
rare trees, which may be seen flourishing at Kew, Glasnevin, 
and other botanic gardens, ought to be tried in town parks 
and spaces blessed with good soil, and not in streets, where 
all the conditions are unfavourable. 

Different species of trees vary much in the quantity and 
density of their foliage, and this affects their suitability for 
planting in streets. Some kinds, as the beech, carry a 
dense heavy crown of leaves, under whose shade nothing 
can grow. Trees of this class are not desirable in streets, 
as they keep the roads and pavements wet for long periods 
after rain, and prevent sunshine from reaching the houses 
in narrow streets. Other sorts of trees, of which birch and 
Robinia are good examples, bear light and sparse foliage, 
which casts little shade. Such trees are suitable for street 
planting. 

The size to which trees will grow in time is a matter of 
importance, as it is only in great wide streets that trees 
of the first magnitude can be safely planted. The form of 
trees must also be considered. In confined sites and narrow 
streets, trees of a columnar or narrow pyramidal habit are 
the most suitable. 

A few remarks on the species most suitable for towns 
will be useful. 


48 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


The London plane (Platanus acerifolia) is the tree which 
succeeds best in streets, not only in England, but on the 
continent of Europe and in the United States. This re- 
markable tree is unknown in the wild state, and is un- 
doubtedly a hybrid, which appears to have originated in 
this country about 260 years ago. The parents were the 
oriental plane (Platanus orientalis), native of the Levant, 
and the occidental plane (Platanus occidentalis), common in 
the forests of eastern North America. To its hybrid origin 
may be ascribed the extraordinary vigour of this tree, which 
enables it to remain healthy under the most unfavourable 
conditions of soil and atmosphere in towns. It is invariably 
propagated by nurserymen from cuttings. When raised 
from seed it produces a varied progeny, none of the seedlings 
reproducing exactly the parent, some approximating in 
foliage to Platanus orientalis and others to Platanus ocei- 
dentalis, an evident proof of its hybrid origin. 

The original type is represented by many fine old trees 
in the London squares, and has been much planted in the 
streets of the metropolis. It is a wide-spreading tree, with 
horizontal and pendulous branches, and attains in good soil 
an enormous size, a8 is evidenced by the wonderful specimen 
at the Ranelagh Club, Barnes. Two other forms are known, 
both of which are probably seedlings. One named var. 
pyramidalis is said to have come from Holland about thirty 
years ago, and is readily distinguishable by its narrower and 
stiffer habit, with ascending branches and dense foliage, the 
leaves being less deeply cut than those of the typical form. 
The pyramidal variety is now much planted in towns 
throughout the British Isles, and is scarcely less vigorous 
than the original form. The other form, Platanus acerifolia, 
var. hispanica, is now very rare in cultivation, and, so far as 
I know, has never been planted in English towns. It forms 
at Kew a tall straight stem, with branches not so pendulous 
as those of the type, and bearing remarkably large leaves, 
very distinct in outline. This beautiful tree, on account of 
its graceful habit and magnificent foliage, is well worth 
propagating, and should be tried in parks and streets, All 


TREES IN TOWNS 49 


the specimens which I have seen appear to have come from 
Van Houtte’s nursery in Belgium, where they were grown 
under the name Platanus orientalis, var. californica, 

Birch is a most useful tree in towns, and the silver birch 
(Betula verrucosa), which resists drought much better than 
the common species (Betula pubescens), should always be 
chosen. It also succeeds well where there is much lime in 
the soil and is very beautiful both in summer and winter, 
with its pendulous branches and very white bark. 

Poplars thrive in towns and succeed in heavy clay soils 
where other trees fail. The European black poplar, Populus 
nigra, may be tried in streets, but its foliage and form are 
unattractive, and its trunk develops ugly burrs when old. 
The Lombardy poplar, a male tree always propagated by cut- 
tings, which originated as a sport in Northern Italy about 
200 years ago, has been styled the ‘ Exclamation Point’ in 
landscape architecture, and it can often be used effectually 
in towns. The hybrid black poplars, which have been pro- 
duced accidentally by the crossing of the European and 
American species, include several kinds, of which the black 
Italian poplar (Populus serotina), a male tree, and the 
Eucalyptus poplar (Populus regenerata), a female tree, are 
the commonest in cultivation in England. They grow 
speedily to an immense size, and on that account are un- 
suitable for ordinary street planting. In town parks they 
should be avoided, as they do not harmonise with other 
trees, which they speedily overtop; while in windswept 
districts they are likely to be smashed by gales. If, how- 
ever, a quick effect is desired, the best of these hybrids is 
Populus robusta, a narrow tree with branches ascending at 
an angle and not directed vertically upwards as in the 
Lombardy poplar. This is well suited for making an avenue 
or line of trees in a park, that would attain a great height 
in a few years, its average rate of growth being about three 
feet annually. The white poplar (Populus alba) and the 
grey poplar (Populus canescens) have beautiful foliage, and 
are much more desirable for street planting than the black 
poplar. Bolle’s poplar (Populus alba, var. Bolleana), the 

E 


50 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


fastigiate form of the white poplar, resembling the Lombardy 
poplar in shape, but distinctly wider with less upright 
branches, has been recommended for streets; but I have 
never seen it used. It should be tried as it is a beautiful 
tree in habit and shape, and succeeds well in Kew Gardens. 
It would probably thrive in the north, as it comes originally 
from Turkestan, where the winters are extremely severe. 
The balsam poplar, with balsamic odour of foliage and buds, 
occasionally seen in London streets, is Populus candicans, 
a female tree of unknown origin. It bears smoke well, but 
is unsuitable for streets, as its suckers come up freely through 
ordinary pavements. 

Ailanthus glandulosa, a native of China, is a fine tree 
with magnificent pinnate foliage, which thrives and bears 
smoke well in towns in the south of England. It does not 
succeed, however, in Scotland or Ireland, where there is 
not enough heat in summer for the well-being of this 
species. 

Robinia Pseudacacia, an American tree, commonly but 
erroneously called ‘ Acacia,’ is a successful street tree, very 
desirable on account of its pure white flowers and graceful 
foliage, the latter remaining fresh and green even in the 
driest summer. It suffers, however, much from wind, and 
in Ireland, Scotland, and the west of England and Wales 
should not be planted except in warm sheltered situations. 
A form of this tree, known as var. Decaisneana, which pro- 
duces handsome pink flowers, and appears to be more 
vigorous than the type, is well worth planting as a street 
tree. Var. pyramidalis resembles the Lombardy poplar in 
shape, and is also suitable for streets. 

The common ash, Fraxinus excelsior, thrives fairly well 
in parks in London and other cities; but it is unsuitable 
for planting in streets, as its foliage is both late in coming 
out in the spring and early in falling in autumn. It takes 
up a great deal of space, and has wide-spreading roots, so 
that shrubs and other trees do not flourish in its immediate 
vicinity; and on this account it is not fit for town gardens. 
Two of its varieties, the weeping ash (var. pendula) and the 


TREES IN TOWNS 51 


one-leaved ash (var. monophylla), are very distinct in appear- 
~ ance, and may be admitted into town parks and gardens. 

The ordinary species of lime, which have the leaves 
green on the under surface, namely, the common lime 
(Tilia vulgaris), the large-leaved lime (Tilia platyphyllos), 
and the small-leaved lime (Zilia cordata), are unsuitable 
for the centre of towns, as they do not thrive in smoke 
or drought. They are also objectionable in gardens, on 
account of the viscid honeydew which is exuded by their 
leaves. The silver limes, with leaves white beneath (Zilia 
alba and Tilia petiolaris), have not been much used in 
street planting; but they would succeed much better than 
the common species. 

The horse-chestnut, which is splendid in parks, is poor 
in streets, where it grows badly, as a rule, on account of 
the smoke and lack of moisture. As it comes early into 
leaf it is occasionally cut by spring frosts, which impair 
its vitality. Some people also object to its abundant fall 
of buds and flowers in the spring and of leaves and fruits 
in the autumn; but such debris is readily removed. In 
the streets of Paris the horse-chestnuts, which were formerly 
very fine, appear now to suffer much from smoke, which 
causes their leaves often to turn brown in summer and 
to fall off prematurely. The red-flowering horse-chestnut 
(Aesculus carnea) is a smaller tree of hybrid origin, which 
resists better unfavourable conditions of soil and atmosphere. 
Compact in habit, and bearing attractive flowers freely at 
an early age, it can be recommended for gardens in smoky 
towns. It succeeds well in Kensington Gardens, London. 

Of the numerous species of maple, the best for planting 
in towns is the Norway maple (Acer platanoides), as it does 
not attain a very great size, is compact in form, is remark- 
ably free from the attacks of insects or fungi, and withstands 
smoke well. It comes into bloom very early in the season, 
the conspicuous greenish-yellow flowers anticipating the 
leaves, whilst in autumn the foliage turns before falling 
a brilliant yellow colour. It is much more attractive in 
appearance than the sycamore or great maple (Acer pseudo- 


52 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


platanus), which is more frequently planted. Both trees 
resist wind well, and can be freely used in seaport towns. 
The Norway maple is a favourite tree for planting in 
American cities, being considered superior for that purpose 
to any of the native species; and it is strange that it is so 
seldom seen in our streets. 

Elms are much planted in towns, but are often un- 
successful, as the proper kinds have not been chosen. The 
English elm (Ulmus campestris of English authors) is a 
beautiful tree in the south of England, retaining its foliage, 
which turns a brilliant yellow, till late in October, long 
after other kinds have lost their leaves. It grows to a 
large size, and is unsuitable for streets on that account ; 
moreover, it suffers badly from smoke. In parks it must 
be planted with discretion, as old trees are liable to drop 
their branches in calm weather without warning, and have 
been the cause of fatal injuries. The English elm, it must 
be remembered, is distinctly a southern tree, and it does 
not thrive well in Scotland and in most parts of Ireland. 
The wych elm (Ulmus montana) grows to a great size, and 
succeeds fairly well in windswept localities. It is suitable 
for planting in town parks in Scotland, Northern England, 
and Ireland. The weeping wych elm, of which there are 
two distinct varieties (6) (var. horizontalis and var. Camper- 
downensis), is much planted in parks and cemeteries, and 
thrives in Edinburgh and Dublin as well as it does in 
London. 

The elms, which are imported as seedlings from French 
nurseries under the name Ulmus campestris, are quite 
distinct from the English elm, and are now correctly 
named Ulmus nitens. They have been largely planted in 
Edinburgh and other towns, but are not very successful 
in resisting smoke and drought. The best elm for planting 
in streets is undoubtedly the Jersey or Wheatley elm, which 
assumes a regular pyramidal form. The Cornish elm (U/mus 
stricta), less regular in shape but similar in foliage to the 
last, bears wind extremely well, and should be tried in 
gardens and streets of sea-coast towns. The Belgian elm 


TREES IN TOWNS 53 


(Ulmus latifolia) (7), a tree of hybrid origin always pro- 
pagated by layers, is magnificent in the streets of Holland 
and Belgium, but it does not seem to be successful in 
England; at least it is very rarely seen in our towns, 
though it has been imported from time to time. 

Oaks are seldom planted in streets. The common oak 
requires good deep soil for its proper development, and 
languishes in the poor soil and bad air of towns. In 
suburban avenues, the fastigiate or cypress oak (Quercus 
pedunculata, var. fastigiata), similar in shape to the Lombardy 
poplar, would be very ornamental, and prove successful, 
provided the soil were a deep loam or loamy clay. In 
the milder parts of England, Ireland, and Scotland, the 
Turkey oak grows well on poor soils and in dry situations, 
and should be tried in suburban streets, where it grows 
fast when there is not too much smoke. The American 
red oak (Quercus rubra) attains a large size in the south 
of England, where it grows faster than our native species. 
It does not require a rich soil, and on account of its hand- 
some foliage, turning red in auturin, should be tried in 
town parks and wide suburban streets in the milder parts 
of England and Ireland. Its ally, the pin oak (Quercus 
palustris), has drooping branches and beautiful leaves, 
turning a rich scarlet colour in autumn. It requires a 
moist soil, and is unsuitable for use as a street tree in 
England; but it would probably succeed if planted near 
water in parks and gardens, as there are fine specimens 
at Kew and in other parts of the Thames valley. 

There are numerous small trees, with beautiful flowers 
and fruits, which are fairly successful in towns. Amongst 
these may be mentioned various species of Pyrus and 
Prunus, as whitebeam, rowan, almond, bird-cherry, and gean, 
all of which can be freely used in manufacturing towns 
with a smoky atmosphere. Laburnum and mulberry also 
do well. The two American species of Catalpa, with 
conspicuous flowers and large leaves, may also be recom- 
mended for town gardens. Liquidambar styraciflua, an 
American tree with maple-like leaves which assume 


54 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


beautiful tints in autumn, is worthy of trial in parks and 
gardens. 

As mentioned above, scarcely any evergreen tree can 
be recommended for planting in the smoky areas of large 
towns. Of the smaller broad-leaved evergreen trees and 
shrubs, that is, those which do not belong to the conifers, 
the most resistant to the evil conditions of towns are 
probably box, Huonymus and Aucuba. If hollies are to be 
planted, it is decidedly of advantage to select the vigorous 
large-leaved kinds, which are of hybrid origin, such as 
Llee Hodginsu, I, Mundyi, I. Wilson, I. nigricans, and 
I. camelliaefolia. In seaside towns one of the most, useful 
trees is the evergreen oak (Quercus Ilex), which is excellent 
as a wind-screen. 

Searcely any conifer will succeed in the interior of a 
smoky town, the most resistant being probably the Austrian 
and Corsican pines, which have also the merit of with- 
standing wind well and of thriving in most soils. Conifers 
appear to be more sensitive than other plants to smoke 
or dust. This is due to their leaves having peculiar sunk 
stomatic openings which are designed to check transpiration, 
but form efficient traps for particles of soot or dust. It is 


2Aeh 


Fic. 6.—Stoma of leaf of Silver Fir, showing deposit of soot. 
(From Cohen and Ruston, Smoke.) 


by means of the stomatic openings that the gaseous inter- 
changes take place in the leaf; and if these openings are 
blocked, the assimilation of carbon dioxide from the air is 
stopped and the plant is no longer able to obtain food. 
Conifers may occasionally be useful in town parks in 


TREES IN TOWNS 55 


providing shelter, but they cannot be utilised in streets. 
The curious Chinese maidenhair tree (Ginkgo biloba) thrives 
in London, and is worthy of a place in town parks and 
gardens on account of the remarkable beauty of its foliage. 
In the planting of streets it must be remembered that 
trees die unless their roots are freely supplied with air as 
well as moisture. Pavements, such as asphalt, which seal 
up the soil from access to the air, render the growth of 
trees impossible. The planting of trees, as is now usually 
done in English towns, with grilles or iron gratings around 
their bases, which are supposed to admit sufficient air and 
moisture to the roots, is a poor practice. Trees planted 
in this way never do well. Moreover, the gratings are 
expensive, and in all probability are not more effective 
for the admission of air and rain than ordinary gravel. 
The universal practice in America of planting trees along 
a continuous strip of grass turf should be adopted wherever 
possible. The width of the grass strip should be at least 
4 feet. The narrowest street which can be conveniently 
planted is 50 feet wide; and this may be divided into a 
30-feet roadway with two footpaths each 10 feet in width, 
the latter consisting of a 6-feet pavement next the houses 
and a 4-feet planting strip next the curb. A broad strip 
of turf between the walk and the curb enhances the beauty of 
the street, and gives the trees a better chance of vigorous life. 
Streets 60 feet wide are ideal, with a roadway 30 feet 
wide, and footpaths each 15 feet wide, on which can be laid 
out a lawn strip of 6 feet. In residential quarters, the 
houses are usually set well back, and at some distance from 
the footpaths, which gives more room for the trees to develop. 
In Paris no trees are planted on streets with tall buildings, 
which have footpaths less than 13 feet wide and roadways 
20 feet wide. Narrow pavements and sharp corners of 
streets are unsuitable for trees. Trees should be set about 40 
feet apart in the line, alternately in the two rows in a street. 
Free-growing, clean, healthy young trees with good roots 
must be chosen; and the best size is about 2 to 3 inches 
in diameter. The single stake is best, such as a larch pole, 


56 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


14 feet long, with its base stripped of bark and tarred, 
driven well into the ground. The tree, covered with a strip 
of tarred felting, is tied to the stake in two or three places, 
with 4 inch Manila rope slipped through a piece of india- 
rubber hose, about 8 or 9 inches long. This prevents the 
stem of the tree from coming in contact with the stake. 
The ties attaching the trees to the stakes must be loosened 
in time, so that they may not eat into the bark. 

Pruning is necessary, but only in order to take off the 
lower branches, so as to allow unimpeded the passage of 
pedestrians and vehicles; and also in rare cases, as in narrow 
streets, where trees must be kept in a limited space. Prun- 
ing is expensive ; and the performance of a surgical operation 
on a tree is no more to its good than the same on an 
animal. The appearance of trees in towns, not only in 
streets, but in parks, with their trunks marked with great 
scars or wounds, is very distressing, and is, moreover, the 
cause in many cases of disease and death. The spectacle 
of untrained men going about hacking trees in towns is a 
painful but common one. The whole art of pruning is to 
cut away in time the branches that must be removed, that 
is when they are small, say less than 4 inch in diameter ; 
and to cut only a little at a time, applying a dressing of 
coal tar to the freshly cut scar. Trees require all their 
branches in order to grow vigorously, and, left to themselves, 
they generally make a finer bole than if maltreated. All 
the so-called systems of pruning trees are to be avoided. 
If you ever prune, prune so that the tree looks as if it had 
not been pruned at all. Dead wood, of course, can be removed. 

People will be more interested in the preservation of 
trees if they know something about them. It is advisable 
then to place one or two inscriptions in each street, giving 
the date of planting and the names of the species used. 

The preservation of trees is as important as their plant- 
ing; and in every large town it is advisable to form a 
committee to look after the trees. Sometimes a beautiful 
tree is felled or sound branches are lopped off, and the 
timber subsequently sold by untrustworthy borough servants. 


TREES IN TOWNS 57 


The careless laying of water pipes and electric mains causes 
the death of many trees. Changes in the level of a road 
or street often involve the destruction of trees. The old 
tree in a village, at a cross-roads, or in the market-place of 
a small town, ought to be guarded with great care, as it 
gives to each place its own peculiar aspect, and causes it to 
linger in the memory of those who have left their early 
home. 


NOTES 


1. See W. Solotaroff, Shade Trees in Towns and Cities, p. 4 (1911). 

2. See A. Rigg in Journ. R. Sanitary Inst. xxvii. p. 160 (1906). 

3. An interesting account of the effect of the smoke of Glasgow on trees 
growing on the Pollok estate is given by John Boyd in Trans. Koy. Scot. 
Arbor. Soc. xvii. 122 (1904). He distinguishes clearly the effects of acid 
in the smoke, of soot, and of the darkened atmosphere. ‘‘ A leaf affected by 
acid, if held up in a strong light, shows little clear spots, wherever the action 
has begun. Through time these spots usually become brown, almost black 
in some plants. A clear margin is seen around the coloured part, which 
distinguishes it from any fungus disease. This form of injury is generally 
attributed to sulphurous acid gas, and may be seen more or less in almost all 
species of broad-leaved trees growing in a smoky district ; but the various 
trees are not all affected to the same extent.” Horse-chestnut is very badly 
injured in this way. The oaks, especially Quercus Cerris, withstand acid in 
the smoke better than any other species. Ash is next in resisting power, 
followed by elm and sycamore. Service trees, birch, and rowan are little 
affected, and are very suitable for smoky localities, as they are not so partial 
to a good soil as the trees just mentioned. Boyd correctly attributes the ill- 
health of conifers at Pollok to the choking by soot of the stomatic openings 
of the leaves. Scots pine, which suffers very badly, showed when the needles 
were examined almost every pore to be more or less closed by soot. The 
leaves of Scots pine also fall off prematurely, ‘‘it being quite common to see 
them at the beginning of the growing season with nothing but the previous 
year’s leaves adorning them, instead of two years complete and the greater 
portion of the third, thus giving them a thin, tufted, stunted, and unhealthy 
look.” The diminution of increment of growth in the Pollok plantations is 
also remarkable, amounting in the case of broad-leaved trees, like oak, ash, 
sycamore, beech, elm, hornbeam, birch, service and rowan, and in Austrian 
pine, to 10 or 20 per cent, and in the case of the worst sufferers, Scots pine, 
Weymouth pine, and spruce, to 20 to 40 percent. The number of stems per 
acre is also reduced, so that it is absolutely impossible to cultivate trees 
successfully from a commercial point of view in any smoky locality. 

The effect of the smoke of blast furnaces, of numerous passing locomotives, 
etc., on neighbouring trees in narrowing the annual rings is well described 
and illustrated by J. F. Clevenger in Medlon Institute, Philadelphia, Smoke 
Investigation, Bulletin No. 7 (1913), ‘‘The Effect of the Soot in Smoke on 
Vegetation.” See also American Forestry, Dec. 1917, p. 732. A. L. Bakke, 
in Jowa State College of Agriculture, Bull. 145 (1918), established that the 
vegetation about a manufacturing concern can be mapped in concentric zones, 


58 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


each belt having a certain form or forms of plant life, since certain species 
are more susceptible to smoke injury than others. 

Crowther and Ruston summarise the results of several years’ experiments 
and observations on the effect of smoke on plants in and around Leeds in 
Brit. Assoc. Report, 1915, p. 780 (1916), from which we may quote: 
‘*Trees and shrubs make only a stunted growth ; dead and dying trees are 
common objects. Conifers are particularly sensitive. Destruction of young 
shoots and buds is noticeable. Characteristic discoloration of leaves takes 
place apart from the inevitable coating of tarry soot, and the fall of the leaf 
is greatly accelerated. The colours of flowers fall short of their normal 
intensity. Previous observations on the choking of stomata by soot particles 
have been confirmed. In the garden tests within the city boundaries, the 
produce (three crops) obtained in the ‘cleanest’ garden was fully three times 
greater than that obtained in the ‘dirtiest’ area. In soils long exposed to 
smoke pollution, there is a marked failure of root-development, root hairs 
and fibrous roots being few or absent.” See Cohen and Ruston, Smoke, a 
Study of Town Air (1912); Ruston, Report of Smoke Abatement League of 
Great Britain, pp. 44-58 (1911); Pierce in Popular Science Monthly, 1911, 
p. 332. 

4. The chief cause of injury to vegetation, due to the smoke of copper 
smelting works, is sulphur dioxide, according to Haywood in U.S. Dept. 
Agric. Bur, Chem. Bull. 113 (1908). In deciduous trees the injury, when 
acute, consists of irregular reddened areas of dead leaf-tissue between the 
veins. The region in the immediate vicinity of the midrib and principal 
veins is last to be affected. Repeated acute injury of this sort kills the twigs 
and finally brings about the death of the whole tree. Deciduous trees in 
S.E. Tennessee appear to be more resistant than conifers, and are resistant 
in the following order, the most highly resistant being named first: Quercus 
alba, Acer rubrum, Populus deltoides, Liriodendron tulipifera, Robinia 
Pseudacacia, Platanus occidentalis, and Ulinus crassa. See G. G. Hedgecock 
in Journ. Wash. Acad. of Sciences, iv. (1914) p. 70. 

The vegetation at Foyers, Inverness-shire, is affected by the dust of the 
cryolite carried by the wind from the British Aluminium Works. Coniferous 
trees are being killed, whilst deciduous leaved trees remain uninjured. See 
G. West in Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, vol. 25, pt. 2, p. 995, fig. 25 (1906). 

5. An investigation into the injurious effects of tarred roads upon 
neighbouring trees has been made at Milan by U. Brizi, The trees most 
susceptible are the common horse-chestnut (Acsculus Hippocastanum) and 
the red-flowering horse-chestnut (A. cavnea), the leaves of which, at the 
beginning of summer, turn rusty at the edge and curl up slightly, while 
their surface is covered with numerous small spots which at first are yellow 
and look as if covered with a thin layer of shining varnish. The leaf then 
curls up more and more, dries, and is blown away. Another sensitive tree is 
the beech. The damage is caused almost entirely by the very fine dust due 
to the passage of motor-cars, The dust settles slowly and is most abundant 
on the lower branches of the trees. Once deposited, the small particles of 
tar give off injurious vapours when strongly heated by the sun, The parts 
not directly reached by the sun never show this damage. The best remedy 
is to keep down the dust by the regular and abundant watering of the roads, 
Scientific American, 2nd Noy, 1918, p. 351. 

6. See A. D. Richardson in 7rans, Scot. Hort. Assoc, vol. ii. ‘part i. pp, 
80-82, Plates I., II., III. (1913). 

7. See Elwes and Henry, 7'rees of Great Britain, vol. vii. pp. 1869-1871 
(1913). 


CHAPTER VI 
AFFORESTATION OF PIT MOUNDS 


In the Black Country of South Staffordshire and North 
Worcestershire, smoke and flame are poured forth day and 
night from innumerable chimneys, rendering the atmosphere 
gloomy and unhealthy. Many spots, once green fields and 
woodlands, are now covered with pit mounds—great heaps 
of slag, shale, and coal waste (Fig. 8). These render 
the landscape desolate, as they are poorly clad with vegeta- 
tion, and assist by their depressing nature the bad effect of 
the atmosphere on the physical and moral health of the 
population. The efforts to afforest these barren heaps and 
cover them with the verdure of trees is an important 
hygienic measure. 

The Black Country has at least 50,000 acres of pit 
banks, about 14,000 acres of which are suitable for planting 
at the present moment; and the other coal-fields of Great 
Britain have many times this area available for afforestation. 
The Midland Reafforesting Association (1) was founded 
on 12th February 1903, with the idea of getting rid of 
the depressing desolation of the pit and factory rubbish 
heaps, and “to re-establish forestry as a business in the 
Midlands.” 

The plantations made by the Association, though only 
experimental and on a small scale, have been successful 
not merely in beautifying the landscape, but have also 
actually shown the possibility of producing profitably timber 
of a useful kind on these barren waste heaps. It is only 

59 


60 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


the old pit banks that will grow trees, as the slag and slate 
must weather for a long time before a suitable soil is formed. 
This soil is so poor that it can scarcely ever be turned to 
agricultural use; yet it can be clothed with sound planta- 
tions of certain species of trees. The planting of these 
hideous mounds, which are an eyesore to the people, will 
be made compulsory after the war, if the principle is carried 
out that all waste land shall be made productive. An 
additional reason for such afforestation is the salutary effect 
of the experimental plantations on the moral health of the 
children and of their parents; and any measure that in- 
creases the joy of living in dreary neighbourhoods must be 
welcomed in the future. 

The pit banks are of three kinds. Those consisting of 
furnace slag need not be considered, as this material is of 
some money value, and is gradually removed for railway 
ballast. Coal waste or carbonaceous shale, accumulated in 
mounds, generally takes fire and in some cases burns for 
years, giving as a final result a soil of red and friable ash, 
which supports tree growth fairly well. The third kind of 
pit bank made up of clunch or shale is not a promising 
ground for trees, but certain species will succeed on it. 

Planting of pit mounds and similar waste ground has 
been done on the Continent, but little has been attempted 
in England, though one colliery is reported (2) to have 
drawn for some years pit props from its own spoil heaps. 
Walsall Town Council planted one pit bank at its own 
expense in 1886, which is now known as Reed’s Wood 
Park. Mr. Martineau had it valued when it was 16 
years old, and it worked out at £17 per acre as it stood. 
The belts of timber that are now visible there show what 
valuable tree growth can be obtained. The Midland Re- 
afforesting Association, however, had to contend with 
much apathy in the beginning, and could only secure very 
small areas, which have been planted on various terms. 
Some plantations have been formed for the landowner by 
the Association at a contract price for planting, fencing, 
and replacing dead trees for a period of some years. The 


PARKS & SPOIL BANKS 
Brack Covrey 
04 


WCONMCOFICKe 


WOLVERHAMPTON 


Fic. 7.—Parks and Spoil Banks, Black Country. 


62 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Association, in other cases, has taken the pit bank on lease. 
When the spoil banks have been owned by District Councils 
or other Corporations, the Association has supplied the 
trees and given advice; while the labour, which is nearly 
always casual yet satisfactory, has been paid for by the 
public bodies. In one case, the Moorcroft Plantation, the 
Association has been helped by two grants, amounting in 
all to £150, from the Development Commissioners. <A 
most interesting feature has been the starting of plantations 
by about a dozen Board Schools. The Churchyard of West 
Coseley has been planted, at the instance of the Association, 
with 400 trees, which will in time grow into a small wood 
of great value in improving the amenities of the landscape. 
Waste land adjoining the sewage farm at Kidderminster 
and the shale mounds beside the Stanfield Sanatorium have 
been planted by the local authorities on plans suggested by 
the Association. 

The manifold activities of a voluntary association are 
here manifest. Unhampered by red tape, arid with en- 
thusiasm in lieu of pecuniary resources, such an association 
has made valuable experiments of a varied character, based 
on which more extensive work can be carried out in the 
future, either by the local authorities or by the Forestry 
Board, which we hope to see constituted after peace comes. 

Attempts were made at first to establish timber growth 
on the mounds by sowing broadeast the seeds of forest trees 
in situ; but this method proved a failure and was abandoned 
after 1904. The planting of two- or three-year-old seedling 
trees is now invariably the practice; and the only seeds 
now sown are those of shrubs like gorse and broom, which 
are intended to act as temporary screens. Natural seedlings 
of birch may, however, be seen on the big mound at 
Timber Tree Colliery, Cradley Heath, which was planted 
with birch in 1886. These seedlings, Mr. Martineau tells 
me, creep north-east quite steadily, following up the fiery 
part of the mound as the fire retreats. 

The technique of planting has been simple, the main 
difficulty and expense being the proper fencing of the 


AFFORESTATION OF PIT MOUNDS 63 


plantations and their continued protection. Herein lies 
the importance of enlisting in such a movement the active 
help and sympathy of school children and their parents. 

The species used have varied with the nature of the 
soil and atmosphere. The Black Country, on account of 
the acid fumes from its chimneys, is not favourable to 
conifers; but the Association has begun to plant Sitka 
spruce, while in some districts larch, Scots pine, and common 
spruce might be tried. The tree which succeeds best, not only 
on the loose and friable ash, but also on the refractory 
shale, is the common alder. Birch thrives on the ashy 
soil, except where the fumes are unusually dense. On 
considerably weathered mounds, on which grass is growing, 
ash, sycamore, and wych elm thrive fairly well. The 
black Italian poplar is usually planted around mounds; 
and, as it grows fast, serves as a protection belt. This 
shelter is required, as most of the pit banks are 500 to 700 
feet above the sea and are much exposed to strong winds. 

The wood of the two most successful species, alder and 
birch, is marketable at good prices in Birmingham and in 
the Black Country, being much used for handles of small 
tools, of electric switches, and of different utensils. They 
are sought for by the numerous wood turners of the 
district, as well as by many firms which make their wood- 
fittings in their own works. The cost of planting has been 
about £6 per acre for trees five feet apart, in addition to 
1s. per lineal yard for fencing; but it would be better to 
plant the trees four feet apart at a greater proportionate cost. 
The growth of the trees has been good, birch and alder set 
out in 1905-1908 being now 18 to 24 feet high, while 
poplars in 1916 had attained in some belts as much as 30 
feet. There are altogether 56 plantations, the largest 
(Moorcroft) being 34 acres. The others are considerably 
smaller, + acre to 5 acres. The total area planted is 
82 acres. 

The work of the Midland Reafforesting Association has 
been greatly encouraged by the Education Committee of 
the Rowley Regis District Council. The history of one of 


64 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


the school plantations will prove of interest. When the 
new schools at Doulton Road were opened on 29th November 
1909, the ground (Fig. 9) around the buildings which 
was not needed for play was devoted to planting. This was 
carried out, the occasion being made an Arbor Day festival. 
Five hundred trees were planted by the teachers, scholars, 
and members of council, each one being labelled with the 
name of its planter. In 1916, 7 years afterwards, the 
trees averaged as follows: 

Poplar, 18 feet high, 14 inches in girth at 3 feet from the ground. 
Pichi) ea wes 7 : 

Ash, Way pee 4 
Sycamore, 12 Fe 4 

Fig. 9, from a photograph taken in 1913, shows the 
growth of this plantation. 

Mr. Teague, the head master, informs me that the 
interest taken in the trees by the school children and their 
parents is very marked. Observation lessons in the school 
plantation, and in the Black Waggon plantation at some 
distance off, are systematically carried out. These observa- 
tions are partly meteorological, on rainfall, direction and 
force of the wind, effects of late frost and drought. The trees, 
fungi, and insects are studied, and lessons on geology, 
chemistry, and hygiene are given in relation to the life of 
the trees. The children and their parents have been quick 
to see that, like the trees, they themselves need more light, 
air, sunshine, and cleanliness. Habits of observation and 
reflection are induced and fostered; and healthy instincts 
are implanted in the growing minds. Mr. Teague has 
noticed a great improvement in the manners of the children, 
whose physical health has been improved by the digging, 
staking, and other work, as well as by the observations 
taken in the open air in the plantations. The children 
become less fond of exciting town amusements, like the 
cinematograph. The civic sense has become developed ; 
and the trees are guarded and protected by the boys, 
supported by the public opinion of their parents. 

Mr. Evans of Wright’s Lane Council School, Old Hill, 


Cpu Woryjnv0oss yr furyjsasolvay punjpryy World) 


“YOIMULOA 4SI AA {JO0IZG UOJ ZIT FB puNoW Wd jeotdA T— "9 “ory 


Cplydung woynoossy burjsatofnay punjpry wo.rs,) 


ILOTJRIURT | [OOYOS pvoy woyNogd—'"6 “H1y 


AFFORESTATION OF PIT MOUNDS 65 


Staffordshire, where 100 trees have been planted in the 
playground, says that the influence on the children has 
been uplifting. The district is inhabited by a rough class, 
yet the absence of vandalism is now noticeable. Here, 
however, the tree-planting is too small in its scope to 
have effected as yet any great change in the tone, manners, 
and spirit of the people. Mr. Martineau confirms the 
remarks of these teachers, and says that the plantations 
have had a most cheering effect on the people near-by. 
Some of the plantations are regarded by the neighbours 
with positive affection. 

The Black Waggon plantation, which has been taken 
charge of by the Higher Grade School of Rowley Regis 
Parish, is a fair example of the average growth to be obtained 
in this kind of forestry. This mound consists partly of 
grey shale and partly of shale mixed with slack. The 
slack was fired and much of the ground is burned out. One 
part is still hot, and has naturally not been touched. Alder 
has been planted on the sticky grey shale; birch on the 
burnt-out part, a loose and very friable soil; and black 
Italian poplar on the lower slopes. Some other species 
have been tried experimentally, chiefly at the base of the 
mound, viz. willow, sycamore, wych elm, grey alder, 
Robinia, and Sitka spruce; but thorn and Austrian pine 
have failed, and the soil is not good enough for sycamore. 
Black Waggon mound was planted in 1907-1909, 24 acres 
being covered with 5000 trees; and the average measure- 
ments of the three chief species in November 1916 
were : 


Poplar, 19 feet high, 10 inches in girth at 3 feet above the ground. 
Alder, 17} a 8 #! i 
Birch, 16 ‘5 a QC a 


The even growth, due to close planting, is remarkable; and 

this huge black bald mound, formerly an eyesore to the 

district, is now covered with splendid trees, likely to 

develop into good timber. The Midland Reafforesting 

Association has proved that valuable plantations of certain 
F 


66 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


species can be established on pit and spoil mounds, im- 
proving the amenities of the district and constituting a 
hygienic measure of some importance. In other colliery 
districts the lesson ought to be taken to heart. All 
districts should organise themselves to supply the shortage 
of timber that is certain in the future, instead of leaving 
thousands of acres to waste which bring in no rent and no 
profit. This work is capable of great extension, but in 
localities with chemical works trees may prove un- 
successful. 

The School Plantations of the Black Country may be 
imitated in all parts of rural England and in the sister 
countries. In some parts of France little forestry societies 
(3) have been formed in connection with the schools, a 
movement due to M. Mayet, schoolmaster at Avignon-lés- 
Saint-Claude (Jura). There were in 1910 about 200 of 
these little societies, which develop among the children the 
love of trees and the elements of forestry. Moreover, the 
scholars themselves make plantations under the direction of 
the teachers, and already in 1910 they had planted some 
hundreds of acres and set out more than 2,000,000 trees 
in the communal forests. Certain communes in the east 
of France have set aside for the scholars experimental plots, 
well fenced and netted, where experiments in planting and 
raising seedlings have been carried out, resulting in some 
cases in the initiation of improvements in the great forests. 
In the regions of the Loire and Vosges some of the school 
forestry societies have been given funds-by generous donors, 
which are applied to the acquisition of land for planting, the 
proceeds of the woods so created being assigned to the 
schoolmaster as a supplement to his pension. 

Just as the tiny seed may become a great tree, so these 
little village and school societies may become the nucleus of 
ereat social progress. To get the scholars and the teachers 
into the open air, and in touch with farming, gardening, and 
forestry, will be the great step towards the hygiene of the 
Social Organism. 

I may here add some notes concerning the reclamation 


AFFORESTATION OF PIT MOUNDS 67 


of pit mounds by private owners. The Scremerston Old 
Colliery Mound was successfully planted in 1887, at the 
instance of Mr. John Davidson, agent of the Greenwich 
Hospital estate in Northumberland. This mound, which 
had long been a high and bare unsightly heap on the side of 
the Old North Road about three miles south of Berwick, is 
now a pleasing tree-clad hill) Mr. D. Smith, the forester 
who actually carried out the planting, tells me that three 
species were tried—larch, Scots pine, and birch. The birch 
trees did not thrive, and were early removed as thinnings. 
The Scots pine proved most successful, and are now fine 
trees, 30 to 40 feet in height. The growth has been best 
on the part of the mound which had been on fire. The 
success of this plantation, which is fully exposed to the west 
wind, is remarkable. The difficulty of establishing trees in 
the loose shingly refuse of this high and exposed mound was 
overcome by planting first a few rows of trees around the 
base of the mound, and in the shelter thus obtained, con- 
tinuing with a few more rows, and thus by successive 
bands in five or six years the whole mound was planted to 
the summit, which is nearly 100 feet high, without a single 
tree being blown out by the wind. 

Mr. George Bolam, who has written an article (4) on 
the planting of pit mounds in Northumberland, mentions 
that in later years, and closely adjoining Scremerston, Lady 
Frances Osborne has successfully clothed with young trees 
some bare pit heaps that had for more than a generation 
disfigured her property at Ord and Murton. 

The Charley pit bank near Mealsgate, Cumberland, about 
four acres in extent, has been successfully covered with 
trees. The colliery was abandoned in 1897, and the first 
step taken was the sowing of rape and grass seed on the 
mound. The roots of the herbage thus obtained have helped 
in the disintegration of the surface. Planting was begun in 
1898, the trees being planted in holes, in each of which 
one or two buckets of good soil had been put. Numerous 
species were tried, of which larch, Scots pine, and birch 
have shown the most vigorous growth, the earliest planted 


\ 


! 


68 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


of these being 18 to 24 feet high in 1912. Oak, ash, 
beech, sycamore, and elm also did fairly well. This is 
remarkable, considering the character of the mound, of 
which only the surface has disintegrated, the material be- 
neath being caked into hard masses containing considerable 
quantities of pyrites. In spite of this, the trees have made 
nearly as good growth on the mound as trees of the same 
species in ordinary soil in the neighbourhood, according to 
measurements made by Mr. P. Murray Thomson (5). 

In the colliery districts of Scotland a few attempts have 
been made to plant the spoil heaps, which are locally known 
as pit bings (6). When these consist of a mixture of shale 
and stones, trees grow readily, the best species being prob- 
ably alder. Successful results have been obtained by Mr. 
Whitelaw at Gartshore, near Kirkintilloch. Mr. J. Milne 
Home sends me some notes about recent plantations on pit 
banks near Dalkeith. On the upper bing on Wester Cowden 
Incline, which was an old colliery pit bank that had been 
left untouched for many years, an acre was planted in 1913 
with 1200 sycamore, 450 birch, 2000 grey alder, and 
1200 European larch. At present grey alder shows the 
best growth, while larch has done fairly well, but sycamore 
has been a failure. In 1914 about 24 acres on the neighbour- 
ing lower bing were planted with 2300 sycamore, 500 birch, 
and 4200 grey alder. It will be interesting to watch the 
further growth of these two plantations. Before the war 
grey alder was procurable at a cheap rate from French 
nurseries aS one-year and two-year seedlings. It grows 
with great vigour on most soils, and succeeds in wind- 
swept localities and in situations lable to late and early 
frosts. Its wood is equal in value to that of the common 
alder. 

Mr. H. M. Cadell (7) tells me that about ten years ago 
he planted up some old colliery bings at Grange, Linlithgow, 
with Japanese larch, Scots pine, etc. The Japanese larch 
are now about 15 feet high, but a good many have died. 
These pit heaps, though forty years old, were not suffi- 
ciently disintegrated, and the dry undecomposed material 


b 5 6 25--¢ Seeger 


AFFORESTATION OF PIT MOUNDS 69 


did not look very promising for tree growth. A shovelful 
of good soil put in round the roots at the time of planting 
greatly assisted the growth of the young trees at the start. 
Mr. Cadell believes that in many districts pit banks, especi- 
ally those at abandoned mines where there is neither smoke 
nor mischievous people to injure the trees, may be planted 
with a view to profit. Mining districts are usually provided 
with railways, and furnish a good market for any timber 
that is grown locally. 

The immense shale banks around the oil works in West 
Lothian and other districts are difficult to plant. If iron 
pyrites is present, the sulphuric acid formed when the shale 
is decomposed prevents the growth of any vegetation. Mr. 
James Whitton instances shale bings forty or fifty years old 
at Nitshill in Renfrewshire on which not even a blade of 
grass has appeared. Some of the oil shale, however, sup- 
ports plant growth fairly well, as is evident near Linlithgow, 
where Mr. Cadell has noticed the appearance of natural 
vegetation on abandoned bings. The latter might be planted 
with grey alder, black Italian poplar, etc. It must not be 
forgotten that the fumes from shale works are deleterious to 
the growth of trees, the effect being especially grave when 
sulphuric acid required for refining is manufactured at the 
works (8). 

On an extensive slag heap at Quaregnon, in Belgium, 
planted up in 1891 with Robinia, alder, elm, birch, horn- 
beam, ash, sycamore, horse-chestnut, laburnum, etc., the best 
species appears to have been Robinia, which in eighteen 
years after planting had attained as much as three feet in 
girth. On another large slag heap, planted 25 years, 
hybrid black poplar was also three feet in girth. M. C. 
Leonard, who gives an account of these plantations in 
Annales de Gembloux, Oct. 1909, recommends that, after 
weathering for eight or ten years, a heap should be covered 
first with herbage by sowing seeds of grasses, lucerne, 
sainfoin, ete, and afterwards be planted up with 3- to 
4-year-old transplants of Robinia, birch, grey alder, Prunus 
serotina, sycamore, and Quercus rubra. 


70 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


NOTES 


1. See evidence of Mr. P. E. Martineau before the Royal Commission 
on Coast Erosion and Afforestation, Minutes of Evidence, vol. ii. part ii. 
pp. 241-243 (1909), and Quarterly Journal of Forestry, i. 150 (1907), and 
iii, 26-31 (1909). 
. In Colliery Guardian, 19th Jan. 1917, p. 125. 
. See Cardot, Manuel de L’ Arbre, p. 80 (1911). 
In P. A. Graham, Reclaiming the Waste, pp. 142-147 (1916). 
. See Z'rans, Roy. Scot. Arbor. Soc. xxvii. pp. 30-33, figs. 1-6 (1918). 
See Zrans. Roy. Scot. Arbor, Soc. xxxi. pp. 108-109 (1917). 
. Mr. Cadell, in Trans. Roy. Scot. Arbor, Soc, xxiii. 164 (1910), gives 
an account of the different kinds of pit mounds in Scotland. Some mounds 
are entirely composed of black argillaceous shale, locally known as ‘ blaes,’ 
which is not unfavourable to tree growth. If, however, iron pyrites is 
present, as in some mounds, the sulphuric acid produced by its decomposi- 
tion combines with the alumina of the shale, forming sulphate of alumina 
or alum, a soluble salt, which is absolutely destructive to vegetation. The 
refuse produced in working oil shale in the Lothians is enormous in quantity, 
and usually goes on fire, being ultimately burnt into a red porous mass, 
which becomes slowly weathered and crumbling down on the surface, makes 
good enough soil in the course of time for the growth of larch, birch, and 
Scots pine. Colliery debris containing fire-clay breaks quickly down into 
ordinary clay, and may support vegetation well; but if it contains bitu- 
minous matter, it will not decompose into a soil suitable for trees. Such 
black loose material, though devoid of pyrites, has lain in some instances 
for more than a century without accumulating much natural vegetation. It 
absorbs the sun’s rays and becomes hot and dry in summer, so that plants 
have great difficulty in starting away at first. 

8. See an article on ‘‘ The Damage done to Trees by the Shale Industry ” 
in Trans. Roy. Scot. Arbor. Soc. xvi. p. 470 (1901). 


NTO OP CO DD 


CHAPTER VII 
THE AFFORESTATION OF WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 


THE afforestation of water catchment areas is a hygienic 
measure as well as a means of increasing the timber reserves 
of the nation, as will be shown after some preliminary 
observations on the water supply of our great municipalities. 
Some towns get their water supply from large rivers, as 
London from the Thames and Aberdeen from the Dee. 
Other towns are supplied by springs, wells, and deep borings 
of various kinds. The third method, which specially 
concerns us, is that of catchment reservoirs, constructed to 
impound the water falling on upland and sparsely peopled 
tracts. Such gathering grounds in the Pennine range 
supply most of the great centres of population in 
Lancashire, Yorkshire, and Derbyshire. Other catchment 
areas are situated in Wales, Cornwall, and a few other 
districts in England, and in many parts of Scotland. 
Natural lakes, often made larger by artificial dams, as 
Loch Katrine used by Glasgow and Thirlmere by Manchester, 
are in the same category as artificial reservoirs, and like 
these derive their water supply from the drainage of the 
surrounding watersheds. 

In many cases the water authorities have only leased 
the water rights and have not acquired the ownership of 
the gathering grounds. For the prevention of pollution 
of the water, they have relied mainly on the 61st Section of 
the Waterworks Clauses Act of 1847, which makes it penal 
to lead sewage into, or wantonly to defile, the reservoirs 

71 


72 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


and the streams feeding them. This protection is in- 
adequate, as anything that happens to be on the gathering 
ground may be carried down into the reservoir in time 
of floods or heavy rains. When houses or farms exist on 
the gathering ground, serious impurities, such as the excreta 
from a typhoid case or the contents of a cesspool on a farm- 
steading, may be swept into the reservoir. It has been 
found difficult in practice to compel farmers living near 
a stream in a watershed to re-arrange their middens, 
cow-houses, etc. The diversion of sewage from farms by 
drains is scarcely an adequate protection. Wyrell (1) 
points out that the gathering ground is frequently not 
under the sanitary jurisdiction of the town owning the 
waterworks, but is under the perfunctory care of the rural 
sanitary authority. The Swansea Urban Sanitary Authority 
has arrangements by which its inspectors report weekly on 
the condition of the farms on the catchment area, cases 
of infectious disease being notified by telephone. 

It is now held by eminent engineers that in order 
to prevent pollution of the water supply from these 
gathering grounds, the entire area over which rain is 
collected must be owned by the authority responsible for 
the waterworks, and must be managed solely in the interest 
of the water consumers. 

The opinion of Mr. Joseph Parry (2), long the engineer 
in charge of the Liverpool Waterworks, is as follows: 
“ Notwithstanding the sparseness of the population in most 
of these areas, great difficulty is experienced in keeping the 
standard of purity of the water at the level demanded 
by modern hygiene. It is most undesirable that the 
water for domestic consumption should be polluted by 
human sewage; and rigorous methods should be adopted 
to protect the streams and rivers in the gathering grounds 
from contamination by pathogenic organisms. Efforts made 
to prevent fouling by putting in operation the provisions 
of the Public Health Acts, the Rivers Pollution Act, and 
the bye-laws of conservators have proved ineffective. In 
consequence of the inadequacy and failure of these statutory 


AFFORESTATION OF CATCHMENT AREAS 73 


provisions and bye-laws, a considerable number of corpora- 
tions have taken steps to become owners of their own 
watersheds.” In 1903, 102,615 acres were known by 
Parry to have been compulsorily acquired by Act of 
Parliament, a figure considerably increased since that date. 
Manchester was the first corporation to acquire complete 
ownership of a catchment area, namely, that of Thirlmere ; 
but the price paid for the land was exorbitant. The 
acquisition of Thirlmere was much opposed at the time, as 
it was foolishly supposed that the scenery would be 
affected by the necessary waterworks. The pipes and 
conduits are now covered by vegetation. Ruskin, maddened 
to extravagance by the disfigurement of nature by modern 
industrialism, held that as Manchester produced no art, no 
literature, it had taken “to steal and sell for a profit the 
waters of Thirlmere and clouds of Helvellyn.” Birmingham 
has absolute ownership of part of the basin feeding the 
Elan and Claerwen. Liverpool owns all the Vyrnwy 
gathering ground. Leeds in 1896-1897 obtained special 
powers to purchase compulsorily farms on their catchment 
area in the Washburn Valley. Unfortunately on a con- 
siderable number of gathering grounds in Britain habitations 
and farms have not been abolished, chiefly owing to the 
large sums necessary for their purchase by the corporations, 
who in such cases usually own only the reservoirs. 

The question now arises in what way ought catchment 
areas to be utilised, as it is impossible to leave them barren 
and unprofitable. Parry says: “In order to reduce to a 
minimum the risks of polluting the water in a manner 
likely to produce disease, the first object must be to limit 
the resident population to the lowest number reasonably 
practicable. This cannot be accomplished if agricultural 
operations are allowed to be carried on in the ordinary 
way, for no really satisfactory measures can be devised for 
the disposal and treatment of the sewage of resident 
populations of farmers and labourers with their families, 
and the pollutions from shippons and farmyards, so as to 
permit of the effluents being discharged into the watercourses. 


74 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Sheep-grazing is from the waterworks’ point of view the least 
objectionable of farming pursuits. Grouse moors are still less 
objectionable, especially where the growth of peat is kept under 
proper control and suitable channels are cut for the water.” 

Sheep-grazing, though generally believed to be innocuous, 
is not without danger, as frequently the sheep die, and 
their dead bodies are found in the streams. In one 
gathering ground, in order to encourage early notice, the 
corporation offers 5s. each for the bodies of dead sheep 
that may be found. J. W. Hill of Cincinnati, who built 
many waterworks in the United States, criticised (3) severely 
the Edinburgh Water Trust for permitting sheep-grazing 
on the Talla watershed, and said it was a hazardous 
experiment. He instanced the occurrence in Switzerland 
and in the Rocky Mountains of epidemics of typhoid 
fever, due to the water supply being contaminated by 
eattle which grazed on the gathering ground. He objected 
to any occupation of the catchment area of a watershed by 
either man or animals. W. L. Strange (4) says: “ All 
surface catchments are liable to pollution, for even in 
pastoral areas there is contamination from man, animals, 
and vegetation, and filtration is therefore necessary. 
Pathogenic germs multiply rapidly and one cannot depend 
on their easy destruction. Silt in drinking water taken 
from rivers in India gives rise to bowel complaints, due to 
numerous minute flakes of mica in the silt.” 

In the gathering grounds which supply water to New 
York and Boston, U.S.A., there are numerous dwelling- 
houses; and the American engineer Hazen says it is 
unnecessary to remove the population from a water catch- 
ment area if suitable precautions are taken. Dr. A. C. 
Houston writes to me in reference to this: “ Hazen incurs 
serious responsibilities by such a statement. Everything 
turns on the perfected nature of the precautions, and 
certainly as a counsel of perfection an uninhabited area 
is most desirable. Still I am free to admit that by storage, 
filtration (5), and sterilisation the most impure water can 
be rendered safe for domestic use.” The question of supply 


AFFORESTATION OF CATCHMENT AREAS 75 


of water is not only a hygienic, but in some respects also an 
aesthetic one. People may drink turbid water and water 
with an unpleasant taste or smell for a time without 
perhaps any definite injury to health. The aim, however, 
must be always to secure a supply of drinking water that is 
not only free from infectious matter, but is also capable of 
being drunk with satisfaction. 

There is one means by which water catchment areas can 
be effectually guarded against pollution and at the same 
time be put to profitable use, and that is afforestation. In 
considering the advisability of afforesting a watershed, it 
need not be assumed that the entire area should be covered 
with trees. Questions of aspect, depth and nature of soil, 
shelter from wind or exposure, must be taken into account 
in determining where and what to plant. It is probable 
that the proportion of any gathering ground that can be 
planted with advantage will be found to vary from 10 to 
70 per cent of the total. It is well known that on sites 
above a certain altitude, varying with the latitude and with 
the exposure to the prevailing winds, and on undrained peat 
soil at any altitude, planting trees is always unprofitable 
and often impossible. Generally speaking, it may be laid 
down that on most catchment areas which attain over 1000 
feet elevation, a combination of grazing and forestry must be 
resorted to. Only the lower zone and the sites with favour- 
able soil are suitable for planting. The arguments for 
afforestation are cumulative. In an area planted with trees 
the water is conserved to a considerable extent. When 
heavy rain occurs, the run-off water is much lessened, as the 
rain, as fast as it falls, is absorbed and stored by the deep 
humus layer on the floor of the forest. A larger percentage 
of rain will reach the reservoirs from an area that has 
been afforested. The quality of the water will also be 
superior, as the soil on the hill slopes will be held together 
by the roots of the trees, and the destructive effects of 
heavy rains, in carrying down masses of clay and stones, 
will be prevented. Flood waters will also diminish to a 
great extent, and, in consequence, the reservoirs will not be 


76 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


silted up. At present, on our treeless catchment areas, as 
Mr. Margerison (6) pointed out, “ the heads of great reser- 
voirs are being very seriously and rapidly silted up, and 
some day they will cost an enormous sum for cleaning out. 
Where is the silt to be deposited so that it is not again 
quickly washed back? And what are those corporations to 
do with it who do not own the adjoining freeholds ? Herein 
afforestation will prove beneficial. Plantations will prevent, 
or greatly minimise, silt-laden surface-water rushes by block- 
ing them and by promoting percolation and filtration.” It 
has been objected that wooded catchment areas may pollute 
the water supply on account of the enormous masses of dead 
leaves which decay on the watersheds, or are blown about 
and carried down by streams to rot in the reservoirs. The 
humus in the forest is, however, antagonistic to pathogenic 
bacteria, and the decayed leaves themselves are absolutely 
innocuous. In order to prevent the leaves being blown 
into the reservoir, a band of ground next the water may be 
planted with gorse and other small-leaved shrubs, which 
form traps for the leaves of the trees. A narrow belt of 
spruce trees, which have dense, small, evergreen leaves, is a 
more efficient screen for this purpose. Only a small part of 
the foliage of the spruce is shed annually, namely, the leaves 
on the oldest and innermost parts of the branches. These 
leaves, as they are shed, fall on the ground beneath and 
are not blown to a distance. The falling leaves of oak, 
beech, ash, and other broad-leaved trees are blown to con- 
siderable distances by the wind, and, in the absence of a 
screen of spruce, may constitute somewhat objectionable 
litter in the water of the reservoir. 

To sum up, the effect of trees on the yield and quantity 
of the water supply collected on upland areas cannot be 
otherwise than beneficial In the US. Year-Book of 
Department of Agriculture, 1902, it is laid down: “ A forest 
furnishes the best possible cover for watersheds of storage 
reservoirs. For this reason fully as much as the financial 
one, several water companies are planting extensively in the 
Eastern States, especially in Massachusetts and Connecticut.” 


AFFORESTATION OF CATCHMENT AREAS 77 


Newark (New Jersey) has adopted the policy of buying 
its water catchment area, with remarkable results, according 
to the engineer, Mr. R. Sherrerd. Of the total area of the 
watershed—64 square miles—Newark City now owns 43 
square miles, and the population on the watershed has been 
reduced trom 35 or 40 per square mile to 16 per square 
mile. Other measures taken have been demolition of 
houses, locking lavatories of trains in transit through the 
watershed, and patrol inspection. The bacteria per cubic 
em. of water diminished from 1100 in 1902 to 690 in 
1910 and 510 in 1915. The number of typhoid cases 
also decreased rapidly. In 1900, when 93 per cent of 
the watershed was privately owned, there were 130 cases 
of typhoid per 100,000 inhabitants. In 1905, when 80 
per cent of the watershed was privately owned, the typhoid 
cases sank to 80 per 100,000. In 1910, with 56 per 
cent private ownership, the typhoid rate was 52 per 
100,000 ; and in 1915, with 35 per cent private owner- 
ship, the typhoid rate was only 28 per 100,000. The 
example of Newark in obtaining ownership of its water 
catchment area is likely to lead to similar action by other 
towns in the United States. Mr Sherrerd says: “The ulti- 
mate object of the city of Newark is not only to protect 
the consumers of water, but also to convert this part of 
New Jersey into a great municipal park.” 

In this connection it will be of interest to quote a very 
careful statement, made in Journal of Forestry, December 
1917, p. 958, by Mr. Philip T. Coolidge, on the protection 
of water supplies in the United States. 

“The acquisition of forest lands to protect water supplies 
is not clearly exemplified in any particular State, although 
the need of such protection is one of the arguments most 
frequently urged as a reason for public ownership. It is a 
fact that both municipal water supply corporations and 
municipalities themselves have generally found that actual 
ownership rather than regulation is necessary to prevent 
contamination of water supplies used for domestic purposes. 
It has been found that satisfactory policing of the water- 


78 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


sheds which supply potable waters can be secured only 
under direct ownership by the public or private interest 
which is vitally concerned. The obvious fact has also been 
found to be true that woodland rather than farm land or 
pasture affords the most effective safeguard against discolora- 
tion of water by eroded soil particles and against con- 
tamination by the germs of contagious diseases. It is 
interesting to note that on lands owned by water supply 
corporations, both public and private, intensive and very 
interesting sylvicultural measures have proven practical, 
because the project of forest production is free of any debit 
for the value of the land, that value being charged against 
the primary purpose for which the land is owned, namely, 
water production. As with lands needed for purposes of 
recreation, public acquisition of lands actually required to 
protect waters used for domestic purposes is desirable. In 
every case, however, the cause of sound democratic govern- 
ment demands that the necessity for the purchases be 
accurately determined and clearly understood by the body 
politic.” 

The aggregate amount of land in the water catchment 
areas all over this country is immense. Parry, in 1903, 
estimated the total area of the gathering grounds in Great 
Britain and Ireland from which supplies are collected for 
waterworks purposes to be almost 576,000 acres, irre- 
spective of the watersheds contributing to rivers from 
which supplies are taken by pumping. These gathering 
grounds are either owned already, or should be purchased 
compulsorily by the corporations deriving their water 
supplies from them. Probably 100,000 to 200,000 acres 
could be afforested to the great advantage of the State. 
I need not enter here into the arguments for establishing a 
timber reserve in the country. These arguments have 
convinced all who have studied the subject, whether 
foresters, landowners, officials, or economists. The main 
difficulty of afforestation on a large scale in England lies in 
the necessity for the acquisition of the land by some 
corporation or State authority, who would be bound to 


AFFORESTATION OF CATCHMENT AREAS 79 


carry out the work on the only lines that would ensure 
success, namely, the planting to be spread over a term of 
years, to be uninterrupted, and to be carried out in large 
blocks, in no case of less than 500 acres each. It will be 
difficult to induce private landowners to undertake, out of 
their diminished incomes, afforestation schemes on the large 
and continuous scale that is essential to success. 

In the case of water catchment areas belonging to 
corporations, the question of continuous ownership is 
solved; and the agreement entered into on 18th August 
1914 by the Liverpool Corporation with the Development 
Commissioners is a workable financial scheme that can be 
adopted generally. The Treasury provides the money 
necessary for planting, while the Corporation gives the land 
and pays the recurring annual expenses of management and 
taxes. In this partnership the produce of the forest will 
be ultimately divided between the two parties in the pro- 
portion of the capital invested by each. In this way the 
profit or loss accruing from the plantation will be fairly 
shared between the State and the Corporation. Afforesta- 
tion should be imposed as a necessary duty on all the water 
authorities who obtain their supply from gathering grounds ; 
in other words, each corporation ought to be compelled to 
carry out a planting scheme as soon as the Government 
shall issue a loan for the initial expenses of planting. The 
Forestry Board, that we hope to see established on the 
conclusion of peace, would prepare a working plan in each 
case, which ought to be systematically carried out, careful 
records being made of expenses and receipts. 

Since this was written the Forestry Sub-Committee of 
the Reconstruction Committee have issued their Report, and 
have made a very definite pronouncement concerning the 
areas from which water supplies are collected by local 
authorities. “We consider it should be an invariable rule 
that on catchment areas all land which will produce a crop 
of marketable timber should be afforested. Many of the 
corporations are still engaged in meeting the capital outlay 
which their water supply systems necessitated, and for that 


80 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


reason are unwilling to place further burdens on the present 
for the benefit of future generations. We have little doubt 
that when the necessity of increasing our timber supplies 
has been explained to local authorities, much greater activity 
in systematic planting will be displayed, but in cases where 
they are still unwilling or unable to plant without assistance, 
local authorities should be eligible to receive all or any of 
the forms of assistance to which we refer.’ Two methods 
of assisting local authorities in municipal afforestation are 
then proposed : 

(1) Proceeds-sharing— The State would provide the 
cost of planting and general supervision, and would lay 
down the working plan; the landowner (local authority) 
would provide the land and the cost of local management. 
Accounts would be kept of the annual contributions made 
by each party, and on the basis of these, reckoned up at 
compound interest, the annual receipts would be divided. 
This method seems rather complicated, as the ratio deter- 
mining the division of proceeds would vary from year to 
year, but no doubt a simple method of crediting proceeds 
during the early years and arriving at a fair average ratio 
as the basis of calculation when the woods become fully 
productive could be mutually agreed upon.” 

(2) Assistance by Grants—Grants up to £2 per acre 
towards the cost of planting conifers and up to £4 per acre 
towards the cost of planting hard woods are recommended, 
the following conditions being imposed: First, the area to 
be planted and the working plan must be approved by the 
Forest Authority and adhered to. Secondly, a minimum 
area to be planted at a minimum rate per annum, namely, 
at least 100 acres to be afforested and at least 10 acres 
planted up each year. Thirdly, the Forest Authority must 
be satisfied that the planting and subsequent care of the 
trees will be under adequately skilled management. 
Fourthly, the grant to be refunded with interest if the 
preceding conditions are not fulfilled. 

Mr. Parry, ata meeting of the British Waterworks 
Association, 4th October 1918, preferred, under the con- 


AFFORESTATION OF CATCHMENT AREAS 81 


ditions suggested, the method of assistance by grants, but 
was of opinion that the amount of grant per acre should be 
higher. He considered the proceeds-sharing scheme pro- 
posed in the Report to be less favourable than the Liverpool 
agreement referred to above, and to be surrounded by con- 
ditions which he would not advise any local authority to 
accept. In his opinion it would be a partnership with all 
the power and authority in the hands of one partner. 
Preferably the Forest Authority should be allowed to take 
over the whole business and pay the local authority a fair 
rent for the use of the land. 

Various subsidiary arguments may be adduced in favour 
of planting these gathering grounds. Water power will be 
available, by which the successful working of the forest may 
be greatly helped. Saw-mills and wood-working machinery, 
driven directly by water power or by electric motors, would 
contribute to the profitable utilisation of the trees by the 
conversion of the timber to marketable sizes and by the 
production of wood pulp, matches, wooden implements, and 
other articles. At the end of the war, when large numbers 
of soldiers will be disbanded, immediate work would be 
found for men accustomed to rural labour if Corporations 
were called upon to begin at once the afforestation of their 
water catchment areas. Planting work is carried out in 
winter, when labour is less needed in building and other 
trades. It is supposed to be the intention of the Govern- 
ment to proceed at once with large afforestation schemes 
as soon as peace is declared; but the acquisition of the 
necessary land in sufficiently large blocks from private 
owners will take up much time in preliminary surveys 
and negotiations. No scheme sufficiently attractive to 
induce private landowners to co-operate vigorously in the 
planting of large tracts has yet been devised. In the case 
of land owned by Corporations there need arise no diffi- 
culty in starting this useful national work and establishing 
as soon as possible a timber reserve in these islands. 

Mr. George Baxter, C.E., says that the main difficulty at 
present in Scotland is the want of powers by the Corporations 

G 


82 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


to acquire the land on their water catchment areas at a fair 
value. The Lintrathen watershed, from which Dundee takes 
most of its water supply, is 22,000 acres in extent; but only 
1000 acres have been purchased by the Dundee Water 
Commissioners, and of this 200 acres have been success- 
fully planted. As 8700 acres in the gathering ground are 
below 1000 feet elevation, it is probable that a large forest 
might be profitably created at Lintrathen. The great difficulty 
lies in the exorbitant price that has been paid by Corpora- 
tions for land compulsorily acquired. Mr. Baxter (7) urges 
that “the burden of an extensive afforestation scheme can 
only be equitably adjusted if State-aided. Government 
aid need not necessarily be wholly in the shape of direct 
financial assistance. Let us have a compulsory system 
of land purchase for waterworks purposes or afforestation 
purposes by local authorities, under which such land may 
be obtained at something like its market value instead 
of the present system, through the operation of which 
communities are called upon to pay such high prices.” 

The exorbitant prices paid by municipalities to land- 
owners for waterworks sites and the like seem to be in 
many cases grossly unfair. This is due in part to the heavy 
costs of arbitration, and in part to the excessive sums 
awarded by arbiters under what Mr. James Watson (8) 
calls that intangible excrescence to the Land Clauses 
Consolidation Act known as ‘special adaptability. In 
England, Ireland, and Scotland “the claims set up under 
this head for land good, bad, or indifferent (if it had to be 
acquired under statutory powers for waterworks) were 
such that land instantly appreciated to ten or twenty 
times its agricultural value if needed for waterworks 
on the grounds of the ill-defined pleas of ‘special 
adaptability.’ ” 

Value for ‘special adaptability’ seems to have been first 
claimed in the arbitration between the Countess Ossalinski 
and the Manchester Corporation in regard to land around 
Thirlmere. The award which was given, being about 120 
years purchase on the rental of the land and residence, was 


AFFORESTATION OF CATCHMENT AREAS 83 


taken on appeal before the High Court. The Judges held 
that “the arbitrator in his award had justly taken into 
account the enhanced value of the land by reason of the 
water that might be collected, diverted, and impounded upon 
it, and also by reason of its natural and peculiar adaptation 
for the construction of a reservoir.” 

The following are examples of the remarkable awards 
which have been based upon the decision in this case : 

The Swansea Corporation took, under an Act of Parlia- 
ment, 152 acres for a reservoir out of a sheep farm of 
5000 acres, which had been recently bought at auction 
for £11,500.. The award made for special adaptability 
(£20 per acre), in respect of the 152 acres and for ‘ease- 
ments, was £12,370, being more than the cost of the 
whole farm of 5000 acres sold by auction as an ordinary 
hill farm. 

Two acres of moorland were acquired by the Middle 
Ward District Committee of Lanarkshire for the Shotts 
Reservoir. The land was valued by a competent valuator 
at £326. Anaward was made of £465, but the Corporation 
were obliged to pay in addition £28 as interest and £219 
for the costs of arbitration, making £712 in all—in other 
words, more than twice as much as the just value of the 
land. 

The Glasgow Corporation, when raising the level of Loch 
Arklet, were compelled to pay £19,115 in respect of 381 
acres of rough heather moorland, of which they only acquired 
freehold of 17 acres. In addition to this sum, the Corpora- 
tion had to pay £4700 for legal expenses, £3500 for new 
roads, etc., and £4700 for the right to store water, etc., or 
£31,900 in all. This seems monstrous, in view of the fact 
that the 381 acres were practically of little or no value, 
being part of 11,500 acres of hill pasture, the gross rent 
of which was £700, worth then at 25 years’ purchase only 
£17,500. The real value of the 381 acres would seem to 
have been less than £600, yet £31,900 was extorted. 

The Royal Commission (9) on Housing in Scotland, after 
hearing evidence on this question, came to two clear and 


84 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


definite conclusions; first, that the traditions and customs 
which have in the past surrounded arbitrations have resulted 
in excessive awards and excessive costs of arbitration; and 
second, that these excessive awards and costs have paralysed 
the efforts of local authorities in their attempts to administer 
Acts framed in the interests of public health and otherwise 
for the general good. 

The first report of the Committee appointed by the 
Ministry of Reconstruction to deal with the law and 
practice relating to the acquisition and valuation of land 
for public purposes was published as Blue Book, Cd. 8998, in 
January 1918. Its main recommendations are concerned 
with the simplification of the procedure for compulsory 
acquisition of land. The Committee acknowledge that 
“the costs of procedure under the Land Clauses Acts are 
not infrequently so great as to neutralise financially the 
advantage of possessing such powers,” and they instance 
cases of exorbitant prices demanded for land from the 
Admiralty and other Government Departments. “ Under 
the present system, public authorities may well prefer to 
pay any figure up to double the fair value of the land 
rather than face the delays and expenses of compulsory 
acquisition.” The valuation of land for public purposes is 
fully dealt with in the second report by this Committee. 

The history of the afforestation of the various catchment 
areas throughout the country shows in how fitful a manner 
and on how small a scale this important civic and national 
work has been carried out in past years. This furnishes 
a strong argument for compulsion on the lines suggested 
above. Mr. Parry writes to me: “I attach great import- 
ance to the agreement between the Government and the 
Liverpool Corporation, because it ensures the steady working 
out of a planting scheme over a large area under permanent 
conditions of supervision and progress. Any scheme under- 
taken by a Municipal Corporation, unaided and uncontrolled, 
is liable to interruption through the changes constantly 
taking place in the composition of Councils; and there is 
also considerable danger of mismanagement.” 


AFFORESTATION OF CATCHMENT AREAS 85 


The Departmental Committee on British Forestry, which 
reported in 1902, drew the attention of local authorities, 
deriving their water supplies from gathering grounds owned 
by them, to the advantage and profits to be derived from 
planting the catchment areas with trees, not only to 
contribute to the retention of the rain and assist in 
regulating the water supply, but to help to purify the 
water and at the same time yield a regular income on the 
capital expended. In connection with this report the Local 
Government Board obtained a return in 1903, showing 
which of the local authorities owning waterworks had 
acquired the freehold or long leasehold of the catchment 
areas from which their water supplies were derived. This 
return, which was not published, showed that at that time 
5 joint boards and 74 town and district councils in England 
and Wales owned or had a long lease of a part or all of 
their gathering grounds (10). 

The Journal of the Board of Agriculture, xi. 468 
(November 1904), in an article on this subject, points 
out that such catchment areas must “be placed under the 
control of a competent forester, and inasmuch as they will 
be under corporate control, and less subject to change of 
management than land owned by private individuals, there 
is no reason why they should not also ultimately serve as 
demonstration forests and be available for the instruction 
of students. For example, the catchment areas of Liverpool 
and Birmingham waterworks situated in Wales, within 
reach of University Colleges possessing agricultural depart- 
ments, could, with the consent of the Corporations concerned, 
be used for these purposes; and a similar arrangement 
might be made with regard to certain areas in Yorkshire 
within reach of the University of Leeds.” 

In the same Journal tables were published showing 
the acreage and other particulars of the gathering grounds 
in Great Britain, which in 1904 were held as freehold 
or on long lease by local authorities. These tables, based 
on returns made in that year to the Board of Agriculture 
by the various municipalities, were confessedly incomplete, 


86 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


and in certain cases inaccurate. Returns from only 47 
authorities were given. Important areas, such as the 
Liverpool Corporation’s catchment area of 10,000 acres at 
Rivington, were omitted. The figures excluded land subject 
to common rights, small areas of freehold, and certain areas 
which the local authorities reported as being too exposed 
for planting. Nevertheless, the fact was disclosed that 
over 100,000 acres of catchment areas were owned or held 
on long lease by local authorities. The tables summarised 
indicated for 1904: 


No. of Mountain ; 
Country. ratnariticd and Heath | Woodlands.| Cultivated. 
i Land. 
Acres. Acres. Acres. 
England é ; 25 78,550 | 1,850 1,650 
Wales . : : 9 6,250 100 one 
Scotland 5 7 13 10,950 50 1,300 
Total . : 47 95,750 2,000 2,950 


In the Final Report of the Reconstruction Forestry 
Sub-Committee (Cd. 8881 of 1918, p. 93) it is stated 
that the Glasgow Corporation’s areas at Loch Katrine and 
Gorbals should be added to the list as being owned by 
the local authority. This is incorrect, as the ownership 
of these areas still remains in private hands, and the Glasgow 
Corporation have no rights to make plantations upon them. 

The Board of Agriculture again, in 1909, made an 
inquiry concerning the amount of planting that had since 
been carried out. The result of this inquiry showed (11) 
that in the majority of cases, even where local authorities 
were in possession of the freehold or had long leases of 
their catchment areas, little progress had as yet been made. 
In a few cases, on the other hand, the work had been 
taken up seriously, and planting was being done on a 
systematic plan. Reports received from fourteen local 
authorities indicated that altogether some 2200 acres had 
been planted, and that schemes were on foot for planting 
a similar area during the ensuing five years. Leeds, Liver- 


AFFORESTATION OF CATCHMENT AREAS 87 


pool, Birmingham, Manchester, and Torquay had planted 
on a considerable scale; while Oldham, Llandudno, Bolton, 
Darwen, Bury, Cardiff, Derwent River Valley Board, and 
Plymouth had each planted a few acres. It was evident 
that with the exception of three or four of the larger 
municipalities the matter had been half-heartedly taken 
up. The cost of the work had also been very high in 
most cases, and there were indications that with one or 
two exceptions it had been indifferently carried out. Some 
of the planting had been hastily undertaken with a 
view to finding employment for men thrown out of 
work during the trade depression of the years 1908 and 
1909, and generally without proper advice or expert super- 
vision. 

The Reconstruction Report says that “complete figures - 
are not available of the total area of land held by Local 
Authorities in the catchment areas of their water supplies. 
The total area is considerable, and, moreover, is increasing 
steadily. It is not possible to say definitely in the absence 
of a survey what proportion of the total area held by Local 
Authorities is afforestable. A survey made by the Board 
of Agriculture of the Birmingham Corporation’s land in 
Wales disclosed 6000 acres of suitable land. After making 
deductions for altitude and exposure, unsuitable soil, etc., 
it would probably be found that the total acreage of water 
catchment areas fit for afforestation in Great Britain is not 
less than 50,000 acres, and may be considerably more.” 

This estimate is a moderate one; more likely 80,000 
acres of municipally owned lands are available for planting 
in the British Isles. How important these areas are in 
the aggregate will be shown in the three concluding chapters 
of this book, where detailed descriptions are given in 
geographical order of nearly all the gathering grounds of 
water supplies in England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. 
The total extent in 1918 of the gathering grounds in Great 
Britain and Ireland, summarised from the information 
given in these three chapters, is shown in the following 
table : 


88 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Total Extent of Extent owned by 
Gathering Grounds. Local Authorities. 
Country. 


Local 


Local Companies 
etc. ; Authorities. Acres. 


Authorities. Acres, 


England and Wales 127 14 591,336 64+ |140,305 
Scotland . . 78 ... {243,624 16 27,829 
Ireland : ‘ 46 1* | 93,8385 9 15,282 


Total . : 251 15 928,795 89+ |183,416 


* Water supply owned by private landowner. 
t+ One Company is included in these totals. 

In conclusion it is encouraging to know that the few 
Corporations who have been in earnest are satisfied with 
the results of their afforestation schemes. Liverpool, Leeds, 
Birmingham, and Manchester have all done notable work, 
an account of which may fittingly conclude the present 
chapter. 


Liverpool.—The most important work of this kind is 
probably the systematic afforestation that has been carried 
out during recent years by the Liverpool Corporation on 
their catchment areas at Vyrnwy and Rivington (12). 

The Vyrnwy gathering ground (13), with a total area 
of 22,742 acres, is situated in the valley of the River 
Vyrnwy, near its source in Montgomeryshire, and ranges in 
elevation from 780 to 2000 feet, with an average annual 
rainfall of 70 inches. The artificial reservoir, known as 
Lake Vyrnwy, covers 1121 acres, and three catchment 
areas drain into it, namely, the River Vyrnwy area, 18,000 
acres, the Cownwy stream area, 3092 acres, and the 
Marchnant stream area, 1650 acres, making a total of 
22,742 acres, practically all of which has now been 
acquired by the Liverpool Corporation; but there are on 
the Vyrnwy area some disputed boundaries near the tops 
of the watershed lines not yet settled. In the Cownwy and 
Marchnant areas the Corporation have, to suit the con- 
venience of the vendor, taken over some farms, which 
extend beyond the catchment areas. The land, in great 


AFFORESTATION OF CATCHMENT AREAS 89 


part let to tenants, is mostly occupied by sheep, but the 
farms are gradually being acquired as the tenancies expire ; 
and ultimately there will be no houses on the watershed, 
and nothing but forest around the lake and rivers. 

When the Corporation bought the land, there were 
170 acres of old woods on the Vyrnwy area. Planting 
operations on commercial principles were commenced in 
1897, in accordance with a report and plan made by 
Prof. W. R. Fisher in the preceding year. By April 1903 
there were over 600 acres of old and new plantations. A 
saw-mill was erected, and nurseries were established, which 
enabled the subsequent planting to be carried out at a more 
rapid rate. The total area of the plantations made up to 
October 1918 was 1383 acres, situated between 825 and 
1500 feet elevation, no less than 3,600,000 young trees 
having been employed, all of which are growing splendidly. 
The main species used have been larch, Douglas fir, spruce, 
silver fir, Scots pine, Corsican pine, and beech, with some 
ash, sycamore, oak, and alder. The larch and Douglas fir 
show remarkable vigour of growth at the present time; 
and ultimately there will be a magnificent forest of 5000 
acres around Lake Vyrnwy. 

On 18th August 1914 an agreement was come to 
between the Treasury and the Corporation, on lines laid 
down by the Development Commissioners, for the afforesta- 
tion of 5000 acres on the Vyrnwy area. The Treasury 
were to advance to the Corporation from the Development 
Fund on loan £5 per acre, as required for planting, up to 
a limit of £25,000; while the Corporation were to pay to 
the Development Fund the price of one-half of the produce 
utilised or sold from the area afforested by means of the 
loan, such payment to be made as and when the produce is 
utilised or sold. 

Mr. Parry, in a paper read at the annual meeting of the 
British Waterworks Association, 4th October 1918, says: 

“Under the agreement, as ultimately settled, the 
Corporation have undertaken to plant an area of 4000 acres 
around Lake Vyrnwy, in blocks of approximately 200 acres 


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AFFORESTATION OF CATCHMENT AREAS 91 


each year, thus extending the completion of the scheme 
over a period of twenty years. A working plan was 
prepared and approved of by Government on which these 
twenty sections are marked out, but there is provision for 
deviations being made if required by circumstances. The 
Government contribute a sum per acre which is intended 
to cover approximately the actual cost of planting. Also 
they contribute a specified allowance per acre in respect of 
maintenance. Payment is made by the Treasury in 
advance at the beginning of each planting season, after 
inspection and approval of the previous year’s planting by 
an expert from the Forestry Department. In consideration 
of these advances, the Corporation have to pay to the 
Treasury a sum equal to one-half of the net value of all 
timber, saplings, thinnings, and other products resulting 
from the joint operations. There is also an arbitration 
clause in the event of differences arising between the 
Corporation and the Board of Agriculture or Treasury. 
Briefly, the arrangement is, that the Corporation provide 
the land, plant the trees, and sell the products. The 
Government pay, in advance, the cost of planting. The 
profits are divided equally between the two parties.” 

Mr. Parry, to whom I am much indebted for information 
about the Liverpool catchment areas, attaches “great im- 
portance to the agreement between the Government and 
the Corporation, chiefly because it ensures the working out 
of a planting scheme over a large area. Any scheme 
undertaken by a Municipal Corporation, unaided and 
uncontrolled, is liable to interruption through the changes 
constantly taking place in the composition of Councils; and 
there is also considerable danger of mismanagement.” 

The adoption of this scheme involved the taking in 
hand, during twenty years, of 9 farms on the Vyrnwy area, 
from which the Corporation now derive a gross rental of 
£583, and a net rental (allowing for repairs) of £498. 
These farms cover 9645 acres, including grouse moors also 
let for sporting, not suitable for planting. The value of 
the sporting would be considerably increased by the removal 


92 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


of the sheep; and the closing of the farmsteads would 
remove an objectionable source of pollution. Some portions 
of the Marchnant area, recently purchased, would also be 
included in the planting area. There are six farmsteads on 
the Marchnant area, three of which have been strongly 
condemned by the Medical Officer of Health in consequence 
of the pollutions caused by their proximity to important 
streams. 

Mr. Parry, in the paper quoted above, states: “If it 
had not been for the war, the total area planted under the 
Government scheme would have been 1000 acres, represent- 
ing about 2,250,000 trees. The occurrence of the war, 
with the resulting shortage of labour and cost of fencing 
materials, has, however, made it impossible to carry out the 
full intention of the agreement, and, with the concurrence 
of the Board of Agriculture, the number of acres actually 
planted has been little more than one-half the area marked 
on the plan. During the years 1897-1913, the Corpora- 
tion planted altogether 2,500,000 trees on 884 acres. 
The number of trees planted to date (October 1918) under 
the partnership agreement with Government is 1,101,891, 
and the number of acres 499, thus making a grand total of 
3,600,000 trees and 1383 acres.” 

The writer visited Lake Vyrnwy in September 1918, 
and was much impressed by the flourishing state of the 
plantations, which have been under the care of the head 
forester, Mr. J. Carsley, for the last twenty-five years. 
Some mature timber was felled during the war; and the 
following table, based on diagrams supplied by Mr. R. L. 
Robinson of the Board of Agriculture, shows the comparative 
growth of the various species in two of the older woods. 


[TABLE 


AFFORESTATION OF CATCHMENT AREAS 93 


Hericut, GrowrH oF SAMPLE TREES IN OLDER Woops, LAKE VYRNwy. 
(sh. =sheltered ; exp. = exposed.) 


a ° 
; i 33 56 s&s gs 
Larch. | Silver Fir. | Spruce. ‘a8 £8 Ss 335 
5m BA RS | 38 
o = a 
Elevation 
in feet . | 865/900] 900} 900 | 865/900) 925 875 875 865 
Exposure 
to wind. | sh. |exp.| sh. | exp.| sh. | exp. sh. 


Years of Age.| Larch. Silver Fir. 


TimpeR VOLUME (QUARTER GIRTH) OF EACH SAMPLE TREE OVER 
Bark, Cusic FEET. 


a S 3 : 
83 2 Cs) =P 3:3 
Larch. Silver Fir. | Spruce. BE Es =§ hs 
Sa Pa RS ws 
o = p> 
ne en I I: | 42) | is 14 10 16 45 


These measurements show the great value of European 
larch and spruce for the production of timber in the 
mountains of Central Wales. Corsican pine does well at 
high elevations; and plantations of this species made in 
1906-1907 at 1300 feet above sea-level showed an 
average height of 10 feet in 1918, with leading shoots of 
the current season about 14 feet in length. The newer 


94 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


plantations made by the Corporation indicate that Douglas 
fir ought to bulk largely in the afforestation of mountain 
valleys. Various plots of Douglas fir showed the following 
growth: At 860 feet altitude, an average tree, 26 years 
planted, was 64 feet high by 2 feet 8 inches in girth; at 
850 feet elevation, an average tree, 29 years planted, was 
50 feet high by 3 feet 4 inches; at 840 feet elevation, 
two trees, 19 years planted, were 43 feet by 2 feet and 52 
feet by 2 feet 9 inches. At the high elevation of 1200 
feet, growth of Douglas fir was much checked by exposure 
to wind, the height, 20 years after planting, being about 
25 feet. Sitka spruce has unluckily not been planted as 
yet in quantity at Lake Vyrnwy; but there are three trees 
of this species growing near the embankment at 850 feet 
elevation, which show remarkable vigour of growth. Planted 
35 years ago, they are 70 feet in height, and average 5 feet 
8 inches in girth. Near them are numerous self-sown 
seedlings, 4 to 12 inches high, which show that natural 
regeneration of this valuable tree may be looked for, provided 
that rabbits are excluded. Sitka spruce should be largely 
used in wettish places, and at high elevations, Japanese 
larch, 9 years planted, is about 22 feet high, and flourishes 
here. Scots pine, planted in 1899, averages only 15 feet 
high, and is of little value for the production of timber in 
comparison with larch, Douglas fir, and Sitka spruce. 
These three species are unquestionably the most profitable 
for the afforestation of large areas of mountain land. 

The Rivington catchment area, 10,000 acres in extent, 
was purchased by the Liverpool Corporation in 1902. It 
is situated on millstone grit, between 450 and 1498 feet 
elevation, and consists mainly of moorland and hill grazing. 
The population surrounding the area had been increasing 
rapidly, and was tending also to increase upon the watershed 
itself, so that it was becoming extremely difficult to prevent 
the streams from being polluted, especially by the farming 
operations of numerous small holders on the estate. To 
deal with this danger effectually the Corporation became 
owners of the property; and since then have got rid of a 


AFFORESTATION OF CATCHMENT AREAS 95 


considerable number of small farmers, and greatly reduced 
the number of sheep on the area, thus lessening the risk 
of contamination of the streams. The Corporation also 
adopted a scheme of afforestation in 1904, with the view 
of keeping the water pure. By 1908 about 408 acres 
had been planted with 1,640,000 trees. Smoke arising 
from the large manufacturing towns around Rivington caused 
some difficulty, as certain species failed to grow or ceased to 
thrive after a time. Beech and ash, however, were a success ; 
sycamore throve moderately ; and Corsican pine and Douglas 
fir did well in certain situations. Larch proved a failure. 

The growth of trees on the Rivington area has not been 
entirely successful, as some years ago a plague of voles 
did great damage. The smoke nuisance has gradually 
increased, and for the last four or five years forestry 
operations have been confined to filling up vacancies. The 
total area of the plantations, however, amounted on 30th 
June 1916 to 1300 acres, situated between 450 and 
1100 feet elevation. Beech, spruce, sycamore, ash, alder, 
Corsican pine, and oak were the main species planted, 
3,404,866 young trees being used. 

The Liverpool Corporation have not entered into any 
agreement with the Government in regard to the afforesta- 
tion of the Rivington area. The subject was discussed in 
1912, when a joint scheme for planting the Lancashire 
gathering grounds of the Liverpool and Bolton Corporations 
was proposed; but the matter dropped. 


Manchester owns two catchment areas, that of Lake 
Thirlmere in Cumberland, and the Longdendale Valley in 
Cheshire and Derbyshire. 

The natural catchment area of Lake Thirlmere is 7400 
acres, but water from a further area of 3600 acres was 
diverted into the lake, so that the total catchment area is 
11,000 acres, all owned by the Manchester Corporation. 
This ranges in elevation from 533 feet, the natural level of 
the lake, up to 3118 feet, the summit of Helvellyn. The 
geological formation is Lower Silurian, the rock being near 


96 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


the surface. There is scarcely any peat, the water even in 
times of flood being very clear. The mountains surrounding 
the lake are very precipitous, and are used as sheep pastures, 
At present there are only two farmsteads, used for sheep 
farms, within the catchment area, and very little ploughing 
is done; but the fells are still let as sheep grazing. The 
annual rainfall is heavy, varying in wet years between 100 
inches in the valley and 137 inches in the hills on the west 
side, and in dry years between about 60 and 80 inches in the 
same places. From the almost entire absence of peat and the 
precipitous and rocky elevation of the Thirlmere area, the yield 
of water is largely in excess of that obtained from other water- 
sheds in this country. The lake in its natural state covered 
328 acres, and had a normal level of 533 feet above the 
sea, but a masonry dam constructed across the outlet has 
raised the level, and increased the area to 500 acres (14). 
When the Corporation acquired Thirlmere (Fig. 14) 
there were about 283 acres of old woods, consisting of 
sessile oak, ash, beech, and alder, with scattered larch 
plantations. The latter were splendid in growth, some of 
the trees attaining 100 feet in height and 8 to 10 feet in 
girth, and there was little disease. These woods were 
maintained by the Waterworks Committee, who started 
nurseries and made new plantations, which amounted by 
the end of 1907 to 389 acres. At that time the entire 
area consisted of lake, 500 acres; farms, 1500 acres; fell 
(high mountain grazing), 5000 acres; intake (land enclosed 
from the fell, but for which additional rent is not paid by 
the occupiers), 3000 acres; old woods and new plantations, 
672 acres; proposed plantations, 328 acres. Of the fell 
about half, that on the east side, is common land dependent 
on the farms. The other half, on the west of the lake, is 
the absolute property of the Corporation. Prof. W. R. Fisher 
(15) drew up a working plan and report on the woodlands 
around Thirlmere in the beginning of 1908. A trained 
forester was appointed, and regular planting was taken in 
hand, which has continued up to the present time, the area 
of the plantations made from 1908 till February 1917 


AFFORESTATION OF CATCHMENT AREAS 97 


being 540 acres. There are thus at present on the area 
283 acres of old woods and 929 acres of young plantations, 
1212 acres in all. The plantations have been successful 


2807 
GREAT DOO 
; 


‘2810 
DOLLY WAGEON PIKE 
‘ 


‘ 
i 
2370 es 
ULLSCARF 

1 

‘ 

‘ 


REFERENCE 
OLD Wooos 
NEW PLANTATIONS GZ 
Conrours .-1000.. 


PROPOSED PLANTATIONS N° ONLY 


Fic. 11.—Manchester Corporation, Thirlmere Plantations. 


from a commercial point of view, and have greatly improved 
the beauty of the landscape. 


The plantations are mostly near the lake, the newer ones 
H 


98 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


being on the intake on the lower slopes between the valley 
and the fell, and in some places ascend up to 1500 feet 
elevation. The reclamation of the moorland to pasture 
would set free a larger area of intake for tree-planting. 
Both Prof. Fisher’s report, published in Manchester in 
1908, and an article by A. P. Grenfell in the Quarterly 
Journal of Forestry, iii. 21 (1909), may be consulted on 
this interesting and successful attempt at afforestation of a 
mountain watershed. 

The forester, Mr. A. W. B. Edwards, who wrote an 
article in Z'rans. Roy. Scot. Arbor. Soc. xxvi. 37-45 (1912), 
on the methods of planting adopted at high elevations on 
the Thirlmere area, recommends autumn planting as a rule, 
except for wet ground or peat, which should be planted in 
spring. He strongly advocates the use of small plants, 
preferably 2-year seedlings. In planting steep hillsides 
he uses the mattock (Fig. 15), commencing at the top of 
the intended plantation and working to the bottom (16). 
He uses larch mixed with beech as the main crop except in 
exposed sites; and plants a belt of pines, generally a mixture 
of Scots, Corsican, and Austrian pines, six or eight rows 
wide, all round the plantation, and also on any outstanding 
ridges and crags; and at the higher levels mixes the larch 
alternately with pines, passing gradually into pure larch as 
he descends to the 1000 feet contour. Though strongly in 
favour of Sitka spruce for high and exposed altitudes, he 
writes on 15th December 1918 that this species has only 
been used till now for filling vacancies. It has done well, 
some trees being about 15 feet high. Douglas fir, planted 
in the spring of 1908, now averages 30 feet in height, while 
Corsican pine, planted alongside at the same time, is about 
10 feet high. Abies grandis, reeommended by Prof. Fisher, 
was not tried, as plants of it were too dear. 

Longdendale Valley, the catchment area of the river 
Etherow and its tributaries in Cheshire and Derbyshire, is 
19,300 acres in extent, of which about one-third or 6400 
acres are owned by the Manchester Corporation. The area 
is situated in an elevated part of the Pennine range, and 


AFFORESTATION OF CATCHMENT AREAS 99 


varies in altitude from 486 to 2060 feet elevation, with an 
average annual rainfall of 40 to 50 inches. Very little 
planting has been done in this catchment area, the total 
area planted being about 120 acres on the Cheshire side 
and about 30 acres on the Derbyshire side of the valley. 
There are seven storage reservoirs: Woodhead, 782 feet 
elevation; Torside, 650 feet; Rhodes Wood, 574 feet; 
Vale House, 503 feet; Bottoms, 486 feet; Arnfield, 540 
feet ; and Hollingworth, 554 feet. The two latter reservoirs 
are to the west of Tintwistle. The water is passed through 
copper wire gauze strainers, but is not filtered. J. F. L. T. 
Bateman, History and Description of Manchester Waterworks, 
p- 152 (1884), gives an account, with map, of the Longden- 
dale water catchment area. 


Leeds obtains its water supply from the Washburn 
Valley, a tributary of the Wharfe, about eight miles west of 
Harrogate. As this district is now being afforested by the 
Corporation, it is interesting to know that it was formerly 
part of the Royal Forest of Knaresborough, which remained 
thickly wooded till the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Iron 
smelting was then extensively carried on, which resulted in 
the gradual destruction of the timber, so that by 1700 few 
trees were left. The district was enclosed under Act of 
Parliament of 1770, and some of the land was subsequently 
broken up and cultivated. 

The Washburn Valley has a catchment area of 21,552 
acres, consisting of two divisions. The lower division, 
4505 acres, is reserved for compensation water, which is 
collected in the Lindley Wood reservoir at 299 feet altitude. 
The upper division, 17,047 acres, is reserved for domestic 
purposes, and has two reservoirs, Swinsty reservoir at 449 
feet elevation and Fewston reservoir at 503 feet. 

Between 1867 and 1900 Leeds Corporation acquired, 
out of the whole area, about 10,700 acres, which consist 
chiefly of gently sloping land on either side of the Wash- 
burn, descending from an upper limit of 900-1390 feet to 
the levels of the reservoirs, 299-449 feet. The geological 


100 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


formation is millstone grit underlying glacial clay with 
boulders, forming a soil wet in winter and very dry in 
summer. The soil is generally a sandy loam, warm and 
dry on the southern slopes, where much of the clay appears 
to have been denuded, and cold and stiff with the clay pre- 
dominating on the northern slopes, while there is some peat 
at the high altitudes. The land may be roughly divided 
into two classes, grassland and moorland, the former occupy- 
ing the lower reaches immediately surrounding the reservoirs, 
while moorland and poor pasture occupy the upper reaches. 
There are about 120 farms in the valley, nearly all small 
holdings of grass, with little arable land. In order to pre- 
vent any pollution from these farms, the Corporation decided 
in 1904 to reafforest part of the valley, with the primary 
object of purifying the water, and secondly, with the view 
of giving work to the unemployed in Leeds. For three 
seasons men drawn from the Unemployed Bureau were 
engaged in planting. Economic planting proved to be im- 
possible with this class of labour; and since 1909 the work 
has been done with a permanent staff of ten men, with 
extra help during busy times. 30 to 40 acres of new 
land surrounding the reservoirs have been planted each year ; 
andup to August 1914 about 835 acres had been planted 
with 3,400,000 trees. In October 1918 the area of grow- 
ing timber was “over 900 acres, and the results very good 
indeed” (17). 

With regard to the use of the unemployed during three 
seasons, Mr. C. G. Henzell, Waterworks Engineer of Leeds, 
states (18) that the average cost of draining, fencing, plant- 
ing, etc., was £12 per acre; but that the cost should not 
have been more than £8 per acre, the excess being due to 
the employment of inexperienced men. Much of the work 
was badly done, and the failures were quite 30 per cent. 
The men were not accustomed to spade work, and few were 
able to stand the rough weather. Any scheme of afforesta- 
tion will undoubtedly afford employment to a considerable 
number of men, but planting trees is skilled work and 
requires preliminary training The great advantage of 


AFFORESTATION OF CATCHMENT AREAS 101 


forestry work is that it is mainly done in winter, when the 
demand for ordinary agricultural labour is slack. A com- 
bination, in any part of the country, of afforestation and 
farming will provide continuous labour to the rural popula- 
tion, and automatically get rid of the unemployment problem. 

A complete account of the Washburn Valley afforesta- 
tion scheme by Mr. A. Pope, the forester in charge, appeared 
in Quarterly Journal of Forestry, vii. pp. 190-207 (1914), 
with map, now reproduced (Fig. 12), and should be read 
by those interested in planting on land of the varied char- 
acter that is usually met with in upland gathering grounds. 

The water in the Swinsty reservoir is connected by four 
mains with Eccup reservoir, south of Harewood Park, whence 
it is conveyed to filter beds at Weetwood, near Leeds. 

In addition to the Washburn area, the Leeds Corpora- 
tion have several other waterworks schemes, not yet com- 
pleted, as follows: 

Laver Valley, west of Ripon, catchment area of 7334 
acres, of which 4000 acres have been acquired by the Cor- 
poration. It is proposed to build on this area two reser- 
voirs, one at Laverton for compensation water, and another at 
Carlesmoor, a mile higher up the stream, for domestic supply. 

Burn Valley, catchment area of 5886 acres, with a con- 
templated reservoir just below Colsterdale village, west of 
Masham. 

Pott Beck Valley, catchment area of 4702 acres, with 
Leighton reservoir, now in course of construction. This 
area derives its supply from the lower part of the Pott 
Beck Valley, Grimes Gill, and Spruce Gill Beck, and is 
contiguous with the catchment area of Roundhill reservoir, 
belonging to Harrogate, which gets its water from the upper 
part of the Pott Beck Valley. 


Birmingham has the largest watershed of all the Cor- 
porations, 45,562 acres, situated in the, Elan and Claerwen 
valleys in Radnorshire and Breconshire. It ranges in 
altitude from 822 feet, the level of the Caban Coch reser- 
voir, to 2115 feet, the average elevation being about 1350 


102 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


feet. The greater part of the area is open mountain 
pasture and moorland, not carrying more than one sheep 
to the acre. Geologically the area consists of Lower Silurian 
slates, grits, and conglomerates ; and on some of the flatter 
tops of the hills peat occurs in places to a considerable 
depth. The catchment area is sparsely peopled, there being 
only 30 inhabited dwelling-houses in 1912, containing 
a population of perhaps 150, or say 2 persons per square 
mile. The greater part of the area is commonable land, 
but the Corporation have secured the rights over most of 
the commons, and have purchased all freehold lands in 
order to be able to protect the water from pollution at its 
source. “These commons now carry about 24,000 sheep, 
and no cattle are allowed, so that the freedom of the water 
from animal contamination is beyond doubt.” According 
to information supplied officially in July 1918, the 
Birmingham Corporation have acquired manorial rights 
over the whole area of 45,562 acres. The Corporation 
now own all the freeholds, 5263 acres, of which 878 acres 
are covered by reservoirs. The commons comprise 40,299 
acres; and the Corporation have acquired common rights 
and rights of pasturage over 32,714 acres, leaving an area 
of 7585 acres, of which these rights are unpurchased or 
disputed. 

The low-lying valleys, which formerly served as winter- 
ing ground for sheep with farm steadings, etc., became useless 
for this purpose as soon as they were submerged and 
occupied by reservoirs. It was found necessary to provide 
shelter for flocks; and the Corporation decided that the 
best form of shelter would be the putting down of planta- 
tions in suitable places. Certain sites were selected, and 
by 1909 nine separate plantations, with an area of 410 
acres, between 900 and 1500 feet elevation had been 
made and were reported to be very flourishing. The work 
here was done by contract, costing according to elevation 
from £3:13:7 to £4:18:9 per acre, exclusive of fencing 
and clearing the site. These items raised the total average 
cost to £7: 10s. per acre. 


AFFORESTATION OF CATCHMENT AREAS 103 


By the spring of 1914 the area of the plantations had 
been increased to 550 acres. In 1915 a further develop- 
ment was under discussion with the Board of Agriculture, 
who submitted a scheme for the planting of 761 acres 
additional over a period extending to the season 1929-1930, 
or a little over 50 acres annually. The Corporation, while 
adopting this scheme as a plan to be generally followed, 
ultimately decided to proceed independently of any loan 
from or partnership with the Board of Agriculture or 
Development Commissioners. Since the outbreak of the 
war this plan has been interfered with owing to lack of 
labour; and the additional area planted has been about 40 
acres only, making the total area under plantation in May 
1917 about 590 acres. Mr. E. A. Lees, Secretary to the City 
of Birmingham Water Department, to whom I am indebted 
for this information, states that the whole of the lands 
available for plantation in the Elan Valley are comprised 
in the scheme of the Board of Agriculture and amount to 
about 1300 acres. This seems to be a small proportion 
indeed of the 45,562 acres included in the catchment area ; 
but the explanation is given in the following statement 
made by Mr. Lees at the Afforestation Conference of 1907 
(Parl. Paper, No. 98, p. 41): “There is difficulty in 
obtaining land for planting. Although we control the 
whole of our gathering grounds, there are other rights in 
it; there are, for instance, the rights of the commoners. 
We can control as regards the surface. Consequently the 
areas which hitherto we have been able to utilise for 
planting have been confined to our own freeholds and 
commons which were already within the limits of our 
works. If planting is to be carried out to any considerable 
extent, it will certainly be necessary to give facilities for 
the recovery of common lands.” 

The Reconstruction Forestry Report, 1918, p. 94, states 
that a survey made by the Board of Agriculture disclosed 
6800 acres suitable for afforestation on the Elan catchment 
area, 

A full account of the Elan watershed, with plan and 


104 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


map, is given by B. L. and W. L. Mansergh in Proc. Inst. 
Ciwil Engineers, vol. 190, pp. 3-88 (1912). See also 
Ward and Baddeley, Guide to South Wales, p. 106 (1903). 
The average annual rainfall over the whole area is 69 
inches. 


NOTES 


1. In Journ. Sanitary Institute, xxii. (1901) p, 471. 

2. In a valuable paper, ‘‘ Afforestation of Water Catchment Areas,” read 
before the British Association at Southport in 1903. See Zvans, Roy. Scot. 
Arbor, Soc. xvii, p. 223 (1904). 

3. In Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers, vol. 167 (1907), p. 240. 

4, In Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers, vol. 181 (1910), p. 148. 

5. Water from many of the moorland gathering grounds of Yorkshire and 
Lancashire, and from lakes in some cases (Loch Katrine, for instance), is not 
filtered in any way. 

6. ‘‘The Afforestation of Waterworks Catchment Areas” in Trans. Roy. 
Lng. Arbor, Soc, vi. 276-284 (1906). 

7. See Memorandum to Dundee Water Commissioners, 22nd December 
1910, reprinted in Zrans. Roy. Scot. Arbor, Soc. xxiv. 191 (1911). 

8. In Proc, Inst. Civil Engineers, vol. 167, p. 154 (1907). 

9. See Report of Royal Commission on LHousing, Scotland, Blue Book, Cd. 
8731 of 1917, pp. 253, 254, 260. 

. 10. This paragraph is taken from Return as to Water Undertakings in 
England and Wales, Parl. Paper, 1915, No. 395, p, xxxvi. 

11. See Jowrnal of Board of Agriculture, xvi. p. 265 (July 1909) ; also 
Trans, Roy. Scot. Arbor. Soc, xxiii, p. 22 (1910). 

12. An interesting account of the Vyrnwy and Rivington Afforestation 
Schemes was given by Mr. Joseph Parry at the Board of Agriculture A fforesta- 
tion Conference on 25th June 1907 (Parl. Paper, No. 98, pp. 26-30). Mr. 
Harmood Banner, of the Association of Municipal Corporations, considered 
that municipalities were bound to afforest around their sewage-farms, ‘‘ to 
hide that ugly blot which so very often comes near our towns{and disfigures 
the scenery.” 

13. An account, with map, of the Vyrnwy Waterworks is given by G. F. 
Deacon in Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers, vol, 126, pp. 26-69 (1896). 

14. An account, with map, of the Thirlmere Waterworks is given by 
G. H. Hill in Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers, vol. 126, pp. 4-25 (1896). 

15. See W. R. Fisher, Working Plan Report of Woodlands round Lake 
Thirlmere (1908); and Sir Bosden Leech, in Board of Agriculture Afforesta- 
tion Conference Report, 1907, p. 38. 

16. In Fig. 15 the three different operations of the mattock in planting 
stony ground are shown from left to right: (1) The turf is pared off with 
the flat end of the mattock, the pointed end being used for loosening the 
soil ; (2) the plant is inserted ; and (3) the plant is made firm in the soil. 
In ordinary soils the plants are notched with spades into the pits prepared 
by the mattock. 

17. See Timber Trades Journal, 19th October 1918, p. 503. 

18. See Minutes of Evidence, vol. ii. part ii. p. 224, Royal Commission on 
Coast Erosion (1909). 


CHAPTER VIII 


CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE PLANTING OF WATER 
CATCHMENT AREAS 


In considering the advisability of afforesting a water catch- 
ment area, the principal points to be ascertained are the 
acreage and situation of the land that will prove suitable 
for planting and the species that ought to be employed. 
Before drawing up any scheme a preliminary survey of the 
ground is necessary, careful attention being paid to the 
different factors that influence the growth of trees. In 
other words, the altitude, shelter from wind or exposure, 
the nature and depth of the soil, and the existing vegetation 
must be ascertained for each of the different sections into 
which the area can be conveniently divided. It is very 
seldom that the whole of a watershed can be covered with 
trees. Plantations will not succeed at a high elevation 
or in exposed situations, or where the ground is covered 
with solid rock or with deep wet peat. It is generally 
admitted that the larger the block to be planted, the more 
economical will be the initial cost of fencing and planting, 
and the expense of care and management in after years. 
This argument need not be pushed to extremes in the case 
of municipally owned land, where commercial profit is not 
the sole consideration. On catchment areas where exten- 
sive schemes of afforestation seem impracticable, it will be 
advantageous to plant belts of trees or narrow plantations 
around the reservoirs and above the streams leading into 
them, and by this means diminish the risk of contamination 
105 


106 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


from adjacent arable land or pasture. Small plantations 
of this kind will scarcely produce remunerative timber, 
but their establishment can be justified as a hygienic 
measure. 

As most of the gathering grounds of water supplies lie 
in hilly or mountainous districts, and often include a good 
deal of moorland, it will be of interest to discuss at some 
length the factors that influence the growth of trees in such 
situations in the British Isles. 

The existing vegetation on an area gives the most 
important clue as regards the possibility of success or 
failure of artificial plantations. In most parts of England, 
Ireland, and Scotland three well-defined zones of vegetation 
can be readily distinguished, namely, the agrarian zone, the 
zone of hill pasture, and the moorland zone. Lowest of all 
is the agrarian zone, which comprises the farm land, includ- 
ing cultivated grazing land, as well as most parks and much 
of our woodlands. In the agrarian zone there are, however, 
great tracts that have never been brought under cultivation, 
as the heaths of southern and eastern England and the low- 
lying peat-bogs in Ireland. Nevertheless, most of this zone 
was originally covered with forest, and any part of a catch- 
ment ‘area coming within it can, as a rule, be planted, unless 
conditions of the soil, like the occurrence of deep peat, 
marsh, etc., prevent the growth of trees. In other words, 
up to a certain altitude, namely, to the line above which oats 
cease to be cultivated, plantations are usually successful and 
remunerative. 

The zone of hill pasture occurs above the farm land, and 
is mainly devoted to sheep and cattle. It is very variable 
in its composition, and includes a considerable amount of 
woodland and scrub. It extends up the slopes of the hills 
and mountains, and ends practically where the soil becomes 
peaty and the moorland begins. It is probable that the 
whole of this zone was once covered with natural woods, 
and hence its great importance in schemes of afforestation. 
It constitutes a good part of the so-called waste land, 
which, it is believed, would pay better if covered with 


(c06L ‘iwapnopy Yysr] pohoy ayy fo shurpas004 woody) 


‘SUIRJUNOP, UTLGud ‘seuoZ LoyyvoF] puw ‘oz, JIVMC SURLIRISY— ST “OT 


yoo 
Co" 


PLANTING OF WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 107 


trees than if left in its present state as poor grazing 
land. 

The hill pasture is often common land, serving as grazing 
for sheep and occasionally cattle in the summer months, and 
in such cases it is troublesome to purchase the grazing 
rights from the numerous owners who occupy the farms 
below. The Birmingham Corporation had great difficulty 
in getting rid of these rights on their catchment area in 
Wales. Prof. Somerville estimates that the average 
amount of mutton produced on poor hill pasture in 
Wales and in Scotland is about 10 Ibs. per acre 
annually. Afforestation of the hill pasture would appar- 
ently displace the sheep and to some extent diminish the 
meat supply of the nation, These calculations do not, 
however, take into account the amelioration in climate 
brought about in high-lying districts by afforestation. 
The shelter provided by plantations in the zone of hill 
pasture has a marked effect in improving the value of the 
grazing and arable lands in the farms immediately below. 
In the mountains of Denbighshire and Wicklow wherever 
there are farms protected by plantations, the farmers are 
enabled to keep sheep out in the winter, and all stock thrive 
better. The upper limit of the arable land is pushed higher 
when there are sheltering plantations, and the gain to the 
district is considerable. 

The last point is of considerable importance. Most 
writers advocate the afforestation of mountain waste land 
in large continuous blocks, and do not consider the effect 
upon the adjoining land. It is possible that a joint scheme 
of afforestation and reclamation would be more profitable 
than a scheme of afforestation only. Mountain slopes might 
be planted in widely separated blocks, joined on the upper 
side by narrow belts, the intervening blank areas being 
utilised for grazing and farming. The pasture of these 
areas might often be much improved by draining and by 
manuring with basic slag, which induce the production of 
grass in greater quantity and of better quality. Where 
there are great numbers of small farmers, as in Wales and 


108 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Ireland, extensive hill plantations and shelter belts might 
be made on the co-operative system if State aid in the shape 
of loans for planting were available. 

The recognition of the hill-pasture zone is easy if it is 
understood to include all the ground above the enclosed farm 
land and below the heather moorland. Its altitude is 
variable, ranging, for example, in the Dublin Mountains 
between 900 and 1250 feet and in the Northern Pennines 
between 1000 and 1250 feet. It is also very variable in 
composition, including woodland, scrub, grassland, brakes of 
bracken fern, and thickets of small whin (Ulex gallii) on 
siliceous soils. In the Pennines the natural wood is mainly 
oak or birch, the former small and scrubby above 1000 feet, 
the latter ascending to 1250 feet. The grassland consists 
mainly of mat-grass (WMardus stricta) and silver hair grass 
(Deschampsia flecwosa) on the drier soils, with sheep’s fescue 
(Festuca ovina) at the lower levels, while the wetter ground 
is dominated by purple moor-grass (Molinia caerulea). 
Bracken occurs over large areas in places, and its present 
upper altitude line corresponds very closely with the limit 
reached by the pre-existing forest. In fact, wherever 
bracken and small whin are present they are a sure sign 
that plantations may be tried with confidence. Dr. W. G. 
Smith says: “Bracken is an indication of a soil at least 
six or nine inches deep, moist yet well drained, and not peat, 
because only in these conditions can the underground stems 
of this fern survive; the conditions are therefore suitable 
for afforestation.” The small whin occurs only in patches 
in the Pennines, but is very abundant on the Malvern Hills 
and the Dublin Mountains. On limestone soils the zone of 
hill pasture has a different composition, the characteristic 
woods being ash, birch, and wych elm, while the grassland 
is a short grassy turf, largely composed of roots of sheep’s 
fescue. The characteristic grasses of non-limestone soil, 
Nardus, Deschampsia, and Molinia, are totally absent. 
Bracken, whin, and rushes, so common on siliceous soils, 
are of very rare occurrence, and perhaps are confined to 
leached soils or soils mixed with non-calcareous material. 


PLANTING OF WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 109 


The moorland zone, occurring on the hills and mountains 
above the limits of the hill pasture, owes the peculiar 
character of its vegetation to the presence of peat, which 
varies in depth from a few inches to many feet, and overlies 
shale, sandstone, granite, and other rocks, but is rare on 
limestone. The peat also varies much in the quantity of 
water which it contains, and to this is due the various types 
of vegetation that are met with in the moorland zone. 
Botanists distinguish in this zone, as main types or associa- 
tions, heather moor, cotton-grass moor, Scirpus or spike-rush 
moor, bilberry moor, and Sphagnum moor. 

Heather grows on peat where the drainage is good, and 
is most vigorous when the water content of the peat is less 
than 50 per cent. It thus occupies the slopes of the hills 
and mountains immediately above the hill pasture, and 
ceases to thrive on the higher parts, where the ground is 
flatter and the drainage is impeded. There are thus, as a rule, 
extensive heather moors on the slopes with shallow and 
dry peat, succeeded above by cotton-grass, Scirpus, and 
Sphagnum moors, where the peat is deep and sodden with 
moisture. 

The lower limit of the heather moor is determined by 
the cessation of the peat and is very variable. It oecasion- 
ally descends in the Southern Pennines to 750 feet, but as 
a rule in this range seldom goes lower than 1000 feet 
elevation. Its upper limit is mainly a question of drainage 
and scarcely depends on altitude, as heather grows to a high 
elevation if the peat is dry. In the Southern Pennines the 
heather moor ascends to about 1500 feet, but it often gets 
up to 2000 feet in the Northern Pennines. The heather 
moors are the typical grouse moors, and are often preserved 
for shooting, the heather being set fire to every few years to 
promote young growth. 

The heaths in the south of England, which are often 
immense tracts at a low elevation, are also covered with 
heather, but are distinct from the heather moors in the 
nature of the soil. The soil of the moors is always peat, 
whereas that of the heaths is poor sand or gravel, the upper 


110 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


part of which is mixed with dark humus, passing at the surface 
into a very thin layer of acid dry peat. In most heaths a hard 
‘pan’ forms at some distance below the surface of the soil. 

In north-east Yorkshire there are heaths at a high 
elevation, between 800 and 1250 feet, which are developed 
on a few inches of humous sand, covered by two or three 
inches of sandy peat, and passing down into sand. These 
heaths, inasmuch as the dominant vegetation is heather, are 
popularly called moors, and are used for preserving grouse ; 
but they differ from the heather moors of the Pennines and 
of the Dublin Mountains, which rest on pure peat of a 
considerable depth. 

Similarly in the central and eastern Highlands of 
Scotland, namely, in the basins of the Tay, Dee, and Spey, 
there are immense heaths, between 500 and 2000 feet 
elevation, which are colloquially termed moors and are used 
for grouse shooting. These heaths are somewhat inter- 
mediate in character, as the heather grows in a greater 
depth of surface peat, four to eight inches, than occurs in 
the English heaths, but, like the latter, they are developed 
on sandy or gravelly soil, in which acid peaty humus has 
accumulated. At a depth of one to two feet there is 
often a layer of moor-pan. 

Heaths are much drier than heather moors, e for 
purposes of afforestation must be considered quite distinct 
from the latter. Extensive wild and cultivated forests of 
Scots pine occur on the heaths of the Scottish Highlands ; 
and this species, if unchecked by man, would speedily 
colonise the heaths of the south of England. Heaths are 
thus very suitable for plantations of conifers, especially 
of pine and larch, the only hindrance being exposure to the 
wind where the land is at a considerable altitude and not 
protected by surrounding high mountains. Heather moors 
are not so favourable for afforestation on account of the 
depth and wetness of the peat, on which trees will rarely 
grow big enough to yield commercial timber, unless the 
situation is sheltered and the peat is drained. 

Above the zone of heather moor, the peat usually 


PLANTING OF WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 111 


becomes deeper and wetter, especially on the badly drained 
plateaux, and heather ceases to grow or loses its vigour, 
becoming thin and stunted. On the wet moors other 
plants take the place of the heather, the most widely spread 
being cotton-grass (Hriophorum angustifoliwum and LE. 
vaginatum), spike-rush or Scirpus caespitosus, and various 
species of Sphagnum moss. All these plants grow in deep 
peat sodden with moisture. The highest wet moors are 
often the cotton-grass moors, characterised by the growth of 
one or both species of EZriophorum, on peat rarely less than 
5, often 10 to 15 and even 30 feet in depth and saturated 
with water. Scattered amongst the cotton-grass moors are 
limited areas of Sphagnum moor, also on very wet peat. 
Cotton-grass moors are common in the Pennine range on 
gently sloping plateaux, between 1200 and 2200 feet 
elevation, and on account of their wetness are locally 
named mosses. Peat is being formed at a rapid rate in 
them at the present time. The Scirpus moors are also 
developed on deep peat, which is still being accumulated, 
and is saturated with water at most times of the year. 
The Scirpus is often mixed with a considerable amount of 
stunted heather. The Scirpus moors are very widely spread 
in the north of Scotland, the western Highlands, Hebrides, 
Shetlands, etc., and are common in the Dublin Mountains 
at lower elevations than the cotton-grass moors. Peat is 
also being formed at the present day in the Scirpus moors. 

In the southern Uplands of Scotland and the western 
Highlands, Westmorland and Wales, there are the so-called 
grass moors, which cover extensive areas of badly drained 
glacial till and boulder clay. The dominant vegetation 
consists of moor-grass (Molinia caerulea), mat-grass (Nardus 
stricta), and rush (Juneus squarrosus), growing on a peaty 
acid soil, which is wet during most of the year. A surface 
peaty layer, consisting of a sod six to nine inches thick, 
made up of bases of shoots and rhizomes, rests on an 
impervious subsoil. The grass moor is not a true moor as 
the soil is not pure peat. It is much wetter than ordinary 
hill pasture and has less value for grazing. 


112 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


The wet moors are unsuitable for afforestation, as trees 
cannot grow in sodden peat containing a large amount 
of water. All the peaty moorlands, in which the common 
plants are cotton-grass, Sphagnum, Scirpus caespitosus, 
heather, crowberry (Hmpetrum nigrum), and purple moor- 
grass (Molinia caerulea), cannot be planted with trees 
as long as they remain in their present condition. The 
soil is much too wet and too sour. Attempts have been 
made to cover such areas with plantations, but it is doubtful 
if this has ever been accomplished on commercial lines. 
For trees to have any chance of success, a great deal of 
preliminary work is necessary, as the peat must first be 
thoroughly drained, so that all stagnant water is removed. 
The upper surface of the peat, consisting of the roots of 
cotton-grass, Scirpus, heather, etc., matted into a tough 
fibrous sod, must be broken up and converted by decay into 
mould, before young trees can secure a footing. The 
removal of the upper layer of the peat to a depth of one 
or two feet gives young trees a better soil, but this is 
an expensive process. Probably the most economical 
method is the system (Fig. 17) introduced from Belgium 
into Scotland by Sir J. Stirling Maxwell. Shallow drains 
are made a few feet apart. The turfs, cut out of the 
drains, are placed face downwards on the intervening 
ridges and left to weather for a year. By that time the 
ground has begun to dry, the turfs have sunk considerably, 
and the herbage below them has begun to decay. On each 
inverted turf a young tree is planted, a handful of ordinary 
soil or sand being put in with each plant. Further 
particulars of the Belgian system of planting on peat 
moors will be found in Zrans. Roy. Scot. Arbor. Soc. xx. 
1-7 (1907), and xxviii. 72-78 (1914). 

Planting in the peat moors will scarcely ever be 
directly profitable, as the timber produced does not justify 
the expense. Nevertheless there is much to be said in 
favour of planting narrow belts of trees in the heather 
moor immediately above areas that are being afforested 
in the adjoining hill pasture. In hilly and mountainous 


Fic. 14.—Thirlmere Catchment Area, general view. 


(From E. P. Stebbing, British Forestry.) 


Et 3 
Shae eae Ss 


Fic. 15.—Mattock planting on Thirlmere Catchment Area. 


(From Transactions Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, vol. 26.) 


Fic. 16.—Talla Catchment Area, planting April 1914. 


(From E. P. Stebbing, British Forestry.) 


Fig. 17.—Belgian Method of planting Peat, four rows of inverted turfs 
between the drains. 


(From Transactions Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, vol. 28.) 


PLANTING OF WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 113 


districts, the upper zone of any plantation, no matter of 
what altitude, is stunted, broken, and battered by the wind. 
It is advisable, then, to carry planting on hill slopes some 
distance beyond the favourable ground for trees, as in this 
way an upper shelter belt is formed, which will be very 
useful in breaking the force of the wind. Practically, 
then, the only plantations that should be attempted on peat 
moors are in the nature of shelter belts. 

The effect of altitude on trees will now be briefly 
considered. The lowered temperature and short growing 
season at high altitudes militate against growth of vegeta- 
tion ; and, as is well known, trees cease to exist above a 
certain elevation, varying with the climate and _ latitude. 
Mere altitude is, however, scarcely so important as other 
factors, which depress the timber-line, the name given to 
the limit to which woodland ascends. ‘Trees, on account 
of their extensive foliage surface, transpire enormous 
quantities of water; and their growth is checked or 
stopped altogether when the transpiration becomes excessive. 
Wind increases transpiration, and the greater the velocity 
of the wind, the greater the transpiration. At high 
altitudes the wind is more constant and attains a greater 
velocity than at low levels; and the main cause of the 
low timber-line in the British Isles appears to be the force 
and constancy of the prevailing winds. 

This view is confirmed by recent investigations in 
Switzerland by Dr. Brockmann-Jerosch, who states that the 
upper tree limit is not determined by any one factor, such 
as rainfall, snowfall, or the average temperature of the year. 
It is determined for each locality by the physiography or 
lie of the land, or in other words by the exposure. This 
agrees substantially with the fact that in a continental 
climate, with hot dry summers and cold severe winters, the 
tree limit in the mountains is higher than in an oceanic 
mild climate, as in the latter there is more wind and 
consequent increase of transpiration. The best example 
in Scotland is the great height of the tree-line in the 
Cairngorm and Deeside Highlands, as compared with the 

I 


114 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Inverness and Argyllshire Highlands. The climate of 
the former may be considered continental and that of the 
latter oceanic ; but it is probably the exposure to the wind 
which makes the difference in the height of the tree-line, 

Dr. M. Hardie’s interesting remarks on this subject in 
Scottish Geographical Magazine, May 1906, are worth 
quoting in extenso at the risk of some repetition: “The 
upper forest limit is determined entirely by wind. It 
is higher in the east than in the west, at the eastern than 
at the western exposure, in the south than in the north. 
Fairly constant at an altitude of from 1800 to 1900 feet 
in the middle Highlands, it rapidly goes down to from 
1400 to 1500 feet on the scattered and exposed mountains 
of Sutherland, eventually reaching a much lower level on 
the western slopes of the extreme north-west, which in- 
creases in width from south to north and from east to west. 
It is followed upwards by a pseudo-alpine belt of a few 
hundred feet in height. Whether this zone could not be 
partially reclaimed in course of time by modern scientific 
forestry is yet an open question.” Speaking of the western 
Highlands, he continues: “In the west we have to deal 
with an essentially pastoral landscape. The whole of this 
section is, to a surprising degree, bare of forests, not from 
any natural cause, but through the agency of man. That 
this work of destruction has been made easier by the fact 
that in the sub-alpine zone a species of forest tree, 
thoroughly adapted to the climate, was lacking, is, however, 
very likely. For the excess of rainfall and wind is not 
favourable to Scots pine, the only native timber of import- 
ance for this zone, or to the larch, which has much the 
same ecologic requirements. Norway spruce, silver fir, 
and the Douglas fir would, under proper management, be 
best suited to these western hills.” 

Prof. W. Somerville, in Quarterly Journal of Forestry, 
vii. 144 (1913), mentions an area of several hundred acres 
of fine old Scots pine in the Highlands between 1000 and 
2000 feet altitude. He gives a photograph of well-grown 
trees at 1800 feet. Not a single young tree could be 


— 


PLANTING OF WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 115 


found. This total absence of pine seedlings is due to the 
abundance of red deer, which are even more destructive 
than sheep to young trees. It is probable that deer have 
contributed to the lowering of the timber-line in Scotland. 
In determining the height to which plantations may be 
carried, the altitude, exposure to wind, and soil must all be 
taken into consideration. Where there are great masses of 
high mountains, the timber-line is raised a great deal, and 
trees may be successfully planted up to high elevations. 
This is well seen in the Highlands of Central Scotland, 
where several peaks exceed 4000 feet. In Rothiemurchus 
Forest, in Strathspey, which les in a basin enclosed and 
protected from wind by the Cairngorm Mountains, native 
Scots pine creeps up the hills to a height of 2000 feet. 
On the Ardverikie estate in Inverness-shire there are planta- 
tions of Scots pine and larch, on the hills beside Loch 
Earba, doing well between 1500 and 1700 feet. The 
highest wood in England occurs in the Pennine range. 
This is a plantation of 300 acres, at Ashgill, lying to the 
north-east of Cross Fell, the highest peak of the Pennines 
(2930 feet), by which it is sheltered from the prevailing 
wind. The elevation of the plantation varies from 1250 
feet along the bed of the South Tyne to 2000 feet, the 
highest point of a shelter belt that was planted in advance 
of the main crop. The greater part lies between 1500 and 
1800 feet, sloping gradually towards the north-west. The 
soil is glacial clay resting on limestone, the surface being 
covered with a foot or two of peat. The trees, which were 
50 years old in 1906, consist mainly of European spruce, 
forming a thick even crop, and attaining 36 to 45 feet in 
height at 1700 feet, and 60 to 75 feet at 1250 feet 
elevation. The volume per acre was 3500 cubic feet at 
the higher altitude, and 4500 cubic feet on the side of the 
River South Tyne. Mingled with the common species there 
were some American white spruce, which had succeeded 
well on the exposed margins at high elevations. This 
remarkable plantation is described fully by Mr. A. C. 
Forbes in Trans. Roy. Scot. Arbor. Soc. xx. 153 (1907), who 


116 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


estimated the average annual yield to be 60 cubic feet per 
acre, or a gross return of 30 shillings per acre, spruce 
finding a ready sale here at 6d. per cubic foot as pit 
timber. 

In the Peak District a plantation of about 1000 acres, 
lying in the Goyt Valley, south-west of Taxal, extends up 
to 1700 feet elevation ; but all the trees that were planted 
in exposed situations at high altitudes or on wet moorland 
peat failed completely. Beech is vigorous and healthy up 
to 1250 feet, and conifers flourish to about 1500 feet 
elevation in this plantation. Spruce plantations on Kerry 
Hill in Wales succeed fairly well up to an elevation of 
1500 feet. 

On the west coast of Scotland, and in Ireland generally, 
the timber-line, owing to the strong prevailing wind, is con- 
siderably depressed as a rule. In the Wicklow Mountains 
there are, however, good conifer plantations up to 1200 feet 
elevation in situations sheltered from the west wind. 

It is often asserted that 1000 or 1200 feet represents 
the upper limit of profitable afforestation ; but there is no 
definite line, as so much depends on the presence or 
absence of shelter and on the nature of the soil. In most 
parts of Great Britain the elevation to which plantations 
may extend varies between 1000 and 1500 feet; but in 
the west of Scotland and in the greater part of Ireland 
there are many localities where trees cannot be successfully 
planted above 700 feet. Even in the south of England 
proximity to the west coast makes plantations at a high 
altitude unprofitable. On Exmoor, west of Porlock, 830 
acres of the Ashley Combe estate, between 1000 and 1400 
feet elevation, were planted in 1850-1860 with larch, 
spruce, and Scots pine. In 1913 the plantation was 
reported to have been a failure financially, 500 acres being 
a dead loss, while “200 acres . .. will never develop 
into marketable timber and are not worth more than what 
has been spent on them in cleaning, thinning, etc., without 
reckoning anything for the cost of planting and rent of land. 
Only 100 acres in the most favoured situations have given 


PLANTING OF WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 117 


a good return for the original outlay upon them.” See 
letter from the agents of this estate in Zhe Times, 17th 
December 1913. 

In comparison with continental regions in Europe or 
America, it is remarkable the low altitude to which any 
kind of cultivation, whether farming, grazing, or forestry, 
can be carried in the British Isles. This is always a subject 
of wonder to foreign visitors. Fortunately, however, the 
area at high elevations is not a great percentage of the 
total area. In Great Britain, of the total area (excluding 
water) of 56,199,980 acres only 3,537,172 acres, or 6°3 
per cent, is over 1500 feet elevation. The proportion is 
greatest in Scotland, with a total area of 19,069,674 acres, 
of which 2,642,529 acres, or 13:3 per cent, is over 1500 
feet. In Ireland, of a total area of 32,502 square miles, 
only 1672 square miles, or a little over 5 per cent, is 
above 1000 feet altitude. 

The division of the country into three distinct zones 
(Fig. 13) of vegetation, the nature of which has been 
discussed at length in the preceding pages, leads to certain 
conclusions of some economic interest. These may be thus 
summarised : 

1. In the upper zone, that of the moors, no cultivation 
of any kind is possible, or at any rate profitable. The land 
may be cheerfully resigned to the sportsman and the 
tourist. It gives in grouse, in deer, and in recreation a 
considerable return. 

2. In the middle zone, that of hill pasture, two in- 
dustries are possible—grazing and growing timber. Their 
interests need not clash. The shelter to adjoining pasture’ 
afforded by plantations is worth more to the grazier than the 
possession of the ground which the trees cover. Further- 
more, plantations may actually add to the grazing area. In 
larch and other conifer plantations on poor mountain land, 
which have reached 20 or 30 years old, there is often 
an undergrowth of grass, superior in quality to the scanty 
_ rough herbage outside. Sheep and cattle may be admitted 
into these plantations. This extra grazing and the pro- 


118 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


tection of the trees are equivalent to an increase in the 
acreage of the land on which stock can be kept during 
winter. At Achnacarry weak ewes are habitually wintered 
in Lochiel’s larch woods, with satisfactory results. The 
useless bracken areas can also be planted up. In short, the 
shepherd actually increases the numbers of his flock by 
surrendering part of the hill pasture land to the planter. 
An actual survey will readily demarcate the land in the 
hill pasture zone suitable for planting, and the land that is 
best fitted for grazing. The demarcation should be based 
entirely on economic lines. Areas on which there is no 
prospect of growing trees profitably should be left alone. 

It is scarcely necessary to point out that the combination 
of grassland and woodland utilises much better than graz- 
ing alone the hill pasture zone, and really diminishes the 
amount of waste land. Some attention is now being paid 
in England to the neglected agricultural problem—the 
improvement of the poor hill pasture. Various remedies 
are discussed in Board of Agriculture Leaflet, No. 275, but 
a most important measure, the provision of shelter by 
trees, is not mentioned. The agriculturist still looks upon 
the forester as an enemy or as a faddist. Concerning the 
mutual benefit and relationship between pasture and 
forestry, see the remarkable study, “ The Forest Survey of 
Glen Mor,” published in Trans. Roy. Scot. Arbor. Soc. vol. 
xicy) (1941): 

3. The agrarian or lower zone in great part is claimed 
by agriculture. The upland farmer profits largely by the 
establishment of woodland in the neighbouring hills. The 
timber and fuel which he needs are much diminished in 
price ; and when the time for felling arrives, the sawmills 
and woodworking industries that may be installed will 
enhance the value of his produce. As the shelter of the 
woods increases he extends his cultivation upwards, reclaim- 
ing, bit by bit and year by year, the lower and better 
portions of the hill pasture. 


CHAPTER, 1X 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS AND FOR 
GENERAL PLANTING 


Or equal importance with the selection of suitable situa- 
tions for planting is the proper choice of species. A great 
many kinds of trees have been tried in the British Isles; 
and so much information has been amassed concerning them 
that there is no difficulty in assigning to each species its 
exact value as a forest tree in this country. Some species 
are of especial value for shelter. Others are suitable for 
the formation of a protection zone at high altitudes. A few 
species, producing timber in a short period of years in great 
quantity and of good quality, are fitted to constitute the 
main crop. In any planting scheme regard must be paid to 
the varying requirements of each species on soil and situation. 

Conifers are chosen in the main for new plantations on 
account of the ease with which they can be planted, and 
because, as a rule, they yield large returns and can be 
grown on short rotations. Nevertheless, there is always 
room for valuable broad-leaved species. The ash, for 
example, should be planted in small groups on patches of 
good soil, such as occur in valleys and near streams. The 
importance of the beech must always be recognised, on 
account of the improvement of the soil which it effects by 
its great shade and abundant leaf-fall. It kills the grass, 
the great enemy to tree growth; and, mixed with main- 
crop trees, it stimulates their vigour and increases their 
production of timber. 

119 


120 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Extensive plantations of conifers are lable to wide- 
spreading attacks of fungi and insects, and to great damage 
from gales and fire. It is advisable, then, to interrupt the 
continuity of great areas of conifers by planting, at suitable 
distances, wide bands of broad-leaved trees. Beech is the 
most suitable species for this purpose ; but ash, sycamore, 
wych elm, alder, etc., may be added in varying proportions 
according to the nature of the soil. The influence of 
broad-leaved trees is manifold. Judiciously distributed in 
belts or in groups they act as wind-breaks; they are 
visited by birds which prey upon noxious insects; and the 
humus, due to their decaying leaves, brings health and 
vigour to the coniferous tracts. Broad-leaved trees may 
also be planted along the rides, rowan and grey alder being 
of use at high elevations. 

We are not limited in our choice of species to our few 
native trees. These are late immigrants from the Continent 
after the glacial epoch, and are by no means the trees that 
are most suitable to the climatic conditions of the present 
day, or that are most fit for producing, as quickly as 
possible, valuable timber. 

The Scots pine, our solitary native conifer of forest im- 
portance, was widely spread over the British Isles in the 
dry, warm, continental climate that prevailed at the begin- 
ning of the neolithic period ; but it has, with the advent of 
our present humid, cool climate, gradually disappeared from 
all parts of the country, except in the mountain massif of 
the Scottish Highlands. It is most suitable for districts 
characterised by a low annual rainfall and much sun in 
late summer and autumn, as in Speyside, Deeside, and Tay- 
side in the north, and in the sandy heaths of the south and 
east of England. In such districts it regenerates itself 
freely, and attains a great height, producing a satisfactory 
volume of timber of good quality. 

Fortunately we are not restricted to native trees. Dur- 
ing the eighteenth century, spruce, silver fir, and larch from 
the Continent began to be largely used in our plantations. 
The movement towards extensive use of exotic trees was 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 121 


accelerated by the discovery, in the early part of the nine- 
teenth century, of the trees of the Pacifie Coast region of 
North America, where, in a climate absolutely similar to 
our own, the highest and most valuable type of coniferous 
forest on the planet has been evolved. The Douglas fir, 
Sitka spruce, Abies nobilis and grandis, Thuya gigantea, 
Pinus insignis, and Cupressus macrocarpa are perhaps the 
most important trees from this region. From Asia we have 
introduced the Japanese larch. 

There are numerous other trees, which are occasionally 
used in our plantations, but scarcely any promise to be of 
real value. In fact, the pursuit of new species is over as 
regards commercial forestry. We have all the wild species 
that we need. It is different with regard to trees of hybrid 
origin. Remarkable fastness of growth, far surpassing that 
of wild species of the same genus, is shown by certain 
hybrids of the first generation, or so-called ‘first crosses.’ 
Amongst these may be mentioned black Italian poplar, 
cricket-bat willow, and London plane, all hybrid trees which 
originated as chance seedlings. Fast-growing hybrids of 
trees like ash, walnut, oak, etc., if they could be produced 
by artificial cross-pollination, would be invaluable; and 
efforts to make such hybrids have been attempted. One of 
the most interesting of these artificially made trees is a new 
hybrid poplar, Populus generosa, produced at Kew in 1912 
(see Gardeners’ Chronicle, lvi. p. 257 (1914)). As to the 
quality of the wood of these hybrid trees, I may quote from 
my article on “The Artificial Production of Vigorous 
Trees,” in Journ. Dept. of Agriculture, Ireland, xv. p. 42 
(1915): 

“Tt is a popular belief that fast-grown timber is neces- 
sarily soft and comparatively worthless. This is a fact in 
most conifers ; but in one class of broad-leaf trees, the wood 
of which is characterised by large pores in the inner part of 
the annual ring, the contrary is true, as the faster the timber 
of these trees is grown the stronger and denser it becomes. 
This class includes oak, ash, chestnut, hickory, and walnut, 
the species, in fact, that par excellence produce the most 


122 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


valuable timber. In countries like our own the only hope 
of salvation for forestry is In growing timber rapidly; and 
we have been helped in that by the introduction of fast- 
growing conifers like the larch, the Corsican pine, and the 
Douglas fir. But it is essential to grow the more valuable 
classes of non-coniferous timber. The difficulty of growing 
ordinary species of oak, ash, and walnut is the long period 
required for their maturity, which renders hopeless, except 
on the best soils, all chance of an adequate financial return. 
Without vigorous first-crosses, the most valuable classes of 
timbers can only be grown in limited quantity.” 

As we are largely dependent on exotic trees for the 
success of our plantations, the proper selection of seed is a 
matter of primary importance, The seed from which young 
trees are raised should be gathered from the best trees in 
the best localities. Species, if widely distributed, are not 
uniform over the whole territory which they inhabit, but 
consist of few or many distinct races, each confined to its 
own district. These races vary much in their qualities. 
It is well known how superior in vigour the Douglas fir, 
growing close to the Pacific coast, is to the same species 
growing in the mountains far inland. The larch at high 
altitudes in the Tyrol is inferior to the larch growing in 
the lower Swiss valleys. Seed from straight well-grown 
trees should always be selected, and that from suppressed 
or crooked-stemmed trees be avoided. Commercial seed is 
often collected from inferior trees; and the establishment 
of seed-collecting stations by the Forest Services of Canada 
and of the United States, in British Columbia, Washington, 
and Oregon, would be a great boon to sylviculture in this 
country. 

The principal forest trees will now be briefly considered, 
with special reference to their adaptability to different 
conditions of soil and situation. The conifers being the 
most important class for planting in water catchment areas 
will be first dealt with. 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 123 


CONIFERS 


Scots Pine.—As mentioned above, this is now the only 
native conifer used in planting. Wild forests of Scots pine 
exist in Inverness-shire and Perthshire, occupying the heaths, 
which are tracts of sandy or gravelly soil covered with a 
thin layer of peat and carrying a thick vegetation of 
heather. These forests and also plantations of Scots pine 
occasionally ascend up to 1800 feet elevation, but only in 
very sheltered localities, Originally planted in the south 
of England, Scots pine spreads itself naturally and freely 
over the heaths of the Bagshot Sands and Lower Greensand, 
and also sows itself on the heaths of East Anglia and 
North-east Yorkshire. Scots pine develops a deep tap-root, 
and in consequence should never be planted on shallow soil, 
on which its growth remains always stunted. At high 
elevations it is liable to snow-break. It is most suitable 
for pure sands, loamy sands and gravels of considerable 
depth, and should not be grown on rich soils, as it then 
produces wide-ringed soft timber of little value. It thrives 
on lowland peat, if this is drained; but on wild undrained 
peat soon ceases to grow, or remains a stunted, useless tree. 
As a main-crop tree it should be planted close and grown 
pure, and be thinned lightly only, as in this way the stems 
are readily cleaned, and the ground kept protected. Grown 
in mixture with other trees it is liable to be suppressed by 
faster-growing species, and such suppressed stems are of no 
value as thinnings; or if it holds its own, it retains its 
branches and produces coarse and knotty timber. Grown 
on sandy or gravelly soil at moderate elevations it pro- 
duces timber of excellent quality, the average yield in good 
situations being 70 cubic feet per annum. The follow- 
ing measurements were taken by Messrs. E. R. Burdon 
and A. P. Long: A plot of Scots pine, on good deep 
sandy loam at Woburn, 95 years old, with 176 trees to 
the acre averaging 88 feet high, contained 6391 cubic feet 
of timber (quarter girth measurement under bark), equiva- 
lent to an average annual increment of 67 cubic feet per 


124 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


acre. Another plot on poor but deep sandy soil, with some 
iron pan, on the Gaywood Estate, King’s Lynn, 91 years old, 
216 trees per acre, 65 feet high, contained 4733 cubic 
feet (quarter girth measurement under bark), equal to an 
average annual increment of 52 cubic feet per acre. 


Corsican Pine.—This species is a much more vigorous 
tree than Scots pine in most parts of the British Isles. On 
the sandy heaths of Surrey, Sussex, Hampshire, and Dorset 
it produces a considerably larger volume of timber, probably 
as much as 90 cubic feet per acre per annum, for the first 
forty years on the best sites. It grows freely in dry situa- 
tions and on soil containing lime, and even succeeds on clay. 
It bears drought well, thriving on a grassy hill with a south 
exposure in Somerset, where beech and larch had died. 
This is due to the thick layer of humus produced by the 
leaf-fall of this pine, which keeps the soil cool and moist. 
Having a deep root-system it is very storm-firm, and 
resisted better than any other conifer the gale of December 
1913, when over a million trees were blown down in 
Perthshire and Forfarshire. It bears the constant prevail- 
ing wind well, and on this account is valuable for planting 
in shelter belts near the sea and in hilly districts. Cor- 
sican pine succeeded better on sand-dunes at Holkham, 
Norfolk, than any other species, producing natural seedlings 
in great abundance, many of which are now as tall as the 
parent trees, attaining 30 to 35 feet in height in twenty 
years. The tree helps materially in defence against sea- 
erosion. See Quarterly Journal of Forestry, ii. 107 (1908). 
Corsican pine also proved much more successful than Scots 
pine on the sand-dunes at Culbin, Morayshire, “ owing to 
its adaptability for growing on sand and to its power of 
resisting wind.” See Zrans. Roy. Scot. Arbor. Soc. xxix. 
25 (1915). 

Plantations of Corsican pine on exposed sites in Wig- 
townshire and in Wales produce a considerable volume of 
timber, the height growth being about 50 feet at the end 
of forty years. On the Healey Estate, Northumberland, 


ee SA Ss 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 125 


a pure plantation, 50 years old in 1911, had 325 trees, 
50 to 60 feet in height, with a volume of 3790 cubic feet 
per acre, or an average annual increment of 76 cubic feet 
per acre (Quarterly Journal of Forestry, v. 350 (1911)). 
At high elevations this tree suffers little from snow, but is 
not so useful as the spruce. It is not usually injured by 
rabbits, and is remarkably free from insect and fungus 
attacks, the only recorded case of disease being an attack of 
Peziza, reported in Quarterly Journal of Forestry, vii. 287. 
It produces heartwood at a late period; but the timber of 
young trees, though all sapwood, is heavy, tough, and 
resinous, and can be used on estates for the same purposes 
as larch. Its wood is very durable, a vinery door made of 
it at Bayfordbury showing no signs of decay after exposure 
to the weather for twenty-two years. Its cylindrical and 
straight stems make it very suitable for pit-wood, and it 
was freely bought for this purpose near Swansea in 1905. 

A remarkable instance of the capacity of this pine for 
producing a large amount of timber on poor dry soil in 
Dorset is given in Trans. Roy. Scot. Arbor. Soc. xxiv. 46 
(1911). Here planted very close (only 14 feet apart), it 
kept the soil moist with a dense layer of humus, and far 
surpassed Scots pine in health and vigour. It succeeds 
remarkably well in the sandy tracts of Surrey. See Gardeners’ 
Chronicle, xliii. 406 (1908). The only objection to the 
extended use of this tree is the difficulty of moving it out 
of the nursery. To obviate this, the seedlings should be 
transplanted at one year old, and be moved every year till 
ready for planting out. 


Austrian Pine.—This is an inferior tree in all respects 
to the Corsican pine, and is of little value in plantations, 
the timber which it produces being coarse, rough, and 
knotty. It is used for shelter belts near the sea-coast and 
on windy exposed hillsides of chalk or limestone. 


Maritime Pine.—This species attains on sandy soil near 
Norwich, where it is mixed in old plantations with Scots 
pine, about the same volume per acre per annum as the 


126 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


latter tree; but its timber is inferior. It is entirely at 
home on warm sandy tracts near Bournemouth, where it 
reproduces itself freely, and attains a large size. Usually, 
however, it is inferior in growth to the Scots and Corsican 
pines. At Holkham, on the coast of Norfolk, it does 
not grow nearly so well on the sand-hills as the Corsican 
and Austrian pines. There is, however, a flourishing 
plantation (Fig. 20), 47 years old and nearly 200 acres in 
extent, on the sheltered side of a sand-hill on the sea-coast 
at Mullaghmore in Sligo. ‘This plantation has an average 
annual increment of about 60 cubic feet of timber per acre. 
At Abbeyleix this species has been cheaply established on 
a drained lowland peat-bog (Figs. 18 and 19) by sowing the 
seeds in situ. (see p. 19). It bears wind well in the 
milder parts of the kingdom, as on the west coast of 
Treland and on the south coast of England; but inland or 
at a considerable elevation the tree is usually a failure, the 
stems being curved and shortened by the wind. The use of 
the tree is distinctly limited to the afforestation of sand- 
dunes and of certain types of lowland bogs, where most of 
the peat has been removed for fuel. 


Pinus Montana.—This species, of which there are three 
main varieties, occurs naturally at high elevations in the 
Alps, Pyrenees, and other mountains of Central Europe. 
The dwarf form (var. pumilio) is a creeping shrub of no 
sylvicultural interest. The intermediate form (var. rostrata) 
is a small tree, not exceeding 30 feet in height, with several 
stems arising close to the ground, due to the rapid develop- 
ment of the side branches which turn upwards and grow at 
an equal pace with the leader. This form has been largely 
planted on the heaths and dunes of Jutland, where it has 
been found to improve remarkably the acid heath soil, and 
render it fit for the growth of other species. It is usually 
planted in the dunes pure at first; and afterwards common 
spruce is introduced, which without it could not be grown 
on this poor soil covered with heather. The upright form 
(var. wncinata) is an erect tree with a single undivided 


Fic. 18.—Maritime Pine, three years old, sown on bog at Abbeyleix. 


(From Country Life, 22nd April 1916.) 


Fic. 19.—Maritime Pine, five years old, sown on bog at Abbeyleix. 


(From Country Life, 22nd April 1916.) 


20) 


Kia. 


-Maritime Pine, forty-seven years old, at Mullaghmore, 


(From Country Life, 22nd April 1 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 127 


stem, attaining 30 to 70 feet in height, but slow in growth. 
It is extremely hardy, suffering little from snow, and occurs 
at high elevations on the poorest soil. Both these forms 
of Pinus montana grow better in wild, wet, undrained bog 
than any other species; but in such circumstances their 
growth is very slow. At Knockboy, Connemara, 490 acres 
of peat, at no great elevation, but fully exposed to the west 
wind, were planted in 1891-1894 with over two million 
trees, comprising 16 broad-leaved species and ten conifers. 
Practically none of these survive, except two species—Pinus 
montana, which has thriven over the whole area, but had 
attained only 6 feet in height in 1915, and maritime pine, 
of which there were a few groups about 20 feet high. 
Neither form can ever be expected to attain a useful 
size or be grown commercially in this country. It is 
possible, however, that Pinus montana may be of considerable 
value in the heather zone on exposed sites, in mixture 
with Sitka spruce, Corsican pine, or silver fir. It would 
greatly improve the peaty soil by its decaying leaves, 
producing good humus, which would favour the growth of 
the other species. Its dense foliage, persisting on the 
branches five to ten years, also protects the soil. It has 
been tried of late years on high moorland at Corrour in 
Inverness-shire; and reference may be made to articles by 
Sir John Stirling Maxwell in Zrans. Roy. Scot. Arbor. Soc. 
mG (90/), xxi. 1-15 (1908), xxi. 157 (1910), and 
xxviii. 77 (1914). See also Quarterly Journal of Forestry, 
x. 126 (1916). Pinus montana may also be used in 
mixture with other trees in shelter belts on wet peaty soils. 


Pinus Insignis, a native of Monterey in California, 
makes remarkably fast growth in the milder parts of 
England, Wales, Ireland, and south-west Scotland. This 
vigour, often an increase of three feet in height annually, is 
kept up on the poorest soils, provided the situation is a 
mild one near the sea-coast. In inland places the young 
shoots are often injured by frost; and in exposed cold 
situations trees may be killed outright during exceptionally 


128 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


severe seasons. In a plantation of this species formed at 
Muckross, near Killarney, in 1876, a considerable number 
of trees were killed in the very cold winter of 1908-1909. 
In the few plantations that have been made in these 
islands, the trees are extremely coarse and the quality of 
the timber very inferior; but the quantity produced is 
probably as much as 200 cubic feet per acre annually. 
Planted pure in close order, Pinus insignis would probably 
produce pit timber that would be highly remunerative in 
suitable localities. The main value of this species les, 
however, in its use for shelter near the sea, where it might 
give protection to valuable plantations of other trees. Its 
rapid growth and dense habit adapt it well for this purpose. 
In Cornwall it stands erect and uninjured in places where 
Cupressus macrocarpa is badly cut by the wind; and it 
much exceeds in height the maritime pine on the sea-coast. 
It is very successful as a wind-break in the most exposed 
localities in the Scilly Isles. The seedlings should be 
transplanted annually for the first two seasons, and be 
planted out in the third year. October is preferred for 
these operations in the Scilly Isles. Pinus insignis will 
succeed in poor, dry, and stony soils ; but is a failure in wet 
soils and in soils containing more than a very small per- 
centage of lime. For a shelter belt, a double or triple 
row, planted quincunx fashion, will usually be sufficient. 


Silver Fir.—The common silver fir, Abzes pectinata, is a 
native of Central Europe, and is the most important species 
of the genus for planting in this country. Abies grandis 
and Abies nobilis, natives of Western North America, are 
also worthy of notice, and will be spoken of later. 

The common silver fir produces an enormous quantity 
of timber, but is not ripe for felling at so early an age as 
larch, Scots pine, Sitka spruce, and Douglas fir. It is 
nevertheless an excellent main-crop tree, which has been 
much neglected in this country. On the Continent it 
inhabits the lower zone of the mountains where the rainfall 
is high, 60 to 80 inches annually, and the soil is fairly deep, 


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TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 129 


In the west of Scotland, Wales, south-west England, and 
Treland it is at home from sea-level up to 1000 or 1200 
feet elevation; and is adapted for the zone of hill pasture 
wherever the soil is moderately deep. It is not suited 
for the heather moor or heaths, where pine and larch are 
the successful species. Silver fir is a good wind-resister, 
and attains a greater height in the teeth of the wind, 
whether inland or close to the sea, than any other species. 
This great height-growth enables it to produce a large 
volume of timber in moderately exposed situations. Used 
as a shelter belt in wind-swept districts, it will protect 
other species planted in masses to leeward and greatly 
augment their production of timber. Shelter belts of silver 
fir mixed with beech would also greatly improve pasture 
lands in the west of Ireland, Wales, etc. 

In the young state silver fir is liable to spring frost, 
and on that account may occasionally require the protection 
of nurses in its early stage; and for this purpose hornbeam 
or birch may be used, planted either with the silver fir or 
one or two years previously. Silver fir may be planted 
pure or mixed with beech or spruce; and for many years 
should be kept dense on the ground in order to produce 
well-shaped clean stems. 

In Ireland silver fir scattered in mixed woods regener- 
ates itself very freely, as the seedlings spring up in great 
numbers amid the ordinary woodland herbs, and grow well 
in the partial shade. Shelter belts and plantations of 
silver fir mixed with beech, sycamore, and ash could always be 
naturally regenerated, and would often be very remunerative. 

The timber ordinarily produced by silver fir in this 
country has been rough, branched, and knotty, as it was 
usually thinned too early or mixed with unsuitable species 
like Scots pine. Grown in complete canopy, it produces 
an extraordinary volume of timber, only surpassed in this 
respect by Douglas fir and Sitka spruce. On favourable 
sites 100 to 120 cubic feet per acre per annum may be 
expected. Grown close the timber is narrow-ringed and 
of excellent quality. 

K 


130 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


On Deeside, according to Mr. Crozier, “the common 
silver fir, formerly one of the most reliable trees, is now 
hopelessly unreliable as a timber crop owing to its 
susceptibility to Chermes. Old trees are immune; but the 
difficulty of raising young stock is likely to lead to its 
extinction altogether as an economic species.” This 
difficulty exists elsewhere, but can be overcome. Young 
plants should be raised under shade in nurseries situated in 
woodlands, and when planted out ought to be always 
mixed with beech. In Wicklow natural seedlings of silver 
fir keep free from Chermes, while planted seedlings close 
by are liable to attack. The attack occurs not long after 
they are planted out, the period when their growth and 
vigour are checked by the act of transplantation. 


Abies grandis.—This is the fastest in growth of all the 
silver firs; and isolated trees in different parts of the 
British Isles often equal and sometimes excel the Douglas 
fir in vigour. Associated with this vigour is good health, 
as, unlike the common silver fir, it is not attacked by 
Chermes, and is not liable to injury from frost in the young 
stage. An acre of this tree in Sussex, which was planted 
in 1900, had attained in 1917 an average height of 35 
feet and a girth of 21 inches. The seedlings are easily 
reared, grow much faster than those of the common silver 
fir, and may be put out when three years old after being 
transplanted once. Abies grandis may be tried as a main- 
crop tree in localities where the common silver fir is 
difficult to establish on account of Chermes and late frosts. 
It is not known whether it will resist wind as well as the 
common silver fir, and it does not bear so much shade as 
the latter. 

The timber in western North America is little known 
commercially; but is probably better than any of the 
other American silver firs except Abies nobilis. It is 
white and soft, yet firm enough to be useful. 


Abies nobilis.—This species is a mountain tree in western 
North America, and differs from Abies grandis in its 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 131 


climatic requirements. It has not proved very successful 
as an isolated, ornamental tree in the milder parts of the 
British Isles, being prone to Chermes attacks, and often 
weakened by excessive production of cones. It is much 
more at home in the colder parts of Scotland, where it 
promises to be a valuable tree, as it is quite unhurt by the 
severest frost and is never injured by the heaviest snowfall. 
At Durris, Ardverikie, and Corrour, it is extremely hardy 
(Fig. 28) and resists wind better than any other conifer. 
Planted out on exposed sites, it has done well even on 
peaty soil. At Ardverikie it is the most vigorous of all 
the trees that have been planted there, enjoying immunity 
from fungus and insect attacks and producing natural 
seedlings in great abundance. Seedlings raised at Durris 
and Ardverikie from home-grown seed are very vigorous. 
It does not bear much shade, and fails where there is lime 
in the soil. In its own home it produces the most 
valuable timber of all the American silver firs, the wood 
being heavy, hard, and firm, and working easily and well. 
At Durris the wood is white and soft, but closer in the 
grain than that of Abies grandis. 

This species should be planted pure in the protection 
zone, when this is pushed high up in the heather moor. 
In this way in the west of Scotland it may be planted up 
to 1200 or 1300 feet, making a useful belt above the 
limit of the main-crop trees. It seems to be the most 
suitable species for use in an attempt to raise the timber- 
line on exposed sites on peat in the Highlands of Scotland 
and in the west of Ireland. Useful in this way at high 
altitudes it should never be planted at low elevations. At 
Craigo, near Montrose, not far from the coast at a low 
elevation a plantation of six acres of this species, 40 years 
old, shows only moderate growth, the trees ome about 
46 feet high by 4 feet in eirth, 


Douglas Fir.—This is perhaps the most valuable tree 
that has been introduced. It produces an enormous volume 
of excellent timber, and comes to maturity in a short term 


132 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


of years, being ready for felling at 50 to 60 years old, 
or even less. It is suitable for all parts of the country in 
selected sites. It suffers from the wind in exposed situations, 
and does not thrive in soils containing more than 2 per cent 
of lime or on wet soils. It grows well enough at high 
elevations, but only in shelter, succeeding in Wales in 
favoured spots up to 1250 feet elevation. On wet 
soils it is very liable to be thrown down by the wind. In 
the young stage it is lable to injury from frost, and is 
readily attacked by rabbits. These are its sole drawbacks. 
It is a splendid main-crop tree for sheltered situations 
either in the lowlands or high up in valleys in the hill 
pasture zone, where the soil is moderately deep and not too 
wet. It will grow fairly well on shallow soil, but then 
makes superficial roots and is liable to be blown down by 
the wind. It produces a fair amount of good seed in this 
country, and in many places, as in the New Forest, 
regenerates itself freely. At Dunster, Somerset, self-sown 
seedlings, up to 35 feet high, occur scattered about the 
estate. 

The yields from various plantations, published in the_ 
Journal of the Board of Agriculture, 1913-1914, may be 
summarised as follows, the volumes given being quarter- 
girth measurement over bark: 

Taymount plantation, Perthshire, 9°69 acres, 52 years 
planted; average height, 88 feet; volume, 6040 
cubie feet per acre; annual increment, 116 cubic 
feet per acre. (See Fig. 21.) 

Cochwillan plantation, Carnarvon, 0°42 acres, 58 years 
planted ; average height, 101 feet; volume, 12,040 
cubic feet per acre; annual increment, 208 cubic 
feet per acre. 

Llandinam plantation, Montgomery, 34 acres, 28 years 
planted; average height, 66 feet; volume, 5563 
cubic feet per acre; annual increment, 199 cubic 
feet per acre. 

Tortworth, Gloucester, 1:02 acres, 43 years planted; 
average height, 97 feet; volume, 7316 cubic feet 


Fic. 21.—Douglas Fir Plantation at Taymount: 


(From Gardeners’ Chronicle, 20th March 1915.) 


Fic. 22.—Plantation of Tsuga Alvertiana at Murthly. 


(From Transactions Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, vol. 27.) 


134 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


slender. The Zhuya also greatly improved the soil by its 
thick layer of decaying leaves. Natural seedlings of both 
species were very numerous and vigorous in open spaces. 
Partly blown down and _ partly felled, the plantation 
yielded, 36 years after planting, 7430 cubic feet (quarter- 
girth measurement under bark), or an average annual 
increment of over 200 cubic feet per acre. In wet climates, 
as at Benmore, where the rainfall is over 100 inches, this 
mixture of Douglas fir and Thuya gigantea may be tried 
with success. 

Douglas fir has so far been fairly free from insect or 
fungus attacks, but this immunity may not continue. As 
a precaution, extensive continuous plantations of this tree 
should be avoided; these should be interspersed with belts 
or clumps of beech. Douglas fir is of remarkable utility in 
what may be called interplanting, that is, filling up gaps 
in ordinary woods that happen to be thin and_ poorly 
stocked. It is also invaluable for converting coppice or 
coppice with standards into ordinary high forest, as it usually 
thrives on soils which carry coppice and in a short time 
suppresses by its vigorous growth the coppice shoots. 

Home-grown timber of Douglas fir ranks in quality 
between Scots pine and larch; but it surpasses both in 
dimensions, and is more valuable than either when properly 
grown in dense plantations. It is equally durable with 
larch, the proportion of heartwood at 50 years old being 
about 70 per cent. It converts well, keeping straight when 
long sizes are sawn; and if carefully stacked it dries 
quickly and is not liable to warp. It is somewhat lighter 
in weight than spruce. Home-grown timber has been 
used on the Scone estate for gates, doors, and fencing; and 
was sold for railway sleepers and pit timber. Grown on a 
long rotation, the timber will be found suitable for carpentry 
and joinery. 


Common Spruce.—In addition to the common spruce, 
Picea excelsa, which is a native of continental Europe, there 
are two other species of the genus of value to foresters, 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 135 


namely, the Sitka spruce, Picea sitchensis, and the white 
spruce, Picea alba, both natives of North America. 

The common spruce is one of our most valuable trees, 
but its cultivation in this country has seldom been properly 
carried out. It has often been planted in unsuitable 
mixtures upon low-lying land; and when grown pure has 
almost invariably been over-thinned. Its real use is to 
produce a large volume of timber per acre in hilly or 
mountainous districts, as it makes good growth at altitudes 
where Scots pine and larch fail. In other words, spruce 
is the main tree for the afforestation of the higher parts of 
the hill pasture zone. Spruce is a superficially rooting 
species, and grows upon the thinnest soil, provided there is 
sufficient moisture available during the growing season. 
At high elevations, where exposure to the wind and little 
depth of soil are the chief obstacles to the growth of trees, 
spruce will produce a considerable volume of timber. 

Spruce can be raised and planted out with great ease 
and at a cheap rate, and it is a very hardy tree. It 
endures much shade, and when grown in close order covers 
the ground speedily, improves the soil by its layer of decay- 
ing leaves, and in due time cleans its stem, and produces 
timber of excellent quality. Used as a nurse for trees like 
larch and pine, its branches persist indefinitely, and coarse 
timber with large knots is the result. It should be planted 
pure as a rule, though in some cases, as on cold clay soil, it 
may be mixed with hornbeam or on dry soils with beech. 

As evidence of the considerable yield of spruce at high 
elevations, some statistics are available in Journal of Board 
of Agriculture, xvii. pp. 265 and 353 (1910), and Sup- 
plement No. 9 (1912). <A shelter belt on the summit 
of Kerry Hill in Wales, fully exposed at 1525 feet eleva- 
tion, the soil being four inches of peat on yellow loam, had 
a volume of timber of 2880 to 3160 cubic feet (quarter- 
girth measurement) per acre, corresponding to an annual 
increment of 70 to 75 cubic feet per acre. At 1400 feet 
elevation with less exposure, the soil being shallow loam, a 
plot 43 years old had a volume of 3870 cubic feet 


136 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


per acre, corresponding to an annual increment of 90 cubic 
feet per acre. At 1020 feet elevation, in a sheltered 
situation on good damp soil, the volume of a plot 43 
years old amounted to 5610 cubic feet, or an annual 
increment of 130 cubic feet per acre. 

In the Coombe Plantation at Keswick isolated trees of 
spruce varied in height from 48 feet at 1450 feet elevation 
to 35 feet on very exposed ridges at 1520 feet at 60 
years old. Reckoning the average height of a plantation at 
1400 feet to be 45 feet at 60 years old, the yield would 
be 2470 cubic feet per acre, an increment of 40 cubic feet 
per annum. Such a yield would justify the planting of 
spruce at this elevation from a financial point of view. 

At Durris, in Scotland, spruce felled at 60 years old 
averaged 5600 cubic feet per acre in a plantation at 800 
feet elevation, equivalent to an average annual increment of 
over 90 cubic feet per acre. In the Kilworth plantation, 
County Cork, at 300 feet elevation on good alluvial soil, a 
plot of spruce, 78 years planted, measured about 12,000 
cubic feet per acre, corresponding to an annual increment 
of about 150 cubic feet per acre. These figures show the 
great yields of spruce under varying conditions of altitude. 
In hilly districts on suitable soil with moderate or slight 
exposure, spruce may be expected to yield 90 to 100 cubic 
feet per acre annually if grown in large areas in close order. 
At higher altitudes it will produce enough timber to pay 
for the expenses of planting; and below such high belts of 
spruce other plantations will flourish better on account of 
the protection afforded. 


Sitka Spruce.—This tree is so important for the affores- 
tation of the worst sites in our planting areas that some 
account of its occurrence in its native habitat will be of 
interest. It is a native of the Pacific Coast region from 
Alaska to Northern California, where it grows along the 
shore and inland for a few miles, ascending even in the far 
north to 2000 to 3000 feet altitude on mountain slopes 
exposed to the sea. It is unharmed either by the strong 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 137 


west wind or by the sea spray, and attains a gigantic size, 
rivalling in this respect the Douglas fir, which it almost 
equals in rapidity of growth. It grows on poorer and 
wetter soil than the latter tree. The timber is like white 
deal, is entirely without taste or odour, and is cut in 
Alaska and British Columbia for making butter-casks, 
packing-cases for fruit, wood-pulp, and pianos, as well as in 
ordinary house and boat building. Imported now under 
the name of silver spruce, its strength, stiffness, lightness, 
and elasticity make it the most suitable wood in aeroplane 
construction. The climate where it grows is similar to our 
own, described as “mild and uniform, with heavy rainfall, 
high humidity, and dense fogs; summers generally mild 
and winters not severe. The temperature drops to — 35° F. 
towards its northerly limit; while towards the south and 
along the coast light frosts occur and temperature falls to 
ZeTO.” 

Sitka spruce is extremely vigorous in growth, being only 
surpassed by the Douglas fir at all ages, and by the Japanese 
larch in the young stage. It is especially adapted for 
planting in difficult conditions of soil, where other species 
would be a failure. It grows well in wet ground, in acid 
peaty soil, in exposed situations, and at high altitudes. It 
is at home in the districts bordering on the western coast, 
where there is a heavy rainfall and a constant prevailing 
wind. It does not thrive on dry gravelly soils; but in 
general it is comparatively indifferent to soil, and makes 
excellent growth in all parts of the British Isles. It is the 
species that should be selected for planting in wet places in 
most plantations; and it should be used extensively at high 
altitudes in the heather moorland. The tree is excellent 
in form, making a beautiful straight stem (Fig. 26). The 
seedlings are slow in growth during the first two years, and 
require protection from frost. Transplanted at the beginning 
of the third year, they may be planted out when they have 
completed their third or fourth year. Larger plants, 3 to 4 
feet high, can be safely moved, and should be preferred in 
low-lying situations liable to frost. After the Sitka spruce 


138 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


is once established it gives no further trouble; it cleans its 
stem more rapidly than the common spruce, but, like it, 
must be kept dense if timber free from knots and narrow- 
ringed is desired. 

There are many enormous isolated trees of this species 
in parks and pleasure grounds, one of the finest being a tree 
at Murthly, which measured 125 feet in height and 134 
feet in girth in 1916, and is known not to exceed 70 
years of age. Old plantations of Sitka spruce are rare, the 
best known being that of Strathgyle, Durris. Here 80 
acres of exposed moorland, at 750 to 900 feet elevation, 
were planted in 1879. Larch and Scots pine failed com- 
pletely. Sitka spruce flourishes to the highest point, 
excelling the common spruce in height, and suppressing it 
in mixture. At 31 years old Sitka spruce in a pure 
part of this plantation averaged 50 feet in height, and was 
estimated to contain 6000 cubic feet of timber per acre, 
almost an annual increment of 200 cubic feet. In the 
west of Scotland, at Loch Ossian, it is growing well in 
young plantations at 1300 feet elevation under the worst 
conditions of soil and exposure, having been planted by the 
Belgian method, on inverted turfs. At Glenart, in County 
Wicklow, a plantation of larch and Sitka spruce, 43 
years old, at 300 feet elevation, is very thriving. Sitka 
spruce here averages 75 to 83 feet in height, with a girth 
of 5 to 6 feet. Splendid larch alongside it are much less 
in size, averaging 70 feet in height by 3 to 4 feet in girth. 
Scots pine is only 50 feet by 3 feet. 


White Spruce.—This species is of little value for pro- 
ducing a timber crop in this country, as under ordinary 
circumstances it is much inferior to common spruce. It 
has, however, been successfully used in the formation of 
shelter belts on exposed sites at high elevations in the 
north of England and in Scotland. It is absolutely hardy ; 
and at Ashgill Wood, in Northumberland, attained 30 feet 
in height at 1800 feet elevation on damp peaty ground, 
where common spruce failed to resist the cold winds. It 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 139 


is planted for shelter in wet bleak situations in Caithness, 
Aberdeenshire, the Moorfoot Hills of Midlothian and the 
Peeblesshire Hills. In Loudon’s time it was planted in Con- 
naught, where it throve in elevated positions much exposed 
to the wind. It can be raised in the nursery quite cheaply 
from seed, its treatment differing in no way from the common 
spruce. It may be tried in difficult situations, as on exposed 
ridges or in wet peaty soil at high elevations, when it is 
desired to give shelter to adjoining plantations below. It will 
ascend 200 feet higher than the limit of the common spruce. 


European Larch.—This species, when grown in suitable 
conditions and kept free from disease by measures calculated 
to sustain its vigorous development, is one of the most 
profitable trees. It has the especial merit of yielding 
earlier returns than any other species, as its thinnings are 
saleable from the 15th to the 20th year onwards; and 
plantations are ready for felling at the end of forty to sixty 
years. Heartwood is formed very early ; and the timber is 
remarkably durable and generally useful, as for gates and 
fencing on estates, for pitwood, poles of all kinds, and in 
building where strength is required. Grown properly, the 
larch develops a clean cylindrical stem, the slender branches 
being killed off before they form large knots. The larch 
combines high quality of timber with rapid growth, but 
nevertheless cannot be considered a very reliable species, 
as most plantations contain a considerable percentage of 
diseased and crooked stems. Being very light-demanding, 
the trees, as they advance towards maturity, do not stand 
dense upon the ground; and the yield of timber per acre is 
much less than that of spruce and silver fir, even when a 
plantation is quite successful. As a main-crop tree larch is 
unfortunately very liable to be attacked by canker, a disease 
caused by the Peziza fungus, which often ruins whole 
plantations. 

Larch rarely remains healthy if grown on unsuitable 
soil or in low-lying situations liable to spring frost. On 
dry shallow soils, as on chalk, it does not thrive, and early 


140 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


succumbs to heart-rot. It suffers much from exposure to 
wind, and cannot therefore be planted at such high eleva- 
tions as spruce. On Kerry Hill in Wales, and in Coombe 
Plantation, Keswick, spruce yields a fair amount of timber 
up to 1500 feet, while larch is useless above 1250 feet 
elevation. Larch should never be planted in wet ground, 
and when very wet spots occur in a plantation, larch should 
be replaced by Sitka spruce. 

Larch develops superficial roots and thrives on shallow 
soils provided they contain a good deal of moisture. It 
grows well, as a rule, on the slopes of hills, where the soil is 
porous and well-drained. While its use in afforestation 
is somewhat limited, yet there are generally extensive areas 
where its cultivation may be attempted with success. In 
the hill pasture zone it is adapted for planting in valleys, 
in ravines, and on sheltered hillsides; and it may be 
carried up into the heather moor, when the situation is not 
too exposed or too elevated. On sandy heaths, where Scots 
pine is at home, larch may be introduced wherever there 
is sufficient moisture ; but it is not so suitable for pure 
sand as the pine. 

Planted in mixture with other trees as a nurse, it can be 
early removed in the shape of thinnings, since even slender 
poles contain heartwood ; but this practice must be carried 
out with discretion, as there are mixtures in common use 
which are very unsuitable. 

Larch should never be planted pure, as this invites the 
attack of disease. Being a light-demanding tree, the soil is 
not improved by its sparse leaf-fall and feeble shade. To 
avert disease, vigour of growth must be fostered by improve- 
ment of the soil, which is brought about by mixing the 
larch with some shade-bearing tree. Beech is the best 
species for this purpose in most situations, though chestnut 
may be tried in mild climates on sandy soil, and hornbeam 
in cold localities on clay. Proper treatment is also necessary 
to keep off disease; and larch plantations must be thinned 
early, heavily, and often. This is necessary to remove sup- 
pressed and enfeebled trees suffering from lack of light, as 


vol. 


a 


October 1916.) 


UP 


a 


bs 


Beech at Ashridge Park. 


niet, 27, 


Sitka Spruce at Durris, Kincardineshire. 


6. 


N 


SS 
> 

> 
=) 


ul Scottish Arboricull 


S 
= 


(From 7'ransuet 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 141 


such are invariably attacked by the fungus. It is advisable 
also to raise larch seedlings in the home nursery; and thus 
avoid the chance of importing diseased plants from a distance. 

It is probable also that the choice of seed is of great 
importance, as bad seed produces feeble seedlings, which 
readily succumb to disease when planted out. The question 
of home-grown versus Swiss seed is not decided. The 
foreign seed shows, as a rule, higher germinating power, but 
this is probably due to more care having been taken in 
the gathering and cleaning of the seed. Scott-Elliot found 
Scottish seed to be lighter and smaller on an average than 
Swiss seed. If seed were gathered from the best Scottish 
trees, it might be as good or even surpass in quality the 
Swiss seed. One thing can be done, namely, to discard and 
burn all feeble seedlings, and only plant out strong, 
vigorous, and well-rooted plants. 

Selected plots of larch (Fig. 25) often show very heavy 
yields of timber. In the Galtee Mountains, Ireland, plots 
measured by Mr. Waddingham gave the following results 
(quarter-girth measurement) : 


S Aer Volume Average Annual 
“in Feet. Sage.» | Peso, |< eerie, 
600 34 3180 94 
700 44 3920 89 
480 53 4588 86 
400 53 4043 76 
400 55 4855 88 
1000 63 3861 61 


In the Forest of Dean, on good sandy loam at 700 feet, 
three plots of one acre each, 65 years old, gave yields 
of 4014, 4081, and 4893 cubic feet, being 61, 63, and 
76 cubic feet of annual increment per acre. At Madresfield 
a plantation 21 years old measured 2408 cubic feet, or an 
annual increment of 115 cubic feet per acre. 

A large grove of 24 acres at Walcot, Shropshire, which, 
judging from the rings, was 124 years old, had 86 


142 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


trees to the acre, 125 to 135 feet in height (the tallest on 
record in England), with a total volume of 6430 cubic feet 
(quarter-girth measurement), equivalent to an average annual 
increment of 52 cubic feet per acre. If the thinnings, which 
are unknown, were added, the total yield would be enormous. 
(See Quarterly Journal of Forestry, iii. 357 (1909).) 

No ordinary plantation would give a yield over its 
whole area comparable to those recorded above for selected 
plots. We can count, however, safely on yields of 40 to 
70 cubic feet per annum per acre in successful plantations. 


Japanese Larch.—This. species is remarkable for its 
extraordinary rapidity of growth when young. Owing to 
this excessive vigour, it resists the attacks of Peziza, which 
are most liable to occur between the fifth and fifteenth year. 
In fact, Japanese larch may be considered to be practically 
immune from canker disease. It is also, for the same 
reason, free from serious attacks of insects, ike Chermes, 
Coleophora, and Argyresthia, which injure the common 
larch. These great advantages, vigour of growth and 
freedom from disease, are counterbalanced by the fact that 
Japanese larch tends to grow crooked, and does not develop 
the beautiful cylindrical stems which characterise well- 
srown European larch. Plantations of Japanese larch in 
Scotland over twenty years old show coarse, curved, and 
crooked stems. The timber is also not so strong as that 
of the common species; and when young trees are cut for 
pitwood the props are not so valuable. 

Japanese larch bears considerably more shade than the 
European larch; and when planted four feet apart, it 
quickly covers the ground, killing the grass very soon and 
producing an excellent layer of humus. As the stems can 
be kept close together, this is one of the factors contributing 
to the great volume of timber produced during youth by 
this species. Japanese larch is also a very hardy tree, 
resisting spring frost better than the common species. It 
also grows fairly well in exposed situations, where European 
larch would fail completely. It makes, however, only 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 143 


feeble growth on dry soils, and was killed outright in dry 
situations generally by the great drought of 1911. 

One main use of Japanese larch in this country is to 
produce a crop of pit timber in a short term of years, say 
in 20 to 25 years after planting. Owing to its great 
vigour at the start it can also be used for planting difficult 
sites where other species fail, as, for example, land lable 
to be covered with a matted dense growth of grass, such as 
occurs in districts lying on the western seaboard of Scotland 
and in many parts of Ireland. It will succeed on poor 
shallow soil (Fig. 24) provided there is sufficient moisture. It 
has been recommended for planting areas overrun with furze 
and bracken; but such land if not in too exposed a situation 
will, as a rule, support other species yielding better timber. 

Japanese larch may be used as a main-crop tree in 
localities where pitwood is readily saleable; and is, of 
course, a substitute for European larch in parts of the 
country where the latter suffers severely from canker. 
It may be looked upon as a catch-crop tree, to be planted 
with the idea of getting a speedy return from an area 
difficult to afforest. Land on which Japanese larch had 
been grown for a short rotation of 20 to 30 years would 
be in excellent condition for the planting of another species 
destined for growing valuable timber on a long rotation. 

The growth of Japanese larch seems to be little affected 
by the nature of the soil, provided it contains sufficient 
moisture. The growth in height, while extremely rapid in 
youth, later drops off very considerably. The average 
attained by plantations in this country is about 32 feet 
at 16 years old from seed, 55 feet at 32 years old, and 
65 feet at 37 years old. In young plantations the volume 
comprises much branch wood of little value. The average 
annual increment of plantations 32 years old may be reckoned 
at 100 to 120 cubic feet of timber per acre. 


Western Larch (Larix occidentalis)—This is the finest 
of all the larches, attaining in Western Montana and the 
adjacent districts of Idaho (Fig. 23) and British Columbia 


144 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


a height of 160 feet and a girth of 15 feet, and yielding 
timber of magnificent quality. Introduced by seed for 
the first time in 1903 by Elwes, followed up by larger 
supplies in 1908 (consequent on the visit of the writer to 
Montana in 1906), this larch is now being extensively 
tried both in this country and on the Continent. A few 
older trees, introduced as living plants in 1881 and 1889, 
have thriven well in the poor sandy soil of the pinetum at 
Kew ; and during dry years are conspicuous amongst other 
species by their freedom from Chermes and their extremely 
healthy dark-green foliage. This tree would seem, then, to 
be best suited for a dry and continental climate. A small 
plantation of western larch in the Queen’s Cottage grounds 
at Kew is healthy; but the trees, until 1917, were slow in 
growth, showing less vigour than European larch. In 1918 
they made vigorous leading shoots of 2 to 3 feet in length, 
in all probability due to the grass having been entirely 
killed by brambles in the preceding year. Possibly they 
will ultimately overtake European larch in height-growth 
in the sandy soil and comparatively dry climate of Kew. 


Hemlock Spruce.—The Western Hemlock Spruce (7'suga 
Albertiana) is one of the great trees in the Pacific Coast 
forests of North America, ranking in vigour of growth after 
Douglas fir and Sitka spruce. It is a successful ornamental 
tree in this country, attaining in favourable conditions about 
80 feet in height in 40 to 50 years; but it has seldom 
been used in plantations. It has given good results at 
Novar when used in underplanting larch. 

As a forest tree it bears great shade and develops 
a straight cylindrical stem, on which the dead branches 
persist in the same way as they do on silver fir or spruce; 
and it must be grown in close order if clean stems are 
desired. The wood is of about the same value as spruce. 
It reproduces itself naturally in all parts of this country ; 
and can be cheaply raised from home-grown seed. Seedlings 
in the nursery require to be shaded from the sun’s rays and 
protected against frost; transplanted at the end of the 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 145 


second year, they can be planted out when three or four 
years old (Fig. 22). Tsuga Albertiana grows well on 
most soils, except on chalk and stiff clay. It is at home in 
a mild climate, and will not bear great exposure. It suffers, 
however, less from wind than Douglas fir. There is little 
inducement to attempt its cultivation as a main-crop tree ; 
but it may be planted as a soil-improving species in 
company with larch; and it can be used to fill up blank 
spots in open woods, as it bears a considerable amount of 
lateral shade. 


Thuya gigantea.—This species is widely spread in western 
North America, where it is usually found growing isolated 
or in small groups amidst other species, mostly in moist 
valleys and along water courses, and attaining its largest 
size in Vancouver Island and the adjacent coast of the 
mainland in a humid climate. It is very vigorous in growth, 
but inferior in this respect to Douglas fir and Sitka spruce. 
It is an intense shade-bearer, rapidly covering the ground ; 
and cleans its stem with the greatest difficulty, the branches 
persisting till late in the life of the tree. The wood is light, 
strong, and very durable. 

Thuya gigantea has been much recommended for planting 
in this country, and has considerable merits. It is for so 
far a very healthy tree, free from insect and fungus attacks. 
It may be cheaply raised from home-grown seed, and can be 
planted out with the greatest ease. It is most suitable for 
damp and peaty soils in humid climates; and has succeeded 
remarkably well on the Benmore estate, Argyllshire, where 
it is mainly grown (Fig. 30) in mixture with Douglas fir, 
and regenerates itself freely from self-sown seed. It grows 
also fairly well on shallow oolite and chalky soils. It can 
be planted pure, or in mixture with Douglas fir, larch, or 
Sitka spruce. The main objection to extensive use of the 
Thuya is that clean timber cannot be expected from it, 
unless it is grown on a very long rotation. It will ordin- 
arily produce knotty poles, which are, however, very durable 
and useful for many purposes, as for pitwood, fencing, 

L 


146 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


building, ete. It will scarcely yield sawn timber of any 
value. 

It suffers from exposure to constant wind, and this limits 
its use to moderate altitudes, where it is especially useful 
for shelter on the margins of plantations (Fig. 31). At 
Monreith, Wigtownshire, it was killed on low-lying exposed 
ground by a late frost in the year after it was planted out. 
It is very suitable for underplanting larch that has lost its 
vigour and begun to suffer from disease. As a main-crop 
tree, its use will be limited to western localities, where the 
rainfall is heavy and the exposure not too great. 


Lawson Cypress.—This species is remarkable for its free- 
dom from injury from frost, insects, or fungi. It is very 
cheaply raised from seed, and is readily transplanted. It 
bears exposure to wind better than Thuya gigantea, but is 
considerably slower in growth. Like that species, it is an 
intense shade-bearer, and cleans its stem only after a long 
term of years. The timber of old trees in Oregon is re- 
markably good, but such cannot be produced here on 
rotations that would yield any profit. Its use, then, in 
afforestation in this country must be extremely limited. It 
grows well on peaty soils, and might be occasionally tried 
in patches in plantations in the wettest districts, or in 
underplanting. 


Cupressus macrocarpa.— This species occurs wild at 
Monterey on the coast of California, in the same limited 
district as Pinus insignis, and like that species is character- 
ised by great vigour. It grows fast, and is perfectly hardy 
in the milder parts of this country, as in the south and 
south-west of England, in Wales, on the western seaboard 
of Scotland, and in the maritime counties of Ireland 
(Fig. 29). It produces in a short period of years an im- 
mense volume of timber. Being a dense shade-bearer, 
Cupressus macrocarpa does not ordinarily clean its stem, as 
when grown pure the branches persist indefinitely, even 
when the trees stand close together. Mixed with beech the 
branches could be much sooner killed off, and more valuable 


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TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 147 


timber would be produced. The wood of isolated branchy 
trees is heavy, hard, strong, and very durable; and, though 
very knotty, has proved suitable for fencing, for building, 
and for pitwood. In New Zealand, a plantation of this 
species “has yielded posts and telephone poles of the most 
perfect type and durability,” and a similar use might be 
found for trees grown in plantations in this country. 

As a main-crop tree, Cupressus macrocarpa is strictly 
limited to localities near the sea, at a low elevation and in 
a mild climate. It appears to be indifferent to soil, growing 
vigorously even on poor shallow soil overlying chalk in 
Sussex. The seedlings are easy to raise, and may be planted 
out when a year old in situations where the surface vegeta- 
tion is slight, or as two- or three-year-old seedlings, where 
a dense growth of grass is expected. This species is suit- 
able for introduction in groups to fill up blanks in wood- 
lands near the sea. Its use as a shelter belt and for hedges 
is well known. It is useless to attempt the cultivation of 
this tree in situations exposed to cold winds or to spring 
frosts. 


BrROAD-LEAVED TREES 


Beech.—The importance of the beech in forestry cannot 
be over-estimated. It flourishes in most soils, except peat 
and wet clay; and produces, when grown in woods by itself, 
a large volume of timber per acre. As it bears much shade, 
the stems stand close together, and the dense canopy of the 
foliage covers the ground, so that evaporation is checked 
and moisture in the soil retained, while the grass is killed. 
Its heavy fall of leaves produces by their decay an abun- 
dant, mild, and fertile humus. Beech thus greatly improves 
the soil ; and is accordingly mixed with other trees, especially 
with species requiring much light like ash, oak, and larch, 
which are unable to protect the soil once they are past the 
young stage of growth. These valuable trees, when grown 
amongst beech, develop tall, straight, cylindrical stems, free 
from branches and knots in their lower half, the timber 


148 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


produced being increased in quantity and improved in 
quality by the admixture. Beech also resists wind well, 
and when mixed with other trees renders the crop wind- 
firm. It is also valuable in shelter belts. 

Masses of pure conifers, as of spruce, silver fir, larch, 
Douglas fir, etc., are liable to be attacked by fungi and 
insects ; and it is of great benefit to intersperse amidst these 
uniform forests, bands and groups of beech and other broad- 
leaved trees, which will intercept the spread of spores by 
the foliage, and check insects by harbouring birds. In this 
way, suitable spots for ash, oak, sycamore, and elm, mingled 
with beech, may be found throughout the conifer planta- 
tions. 

Natural woods of beech occur in the Chiltern Hills and 
in the North and South Downs on the chalk, and in the 
Cotswolds on oolitic limestone. Here beech is found 
thriving on shallow soil, the rock below being often covered 
with only a few inches of humus. The productivity of the 
Chiltern beech woods is well known. These are worked on 
the selection system, a section of a wood being taken in 
hand each year, and from it the largest stems are extracted 
by felling. On the spots from which the trees have been 
removed, there springs up an abundance of seedling beech, 
so that natural regeneration is readily effected, and no ex- 
pense is incurred in the establishment of a young crop by 
planting. Areas occur in which beech is pure, but it is 
often mixed with scattered ash, whitebeam, and cherry, the 
latter being often abundant, and occasionally large in size. 
Beech, after it has passed the young pole stage, should not 
be kept too dense upon the ground, as with complete canopy 
the leaves are slow in decomposing, and produce, especially 
on non-calcareous soil, an acid humus. The ground remains 
bare of vegetation or else becomes covered with moss, Aira 
fleauosa, and Melampyrum, plants indicative of impoverished 
soil; and the beech ceases to grow vigorously, while natural 
regeneration is impossible under these conditions. With a 
slightly open canopy, the leaves decay quickly, producing 
an alkaline or neutral humus; and the soil is decked with 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 149 


flowering plants, like Anemone, Oxalis, Circaea, and Asperula, 
with woodland grasses, like Miliwm and Melica, and with 
oak fern. The beech then grows vigorously, developing 
tall stems (Fig. 27), and regenerates freely. 

Beech is tender to frost when young; and seedlings may 
often be raised with advantage under the protection of light- 
foliaged trees, like birch, ash, or oak. It should not be 
planted in low-lying frosty situations, unless under the cover 
of an advance growth of birch. It will grow up to a con- 
siderable altitude in the mountains, but becomes stunted in 
height and ceases to produce timber in quantity. It is 
accordingly not of much value as a main-crop tree in planta- 
tions in the hill pasture zone. Below this zone, beech 
should be grown pure on poor calcareous soil, on which no 
other tree will thrive. On other soils, as explained above, 
it should be grown largely to form a matrix for valuable 
timber trees, like ash, oak, elm, sycamore, and larch. Most 
of these trees may be scattered amidst the beech, singly or 
in very small groups; but oak is better planted amidst 
beech in large groups. 


Ash.—The common ash is perhaps our most valuable 
broad-leaved tree. It produces a strong, tough, elastic, light 
wood, which is essential to our industries, and cannot be 
replaced by any imported substitute. It grows fast, and 
is ready for felling at an early age, the timber being always 
saleable at a good price. For these reasons, ash ought to be 
more extensively cultivated; but there are difficulties in 
the successful planting of this species which can only be 
overcome by a thorough understanding of its peculiar re- 
quirements. It can rarely be grown in a wood by itself. 
Pure plantations of ash on a considerable scale are often 
attempted, but do not seem ever to be successful. Once it 
has passed the young stage, ash requires much light and 
space. Under the scanty cover of its sparse foliage, the soil 
deteriorates, losing its moisture and often becoming clothed 
with dense grass, which seriously checks the growth of the 
trees in height and diameter. Ash scarcely flourishes unless 


150 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


it is grown singly or in groups amidst other trees, which 
are capable of killing the undergrowth of grass and of keep- 
ing the soil moist and covered with good humus. In other 
words, ash must be grown in a matrix of trees slower 
in growth, which protect the soil. A suitable species for 
this purpose is hazel, which is not injured by the shade of 
the ash. A small plantation of mixed ash and hazel made 
on fairly good soil at Westwick, Norfolk, in 1906, has 
grown splendidly. The ash had in 1918 an average height 
of 36 feet, with a girth of 14 inches, while the hazel 
beneath was about 6 to 8 feet high. 

Ash also requires for its proper development a soil rich 
in mineral constituents and at the same time full of moisture ; 
but the water must not be stagnant. It is, in fact, one of 
the most exacting of our forest trees, as it only thrives on 
moist deep soil, preferably light and loamy, and containing 
lime. 

In England there are natural woods, in which ash is the 
predominant tree, mixed with oak, wych elm, hazel, haw- 
thorn, etc., on the limestone hills of Yorkshire, Derbyshire, 
Westmorland, and Somerset, and on the chalk in Devon, 
Dorset, and Isle of Wight; but the trees are small in size 
and poor in quality, except where there is much moisture 
in the soil. These woods ascend to 1000 or even 1250 
feet elevation in the Pennines, 

Ash tends to spread naturally and oust other trees 
wherever the soil is either calcareous or contains a good 
deal of moisture. It regenerates itself freely by self-sown 
seed throughout the British Isles. Under natural condi- 
tions the finest ash would grow in deep alluvial soil in river 
valleys, but in this country such land has long since been 
monopolised by agriculture, and does not now carry forests. 
In the limestone districts of England, Scotland, and Ireland 
there are many spots with fairly deep, moist, and well- 
drained soil, on which would grow fine groves of ash, but 
most of such sites are probably taken up by the farmer or 
grazier. On thin, chalky soils, as in the Lincolnshire 
wolds, beech succeeds well in situations unsuitable for 


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TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 151 


agriculture, and often produces fine crops of timber. 
Here ash mixed in small quantities amidst the beech 
forms very remunerative thinnings in the middle part 
of the life of the wood, and in all cases should be felled at 
from 60 to 80 years old, for if left longer it becomes unsound. 

In the preliminary survey of large areas for planting, 
situations suitable for ash should be specially looked for. 
These will be found along water courses on the slopes of 
hills, on the sides of ravines where the water percolates 
through from the ground above, and in the valleys on the 
deep soil not far from the banks of the streams. On such 
sites, ash should be freely planted, mingled with other trees, 
like beech, larch, elm, sycamore, and oak. 

Ash should never be planted on poor, dry, or shallow 
soils. It does not thrive on pure sand, on gravel, on dry 
chalk, on stiff clay, or on wet peat. At high altitudes and 
on unsuitable soils it remains small in size, and usually 
decays at an early age, producing timber of little value. 
It becomes black-hearted under such circumstances before 
it reaches fifty or sixty years old. 

Ash is injured when young by late spring frosts in low- 
lying situations, and here requires nurses for its protection. 
The terminal bud is often destroyed, and forked growth 
results. No tree suffers more from rabbits than ash; 
and the cultivation of this species is impossible where 
rabbits are numerous, unless stringent measures are 
adopted to kill these pests and keep them out of the 
plantations. 

Ash should be regularly thinned in order to give the 
best trees the requisite amount of light and space. Such 
thinnings are generally saleable, as young ash provides 
useful wood. Felling may take place when the trees are 
60 to 80 years old or earlier; and if gradually carried 
out, the old stand may be replaced by the seedlings 
which have usually sprung up, and natural regeneration 
be easily effected. In other words, when a group of ash 
is felled, planting is rarely necessary, as the self-sown 
seedlings can be utilised to form the new crop. 


152 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


As ash trees approaching maturity stand far apart, the 
volume of timber per acre is small when compared with the 
yield of shade-bearing trees. Few actual measurements of 
well-stocked stands of ash have been made in this country ; 
but it is the yield from thinnings that helps to make the 
returns satisfactory. It is doubtful if the annual increment 
of the volume of ash timber—final crop and thinnings being 
added together—ever exceeds in England over 30 to 40 
cubic feet (quarter-girth measurement). Stands of white 
ash in the United States average at 70 years old, per 
acre, on first quality soils, 5600 cubic feet of timber over 
3 inches in diameter, or an average annual increment of 
80 cubic feet (quarter-girth measurement) per acre. The 
plots which gave these results were, however, fully-stocked 
natural stands on alluvial land, much superior to any soil 
on which ash would be planted in England. Though the 
volume in England is small, it must be remembered that there 
is no wood in which there is less waste than ash, as even 
the earliest thinnings can be used. The faster ash is grown, 
the better is the quality of the timber ; hence the importance 
of selecting for this species the best sites in any planting 
area. 


Oak.—As is well known, there are two distinct species 
of native oak, different in their habitats and in their sylvi- 
cultural requirements. The pedunculate oak needs for its 
proper development great depth of soil, associated with 
a large content of water; while the sessile oak is satisfied 
with a shallower soil containing a lesser supply of water. 
The pedunculate oak originally covered with forests the 
clays, loams, and deep sands of the southern and midland 
counties of England, and is now dominant in the coppice- 
with-standards woods which prevail in these counties. The 
original pedunculate oak forests in the alluvial tracts along 
the great rivers disappeared at an early period. The sessile 
oak is now met with in Wales, in the south-west and north 
of England, in Scotland and Ireland, where it thrives on the 
thin soils which rest on the palaeozoic and igneous rocks. 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 153 


It is more a tree of the hills than the other species, 
ascending in the Pennines to 1000 feet. It grows fairly 
well on sandy and gravelly soils at moderate elevations. 
Oak is a deep-rooting species, which makes poor growth 
on shallow soils. It succeeds best in good loam and in deep 
alluvial ground. It will grow on stiff clays, but not at 
a fast rate. It bears inundation well. Requiring con- 
siderable warmth, oak becomes stunted at high elevations, 
and succeeds better on southern than on northern aspects. 
Oak, once it has passed the young stage, needs much 
space and light, and its rate of growth on all but the best 
and deepest soils is slow. It is late in forming heartwood, 
and its thinnings are of little value. The tree takes many 
years to mature; and when it is ripe for felling, usually in 
this country at 100 to 120 years, there are comparatively 
few stems to the acre. It can readily be seen that its 
cultivation holds out little inducement to private land- 
owners, as the money return of an oak plantation is usually 
less than 2 per cent and payable to one’s heirs. Oak 
should nevertheless be planted in suitable situations by the 
State and by Municipalities, who are bound to provide for 
the future needs of the community. No wood can replace 
that of oak. It is indispensable, as it combines every good 
quality, strength, size, durability, and lightness in an un- 
common degree. In lowland districts, where the soil is 
deep enough, plantations in which oak forms a considerable 
percentage are advisable on land set apart for afforestation. 
It should never be planted pure, on account of its inability 
to protect the soil once it has reached the pole stage. A 
mixed wood of oak and beech, the latter in a proportion 
varying from 10 to 30 per cent, will, it is well known, 
produce a considerably greater volume of timber than if 
the oak were grown by itself. Larch may also be used as 
a nurse on account of its early thinnings, and on good oak 
soil the mixture of oak, beech, and larch will be successful. 
On clay soil, oak and hornbeam can be tried. English 
elm, chestnut, and ash may also be planted in suitable 
spots in any plantation, of which the main components are 


154 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


oak, larch, and beech. Oak is also a valuable tree in 
coppice with standards. 

Of the species of oak which have been introduced into 
this country, the common evergreen oak (Quercus Ilex) is of 
no value in ordinary plantations, but is useful in wind 
screens by the sea. The Turkey oak (Quercus Cerris) grows 
faster in England than the common oak, especially on sandy 
soils ; but its cultivation, except in shelter belts, cannot be 
recommended, as the timber which it produces is of little 
value. The American red oak (Quercus rubra) is also fast 
in growth on deep sandy soils in the south of England, and 
is worth introducing into the heaths of Surrey and Sussex, 
where it could be grown in groups amidst the Scots pines. 
The wood is strong and elastic, and of considerable value, 
but is not very durable when used out of doors, 


Alder.—The common alder (Alaus glutinosa) is a native 
species, useful in wet situations, either as a large tree or 
for forming remunerative coppice. It bears more water 
in the soil than almost any other European tree; and is 
usually met with either pure, or mixed with willows, near 
streams, rivers, and lakes, on alluvial soil, the surface of 
which is only a few inches above the level of the ground 
water. Such land, if it can be drained a little, will bear 
good ash. Alder thrives in marshy or fenny land, in which 
the contained water is alkaline and rich in lime and other 
salts; but it does not succeed in wild undrained peat bog, 
full of water, poor in mineral salts, and acid in reaction. 
Alder on good soil bears a considerable amount of shade, 
and may be introduced into wet places in low-lying planta- 
tions. At high elevations wet spots, if possible, should be 
drained and planted with spruce, or else be left alone. 

Alder may be used as a nurse for other trees in damp 
low-lying areas, subject to spring frosts. It grows rapidly 
in the young stage, and protects conifers like spruce and 
silver fir, which are slow-growing at first and liable to 
injury from frost in such situations. The alder is cut out 
gradually, as soon as the spruce or silver fir increases rapidly 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 155 


in height growth and gets above the frost zone. Alder has 
one great advantage in that it is scarcely ever attacked by 
rabbits, and may be planted without the expense of wire 
netting. It has been found useful in planting pit-mounds, 
slag-heaps, etc.; and this illustrates the fact that alder, while 
most successful in wet soils, is not confined to that situation, 
as it grows even in chalk. 

The wood of alder is at the present time of little im- 
portance ; but it is still used for making clog-soles, backs of 
brushes, mop and rake handles, inferior cigar boxes, hat blocks, 
etc. Itis very durable under water, and may be used for piles. 


Grey Alder.—The grey or white alder (Alnus incana) 
is not a native of Britain, but is widely spread on the 
continent, attaining its largest size, about 70 feet in height, 
in Sweden. It is considerably hardier than the common 
alder, and is remarkable for its vigorous growth in youth 
and its indifference to the nature of the soil. It grows 
on gravel and on cold clay, and flourishes in the frostiest 
localities. It is used in the Swiss Alps for preliminary 
planting in difficult situations at high altitudes, where as 
soon as it has formed canopy, it is underplanted with beech 
or silver fir, which are destined to be the final crop. It 
may be used for a similar purpose in this country, especi- 
ally for killing grass in low-lying frosty situations. When 
this is effected, the grey alder may be heavily thinned, and 
common spruce or Sitka spruce be planted under the 
protection of the trees that are left. Grey alder can 
also be used in planting pit-mounds, gravelly borders of 
streams, disused quarries, etc. As a permanent crop, it is 
best treated as coppice on a long rotation, of about 
30 years. Grey alder has been used with great success 
in the planting of pit-mounds in Belgium and France, but 
has not done quite so well as the common alder on the 
mounds in Staffordshire. Here it is, however, making good 
fertilising nodules on its roots, and is expected ultimately 
to thrive well. See Martineau, in British Association Report, 
Newcastle-on-Tyne, 1916, p. 494. 


156 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Sycamore.—The sycamore or great maple is a native of 
the mountains of Central Europe, and is an extremely hardy 
tree. It never suffers from frost, and bears wind, whether 
close to the sea or inland, better than most broad-leaved 
trees. Quercus Ilex, however, resists the sea breeze better 
in Norfolk. Sycamore is rarely injured by insects or fungi, 
and is not attacked by rabbits in most districts. It re- 
generates itself freely from seed. It bears moderate shade 
when young, but once it has passed the pole stage, requires 
considerable light and space, and becomes unable to protect 
the soil. Hence it is scarcely ever found growing pure in 
masses, but occurs scattered amidst other trees in conti- 
nental forests. It needs a good loam for its best develop- 
ment, making poor growth on sand, gravel, or heavy clay. 
It is rather partial to limestone soils. Examples of remark- 
able growth of sycamore scattered amidst conifer plantations 
on oolite limestone in the Cotswolds are given in Quarterly 
Journal of Forestry, iii. 281 (1909); in one plantation, 
25 years old, sycamore averaged 40 feet high and 19 inches 
in girth, as compared with beech, 38 feet high and 103 
inches in girth. It can be planted higher up in the 
mountains than beech, and is well adapted for growing in 
groups or in bands amidst the conifer masses, acting as a 
wind-break. It is very rarely blown down by gales, and is 
of considerable use in shelter belts. It should be grown in 
plantations wherever there are patches of loamy soil too dry 
for ash. Here, mixed with beech, it would develop a tall 
straight stem, free from branches or knots for a considerable 
height above the ground. Such’stems, when clean and of 
a large size, are of great value as rollers in cotton mills. 
The wood of the sycamore is also used for furniture, wood 
ware, etc.; and the cultivation of this tree should be 
encouraged. 


Norway Maple.—This species is more widely spread 
throughout Europe in the wild state than the sycamore, 
occurring far north in Scandinavia and Finland, and south- 
wards in the Pyrenees and Caucasus. It is like the syca- 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 157 


more in its sylvicultural requirements, being equally hardy 
and wind-resisting ; but it is satisfied with a poorer soil, and 
succeeds better in wet situations. Norway maple grows 
fast when young, but later slackens in growth and seldom 
attains a large size. There is little room for it in ordinary 
plantations, but it may be used along rides, and in shelter 
belts, especially near the sea. It is very ornamental and 
is well adapted for planting in the streets of towns. 


Hornbeam.—This species occurs in woods in Essex, 
Kent, and Herts, where it is often, pure or mixed with oak, 
dominant on clay and loamy soils. As a rule it is a tree 
of small size, and only suitable for coppice. It is very 
hardy, not being affected by spring or autumn frosts, and 
grows fairly well on cold clay soils. It bears shade and 
improves the soil in a similar manner to the beech; and in 
situations unfavourable to the latter species, may be substi- 
tuted for it. It can be used, for example, for planting with 
other trees as a nurse, in cold low-lying situations and on 
heavy clay soils. It may also be used for underplanting 
where beech would fail. The wood makes excellent fuel, 
but its other uses are of a minor character. 


Chestnut.—The sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa), a native 
of the Mediterranean region, is limited for use as a forest 
tree in this country to mild districts. It grows best in the 
southern and midland counties of England, in Wales, and in 
the maritime counties of the south-east of Ireland. It re- 
sists wind very badly, and becomes stunted in height when 
grown in exposed situations. In wet soils, in soils contain- 
ing more than a small percentage of lime, on stiff clays, or 
in frosty localities, it never thrives. Chestnut grows re- 
markably fast on deep sandy soils, especially those contain- 
ing some loam; and succeeds on sandy gravels and on 
clayey loams, provided they have sufficient depth. In the 
south of England it flourishes on sandy soils that are too 
dry for larch, but when sandy soil contains a fair amount 
of moisture, a mixture of larch and chestnut usually does 
well. The great advantage of chestnut is its production of 


158 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


a large volume of excellent timber on a short rotation. 
The wood, moreover, is useful in all stages of the growth of 
the tree, so that thinnings are valuable. Chestnut coppice 
is also very productive. The wood is nearly equal to that 
of oak in strength and durability, heartwood being formed 
very early, while the proportion of sapwood is very 
small. It is extremely useful for fencing, building, furni- 
ture, etc. 

In suitable soils and situations, the production of timber 
by this species is very great. At Witley, Worcestershire, a 
plantation 67 years old was 78 feet in height and yielded 
3800 cubic feet (quarter-girth measurement) of timber per 
acre, equivalent to an average annual increment of 56 cubic 
feet per acre. At Highnam, Gloucester, a plantation 60 
years old attained 73 feet in height and contained 3262 
eubie feet per acre, equal to an average annual increment 
of 55 cubic feet per acre. 

Old trees, when felled, are often found to be affected 
with ringshake, which makes the timber useless, except for 
fuel. This defect is generally ascribed to unsuitable soil or 
long rotation; but is really due to the occurrence, during the 
life of the tree, of an exceptionally severe winter, when, 
with a great fall in temperature, the tissue inside the cam- 
bium layer of the stem becomes frozen, resulting in a 
rupture which shows itself later as ringshake. Sound old 
chestnut is common in the milder parts of Ireland. At 
Westwick, Norfolk, ringshaken chestnut, 70 years old, when 
felled, showed by a count of the rings on the stump that 
the main shake occurred in the winter 1879-1880, noted 
for its very low temperature for a lengthened period. Ona 
pond near this tree, skating was carried on from the preced- 
ing Christmas till 19th March 1880. In one butt there 
was an additional but slighter shake in 1874-1875, a very 
severe winter; while in another, the additional shake coin- 
cided with 1854-1855, when great frost occurred. This 
liability to shake in severe winters makes chestnut an un- 
reliable timber tree in the north and in all inland districts. 
In any case, it should not be allowed to stand too long. 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 159 


As a main crop it is ripe for felling at 60 years old; and 
coppice of it is cut every 15 years. 

Chestnut has a very limited use in afforestation, as it 
can only be grown commercially in favoured spots. It can 
rarely be planted in the hills; and is quite unsuitable for 
low damp places or for situations that are exposed to wind. 

Chestnut bears shade when young; but after 30 years 
requires much light and space. It may, however, be grown 
as a pure crop on suitable sites ; but the stems stand far apart, 
scarcely exceeding 60 to 100 per acre on good soil at 60 years 
old. It is suitable for mixture with ash or larch, if the soil 
suits these species. In such mixtures, the chestnut can be 
cut over and kept as coppice, amongst which the ash and 
larch will grow well as standards. In other cases, the larch 
may be removed as thinnings, and the chestnut allowed to 
remain. In Quarterly Journal of Forestry, vi. 20 (1912), 
there is a description of a very successful plantation of 
larch and chestnut on heavy loam in Gloucestershire; the 
trees were planted 6 feet apart, the two species being in 
alternate rows. 


Elm.—None of the species of elm as a rule form pure 
woods, but are almost invariably in the wild state scattered 
singly or in small groups in the broad-leaved forests. Of 
the various species in this country, practically only the 
wych elm is found naturally in woods. The other kinds 
are seen in hedgerows, parks, or avenues; and if, as is 
probable, they also are native, the original forests in which 
they grew have long since disappeared, giving place to farm 
land. All the elms bear shade in youth, but later they re- 
quire considerable light and space. They need a soil of 
at least moderate fertility and depth, and there must be 
sufficient moisture. Elms are quite unsuitable for very dry 
soils, such as dry sand, stiff clay, or thin chalk. The 
various elms have marked differences in their climatic re- 
quirements, which will be pointed out in the following brief 
account of each species. None, however, ascend to a great 
elevation, and elms are not grown above the agrarian zone. 


160 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Nevertheless, their extended cultivation is of considerable 
importance, as they supply a useful wood, always in demand 
for local purposes, and should be introduced into suitable 
spots in lowland plantations. 

1. Wych elm (Ulmus montana) occurs wild all over 
Great Britain and Ireland, being a constant companion in 
woods of sessile oak on siliceous soils and of ash on lime- 
stone soils. It is much less exacting in its demands on 
soil and climate than the other species, ascending to a con- 
siderable height in the mountains, up to 1000 feet in the 
Pennines. It is very hardy, bears wind and exposure well, 
and never suffers from spring frosts. Wych elm requires 
much light and space, forming, when still young, a large 
crown with wide-spreading branches, and is difficult to 
grow in plantations on that account. It can, however, be 
planted with beech in patches in woods in hilly districts 
and in shelter belts which are alongside conifer plantations. 
It is the only elm that will thrive in the exposed and colder 
parts of Ireland, and in most districts of Scotland and the 
north of England. It is easily raised from seed which 
ripens in most years. 

2. English elm (Ulmus campestris) is a native of 
southern England, growing in hedgerows, where it repro- 
duces itself only by suckers, as fertile seeds are never borne 
by the tree in this country. It is common in the Thames 
valley, and southward to the Isle of Wight, westward to 
Devon, and northward in the basin of the Severn to 
Hereford, Worcester, and Warwick. Elsewhere in Britain 
and Ireland it is unknown except as a planted tree, being 
replaced in Cornwall by the Cornish elm. On the continent 
of Europe it occurs only in Spain. It requires for its de- 
velopment a warm climate and unexposed position ; and in 
northern England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland never 
thrives except in sheltered favoured spots. It is unsuitable 
for elevated land in any part of the country. 

Its main value is for planting in hedges around pasture 
land in the southern and midland counties of England, as 
it does little injury to grass, and produces a considerable 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 161 


volume of timber, which is always in local demand. The 
wood differs from that of the other elms in its dark- 
red heartwood, and is of especial value for making coffins, 
boxes, furniture, etc.; and is of service also, like wych elm, 
for hubs and felloes of wheels, in boat-building, and for uses 
under water. 

The English elm is rarely planted in woods, probably 
on account of the difficulty of procuring it, as seedlings are 
unknown and grafted trees are objectionable. Suckers, 
however, can be dug up wherever large trees occur, and be 
used for planting when oak and other broad-leaved planta- 
tions are being established. It grows very fast in the 
south of England, and a sprinkling of it in such plantations 
would be advantageous. In the Forest of Dean, a mixed 
oak and larch plantation, aged 59 years, in which there 
were a few English elms, showed the following average 
measurements: larch, 59 feet high, +1 inches girth at 
breast height; English elm, 54 feet high, 37 inches girth; 
and oak, 40 feet high, 20 inches girth. These comparative 
measurements show the remarkably fast growth of English 
elm in good woodland soil. 

3. Smooth-leaved elm (Ulmus nitens). This species is 
common in France, Germany, Austria, etc., where it is 
found wild, mixed with common (pedunculate) oak, in the 
forests bordering on the great rivers. Seedlings of it are 
imported from French nurseries under the name U/mus 
campestris, but are totally different from the English elm. 
Smooth-leaved elm is wide-spreading in habit, and on that 
account is often called “wych elm” erroneously in southern 
and eastern England, especially in localities where the true 
Ulmus montana is rare or absent. Smooth-leaved elm may 
be planted in woods, similarly to the English elm, but will 
not produce as good timber or grow as fast as the latter in 
southern England. 

4. Cornish elm (Ulmus stricta). This is a form of the 
smooth-leaved elm, with smaller, firmer leaves and an 
upright habit, which is confined to Cornwall and Devon. 
It succeeds better than the English elm on poor and 

M 


162 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


shallow soils, and is remarkably resistant to wind. It is, 
however, slow in growth under these circumstances, pro- 
ducing a remarkably tough wood. Cornish elm is suitable 
for planting in shelter belts near the sea, and may be 
introduced into broad-leaved woods in Wales, Ireland, and 
the west of Scotland. 

5. Dutch elm (Ulmus major). The origin of this tree is 
obscure. It is now widely spread in hedgerows in England 
from Cornwall to Yorkshire. It produces suckers freely, 
but the seed is absolutely unfertile. This elm grows fairly 
well in clay soil, and produces a soft wood, which is readily 
worked by the carpenter, and is used for purposes where 
strength is not required. 

6. Huntingdon elm (Ulmus vegeta). This elm is of 
hybrid origin, and is remarkably fast in growth. So far as 
I know, it has never been planted as a woodland tree; but 
it deserves a trial in plantations at low elevations, where, 
mixed with beech in small groups, it would probably 
develop a tall, straight, clean stem. Planted in the open, it 
tends to be wide-spreading in habit. 


Bireh.—The birch, being a light-demanding tree with 
very sparse foliage, does not improve the soil to any con- 
siderable degree ; and its production of timber per acre is 
meagre, Nevertheless its use in forestry is not un- 
important, as it is our hardiest tree, capable of growing in 
the poorest soils, and reproducing itself with the greatest 
ease. Natural woods of birch occur at higher elevation 
than those of any other species, ascending in some Highland 
glens to 2000 feet. In the Pennines, birch forms woods 
up to 1250 feet, and scrub as high as 1500 feet elevation. 
The ground vegetation in such wood or scrub differs little 
from that of the adjoining hill pasture or moorland ; and 
may consist of wiry grasses, heather, and bilberry, or be 
wet moor with peat plants. Birch thus occupies parts of 
the hill pasture and heather moor zones; and would doubt- 
less spread over much more extensive areas, but that it is 
kept down by grazing, as sheep destroy the seedling trees. 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 163 


Natural birch woods as a rule contain little timber. Those 
in Glen Mor were estimated to produce when felled only 
10 tons of wood per acre, and half a ton of twigs, the 
latter being used for burning the surface scale from steel 
plates in foundries. 

The value of birch woods lies in the protection which 
they may afford to plantations of conifers, lying alongside 
them at a lower level. With the aid of birch, it would be 
possible perhaps to raise the timber line 200 to 300 feet 
higher in many mountainous districts in the British Isles. 
Any natural scrub or wood of birch in the vicinity of a 
high-lying conifer plantation should be enclosed, and be 
carefully preserved as a shelter belt. Birch might also be 
sown freely over wide bands of ground immediately above 
the sites of contemplated plantations at high elevations, in 
cases where the ground could be prepared for the seed 
cheaply and be enclosed at a trifling cost. 

Birch is also very useful as a nurse tree, in frosty 
localities and in exposed situations, where damage to young 
conifers is to be feared; and it may be planted in advance 
for this purpose. Thickets of self-sown birch thinned out 
to five or six feet apart will serve as nurses for spruce 
seedlings, as the latter species usually succeeds in places 
where birch is able to regenerate itself freely. Birch 
can be very cheaply planted by the slitting method. 
In plantations on good sites and favourable situations, 
birch is a weed, and should be eliminated as soon as 
possible, 

There are two distinct species of birch, differing in their 
demand on moisture in the soil; and it is a great mistake 
to plant them indiscriminately. (1) Silver birch (Betula 
verrucosa), with glabrous twigs, pendulous branches, and 
very white bark, is the faster-growing and larger tree of the 
two species. It succeeds in a dry climate, and thrives best 
on a moderately moist soil, and will not grow on marshy 
ground or in an undrained peat-moss. It succeeds on chalk, 
where the other species remains stunted or dies. This 
species occurs in Strathspey, Deeside, and Tayside, which is 


164 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


a distinct geographical area characterised by wild forests of 
Scots pine and of Betula verrucosa. 

(2) Red birch (Betula pubescens), with hairy twigs and 
spreading or ascending branches, is found on wetter soils 
and in moister climates than the silver birch, and is the 
prevailing species in Ireland and the west of Scotland. It 
is a more rigid tree, of less size, and with a darker bark. 
It will grow on marshy ground and wet peat, but of course . 
under such circumstances is only a small tree. 

Birch is useful for temporary fencing, and lasts a long 
time when creosoted. It is also valuable for pitwood, 
furniture, bobbins, spools, ete. 


Poplar.—Of the numerous kinds of poplar, those of 
interest to the forester are grey poplar, aspen, and black 
Italian poplar. 

1. Black Italian poplar (Populus serotina) is of hybrid 
origin, being the result of a cross between the European 
Populus nigra and the American Populus deltoidea, two 
wild species. Black Italian poplar is always propagated 
by cuttings or sets, and bears male flowers. It is the latest 
of all the poplars in coming into leaf. Its hybrid origin 
accounts for its astonishing vigour, Grown in the open, it 
produces a larger volume of timber and comes to maturity 
earlier than any other broad-leaved tree in this country. 
In good situations, it reaches 100 to 120 feet in height 
in 50 or 60 years, a single stem often containing 100 
cubic feet of timber at that age. It grows freely in 
most soils, and is extremely hardy, resisting frosts at all 
seasons. Except in sheltered positions, it suffers from wind 
in Ireland and on the western seaboard of Scotland and 
Wales ; but in England and in the other parts of Scotland and 
Wales it bears a fair amount of exposure. The main value 
of the tree lies in its capacity for growth in situations and 
soils where ordinary trees fail. It succeeds in cold, wet, 
and undrained valleys and meadows; and thrives even on 
wet clay, provided the stagnant water is drained off. It 
grows well on shallow bogland and on gravelly soils. 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 165 


With all these merits, there are difficulties in the 
cultivation of black Italian poplar as a forest tree in 
plantations, whether pure or mixed. Like all poplars, it is 
unable, after the first few years, to bear the slightest shade, 
the whole crown of foliage requiring full light; and each 
stem in consequence needs a large space for its proper 
development. Mixed with other species in a wood, black 
Italian poplar ultimately occupies an enormous area, over- 
topping and injuring the neighbouring trees. It is useless 
to plant it with other species, unless the latter is to 
constitute an underwood. It has been suggested to plant 
poplars 15 to 20 feet apart, and to fill up the intervals 
with alders; but the latter would make poor growth in 
this mixture unless the soil were good and deep. In a 
pure plantation of black Italian poplar, only the outer trees 
that are fully exposed to the light make large dimensions, 
the interior trees remaining small in diameter and of little 
use as timber. This might be obviated by severe thinnings ; 
but these would be of no saleable value, and the number of 
stems left standing would be so reduced as to yield only a 
moderate volume per acre. Large plantations of poplar are 
rarely seen in this country, and actual measurements are 
still rarer. At Benefield, Northamptonshire, 324 acres of 
strong clay land, practically useless for agriculture, were 
planted in 1887 with black Italian poplar, 538 to the acre. 
In 1916 there were 206 trees per acre surviving, which 
when felled averaged 45 feet of timber length and 24 
inches girth at breast height, the total volume being 1300 
cubic feet (quarter-girth measurement) per acre, or an 
average annual increment of 45 cubic feet per acre. 

Plantations of black Italian poplar contain a much 
smaller volume of timber than is generally expected; and 
in land where any of the vigorous conifers, such as Sitka 
spruce, Japanese larch, ete., can be grown, cultivation of 
poplars would be a failure financially. Black Italian poplar 
should be restricted to situations where it is impossible to 
establish conifer plantations; and in such cases the best 
method is a combination of meadow or pasture with poplars 


166 | FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


planted 15 to 20 feet apart, in single or double lines, 
around small fields. The crop of grass or hay is not per- 
ceptibly diminished; and a large volume of timber of 
considerable size and value results from the growth of the 
trees thus isolated. 

The wood of the black Italian poplar is tough and light, 
resisting wear well. It is in demand for special purposes, 
as for brake and slipper blocks, and for polishing plate-glass 
in the course of its manufacture. It is used for beds of 
waggons and carts and for packing-cases. Being uninflam- 
mable to a considerable degree, it is suitable for flooring in 
factories and other buildings. It is now utilised in the 
making of plywood. When well seasoned it is capable of a 
fine polish, and is useful for making cheap furniture. 

There are several other hybrid poplars which have not 
yet been extensively planted in this country. The best 
of these are: (1) Eucalyptus poplar (Populus regenerata, 
Fig. 52), similar in foliage to the black Italian poplar, but 
bearing female flowers. (2) Populus Hugenei, narrower in 
the crown than black Italian poplar ; it makes rapid growth 
on sandy soil at Kew (Fig. 33). (3) Populus robusta, with 
a very narrow crown, thriving at Glasnevin. This promises 
to resist wind better than the other poplars. The history 
and description of these poplars is fully given by the writer 
in Gardeners Chronicle, lv. pp. 1, 46, 66 (1914), and in 
Trans. Roy. Scot. Arbor. Soc. xxx. pp. 14-27 (1916). 

2. Grey poplar (Populus canescens). This tree is not so 
fast in growth as black Italian poplar; but it produces a 
better quality of timber, light in weight and very strong, 
useful for carriage building. This poplar is very hardy and 
may be planted along water courses and in frosty meadows. 
It is not suitable for plantations, but makes a splendid 
standard in coppice on stiff clay soil. White poplar 
(Populus alba) is more sensitive to wind and frost than grey 
poplar, and does not attain so large a size in England. In 
most situations grey poplar is to be preferred as being the 
more vigorous tree. 


" 


3. Aspen (Populus tremula). The aspen is a native tree 


“ 

: 
+44 
@ 
a 


fe 


Fic. 30.—Thuya gigantea Plantation at Benmore. 


(From Gardeners’ Chronicle, 20th March 1915.) 


Fie. 31.—Thuya gigantea as shelter tree on plantation margin. 


(From Transactions Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, vol. 28.) 


| 


Fic. 32.—Populus regenerata at Glasnevin. 


(From Transactions Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, vol. 30.) 


Fic. 33.—Populus Eugenei at Kew. 
}. Y 


(From Transactions Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, vol, 30.) 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 167 


of small size, ascending in the Highlands of Scotland to the 
upper limit of trees, in Braemar to 1600 feet. It propa- 
gates itself freely by suckers, and is absolutely hardy. In 
very exposed situations it becomes a stunted bush. It 
grows on drier soils than other poplars, but produces in 
such conditions only a very small amount of timber. 
Aspen may be tried on absolutely waste ground at high 
elevations, where there is not much exposure; but it is 
doubtful if it would repay the expense of planting. In 
Sweden, on the best forest soil, pure aspen woods produce, 
at 50 years old, 2240 cubic feet (quarter-girth measure- 
ment) per acre, or an average annual increment of 44 cubic 
feet per acre, the stems averaging 8 inches in diameter. Of 
the total volume of wood at this age and size, about 40 per 
cent is suitable for making matches. See Meddel. Frdn 
Statens Skogsforsoksanstalt, 1917, pp. 1205-1219. 


Willow.—Three species and a hybrid are of interest to 
foresters : 

1. Sallow or goat willow (Salix caprea). This is a small 
tree, rarely exceeding 30 feet in height and 1 foot in 
diameter, common in woods and waste places. It is often 
met with as natural seedlings in plantations, where it is 
looked upon as a weed and is speedily removed in thinnings. 
Sallow has been used for fixing loose and shifting soil on 
river embankments. The wood is useful for hurdles and 
fencing. 

2, 3. White willow (Salia alba) and crack willow (Salix 
fragilis). These two species grow to a large size, and occur 
on the banks of rivers, streams, and lakes, being rare in the 
interior of woods and forests. They require much light 
and space, being similar in this respect to the poplars. 
They do not thrive at high elevations, and refuse to grow 
in acid peaty soil. They are useful for reclaiming and 
holding the soil along streams, and can be planted in marshy 
ground, which they help to drain. White willow grows 
well near the sea, and may be employed for making cheap 
shelter belts. Like all the willows, it is readily propagated 


168 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


by cuttings, and the expense is slight. The wood of both 
white willow and crack willow is tough, and indents with- 
out splintering from blows or hard usage. It can be used 
for brakes, carts, hurdles, roofing, and flooring. 

4. Cricket-bat willow or blue willow (Salix coerulea). 
This is a hybrid between Salix fragilis and Salix alba, 
occurring only in the female sex, and invariably propagated 
by sets or cuttings. It is grown in the eastern counties of 
England, mainly in Essex, Hertford, Suffolk, Norfolk, and 
Cambridgeshire. Remarkably fast in growth, it produces a 
wide-ringed timber, light in weight and of great elasticity, 
which is used for making cricket bats, and sells at a high 
price. Trees often attain, in thirteen to fifteen years after 
planting, 40 to 50 feet in height and 13 to 15 inches in 
diameter. Cricket-bat willow should be planted only in 
good sites, such as rich alluvial lands by the side of a 
running stream, or fertile loam where there is a good supply 
of moisture. Ground of any kind sodden with stagnant 
water, and clay, gravel, and peat soils are quite unsuitable. 
Large sets, 6 to 10 feet long, should be used for planting. 
As this willow requires much light and space, and the 
object is to produce as quickly as possible a short stem, 
clear of branches for about 12 to 15 feet, the part utilisable 
by the bat-maker, a good crown of foliage must be preserved 
from the start, and the trees should be planted wide apart, 
the distance between them being not less than 30 feet. A 
full account of the cultivation of this tree was given by the 
writer in TZrees of Great Britain and Ireland, vii. 1763- 
1769 (1913), of which an abstract by A. P. Long was 
published in Journ. Board of Agriculture, xxi. 289 (1914). 


Black Walnut (Juglans nigra).—tIt has been proposed to 
grow this American species in our woods, as the timber is 
very valuable, and splendid single trees are known to occur 
in many parks in the south of England. The tree is, how- 
ever, exacting as regards soil and climate. It is sensitive 
to frost when young, but afterwards becomes perfectly 
hardy. It requires for its good development a considerable 


TREES FOR WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 169 


amount of warmth, and is intolerant of shade, the foliage 
being so thin that it seldom prevents the growth of grass 
underneath. It might be tried in warm sheltered spots in 
the south of England, Wales, and south-eastern Ireland, 
either grown as a standard over coppice on good soil, or 
introduced in small groups in deciduous woods on alluvial 
soil or rich loam. Im raising seedlings, only nuts of 
American origin should be used ; and as young plants are 
difficult to transplant, on account of their long tap-roots, it 
is better to sow the nuts in situ. See Quarterly Jowrnal of 
Forestry, ii. pp. 138 and 167 (1908); vii. pp. 28, 32, and 
225 (1913); and ix. p. 67-(1915), 


Robinia Pseudacacia.—This American species, popularly 
but erroneously called ‘acacia, grows to a large size in 
parks in southern England. Its cultivation as a forest tree 
in woods has been urged on account of the excellence of its 
timber ; but successful plantations of Robinia are rare or 
non-existent. The tree requires much light and space 
during its whole life, and when overshadowed rapidly loses 
vigour and declines. It carries a thin crown of foliage, 
which is unable to suppress the grass beneath. It is easily 
broken by wind, and suffers much in any exposed situation. 
It is tender to spring and autumn frosts, and requires con- 
siderable warmth in summer for its proper development. 
Against these demerits may be set the inducement that it 
thrives in poor sandy soils, provided these are deep. It, 
however, only attains a large size on deep sandy loam. It 
may be tried as a standard in coppice in the southern 
counties of England ; but probably the best way of cultivat- 
ing Robinia would be to plant it scattered as solitary trees 
in birch woods on sandy heaths. Shelter would thus be 
provided against the wind, while there would be enough 
sunlight for it to develop. Amidst birch Robinia cleans its 
stem perfectly, being often free from branches up to 30 feet 
in fairly deep soil. It might also be introduced into chest- 
nut plantations on sandy soil. It is easily raised from seed, 
and young plants should be transplanted when a year old, 


170 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


and be planted out at the end of the second or third season. 
The timber is valuable when of small dimensions, as heart- 
wood is formed very early ; and on this account the rotation 
may be short, and the trees be felled when 30 or 40 years 
old. The wood is very strong, and is valued for spokes of 
motor wheels. It is easily riven, and when used for posts, 
stakes, and sills, is much more durable than oak in contact 
with the soil. It is now employed in the United States for 
trenails used in fastening planks to sides of ships. Robinia 
suckers freely from the root, and its natural regeneration by 
this means is easy on sandy soil, when rabbits are excluded. 
See Quarterly Journal of Forestry, ii. p. 301 (1908). 


NOTE 


On page 145 Thuya gigantea is said to be free from fungus attacks, 
While these sheets were passing through the press, Dr. G. H. Pethybridge, 
in Quarterly Journal of Forestry, xii. pp. 93-97 (April 1919), has described 
a severe attack of the fungus, Keithia thujina, which recently killed outright 
numerous three-year-old seedlings of Thuya gigantea in a forest nursery in 
(Queen’s County, Ireland. 

Sir E. G. Loder has just written to me (June 1919) that a fine plantation 
of 17,000 trees of this species at Leonardslee, Sussex, have been severely 
affected by this fungus, trees even fifteen feet high being apparently doomed. 


CHAPTER X 
WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN ENGLAND AND WALES 


THE information given in the following pages is the result 
of queries addressed during 1917 and the present year to 
the town clerks and water engineers of the cities and towns 
which derive their water supply from catchment areas. 
Various publications have been consulted, especially the 
Parliamentary Return as to Water Undertakings in England 
and Wales, 1915, which states on p. xxxi: “ Many under- 
takers rely upon water collected in reservoirs from the 
surface of uncultivated land, and such sources have been 
described in the returns as ‘upland surfaces,’ ‘ gathering 
grounds, or ‘drainage areas. In some cases it is not 
possible to differentiate between supplies derived from up- 
land surfaces and from rivers, streams, lakes, and springs ; 
but it would appear, that 136 local authorities, 11 joint 
authorities, and 20 companies depend upon gathering grounds 
for the whole or part of their supplies.” A summary of the 
figures given in the following pages shows that 127 local 
authorities and 14 companies in England and Wales obtain 
their water supply from 591,356 acres of gathering grounds, 
of which 140,305 acres are owned by 63 local authorities 
and 1 water company. Owing to the stress of war time 
it has not been possible to make the information now given 
as complete as it should be, but the water catchment areas 
that are omitted in the present account are of little import- 
ance. It may be mentioned here that gathering grounds 
are not confined, as is implied in the statement of the 
171 


172 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Parliamentary Return, to uncultivated ground; on the con- 
trary, a good many consist of arable land, with dwelling- 
houses and farm steadings. 


I, CUMBERLAND AND WESTMORLAND 


Ten local authorities obtain their water supply from 
gathering grounds aggregating 49,959 acres in these two 
counties. Four corporations own 11,484 acres, of which 
no less than 11,000 acres belong to Manchester. No plant- 
ing has been done by any of the local authorities except 
Manchester. Mr. J. Smith Hill writes that “the water 
catchment areas in the Lake District could be afforested to 
a certain extent. There are existing plantations here and 
there on the hill slopes to the various lakes; but the land 
is generally owned by many proprietors, and would be trouble- 
some to acquire on account of the sheep industry. There 
are often rights of pasturage, called ‘stints, on the fells 
attached to each farm lower down, so that afforestation on 
an extensive scale would be a difficult matter, as the rights 
would have to be bought out, and there would be many 
people to deal with. The purchase of Thirlmere, where 
there was only one owner, was very costly to Manchester.” 


Thirlmere catchment area of 11,000 acres, owned by 
Manchester Corporation, with a good afforestation scheme, 
is fully described on pp. 95-98. 


Carlisle obtains its water supply from Geltsdale, an area 
of 7000 acres, of which 4000 acres are above 1500 feet 
elevation, 1500 acres between 1250 and 1500 feet, 1000 
acres between 1000 and 1250 feet, and 500 acres under 
1000 feet. The area, which is all grazing land, is not 
owned by the Corporation, and no scheme for planting trees 
has been contemplated. 


Aspatria, Silloth, and District Joint Water Board obtain 
their supply from an area of 2251 acres at 620 to 2000 
feet altitude, in the parishes of Ireby High, Ireby Low, and 
Uldale, at the head waters of the river Ellen, on the north 


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174 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


side of Skiddaw, with an intake at Chapelhouse. The area, 
which consists of bare sheep-runs, does not belong to the 

Board, who have only rights of diverting and impounding 
water. 


Workington, which gives a supply in bulk to Cocker- 
mouth, obtains its water from Crummock Lake, with a catch- 
ment area of 16,000 acres, situated between 323 and 2791 
feet elevation, of which the Town Council own only 307 
acres. The watershed is mostly mountain or moorland of a 
rocky nature, with very few buildings and little arable land. 
On the lower part of the watershed, from which compensa- 
tion water is taken, there are more farmsteads and arable 
land. Close to the lake there are no buildings, and practic- 
ally no contamination occurs, as is proved by chemical and 
bacteriological examination. The water is not filtered, but 
is simply passed through copper screens at the intake. 


Whitehaven obtains its water supply from Ennerdale 
Lake, with a catchment area of 10,000 acres, situated be- 
tween 369 and 2900 feet elevation, and comprising 480 
acres of arable land (including 380 acres of meadow and 
pasture), 9420 acres of hill grazing and moorland, and 
100 acres of plantations. The Corporation own + acre 
only. There are ten habitations on the area, nine of which 
are at such a distance from the lake that they are not likely 
to cause any contamination. In the case of the only one 
built on the margin of the lake, the sewage is treated. The 
supply, which is not filtered, is said to be one of the softest 
and purest in Britain, being equalled only by that of Loch 
Katrine. 


Cleator Moor Urban District Council obtains its water 
supply from Meadley reservoir, Kinneside, with a catchment 
area of 600 acres on Cleator, Kinneside, and Ennerdale Fells, 
between 500 and 1200 feet elevation, all hill pasture and 
moorland, without any arable land or plantations. The 
gathering ground, of which 26 acres are owned by the 
Council, has no habitations or farm steadings upon it. The 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 175 


water is filtered, and “the ground is examined to see 
that there are no dead sheep lying on it. Nothing else is 
required.” 


Penrith Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
from Haweswater Lake, with a catchment area of 750 acres, 
between 1383 and 2300 feet elevation, all hill pasture and 
moorland, grazed by mountain sheep only, and without 
habitations or farmsteads. Filtration is not necessary. The 
Council owns none of the catchment area. 


Kendal has a water catchment area of 300 acres, at 
Benson Knott, the storage reservoir being Fisher Tarn, 25 
miles east of the town. The area, of which 60 acres are 
owned by the Town Council, lies between 700 and 1000 
feet altitude, and is “upland moorland, with some grazing 
and arable land, free from habitable houses and farms.” The 
‘water is not filtered. See Zrans. Liverpool Engineering Soc. 
xxiv. (1903). 


Millom Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
from (1) Whicham Beck, with a gathering ground of 686 
acres on Swinside Fells, between 275 and 800 feet eleva- 
tion, and (2) Stoupdale Beck, with a gathering ground of 
372 acres on Whitcombe Fells, between 400 and 1280 feet 
elevation. Of the total area of 1058 acres, the Council owns 
117 acres adjoining the storage reservoir at Baystone Bank, 
Whicham, which comprise one sheep farm of 12 acres, 100 
acres of hill pasture and moor, and 5 acres of plantations. 
The sewage of the farmhouse is diverted into a cesspool, 
frequently emptied. The rest of the gathering ground, 941 
acres, is rough rocky mountain pasture. 


South Westmorland Rural District Council obtain their 
water supply in part from an upland surface of 500 acres 
at Lupton, where there is a reservoir. The water is not 
filtered. Information about ownership, etc., has not been 
obtainable. 


176 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


II. NoRTHUMBERLAND AND DURHAM 


Two local authorities and two private companies obtain 
their water supply from gathering grounds in these two 
counties. The gathering grounds have a total extent of 
41,197 acres, of which 110 acres are owned by Morpeth, 
and 3300 acres by the Newcastle and Gateshead Water 
Company. 


Morpeth obtains its water supply in part from (1) a 
gathering ground of 110 acres on Morpeth Common, be- 
tween 209 and 260 feet elevation, which is owned by the 
Corporation; and (2) a gathering ground of 194 acres at 
Tranwell, between 300 and 350 feet elevation, not owned 
by the Corporation. The total area of 304 acres comprises 
219 acres of hill pasture and 85 acres of plantations, and 
is free from habitations or farm steadings. No precautions, 
other than filtration, are carried out, except that a pipe is 
laid under the bed of the small stream leading the water 
into the storage reservoir at Tranwell. All the water 
collected on Morpeth Common is carried by under drainage 
direct to a filter bed. 


Tynemouth obtains its water supply from the Font im- 
pounding reservoir, with a gathering ground in the Font 
valley, Northumberland, of 7360 acres, situated between 
611 and 1447 feet elevation, the highest point being Tosson 
Hill. The Town Council own only the site of the reservoir 
and the margin around it. There are four farm steadings 
and houses upon the area, which formerly had some wood- 
land upon it, but there are now only a few living trees 
standing. The proportion of arable land is not stated. No 
special precautions are taken against contamination on 
the gathering ground, but the water is passed through 
filters. 


The Newcastle and Gateshead Water Company, which 
supplies Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Gateshead, and adjacent 
districts in Northumberland and Durham, obtain their water 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS i i 


supply from the following catchment areas in Northumber- 
land : 

1. Rede Valley gathering ground, 9848 acres, comprising 
the head waters of the river Rede, east of Carter Fell 
(1813 feet elevation), and feeding Catcleugh reservoir. 
About one-third of the area, say 3300 acres, are owned by 
the Company. 

2. Swinburn gathering ground, 4462 acres, with Little 
Swinburn and Colt Crag reservoirs, near Barrasford on the 
North Tyne. The Company own only the reservoir sites 
and fringes of land adjacent. 

3. Hallington gathering ground, 5453 acres, with West 
Hallington and East Hallington reservoirs near Colwell. 
Erring Burn drains into a catchwater which is treated as 
part of this gathering ground. The aes own only the 
reservoir sites and fringes. 

4, Whittle Dene gathering ground, 4770 acres, with 
seven reservoirs. The Company own only the reservoir sites 
and fringes. i 

5. The Company also obtain some water from the river 
Pont at Matfen, with a catchment area of 7950 acres, not 
owned and only partially used by the Company. 

The catchment areas, exclusive of the river Pont area, 
which is only partially used, aggregate 24,533 acres, and are 
largely hill pasture. The amount of arable land and number 
of habitations and farmsteads on the various gathering 
grounds have not been ascertained. The water is passed 
through sand filters, and is reported to be of excellent 
quality, without any action on lead. 


Weardale and Consett Water Company obtain their supply 
from two catchment areas in Durham: 

1. River Wear gathering ground, 6000 acres, between 
700 and 1650. feet elevation, supplying Waskerley 
reservoir (1172 feet O.D.) and Tunstall reservoir (720 
feet O.D.), and comprising 5315 acres of hill pasture and 
moor, 5 acres of gardens, and 680 acres of plantations. 

2. River Derwent area, 3000 acres, between 1000 

N 


178 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


and 1600 feet elevation, supplying Hisehope reservoir 
(1128 feet O.D.) and Smiddy Shaw reservoir (1120 
feet O.D.), all hill pasture except one acre of gardens. 

The Company own or hold on perpetual lease from the 
Ecclesiastical Commissioners the sites of the reservoirs only, 
namely, 206 acres (102 owned, 104 leased) on the Weardale 
area, and 135 acres (leased) on the Derwent area. On the 
Weardale area there are 6 farmsteads and 13 houses, and on 
the Derwent area 2 houses only. The drainage from the farm- 
steads is, by agreement with the landowners, diverted on to 
meadowland. The water is filtered. For further particulars 
see R. Askwith, M.Inst.C.E., in Trans. Inst. Water Engineers, 
xiv. 60 (1910). 


III. LANCASHIRE 


Twenty-one local authorities obtain their water supply 
from gathering grounds with a total extent of 66,412 
acres, of which 27,085 acres are owned by 12 corporations. 
The chief authorities owning water catchment areas in 
Lancashire are Liverpool, Bolton, Bury, and the Heywood 
and Middleton Water Board. Liverpool has planted 1300 
acres on the Rivington area. Bury has not been very success- 
ful with an afforestation scheme which was begun in 1908. 
Planting on the Bolton areas has been a failure. There 
are woods of small extent on the Fylde, Fulwood, and 
Preston gathering grounds, The moorlands of Lancashire, 
owing to their exposure to the west wind and the preva- 
lence of smoke from the neighbouring manufacturing towns 
in some districts, are not favourably situated for tree-growth. 
The degree to which the air of the densely populated part 
of Lancashire is fouled by smoke, and the consequent 
deleterious effect on vegetation, are not fully recognised. 
The whole of southern Lancashire (the half of the county 
lying south of the river Ribble), and especially the dis- 
trict between Blackburn, Accrington, and Burnley on the 
north, and Wigan, Bolton, and Manchester on the south, are 
far too much affected by smoke to allow of anything 


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180 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


approaching normal tree-growth. As is well known, the 
smoke of southern Lancashire and of the West Riding of 
Yorkshire affect to some extent the whole of the north of 
England. The bad effect of smoke on trees must be taken 
into account in all afforestation schemes of areas in or near 
these manufacturing districts. See our notes on effect of 
smoke, pp. 45 and 57, and J. A. Wheldon and W. G. Travis 
in Journ. Linnean Soc. (Botany), vol. xiii. pp. 89-95 (1915). 


Rivington catchment area of 10,000 acres, owned by 
Liverpool Corporation, with 1500 acres of plantations, is 
fully described on p. 94. 


Barrow in Furness obtains its water supply from two 
catchment areas, as follows: 

1. Poaka Beck and Pennington reservoirs, at 505 feet 
elevation, have a gathering ground extending up to 1000 
feet elevation; and Harlock reservoir at 610 feet elevation 
has a gathering ground ascending to 1025 feet elevation. 
The total area is 1980 acres, of which only about 135 acres 
are owned by the Corporation, and of this 92 acres are 
water. There are a few plantations on the gathering 
grounds (not on the Corporation land), most of which is 
moorland covered with heather and bracken. The planta- 
tions appear to have been much neglected, though there are 
some fair-sized trees among them. The average annual 
rainfall is 53 inches. 

2. The watershed of the river Duddon, above the intake, 
74+ miles from its source, is 12,000 acres, of which the 
Corporation own only about 100 acres, and of this 85 acres 
are water. There are on the lower levels of the gathering 
ground several woods and plantations with fair-sized trees 
in them which appear to thrive well. The upper levels 
consist of fell and moorland, used for sheep grazing. The 
average annual rainfall is 90 inches. About 43 miles 
above the intake, Seathwaite Tarn, the level of which was 
raised 20 feet by a concrete wall, has now an overflow level 
of 1230 feet, and forms a large compensation reservoir. 
The highest point of the watershed draining into it is 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 181 


2550 feet altitude. See Proc. Inst. Municipal and County 
Engineers, vol. 36, p. 447 (1910). 


Grange Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
from a gathering ground of 120 acres at Newton in Cartmel, 
Lancashire, between 600 and 800 feet elevation. The 
Council owns 100 acres. The gathering ground is all moor- 
land, and free from habitations except the cottage of the 
attendant, the sewage of which is diverted by a pipe off the 
area. There are two storage reservoirs at Newton in 
Cartmel, and the water is filtered. 


Lancaster obtains its water supply from moorland springs 
in Lee Fell, Dunkenshaw Fell, and Tarnbrook Fell, in the 
north-eastern part of the watershed of the river Wyre. The 
catchment area is said by Mansergh, in Journ. R. Soc. Arts, 
vol. 32, p. 872 (1884), to be 2700 acres in extent, at 850 
to 1800 feet altitude, being scanty herbage on millstone grit 
with numerous springs, so that the water supply is perfect. 
As this supply is not derived from surface water, this catch- 
ment area is not included in the total 66,412 acres of 
gathering grounds of Lancashire, on p. 178. 


The Fylde Water Board, which supplies Blackpool, Fleet- 
wood, and other places in Lancashire, has two catchment 
areas in Bleasdale in the river Wyre watershed : 

River Calder area, intake at Luddock’s Fell, 2000 acres, 
at 628 to 1520 feet elevation, without any plantations; no 
part is owned by the Board. 

Grizedale Brook area, intake at Grizedale Fell, 1083 
acres, at 395 to 1325 feet elevation. The Board owns 150 
acres, including the sites of two reservoirs and some land 
around them. There are about 50 acres of plantations in 
the valley near the reservoirs. 

The whole gathering ground is rough moorland, unculti- 
vated, and free from pollution, there being only one small 
farm upon it. The water, which is stored in the Grizedale, 
North Barnacre, and South Barnacre reservoirs, is passed 
through\straining chambers and sand filters. 


182 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Fulwood Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
from an upland surface of 330 acres on Beacon Fell, Goos- 
nargh, between 500 and 872 feet elevation. It is all hill 
pasture and moor, with one farmstead upon it. The Council 
owns 300 acres. The water is not filtered. 


Carnforth District Waterworks Company obtain their 
supply from the Swarthbeck Stream at Over Kellet, where 
there is a storage reservoir, with a catchment area of about 
400 acres, between 360 and 422 feet elevation. The Com- 
pany own only 3 acres of the area, which comprises 60 
acres of arable land, 280 acres of hill pasture and moor, and 
60 acres of plantations. There are 3 habitations on the 
gathering ground, and no special measures are taken against 
contamination. The water is filtered. 


Preston obtains its water supply from two catchment 
areas, both in Lancashire, aggregating 5465 acres in 
extent : 

1. River Hodder Watershed, 4765 acres, comprising 
Langden Valley, 3795 acres, between 525 and 1707 feet 
elevation, and Hareden Valley, 970 acres, between 471 and 
1500 feet elevation. 

2. River Ribble Watershed, Longridge Fell, 700 acres, 
comprising Cowley Brook area, 300 acres, between 620 and 
1016 feet elevation, and Dean Brook area, 400 acres, 
between 600 and 1125 feet elevation. 

The areas are not owned by the Corporation, who have 
only acquired the water rights. There are no plantations 
of trees in the Langden or Hareden Valleys; but in Cowley 
area there are 130 acres, and in Dean area 250 acres of 
plantations. The water is filtered. The watersheds are all 
moorland, without habitations, except one house in the Dean 
Brook area, the drainage of which is specially dealt with. 


Colne obtains its water supply in part from the river 
Laneshaw, about three miles east of the town, with an 
upland gathering ground on Emmott Moor, 780 acres in 
extent, at 660 to 1430 feet elevation. The Corporation 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 183 


practically own none of the area, which is without any 
plantations, most of it being “rather bare and above the 
tree-line.” The water is filtered, and in times of floods, 
etc., the keeper of the Laneshaw reservoir turns the intake 
down the bye-pass channel, so as to keep the water out of 
the reservoir. 


Nelson obtains its water supply from two gathering 
grounds : 

1. Catlow Brook area, east of the town, 400 acres, 
between 943 and 1300 feet elevation, draining into Cold- 
well reservoir, and 

2. Pendle Hill area, west of Nelson, 1100 acres, between 
837 and 1850 feet, with two reservoirs at Ogden. 

The total area, 1500 acres, is entirely hill pasture and 
moor, without plantations or arable land. The Corporation 
own 137 acres, situated above Coldwell reservoir, which 
was purchased in 1916 in order to prevent manuring of 
the land. The water is filtered. 


Padiham Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
from two upland surfaces, aggregating 440 acres on Pendle 
Hill, and situated between 800 and 1500 feet elevation. 
The area, none of which is owned by the Council, is hill 
pasture grazed by sheep, and is without plantations or 
farmsteads. The only precautions taken are constant 
inspection of the streams. The water, which is not filtered, 
is stored in the Pendle Hill reservoir. 


Burnley obtains its water supply from two gathering 
grounds: Cant Clough reservoir, Worsthorne Moor, 1050 
acres, between 800 and 1400 feet elevation; and two 
reservoirs at Swinden, Extwistle Moor, 985 acres, between 
924 and 1400 feet elevation. The total area, 20335 acres 
in extent, is entirely hill pasture and moorland, free from 
farmsteads and habitations; and no part of it is owned by 
the Council except the sites of the reservoirs. The water is 
filtered, and no other precautions are considered necessary 
against contamination. 


184 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Accrington District Gas and Water Board obtain part of 
their water supply from three gathering grounds: 

1. Mitchell’s two reservoirs, Accrington, 460 acres, 
between 977 and 1200 feet elevation. 

2. Burnley Road reservoir, Huncoat, 250 acres, between 
634 and 850 feet elevation. 

3. Dean Clough reservoir, Great Harwood, 540 acres, 
between 504 and 7465 feet elevation. 

The total area, 1250 acres, is made up of 1198 acres of 
hill pasture and moor, 45 acres of arable land, and 7 acres 
of plantations; and on it there are 12 dwelling-houses and 
farmsteads. The Board own 426 acres (including 60 acres 
of water) on Dean Clough area, 17 acres on Burnley Road 
area, and 82 acres (including 28 acres of water) on Mitchell’s 
area. The water, except that of the Burnley Road 
reservoir, is filtered. The precautions taken against con- 
tamination are constant inspection of the land by water 
bailiff, storm-water reservoirs at the inlets, and catchwater 
drains around the reservoirs. 


Bury and District Joint Water Board obtain their supply 
from five gathering grounds, as follows: 

1. Haslingden Grane area, with Ogden, Calf Hey, and 
Holden Wood reservoirs, 2185 acres, between 650 and 
1250 feet elevation. 

2. Rawtenstall area, with Clow Bridge and Clough 
Bottom reservoirs, 2036 acres, between 900 and 1400 feet 
elevation. 

3. Scout Moor area, Edenfield reservoir, 244 acres, 
between 650 and 1500 feet elevation. 

4, Walmersley area, Gin Hall reservoir, 163 acres, 
between 450 and 750 feet elevation. 

5. Shuttleworth area, Harden Clough and Cross Bank 
reservoirs, 200 acres, between 650 and 950 feet eleva- 
tion. 

The whole of the gathering grounds, 4828 acres, are 
owned as freehold by the Water Board. The three 
principal areas are mostly moorland and hill pasture, the 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 185 


amount of arable land on the Haslingden Grane area being 
78 acres, and on the Clow Bridge area 60 acres only. 
About one-half of the total extent of the gathering grounds 
are above the 1000 feet contour line, the other half being 
below it. The late Professor W. R. Fisher made a report 
in 1908 and drew up proposals for planting 700 acres in 
all on the Haslingden, Clow Bridge, and Scout Moor areas. 
The moors occupying the high altitudes, owing to the 
constant practice of burning the heather, are now covered 
with coarse tufted grass, of scarcely any value for cattle or 
sheep, and, owing to the depth of the peat and the high 
elevation, cannot be planted with trees. Just below the 
moors there are rough sloping lands, between 800 and 1000 
feet altitude, which in Professor Fisher’s opinion could be 
planted with trees. Lower down the slopes there are 
numerous little dairy farms with excellent buildings. The 
plantation of the slopes above these farms would be of 
great value as shelter for the stock upon them. He re- 
commended spruce, larch, beech, sycamore, and ash as suit- 
able species. The cost of fencing against stock and the 
small size of some of the planting areas recommended were 
uneconomic features in his afforestation scheme. Where, as 
in some parts, the smoke nuisance existed, only broad-leaved 
trees were recommended to be used. The use of basic 
slag, kainit, and carbonate of lime was advocated for peaty 
soil on which spruce was to be planted. In accordance 
with Professor Fisher’s advice, 158 acres of plantations 
were made between 1909 and 1915. The results have 
been very varied, particularly in the case of over an 
altitude of 1000 feet, where the number of trees killed has 
been very considerable, doubtless owing to their exposed 
position. 

Only some of the water is filtered, namely, that from the 
Clow Bridge and Clough Bottom reservoirs. See W. R. 
Fisher, Report on Planting of Trees in the Watersheds of 
Bury and District Joint Board, 14 pp. and maps (Bury, 
1908); and A. P. Greenfell in Quarterly Journal of 
Forestry, iii, 41 (1909), 


186 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Bacup obtains its water supply from two gathering 
grounds: (1) Cowpe reservoir, on Cowpe Brook, with a 
catchment area of 593 acres, between 1020 and 1400 feet 
elevation, of which 500 acres are owned by the Town 
Council. These 500 acres are made up of 458 acres of 
moorland, 13 acres of ploughed land, 26 acres of meadow, 
and 4 acres of plantations. A wall has been built to keep 
cattle off the gathering ground, on which there are occupied 
farmsteads and dwelling-houses. (2) Sheephouses reservoir, 
with a gathering ground of 150 acres, of which the Town 
Council own only the water rights. The water of both 
reservoirs is filtered. 


Rochdale obtains its water supply from four gathering 
grounds as follows: 

1. Whitworth area (Cowm reservoir), 964 acres, at 816 
to 1450 feet elevation. 

2. Norden and Whitworth area (Spring Mill reservoir), 
558 acres, between 771 and 1450 feet elevation. 

3. Wardle and Whitworth area (Syke reservoirs), 497 
acres, between 787 and 1300 feet elevation. 

4. Walsden area (Walsden reservoir), 400 acres, between 
987 and 1425 feet elevation. 

The total area, 2419 acres, is all hill pasture and moor, 
except 7 acres of plantations. The Corporation own the 
site of the Cowm reservoir, 78 acres of the Norden area, 
and 320 acres of the Walsden area. There are 20 sheep 
farms and cottages on the Whitworth, Norden, and Wardle 
areas. The water is filtered and regularly analysed. The 
gathering grounds are frequently inspected, and water of a 


doubtful character is diverted. The sewage of the farms . 


and cottages is dealt with by pail closets and watertight 
cesspools. 

A new gathering ground at Walsden in connection with 
the intended Ramsden lower reservoir is estimated at 350 
acres, between 783 and 1250 feet elevation. Of this, 113 
acres, all hill pasture and moor, except 4 acres of planta- 
tions, are owned by the Corporation. There are 3 habitations 


eo 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 187 


upon the area. Mr. Frank H. Brunt, A.M.Inst.C.E., 
states that the presence of soot is easily discernible 
on the moorland grass situated within several miles of 
Rochdale. 


Bolton has 12,202 acres of gathering grounds at 
Entwistle, Belmont, and Heaton. The compensation reser- 
voirs, Belmont, Rumworth, and Wayoh, draw from about half 
this area; and the Springs, Dingle, Entwistle, High Rid, 
and Heaton storage reservoirs obtain their domestic water 
from the other half. Of the total area the Corporation have 
acquired 7084 acres, of which 6046 acres are in the 
Belmont area in Turton Urban District, and 915 acres are 
in the Entwistle area, Darwen Parish. The Corporation 
have not acquired the gathering grounds of the Heaton and 
High Rid reservoirs, situated for the most part in the 
Borough of Bolton, and are unable to exercise effective 
control over these areas, on which there are 7 farms, 2 
public- houses, and 39 cottages, with a population of 
216 persons. Notwithstanding the large expenditure by 
the Corporation in enclosing the streams thereon, and the 
measures taken to obviate preventable pollution, the water 
obtained from this source is at times so grossly polluted as 
to be obnoxious and highly dangerous. The Local Govern- 
ment Board wrote to the Town Clerk on 1st December 
1910 as follows: “The Board approve of the exclusion of 
Heaton water, that has not been subjected to storage, from 
the supply, and of the decision of the Town Council to 
abolish in a few years the farms on their gathering grounds, 
The Board further understand that it is the intention of the 
Town Council to acquire those parts of the gathering 
grounds not already in their possession. This is a proposal 
with which the Board entirely agree.” 

Mr. Lewis Mitchell, M.Inst.C.E., in charge of the Water- 
works, is of opinion that “the storage and filtration of 
water used for domestic purposes is not suflicient to 
guarantee its wholesomeness, because the reservoirs become 
depleted during periods of drought; and subsequently, 


188 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


when the rains come, inadequately stored water is drawn 
for purposes of filtration, and at the same time the filters 
may not be working efficiently from one cause or another. 
The degree of safety conferred by storage and filtration is 
after all a debatable matter. The results of analyses show 
that not unfrequently the raw waters from the Entwistle, 
Heaton, and High Rid reservoirs are polluted and unsafe. 
After heavy rains, when the waters have received the 
washings from manured fields and slop-water from human 
dwellings, the organisms present therein have reached 
several thousands per cubic centimetre, notwithstanding that 
such waters were stored previous to being drawn for use. 
The policy of the Corporation in abandoning farms and 
closing all human habitations on the watersheds supplying 
domestic water is fully justified.” 

Some years ago experimental plantations were made on 
the Belmont watershed by the Corporation ; but after the 
expenditure of large sums of money the venture was not 
successful, notwithstanding that in the selection of the 
species and in the mode of planting expert advice had been 
obtained. In October and December 1912 Mr. Lewis 
Mitchell wrote two reports on a conjoint scheme of the 
Liverpool and Bolton Corporations for the afforestation of 
6000 acres on the Rivington, Belmont, and Entwistle 
catchment areas, provided that the assistance of the 
Development Commissioners could be obtained. The latter 
sent two experts to examine the watersheds; and after 
inspecting the growing timber in the district, of which there 
is very little, they were decidedly of opinion that the scheme 
of afforestation, if undertaken, would not be successful from 
a commercial point of view, and the matter was sub- 
sequently allowed to drop. 


Heywood and Middleton Water Board obtain their water 
supply from (1) Naden Brook, with a gathering ground of 
1250 acres, between 724 and 1500 feet elevation; and 
(2) Ashworth Moor, gathering ground of 1380 acres, 
between 926 and 1468 feet elevation. The whole of the 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 189 


two areas, totalling 2630 acres, is owned by the Board. 
Nearly the whole of the ground is hill pasture and moor. 
The water is filtered. The figures here given were supplied 
in June 1918 by the Engineer to the Board. 


Darwen obtains its water supply from a gathering 
ground of 660 acres of moorland and hill pasture on 
Darwen Moors. The water is filtered. No particulars 
were obtainable from the Town Clerk. Zhe Journal of 
Board of Agriculture, xi. 469 (1904), states that Darwen 
owns 500 acres of gathering ground, between 700 and 
1300 feet, nearly all hill pasture, with 12 acres of wood- 
land. 


Ashton in Makerfield Urban District Council obtain their 
water supply from a gathering ground of 400 acres at 
Winstanley. The water is filtered. No other particulars 
obtainable, 


Wigan obtains its water supply in part from two upland 
surfaces— 2200 acres at Wrightington, between 218 and 
400 feet elevation, and 500 acres at Billinge, between 316 
and 428 feet elevation. The gathering grounds, which 
appear to be entirely agricultural land, are not owned by 
the Corporation. “The farmsteads, etc., are drained and 
the tanks emptied when required, the contents being carted 
away and spread over suitable ground to prevent pollution.” 
The whole of these two areas appears to be suitable for 
afforestation, and, in any case, ought to be under the 
complete control of the Corporation. 


Warrington obtains its domestic supply entirely from 
wells, but it obtains water for trade purposes from a 
gathering ground of 1360 acres, between 140 and 250 feet 
elevation, at Appleton, Hatton, and Daresbury. The 
Corporation do not own any part of this area, over which 
they have merely the right to collect the water. 


Horwich Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
from a gathering ground of 97 acres at Wildersmoor, 


190 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


between 1146 and 1450 feet elevation, all moorland, 
with two dwelling-houses and farmsteads upon it. None 
of the area is owned by the Council. The water is not 
filtered. 


TV. YORKSHIRE 


Twenty-four local authorities and four private companies 
obtain their water supply from gathering grounds with a 
total extent of 178,239 acres, of which 33,971 acres are 
owned by ten corporations. The principal authorities 
owning water catchment areas in Yorkshire are Leeds, 
Bradford, Oldham, and Batley. Leeds is the only Corpora- 
tion which has carried out planting on a large scale. 
Bradford has always been opposed to any afforestation 
schemes on its extensive areas. On the Halifax gathering 
grounds some plantations, made between 1902 and 1909, 
have not been successful enough to encourage further effort. 
Keighley has postponed the consideration of an afforesta- 
tion scheme till after the war. There are small planta- 
tions on the Huddersfield, Oldham, Batley, and Sheffield 
gathering grounds. In the West Riding of Yorkshire, as in 
South Lancashire, the deleterious effect of smoke on the 
growth of trees must be borne in mind when afforestation 
schemes are under consideration. 


Leeds has four catchment areas, with a total extent of 
39,474 acres, of which 14,700 acres are owned by the 
Corporation. For full particulars of these areas and the 
Washburn Valley afforestation scheme, see pp. 99-101. 


Tees Valley Water Board, which supplies Middlesbrough, 
Stockton-on-Tees, and many villages and towns in Durham, 
obtains its supply (1) from the Hury and Blackton im- 
pounding reservoirs in the valley of the river Balder, 
Yorkshire, with a catchment area of 10,000 acres, between 
860 and 1600 feet elevation ; and (2) from the Grassholme 
impounding reservoir, in the valley of the river Lune, 
Yorkshire, with a catchment area of 18,000 acres, between 


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192 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


903 and 2591 feet, the highest point being Mickle Fell. 
The Board own 300 acres of the Balder area, and 300 acres 
of the Lune area, being simply the land on which the 
reservoirs have been constructed. Fully 95 per cent of 
both areas is moorland and the remainder hill pasture, 
there being no arable land and few plantations. There are 
about 50 or 60 houses and farmsteads on the Balder area, 
and 70 or 80 houses and farmsteads on the Lune area, 
wholly tenanted by what are known locally as fell-side 
sheep farmers. There are no special measures taken on the 
gathering grounds to prevent contamination, but the water 
if filtered. 


Ripon obtains its water supply from Lumley reservoir, 
with a gathering ground of 700 acres on Lumley Moor, 
between 600 and 800 feet elevation, utilising the Holburn, 
Craven Gill, and South Gill Becks, tributaries of the river 
Laver. Of the total area, 45 acres are owned by the Cor- 
poration, of which about 10 acres are plantations. Ditches 
are cleaned out, the watershed is carefully looked after, and 
the water is filtered. I have no information as regards 
farmsteads and cultivation on the gathering ground, which 
would seem to be suitable for afforestation. 


Harrogate obtains its water supply from two catchment 
areas : 

1. A gathering ground of 2720 acres on the head 
waters of Oak Beck, a tributary of the river Nidd, with 
four impounding reservoirs, namely, Scargill reservoir, drain- 
ing 1110 acres; Upper and Lower Beaver Dyke reservoirs, 
draining 1200 acres; and Ten Acres reservoir, tapping 400 
acres. This is moorland and rough pasture at 500 to 800 
feet elevation, and with an average annual rainfall of 28 
inches. 

2. Roundhill reservoir, on Pott Beck, a tributary of the 
river Burn, has a gathering ground of 3000 acres of moor- 
land, which adjoins the Leighton reservoir area, belonging to 
Leeds Corporation. 

No particulars have been obtained of these two areas, as 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 193 


regards either ownership or the precautions taken against 
contamination. The water is filtered. 


Bradford has most extensive waterworks on the Yorkshire 
moors, with numerous reservoirs and large catchment areas. 
In the following table, the storage reservoirs for domestic 
use are in ordinary type, those which give compensation 
water being in italics. 


: Altitude in 
Watershed. Reservoir. feet. 


Denholme Beck . Thornton Moor 1,241 
Stubden 1,028 
Doe Park 
Hewenden 

River Worth . 5 Leeming 
Leeshaw 

River Wharfe é Upper Barden 


Lower Barden 
Chelker 
Grimwith 
River Aire. Silsden 
River Nidd . : Angram 
Lodge 
High Woodale 
(No reservoir)* 
Gouthwaite 


* The 11,400 acres just shown in the river Nidd watershed comprise 
the catchment areas of five small tributary streams, Ruscoe Beck, How 
Stone Beck, Blayshaw Gill, Ramsgill Beck, and Colt House Beck, the water 
of which is conveyed directly by pipes into the main aqueduct. In addition 
to the preceding storage and compensation reservoirs, there are in the 
vicinity of Bradford the following supply reservoirs without catchment 
areas: Heaton, 523 feet elevation; Horton Bank, 910 feet; Brayshaw, 
975 feet ; Idle Hill, 750 feet ; and Chellow Heights, 845 feet. 


Nearly all the gathering grounds are high moorlands 
reported to be above the reach of pollution from populated 
districts. The Corporation owned in 1906, besides small 
areas (21 acres at Thornton, 1134 acres at Chellow Heights, 
438i acres at Gilstead Filter Beds, 43 acres at Morton, 96 
acres at Silsden, and 994 acres at Grimwith), the following 
large blocks of land: 

O 


194 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


1. In Oxenhope and Denholme Parishes, 1090 acres, 
acquired at a cost of £44,464 for the purpose of protect- 
ing and preserving the purity of the water drawn from 
Denholme Moor and Thornton Moor. These lands were let 
in 1906, under restrictive clauses as to manuring and tillage, 
to thirty-six tenants at an average annual rent of 15s. per 
acre. Forest timber has not been grown, and no planta- 
tions exist on the owned lands or on any other part of these 
areas, the elevation of which varies from 800 feet at Leem- 
ing to 1325 feet at Spring Hall. 

2. In Lower Nidderdale, 618 acres, at 460 to 1000 feet 
elevation, acquired at a cost of £13,850, and let in 1906 to 
three tenants at an annual rent of 16s. per acre. 

3. In Upper Nidderdale, 7051 acres, including 109 
acres at Lofthouse, acquired at a cost of £2050 and let asa 
farm at £50 yearly. The remaining 6942 acres, acquired 
for £71,838, range in elevation from 900 feet at Woodale 
to 2300 feet on Whernside. This is wild and bleak in 
winter, and without any trees, being devoted to grazing 
black-faced hill sheep in summer, and grouse shooting in 
autumn. 

Proposals of afforestation of all these catchment areas 
were strongly opposed by the engineer, Mr. James Watson, 
from whose report on 19th January 1906 to the Bradford 
Waterworks Committee the preceding particulars of owner- 
ship are taken. His main contention was that on the 
higher elevations forest trees would certainly fail to grow, 
and that at lower altitudes they could scarcely be grown 
with profit. He raised one objection: the disturbance of 
the peat by planting operations. The Thornton Moor area, 
where the peat is abraded and exposed, imparts to the rains 
an acidity that unless neutralised by constant treatment 
acts on lead pipes. He considered that the digging of 
3000 pits per acre, and the cutting of the necessary drains 
in the peaty subsoil, would for years render difficult the 
treatment of the water, and entail serious risk of lead 
poisoning. He did not believe that tree-planting was work 
calculated to give more than very short and temporary 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 195 


relief to any great number of unemployed. It appears that 
the Bradford Corporation has spent enormous sums of 
money on the purchase of the land necessary for its exten- 
sive waterworks, and was not inclined to spend any money 
whatever on afforestation when this was put forward as a 
means for solving the difficult problem of unemployment in 
large towns. A pamphlet entitled “ Water Supply, with a 
Description of the Bradford Waterworks,” by J. Watson, 
was published at Bradford in 1900. See also Proc. Assoc. 
Municipal and County Engineers, xxiv. 128-132 (1898), 
and Trans. Inst. Water Engineers, xiii. 126 (1908). A 
good account of the Bradford Waterworks system, with 
maps, views, and plans, is given in The Engineer, vol. 119, 
pp. 251-254 and 278-280 (March 1915). 


Blackburn obtains its water supply from a gathering 
ground of 6820 acres in Bowland Forest in Yorkshire, 
comprising the watersheds of the Brennand and Whitendale 
Streams, tributaries of the river Hodder, at 550 to 1730 
feet elevation. The Corporation own 153 acres of the 
area, which is mostly moorland, without any plantations 
of note. Mr. W. Stubbs, A.M.LC.E., in Proc. Inst. Civil 
Engineers, vol. 194, p. 142, with map (1914), states that 
the geological formation is Millstone Grit, with outcrops of 
shale and in places of limestone, retaining the water for 
long periods. The annual rainfall at six different stations 
averaged for 1887-1912 from 55°63 to 71:06 inches. The 
water is not filtered, and no special measures are taken to 
prevent contamination on the gathering ground. No scheme 
of afforestation seems to have been proposed. See Fig. 37. 


Skipton Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
from a reservoir on Embsay Moor, with a gathering ground 
of 700 acres, entirely hill pasture and moorland, free from 
farms and other sources of contamination. The water is not 
filtered, but, owing to peaty discoloration, the Council are 
considering the question of filtration. The reservoir on 
Rombalds Moor, with 207 acres of gathering ground, of 
which 7 acres are plantations, is no longer used as a supply 


196 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


for domestic purposes. Of the total 907 acres of gathering 
grounds, only about 5 acres are owned by the Council. 


__ RAIN GAUGES __ 


§ pu NSOP 


Net CABIN HILL BRIDGE 


W°2 BRENWAND 

N°3 MIDDLE KNOLL 
m°4 BAXTON FELL 
N°S WHITENDALE 
N°6 DUNSOP HOUSE 


Scale | Inch=I}z Mile 
MILE |e RD {MILE 


Fic. 37.—Blackburn. Brennand and Whitendale Catchment Area. 
(From Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers, vol. 194.) 


Otley Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
from March Ghyll, Middleton, with a catchment area of 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 137 


1400 acres, between 700 and 1100 feet elevation, all hill 
pasture and moorland, without any arable land or planta- 
tions. The gathering ground, of which about 10 acres are 
owned by the Council, has no dwelling-houses or farm- 
steadings upon it. No precautions against contamination of 
the gathering ground are taken, but the water is filtered. 
Mr. C. J. F. Atkinson, Clerk to the Council, considers that the 
area would be an excellent one for an afforestation scheme. 


Wharfedale Rural District Council obtains its water 
supply from a gathering ground of 2560 acres at Menston, 
between 900 and 1000 feet elevation, all hill pasture, and 
moorland, without any dwelling-houses or farmsteads upon 
it. The Council owns only the water rights of the area. 
The reservoir at Four Lane Ends is at 660 feet elevation. 


Shipley Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
from a gathering ground of 1537 acres on Rombalds Moor, 
lying between 690 and 1308 feet elevation, all hill pasture 
and moor, with the exception of 2 acres of arable land and 
7 acres of plantations. There are no habitations or farm- 
steads on the gathering ground, of which only 114 acres 
are owned by the District Council. Besides filtration and 
treatment of the water with chalk and carbonate of soda to 
prevent action on lead, no other measures are considered 
necessary to preserve the purity of the water. The Grain- 
cliffe reservoir at 845 feet elevation serves for domestic 
supply, and the Eldwick reservoir at 690 feet elevation 
serves for compensation water. 


Burley-in-Wharfedale Urban District Council obtains its 
water supply from a gathering ground of 800 acres, between 
1000 and 1350 feet elevation, all moorland and hill 
pasture; and owns only 20 acres, the sites of the Carr 
Bottom, Low Lanshaw, and High Lanshaw reservoirs on 
Rombalds Moor, and of Hartley’s reservoir on the Coldstone 
Estate. The water from three of the four storage reservoirs 
is mechanically filtered; the fourth reservoir is not liable 
to contamination. No other measures are considered 
necessary to preserve the purity of the water. 


198 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Baildon Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
in part from Weecher reservoir, with a gathering ground of 
379 acres on Rombalds Moor, all moorland, without any 
plantations or arable land, and with only one inhabited 
house upon it. The Council owns none of the gathering 
ground. The water is not filtered; “and no precautions 
are considered necessary against contamination.” 


Keighley obtains its water supply at present from the 
Watersheddles reservoir, at the head of the river Worth, 
at 1100 feet elevation, with a gathering ground of 1600 
acres ascending to 1575 feet. Ponden reservoir, at 763 
feet elevation, two miles down stream, with a catchment 
area of 863 acres, provides compensation water to the river. 
These two contiguous areas are situated on the higher 
portions of the Oakworth, Stanbury, and Trawden Moors, on 
the borders of Yorkshire and Lancashire; and consist 
mainly of moorland over Millstone Grit, without any 
plantations and with only 143 acres of arable land. The 
Corporation have acquired the freehold of 2577 acres, and 
have also obtained powers to make bye-laws for the 
prevention of nuisances and pollution on the areas, which 
are without any population or habitations; but no special 
bye-laws have been as yet drawn up. ‘The annual rainfall 
at Watersheddles reservoir varies between 39°81 and 68°19 
inches, averaging 50°30 inches for 19 years. The water 
is slightly brownish in colour and has an acid reaction, 
owing to the peat; and to obviate its action on lead, it 
is passed through filters at Oldfield. 

At present new waterworks are being carried out by the 
Keighley Corporation in the Sladen Valley, where a reservoir 
called Lower Laithe is being formed by the construction of 
an earthen embankment across Sladen Beck, in Haworth 
and Stanbury parishes. The catchment area, 1080 acres, 
of which 1000 acres are owned by the Corporation, lies 
between 741 feet, the level of the reservoir, and 1450 feet 
elevation. There are no plantations on any of the catchment 
areas; but a scheme of afforestation was under consideration 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 199 


when the war began, which is held over until more favour- 
able circumstances return. 

The Annual Report of the Keighley Waterworks, by 
M. Ratcliffe Barnett, M.Inst.C.E., published in August 
1915, gives a complete account of the various undertakings 
and is accompanied by a map. 


Halifax has four moorland gathering grounds, with a 
total area of 7322 acres, as follows: 

1. In the Hebble Valley, Ogden reservoir, at 990 feet 
elevation, serving for compensation and domestic supply, 
has a catchment area of 1140 acres. Mixenden reservoir, 
875 feet elevation, domestic and general supply, has a 
catchment area of 190 acres. 

2. In the Luddenden Valley, Fly or Warley reservoir, 
1350 feet elevation, compensation, has a catchment area of 
919 acres. Lower and Upper Dean Head reservoirs, 975 
and 1000 feet elevation, domestic and general supply, have 
a catchment area of 525 acres. 

3. Widdop reservoir, at 1050 feet elevation, on a stream 
of the same name, also receives by a tunnel the water of 
the Greave Valley, and serving for compensation and 
general supply, has a catchment area of 2223 acres. 

4, Lower Walshaw Dean reservoir, 965 feet elevation, 
for compensation, and Middle and Upper Walshaw Dean 
reservoirs, 1043 and 1100 feet elevation, for general supply, 
have a united catchment area of 2325 acres. 

The whole of the gathering grounds, the lowest point of 
which is 875 feet elevation, are either moorland or mountain 
grazing over Millstone Grit. The Corporation own only a 
part of the area, viz. 1310 acres, all in the Hebble 
Valley. The eminent botanists, Mr. W. Crump and 
Dr. W. G. Smith, who have done so much excellent 
work in plant ecology and in producing vegetation maps 
of Yorkshire, etc., strongly urged in 1902 the afforestation 
of these gathering grounds. In that year 38 acres at 
Ogden and 12 acres at Mixenden were planted, to which 
37 acres were added in February 1909. Success was 


200 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


anticipated, as both Ogden and Mixenden reservoirs, though 
situated at nearly 1000 feet elevation, lie in well-sheltered 
valleys. I have not been able to obtain any report on 
these plantations, as, for some reason or another, little 
interest has been taken in afforestation by the Halifax 
Corporation. No forester is employed. See Trans. Roy. 
Scot. Arbor. Soc. xvii. pp. 86-92 (1904), for reports on 
the afforestation of the Halifax areas. 


Todmorden obtains its water supply from Gorpley Clough 
reservoir, with a gathering ground on Inchfield Moor of 
690 acres, between 845 and 1500 feet elevation. The 
whole area, of which about 600 acres are owned by the 
Corporation, is hill pasture and moor, without any planta- 
tions or arable land, and free from farmsteads or habitations, 
except the waterman’s house. The water is filtered, and no 
other precautions are considered necessary. See TZvrans. 
Liverpool Engineering Soc. xxix. (1908). 


Morley obtains its water supply in part from Withens 
reservoir in Cragg Vale, Mytholmroyd, with a gathering 
ground of 1200 acres, between 900 and 1000 feet elevation, 
all hill pasture and moorland; and no part of it is owned 
by the Corporation. The area is without habitations or 
farmsteads, except a gamekeeper’s lodge, uninhabited at 
present. The water is filtered, and no other precautions 
are considered necessary. 


Wakefield obtains its water supply from a gathering 
ground of 2737 acres, between 1000 and 1530 feet 
elevation, with two reservoirs, Green Withers at Rishworth, 
and Ringstone at Barkisland. The Ardsley reservoir, also 
used for storage, is not on the catchment area. The 
Corporation have power to utilise a further area of 600 
acres, all moorland and lying between 900 and 1200 feet, 
and to construct thereon three additional (Oxyegrains, 
Upper and Lower Booth Dean) reservoirs. The gathering 
ground of 2737 acres to the existing works, is all moorland, 
with the exception of about 250 acres of rough grass; and 
most of it is covered with peat varying in depth from one 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 201 


foot to eight or ten feet, overlying the grits and slates of the 
Millstone Grit, with occasional patches of clay. The chief 
vegetation is rough moorland grass and bilberry, with very 
little heather. The peat contains remains of roots and 
stems of birch trees, but there are probably now not half-a- 
dozen trees on the whole ground. The catchment area 
being within easy reach of manufacturing districts, any 
trees that might be planted would have to grow in an 
atmosphere nearly always smoke-laden. The Corporation 
do not own and have no control over the area, on which 
there is only one habitation, a gamekeeper’s house, the 
drainage of which is piped clear of the gathering ground. 
As no farming operations are carried on, no measure, other 
than filtration, is needed to render the water safe. See 
Trans. Inst. Water Engineers, xviii. (1913). 


Huddersfield obtains its water supply from four gathering 
grounds : 

Blackmoorfoot reservoir, catchment area of 1871 acres, 
between 830 and 1100 feet elevation. 

Deer Hill reservoir, catchment area of 1000 acres, 
between 1140 and 1400 feet elevation. 

Wessenden, Wessenden Head, Blakeley, and Butterley 
reservoirs, catchment area of 2825 acres, between 770 
and 1500 feet elevation. 

Dean Head reservoir, catchment area of 500 acres, 
between 1000 and 1200 feet elevation. 

The gathering grounds aggregate 6196 acres, which 
comprise 5993 acres of moorland and hill pasture, 150 
acres of arable land, and 53 acres of plantations. The 
Corporation own 1200 acres, and the plantations are upon 
the land owned by them. There are a few scattered 
farmsteads on the watersheds, the sewage from which dis- 
charges into cesspools that are cleared out periodically. 
All the water except that from springs is filtered. See 
maps of vegetation and description of Huddersfield district 
by T. W. Woodhead, in Journ. Linnean Soc. (Botany), vol. 
XXxvlil. 333-406 (1905). 


202 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Oldham has a moorland gathering ground of 5480 acres 
in the Pennine Range, Yorkshire, of which 3027 acres are 
owned by the Corporation. There are three catchment 
areas as follows: River Medlock area, 660 acres in extent, 
between 778 and 1225 feet elevation; River Roach area, 
2520 acres in extent, between 690 and 1500 feet elevation; 
River Tame area, 2300 acres in extent, between 762 and 
1500 feet elevation. The Corporation own 199 acres on 
the Medlock area, 1196 acres on the Roach area, and 1632 
acres on the Tame area. 

Only 40 acres have been planted with trees, viz. 
16 acres each on the Roach and Tame areas, and 8 acres on 
the Medlock area. The water is not filtered. The Cor- 
poration have been enabled by their purchase of land to 
demolish all the habitations on the gathering ground. On 
the lands draining to the domestic supply reservoirs, only 
sheep grazing is allowed and no cultivation or manuring is 
permitted. 


Batley has a gathering ground of 1600 acres at Holm- 
firth, on the north-east slope of the Pennine range, between 
770 and 1720 feet elevation, all hill pasture with under- 
lying peat, except 20 acres of arable land annually under 
the plough, and 25 acres of very poor plantations. The 
Corporation recently purchased 600 acres of the area, 
all below 1500 feet altitude. There are 10 habitations 
(some empty) and 8 farm-steadings (some unused); but 
the water for domestic use, which is not filtered, is drawn 
from the reservoir above the level of the habitations and 
cultivated lands. Farms and buildings are carefully drained, 
and tillage is controlled as much as possible, most of the 
land being used for grazing. There are three storage reser- 
voirs, Yateholme, Riding Hood, and Ramsden, all together on 
the Ramsden Clough Stream at the head-waters of the 
river Holme, 2 to 3 miles south-west of Holmfirth, and 
4 mile south-east of Holme. The annual rainfall for 20 
years ranged between 40°1 and 73°3 inches, averaging 
59 inches, 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 203 
Dewsbury and Heckmondwike Waterworks Board obtain 
their water supply from four catchment areas as follows: 


Dunford Bridge Reservoir 1300 acres between 1100 and 1489 feet elevation. 
Upper and Lower Windle- 


den Reservoirs . APO De 55 _ TS Omes Lb OON ee ¢ 
Harden Reservoir . SEPA AW hope Ns LAO HOOK. . 
Snailsden Reservoir ZOO ss. oS US69> 55) L560 Fe 


Of the whole area, 2488 acres, the Board own only the 
sites of the reservoirs, embankments, and other structural 
works. The area is entirely moorland, without any cul- 
tivation, and no measures are considered necessary against 
contamination of the water, which is not filtered. “The 
bacteriological examinations and reports are always satis- 
factory.” 


Barnsley has two catchment areas, viz. Ingbirchworth 
reservoir, 2000 acres, between 800 and 1400 feet elevation, 
and Midhope reservoir, 2000 acres, between 800 and 1600 
feet elevation. The latter area is adjacent to the Langsett 
area of Sheffield. Both gathering grounds, which are held 
by private owners, are nearly all pasture or moorland, the 
amount of arable land being very small. The Council, in 
the spring of 1917, planted out 25,000 Scots pines and 
5000 larches. The water is filtered. 


Sheffield obtains its water supply in part from the 
adjacent moorlands on the west, which comprise three 
watersheds as follows : 

Rivelin Valley: 4978 acres at 700 to 1300 feet alti- 
tude, with 5 reservoirs, Upper, Lower, and Middle Redmires 
reservoirs, at 1150, 1105, and 1068 feet, and Upper 
and Lower Rivelin reservoirs at 698 and 672 feet 
elevation. 

Loxley Valley or Bradfield area: 10,725 acres at 650 
to 1326 feet altitude, with Agden (643 feet), Strines 
(814 feet), Dale Dike (696 feet), and Damflask (505 feet) 
reservoirs. 

Little Don Valley: 5203 acres at 1037 to 1516 feet 
elevation, with Langsett reservoir at 810 feet altitude. In 


204 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


the same valley there is a compensation reservoir at Under- 
bank at 600 feet elevation and draining 5000 acres, 

The gathering grounds, 23,906 acres in all, are not 
owned by the Corporation, and consist for the most part of 
moorland, with a very small population. No large scheme 
for afforestation has been proposed. Owing to non-owner- 
ship, the question has not been taken up by the Corporation, 
who have planted small areas immediately adjacent to the 
reservoirs on suitable soil with Scots pine, larch, and birch. 
The engineer, Mr. L. 8. M. Marsh, doubts whether advan- 
tage would be derived by planting exposed moorland. See 
notes on the Sheffield water supply in Proc. Inst. Civil 
Engineers, vol. 181, pp. 1-14 (1910). 

The Sheffield Corporation decided in 1913 to proceed 
with the construction of two new reservoirs, Broomhead and 
More Hall reservoirs, with a catchment area of 6496 acres 
in the Ewden Valley, which is a short arm of the Little Don 
Valley. The gathering ground includes the well-known 
Broomhead moor, and the valley itself is one of the most 
beautiful in Yorkshire. The new project is described, with 
sketch map of the four catchment areas and views of Ewden 
Valley, in The Engineer, 14th Nov. 1913, pp. 510 and 520. 

Sheffield obtains an independent water supply from the 
Derwent Valley Water Board. 


Doncaster obtains its water supply in part from an im- 
pounding reservoir at Thrybergh, with 2517 acres of gather- 
ing ground on the hills south-west of Conisborough, all 
pasture and arable land at the low elevation of 180 to 450 
feet. Most of the area does not belong to the Corporation, 
who merely exercise sanitary control over it. I am in- 
formed officially, that “As the character of the land was 
entirely rural at the time the impounding reservoir was 
constructed, no farms or houses were removed; and there 
are certainly not more than 40 habitations on the whole of 
the area at the present moment. It has only been found 
necessary to exercise supervision over the manuring of the 
arable land, and the removal of carcases from the neigh- 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 205 


bourhood of the water courses, to guard against pollution. 
Practically no difficulty has arisen since the establishment 
of the Thrybergh reservoir, from the point of view of pollu- 
tion; and any small difficulty which may arise from time 
to time has up till now been settled mutually.” 


Guisborough Water Company obtain their supply from the 
Wentworth Plantation reservoir, with a gathering ground 
of 550 acres, between 500 and 750 feet elevation. The 
area, which is all moorland, except 50 acres of planta- 
tions, is without habitations or farmsteads. The water 
is filtered, and no other measures are taken against con- 
tamination. 


Yeadon Waterworks Company obtain their supply from 
Reva reservoir, with a gathering ground of 720 acres on 
Hawksworth Moor, between 750 and 800 feet elevation, all 
hill pasture and moorland and without plantations. The 
Company have water rights over the area, of which they 
own only 30 acres. There is one farmstead and two 
cottages on the gathering ground. The water is filtered. 


Thirsk District Water Company, Ltd., obtain their water 
supply from a gathering ground at Boltby, 800 acres in 
extent, between 650 and 1200 feet elevation. The whole 
area is covered with heather and bracken, and is without 
habitations or plantations, none of it being owned by the 
Company. There is nothing to contaminate the water, 
which is strained but not filtered. 


Cleveland Water Company obtain their water supply 
in part from a gathering ground of 1150 acres in Stanghow 
and Moorsholm, between 650 and 920 feet elevation. The 
Company have no rights over the area, except a perpetual 
easement over 42 acres covered by the Lockwood Moorland 
reservoir and filter beds. The gathering ground is all 
moorland without habitations or plantations, and there is 
no chance of contamination of the water. 


206 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


V. CHESHIRE AND DERBYSHIRE 


Ten local authorities obtain their water supply from 
gathering grounds with a total extent of 48,743 acres, of 
which 10,522 acres are owned by six Corporations. The chief 
authorities owning water catchment areas in Cheshire and 
Derbyshire are Manchester, Ashton-under-Lyne, Stockport, 


5 =. 
o EMicoone (Retiacie,S, 
P'S" Diep, \aooee} BARNSLEY 
oP Ur, Ace TOTAL AREA 4000 ACRES 
Res ; Pel en® 


ACRES 


Gy YE 
~ 


aoe, 
ANK 
Esta 


7 i : 
(yo Re BARNSLEY 
\ —— 


oF re 
{ xe 
RHODES WOOD, 

ESies 


TF a etree, Sate 
yee | SHEFFIELD 
~ saad 
aaa YY S ToTAL 30402 
meen) s 10,725 AcRES \V ACRES, INCLUDING 
HN AGDENwety 9 =“ EWDEN 
: RES, \., VALLEY 


HOLLINGWORTH! CLOUGH } 
REs / 


sy 


y ‘ iA NS 
3 x, a ‘ 
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ee ic Veet. lf 


ee 
KINDER Res" 


4 j 97877, 
SETT RES UrMoRisen 7” Gacnes/ fm 
STo ! SBAMFORO*~, is 
TOTAL 4,560AC\ RES? “se. REDMIRES 
ipcict Alp, 7 wee nes aS 


LAND OWNED BY DERWENT VALLEY WATERBOARD 1/84AC SSR ER © a 
SCALE OF MILES A 


Tis ! 2 3 + = 6 +> 


Fic. 38.—Longdendale, Derwent Valley, and neighbouring Catchment Areas. 


and Derwent Valley Water Board. Small plantations exist 
on several of the areas, but no large scheme of afforesta- 
tion has been proposed by any of the authorities. Dr. C. E. 
Moss gives in his book, Vegetation of the Peak District 
(1912), two maps, on which the position of the reservoirs, 
the distribution of the vegetation, etc., of most of these 
catchment areas are well shown. 


Longdendale catchment area, 19,300 acres, supplying 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 207 


Manchester; about 6400 acres are owned by the Man- 
chester Corporation. See full description, p. 98. 


Ashton-under-Lyne, Stalybridge, and Dukinfield (District) 
Waterworks Joint Committee obtain their supply from three 
catchment areas: 


Elevation, 
Acres. Feet O.D. 
Greenfield Valley, intake of Greenfield Brook . a (Le 00 750 to 1700 
Swineshaw Valley, intake at Swineshaw Moor . 1800 600 to 1620 
Chew Valley, above the reservoir . : - - 830 1550 to 1700 
Chew Valley, below the reservoir . : : ce 00 900 to 1700 
Total . . 4730 


The storage reservoirs with their elevations above sea- 
level are: Brushes, 649 feet; Lower Swineshaw, 871 feet; 
Higher Swineshaw, 957 feet; Yeoman Hey, 768 feet; and 
Greenfield, 892 feet. There are also two compensation 
reservoirs— Walker Wood, 588 feet, and Chew, 1600 feet. 

The Joint Committee have purchased and own 2500 
acres, namely, 1310 acres in Greenfield area, 70 acres in 
Swineshaw area, and 1120 acres in Chew area. There is 
one holding on Greenfield area, one holding on Swineshaw 
area, and two holdings on that part of Chew area which 
is not used for domestic supply ; but there are restrictions 
as to manures, and animals kept on the farms, besides close 
inspection. The water is filtered. There are the remains 
of what were formerly plantations, but which now consist 
of a few straggling trees only. This appears to be due to 
atmospheric change, as there is evidence that in days gone 
by trees were very prevalent and flourishing on the 
gathering ground. The engineer, Mr. G. R. Raddin, 
B.E, says it is more satisfactory to have ownership 
control of the area, as there is less trespassing, better 
regulation of indiscriminate rambling, with restrictions as 
to manuring land and grazing of cattle, and with power to 
clear land of farms. 


Stockport obtains its water supply from two catchment 
areas—Lyme Park area, 1400 acres, between 650 feet and 


208 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


1300 feet elevation, with two storage reservoirs, Bollinhurst 
and Horse Coppice ; and Kinder (Hayfield) area, 2130 acres, 
between 916 and 2080 feet elevation, with Kinder 
reservoir, two miles distant from Hayfield, and at the 
base of Kinder Scout, the highest point on the area. The 
Lyme Park area consists of 540 acres of moor, 652 acres 
of arable land and pasture, 180 acres of woodland, and 
28 acres of water. The Kinder area consists of 1882 acres 
of moor, 180 acres of arable and pasture, 25 acres of wood- 
land, and 43 acres of water. The Corporation own 44 acres 
of the Lyme Park area and 220 acres of the Kinder area. 
The water is filtered, and “all farmsteads are drained, and 
the drainage used to irrigate the land by special means.” 
On the Kinder area, arrangements have been made with the 
owners that no cultivation shall take place and no cattle 
shall be allowed. There is only one dwelling, the drainage 
from which, after treatment, is delivered to the stream below 
the reservoir embankment. The average annual rainfall 
on the Kinder area is 42 inches, and on the Lyme Park 
gathering ground 33 inches. 

The two watersheds on the Sett and Hollingworth 
Clough, some 2430 acres in extent, adjoining the Kinder 
area, are included in the completed scheme of supply, but 
it is not anticipated that further works will be required for 
many years. The upper part of these areas is covered with 
peat, varying in depth from a few inches to several feet, 
and is destitute of population and free from pollution. 

An account of the Stockport water supply with map is 
given by Mr. T. Molyneux, A.M. Inst.C.E., in Zrans. Inst. 
Water Engineers, xix. No. 3 (1914). See also The Engineer, 
12th July 1912, p. 29. 


Macclesfield obtains its water supply from upland 
gathering grounds in Sutton and Macclesfield Forest, in 
connection with four storage reservoirs, as follows: 


Ridgegate Reservoir . 980 acres at 780 to 1320 feet altitude. 
Bottoms Reservoir . ; 420 na 6805 LoS Ome. is 
Tegsnose Wood Reservoir 450 A 690) 5.) 1250) 5, Ge 


Leadbetters Reservoir . 350 LPG ZO ZOOM, 915 


/ 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 209 


thus making a total of 2200 acres of catchment area, which 
consists of 1900 acres of hill pasture and moorland and 300 
acres of woodland and plantations. The Corporation only 
own 90 acres, but have all water rights over 1750 acres, and 
part rights over 450 acres. There are four habitations and 
18 farm-steadings on the area. The water is filtered. The 
Macclesfield Forest has been fully described by Miss Lilian 
Baker in Geographical Journal, xlvi. 213, 289 (1915): 

“Popularly described as moorland, it is really grassland, 
of the siliceous type, the drier parts having Nardus stricta 
dominant, with Agrostis alba and canina, Luzula campestris, 
and various species of Carex. The grey colour of the 
Nardus during autumn, winter, and early spring adds 
largely to the bleak aspect of the district. The wetter 
parts, with Molinia coerulea dominant, have also heather, 
Erica cinerea and tetralix, Scirpus caespitosus, and various 
species of Juncus. The upland farms are now largely given 
up to sheep and cattle rearing, but the nearness of indus- 
trial centres, the excellence of the roads, and the industry 
of the farmers are shown in the height to which cultivation 
has been pushed. Oats occur up to 1000 feet, and wheat 
ascends to 500 feet. Owing to the effect of wind, trees are 
now confined to sheltered valleys. Birch occurs on steep 
slopes high up. Scots pine has been extensively planted, 
and been very successful. Afforesting would need so much 
capital that the farmer prefers the smaller profits and 
quicker returns of sheep farming.” 


Glossop obtains its water supply from Swinshaw 
reservoir, 13 miles north of the town, and situated on the 
Blackshaw Clough stream, with a catchment area of 500 
acres on Blake Moor, between 733 and 1200 feet elevation. 
The gathering ground is entirely hill pasture and moorland, 
without any habitations or farmsteads, and is free from 
contamination. None of the area is owned by the 
Corporation. “The water, before reaching the reservoir, 
passes through a settling tank ; flood water is turned to waste. 
The water, which is not filtered, is found pure on analysis.” 

p 


210 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Buxton Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
in part from two gathering grounds—Coombs Moss area, 
200 acres, between 1300 and 1400 feet elevation, with 
two reservoirs at Lightwood; and Stanley Moss area, 1700 
acres, between 1450 and 1550 feet elevation, with one 
reservoir. These areas, which are not owned by the 
Council, are entirely moorland, without habitations, farm- 
steads, or plantations. The water is passed through high- 
pressure filters. 


The Derwent Valley Water Board supply water to 
Derby, Leicester, Nottingham, and Sheffield from a catch- 
ment area of 13,220 acres at the head-waters of the river 
Derwent in High Peak, Derbyshire and Yorkshire. It is 
mostly rough pasture and heather-covered grouse moors, 
with steep hill slopes, the elevation ranging from 700 to 
1793 feet. The Board own 1184 acres, fringing the two 
reservoirs, Howden reservoir (870 feet altitude) and Derwent 
reservoir (776 feet altitude). There were a few farm-houses 
on this part of the area which was mostly rough grazing, 
but there now remain only three dwelling-houses, one 
unoccupied and two inhabited by the Board’s workmen. 
The sewage from all three houses soaks through the land 
before it reaches the reservoir. The Board have no rights 
over the privately owned portion of the catchment area, but 
they have power to agree as to the drainage of the lands 
for more effectually collecting, conveying, and preserving 
the purity of the waters flowing on such lands into the 
reservoirs. 

The Board have planted up to February 1918, within 
the boundary of their land, 310 acres of plantations at eleva- 
tions between 700 and 1500 feet. There are a few 
plantations outside the Board’s lands. The annual rainfall 
of 59 stations for 13 years varied from 34 to 61 inches. 
All the water, except that supplied to Sheffield, is passed 
through sand filters at Bamford. 

The works authorised by Act of Parliament of 1899, of 
which only the Howden and Derwent reservoirs have been 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 211 


completed, comprised in all six reservoirs (one of which, the 
highest and smallest, has been abandoned), with a total 
gathering ground of 31,946 acres, at an elevation varying 
from 500 to 2000 feet. Full particulars of the entire 
scheme were given by Mr. E. Sandeman, M.Inst.C.E., in 
Proc. Inst. C.E. vol. 194, pp. 22-35, with map (1914); in 
Trans. Inst. Water Engineers, xvi. pp. 71-75, with map 
(1912); and in a paper read at the Institution of Civil 
Engineers on 9th April 1918. The watershed is described 
by H. H. Arnold-Bemrose, Derbyshire, p. 21 (1910). 


Chesterfield Gas and Water Board obtain part of their 
water supply from a gathering ground at Linacre, with 
three storage reservoirs, 1333 acres in extent, between 470 
and 1000 feet elevation. The area, of which the Board 
only own 84 acres, comprises 50 acres of arable land, 1027 
acres of hill pasture and moor, and 172 acres of planta- 
tions. There are habitations and farm-steadings upon the 
area, and no special precautions are taken to prevent 
contamination of the gathering ground. The water is 
filtered. 


Chesterfield Rural District Council obtains its water 
supply from two catchment areas: 

Press gathering ground, 500 acres, between 700 and 
1000 feet elevation; all arable land, with a few dwelling- 
houses and farmsteads upon it. 

Barbrook gathering ground, 1030 acres, between 1000 
and 1200 feet elevation ; all hill pasture and moor, without 
any habitations or farmsteads. 

The Council owns no part of either area. No special 
measures are taken against contamination, The water of 
the Press area is filtered. 


Nantwich Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
from a gathering ground of 500 acres at Baddiley, consist- 
ing of agricultural land at a low elevation. The Council 
owns only two acres, which are willow beds and bog. The 
water, although filtered, is reported to be bacteriologically 


212 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


polluted and unsafe. No measures have been taken or are 
contemplated to acquire ownership. Steps were taken to 
obtain a new supply from springs at Madeley (Salop), but 
the project has been postponed on account of the war. 


VI. NORTHAMPTONSHIRE, LEICESTERSHIRE, AND 
LINCOLNSHIRE 


Six local authorities and one private company obtain 
their water supply from gathering grounds with a total 
extent of 24,774 acres, of which 698 acres are owned by 
three Corporations. 

These Midland catchment areas, some of which supply 
large centres of population, are not situated in high moor- 
land districts, but on the contrary consist of agricultural 
land with dwelling-houses and farm-steadings. Whether 
the bye-laws and other precautions taken against con- 
tamination are adequate is a matter of opinion. The main 
arguments for the present system are that farms are very 
expensive to purchase, and that afforestation, after the 
abandonment of agriculture and removal of the farm- 
houses, would be costly at the start, with only remote 
prospects of financial returns in the distant future. 
Kettering affords a good example of the difficulties with 
_which local authorities have to contend. Attention may 
also be paid to low-lying catchment areas in other districts, 
as those of Doncaster, Nantwich, Exmouth, ete. 


Northampton obtains its water supply in part from 
Teeton Brook, with a storage reservoir near Ravensthorpe, 
with a gathering ground of 3000 acres, between 353 and 
630 feet elevation, consisting mainly of arable land and 
pasture, and with 49 dwelling- houses upon it. The 
Corporation own 500 acres of the area, and “treat the 
sewage of properties within the gathering ground so as 
to prevent direct connection of offensive matter with 
the streams flowing into the reservoir.” The water is 
filtered. 


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214 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Higham Ferrers and Rushden Water Board obtain their 
water supply in part from an upland gathering ground of 
1747 acres at Sywell, between 260 and 400 feet elevation. 
The Board own only 65 acres immediately adjoining the 
Sywell storage reservoir. The gathering ground, of which 
I have not been able to obtain any definite particulars, 
appears to consist of arable land and _ pasture, with 
habitations and farmsteads upon it. Besides filtration, no 
special measures are taken to prevent contamination of the 
gathering ground. 


Kettering has two catchment areas: (1) Cransley, about 
1800 acres, and (2) Thorpe Malsor, 1330 acres. The 
Urban District Council have been able to purchase only 
the actual sites of the two reservoirs and a_ small 
margin round them, the land now owned at the Cransley 
waterworks being 73 acres, and at the Thorpe Malsor 
reservoir 60 acres. Mr. T. Reader Smith, the engineer 
in charge, in his interesting report in Journ. Sanitary 
Instit. xxii. 479 of 1901, explained that the catch- 
ment areas, being agricultural land with numerous farm- 
steadings and other buildings, were much too expensive 
to purchase. In order to keep the area in a_ proper 
sanitary condition, the Council obtained powers, in the 
Kettering Urban District Water Act, 1901, Section 30, 
to make bye-laws for this purpose. Under clause 4 of 
this section, the Council are liable to pay compensation 
to owners and other persons interested, who may be 
injuriously affected by any restrictions imposed by such 
bye-laws. The Council instituted enquiries and _ascer- 
tained that other water authorities, with similar powers 
in their water acts, had refrained from making bye-laws 
because of the expense to which they might be put on 
account of the various compensations that might be 
demanded. The Kettering Council is still in the position 
that while it has power to make bye-laws, none have as 
yet been made. Meanwhile, the Council merely keep an 
oversight over the catchment areas, making inspections from 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 215 


time to time to see that reasonable sanitary conditions are 
maintained; and for so far this is said to have worked 
satisfactorily. The water collected from the catchment 
areas is filtered, and undergoes a chemical examination 
quarterly. Nevertheless, the conditions are not ideal, as 
may be inferred from the following account supplied me by 
Mr. T. Reader Smith. 

The catchment areas are geologically Northampton sands, 
which contain a great deal of ironstone, worked by open 
quarrying. In 1917, the Cransley area contained ap- 
proximately 790 acres of arable land, 830 acres of grazing 
land, and 88 acres of woods, and the Thorpe Malsor area 
contained approximately 620 acres of arable land, 630 
acres of grazing land, and 34 acres of woods. On the 
Cransley area there are numerous habitations, including 7 
large houses, a corn-mill, 16 cottages, and 3 separate cow- 
sheds and yards; and besides, allotment ground and 
ironstone workings. On the Thorpe Malsor catchment 
area there are 4 large houses, a public-house, 8 cottages, 
and an isolated cowshed, besides some iron workings. I 
have no information how the sewage from the human 
habitations, cow-houses, etc., is diverted from the water 
that eventually finds its way into the reservoirs. 


Loughborough obtains its water supply from two areas 
in the Charnwood Forest district, with a total extent of 
3917 acres. Nanpantan reservoir, on the Woodbrook 
stream, has a gathering ground of 1050 acres, with 9 
habitations and farmsteads upon it. Blackbrook reservoir, 
on the Blackbrook stream, near Shepshed, has a gathering 
ground of 2867 acres, with 32 habitations and farmsteads 
upon it. The Corporation own no part of the two areas, 
but “all farms and occupied premises are inspected period- 
ically to ensure that the sewage and other sources of 
pollution are properly dealt with, and the water courses not 
contaminated.” The water is filtered. I have not been 
furnished with any deseription of the gathering grounds, 
which as regards afforestation are probably similar in their 


216 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


conditions to the adjoining catchment areas of the Leicester 
Corporation. 


Leicester obtains its water supply in part from three 
gathering grounds, each with a storage reservoir, in the 
Charnwood Forest district: (1) Thornton, 2860 acres; 
(2) Bradgate Park, 4400 acres; and (3) Swithland, 3500 
acres; in all, 10,760 acres, over red marl and clay. The 
average elevation is 400 feet, the highest point in the 
district being Bardon Hill, 902 feet above sea-level. The 
land consists of small woods, poor pasture, arable land, and 
rocks; and the Council only own the sites of the reservoirs 
and a small margin around them. About two hundred 
years ago, the timber in this district, mostly oak, was all 
cleared, and the land remained bare till the Enclosure of 
1812, when the high price of corn encouraged tillage. 
Numerous small woods, mostly oak and larch, were planted 
later. The rocks are Cambrian syenite, slate and trap, very 
hard but overlaid in the valleys with boulder clay and other 
glacial detritus. Mr. L. Fosbrooke of Ravenstone Hall, 
Leicester, who is well acquainted with the neighbourhood, 
is of opinion that these gathering grounds would be suitable 
for the creation of a coniferous forest, exceeding 10,000 
acres in extent. Such a forest would prove remunerative 
within a short term of years on account of the demand for 
pitwood by the collieries on the western boundary of the 
district. Sir J. Rolleston, however, at the Board of Agri- 
culture Conference on Afforestation, in 1907, gave his 
opinion as follows: “Those Corporations like Liverpool, 
which have bought their watersheds and have large tracts 
of land of no value for pasture or agriculture, can produce 
these schemes; but other towns which have not the land 
would not be able to do so. For instance, a town like 
Leicester, situated in the midst of the best grazing districts 
of the country, would hardly be likely to find lands suitable 
for any extensive scheme of afforestation.” 


Melton Mowbray Urban District Council obtains its water 
supply from a gathering ground of 300 acres at Scalford, 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 217 


between 390 and 421 feet elevation. The Council owns 
none of the land, but pays way-leaves for part of the 
gathering drains as permanent compensation, and pays rental 
for the rest. These gathering drains are not satisfactory in 
the absence of a reservoir and filters, as the supply is very 
intermittent, and at times would be quite insufficient, except 
for a temporary supply obtained by pumping from springs 
at Scalford. No other measures have been taken by the 
Council, who, however, contemplated a new scheme just 
before the war broke out. 


Boston Waterworks Company obtain their water supply 
from Miningsby Beck and Claxby Beck, with a gathering 
ground of 1920 acres, between 130 and 330 feet elevation, 
none of which is owned by the Company. The area 
comprises 1020 acres of hill pasture and moor, 100 acres 
of plantations, and 800 acres of arable land, with three 
small farmsteads and about thirty houses. “ Drainage from 
farms and buildings is carried into septic tanks and dis- 
charged over grass land before getting into the natural 
stream. Every house on the watershed is periodically 
visited, and any defects in the disposal of slopwater are 
noted and remedied.” The water is filtered. The Manager 
of the Waterworks, Mr. John Shaw, says that the 80 acres 
of plantations around the reservoirs at Revesby and Claxby 
Pluckacre are not an unmixed blessing, as the fall of the 
leaves perceptibly increases the albuminoid ammonia in 
autumn, when the prevailing wind blows large quantities 
of dead leaves into the water. He believes, however, that 
the trees attract moisture and prevent evaporation, as com- 
pared with cultivated land on their watershed. 


Scunthorpe Urban District Council is reported in Parlia- 
mentary “Return as to Water Undertakings in England 
and Wales,” 1915, p. 126, to obtain its water supply from 
an upland gathering ground over limestone of 1200 acres. 
The water is, however, an underground supply which is 
tapped by three borings at Roxby, Scunthorpe, and Rough 


218 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Bottom Plantation. There is no filtration. See W. A. E. 
Ussher, “ Report on Geology of Risby Warren,” printed at 
Scunthorpe in 1912. This gathering ground is not included 
in the total 24,774 acres, of p. 212. 


VII. Severn Basin, DEVoN, AND CORNWALL 


Twenty local authorities and two private companies 
obtain their water supply from gathering grounds agere- 
gating 34,103 acres, of which 10,862 acres are owned by 
nine Corporations. The most important areas owned by 
local authorities are those of Plymouth, Torquay, Paignton, 
and Stratford-on-Avon. A good deal of planting is being 
regularly carried out by the Torquay Corporation on their 
area. Plymouth is contemplating a scheme of afforestation 
after the war. There are considerable plantations on the 
Taunton, Exmouth, Penzance, and Wellington (Salop) areas. 
The Plymouth water catchment area has an interesting 
history, and is exceptional in the amount of water which it 
stores up. 


Church Stretton Urban District Council obtains its water 
supply from a gathering ground of 700 acres, between 900 
and 1550 feet elevation, on the Long Mynd Hill in Shrop- 
shire. The area, of which none is owned by the Council, 
is all hill pasture and moor, without habitations, farmsteads, 
or plantations. The water is not filtered, and no special 
measures are taken on the gathering ground against 
contamination. 


Wellington (Salop) Urban District Council obtains part 
of its water supply from the Wrekin and _ Buckatree 
streams, with a catchment area of 500 acres, between 500 
and 1284 feet elevation. The gathering ground, none of 
which is owned by the Council, comprises 170 acres of hill 
pasture and moor, and 330 acres of plantations, and has 
one small farmstead and a refreshment house upon it. The 
water is filtered, and sterilised by means of chlorine. 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 219 


Malvern Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
in part from two gathering grounds: 

(1) Malvern Hill, north of Wyche Cutting, with three 
small covered reservoirs, 300 acres, between 650 and 1300 
feet elevation; and (2) British Camp reservoir, with a 
gathering ground of 177 acres, between 650 and 1000 feet 
elevation. 

The areas, none of which are owned by the Council, are 
all hill pasture, without habitations. The water is filtered. 

Full particulars of the Malvern water supply were 
given by Mr. W. Osborne Thorp in Proc. Inst. Municipal 
and County Engineers, vol. 35, p. 238 (1909). 


Stratford-upon-Avon obtains its supply from the Snitter- 
field reservoir, 3 miles distant, and at 296 feet altitude, to 
which the water is conveyed by a conduit, 2 mile long, 
from the Snitterfield brook. The water is filtered. The 
Town Council purchased the Wayfield estate of 430 acres 
in 1893 for £7546, and the Comyns Park estate of 292 
acres in 1897 for £5440, making a total of 722 acres, 
upon which the gathering ground of 490 acres is situated. 
This consisted in 1918 of 58 acres of arable land, 422 
acres of pasture, and 10 acres of woodland. Its highest 
point is 366 feet above sea-level, and the average annual 
rainfall is 27 inches. “The ownership of the gathering 
ground gives the Corporation full control over the method 
of cultivation and manuring, and affords the greatest 
security that can be looked for against contamination.” 


Cheltenham obtains its water supply in part from the 
Dowdeswell reservoir, on the river Chelt, with a catchment 
area of 1430 acres in the Cotswold Hills, on which there 
are habitations and farmsteads. None of the area belongs 
to the Corporation. No precautions, other than sand 
filtration, are taken with regard to purification, except that 
a drainage system has been constructed for conveying the 
sewage, etc., of all houses on the area to a point below the 
reservoir. 


220 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Gloucester obtains part of its water supply from two 
catchment areas : 

1. A gathering ground of 260 acres on Robinswood 
Hill, an outlier of the Cotswolds, 2 miles south-east of 
Gloucester, between 155 and 651 feet elevation, all hill 
pasture except 12 acres of plantations. There are 4 farms 
on the area, the drainage of which is taken outside the 
watershed of the reservoirs; and the water is filtered 
before reaching the city. The Corporation own about 
7 acres. 

2. Witcombe gathering ground of 1500 acres, between 
293 and 900 feet elevation, with three impounding 
reservoirs at the base of an escarpment on the northern 
face of the Cotswold Hills, about 6 miles east of Gloucester. 
The water is derived from springs thrown out at the 
600-feet contour line, just above the Lias clay. The total 
area comprises 12 acres of arable land, 988 acres of hill 
pasture, and 500 acres of plantations. There are 5 farms 
and, Witcombe Park on the gathering ground, the sewage of 
which drains into cesspools. The water is filtered. The 
Corporation own only 42 acres. ‘Trees do well, oak, 
elm, sycamore, and lime thriving on the Lias formation, and 
beech, pine, and larch on the Oolite. The annual rainfall, 
varying from 20°37 to 42°37 inches, averages about 30 
inches. 


Newport, Monmouthshire, obtains its water supply from 
two catchment areas, aggregating 3630 acres: 

1. An intake at Henllys from the Pant yr eos and 
Henllys Brooks, with a catchment area of 2026 acres, 
between 123 and 1300 feet elevation, of which the Corpora- 
tion own about 664 acres. There are approximately 150 
persons dwelling on the gathering ground, which consists 
of 1467 acres of mountain pasture, with some arable land, 
and 559 acres of plantations. There are two storage 
reservoirs at Rogerstone, and one at Pant yr eos. 

2. Intakes at Newchurch, Wentwood, and Llanvaches, 
from Castroggy Nant y prydd and Llanvaches Brooks, with 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 221 


a catchment area of 1604 acres, between 450 and 900 
feet elevation, of which the Corporation own about 111 
acres. This gathering ground comprises 654 acres of arable 
land and hill pasture and 950 acres of plantations. There 
is one storage reservoir at Wentwood, Llanvaches. 

The water is filtered, and prevention of contamination 
on the gathering grounds is guarded against by “constant 
inspection and provision of drainage.” 

The Corporation intend to extend their water supply by 
a new scheme in Brecknockshire, involving a large reservoir 
at Pont Rhyd y bine, 24 miles from Talybont, with a catch- 
ment area of 5510 acres at Caerfanell, situated between 
650 and 2500 feet elevation, none of which is owned by 
the Corporation. No Parliamentary powers have been yet 
obtained. 


Tredegar Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
in part from the Georgetown reservoir, a mile east of the 
town, with a gathering ground of 160 acres, between 1200 
and 1500 feet elevation, and comprising 60 acres of arable 
land, 40 acres of hill pasture, and 60 acres of plantations, 
with one farmhouse. The water is filtered. 


Abertillery and District Joint Water Board obtain part of 
their supply from Tillery Brook, with a catchment area of 
600 acres on the Blaentylery Mountain, between 1125 
and 1905 feet elevation, all hill pasture and moorland. 
The Board own 20 acres. The water, which is filtered, is 
stored in the Cwmtillery reservoir, and was until lately 
under the control of the Abertillery Urban District Council. 
The Board are now constructing the Grwyne Fawr reservoir, 
on the Black Mountain in Brecknockshire, with a gathering 
eround of 2150 acres, between 1529 and 2660 feet 
elevation, all hill pasture and moorland, without habitations 
or farm-steadings. 


The Bristol Waterworks Company obtain their supply 
from the Mendip Hills, mainly from streams, though a part 
is derived from springs. The Yeo reservoir on the head- 


222 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


waters of the river Yeo has an immediate catchment area 
of 5300 acres, on which are situated the villages of 
Butcombe, Nempnett, Burrington, Blagdon, Ubley, and 
Compton Martin. After treatment in septic tanks, the 
sewage from these villages is discharged on land below the 
reservoir. The gathering ground extends from the level of 
the reservoir, 110 feet, to an elevation of 1068 feet on 
Black Down. As the Yeo reservoir is too low for the 
water to gravitate to Bristol, the water is raised by pumps 
into the North Hill Tunnel, and thence goes by gravitation 
into three reservoirs at Barrow, where there are filter beds. 
Another catchment area to the eastward, draining the head- 
waters of the river Chew, is situated in Chewton Mendip, 
Litton, East Harptree, West Harptree, and Hinton Blewett, 
and is said to have an extent of 8320 acres. Its reservoirs 
provide compensation water. A third catchment area, 
tapping the Ellwell and Dundry streams, lies in Winford, 
Dundry, and Barrow Gurney; and on it are the three 
Barrow reservoirs. The average annual rainfall for 22 
years varies from 35°20 inches at Barrow to 42°84 inches 
on Harptree Hill. I have been able to ascertain neither the 
acreage owned by the Company nor the proportions of 
arable land, moorland, and plantations on the various gather- 
ing grounds, a map of which is given in Proc. Inst. Civil 
Engineers, vol. 194, p. 424 (1914). Judging from the map 
of the “Distribution of Vegetation in Somerset,” by C. E. 
Moss, in Geographical Journal, October 1906, the higher 
parts of the catchment area, over 850 feet, are heather 
moor or heath pasture, but these are of no great extent. 
The greater part of the gathering grounds is cultivated land, 
with some natural oak woods and scattered plantations of 
conifers. 


Taunton obtains its water supply from three (Blagdon, 
Leigh, and Luxhay) impounding reservoirs, with a gathering 
ground of 700 acres in the Blackdown Hills, between 500 
and 900 feet elevation. The area, of which 42 acres are 
owned by the Corporation, is made up of 100 acres of arable 


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224 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


land, 50 acres of moor, and 550 acres of plantations, with 
two small houses upon it. The water is filtered, but “as 
the gathering ground is not under cultivation, no measures 
are necessary beyond constant supervision.” 


Stratton and Bude Urban District Council obtain their 
water supply from the Tamar Lake, supplied by overflow 
from the river Tamar and two small streams. The water 
is filtered, I have not been able to obtain any information 
about the gathering ground. 


South Molton obtains its water supply from a gathering 
ground of 400 acres, at about 800 feet elevation, on North 
Molton Common, Exmoor. There are no dwelling-houses, 
farmsteads, or plantations upon the area, of which only three 
acres are owned by the Council. Cattle and sheep are kept 
from the springs and rivulets by fences. The water is not 
filtered. 


Exmouth obtains its water supply from two gathering 
grounds, Squabmoor, 351 acres, and Bicton Common, 290 
acres, making a total of 641 acres, situated between 264 
and 550 feet elevation, and consisting of 75 acres of planta- 
tions, 74 acres of pasture and arable land, and 492 acres 
of common land. These areas were acquired in 1902 by 
the Council, who “are of opinion that no future steps 
are necessary to maintain the high state of purity of the 
water supply.” The water, which is stored in Squabmoor 
reservoir, is filtered, and is reported by the analyst to be 
satisfactory ; it acts on lead, but lead pipes are not allowed. 
Two small additional areas of 41 and 35 acres make now 
the total extent of the gathering ground 717 acres. An 
interesting account of the geological structure and rainfall 
is given by Mr. S. Hutton, in Proc. Inst. Municipal and 
County Engineers, vol. 36, p. 132 (1910). 


Plymouth obtains its water supply from the river Meavy 
watershed on Dartmoor, 5360 acres in extent, between 750 
and 1650 feet altitude, as follows: 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 225 


Between 1500 and 1650 feet altitude ‘ : 84 acres, 
Mer eg cee PROG 307s Pees Legis. 
Gg oe ABAD. 5; c ia aad ak ok 
na ToO7 ae OOO ie: Ac - su RLEG ees 

Total . 5360 acres, 


Practically the whole of the area is rough moorland 
grazing, with a few enclosed meadow and pasture lands, and 
27 acres of woodland. The Town Council have purchased 
outright nearly the whole of the watershed, and have planted 
about 100,000 larch at different periods during the last 
twenty years. This planting has been only partially success- 
ful, owing to the rabbit pest. The Town Council are con- 
templating a scheme of afforestation after the war, and are 
being advised by Prof. Pritchard on the matter. 

The Plymouth waterworks date from 1590, when Sir 
Francis Drake cut the open channel from Dartmoor to 
Plymouth, now known as the ‘leat, which conveyed the 
water supply for 300 years. From 1875 onwards the 
supply often ran short, owing to leakage from the leat, to 
the great increase of population, and to other causes. This 
led to the building of the Burrator reservoir and the con- 
veyance of the water by pipes in 1898. The growing in- 
adequacy of the water supply was not due, as has been 
stated, to the deforestation of Dartmoor in the last 300 
years. There is no evidence of the existence of woods in the 
Meavy drainage area in historic times. The watershed is 
very remarkable for its yield of water, which is greater than 
that of any other watershed in Britain. The whole of the 
catchment area, except 90 acres, is on granite, in which 
there are large fissures; and overlying the rock there are 
large tracts of peaty moorland. The rainfall is about 58 to 
60 inches annually. During wet weather the peat absorbs 
an immense quantity of water, which is stored up in various 
parts of the watershed in deposits of decomposed granite, 
that are in some places over 100 feet in thickness. This 
water is yielded pure and abundant in summer, when the 
flow of the stream is very much larger than on watersheds, 
where the geological formation is more or less impervious 

Q 


226 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


to water. Disastrous floods of the Meavy river are also 
rare, This watershed is an exceptional case, where, without 
any forest cover, most of the rainfall is stored up, and little 
of the water passes away as ‘ run-off.’ 

Mr. J. Paton, Borough Engineer, in a discussion on pure 
water supply held at a meeting of the Institute of Municipal 
and County Engineers in 1911, comparing the gathering 
ground of Plymouth, owned by the Corporation, with that 
of Devonport, not similarly owned, says: “The water supply 
of Plymouth. is not filtered. The source of supply is above 
suspicion, and there is no necessity to filter. The typhoid 
rate for many years has been the lowest in the country. 
Devonport has a gathering ground in another valley, with 
a great deal of peat; and the stream comes through one or 
two very questionable districts, where it might be liable to 
pollution from farm buildings, which the Plymouth supply 
is free from. There they do not filter, as they find it very 
expensive work, because the sand washing amounts to a 
very large sum yearly. Sand filtering does not make them 
any more immune from typhoid or an epidemic than if they 
had left it alone.” 

The Plymouth Waterworks are described by E. Sandeman, 
in Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers, vol. 146, pp. 2-42, with map 
(1901); and by F. Howarth, in Proc. Inc. Assoc. Municipal 
and County Engineers, vol. 37, pp. 95-112, with map (1911), 
and in Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers, vol. 194, p. 97, with 
map (1914). 


Devonport obtains its water supply, which is now under 
the control of the Plymouth Corporation, from the West 
Dart river (1559 acres) and its tributaries, the Cowsic 
(1524 acres) and Blackabrook (1653 acres) rivers. The 
total catchment area comprises 4716 acres, of which 3297 
acres are above 1500 feet, and 1419 acres lie between 
1000 and 1500 feet. The area is rough moorland grazing, 
without any plantations of trees, and is not owned by the 
Corporation, who have, however, rights under Act of Parlia- 
ment to abstract the water at definite points and divert it. 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 227 


A weir built across the main stream diverts the water into 
a leat or open conduit, which crosses the moor for many 
miles. The water is filtered. See Journ. Roy. Sanitary 
Inst. xxxiv. (1913). 


Ivybridge obtains its water supply from a new reservoir 
on Harford Moor, Dartmoor, with a gathering ground of 
414 acres, at 854 to 1200 feet elevation, all rough moor- 
land and common lands. The Urban District Council own 
only the site of the reservoir and land adjoining, which is 
enclosed, about 8 acres. The Council have powers to enter 
into agreement with owners, lessees, and occupiers of any 
lands within the gathering ground for the execution of such 
works as may be necessary for draining such lands, or for 
more effectually preserving the purity of and collecting the 
water. It has not been found necessary to make any 
arrangements as to surface occupation. 


Torquay obtains its water supply from the Trenchford 
and Blackingstone valleys on an outlying spur of Dartmoor 
on the eastern side between the Wrey Brook and the river 
Teign. The catchment area comprises 2331 acres, at 718 
to 1135 feet elevation, as follows : 


Plantations . ; : - : ; : . 284 acres. 
Farm lands (let). ; : : : at AS 
Arable land allowed to run w aste : j . Bey iid) Sie 
Moorland and brake : i é : : ot Ore es 
Roads . : ; A EOC cant 
Kennick, Tottiford, and Trenchford 1 reservoirs . cali ee 
Total . 23381 acres. 


The whole area is owned by the Corporation. Originally 
there were 19 dwelling-houses and a population of 119 
persons upon it; but all dwellings and farm buildings have 
been pulled down; and the greater part of the land is unused, 
even for grazing, 559 acres being arable land allowed to 
run to waste, while 799 acres are moorland. 

The section of 484 acres which is let as a farm is under 
severe restrictions, viz.: (1) The house and farm buildings 
lie off the catchment area, and drain towards Wrey Brook. 


228 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


(2) All streams are strongly fenced off, and springs are 
carried in pipes underground so that no water lies on the 
surface. (3) The grazing of cattle and sheep is confined to 
certain areas. (4) The use of manure is limited to certain 
areas, and certain kinds of manure are prohibited. 

Of the 284 acres of plantations, 183 acres were planted 
in the years 1899 to 1916. Mr. S. C. Chapman, C.E.,, the 
able engineer in charge, has sent me a plan of the catchment 
area, which shows that the plantations are being made on 
the slopes round the reservoirs. If the flat lands beyond 
are ever again occupied for grazing purposes, the wide belt 
of trees will form a protective barrier. It is the rule to 
purchase 1- to 2-year-old seedling trees, which are placed 
in nurseries till old enough to plant out. The planta- 
tions have been successful. See Journ. Roy. Sanitary Inst. 
xxx (L910): 

The Report of the Development Commissioners for 1912— 
1913 mentions “the application of the Torquay Town 
Council, on which they have agreed to approve a scheme 
that would ultimately provide for the planting of about 
10,000 acres on Dartmoor.” This scheme apparently never 
was proceeded. with. 


Okehampton obtains its water supply from two gathering 
erounds on Dartmoor: (1) from an intake on the Redaven 
stream at Yes Tor, with a catchment area of 560 acres, 
without any dwelling-houses or farmsteads; and (2) a 
gathering ground from springs, of 100 acres in Western 
Park, on which there are two dwelling-houses and farm- 
steads. The Town Council own no part of the gathering 
grounds, which are entirely hill pasture and moorland. 
The water from Yes Tor area passes through filter beds. 


Paignton Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
from the Holne or Venford reservoir, on Holne Moor, Dart- 
moor, which impounds the Venford Brook, a tributary of the 
river Dart. It is a mile north-west of Holne, the birth- 
place of Charles Kingsley. The Town Council “ wisely 
followed the admirable precedent set by ‘Torquay, and 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 229 


purchased the catchment area, 740 acres of moorland, 
between 936 and 1590 feet elevation, without a habitation 
of any sort upon it. Commoners’ rights were extinguished 
in respect of the land covered by the reservoir, and of 60 
acres additional alongside the reservoir, which were fenced 
in to prevent direct pollution from cattle, etc. Owing to 
large patches of soft, peaty soil, the water at times has an 
acid reaction, and is therefore liable to act on lead.” Appro- 
priate filtration neutralises the acidity; and Paignton, a 
health resort with numerous summer visitors, enjoys an 
abundant pure moorland water supply, the cost of which 
amounted to £119,000, No planting has been done on 
the catchment area; but some larch, spruce, and Scots pine 
have been planted below the reservoir, which are doing well 
in shelter. 


Falmouth Waterworks Company obtains its water supply 
from a gathering ground of 1858 acres, situated between 
200 and 600 feet elevation, about 24 miles from the 
town. It consists, with the exception of 200 acres of 
moor, of arable land and pasture, on which there are a few 
small farms and cottages. The Company has no control 
over the area, but has rights of inspection, which is 
regularly carried out by the Company and the Sanitary 
Inspector of the District. The water is filtered. There 
appear to be no plantations on the area, which might be 
afforested to preserve the purity of the water. 


St. Ives obtains its water supply in part from the New 
Bussow reservoir, with a gathering ground on Bussow Moors, 
of 360 acres, between 400 and 800 feet elevation, none of 
which is owned by the town. The area consists of 260 
acres of hill pasture and moorland and 100 acres of -arable 
land, with several habitations and farmsteads, the drainage 
from which is conducted away from the streams leading to 
the reservoir. The water is filtered. 


Penzance obtains its water supply in part from a stream 
gathering ground of 800 acres at Madron, between 300 and 


230 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


700 feet elevation, the whole of which is leased to the 
Town Council. It comprises 400 acres of arable land, 
with six farm-steadings, 300 acres of hill pasture and moor, 
and 100 acres of plantations. The water is passed through 
three separate layers of coke in the leats, and then in the 
Boscathnoe reservoirs it passes through a final filter into the 
service mains. Another part of the supply comes from an 
underground watershed of 1000 acres; and during the 
summer the supply is augmented by pumping from a deep 
well and adits. See Zrans. Inst. Water Engineers, 1x. 
(1904). 


VIII. WaALEs 


Thirty-four local authorities and five private companies 
obtain their water supply from gathering grounds aggregat- 
ing 147,909 acres, of which 42,273 acres are owned by 
eighteen Corporations.. The most important areas owned by 
local authorities are those of Liverpool, Birmingham, Birken- 
head, and Cardiff. Excellent schemes of afforestation are 
being carried out on the Vyrnwy area by the Liverpool 
Corporation, and on the Elan area by the Birmingham 
Corporation. Cardiff has only planted a few acres. A 
considerable amount of purchasable planting land exists on 
the Merthyr Tydfil area, but as this is not owned by the 
Corporation it is doubtful if any afforestation scheme will be 
considered. Large areas owned by Llandudno and Colwyn 
are too elevated to carry trees. In most of the gathering 
grounds in Wales, plantations on a small scale around 
reservoirs are possible. 

The new gathering ground of Abertillery (see p. 221)— 
2150 acres in Brecknockshire—is included in the total of 
147,909 acres for Wales. The Newport (Mon.) proposed, 
but not yet sanctioned, area of 5510 acres in Brecknock- 
shire is not included in this total. 


Holyhead Waterworks Company obtain their supply 
in part from Llyn Traffwll, a lake 6 miles distant, 
with a gathering ground of 952 acres, situated between 


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232 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


25 and 52 feet elevation. The Company own only a 
small strip on the margin of the lake and the site of the 
pumping and filtration works. Both mechanical and sand 
filters are used. 


Carnarvon obtains its water supply from an intake at 
Nant Mill, half a mile below Quellyn Lake, with a gather- 
ing eround of about 5120 acres, between 453 anal 3500 
feet elevation (Snowdon). The Corporation own only the 
site of the intake. The land, on which there are no planta- 
tions, is entirely hill pasture, except a very small amount of 
arable land. The scavenging of the village of Rhyd-ddu 
on the area, which has a considerable population (200 
persons), is carried out under the supervision of the Rhyd- 
ddu Joint Sanitary Committee to the satisfaction of the 
Local Government Board. 


Bangor obtains its water supply from an intake on the 
river Llafar in Llanllechid, at 1300 feet elevation, with a 
catchment area of 1100 acres, extending up to Carnedd 
Llewellyn, 3484 feet elevation. The gathering ground, 
which is not owned by the Corporation, is without faba 
tions, habitations, or farmsteads, and is used only for sheep 
erazing. The water is not filtered. 


Llanfairfechan Urban District Council obtains its water 
supply from a storage reservoir at Camarnaint, with an 
intake from the Glan y Sais stream, and a gathering ground 
of 393 acres, between 1100 and 2000 feet elevation. The 
area, which is common land belonging to the Crown, is 
entirely hill pasture, used for grazing sheep and ponies 
only, and is without plantations. The water is not filtered. 
When sheep or ponies die on the gathering ground they are 
immediately buried. 


Penmaenmawr Urban District Council obtains its water 
supply from an upland surface at Tan y Fan, reported 
in Journ. Board of Agriculture, xi. 471 (1904), to be 
832 acres of hill pasture, between 1000 and 2000 feet eleva- 
tion, all owned by the Council. The water is not filtered. 


ee 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 233 


Conway and Colwyn Bay Joint Water Board obtain their 
supply from Lake Cowlyd, 4 miles from Llanrwst, with a 
gathering ground of 1100 acres, between 1169 and 2621 
feet elevation. The highest points on the gathering ground 
are Pen Llithrig-y-wrach (2621 feet) and Cregiau Gleision 
(2213 feet). The area, which is owned by the Board, 
includes 200 acres of lake and 900 acres of moorland, and 
is without habitations, farmsteads, or plantations. The 
water is passed through copper screens, but is not filtered ; 
and precautions against contamination on the gathering 
ground are considered unnecessary. The annual rainfall 
from 1891 to 1906 varied between 58°50 and 114:30 
inches, the average being 76°61 inches. The catchment 
area was purchased to do away with a farmstead that was 
on it, and to give the Board full control. It is now only 
used as a sheep-walk, and owing to its elevation and 
distance very few visitors find their way up there. See 
T. B. Farrington, in Proc. Inst. Municipal and County 
Engineers, vol. 33, pp. 200-207 (1907). 


Llandudno Urban District Council obtains its water 
supply from Lake Dulyn, at 1747 feet elevation, and Lake 
Melynllyn, at 2094 feet elevation. The united gathering 
grounds, 710 acres in extent, are entirely moorland at a 
very high altitude, and together with 730 acres adjoining 
(1430 acres in all), are owned by the Council. An experi- 
mental plantation of half an acre has been made at 1650 
feet elevation. The water is not filtered, but the gathering 
ground is frequently patrolled, twice a week in summer, 
and once a week in winter. 


Rhyl Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
from a gathering ground of 900 acres at Llanefydd, between 
485 and 1000 feet elevation, of which 50 acres are owned 
by the Council. The area comprises 100 acres of planta- 
tions, 200 acres of hill pasture, and 600 acres of arable 
land, with small farms upon it. The water is filtered; and 
on the gathering ground, the farms, which have intercepting 
tanks, and the streams are inspected, and excreta are 


234 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


removed. This catchment area could probably be afforested 
with profit, and in any case ought to be owned by the Council. 


The Wrexham and East Denbighshire Water Company 
obtain their supply in part from the Pentrebychan Brook, 
with a gathering ground of 1500 acres, on the Esclusham 
Mountain, between 900 and 1500 feet elevation. The 
ground, none of which is owned by the Company, is all 
barren moorland on millstone grit and limestone, without 
houses or farmsteads. There is said to be no possible 
contamination. The water is first settled in an impounding 
reservoir at Cae Llwyd, Esclusham Above, then decanted 
into the Ty Mawr reservoir and finally filtered through 
slow sand filters. 


Birkenhead obtains its water supply at present from 
wells and borings in the New Red Sandstone formation ; 
but an additional source of supply from a gathering ground 
of 6300 acres on the head-waters of the river Alwen in 
Denbighshire was authorised by the Birkenhead Corporation 
Water Act of 1907; and the necessary works, including 
reservoir, mechanical filters and tanks, are now being con- 
structed. The Alwen catchment area is situated between 
1190 and 1760 feet elevation, and consists mainly of 
moorland, more or less covered with peat, which varies in 
depth from a few inches to many feet. Below the peat on 
the south and west is generally boulder clay; elsewhere rock 
and shale prevail. About 550 acres only may be classed 
as arable and grass land, there being a little cultivation on 
the north and east sides of the watershed, and about 
100 acres of woods and plantations on the north-east side 
of the valley. There are eleven houses and farmsteads on 
the gathering ground, five of which belong to the Corpora- 
tion; and of the latter, two near the margin of the reservoir 
will probably remain uninhabited. 

The Corporation own 2600 acres, including some land 
below the reservoir, that drains to the river Alwen. Of 
this area, about 375 acres are covered with the water of 
the reservoir. Prof. Fraser Story estimates that about 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 235 


600 acres of the Alwen area might be profitably afforested. 
The afforestable area faces north and east, excellent shelter 
being afforded by a ridge which runs parallel to the lake. 
The range of hills, composed of Craig-yr-Tychen, Ten-y- 
bwleh, Mwdwleithin and Pen-bwlchygarnedd, is situated 
immediately to windward. The sheltered situation counter- 
acts to a great extent the influence of the high elevation, 
1200 to 1500 feet. Many parts, chiefly near the sources 
of small streams and in the hollows, covered with accumula- 
tions of peat, must be excluded from any scheme of 
afforestation. The area previously occupied by Llyn 
Dauychain, in which the peat from the bottom of the 
reservoir was deposited, and some swampy land, must also 
be excluded. The soil is suitable for the growth of spruce, 
especially Sitka spruce ; and some of the lower slopes might 
be advantageously planted with Douglas fir. About 75 per 
cent of the west side could produce timber profitably. The 
cost of planting, including young trees, drainage, and 
ordinary fencing, was estimated in 1915 at £6 per acre. 
The annual rainfall was about 46 inches in 1911, 1912, 
and 1913, and 55:12 inches in 1914. 

The Corporation have authority to construct another 
reservoir in the Brenig Valley in Denbighshire, having a 
separate gathering ground adjacent to the Alwen watershed, 
5600 acres in extent, and situated between 1067 and 
1700 feet altitude. This catchment area, of which the 
Corporation own about 4400 acres, will not be utilised at 
present for water supply; and no report as regards its 
suitability for afforestation has yet been made. 


Brymbo Water Company obtain their supply from three 
upland surfaces, 686 acres and 873 acres at Llandegla, and 
42 acres at Llanarmon, making a total of 1601 acres. I 
have not been able to obtain any particulars of these gather- 
ing grounds, which appear to be mainly moorland and hill 
pasture. The water is filtered. 


Ruabon Water Company obtain their supply from an 
intake of the Trefechan Brook on the Ruabon Mountain, 


236 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


west of the village of Pen y Cae, with a gathering ground 
of 1565 acres. I have not been able to obtain any 
particulars of this area, which appears to be all moorland 
and hill pasture. The water is filtered. 


Oswestry obtains its water supply from Penygwely 
reservoir, 54 miles distant and near Llansilin in Denbigh- 
shire, with a gathering ground of 455 acres, at 1100 to 
1467 feet elevation, consisting mainly of hill pasture and 
sheep-run without any habitations. The Town Council in 
1904 purchased the farm of 250 acres on which the 
impounding reservoir is situated and which comprises the 
greater part of the watershed. It includes 30 acres of 
arable land; but there is little or no danger of contamina- 
tion. The water is not filtered, but is of good quality. 
There are no trees on the area; but in the adjoining water- 
shed to the north there are large plantations ranging in 
elevation from 1000 to 1380 feet and from 1400 to 
1470 feet. The annual rainfall at the reservoir averages 
40 inches. The Borough Surveyor, Mr. G. W. Lacey, is of 
opinion that in general the control of the catchment area 
should be in the hands of the Water Authority, 


Hawarden and District Waterworks Company obtain their 
supply from four storage reservoirs at Cilcain, with a 
gathering ground on the Garth Stream, Moel Famma, of 
1400 acres, between 750 and 1640 feet elevation. The 
area, which is entirely hill pasture and moor, is not owned 
by the Company. The water is filtered; and no special 
precautions against contamination are considered necessary. 


Towyn Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
from (1) Rhydyronen Brook, with a gathering ground of 
215 acres, comprising 179 acres of hill pasture, 30 acres 
of arable land, and 6 acres of plantations; and (2) Bwlchgwyn, 
springs and gathering ground of 57 acres, comprising 
47 acres of hill pasture and 10 acres of arable land. In 
Journ. Board of Agriculture, xi. 471 (1904), 217 acres are 
said to be owned by the Council. 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 237 


Vyrnwy catchment area, 22,742 acres, supplying Liver- 
pool, and with a good scheme of afforestation, is fully 
described on pp. 88-94. 


Machynlleth Urban District Council obtains its water 
supply from Esgeireira reservoir, Llanwrin, with a gathering 
ground of 271 acres, reported in Journ. Board of Agriculture, 
xi. 471 (1904), to be owned by the Council, and to com- 
prise 204 acres of hill pasture and 67 acres of woodland. 
The Clerk states in a letter that only 34 acres are owned 
by the Council. 


Lianidloes obtains its water supply from a gathering 
ground of 260 acres at Llangurig, all hill pasture and 
moorland. None of it is owned by the Town Council. 
The water is filtered, but no other precautions are taken 
against contamination. 


Newtown and Llanllwehaiarn Urban District Council obtain 
their water supply from Mochdre reservoir, with a gathering 
ground of 1821 acres, between 662 and 1391 feet elevation, 
in Mochdre and Kerry. The total area, of which only 10 
acres are owned by the Council, comprises 334 acres of 
arable land, 1377 acres of hill pasture and moor, and 110 
acres of plantations. There are 17 farm-steadings on the 
gathering ground, and a careful inspection is made monthly 
of each farm. Cesspools are provided to prevent the sewage 
getting into the intake stream ; and no flood water is taken 
into the reservoir. This area would seem to be suitable for 
an afforestation scheme, which would do away with the 
arable land and farm-steadings, and prevent possible 
contamination. 


Aberystwyth obtains its water supply from Llyn Llygad 
Rheidol, a small lake or tarn just below the summit of 
Plynlimmon, with a gathering ground of 133 acres, between 
1665 and 2468 feet elevation, all moorland without any 
habitations, and not owned by the Town Council. There is 
no filtration. 


238 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Elan and Claerwen area, 45,562 acres, supplying Bir- 
mingham, and with a good afforestation scheme, is fully 
described on pp. 101-104. 


Milford Haven Urban District Council obtains its water 
supply from three reservoirs at Fordway, with a gathering 
ground of about 200 acres, between 92 and 190 feet eleva- 
tion. This area is leased by the Council, and comprises 
40 acres of arable land, 155 acres of hill pasture and moor, 
and 5 acres of plantations. There are some habitations and 
farm-steadings on the gathering ground; and to deal with 
the contamination from these, a system of drainage with 
cesspits and small filters was adopted, which is reported 
to be satisfactory. 


Lianelly obtains its water supply from two gathering 
erounds with a total extent of 4398 acres: 

1. Lliedi Valley, with two reservoirs, 4048 acres, be- 
tween 200 and 950 feet elevation, comprising 400 acres of 
arable land, 3000 acres of hill pasture and moor, and 648 
acres of plantations. 

2. Cwm Trebeddrod, with one reservoir, 350 acres, 
between 200 and 550 feet elevation, comprising 50 acres 
of arable land, 250 acres of hill pasture, and 50 acres of 
plantations. 

On the Lliedi area, there are 509 inhabitants and 102 
dwelling-houses and farmsteads; and the Corporation own 
only 100 acres in all. On the Cwm Trebeddrod area there 
are 50 inhabitants and 10 dwelling-houses and farmsteads, 
and the Council own only 15 acres. 

The risk of contamination would appear to be great, but 
stringent bye-laws for the prevention of pollution have been 
made under section 25 of the Llanelly Waterworks Act, 
1909. “The gathering ground is inspected, and all sanitary 
arrangements in the houses on the area are kept under 
supervision. The farmyards are drained on to adjoining 
lands and the watercourses are kept clear.” The bye-laws 
provide that sanitary arrangements shall be made by owners 
and occupiers of lands on the drainage area. No pigs may 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 239 


be kept. The grazing of cattle is not allowed within 100 
yards of the streams. The water is filtered. 


Cardiff obtains its supply of domestic water at present 
from a gathering ground of 4000 acres, at the head of the 
Taff Fawr River in Brecknockshire. There are two reservoirs, 
Beacons reservoir at 1340 feet and Cantreff reservoir at 
1073 feet elevation, the highest point on the area being 
Brecon Beacons, 2910 feet. The Council have purchased 
728 acres of this area, and have planted 25 acres with trees 
up to February 1918. “Prof. Fraser Story advised the 
Council regarding afforestation ; and a deputation was sent 
to interview the Development Commissioners, but little help 
or encouragement was given at the time.” Upon the parts 
privately owned, there are no buildings except a house 
belonging to the Corporation, and steps are taken to prevent 
any contamination. Adjacent to the preceding gathering 
ground is the lower catchment area of Taff Fawr, on which 
the Llwynon reservoir is being built at 850 feet elevation ; 
but the work of construction was stopped in November 1915. 
This area comprises 6000 acres, between 850 and 2000 
feet elevation, and of it 1248 acres are owned by the 
Corporation. The average rainfall varies from 76°96 inches 
at the Beacons reservoir to 60°31 inches at the Llwynon 
reservoir. The water is filtered. 

Cardiff has also another gathering ground, with two 
reservoirs at Llanishen and Lisvane, about four miles north 
of the city, comprising 2000 acres mainly over limestone, 
mostly arable land with some pasture and woods, extending 
on the north to the Caerphilly hills and on the east to Cefn 
Mably Park. Recently considerable building has taken 
place of a suburban character. The Corporation own no 
part of this area, the water of which has not been utilised 
for domestic purposes for many years past. Owing to the 
non-completion of the Llwynon reservoir, the Lisvane gather- 
ing ground may shortly be used to supplement the water 
from the Taff Fawr; and this would entail steps being taken 
to prevent contamination of the water of the several streams. 


240 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Merthyr Tydfil obtains its water supply from a gathering 
ground of 8550 acres in Brecknockshire, comprising the 
area draining to the river Taf Fechan from the Brecon 
Beacons southwards to Pontsticill, where the Taf Fechan 
reservoir is now being constructed across the river valley. 
The area lies between 1082 and 2906 feet elevation. The 
area owned as freehold by the Corporation is 623 acres, 
of which 4204 acres are under water, while 2024 acres 
are enclosed land around the margins of the reservoirs, 
Viz. : 


Upper Neuadd Reservoir . 1509 feet elevation, 18 acres moorland, 
Lower Neuadd Reservoir . 1413 ,, Pe 314s, or 
Pentwyn Reservoir 7» LOSHis a 264 ,, pasture 
Taf Fechan Reservoir 2 LOS ee Me 1264 x ee 


Around the three first reservoirs the Corporation have 
planted 70 acres; and “conifer plantations and quickset 
hedges have proved successful at an elevation of 1500 feet, 
which does not appear to be the limiting altitude for suc- 
cessful afforestation.” 

In a report, dated 26th August 1914, Mr. T. Harvey, 
M.Inst.C.E., states that “of the total area, more than 6000 
acres are mountain moorland, mostly commonable lands, 
the greater part of which is on the Old Red Sandstone, and 
eminently adapted for a scheme of afforestation. About 
1500 acres in the Taf Fechan Valley, adjoining the reser- 
voir lands, are enclosed lands, cultivated by various land- 
owners, who use the 6000 acres of mountain moorland within 
the catchment area for sheep-runs and for cattle grazing. 
A proportion of the mountain land, perhaps 1000 acres or 
more, could with advantage be enclosed and planted in a 
series of belts, leaving the intervening spaces for sheep 
grazing; and after a period of years the trees would afford 
shelter. The subsoil over a large portion of the 6000 acres 
is of a considerable depth, but near the summit of the hills 
the rock crops out in escarpments and on the surface. At 
Blaentaf Farm, nearly 1400 feet above sea-level, large and 
well-crown ash trees and sycamores may be seen. In my 
opinion, the afforestation of the moorland, comprising the 


| 
| 
| 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 241 


larger part of the catchment area, would prove advantageous 
in every respect and ultimately profitable.” 

The catchment area was subsequently reported upon by 
Mr. H. A. Pritchard, Adviser in Forestry, who spent some 
days in a detailed examination of the ground; but whether 
any steps will be taken for its afforestation after the war, 
in the absence of ownership by the Corporation, is un- 
certain. 

The population on the gathering ground, which contains 
no arable land, is very small; and the only measure taken 
against possible contamination has been the carrying out of 
some drainage to farms near Pentwyn reservoir. _ The water 
is filtered. The rainfall on the catchment area is high, 
ranging from 44 to 72 inches at Pentwyn reservoir. For 
further particulars see Mr. T. F. Harvey, in Proc. Ine. Assoc. 
Municipal and County Engineers, vol. 26, pp. 46-49, with 
map and plans (1900). 


Neath Rural District Council obtains its water supply 
from Ystradfellte reservoir on the river Dringarth in 
Brecknockshire, with a gathering ground of 2250 acres 
between 1204 and 2000 feet elevation, all hill pasture and 
moor, without habitations or farm-steadings. The Council 
owns 85 acres only. The water is not filtered, but care- 
takers make daily inspection of all sources of supply. 


Ebbw Vale Urban District Council obtains its water 
supply from the Llangynidr and Carno reservoirs, on the 
river Ebbw, with a gathering ground of 1530 acres on the 
Llangynidr mountain in Brecknockshire, between 1356 and 
1771 feet elevation. The area, none of which is owned 
by the Council, is all hill pasture and moorland, without 
habitations, farm-steadings, or plantations. The water is 
filtered, but no special precautions are taken against con- 
tamination on the gathering ground. The average annual 
rainfall is 60 inches. 


Brynmawr Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
from a gathering ground of 200 acres on Cirn Mountain 


R 


242 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


(Brecknockshire), a mile north of the town, between 1400 
and 1600 feet elevation. The area is all hill pasture and 
moor, without habitations or farm-steadings; and _ the 
Council owns only 7 acres, the site of the impounding 
reservoir and filter beds. No precautions are considered 
necessary against contamination of the gathering ground. 


Swansea obtains its water supply from two catchment 
areas, aggregating 5156 acres: 

1. Lliw or Velindre area, 2476 acres, between 416 and 
1226 feet elevation, with Lower Lliw, Upper Lliw, and 
Blaenant Dhu reservoirs. The gathering ground, on the 
head-waters of the Lliw River, comprises 2144 acres of 
hill pasture and moor, 193 acres of arable land, 115 acres 
of reservoir sites and works, and 24 acres of plantations, 
recently felled. Only 147 acres are above the 1000 feet 
contour line, being unenclosed mountain pasture. There 
are on the area eighteen farmsteads and habitations, the 
drainage of which is distributed over the land by irrigating 
channels ; and two contaminated streams, which intercept 
the drainage of nine habitations, are conveyed by pipes 
below the reservoir embankment. 

2. Cray area, 2680 acres, between 1000 and 2380 feet 
elevation, all hill pasture and moorland, except six acres of 
plantations and 124 acres of reservoir site and works. No 
less than 1250 acres are above the 1500 feet contour line. 
The catchment area, comprising the head-waters of the Cray 
River, is in Brecknockshire, about 30 miles from Swansea. 
On the area there are two shepherds’ cottages, the drainage 
of which is conveyed below the Cray reservoir by the bye- 
wash channel. The annual rainfall on the area varied in 
1915 from 63°90 inches at 1030 feet to 85°50 inches 
at 2170 feet altitude. 

As there is no filtration, in addition to the precautions 
taken with regard to sewage of habitations, constant patrols 
are in operation on both catchment areas; and any dead 
sheep are collected and properly disposed of by arrangement 
with the farmers. 


pea ees 


hin died. at 


ee Se ae ae! 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 243 


Of the Lliw area, the Corporation own 215 acres, of 
which all but about 100 acres is occupied by reservoir sites 
and works. Of the Cray area, the Corporation own 174 
acres, of which all but 50 acres is occupied by reservoir 
site and works. There would thus be in the two areas 
about 150 acres of land owned by the Corporation available 
for afforestation. This 150 acres is below 1200 feet 
elevation. Mr. G. R. Collinson, the Water Engineer, is of 
opinion that “the catchment areas, comprising principally 
mountain pasture, seem to be lands which, in the event of 
the State acquiring land for afforestation, could be more 
valuably used for that purpose than remain in their present 
condition. The few plantations that exist seem to indicate 
that afforestation on an extensive scale and under proper 
management could not fail to be successful. Unless the 
Government can, however, obtain land more advantageously 
than public authorities seem to be able to do so for public 
purposes, State afforestation schemes would have to be 
developed on very uneconomic lines.” 

The Swansea water supply is described by R. H. Wyrell, 
C.E., in Proce. Ine. Assoc. Municipal and County Engineers, 
vol. 32, pp. 61-70 (1906). 


Margam has a gathering ground of 1000 acres, at 400 to 
1000 feet elevation. None of the area is owned by the Cor- 
poration except the site of the impounding reservoir at Cwm 
Wenderi, 104 acres in extent, which is held on a lease 
of 999 years, There are no habitations or farm-steadings 
on the gathering ground, which is frequently inspected. 
The water, which is not filtered, is frequently analysed. 


Neath receives its water supply from a gathering ground 
of 843 acres, situated to the east of the town, between 200 
and 1000 feet elevation. The area, none of which is owned 
by the Town Council, comprises 80 acres of arable land, 
533 acres of hill pasture and moor, and 230 acres of 
plantations ; and upon it there are the five farms of Brynau, 
Glannant, Cefn-Saeson, Crynallt, and Preswylfa. The water 
is filtered, and certain drainage arrangements have been 


244 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


made on the gathering ground, which would seem to be 
suitable for an extensive scheme of afforestation. 


Briton Ferry Urban District Council obtains its water 
supply from a gathering ground of 240 acres on Pant 
Howellddu and Cefn Coed Mountain, between 500 and 
1000 feet elevation, comprising 60 acres of arable land, 
140 acres of hill pasture, and 40 acres of plantations. 
The area, of which the Council owns 19 acres, has four 
dwelling-houses and farmsteads upon it. It is systematically 
inspected and the water is filtered. 


Glyncorwg Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
in part from the Nantryallor Brook, with a gathering ground 
of 550 acres, situated close to the town, between 900 and 
1000 feet altitude. The whole area is leased by the 
Council and consists of hill pasture and moor, without 
houses, farm-steadings, or plantations. The water is not 
filtered, but the gathering ground is periodically inspected 
to guard against contamination. 


Pontypridd and Rhondda Joint Water Board obtain their 
water supply in part from (1) Pontlluestwen reservoir, with 
a gathering ground of 1484 acres, between 1336 and 1678 
feet elevation, at the head of the valley of the Rhondda 
Fach (Ordnance Survey, Glamorgan Sheet, xi. 13), and 
(2) Castell Nos reservoir, lower in the same valley, with a 
gathering ground of 682 acres, between 1110 and 1695 
feet elevation. The two areas, comprising 2166 acres, are en- 
tirely moorland, and without houses, farmsteads, or plantations. 
The Board own only the sites of the reservoirs, and a 
narrow strip around them. The water is filtered, and no 
other precautions against contamination are taken. 


Mountain Ash Urban District Council obtains its water 
supply from five gathering grounds : 


Clydach Brook . 205 acres, between 932 and 1548 feet elevation. 
Sychnant Brook . 566 ,, ‘5 S50 Bo Leila. re 
Nantyrisfa . ae ELGG. - O50 KR tie lai Sines, 
Darenlas ; A LODO as a 500. Ss00kes. a 


Ffrwd Brook i TAO is. i (00. eee l4A Gee. a 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS 245 


The total, 1435 acres, of which the Council owns only 
40 acres, situated on the Clydach area, consists of 1085 
acres of very hilly pasture and moorland, grazed by a few 
mountain sheep, and 350 acres of plantations. On this 
account the risk of contamination is considered negligible, 
and no special measures against it are taken. There are 
three storage reservoirs, Perthgelyn, Clydach Ynysybwl, and 
Darenlas; and only the water from the Darenlas reservoir 
is filtered. 


Rhondda Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
from : 

1. An intake on the upper course of the Rhondda 
River, at 1250 feet elevation, with a gathering ground of 
820 acres, rising to 1969 feet altitude (Craig-y-llyn). The 
weir formerly on the Rhondda River is no longer used. 

2. Llyn Fawr, a lake which has been converted into a 
reservoir of 200,000,000 gallons capacity, with a catchment 
area of 247 acres, situated between 1208 and 1969 feet 
elevation. j 

3. Nant Ystrad Ffernol, with a gathering ground of 257 
acres, between 1000 and 1690 feet elevation. 

4. Nant Selsig, Tyisaf Mountain, with a gathering 
ground of 358 acres, between 900 and 1600 feet 
elevation. 

The total area, 1662 acres, none of which is owned by 
the Council, is hill pasture and moorland, grazed only by 
sheep, and without houses or farmsteads, The water is 
filtered, and the gathering ground is periodically inspected. 
Besides Llyn Fawr, there is a small storage reservoir at 
Tynywaun near Treherbert. 


Aberdare Urban District Council obtains its water supply 
from three gathering grounds, totalling 1995 acres in 
extent : 

Nanthir and Nantmoel reservoirs, with a catchment 
area of 1075 acres, between 900 and 1250 feet elevation, 
about 4 miles north of Aberdare. 

Bwllfa reservoir, with a catchment area of 570 acres, 


246 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


between 800 and 1450 feet elevation, about 23 miles 
to the west of Aberdare. 

Pwllfa reservoir, with a catchment area of 350 acres, 
between 1100 and 1550 feet elevation, about 3 miles to 
the south of Aberdare. 

The District Council do not own and have no control 
over these areas, which consist entirely of mountain land, 
mostly sheep pasture, and free from any habitations or 
farmsteads. The water is filtered. No special measures 
against contamination are taken on the gathering grounds. 


Llantrisant and Llantwitfardre Rural District Council obtain 
their water supply in part from (1) a gathering ground 
of 66 acres at Maendy, all moorland, and between 950 and 
1280 feet elevation; and (2) a gathering ground of 409 
acres at Llanillid, between 575 and 985 feet elevation, all 
moorland except 134 acres of arable land. There are 
no habitations or farfmsteads on the areas, which are not 
owned by the Council. The Llanillid water is filtered, and 
periodical inspection of both areas is made. 


CHAPTER XI 
WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 


As no official publication on the water supplies of Scottish 
municipalities has yet appeared, the following account of 
the principal gathering grounds of Scotland will be of 
interest. This information is the result of queries addressed 
to the town clerks and burgh surveyors, and would have 
been more complete but for the stress of war time. 
Attention is again drawn to the fact already mentioned 
that so few of these gathering grounds are owned by 
the Corporations. ‘This is the more to be regretted, as 
in Scotland, owing to the proximity of these areas to 
industrial centres, their afforestation, an easy matter in 
many cases, if they were publicly owned, would be certain 
to prove remunerative. It will also be seen that the 
sanitary precautions taken on the areas that are privately 
owned are often insufficient to prevent contamination of 
the water supply. The compulsory public ownership of the 
gathering grounds in Scotland would then seem to be 
necessary, both for the purpose of enforcing adequate 
sanitary control of the water supply, and as a means 
of increasing the reserves of growing timber in_ the 
country. 

The 78 local authorities in Scotland, from whom 
reports have been received, obtain their water supply 
from gathering grounds which aggregate 245,624 acres 
in extent. Only 16 local authorities, namely, Edinburgh, 
Dundee, Paisley, Clydebank, Ayr, Dalry, Mid Lanarkshire, 

247 


248 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Airdrie and Coatbridge, Boness, Kirkcaldy and Dysart, 
Newburgh, Lauder, Turriff, Kingussie, Tain, and Kirkcudbright, 
own or hold on long lease their catchment areas in whole 
or part, the total amount of land in their possession being 
reported as 27,829 acres. These figures are not exhaustive, 


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as they do not include the small areas owned as reservoir 
sites by some of the local authorities. 

Afforestation is being carried out by Edinburgh on 
the Talla area, by Dundee on the Lintrathen area, and by Mid 
Lanarkshire on the Camps area, and special attention may 
be directed to the excellent scheme of the last-named 
authority, which is described on p. 29. On the other 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 249 


owned areas, there are scarcely any woods, and no plantation 
schemes are in contemplation. 


I. PertH (West), DUMBARTON, ARGYLL, BUTE, AND 
RENFREW COUNTIES 


Gathering grounds, 59,513 acres, supplying eleven local 
authorities ; 3543 acres owned by two local authorities. 


Glasgow obtains its water supply from two sources, 
Loch Katrine and the Gorbals Waterworks. Loch Katrine, 
situated in the Highlands, 34 miles to the north, provides 
the greater part of the city of Glasgow, as well as Renfrew 
and several small towns and villages, with a remarkably 
pure and abundant supply of water. The original level of 
the lake was raised by embankment 9 feet, so that it now 
has 5000 acres of water surface. An additional supply to 
Loch Katrine is brought by a tunnel from Loch Arklet, 
which has been raised 22 feet above its original level 
and increased in surface from 217 to 551 acres by works 
begun in 1909. The water undergoes no filtration, being 
merely strained through fine wire-gauze netting to prevent 
the passage of sticks and leaves into the pipes. The Loch 
Katrine catchment area, including the Loch Arklet area, is 
27,312 acres in extent, and consists of uncontaminated 
sparsely populated moorland, with a great deal of peaty 
surface. The ownership of the whole gathering ground 
remains in private hands; but in order to secure the 
water supply from pollution, the feuing rights over the 
entire drainage to Loch Katrine and Loch Arklet were pur- 
chased by the Corporation at a cost of £18,300; and the 
owners of the land within that area are prohibited from 
erecting houses or buildings on any part of the gathering 
ground. 

The Glasgow Corporation also utilise Loch Vennachar, 
including Loch Drunkie, with a total catchment area of 
24,686 acres, for compensation water. Recently the 
gathering ground of Glenfinlas, 9600 acres, which forms 


250 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


part of the Loch Vennachar area, has been set aside to 
provide at a future date an additional water supply to 
Loch Katrine for consumption in Glasgow. In view of 
this, the Corporation in 1915 paid £30,250 to the Earl 
of Moray, and £2250 to the Commissioners of Woods, 
in respect of the Crown interests in the Royal Forest of 
Glenfinlas, or £32,500 in all, for freehold and wayleaves in 
Glenfinlas for additional waterworks, including obligation 
on the part of the owners to erect no buildings on the 
gathering ground of 9600 acres to the intended reservoir. 

The Gorbals Waterworks obtains its supply from the 
Brock Burn, about 6 miles south of Glasgow. The water 
is impounded into the Balgray, Ryat Linn, Waulkmill, 
and Littleton reservoirs, situated at 296 to 352 feet eleva- 
tion. The gathering ground, which is within the agricul- 
tural zone, is 2560 acres in extent. The Corporation 
have acquired only the water rights of this area. The 
water is passed through two sets of filters. 

No proposals have been made as regards the afforestation 
of either the Loch Katrine or Gorbals water catchment areas, 
neither of which is owned by the Glasgow Corporation. 


Helensburgh obtains its water supply from a small 
stream provided with a weir at 570 feet elevation. The 
gathering ground, about 800 acres of hill pasture, extends 
from this elevation up to 2100 feet, no part of it being 
owned by the Corporation. There are three storage reser- 
voirs, the water of the two largest of which is screened 
and filtered, and of the smallest is screened but not 
filtered. No other measures are taken against con- 
tamination. 


Alexandria, Bonhill, and Jamestown District Council 
obtain their water supply from Glen Finlas reservoir, with a 
gathering ground of 440 acres, entirely hill pasture, situ- 
ated between 1600 and 2000 feet elevation. Of the total 
area, which is without houses, farm-steadings, or planta- 
tions, the Council own 40 acres. No precautions are 
necessary against contamination of the water. 


Sewmes.e 


ey 


pian 


Le Ue enn aed 


_ . 


oa EE Se 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 251 


Dumbarton obtains its water supply from three catch- 
ment areas in the Kilpatrick Hills, aggregating 1273 
acres : 

1. Lochs Humphry and Fyn, 522 acres. 

2. Black Linn, 111 aeres. 

Both areas at 1051 to 1200 feet elevation ; hill grazing 
and grouse moor. 

3. Overton Glen, 640 acres, at 500 to 1050 feet 
elevation ; grazing and game preserves, slightly wooded. 

The Town Council do not own the areas, and have 
control over the water rights only. There are no farm- 
steadings ; and consequently no measures are needed, it is 
said, to prevent the pollution of the water. The Town 
Clerk does not think that it would be in the interest of 
the Corporation to acquire the ownership of the lands, look- 
ing at the price which would require to be paid for them. 


The Clydebank and District Water Trust is the local 
authority for the supply to the Burgh of Clydebank and the 
villages of Duntocher and Hardgate. There are five 
catchment areas, viz. : 


Catchment Area. Acres. Altitude in Feet. 
Loch Cochno é A F : 361 881-1082 
Jaw Reservoir : P : : 229 881-1170 
Greenside Reservoir : i : 855 830-1250 
Burncrooks Reservoir. ; ; 1070 820-1171 
Finland Burn : : 2 4 1190 820-1163 


all situated in the Kilpatrick Hills, mostly covered with 
peat, grazed by sheep, and without any human habitations. 
The water, otherwise pure, is stained a peaty colour, which 
is removed by the filters at Cochno. ‘The annual rainfall 
in 1912 was 51°48 inches. The lands of Cochno, Jaw, and 
Greenside reservoirs are held by payment of a yearly feu- 
duty; while the Finland Burn area is owned by the 
Trust for the purposes of the Water Supply Act of 1906. 
No planting scheme has been contemplated, as the ground, 
which is without any trees, is considered to be unsuitable 
for afforestation. 


252 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Dunoon obtains its water supply from a gathering 
ground behind the reservoir at the west end of the 
burgh. It is hill pasture grazed by sheep, and comprises 
1100 acres between 242 and 1651 feet elevation. As 
there are no farm-steadings or habitations on this area, 
there is little risk of contamination of the water, which 
is filtered. The Town Council do not own the land, which 
is without trees. The annual rainfall in 1912 was 96:8 
inches. 


Rothesay obtains its water supply from Loch Ascog and 
Loch Dhu, with a catchment area of 919 acres, between 
120 and 450 feet elevation. The Corporation own no 
part of the area, which is made up of 261 acres of arable 
land, 511 acres of hill pasture, and 147 acres of planta- 
tions. There is one farm-steading on the gathering ground. 
The water is filtered, but no other measures are taken to 
prevent contamination. 


Greenock is supplied by the Shaws Waterworks, which 
have a catchment area of about 10,000 acres in the hills 
south of the town, extending to Kelly Dam (640 feet 
altitude), Knockencorsan (1040 feet), Creuch Hill (1446 
feet), and Duchal Moor (1150 feet). Although a consider- 
able part of the area lies between 500 and 1000 feet 
elevation, it is practically all upland moorland, with scarcely 
any trees, and is said to be free from risk of contamina- 
tion. The chief reservoirs are Loch Thom (also known as 
Shaws Water), Gryfe reservoir, and Compensation reservoir. 
The Corporation have merely acquired the rights of the 
area, and own only the sites of the reservoirs. 


Port Glasgow obtains its water supply from two catch- 
ment areas: 

1, Auchendores and Leperstone reservoirs; gathering 
ground at 500 feet elevation, comprising 467 acres of 
arable land and pasture, and 23 acres of plantations, 490 
acres in all. 

2. Knocknairshill and Dougliehill reservoirs; gathering 


is, sid Seiad ke LE ee 


sean sto 5 Le BOER TET: 


- 


SEIS 


es oe 
—_— 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 253 


ground at 700 feet elevation, comprising 35 acres of arable 
land and pasture, and 75 acres of wood and moorland, 110 
acres in all. 

On the catchment area of the Auchendores and Leper- 
stone reservoirs, which are contiguous, there are several 
farm-steadings, the drainage of which is diverted past the 
reservoirs by a pipe drain. There are arable fields adjoining 
the reservoirs; but the possible contamination from these 
is not considered very serious. The Town Council possess 
only the water rights over the two gathering grounds, and 
have no control as to how the land is to be used. 


The District Committee of the First or Upper District of 
the County Council of Renfrew obtain their water supply 
from two gathering grounds. The Carmunnock Works, 
which include three reservoirs, are situated on the Highflat 
Burn in Carmunnock Parish, Lanarkshire, and have a 
catchment area of 500 acres, at 565 to 691 feet elevation, 
none of which is owned by the Committee except the 
sites of the reservoirs. The area, on which there is one 
farm, is made up of 20 acres of water, 440 acres of 
arable land, 25 acres of plantations, and 15 acres of hill 
pasture. The Bennan (or Binend) Loch gathering ground, 
in Renfrewshire, comprises 275 acres, at 840 to 960 feet 
elevation, of which 85 acres under water are owned by 
the Committee. The remainder, 190 acres, is hill pasture, 
privately owned, and without any farmsteads. The Com- 
mittee also own 70 acres, the site of Lochcraigs reservoir, 
not yet constructed. This reservoir will have a catchment 
area of 405 acres, at 805 to 895 feet elevation, all hill 
pasture, privately owned, and with only a shepherd’s cottage 
upon it. 


Paisley obtains its water supply from three catchment 
areas, aggregating 7746 acres in extent. (1) The collecting 
ground of the Camphill reservoir, 4257 acres, between 600 
and 1584 feet elevation, lies on the hills of northern 
Ayrshire, and is fed by the burns at the head of Rye Water 
from Camphill to Black Law and Irish Law. It is mostly 


254 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


rough hill pasture under sheep grazing, with a few acres 
only of peat and plantations. (2) The Rowbank and 
Barcraigs reservoirs in Renfrewshire have a gathering 
ground of 2263 acres, under 750 feet elevation, and mostly 
rough hill pasture with a few acres only of wood and 
arable land. (3) The Stanely, Glenburn, and Harelaw 
reservoirs, a short distance south of Paisley, have a gathering 
ground of 1226 acres, under 750 feet altitude, and nearly 
all rough pasture, with very little peat and only a few acres 
of wood. The Council have water rights over the three catch- 
ment areas ; and in connection with the disposal of sewage, 
have acquired ownership of some of the farms, viz. : 558 acres 
on the Rowbank and Barcraigs area, and 350 acres on the 
Stanely area. On the land owned within the areas by the 
Corporation there are no occupied houses. On the land 
controlled by the Corporation, 200 acres on the Rowbank 
area, restrictions are imposed as to manuring; and no 
cropping or ploughing is allowed. On the farms not owned 
by the Corporation, arrangements when possible are made 
with the farmers or proprietors to lay the drains in such a 
position that they will lead the sewage clear of any of the 
water courses feeding the reservoirs. In cases where this 
method cannot be carried out owing to unsuitable levels, 
watertight tanks or reservoirs are constructed to which the 
sewage is conveyed ; and a pump and handcart are given to 
the farmer by the Corporation, and he arranges to empty 
the tank or cesspool as required. The water supply is filtered. 


IJ. Ayr, Wictown, KIRKCUDBRIGHT, AND DUMFRIES 
COUNTIES 


Gathering grounds, 24,817 acres, supplying thirteen 
local authorities (Camphill area supplying Paisley included ; 
Kilbirnie area not included, as its acreage is unknown). 
3094 acres owned by three local authorities. 


Ardrossan obtains its water supply from four impounding 
reservoirs, Busbie Muir, Mill Glen, Whitelees, and Park- 


patie tied ids Sn bate aca 


7 


Bh ieee 


pny 
oe 


ll raat tee Bilal aie dace 


+ 


2M 


ae 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 255 


house, with a gathering ground of about 1000 acres, 
between 80 and 700 feet elevation; and of this about 5 
acres are under plantations. The Corporation, who only 
own the sites of the reservoirs, are unable to take any 
special measures against contamination on the catchment 
area. The water is passed through sand filters. 


Beith obtains its water supply from Kirklugreen and 
Cuffhill reservoirs, with a gathering ground of 290 acres, 
at Cuff and the surrounding hills, between 464 and 680 
feet elevation. The County Council own only the sites of 
the reservoirs, about 18 acres fenced in, and have no control 
over the remaining 272 acres, except the protection against 
pollution given by the Public Health (Scotland) Act, 1897, 
and the Waterworks Clauses Act, 1847. Of the gathering 
ground, 57 acres are plantations, and 219 acres are mostly 
hill pasture, with a small proportion of arable land; and on 
it there are three habitations and two farm-steadings. The 
water is filtered, but no other special precautions against 
contamination are taken. | 


Dalry obtains its water supply from an impounding 
reservoir on Thirdpart Farm, 153 miles N.W. of the town, 
with a gathering ground of about 350 acres, between 700 
and 1099 feet elevation, the highest point being Braidland 
Hill. This area, of which 80 acres are owned by the 
Council, comprises 20 acres of arable land and 300 acres 
of hill pasture and moor, and has one habitation upon it. 


Kilbirnie obtains its water supply from a_ storage 
reservoir on the Pundeavan burn at 890 feet elevation. 
The extent of the catchment area, on which there are no 
habitations or farmsteads, has not been ascertained. The 
Northern District Committee of the County of Ayr own the 
reservoir site, 14 acres. 


The Irvine and District Water Board supply the towns 
of Irvine, Kilwinning, Stevenston, and Saltcoats. There are 


two catchment areas, situated to the west of Dalry, viz. : 


256 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Caaf Reservoir area— Acres. Acres. 
Over 1000 feet altitude ; : ‘ 379 
Below __,, 53 ; : : 2197 
2576 
Munnoch Reservoir area— 
All under 1000 feet altitude : ; , a 1280 
Total ‘ . 3856 acres. 


The total comprises 500 acres of arable land, 3315 
acres of pasture, and 41 acres of old and new plantations. 
The Water Board own 161 acres at Caaf reservoir; but 
have only water rights over the remainder of the areas. 
All the land is at present farm-let. The sewage on the 
farms is led to intercepting drains and discharged below the 
reservoirs, except on two farms, where it is irrigated over 
grassland. The water is filtered at Greenhead. No plant- 
ing operations have been contemplated. 


Kilmarnock has two water catchment areas : 

1. Northcraig area, 1500 acres, between 450 and 700 
feet elevation, extending from Oldhall in the south-west to 
Blair on the north-east. It is partly arable, and partly 
pasture, with 18 farm-steadings. On two of the farms, 
nearest to the reservoirs, addle tanks and carts are provided. 

2. Dunton area, 1300 acres, between 826 and 1009 
feet elevation, all pasture and peaty. There is only one farm- 
steading ; and it is doubtful if it drains within the area. 
The average annual rainfall is 42°74 inches. 

No part of the areas is owned or controlled by the 
Corporation. There are no trees on either area. The water 
is passed through a sand and gravel filtration plant. There 
are five reservoirs, Northcraig, Gainford, Burnfoot, Dunton, 
and Loch Goin. 


Ayr obtains its water supply, partly from springs at 
Milton and Grange, near Maybole, with two reservoirs at 
Carcluie; and partly from Lochs Finlas and Derclach. 
These two small lakes, about 17 miles S.S.E. of Ayr, and 
at 834 feet elevation, are situated in a hilly district entirely 
devoted to pasture. By the construction of an embankment 
about 12 feet high across the outlet, Loch Finlas was raised, 


~ 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 257 


and converted into an impounding reservoir containing 
347,000,000 gallons of water. The catchment area, 2680 
acres in extent, is held by the Corporation as a freehold, 
and comprises : 


Above 1500 feet elevation . * . : 17 acres, 

Between 1000 and 1500 feet . 3 : ie LOSG.: 

Below 1000 feet . ‘ é : ; Ay SU eye 
Total 5 2680 acres. 


The area, which is uninhabited and of a peaty nature, is 
grazed by sheep, there being no arable land or plantations. 
The water from Loch Finlas, which is very soft and slightly 
brownish from a peaty stain, is conveyed to Knockjarder 
reservoir, where it is mixed with the Milton and Grange 
spring water, the mixture obtained being passed through 
filter beds. No scheme of planting the Loch Finlas catch- 
ment area has been proposed. See description of Ayr 
water supply by John Young, C.E., in Proc. Inc. Assoc. 
Municipal and County Engineers, vol. 32, pp. 82-93 (1906). 


Girvan obtains its water supply from Pinmacher Burn, 
3 miles to the south-east of the town. The catchment 
area consists of 200 acres of hill pasture at 500 to 800 
feet elevation. The Town Council own only the site of the 
reservoir. 


Troon, Prestwick, and the Ayrshire Special Water District, 
which includes many mining villages, are supplied with 
water from Loch Bradan in the southern highlands of Ayr- 
shire. Loch Bradan was raised a height of 8 feet by a 
dam built across the valley, thus making it and the ad- 
joining Loch Lure one continuous sheet of water, 166 acres 
in extent and 986 feet above sea-level. There are five 
other small lakes on the watershed : Lochs Dhu, Breckbowie, 
Skelloch, Cornish, and Girvan Eye. The catchment area, 
3650 acres in extent, is clean hill pasture, absolutely free 
from human habitation. The Troon Town Council own 
only the land covered by Lochs Bradan and Lure, which 
are fenced in. The Loch Bradan area adjoins the Loch 

S 


258 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Finlas area, belonging to Ayr; and for afforestation purposes 
both might be united in one scheme. 


Stranraer obtains its water supply from the Dindinnie 
reservoir, with a gathering ground of 550 acres, between 
150 and 160 feet elevation, none of which is owned by the 
town. The area, which has one farmstead on it, comprises 
70 acres of arable land and 480 acres of hill pasture. 
The water is filtered, and contamination of the gathering 
ground is guarded against by piping and fencing. 


Kirkcudbright obtains its water supply from High, Low, 
and Mid Boreland farms, which aggregate 334 acres, at 
140 to 300 feet elevation, all owned by the Town Council. 
There are farm-steadings and habitations on the area; but 
as the supply comes from springs and not from surface 
water, the risk of pollution is not very great. 


Dumfries and Maxwelltown obtain their supply from 
Loch Rutton, in Kirkcudbrightshire, which has a catch- 
ment area of 3500 acres, between 320 and 600 feet 
elevation, consisting partly of arable land and partly of 
pasture. There are approximately 16 farm-steadings and 
50 houses on the area, which has a population of 500 
persons, but the greater number dwell in the village of 
Lochfoot, the sewage of which is drained clear of the lake. 
Certain agreements were entered into, about 4 years ago, 
with the proprietors and tenants of three farms near the 
loch, by which measures were taken to prevent the sewage 
finding its way into the loch. The other farms do not 
seem to have been dealt with. No part of the catchment 
area is owned by the Dumfries and Maxwelltown Water 
Commissioners. The average annual rainfall for 1907-1916 
was 47°78 inches. 


Annan obtains its water supply from an impounding 
reservoir at Purdomstown in Middlebie parish, with a 
gathering ground of 1350 acres, situated between 440 
feet and 1000 feet elevation. It is mainly hill pasture, 
without any plantations or arable land. There are no 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 259 


steadings upon it, but there are two houses. Of the 
total area 16 acres are owned by the Corporation. I 
have no information as to what measures are taken against 
contamination of the water. 


III. Strr~tinc AND LANARK COUNTIES 


Gathering grounds, 43,362 acres, supplying fifteen local 
authorities (Gorbals area supplying Glasgow and Car- 
munnock area supplying Upper District of Renfrew 
included). 10,290 acres owned by two local authorities. 


Stirling obtains its water supply from the Touch catch- 
ment area, about 4 miles south-west of the town, 1250 
acres in extent, of which 600 acres are below 1000 feet 
elevation and 650 acres between 1000 and 1500 feet. 
The area is wild rocky moorland and rough hill grazing, 
without arable land, peat, plantations, or habitations. The 
Waterworks Commissioners own only the sites of the 
reservoirs, 534 acres, but have the right to take water 
in perpetuity subject to an annual payment. The three 
reservoirs are at 887, 759, and 707 feet elevation; a 
small settling pond is at 484 feet, and the filters are at 
455 feet. The average annual rainfall for 30 years on the 
area is 44°43 inches, varying from 34°77 to 63°25 inches, 


Kilsyth obtains its new water supply from the Corrie 
reservoir, about a mile north-west of the burgh, with a 
gathering ground of 190 acres, all hill pasture, between 
852 and 1393 feet altitude. The Council own the site of 
the reservoir and some land around it, about 124 acres 
fenced in. The catchment area, which has no habitations 
or farm-steadings, is grazed by sheep and a few cattle. The 
sheep drains are occasionally cleared out near the reservoir. 
The water is not filtered. The total annual rainfall in 1912 
was 70°20 inches, 


Denny and Dunipace Burgh obtains its water supply 
from Overton catchment area, 220 acres in extent, between 


260 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


639 and 1159 feet elevation. An adjoining catchment 
area of 190 acres could be taken in if desired, but it is 
not used at present. The Town Council have merely the 
right to impound the water, and own only 4% acres of land 
adjoining one of the reservoirs. The gathering ground is 
under grazing, and there is little chance of its cultivation 
or of the water being polluted. It would certainly be of 
great advantage, I am informed, if the hill on which the 
reservoirs stand could be planted, but the Town Council 
have no rights in the land which would enable them to 
facilitate the planting thereof. 


The Falkirk and Larbert Trust obtain their supply of 
domestic water from a catchment area on the Denny and 
Kilsyth Hills, 2150 acres in extent, and between 700 and 
1480 feet elevation, all upland pasture under sheep and 
cattle grazing, with only one habitation at the lowest point, 
and, in consequence, no danger of contamination. The 
water is passed through sand filters. There is also a catch- 
ment area of 1145 acres for compensation water on the 
Touch Hills at 1170 to 1430 feet elevation, covered 
with heather and peat and under sheep grazing. The 
Trust have only water rights over these two catchment 
areas. 


Bridge of Allan Water Company, a private Company, 
supplies the town with water from the Wharrie Burn and 
the Cox Burn, which are led into the Cox Burn reservoir, 
about a mile and a half from Bridge of Allan. The 
Company owns only the site of the reservoir, and has 
not supplied any details regarding the acreage or nature 
of the catchment area, which is situated in a well-wooded 
district. 


Grangemouth obtains its water supply from a gathering 
ground of 2300 acres at the head of Bannock Burn in the 
Denny Hills, about 5 miles south-west of Stirling, and 
between 553 and 1442 feet elevation, reaching its highest 
point at Earl’s Hill, and with a northerly exposure. The 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 261 


Town Council have only control over the water rights, and 
do not own the catchment area, which is under sheep 
grazing, there being practically no trees. There is one 
small farm-steading and a shepherd’s hut on the area, 
but no special measures are taken to prevent contamina- 
tion of the water, which is not filtered, as the risk from 
these two buildings is very slight. Mr. D. A. Donald, the 
engineer in charge, is convinced of the desirability of Corpora- 
tions securing full ownership of water catchment areas. 


The Eastern District Committee of the Stirling County 
Council obtain their water supply from the Buckieburn 
reservoir in St. Ninian’s parish, with a catchment area of 
934 acres of hill pasture, partly peaty and partly loamy 
clay, at 800 to 1150 feet elevation. The gathering ground, 
which is without habitations, farm-steadings, or plantations, 
is not owned by the Committee. The water is filtered. 
The annual rainfall in the 10 years 1907-1916 varied 
from 49°08 to 67°11 inches. 


Lanarkshire Middle Ward District Waterworks supplies 
an area of 281 square miles, including 14 parishes, but 
excluding the burghs of Hamilton, Motherwell, Wishaw, 
Airdrie, and Coatbridge. There are three sources of supply: 
Glengavel reservoir, 8 miles south of Strathaven; Logan 
and Dunside reservoirs, 8 miles south-west of Lesmahagow 
on Logan Water; and the Camps area, 35 miles E.N.E. of 
Crawford village. The Camps area, 6800 acres, of which 
about 4400 acres are between 1500 and 2141 feet eleva- 
tion, 1200 acres between 1250 and 1500 feet, and 1200 
acres between 980 and 1250 feet, is all owned by the 
County Council, who are now carrying out a scheme of 
afforestation, involving ultimately the planting of 2426 
acres. See pp. 27-32 for full description. 

The other catchment areas—Glengavel gathering ground, 
3820 acres, between 839 and 1556 feet elevation, and the 
Logan and Dunside areas, 2200 acres, between 1018 and 
1712 feet—are privately owned, but the County Council 
control the full water rights. It is not proposed now to 


262 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


afforest these areas, which are largely composed of peat, 
giving off at certain seasons water dark in colour and con- 
taining matter in suspension. Mr. W. A. P. Tait gave in 
Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers, vol. 159, pp. 329-341, Plate 11, 
fig. 1 (1903), an account of the Mid-Lanark water supply, 
with map showing its distribution and all the reservoirs in 
Lanarkshire. 


Hamilton obtains its water supply from two catchment 
areas: (1) Kype reservoir area, 2140 acres of moorland 
at 936 to 1556 feet above sea-level, the latter elevation 
being that of Goodbush Hill, north of Muirkirk. The area 
is rough grazing for sheep, and some peat, without any arable 
land or farm-steadings. Forty-four acres are owned by the 
Corporation. The annual rainfall averages 47°28 inches. 
The water is passed through sand filters. (2) Wellbrae 
and Cadzow area, 1480 acres of arable land and pasture, 
at 601 to 766 feet altitude. On Cadzow there are 
3 farm -steadings, and on Wellbrae 5 farm-steadings 
and 4 habitations, but all sewage is intercepted by fire- 
clay pipes and run past the reservoir. Fifty-six acres are 
owned by the Town Council. There are 20 acres of Scots 
pine plantation, and the annual rainfall averages 34°66 
inches. The water is passed through mechanical filters. 


The Bathgate District Committee of the Linlithgowshire 
County Council obtain their water supply from the Forrest- 
burn reservoir, south of Forrestfield Station, with a gathering 
ground in Lanarkshire of 1540 acres at 750 to 1000 feet 
altitude. This area consists of 1300 acres of hill pasture, 
200 acres of moorland, 20 acres of arable land, and 20 acres 
of tree plantations. It is not owned by the County Council, 
who have only the water rights; and as it is free from farm- 
steadings and habitations, no special measures are taken to 
prevent contamination of the water. 


Motherwell obtains its water supply from three catch- 
ment areas, as follows: 
1. Culter reservoir, 254 miles S.E. of Motherwell, has a 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 263 


gathering ground of 1963 acres in the steep stony hills at 
the sources of Culter Water and west of Culter Fell. The 
ground lies between 1150 and 2454 feet elevation, and is 
used for sheep grazing, there being apparently little or no 
risk of pollution. 

2. Springfield reservoir, 34 miles east of Carluke, has a 
catchment area of 1100 acres at 866 to 1029 feet eleva- 
tion, mostly grazing. Part of the land, being under cultiva- 
tion, is cut off by a bye-wash. 

3. Coldstream reservoir, the water of which is not used 
for domestic purposes, has a catchment area of 650 acres, at 
817 to 1009 feet altitude, all agricultural land. 

The Corporation own no part of these areas, except the 
sites of the reservoirs. Part of the Culter gathering ground 
could probably be afforested in the same way as the Camps 
catchment area, which almost adjoins it. 


Lanark obtains its water supply from an impounding | 
reservoir on Tinto Hill in Carmichael parish, with a gather- 
ing ground of 790 acres, situated between 1000 and 2317 
feet elevation, entirely hill pasture and moorland, except 8 
acres of plantations, and free from habitations or farm- 
steadings. The Corporation own only the site of the 
reservoir and filters, about 12 acres, and no special pre- 
cautions against contamination of the water seem to be 
necessary, 


Wishaw obtains its water supply from the Elvanfoot and 
Gair reservoirs. The Elvanfoot catchment area—6890 
acres, between 1000 and 2403 feet elevation—is in the 
Lowther Hills, comprising Burby Shank, Faugh and Laght 
Hills, with Riccart, Law Rig and Meikle Shag, which are 
drained by the Potrail Water and Potrennick and Pedden 
Burns. It is partly sheep grazing and partly grouse moors. 
Afforestation on similar lines to that on the Camps area ° 
may be possible. Gair catchment area, 395 acres, at 764 
to 1083 feet altitude, is in the Benty Hillocks, west of 
Lamington, and is all under sheep grazing. Particulars of 
ownership of the two areas have not been obtainable. 


264 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


The Airdrie, Coatbridge, and District Water Trust obtain 
their water supply from two catchment areas, which are 
held as freehold—Rough Rigg, acquired in 1846, and Cowgill 
in 1893. The catchment area of the Rough Rigg reservoir, 
2100 acres, at 687 to 900 feet elevation, lies to the east of 
Airdrie, near Clarkston, and consists of grazing and arable 
land. Cowgill reservoir has a gathering ground of 1390 
acres, between 1000 and 2000 feet, east of Lamington in 
Clydesdale, all under grazing except 13 acres of plantations. 
No schemes for planting trees have been contemplated. 


IV. LoTHIANS, PEEBLES, BERWICK, SELKIRK, AND 
ROXBURGH COUNTIES 


Gathering grounds, 30,382 acres, supplying thirteen 
local authorities. 6690 acres owned by three local 
authorities. 


Edinburgh obtains its water supply from three localities : 
the Pentland Hills, the Moorfoot Hills, and the Talla area 
in Peeblesshire. 

The water supply from the Pentland Hills is mainly 
from springs, none of the surface water being utilised ex- 
cept in the case of the Glencorse area. A description of 
these springs and of the various reservoirs which have been 
built on the north side of the Pentlands to provide compen- 
sation water, etc., is given by Mr. A. Leslie in Proc. Inst. 
Civil Engineers, vol. 74, pp. 91-127 (1883), and need not 
be repeated here, as there is no necessity on hygienic 
grounds to afforest the areas in which these reservoirs are 
situated. Mr. Leslie explains that “the configuration of 
the north side of the Pentlands would not permit of a sur- 
face water scheme being adopted for Edinburgh as the water 
is almost always coloured with peat, and in wet weather 
very much so.” The Glencorse valley, on the south side of 
the Pentlands, the surface water of which is used, has a 
catchment area of 3825 acres, situated between 750 and 
1750 feet elevation, comprising: 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 265 


Above 1500 feet elevation . : p H 25 acres. 
Between 1250 and 1500 feet . ; : Ah colle. 
Between 1000 and 1250 feet . ; 5 y wikQ40l ss 
Between 750 and 1000 feet . : : 2 (BDEBe«15: 
Reservoir. ; , : : : ; line st 
Total ; . 8825 acres. 


There are two reservoirs, Glencorse and Loganlea. 
According to Mr. Leslie, “the water draining into the 
Glencorse reservoir is naturally free from peat, the water- 
shed consisting of high hills covered with short grass. How- 
ever, it becomes more mossy towards the upper reaches, so 
that the water impounded in the Loganlea reservoir is at 
times darkly coloured. The whole catchment area is under 
hill grazing with the exception of 45 acres. The average 
annual rainfall is 37°61 inches. The Glencorse gathering 
ground would seem to be suitable for afforestation, but it is 
not owned by the Edinburgh Corporation. The Water 
Trustees only exercise over the area the general powers to 
prevent fouling of the water that are conferred by the 
Waterworks Clauses Act of 1847.” 

The Moorfoot Waterworks consist of three areas: Glad- 
house reservoir, with a catchment area of 6131 acres, 
Tweedale Burn, 1337 acres, and Portmore reservoir with 
610 acres, or 8078 acres in all. There are two compensa- 
tion reservoirs, Roseberry and Edgelaw, the former on the 
South Esk and the latter on its tributary, the Fullerton 
Burn. The Moorfoot areas are not owned by the Edinburgh 
Corporation, and no scheme for their afforestation has been 
mooted. 

The Talla catchment area comprises 6180 acres, of which 
5760 acres have been purchased by the Edinburgh Cor- 
poration. Most of it is at a high elevation, as shown in 
the following table: 


Between 1500 and 2526 feet elevation . . 4520 acres. 
eV AORO 'o. SaGHO Pays) Ce We i ae 
po) ROC, a anO TASB | i Reba 
x 950 ,, 1000 ,, et ea we ata 

Reservoir at 950 feet elevation 5 if ~ 300 


Total area . : . 6180 acres. 


Locantea~: 


HAREHILL RAIN GAUGE — N° I. 
LOGANLEE aS +3 me ES ee 
GLEN COTTAGE 1 ” = NES: 
GLENCOASE FILTERS ” ae ING Ia; 


Scale | Inch = 1 Mi 
° IMILE 


MILE! Se es 


Fic. 43.—Edinburgh. Glencorse Burn Catchment Area. 
(From Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers, vol. 194.) 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 267 


There is no arable land on the area, which is mostly hill 
grazing. In 1912 there were 27 acres of young plantations, 
but no mature woods. Mr. W. A. P. Tait, who published 
in Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers, vol. 167, pp. 102-152 (1907), 
an account of the Talla water supply with map and dia- 
grams, states that “practically the whole gathering ground, 
which is mainly hill pasture, with about 440 acres of peat, 
was acquired at a cost of £36,000 by the Trustees, who are 
thus enabled to preserve the purity of the water draining 
into the reservoir. The Trustees derive a rent of a little 
more than £300 per annum for the hill pasture above the 
level of the reservoir.” The average annual rainfall on the 
area varies from 47°66 to 73°92 inches at the different 
stations. 

Mr. Stebbing of the Edinburgh University, who drew up 
a planting scheme in 1912, is of opinion that 600 acres of 
the whole area are available for planting, the upper limit 
extending on exposed hillsides to the 1250 feet contour 
line, and in sheltered glens to about 1400 feet. Planting 
was begun in 1914 (Fig. 16), the plan providing for 10 
acres annually for the first three years, and 50 acres yearly 
afterwards. As none of the plantable land is situated at a 
lower elevation than 950 feet, the number of species available 
is very limited. Scots pine is considered to be inadvisable. 
Larch is recommended for the lower elevations, and Sitka 
spruce for the higher ground above the larch up to 1250 
feet contour line; while Douglas fir could be planted 
wherever there was good soil in sheltered situations in 
the glens. In moist localities common spruce would be 
used in place of the other species. 

The Development Commissioners sanctioned in 1913— 
1914 a loan of £150 for the experimental planting of 
about 30 acres on the Talla catchment area. Of this only 
£75 has apparently been advanced by the Treasury. The 
larger scheme by which the Edinburgh and District Water 
Trust were to be provided with funds for planting at least 
600 acres appears to be in abeyance. 

W. C. Reid, in Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers, vol. 194, 


 Garrelet Dod 


RAIN GAUGES Ne! TALLA MOSS. Ne2 LOCHCRAIGHEAS 

N@3. RAVENSCRAIG. GAME H. 

NeS. GAMESHOPE FARM. 3G. TALLALINNG FOOT 
°7. QUARTER mitcs 


: 2 inch =i Mile 
a 


Umite 


Fic, 44.—Edinburgh. Talla Water Catchment Area. 


(From Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers, vol. 194.) 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 269 


pp. 4-9 (1914), discusses the rainfall and gives maps, now 
reproduced, of the Glencorse and Talla areas. See also 
B. H. Blyth and W. A. Tait in Proc. R. Soc. Edinburgh, xxv. 
616, with map (1905). 


Loanhead obtains its water supply from Hillend reservoir, 
which has a gathering ground of 50 acres, at 1200 feet 
elevation. The Town Council have also a good spring on 
Pentland Mains. 


Bo’ness obtains its water supply from two catchment 
areas situated about three miles south of the town. 
Locheote reservoir has a gathering ground of 600 acres, 
between 600 and 800 feet elevation, in the valley of the 
Brunton and Kipps burns (on the west side of the Kipps 
Hill) in Torphichen Parish, Linlithgowshire. Carribber 
reservoir has a gathering ground of 280 acres, between 
450 and 600 feet elevation, on the north-west side of 
Bowden Hill. Both areas are clean pasture land, without 
trees, the only habitation being Lochcote House, the 
drainage of which is intercepted and discharged into the 
stream below the reservoir embankment. The Town Council 
own the site of the Lochcote reservoir, about 54 acres; 
and hold on lease for 99 years the land at Carribber. The 
annual rainfall averages, over a period of 15 years, about 
34 inches. The water supply is filtered. 


The Linlithgow District Committee obtain their water 
supply from the Morton reservoir, which has a gathering 
ground of 500 acres of hill pasture, at 700 to 1500 feet 
elevation, situated between Morton and Corston farms, on 
the north side of the Pentland Hills. There are no farm- 
steadings or houses on the area, which is not owned by the 
County Council. There were 16 acres of Scots pine in 
1912. The average annual rainfall is 38°11 inches. 


Whitburn obtains its water supply from a gathering 
ground of 88 acres, between 600 and 620 feet elevation, 
comprising 40 acres of arable land and 48 acres of hill 
pasture. The water is not filtered. The statement in 


270 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Journ. Board of Agriculture, xi. 472 (1904), that the 
Burgh owns 100 acres of catchment area, I am informed, 
is incorrect. 


The Central District of the County of Linlithgow are con- 
structing on the Riccarton Burn, two miles south of 
Linlithgow, the Bescraigs reservoir, with a gathering ground 
of 560 acres. The Corporation own none of the land, 
which consists of 160 acres of arable, 100 acres of pasture, 
occasionally ploughed, 250 acres of permanent pasture, and 
50 acres of plantations. There is a farm-steading, but a 
drain has been constructed to take the sewage past the 
reservoir. In the opinion of the engineers, “it would be 
very advantageous from the waterworks point of view if 
this area were afforested, in view of the fact that so large 
a portion is arable land.” It ranges in elevation from 500 
to 900 feet above sea-level. 


The Prestonpans Combination Water Trust obtain their 
supply from the Yester catchment area, 500 acres of 
heather moor, at 950 to 1753 feet altitude on the north 
side of the Lammermuir Hills. The Trust do not own the 
area, which is all above the agricultural zone; but have 
some control over it given by various Acts of Parliament. 
There is no complaint about contamination of the water. 
There are two reservoirs. 


North Berwick obtains its water supply from the Donolly 
reservoir, west of Garvald, with a catchment area of 1070 
acres, at 700 to 1306 feet elevation; and from the Thorter 
reservoir, south-east of Garvald, with a catchment area of 
900 acres, between 810 and 1400 feet elevation. The 
gathering grounds, which are on the northern edge of the 
Lammermuir Hills, consist of hill pasture, without any 
population, there being only one shepherd’s hut, which 
is on the Donolly area. A small piece of cultivated 
ground near one of the reservoirs does not drain into it. 
No special precautions, except filtration of the water, have 
been considered necessary by the Town Council, who own 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 271 


only the sites of the reservoirs, for which an annual payment 
is made. The proprietors of the land have recently done a 
little planting of trees. The annual rainfall averages 
31:30 inches for Thorter and 34°40 inches for Donolly. 
The Donolly reservoir obtains its supply, not from the 
Donolly stream, which proved unsuitable, but from the 
adjacent Papana stream. 


Duns obtains its water supply from a reservoir on 
Hardens Hill, with a gathering ground of 361 acres, 
between 557 and 1166 feet elevation. The area, only 
4 acres of which are owned by the Corporation, is without 
habitations, and comprises 65 acres of arable land, 240 
acres of hill pasture, and 56 acres of plantations. The 
water is filtered. 


Lauder is reported in Journ. Board of Agriculture, xi. 
472 (1904), to own a catchment area of 650 acres, hill 
pasture, at 900 feet elevation. Information about this 
water supply has not been obtainable. 


Galashiels obtains its water supply from the Caddon 
Water valley, with a catchment area of 4160 acres, at 800 
to 2160 feet elevation, mostly moorland and grazed by a 
few sheep. The Town Council do not own the area, but 
have the water rights. 


Hawick water supply is obtained from hill pasture lands 
to the south-west of the town. The main supply is from 
the Dod Burn, about 6 miles off, with a catchment area of 
1280 acres at 700 to 1500 feet elevation, and the water is 
stored in Acre Knowe reservoir, at 610 feet elevation. 
Another supply is taken direct from the Allan Water at 
Lodburn, about 5 miles away. There is a population 
of 20 persons on the catchment areas, which are not 
owned by the Town Council. The land is hill pasture 
grazed by sheep, except 20 acres arable. None of the 
water is filtered, and complaints are sometimes made 
in summer about its fishy taste. This is due to a weed 
which grows in the Acre Knowe reservoir. The water 


272 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


supply, however, is excellent and abundant, and rushes as a 
clear stream along the channels of the streets, washing 
them night and day. 


Kelso obtains its water supply from a reservoir in the 
Cheviot Hills, with a gathering ground of 1300 acres, 
between 763 and 1842 feet elevation, practically all hill 
pasture and moor, and without habitations or farm-steadings. 
The town owns only the site of the reservoir, which is 
surrounded by an unclimbable fence. The water is passed 
through screens. 


V. CLACKMANNAN, KINROSS, AND FIFE COUNTIES 


Gathering grounds, 27,772 acres, supplying eleven local 
authorities (Loch Glow and Cullaloe areas supplying 
Dunfermline District included). 1884 acres owned by 
three local authorities. 


Alloa obtains its water supply from the Gartmorn 
reservoir, which has a direct gathering ground of 1148 
acres ; but an additional supply is obtained by an aqueduct 
from the upper part of the Black Devon River, with a 
eatchment area of 11,125 acres. The whole area lies 
approximately between the 200 and 1000 feet contours, 
and consists of arable, pasture, and woodlands, with a small 
proportion (about +;) of moorland. There are 51 farm- 
steadings on the area, none of which is owned by the Town 
Council, except the sites of the reservoir and the intake 
aqueduct. No special precautions are taken against con- 
tamination of the water, which is passed through sand 
filters. 


Lochgelly obtains its water supply from two reservoirs, 
Upper and Lower Lochornie, with a gathering ground of 
611 acres, situated between 684 and 965 feet elevation, 
and comprising 4 acres of arable land, 559 acres of hill 
pasture and moorland, and 48 acres of plantations, which 
are now partly cut down. The Corporation own only the 
sites of the reservoirs, about 15 acres, but have powers 


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274 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


to take an additional supply from Craigencat Burn, with 
154 acres of catchment area. The gathering ground has 
one farm and one shepherd’s house upon it, but no special 
precautions are taken except that the water is filtered. 
Mr. A. Lumsden, the Burgh Surveyor, considers the 
greater part of the two gathering grounds to be suitable 
for afforestation. 


Burntisland obtains its water supply from the Cullaloe 
reservoir, with a catchment area in the valley of Dour 
Burn, 1200 acres, between 300 and 500 feet elevation. 
The gathering ground comprises 1000 acres of arable 
land and 200 acres of woodland, none of which is owned 
by the Town Council, except the site of the reservoir 
and a margin around it, varying from the width of a few 
feet to about 50 yards. The reservoir is now divided by an 
embankment into two distinct parts. The south bay, 
receiving pure water from the upper reaches of the Dour 
Burn, supplies the town; while the north bay, fed by 
somewhat impure water from the Cullaloe Burn, supplies 
compensation water to the lower riparian owners. The 
Council have no control over the gathering ground, which is 
reported to have a population of 150 persons; but the 
sewage from three farms is led clear of the domestic supply 
reservoir and the water is filtered. ‘The average annual 
rainfall taken over a period of 23 years is 31°94 inches. 


Kirkcaldy and Dysart Commissioners obtain their water 
from Drumain, Harperlees, and Holl supply reservoirs; and 
in addition there are the Ballo and Arnot compensation 
reservoirs. The total catchment area is 3922 acres, ranging 
in elevation from 645 to 1712 feet, namely, to the top of 
West Lomond Hill. Of the whole area, the Commissioners 
own 1654 acres, all hill pasture and moor, except 20 
acres of arable land and 55 acres of plantations. The 
remaining 2268 acres are moor and hill pasture, except 
66 acres of plantations. ‘There are 20 persons resident in 
six dwelling-houses on the gathering ground. Practically 
all the sewage is carried past the reservoirs, or, alternatively, 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 275 


passes into reservoirs which are not used for domestic 
purposes. The water is partly filtered by sand beds and 
partly by open mechanical filter beds. The plantations 
on the catchment area show that it is suitable for a 
considerable scheme of afforestation. 


Wemyss and District Water Trust obtain their supply 
from two gathering grounds: Coul reservoir, with a catch- 
ment area of 1000 acres, between 493 and 1467 feet 
elevation; and Carriston reservoir, with a catchment area 
of 1100 acres, between 311 and 750 feet elevation. The 
Trustees own 26 acres of the Coul area, and 26 acres of 
the Carriston area. The Coul gathering ground is mainly 
pasture, but has four farmhouses, with five farm-steadings 
and byres, a keeper’s house, and a mill upon it. The 
Carriston area is largely arable land, with some plantations 
upon it, which are now being cut down. It has a consider- 
able population, with 21 houses of various kinds, 2 shops, 
a sawmill, and 10 farmsteads, byres, etc. Some of the 
farm-steadings and byres are fitted with sewage tanks and 
pumps. The water is filtered. 


Cupar (Fife) obtains its water supply from Clatto reser- 
voir, with a gathering ground of 820 acres, at 550 to 650 
feet elevation, described as nearly all hill pasture without 
any plantations. There is one farm with buildings on the 
area, and a septic tank is used for the sewage. Part of the 
land of four other farms drains into the gathering ground. 
The Town Council own only 8 acres. The annual rainfall 
was, in 1911, 33°44 inches, and in 1912, 21°78 inches. 
The water is passed through sand filters. 


Leven obtains its water supply from Leven reservoir, 
with a gathering ground of 1250 acres in Largo and 
Scounie parishes, at 250 to 300 feet elevation, all arable 
land and pasture. The Town Council own only the water 
rights. The sewage from the houses and farms on the area 
is intercepted by spigot and faucet pipes, and is carried past 
the reservoir. 


276 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


The Pittenweem and the Anstruthers Joint Waterworks 
obtain their water supply from a catchment area of 1070 
acres, situated on Kellie Law, Carnbee Law, and the ridge 
of lower ground eastward, between 177 and 500 feet eleva- 
tion. The Committee own only the sites of the reservoirs 
on the gathering ground, which is practically treeless and 
mainly arable. It includes Gordonshall farm and Carnbee 
village and farm, the sewage of which is carried off in a pipe 
system and falls into the main burn below the waterworks. 


St. Andrews obtains its water supply from three catch- 
ment areas, which are situated in Cameron parish, at no 
great elevation above sea-level. The Burgh Surveyor has 
supplied me with the following particulars : 


Catchment Area. Acres. Alege in Reteie es Habitations. 
Cairnsmill ‘ b 906 250-450 5 19 
Lambieletham . ae 550 350-500 3 14 
Cameron . , i 1450 470-650 5 19 


The total area, 2906 acres, which is partly arable and 
partly under pasture, has thus no less than 13 farm-stead- 
ings and 52 habitations upon it. The means taken to 
prevent pollution of the water are: fencing of the streams 
and reservoirs ; providing water-troughs for stock; separate 
drainage for farms into septic tanks and cesspools ; sedimen- 
tation in the reservoirs, and careful filtration. The Council 
have merely water rights over the greater part of the area, 
the only portion owned being 180 acres at Cameron, 100 
acres of which are under water, the remaining 80 acres 
being almost fully planted with trees. See W. Watson, in 
Proc. Inc. Assoc. Municipal and County Engineers, vol. 33, 
pp. 239-242 (1907). 


Newburgh obtains its water supply from Loch Mill, with 
a gathering ground of 900 acres, at about 700 feet eleva- 
tion, without habitations or farmsteads, and comprising 500 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 277 


acres of arable land, 300 acres of hill pasture and moor, 
and 100 acres of plantations. Of the total area, the town 
owns 150 acres. The water is filtered. 


VI. PertH (East) AND ForFar COUNTIES 


Gathering grounds, 50,935 acres, supplying ten local 
authorities. 1500 acres owned by one local authority. 


The Kirkcaldy District of the County of Fife, in which 
Kirkealdy, Dysart, and Kinghorn Burghs are not included, 
will be supplied with water from two gathering grounds in 
the Ochil Hills in Perthshire. The river Farg catchment 
area, on which a reservoir is being built, contains 1437 
acres, at 550 to 1000 feet elevation. The Slateford Burn 
catchment area adjoins the last, and comprises 1166 acres, 
at 650 to 1200 feet altitude. The water will be taken 
from the Slateford Burn to the Farg reservoir by a 24-inch 
pipe. None of the land is owned by the Council except 
about 100 acres required for the site of the reservoir. On 
the Farg area there are 200 to 300 acres of arable land, 
the rest being rough pasture. The Council intend to divert 
the sewage from the four existing farm-steadings; but 
measures for preventing contamination of the reservoir are 
troublesome on account of the divided ownership, as there 
are twelve proprietors on the Farg area. There is little 
arable land on the Slateford Burn area, most of it being 
rough pasture. The engineers are of opinion that the afforesta- 
tion of the Farg gathering ground would be desirable, in 
order to secure the purity of the water supply; but it is 
very doubtful if the County Council could face the expense 
of acquiring the whole area for this purpose. Meanwhile. 
compensation is liable to be paid to proprietors who may 
be injuriously affected by any restrictions imposed under the 
Water Act for the prevention of pollution. See W. C. Reid, 
in Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers, vol. 194, p. 6, Fig. 3 (1914), 
for rainfall and map, here reproduced, of the Slateford and 
Farg areas. 


RAIN GAUGES 


NO | HEATHERIELEYS N° @ PLAINS 
No 2 HEATHERIELEYS QUARRY.N? S WHITEHILE 
Ne 3 ODEUGLIE N° G SHIRE-END 


Scale. | Inch = 1 Mile. 
mite 


miLe 


Fic. 46.—Kirkcaldy District. Slateford Burn and River Farg 
Catchment Areas. 


(From Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers, vol. 194.) 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 279 


Dunfermline District is supplied with water from 4 catch- 
ment areas, the two largest of which, Glendevon, 5780 acres, 
and Glenquey, 1299 acres, are in the Ochil Hills. These 
two areas are divided according to elevation as follows: 


Glendevon. Glenquey. 

Above 1500 feet elevation . ; . 38052 acres. 454 acres, 
Between 1250 and 1500 feet elevation : ps (3s ee oi, 
+, 1000 and 1250 |, 43 : ; Bao yas BYE ae 
Under 1000 feet elevation . ; ; SLO ee. Dine: 

Total F . 5780 acres. 1299 acres. 


These areas are mainly rough grazing for sheep, with a 
little peat, and no arable land. The Dunfermline District 
Committee of the Fife County Council own none of the 
land except the sites of the reservoirs. No special precau- 
tions are taken against contamination from dead sheep or 
from disease among the sheep, the risk being considered 
negligible. The water is passed on to the consumer in its 
natural state, without being filtered. The Dunfermline 
District Committee supply the whole of the water required 
for Admiralty purposes at Rosyth. The Admiralty are said 
to be part-owners of the works at Glenquey and of the new 
reservoir which is being built at Frandy in Glendevon. 

Loch Glow reservoir has a catchment area of 650 acres, 
in the counties of Fife and Kinross, between 890 and 1103 
feet elevation. Cullaloe gathering ground, 70 acres, lies 
between 500 and 700 feet altitude. Both the Loch Glow 
and Cullaloe areas are under sheep grazing and uninhabited. 
The water from them is passed through sand filters. 


Dunfermline Town Council obtains its water supply in 
part from Glensherrup, in the Ochil Hills, with a catchment 
area of 1300 acres, between 935 and 2004 feet elevation. 
The gathering ground, of which 40 acres are owned by the 
town, is entirely hill pasture and moor, without any planta- 
tions, and free from habitations and farmsteads. “It has 
never been found necessary, in all the 35 years the works 
have been in operation, to take any precautions against 
contamination.” There is a secondary supply at Craigluscar, 


280 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


three miles from Dunfermline, with a catchment area of 
360 acres, situated between 300 and 600 feet elevation. 
Fully a half of this is arable land. A further but very 
small supply is taken from shallow ground springs at 
Glassiebarns. 


Crieff obtains its water supply in part from Loch Turret, 
which has a catchment area of 3855 acres, between 1127 
and 3048 feet elevation, none of which is owned by the 
town. ‘The whole area, except 165 acres covered by the 
loch, is hill pasture, and has two shepherds’ cottages and 
one shooting lodge upon it. 


The Blairgowrie, Rattray, and District Water Board 
obtain their supply from Loch Benachally. The catchment 
area, 1920 acres, between 1000 and 1622 feet elevation, 
is not owned by the Board, who control enly the water 
rights. As there are no farm-steadings or habitations on 
the area, which is devoted to sheep grazing and grouse 
shooting, no measures are considered necessary against 
pollution of the water, which is passed through fine screens 
on leaving the loch, and through sand filters before reaching 
the storage tanks at Blairgowrie. 


Arbroath obtains its water supply direct from the river 
Noran at Glenogil, Forfarshire. The catchment area above 
the compensation reservoir is 4700 acres, and above the 
intake for use 3600 acres, all moorland, between 700 and 
900 feet altitude, of which three-fourths are covered with 
larch and Scots pine plantations. There is only one 
habitation, a shepherd’s hut, the drainage from which flows 
into another valley. The Town Council own merely the 
site of the reservoir and intake works, 304 acres, purchased 
for £3665. The water comes from pure mountain springs, 
and is passed through copper wire-woven screens, but is 
not otherwise filtered. The annual rainfall averages 
35 inches. 


Kirriemuir obtains its water supply from a catchment 
area of 820 acres, at 950 to 2197 feet altitude, on the 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 281 


eastern side of Cat Law, in Kingoldrum parish, Forfarshire. 
The water, which is not filtered, comes from springs in the 
side of the hill, and there is no impounding reservoir. The 
area is grazed by sheep, and is uninhabited, treeless, rocky 
ground, mostly covered with heather. It is not owned by 
the Town Council, who have the usual sanitary powers 
conferred by common law and statute. The annual rainfall, 
varying from 27 to 50 inches, averages 35°33 inches. 


Brechin obtains its water supply from a catchment area 
of 2200 acres, between 600 and 2000 feet altitude, on 
Wirren Hill, in the Grampians, all heather-clad, under 
sheep grazing, and without dwellings of any kind. There 
are no trees on the area, which is privately owned, the 
Town Council having no control and only the right to 
the water and the pipe track, which was given free by the 
owner. There is no storage reservoir, and the water is not 
filtered ; but no trouble as regards contamination has arisen 
since the supply was introduced over 43 years ago. 


Forfar obtains its water-supply from the Den of Ogil 
reservoir, in Tannadice parish, with a gathering ground 
of 2977 acres, lying between 600 and 1615 feet elevation, 
the highest point being St. Arnolds. The Corporation own 
33 acres. The gathering ground comprises 2677 acres 
of hill pasture and plantations, and 300 acres of arable 
land, on which there are 8 habitations and farm-steadings. 
The water is screened and filtered, but no other measures 
are taken against contamination. 


Dundee obtains its water supply from two catchment 
areas: (1) The gathering ground feeding the Crombie, 
Monikie, and Brax reservoirs comprises 3643 acres, all at 
no great elevation, the highest point being under 700 feet. 
The Water Commissioners, in order to preserve the water 
from contamination, have taken on a lease of 99 years 
500 acres of arable land on the Crombie area. This land, 
laid down in grass, reverts to moorland in a few years, and 
could be utilised more profitably if planted with a timber 


282 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


crop like larch, that would come to maturity in 50 or 60 
years. (2) The Lintrathen area comprises nearly 21,000 
acres at different elevations, as follows: 


Above 1500 feet elevation . : : . 3,800 acres, 
Between 1250 and 1500 feet. : ‘ 1 OO eee 
= 1000 and 1250 feet. : ‘ 7 ABH OONas 
Below 1000 feet . ; ; : : 18,700 
Total area é . 20,9388 acres. 


It is largely composed of heather and old pasture land 
of little value. About 1000 acres, which include the two 
arable farms that formerly existed on the area, have been 
purchased by the Corporation. Of this, about 200 acres 
have been planted with larch, spruce, Scots pine, and 
Douglas fir; while the rest is either let for sheep grazing 
or is laid down in grass. The abolition of the arable land 
ensures to a considerable extent the purity of the water 
drawn from the Lintrathen reservoir, which is not filtered ; 
but in the opinion of Mr. Geo. Baxter, the engineer in 
charge, a larger measure of afforestation would be desirable. 
See p. 82, and 7’rans. Roy. Scot. Arbor. Soc. xxiv. 191 (1911). 


VII. INVERNESS, Ross, AND ABERDEEN COUNTIES 


Gathering grounds, 6843 acres, supplying seven local 
authorities (acreage of Peterhead gathering ground unknown 
and not included). 828 acres owned by three local 
authorities, 


Inverness obtains its water supply from Loch Ashie, 
which has a catchment area of 1335 acres at 610 to 
700 feet elevation. The gathering ground, over which 
the Corporation have no control, consists of moorland and 

hill pasture, one-third of it being formerly covered with 
- plantations, which were cut down about 5 years ago. There 
are now no habitations or farm-steadings on the area. 
The Corporation took over as tenants the solitary croft 
that existed and levelled the buildings, the croft being now 
only used for sheep grazing. The water is passed through 
gravel and copper screens. G. West, in his account of 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 283 


Loch Ashie in Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. vol. 25, pt. 2, p. 1009, 
Fig. 73 (1906), says that the country on the east side is 
bleak, dreary moor, but on the west side the shores were 
then clothed with coniferous forest. 


Kingussie is reported in Journ. Board of Agriculture, xi. 
472 (1904), to own a catchment area of 300 acres, hill 
pasture, at 1500 feet elevation. Information about this 
water supply has not been obtainable. 


CATCHMENT AREA 23 

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Fic. 47.—Inverness, Ross, and Aberdeen Catchment Areas. 


Tain obtains its water supply from a gathering ground 
of 3000 acres, between 400 and 800 feet elevation, in the 
Glen of Scotsburn and Hill of Tain, ‘There is one house 
on the area, of which 210 acres are owned by the Burgh. 
The water is not filtered, and no precautions against 
contamination of the gathering ground are considered 
necessary. 


Fraserburgh has two catchment areas, The Ardlaw 
area, 280 acres at 100 to 150 feet elevation, collects 
underground water from a gravelly subsoil at a depth of 


284 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


16 to 25 feet. The water from the Fedderate gathering 
ground, which is 760 acres in extent, at 250 to 400 feet 
elevation, is treated by mechanical filters. The Town 
Council control the water rights, but do not own the areas, 
which are partly arable and partly pasture land. 


Turriff obtains its water supply from the Barnyard Estate, 
of 318 acres, purchased by the Burgh in 1903 for £6000, 
all arable land, except 6 acres of plantations, and situated 
between 400 and 600 feet elevation. About 100 acres, 
as well as the main buildings, are below the reservoir, there 
being only a small house and steading above it. The 
- collecting drains are 10 feet or more below the level of 
the ground; and the water is naturally filtered by gravel 
before reaching the drains. No surface water is taken. 
The Burgh has an emergency supply from a collecting 
reservoir on Delgaty Estate, but it is only used for flushing 
drains, except in rare cases of severe drought. The gather- 
ing ground here is about 100 acres in extent, and is 
situated at less than 350 feet above sea-level. 


Keith obtains its water supply from gathering grounds, 
which are not owned by the Town Council, at Balloch Hill 
and Cairney, 350 acres in extent, between 743 and 783 
feet elevation, all hill pasture except 50 acres of arable 
land. The water is entirely derived from springs. On 
Balloch Hill area there are no houses or farms, and the 
water is passed through filtering screens. On Cairney area 
there are several farms and crofts, and the water is passed 
through gravel filter beds. 


Peterhead obtains its water supply from three im- 
pounding reservoirs at Forehill, with a total capacity of 
16,000,000 gallons. The gathering grounds, of which 
the Town Council only own about 8 acres, are mostly 
arable land, with houses and farm-steadings, and are situated 
between 130 and 200 feet elevation. The water is collected 
in pipes from streams on the gathering ground, and is 
passed through sand filter beds. 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN SCOTLAND 285 


Inverurie obtains its water supply from deep springs 
in Baikie Howe, a valley about 8 miles distant. On the 
gathering ground, 500 acres of arable land, between 524 
and 800 feet elevation, there are four small farms or crofts 
with steadings, the sanitary arrangements of which are 
inspected from time to time. Inspection chambers are 
provided at each spring, and the water is passed through 
screens and sand filters. The Burgh owns the farm of 
Mill of Eastertown, 202 acres in extent, of which about 
30 acres are within the water catchment area. The water 
from Baikie Howe is distributed from Bransbutt reservoir. 
The old supply of the Burgh, also from deep springs, is 
collected in the Hillhead reservoir, which is used now in 
reserve. 


CHAPTER XII 
WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN IRELAND 


In Ireland, as in the sister countries, the water supplies 
of cities and towns are varied in origin. Some com- 
munities obtain their water directly from the large rivers 
on which they are situated, as Cork from the river Lee, 
and Limerick from the Shannon. Many smaller towns 
are still dependent upon local pumps and wells, or upon 
springs. In this chapter notice is taken only of the 
local authorities who have gathering grounds, as such areas 
might in most cases be afforested with advantage to the 
purity of the water supply and to the health of the popu- 
lation. No official description of the water supplies of 
Irish towns has been published; and the pamphlet on 
this subject by Sir Charles A. Cameron, published in 
1885 (Fannin & Co., Dublin), is out of date. In the 
following pages information, mostly furnished by town 
surveyors, is given concerning the gathering grounds of 57 
cities and towns; but the acreage of ten catchment areas 
could not be ascertained. In the cases of ten towns, 
those marked with an asterisk, no official details have been 
obtainable, though application was made. The information 
cannot, then, claim to be exhaustive; nevertheless it is of 
considerable interest. Summarised, it shows that 47 cities 
and towns obtain their water supplies from 93,835 acres of 
gathering grounds; and if the returns were complete, the 
total would considerably exceed 100,000 acres. Muni- 
cipal ownership of such lands is very limited in Ireland, 
286 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN IRELAND 287 


the amount disclosed being 15,282 acres, owned by nine 
local authorities. Only three of these own a considerable 
proportion of their gathering grounds, namely, Belfast, 
which owns 13,746 acres; Portadown and Banbridge 
Joint Waterworks Board, which owns 943 acres; and 
Dublin, which owns 348 acres in addition to 712 acres of 
reservoir sites. The portions of their catchment areas 
owned by Rathmines, Drogheda, Lisburn, Holywood, and 
Waterford are very smal]. Scarcely any afforestation has 
been attempted, the only instances of municipal effort in 
this direction being 50 acres of old and 5 acres of new 
plantations on the Vartry area, belonging to the Dublin 
Corporation, and 50 acres of plantations made since 1900 
by the Urban District Council of Rathmines on their catch- 
ment area at Glennasmol. ‘The afforestation of the 
gathering grounds of Ireland cannot be effected until the 
areas are compulsorily acquired by the Urban District 
Councils and other local authorities concerned. 


I. ULSTER 


Gathering grounds, 41,253 acres, supplying twenty-one 
local authorities and one private owner (acreage of Letter- 
kenny, Keady, and Ballymoney gathering grounds unknown 
and not included). 14,752 acres owned by four local 
authorities. 


Belfast obtains its water supply from three catchment 
areas, as follows: 

The Woodburn area, 3 to 4 miles north-west of Carrick- 
fergus, and between 300 to 1000 feet elevation, contains 
6937 acres, of which 3657 acres, formerly farm lands, 
were acquired by the Water Commissioners to prevent 
pollution, and were cleared of inhabitants, being now only 
used for meadow and grazing. About 70 acres are 
wooded. The unpurchased part is moorland and rough 
grazing. 

The Stonyford catchment area, 5 miles north-west of 


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WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN IRELAND 289 


Lisburn, between 450 and 1085 feet elevation, contains 
5348 acres, of which 1365 acres were purchased by the 
Commissioners and depopulated, being now used for meadow 
and grazing. The unpurchased part is moorland and rough 
mountain grazing. No part of this catchment area is 
wooded. 

The Mourne catchment area, 33 miles south of Belfast 
and 5 miles from Kilkeel, at 450 to 2800 feet elevation, 
in the Happy Valley of the Mourne Mountains, contains 
8724 acres, all of which has been purchased by the Com- 
missioners. It consists of steep, treeless mountain slopes, 
without dwellings, on which only a few sheep can be 
grazed, and is above the agricultural zone. The water is 
filtered. No scheme for planting has been proposed; and 
My. R. Hamilton, Secretary, considers that “ the bare rugged 
slopes of the Mourne area are incapable of being used with 
satisfactory results for the planting of trees.” 


Lisburn: gathering ground in Aghnahough, Aghalislone, 
and White Mountain, 476 acres, between 356 and 825 
feet elevation, comprising 279 acres of arable land, 190 
acres of mountain pasture, and 7 acres of plantations, with 
22 farmhouses and 10 cottages. The Council own 283 
acres, all arable. “The streams have been piped at points 
most liable to surface contamination, and receive constant 
inspection and supervision. There is no risk of contamina- 
tion being brought by flood water or rains into the storage 
reservoir, which is situated between White Mountain and 
Lisburn. The water supply is filtered.” 


Ballymena: gathering ground on Quolie Mountain, 1723 
acres, between 835 and 1250 feet elevation, all mountain 
grazing, without habitations or plantations. Council own 
none of the ground. No special precautions needed against 
contamination. 


Ballymoney : from Lake Drumbest, 54 miles distant, at 
327 feet elevation. Council own only the bank surround- 
ing the lake. The water is not filtered. 

U 


290 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Portrush: gathering ground of 350 acres, all arable 
land and pasture, between 200 and 425 feet elevation, in 
the townlands of Craigahulliar, Knockertotan, Slimag, 
Crossreagh, and Corbally. There are 8 dwelling-houses, 
with farm-steadings attached, on the area, no part of which 
is owned by the Council. “There are many springs on the 
area, which are carefully collected and piped to the reservoir. 
The drainage from some of the arable land and farm-stead- 
ings is rejected. Filtration is good.” 


Portstewart: gathering ground of 185 acres in South 
Mullaghacall, Garrylaban, Cappagh Beg, East Crossreagh, 
and West Tullaghmurry townlands, between 50 and 150 
feet elevation, all arable land except 2 acres of plantations, 
with two farmhouses upon it. No special measures to 
prevent contamination are taken on the gathering ground, 
none of which is owned by the Council; but the water is 
filtered. 


Londonderry *: water supply from three sources : 

1. Creggan Valley, about two miles west of the city; 
three reservoirs; catchment area of 650 acres, between 300 
and 700 feet altitude, all agricultural land, with a number 
of inhabited houses. 

2. Killea Valley, south-west of the last; storage reser- 
voir; catchment area of 456 acres, largely hill grazing, 
but with some arable land. 

3. Tamneymore, south of the city; two storage reser- 
voirs; supply partly from springs situated in agricultural 
land, partly from perforated subsoil conduits in catchment 
areas. 

The Corporation appear to own only the sites of the 
reservoirs. All reports show that the water supply is of 
doubtful quality, the areas being very liable to con- 
tamination. 

The Londonderry Corporation have in Parliament during 
the present session (1918) a scheme for obtaining a new 
water supply from the Glens of Banagher, in the Sperrin 
Mountains. It is proposed to construct two reservoirs, one 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN IRELAND 291 


on the Glenedra Water and the other on the Altnaheglish 
River, not far above the point where they unite to form the 
Owenrigh River, The excellent catchment area, which it is 
proposed to acquire, is mountain land, free from habitations 
and any chance of contamination; and is situated in Carna- 
bane, Templemoyle, Glenedra, and Teeavan townlands, 
comprising the basins of the Glenedra and Altnaheglish 
Rivers, and ranging in elevation from about 700 feet to 
2170 feet, the latter being the altitude of Mullaghaneany. 


Buncrana: gathering ground of 250 acres, at 250 to 
800 feet elevation, in Gransha townland, all mountain 
grazing, with one dwelling-house; no filtration. Council 
own none of the ground. 


Letterkenny : new supply from Lough Salt, a lake 73 
acres in extent, at 816 feet elevation; no filtration neces- 
sary. Council own none of the catchment area, acreage of 
which is not stated. 


Holywood: gathering ground of 424 acres in Ballykeel 
and Holywood townlands, between 350 and 664 feet 
elevation, comprising 380 acres of arable land, 30 acres of 
moss and rough grazing, and 14 acres of copse and 
shrubbery in a glen. There are 9 dwelling-houses, all 
with farm-steadings, on the gathering ground. The Council 
own 35 acres, and the measures against contamination 
include “collection of overflows from farmyards and irriga- 
tion of the lands farthest from the main feeders.” 


Bangor obtains its water supply from two gathering 
grounds : 

(1) Helen’s Tower area, 330 acres, between 213 and 
400 feet elevation, comprising 80 acres of mountain grazing 
and 250 acres of plantations, with one dwelling-house upon 
it. (2) Ballysallagh area, 1026 acres, between 277 and 
600 feet elevation, comprising 900 acres of arable land, 26 
acres of hill pasture, and 100 acres of plantations, with 25 
dwelling-houses upon it. The Council own no part of the 


292 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


two areas, which “are kept clean. During heavy rains no 
water is allowed to get into Ballysallagh reservoir.” 


Newcastle (Co. Down) obtains its water supply from a 
gathering ground of 500 acres, between 800 and 2515 
feet elevation, in Ballaghbeg, embracing the upper 14 mile 
of the Glen River, and all mountain grazing, without habi- 
tations or plantations. The water, coming off a granite 
formation, is very pure, and is piped from the intake at the 
800 feet contour line to the service closed reservoir in 
Donard demesne. The water supply and gathering ground 
belong to Lady Mabel M. Annesley. 


Portadown and Banbridge Joint Waterworks Board obtain 
their supply from a gathering ground of 943 acres, be- 
tween 900 and 2300 feet elevation, in the townlands of 
Fofannyreagh, Fofannybane, Moyad, and Cock Mountain 
Common in the Mourne Mountains. The headwaters of the 
Shimna River are collected off this area by a dam thrown 
across the river at Deer’s Meadow in Fofannyreagh, forming 
a storage reservoir, with a capacity of 75,000,000 gallons. 
The Board own the entire area, which is all mountain 
grazing, without habitations or plantations. One of the 
streams supplying the reservoir is diverted past it in time 
of floods, being slightly peaty. The water is not filtered. 
The lower part of the gathering ground might possibly be 
afforested; but it is composed, according to Mr. R. H. 
Dorman, M.Inst.C.E., of steep and barren slopes of very 
little value even for sheep grazing. The average annual 
rainfall is estimated at 70 inches. See Proc. Assoc. Muni- 
cipal and County Engineers, vol. xxxii. pp. 133-143 
(1907). 


Warrenpoint: supply from gathering ground of 2694 
acres in the townlands of Mourne Mountains West, Rostrevor 
Mountains, Killowen Mountains, and Kilfeaghan Upper, 
between 500 and 1800 feet elevation, all mountain grazing. 
None ef the area, which is uninhabited, is owned by the 
Council. It is free from contamination, and the water is 


SSF 


iia RE 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN IRELAND 293 


not filtered. The impounding reservoir is 9 miles distant 
from Warrenpoint. 


Newry obtains its water supply from Camlough Lake, 
with a catchment area of 3407 acres, between 320 and 
1385 feet elevation, situated in the townlands of Carrick- 
bracken, Cross, Keggall, Ballinliss, Seafin, Tamnaghbane, 
Ballynalack, Aghmakane, Sturgan, and Carrickcloghan in 
Co. Armagh. The greater part of the area is mountain 
pasture, with 100 acres of plantations ; but a considerable 
portion is arable land with a good many dwelling-houses 
upon it. As the area of the lake is 120 acres, with a 
storage capacity of 600,000,000 gallons, it was supposed 
at first that the storage capacity was sufficient to purify 
the water without filtration; and at present the water is 
not filtered. Of recent years the conditions have changed, 
and a filtration scheme which was submitted to the 
Council by the Town Surveyor is held in abeyance by the 
war. The Council own none of the catchment area. 


Armagh: gathering ground of 256 acres in Drumbee 
Beg, Drumbee More, Edenknappagh, and Killeen townlands, 
between 390 and 410 feet elevation, consisting of 
128 acres of the Drumbee bog and 128 acres of arable 
land, with 13 cottages upon it. These houses have earth 
and dry closets. The water lying in the Drumbee bog is 
conveyed both by pipes and by an open water course to 
Lowry’s Lake, having a surface area of 26 acres, which 
forms a storage reservoir. The water taken from the lake 
is filtered before reaching the town. 


Keady: water supply from Clay Lake; catchment area, 
605 feet elevation; acreage unknown; entirely arable 
land and pasture land with three or four farmhouses 
upon it. No measures are taken on the area against 
contamination. 


Dungannon: gathering ground of 1500 acres, between 
527 and 735 feet elevation, in Altmore and Knocknaclogha 
townlands, comprising 400 acres of arable land, 1080 acres 


294 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


of mountain grazing, and 20 acres of plantations. There 
are 11 dwelling-houses, a school, and a church upon the 
gathering ground, none of which is owned by the Council. 
“Contaminated water is either conveyed in concrete 
channels past the reservoir and discharged on grass land 
or is piped into Altmore stream, which passes the reservoir.” 


Omagh: gathering ground of 1600 acres, between 
450 and 1500 feet elevation in Boheragh, Glenhordial, 
Crosh, Belnagilly, and Faccary townlands, all mountain 
grazing, and with only one habitation, a herd’s house, upon 
it. No measures against contamination are deemed necessary 
on the gathering ground, none of which is owned by the 
Council. 


Strabane: gathering ground of 1780 acres, between 450 
and 500 feet elevation, in Calheme, Knockavoe, Evish, and 
Cavanalee townlands, comprising 1280 acres of mountain 
grazing and 500 acres of arable land, with 52 dwelling- 
houses upon it. No measures are taken against contamination 
of the gathering ground, none of which is owned by the 
Council. Settling tanks and filtration are used at the 
waterworks near the town. 


Monaghan: gathering ground of 813 acres, in Togan, 
Ballagh, Drumsheeny, Gortnana, Leck, Coreaghan, Greagh, 
Cavanagarvan, Tattinclieve, Blackraw, and Drumlinny town- 
lands, between 460 and 600 feet elevation, comprising 
100 acres of mountain grazing and 713 acres of arable 
land, with about 25 farmers’ dwelling - houses. The 
Council own none of the land on the area, but have 
purchased one house to prevent contamination. A caretaker 
is employed to guard against contamination, and legal 
proceedings are instituted when necessary. 


Clones: gathering ground of 120 acres in Carnroe, 
between 300 and 400 feet elevation, comprising 70 acres 
of arable land, 40 acres of hill grazing, and 10 acres of 
plantations, and with three dwelling-houses on it. The 
supply is piped beyond these houses to prevent sewage from 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN IRELAND 295 


the farmsteads getting into the reservoir. The Council own 
only 3 acres. 


Castleblayney: gathering ground of 935 acres, all arable 
land, in Corravoo, Cargaghdoo, and Annagleve townlands, 
between 645 and 705 feet elevation. The Council own 
only the reservoir site, about 1 acre. On the area there 
are 5 farmhouses, the sewage from which is drained out- 
side it. 


Enniskillen: gathering ground of 400 acres, in Bally- 
doolagh, Cooltrain, Lissan, and Largy townlands, between 
443 and 701 feet elevation, comprising 56 acres of 
mountain grazing, whins, and bog, and 344 acres of arable 
land, with 11 occupied houses, there being 6 whole farms 
and 14 portions of farms on the area. The water is not 
filtered, but is passed through gauze screens at a sluice- 
house close to the lake (or storage reservoir), and again 
through gauze screens at the service reservoir, one mile 
distant. No special precautions are taken against contamina- 
tion on the gathering ground, of which only 14 acre is owned 
by the Council. 


Cavan: gathering ground of 270 acres in Beaghy, 
Shankill Lower, Corranure, Stragelliff, Drumerauve, Billis, 
and Corragho townlands, between 324 and 465 feet 
elevation, all arable land, except 10 acres of mountain 
grazing, and with 20 farmhouses upon it. The Council 
own only 6 acres, being a swamp in which water is stored 
at a high level for the purpose of scraping the mains by 
pressure. No special measures are taken on the gathering 
ground to prevent contamination, but the water is screened 
at the inlet house, and filtered near the town where there 
is a reservoir. 


II. LEINSTER 


Gathering grounds, 29,290 acres, supplying eight local 
authorities (acreage of Drogheda, Tullamore, and Wexford 
gathering grounds unknown and not included), 418 


296 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


acres (reservoirs not included) owned by three local 
authorities. 


Dublin obtains its water supply from the Roundwood 
reservoir in Co. Wicklow, which is situated on the Vartry 
River, at an elevation of 693 feet above sea-level. The 
catchment area, 13,700 acres in extent, consists mainly of 
a plateau between 700 and 900 feet elevation, but extends 
on the west to a chain of mountains ranging from 1580 to 
2584 feet, the highest point being the summit of Douce, 
while on the east it ascends to a ridge varying between 
800 and 1200 feet elevation. The Corporation own 
550 acres here, comprising the reservoir with 409 acres of 
water surface and 141 acres of filter beds and other 
adjoining land. A second reservoir, in course of construction 
on the river Vartry higher up, has a gathering ground of 
9000 acres, being part of the 13,700 acres already mentioned, 
as the catchment area has not been increased. The 
Corporation have acquired here 510 acres, comprising the 
site of the new reservoir, which will have 303 acres of 
water surface and 207 acres of adjoining land. The catch- 
ment area, mainly hill pasture and moorland, with a 
small proportion of arable land, is sparsely populated, the 
few dwellings being small farmhouses or labourers’ cottages, 
with no drainage system. The village of Roundwood is 
technically within the catchment area, but the entire 
drainage is intercepted and diverted by an open cutting, 
which discharges into the river Vartry below the filter beds. 
The Corporation have had under consideration the desirability 
of acquiring the whole catchment area, but it was considered 
unnecessary to do so. “The Vartry water is very pure. 
It is chemically examined every day, and the results rarely 
show any variation, the highest standard of purity being 
maintained.” 

On the land owned by the Corporation around the old 
reservoir 50 acres of plantations were made about 45 
years ago. These have been very valuable for shelter and 
ornament. The timber is now coming into use for fencing, 


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298 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


gates, and other purposes. A nursery, two acres in extent, 
has recently been established. A scheme for planting 
146 acres on the grounds of the new reservoir has been 
sanctioned by the Waterworks Committee of the Corporation, 
and about 5 acres have been planted up to date. It was 
stated in the Mreeman’s Journal, 1st August 1913, that “an 
afforestation application had been made to the Development 
Commissioners for funds for the afforestation of the water 
catchment area at Roundwood”; but I can obtain no 
confirmation of this. An account of the Roundwood Water- 
works, with map of the catchment area, by J. G. O’Sullivan, 
appeared in Trans. Inst. C.E., Ireland, xxxiv. pp. 94-120 
(1908). 


Rathmines and Rathgar Urban District Council have a 
gathering ground of 7000 acres in the Dublin Mountains, 
in the Glennasmol Valley, comprising the headwaters of 
the river Dodder and its tributaries, the Slade and Cot 
Brooks, and situated in Allagour, Ballymorefinn, Glassa- 
vullaun, Castlekelly, Cunard, Glassamucky, and Piperstown 
townlands, extending from about 600 feet up to 2472 feet, 
the summit of Kippure Mountain. The gathering ground 
is made up of two distinct areas: an upper area of 4000 
acres, practically all moorland, covered with peat and large 
boulders, the supply from which is used only for compensa- 
tion water to millowners along the river Dodder. On this 
area there are three farm-steadings, with one dwelling-house 
and a shooting-lodge. The lower area, 3000 acres in 
extent, consists of bare mountain slopes free from peat and 
only suitable for grazing, but has 65 farm-steadings, with a 
dwelling-house attached to each, upon it. It is off the 
latter area that clear water is collected into the upper 
reservoir (at 578 feet elevation) for drinking purposes. 
The lower or millowners’ compensation reservoir has a top- 
water level of 495 feet elevation. The service reservoir at 
Ballyboden with filter beds is at an elevation of 327 feet. 
See map and description of these waterworks by F. P. 
Dixon, M.Inst.C.E., in British Association Handbook to 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN IRELAND 299 


Dublin, pp. 392, 393 (1908). Mr. Dixon gives the acre- 
age of the catchment area as follows: Upper area, 4340 
acres; lower area, 3250 acres; or a total of 7590 acres. 
The Council own between 50 and 60 acres at the lower 
level of the gathering ground. “The measures taken 
against contamination are regular inspection of streams, 
cleaning catchwater channels and keeping these free of 
vegetation and debris, and provision of pipe drains separat- 
ing the farm drainage from the spring water.” The Council, 
beginning in 1900, have planted nearly 50 acres, about 
80,000 larch, pine, alder, and birch trees being used. The 
timber is already valuable, some of the trees having been 
cut down and employed for fencing as required. 


Dundalk: gathering ground of 1200 acres in Bally- 
makellett and Doolargy townlands, in the Carlingford 
Mountains, between 400 and 1563 feet elevation, all 
mountain pasture and moorland, except 50 acres of arable 
land, which has four houses upon it. The Council own the 
river beds and the valve towers only. The gathering 
ground is regularly patrolled by a water keeper, and the 
water is stored in a reservoir of 32,500,000 gallons 
capacity. 


Drogheda: gathering ground in Slate Hill, Tullyeskar, 
Barnattin, and Killineer townlands, two miles N.N.W. of 
Drogheda, acreage not ascertained, all arable land with five 
farmhouses upon it. The Council own only 10 acres 
around the reservoirs, of which 5 acres have been recently 
planted. The Council have not control over the gathering 
ground; but the water is filtered, and there is a special 
sewage system for Barnattin hamlet. 


Longford *: supply from stream at Lisfarrell, 315 feet 
elevation, with a gathering ground of 600 acres of arable 
land and pasture lands, with several farmhouses upon it. 
Pond and filters. 


Tullamore *: supply from Clodiagh River at Clonaslee, 
400 feet altitude. Large catchment area, acreage un- 


300 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


known, of arable and pasture land, with several houses 
upon it. The water is filtered. 


Birr*: supply from the headwaters of Camcor River in 
Ballyshane townland, at 394 feet elevation. Catchment 
area of 2490 acres, two-thirds being mountain pasture, with 
nine houses, the drains of which are intercepted. The 
Council own none of the ground. The water is filtered. 


Kilkenny: gathering ground of 2700 acres north-east 
of the city, in Gaulstown, Cloghpook, Wildfield, and Knock- 
major townlands, between 500 and 1000 feet elevation, 
consisting of 400 acres of arable land and 2300 acres of 
mountain grazing, with 20 farmsteads upon it. The drain- 
age of the 5 farmsteads nearest the reservoir on the main 
stream is intercepted and passed through a tank and over 
grassland before entering the stream. The Council own 
none of the land. 


Carlow *: reservoir on Killeshin stream in Keeloge 
townland, Queen’s County, 3 miles west of Carlow, at 240 
feet elevation ; catchment area of 700 acres, with 14 houses 
upon it. The Council own none of the land. The water 
is filtered. 


New Ross: gathering ground of 900 acres, all mountain 
grazing without habitations, between 400 and 1080 feet 
elevation on Dranagh Mountain and Bantry Commons, on 
the headwaters of the river Drummin. The Council own 
none of the ground, which is practically all common land. 
There is no risk of contamination, and the water is filtered. 


Wexford*: supply from reservoir on stream at Coles- 
town, at 263 feet elevation, 24 miles west of the town. 
No other information obtainable. 


III. MuNnsTER 


Gathering grounds, 16,152 acres, supplying fourteen 
local authorities (acreage of Thurles, Mallow, and Ennis 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN IRELAND 301 


gathering grounds unknown and not included). One hun- 
dred and twelve acres owned by two local authorities. 


Nenagh: gathering ground of about 4000 acres, on the 
headwaters of the Newtown River, between 300 and 1517 
feet elevation, extending from the reservoir east of Pallas 
More, westward to Tountinna Mountain, and comprising 
2400 acres of arable land in grass, 1500 acres of mountain 
pasture, and 100 acres of plantations. There are 12 
dwelling-houses on the gathering ground, all at a consider- 
able distance from the stream; and in the opinion of the 
County Surveyor the area is so free from pollution that the 
water supply does not require filtration. The Council own 
none of the gathering ground. 


Templemore: supply from Kilduff stream at 672 feet 
elevation ; gathering ground of 1000 acres, between 700 
and 1200 feet elevation, comprising 900 acres of mountain 
grazing and 100 acres of plantations, with four dwelling- 
houses. Intercepting drains at Kilwardy House discharge 
below the reservoir. The Council own none of the gather- 
ing ground. The water is filtered. 


Thurles: supply from small stream and adjoining springs 
in Knockalough townland, 7 miles west of the town, at 
975 feet elevation; area of gathering ground unknown. 
The Council own 24 acres. The water is filtered. 


Tipperary: gathering ground from springs at 1952 feet 
elevation in Galtee Mountains, oozing from a moraine 
beside a lake ; catchment area 20 acres, not owned by the 
Council. Water very pure and no risk of contamination. 
Large plantation below the gathering ground. 


Carrick-on-Suir: gathering ground of 400 acres in 
Comeragh Mountains, Co. Waterford, at Crotty’s Lake, 
between 700 and 2400 feet elevation, all mountain pasture, 
without dwelling-houses or farmsteads. Only six well 
sites, covering less than + acre, are owned by the Council. 
The supply is from springs, and no filtration is required. 


302 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Waterford: gathering ground of 2400 acres in Carrick- 
philip, Knockaderry, Cronolish, Caheruane, Ballyleen, 
Ballyrobin, Coolrattin, Smoor, and Ballycraddock town- 
lands ; all arable land (except 60 acres of turf bog), between 
224 and 510 feet elevation. The Borough own 82 acres 
under reservoir at Knockaderry and plantations. There 
are 14 farm holdings and labourers’ cottages on the gather- 
ing ground. The farms have the right of water for cattle, 
so special precautions against contamination are not 
taken. 


Dungarvan *: intake from stream at 194 feet elevation, 
with gathering ground of 675 acres in Glendine Mountain 
in Ballintoor and Deelish townlands, mountain grazing with 
one house upon it. The Council own none of the land. 


The water is filtered. 


Youghal: gathering ground of 1077 acres, 7 miles dis- 
tant, in Coolbeggan townland, between 400 and 500 feet 
elevation, comprising 977 acres of mountain grazing and 
100 acres of arable land. The Council own only the site 
of the filter beds, about 4 acre. There are 5 or 6 farm- 
steads on the gathering ground, but the danger of con- 
tamination from these is said to be slight, owing to the 
small proportion of arable land and the great extent of 
poorly grazed mountain waste, with marshy land in the 
valley. 


Middleton: gathering ground of 2481 acres in Bally- 
nakilla, Ballynabrannagh, Ballyvatta, Clash, Condonstown, 
Dooneen, Glengarriff, and Leamlara townlands, between 200 
and 600 feet elevation, all arable land, except 10 acres of 
plantations. There are 35 dwelling-houses and 64 farm 
holdings on the area, none of which is owned by the 
Council. No measures are taken against contamination on 
the gathering ground, but the water is filtered. 


Queenstown: gathering ground of 476 acres in Cloneen, 
Tibbotstown, and Ballynakilla townlands, north of Carrigto- 
hill, between 415 feet (level of the reservoir) and 527 feet 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN IRELAND 308 


elevation, comprising 370 acres of arable land, 74 acres of 
boggy land, 15 acres of plantations, and 16 acres under 
water. On the gathering ground, none of which is owned 
by the Council except the 16 acres of reservoir sites, there 
are 2 labourers’ cottages and 11 farmsteads, with 59 in- 
habitants. The water leaves the reservoirs through copper 
screens, and passes by pipes to the filter beds. No special 
measures are taken on the gathering ground against con- 
tamination. 


Fermoy: supply from a stream which enters the reser- 
voir (450 feet elevation) and filter beds at Knockananig, 
three miles S.E. of the town. Supplemental supply from 
Glashnahall River, intake at Coolinny (539 feet elevation), 
with 1000 acres of gathering ground. The Urban District 
Council own here as freehold about 30 acres of uncultivated 
ground, said to be suitable for planting trees. 


Mallow: supply from Fiddane stream at 485 feet 
elevation, in Ballinvuskig townland, about 24 miles SE. 
of the town. The catchment area consists of arable and 
pasture land, the acreage of which is unknown. The 
reservoir and adjoining land, about 14 acres, on which it 
is proposed to construct filter beds, are owned by the 
Urban District Council. “The reservoir is cleaned out 
every four years.” 


Buttevant : supply from intake at 640 feet elevation on 
Streamhill Mountain, with 5-inch delivery pipe to reservoir, 
+ mile distant from the town. Catchment area extensive, 
acreage unknown. The Mallow Rural District Council own 
only intake works and reservoir, about a acre in all. 


Tralee: gathering ground of 1340 acres in Curraheen 
and Derrymore East townlands, between 200 and 2750 
feet elevation, all mountain grazing, without habitations or 
plantations. The Council own only the sites of the intakes, 
reservoirs, and filters; and no precautions are considered 
necessary on the gathering ground except inspection after 
floods to remove dead sheep, etc. Efforts have been made 


304 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


to induce the Council to acquire the land and plant it, 
with trees, but legal and financial obstacles, as well as 
apathy, have prevented any steps being taken, though 
on the catchment area there are extensive mountain 
tracts of land said to be suitable for nothing else but 
afforestation. 


Killorglin: water supply from Loch Cummernamuck, 
with a catchment area of 250 acres, between 421 and 
600 feet elevation, all mountain grazing, without habita- 
tions or plantations. The water supply is under control 
of the Killarney Rural District Council and a Waterworks 
Committee in Killorglin, who own only the site of the 
reservoir, and have rights and wayleaves for pipes and 
works. Cattle have access to the intake, and the supply 
is said to be unsatisfactory. 


Killarney : water supply from Devil’s Punch Bowl Lake, 
at 2206 feet elevation on Mangerton, the intake being on 
a stream in Ferta townland, 550 feet above the level of 
the town, with a catchment area of 914 acres, all mountain 
erazing, without habitations or plantations. The Council 
have a right to the water from the lake, but own none 
of the catchment area. No precautions are considered 
necessary, as there are screens at the intake to exclude 
leaves, etc., from getting into the pipes, which lead to the 
service reservoir and filters. It is a perfectly pure and 
ample supply. 


Cahirciveen: gathering ground of 120 acres on Carhan 
Mountain, south-east of the town, between 373 feet (level 
of the intake) and 1000 feet elevation, all mountain grazing 
and without habitations or plantations. The Rural District 
Council own the site of the reservoir and intake, and have 
purchased water rights and wayleaves on the mountain. 
Covered drains convey the water from the springs on the 
gathering ground to the intake, but the springs are liable 
to be interfered with by grazing cattle. The area is said 
to be suitable for afforestation, and the pipes from the 


WATER CATCHMENT AREAS IN IRELAND 305 


intake pass through Carhan Wood, which has lately been 
cut down. 


Ennis*: supply from stream at Ballymacaula at 228 
feet elevation. Gathering ground of tillage and pasture land 
at a low elevation. Other particulars not obtainable. 


IV. ConnauGHT 


Gathering grounds, 7140 acres, supplying three local 
authorities (acreage of Castlebar gathering ground unknown 
and not included). Nil acres owned by local authorities. 


Bundoran: gathering ground of 140 acres, at 800 to 
1000 feet elevation, in Aghavoghill townland, Co. Leitrim ; 
all mountain grazing; no habitations; Council own none 
of the ground. 


Sligo*: supply from Kilsellagh, at 395 feet elevation ; 
gathering ground of 2000 acres of arable land and pasture 
land, with 40 houses upon it. Pond and filters. 


Ballina: gathering ground of 5000 acres in the Ox 
Mountains, between 136 and 1000 feet elevation, in Graffy, 
Lissardmore, Ellaghmore, Ellaghbeg, and Bunnyconnellan 
townlands. The gathering ground comprises 1800 acres of 
arable land and 3200 acres of mountain grazing, with about 
130 farmsteads upon it. None of the land is owned by the 
Council, and no measures are taken against contamination. 


Castlebar: supply from river and springs in Ardvarney 
townland at 300 feet elevation; gathering ground exten- 
sive, but with few houses. The river is fenced near the 
intake, and the water is filtered. The Council own none 
of the area. 


INDEX 


Abies grandis, 130 

Abies nobilis, 98, 130 

Abies pectinata, 128 

Acacia, so-called, 50, 169 

Acer, species of, 51, 156 

Aesculus, species of, 51 

Afforestation of pit mounds, 59 

Afforestation of 
areas, 71, 105 

Agrarian zone, 106 

Ailanthus glandulosa, 50 

Air of forests, 16 

Air, pure bracing, 17 

Alder, common, 63, 154 

Alder, grey or white, 68, 155 

Alnus, species of, 63, 68, 154, 155 

Altitude and cultivation, 117 

Altitude and planting, 115 

Altitude, effect on trees, 113 

Ardgoil Estate, 41 

Ash, 50, 119, 149 

Ashgill Plantation, 115, 138 

Aspen, 166 


Bacteria in air of forests, 17 

barr OW... 19 

Bates, C. G., 12 

Baxter, George, 81, 282 

Beech, 47, 98, 119, 147 

Betts, Norman D. W., 11 

Betula, species of, 163 

Birch, 49, 63, 162 

Birmingham parks, 35 

Black Country, 59 

Board of Agriculture, 86, 103 

Boodle, L. A., 19 

Bournemouth pine plantations, 24, 
126 

Bracken fern, 15, 108 

Broad-leaved trees, 119, 120, 147 

Brompton Hospital Sanatorium, 22 


water catchment 


307 


Cairns covered by peat, 19 

Camps afforestation scheme, 27, 261 

Castanea, 157 

Catalpa, 53 

Chestnut, 157 

Chittenden, H. M., 2 

Cholera, forests free from, 17 

Church, J. E., 5 

Climate, forests and, 1 

Climate, optimum, 
period, 19 

Common land, 39, 103, 107 

Conifer forests and tuberculosis, 22 

Conifer plantations, 120, 148 

Conifers in towns, 54 

Conifers for planting, 119, 123 

Cotton grass moor, 111 

Cricket-bat willow, 168 

Cupressus lawsoniana, 19, 146 

Cupressus macrocarpa, 19, 146 


in Neolithic 


Dairy farms and shelter belts, 18, 19 

Deschampsia flexuosa, 108 

Development Commissioners, 31, 62, 
79, 89, 103, 188, 228, 239, 
267, 298 

Dobell, Dr. Horace, 23, 25 

Don and Chisholm, 19 

Douglas fir, 42, 94, 98, 131 

Doulton Road Schools, 64 

Draining effected by forests, 16 


Ebermayer, 15, 17 

Elms, 52, 159 

Eriophorum, 111 

Erosion of soil and forests, 1, 7 
Etlinger, Dr. F. K., 22 
Eucalyptus and malaria, 16 
Euonymus japonica, 19 

Eve, Prof. A. 8., 17 


308 


Exmoor, plantations on, 116 
Exposure and planting, 105, 116 


Fernow, E. B., 11 
Fescue, 108 
Filtration of water supply, 104, 226 
Fisher, W. R., 96 
Floods diminished by forests, 7, 9 
Forest air, 16 
Forest influence— 

on air temperature, 3 

on climate, 1 

on erosion of the soil, 1, 7 

on floods, 7, 8, 9 

on flow of streams, 10 

on rainfall, 3 

on silting of reservoirs, 76 

on snow melting, 5 

on soil temperature, 3 

on springs, 7 

on water supply, 6 
Forestry societies and schools, 66 
Forestry work at MHairmyres for 

tuberculous patients, 28 

Forests— 

absence of, on west coast, 114 

aesthetic value of, 18 

and climate, 1 

and hygiene, 13 

and underground water, 16 

as sites for sanatoria, 20 

bacteria in air and soil of, 17 

drainage by, improving health, 16 

of conifers and tuberculosis, 22, 

26 

on mountain watersheds, 9 

sanitary influence of, 13 

villages in, free from cholera, 17 
Fraxinus excelsior, 50, 119, 149 
Frosts, spring, and peat-bogs, 15 
Furze, 108 


Games, organised, in parks, 37 

Gathering grounds. See Water catch- 
ment areas 

Giandotti, M., 2 

Ginkgo biloba, 55 

Glasgow Municipal Forest, 41 

Gordon, G. P., 31, 32 

Gordon, Dr. W., 14 

Grants for afforestation, 80 

Grass moors, 111 

Grazing, zone of hill, 106 

Grazing in larch plantations, 117 


FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Hairmyres Colony Sanatorium, 27 
Hairmyres forest nursery, 28 
Hall and Maxwell, 8 
Hamburger, Prof., 25 
Hardie, Dr. M., 114 
Hawes, Austin F., 11 
Hay fever, 20 

Hazel, 150 

Health and forests, 18 
Heather, 109 

Heaths, 106, 109 
Hemlock spruce, 144 
Henzell, C. G., 100 
Hill pasture, 106, 117 
Hill, Prof. Leonard, 22 
Hinsdale, Dr. Guy, 32 
Hollies for towns, 54 
Holmes, Basil, 38 
Hornbeam, 157 

Horse chestnut, 51 
Huftel Ga 12a, 
Hybrid trees, 121 
Hydrogen peroxide, 16 


Ilex, hybrids of, 54 

India, forest influence on climate 
of, 2 

Interplanting, 134 

Ionisation of forest air, 17 


Juglans nigra, 47, 168 
Juneus, 111 


Kellogg, Frank B., 18 
Knockboy plantation, 127 


Laburnum, 53 


Lanark, afforestation scheme at 
Camps, 29 

Landes, forests of, improving health, 
18 

Larch— 


European, 15, 93, 98, 139 

Japanese, 142 

western, 143 

woods and grazing, 117 
Laurel, 19 
Lawson cypress, 19, 146 
Lawson, Dr. David, 22 
Lees, E. A., 103 
Leighton, M. O., 8 
Lime trees, species of, 51 
Liquidambar, 53 

| Loomis, Dr. A. L., 21 


INDEX 


Maidenhair tree, 55 

Malaria diminished by forests, 16, 
18 

Maple, Norway, 51, 156 

Margerison, S., 76 

Mathieu, A., 11 

Metropolitan Public Gardens Associa- 
tion, 39 

Midland Reafforesting Association, 59 

Mill, Dr. Hugh R., 2 

Mitchell, L., 187 

Molinia caerulea, 108, 111 

Moorland zone, 109 

Moors, planting of, 112 

Mulberry, 53 

Municipal forests, 41 


Nancy, observations on forests and 
rainfall at, 4, 16 

Nardus stricta, 108, 111 

National Trust, 40 

New Forest, rainfall of, 2 

Nordrach Colonie Sanatorium, 21 

Nordrach-on-Dee Sanatorium, 22 


Oak— 
common, 53, 152 
evergreen, 54, 154, 156 
Turkey, 154 

Oaks for towns, 53 

Oil shale, 69, 70 

Open spaces, 33 

Oppokov, E. V., 9 

Oxygen in air of forests, 15 

Ozone in air of forests, 16 


Pan, 110 
Parks— 
in towns, 33 
purity of air in, 18 
of Birmingham, 35 
of London, 33 
Parry, J., 72, 80, 84 
Paulownia imperialis, 47 
Peat— 
bogs, afforestation of, 15, 19 
bogs, chilling effect of, 15 
formation of, 19, 111 
moors, 111, 112 
on mountains, 14 
planting on, 15, 112, 138, 194 
Pennines, 108, 109 
Phagocytosis, 25 
Phthisis, 20, 23 


309 


Pine— 
Austrian, 54, 98, 125 
Corsican, 54, 98, 98, 124 
forests and sanatoria, 21 
leaves, chemical constituents of, 25 
maritime, 15, 19, 125 
needle oil, 25 
plantations at Bournemouth, 24 
Scots, 15, 98, 120, 123 
Weymouth, 93 
Pines, emanations of leaves of, 25 
Pines, odours of, 25 
Pinus insignis, 127 
Pinus montana, 126 
Pit banks and bings, 60, 68, 70 
Pit mounds— 
afforestation of, 59, 67, 155 
sowing of, 62, 67 
trees for, 63, 155 
Plane, various species, 48 
Plantations— 
Ardgoil, 41 
Elan, 102 
Exmoor, 116 
Rivington, 95 
Thirlmere, 96 
Vyrnwy, 92 
Washburn Valley, 100 
Planting— 
at high elevations, 115 
mattock used in, 98 
on peat, 15, 112, 138, 194 
on pit banks, 60, 155 
on water catchment areas, 85 
trees in towns, 55 
wet spots, 137, 154 
Platanus, several species, 48 
Playground movement in America, 
42 
Playgrounds in towns, 39, 40 
Pliny, treatment of tuberculosis, 20 
Poplars, 49, 63, 121, 164 
Populus, various species, 49, 121, 
164 
Proceeds-sharing, 80 
Pruning of trees, 56 
Prunus, species of, 53 
Pyrus, species of, 53 


Quercus, species of, 53, 154 
Rainfall, influence of forests on, 3 


Reconstruction Report on Forestry, 
79, 86 


310 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Reservoirs— | Springs, forest influence on, 7 


dead leaves in, 76, 217 
protection of, by tree belts, 76 
silting of, 76 
Return as to Water Undertakings in 
England and Wales, 104, 170 
Rigg, G. B., 19 
Rights of grazing, 103 
Roberts, C. H., 10 
Robinia Pseudacacia, 50, 65, 69, 169 
Rowley Regis School Plantation, 65 
Run-off water, 6 
Ruskin, 73 


Salix, various species, 167 
Sallow, 167 
Salt spray carried inland, 19 
Salt spray, injury to trees, 13, 19 
Sanatoria in forests, 20 
Sanatorium— 
Brompton Hospital, Frimley, 21, 22 
at Hairmyres, 27 
at Nordrach, 21 
Nordrach-on-Dee, 22 
Pinewood, Wokingham, 22 
Sand dunes, afforestation of, 19, 124, 
126 
Sanitary influence of forests, 13 
School forestry societies, 66 
School plantations, 62, 64 
Scirpus moor, 111 
Scots pine, 15, 98, 120, 123 
Seed, selection of, 122, 141 
Shale banks, planting of, 69 
Sheep and shelter belts, 15 
Sheep in larch woods, 117 
Sheep on water catchment areas, 74 
Shelter belts, 14, 24, 129, 139, 147, 
148, 156 
Shelter for dairy farms, 18 
Shelter of grazing iand, 18, 19, 117, 
118 
Shelter of sanatoria, 24 
Silver fir, 93, 128 
Slag heaps, 60, 69 
Smoke, effect on trees, 45, 57, 95 
Smoke of towns, 45, 178 
Snow, influence of forests on, 5 
Soil erosion, forest influence on, 1, 7 
Soil in towns, 45 
Soot and trees, 45, 54 
Sowing on pit mounds, 62 
Special adaptability, 82 
Sphagnum moor, 111 


Spruce— 
at high elevation, 31 
common, 15, 76, 93, 134 
Sitka, 94, 98, 136 
white, 115, 138 
Staking trees, 55 
Stevenson, R. L., 11 
Stomata of leaves and soot, 54 
Story, Prof. Fraser, 234, 239 
Stream-flow, forest influence on, 10 
Streets, planting of, 55 
trees for, 47 
Sulphur dioxide and trees, 45, 58 
Sycamore, 51, 63, 156 


Tarred roads and trees, 46, 58 

Temperature, influence of forests 
on, 3 

Thomson, Prof. James, 34 

Thuya gigantea, 19, 42, 93, 183, 
145 


Tilia, species of, 51 
Timber line, 115 

Town Planning Act, 38 
Towns, parks in, 33 
Towns, trees for, 48 


| Transpiration of oak forest, 3 


Tree limit, 113 
Trees— 
and altitude, 113 
and chemical works, 58 
choice of, 120 
damaged by shale industry, 69, 70 
damaged by soot and smoke, 45, 
57, 95 
for water catchment areas, 119 
in towns, 44, 47 
injury by salt spray, 13 
leaves of, injured by wind, 19 
preservation of, 56 
wind effect on, 13 
Tsuga albertiana, 144 
Tuberculosis, sanatoria for, 21 
Tulip tree, 47 
Turpentine, effect on phagocytosis, 
26 
Typhoid cases and water supply, 77 


Ulex, 108 

Ulmus, species of, 52, 160 

Underplanting, 144, 146, 157 

Unemployed, planting by the, 87, 
100, 195 


INDEX 311 


Vegetation zones, 106, 117 


Walker, Dr. Gilbert, 2 
Walnut, black, 47, 168 
Walther, Dr., 21, 22 


Waste land, 106 
Water Catchment Areas— 


Aberdeenshire, 282 

abolition of habitations and farms 
on, 73, 188 

afforestation of, 71, 75, 86, 105, 
282 

arguments for planting, 75, 81 

Argyllshire, 249 

at low altitudes, 172, 204, 212 

Belmont, 188 

Bute, 249 

bye-laws for, 214, 238 

Camps, Mid-Lanark, 27, 261 

Cheshire, 206 

Clackmannan, 272 

compulsory purchase by Corpora- 
tions, 73, 82, 247 

Cornwall, 218 

Cumberland, 172 

Derbyshire, 206 


Development Commissioners’ 
scheme for afforestation, 89 
Devon, 218 


Dumbartonshire, 249 

Dumfriesshire, 254 

Durham, 176 

Elan and Claerwen, 101, 238 

England, 171 

exorbitant prices paid for, 82 

extent of total, 78, 88 

extent owned by Corporations, 85, 
86, 88 

Fifeshire, 272 

Forfarshire, 277 

Glencorse, 264, 266 

Glendevon, 279 

Glenfinlas, 249 

Glensherrup, 279 

Gorbals, 86, 250 

Inverness, 282 

Ireland, 286 

Kinross, 272 

Kirkcudbrightshire, 254 

Lake District, 172 

Lanarkshire, 259 

Lancashire, 178 

Leicestershire, 212 

Lincolnshire, 212 


Water Catchment Areas (contd. )— 


Lintrathen, 82, 282 

Loch Arklet, 249 

Loch Bradan, 257 

Loch Katrine, 86, 249 

Longdendale, 98, 206 

municipal ownership of, 207, 219, 
226, 229, 261, 277 

Northamptonshire, 212 

Northumberland, 176 

Perthshire, 249, 277 

planting, 75, 76, 105 

prevention of floods, 76 

prevention of pollution, 71, 77, 
187, 238 

purchase of, 73, 77 

Reconstruction Committee’s  re- 
commendations, 79 

Renfrew, 249 

restrictions on, 227, 238, 277 

River Farg, 277, 278 

Rivington, 94, 180 

sanitary condition of, 214, 238 

Scotland, 247 

Severn Basin, 218 

sheep grazing on, 74 

Slateford Burn, 277, 278 

Stirlingshire, 259 

Talla, 265, 268 

Thirlmere, 73, 95, 172 

trees for, 119 

utilisation of, 73 

Vyrnwy, 88, 237 

Wales, 230 

Washburn Valley, 99 

Westmorland, 172 

Wigtownshire, 254 

Yorkshire, 190 


Water Catchment Areas supplying— 


Aberdare U.D.C., 245 

Abertillery and District, 221 

Aberystwyth, 237 

Accrington District Gas and Water 
Board, 184 

Airdrie, Coatbridge, and District, 
264 

Alexandria, Bonhill, and James- 
town District, 250 

Alloa, 272 

Annan, 258 

Arbroath, 280 

Ardrossan, 254 

Armagh, 293 

Ashton in Makerfield U.D.C., 189 


312 


Water Catchment Areas supplying 
(contd. )— 

Ashton under Lyme, Stalybridge, 
and Dunkinfield (District), 207 

Aspatria, Silloth, and District, 172 

Ayr, 256 

Bacup, 186 

Baildon U.D.C., 198 

Ballina, 305 

Ballymena, 289 

Ballymoney, 289 

Banbridge, 292 

Bangor (Down), 291 

Bangor (Wales), 232 

Barnsley, 203 

Barrow in Furness, 180 

Bathgate District, 262 

Batley, 202 

Beith, 255 

Belfast, 287 

Birkenhead, 234 

Birmingham, 101 

Birr, 300 

Blackburn, 195 

Blairgowrie, Rattray,and Dist., 280 

Bolton, 187 

Bo'ness, 269 

Boston Waterworks Co., 217 

Bradford, 193 

Brechin, 281 

Bridge of Allan Water Co., 260 

Bristol Waterworks Co., 221 

Briton Ferry U.D.C., 244 

Brymbo Water Co., 235 

Brynmawr U.D.C., 241 

Buncrana, 291 

Bundoran, 305 

Burley-in- Wharfedale U.D.C., 197 

Burnley, 183 

Burntisland, 274 

Bury and District, 184 

Buttevant, 303 

Buxton U.D.C., 210 

Cahirciveen, 304 

Cardiff, 239 

Carlisle, 172 

Carlow, 300 

Carnarvon, 232 

Carnforth District Waterworks Co., 
182 

Carrick-on-Suir, 301 

Castlebar, 305 

Castleblayney, 295 

Cavan, 295 


FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Water Catchment Areas supplying 


(contd. )\— 
Cheltenham, 219 
Chesterfield Gas and Water Board, 

211 
Chesterfield R.D.C., 211 
Church Stretton U.D.C., 218 
Cleator Moor U.D.C., 174 
Cleveland Water Co., 205 
Clones, 294 
Clydebank and District, 251 
Colne, 182 j 
Conway and Colwyn Bay, 233 
Crieff, 280 
Cupar (Fife), 275 
Dalry, 255 
Darwen, 189 
Denny and Dunipace, 259 
Derwent Valley Water Board, 210 
Devonport, 226 
Dewsbury and Heckmondwike, 203 
Doncaster, 204 
Drogheda, 299 
Dublin, 296 
Dumbarton, 251 
Dumfries and Maxwelltown, 258 
Dundalk, 299 
Dundee, 281 
Dunfermline, 279 
Dunfermline District, 279 
Dungannon, 293 
Dungarvan, 302 
Dunoon, 252 
Duns, 271 
Ebbw Vale U.D.C., 241 
Edinburgh, 264 
Ennis, 305 
Enniskillen, 295 
Exmouth U.D.C., 224 
Falkirk and Larbert Trust, 260 
Falmouth Waterworks Co., 229 
Fermoy, 303 
Forfar, 281 
Fraserburgh, 283 
Fulwood U.D.C., 182 
Fylde Water Board, 181 
Galashiels, 271 
Girvan, 257 
Glasgow, 249 
Glossop, 209 
Gloucester, 220 
Glyncorwg U.D.C., 244 
Grange U.D.C., 181 
Grangemouth, 260 


INDEX 


Water Catchment Areas supplying 


(contd. )— 

Greenock, 252 

Guisborough Water Co., 205 

Halifax, 199 

Hamilton, 262 

Harrogate, 192 

Hawarden and District Water- 
works Co., 236 

Hawick, 271 

Helensburgh, 250 

Heywood and Middleton, 188 

Higham Ferrars and Rushden, 214 

Holyhead Waterworks Co., 230 

Holywood, 291 

Horwich U.D.C., 189 

Huddersfield, 201 

Inverness, 282 

Inverurie, 285 

Irvine and District, 255 

Ivybridge U.D.C., 227 

Keady, 293 

Keighley, 198 

Keith, 284 

Kelso, 272 

Kendal, 175 

Kettering U.D.C., 214 

Kilbirnie, 255 

Kilkenny, 300 

Killarney, 304 

Killorglin, 304 

Kilmarnock, 256 

Kilsyth, 259 

Kingussie, 283 

Kirkcaldy and Dysart, 274 

Kirkcaldy District, 277 

Kirkcudbright, 258 

Kirriemuir, 280 

Lanark, 263 

Lanarkshire Middle Ward, 29, 261 

Lancaster, 181 

Lauder, 271 

Leeds, 99, 190 

Leicester, 216 

Letterkenny, 291 

Leven, 275 

Linlithgow County, Bathgate Dis- 
trict, 262 

Linlithgow County, Central Dis- 
trict, 270 

Linlithgow District, 269 

Lisburn, 289 

Liverpool, 88 

Llandudno U.D.C., 233 


313 


Water Catchment Areas supplying 


(contd, )— 
Llanelly, 238 
Llanfairfechan U.D.C., 232 
Llanidloes, 237 
Llantrisant and  Llantwitfardre 
R.D.C., 246 
Loanhead, 269 
Lochgelly, 272 
Londonderry, 290 
Longford, 299 
Loughborough, 215 
Macclesfield, 208 
Machynlleth U.D.C., 237 
Mallow, 303 
Malvern U.D.C., 219 
Manchester, 95 
Margam U.D.C., 243 
Melton Mowbray U.D.C., 216 
Merthyr Tydfil, 240 
Middleton, 302 
Milford Haven U.D.C., 238 
Millom U.D.C., 175 
Monaghan, 294 
Morley, 200 
Morpeth, 176 
Motherwell, 262 
Mountain Ash U.D.C., 244 
Nantwich U.D.C., 211 
Neath, 243 
Neath R.D.C., 241 
Nelson, 183 
Nenagh, 301 
Newburgh, 276 
Newcastle (Down), 292 
Newcastle and Gateshead Water 
Co., 176 
Newport (Mon.), 220 
New Ross, 300 
Newry, 293 
Newtown and _ Lilanllwchaiarn 
U.D.C., 237 
Northampton, 212 
North Berwick, 270 
Okehampton, 228 
Oldham, 202 
Omagh, 294 
Oswestry, 236 
Otley U.D.C., 196 
Padiham U.D.C., 183 
Paignton U.D.C., 228 
Paisley, 253 
Penmaenmawr U.D.C., 232 
Penrith U.D.C., 175 


314 


Water Catchment Areas supplying 


(contd, )— 
Penzance, 229 
Peterhead, 284 
Pittenweem and Anstruthers, 276 
Plymouth, 224 
Pontypridd and Rhondda, 244 
Portadown and Banbridge, 292 
Port Glasgow, 252 
Portrush, 290 
Portstewart, 290 
Preston, 182 
Prestonpans Water Trust, 270 
Queenstown, 302 
Rathmines and Rathgar U.D.C., 
298 
Renfrew First District, 253 
Rhondda U.D.C., 245 
Rhyl U.D.C., 233 
Ripon, 192 
Rochdale, 186 
Rosyth, 279 
Rothesay, 252 
Ruabon Water Co., 235 
St. Andrews, 276 
St. Ives (Cornwall), 229 
Scunthorpe U.D.C., 217 
Sheffield, 203 
Shipley U.D.C., 197 
Skipton U.D.C., 195 
Sligo, 305 
South Molton, 224 
Stirling, 259 
Stirling Eastern District, 261 
Stockport, 207 
Strabane, 294 
Stranraer, 258 
Stratford-on-Avon, 219 
Stratton and Bude U.D.C., 224 
Swansea, 242 
Tain, 283 
Taunton, 222 
Tees Valley Water Board, 190 
Templemore, 301 
Thirsk District Water Co., 205 
Thurles, 301 
Tipperary, 301 
Todmorden, 200 
Torquay, 227 
Towyn U.D.C., 236 
Tralee, 303 
Tredegar U.D.C., 221 


FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 


Water Catchment Areas supplying 
(contd. )\— 
Troon, Prestwick, and Ayrshire 
Special, 257 
Tullamore, 299 
Turriff, 284 
Tynemouth, 176 
Wakefield, 200 
Warrenpoint, 292 
Warrington, 189 
Waterford, 302 
Weardale and Consett Water Co., 
fyi 
Wellington (Salop) U.D.C., 218 
Wemyss and District, 275 
Westmorland, South, R.D.C., 175 
Wexford, 300 
Wharfedale R.D.C., 197 
Whitburn, 269 
Whitehaven, 174 
Wigan, 189 
Wishaw, 263 
Workington, 174 
Wrexham and East Denbighshire 
Water Co., 234 
Yeadon Waterworks Co., 205 
Youghal, 302 
Watersheds, deforestation of, 9 
Water supply— 
action of lead on, 194 
filtration of, 104, 226 
sources of, 71 
storage as means of purification, 
74, 187 
Watson, James, 82, 194 
Wet spots, planting, 137, 154 
Whin, 108 
Whitton, James, 41, 43 
Willow, various species, 167 
Wind— 
effect on trees, 13 
harmful in phthisis, 14 
trees resisting, 19, 54, 124, 128, 
129, 147, 162 


Yew, 19 


Zon, R., 4 


Zone, agrarian, 118 
of hill pasture, 117 
moorland, 117 

Zones of vegetation, 106, 117 


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