FRENCH FORESTS
AND FORESTRY
FRENCH FORESTS
AND
FORESTRY
TUNISIA, ALGERIA, CORSICA
With a Translation of the Algerian Code of 1903
BY
THEODORE S. WOOLSEY, JR., M.F.
Assistant District Forester, U. S. Forest Service, 1908-1915
Lecturer, 1912, 1916-1917, Yale Forest School.
FIRST EDITION
NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED
1917
IX
V
A
*
COPYRIGHT, 1917, ^ir«^
BY
THEODORE S. WOOLSEY, JR.
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Stanhope iprcss
T. H.GILSON COMPANY
BOSTON, U.S.A.
To
IN RECOGNITION OF THEIR CREATION AND DEVELOPMENT
OF A DEFINITE AND COMPREHENSIVE NATIONAL
FOREST POLICY
364871
PREFACE
A KNOWLEDGE of theoretical forestry is as indispensable to
an American forest student as it is to the man of any other
country who may adopt forestry as his profession. But to be
useful such knowledge must be applied with judgment. The
pure theory of forestry needs for its unfolding and embodiment
conditions which are likewise theoretically perfect. The skill
of the trained forester consists not in the mere application of a
formula, but in modifying what is ideally correct into what
is practically desirable. As in every other sphere of human
endeavor, what is actually possible in the practice of forestry
differs very widely from what ought to be possible, but is not.
Successful practice, in the large, is never theoretically perfect,
and this is most emphatically true in the lands where forestry
is new.
American foresters have very much to learn from the in-
tensive methods of forest management and forest production
on the Continent of Europe, and particularly in France, Ger-
many* Austria, and Switzerland. Here the fundamental prin-
ciples of theoretical forestry may best be studied, and the best
examples of their application to conditions on the ground are
most readily examined.
In his effort to ascertain how best to harmonize the search
for perfection with the successful achievement of practical
results, there is no guide so valuable to the forester as the ex-
perience of others under conditions which are at least partially
similar. But the experience of others can serve us as a model
only when the work done rests on knowledge so pertinent and
skill so sure that their combined effect results in elasticity and
boldness in fitting means to ends; otherwise the lessons to. be
Vi PREFACE
learned will flow less from examples to be followed than from
mistakes to be shunned.
Here lies the special value of French forest management as
against German. The reason why more valuable instruction
and more useful example for the American forester is to be
found in France than in Germany is because French methods
are less rigid, more adaptable, less controlled by arbitrary rule
than is the case in Germany. French forest management is the
natural expression of the quick and practical intelligence of
the French, and this is especially true in its application to the
French colonies, where many of the conditions approximate
those with which American foresters find themselves obliged
to deal.
As a former student of the French Forest School at Nancy,
it is a matter of special satisfaction to me that Theodore S.
Woolsey, Jr., my friend and fellow member of the United States
Forest Service, has undertaken to give Americans an account
of forest management by France.
Mr. Woolsey 's equipment for his task is unusually complete.
His knowledge of the theory and practice of forestry in the
United States is such as could result only from thorough train-
ing followed by wide experience in the field. Through his
work in the Forest Service he has seen the worst and the best
of American methods of forestry, and how these work out under
the stress of practical, silvicultural, financial, and administra-
tive conditions.
His experience abroad includes not only Continental Europe
and the French Dependencies, which latter are described in
this book, but also forest management in British India as well.
What has everywhere drawn and held his interest is the analogy
or the contrast with forest work at home. The present book
owes no small part of its value to that fact. Thus in Tunisia,
Mr. Woolsey tells us, one of the recognized methods of pro-
tection against forest fires is to promote the settlement and
occupation of agricultural lands within forest boundaries. So
the U. S. Forest Service has done its utmost to encourage a
resident population on cultivable lands within the National
PREFACE vil
Forests, a population personally interested in preventing and
extinguishing fires.
In Corsica the lack of sufficient means of transportation
has made it necessary to sell timber in amounts large enough,
and extending over a number of years great enough, to justify
the purchaser in building the indispensable wagon roads for
himself. Defective transportation and low prices of timber are \
often controlling factors with French Colonial foresters, as they j
are with us.
In Algeria the simplicity, economy, and efficiency of forest
administration has peculiar interest for us, while the report of
an official commission, which recognized the maintenance of
brush cover as of vital importance, carries the thought of an
American forester at once to the brush covered National Forests
which are so potent in protecting the water supply of southern
California.
It is not without real satisfaction that we find ourselves,
through Mr. Woolsey's studies, able to realize that here and
there we Americans have surpassed in practice the men whose
example means so much to us. Thus in Corsica trespass upon
forest land still offers one of the most serious problems of
forest administration, whereas upon our National Forests of
the West, as Mr. Woolsey well points out, trespass is practically
a thing of the past. Our methods of grazing control, it is pleasant T
also to know, lose nothing by comparison with those of the
French in northern Africa.
I have often had occasion to advise American forest students
to make themselves familiar with the practice of forestry in
France and Germany and then to forget it. It is only when
such knowledge passes, as someone has said, out of memory
into experience, that it becomes really valuable. Such a book
as this almost leads me to revise that statement, for it gives us
not merely the facts of forest practice, but the reasons which
underlie that practice, and the discussion and application of it
referred to the forest conditions and problems in our own land.
Forest pioneers, like the men whose work this volume describes,
have much in common wherever their work may lie, while the
Vlll PREFACE
methods devised and practiced in France itself probably cover
a wider range of conditions and apply more closely to the needs
and the problems of the American forester than those of any
other country of Europe.
GLFFORD PINCHOT.
August 15, 1916.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE v
INTRODUCTION xiii
CHAPTER I
CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY i
Value of Extensive Forestry '. i
Tunisia 2
Algeria 4
Corsica — 8
CHAPTER II
TUNISIA 10
Introduction 10
Forest Conditions 14
Administrative Organization and Legislation 18
Forest Management 23
Protection against Fires and Moving Sand 26
Forestation and Betterments 41
CHAPTER III
ALGERIA 46
Physical and Climatic Features 46
Progress in Forest Administration 49
Forest Conditions 54
Forest Management 58
Working Plans 66
Disposal of Produce 72
The Forestation Problem 77
Miscellaneous Activities 87
Fire Protection and Control 91
Administrative Organization 101
Forest Legislation 109
CHAPTER IV
CORSICA iir
Introduction in
Forest Conditions 115
Administrative Organization and Finances 123
ix
X CONTENTS
PAGE
Working Plans and Cultural Methods 128
Forest Regulation and Yield 137
Sales Methods and Contracts — Turpentine Leases 140
Other Forest Activities 153
APPENDIX
THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE , 161
MISCELLANEOUS:
Statistics of Federal Forests in Corsica under Provisional or Regular
Working Plans or Cutting Regulations 209
Sales Clauses, Forest of Asco, Corsica 214
Additional Literature ". 221
Equivalents , 221
Index 223
ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
1. The forester's ideal — wooded slopes, pastures, agriculture land, and
interior villages Frontispiece
2. Map of Tunisia and Algeria 1 1
3. French ranger and Arab forest assistants at ranger station in Tunisia 19
4. The Djebel ranger station in southern Tunisia. Built on the site of an
old Roman military camp 20
5. The result of fire in an aleppo-pine forest in southern Tunisia. Near the
Djebel Mansaur ranger station 26
6. A recently cleared fire line in cork oak 28
7. Typical sand wall topped with date palm branches in use at Tozeur,
southern Tunisia 33
8. Method of protection against erosion at El-Hamma 38
9. Protection against erosion above springs at El-Hamma 39
10. Ranger's house, Feidja, Tunisia 44
11. The transport of cork to a local depot in the mountains near Philippeville,
Algeria 59
12. Virgin zeen-oak forest in Algeria, Constantine conservation 65
13. Bird's-eye view of an important plantation near Orleansville, Algeria. . . 85
14. Near view of Orleansville plantation illustrating wide spacing used in the
contour furrow method of planting 85
15. Cork oak after the cork has been removed, on a ridge fire line in Algeria,
Constantine conservation . . .' 94
16. The "maquis" or brush of the lower slopes of Corsica resembles the
chaparral of southern California 114
17. Forests managed by the Waters and Forests Service in Corsica 116
18. A ranger station and stand of Corsican pine in the Forest of Aitone, Corsica 117
19. Beech forest of poor quality near Vizzavona, Corsica 120
20. A heavy selection cutting in the Forest of Aitone 131
INTRODUCTION
THE following work embodies the results of a study of the
more important phases of forest practice in Corsica, Algeria,
and Tunisia. There has been attempted neither a complete
investigation of forestry in all its phases nor a summary of all
the multitudinous details of administration. The aim has
been rather to set forth the essentials of method which may
be applied directly in the United States, or which may be in-
directly of value to English speaking foresters.
Germany and Austria are quite generally recognized, at
the present time, as leaders in forest technique. But from the
fact that at least ninety per cent of forests under French ad-
ministration are regenerated naturally, it follows that the re-
sults of French forest theory and administration, with Africa
and Corsica, cannot fail to be of patent and wide interest to
the forestry profession.
The fixation of shifting sand dunes and their reclamation in
the Gironde and Landes, by the sowing of maritime pine; the
various methods of turpentine collection; the control of torrents
and reboisement in the Alps and Pyrenees; the management of
cork oak and the construction of fire lines in Algeria — these
are only a few of the special problems which have been solved
by French foresters with an ingenuity that merits our admira-
tion as surely as their success commands our attention and
suggests a thorough and close study of their methods. Con-
sequently the extensive administration in some of France's over-
sea possessions should prove of interest.
The information presented herein helps to attract attention
to the increasingly frequent possibility of using, so to speak,
natural rather than artificial means of putting our forest re-
sources to the highest use. If the evolution of forestry in the
xiv INTRODUCTION
United States during the next few years will have been influ-
enced, though ever so slightly, by the facts here gathered, the
writer will feel that his work was not in vain.
Generalizations and comparisons between French and Amer-
ican methods have been largely omitted; the idea has been,
instead, to describe the methods used and the results. It will
be possible for the professional forester to make use of these
methods in his own work after carefully weighing and compar-
ing the difference in local conditions. Much the same method
of presenting the results of research experiments has been fol-
lowed by the Forest Service where the results are published
in order to influence and guide but not dictate future practice.
The specialist later on in our forest history can weigh the re-
sults obtained in Africa and Corsica with those obtained in the
United States and draw deductions. Before many decades the
writer believes that America's forest practice will become pre-
eminent; because of our varied forest conditions, wealth of
species, and strong personnel unfettered by the narrow prece-
dents of continental forest practice, we shall lead rather than
follow other nations. But in the meantime should we not
profit by the mistakes and successes of others? Our adminis-
trator or investigator should not waste time by duplicating
these errors. The difference between the textbook and field
methods (even on the Continent) are often very marked.
For example if the shelterwood system of cutting has been
found disastrous in pure conifer stands, where the fire risk
was great, should we not profit by this experience even if such
a system is recommended in the standard textbooks? Such a
lesson is taught by the results in Corsica. Here the lesson is
clear-cut and definite; the philosophy of deduction is unnec-
essary — it can be grasped and made use of by the practitioner.
Even where the inference is less definite the idea and thought
of the results obtained is of inestimable value.
When Parade, former director of the Nancy Forest School,
described the aim of the forester in the fundamental maxim of
silviculture, " Imiter la nature, hater son ceuvre, telle est la
maxime fundamentale de la sylviculture," he described, I be-
INTRODUCTION XV
lieve, the goal toward which American forestry should and
will progress.
My thanks are due to the officials of the Service des Eaux et
Forets, who have shown me without exception the utmost
courtesy and consideration. Conservateur de Lapasse, formerly
in charge of the Thirtieth Conservation, in collaboration with
Henry Dundas, English consul at Ajaccio, kindly reviewed the
chapter on Corsica. Inspecteur JBoutilly, chief of Forestation
and Management Plans for Algeria, was reviewing the chapters
on Algeria and Tunisia when the great war put a stop to his
literary work. Raphael Zon, U. S. Forest Service, made many
valuable suggestions after a painstaking review of the manu-
script.
I am also indebted to W. P. Lawson, who edited the manu-
script and put it in shape for publication, and to many others
for helpful suggestions. Both the metric and American systems
of measurement have been used so as not to detract from the
scientific value of the figures quoted. In giving equivalents 01
metric units, the nearest approximate value in the American
system has been used. Thus "10 feet" is more easily grasped
than " 118.08 inches" or "9.8425 feet," although each is an
equivalent of three metres.
The utmost care has been taken to secure accuracy of detail
and to acknowledge in footnotes the sources of important data
and conclusions. If errors have, however, crept in, suggestions
for corrections and changes will be gratefully received and
promptly acknowledged.
It has been thought best to group forestry in Corsica, Algeria,
Tunisia, and the Algerian Forest Code in one volume. This is
the more desirable, inasmuch as the matter treated may properly
come under the head of material illustrative of extensive forest
methods, while the remaining material, descriptive of methods
employed in forests in France proper, will take up the intensive
forestry in use there and be published later as a separate work.
T. S, W., Jr.
FRENCH FORESTS AND FORESTRY
CHAPTER I
CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY
Value of Extensive Forestry (p. i).
Tunisia (p. 2).
Algeria (p. 4). _
Corsica (p. 8).
VALUE OF EXTENSIVE FORESTRY
FOREST students can secure more information of direct appli-
cation to American conditions in countries where forestry is not
intensively organized. There is more of value to the adminis-
trator in North Africa and Corsica than in France proper; and
more of value in France than in Germany. The reason must be
clear. The theory of forestry is now established solidly enough
to enable the elucidation of its general principles which hold
under ordinary conditions. In a trip through France one sees
forest administration under the average conditions. What is
difficult to understand are the exceptions to these general rules,
whether made necessary by market, climate, species, or cost of
administration. Such modifications from general forest usage
are admirably illustrated in extensive French forestry. In France
proper intensive methods have been systematized for more than
a century, and radical changes are seldom necessary. In North '
Africa poor transportation and low prices force the omission of
many silvical measures that may be possible in France, and
necessitate many radical variations of absorbing interest.
The extensiveness of administration is in the order of conquest.
Tunisia, a French protectorate only since 1881 (recognized by
the English in 1883), is less extensively administered than
2 CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY
Algeria, which was pacified as early as 1858. Corsica is, to be
sure, a French department, ceded to France in 1759, but, on
account of the difficulty of lumbering in Corsican pine forests
in the rugged mountains, the management is perforce far less
intensive than in the Jura, Vosges, or any part of France. A
possible exception is found in the extensive cuttings in the
southern Pyrenees near Oloron. Tunisia comprises approxi-
mately 50,000 square miles; Algeria, 176,000; and Corsica,
3400. The administrative centers are: Tunisia, Tunis (near site
of Carthage); Algeria, Algiers, with Oran and Constantine as
secondary centers; Corsica, Ajaccio.
TUNISIA
There is much to learn in Tunisia along the lines of extensive
organization; permanent improvements; forestation; protec-
tion against sand, wind, and climate; fire protection, particu-
larly as relating to fire lines ; and modifications of the customary
cutting systems made necessary by lack of transportation and
low stumpage prices.
In Tunisia there are two types of administration — an inten-
sive form for the valuable cork-oak forests, and a cheaper, less
intensive form for the aleppo pine (P. halepensis) forests, valu-
able chiefly for protection against erosion and wind or for a
local fuel supply. The organization is not top-heavy; it is simple
and aims at the fundamentals of forestry rather than at the
minutia covered so thoroughly on the Continent. It naturally
follows that the expenditures for fire protection are immeas-
urably more for the cork-oak forests than for the less valuable
aleppo pine.
The protection of the Djerid oases is of particular interest to
American foresters, since the theory and practice has a direct
application in the United States. These oases are valuable
irrigated farms that must be protected against drifting sand,
over-grazing, and erosion. On account of the native population,
the laws in regard to the use of fire within or near forests are
especially strict, but the administration realizes that interior
TUNISIA 3
settlements are of protective value since cultivated land forms
admirable fire lines. Settlers living within forest boundaries are
an asset when fire must be controlled. There can be no grazing
on a forest for six years after a fire, and railroad rights-of-way /
must be cleared of inflammable debris and, if necessary, addi-
tional fire lines constructed parallel to the track. There can be
no deforestation in reserved forests, unless the wood is cut for
use in protection against erosion, for the improvement of springs,
or to stop drifting sand. The grazing control methods, al-
though of wide interest, are comparatively undeveloped as com-
pared with the United States.
Quite a feature of the cork-oak management is the simplicity
of regulation. It is very much as if the forester were managing
a valuable crop of fruit trees which matured periodically. The
approximate equal annual cut is secured by working about the
same area each year, but the same cork-oak forest is only worked
for bark once in three years. A most important lesson to be
gathered from a study of forestry in an arid country is the diffi-
culty of restocking after the original forest has been destroyed,
a principle which must apply with equal force in our Southwest.
This is to be expected, since the period of drought occurs during
the summer months when the plants are less able to withstand
lack of moisture than during the cooler weather. The methods
of forestation, moreover, have an excellent application in southern
California where the winter rains correspond so closely to those
in Tunisia. On the more favorable situations, the seed-spot
method of sowing is preferred; on the more difficult sites, ball
planting must be resorted to, notwithstanding the additional
expense. In order to reduce the cost of forestation, spacing as
wide as six by eight feet is officially allowed, but, in practice,
there are rarely more than 250 seed spots per acre. Sowing or
planting just before or during the winter rains is the invariable
practice. Thus far the scale of operations has been so small
that forestation in Tunisia may still be considered as experi-
mental in character.
The accomplishment in Tunisia since 1885 has been consider-
able, considering the small appropriations which are available.
4 CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY
The administration is essentially simple, economical, and prac-
tical; the budget is based upon the revenue rather than upon
an ideal.
ALGERIA
Much the same climatic and topographic conditions found in
Tunisia are characteristic of Algeria. Perhaps the most re-
markable features of the forest administration are: The un-
fortunate sales of federal cork-oak forests by Napoleon; the
difficulty of preventing trespass and theft; fire protection (al-
though it cannot be said to be uniformly successful); foresta-
tion; and the Algerian Code.
Unquestionably, the progress made in Algerian forestry from
1900 on is due to the forest commission that made a careful
study of conditions and suggested very radical improvements
both in methods of administration and in laws. The results of
this study are found in the Algerian Code of 1903, which has
been translated (Appendix, p. 161). It is very significant
that this commission felt the preservation of existing forests
and brush cover of vital importance to the health, prosperity,
and habitability of Algeria. The difficulties met with in the
f early administration are undoubtedly characteristic of all early
forest administration: the inclusion of needless agricultural land
within forest boundaries; failure to properly consider and edu-
cate local sentiment favorable to conservative forest control;
a literal rather than practical enforcement of early laws, which
in many cases are often ill-adapted to administrative enforce-
ment. Administrative organization must always depend on
practicability rather than on theory. This is well illustrated
in Algeria by the departure from this standard organization
common in France. In France the conservator is in charge of
a conservation which is split up into forests under inspectors or
assistant inspectors. In Algeria this organization would have
been too expensive and it would not have provided suitable
positions for men of relatively low rank who were sufficiently
advanced, however, to care for the simple administrative needs
found in extensive forest management. Accordingly, the present
ALGERIA 5
conservator directly supervises " chefferies," or small forest sub-
divisions, which correspond closely to one of the detached units
administered by American forest supervisors. A specific exam-
ple is the Coronado National Forest in southern Arizona,
where one supervisor has administered what was formerly the
Baboquivari, Dragoon, Huachuca, Santa Catalina, Santa Rita,
and Tumacacori forests. According to the Algerian form of
organization, these different forest divisions would be split up
and administered locally by a forest assistant, head ranger, or
deputy supervisor, instead of being administered from Tucson
as one unit. Another interesting variation in the usual form
of organization is the appointment of controllers or general
inspectors in each of the three conservations (at Oran, Constan-
tine, and Algiers). Such an officer inspects officials of less than
his own rank. Since the military form of organization is cur-
rent, it means that the general inspectors who, in the regular
organization have the title and rank of " inspecteur," cannot
inspect a " chefferie" if it is in charge of an " inspecteur "
except in cases of emergency. It is interesting to see that the
difficult lot of the Algerian forest officer is in part compensated by
increased pay and liberal travel and educational allowances; he
is granted a maximum of 30 days' leave per year, cumulative up
to two years, and transportation for himself and family between
France and Algeria. The subordinate force, stationed as they
frequently are in out-of-the-way places, must send their children
to school in the nearby towns and the Forest Service pays some-
thing to defray this increased cost of boarding-school education.
The administration is unquestionably progressive. The de-
velopment of a new industry such as the turpentine operations
in the Aleppo-pine forests around Oran, is worthy of American
progress and ingenuity. The silvical treatment of these forests
seems practicable and at the same time sufficiently conservative
to insure regeneration. After a study of management in Europe
proper, one would anticipate rather complicated, impracticable
regulation in Algeria, but such is far from the case. What could
be simpler or more feasible than the so-called " bundles of man-
agement " described on page 71? In the yield of cork oak, the
6 CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY
assessor inexpensively determines with sufficient accuracy what
the annual production will amount to. It is parallel to the Amer-
ican forester in New England, who takes, as his criterion in cop-
pice, a yield of a cord per acre per year and then deducts accord-
ing to the quality of the soil, when estimating the annual growth.
Another difference between the methods in France and Algeria
is in the sale of cork. In France practically all timber is sold
on the stump after it has been marked and the lumbering is
entirely at the risk and cost of the purchaser, subject to stringent
cutting regulations. In Algerian cork-oak forests the lumbering
is done by the government and the cork is not placed on sale
until it has been collected at local depots. There is much the
same forestation policy that is found in Tunisia. It is believed
that the prevention of the destruction of forests is far better
1 than the cure — reforestation. Winter sowing or planting after
the rains have commenced is almost universal. The sowing is
usually in carefully prepared seed spots in preference to planting,
unless the conditions are so unfavorable that the success of
sowing would be problematical. They favor local rather than
central nurseries which require the expensive and deleterious
shipment of planting stock. When difficult planting must be
attempted, ball plants are frequently used, notwithstanding the
increased initial cost. Contrary to expectations, planting in
' brush-covered areas was very unsuccessful if part of the growing
> brush was left standing as a protection against the sun and wind.
Success was only secured after practically brushing out the whole
area to be p.anted since, otherwise, intense radiation, extreme
heat, lack of air currents, and increased damage from rodents
prevented the growth of more than a small percentage of the
stock. According to Boutilly, who has charge of the forestation
around Algiers, the only method of reducing rodent damage was
to thoroughly brush out and clear the land to be sown instead of
being content simply to brush out seed spots or strips. With
complete clearing " the rodents have no clumps to hide in and
almost all leave the area, and the damage is reduced accordingly.
Moreover, I have noticed that the young cork-oak plants which
are quite tender during youth, . . . especially at the end
ALGERIA 7
of summer, resist the heat better if they are uncovered than they
do if they are growing in the midst of brush. I think that this
phenomenon is due to the freshness caused by proper aeration."
The air circulates better and the plants survive when, otherwise,
they would succumb to the heat.
The systematic routine methods of forestation are worthy of
study by all American State and Federal forest officers who
must cope with arid and difficult sites. Notable plantations
have been established at Constantine, Algiers, Orleansville, and
Oran. Local species gave the best success, sown in seed spots
or grown in essentially local nurseries. The cost of these plan-
tations has been in the neighborhood of 45 to 63 francs ($8 to
$12) per acre, and success was only attained after repeatedly
stocking areas which had shown initial failure.
Even with stringent fire lines, conscription of fire fighters, and
forced cooperation of the civil authorities, and with the concen-
tration of improvement work during the most dangerous part of
the fire season (so as to furnish fire fighters in out-of-the-way
parts) protection has not been altogether successful. Recently,
boundary, secondary, and main fire lines have been constructed
at considerable expense. Notwithstanding the clearance of these
lines every three years, fires continue. In the technique of fire-line
construction, progress has been made, but it appears that instead
of clearing lines every three years it would be preferable to clear
one- third of all lines, except those less than 15 metres (16 yards) in
width, every third year, so that a portion of the line would always
be clear of grass and debris. For permanent fire lines, they have
unquestionably determined that it is cheaper in the long run to
grub brush and trees out by the roots rather than to have the
increased annual expense of cutting down shoots and root suckers.
The conclusion may be formed, however, that fairly narrow lines
along ridges or dry arroyos are of unquestionable value, both as
a means of communication and as a vantage point from which
to fight fires, notwithstanding the disastrous results from indis-
criminate back firing. As in Tunisia, the administration is
simple, economical, efficient, and is a credit to France.
8 CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY
CORSICA
Forest administration in Corsica is hampered by an unruly
population, by over-grazing, by fires, and, in past years espe-
cially, by lack of communication. There are federal, com-
munal, and private forests, and the organization is the same
as is found on the Continent. If it were not, however, for
the inaccessibility of the Corsican pine, growing at a higher
elevation than the maritime pine but below the beech and fir,
there would be but little forest wealth left on the island. The
great lesson to be learned from a study of Corsican forestry is in
the method of cutting the pine. To start with, an application of
the shelterwood system resulted in large areas of young even-aged
coniferous stands. To be sure, it is theoretically poor technique
to reproduce even-aged stands of young pine over large areas
where fires are frequent; but technique here was secondary to
the practical requirement of large sales. Long-term sales for
large amounts were a necessary evil in order to justify contrac-
tors in building expensive wagon roads. Much the same solution
has been found true in the western United States, where at
first the Forest Service limited its sales to less than 30 to 40
million feet (849, 5 2 1. 4 to 1,132,695.25 cu. m.). To-day in order to
justify improvements, such as railroads or flumes, sales for from
half a billion to a billion board feet have been recommended.
Bearing in mind, therefore, the practical sales conditions and the
danger from fire, the fairly intensive group selection system with
thinnings seems to be an admirable answer to the problem of
regeneration. There is no rigidity in the application of the
selection system. There are seed fellings, secondary fellings,
final clearances, cleanings, and thinnings as with the shelterwood
system; but each operation covers an acre or two so that the
result is an uneven-aged forest by groups.
The methods of determining the rotation and estimating
the yield are similar to those in France; in Corsica, the methods
are, however, less intensive. The dangers of over-cutting,
owing to slack regulation in past years, are admirably illus-
trated by many of the Corsican forests where to-day one finds
CORSICA 9
the growing stock depleted and exhausted. In many respects
the sales conditions contained in the sale contracts are similar
to those used by the Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture. But there is one vital difference: in Corsica the con-
cession of making sales for large amounts and for terms of
years was justified by the resulting improvement in communi-
cations. There, such large sales are considered an unquestion-
able evil but necessary until the transport of small-sales products
is made feasible through the construction of permanent logging
roads. In the United States steam transportation often pre-
cludes the development of a wagon-road system by purchasers,
but an attempt is now being made to make current sales con-
tribute towards a permanent road system.
Where the administration seems to have failed is in the proper
education of the native population in the value of conservation.
It seems almost incredible that out of almost 600 trespass cases,
brought in 1911 before the courts, more than half were acquitted.
There is marked contrast between this lack of success in pre-
venting, controlling, and punishing trespassers in Corsica with
that made by the Forest Service in the western United States
where to-day trespass is practically a thing of the past.
CHAPTER II
TUNISIA
Introduction (p. 10), General Conditions, Topography, Winds, Temperature,
Humidity, Rainfall.
Forest Conditions (p. 14), Forests, Forest Industries, Progress in Forestry.
Administrative Organization and Legislation (p. 18), Forest Service Organiza-
tion, Extensiveness of Administration, Legislation.
Forest Management (p. 23), Forest Regulation, Silvicultural Systems,
Grazing.
Protection against Fires and Moving Sand (p. 26), Fires, Protection of Cork-
oak Forests, Problems in Protection, Fire Lines, Location, Width, Clear-
ance, Contract Conditions, Dune and Oasis Protection, Oases Protection, Sand
Drifting from a Distance, Sand Drifting from Local Overgrazing, Erosion.
Forestation and Betterments (p. 41), Government Forestation Policy, Seed
Spots, Stock, Spacing, Field Technique, Nursery Methods, Failures, Im-
provements.
INTRODUCTION
General Conditions. — Any examination of forests or forestry
in the French protectorate of Tunisia would be incomplete
without a brief preliminary glance at the topography of the
country and its climatic peculiarities. Only through a knowl-
edge of geographic features of temperature, humidity, winds,
and rainfall can one fully comprehend the nature of Tunisia's
forest problems and the progress of local foresters in coping
with them. Tunisia is bounded on the north and east by the
Mediterranean sea, on the south by Tripoli, the Italian Colony;
on the west by the Algerian province, Constantine. (Fig. 2.)
This territory is situated between 32 degrees and 37 degrees
north latitude and 5 degrees and 9 degrees of east longitude
and comprises approximately 130,000 square kilometres (50,000
square miles).
Topography. - - Tunisia is cut by three chief mountain
chains:1 Khroumirie and Mogod, in the north; high plateau
1 The statistics given are taken from the Official Indicateur Tunisien, 1912.
INTRODUCTION
II
and Dorsale, in the center; Matmata, in the south. While the
effect of each of these mountain chains is important climati-
cally, the ranges of Mogod and Matmata have perhaps the
greatest direct influence of all, from the foresters' standpoint,
E A N
S E A
FIG. 2. — Map of Tunisia and Algeria.
by protecting local forests from the devastating dry winds of
the desert.
Winds, Temperature, Humidity. — The direction of the
winds of Tunisia may in general be predicted in their seasons
with reasonable accuracy. In winter the dominant wind is
from the northwest; in the spring, from the northwest with a
tendency to north. In summer it changes to northeast, es-
pecially in the south, where this is the prevailing direction in
autumn, though above the Dorsale the autumn winds arise
more often from the northwest.
The temperature in Tunisia is high to moderate, in summer
reaching an average of 28° C. (82° F.) to 32° C. (90° F.) ; in winter
a minimum of from 3° C. (37° F.) to 8° C. (46° F.). As a matter
of fact it varies according to the elevation above sea level as
is shown by the following table:
12
TUNISIA
TABLE i
Annual.
Winter.
Summer.
°C.
°F.
°C.
°F.
°C.
°F.
Ain-Draham
14
«»-3
16.4
19.1
20.3
19.1
13-5
16.8
19-9
I9-I
21.8
57
65
61
67
69
67
56
62
68
67
7i
8 '
14.2
10-5
12 .0
15-3
12.8
8-3
II .1
ii. 8
12.0
15-4
46
58
51
54
60
55
47
52
53
54
60
19-5
22.3
22.3
23-9
25-4
26.0
18.8
22.6
25-7
23.8
28.5
67
72
72
75
78
79
66
72
' 78
75
83
Bizerta
Le Kef
Sousse
Gabes
Gafsa
Souk-el-Djemaa
Feriana
Kairouan
Sfax
Touseur
In other words the average annual temperature at the four
mountain stations of Ain-Draham, Le Kef, Souk-el-Djemaa,
and Feriana is lower than that for the entire province of Tunisia.
On the basis of these data the average annual temperature
for Tunisia is 18° C. (65.6° F.) ; the average winter temperature
12° C. (53.6° F.) and the average summer temperature 23.5° C.
(74-3° F.).
Humidity in the Khroumirie Mountains (cork oak) ranges
from 85 to 100; during the wet seasons and in summer only
is it less than 70. On the central plateau (aleppo pine) it varies
from 85 to 70 to as low as 55 in summer. At Tozeur, near the
desert to the south, average humidity rarely rises above 70 and
in summer is below 55, while evaporation varies from 2013 mm.
(78 inches) at Biserta on the sea to 2344 mm. (91 inches) at
Tozeur, and 2502 mm. (97 inches) at El Djem. It is in this
region that conditions are most unfavorable for tree growth.
Rainfall. — The rainfall in Tunisia is torrential and irregular.
At Ain-Draham in the Khroumirie Mountains, for example,
an extreme of 151.4 mm. (5.8 inches) was recorded for one day,
and at El-Feidja, a higher elevation still, 167 mm. (6.5 inches)
was reported as falling in the 24 hours.
On the mountains of the north (cork oak) the average yearly
rainfall may be from 600 mm. (23 inches) to 1500 mm. (58
inches) with 100 to 120 days of rain; in the high plateau and
INTRODUCTION 13
Dorsale (aleppo pine) from 400 mm. (16 inches) to 600 mm.
(23 inches) with 50 to 80 days of rain, while in the southern
oases, such as Tozeur, the maximum is 200 mm. (7.8 inches)
with perhaps 25 rainy days.
The distribution of the rainfall is illustrated by the weather
records at Zaghouan, bordering the central plateau. A total
of 519 mm. (20 inches) for the year, with 73 days of rainfall,
showed 28 mm. (1.09 inches) in summer, with only 5 days of
rainfall; autumn 121 mm. (4.7 inches) and 18 days of rain;
winter 205 mm. (8 inches) and 28 days of rain; spring 165 mm.
(6.4 inches) and 22 days of rain.
The amount of precipitation and number of rainy days for the
entire year and for different seasons of the year are as follows:
TABLE 2
No. of
rainy
days.
Amount of
precipitation.
Winter.
Summer.
No. of
rainy
days.
Amount of
precipitation.
No. of
rainy
days.
Amount of
precipitation.
Ain-Draham
Le Kef
I46
90
52
39
47
64
5i
52
Mm.
1.725
487
463
192
237
492
291
355
Ins.
68
i9
18
8
8
i9
ii
14
H5
53
3i
23
29
32
30
33
Mm.
I.3I7
305
317
I32
173
308
157
190
Ins.
52
12
12
5+
7~
12 —
5+
8-
31
36
19
16
18
32
21
20
Mm.
408
182
146
60
64
184
134
165
Ins.
16
6
2 +
2 —
8-
5+
7-
Sousse
Gabes
Gafsa
Souk-el-Djemaa..
Kairouan
Sfax
For the entire Tunisia the average number of rainy days is
67 with 537 mm. (22 inches) of rainfall. The average number
of rainy days in winter is 43 with 362 mm. (14 inches) of pre-
cipitation. In summer the number of rainy days is 24 with
175 mm. (6.9 inches) of rainfall.
In the Sahara region the precipitation nowhere exceeds
300 mm. (12 inches). The average temperature is very high.
Its maximum reaches 50° C. (122° F.) in the shade. The num-
ber of days with temperatures above 30° C. (86° F.) is close to
150.
These records are taken from the meteorological records at
Turns where they have been collected since 1884.
14 TUNISIA
These data for rainfall are typical of conditions in both Tunisia
and Algeria. They are especially significant in the former
country as showing the extent of the summer drought. Except
for this, since the valleys of Tunisia are usually a rich clay
admirably suited to agriculture, the country would be an ex-
tremely fertile one the year around. As it is, the winter crops
alone are amply justifying a constantly increasing colonization.
FOREST CONDITIONS
Forests. — The forests of the regency cover approximately
650,000 hectares (1,606,150 acres), and are divided into two
distinct groups by the Niedjerda River. They are distinct,
also, by reason of the difference in timber species of the two
groups, the value of the timber, and the condition of the stand.
In the north the forests of the Khroumirie are of chief im-
portance. These include the revenue-producing stands of cork
oak (Q. suber) and zeen (Algerian) oak (Q. mirbeckii) of Ouchteta,
M'Rassen, Oulad-Ali, Ain-Draham, Chiahia, Ould-Zeen, Frenana,
Tabarca, Houamdia, Mekna, and Aindoun. The cork oak is the
species of principal value, though the zeen oak, in the richer,
moister soils, sometimes attains a diameter of 0.91 metres and
over (3 feet and over). It is estimated by the Forest Service
that there are 10 million producing cork-oak trees and 40,000
cu. m. (1,412,560 cu. ft.) of zeen oak, excluding branch wood.
During the ten-year period ending in 1909 the average cut
apparently exceeded the increment. Incidentally, it may be
noted that yearly sales amounted to 20,000 cu. m. (706,280
cu. ft.) of zeen oak from 1883 to 1900; 396,000 cu. m. (13,984,344
cu. ft.) of zeen oak was sold for ties, and 30,000 quintaux
(6,613,860 pounds) of cork.
In addition to the two chief species — cork oak and zeen oak -
there is along the valley bottoms of these forests, alder, willow,
black and white poplar, ash, holly, laurel, tamarind, black
bryony, and azerolier. The understory is often dense and
a possible fire menace appears in heather, myrtle, mastic,
cytisus, etc.
FOREST CONDITIONS 15
The forests of Nefze and Mogod are in the northern group,
but of much less value than those described in the preceding
paragraph. They are for the most part covered with a scanty
coppice of holm oak, wild olive, etc., which ranges in spots
into mere brush.
The central plateau forests, as distinguished from the north-
ern group, produce no revenue, but are maintained for the
protection of springs and water supply and to fill local domestic
needs. They have been denuded by excessive cutting, by
grazing, and by burns; indeed, they are still, as they have been
in the past, periodically burned over during excessively dry
seasons. Their chief species are aleppo pine and holm oak,
with a smaller quantity of wild olive, carob tree, thuya, juniper,
and cypress. So poor is the condition of these central plateau
forests that an official report in the files of the Djebel-Mansour
ranger station refers to the areas covered as "ruins of the
former forests."
According to data supplied by Zon: In localities above 1000
metres (3281 feet) the soils are composed of hard calcareous
rocks unsuitable for agriculture, bare or covered with low shrubs
and forests. Below are found pastures. At a height of 600
to 2000 metres (1968 to 6562 feet) above sea level, on the
plateaus the cultivation of crops is possible and profitable.
In this zone, especially on the northern slopes, are found the
best forests. Between the altitudes of 400 and 600 metres
(1312 and 1968 feet) the forests are still of good quality but
shrubs become evident. Agriculture is still possible in this
zone. The lowest zone situated between the sea level and an
altitude of 400 metres (1312 feet) is covered with sand dunes,
lakes, small rivers, and valleys. The valleys are under crops
and vineyards.
Here also grow olive trees and palms. Where the soil and
climatic conditions are unfavorable for agricultural crops, they
are being used for grazing of cattle. In the lower zone forests
are almost entirely lacking and when they do occur are of poor
quality. The entire land surface of Tunisia may be classified
as follows:
i6
TUNISIA
TABLE 3
1000 hectares.
1000 acres.
""" Fields and pastures
2,6o< .7
6,438
Vineyards .
•z ,-z
8
Olive plantations
/•
169 2
Al8
Palms
18 Q
46
Date palms
1.A I '
84
Forested areas ,
810 7
1 ,003
— Grazing land (prairie)
5,211 5
12,877=,
Shore dunes 15,650 /
"" Sahara dunes 1,792,000 ) ' '
— Prairie covered with grasses
I,8O7.6
1,500 o
4,466 —
•2,7o6«-
Lakes, lagnores, and rivers. ....
I,IO4 6
2.72Q
Roads
31-3
77^
Total
I3,2Q6 Q
32, 7^2
These figures give a concrete picture of the actual state of
prosperity of the country as evidenced by productive and un-
productive land. The area under rood system is especially
interesting.
Forest Industries. — Cork is the chief product of Tunisian
forests. The cork oak covers approximately from 99 to 100
thousand hectares (244,629 to 247,100 acres) of the 650,000
hectares (1,606,150 acres) which is the estimated sum total of
the country's commercial forest area. As " by-products " the
cork oak yields also firewood and tannin.
A tree is first barked (for a detailed description of cork-oak
management, see p. 66) when it reaches 30 cm. (i 1.8 inches)
in circumference inside bark or 40 cm. (15.8 inches) to 50 cm.
(19.6 inches) outside; seedlings reach this size at 30 years and
sprouts in 15 to 18. The first peeling costs about 9 centimes
($0.01737) per tree; the average tree in Tunisia produces 5.75
kilos (13 pounds) of cork per crop. The cost of collection
is estimated at 3.50 francs ($0.67) per quintal (220 pounds);
transport to depots i franc ($0.193); transport to shipping point
5 francs ($0.96) ; baling and preparation 5 francs ($0.96) ; mak-
ing a total cost of 14.50 francs ($2.80) as against the average
sale price of 30.50 francs ($5.88). From 1895 to 1901, inclusive,
327,000 quintaux (72,091,074 pounds) of cork were sold for
7,165,000 francs ($1,382,845), or an average of 21.91 francs
($4.23) per quintal (220 pounds) for that period. But the
FOREST CONDITIONS 17
sale figures, from year to year, vary greatly. They have been
as high as 35.66 francs ($6.88) per quintal (220 pounds) at the
forest depot. When ready for delivery at the ocean shipping
point the average price is 45 francs ($8.68) per quintal (220
pounds).
From 1885 to 1908, 32,430 quintaux (7,149,583 pounds) of
tannin bark averaged 9.35 francs ($1.80) per quintal (220 pounds)
but for the last 8 years the price of the bark of the tree has
brought, on the average, the same figure.
The zeen oak is used chiefly for ties, though the saplings
make good charcoal. The mature tree of this species reaches
a height of 25 to 30 metres (82 to 98 feet) and attains a diam-
eter of one metre (3.3 feet). It resists decay well, despite the
alternating dry and wet seasons, but hews badly. The timber
formerly brought about 5 francs ($0.96) per cu. m. (35 cu. ft.)
standing, but prices have risen of late to 7 and 8 francs ($1.35
and $1.54) per cu. m. (35 cu. ft.) and trees sold recently for 12
francs ($2.32) per cu. m. (35 cu. ft.) in sales at Feidja in the
Khroumirie.
The aleppo pine and holm oak are species of distinctly sec-
ondary importance, but the pine is used for boxes, crates, mine
props, ties, forge charcoal, telegraph poles, firewood, and occa-
sionally planks or boards; it is an excellent secondary wood.
The holm oak is used chiefly for fuel.
Progress in Forestry. — A Tunisian Forest Service (Directoire
des Forets) was created in 1883 under the Public Works; by
the decree of Jan. 13, i895^_the administration of the forests was
transferred to the Agriculture and Commerce "Direction."
The principal revenue derived through the activities of this
Forest Service comes, as has been indicated, from the cork-oak
and, in part, the zeen-oak forests of the Khroumirie Mountains.
Besides administering these productive areas, the functions of
the service contemplate the patroling of the other forests where
aleppo pine and holm oak are dominant, purely for watershed or
climatic reasons, or supervising the cutting of wood for local
fuel or for domestic purposes, such as corral or hut poles.
Reforestation is undertaken in various localities notably at
l8 TUNISIA
Hammam-Lif and Zaghouan, where the project is rather for
protection than for commercial purposes. The protection of
the oases at the Djerid, and the Dune control at Bizerta and
environs, is, too, a notable achievement. As a whole, the
methods of forest administration in Tunisia are less intensive
than in Algeria, but follow very closely the lines laid down by
the older organization.
Since 1894 the annual receipts have varied from 603,000
to 1,337,000 francs ($116,379 to $258,041), and on Dec. 31, 1910,
totaled an aggregate of 16,700,000 francs ($3,223,100).
The development work has included the building of 2100
kilometres (1204 miles) of roads and trails; and the clearing
of 2975 hectares (7351 acres) of fire lines, at a total cost of
2,380,000 francs ($459,340); also the erection of 63 forest houses
and 58 native huts at 3,360,000 francs ($648,480).
In theory all land belonged originally to the Bey, his people
acquiring agricultural rights by use. This settlement of agri-
cultural land is strongly favored by. forest officers for two
reasons: First, because with the forest cut up by agricultural
holdings in the valleys, fire lines proper are unnecessary in
such locations, and the Forest Service is thereby saved the cost
of their construction; and second, a local population is thought
desirable because it gives a loyal working class which can be
advantageously employed in forest work.
The boundary problem, however, is a difficult and as yet
thoroughly unsettled one, owing largely to the number of in-
terior holdings. Originally the boundaries were hurriedly drawn
in the office, from highly inaccurate type maps instead of in
the field, and while the present administration is attacking the
matter in a more efficient manner, it will take from 10 to 25
years longer, in all probability, to adjust and establish the forest
boundaries.
ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION AND LEGISLATION
Forest Service Organization. — The forests are administered
by a conservator or director at Tunis assisted by an inspector
ORGANIZATION AND LEGISLATION 19
(who is also in charge of a circumscription), an interpreter, a
ranger, a compiler (editor), and one clerk.
FIG. 3. — French ranger and Arab assistants at ranger station in Tunisia.
The local force is as follows:
Location of headquarters.
Officer in charge.
Assistants.
French.
Native.
Tabarca
Assistant inspector
Forest assistant
12
6
13
6
5
ii
9
!3
7
14
7
7
12
4
Neize-Mogod
Ain-Draham
Inspector „ ,
El-Feidja
Forest assistant
Inspector
Tunis
Kef
Forest assistant . . .
Gafsa ,
Forest assistant
Total
7
62
64
It will be noted that the supervisory force is comparatively
small and that the number of native guards is approximately
equal to the number of French guards and rangers.
The officer in charge is an inspector, assistant inspector,
or forest assistant, according to the importance of the area
administered and the number of each grade available for local
appointment; ordinarily an experienced ranger or guard is
20
TUNISIA
assigned to his office as clerk. In Tunisia each French guard
or ranger is usually housed in the center of his beat, together
with a native guard, who usually accompanies him when on
inspections as a protection against assassination.
The conservator is paid 13,000 francs ($2509) per annum;
inspectors, 8000 ($1544), 7°°° (^SS1), 65°° ($1254.50), and
6000 francs ($1158) in four grades; assistant inspectors, 5500
($1061.50), 5000 ($965), and 4500 francs ($868.50) in three
grades; forest assistants, 4000 ($772) and 3500 francs ($675.50)
in two grades, and if assigned to an office as clerk, 3000
($579); rangers in four grades, 2200 ($424.60), 2000 ($386), 1800
($347.40), and 1600 francs ($308.80); French guards receive
1500 ($289.50) and 1400 francs ($270.20) in two grades.
FIG. 4. — The Djebel Ranger Station in southern Tunisia,
of an old Roman military camp.
Built on the site
Besides being well housed a ranger receives fuel or an allow-
ance of 75 francs ($14.48), 200 francs ($38.60) for travel ex-
penses, and 600 francs ($115.80) per year for a horse; the guards
receive the same allowance but with only 106 francs ($19.30)
for travel. The native guards are ordinarily little more than
grooms.
In the cork-oak forests the force is kept employed super-
vising the state peeling and collecting operations but in the
ORGANIZATION AND LEGISLATION 21
central plateau the work is very light and much of the time is
spent on chores. Typical extracts from a diary2 are given
below, each day being numbered serially:
1. "At station writing letters, the native guard went to
Pont du Fabs to cash his salary check."
2. "On a trip in the canton of Telil Esallie and Telil Bon-
aka informed me that . . . has not moved their camp in
accordance with the order received July 29th."
Then follows: " Proces- verbal feuille No. 27" re the trespass.
(Had camped within 100 metres (109 yards) of the forest.)
3. "Overseeing collection of aleppo-pine seed."
4. "Sunday at the station."
5. "Holiday at the station."
6. "On a trip to Tarf ech Chena, found two carts loaded
with poles without permit. Took data about these poles."
7. "At Bon Arada, got the mail, spent the night at Bon
Djelida."
Extensiveness of Administration. — For the circumscription
of El-Feidja in the cork district of Khroumirie the estimated
receipts for 1912 totaled 154,000 francs ($29,722), whereas the
expenses totaled 105,678.54 francs ($20,376.66). Thus the net
yield for 2000 hectares (4942 acres) was in this instance 48,421.46
francs ($9345.34), or almost $2 per acre per year.
Here the collection of cork is made by the state; the force
consisting of one forest assistant in charge, assisted by 6 French
and 7 native subordinates.
The expenses at El-Feidja in detail for a typical year are:
personnel, 19,716.66 francs ($3805.31); payments for travel,
horse upkeep, etc., 10,095.83 francs ($1948.50); fire protection,
1000 francs ($193); first peeling of oak, 6700 francs ($1293.10);
collection of cork, 6900 francs ($1331.70); paths, etc., 6300 francs
($1215.90); miscellaneous betterments, 1050 francs ($202.65);
maintenance of fire lines and protection, 6500 francs ($1254.50);
roads, trails, etc., 5685.50 francs ($1097.30); fences and build-
ings, 719.95 francs ($138.95); plantation and nurseries, 50 francs
($9.65); fire watchers, 1660.80 francs ($320.53); marking, 400
2 Diary of a ranger at Djebel Mansaur.
22 TUNISIA
francs ($77.20); forest houses, 14,500 francs ($2798.50). This
is a total of 105,578.54 francs ($20,376.66). Intensiveness of
administration is especially apparent in the cork-oak region, in
marked contrast to the extensive management in the central
plateau. There the average, under a head ranger and three
guards, is 70,362 hectares (173,864 acres) at a total cost of
about 10,000 francs ($1930). At the Djerid oases the revenue
is also nil with heavy expenses for protecting valuable private
property (the date-palm oases).
Legislation. — There is jio definite forest code, as in Algeria,
but within the past 13 years special forest decrees have been
signed by the Bey which apply to wooded federal land. The
essential details of this recent legislation are summarized:
A commission 3 was appointed to settle all boundary questions
and to fix more definitely the boundaries of bordering holdings
in the presence of those interested. A later decree4 contained
protective measures as follows: No lighting of fires from May i
to November 15 in the interior or within 200 metres (218 yards)
of public or private forests, even for burning charcoal or the
extraction of tar or distillation of resin, but the director may
authorize an exemption from this rule if there is no fire danger
during May, October, or November. It is forbidden to set
fire for any reason whatever to forests, brush, grass, or woods
between May i and November 15 and during the rest of the
year those burning any vegetation are responsible for any damage
and must give eight days' notice to adjoining owners.5
For six years after a forest is burned over grazing is forbidden
and the following fines are imposed in case of trespass: hog,
sheep, or calf, i franc ($0.193); cow, steer, goat, or horse, 2
francs ($0.386); camel, 5 francs ($0.965). These rates are
doubled if the trespass on a burned area is committed at night.
Steam railways or steam trams are required to keep their
3 Decree of July 22, 1903.
4 Decree of July 26, 1903.
6 This rule was found to be too severe and was modified on July 27, 1911,
to permit burning stubble from August 16 to November 15 after making a 15-
\ metre (16 yards) fire line around area, after notifying the local magistrate and
I the bordering owners of the approximate date of burning at least 15 days in advance.
FOREST MANAGEMENT 23
rights-of-way cleared from June i to October 3 1 when bordering
forests, and if considered necessary, in addition, fire lines, 20
metres (22 yards) in width, commencing at the right-of-way
boundary, must be cleared of conifers, as well as ordinary brush.
If not cleared by the companies they may be established by
the Forest Service on authorization of the Governor General
and a bill for the work collected from the railway. No industry
using fire or any inflammable substance can be established
within 500 metres (547 yards) of a forest; nor any tent or brush
hut within 100 metres (109 yards). Within reserved forest
areas no deforestation is permitted, except when wood is re-
quired to protect stream beds against erosion, for improving
springs, or for protection against sand.6
FOREST MANAGEMENT
Forest Regulation. — There are no working plans for forests
in Tunisia. One reason why formal working plans are not
required for the intensively managed cork oak is because the
inevitable fires would certainly derange any fixed annual yield
which might have been prescribed. Since there are no reg-
ular fellings for the holm oak or aleppo pine no plans are re-
quired for these forests. The cutting of zeen oak often depends
on the market rather than on the silvical needs of the species.
The collection of cork is, however, roughly regulated as
follows: When the trees on a definite area are barked for the
first time a cumulative record is kept of the exact number on
each subdivision with the date when peeled; from this record
it is possible to predict with a fair degree of accuracy what the
crop will amount to each year since the average crop per tree
is known from experience. The judgment of the officer must
decide whether the average tree for each year is below or above
the average in size. There is no record kept of the number of
trees of each diameter. Approximately the same annual yield
is secured because the blocks are so divided that an equal area
is theoretically cropped each year.
6 Compare these protective measures with those given in the Algeria code,
p. 185.
24 TUNISIA
The official record includes: (i) Composition of the lots —
number of the block and compartment, number of trees counted
at the first peeling, number of trees remaining on a given date
(when crop collected), year of first production, remarks. (2)
Order of exploitations — number of the blocks, dates of the
exploitations and production during 20 years commencing with
1907, age of the bark at the time of exploitation, remarks.
(3) Products realized — year, weight of dry cork, price of the
sale: (a) total, (b) per quintal (220 pounds), miscellaneous
data. For each compartment of each block a further record
is kept headed: (i) Producing — peeled: (a) year, (b) number
of trees; increases: (a) year, (b) number of trees, year of the
crop collection or of the first increase; accidental operations:
(a) year, (b) reason. (2) Collected — year, number of trees,
year of the peeling, collection or increase, amounts, price of
the sale, remarks.
Silvicultural Systems. — The cork oak is managed on the
selection system, as in Algeria, on a rotation of 80 to 100 years
and a peeling cycle of 3 years. The cork matures in 8 to 12
years. (See page 60 for Algerian cutting rules.)
The zeen oak is cut under a simplified shelterwood system
with a seed felling and a final removal of the seed trees in 15
to 20 years, depending on the local market rather than the
progress of seeding. While no definite rotation has been se-
lected, it is expected that 120 years will be required. The
scrub oaks and olive are coppiced. The aleppo pine is not
regularly exploited.
Grazing. — The only restriction upon ordinary grazing is
after a conflagration, when no stock can enter for a period of
6 years under a fixed penalty per head.7 Grazing is otherwise
/ practically unregulated, except in the Khroumirie where special
provision is made for the grazing of hogs. These rights8 are
reserved for local French colonists within the district but are
occasionally granted to foreigners (Italians) who have enjoyed
the privilege previously and who have been resident for a
7 For these fines see page 22.
8 Based on official circular, dated July 30, 1903.
FOREST MANAGEMENT 25
number of years. No one permittee, however, is ordinarily allowed
to lease more than 200 hectares (494 acres) of contiguous land.
The areas reserved from grazing are: Ranger-station gardens
and fields, land within 300 metres (328 yards) of any ranger
station, land cultivated by natives within the forest, recent
felling areas, land burned over (for a period of 6 years), land
heretofore used by natives. It is clearly understood that the
forest administration assumes no responsibility in the case of
conflicting claims. The price charged is based on an estimated
10 hectares (25 acres) to each sow (and litter), and amounts
to 0.30 francs ($0.06) per hectare (2.5 acres) per year, paid in
advance. The boundaries, total areas, and number of stock
admitted are authorized in advance by the director for each
forest. The permittee agrees to keep stock on the leased area;
when building brush huts (gourbis) to pay for poles 20 to 60 cm.
(7.9 to 23 inches) in circumference, 1.50 francs ($0.29) each; 60 to
1 20 cm. (23 to 41 inches), 3 francs ($0.58) per cu. m. (35 cu. ft.)
on the stump, and for logs 120 cm. (48 inches) and larger,
6 francs ($1.16) per cu. m. (35 cu. ft.). The right of entry into
huts (gourbis) for counting or for taxing purposes is reserved, •
and revocation of permit is the penalty for excess in numbers.
Permittees are bound to repair damage to roads, trails, or tim-
ber yards. The right of seizure is reserved if stock is found
off the allotment. In accordance with the fire decrees no fires
can be lighted in or within 200 metres (219 yards) of the forest
unless surrounded by a ditch i metre (i yard) deep and by a
wall of dry stones; soil around huts must be cleared within a
radius of 25 metres (27 yards) but the permittee in addition is
held responsible for all fire damage (or offences), even if caused
by his employees after taking these precautions. Concessions
are personal, revocable, and non transferable. In the official
language: "At the expiration of the permit the administration I
reserves the right to auction off the right to graze, to renew I
the former permits under new rules or to -cancel all permits j
purely and simply" — "but ... in case of renewal the pref-
erence will be given former permittees either to retain their
former permits or to change the allotment."
26 TUNISIA
The forest administration absolves itself from the responsi-
bility of providing additional range, even temporarily, in case
any allotment is found insufficient. It also states in advance
that it will pay no claim arising from a burning of the range,
or because of loss or damage in any form, even if caused by
act of Providence. Moreover, the administration reserves the
right to interpret all questions which may arise in connection
with the enjoyment of the grazing. This is similar to the policy
followed in the western United States.
PROTECTION AGAINST FIRES AND MOVING SAND
Fires. — Incendiarism is still the chief cause of fire.9 It is
combated with only partial success by the restriction of graz-
ing. The fire protective system in the less valuable forests
FIG. 5. — The result of fire in an aleppo-pine forest in southern Tunisia.
Near the Djebel Mansaur Ranger Station.
of the Central Plateau consists merely of a general patrol,
which is not supplemented by fire lines, lookouts, telephones,
or by a special protective force. In the more valuable cork-
oak forests there are five lookouts, patrols, occasionally tele-
9 Since the Algerian fire problem will be fully described, only the more impor-
tant phases of Tunisian protection are given.
PROTECTION AGAINST FIRES AND MOVING SAND 27
phones, and invariably costly fire lines which will be described
in detail hereafter.
In the small forest gardens at the oases in southern Tunisia
there is no necessity for any kind of protective measures. In
addition to the fire lines along railroad rights-of-way the fol-
lowing notice is posted in railroad cars:
" . . . Travelers are warned that it is forbidden to
throw anything on the track and that a violation is punish-
able with a fine of from 16 to 2000 francs ($3.08 to $386.00)
and by an imprisonment of from 3 days to a month. . . .
It is especially important to refrain from throwing anything
lighted on the track (such as burning matches, ends of cigars
or cigarettes, etc.) which could set fire to grass, brush, etc.,
that might in their turn communicate fire to crops."
While this notice is evidently designed to protect crops, it
is also an excellent warning to be posted by all railroads passing
through inflammable forests.
Protection of Cork-oak Forests. — The policy of concentrating
costly protection on the most valuable forests is followed in
Tunisia. The cork oak, after peeling, is easily scorched, and
the dense undergrowth makes successful protection doubly
difficult and uncertain. There is a considerable difference of
opinion, as in Algeria, regarding the details of protection, but
the following statement gives a resume of the director's con-
clusions in 1912: 10
" . . . Experience has shown that the fire lines 20 to
30 metres (22 to 33 yards) wide and only brushed out
are almost always ineffective in case of fire, unless all the
trees or stems on the fire lines are removed. The only system
of protection recognized as (absolutely) certain consists in
the complete brushing around trees and stump extraction.
Its application was made for the first time in 1895 in various
stands of the district of Taborca.
This means of protection has the double advantage of re-
moving the brush, food for fires, of replacing fire lines, and
besides, of facilitating the entry of stock into the forests, of
creating pasturage and consequently suppressing the agita-
tors who urge the native inhabitants to fire the forests.
10 L'Indicateur Tunisien, 1912, p. 296.
28 TUNISIA
But if this method of protection is effective it is on the
other hand very expensive. It should only be applied to
fully stocked forested areas which can compensate by their
revenue for the outlay. For the rest of the stands one can
only make use of fire lines laid out on the main ridges and
dividing the forest in blocks of varying size according to the
ground. But these lines must be at least 50 metres (55
yards) wide, must be entirely cleared of every tree, stem
bush, shrub, etc., and have in the center an area 10 to 15
metres (n to 16 yards) wide where all stumps have been
removed on which can be built either a good path or a cause-
way of stones according to the quality and configuration of
the soil."
Problems in Protection. — The main problems in protection
which have confronted the forest administration in the cork-
oak forests are as follows: (i) How to secure successful pro-
FIG. 6. — A recently cleared fire line in cork oak.
tection; (2) value, need, and cost of fire lines; (3) their location,
width, clearance, maintenance, and the execution of the work
by contract.
Fire Lines. — With the inflammable underbrush uncleared
on the forest as a whole, successful protection can be assured
only by the periodical brush removal on the fire lines, which is
usually done on a cycle of three years.
PROTECTION AGAINST FIRES AND MOVING SAND 29
Yet even fire lines are by no means a sure prevention against
fires nor are fires once under way certain to be arrested by
properly laid-out lines, even if fully manned at the time of the
conflagration. On the other hand, without fire lines, which are
used chiefly to fight from and for ready access, there would be
no possibility of successful fighting, and often the lives of the
fire fighters would be unnecessarily endangered.
The cost of these fire lines depends on how they are cleared.
For ordinary clearing the rates average 80 to 90 francs ($15.44
to $17.37) for the first operation per hectare (2.5 acres) and
8 to 9 francs ($1.54 to $1.74) per year thereafter.
Location. — The location of lines has been around boundaries,
along main crests, on ridges, and occasionally through large
forested areas following slopes or a main divide. The chief
arguments given in favor of ridge fire lines, as opposed to slope
or valley lines, are that it is easier and hence cheaper to clear
the scantier ridge growth, less valuable ground is lost, there is
less danger in checking a fire on a ridge, and a ridge fire line
can often be used as a general patrol route and occasionally
as a logging road. Auxiliary lines often follow roads or trails
on a side slope or valley, but these are designed more as a pro-
tection from the carelessness of travelers than as part of the
general defense.
Width. — The width of fire lines in Tunisia varies from 10
to 200 metres (n to 219 yards). There are also lines 20, 50,
and 100 metres (22, 55, and 109 yards). Ordinarily boundary
fire lines are narrow; 10 to 20 metres (n to 22 yards) is con-
sidered sufficient, since the bordering land is usually under
partial cultivation or consists merely of heavily grazed brush
land. The widest line cleared — 200 metres (219 yards) — was
designed to separate two valuable forests in case of a great fire.
Lines designed to divide the ordinary forest and isolate fire are
50 metres (55 yards). In the opinion of the acting director
the most serviceable lines are 40 to 50 metres (44 to 55 yards).
In his experience he has found lo-metre (n-yard) lines too
narrow and 2oo-metre (2i8-yard) lines too expensive to main-
tain. Another officer preferred a width of 40 metres (44 yards)
30 TUNISIA
for a secondary line and 120 (131 yards) for an important di-
vision fire line. Along railroad rights-of-way the prescribed
width is 20 metres (22 yards) from the track. This belt must
be kept cleared of brush and all coniferous trees.
Clearance. — Whether to merely cut the brush, or to grub it
out by the roots; whether to fell all trees on the line or only
a portion; and how often to clear lines, are among the problems
of clearing. In actual practice most of the lines are merely
brushed and healthy oaks usually are not felled when they are
producing cork in merchantable quantities; but as cork-oak
trees become overmature they are cut clean with the ground,
so that on most fire lines there is now rather a scattering growth
which, in the process of time, will gradually disappear and give
way to completely cleared lines. In zeen oak, however, the
lines are often kept dense, since this species keeps weeds and
underbrush shaded out. No coniferous species are left on fire
lines.
All lines are cleared every three years and the work is so
arranged that the trail and road maintenance can usually be
accomplished under the same contract. This arrangement is
not altogether satisfactory, because of the rapid growth of the
brush and weeds. After one season this new growth seriously
impairs the value of the line; the third year it is badly in need
of clearing. To clean every year or every other year would
entail too great an expense, so that a compromise is made with
three-year intervals between brushings. Under present con-
ditions it is usually necessary to clear a line of defense along
the fire line in case of an approaching fire, since the fire would
otherwise cross.
Theoretically, at least, a better policy would be to annually
clear ^ say, one-third of the line along its entire length, so that
there would always be an area free from weeds and brush
to serve in case of back firing, or as a means to stop a light
ground fire from crossing. The main objections raised to this
plan was the impracticability of narrow lines, because of the
11 This scheme has never been tried out, but was suggested by Forest Assist-
ant Charvet at Feidja.
PROTECTION AGAINST FIRES AND MOVING SAND 31
difficulty of clearing a narrow strip, but it was considered worth
while trying out on wide fire lines where partial clearance seemed
feasible. If an adoption of some such plan could be effective
it would solve the maintenance problem of intensive fire lines,
which under the system of triennial clearance is costly without
being entirely satisfactory.
Contract Conditions. — Contractors clearing fire lines are
governed by the following rules:12 The boundary corners are
designated by the forest officers but the contractors must at their
own expense run the exterior boundaries between known corners;
all brush and trees must be cut level with the ground; all rub-
bish cut must be disposed of; work must proceed systemati-
cally; the material cut belongs to the contractor but it must
be either carried away or completely burned in small piles as
the clearing proceeds; if the burning cannot proceed the clearing
will be stopped; a schedule of damage is given for cork oak
injured, a 1 6-inch tree being assessed at 2.40 francs ($0.46) if
just peeled for the first time, 1.20 francs ($23.16) if never peeled,
but 4.80 francs ($0.92) if fire killed in burning brush; in addi-
tion it must be felled even with the ground. The basis for
contract payment is a price per hectare, and the contractor
must furnish an account of the area brushed each day, but this
is checked by the forest officers and deduction is made for open-
ings if they exceed -£$ of the area brushed. , In case the forest
is burned over by fire owing to clearance the contractor receives
no pay whatever for work performed.
Dune and Oasis Protection. — The protection of valuable
property from damage by moving sand has been successful
both along the coast line, as at Bizerta, and at desert oases as
at Nefta, Tozeur, El-Hamma, and El Oudian.
Oases Protection. — In 1885 the French Forest Service
detailed Forester Baraban to investigate the question of fixa-
tion and afforestation of sand dunes of Tunisia around the
oases. Baraban has shown that the movement of the sand
dunes in Tunisia is usually different from that in Gascogne.
12 Cahier des clauses speciales pour les travaux et de debroussaillement et de
protection contre 1'incendie, approved 1895.
32 TUNISIA
On the shores of Gascogne the sand is brought to the shore by
the tides and the movement of the sand is only in one direction -
from we.st to east. The dunes of Tunisia are caused by two
factors. Some of them are formed under the influence of
wind from the sandy areas which always exist in the desert
in a mobile state or are found on the shores of the bays
and lakes. Others were caused by the breaking up of the soil
through cultivation and grazing, and the wind that moves the
sand is often from several directions which then makes it nec-
essary to protect an oasis from all sides. In 1886 the French
Government decided the work of fixing the shore dunes- and
drifting sand around the oases a public necessity.
The oases: Gabes, Tozeur, Nefta, as well as the fixation of
the shore dunes near Bizerta and Cap Bon, have been considered
among the most urgent ones. The fixation of the sand areas
around the oasis Nefta may be considered as typical for the
southern part of Tunisia. After many failures the Forest
Service has worked out a satisfactory method of stopping and
reclaiming the moving sand. The sandy area around the oasis
Nefta which was to be reclaimed occupied an area of 420 hec-
tares (1038 acres), while the area of gardens after the com-
pletion of the reclamation work reached an area of 800 hectares
(1977 acres). Reclaiming the sand dunes around the oasis Nefta
cost the government during the first ten years close to 60,000
francs ($12,000). At present the annual cost of maintaining
the plantations and keeping the fences in repair is about 3000
francs ($600) a year, not including the cost of protection. The
value of some of the oases may be appreciated from the fact
that at the oasis Nefta there are growing 240,000 date palms, not
counting other crops. The palm plantations extend for a length
of 9 kilometres (5.5 miles) from east to west and have a width of
about 2 kilometres (1.2 miles). The oasis Tozeur has an area
of 400 hectares (988 acres) and has 218,000 date palms which
yield 8,500,000 kilograms (18,739,260 pounds) of dates.
At the oases the general principles of dune protection apply,
but the detailed methods13 used are modified to conform with
13 Based in part upon a description in the Indicateur Tunisien, 1912.
PROTECTION AGAINST FIRES AND MOVING SAND
33
the different conditions encountered. The damage to oases has
resulted (i) from sand drifting from a distance, (2) from local
overgrazing, and (3) from erosion.
Where the drifting sand is blown from a distance no perma-
nent relief can be hoped for unless the direction of the wind
changes. In this case the damage is uniformly from one direc-
tion and the drifting sand can be rendered harmless by proper
protection. When the sand appears merely as a result of local
overgrazing disintegrating a friable soil, it can be readily pre-
FIG. 7. — Typical sand wall topped with date-palm branches in use at
Tozeur, southern Tunisia.
vented by excluding all stock from a protective zone, but until (
the soil is healed by grass and weeds the damage is more dif-
ficult to control, because the direction of the local winds is not \
uniform. The erosion is prevented or diminished by contour
ditches and by sand dams, where gullies have already been
washed.
The typical desert oasis in southern Tunisia is not a mere
spring in the desert, but, in reality, a rich date-palm farm hun-
dreds of acres in area, whose ownership is shared by the resi-
dents of bordering villages. The water for irrigation flows from
34 TUNISIA
not one spring but from fifty to a hundred or more at the per-
imeter of the oases. Therefore, any system of protection
against sand, however costly, is fully justified because of the
value of the property to be protected.
The work of protection was commenced in 1885, and, accord-
ing to an official statement,14 2139 hectares (5285 acres) have
been placed under control at the following oases: Gabes, 76
(187 acres); Tozeur, 539 (1331 acres); Nefta, 426 (1052 acres);
El-Hamma, 98 (242 acres); El-Ouidan, 180 (444 acres); and
Nefzaona, 8201 hectares (20,264 acres). Up to January i, 1911,
the cost of this protection had aggregated 465,000 francs
($89,745). Labor is paid from 1.20 to 1.30 francs ($0.23 to
$0.25) per day of 10 hours.
Sand Drifting from a Distance. — Where damage results
through sand drifting from a distance it may be assumed at
once that the direction of the wind is uniform. To prevent
such damage, when there is a sufficient open area in front of the
oasis, sand dams are built some 300 metres (328 yards) from
the edge of the cultivated land. While in theory this outer line
of defense should be as far away as possible, in practice the dis-
tance is usually curtailed by the character of the ground, or by
the extra expense of erecting a longer line of defense due to a
greater circumference. Often, too, the construction material,
as palm branches, for example, is limited, since it must be secured
locally.
A second or third line of defense may be necessary to stop the
sand which blows over the first wall. The area between this
wall and the fields is closed to entry and caravan roads are
fenced to confine travel to the least possible area. These areas
are enclosed by sand walls 0.80 of a metre (31 inches) high topped
by a close palm branch hedge 0.40 to 0.50 metres (16 to 20 inches)
high and buried 0.25 to 0.30 metres (10 to 1 2 inches) in the ground.
This is the standard fence at the Djerid oases. It must be
repaired at least once a year and always after severe storms.
The best time to build these sand fences is when the sand is
moist, so that it can be packed hard to prevent its being drifted
14 Based in part upon a description in the Indicateur Tunisien, 1912.
PROTECTION AGAINST FIRES AND MOVING SAND 35
by the wind. Occasionally it is necessary to cover the walls
with layers of palms to hold the dry sand in place. According
to an official inspection report it is necessary either to peri-
odically raise the outside defense hedge, to accumulate as great
an amount of sand as possible and thus form a thoroughly stable
dune which serves also as a permanent windbreak; or else to
build a cordon of brush at the foot of this dune, in the process
of formation, in order to make the sand pile up into a rather
low plateau which would serve as a base for a great protective
dune. In other words, the wind itself is harnessed to pile up
a sufficient mass of sand, as a barrier to prevent drifting, by
first building a sand wall at right angles to the wind, topped
with a palm leaf hedge which holds the particles of sand; then,
when this is buried, the operation is repeated and the dune
raised to the necessary height.
Sand Drifting from Local Overgrazing. — Where the soil
immediately bordering an oasis has been disintegrated by over- \
grazing the resulting damage can be readily overcome by form-
ing a protective zone closed to stock. This area is fenced with
sand walls similar to those described above, occasionally sup-
plemented by barbed wire. When protected, the soil, dry as it
is, quickly reseeds; the resulting sod will prevent all drifting.
After the movement of sand has been stopped, there often
appear the following spring some of the native grasses such as
Retama raetam, Aristida pugens, Limoniastrum guyonianum,
Atriplex halimus, Nitraria tridentata, peganum Harmale,
Zygophyllum album, Calligonum comosum, together with
Euphorbia guyoniana and Euphorbia blasamifera. These
grasses which are native of the desert, particularly Aristida
pugens, are often artificially sown as soon as the movement of
sand has stopped.
The shrubs which are being used for reclaiming the moving
sand areas in the deserts are Tamarix africana and Tamarix
articulata. At first it was thought that Tamarix africana,
being of local origin, would grow particularly well. The practice
of several years, however, has shown that winds often injure its
young shoots and the summer heat dries out the soil to a depth
36 TUNISIA
greater than its roots are capable of reaching within the first
few years after planting. At present Tamarix africana is used
for planting only on those portions of the dunes which are capable
of retaining some moisture during the summer. Experiments
are also being carried on with other drought-resistant species,
particularly with Acacia eburnea, Acacia decurrens, and
Acacia tortilis, of which the latter grows naturally in the
valley of Thalah. This species resists droughty years, since
its roots penetrate deep into the ground. During the first
year, however, this acacia starts with difficulty and requires
repeated watering so that its cultivation over large areas is
impracticable. The Forest Service is also conducting experi-
ments with Parkinsonia aculeata, a tropical shrub which origi-
nates from the deserts of South America, and also with Tamarix
articulata which, so far, have given good results.
On the shore dunes to the east of the city of Bizerta the sow-
ing of Imperata cylindrica, Ricinus communis (native), and of
Tamarix made under cover of brush gave good results. Other
species, such as Acacia, Eucalyptus, Casuarina, and also Pinus
halipensis and Pinus maritima, have been tried but without
success.
When, owing to the looseness or mobility of the sand, the
roots of the natural growth are bared by the wind, it may be
/temporarily held in place with a brush cover. But frequently
despite all precautions, the natural regeneration does not get
a hold when once destroyed by overgrazing.
Erosion. — On the short steep slopes of the spring basins,
as well as on the reserved areas where the surface becomes so
caked that the water cannot be absorbed, dangerous erosion
has taken place. This fills the springs with sand in considerable
quantities and decreases their flow. When once a ravine has
been formed, every torrential rainfall causes serious damage.
Any measures designed to prevent this erosion must keep the
water from these downpours from collecting in large quantities
and from flowing in any volume. To accomplish this it must
filter into the soil, a process facilitated by plowing the requisite
number of horizontal ditches, aligned exactly on contours.
PROTECTION AGAINST FIRES AND MOVING SAND 37
These ditches must be at least 60 centimetres (24 inches) deep,
and the sand of the lower wall must be packed or pounded
to prevent erosion by the winds. The theory of spacing the
ditches is officially described as follows:
' ' The horizontal spacing of the two ditches will be such that
the amount of water falling between the ditch above and the
ditch below can be entirely reservoired in the lower ditch;
for example, for a fall of 25 millimetres (0.97 inch), taking
the maximum fall for Tozeur, it would be necessary that the
distance L between the two ditches should be given by L -f-
0.025 = S \S being the cross section of the plowed furrow).
If the ditch has a depth of 60 centimetres (24 inches) and a
width of 60 centimetres its section is 5 = — — = 0.18
2
or L = °'T = 7 metres (23 feet) more or less.
0.025
"It thence results that all the water will be retained on the
surface of the soil, until it sinks into the sand in the bottom
of the ditches, bringing quantities of seed which, placed under
the most favorable conditions, ought to germinate the more
readily." It must be carefully seen to that the alignment of
the ditches should be exactly horizontal; if not, the water
collects at one point on the ditch, overruns the bank, and
the damage is worse than if nothing had been done."
This is the theory of the operation; in actual practice the
ditches soon become partially filled with sand and have to be
deepened to prevent the water from overflowing. Nor does
the seeding take place naturally as often as might be wished.
"In the case of ravines which are (already) eroded, it is
necessary at the start to partially fill them up, usually until
the side walls are vertical ; profiting by the facility with which
the soil can be worked, it is necessary to cave these walls
into the ravine . . .in order to obtain a new profile which
is well rounded . . . where one can establish several cor-
dons of brush to diminish the velocity of the water. In the
bottom of this ravine, in part corrected, dams should be
built of palm tree trunks, . . . near together, each built
of two palm trees split horizontally . . . ; when these
dams, which may easily be destroyed, appear insufficient,
there is nothing to do but to increase them "
38 TUNISIA
But any system of dams has proved unsuccessful unless the
supply of water has been greatly diminished by cutting off the
flood water supply. This is accomplished by building contour
ditches heading up to the edges of the ravines.
At El-Hamma both the Roads Department and the Forest
Service have protected slopes from erosion, but by different
methods. The work of the former has not been successful.
The methods of the roads department has been to cover a slope
with diamond-shaped cordons of brush tied to anchor stakes
(see Fig. 8). The brush is spaced 1.2 by 2.1 metres (4 by 7
feet) and o.i to 0.15 metres (4 to 6 inches) high with stakes every
FIG. 8. — Method of protection against erosion at El-Hamma.
0.35 metres (14 inches). This protective cover does not prevent
erosion, since the water flows underneath the brush and soon
cuts out a small ravine. On an even more difficult 45° slope
the local ranger has tried another plan which merits success.
The project is designed to protect an important spring used for
watering camel caravans, as well as for irrigation. This scheme,
which is shown in Fig. 9, consists of a series of parallel artificial
hedges built on contour 3 to 4 metres (3 to 4 yards) apart.
The hedge is of tamerisk, 40 cm. (16 inches) above the ground,
PROTECTION AGAINST FIRES AND MOVING SAND 39
FIG. 9. — Protection against erosion above springs at El-Hamma.
40 TUNISIA
and set 25 cm. (10 inches) deep. It is strengthened by posts
every 1.2 metres (4 feet) and smaller posts or stays every
5 to 8 metres (6 to 9 yards). The hedge is wired on each side
and the wires joined. The sand washed down on these hedges
is retained, and forms a series of horizontal paths or shallow
ditches, one above the other, to retain the water. The work
costs at a rate of 50 centimetres ($0.10) per running metre
(i yard).
At El-Oudian still another method is used to protect the
springs. There the ditches are designed to carry off the sur-
plus water to a point where it will do no harm. The slope
is steeper than at Tozeur, but not so vertical as at El-Hamfna.
Besides mere protective works, the Forest Service has experi-
mented in the matter of plantations, but they have not as yet
been successful, except where they could be irrigated. The
only tree (small and crooked at best) which seems to come in
naturally on the edges of the desert is the tamerisk (africana).
The best shrub seems to be the re tern and the best grass the
alfa. The tamerisk can be reproduced by shoots 30 cm. (n.8
inches) long and placed 28 cm. (n inches) in the sand; but on
an area of several acres recently every shoot thus set had died.
The following official statement of the problem is perhaps too
optimistic:
" . . . The Forest Service tries to cover the zones of
protection with tree species, but has met in this respect serious
difficulties. The annual rainfall is only a few centimetres,
sometimes almost nothing. The species to be grown must,
besides, withstand the burning sirocos which blow during the
summer. It is, therefore, necessary that the fibres be as
tough as leather and small, to lessen evaporation, a charac-
teristic of all desert plants. The land to be restocked can
not be irrigated and sprinkling is only possible on restricted
areas for fear of high costs."
Strange to say, some of the railroad right-of-way area in
Tunisia has been sown to aleppo pine, an inflammable species;
but most of the planting has been with eucalyptus, which has
done remarkably well where there was sufficient water. On
dry ground the trees were spindling and of little value.
FORESTATION AND BETTERMENTS 41
FORESTATION AND BETTERMENTS
Government Forestation Policy. — The government's atti-
tude15 is favorable to artificial regeneration only so far as is
necessary to complete small blanks in a revenue-producing
forest. Instead of planting or sowing, the policy is to pre-
serve and improve existing forests by the gradual restriction
of harmful grazing, by very conservative cutting, and by the
erection of dams to conserve moisture, not only in the soil but
in the air as well. Occasionally it has been possible to wound
the soil, on ground where natural regeneration has been de-
ficient, in order to assist germination. The two most expensive
planting areas are for watershed protection and for climatic and
recreation purposes.
In theory resinous species are to be avoided, because of the
fire menace; but in practice more aleppo pine has been sown
or planted than any other species, because it is found locally
and because it withstands droughts. The wild olive, holm oak,
carob-tree, pinon pine, thuya, and eucalyptus (chiefly globulus)
have also been employed. The olive withstands drought better
than any other species and sprouts very readily after being
dried out. The holm oak requires slightly better moisture
conditions. The carab tree withstands drought well and pro-
duces a leafy bush like a tree which shelters the soil. The
thuya is excellent for dry soils but grows very lowly. The pinon
produces an edible seed and for this reason encourages trespass
by the natives. The eucalyptus can only be used on moist
ground or where the subsoil is moist; no species of eucalyptus
has been found which will withstand droughts unless the roots
can penetrate the subsoil water.
Seed Spots. - - The seed-spot method of sowing is almost
invariably used; broadcasting or unprepared soil is never prac-
ticed except with aleppo pine immediately after a fire and,
thus far, even in that case, merely for experimental purposes.
15 These conclusions are based on a conference with the acting Director, M.
Delacourcelle. The description of methods hi use is based on field inspections
at Hammam-Lif and Zaghouan.
42 TUNISIA
The seed spots are ordinarily 30 cm. by 30 cm. (12 by 12 inches)
and 30 cm. (12 inches) deep whether for sowing or planting.
For the olive larger spots are used, often 60 by 60 cm. (23 by
23 inches).
Stock. — There is more sowing than planting, but if the
sowing is unsuccessful the soil-field seed spots are immediately
planted before they run wild. The aleppo pine is sown 7 to 8
seeds to the spot, and for fail places or very difficult ground
8-month seedlings, grown in terra cotta pots, are fall planted.
At Hammam-Lif the olive suckers were left two years in the
nursery and then field planted. The piiioh and thuya are
sown. The oak is sown in bamboo tubes to protect it from
rodents. The carob-tree is sown. The eucalyptus is fall
planted after being grown in pots for 7 to 8 months. No trans-
planted stock is used.
All field sowing or planting is mainly in the fall (December
to January), after the winter rains have commenced. The
soil is then in the best possible condition, so that the plants
can make sufficient headway to survive the dry summer months.
Spacing. — In order to keep the expense of forestation as
low as possible wide spacing is used. The seed spots are usually
irregularly located, so as to give the best possible chances for
success and while the spacing is nominally 1.8 to 2.4 metres
(6 to 8 feet) in practice there are rarely more than 250 spots
per acre.
Field Technique. — On very dry situations the olive shoots
may have to be watered, when planted, in order to give them
a start, but of course this is out of the question for ordinary
forest plantations. After sowing or planting, the surface is left
7.6 to 12.6 centimetres (3 to 5 inches) below the soil surface, in
order to hold the rains and let the water sink in. Yet on side
hills many of these small spots are washed level with soil after
the first winter rains, and this leaves the plants too deeply im-
bedded. Where losses from drought are anticipated, two or
three small rocks are placed at each side of the plant to con-
serve the moisture and prevent surface drying.
At Zaghouan loss has been experienced because the center of
FORESTATION AND BETTERMENTS 43
the seed spot, comprising the soil which has been worked, dries
out; this is due to the soft center earth shrinking and losing
contact with the walls of the spot. To prevent this, the earth,
when replaced in the hole, must be firmly stamped. After
sowing aleppo pine at Zaghouan the excess seedlings are de-
stroyed, for the extra stock, it is thought, would merely use up
the little available moisture. All nursery stock is grown locally,
since shipped stock when tried has invariably given poor results.
Nursery Methods. — Both the nurseries at Hammam-Lif
and at Zaghouan are watered during the hot dry summers.
Irrigation is carried out every 10 to 15 days, and is then mod-
erate. At the Zaghouan nursery the pots used are 115 milli-
metres (4.5 inches) deep, 128 millimetres (5 inches) wide at the
top, and 58 millimetres (2 inches) at the bottom. The pot is
drained by a 6-millimetre (J-inch) hole. After the ball plant is
removed the pots are collected and used over again. No arti-
ficial shade frames are built; instead, Indian corn is sown be-
tween the seedling beds, to protect the plants during dry weather.
This corn grows to be 1.5 metres (7 yards) high and serves as
a natural protection. Before sowing the oak acorns in the
field they are first germinated in wet sand, then placed in the
bamboo tubes at the nursery, and immediately planted. In
the past, a cement-walled seed bed was used to protect seed
sown from loss by rodents. Before sowing the aleppo pine the
seed is soaked in water for at least an hour; otherwise the usual
nursery methods are followed.
Failures. — The forestation on arid, difficult land can be
accomplished only by persistent effort. Repeated failures and
severe loss are to be expected. The percentage of success
seems to be dependent entirely on whether the season following
the planting is favorable as regards rainfall, for with an un-
favorable season even well-executed plantations may show a
loss of from 80 to 95 per cent.
Improvements. — As in Algeria (see page 89) the forest
houses are constructed of stone, and are ordinarily faced with
cement. But in Tunisia there are no uniform plans, although
the arrangement of the stables and floor space is similar. A
44
TUNISIA
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FORESTATION AND BETTERMENTS 45
plan16 is given in Fig. 10 which has been worked out after thorough
trial as being eminently satisfactory for a forest guard's house.
Every house is furnished by the Service, and a room is always
held in readiness for visitors. The official inventory lists fur-
nishings under i, numerical order; 2, date; 3, kind of article;
4, summary description; 5, where purchased; 6, when first
used; 7, original value; 8, condition, with four columns for
the entry of the results of different inspections; and 9, remarks.
At Djebel Mansaur the cost of the standard equipment totaled
419 francs ($80.87), and included: sheets, pillow cases, table
cloth, towels, covers, blanket, folding chairs, tables, wash
stand, commode, carpets, mirror, basin, pitchers, pails, bed-
stead, buffet, desk, kitchen stove, glasses, candlestick, and
field medical chest. All of these articles are for the use of
visiting officers. In the United States the Government fur-
nishes only a few of them.
A detailed policy has been developed to govern the use of
ranger stations. The essentials of this scheme are as follows:
they may be used at any time by authorized persons, but visitors
must be reported by name, hour and date of arrival and depart-
ure, and hospitality must not interfere with official work, nor
can it be offered ordinarily for longer than 24 hours at a time.
The rates are posted in each room: lodging, i franc ($0.193)
first night and 0.50 ($0.10) second night; breakfast of coffee and
bread, 0.50 ($0.10); other meals 2 francs ($0.39); horse feed
0.60 ($0.11). At these ranger stations the visitor is invariably
accorded a warm welcome and the meals, often prepared on
short notice, are surprisingly good.
16 Furnished by Forest Assistant Charvet
CHAPTER III
ALGERIA1
Physical and Climatic Features (p. 46) : General, Topography, Climate.
Progress in Forest Administration (p. 49): Forest Situation— General, Jonnart's
Reforms, Work of Jonnart's Commission, Administration Changes.
Forest Conditions (p. 54): The Forests, The Most Important Trees, Destruc-
tion of Forests — Causes, Extent of Forests, Settlement Policy, Forest
Statistics, Production.
Forest Management (p. 58): Objects of Forest Management, Cork-oak Man-
agement, Cultural Rules, Aleppo Pine, Treatment, Treatment of Other
Species.
Working Plans (p. 66) : A Working Plan for Cork Oak, Management Record.
Disposal of Produce (p. 72): Sales, Free Use.
The Forestation Problem (p. 77): Forestation, Methods, Forestation Routine,
Experimental Planting, Forestation Projects.
".Miscellaneous Activities (p. 87): Research, Forest Museum, Grazing, Forest
Houses, Trespass.
Fire Protection and Control (p. 91): Fire Protection, Preventive Measures,
Fire Lines, Back-firing, Fire Lines — Conclusions.
Administrative Organization (p. 101): Forest Organization, The Directions,
The Chefferies, Statistical, The Controller, Reforestation Service, In Time
of War, Salaries, Bonus on Algerian Service, Employees Classified by Length
of Service, Promotions — Discipline.
Forest Legislation (p. 109) : Legislation, The New Code.
PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC FEATURES
General. — As in the case of Tunisia, so also in approaching
the study of Algerian forest administration proper, a short
description of the topography and climate is prefaced, for
these factors determine, of course, in large measures, the char-
acter of native forest conditions and needs.
It remains only to add here that Algeria, since 1858, has been
a French colony, now under the administration of a governor
1 The problems in Algeria and Tunisia are somewhat similar and to avoid
needless duplication only the most interesting features of each forest adminis-
tration have been described.
46
PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC FEATURES 47
appointed by the President of the Republic; and that it has for
its boundaries the Sahara desert on the south, on the east Tunisia,
on the north the Mediterranean, and on the west Morocco.
Algeria occupies an area of about 456,000 square kilometres
(176,000 square miles).
Topography. — Topographically Algeria is divided into four
regions: The Tell Atlas, the Hauts-Plateaux, the Sahara Atlas,
and the Sahara.
According to an authoritative source these regions are:
"I. The Tell Atlas (Atlas Tellien), the most important
part of this territory, consists of two parallel ranges of folded
hills of recent origin, which intersect a great basin stretching
from the Atlantic to the Bay of Tunis. The highest points
of range next the coast are the Traras, 11,359 metres (3727
feet); the Dahra, 1579 metres (5181 feet); the Atlas of Blida,
1629 metres (5345 feet); the Jurjura Chain, 2307.8 metres
(7552 feet) in Great Kabylia; and the Babor range,
2034.4 metres (6675 feet) in Little Kabilia. In the interior
rises the Tlemcen Group, 1843 metres (6047 feet); the
Ouarsenis, 1984 metres (6512 feet); the Jebel Dira, 1809.8
metres (5938 feet); and the Hodna Mountains, 1862.8
metres (6112 feet), which last form the only considerable
link between the Tell and the Sahara Atlas. The Littoral,
842 metres (920 yards) in length, with long, precipitous
and almost inaccessible stretches, is broken by the bays of
Oran, Arzew, Algiers, Bougie, Philippe ville, and Bona, but
does not possess a single good natural harbor. Flank-
ing the coast, in front of the Tell Atlas, are several ranges
of lower hill (Sahel), as the Sahel of Oran, between Lourmel
and the mouth of the Cheliff, the Sahel of Algiers, and the
Sahel of Collo, while the Edough Group, 1007.9 metres (3307
feet), composed of crystalline rock, forms an independent
mountain. The extensive plains behind the Sahels, which at
Oran are marshy (Marais de la Macta) and have besides the
remains of great salt lagoons, Sebkha d'Oran and Salines
d'Arzew, and especially the Mitidja near Algiers, once a bay
of the sea, and the Plaine de Bone are the most fertile and
richly cultivated parts of Algeria. Tell region embraces an
area of 14,000,000 hectares (35,000,000 acres).
"II. High Plateau. — The Hauts-Plateaux or Great Steppe,
an almost unwatered region, of about eleven million hectares,
48 ALGERIA
was originally a deep depression between the Tell and the
Sahara Atlas, which in the course of thousands of years was
gradually filled up with the alluvial deposits of mountain-
torrents and thus converted into a great and monotonous
undulating plain 701 to 1005.7 metres (2300 to 3300 feet) above
the sea level. The saline and gypseous is very sterile and
only at a few places is adapted for the culture of grain, but has
proved suitable -for sheep-grazing. In the depressions of the
steppe lie a number of extensive shoots or salt lakes, which
in summer are dry and recognizable only by their dazzling
snow-white incrustation.
"III. The Sahara Atlas (Atlas Saharien) forms the great
barrier between Algeria and the desert. It is a 'region, of
grand and wildly fissured gorges, partly caused by erosion
in the pluvial period, of valleys worn by torrents, of lofty
plains converted into mountains, and of marine basins now
filled up.' (Theob. Fischer.) The chief heights are the
Montagnes des Ksour, 2134.7 metres (7004 feet), a pro-
longation of the much higher Morocco Atlas; Jebel Amour,
1971 metres (6467 feet); the Monts des Ouled-Nail, 1613
metres (5295 feet); and, beyond the depression of the Monts
du Zab, 1311.4 metres (4304 feet); the Aures Mountains,
2326.7 metres (7634 feet), which are wooded in their north
half. . . .
'"IV. The Sahara, which belongs to the Territoires du Sud
or de Commandement, governed by the military 'Bureaux
Arabes,' consists of the Bassin du Gourara or Bassin de
1'Oued Saoura on the west, a plateau 100.6 to 792.4 metres
(330 to 2600 feet) above the sea, and of the Bassin du Melrir,
named after the Chott Melrir, on the east, lying partly
below the sea level."
Climate. — The climate2 is characterized by two distinct
seasons,3 one wet and one dry, a peculiarity due largely to the
nature of the winds. The prevailing winds during the rainy
winter season come from the northwest and north, while dur-
ing the summer east winds are prevalent. Purely local winds
due to topography or environment, proximity to the sea, moun-
2 Les Forets de 1'Algerie par H. L. LSfebvre, 1900, pp. 56-98.
/" 3 It is of interest that Gsell in Le climat de 1' Afrique du nord dans 1'antiquite drew
( the conclusions that, broadly speaking, the climate of North Africa had not changed
to any degree since the Roman occupation, notwithstanding the deforestation.
E. Huntington, in the Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. XXXI, February 1917,
p. 173, argues that there have been climatic pulsations.
PROGRESS OF FOREST ADMINISTRATION 49
tains, or desert, of course, do not follow exactly the prevailing
wind directions of the season. The winds from the desert,
locally known as the " Sirocco," are extremely hot and dry
and disastrous to plant life. The changes from east to north-
west winds, and vice versa, occur usually in November and in
April.
In the coast region the rains commence at the end of Sep-
tember, October, or November, when the strong northwest
winds from the Mediterranean begin to blow. They cease in
May or early June; but in December, January, and February
there are dry spells of from 15 to 20 days. The coast rainfall
reaches 1000 mm. (39 inches) at Bone and as high as 486 mm.
(19 inches) at Oran.
The Algerian temperature is mild, and except for days when
the Sirocco is blowing, rarely exceeds 30° C. (86° F.). The aver-
age of the extremes for August, the hottest month, is 28° C.
to 33° C. (82° F. to 91° F.); for January, the coldest, the aver-
ages are 14° C. to 17° C. (57° F. to 63° F.) never falling below
2° C. to 9° C. (36° F. to 32° F.), or rising above 40° C. to 48° C.
(104° F. ton8°F.).
The zone nearest to the sea receives on an average from 1000
to 1 200 mm. (39 to 47 inches) of precipitation; other regions —
Kabylie, Algiers with the surrounding country, and the north-
western part of the province of Constantine — about 800 mm.
(31 inches); other parts only — 500 mm. (20 inches). On the
high plateaus and within the Sahara region the precipitation
amounts to about 200 mm. (8 inches); farther south rains
appear as the exception — once in several years. The north-
westerly winds bring the heaviest rains, but only on high plateaus
and mountainous sections.
PROGRESS OF FOREST ADMINISTRATION
Forest Situation — General. — The present situation in Al-
geria, as regards the administration of its forest area, is highly
encouraging when compared to what has gone on in the past.
As one reflects that the forests will always, with the best manage-
ment, have to fight for their very existence against the inhos-
50 ALGERIA
pitable climate, considering the early record of general over-
grazing, damage from fires, and losses through ill-advised sales
of cork-oak lands, one is forced to the conclusion that the recent
reform in organization, forest regulations, and administrative
methods came none too soon.
It is true that extensive damage from fires continues, in
spite of the expensive system of fire lines now maintained.
The difficulties still encountered in preventing or punishing
grazing trespass is likely to form the chief problem of the forest
service for years to come, for the very life of the native popu-
lation is linked to their pastoral rights — or what they conceive
to be such. A great deal can be done to alleviate the damage
in this field, however, by teaching grazers to pasture the kind
of stock which does least harm.
In addition to the losses from grazing trespass there has been
in former years a direct diminution of forest area through the
sale of valuable cork-oak lands. The excellent results now
obtained by government exploitations of similar areas, where
the state reaps the benefits of higher prices and increased per
acre production, serve but to emphasize the gravity of the
error committed in parting with the lands in question.
To sum up the effect of these early administrative laxities -
to use no harsher word — coupled with the necessary clearings
for colonization, has been to bring about a serious decrease
in the total forest area of the country. One writer estimates
that the forested areas near Constantine, Batna, Medea, and
Setif have shrunk by from 10 to more than 60 per cent since
1871.
Jonnart's Reforms. — It is possible that a good many of
the early difficulties of administration were due to the fact
that the Forest Service at first attempted to copy, too closely
for local necessities, methods used in France. At any rate,
it is certain that in 1902-1909 the criticism of the forest ad-
ministration became so severe that Governor Jonnart, in 1904,
assembled a commission to study the cause of the dissatisfaction
and to prescribe remedies. It may be safely stated that modern
Algerian forest administration, in its broadest sense, dates from
PROGRESS OF FOREST ADMINISTRATION 51
the assembling of this commission, and is due almost wholly
to Governor Jonnart's wise personal direction of its activities.
For to the governor's influence, more than to any other one
thing, may be traced the extent and the excellence of the sweep-
ing reforms subsequently introduced and carried out.
In his address4 to the commission Governor Jonnart spoke
highly of the Forest Service and at the same time severely criti-
cised the methods' too often employed in the past :
"In a country like this," he said, "the forest plays such
an important role that any one who has a position of the
slightest authority should be zealous in the defense of the
Forest Service. I know of no administrative body composed
of more meritorious, better trained or more honest agents
than those of the forest service. I give them willingly this
praise, but I blame them for keeping a little too much apart
from the other Algerian service, for applying the regulations
too uniformly, and for not having developed the flexibility
and the means of adaptation so indispensable to an adminis-
trative organization, in a colony where it is unpolitic and
often dangerous to try to follow at all times, in the footsteps
of the fatherland.
"This forest question has held my attention for some
time, and I can say that I have been everywhere in Algeria;
I have been able to assure myself that the Forest Service has
been too often bound by the letter of the laws and regulations,
that it has not sufficiently fathomed their spirit nor the higher
interests of Algerian policy. My desire is that a permanent
"entente cordiale" be established between the Forest Service
and the prefects, assistant prefects, and administrators of
mixed communes, so that they may work together for the
special needs of the population, the preventive measures to
be adopted in view of the conflagrations, and the fight against
the floods. I wish moreover that formalities and administra-
tive red tape should not complicate things, as if for the sake
of mere convention.
"I wish finally that the Forest Service should never lose
sight of the fact that the surest way to avoid fires is still to
interest the natives in the existence of the forests, and to
associate them in their conservation, either by showing a
greater leniency, so far as the pasturage of their flocks is
4 Commission d'Etudes Foresti£res, 1904, pp. 9-10.
52 ALGERIA
concerned, or by granting them small individual felling areas.
I could cite regions where the natives confined between the
lands opened for settlement and the forest cannot move,
one might say, without risking law suits.
" We have now a more supple forest law; I would like also
to see less stiffness and formality in its administration in those
specially charged with applying it, and I know the zeal and
the patriotism of forest personnel well enough to be convinced
that it will seek out with entire devotion and loyalty, in accord
with all the members of the commission, the means to im-
prove a situation which causes anxiety (and rightly so) to all
those who are interested in the economic development of
Algeria. ..."
Work of Jonnart's Commission. — Inspired by this high-
minded, yet politic address, the commission pursued their studies
with the main aims of future administration clearly in view.
They based this work on the principle5 that the preservation
of existing forests and even of brush cover was important for the
public health, the habitability and the prosperity of Algeria,
because, as they agreed, the forest influenced the rainfall^
assisted the filtration of water and maintenance of springs,
lessened erosion and tempered floods, temperature, and winds,
at the same time bettering local health conditions. They con-
cluded, therefore, that the forests were of incalculable value,
both direct and indirect, in the economic welfare of the entire
population and should be maintained by every means in the
power of the state.
Taking up afterward the forest situation in detail, the com-
mission determined 6 that one of the chief items of complaint
against the Forest Service — the inclusion of agricultural land
within forests — was far from justified, and that the mainte-
nance of existing forests 7 was so important that the cost of
administration should be considered secondary to the attain-
ment of results. To remedy the existing distrust of the Service
and to foster a favorable local sentiment it was felt that the
natives8 must be reconciled to forest administration; partly
by educational measures, but also by giving them a working
6 Id. 6 Id. 7 Id. 8 Id.
PROGRESS OF FOREST ADMINISTRATION 53
interest in the forests through the wider 9 use of native laborers.
The educational propaganda even included the training of the
native children 10 so as to instill in them the knowledge of the
value of forests and the necessity for their maintenance.
Administration Changes. — Many of the suggestions and
ideas brought out by this commission have gradually been put
into effect, with encouraging results. For example, in 1903
the receipts from the forests exceeded the expenditures for the
first time, and they have furthermore increased each year since
that time.
The new forest code was passed and has proved sufficiently
plastic, and far better adapted for local needs, than the old.
The former inspection organization was done away with and
replaced by the system of "chefferies," which resulted in a
simplified administration with less top-heavy organization and
larger salaries.
A system of control was also inaugurated, by placing "con-
troleurs" (general inspectors) at each conservator's office to
take up systematic field inspection.
Guards and rangers are now allowed 4 hectares (10 acres) of
land, instead of 2 hectares (6 acres), an irrigated garden, and
the right to hunt in state forests; while the budget of 1907
granted them a stated allowance per child to help pay the ex-
pense of their children's boarding during school sessions.
During Jonnart's term the pay of forest officers was materi-
ally increased, rangers receiving 100 francs ($19.30), and guards
60 francs ($11.58) more than formerly. Officers' pay was also
raised, so that a comparison of the salaries they now receive
with those given to officers of similar grades in France is all in
favor of the Algerians. An "office assistant" receives 4800
francs ($926.40), or double the pay for that position in France,
while an inspector of the first class gets 8300 francs ($1601.90)
instead of 4500 ($868.50) as he would in the mother country.
The Forest Service under Jonnart, in short, prospered exceed-
ingly. His regime marked a new and healthier era in Algerian
forest administration.
9 Id. 10 Id.
54 ALGERIA
FOREST CONDITIONS
The Forests. — The wooded area in Algeria is estimated11
to cover 2.8 million hectares (about 7,000,000 acres) of land,
( which is a total of only n per cent of its entire surface as
compared with 29 per cent for Europe and 18 per cent for France
itself. As a rule the Algerian forest exists now only on land
which cannot be profitably cultivated by the natives. The
most valuable agricultural land — under crops there are about
3,000,000 hectares (yj million acres) — lies chiefly in the large
alluvial plains, while the forested areas comprise the gravels,
quartzites, volcanic rocks, limes ones, and, sometimes, schists and
hard marbles on the slopes of hills and mountains.
The species 12 of Algerian forests are remarkably well adapted
to the soil and climatic conditions; small in size and with per-
sistent leaves which prevent, with their thick epidermis, any
excessive evaporation. The only species which form continu-
ous stands of any size are the cork oak (Q. suber), the zeen or
Algerian oak (Q. mirbeckii), the "afares" oak (Q. of ares), the
holm oak (Q. ilex), the aleppo pine (P. halepensis), maritime
pine (P. maritima), cedar (C. atlantica) , thuya (Callistris quad-
rivalvis), and juniper (/. phcenicea) ,13 Other species are dis-
tributed by single trees or small groups only, and are conse-
quently of but little economic importance.
A characteristic feature of the forest flora which is worthy
of mention is the large number of evergreen species. Most of
the broad-leaved species which are not evergreen are scattered
singly or in groups. As a whole the flora is similar to that of
Spain, Italy, and extreme southern France.
The Most Important Trees.14 — The cork oak15 in Algeria
grows only on silicious soils formed from decomposed crystal-
line or volcanic rocks and in sands formed by disintegrated
11 Les Forets de 1'Algerie, pp. 107 ff.
12 Id., pp. 12 ff.
13 The relative average area covered by each species is given on page 56.
14 Les Forets de 1'Algerie, pp. 81-108.
15 For the silvical characteristics of cork oak see forthcoming publication of
U. S. Forest Service.
FOREST CONDITIONS 55
sandstone. It extends from the ocean up to an altitude of 1300
metres (4265 feet), but its habitat is on the coast. The zeen
or Algerian oak commences to appear with the cork oak at 700
metres (2296 feet) altitude and seeks the richer soil in the
valley bottoms or on north slopes. Occasionally it is found
mixed with cedar. The "afares" oak commences at 1000
metres (3281 feet) and extends to the limit of vegetation.
The holm oak, which is usually found in France on calcareous
soil, is ordinarily* on the sandstone in Algeria but it is often in
mixture with cork oak, aleppo pine, and even with the cedar;
although it reached -1800 metres (5905 feet), it rarely forms
pure stands above 300 metres (984 feet).
The aleppo pine is the most widely distributed conifer; it is
found on the marls and limestone from the sea to the desert
and exists on barren and arid soils. The maritime pine is
found only near the sea, at low elevations. The thuya thrives
at middle altitudes in the mountains. It is usually mixed with
aleppo pine, holm oak, or olive. It sprouts well after fires.
The juniper is mixed with the aleppo pine, holm oak, and thuya.
The cedar is found above 1300 metres (4265 feet) on both
limestones and sandstones.
The undergrowth is dense and luxuriant especially in the
cork-oak zone, when not kept burned off by repeated fires.
The chief species are the cistus, lentisk (Pistacia lentiscus),
heather, myrtle, and arbute. On the dunes near La Calle an
undergrowth is formed by the kermes oak (Q. coccifera) .
Destruction of Forests — Causes. — Repeated fires have in- "
creased the already large areas under brush or "maquis." The
destruction 16 of Algerian forests has been caused by fir3s, ex-
cessive cutting and temporary clearings, establishment of heavy
free use privileges or rights, decadence of open park-like forests,
and excessive grazing, especially by goats. The effect of these
abuses are less evident in the cork-oak region between Dellys
and Phillipeville, where the vegetative conditions are best;
towards the East, where stock is worked on shares, even the
cork oak suffers in consequence. On the littoral between Algiers
16 Les Forets de 1'Algerie, pp. 108-116.
56 ALGERIA
and Oran, in High Plateau, and in southern Constantine, where
the soil is less fertile, the damage has been so great that there
is real danger of the forests disappearing.
Extent of Forests. — The wooded area in Algeria, as has
been stated, is about 2,800,000 hectares (6,918,800 acres), of
which some 1,750,000 hectares (4,324,250 acres) are federal and
70,000 hectares (172,970 acres) communal. The area under
military control is about 350,000 to 400,000 hectares (864,850
to 988,400 acres). There are approximately 162,000 hectares
(400,302 acres) of private cork-oak, forest, given in former con-
cessions; but there are no statistics in regard to the species on
private holdings.
The 1,750,000 hectares (4,324,250 acres) of State forests com-
prise approximately the following area (in hectares) by species:
Cork oak, 240,000 (593,040 acres); zeen oak, etc., 40,000 to
50,000 (98,840 to 123,550 acres); kermes and holm oak, 400,000
to 500,000 (988,400 to 1,235,500 acres); aleppo pine, 600,000
to 700,000 (1,482,600 to 1,729,700 acres); cedar, 25,000 (61,775
acres); juniper and thuya, 100,000 to 150,000 (247,100 to
270,650 acres); miscellaneous species, such as poplar, elm, ash,
olive, maritime pine, etc., 15,000 to 20,000 (37,065 to 49,420
acres). The remainder of the area is open or mere brush land.
It must be admitted, moreover, that the greater part of the
existing forests are impoverished and that at least 1,200,000
hectares (2,965,200 acres) have been burned over one or more
times during the past 40 years. Not exactly a picture of well-
preserved forest wealth!
Settlement Policy. — The colonization of agricultural land
is encouraged though it is not the policy to clear potential
forest land for agricultural purposes. Openings within state
forests may be leased, but not granted in fee simple, be-
cause theoretically they will some day be planted. The usual
annual lease rate is 15 francs per hectare, varying, of course,
with the quality of the soil. A settler outside the forest receives
free 20, 30, or 40 hectares (49, 74, or 88 acres) of land accord-
ing to its soil quality, but is not entitled to sell it until after
10 years' residence. Another method of disposing of public
FOREST CONDITIONS 57
land is to sell it under a contract which provides that after
8 years' residence and bona fide improvement a part of the
purchase price will be refunded.
Forest Statistics. — The area 17 of the federal forests, in mili-
tary or civil territory, managed by the Forest Service, amounted
in 1911 to 1,955,419 hectares (4,831,840 acres) which territory
was divided into three conservations: Algiers, 465,002 (1,149,019
acres); Oran, 610,599 (1,508,790 acres); Constantine, 879,818
(2,174,030 acres). These yielded in 1910 a gross revenue of
3)835>5I3 francs ($740,252), more than 3 million ($579,000)
of which came from cork-oak operations. In addition material
worth 1,131,227 francs ($218,326.80) was given away during
the year.
In 1910, the fuel sold totaled 155,088 steres (5,476,787 cu. ft.);
logs, 3267 cu.m. (115,370 cu. ft.); ties, 30,292 cu.m. (1,069,731
cu. ft.); poles, 93,773 cu.m. (3,311,499 cu. ft); tan bark, 31,141
quintaux (6,865,407 pounds), all together worth 638,909 francs
($123,309.44). This comparison illustrates the preponderance of
the cork-oak returns over those from wood. In 1883, the total
revenue from the combined sources was just under a half million
francs ($96,500); 10 years later, in 1893, ^ was almost three-
fourths of a million ($144,750) ; while in 1903 it reached 3,334,853
($643,626.65). By 1913 it was estimated to certainly reach
four million francs ($772,000).
Production. — Though the revenue from Algerian forests is
derived from a number of species, cork oak yields18 the major
part of this total; and even then the present production is
only about half of what it should be. Cedar is sold to some
extent, but it is just within the past few years that the wood
has been in demand. The aleppo pine had not yielded a rev-
enue until the recent experimental tapping, originated by Con-
servator Laporte at Oran, and described hereafter. The zeen
oak has been cut to a considerable extent for cross ties, and the
demand has constantly increased. The market for minor prod-
17 The latest published statistics are for the year ending June 30, 1911, Sta-
tistique Generate de 1'Algerie, pp. 296-300.
18 Commission d'Etudes Forestieres, pp. 171-173.
58 ALGERIA
ucts is better each year. From these facts the prediction is
freely made that a revenue two or three times greater than at
present will accrue to the Forest Service before many years.
On the 250,000 odd hectares19 (617,750 acres) of cork oak
the state has about four-fifths in full production (494,200 acres),
and an average yield of 75 kilos (165 pounds) per hectare
(2.5 acres) is low, considering the capacity of the forest. In
1903 the revenue from cork was about 2.5 million francs
($482,500). Wood, tannin, charcoal, chiefly from zeen oak, holm
oak, and cedar returned about 625,00 francs ($120,625) in I9°3?
about five times the amount sold in 1890 ($24,125). The
minor products of the forests, such as hunting, grass, pasturage,
etc., are yielding about 120,000 francs ($23,160) annually.20
Taking into consideration the fuel, timber, and grazing given
away each year this means a production of about 2 francs ($0.386)
per hectare (2.5 acres), and it is hoped that this average will
reach 6 or 7 francs ($1.16 or $1.35) per hectare within 10 to 20
years. These are totals; the cork-oak areas now produce at
least 10 francs ($1.93) per hectare (2.5 acres) per year and
showed an increase of double the former figures within 10 or
15 years. The cost of forest administration in Algeria was 1.74
francs ($0.34) per hectare (2.5 acres) per year in 1903 and
approximately the same rate of expenditure is still maintained.
FOREST MANAGEMENT
Objects of Forest Management. — Granting as a basic
principle that the forests of Algeria should be preserved, it
naturally follows that the management must be conservative
especially in the case of those forests which show danger of
disappearing. The cork-oak forests hardly come under this
category, because of the more favorable climatic conditions.
In these forests a purely financial gain is sought and the ad-
19 Commission d'Etudes Forestieres, p. 14.
20 The development of minor industries is encouraged; the grubbing of heather
roots (bruyere) for pipes has become quite an industry and a company pays about
i franc ($0.193) per hectare (2.5 acres) per year for large area concessions from
which heather roots can be grubbed.
FOREST MANAGEMENT
59
ministration by reducing the forest yield sees that the market
is not depressed by over production, if this seems necessary to
attain the desired result. This does not mean that the silvi-
cultural welfare of the forest is neglected, but the financial side
of the question is considered first. The management of the
remaining species, on the other hand, is based rather on the
policy of conservation than on financial returns, with the pos-
sible exception of aleppo pine, which is now being tapped in
turpentine operations.
FIG. ii. — The transport of cork to a local depot in the mountains near
Philippeville, Algeria.
Cork-oak Management.21 — The method of treatment adopted
in managing the cork-oak forests is based solely on the re-
quirements for cork production; the harvest of tannin as a
by-product and the matter of regeneration are considered as
separate and distinct, as well as subsidiary, problems. The
bark is in reality like a fruit crop, where trees bear only after
attaining a certain size and continue fruitful only for a certain
period Consequently, the selection system is applied; but
with a large area it is neither advantageous nor practicable to
collect selection crops over an entire forest each year. It has
21 Based chiefly on the official working plan for Foret Domaniale des Ouled-el-
Nadj, December 10, 1912.
60 ALGERIA
been proved more advantageous to concentrate the yield peri-
odically; and 3 years, a multiple of either 9 or 12, the usual
minimum and maximum period for the maturity of any one
bark crop, is the interval between harvests.
Cultural Rules. — It is considered more profitable not to
peel trees when too young; in the past there has been a tend-
ency to commence with trees 50 m. to 60 m. (20 to 24 inches)
in circumference (30 to 40 years old), whereas it is essential on
average soil to wait until a tree reaches 70 m. (27 inches) or
even 80 m. (31 inches). Under favorable conditions 5 or 6
collections may be expected, since trees continue to bear until
80 to 100 years of age. If collection is allowed to begin when
a tree is too young the growth is retarded, the tree yields a
furrowed cork of such poor quality as hardly to pay for the
cost of collecting, and often results in the death of the tree.
When a tree has once attained merchantable size it is marked
for peeling. The bark which results from this first operation
has little or no commercial value (liege male). Dating from
the time this rough primary back crop is removed, it takes on
an average a minimum of i year and a maximum of 12 years
for the merchantable cork to reach 0.025 m. (0.975 inch)
(0.028 (i inch) with epidermis) in thickness — which is the
merchantable size. This would indicate an average increase of
about 0.0029 (o.n inch) per year, but in reality the growth
in thickness diminishes as the age of maturity approaches.
At the end of 9 years the cork on one-half the trees should
reach merchantable size, and the rest by the end of the 12 -year
period, with a mathematical average maturity of n years,
although it must be admitted that some trees are ripe after 7
or 8 years where the growth is vigorous. As a rule, however,
the more rapid the growth the lower the quality of the cork.
A simple gauge (like a shoemaker's awl) is used to measure
the thickness of the cork when marking trees to be cropped.
The incision is commenced (usually sawed just to the cambium)
at the root collar and vigorous trees can be barked to a height
equal to 2.5 times the circumference; in other words, a tree
70 m. (27 inches) in circumference would be peeled to a height
FOREST MANAGEMENT 6l
of 1.75 metres (6 feet) above the first incision. If the tree
is very thrifty this ratio can be increased from 2.5 to 3, or
if not vigorous dropped to as low as 2. Normally the height
is 2.5 times the circumference measured at breast height out-
side the bark. This height can be increased every 18 to 24
years, say with every third crop.
It was formerly the practice to remove only one-half to one-
third the total height covered by the first peeling, but it is now
considered better to remove at one time all the bark which the
tree can produce. After the cork has been peeled 4 to 6 times,
over a period of 44 to 66 years, the trees lose their producing
capacity and fail to yield enough cork to cover the cost of peel-
ing and collection. It is then that these overmature trees are
cut for tannin and fuel.
Since the clearing of underbrush is so expensive that it can
ordinarily be attempted only on fire lines or where plantations
must be undertaken, and since the cork oak retains its sprout-
ing capacity until a very late date, it is always advisable to cut
back trees level with the ground, if they have been damaged
by fire.
Aleppo Pine. — Next to the cork oak the aleppo pine has the
greatest commercial possibilities of any species in Algeria. If
it can, as seems probable, be properly developed to yield resin,
this potential value will become a fact.
Conservator Laporte at Oran has started progressive experi-
ments on a practical basis, to determine whether or not tapping
is feasible. Work has begun in the "chefferie" of Telegh22
which comprises some 108,412 hectares (267,886 acres) at an
average elevation of 1000 metres (3280 feet) and where in
winter snow occasionally reaches a depth of 0.3 to 0.6 metres
(i to 2 feet). The aleppo pine is found here in almost pure
stands with an infrequent mixture of holm oak and thuya.
A trial tapping was commenced in 1906 on a commercial
scale and is now extensive enough to justify the maintenance
of a still. The price fixed by the 1907 concession was 0.05 franc
22 Exploitations et Gemmage du pin d'alep. Laporte, Revue des Eaux et
Forets, October and November, 1911.
62 ALGERIA
($0.009) Per tree Per year, payable in two equal installments on
July 15 and January 15 of each year.
The contract governing the method of tapping the tree23
allows a maximum width of 0.09 m. (3.5 inches) for the scar dur-
ing the first 2 years, 0.08 m. (3.1 inches) the third, and 0.07 m.
(2.7 inches) the fourth; a height of 0.55 m. (22 inches) the first,
0.60 m. (24 inches) the second and 0.65 m. (26 inches) the third and
fourth marking. A total maximum height for the scar of 2.45
metres (8 feet) is allowed after 4 years; the depth may reach
i centimetre (0.4 inch). All trees must be at least 0.90 m. (36
inches) in circumference before being tapped. Experiments
prior to the initiation of the present working group had already
shown that aleppo pine only 0.80 m. (31 inches) in circumference
could not be safely tapped, and that 6 years of continuous
tapping was too long.
This development of a turpentine industry in an arid country
with no means of forest communication has raised certain serious
problems, namely, the commercial success is more or less de-
pendent upon good prices for turpentine ; the initial expense
for road development was considerable, and if the enterprise
were to fail the building of the road could hardly be justified
on any other grounds; no adequate provision can be made for
reproduction; even if regeneration does come in naturally, there
will be vast areas of young growth which will yield nothing,
and which will constitute a great fire menace; the necessary
periods of rest are incompatible with the maintenance of the
industry.
These problems may be solved by fixing a rotation suitable
for tapping and for the production of wood; exploitation must
be arranged systematically and the young stands must be
thinned.
Thus, if a o.9o-metre (35 inches) tree were tapped in 1910,
1911, 1912, and 1913 it would be felled in 1914; the same cycle
would be carried out in 1914 to 1918, and 1919 to 1922, etc. The
effect is that the felling and the first year of the new tapping
23 The Landes methods are described in a review by the writer published in
the Forestry Quarterly; Vol. XIV, No. 4, 1916.
FOREST MANAGEMENT 63
would progress simultaneously.24 The regeneration fellings are
not made by clear cutting, as in the Landes, near Bordeaux
only trees 0.60 metre (23 inches) and over in circumference
being felled, but this diameter limit system is varied according
to the amount of existing reproduction on the ground.
As in the Landes, " tapping to death" for thinnings and tap-
ping alive on trees destined to form the final crop is practiced.
The yield from 1387 scars (on trees tapped alive with i scar)
averaged 1.96 litres (2.07 quarts) per year. For trees tapped
to death the average of 1326 scars was 1.88 litres (2 quarts).
Treatment. — It might be supposed, after the disasters
from fire in even-aged coniferous stands in Corsica — a disaster
which followed the use of the shelterwood system — that the
selection system would be applied to the aleppo pine in Algeria,
but according to a recent working plan:
"Each25 of the three working groups will be treated by
the shelterwood method. The selection (system), which in-
creases the confusion of ages and renders difficult the removal
of the fellings, cannot be considered.
"The surface of each working group will be divided into
'coupons' (small felling areas). The regeneration felling will
be laid in succession in each of these felling areas. It will
be made by tapping to death during a period which will be
determined later.
"In this regeneration felling the trees more than 0.60 metre
(23 inches) in circumference must be felled, but those 0.60 metre
(23 inches) and below should be kept with existing regeneration.
In the felling areas, where the regeneration on the ground is
considered sufficient, all old trees will be marked for removal.
"On the other hand, the marking must be conservative in
the areas where the stand consists of mature timber only,
without young growth already on the ground. Future re-
generation presents in reality several uncertainties in stands
of this kind."
The working plans officer further states that in very open
stands only the dead and dying trees should be removed; in
dense stands thinning is accomplished by removing up to half
24 See page 71 for an explanation of the provision for management.
25 Part II, Reglement d' Exploitation, Foret de Takrouma.
64 ALGERIA
the material; the trees reserved should be left near openings;
the marking should be light within 20 to 30 metres (22 to 33 yards)
of fields and clearings; a zone of 200 metres (218 yards) in
width should be reserved from cutting along the southern bound-
ary of the forest.
The concluding instructions are:
"At the same time these regeneration fellings are marked
the other felling areas will be cut over by improvement
fellings of two kinds.
"i. In the young stands, these fellings will be simple thin-
nings with the aim of opening up the stand and assuring as
rapid a growth as possible.
"2. In the older stands, where the boles may be tapped, it
will aim to choose the trees which will form the final stand,
and the trees to be cut will be tapped to death.
"3. Finally, on the entire area of the working group not
cut over by regeneration fellings, tapping alive will be fol-
lowed on all trees i metre (i yard) or more in circumference
as explained later."
A curious feature of aleppo pine seems to be that it exhausts
the freshness of the soil more than would be expected, and
lowers the surface water quite materially. It is a matter of
record that after clear cuttings at Rivoli the water level rose
and where extensive plantations were made the water level
sank.26
Treatment of Other Species. — The zeen oak is cut clear,
with groups of seed trees, comprising perhaps 20 per cent of
the stand, left for seed. Where single trees are left they are
apt to become stagheaded. Probably in many cases the natu-
ral regeneration must be assisted by sowing or planting blanks.
The product of this species is chiefly ties. No formal rotation
has been established.
/ The forests of cedar have suffered from excessive grazing and
from such abuses as lopping for fodder. Moreover, in the past,
there has been little or no demand for the wood.27 Recently,
26 This corresponds with the results of experiments conducted near Nancy, France.
27 At the Bardo Museum at Tunis there is a cedar coffin which was found in a
cave at Ksour-es-saf, still well preserved, with one or two boards absolutely intact.
It is Phoenician and dates from about 300 B.C.
FOREST MANAGEMENT 65
notwithstanding a better market, the cuttings have been in
reality light improvement fellings, in which only dead and
diseased trees are removed. The reproduction is occasionally
FIG. 12. — Virgin zeen-oak forest in Algeria, Constantine Conservation.
assisted by wounding the soil, particularly where it is covered
with sod.
The oaks used for cord wood, such as the holm oak, are gen-
erally coppiced. Rotations as high as 54 years have been used,
but found too long; 30 years is now recommended as preferable.
The coppice method is varied in (a) overmature stands and
(b) with very young poles.
The procedure in each of these methods is as follows: (a)
Where pasturage has kept young growth from coming in and
the remaining stand is mature; instead of an ordinary coppice
felling, the stump is removed down to a depth of 50 or 60 cen-
timetres (20 to 24 inches). This frees the large roots, and,
instead of having one old stump with a weak sprouting capacity,
there are a number of large roots which may yield vigorous
shoots or suckers. This is known as the method of "culee
noire."
(b) On the other hand, when the stand coppiced is only 3 to
5 centimetres (1.2 to 2 inches) in diameter, the young stems
66 ALGERIA
are cut 4 to 5 centimetres (1.6 to 2 inches) above the ground
and then hammered and bruised with the axe, to make them
sucker freely.
WORKING PLANS
There has been little real need as yet for working plans;
mainly for two reasons. First, because the demand for wood
was much less than the supply; and second, because the
main crop — cork — was really a fruit crop which had to be col-
lected when ripe, and could be readily gauged each year by
cropping areas of an equal producing capacity. By the mere
working of an area statistics were collected as to yield. Within
the past few years, however, an attempt at systematic regula-
tion had been made for a few cork-oak forests, and for the aleppo-
pine forests which are being tapped. A typical working plan
for each type of forest is accordingly reviewed, in order to give
an exact idea of how the problem of systematic management
has been solved.
A Working Plan for Cork Oak.28 — The Algerian working
plan for cork oak follows, with some variations, the standard
outline used in France. It is summarized as follows:
Part I — (i) Area with portion wooded, openings, and blanks
(7,963.67 hectares); (2) Situation; (3) Topography and geology;
(4) Climate; (5) Boundaries; (6) Alienations; (7) Rights;
(8) Kind and condition of stands (cork oak with some zeen oak,
especial reference to reproduction and the growth of cork);
(9) Roads; (10) Fire lines and protection (the lines are classi-
fied as to whether boundary, 5 to 25 metre (5.5 to 27 yards)
lines, or interior, 25 to 30 metre (27 to 33 yards) lines; (n)
Forest houses; (12) Trespass; (13) Fires and lookout posts
(during the years 1881 to 1911 there were 18 conflagrations,
of which 2 were accidental, 13 were incendiary, and the causes
of 3 were unknown) ; (14) Value and price of cork (at the depots
it has averaged 23 francs ($4.43) per quintal (220 pounds) with
labor at 1.55 francs ($0.30) per day).
Part II — (i) The actual treatment (accorded the cork oak);
28 For the forest of Ouled-el-nadj, dated December 10, 1912.
WORKING PLANS 67
(2) The basis of management proposed for cork oak, with a
division into working groups; the treatment to adopt; stock
taking and yield; general cultural rules; (3) Miscellaneous
species.
Part III — (i) Compartment descriptions (the compartments
are each from 77 to 285 hectares (190 to 704 acres) in area) ; (2)
Exploitable age; (3) Rotations and divisions; (4) General in-
ventory of growing stock. (This gives by division, canton, com-
partment, year; number of trees peeled, number of quintaux
collected by compartment and by division; average age, i.e.,
length of years it took the bark to mature; remarks.) (5) De-
termination of the yield during the first and second periods
(the working plans officer concludes that the figures of past
collections are sufficiently exact to determine yield on areas now
producing and that on areas not yet cropped 2-hectare (5-acre)
sample plots will give an indication, although the yield per hectare
(2.5 acres) and per year is subject to great variations, due to
the necessity of obtaining cork of a minimum commercial thick-
ness, so naturally a sustained yield of i quintal (220 pounds)
per hectare (2.5 acres) per year cannot be attained, but that
ordinarily an average of 0.50 to 0.70 quintaux (no to 154 pounds)
per hectare (2.5 acres) per year will be possible, even counting
ordinary openings and blanks.) Thus with cork oak the yield
is by area with a quality factor introduced when the number
of producing trees per hectare (2.5 acres) are known or estimated;
(6) Tannin fellings (only the old trees, which are no longer pro-
ducing cork are cut for tannin and care is taken not to denude
areas which are covered with brush and weeds); (7) General
regulation of fellings (the fellings are prescribed for each year
by division, compartment, age of bark to be collected, 9 and
12 years; remarks).
Part IV gives betterments such as (i) Working plan divisions;
(2) Boundaries; (3) Fire lines; (4) Roads and trails; (5) Forest
houses; (6) Brush cutting and restocking. The appendix of
the working plan includes the sample plot measurements and a
permanent control in the following form: Year, division, canton,
compartment, collections by (a) number of trees, (b) quintaux,
68 ALGERIA
(c) price per quintal (220 pounds), (d) cost of collection per
quintal (220 pounds). Also an account of the trees ("Mises
en valeur") barked for the first time by (a) number of trees
and (b) cost per tree; secondary products such as tannin by
(a) amount and (b) price; remarks. These figures are considered
very important as a basis for future working plans. Since 1888
the collection and peeling of bark has been done by the govern-
ment by day labor.
The working plan for the aleppo-pine forest of Takrouina
follows the same general outline used in working plans for cork
oak. In this forest the yield is also regulated by area with the
rotation of fellings, as follows: (a) Regeneration; (b) Thin-
nings in young sapling stands, 20 years old, which will probably
cost some outlay; (c) When the trees are large enough the
thinnings will be made by tapping to death the trees which
are marked for thinnings; (d) Tapping alive during the life of
the tree after it attains a proper size.
The author of the working plan states :
"An average tree of i metre (39 inches) in circumference
is thus 72 years old; one can therefore assume that the average
T OO
growth is - — = 0.139 (0.547 inch) and that a tree of 80 years
would be 80 times 0.0139 or i.n m. (43 inches).
We have decided then to fix the exploitable age at 80 and
the size for the trees to be tapped at i metre (39 inches) of
circumference. We propose besides to fix the period for tapping
at 4 years, with an additional year for felling.'7
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WORKING PLANS 71
The working plan recites the sequence of the four classes of
fellings in the forms which follow:
Sequence of regeneration fellings: Small felling area occupied
by the timber of each age class; total area of the felling; age
of the timber in 1912; felling classed as (a) abnormal and (b)
normal, with under each the age and period when the trees are
to be cut by tapping to death; remarks.
Sequence of thinning (by day labor); periods; felling area
divided (a) into the portion from each felling area and
(b) total per year; age of the wood at the time of thinning;
remarks.
Sequence of thinning by tapping to death; same as preceding.
Sequence of exploitation by tapping alive; periods; small
felling areas; notes on work to be done; remarks.
Management Record. — Since there are so few forests under
working plans, a substitute has been devised which contains
some material usually included in a working plan, besides im-
portant statistical data required for annual reports. A part of
the record is written on the covers of a specially printed folder
and part is on sheets and maps filed within this folder; these
folders complete are officially termed " bundles of management."
On each folder is given: Natural region and classification of
the surface into mountains, hills, and plains, and by geological
formation — altitude, maximum and minimum; stand with the
per cent of each species given in tenths; general condition; soil;
climate; springs, water courses, influence on the forest; mis-
cellaneous data, such as quarries, mines, etc.; causes of forest
devastation, bordering properties, activities of inhabitants, ad-
vantages and inconveniences of interior holdings, and the chance
for their purchase; digest of damages caused by fires; grazing,
fellings, usurpations, and other trespasses. Fire statistics also
are shown and these include: date of fires, surface burned over;
areas burned; valuation of the damage to the forest, divided
into (a) cork, (b) wood, (c) miscellaneous, and (d) totals; prob-
able cause of the fire; remarks.
Trespass statistics are set forth in lump figures (estimates)
for the period 1884 to 1900 inclusive and commencing with 1901
72 ALGERIA
separate and exact data are compiled for each year. The tres-
passes are here classified by: grazing; cuttings, including wood
and bark; theft of cork (after being peeled by the State) ; squat-
ting on agricultural land or tampering with boundaries; hunting;
minor products; fires; fires set within district (where setting
of fires is forbidden) ; constructions or camps within this district;
miscellaneous.
All of the foregoing information is recorded on the outside and
inside covers of the folder. Inside the folder there are: maps;
abstract of work accomplished, described for the period 1886
to 1900, and by years after 1901; year; nature of work done;
paths, roads, and bridges, (a) new and (b) maintenance; re-
moval of first cork layer; collection of cork; fire protection,
(a) new and (b) maintenance; restocking, (a) new and (b) main-
tenance; regeneration; brush cutting, lopping, grafting; man-
agement, boundaries, maps; operations relating to felling areas,
etc.; totals per year by (a) money, (b) value of work done by
trespassers, (c) by contractors and right holders, (d) total;
remarks.
The receipts are digested by years; section of budget, nature
of products by principal products as to whether cork, wood, and
bark (ordinary, extraordinary, and accidental); miscellaneous
products.
The official force, by forests, is set down, showing the number
of employees of each class, and in addition the residence of the
ranger in charge of the beat with the area.
These records thus contain all information which those in
charge need for administrative purposes and are an admirable
substitute for the formal European working plan. The idea
could be adopted in the United States.
DISPOSAL OF PRODUCE
Sales. — Shortly after the conquest29 the cropping of cork
oak was commenced; and as early as 1847 the exportation had
reached 460 quintaux (101,384 pounds). Since the state did
29 Commission d'Etudes Forestieres, pp. 173-177.
DISPOSAL OF PRODUCE 73
not have the resources with which to conduct the operations,
the exploitation was at first placed in private hands, under a
lease system. After the fires of 1862-63, some 162,000 hectares
(400,302 acres) were ceded outright under the following arrange-
ment: during the first lo-year period there were no payments,
during the second lo-year period a payment of 2 francs ($0.386)
per hectare (2.5 acres) per year was required with the under-
standing that at the end of 20 years the lessor would be given
the land in fee simple.
According to the decree of Aug. 9, 1864, the cork oak could
be leased after public auction for periods not to exceed 90 years,
but as a matter of fact most of these concessions were sold out-
right in 1867 and 1870. By the decree of Feb. 2, 1870, the
areas (a) burned between Jan. i, 1863, and June 30, 1870, as
well as (b) a third of the areas not burned, were given outright
to the lessors. The two-thirds of unburned areas were sold
for 60 francs ($11.58) per hectare (2.5 acres), payable in 20
annuities; these began to years after the sale, at the rate of
2 francs ($0.386) each year of the first 10 years, from 1880, and
4 francs ($0.772) for the last 10 years. The governor was also
authorized to give free of charge an area equal to the area
burned over, if the grantors had suffered severe losses. If
work was not started in 5 years, however, on at least a quarter
of the area, then the third part given free could be revoked.
These sales were condemned so severely that in 1876 a system
of i4-year leases were tried out, but the working was badly
complicated by fires and by failure of the concession holders to
comply with the regulations, and the experiment proved a
failure. Later, as an alternative, the cork was sold standing
at a price per quintal (220 pounds) collected, but half the
cork collected disappeared before it could be weighed. When
this scheme fell through, therefore, the Forest Service was author-
ized on July 16, 1891, to collect and sell the cork after collection;
this method has continued in force to the present time and is
entirely satisfactory. The amount collected has risen steadily;
11,000 quintaux (2,424,400 pounds) in 1892; 31,000 (6,832,400
pounds) in 1897; to 86,000 (18,954,400 pounds) in 1904.
74 ALGERIA
The forest products are now divided into (a) principal products
and (b) miscellaneous products. The principal products include
cork, wood, and bark cut under ordinary, extraordinary, or
accidental fellings. The principal products are, in theory, sold
by public auction standing or by a unit price. If ordinary sales,
they can be made by agreement in cases of special authoriza-
tion by the governor and after a public auction has been held
and no satisfactory bids received. Accidental products may be
sold by agreement, when they cannot be auctioned, and if there
is an unforeseen emergency. The minor or miscellaneous prod-
ucts include the hunt, lease of agriculture land in openings,
acorns, grazing of all kinds, collection of alfa, dead wood, stumps,
weeds, seeds, fruit, grass, diss, stone, soil, sand, etc. The con-
servators are authorized to recommend to the prefects the lease
of the hunt, agriculture land and quarries (if no phosphates
are included) , up to periods of a year, if the annual rental is
less than 2000 francs ($386). The governor approves leases
above this amount for periods of 9 to 1 8 years. The sale by
agreement of so-called minor products is on the basis of a price
schedule approved annually.
Sales of cork bark are made at public auction, at the most
centrally located town in the conservation. The cork has been
previously collected at depots on each forest and divided into
piles, which are consecutively numbered. The sales book30
describes each bark pile as follows: serial number, number of
the pile, weight in quintaux, classification of the cork, names of
forest and depot, with the number of kilometres of transport
to market. It seems to be the policy to make the piles (which
are sold separately) small, usually 300 to 500 quintaux (66,120
to 110,200 pounds), and rarely exceeding 800 (176,320 pounds).
The expense of collection is usually 5 to 6 francs ($0.96 to
$1.16) per quintal (220 pounds). The removal of the bark costs
2.80 francs ($0.54), the transport 1.60 to 2.30 francs ($0.31 to
$0.44), and the remainder is made up of miscellaneous expenses.
The judgment of the local conservators is firmly in favor of the
30 Vente de lieges de Reproduction Recoltes en 1912 Conservation de Con-
stantine, pp. 1-24.
DISPOSAL OF PRODUCE 75
departmental exploitation of cork. For example, during a
typical year, the conservator at Constantine collected 95,289
quintaux (21,001,695 pounds) of cork, worth gross 3,274,425.50
francs ($631,964), at a cost of 534,800 francs ($103,216) — a profit
to the government 2 to 4 times as great as under the lease or
sale system. In addition the silvicultural needs of the forest
are more nearly met. Especially where the term is for long
periods lessors, in the contract system, have almost invariably
failed to live up to the terms of the agreement.
The decree 31 (giving the details for the exploitation, transport,
sale, and exportation of cork under present conditions) is mainly
designed to prevent theft, and it would seem as if under its
provisions it would be practically impossible for successful
thieving to be practiced on any great scale. Even owners who
wish to collect bark must furnish at least a month in advance,
to the proper local official (usually the mayor), the name and
location of the stand, the period for collection, the number of
trees, and the approximate number of pounds of bark to be
collected. This provides opportunity for the state to verify
ownership before exploitation. Moreover, the bark cannot be
transported without a permit giving the name and residence
of the transporter, the number of pounds, and the quality.
These permits are temporary and personal and must be pro-
duced whenever required by the proper official. Similarly, no
sale or export can take place without an inspection of the orig-
inal certificates showing ownership and origin. All shipments
must be described according to the following classifications:
(a) Raw cork; (b) Baled cork; (c) Manufactured cork; (d)
Waste cork (baled fragments); (e) Crude bark (first peeling
unsuitable for ordinary corks).
The regulations32 regarding the exploitation, transport, sale,
and exportation of tan bark, charcoal, wood, wood ashes, resin
products, and sticks for canes are similar to the restrictions
placed on cork commerce, and are also designed to prevent
theft by making it obligatory on the temporary owner of the
31 August 20, 1904.
32 Refer also to the Algerian Code, p. 166.
76 ALGERIA
product to show how and where he secured the material. As
an additional precaution no transport is allowed at night without
a special permit. The notice of exploitation must be given
at least three months in advance. Suitable steps are prescribed
to make sure that the forests classified under article 76 of the
Algerian Code of 1903 (see page 179) are not denuded. In
addition, when the conservator considers it necessary he can
prescribe felling rules for private loggers to cover the following
points: method of felling; date for working up the felled ma-
terial; date when the removal must be completed; measures
for efficient control; protection against disastrous grazing. If
no restrictions are imposed by the conservator within three
months after notice, then the owner can go ahead without
further permit; certain areas, however, are exempted from the
application of these rules.
Free Use. — The free use of dead wood, diss, palms, and
mast is personal and ordinarily without special permit. The
right holders can take without permit dead fallen wood or dead
branches which can be pulled off by hand, fallen acorns, or
acorns poled down. The use of axes, etc., in securing ordinary
free-use material is formally forbidden.
For building or plow material the mayors, etc., draw up annual
lists which are submitted to the local forest officer in charge.
These lists give the names and residences of free-use holders, the
amount and quality of timber necessary for their personal needs,
and a justification of the free grant. After the local officers
investigate each case the conservators approve or disapprove,
taking into consideration the local needs and the yield of the
forest. This class of wood is marked and estimated. The
right holders do the felling by groups and the local tribal chief
is held responsible for damage. After felling, the proper amounts
are divided. The governor may authorize the Forest Service to
fell the timber, but the right holders must pay the cost of felling,
utilization, and transport, according to a tariff recommended by
the Forest Service and approved by the prefect.
Besides group permits, individuals may be granted material
by an inspector in emergency cases, such as arise after a fire
THE FORESTATION PROBLEM 77
or flood. A strict check is kept on the use of the timber for a
year following the felling. Each right holder is required to do
one day's work, consisting of the maintenance of the forest cut
over, in return for each cubic metre (35 cu. ft.), or for each
100 poles of at least 20 cm. (8 inches) in circumference.
THE FORESTATION PROBLEM
Forestation. — In Algeria, as in other countries where vege-
tation must withstand annual and periodic droughts, the saying:
"It is much better to protect the forests that exist than create
anew," is doubly true. Yet, just because past generations have
not heeded the wisdom contained in this law, it has become
imperative for the state, now, to undertake planting on a gen-
erous scale. It is true that for the last 30 years Algerian for-
esters have studied the reforestation problem; yet the forests
have continued to decrease, for one reason because there has
been insufficient money for extensive planting or sowing. Even
under the present more liberal policies, planting or sowing is
only undertaken where trees have entirely disappeared, or where
there is not the slightest chance for natural regeneration.
Notwithstanding the progress already made, there still seems
to be considerable variation in planting methods used in the
different regions. Nominally there is a chief of management
and reforestation, but under the present organization this officer
acts in an advisory capacity and is not in a position to enforce
his views as to methods, except on projects which are under
his direction — a fact which is unfortunate for the success of
planting operations as a whole.
With the wet winters and severe dry summers of Algeria it
is universally the policy to plant in the winter after the rains
have commenced, usually in December and January. The kind
of material used depends on the species to be planted but no-
where are costly 3 and 4 year-old transplants employed as in
Germany or Austria. In the case of the coniferous species,
as well as the broadleaved species, sowing is preferred to plant-
ing, but nowhere is successful sowing possible without thorough
78 ALGERIA
soil preparation, preferably in strips or spots. Owing to a
series of past failures there is universal prejudice against the
shipment of any plant material except when ball plants can be
economically used. Consequently small local nurseries are in-
variably preferred where water for irrigation can be secured.
Methods.33 — The planting of aleppo pine is very difficult
because the high evaporation seems -to dry out the seedling be-
fore the roots can take hold. Nearly all the plantations made
where plants with bare roots were employed have miscarried.
Planting appears to succeed only when ball plants are used.
On the other hand, the direct seeding generally succeeds. Seed
spots are usually made 0.40 m. square (16 inches) and 2 to 3 metres
(2 to 3 yards) apart; a small pinch of seed is sown and covered
over with 2 to 3 centimetres (0.8 to 1.2 inches) of fine soil.
After sowing, the seed spot is covered with an armful of brush.
It is usually a good plan (when the slope permits), to open the
spots in advance and let the air percolate the soil for several
months. The spot is filled up with earth when seeded.
The cedar usually succeeds by direct seeding on bare soil
if it is light and not packed; but it cannot succeed where there
is grass or weeds. In order to reforest blanks or openings in
a forest of cedar, the ground should be wounded before the
seed falls in the autumn. This can be readily done by opening
strips 30 to 40 centimetres (12 to 16 inches) wide and 15 to
20 centimetres (5.9 to 7.8 inches) deep. If there are no seed
trees, strips such as these can be sown by hand and the seed
covered.
The oaks (cork, holm, zeen, etc.) give good results either by
direct seeding or by plantations. The latter method is used
when, as is often the case, there is danger from rabbits, birds,
mice, or rats. For the direct seeding, seed spots are made in
the same manner as for aleppo pine; 10 or more acorns are
then sown and covered with 4 to 5 centimetres (about 2 inches)
of soil and an armful of brush. For plantations, one-year seed-
lings are usually employed. It has been pretty definitely proved
33 Much of the information on forestation was furnished by V. Boutilly, "le
chef du Service du Reboisement."
THE FORESTATION PROBLEM
79
that where cork oak is sown or planted on brush-covered ground,
this must be completely cleared; if only spots or lanes are
cleared the results have been unsatisfactory. These losses are
probably due to radiation by the sun and the consequent in-
tense heat, because the air cannot circulate freely. It is also
true that where brush is only partially cleared the loss from
rodents is far greater than on wholly cleared areas.
The ash is usually planted; the carob tree sown directly;
the tamerisk planted by cuttings; the cypress and thuya by
ball (motte) plants; the acacia either by planting or direct
seeding, but before the seed of this tree is sown boiling water
is poured over it and allowed to stand for 24 hours.
TABLE 5. — SOWING DATA ON MORE IMPORTANT ALGERIAN
SPECIES34
Name of species.
Date seed
matures.
Germina-
tion vigor-
ous for —
Time to sow.
Date of germi-
nation.
Months.
Cedar (C. atlantica) . .
Oct.-Nov.
12
Nov.-Feb.
Spring
Zeen oak (Q. mirbeckii)
Oct.
6
Nov.-Feb.
Spring
Cork oak (Q. suber) . .
Nov.
6
Nov.-Feb.
Spring
Holm oak (Q. ilex} . . .
Sept.
6
Nov.-Feb.
Spring
Cypress (C. sempervirens)
Dec. -Jan.
12
Nov.-Feb.
Spring
Aleppo pine (P. hale-
pensis)
| Sept.
»1
End Nov. )
toistFeb. J
Spring
Pinon pine (P. pinea) .
Nov.
12
Jan.-Mar. -j
3 weeks af-
ter sowing
Thuya (Callistris quad-
rivalvis)
| Nov.
12
Jan. -Mar.
Spring
Carob tree (Ceratonia
siliqua)
[Aug.-Sept.
"1
Soon after )
maturity )
Spring
Juniper (/. phaznicea) .
Nov.-Dec.
3
Dec. -Jan.
Spring
Olive
Oct.-Nov.
i
Dec.
Forestation Routine. — In Algeria, when considering the
general problem of reforestation with a view to establishing a
new project, the reasons for the undertaking must first be ex-
plained, it must be shown then how the openings originated,
their extent described, and the opportunity for natural restock-
ing estimated. Besides a regular description of the altitude,
slope, soil, and soil cover, a critical review must be given justi-
34 Manuel du Planteur d'arbres en Algeria, 1910. Ligue du Reboisement de
1'Algerie, pp. 42-43.
8o ALGERIA
fying the species, the methods, the time of sowing or planting,
and the method of executing the work, as, for example, by
advertisement, contract, agreement, or day labor; finally and
most important of all, the results of similar work under similar
conditions must be summarized with a close estimate of the
cost.
Before the actual field planting is approved, a report is sub-
mitted showing (i) how the ground will be prepared; (2) amount
of seed or number of plants, their source, age, and spacing;
(3) method to be used in sowing or planting; (4) areas and
amounts; (5) analysis of cost with a recapitulation showing
area to be stocked and the total cost. These data are used in
preparing the budget.
For each nursery the annual work is forecasted by: (i) prep-
aration of the soil; (2) seed, method, species, amounts, source;
(3) transplanting or suckers; (4) maintenance; (5) extraction,
packing, transport; and (6) miscellaneous. The estimates are
classified by these headings, divided into (a) labor and (b)
material. After the year's expenditures the amounts are re-
ported as having been spent under the above classification.
The resources of each nursery are recorded by: (i) name;
(2) area; (3) species; (4) age; (5) total amount; (6) quantity
necessary for the requirements of the service; (7-9) amount
available, transplanted, and not transplanted; (10) under "re-
marks" the date of transplanting may be recorded and the
requirements of local owners for planting stock noted.
Experimental Planting. — Perhaps the most instructive work
in Algerian forestation has been the systematic experiments
carried on to solve the aleppo-pine reproduction problem.
While the experiments themselves are limited to aleppo pine,
the methods are of general application. Half -hectare (i-acre)
plots were sowed in October, 1910, under the following con-
ditions:
1. No soil preparation; debris and cones distributed evenly
over the cutting area; cost 2.50 francs ($0.48) for the half
hectare (i acre).
2. Fifteen kilos (33 pounds) of aleppo-pine seed sowed broad-
THE FORESTATION PROBLEM 8 1
cast before felling; debris regularly distributed after exploita-
tion; cost 14.40 francs ($2.78).
3. Debris distributed and burned; 15 kilos (33 pounds) of
aleppo-pine seed then sowed; cost 21.90 francs ($4.23).
4. Special manuring and sowing; too expensive to be prac-
tical; cost 78.05 francs ($15.06).
5. After felling, strips 5 metres (5.5 yards) wide and 5 metres
(5.5 yards) apart were mattocked to a depth of 10 cm. (4
inches). Then 7 kilos (15 pounds) of aleppo-pine seed per hec-
tare (2.5 acres) were sown and covered with debris; cost 29.31
francs ($5.66).
6. After felling, furrows were plowed 30 to 35 cm. (12 to 15
inches) wide and 5 metres (5.5 yards) apart; vegetation had
to be removed by hand before the ground could be plowed;
6 kilos (13 pounds) of aleppo-pine seed were then raked into
the soil and covered with debris; cost 23.31 francs ($4.50).
7. Same as 6, only by seed spots 30 by 40 cm. (12 by 16
inches), 3 metres (3 yards) apart, and 25 to 30 cm. (10 to 12
inches) aleppo with 10 kilos (22 pounds) per hectare; cost 51.35
francs ($9.94).
8. Similar to 4; cost 89.05 francs ($17.19).
9. Exotics from Mexico were sown as in 5 and 7. The spe-
cies chosen were pinus edulis, montezumae, pseudostrobus, and
patula.
These experiments35 are to be continued and in the official
records are shown graphically for each month, since the date
of sowing, on the basis of number of plants per seed spot, or
per square metre. The sowing took place under unfavorable
conditions, because in 1910 there were no rains between May
and the end of December, when there was a heavy fall of snow,
so that germination did not commence until February and
March, 1911; further germination took place in December, 1911,
and January, 1912, and after the rains at the end of August
and September, 1912.
The conservator has made the following deductions from the
36 Statement and graphic records on cross-section paper by Conservator Laporte,
dated March, 1913.
82 ALGERIA
experiments: i. Sowing should be early in the fall to profit by
the autumn germination, since the early plants are better able
to stand the drought of the next summer. 2. The amount of
seed sown can safely be reduced 25 per cent. 3. The brush
cover used was too heavy, for on certain areas it suffocated
the seedlings where the air could not circulate quite freely;
yet a brush cover seems necessary to protect the seedlings
against birds and rabbits, and to shade them from the sun.
(Compare with Boutilly's conclusions, page 6.) 4. The cones
from debris seem to open slowly, but the seed apparently re-
tains its germinating power.36
The results of each experiment by plots were as follows:
1. Regeneration incomplete but future crop seems assured.
2. Results satisfactory. 3. Complete failure because the debris
was burned too completely; the seed sown was not protected
from the sun and was devoured by the birds. 4. Resulted in
failure on the sandy soil, mediocre on clayey lime soil; too
expensive to be practical. 5. Very mediocre results on sand,
satisfactory on clayey lime soil. 6. Results very satisfactory.
7. Failure on sand, satisfactory on clayey lime soil, but the
results are below 5 and 6 and the cost higher; therefore, this
method should rarely be used. 8. Mediocre, cost heavy.
Thus methods i, 2, 5, and 6 have thus far given the best
results; namely, scattering the debris after an ordinary felling;
sowing broadcast before exploitation; prepared strips seeded
after felling; furrows seeded after felling. No. 7 succeeded,
but cost more than furrows or strips. These experiments are
suggestive of what might be accomplished, through similar oper-
ations, in the United States.
Forestation Projects. — At Constantine the conservator has
undertaken some difficult forestation. Here seed spots are
used, 30 by 30 centimetres (12 by 12 inches) and 40 centimetres
(16 inches) deep, preferably prepared 3 or more months before
sowing or planting. The two principal species used are cork
oak and aleppo pine. With dry soil, where acorns are sown,
36 The aleppo pine is like lodgepole pine inasmuch as its cones open readily
after a light fire and seed prolifically.
THE FORESTATION PROBLEM 83
each spot is artificially drained. At least 6 to 9 acorns, treated
with alumina, are planted in each spot, since some loss is ex-
pected from rats, rabbits, and partridges. Wide spacing, 5 by 5
metres (5.5 by 5.5 yards), is recommended in order to reduce
the cost per hectare (2.5 acres) to 150 francs ($28.95). On the
same soil, 8-months-old aleppo-pine seedlings, raised in a purely
local nursery, were planted on mounds prepared in advance.
From 3 to 4 seedlings were placed in the same mound, as a pre-
caution against total loss. The entire planting site was pro-
tected by a cleared fire line. During a favorable year 75 to 95
per cent of the stock survives, but during a drought less than
one-half remains alive; and curiously enough the best success
has been obtained along the ridges where the air can circulate.
The object of the planting is an endeavor to modify the climate
of Constantine rather than to raise a commercial forest.
At Bainen, near Algiers, forestation has been undertaken
on a large scale since 1880, partly to furnish a recreation forest
and partly to temper the Algiers climate. The cost of this
planting has averaged at least 100 francs ($19.30) per hectare
(2.5 acres), notwithstanding the fact that fagots from the
brush cleared sell for 2 francs ($0.386) per 100. It is chiefly
cork oak and aleppo pine, although some eucalyptus (globulus
and red gum), piiion, and juniper have been tried on a small
scale. The eucalyptus is limited to the best soils.
The cork oak and aleppo pine are sown and planted in strips
0.80 metre (31 inches) wide and 2 to 2.5 metres (2 to 3 yards)
apart. These strips run on contours, so as to collect and hold
all surplus water; 2 to 3 acorns are placed in each hole, but
only one aleppo-pine seedling i year old. No brush cover is
used. The young stands are cut by lo-metre (n-yard) fire lines,
which, by the way, should have been planned before the planta-
tion was begun, instead of being cut through the young sapling
stands. Certain stands have been pruned as a further protective
measure.
At the Bois de Boulogne nursery at Mustapha Superieur,
above Algiers, i-year cedar seedlings have been raised. The
Eucalyptus (globulus) is transplanted, two months after sowing,
84 ALGERIA
into pots, and when i year old, is set out in the forest, but
watered when planted. One-year aleppo-pine seedlings, and
i -year cypress seedlings are also successfully grown. In this
nursery there were also Acacia lophantha, pycnantha, and mela-
noxylon, which are rapid in growth, drought resisting, and ex-
cellent for holding soil on steep slopes.
Perhaps the most difficult planting problem in Algeria is at
Orleans ville, where the annual rainfall is less than 500 mm.
with a dry season extending from March i to October i, coupled
with 45° to 48° C. (113° to n8°F.) of heat and dry sirocco
winds. The soil cakes badly and is easily dried out. This
forestation was begun by the Army, for health and climatic
reasons, as early as 1852. The results prove clearly that in a
dry climate, where trees have to fight against adverse natural
conditions, high costs and repeated failures are the rule, with
periodic success only during favorable years.
The nursery is situated in the middle of an area already re-
forested, where the trees form an excellent windbreak. The
aleppo-pine seedlings are raised on mounds 20.3 centimetres (8
inches) high, with subsoil irrigation between the rows.
In the Kefofsa canton the ditch method is used on slopes,
for by this plan water is collected and held in the ditches till it
penetrates the soil. The planting ditches, 3 metres (3 yards)
apart, run on contours. They are 60 cm. (23 inches) wide and
60 cm. (23 inches) deep, but after the best of the soil is filled
in a depression 20 to 30 cm. (8 to 12 inches) below the surface
remains. The plants are usually set near the south side of this
depression, to gain shelter from the sun. The ditches must be
weeded for the first two years, sometimes twice a year.
On the tops of hills, for example in the Sidi Bagdad canton,
and where the ditch method cannot be used because of surface
rock, spots are made about 61 cm. (2 feet) in diameter and
60 cm. (23 inches) deep, and spaced 3 metres (3 yards). The
average cost is 160 francs ($30.88) per hectare and usually 50
per cent success can be counted on, but with a winter drought
and frosts alternating with the hot midday sun, the loss may
be complete. With very dry ground the local inspector would
THE FORESTATION PROBLEM
FIG. 13. — Bird's-eye view of an important plantation near Orleansville, Algeria.
FIG. 14. — Near view of Orleansville plantation illustrating wide spacing used
in the contour furrow method ol planting. Evidently an exact contour has
not been followed.
86 ALGERIA
prefer the use of pots, but this is too expensive; the main losses
with seedlings are due to the evaporation of the leaves before
the roots can get a hold, and where feasible the young plants
are thoroughly watered when set out. The chief species em-
ployed are: aleppo-pine seedlings; olive seed; carob-tree seed.
Autumn sowing or planting is usually before the rains set in.
At Aran 98 per cent of the forestation has been accomplished
by the use of aleppo pine. Here the brush is cleared in the
spring by strips and the soil left fallow until the autumn, when
the seed is sown. It is covered with a layer of soil 5 to 6 centi-
metres (about 2 inches) thick, and a protective cover of brush.
The specifications37 for reforestation of 180 hectares (444
acres) in the forest of Bon Rahma (chefferie of Mostaganem)
were: complete brushing of strips, 2.50 metres (3 yards) wide,
separated by uncleared strips 10 metres (n yards) wide. Sown:
122 kilos (268 pounds) of aleppo pine, 100 kilos (220 pounds)
of maritime pine, 150 kilos (330 pounds) of miscellaneous species,
or about 8 kilos (17 pounds) per hectare (2.5 acres).
The seed is sown broadcast on the strips cleared and is lightly
worked 5 to 6 centimetres (about 2 inches) into the soil. The
cleared strips are then covered with brush. The total cost is
estimated at 9625.20 francs ($1857.66), or little more than 53
francs ($10.23) an hectare (2.5 acres). On a near-by mountain
where the soil was very dry, they had to use aleppo-pine ball
plants. The local conservator's office recommends leaving
aleppo-pine seed for a few seconds in boiling water prior to
sowing. For dry clayey ground they are using the olive; for
marls the thuya; for sandy soils the aleppo pine and Phoenician
juniper.
The Hamiz reboisement area38 is being forested with cork
oak and aleppo pine. Some 10 to 12 cork-oak acorns are sown
in seed spots 50 centimetres (20 inches) square and 50 centi-
metres (20 inches) deep, spaced 4 metres (4 yards) apart.
The brush is cleared on an area 2 metres (2 yards) square
around each spot, and must be cut back after 2 to 3 years to
37 Devis Descriptif, travaux neufs, Bon Rahma.
38 Information furnished in the field by Ranger Henri Chazalette.
MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES 87
prevent suppression. In more recent operations the brush is
cleared on the entire area, instead of by narrow strips or by
seed spots; when this is done there is less damage from mice
and rats and the air can circulate better, for even when the oak
acorn is treated the rats wait until it germinates and then re-
turn to devour the young cotyledon. The aleppo pine is also
sown in similar spots since the results of plantations were found
unsatisfactory.
MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES
Research. — The North African Forest Research Station
was established by the Governor General's decree of Dec. 29,
1911. The station is under the direction of the conservator
for the province of Algiers, who is also director of forests.
The officer in charge of the station is also charged with the
administration of the Algiers District, but is given a supple-
mentary pay of 1500 francs ($289.50). No need here is felt
for a complicated organization, at least until the formative
period is over. The field of work includes not only Algeria,
but Tunisia and Morocco.
The general objectives39 of the research studies are to con-
serve and increase the forested area, to increase the revenue
from federal forests, and to collect and publish the results.
With this in view a number of specific lines of work have
already been determined upon:
i. Forest meteorology: systematic observations in the dif-
ferent forest regions in order to determine the climatic require-
ments of the different types, especially as regards humidity.
2. Forest soil: a study of how the different species are influenced
in their distribution by the various soils. 3. Reproduction:
how to extend forest areas by natural means and the factors
influencing natural and artificial regeneration. 4. Increase in
cork-oak production: a study of how the producing capacity
of cork-oak forests can be increased and the quality improved,
as well as a study of diseases. 5. Management: growth of
39 Bulletin de la Station de Recherches Forestieres du nord de 1'Afrique, Dec.
5, 1912.
88 ALGERIA
trees and stands, establishment of sample plots to study the
effect of spacing, thinnings, etc., construction of volume tables,
experimental development of secondary industries, such as resin
production. 6. Scientific ecological studies. 7. Accumulation
of a library, data on each species for reference, natural history
collections. 8. Arrangement and publication: the bulletins,
whenever they are original and when valuable data are available,
will be published at irregular intervals, and will be prepared
for free distribution in Europe and in America.
Forest Museum. — The Algerian Forest Service has equipped
an admirable Forest Museum at Algiers, lodged in a rustic log
building. The exhibits include: local faunae, with a number of
hides and horns, stuffed birds, an excellent herbarium, wood
products, manufactured and crude cork, polished tree sections,
maps and graphic charts, models of ranger stations, and photo-
graphs and stereoscopic motion pictures of the foresters at
work. The official catalogue gives information in regard to
the forests of Algeria. The advertising value of such a museum
as this is at once apparent.
•j Grazing. — There are two distinct grazing zones. One in-
cludes the coast zone of Constantine and Kabylie, where the
rainfall is sufficient to allow the forests to recover rapidly from
grazing damage. Here the fire is the greatest danger to such
continuous stands. The other, much more important, includes
all the forests of the High Plateau and the rest of Algeria, where,
owing to the small rainfall, the forests are damaged even by
moderate grazing.
These forests are grazed free under rights or under paid per-
mits, and out of some 1.7 million hectares (4,200,700 acres)
only 700,000 hectares (1,729,700 acres) are closed to entry,
because of fires, recent fellings, and overgrazing. Yet there is
need for still larger areas for stock; consequently the natives
must be taught to keep the ordinary grazing areas in as pro-
ductive a state as possible. The enormous amount of trespass
means that a greater patrol force must be maintained.
Under present conditions the tax on goats is too small in
comparison with cattle, being 0.25 franc ($0.05) each, where the
MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES 89
average value per head is 12 francs ($2.32), as against a tax of
3.33 francs ($0.64) for a steer worth 80 to 100 francs ($15.44 to
$19.30). To discourage this form of grazing, the rate on goats
should, therefore, be increased as was done so successfully in
Bosnia and Herzegovinia.
In all there are some i.i million hectares (2,700,000 acres)
open to grazing and of this area sheep are allowed on 600,000
hectares (1,500,000 acres).
Owing to abuses of the privilege the ^gathering _40 of alfa in
the High Plateau was forbidden from March i to July i, and
for the Tell from January 16 to May 15. On slopes bordering
the deserts and chotts (salt water lakes) the country is divided
into three zones, two of which are closed to harvest each year.
The collection is restricted to rolling or level land. Where
damage has been done collection is forbidden on sand. The
gathering of alfa can be only by hand or by small sticks, and
its use for fuel is forbidden. This policy, the result of experience,
serves to illustrate the need of precautions where an industry
denudes soil that is thus rendered liable to erosion by wind or
water.
Forest Houses. — Three distinct types of forest houses are
constructed by the Forest Service in Algeria. In constructing
a house of the first type, the ground floor plan allows for two
adjoining bedrooms, a small room for the inspecting ranger, a
hall, kitchen, a large room for visiting officers, and a loft for
storage. It opens into a walled courtyard, which could be
used for defence in time of war, and which surrounds a forge,
tool room, loft, cellar, and stable. This arrangement, which has
been found especially convenient, is shown in Fig. 10.
A second type has a courtyard arrangement similar to the
first, but only two adjoining rooms in addition. These are
within a hall and run parallel with the kitchen. This second
arrangement is now flexible and is only suited for one employee.
A third plan provides for two families and is virtually two
one-family houses separated by a masonry wall which cuts the
courtyard in two, so that each family has its separate abode.
40 Decree of Aug. 20, 1904; see Arts. 134, 139, 140.
QO ALGERIA
One section contains the officer's and the other the rangers'
quarters; each wing has, besides, two bedrooms and a kitchen.
All these permanent houses are built of stone, cement, tiles,
and iron, which renders them fireproof and requires the mini-
mum of repairs. The cost of each of the three types averages:
(i) 11,000 to 12,000 francs ($2123 to $2316); (2) 15,000 to
17,000 francs ($2895 to $3281); (3) 25,000 to 26,000 francs
($4825 to $5018).
Trespass. — Trespass has been the bane of the Algerian
Forest Service, because it has taken up a great part of the forest
officers' time when it was required for much needed constructive
administration. One of the contributing causes to this un-
fortunate situation is the attempt made to enforce legislation
which is not adapted to local conditions. As a result the vast
number of indicted trespass cases have so clogged the wheels
of administration that prompt action cannot be depended upon.
As late as 1903 even the fines imposed could not be collected.
The 1903 code has been better suited to local conditions and
has given more adaptable and flexible penalties. Yet by the
most recent published statistics41 there were 29,707 current
trespass cases, classed as follows: grazing, 13,034; wood and
cork, 7232; crude bark, 143; illegal settlement, cultivation,
and boundaries, 864; hunting, 234; minor products, 719; fire,
653; lighting fires in or near forests contrary to law, 530;
abandonment of lookout posts, 1502; construction or camping
within prohibited distance, 396; miscellaneous, 351; denuding
private forests, 369; violation of the forest decree of Aug. 20,
iQ°4, 3672-
In order to unify and standardize the methods used in han-
dling trespass cases, and to supplement official instructions and
decrees, a trespass handbook was published42 in 1910. But
with a native population unused to restraint in grazing and in
the use of wild land, it will be years before the trespass situation
is satisfactorily settled.
41 Statistique Generate de l'Alg6rie, 1910, p. 299.
42 Recherche et Constatation des Delits Forestieres et de chasse, par A. Lanoir,
1910.
FIRE PROTECTION AND CONTROL 91
FIRE PROTECTION AND CONTROL
Fire Protection. — As in Tunisia (see page 26) fire protection
is concentrated on the valuable cork-oak forests, but in Algeria
stands of other species as well are being placed under intensive
protection; the aleppo pine, for example, which is being de-
veloped to yield a revenue from turpentine. Notwithstanding
the efforts which have been made to curtail fire damage, the
annual loss is still considerable, and most fires, even now, are
caused by incendiarism. During the year 1910 the general
statistics of Algeria show a total of 482 fires on 24,294 hectares,
(60,030 acres), causing a damage of 411,287 francs ($79,378.39),
of which 97,212 francs ($18,761.92) of damage was on private
forests.
The Algerian climate is chiefly responsible for the extremely
dangerous fire conditions that prevail, because of the prolonged
droughts during the hot months, and the inflammable conditions
of the underbrush during these periods.
Preventive Measures. — To supplement the fire laws given
in the Algerian Code (see Appendix, especially Arts. 123, 125
126, 127, 128, 129, 132, 136, 139, and 140), the Governor
of Algeria approved, August 20, 1904, special regulations; the
more important provisions have been digested under these
headings :
(i) Use of fire; (2) setting fires; (3) organization of patrol
service; (4) general rules.
(i) Use of fire: From July i to October 31 every building
where fires are lighted, within 200 metres (218 yards) of a forest,
must be surrounded with a cleared fire line 25 metres (27 yards)
wide. Temporary camps, etc., must also be encircled by a dry
stone wall i metre (40 inches) high, with but one opening not to
exceed 80 centimetres (31 inches) in width, or with a ditch 50
centimetres (20 inches) deep, and an earth wall of the same
height. Mine furnaces may be established and steam road
rollers used only upon special authorization. Railroads will
be informed what rights-of-way must be cleared in accordance
with Article 132 (see page 193).
92 ALGERIA
(2) Setting fires: From November i to June 30, no vegetation
may be burned within a kilometre (1094 yards) of a forest, with-
out formal request made at least 8 days in advance. If within
200 metres (218 yards) of a forest, the local official may grant
permission to burn brush only after recommendation by the
proper forest officer, who prescribes also suitable precautions,
such as fire lines, watchers, area to be burned at one time, time
to set fire, etc. The officer sent to control the operations can
stop the burning or impose additional precautions at any time,
in case of high wind. From July i to October 3 1 , no brush burn-
ing can be permitted within a kilometre (1094 yards) of a forest.
An exception may be made where brush is piled, even within
500 metres (546 yards), under the same conditions imposed
within the 2oo-metre (21 8-yard) zone from November i to
June 30. Commencing with October i, the conservation may
recommend more lenient provisions. Whenever brush clearing
by firing is carried out within 4 kilometres (2.5 miles) of the
forest, supervision is necessary after 8 days' notice. Native
officers are required to report violations of these regulations.
(3) Organization of patrol service: From July i to November
i, special native watchers are levied on local right holders and
neighboring tribes. All able-bodied natives are liable. Their
duties consist of notifying the proper official of fire, or if possible,
to put out any fires discovered. This watch service must in-
clude, night and day, 2 men on foot and one on horseback,
or, if the lookout point is inaccessible, three men on foot.
In the cork-oak region patrol crews of 5 men, fully equipped
with fire-fighting tools, must be provided; these are under the
orders of the local forest officer. Lookout-points and patrol
routes are established by the Forest Service. In case of rains
and upon the recommendation of the conservator, the work of
these crews may cease on October i .
(4) General rules: The procedure for enforcing these rules,
as well as a list of the officers who are responsible, are given.
To clinch the provisions of this decree a circular 43 of instruc-
tions explains the need of cooperation between the Forest Service
48 Circulaire du 4 Juin, 1907,
FIRE PROTECTION AND CONTROL 93
and the local officials. The conservators are required to report
to the governor, through the prefect or the generals command-
ing divisions in which forests are under military control, the
trips taken in the forests by local officials and the arrangements
made for controlling fires. Natives must be fully informed of
all fire regulations, since ignorance does not excuse or repair
damage. Definite instructions are laid down in regard to pro-
visioning fire fighters. In exposed regions a central lookout
station, commanding the others, has been found efficacious,
but telephone lines are only established in cases of exceptional
danger.
Another plan which has been put into effect is to concentrate
improvement work during the dry season, when the workman
can be used for fire fighting. The railroad rights-of-way, in
that plan, are put under surveillance, to make certain that the
required fire lines are cleared. Assistant prefects, mayors, ad-
ministrators, and Forest Service officers must report their patrol
trips directly to the governor; leave between the dangerous
fire season is only allowed in case of sickness. Military detach-
ments, during the critical season, supplement the forest personnel
and work in cooperation with them. In case of conflagrations
immediate telegraphic advice is sent in case additional help is
required.
Those reporting on fires are cautioned not to exaggerate
damages; all details must be personally investigated and a
preliminary report must first be despatched giving the general
direction of the fire, kind of forests burned, attitude of local
residents, assistance given by them, and protective measures
taken. The final report of inquiry includes: (a) General data
on the fire; (b) Damage caused; (c) Conduct of local residents
and their assistance in putting out the fire; (d) Causes of the
fire. It is especially emphasized in the circular summarized that
rapid action in bringing fire trespassers to court will have the
best possible effect on stamping out this evil.
Fire Lines. — The basis of the Algerian fire-protective scheme
is the system of fire lines. These are ordinarily built along
crests or ridges, but also follow wagon roads and paths which
94
ALGERIA
contour the hills. They are rarely, if ever, in ravines, except
when a boundary happens to follow the bed of a stream. Their
width is 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 100 (5, 10, 16, 21, 27, 32,
43, 54, 109 yards) and even 300 metres (328 yards), according
to the problems presented; along railroads the official width is
20 metres (21 yards) on each side. Boundary lines are ordina-
rily 10 metres (10 yards) wide, but in well-wooded country may
FIG. 15. — Cork oak after the cork has been removed, on a ridge fire line in
Algeria, Constantine Conservation.
be as high as 25 (27 yards); these are constructed half on each
of the adjoining properties.
In theory main fire lines are 100 metres (109 yards) and sec-
ondary lines 25 or 50 metres (27 or 54 yards), according to the
value of the stand. But this standard is flexible. At La Calle,
where dangerous conditions exist in valuable cork oak, there
is a line 300 metres (328 yards) wide. Yet in the Oran con-
servation, where there is but little cork oak, there are no lines
whatever wider than 50 metres (54 yards), and out of a total
of 386,164 metres (422,313 yards) of lines there are classified
as follows in metres and yards:
FIRE PROTECTION AND CONTROL
TABLE 6
95
Width.
Total length.
Width.
Total length.
Metres.
Yards.
Metres.
Yards.
Metres
Yards.
Metres.
Yards.
5
5
1,538
1,682
25
27
36,724
40,162
IO
II
84,524
92,436
30
33
95,745
104,708
15
16
43,253
47,302
40
44
19,238
21,039
20
22
89,987
98,411
50
55
15,155
16,574
It is an invariable rule in Algeria to clear the lines once every
3 years; but there are lines where the brush is only cut level
with the ground and others where the roots are extracted.
An official note prepared for me by Conservator Laporte
of Oran, dated March, 1913, states: " . . . These fire lines
are opened on the ridges which are found in the interior of
forests so as to localize the conflagrations and to make it pos-
sible to stop the fire when it arrives at one of these lines. . . ."
The fire lines are made (i) either by simply cutting level with
the ground the woody vegetation which is found on its surface;
or (2) by completely uprooting these trees. This latter class
of line takes less upkeep, when the sprouts coming from stumps
overlooked are rare, but it costs much more to open. The fire
lines made by simple clearings are far less expensive, but the
growth of suckers and shoots require a periodic upkeep which
occasions a considerable expense. In these fire lines, all trees,
including the undergrowth, are cut off or pulled up; though
occasionally, on lines of a considerable width, a fine tree well
separated from the others may be left when it is encountered.
It is, however, an exception to the general practice.
Table 7 gives the fire lines in the Oran conservation:
96
ALGERIA
TABLE 7. — TABULATION OF FIRE LINES IN THE CONSER-
VATION OF ORAN, ON STATE FORESTS, JAN. i, 1913
Fire line
s.
Name of forest.
Area,
hectares
(acres).
Chief
species.
Length,
metres
(yards).
Width,
metres
(yards)
Cost of con-
struction ,
francs
(dollars)
Remarks.
Louza
3.933
Aleppo pine
6,650
20
2,147.29
Stump extraction
(9.718)
(7,272)2
(22)2
($414 43)
Guetarnia
9.473
Aleppo pine
6,5OO
2O
3 200 oo
Stump extraction
(23,407)
with thuya
(7.108)
(22)
($617 60)
Baudens
6,933
Aleppo pine
7,125
40
4.345.82
Stump extraction
(17,131)
with thuya
(7,791)
(44)
($838 74)
4,800
30
2.436.00
(5,249)
(33)
($470.15)
I9,96S
(21,833)
20
(22)
3.219.38
($621.34)
.*
3.800
IO
760 oo
(4,155)
(II)
($146.68)
Moxi
788
Aleppo pine
977
4O
622 . 08
Stump extraction
(1,947)
with thuya
(1, 068)
(44)
($120 06)
Tenira
8,838
Aleppo pine
6,456
40
3.956 SO
Stump extraction
(21,838)
with thuya
(7,158)
(44)
($763.60)
14,445
20
4,630.50
(15,797)
(22)
($893.68)
Bou Yetas
Aleppo pine
with thuya
(8,085)
7,393
2O
(22)
2,756 70
($532 04)
Stump extraction
17.480
10
2,836.85
(I9,n6)
(II)
($547 51)
Kounteida
4.261
i Aleppo pine
6,800
15
2,747 48
Stump extraction
(10,528)
with thuya
(7,436)
(16)
($530 26)
Toumiet
16,687
(41,233)
Aleppo pine
with thuya
7,000
(7,655)
30
(33)
4,038 55
($779 44)
Stump extraction
I.95O
20
I.2I8 20
(2,132)
(22)
($235 II)
6,800
15
2,748.48
(7,436)
(16)
($530 45)
Slissen ....
35,849
Aleppo pine
4,680
40
1,410.86
Stump extraction
(88,582)
with thuya
(5,118)
(44)
($274 "03)
24.485
20
9,018.91
(37,712)
(22)
($1740.65)
7,003
10
1.146 06
(7.658)
(II)
($221.19)
Planteurs
688
Porestation of
3.340
25
3,320.00
Stump extraction
(1,700)
aleppo pine
(3.652)
(27)
($640.76)
607
IS
970.00
(663)
(16)
($187.21)
3,122
10
1,534.00
(3,414)
(ii)
($296.06)
1,038
5
468.00
(1,135)
(Si)
($90.38)
M'Silah
958
Cork oak
2,697
50
5,921 . oo
Stump extraction
(2,367)
(2,949)
(55)
($1142.75)
1,1V
20
750.00
(4.103)
(22)
($144.75)
24,410
IO
3,612.00
(26,694)
(II)
($697.12)
500
5
50.00
(546)
(SI)
($9 65)
Carried forward
102,547
193,775
69,873 66
(253,393)
(211,912)
($13,485.62)
(Acres.)
(Yards.)
FIRE PROTECTION AND CONTROL
97
TABLE 7 (Continued.} — TABULATION OF FIRE LINES IN THE
CONSERVATION OF ORAN, ON STATE FORESTS, JAN. i, 1913
A _.,.-
Fire lines.
Name of forest.
Area,
hectares
(acres).
Chief
species.
Length,
metres
Width
metres
Cost of con
struction.
Remarks.
(yards).
(yards)
francs
(dollars).
Brought forward
102,547
193.775
69,873.66
(253.393)
(211.912)
($13,485 62)
Djabel Khaar...
1,369
(3,284)
Forestation of
aleppo pine
4,240
(4.636)
25
(27)
530.oo
($102.29)
Simple clearing
2,010
25
502.00
Extraction of stumps
(2,198)
(27)
($96.89)
3.100
20
620.00
Extraction of stumps
(3.390)
(22)
($110.66
2,260
15
169.00
Simple clearing
(2,471)
(16)
($32.62)
3.170
IO
630.00
Stump extraction
(3,466)
(II)
($121.59)
Iviouiey Ismail.. .
6,405
Thuya,
1,747
20
263.00
Simple clearing
(14,120)
miscellane-
(1,910)
(22)
($50.76)
ous, lentisks
10,884
IO
663.00
Simple clearing
(11,902)
(II)
($127 96)
9.751
IS
869.00
Simple clearing
(10,663)
(16)
($167.72)
Nesmoth
6,405
(14,120)
Cork oak,
holm oak
3.IOC
(3,390)
15
(16)
527.95
($101.89)
Stump extraction
Tenifeld
7,399
(16,312)
Aleppo pine
6,465
(7,070)
IO
(ii)
539-07
($104.04)
Simple clearing
DoniThabet. ...
4,028
Aleppo pine
6,720
25
3,306 60
Extract, of stumps on
(8,880)
(7,349)
(27)
($638.17)
2835 m. (3100 yds.).
Simple clearing on
3885 m. (4248yds.).
Zid el Moumus. ..
4,888
Aleppo pine
9.039
25
4,965.48
Stump extraction
(10,776)
(9,885)
(27.34)
($958.33)
4,080
15
1,013.52
Stump extraction
(4,461)
(16)
($i95.6i)
Sefionn
5,894
Aleppo pine
5,6l5
30
3,900.00
Stump extraction
(12,994)
! (6,140)
(33)
($752.70)
9,855
15
3.451.30
Stump extraction
(10,777)
(16)
($666.10)
Touzizme
n,948
Aleppo pine
2,060
30
800.00
Simple clearing
(26,340)
(2.252)
(33)
($154.40)
H.375
25
5,754.80
Extract, of stumps on
(12,439)
(27)
($1,110.67)
6940 m. (7589yds.).
Simple clearing on
4435 m. (4850 yds.)
Zegla
56,678
Aleppo pine
34,310
30
19,082.47
Stump extraction
(124,953)
(37,521)
(33)
($3682.92)
2,750
30
1,661.53
Stump extraction
(3.007)
(33)
($320.67)
1,850
IO
(2,023)
(ii)
4,750
10
1,664.13
Stump extraction
(5,194)
(II)
($321.17)
Takrouma
2,219
Aleppo pine
11,263
30
8.336.73
Stump extraction
(4,892)
(12,317)
(33)
($1608.99)
Beni Mathar
9,600
Aleppo pine
27,947
30
14.664.27
Stump extraction
(21,164)
(30,563)
(33)
($2.830.20)
Hafir
10,043
Cork oak on
12,458
CQ
22 3^8 IO
•tump extraction
(22,141)
4000 h., holm
(13,624)
(55)
($4,311 .25)
ak and thuya
on rest
Zariffet
989
Cork oak
1,590
10
450.90
Stump extraction
(2,180)
(1,738)
(ii)
($87.02)
Totals
230,523
386,164
166,576.51
Stump extraction on
(508,215)
422,352)
$32,149.27)
a total length of
Averages
c. 44 f.
341,697 metres;
per m.
(373,683 yds.); brush
($0.078
merely cut on 44,467
per yd.)
metres (48,629 yds.)
98
ALGERIA
The foregoing table has given in considerable detail a tabu-
lation of the fire lines of different widths in the Conservation
of Oran. Through the courtesy of the conservator at Con-
stantine, the original record sheets for three inspections (Bougie,
Bone, La Calle) were secured in 1912. A tabulation of these
sheets is given in Table 8, which follows:
TABLE 8. — SUMMARY OF FIRE LINES IN ALGERIA,
CLASSIFIED BY INSPECTIONS AND WIDTH
Width of fire line.
Length of fire lines.
Bougie.
Bdne.
La Calle. .'
Metres.
Yards.
Metres.
Yards.
Metres.
Yards.
Metres.
Yards.
2-5
3
5
IO
12
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
IOO
2OO
250
300
3
3
5
ii
14
16
22
27
33
44
55
66
109
219
273
328
10,098
H,043
26,684
72,280
29,182
79,046
2,614
38,577
47,164
37,562
2,825
14,965
118,069
51,579
41,078
3,089
16,366
129,122
63,093
171,642
7,OOO
9,050
33,667
420,340
74,270
4,950
3,250
2,610
68,999
187,710
7,655
9,897
36,819
459,688
81,222
5,4i3
3,554
2,854
2,39°
35.275
64,757
40,775
17,947
70,819
44,592
19,627
60,462
66,122
800
875
10,565
7,000
10,780
n,554
7,655
11,789
A careful study of the foregoing table shows clearly that
there is no similarity in the policy of the width of fire lines in
the three inspections (supervisorships) . In Bougie the popular
width seems to be 10, 30, 40, and 20 metres (n, 33, 44, and 22
yards), while in Bone and in La Calle the 25-metre (2y-yard)
fire lines predominate, with 5 and 10 metre (5.5 and n yard)
lines of secondary importance, but in La Calle there are more
than 75,000 metres (82,020 yards) of 3o-metre (33-yard) lines,
while in Bone there are none. Evidently, the width has de-
pended more or less on the ideas of the inspector in charge
and upon the year in which the lines were constructed. The
tendency seems to be to construct narrower lines and to have
FIRE PROTECTION AND CONTROL 99
them more thoroughly cleared than in the past. In the in-
spection of Bougie, the lines on nine forests (aggregating 35,451
hectares) (87,599 acres) had 6,095,262 square metres (7,289,933
square yards) of fire lines or an average of 172 square metres
(206 square yards) per hectare (2.5 acres). This means that
for each hectare of forest there was, theoretically, an equiva-
lent of 36 running metres (39 running yards) of fire line 10
metres (n yards) in width. An examination of the original
sheets shows a still further peculiarity. As explained, the lines
are either brushed or cleared of brush supplemented by stump
extraction. In Bougie, on the nine forests referred to, 63,280
metres (69,204 yards) of lo-metre (n-yard) lines were cleared
of stumps, and, in addition, the entire length of 2o-metre (22-
yard) lines enumerated in Table 8. No stumps had been
extracted prior to 1904 and the lines, where the stumps were
extracted since then, were solely trail fire lines (Chemins-tran-
chees). On the other hand, in the Bone inspection, the lines
included boundary fire lines, trail fire lines, etc., and the
stumps had been extracted on all classes. In La Calle, the
stumps had been extracted on about half the lines, the narrower
ones comprising chiefly those designed for trails. This diver-
sity of policy denotes clearly that the French Service of Waters
and Forests in Algeria has had to experiment with the width
of fire lines. This alone explains the dissimilarity in the dif-
ferent inspections. The form which follows illustrates the
records which are kept for all fire lines.
IOO
ALGERIA
fe
0-S
a
111
^S*
£ R
is?
l3C o
^°Q
15
s«s
ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION IOI
Back-firing. — As a result of experience there is, on the part
of Algerian foresters, a decided prejudice against back-firing, a
method of fire fighting which was, in the past, badly abused.
The commission reported: **
"We believe it worth while to note the great danger which
arises when back fires are lighted to fight conflagrations.
Back fires require a number of favorable circumstances which
are rarely present in actual practice; they presuppose also
long experience on the part of those using them, a quality
which is rarely acquired. It is going too far when each
native, each neighbor, each mayor or administrator, or each
forest employee should assume the right of starting a new
fire under the pretext of backfiring and of saving his hut,
his property, his commune, or his beat. The (forest) ad-
ministration should give the strictest orders that the pro-
visions of the law on this subject must be rigorously observed
by all. . . ."
Fire Lines — Conclusions. — Are fire lines as now used in
Algeria really worth the cost? After talking with local officers
my conclusion is that fire lines are necessary, but that well-
cleared narrow lines are more practical than wide lines neces-
sarily expensive to maintain. A narrow line is sufficient to
stop the ordinary fire when the wind is not violent; with a
serious wind even a wide line will not avail. Lines should, so
far as possible, be combined with the roads and trails used in
the business of export. Large areas of even-aged inflammable
stands should be avoided. Often agriculture can be encouraged
so that farm lands will separate stands. One of the main rea-
sons why lines have been cleared arises from the desire to
make the public feel that energetic steps are being taken to
combat fires which have become a national calamity.
ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION
Forest Organization. — The Governor General is at the present
time virtually at the head of and in complete control of the
forest organization of Algeria. It is true that the officers of
44 Commission d'Etudes Forestieres, p. 138.
102 ALGERIA
the Service are loaned to him, theoretically, by the Secretary
of Agriculture at Paris, but any action taken in regard to them,
or to their standing, such as promotion, demotion, etc., is taken
at the request and upon the recommendation of the governor.
This arrangement gives far better results and a more efficient
working corps than any other of the various schemes tried out
since the inception of the Service.
And these changes have been sufficiently numerous. To
begin with, the Service was under military control for a time,
then, later on, it was transferred to the Department of the
Minister of Agriculture at Paris. On Sept. 27, 1873, it was
attached45 to the Governor General's office, but on Aug. 26,
1881, it was again placed under the home Minister of Agri-
culture. On Sept. 24, 1886, the power of the Governor General
in forestry matters was considerably increased, and on Dec. 31,
1896, the Forest Service was put in his charge, with employees
directly under him and officers loaned by the Secretary of Agri-
culture, as stated. This is the plan that maintains to the
present time and which has given more general satisfaction
than any of the other arrangements tried.
The Directions. — Under the general government the admin-
istration is divided into seven "directions" (departments): In-
terior, Finances, Agriculture, Eaux et For£ts, Public Works,
Railroads, and Native Affairs. The Forest Service is in charge
of a director (who also acts as conservator of the Algiers conser-
vation), assisted by an inspector and assistant inspector; the
necessary clerks for all officers are recruited from employees
who are not well suited for field service. There are three con-
servations or districts, with the following force:
46 Pp. 165-166, Recueil de la Legislation Forestiere Algerienne, V. Boutilly.
ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION
TABLE 9
I03
Name and location
of conservation.
Supervisory force.
Divisions
(inspec-
tions).
Districts
(chefferie).
Ranger
districts.
Guard's
beat.
i conservator (also
director)
Algiers
i inspector (on office
O
12
47
242
duty)
i inspector (control-
ler)
i conservator
Oran
i inspector (on office
duty)
o
8
33
103
i inspector (control-
ler)
i conservator
:-
Constantine .
i inspector (on office
duty)
2
8
68
323
i inspector (control-
ler)
The comparative 46 size in hectares and acres (in parentheses)
of administrative units in France and Algeria are as follows:
TABLE 10
Algeria.
France.
Conservator
Hectares
(Acres).
600,000
Hectares
(Acres).
100,000 or 1
Chief of service (supervisor)
(1,482,600)
106,000
(242,100)
33,000 or ^
Chief of canton (ranger)
(256,926)
39,000
(8i,S43)
7,400 or 3
Guard
(96,369)
^.OOO
(18,285)
<is or i
(7,413)
3 X
(i,277)
In addition to the force listed there are 204 native guards
who are used as field interpreters and messengers. French
officers are usually accompanied on their field trips by these
native guards, partly for convenience, and partly as a precaution
against assassination.47
46 Commission d' Etudes Forestieres.
47 Each year quite a number of forest officers are shot from ambush owing to
the ill feeling engendered through the performance of their duties, especially
trespass investigations.
ALGERIA
The Chefferies. — On January i, 1906, the old system of
"inspections" and " cantonments," like that used in France,
was replaced48 in Algeria by small forest districts (chefferies)
directly under the conservator. These chefferies are adminis-
tered by an inspector, assistant inspector, or forest assistant,
according to the importance of the station. In important
chefferies the chief is assisted by an auxiliary, who is usually
an assistant inspector or forest assistant (garde general).
Young officers are always trained as auxiliaries, but in case
they show no special aptitude as administrators, they are
kept as office assistants during the remainder of their offi-
cial career. In other words, the office of "inspection" between
the conservator and the cantonment was done away with.
Two of the old-style units were retained in especially important
groups of forests in the cork-oak region of the Constantine
conservation, but these also, in time, will be dispensed with.
Statistical. — It is interesting to compare the number of
employees in the Service in 1881 with the roll in more recent
years. The following table gives the number of officers, French
guards and rangers, and native guards, by indicated intervals:
TABLE ii
Year.
Officers.
French guards
and rangers.
Native guards.
Total.
1881..
7Q
486
1 80
795
1889
65
TH
182
7^8
i8<x
64
782
1 80
/O"
1026
1898
66
811
2OO
1077
It will be noted that the supervisory force has decreased,49
presumably so that the survivors may receive larger salaries;
the native force has remained about stationary, while the French
subordinate force was largely increased.
48 Decree of November 16, 1905.
49 According to the La Classification des Archives, 1906, the filing is divided
into 10 general sections which are subdivided into parts; the parts are divided
into divisions. The section classification is: i. Legislation and organization;
2. Personnel; 3. Forest domain; 4. Exploitation; 5. Concessions; 6. Equipment
and improvements; 7. Accounts and statistics; 8. Trespass; 9. Fires; 10. Mis-
cellaneous.
ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION 105
The Controller. — At the time when the chefferie organiza-
tion was adopted, a new position — that of inspector (controller)
— was created. The controllers are really general inspectors
under the director of the Forest Service, but also under the
orders of the conservators. They make general inspections
in the chefferies, but ordinarily do not inspect officers of equal
rank. They report directly to the conservators, occasionally
act in the place of conservators, but may take very important
problems of a serious nature to the director. Notwithstanding
the extra allowance for travel and the fact that they are not
burdened with routine, the position is not generally popular,
because they must spend a large part of their time away from
their families. But, on the whole, the creation of this rank has
strengthened the organization. For the inspectors are wholly
free from local influence and have no administrative preference
in the problems reported upon.
In the language of the Enabling Act : 50
"A certain number of inspectors may be charged with
control and placed for this purpose either under the governor,
the government, or the office of the conservation; or they
will have as a task the inspection of chefferies, or the study
of important problems. Only under exceptional circumstances
will these inspectors make inspections in any chefferies ad-
ministered other than by assistant inspectors of forest or
forest assistants."
Reforestation Service. — The reforestation and management
service under an inspector at Algiers covers all three conser-
vations and in theory is attached to the director's office. For
convenience, however, it is under the conservator of the Algiers
conservation who, it will be remembered, acts as director.
When the chief makes a report on a matter in another con-
servation, it is sent to the director through the conservator
in charge.
A research station (see page 87) has been created and the
inspector in charge of the Algiers chefferie has been nominated
as chief under the orders of the local conservator.
60 Art. 3, Decree of November 16, 1905.
106 ALGERIA
In Time of War. — The Forest Service personnel is expected
to cooperate in guarding the coast, the frontier, and tne means
of communication; or to defend settlers or military posts; or
join with columns. In case of war forest officers and men are
at the command of the general commanding the nineteenth
army corps. The men will be given the following correspond-
ing grades: forest assistant (attached to office) = second lieu-
tenant; assistant inspector = captain; inspector = batallion
chief; conservator = lieutenant colonel; rangers = petty officers;
guards, first class = corporal or brigadier; guards, second class
(French) = soldier of first class; native guards = soldier of
second class. These officers keep their Forest Service uni-
form in time of war, and during peace they are furnished with
a complete armament.
Salaries. — The gross salaries in Algeria are much better
than in France. They have been increased by a rather com-
plicated system of special supplements51 and in addition -the
organization52 has been so arranged that officers of low rank
can direct forests under the chefferie organization. The sup-
plements referred to are: for colonial services the conservator
receives 3600 francs ($694.80) additional pay, the inspector 2400
francs ($463.20), the assistant inspector 1800 francs ($347.40),
the forest assistant 1400 francs ($270.20), and the forest assist-
ant on office duty, 800 francs ($154.40).
Bonus on Algerian Service. — All officers receive a bonus
of looo francs ($193.00) for service in Algeria; this carries
with it the obligation to remain 4 years, and, in default of this
service, a pro rata refund must be made. Inspectors serving
as "controllers" receive 3000 francs ($579.00) more each year
to assist in paying for an office; conservators receive 3600 to
4000 francs ($694.80 to $772.00), and other officers in charge of
districts 1000 francs ($193.00). When on tour conservators
receive 25 francs ($4.82) per day (for auto and travel the con-
servator of Constantine receives 6000 francs ($1,158.00)), and
those in charge of districts 15 francs ($2.89) ; the latter receive
61 Decree of November 16, 1905, and circular of August 31, 1904.
62 See page 104.
ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION 107
an additional 800 francs ($154.40) annually for the maintenance
of a horse or automobile, or if their maintenance is imprac-
ticable, the same amount is paid on expense accounts for any
form of transportation. Officers assigned to bureaus receive a
total idemnity of 1500 francs ($289.50); employees 500 francs
($96.50). Any one who collects money as treasurer receives one-
fifth of i per cent of the amount collected.
When on special duty off their districts conservators receive
per diem 20 francs ($3.86), inspectors 10 francs ($1.93), and
rangers 8 francs ($1.54); but when on bureau detail only
4 francs ($0.77). For railroad fare conservators receive 0.125
franc ($0.02) per kilometre (0.621 mile), inspectors, etc., 0.09
franc ($0.017); for carriages conservators receive 0.60 franc
($0.115) per kilometre (0.621 mile), and others 0.25 or 0.50 and
0.30 franc ($0.048 or $0.096 and $0.058) respectively for horse
hire. In addition all officers are allowed i month leave on
full pay per year, or 2 months every 2 years, but receive free
mail-boat transportation to France for themselves and families.
The policy of allowing a higher rate of living expenses for
the more important officials is always followed; this seems
logical; the conservator, for example, may reasonably be ex-
pected to spend more when on inspection trips than would
a forest assistant.
Employees Classified by Length of Service. — There are two
classes of employees: (i) those who served before 1901, who
receive the same salary as given in France plus a supplement
of 300 francs ($57.90) for rangers and 200 ($38.60) for guards;
and (2) those who entered the service after 1901, who receive
a combined salary and supplement as follows: rangers in three
classes receive 1600, 1500, and 1400 francs ($308.80, $289.50,
and $270.20) and two classes of guards 1200 and noo francs
($231.60 and $212.30). A large number of rangers and guards
are lodged, but those who have to live in quarters receive an
allowance for this purpose of 200 francs ($38.60).
Both guards and rangers receive 500 francs ($96.50) a year
for horse feed and 4 hectares (10 acres) of land for a garden.
First-class native guards receive 600 francs ($19.30) allowance
108 ALGERIA
in lieu of lodging in case no station is available; second-class
guards receive 550 francs ($106.15) and those in the third class
500 francs ($96.50). Exceptionally good men who have served
at least 10 years may receive 10 francs ($1.93) per month addi-
tional.
An employee is given 300 francs ($57.90) for horse equip-
ment and uniform when entering the service. Native in-
terpreters (chaouchs) attached to the three conservators' offices
and to the Algiers inspection (supervisors') office receive 600
francs ($115.80) per year and 300 francs ($57.90) in lieu of
residence.
By his decree of July n, 1904, the Governor of Algeria es-
tablished a body of native Forest Service horsemen recruited
from men 22 to 30 years old, who understood French. They
are paid 400 francs ($77.20) and are given the same allowances
which the native guards receive.
Promotions — Discipline. — Promotion 53 made July i and
January i can be sanctioned after at least 2 years' service in
the lower grade; no one can be made an assistant inspector or
conservator unless he has served at least 5 years in the lower
grade. Advancement in the lower grades is based half on
seniority and half on choice, but an inspector is judged 75 per
cent on choice and only 25 per cent on seniority. Appoint-
ments to still higher grades are entirely on choice without any
reference whatever to seniority. Such promotions are due to
choice in the fullest sense because they are made by a large
committee rather than by a few high officials. This committee
includes the officials above the rank of conservator — two con-
servators nominated by the Secretary of Agriculture, and two rep-
resentatives for each of the grades of inspector down to ranger.
The members of the committee receive, 10 days in advance, per-
sonal data on each candidate.
In finally deciding upon advancement the deliberations are
secret and are by secret ballot with majority rule. The discipline
is on a similar basis, and formal action by a committee is only
taken after formal deliberations.
63 Presidential decree of August 30, 1912.
FOREST LEGISLATION 109
The promotions and discipline of employees is based on the
same policy, but the committee for promotion is headed by
the conservator instead of by the Secretary of Agriculture.
Members of the subordinate force are only promoted to be
officers after formal examination. Men who on the contrary
cannot handle a forest or district are used as office men and
trained as high-class administrative clerks.
FOREST LEGISLATION
Legislation. — The Forest Code54 of 1827 was applied in
Algeria after the conquest, but was supplemented by the laws
of July 17, 1874, and Dec. 9, 1885, to cover more thoroughly
the local fire and rights problems. Owing to continued criti-
cism of the forest administration under these laws a commission
was appointed in 1892 to study the needs of the colony and to
suggest the modifications necessary to make the Code of 1827
more closely applicable to local conditions. The commission
found this impracticable, and, instead, recommended an en-
tirely new^ law, which was finally promulgated on Feb. 21,
1903.
The New Code. — " Whatever may be its faults," Guyot
considers it "a remarkable monument, since private and public
interests had to be reconciled." It comprises the following
parts in the order enumerated: I. Forest Regime; II. Waters
and Forests Administration; III. State Forests, i, boundaries;
2, management; 3, auctions of bark-felling areas and sales
by agreement; 4, exploitation; 5, check of cutting area; 6,
auctions and rentals of grazing, mast, miscellaneous forest
products, and agricultural land; 7, wood rights in state forests;
8, expropriation; IV. Communal and Public Institution Forests;
V. Joint Tenancy Forests; VI. Private Forests, Reforestation
Areas, and Clearings; VII. Police and Conservation of Woods
and Forests, i, provisions applicable to all woods; 2, provisions
applicable only to forests placed under forest administration;
VIII. Prosecutions for Misdemeanors and Offences, i, prose-
64 Commentaire de la Loi Forestiere Algerienne, par Ch. Guyot, pp. 5-11.
110 ALGERIA
cution undertaken in the name of the Waters and Forests Serv-
ice; 2, prosecutions for misdemeanors and offences in woods
not under forest administration; IX. Penalties and Sentences
Applicable to Woods and Forests in General; X. Execution
of Judgments, i, judgment concerning misdemeanors and offences
in woods under forest administration; 2, judgments concerning
misdemeanors and offences committed in woods which are not
under forest administration; XI. General Provisions.
This example of a forest code, where local conditions are,
in many respects, similar to the western United States, con-
tains so much of interest that it has been translated and is
given in full in the Appendix, page 161.
The new law is simpler,55 easier to understand, less severe,
and much more flexible than the old. Important innovations
which are worth mentioning specifically are: the prosecution
for deforestation; use of fire; lookout posts; transport of cork,
/ etc. ; and the closing of areas to pasturage after forest fires on
the ground burned over. The governor felt that the restriction
of abusive cutting on mountain slopes was so important that
the dangers of deforestation 56 should be fully explained as often
as possible.
55 Governor's circular letter of March 13, 1903.
56 The comparatively small amount of deforestation, considering the past 2000
years of abusive use, is locally explained by the frequent plagues and wars which
cut down settlement and changed the highly populated districts into mere wastes
and thus gave the forests a chance to recover.
CHAPTER IV
CORSICA
Introduction (p. in), Early History, Forest Problems, Situation, Area and
Topography, Climate, The Forests.
Forest Conditions (p. 115), Forest Area, The Species, Corsican Pine, Maritime
Pine, Beech, Holm Oak, Cork Oak, Fir, Chestnut, Other Species, Undergrowth.
Administrative Organization and Finances (p. 123), Organization, Present Force,
Pay, Work and Duties, Administrative Notes, Supervision, Finances.
Working Plans and Cultural Methods (p. 128), Working Plans, Object of
Management, System of Cutting — Shelterwood, Failures, Selection System
Adopted, Advantages, Application, Coppice, Marking Corsican Pine.
Forest Regulation and Yield (p. 137), Rotation, Periods, Yield, Overcutting,
Production, Yield Calculations.
Sales Methods and Contracts — Turpentine Leases (p. 140), Timber and Wood
Sales, Sales Contract Conditions, Sales for Large Amounts, Example of
a Long-term Sale, Special Rules, Ordinary Sales Data, After a Sale, 1912
Stumpage Prices, Turpentine Operations, Minor Industries.
Other Forest Activities (p. 153), Reforestation, Trespass, Fire Protection,
Grazing, Quarters, Roads and Trails, Uses.
INTRODUCTION
Early History. — Between 160 and 260 B.C., the Roman, Lucius
Cornelius Scipio,1 first invaded what is now known as the Island
of Corsica. From his advent war followed war, almost without
cessation, until, in 1759, the island was ceded to France by the
Republic of Genoa. The treaty of Versailles, which conveyed
title, provided that Corsica's forests should be attached to the
royal domain, to the communes, and to certain specified public
institutions.
Later on, in 1796, the English under Hood captured Corsica,
but the conquest was soon abandoned, and the rule of France
has been to all intents and purposes uninterrupted since the
cessation of the island to that power. Forest problems crop
out from time to time in the history of this period. As early
1 The History of Corsica, I. H. Caird, p. i.
in
112 CORSICA
as i763,2 the French general, Dumouriez, advised that in view
of its value the timber of the island should be marked for fell-
ing. When the Consulta met at Corte in October, 1764^ the
people were forbidden the free use of timber without a permit,
a measure passed, however, to protect the forests from the
French rather than from the local population. From 1759,
the year in which Corsica was annexed to France, to as late as
1824, the forests were administered in a more or less haphazard
fashion, by diverse administrations, the Eaux and Forets,
Nancy and Domaines. Since the latter date, they have been
placed under and managed by a consistently technical adminis-
tration.
Forest Problems. — Seneca, after his banishment to Corsica,
was perhaps not in a frame of mind to judge his new friends
fairly, but his taunt:4 " Their first law is to revenge them-
selves, their second to live by plunder, their third to lie, and
their fourth to deny the gods," has come down to us in history
as the dictum of a great and famous man. Whether it could
be taken as corroborative evidence or not, the fact is apparent
to-day that local forest users are lawless and extremely difficult
to control. Fire, excessive grazing in its most objectionable
form — by goats — and minor 5 trespass still furnish as knotty
problems to the forest administrators of the island as they
have in the past.
Fires/ especially, have been so disastrous that a change
from the shelterwood to the selection system has become a
necessity. To-day, in federal forests, grazing is practically un-
restricted, although absolutely contrary to the forest code.
And when, in 1834, an attempt to regulate grazing was made,
armed opposition arose to the enforcement of the law. While
the island is well settled (by the census of 191 1,6 there are 33
The History of Corsica, I. H. Caird, p. 182.
Id., p. 155.
Id., p. i.
See trespass, p. 154.
Notes prepared by de Lapasse, conservator of the 30th conservation who
kindly reviewed and corrected the chapter on Corsica, assisted by the H. M.
Consul at Ajaccio, The Hon. Henry Dundas.
INTROD UCTION 113
inhabitants per square kilometre (0.3861 square mile) as com-
pared with 73 for France), still the impossibility of controlling
fires and grazing has practically dictated the character of the
silvicultural measures in force.
These will be taken up in detail, but before considering the
present administration and forest management, a word about
Corsica's climate and topography.
Situation. — The island is situated 7 between 43° o' 42 " and
41° 21' 4" north latitude and between 6° n' 47" and 7° n' 6"
east longitude.
Area and Topography. — It is 183 kilometres (113 miles) long
by 84 (52 miles) wide with a double mountain chain running
along its length. Its total area is 872,182 hectares (2,155,161
acres) with 490 kilometres (304 miles) of coast line. The moun-
tains are abrupt and often precipitous; because of their rapid
descent, a drainage by torrents, rather than by rivers. The
east coast is level with areas of alluvial plains, but the west
coast is rocky and cut by bays. Monte Cinto, in the north-
west quarter of the island, rises to 2709.5 metres (8890 feet)
elevation. The prevailing rock is grey granite which disinte-
grates slowly. There is considerable limestone at the lower
elevations.
Climate. — Paul Joanne gives three climatic zones:8 (i)
The maritime zone, extending to 580 metres (1903 feet) with an
estimated rainfall of 700 to 900 millimetres (27 to 35 inches)
at Ajaccio; rarely below o° C. (32° F.) and never over 33° C.
(91° F.) of heat.
(2) A hill zone extending to 1750 metres (5741 feet) with
4 metres (13 feet) of snow in the winter, at an elevation of
1162 metres (3812 feet) at Vizzavona.
(3) An Alpine zone, with 8 months of winter; the hot and
dry fire season extends from May to September.
The Forests. — Most of the easily accessible areas, formerly
forested, are now covered with dense brush locally known as
"maquis"; written "macchie" by the natives. The valuable
7 Geographic du departement de la Corse par Paul Joanne, sixieme edition.
8 Compare with forest zones, p. 115.
CORSICA
8,
•i
.53
3
cr
a
FOREST CONDITIONS 115
forests are Corsican pine (P. laricio), mixed with maritime pine
(P. marUima) at its lower limits, and forced back by beech and
fir at extreme elevations.
The following forest zones are locally recognized : 9
(1) o to 500 metres (o to 1640 feet) chiefly agricultural land
and maquis, but also cork oak (Q. suber) (near Porto- Vecchio) ,
holm oak (Q. ilex), and vert oak (Q. ilex).
(2) 500 to 1000 metres (1640 to 3281 feet) maritime pine
and chestnut.
(3) 1000 to 1800 metres (3281 to 5915 feet) Corsican pine,
with beech in the high central valleys and fir at a few elevated
points.
FOREST CONDITIONS
Forest Area. — In 1878 the official records 10 put the total
forested area at 209,177 hectares (516,876 acres), but in
December, 1912, this area had fallen to11 132,215 hectares12
(326,703 acres) under management, and 42,400 hectares (104,770
acres) of private forest, or a total of 174,406.05 hectares
(430,957 acres). This decrease during the past 3 decades is
chiefly in private forests, and has been occasioned by exces-
sive cutting coupled with grazing and fire. Of the area now
classed as forested, there are 34,079 hectares (84,209 acres) of
blanks, mostly rocky summits above timber line; this leaves
actually stocked with trees some 140,536 hectares (347,264
acres), or 16 per cent of the total area, as against 24 per cent
for 1878. The location of the federal forests is indicated upon
the accompanying diagrammatic map (Fig. 17).
The Species. — The chief local species,13 in the order of the
area which they cover, are as follows: Holm oak, Corsican pine,
maritime pine, beech, and cork oak. The distribution in federal
9 Unpublished notes by de Lapasse compare with Paul Joanne's climatic zones.
10 Unpublished official report, unsigned.
11 R.eport of Prefect, dated December 31, 1911, p. 94, gives 132,006.05 hectares.
12 Unpublished notes by de Lapasse.
13 The data on species are partly from unpublished notes by de Lapasse sup-
plemented by field notes by the writer.
n6
CORSICA
ISLAND OF
CORSICA
10 20 30 40 Kilometers
FIG. 17. — Forests managed by the Waters and Forests Service in Corsica.
FOREST CONDITIONS
117
'a
d
Cj
u8
CORSICA
and communal forests, including both those under manage-
ment and those for which no working plans have been made,
is as follows:
TABLE 12
Class of Forests.
Holm
oak.
Corsi-
can
pine.
Mari-
time
pine.
Beech.
Cork
oak.
Miscel.
species.
Totals.
Relative per cent of area occupied by each species.
Federal. .
20
30
33
28
39
28
9
25
28
12
30
23
IO
20
6
12
8
3
3
IO
14
9
TOO
TOO
100
100
Communal
Private forests and com-
munal forests not under
forest management
Average
Corsican Pine. — By far the most important timber tree is
the Corsican pine, which has usually grown in pure, even-
aged stands, though in mixture with maritime pine at its lower
range and with beech and occasionally fir at its upper limit.
Notably in the forest of Vizzavona the beech seems to be driv-
ing the pine out of the higher valleys.
The largest forests of Corsican pine are Aitone, Valdoniello,
Asco, Tavignano, Marmano, Melaja, Verde, and Vizzavona.
The pine reaches 45 to 50 metres (148 to 164 feet) in height,
and is sometimes 2 metres (6.5 feet) in diameter; but it is
very slow in growth, especially after 200 years, and takes 350
years or more to grow to a breasthigh diameter of 0.90 to
i metre (2.9 to 3.3 feet). Trees have been found 900 to 1000
years of age and still sound. In old age the crown is mush-
room shaped.
A number of stump counts were made to gather rough data
on the rotation. The figures which follow were collected by
the writer in recent cutting areas:
FOREST CONDITIONS
119
TABLE 13
Diameter, breasthigh.
Total age,
years. (10
vears allowed
Remarks.
Metres.
Inches.
for stump
height.)
0.28
II
90
Still growing rapidly.
0.46
18
92
Still growing rapidly.
0.48
19
H5
Still growing rapidly.
0.66
26
1 60 <
Still growing well; suppressed for
first 30 years but showed re-
(
markable recovery.
0.74
0.74
29
29
270 I
260 f
At 145 years growth slowed up.
o-97
38
550
At 1 60 to 200 years growth slowed up.
0-99
39
480
At 175 years growth slowed up.
i .02
40
500
At 200 years growth slowed up.
These figures are too scanty to allow of deducing reliable
conclusions, but it is significant that the trees are growing
rapidly up to 160 to 200 years, while after that age the rings
often cannot be counted without a magnifying glass.
The wood of the Corsican pine is used for lumber and di-
mension stuff. During the years 1856 and 1872 trees were
tapped for resin because of the high prices prevailing during
the American Civil War. They produced a good quality of
resin but gave a scanty flow, and the results to-day show that
this tapping killed a good many of the mature trees and slowed
up their growth.14 The average mature and over-mature stand
of Corsican pine closely resembles the western yellow pine
stands in Arizona and New Mexico, except that the tree does
not grow in such typical groups.
Maritime Pine. — The maritime pine is found pure or in
mixture with holm oak and Corsican pine. It is of rapid growth
and attains a large size. In the forest of Marmano a o.pg-metre
(39-inch) tree was found 20 metres (666 feet) high and con-
taining 3^ good 4.9-metre (i6-foot) saw logs. In the same
forest trees 0.7106 and 0.7369 metre (28 and 29 inches) in diam-
eter and 115 and 125 years old, respectively, were both rotten
at the heart.
14 The results of this tapping raises doubts as to the advisability of tapping
western yellow pine on dry soil in the States of Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colo-
rado, etc., for silvical reasons and whether it is wise to start a new industry de-
pendent on high prices for its success.
120
CORSICA
PQ
FOREST CONDITIONS 1 21
The tree was tapped in 1862 to 1872, and operations were
recommenced on a large scale in the forest of Zonza in 1908.
A local distillery has since been erected at Zonza.
The most important forests of maritime pine are Zonza, Ca-
lenza, Pastricciola, Vero, Pineta, Solenzara, Marghese Vallemala.
Beech. — Beech is found in the high valleys above 1300
metres (4290 feet), pure or in mixture with Corsican pine and
fir. The largest areas are in the forests of Coscione, Biangone,
Cerotte, St. Antoine, San Pietro-di- Verde, all in the valley of
Taravo; in the valley of Ese, in the forests of Querceta and
Punteniello; in the valley of Fiurmorbo, in the forest of Mar-
mano; and in the valley of Vecchio, forest of Vizzavona. The
beech is encroaching on the Corsican pine, which is unfortunate,
because it is a slow grower and is often rotten at the heart. It
is cut to some extent for variety stock, but chiefly for cordwood.
Holm Oak. — The holm oak, while it covers a large area,
has not the financial importance of the Corsican pine, because
it is used only for charcoal, fire wood, and for tannin. It is
found chiefly in the plains and lower hills, often in mixture
with maritime pine.
Cork Oak. — The cork oak is pure, or with holm oak, but
the most important forests are in private ownership. The
forest of Cagna is the chief 6f these. The growth of this tree
is rapid and it is much sought after. In 1908 the total pro-
duction of cork amounted to 6085 quintaux (1,341,511 pounds).
The cork15 is sold on the tree, for periods of 18 years, instead
of being collected by federal day labor, as in Algeria. The cork
may be removed from the time the sap rises until August; but
only cork having a thickness of 23 millimetres (0.91 inch) on
nine-tenths of its area may be peeled. Trees above 0.50 metre
(20 inches) in circumference may be peeled, the measurement
being outside the bark at i metre (39 inches) above the ground.
The tree must be peeled, cleanly, from the ground up to a height
equal to twice the tree's circumference, outside bark, and only
branches measuring at least 60 centimetres (24 inches) in cir-
15 Cahier des charges, Adjudication de la Recolte du LiSge, pp. 13-5, approved
March 4, 1909.
122 CORSICA
cumference, i metre (39 inches) from the trunk, can be peeled,
and then only 3 years after the trunk bark has been collected.
Trees are considered mature and ready for felling when after
.18 years the cork measures at least 23 millimetres (0.91 inch),
or when the trees are burned by fire. The contractor must,
moreover, assume all responsibility in case trees are burned,
wind- thrown or killed by act of Providence.
Fir. — The fir (abies) is found in a few scattering groups on
the higher mountains. Perhaps the largest commercial body
of fir is on the north exposures in the forest of Aitone. It is
also found in considerable quantities in the forests of Libio,
Punteniello, and Pietrapiana; there are a few trees in the forest
of Valdoniello.
Chestnut. — The chestnut is not important in federal or
communal forests. It is grown for its fruit, which is baked
and eaten by the peasants and also fed to the stock. Recently
a very serious problem16 has arisen in connection with the
production of this wood. In 1902 some 80,000 steres (2,825,120
stacked cubic feet) or 240 hectares (593 acres) of chestnut forest
was cut for tannin; in 1911 to 1912 this had risen to 200,000
steres (7,628,000 stacked cubic feet), corresponding to 600 hec-
tares (1482 acres); and since in 1910 17 the total area under chest-
nut was estimated at only 48,787 hectares (120,552 acres), in-
creased fellings might readily menace the peasants' food supply.
From the fact that the tannin value of the average tree is only
worth 5 or 6 chestnut fruit crops, de Lapasse calls the deforesta-
tion " Killing the goose that lays the golden eggs." As a remedy
he strongly advocates the policy of forbidding deforestation
by law and a heavy tax on tannin. The past results from pay-
ing cash for plantations have been imaginary, so reliance on
this measure (tried with equally deplorable results in the western
United States with the timber-culture law) is discouraged.
The chestnut blight disease which has caused so much damage,
and which has encouraged the cutting for tannin, is to be com-
bated by trying to introduce an immune species.
16 Letter from Conservator de Lapasse in the Rapport du Prefet, 1912.
17 La Corse Agricole, April 10, 1911.
ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION AND FINANCES
123
Other Species. — Rowan oak is also found in Corsica, as
well as birch, linden, ash, aspen, common alder, green alder,
sycamore, maple, etc., all of secondary importance.
Undergrowth. — The more important undergrowth is: straw-
berry tree, tree heather, mastic tree, buckthorn, viburnum,
bay, juniper bush, box tree, broom or jennet, cistus, etc. Of
these the heather is the most considered, from the forester's
viewpoint, because of the fire menace it creates when growing
under Corsican pine on southern exposures.
ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION AND FINANCES
Organization. — The entire island of Corsica comprises the
30 th conservation with an official forest area of 132,006 hectares
(326,185 acres). It is administered by a conservator18 stationed
at Ajaccio.
There are now five inspections with the following areas: 19
TABLE 14
Hectares and acres of forests.
Totals.
Federal.
Communal.
Hectares.
Acres.
Hectares.
Acres.
Hectares.
Acres.
Aiaccio . . .
6,186
14,711
7,343
10,126
8,465
15,285
36,350
18,144
25,021
20,917
17,331
16,972
15,121
17,055
18,696
42,824
41,937
37,364
42,143
46,197
23,5!7
31,683
22,464
27,181
27,161
58,110
78,288
55,508
67,165
67,114
Bastia
Chiavari
Corte
Sartene
Totals
46,831
H5>7I7
85,175
210,465
132,006
326,185
Present Force. — Of these, strictly speaking, Ajaccio and
Chiavari are "chefferies," designed for an isolated area of
forests where the inspector himself has a mere ranger district
to administer. With the other regular inspections the inspector
has no district, but merely supervises all districts. The present
aggregate force20 includes: i conservator, i assistant inspector
18 The conservator in 1912 was M. deLapasse, an efficient officer and a charm-
ing man, nominated as conservator at Bordeaux in 1913.
19 Unpublished official records furnished me by de Lapasse.
20 The essential statistics of the forests under the forest regime are given in
the Appendix, p. 209.
124
CORSICA
acting as chief clerk, and 4 clerks; 5 inspectors and 5 clerks,
4 assistant inspectors who are ranger district (cantonment)
chiefs, 4 forest assistants, 24 rangers (i communal) and 114
assistant rangers ("guards") of whom 56 are communal. The
area per unit in 1887 and 1911 in hectares and acres (in paren-
theses) is shown below:
TABLE 15
Unit.
No.
I88?-21
No.
1911.
Inspection
4
30,441.78
(75,222)
5
U inspections^ 26,400
(2 chefferies j (5 1,891)
Cantonment
ii
11,069.74
10
13,200
(27,353)
(32,617)
Ranger district
23
5,294.22
24
5,5oo
(13,082)
(i3,59o)
Guards beat
128
951 .80
114
(2,352)
(2,961)
21 Unpublished official report dated 1887, complete statistics on the forests of
Corsica are given after page 209.
Pay. — The pay of the superior force is on the same basis
as in France, with the following supplements: Conservator 1200
francs ($231.60); inspector 1000 francs ($193); assistant in-
spector 800 francs ($154.40) ; forest assistant 600 francs ($115.80).
The rangers receive no supplements; the guards are paid from
60 to 70 francs ($11.58 to $13.51) a month with quarters, fuel,
garden, and extra pay for calipering and for marking when
working off their beat. While the guards' salaries are perhaps
one-seventh what is paid an assistant ranger in the United
States, the requirements as to quality and quantity of work do
not approach our standards.
Work and Duties. — The year's work perhaps could be
compressed into what we should consider 2 months' service.
An American federal forester would say that there were at
least twice too many guards. As one guard remarked, "We
would rather have better pay and more work; even doing
nothing is fatiguing if one must remain on official duty." Dur-
ing the slack season the guards make cleanings, and put in
their time on station maintenance by painting, repairing, and
ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION AND FINANCES 125
puttering at odd jobs. During the fire season a few extra
guards are hired to divide their work between trail improve-
ments and duty at look-out points.
In Corsica, where local feuds are not uncommon, it is the
practice to lodge two or more guards and rangers together;
this is for mutual protection as well as because of the solitary
life on the isolated ranger stations. Some unfortunate ad-
ministrative errors have been caused by the assignment of
subordinates to forests where they were related to the users
and the practice is avoided now so far as practicable.
Administrative Notes. — As to intensiveness of administra-
tion, Corsica stands midway between Algeria-Tunisia and
France proper. It is rather surprising to find, however, that
(as in France) the conservator (district forester) is weighed
down with office duties and spends but 10 per cent of his time
in the field.22
Supervision. — When on field duty the conservator is allowed
20 francs ($3.86) a day as per diem to cover all expenses, in-
cluding railroad fare. An estimate of the days to be spent in
the field is made at the beginning of the fiscal year and money
alloted on that basis is only allowed at the rate of 20 francs
($3.86) per day spent in the field, but if the estimated number
is surpassed, no additional compensation is possible. This
unfortunate limitation in per diem money undoubtedly curtails
inspection. The system would work admirably, if only the
number of days per diem corresponded automatically to the
number of days spent on inspection; at present there is in-,
sufficient field inspection by the conservator. The results of
inspection are immediately put into effect and at the end of
the field season are compiled into an informal annual report
which is forwarded to Paris. A comparison of the reports
for 1910 and 1911 (dated Feb. 8, 1912) shows that in practice
no exact outline is followed. A digest of the 1911 report23
follows:
22 In 1888 the conservator spent about 60 days on inspection trips; in 1911
and 1912 but 37 and 43.
23 Conservator de Lapasse's report for 1911.
126 CORSICA
I. Personnel and general service : brief review of cases, changes,
resignations, etc.
Attitude: general remarks on quality of work, whether
men enter into politics.
Office inspection: condition of records.
Payments : whether communal salaries have been promptly
paid.
Cooperation: amount of aid given to local people in
distress.
Lodging at ranger houses: review of tourists and others
lodged and fed.
Conservator's tours: review of inspection and argument
in favor of more field work, i.e., a larger expense allotment.
II. Fellings: yield in products.
Fellings: careful and detailed review of cuttings visited.
Working plans: progress made, inspection of plans com-
pleted, work for next year.
Tapping: results of operations.
Sales: review and summary.
III. Betterments.
A. Improvements paid for in cash.
Digest of expenditures by major headings such as work-
ing plans; roads and trails; planting, etc.
Reforestation: description of results and costs.
Roads and trails.
Water supply.
Forest houses.
Destroying insects.
Fire protection
B. Improvements effected by forest employees' labor.
Betterments proposed for 1912.
IV. Trespass: review of more important cases.
V. Hunting.
VI. Fish culture.
ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION AND FINANCES 127
Finances. — For the fiscal year 1911 the following expendi-
tures were approved:
TABLE 1 6
Francs.
Dollars.
Personnel:
Officers.
84. 711
1 6 3 ^ 3 08
Federal rangers and guards . .
Q2.QCX
17 Q3O 66
Communal rangers and guards
47,137
8,097.44
Miscellaneous: 24
Improvement and maintenance
224,773
31,777
42,381.18
6,132 .Q6
Working plans and sales
2,66cr
^14. 34.
Federal forest impositions. . .
I7»Q23
3.4.CQ 14.
Miscellaneous expense
I 460
281 78
53,825
10,388.22
Grand totals .
278 =;Q8
C2 760 4O
24 In 1910 the allotment was 52,555 francs ($10,143.11), and in 1911 it fell to
32,151 francs ($6205.23); 1912, 24,330 francs ($4695.69).
The receipts for the same year were 640,144 francs ($i 23,647.79) ,
divided as follows :
TABLE 17
Francs.
Dollars.
Federal forests:
Timber sales
7Q Oo8
I £ 24.8 £4.
Miscellaneous
I 2 306
2 37^ 06
Communal forests:
Timber sales
91,314
CO1?, 674.
17,623.60
Q7 <?CK 08
Miscellaneous
43,156
8,429 .11
548,830
106,024.19
Grand totals
640 144
123 64.7 7Q
The expenditures on betterments25 for 1910 and 1911 show
not only the amounts spent but also give an exact idea of what
is classed as improvements :
25 Annual reports for 1910 and 1911.
128
CORSICA
TABLE 18
' 3
[910.
1911
Francs.
Dollars.
Francs.
Dollars.
Working plans
I, OQ8
212 QI
130 oo
21 OQ
Freeing seedlings
49O
Q4- 17
240 oo
46 32
Maintenance of trails
Maintenance of houses
Water development
First aid (medical relief) . .
5,813
2,164
1,829
1,121 .91
417.65
353-oo
7,432.58
2,812 .72
1,349.64
132 oo
1434-49
542.86
260.49
21 48
Fences
Planting (Chiavari)
Fire protection
Exterminating caterpillars. .
417
37,422
3,322
80.48
7,222.45
641.15
1,246.91
14,956.00
3,593-59
258 .00
240.65
2,886.51
693-57
49-79
Totals
52,555
10,144.12
32,151-44
6,205.25
WORKING PLANS AND CULTURAL METHODS
Working Plans. — The first working plan was made in 1840
for the forest of Valdoniello; it provided for a long-term sale,
but there were no offers.
The early plans were in reality mere stand summaries, in-
cluding an estimate (often inaccurate) of logs in cubic metres
and firewood in steres. A feature of early plans was the final
review by the conservator; one plan, it is true, was perfunc-
torily approved, but others were reviewed at some length.
It seems an excellent plan to require a definite review of the
main provisions of a working plan by the conservator rather
than a perfunctory signature. The compartment descriptions
included data on area, boundaries, slope and aspect, soil, stand
by species, age and growth, with descriptive notes on logging
routes. An example of a compartment26 description is given
below; it is officially termed " record of reconnaissance."
Compartment L. — Canton Arza.
f \ f, (Lower story: 60 years.
Area 20 hectares (40 acres) . Age < __ _ _
( Old trees: 150 to 200 years.
The soil of this compartment is a sandy loam, quite deep.
Moreover, because of the dense stand, it is fresh and covered
26 Bavella plan of Jan. 6, 1855, pp. 17-18.
WORKING PLANS AND CULTURAL METHODS 129
with a sufficiently thick bed of humus. It is in good condition
for growth. The stand consists of very even-aged Corsican
pine poles of about 60 years. This stand of poles is topped all
over the compartment by quite a number of old trees which
should be cut to free the underwood, for the understory is dense
and only a few old trees can be cut at one felling.
A slightly later working plan 27 followed this outline :
Name, location, climate, boundaries, area, quarries, drainage,
game, forest houses, roads and trails, topography and soil,
species and their condition. Rights, trespass, patrol, marketing
timber, sale, price, minor products. Forest description empha-
sizing soil and stand, recapitulation (a general review of the
stand). Under the general felling plan is included data on the
system of cutting, " chances, " rotation, periods and periodic
block, formation of the first periodic block, special regulation
of felling for the first period, sequence of fellings, yield, reserve
(of growing stock or yield), carrying out the working plan.
Recent working plans in Corsica follow more closely the methods
and outlines used in France.
Object of Management. — The early authors of working
plans based their recommendations upon the need of disposing
of the overmature trees (excess growing stock in many cases),
the practical logging requirements necessitating a large cut on
account of the high cost of road construction and in order to
regularize the stands for management under the shelterwood
system. What strikes one as rather unfortunate is the almost
total lack of accurate local growth study upon which to base
conclusions. In order to secure large cuts no systematic attempt
has been made to secure an annual sustained yield; a periodic
cut has usually been recommended.
System of Cutting — Shelterwood. — The shelterwood system
of cutting was first selected as being best adapted to the Corsican
pine. There were extensive areas of even-aged stands, the top
story often mature and over-mature. What could be more
natural than the prompt removal of these old trees in order to
free the understory and to secure a large cut? These methods,
27 For the forest of Marmano, dated Feb. 4, 1860.
130 CORSICA
in fact, were adopted, and were in part successful. A working-
plans officer writes: 28
"Most of the first periodic block can be considered regen-
erated, and, with the exception of a few areas, there is nothing
to do but go ahead with the final felling of the large trees
which prevent the development of the seedlings."
Yet the same writer records that since 1860 the forest has a
very irregular aspect because of windfalls which followed fell-
ings. From the silvical standpoint the former management is
criticised29 because of "the enlargement of the felling areas of
mature timber which have transformed the shelterwood method
into poorly arranged selection fellings" and because of "the
omission of suitable measures to insure regeneration and to
protect the young seedlings."
In the Marmano forest: 30 "The pine stands have the appear-
ance of an old, high forest in need of regeneration; the fires
have run over the entire forest and the butts of almost all the
large trees are charred by fire; timber of average size and sap-
lings are almost entirely lacking . . . the forest has never
been regularly cut over." It is thus certain that the dangerous
fire conditions were well appreciated before the shelterwood
system was adopted.31
In the early working plan quoted the system was described as
consisting of natural seeding and thinnings, with the modifi-
cation from the usual shelterwood method, however, that the
customary secondary felling should be omitted.
Failures. — In a later, revised plan 32 for the Marmano forest,
it is concluded that the shelterwood system has proved a failure
because of fires; that for this reason it is necessary to retain
some of the large timber on the ground; thus "the localization
of age classes presents a serious danger in the conifer forests of
Corsica, where there are always conflagrations."
28 Working plan for Valdoniello forest, Dec. 20, 1900, p. 15.
29 Id., p. 19.
30 Marmano working plan, Feb. 4, 1860, p. 4.
81 Yet it is stated that a light ground fire on good soil often favors reproduction.
32 Marmano working plan, Dec. 5, 1907, pp. 13-14.
WORKING PLANS AND CULTURAL METHODS 131
FIG. 20. — A heavy selection cutting in the Forest of Aitone.
132 CORSICA
The results 33 of the shelterwood system in the forest of Aitone
were also unsatisfactory: the regeneration was poor, the fir
came in to the exclusion of the pine, the valuable merchantable
stand had been seriously diminished, and there was need for
artificial regeneration. Rather a pessimistic outlook!
In the forest of Vizzavona,34 again, the regular regeneration
fellings were unusually successful, but in 1866 the young stands
left after the fellings were completely wiped out by fire. The
forest was once more burned over in 1896.
Selection System Adopted. — As early as 1887 35 these failures
were so apparent that the selection system was considered
more rational. Yet at that time in the federal forests there
were 18 working groups of regular high forest and 2 of selection;
in the communal forests there were 7 working groups of regular
high forest, i of selection, and i of coppice.
Advantages. — The main reason for the change was that
with the selection system the fire danger is less grave. Aside
from direct loss in wood and other products the working plans
were entirely invalidated by the fires and in a day rendered
obsolete.
Moreover, as stated in the last Marmano working plan, the
selection system which is proposed is better for the soil in high
mountain areas, it will assure regeneration because it keeps
the forest in a perpetual state of regeneration, it will permit
the carrying out of thinnings at the time of the main fellings;
and the large trees retained will be an insurance against the
complete failure of natural regeneration, or in case of fire.
The conclusions of the present conservator were, that:
"The high forests of the island are chiefly (84 per cent)
composed of light-demanding species: holm oak, Corsican
and maritime pine. It would therefore seem that the proper
treatment to adopt . . . would have been that adapted to
a regular high forest (thinnings with regeneration by suc-
cessive concentrated fellings). In reality this method has
been applied; but, for non-silvical reasons it has been aban-
33 Aitone working plan, Sept. 19, 1890, p. 7.
34 Vizzavona working plan, 1868.
35 Unpublished report in official files, 1887.
WORKING PLANS AND CULTURAL METHODS 133
doned. The fires, unfortunately so frequent in Corsica, were
really disastrous and deadly for young even-aged regular
stands obtained by the high forest method; their destruction
often made blanks of great area in the stands. On the other
hand the treatment in ^irregular or selection high forest (where
the reproduction is secured by scattered fellings) leaves all
over the forest mature seed trees, which, because of thick
bark, can resist the fire. Young growth killed by fire is thus
replaced entirely by nature.
"It is for this reason that the selection system has been
adopted finally in Corsica for all species, instead of the regular
high forest."
Application. — The selection system finally adopted is essen-
tially a group selection, or, as it was named by de Lapasse,
the "Ecumoire" (a perforated ladle used by cooks for skimming
soup) system of cutting, where little holes are made in the
stand. It is regular enough to warrant thinnings and yet
irregular enough to avoid the extreme fire dangers of even-
aged stands.36 An unpublished official description of the system
in use is as follows:
" Since every pine is essentially a light-demanding species,
in order to obtain natural regeneration it is necessary to
open up the soil quite freely, because a cover is not necessary
for the seedlings. The stand which results from these pre-
tended selection fellings does not necessarily have any simi-
larity with the theoretical selection high forest; it is formed
of large patches of timber of the same size, often of the same
age, which follow each other irregularly. The size of the
opening necessary to give all the light required for the de-
velopment of the seedlings depends on the slope, the total
height of the stand, and on the condition of the soil. It
cannot be fixed in advance, but the canopy may be freely
interrupted, since the entrance of dangerous winds need not
be feared."
But perhaps the most complete official description of the
present selection method is given in the Aitone working plan,
Art. 8, dated Nov. 30, 1907. Here the degree of regularity
aimed at is well described:
36 Valdoniello working plan, Dec. 20, 1900, pp. 6-7.
134 CORSICA
"The volume of trees 0.35 metre (14 inches) and over in
diameter, however realized, shall be counted against the yield.
The forest agents shall be free to use whatever method seems
satisfactory in estimating the fellings. If it consists, however,
of the chief or accidental yield, they will have to use the
volume tables which were used in estimating the growing stock.
:i The fellings will remove:
"(i) All the trees that are dead, defective, overmature, or
completely decayed.
"(2) Trees measuring less than 0.35 metre (14 inches) in
diameter which are not required.
"(3) Small trees without any future.
" The agents should not lose sight of the fact that the selec-
tion method should not be considered as an empirical process
in which one is limited to recruit the yield from dead trees,
those overmature or of large size. ... It includes the same
operations as the method of regular high forest (seed fellings,
secondary, final, cleanings, thinnings).
" That which differentiates the two methods is that with the
shelterwood system the same kind of operations follow con-
secutively and are consequently massed in a district . . .
while that in the selection system these operations are scat-
tered over the whole area of the forest in little spots. It
therefore follows that the fellings protect one another, so to
speak. Do not imagine therefore that the selection system
confines itself to realizing the large timber alone. It is neces-
sary, within the perimeter of each felling area, to practice
all the essential cultural operations; to free the young growth,
to thin the stands that are too thick, to cut out the trees
with no future and never to lose sight of the fact that the
really profitable growth is that which takes place in the trees
destined to remain until the end of the rotation. At the
same time one must avoid the tendency to regularize the
stands by allowing any particular age class to dominate a
large area just as one must avoid breaking the cover syste-
matically to give it the aspect of a selection forest when
managing a regular high forest of good growth."
Only one official reference to the size of the openings to be
made has been found:
87 ". . . in the stands of Corsican pine it will be best,
whenever the density of the stand will permit it, to proceed
37 Maraiano working plan, Dec. 5, 1907, p. 14.
WORKING PLANS AND CULTURAL METHODS 135
by removing groups of trees so as to cut up the stand into
openings of 0.03 to 0.04 hectare (0.074 to 0.098 acre) so
that the seedlings of this species will receive the light they
require."
Coppice. — In 191 138 two-thirds of the communal and federal
forests under working plans were high forest (selection) and but
one-third in coppice. The same general coppice methods are
applied as in France proper. In Corsica the coppice is managed
chiefly for charcoal and fire wood; holm oak is favored against
other species. Private coppice is cut at irregular intervals on
short rotations without waiting for silvical maturity; perhaps
this explains in part why one-third the island is covered with
mere brush or maquis.
Marking Corsican Pine. — Were it not for the extensive
grazing by goats it is certain that with successful fire protection,
regeneration of Corsican pine would be simple, barring periodic
droughts during the summer season. Being a light-demanding
species the tree is well adapted in theory to the shelterwood
system. However, we have cited the reasons why a group
selection method of regeneration has been given the preference.
But the key note to the system,, as applied, is that the cuttings
are irregular and in small patches, with periodic thinnings
(which in the past have been sadly* neglected) in the poles.
According to recent inspections39 the marking has been too
heavy, particularly in the protection zone, and local inspectors
are advised to resist the insistent demands from communes for
heavy fellings.
Two o.4o-hectare (i-acre) sample plots were laid out in the
Valdoniello forest in a mature stand of Corsican pine, where
there was no regeneration because of overgrazing; in general
appearance the stand was identical with the optimum mature
western yellow pine stands on a rich soil in Arizona or New
Mexico. It is significant that less than one-fourth the volume
was marked for cutting, whereas of the western yellow pine grow-
ing on drier soil at least two-thirds has been usually cut.
38 Unpublished notes by de Lapasse.
39 Annual report for 1910, de Lapasse.
136
CORSICA
TABLE 19. — CUTTING
Diameter breasthigh.
Acre A.
Acre B.
Centimetres.
Inches.
Marked.
Unmarked.
Marked.
Unmarked.
35-56
43-l8
50.80
58.42
66.04
73-66
81.28
88.90
96.52
104.14
in .76
14
17
2O
23
26
29
32
35
38
4i
44
8
5
9
8
5
i
i
I
2
10
7
5
5
4
3
I
I
I
Totals
5
42
6
34
This was virtually a light improvement cutting, with the
addition of a few of the best veterans.
It is always possible to mark heavier at the next felling and
the present tendency is unmistakably toward lighter marking,
owing to the object lessons of past sales where too many trees
were removed.
An inspection of the Valdoniello forest cutting justifies the
following deductions as to marking: where the stand is open
though mature, but with poor regeneration, only fungus in-
fected or defective trees are cut; on a ridge trees are usually
left for seed until they are actually dead or dying; along roads
trees are left for shade and for scenic purposes, one inspector
going to the extreme of leaving a few dead trees that he thought
added to the picturesqueness of a rural highway.
On a slope where the regeneration had come in on fully three-
fourths of the area, one-half to three-fifths of the scattering over-
story was cut. The removal included mature and defective
trees. Yet many mature trees shading regeneration were left
in accordance with the policy of irregularizing the forest as a
fire protective measure. One of the unfortunate features of
marking, in Corsica (as in other parts of Europe), is the yield
limitations which often hinder the application of correct silvical
marking. The problem often arises: given a cut of 400 cubic
metres (14,125 cu. ft.), which should be distributed over an
area of 27 hectares (66 acres), what trees shall be cut?
FOREST REGULATION AND YIELD 137
FOREST REGULATION AND YIELD
Rotation. — The first plan for the Marmano forest (1860)
fixed the rotation for Corsican pine at 125 years, but this was
established not on the rate of growth, but rather on the regen-
eration requirements and was admittedly transitory. In 1890
the rotation for the forest of Aitone was still 160 years, and in
1855 the working-plans officer40 wrote:
"The growth of the Corsican pine is vigorous up to 100
or 120 years; it will stand quite a long time further before
showing marked signs of declining vigor at 160 or 180 years.
It is at this age only that the tree commences to have a little
sapwood and to be valuable for trade; it should be cut before
200 years to have sound material. A hundred and sixty
years will be just a normal rotation for the Corsican pine."
The first rotation established for the Valdoniello forest was 1 20
years. The results of these short rotations, 120 to 160 years,
have proved unsatisfactory. They have resulted in overcutting;
insufficient time has been allowed for the growth of trees to a
merchantable size, and trees after 120 years are in most cases
occasionally liable to complete destruction by fire. From the
year 1907 all the rotations for Corsican pine have been placed
at 360 years,41 the time, it is estimated, a tree reaches o.oo to
i metre (o to 3 feet) in diameter; but counting rotations in
force before 1907 they vary from 240 to 360 years. It is
claimed that trees of this size must be furnished by federal or
communal forests to supply the demand for large timbers.
On account of the rough and mountainous character of the
higher ridges there is usually in each forest a protection block
where no definite rotation can be applied. According to the
Aitone working plan, dated Nov. 30, 1907, no rotation is given
for the Corsican pine because . . . " their preservation on
40 Bavella working plan, Jan. 6, 1855, Part III.
41 This is probably the longest official rotation for a conifer on record; judging
from the few stump analyses made this rotation is at least a century or a century
and a half too long; owing to past overcutting the French deemed it a wise
policy to increase the growing stock by using long rotations. This decision was
backed up by the demand for large-sized trees and because of the greater immu-
nity of such trees from fire.
138 CORSICA
the stump is indispensable to prevent slides, avalanches . . .
it therefore results that a physical felling system should be
applied." . . . " yield by area" . . . " biennial fellings"; in
the words of the working plan, "The new working plan put
in force will diminish the yield materially . . . the new state
of affairs will have the great advantage of giving to this forest
the rest which it needs," the latter condition being due to past
overcutting.
Periods. — With the present 36o-year rotation the Valdo-
niello plan makes 15 periods of 24 years each, and they pro-
pose to cut 0.399 "°f the available volume in each compart-
ment." In the Aitone forest, with the same rotation, there are 3
periods of 1 20 years each, and the yield is cut in triennial fellings.
Yield. — Owing to the past excessively short rotations, the
necessity for road development through large sales and to fires,
and because on some forests the pick of the merchantable timber
has been culled, the yield (even including a reasonable dimi-
nution of the excess growing stock) has been exceeded. For
some time all sales on the Vizzavona and Bavella forests have
been necessarily suspended. The cut in the past42 has been
applied in two ways: where feasible by annual or periodic sales
in accordance with the working-plan prescriptions; in other
cases at irregular intervals on special recommendations because
of an emergency, on account of windfall or overmature timber.
These methods have usually given excellent results.
Overcutting. — The error of overcutting has also been occa-
sioned by other causes. In the forest of Aitone, for example,
the working plan43 criticises the past treatment because the
yield has been seriously exceeded.
"A yield much too large, and based on wood suitable for
lumber, and not on the total volume, including branches and
tops, has been taken.
" The absence of a protective zone carefully planned,44 which
42 Unpublished official report in files, dated 1887.
43 Valdoniello working plan, Dec. 20, 1900, p. 19.
44 The present protective zone comprises 3029.5 hectares (7486 acres) of which
14.5 hectares (35 acres) of openings can be restocked, but 1938.3 (4789 acres) are
unproductive rocks.
FOREST REGULATION AND YIELD 139
has permitted the executive officers to locate fellings area in
the parts altogether too elevated, where the regeneration will
be problematic."
In 1840 there were listed 391,591 cubic metres (13,828,644
cu. ft.) of saw logs and 707,079 steres (24,969,758 stacked cu. ft.)
of fuel; in 1896 the total growing stock was 567,217 cubic metres
(20,030,701 cu. ft.). For the 13 years prior to 1900 the yield
in francs was 25,079.09 ($4840.26) but the 1900 working plan
(Part V) reduced the allowable annual yield to 11,746 francs
($2266.97), or less ^an half. The precaution had been taken
to caliper the defective and sound trees separately, to drive
home the past error of cutting the yield from the best
timber.
In explaining the necessary reduction in cut the 1907 Mar-
mano plan reviews the past yield:
1858 to 1870 3000 cubic metres (105,942 cu. ft.) excluding45
tops and branches.
1871 to 1882 2114 cubic metres (74,654 cu. ft.) excluding
tops and branches.
1883 to 1907 483 cubic metres (17,057 cu. ft.) excluding
tops and branches.
1908 767 cubic metres (27,086 cu. ft.) excluding
tops and branches.
Some forests, according to de Lapasse, were deliberately
overcut in order to pay for the road system, but these have
now recovered. One of the greatest drawbacks was the poor
market, which apparently made it necessary to leave un-
sound trees standing because only the best timber could be
sold.
Production. — The production for the forested area amounts
to but 0.950 cubic metre (33 cu. ft.) per hectare per year for
the total areas. The annual production may be summarized:46
45 Tops and branches are usually calculated at 10 per cent of the stem; but
the unsound trees are estimated to contain only one-fourth their total volume in
merchantable material.
46 Furnished by de Lapasse; see also statistics, page 209.
140
CORSICA
TABLE 20
Class of forest.
Firewood.
Lumber.
Total.
Cu. m.
Cu. ft.
Cu. m.
Cu. ft.
Cu. m.
Cu. ft.
Federal forests
16,902
45,180
p2,755
596,877
1, 595»486
1,156,710
12,405
8,695
I7»566
438,069
307,055
620,332
29,307
53,875
50,321
1,034,946
1,902,541
1,777,042
Communal forests. . .
Private and commu-
nal forests not un-
der management
Totals
94,837
3,349.073
38,666
1,365,456
133.503
4,714,529
Yield Calculations. — An example of how the yield is calcu-
lated is quoted from the 1907 Marmano plan, where the rela-
tionship between the old and average timber is not far from the
normal proportion of f to f , namely:
61,000.89 (old timber) 61
38,389.72 (average timber) 38'
62
whereas the normal proportion should be —
o /
"To obtain the annual yield in the pine block during the
first period it is (accurate) enough to divide the volume of
the old wood, Corsican pine, by J the rotation, or 120. This
yield is then - - = 508.333 or 508 (17,939 cu. ft.) in
round figures.
To this is added a cut of 259 cubic metres (9146 cu. ft.) of
maritime pine, making a total cut of 767 cubic metres (27,085
cu. ft.) including branches, as against 3000 cubic metres
(105,942 cu. ft.) in 1870, excluding branches."
The details of yield regulation in French selection forests will
be discussed in a later volume, entitled American Forest
Regulation.
SALES METHODS AND CONTRACTS — TURPENTINE LEASES
Timber and Wood Sales. — The essential features of the
methods of selling timber in France will be described in detail
in a forthcoming publication.
The same methods are used in Corsica where all sales of
importance are auctioned, even the long-term sales for large
SALES METHODS AND CONTRACTS 141
amounts which are made only in Corsica, Tunisia, Algeria
(French China), and in parts of the Pyrenees where there is
a poor demand owing to lack of communications.
Sales Contract Conditions. — The sales contract conditions
in Corsica (approved in 1909) follow very closely those given
in the standard sales circular for France proper; the differences
are minor ones and are due to different local conditions. Owing
to the amount of dead wood and windfalls during a long sale
period special provision is made:
"ART. 20. The standing dead wood or snags within the
felling areas which may not have been marked for felling
because of advanced decay, and the wood resulting from roads
and fire lines, shall become a part of the sale. The 'maquis'
(brush) is also included, except in high forest felling areas
marked for cutting. So far as these latter fellings are con-
cerned, the 'maquis' shall not belong to the purchaser unless
definitely mentioned in the special contract and in the sales
circular.
"ART. 21. Unless otherwise stated in the sales circular
and in the advertisement, the windfalls and dead wood within
the perimeter of the felling area during the logging shall
belong to the contractor when their (aggregate) volume does
not exceed TV the volume of the yield from the felling, and
he shall be bound to take them under the conditions enumer-
ated in Part VI to follow, and to pay for the portions which
have a commercial value, at prices indicated in the special
clauses. The contractor shall be bound to take, under the
same conditions, the stems bent by the wind or damaged by
any cause aside from exploitation, which shall be shown him
by the Waters and Forests agent."
According to Art. 25 the purchasers are obliged:
"i. To limb clean with the bole all trees felled and to cut
level with the ground the stems and the 'maquis' broken,
bent or overturned by the felling or skidding.
"2. To regularly pile all wood, whether bole or branches,
cut up or capable of being split into billets measuring more
than 0.50 metre (20 inches) in circumference at the small end.
"3. To remove and pile in the same way all wood less
than 0.50 metre (20 inches) at the large end, the chips from
felling, splitting or cording, the twigs, bark and other debris as
well as the stems and the ' maquis ' cut clean with the ground."
142 CORSICA
And by:
"ART. 26. The purchaser will have the right to peel
(trees) standing, but with the following restrictions:
"i. To cut before peeling, at the foot of each of the trees
marked for felling, an annular notch o.io metre (about 4
inches) above the ground extending just to the wood.
"2. To fell these trees at or below the notch so that the
bark of the stump will wholly adhere to the circumference
of the stump surface.
"3. To finish the felling before the first day of March
following the date of peeling."
The privilege of tapping for resin is granted free:
"ART. 27. Unless otherwise indicated in the bill of sale
and in the minutes of sale, the pine marked for felling can be
tapped for resin without any special charge."
On account of the great danger from fires, clearing around
points of special hazard is obligatory:
"ART. 32. The purchasers will be bound, before starting
any fire on these areas, to grub and completely clear the soil
of all inflammable material at least 2 metres (7 feet) wide
around these areas, and to take besides every precaution
prescribed by the Waters and Forest agent with a view of
preventing (forest) fires. It is forbidden to have any lighted
forge or to light any fire outside the huts during the period
between the 1 5th of June and the 1 5th of September inclusive.
Any violation of this article will render the contractor liable
to the penalties prescribed by article 148 of the forest code."
As in France the purchaser is required to pay for trees dam-
aged during logging, but in Corsica a much lower scale of prices
is levied because the prevailing stumpage rates are correspond-
ingly less:
"Trees from 6 to n cm. (2.4 to 4.3 inches) inclusive, o.io
franc ($0.019) per 10 cm. (3.9 inches) of circumference; from
12 to 19 cm. (4.7 to 7.5 inches), 0.20 franc ($0.038); from 20
to 29 cm. (7.8 to 11.4 inches), 0.35 franc ($0.067); over 29 cm.
(11.4 inches), 0.50 franc ($0.096)."
It is evident from clauses 39 to 41 which follow that the road
systems on Corsica forests are far from complete; in fact one
SALES METHODS AND CONTRACTS 143
of the justifications of the long-term sales for large amounts
is the need of road development which falls to the purchaser
as a part of the purchase price of the timber:
"ART. 39. The roads and trails shall be built on solid
ground, following the alignment which will be previously
bench marked by the cantonment chief; the roads cannot
be covered over with split wood or with chips after the conv
mencement of the work of alignment by the forest agent.
"The bridges to be built or repaired shall be constructed
with impregnated (tarred) wood, supported by masonry abut-
ments or piers; yet, under certain exceptional circumstances,
reserved for the approval of the conservator, the contractor
may be permitted to lay the floor on rows of piles and wooden
buttresses.
"ART. 40. The trees to be felled in order to open up logging
roads shall first be designated by the Waters and Forest
agent in charge and marked with his hammer, and will belong
to the purchaser who will be bound to take them and pay
for them when they have a commercial value, according to
the prices fixed in the sales circular and in the record of sale
and under the conditions given in Part VI below.
"The wood necessary for the construction or repair of
bridges, for the maintenance of ways or corduroying road
beds shall come from trees marked for felling, either in the
felling areas to be cut over or on the rights of way of the
roads and logging trails; in default of wood from these sources,
suitable to be used for this purpose, the purchasers may be
authorized, under the same conditions mentioned above, to
take the trees which shall be judged necessary, outside of
the felling area, in the stands bordering the construction to
be done.
"ART. 41. All roads shall always be free and (so that)
they can be put at the disposal of the purchasers of near-by
felling areas, without any other obligation on their part
except to repair the damages resulting from their logging."
Owing to the long hauls, lower prices, and lack of market for
low quality fuel much debris must be burned in the woods as
a fire protection measure:
"ART. 42. The purchasers shall have the option of leaving
on the felling area trees limbed and topped, billets and large
refuse coming under No. 2 of Article 25. They may also
144 CORSICA
be relieved of removing the refuse falling under No. 3 of said
article, but they must in that event burn them.
"This burning can only take place during the period com-
prised between October i and May 31. It shall take place
on areas designated by the local Waters and Forests agent
or by his representative and on dates which he will fix.
"The purchasers must take all necessary precautions to
prevent the spread of fire or any damage whatever either on
live stumps, in young growth, or to reserved trees. He shall
be held responsible for the damages that the burning may
occasion, even when they may have been done in the presence
of or under the superintendence of Waters and Forests offi-
cers or employees."
What must amount to a considerable obligation is the re-
sponsibilities of purchasers in case of fire, lack of road facilities,
or any act of Providence which might interfere or stop the
marketing of products which they had previously bought and
paid for:
"ART. 46. The purchasers cannot claim any indemnity,
reduction, or refund because of the impracticability, drainage,
or poor condition of the roads and trails, either Forest Service
or public, nor because of any steps which may be taken by
competent authorities with a view to the preservation, up-
keep, or betterment of routes.
"ART. 61. The purchasers cannot claim any indemnity
or refund in the event of a fire or when any other act of
Providence may have damaged or destroyed the products
of their felling areas or even when it may have hindered or
suspended the exploitation or logging."
The classification and joint measurement of the product,
when sales are made on the unit basis, is an interesting feature.
According to the first paragraph of Clause 53 evidently there
are occasional differences as to the correctness of scale.
"ART. 52. The products (classified) by sizes and mer-
chantable quality and in addition those destined to be util-
ized (locally) by the contractor, shall be valued according
to their contents in solid cubic metres or in piled steres and
shall be paid for at prices fixed for each class by the special
clauses of the sale.
SALES METHODS AND CONTRACTS 145
"ART. 53. The scaling will be done by the cantonment
chief always in company with the purchaser or his represen-
tative duly notified. A record (scale report) shall be pre-
pared which shall be signed by the Waters and Forest agent
and the officiating inspector as well as by the purchaser. If
the purchaser is not present nor represented during the
scaling or if he will not sign (the report), this shall be (duly)
noted.
"The scale report shall be submitted for the approval of
the conservator and when approved, the amounts due from
the purchaser will be settled. The volume of the products
classed as unmerchantable, of no value and without a use.
should be figured on the scale report as given free."
Sales for Large Amounts. — So far as can be learned from
official sources, the main drawback to the sales for large amounts
is that in a number of cases they have resulted in overcutting;
their main justification has been road development. Bearing
in mind that Corsica was settled over 2000 years ago it is not
strange that an island people with no coal resources should
have drawn heavily on available timber supplies both for fuel
and construction. The very remoteness of the Corsican pine
stands, however, which has saved them from utter destruction,
now makes the marketing of the timber a matter of expense
and difficulty — insurmountable obstacles to small sales where
no one contractor could be held responsible for the necessary
road development. The present conservator, M. de Lapasse,
does not believe in these large sales, but admits their necessity
until the road system is developed for each forest.
Example of a Long-term Sale. — The special conditions47
for the last large sale were approved by the Secretary of Agri-
culture, Jan. 21, 1910, and the auction was held at Corte, by
the conservator, July 25, 1911, nearly a year and a half later.
The printed circular gives the special conditions that supple-
ment or modify those of the general sales circular for Corsica.
It also includes an exact estimate of the trees marked for felling;
by compartments there is listed for each important species
(and whether sound or unsound) the number of trees and volumes
47 A translation of these conditions is given in the Appendix, p. 214.
146 CORSICA
in cubic metres by 4-inch (101.6 millimetres) diameter classes.
A summary on the same basis is given for the total cutting
area, including the 15 compartments. The aggregate volumes
are also classified by (a) lumber, (b) dimension stuff, and (c)
cord wood. This estimate forms the real basis for the sales
price, and, of course, all marked trees are carefully calipered,
yet the trees that are fungus infected are estimated as yielding
only one-fourth their total volume in saw material.
For this sale the resin yield per tree and per year is estimated
at 1.25 litres (1.3 quarts) for maritime pine and i litre (about i
quart) for Corsican pine. Two sets of maps accompany the
clauses and estimate — a location map showing the sale with
respect to transportation on a scale of 1:100,000; a compart-
ment map on a scale of i : 40,000, showing the boundaries and
drainage. The road to be constructed by the purchaser, 16,000
metres (17,498 yards) in length, is estimated to cost 500,000
francs ($96,500) and it is expected that it will take 5 years
before profitable logging can be commenced.
The total of 125,058 cubic metres (4,416,298 cubic feet) of
merchantable logs and 60,101 metres (2,122,407 cubic feet) of
cordwood actually sold for 225,000 francs ($43,425), but the
contractor had to pay stamp and registry charges of 5716
francs ($1103.19) and besides obligated himself to build roads
costing 500,000 francs ($96,500). This corresponds roughly to
paying a lump sum in advance for stumpage at 15.55 francs
($3) per thousand board feet or over 12 francs ($2.32) per
cubic metre (35 cubic feet) ($0.066 per cubic foot) standing.
The minimum price in such sales is made upon the basis of
neighboring sales, but the auction price itself may fall be-
low the estimate, as in the Asco sale where there was no
bidding.
To estimate the stumpage value of any particular sale, the
forest officer figures the cost of putting the timber on the market
and deducts this from the estimated returns. In long-term
timber sales in Corsica, the contractor's profit is figured at 20
per cent, on account of the unusual risk; this is double the
contractor's profit allowed in France.
SALES METHODS AND CONTRACTS
147
A sample estimate of the stumpage value is given below.48
It is merely an exceedingly simple estimate of the sale value of
the material with the cost of putting it on the market deducted.
These stumpage value estimates are often high; in one case
the total value was estimated at 480,000 francs ($92,640) or
2. 60 francs per cubic metre ($0.014 per cubic foot), whereas the
price realized was 350,000 francs ($67,550) or 1.90 francs per
cubic metre ($0.01 per cubic foot).
Corsican Pine. —
53,635 trees, 111,338 steres (30,717 cords) lumber.
Maritime Pine. —
12,494 trees, 13,720 steres (3785 cords) dimension stuff.
(And for the two 90,151 steres (24,872 cords) of firewood.)
TABLE 21
Francs.
Dollars.
Sale price:
111,338 steres at 8.50 francs
046,373 .OO
(30,717 cords at $<; QA)
182,64.0 oo
13,720 steres at 5.00 francs
68,600 OO
(3,785 cords at $3.45)
13,230 80
90,151 steres (24,872 cords) , no value
Deduct:
Contractors' profit of 20 per cent
1,014,973.00
202,994.60
195,889.79
39,177 .96
Felling, 160,000 steres at 2.50 francs
4,OOO.oo
(44,142 cords at $1.74) . . .
772 .OO
Fines, stamp rights . . . .
IOO .OO
10 . 3O
Registry
I 20 . OO
23.16
3 per cent of this for administration
2O7,2I4.6o
495,113.40
14,853.60
39>992.42
9S.S57-89
2,866 75
480,259.80
92,691 .14
i.e., 3.80 francs per cubic metre ($2.69 per cord).
The interesting features of this sale may be summarized as 49
follows :
The timber was sold standing with no guarantee as to esti-
mate, nor insurance against total loss from acts of Providence,
but provision is made for the sale on a unit basis of additional
48 Based on official report for the Asco sale.
49 Based on official "cahier des charges" for the Asco sale.
148 CORSICA
trees necessarily cut during the operations; a volume table is
given to show how they will be calculated; payments are es-
sentially in advance of cutting; the period is 18 years for ordi-
nary felling and 20 years where the trees to be felled are first
tapped, and no further extensions of time are permissible.
Cutting in any one compartment (really treated as separate
sales) must ordinarily be finished within three years. An
extension of time may be secured, provided the extensions
for any one compartment do not exceed two years. The prin-
ciple of charging an extra rate for a longer cutting period seems
especially interesting. Since all trees had to be marked before
the special circular was issued or the sale made, there is pro-
vision for a remark in case the imprint "A. F." (administration
forestiere) is becoming obliterated.50
The risks the purchaser must run during exploitation must
be heavy, because the government repeatedly shuns the re-
sponsibility not only for faulty estimates, acts of Providence,
such as fires, storms, avalanches, floods, windfall, insect attack,
but also for damage to roads or delays in road construction and
even in the event of the possible denial of special use privileges.
The purchaser is to be granted, if there is no objection, the
necessary permits for special road construction, bridges, build-
ings and the like, but every improvement except temporary
houses and logging or sawmill equipment becomes the property
of the commune. For example, the purchaser may be obliged
to build a substantial bridge on concrete foundations, yet this
must be turned over free to the commune, when the sale is
completed.
As in France, two methods of tapping are recognized in this
sale: (a) tapping to death when an area is formally opened
for felling and (b) tapping alive in compartments where cutting
is not in progress. In (a) there are no restrictions as to methods
but in (b) the following are the essential rules to be followed:
only one face is allowed at a time ; this face must be begun above
the root collar and continued vertically; its maximum length
50 One of the rangers is authority for the statement that if a mark is lightly
burned over the imprint will show for 30 or more years.
SALES METHODS AND CONTRACTS 149
may be for the first year 60 centimetres (24 inches), "and each
of the following years 70 centimetres (27 inches) provided the
total height of the face does not exceed 3.40 metres (4 yards) "
at the end of the 5-year tapping period. The maximum widths
are 9 centimetres (4.54 inches) the first year, 8 centimetres (3.14
inches) the second, third, or fourth and 7 centimetres (2.75 inches)
the fifth. The incision below the cambium must not exceed
i centimetre (0.39 inch). New faces must, if possible, be on
the opposite side of the tree. Where the full tapping term
cannot be enjoyed the conservator has the privilege of modi-
fying the maximum heights and widths. The season for reg-
ular tapping is March i to October 31.
Special Rules. — In order to insure that the employees of
the purchaser take a keen interest in observing the rules, it
is provided that any individual may be excluded from the sale
area for trespass, poaching, or insubordination.
A feature of long-term sales which has perhaps an interest
is the possible change in management during a sale lasting
20 years. Suppose the purchaser is 40 years old at the time
of the sale, he has only 74 chances in 100 of living to see the
sale completed, according to the American mortality tables
in use by the Equitable Life Insurance Co. If the successful
completion of the sale depends on, let us say, three partners,
the ratio against success is trebled. But subsequent managers
cannot complain that in Corsica the conditions of the sale were
not fully explained beforehand, because the sale circular is very
complete and all the regular cut is marked before the auction.
Ordinary Sales Data. — As the best example of the data
furnished bidders before an ordinary auction the conservator
picked out the following:
"ART. 9. — Forest of Valdoniello. Communal property of
Albertacce. Maneville Canton — Poggi beat at Ciatterino.
" Block i. Compartment K (part). Management felling area
No. 12. Lot i (North).
" Selection felling including 300 Corsican pine, 2 of which are
windfalls, marked for felling, on the root and bole, with the
federal marking hatchet, to wit:
150 CORSICA
" Diameters — »
3o51(n.852) 40(15-7) 5o(!9-7) 60(23.6) 7o(27-6)
80(31.5) 90 (35.4) 100 (39.4) 110(43.3) 120(47.2)
" joo Corsican pine —
(Number of trees corresponding to above diameter classes.)
26 73 45 44 34
33 15 20 7 3
" Estimated products: — Timber, 528 cubic metres (18,646 cubic
feet) of logs (of which 33 cubic metres (1165 cubic feet) have
come from 57 fungus infected trees). Firewood: 1546 steres
(54,595 cubic feet). Total volume 1559 cubic metres (55,054
cubic feet). The dry trees, to the number of 25, are valued
only as fuel.
" Boundaries. — N. Manevelle ravine, dividing line between
H. — E.: forest road No. 9 — S: San Pietro ravine. — O: rest
of compartment.
" Removal. — Forest road No. 9.
" Charges. — None."
After a Sale. — After a sale the forest is often considerably
damaged. The practice of skidding and hauling long lengths
(for which there is a keen market) damages reproduction and
skins the boles of trees left, when the logs are skidded or worked
down steep slopes.
The utilization is far from complete, but the Service has no
pecuniary interest here, since the usual sale is on the stump and
full payment is required before cutting. Stumps are chopped
rather high, and tops are not completely utilized. Occasionally
the cutting area resembles the old-time American slash with
lots of merchantable timber left for fires, and with poles topped
by the fall of the veterans. The brush is now piled and where
left to rot is practically decayed and reduced to humus after
4 or 5 years.
On some areas the very primitive method of hand-saw cutting
is employed in the woods, in which case the damage to stand-
ing timber is much less. Where the logs are sawed by hand
the timbers are packed out on donkeys or mules to the nearest
road. The road hauling is by mules or oxen.
61 Centimetres. 62 Inches.
TURPENTINE LEASES 151
1912 Stumpage Prices. — The official prices on the stump
for the year 1912, as cited in the timber sale circulars for the
different inspections, give fuel prices at 1.40 to 2 francs ($0.27
to $0.39) per stere (36 cubic feet) for holm oak, i to 1.20 francs
($0.19 to $0.23) for beech, and 20 centimes ($0.04) per stere (35
cubic feet) for Corsican or maritime pine. Sawlogs are estimated
at 2 to 3 francs ($0.39 to $0.58) for broadleaves, mostly beech, 4 to
4.50 francs ($0.77 to $0.87), and in one case 7 francs ($1.35) for
maritime pine; 10 per cent more for fir than for maritime pine;
only 5 to 6 francs ($0.96 to $1.16) for small-sized or poorly located
fellings in Corsican pine, but 13 francs ($2.51) for splendid saw-
timber near a main road in the forest of Valdoniello. In the vil-
lages ordinary timbers sell for 60 to 70 francs ($11.58 to $13.51)
per cubic metre (35 cubic feet), or 12 to 14 francs ($2.32 to $2.70)
per "canne." A "canne" consists of 2 planks 0.25 metre (9.8
inches) wide, 2.5 metres (8. 2 feet) long and 4 cm. (1.6 inches) thick;
they figure 4.3 to 4.5 Cannes to the cubic metre (35 cubic feet).
Turpentine Operations. — The rights53 to tap alive 53,849
maritime pine trees in the forest of Zonza sold for 15,350 francs
($2962.55) in 1908 for the 5-year period 1909 to 1913. Un-
fortunately, because of labor troubles, only 18,000 trees, or
one- third of the stand, were tapped in 1909; but in 1913 the
lease was in full swing and was being profitably operated. The
company has installed a local still at Zonza, to save the 30-
mile wagon haul and ocean shipping expense on the raw product.
One of the most promising features of the lease is the ap-
parent immunity from fires which this area enjoys. It is known
that many of the local citizens are personally interested in the
operating company and consequently the villagers make every
effort to keep out fire. The small area of maritime pine which
prevents a larger enterprise, and the hilly country which in-
creases the difficulty of tapping and collecting the resin, are
two important drawbacks.
The yield 54 has been satisfactory, but less than in the Landes.
In 1910, 19,000 pines (each with one face) yielded 41,600 liters
63 Conservator's annual reports for 1910 and 1911.
54 Conservator's reports for 1910 and 1911.
152
CORSICA
(43,958 quarts) of resin or 2.2 liters (2.3 quarts) per tree
(Landes average 2 liters (2.1 quarts) per tree), while 6000
trees yielded 0.32 of a liter (0.34 of a quart) per tree, giving
an average of 1.75 liters (1.8 quarts) per tree. In 1911 the aver-
age was 1.78 liters (1.9 quarts) per tree. Taking a price of 115
francs ($22.19) per barrel of 340 liters (359 quarts) (average
price in the Landes for 1910) the gross yield of this Zonza sale
should be — X 115 francs ($22.19) — cost °f 45 francs
($8.68) per barrel = 5760 francs ($1111.68).
The same methods that are applied in the Landes for mari-
time pine are followed in Corsica,55 except that the width and
length of the faces has been varied to a small extent as follows:
TABLE 22. — 5-YEAR PERIOD,5* ZONZA FOREST, 1909-1913
Faces in centimetres and inches.
Years.
Height.
Width.
Centimetres.
Inches.
Centimetres.
Inches.
First
60
60
65
65
70
23-6
23-6
25-6
25-6
27-6
9
8
7
6
3-54
3-i5
2.76
2.76
2.36
Second
Third ...
Fourth
Fifth
320
10' 6"
TABLE 23. — 4-YEAR PERIOD," ZONZA FOREST, 1912-1915
Faces in centimetres and inches.
Years.
Height.
Width.
Centimetres.
Inches.
Centimetres.
Inches.
First
60
65
70
85
23-6
25-6
27.6
33-5
9
8
8
7
3-54
3-15
3.15
2.76
Second
Third
Fourth
280
9' 2.3"
55 The bar should be as wide as the face for tapping alive. The faces should be
placed first on the north, then west, then south, then on the east side of the tree.
56 Office records of conservator.
57 Vente d'une Coupe de bois avec extraction de resine, approved Jan. 30, 1912,
OTHER FOREST ACTIVITIES 153
There seems to be little chance for profitably tapping the
Corsican pine. The ground is hilly and under the selection
system only scattered trees are marked for felling. These
alone could be tapped to death, and because of its slow growth
and inability to heal wounds quickly the advisability of tapping
alive is seriously questioned.
Minor Industries. — The extraction of pine stumps for
turpentine is encouraged and a very low price has been estab-
lished: 2 francs ($0.39) per stere (35 cubic feet).
The roots of tree heather are grubbed out for pipe wood.
About 13 tons were exported from Bastia to England58 in 1911;
they sell for 5.50 francs ($1.06) per 100 kilos (220 pounds).
During 1910 over 54,430 quintaux (6000 tons) of raw roots
were extracted.
The collection of seed, as in France, can be made only by
members of the rangers' or guards' families for sale to the
administration.
OTHER FOREST ACTIVITIES
Reforestation. — The only attempt at reforestation on a
large scale is at Chiavari; and this has not been entirely a
success. The partial failure has been because they have en-
deavored to sow an entire area to cork oak, whereas only the
richer soils were suitable. Moreover, the acorns were set too
deeply in the ground; 12.6 centimetres (5 inches) instead of
2.5 or 3.8 centimetres (i or 1.5 inches). They have learned
from this failure that large-scale planting operations should
only be attempted on the basis of careful plans, drawn up by
practical planting experts.
The only other sowing on the island has been tried in a Cor-
sican pine burn in the forest of Vizzavona, where it cost 3700
francs ($114.10) to sow 50 hectares (123 acres) by seed spots
i metre (39 inches) by 0.50 metre (19 inches) in size. The results
here also have been unsatisfactory.
58 H. M. Foreign Office Diplomatic and Consular Reports; 1910, p. 7; 1911,
P-S-
154
CORSICA
Trespass. — The forest users are apparently lawless and
hard to control. Trespass cases, when suits must be brought
to enforce the collection of damages, make enemies for the
Service.
During my trip frequent and flagrant open grazing trespass
was noted; also the destruction of signs, lopping birch for
goat feed even along a central road (forest of Valdoniello),
tapping pine for resin to be used as medicine, and the theft of
green wood for fuel in the forest of Valdoniello, where the head
ranger permitted the use of dead and down fuel without the
formality of a permit.
It is true, however, that trespass is gradually decreasing.
In 1886 there were 12 violations of the law in federal and 7
in communal forests per 1000 hectares (2471 acres), or an aver-
age of 9.5; in 1911 this average had fallen 20 per cent.
A comparison is given in the following table for the years
1886 59 and 191 160:
TABLE 24
18
36.
19
[I.
Number.
Per cent.
Number.
Per cent.
Fellings (and wood)
281
28
2Q7
36
Grazing
6^4
63
27^
•27
Fire
2O
2
Miscellaneous
q8
Q
117
14.
Fish
120
14
Totals
IO^3
82Q
As a corollary to this record, in 598 actions brought in 1911
(think of the official work the report and preparation of these
cases must have consumed!) 314, or 52 per cent, were acquitted.
Fire Protection. — Compared to the intensive fire protec-
tion along the Cote d'Azur, between Cannes and Toulon, the
protective methods in use in Corsica are crude. Grazing tres-
pass, even in federal forests, is winked at in order to induce
the local population not to set fires, but no systematic edu-
w Official report dated 1887.
60 Rapport de Prefect, 1912, p. 98.
OTHER FOREST ACTIVITIES 155
cational campaign has been waged, such as would be carried
on in the United States under similar conditions.
The patrol is kept up during the fire season, from May to
September, but telephone lines, regular lookout towers, tool
boxes at danger points and other details of modern fire pro-
tection are entirely lacking. In 1910 there were 6330 metres
(6922 yards) of fire lines brushed out; they are officially con-
sidered to be of unquestioned value, but too expensive under
past conditions. There 61 have been some 7 and 10 metre
(8 and n yard) lines, but wider lines — at least 20 metres (22
yards) — are now favored by the conservator. These few lines
have been cleared with trespass labor.
The acreage 62 burned over in 1910 was 10 hectares (25 acres)
in communal and 90 hectares (222 acres) in federal forests;
in 1911 the area burned over was 23.25 hectares (57 acres) in
communal and 108.12 hectares (267 acres) in federal forests. In
the past63 there have been periodic conflagrations which have
resulted (during unusually dry seasons) from incendiarism, burn-
ing brush, personal vengeance against the guards after law-
suits, camp fires followed by high winds. The former preventive
measures 63 are summarized as patrol and policing, coupled with
the disposal of debris.
As explained under " System of Management" the adoption
of the shelterwood system followed by even-aged stands was
the direct cause of much damage, partly because the periodic
blocks were too large. But during early sales the omission of
brush disposal caused incalculable injury. To-day the brush,
chips, and debris are piled after fellings and are then burned,
provided this can be done without harm to young growth.
The main problem in Corsican fire protection seems to be
not to guard against ordinary fires, but rather against those
extraordinary conflagrations which take place periodically dur-
ing seasons of drought. It is for this reason that the sacrifice
has been made of using the selection system with a light de-
manding species.
61 Conservator's report for 1910.
62 Especially in the forests of Bavella and Zonza.
63 Unpublished report in official records.
156 CORSICA
Grazing. — Since grazing in federal forests is forbidden by
law there are no restrictions as to methods of handling, such
as have been formulated, tried out, and proven of value in the
western United States. Under the conditions which exist in
Corsica, where the livelihood of so many depends on the products
of goats, sheep, cattle, and pigs, special laws recognizing the
necessity for restricted grazing would have given better results
than the present system of allowing the entry of stock sub
rosa.
Official records place the number of animals using the com-
munal mountain forests and grazing grounds above timber
line (June 15 to September 15) at 31,00x5 horses, 62,700 cattle,
198,000 sheep, and 197,600 goats. It is apparent from these
figures, that the industry must be reckoned with. The present
trespass is committed when crossing forests in going to and
from these mountain pastures, but the crossing is merely a
flimsy pretext for pasturing excluded areas.
Below the Corsican pine belt grazing is yearlong. The usual
rates (paid as a communal tax) are as follows: Horses and
cattle, i to 2 francs ($0.19 to $0.38) per year; sheep, o.io to
0.25 franc ($0.02 to $0.05); goats 0.25 to i franc ($0.05 to $0.19);
pigs (very much like the "razorbacks" of the Appalachians)
only from November i to March i, i to 2 francs ($0.19 to $0.38).
However, a gradual improvement is taking place. There
are now better roads and good boat service from France, and
drainage of swamp lands is receiving public attention.64 But
even now, the grazing methods are essentially primitive. Both
goats and sheep are grazed on an estimated area of pasturage
and fields of 57,646 hectares (142,433 acres). Considering the
amount of stock grazed, it is clear that this open area is not
sufficient. The forests must be pastured, if stock is to be main-
tained in good condition; according to recent figures, the fol-
lowing must be provided for: 260,000 sheep, 180,000 goats,
69,000 cattle, 28,300 horses and mules, 84,000 hogs, making
a grand total of 621,300.
64 Le Regime Pastoral de la Corse. Societe ForestiSre de Tranche Comte et
Belfort, XI, 8, pp. 600-613.
OTHER FOREST ACTIVITIES 157
Since the range outside the forests is not sufficient, it means
a good deal of crossing by stock from winter to summer grazings
and vice versa. There is urgent need either for the develop-
ment of more grazing area or else a reduction in the number
of stock. As late as 1852 there was actual armed conflict
over grazing rights. This illustrates that the problem is not
a simple one and must be handled with great tact.
Quarters. — The ranger stations usually include : one or
more houses, a shed or small barn, outhouse, water system,
and fenced garden. Separate rooms are provided for inspect-
ing officers, for the ranger, and for each guard. The quarters
are commodious; at the Aitone forest house65 there were no
less than 8 rooms on the second floor, kept vacant for the use
of officers on inspection — a dining room, kitchen, small study
(in the hall), and 5 bedrooms. The ranger was assigned a
kitchen, combined living and dining room and bedroom, and
each of the three guards also averaged three rooms. Plenty
of storage space is provided.
Besides these quarters there are detached houses with only one or
two rooms, located at strategic points as refuges or dinner camps
for calipering or marking crews, improvement laborers, and the like.
At the Aitone forest house the equipment provided for the
inspecting officers' quarters, of which the ranger is custodian,
was inventoried at 2201 francs ($424.79) and included complete
kitchen and table service, beds and bedding, and generous
furnishings. These quarters are, on written permission from
the conservator, put at the disposal of visitors for a few days;
yet, as the conservator's order states, the houses are not to be
regarded as hotels.
Official charges are posted: 4 francs ($0.77) a day for the
cantonment chief, 5 francs ($0.96) for other forest officers,
and 6 francs ($1.16) per day for ordinary visitors. The 6
francs ($1.16) per day is divided as follows: breakfast, 0.50
franc ($0.10); lunch or dinner, 2 francs ($0.39); lodging, includ-
ing linen, lights, and heat, 1.50 francs ($0.29).
65 The name "forest house" seems more precise than the term "ranger house"
or "ranger station" used in the United States.
158 CORSICA
A visitor's record is maintained to guard against any abuse
in the renting of quarters. This includes name, rank, address,
signature, date of arrival and departure, with a column en-
titled " remarks" for a record of articles broken or damaged.
These houses are usually exceedingly well located with south-
ern exposures, are provided with an excellent water system,
and are conveniently placed with regard to the work, particu-
larly with a view to watching the removal of timber along main
outlets. Yet the Papaja house in the Valdoniello forest, within
9.1 metres (30 feet) of the main road, has been found to be too
close for comfort.
According to the conservator's report for 1911 the houses
are generally well maintained,66 except when the guards' wives
are away, but the gardens are often allowed to run down.
Roads and Trails. — The roads and trails are usually main-
tained in good condition, but their location leaves something
to be desired. A forest road, it seems, should be laid out in
the first place to facilitate logging, rather than as a means of
egress to another valley for the general public. Again, an
expensive trail, merely to divide one block from another,
even if it is convenient for patrol, should be subordinated to
logging trails of permanent value.
Frequently the grade of both roads and trails is too easy;
an 8 per cent trail 5 miles long is certainly less desirable than a
12 per cent trail with only 4 miles to walk. The same prin-
ciple applies to roads with interminable windings.
The standard width for foot paths is i metre (i.i yards)
and for mule trails the same width, but with a widening to
1.3 metres (1.4 yards) on the turns. A path i metre (i.i yards)
wide on easy ground costs by contract 0.40 to 0.50 franc ($0.08 to
$0.10) per running metre, but if by day labor the cost with
supervision runs up to 2 ($0.39) and even 3 francs ($0.58). For
trail in rocky difficult ground the contract price is 2 to 2.50
francs ($0.39 to $0.48).
66 The maintenance is easy because they are constructed of stone; they have
cost from 9842 to 35,930 francs ($1899.51 to $6934.50), according to the space
provided.
OTHER FOREST ACTIVITIES 159
In the forest of Aitone distances from the forest house were
painted on rocks. For example f means 2 kilometres 300 metres
(i mile 755 yards).
A favorite system of preventing erosion on steep trails is
to place a row of flat rocks 7.7 or 10.2 cm. (3 or 4 inches) wide
angularly across the trail with a very slight depression behind.
There seems to be no standard method of painting compart-
ment letters; usually they are on a tree trunk after the bark
has been smoothed. Occasionally one sees the lettering on
rocks. The background is usually battleship grey with black
letters, or white with black or red letters.
Uses. — As compared with the liberality of the United States
federal leasing system the forests of Corsica are practically
closed to use. Road rights-of-way, it is true, are readily granted
as in France, but the alignment must always be made by the
forest officer. The only uses granted are those which arise
in connection with the disposal of timber, and, with the ex-
ception of sawmills, no formal permits were noted. Yet the
utmost precaution is taken to see that roads, trails, or bridges
constructed by contractors are built so as to permanently
better communication. After the use by the purchaser all
road, trail, and bridge improvements become the property of
the commune or government. The quality of the construction
work is carefully supervised, and it is only under exceptional
circumstances that contractors are allowed to build wooden
bridges; cement pillars at least would be required.
Before the issuance of a permit to install a sawmill, the fol-
lowing procedure must be adhered to: A written request from
the permittee, a report by the forest officer, including a location
map; approval by inspector and conservator. The usual
special clauses 67 required are as follows :
1. The authorization will terminate March i, 1914.
2. It is granted free.
3. The areas will be designated by the local Waters and
Forests agent.
4. The contractor must cover the smokestacks with a
67 Decision No. 3965, July 25, 1912, conservator's office records.
160 CORSICA
metallic screen, fine enough to prevent the egress of sparks,
and must take all the precautions which shall be prescribed
by the Waters and Forests agent. He shall also be bound to
comply with the relating laws and regulations.
5. All the buildings and living quarters attached to the
sawmill shall be free for the use of the agents and employees
of the Waters and Forest agent, who may pass the day
and night alone or accompanied, without the assistance of
a public officer or witness. To facilitate these visits a key
to the locked door of the cabins or workshops, if they are
locked, shall be sent by the permittees to the local guard.
6. Messrs. X shall be bound, each time that they wish
to haul to the sawmill or its premises, trees, billets or logs,
to send to the local ranger a detailed statement showing the
source, number, and the skidway (where the wood comes
from). This statement will be made in duplicate, one copy
of which, signed by the officer who approves it, will be returned
to the permittee. The wood enumerated will be identified
and marked free of cost by the local guard, within 5 days
after notification.
7. On expiration of the permit the permittees must, within
15 days, put the place in its original condition, fill up holes
which may have been dug for setting the mill; dispose of
the sawdust which may interfere with growth; and replace
the soil on the entire area occupied. In case of violation
of these conditions, it will be possible to proceed against
them (at their expense) as given by Article 41 of the Forest
Code independently of Article 4 of the same code.
APPENDIX
THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE (p. 161). — Part I — Forest Regime. Part
II — Waters and Forests Administration. Part III — State Forests: i, Bound-
aries; 2, Management; 3, Auctions of bark, felling areas, and sales by agreement;
4, Exploitation; 5, Check of cutting area; 6, Auctions and rentals of grazing, mast,
miscellaneous forest products; and agricultural land; 7, Wood rights in State
forests; 8, Expropriation. Part IV — Communal and Public Institution Forests.
Part V — Joint Tenancy Forests. Part VI — Private Forests, Reforestation
Areas, and Clearings. Part VII — Police and Conservation of Woods and Forests:
i, Provisions applicable to all woods; 2, Provisions applicable only to woods and
forests placed under forest administration. Part VIII — Prosecutions for Mis-
demeanours and Offences: i, Prosecutions undertaken in the name of the Waters
and Forests Service; 2, Prosecutions for misdemeanours and offences in woods
not under forest administration. Part IX — Penalties and Sentences Applicable
to Woods and Forests in General. Part X — Execution of Judgments: i, Judg-
ments concerning misdemeanours and offences in woods under forest administra-
tion; 2, Judgments concerning misdemeanours and offences committed in woods
which are not under forest administration. Part XI — General Provisions.
MISCELLANEOUS
Statistics of Federal Forests in Corsica under Provisional or Regular Working
Plans or Cutting Regulations (p. 209).
Sales Clauses, Forest of Asco, Corsica (p. 214).
Additional literature (p. 221).
Equivalents (p. 221).
Index (p. 223).
THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE1
PART I — FOREST REGIME
ART. i. In Algeria the following are placed under forest
administration 2 and are dealt with according to the provisions
of. the present law :
1. Woods and forests belonging to the State.
2. Woods and forests of communes or sections of com-
munes, which come under the condition provided for
in Art. 79.
1 Translated by Miss Nora Duff and edited by the writer; so far as possible
the literal translation has been rendered to illustrate the explicit language of the
code.
2 The "regime forestier" refers of course to the Algerian Waters and Forests
Service.
161
1 62 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
3. Woods and forests of public institutions, which come
under the same conditions.
4. Woods and forests in which the State, communes, or
public institutions have proprietary rights conjointly
with private individuals.
5. Ground, either covered with brush or bare, the re-
forestation of which has been recognized and declared
to be of public benefit, under the conditions indicated
in Part III, Art. 76, and in Part IV, Arts. 107, 108,
109.
The following are likewise placed under forest administra-
tion, but only provisionally:
1. Woods and forests presumably belonging to the State
in virtue of Art. 4 of the act dated June 16, 1851.
2. Woods and forests which are in litigation either be-
tween the different classes of owners mentioned above,
or between one of these owners and private individuals.
The woods and forests within the territory under military
control are placed under the forest administration, but dealt
with as the Governor General shall direct or according to any
regulation passed by the government council.
PART II. — WATERS AND FORESTS ADMINISTRATION
ART. 2. The officers3 of Waters and Forests employed in
Algeria form part of the staff of the Home Waters and Forests
and are subject to its laws and regulations especially as concerns
promotion.
They perform their duties under the authority of the Gov-
ernor General of Algeria.
The promotions in grade and class are decided upon in accord-
ance with the recommendations of the Governor General and
according to grades, either by a decree based on the recom-
mendation of the Minister of Agriculture, or by a resolution by
the Minister of Agriculture.
3 The words "agents" and "preposeV' have been taken to signify "officers"
and "employees" to distinguish between the superior supervisory and the sub-
ordinate ranger force. Those having at least the rank of forest assistant (garde
general) are locally referred to as officers. See p. 101 for data on organization.
BOUNDARIES 163
ART. 3. The subordinate force is recruited according to
state regulations. Natives who have served in the French
Army or Civil Service, and the sons of the native employees,
can be admitted as native forest guards when twenty-two
years of age if they can show a knowledge of the French language;
they will be nominated by the Governor General of Algeria.
ART. 4. An appointment in the Waters and Forests Service 4
is inconsistent with any other, either administrative or legal.
ART. 5. The officers and employees of the Waters and
Forests Service can only enter into office after having taken
oath before their home district court, and after having had
their commission and the certificate of their oath registered
at the record office of the district court, under whose juris-
diction they will exercise their duties.
In the event of a change of residence, which will place them
under another jurisdiction of the same standing, another oath
need not be taken.
ART. 6. The imprints on the marking hatchets, or instru-
ments employed in marking trees, etc., used by the Waters
and Forests officers and employees shall be registered at the
record office as follows:
Marks of marking hatchets or those with which officers and
employees are provided: at the record office of the district
court under whose jurisdiction they will exercise their duties.
Those of the standard national marking hatchet: at the
record office of the district court, and at the court of appeals.
PART III. — STATE FORESTS
SECTION I. — BOUNDARIES
ART. 7. In territories whose ownership has been proved or
settled by the application of the law of July 26, 1873, or that
of April 28, 1887, or that of Feb. 16, 1897, the general or partial
4 In this code the Algerian Waters and Forests Service is variously referred
to as: 1'administration des Eaux et Forets . . . Service des eaux et forets
. . . so these terms have been rendered: Waters and Forests Service, since
official publications always use the title "Service des Eaux et Forets."
1 64 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
settlement of boundaries will be effected in accordance with
the provisions in the following articles.
ART. 8. The separation of the State woods and forests, and
bordering properties can be requested either by the Woods and
Forests Service or by the border owners.
ART. 9. The separation act shall be commenced, either by the
State or by the border owners, according to the usual methods.
Nevertheless it shall be suspended, while decisions upon par-
tial or lesser actions are given, if the Service binds itself to give
a decision within a period of six months, in proceeding with the
general delimitation of the forest.
ART. 10. When the general boundaries of a State forest are
to be established, this delimitation shall be announced two
months in advance by an order of the prefect. This order
shall be posted and published in the neighbouring communes,
and posted at the domiciles of owners of border property, or
at those of their farmers, guards, or agents.
After this lapse of time, the officers of the Waters and Forests
Service will proceed with the boundary work, whether border-
ing owners are present or not.
ART. ii. The report of the boundary work shall immedi-
ately be filed at the secretary's office of the prefecture, and
an abstract at the office of the secretary of the sub-prefect,
which is connected with each division. Notice shall be given
by an order of the prefect, published and posted in the neigh-
bouring communes. Interested parties can thus take note and
enter their protests within a year from the day on which the
order shall have been published.
The Governor General shall declare whether he approves,
or if he refuses to confirm this report in whole or in part. His
declaration shall be made public in the same manner as the
report.
ART. 12. If, after these lapses of time, no protests have
been raised by the bordering owners against the boundary
report, and if the Governor General has not signified his re-
fusal to confirm it, the delimitation shall be final. The officers
of the Waters and Forests Service shall proceed in the pre-
MANAGEMENT 165
ceding months to mark the boundaries in the presence of the
interested parties, who shall be duly summoned by an order
of the prefect, as is prescribed in Art. 10.
ART. 13. In case of disputes arising, either during the de-
limitation or in consequence of objections raised by bordering
owners, in pursuance of Art. n, they shall be brought by the
interested parties into competent courts, and the delimitation
shall be suspended until after their decision.
Owners of border property shall have recourse to the courts
if, in the case provided for under Art. 12, the Waters and Forests
officers refuse to carry out the boundary marking.
ART. 14. When the separation or settlement of the bound-
aries shall be affected by simply setting corners, the expenses
shall be shared equally. When it shall be effected by planting
hedges, these shall be carried out at the expense of the peti-
tioner, and made entirely on his land.
ART. 15. In territories whose ownership has not yet been
settled or established, the notices which the department has
to make to the border owners, their farmers, guards and agents,
will be replaced by a general publication by means of the
public crier in the villages and markets, and by official notifi-
cations, addressed at least a fortnight in advance to the mayor
of the commune, and to the native assistant of the donar,
president of the djemae.5
In this case the expense of the boundary marking shall be
divided equally between the owner of the forest and the petitioner
or defendant.
SECTION II. — MANAGEMENT
ART. 16. All the woods and forests of the State domain are
subject to forest management regulated by decree.
ART. 17. No extraordinary felling whatsoever shall be made
in the State woods, nor any felling in the reserved fourth, or
of stands reserved by the management for growth to high forest,
without a special decree, under penalty of the sales being de-
5 "Temporary village constructed by Arab shepherds" or "fraction of a tribe
in Algeria."
1 66 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
clared null and void, except in the case of an appeal from the
purchaser, if it takes place, against the officials or officers who
shall have ordered or authorized such fellings.
This special decree shall be inserted in the law-notices.
SECTION HI. — AUCTIONS OF BARK, FELLING AREAS, AND
SALES BY AGREEMENT
ART. 1 8. No ordinary or extraordinary sale shall take place
in the State woods, except by public auction, announced at
least fifteen days in advance, by notices affixed in the principal
towns of the department, in the commune where the woods
are situated, in the neighbouring communes, and in the place
where the auction is held.
The Waters and Forests Service shall be authorized by special
decree of the Governor General of Algeria, to make at one and
the same auction, the sale of several felling areas of the same
cutting series, on condition that the periods for felling and for
payment shall not exceed five years.
At the completion of the operations, all the road and canal
making and all the bridges or tunnels built for transport or
for felling purposes shall become the property of the State
without any indemnity whatever.
ART. 19. Sales by mutual agreement can always be author-
ized in the following cases:
1. If there is an appeal of urgency on account of acci-
dental or unforeseen needs.
2. When forest products could not or cannot be sold by
means of public auction.
ART. 20. Any sale, concluded otherwise than by public
auction outside of the cases provided for in the preceding article,
shall be considered as a secret sale and declared null and void.
ART. 21. Any sale, although transacted by public auction,
shall be declared null and void in the same way, if it has not
been preceded by public notices as prescribed under Art. 18,
or if it has been made in other places, or on another day than
those which shall have been indicated on the notices already
published, or on the notices of withdrawal.
AUCTIONS OF BARK, ETC. 167
ART. 22. Any disputes which may arise during auctions
either as to their validity, or as to the solvency of those making
bids or giving securities, shall be decided immediately by the
official presiding at the auction.
ART. 23. The following are not allowed to take part in sales,
either personally, or by persons acting for them directly or
indirectly, either as principal bidder, or as a partner or surety:
1. Officers and employees of the Waters and Forests Serv-
ice throughout the Republic, the officials charged
with presiding or taking part in the sales, and the
collectors of the felled products throughout the terri-
tory where they exercise their functions. In case of
conviction of an offence they shall be punished by
a fine which shall not exceed a quarter or be less
than a twelfth of the total amount obtained by the
auction, and they shall be liable to imprisonment
and the prohibition contained in Art. 175 of the
Penal Code.
2. The relations and connections in direct line, the brothers,
brothers-in-law, uncles, and nephews of the officers
and employees of the Waters and Forests Service
throughout the territory for which officers and em-
ployees are commissioned.
In case of infraction of rules and regulations they shall be
subject to a fine equal to that laid down in the preceding
paragraph.
3. The counsellors of the tribunal, the judges, the officers
of public departments and recorders of district courts
in the entire area (arrondissement) in their jurisdiction.
In case of conviction, they shall be liable to all damages
should .any occur.
Any auction that shall be made contrary to the provisions
of this article shall be declared null and void.
ART. 24. Any secret association or negotiation between
dealers in wood, cork, or other forest products, tending to
lower or disturb the biddings, or to obtain the products at
a lower price, will lead to the application of the penalties cited
under Art. 412 of the Penal Code, in addition to all damages,
1 68 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
and if the auction has resulted in favour of the secret asso-
ciation, or the parties to the aforesaid negotiation, it shall be
declared null and void.
The cases provided against to be declared null and void
under Arts. 20, 21, and 23 form part of the regulations for
public safety as well as those set forth under the present article.
ART. 25. No verdict or ruling shall be admitted unless it
is made immediately after the auction, before those assembled
are dispersed.
ART. 26. In case of the purchaser failing to give bail or
the securities required by the specifications within the pre-
scribed time it shall be declared forfeit by order of the prefect,
and a new auction of the felled timber shall in consequence be
proceeded with, in the manner prescribed above.
The original purchaser shall be held responsible for the dif-
ference between his price, and that of the re-sale, if there is any.
ART. 27. Every bid shall be considered final the moment
it has been uttered; under no circumstances can it be outbid.
ART. 28. The auctions of the cutting areas shall be trans-
acted in accordance with the regulations in force in the State,
save only in respect of an order from the Paymaster General
of the Treasury.
ART. 29. At the time of the sale by auction purchasers are
expected to take up their residence in the place where the sale
shall be held; in default of which, all subsequent proceedings
will be communicated to them in due form by the secretary
of the prefecture or sub-prefecture, according to the "arron-
dissement" in which the auction shall have taken place.
ART. 30. Every action against a purchaser conveys the right
of summary execution upon him, his associates and sureties
for the payment of the initial purchase price of the auction as
well as incidental expenses.
ART. 31. All purchasers of felled timber and forest products,
and the beneficiaries of sales by agreement, above 200 francs
in value, shall furnish security either in cash or in transferable
securities guaranteed by the State or by the Colony, which shall
be fixed by the specifications or by agreement.
EXPLOITATION 169
Nevertheless the aforesaid securities may be dispensed with
if they present other securities recognized as solvent.
ART. 32. The sureties are liable jointly and severally and
in the same manner, for the payment of damages, refunds, and
fines that the purchaser may have incurred.
SECTION IV. — EXPLOITATION
ART. 33. After the auction or the approval of the sale by
agreement no change can be made in the location of the felling
area, and no tree or portion of a tree shall be added thereto
under any pretext whatever under penalty to the purchaser
or beneficiary of the sale, of a fine equal to three times the
value of the wood not comprised in the auction or sale, without
renouncing the claims on the restitution of the wood, or of
its value.
The provisions are applicable to cork and to tan-bark. The
officers of the Waters and Forests who shall have permitted or
tolerated such additions or changes shall be fined in the same
manner, and shall be liable to prosecution and penalties for
malpractice and speculation, if there has been any.
ART. 34. The purchasers by auction6 or by agreement shall
not commence logging or felling areas or removal before obtain-
ing a written permit to fell from the local officer of Waters and
Forests, under penalty of prosecution for trespass.
ART. 35. The purchaser by auction or by agreement may
have an agent or sales-guard, who shall be approved of by the
inspector or agent of Waters and Forests holding the office of
" Chief of Service," and shall be sworn before the justice of
the peace.
If the felling area or areas that the sales-guard is charged
to watch are situated in the districts of several justices of the
peace, the oath delivered before one of them shall be registered
at the record-office of the other justices of the peace.
This sales-guard can draw up reports in regard to the sale
and within a hundred-metre zone around it.
6 Literally: "The highest bidders or beneficiaries of sales by agreement."
1 70 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
These reports shall be subject to the same formalities as
those of the employees of Waters and Forests, and shall be
received in evidence until contrary proof is forthcoming.
ART. 36. The purchaser by auction or by agreement, if this
provision is included in his contract, shall be bound to deposit
with the local Waters and Forests officer and at the record
office of the court of the arrondissement, under penalty of a
fine of not less than 25 francs ($4.82), and not more than 100
francs ($19.30), the mark of the hammer, blaze, stamps, or
other instrument to be used to mark the trees, wood, cork, or
bark of his purchase. The purchaser by auction and his asso-
ciates can only have one mark for one purchase, nor shall they
mark with it products other than those purchased at the said
sale, under penalty of a fine of 100 to 500 francs ($19.30 to
$96.50).
ART. 37. The purchaser by auction or by agreement shall be
bound to preserve all the trees marked or designated as reserved,
the number of which shall be indicated in the marking record,
without their being permitted to exchange these for other trees
which they might have left standing.
ART. 38. The fines incurred by the purchasers by auction
or by agreement, in virtue of the preceding article, for fell-
ing or removing reserved trees shall be from 2 to 200 francs
($0.386 to $38.60) each, without renouncing claims for (civil)
damages.
The restitution shall be effected in kind, if the adequate
(marked) trees can be given, and the Waters and Forests Service
require it.
If it is a question of trees having a circumference of less than
2 decimetres (8 inches), the fine shall be from o franc 10 cen-
times ($0.0193) to 2 francs ($0.386) each whatever the dimen-
sions may be.
ART. 39. The purchasers by auction or by agreement shall
not fell, or remove any wood, bark, or cork, before sunrise or
after sunset unless they have obtained a special permit from
the Forest Service under penalty of a fine of not less than 20
($3.86) or more than 100 francs ($19.30).
EXPLOITATION 171
ART. 40. Unless the report of the auction or sale by agree-
ment contains an express authorization to the contrary, they
are forbidden to peel or bark standing any of the trees pur-
chased, under penalty of a fine of 50 to 500 francs ($9.65 to
$96.50). The bark and the wood that has been peeled, shall
be seized as security for damages, the amount of which shall
not be less than the value of the trees peeled or barked in
trespass.
ART. 41. The purchasers by auction or by agreement shall
be obliged to conform exactly to the terms of their contract or
of their agreement, not only as regards the method of felling
the trees, the peeling of cork or bark, and the cleaning of the
felling areas, but also for the time during which the felling of
the wood and the clearing of the ground, or removal of the
cork or bark, shall be effected.
In default of their fulfilling these conditions they will be
liable to a fine of 50 to 500 francs ($9.65 to $96.50) and to the
damages assessed at a minimum of 10 per cent of the value of
the products. The aforesaid products can be seized up to the
amount due as guarantee of the fine and the damages incurred.
In case of failure to cut or remove within the time fixed by
the regulations for the auction or sale by agreement, or the
extension of time allowed by the conservators, the court at the
request of the Waters and Forests Service shall confiscate the
timber still standing, or felled, which shall remain the property
of the State.
ART. 42. In case the purchasers by auction or by agree-
ment fail to carry out within the stated time, and according
to the manner prescribed by the regulations, the work therein
enumerated (designed) to bring the cork oak into full bearing
or protect the stands from fire, to remove and cord the branches
trimmed, to clear the felling areas of briars, brambles, and
weed growth, to repair the logging roads, ditches, or fences,
this work shall be executed at their expense, at the convenience
of the Waters and Forests officers by authorization of the pre-
fect who shall thereupon approve the expense accounts, and
render a writ of execution for payment against the purchasers.
172 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
ART. 43. The Waters and Forests officers, or employees to
whom they delegate these duties, shall inform the purchasers
by auction or by agreement, in writing, the places where pits,
kilns, or temporary and moveable furnaces can be established
for the use of the products of the felling area, as well as sites
for camps and workshops. They shall not be placed elsewhere,
under penalty of a fine of 10 to 50 francs ($1.93 to $9.65) for
each pit, kiln or furnace, camp or workhouse, constructed
contrary to these provisions.
ART. 44. The transport of the products shall be made on
the roads indicated in the specifications, or on those authorized
during the felling, and those who make new roads shall be liable
to a penalty of 20 to 100 francs ($3.86 to $19.30), in addition
to damages if any are incurred.
ART. 45. All purchasers by auction or by agreement, their
agents and workmen, are forbidden to light fires elsewhere than
in their dwellings or workshops, under penalty of a fine of 10
to TOO francs ($1.93 to $19.30), without prejudice to the claims
for damages resulting from the offence.
ART. 46. The purchasers by auction or by agreement shall
not place on their sales areas products similar to those upon
which the contest is based, under penalty of a fine of 50 to
500 francs ($9.65 to $96.50).
ART. 47. If in the course of the felling or clearing, reports
are drawn up with regard to trespass or felling violations, these
may be acted on without waiting for the official check of the
sales area. Nevertheless, in the case of insufficiency of any first
report upon which no sentence has been pronounced, the Waters
and Forests officers shall be able at the time of the check of the
sale area to take up, in a fresh report, trespasses and violations.
ART. 48. The purchasers by auction or by agreement shall
be responsible from the date of their permit to fell, until they
are definitely exempt, for all offences against the Forest Code
committed within their felling area and in a zone 100 metres
(109 yards) in breadth beyond it, if their agents or sales-guards
do not report such offences within five days to the Waters and
Forests officer.
-CHECK OF CUTTING AREA 173
They are equally responsible and personally liable for the
payment of fines, and for making restitution in cases of mis-
demeanour or offences committed under the same conditions
of time and place, by their agents, sales-guards, workmen,
woodcutters, teamsters, and any other employees whatever.
SECTION V. — CHECK 7 OF CUTTING AREA
ART. 49. The check of each sale area shall be undertaken
within six months immediately after the day upon which the
period allowed for the clearing up of the felling areas has ex-
pired. After the lapse of these six months, the purchaser by
auction or by agreement shall be free of any charges for the
felling of timber if the administration has not carried out the
check.
However, any person who shall have terminated the felling
and clearing of his lot, before the expiration of the time agreed
upon, shall be able to summon the Service to proceed with the
check by a special judicial notice to the local Waters and
Forests officer and may be discharged, if there have been no
proceedings against him within the period of six months to
date from the day of the notification.
ART. 50. The purchaser by auction or by agreement, or
assignee, shall be bound to assist at the check; for this purpose
he shall be notified in writing a fortnight in advance, the day
fixed for the verification being stated.
In case of his failing to present himself, or to delegate a rep-
resentative, the report shall be considered as having been drawn
up in the presence of both parties.
ART. 51. After the lapse of a month from the termination
of the work, the Service and the purchaser by auction or by
agreement may require the annulment of the report, in case of
irregularity or false statement.
For this purpose they shall present themselves before the
council of the prefecture, who shall judge the case.
7 Literally the translation of "recolements" is "verifications," but the word
" check " is more generally used in the United States.
174 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
ART. 52. In case of the annulling of the report the Service
shall be able in the following month to rectify the mistakes by
means of a fresh report. At the expiration of the time allowed
under Art. 51, and if the Service has raised no opposition, the
purchaser by auction shall be free of the charges of the felling
of timber.
SECTION VI. — AUCTIONS AND RENTALS OF GRAZING, MAST, MIS-
CELLANEOUS FOREST PRODUCTS, AND AGRICULTURAL LAND
ART. 53. In State forests, declared exempt and free from
rights for wood, mast or hog grazing and pasturage 8 can -be
put up to auction for a maximum period of three years.
The formalities prescribed under Section III of the present
Part for the sale of wood felling areas shall be observed at those
auctions.
Before proceeding with the public auction, the cession of
grazing rights by means of a sale by mutual agreement shall
be offered to the neighbouring communities. In case of a re-
fusal of the offer by these, the aforesaid rights shall be put
up to auction, starting with the price previously put forward
for sale by agreement.
The Service is equally authorized to treat for a sale by agree-
ment in the case of the failure of the auctions.
ART. 54. The purchasers by auction or by agreement shall
not be allowed to bring into the forest a larger number of ani-
mals than that which shall be determined in the specifications,9
under pain of the maximum penalty established by Art. 177.
ART. 55. The purchasers by auction or by agreement shall
be bound, if it is thus prescribed in the specification, to have
the animals they bring into the forest marked with a sign (brand)
specified in the terms of the sale, under the penalty of the fine
established in Art. 177.
There shall be no question of trespass, if it has not hitherto
been possible to mark the animals found in the forest, pro-
8 The word "Parcours" here signifies grazing by all kinds of stock.
9 "Cahier des charges "; see p. 177 for an example.
WOOD RIGHTS IN STATE FORESTS 175
vided they have been declared to be at the service of the Waters
and Forests Service.
The maximum fine shall be imposed in the case of a repe-
tition of the offence.
ART. 56. If the animals are found outside the leased dis-
tricts or the prescribed routes of travel, the purchaser by auction
or by agreement shall be punished according to the penalties
prescribed in Art. 177. The herder shall be besides condemned
to a fine of one to 5 francs ($0.19 to $0.96), and in case of a
repetition of the offence, to imprisonment for one to five days.
ART. 57. Save in the cases set forth in the specifications,
purchasers by auction or by agreement are forbidden to fell
trees, or to carry away acorns, fruit, or seed from the forests,
under penalty of the maximum fine prescribed under Art. 118.
In case of a repetition of the offence they can however be
sentenced to imprisonment for three days or more.
ART. 58. The alfa 10 and other diverse products of the forest
shall be disposed of by auctions or by sales by agreement subject
to the routine prescribed under Arts. 18 and 19.
The provisions for carrying out the sales shall be determined
by a decree of the Governor General.
Violations against these provisions shall be punished by fines
prescribed by this law.
ART. 59. The Governor General of Algeria, upon the recom-
mendation of the conservators of Waters and Forests shall
have the power to authorize the lease for a maximum period
of eighteen years, of open land, blanks, or the cleanings exist-
ing in the federal forests.
This lease shall either be put up to public auction or made
by means of mutual agreement.
SECTION VII. — WOOD RIGHTS IN STATE FORESTS
ART. 60. Only those shall be permitted to exercise any
right11 whatever in the State forests whose rights upon the
10 A native grass valuable for fodder.
11 The term "droit d'usage" is primarily the right to gather wood in any forest,
but often also includes the right to pasturage, etc.
1 76 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
day of the promulgation of the present law shall have been
recognized as established either by acts of the government
or by decision of the courts, or definite decrees, or shall be
recognized as such at the moment of the application of the
senatorial decree, actually promised in consequence of official
or judicial requests, or which should have been promised subject
to the provisions of the law of Feb. 16, 1897, relating to landed
property in Algeria. Nevertheless the rights which the natives
enjoy by virtue of tradition shall be maintained until the
application of the senatorial decree.
ART. 61. In future no granting of rights shall be made in
the State forests of any nature and under any pretext whatever.
However, in case of absolute necessity, and in the measure
laid down with due regard for pre-existing rights, a decree of
the Governor General, made on the recommendation of the
government council, shall concede to natives displaced for pur-
pose of colonization, rights in the forests of their new territory
equivalent to those enjoyed in the first place.
ART. 62. The rights by which the State forests are bur-
dened can be wiped out by means of working plan decrees or
redeemed by means of a grant of land or a money payment, if
the other measures are inapplicable. The working plan shall be
approved of by decree.
The rights other than those of pasturage can be besides
redeemed by means of " cantonnement. " 12
The conditions of this redemption shall be determined by
agreement, and, in case of disputes, shall be settled by the
courts.
ART. 63. The redemption of the rights of pasturage can
only be claimed by the administration in territories where the
exercise of those rights is an absolute necessity to the inhabi-
tants of one or of several communes or fractions of communes.
If this necessity is disputed by the Waters and Forests Service,
the parties shall present themselves before the council of the
12 Apparently there is no equivalent for " cantonnement " in English, but it
means the act of giving over to those who have common rights, a piece of forest
land, where they can exercise these rights.
WOOD RIGHTS IN STATE FORESTS 177
prefecture which after an inquiry shall give judgment, save in
the case of application to the State council.
ART. 64. The action for procuring a deed of exemption from
rights belongs only to the government, and not to those possess-
ing rights.
ART. 65. In all the State forests which are not exempt by
means of " cantonnement " or indemnity conformable to Arts.
62 and 63 above, the exercise of rights can always be reduced by
the Service, according to the condition and yield of the forests
and shall only take place in conformity with the provisions set
forth in the following articles.
In case of disputes arising as to what the forests yield and
their condition, recourse shall be had to the council of the
prefecture.
ART. 66. Whatever may be the age or the species of timber,
those enjoying rights may only exercise their rights of pasturage
in the cantons which shall have been declared open by the
Waters and Forests Service, except in cases of recourse to the
council of the prefecture, and this, notwithstanding all adverse
occupancies.
Owners of cattle found outside the limits of the cantons
shall be punished according to the penalties set forth in Art. 177.
ART. 67. Every year, before August i, the Waters and
Forests officers shall inform the mayors of the communes and
private persons, who individually have rights, of the cantons
declared free, and the number of cattle which shall be admitted
to the pasturage.
The mayors shall be bound to issue public notices of the
same in the communes where common rights are held, and,
before October i, to draw up the individual list of the right
holders, with the division amongst them of the number of
animals allowed.
The exercise of the rights of pasturage can be only allowed
to those given in this list.
ART. 68. The right holders in any case can only enjoy the
rights of pasturage for their own cattle.
The herds, other than those used for exploitation, belonging
178 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
to cattle dealers, even if those dealers are right holders, as well
as herds on shares, are excluded from the benefits of rights.
ART. 69. The roads by which cattle may go and come from
pasturage shall be designated by the Waters and Forests officers.
These roads shall be considered as having at least a width of
20 metres (22 yards).
If these roads cross any coppice, or young growth of high
forest which is not enclosed, ditches or enclosures may be con-
structed at the joint expense of right holders and the Service,
and in accordance with the directions of the Waters and Forests
officer, in order to prevent the cattle from straying into the
woods.
ART. 70. If the right holders bring a greater number of
cattle into the forest than the number fixed in accordance with
Art. 67, for the excess number, the penalties uttered under
Art. 177 shall be enforced.
The maximum fine shall be enforced in the case of herds
on shares or those belonging to cattle dealers being discovered
in portions of the forests reserved to right holders.
ART. 71. All right holders are forbidden to bring sheep,
goats, or camels into the forests or intervening land under pen-
alty to the owners of such stock of the maximum fine set forth
under Art. 177, but the right of indemnity is reserved to those
who have a title, or a possession which gives a title.
In addition the herder can be fined from i to 5 francs ($0.19
to $0.96), and, in case of a repetition of the offence, he can be
imprisoned for one to five days.
The Governor General may, however, by an order given by
the Government Council, authorize the pasturage of sheep in
certain forests.
He shall also be able, in urgent cases, to throw open the
closed areas to the temporary use of herds.
Under exceptional circumstances the introduction of the goats
of right holders into the (fire) lines of State Forests can be
authorized.
ART. 72. The commoners who have any sort of a right to
free timber can only take such timber after permission has
EXPROPRIATION 179
been granted them by the Waters and Forests officers, under
penalty of the fines carried by Part IX, for wood cut in trespass.
ART. 73. The Waters and Forests Service is authorized to
provide the right holders with timber, either collectively and
on given dates or individually and according to circumstances.
The method of issuing these permits shall be determined by
an order of the Governor General.
Violations against the provisions of this order shall be punish-
able by fines varying from one to 100 francs ($0.19 to $19.30).
ART. 74. Right holders are forbidden to sell the wood or
other products granted to them, or to employ them in any
manner other than that for which the rights have been granted
to them, under penalty of a fine of 10 to 100 francs ($1.93 to
$19-3°) •
ART. 75. As under Art. 635 of the Civil Code, the right
holders can be made to contribute — in proportion to their rights
- to the upkeep of the forests in which they enjoy their rights.
Orders from the Governor General shall fix the amount of
the contribution, which shall be payable by the right holder
in his discretion either in money or in days work, and shall be
received (or else collected) as a direct tax.
SECTION VHI. — EXPROPRIATION
ART. 76. The expropriation of land which must be reforested
or reclaimed, shall be recognized as necessary, and shall be
declared a measure of public utility, under the following13
circumstances:
1. For the maintenance of lands on mountains or slopes.
2. For protecting the soil against erosion by rivers or
torrents.
3. To ensure the existence of springs and water courses.
4. To render stable the coast dunes and those of the
Sahara, and for protection against the erosion of the
sea, and drifting of sand.
5. For the defence of territory in the frontier zone which
shall be determined by a regulation of the civil
authorities.
6. For the sake of public health.
13 Compare with the wording in Art. 99.
180 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
If the declaration of public utility is pronounced, the ex-
propriation shall proceed in conformity with Algerian legislation.
ART. 77. The expropriation of interior holdings within fed-
eral forests can be declared of public utility and proceeded
with as stated in the preceding article.
ART. 78. When the State forests are not accessible by means
of the highroad or are not sufficiently accessible for felling
purposes, a right-of-way14 across the neighbouring properties
can be demanded, on payment of an indemnity proportionate
to the damage caused.
Roads opened, or railroads established for felling purposes
in the State Forests, can be declared of public utility and the
expropriation of ground shall be pronounced as stated under
Art. 76. (See footnote 19, p. 187.)
ART. 1 06. The study of the surroundings with a view to
reafforestation in view of the provisions of Art. 76 of the present
law, and all the formalities previous to the declaration of public
utility, shall be effected by the Waters and Forests Service
under orders given to that effect by the Governor General.
ART. 107. The declaration of public utility shall be pro-
nounced according to the procedure provided by Algerian
legislation.
ART. 108. Owners whose property shall be included within
a reafforestation district shall enjoy their rights over the same
until the moment when these properties are acquired by the
Waters and Forests Service. Such acquisitions can be made
either by agreement, or by expropriation, or by means of an
exchange.
PART IV. — COMMUNAL AND PUBLIC INSTITUTION FORESTS
ART. 79. Submission to forest control, as set forth under
Art. i, shall only be pronounced so far as the woods of com-
munes, public sections 15 of communes, or public institutions
are concerned, when these woods are considered fit for regular
exploitation by the administrative authority, on the recom-
14 Or right of eminent domain.
16 "Section" is an electoral division under the French Republic.
COMMUNAL AND PUBLIC INSTITUTION FORESTS l8l
mendations of the Water and Forest Service. These recom-
mendations shall be communicated previously to the municipal
councils and to the officers of public institutions, who shall be
consulted in regard to them.
Submission to forest control shall be pronounced by decree.
And the same forms shall be proceeded with for all the separate
parts of the code and all the woods concerned.
ART. 80. Ground even when not covered with trees shall be
put under forest control, if it belongs to communes or public
establishments, under the conditions provided for under Art. 76,
and if its reafforestation is recognized as being of general profit.
ART. 81. Communes and public institutions cannot under-
take any clearing in their woods without special and express
authorization by the Governor General; any persons who have
such fellings shall be liable to the penalties declared under
Part VI against private individuals for offences of a similar
nature.
ART. 82. Properties in the communal woods can never be
divided up amongst the inhabitants.
But when one, or several communes, or sections of communes,
possess jointly a wood, each one of these holds the right to
demand a subdivision.
ART. 83. Communal woods, or the woods of public institutions
are inspected and governed by the Waters and Forests Service.
In order to indemnify the State for the costs of adminis-
tration and inspection a sum of 10 centimes ($0.02) per franc
($0.19) shall be paid for the benefit of the Treasury (in addition
to the total sum) on the sale or transfer of all forest products
either principal or accessory.
ART. 84. The ordinary, as well as the extraordinary sales
of felling areas shall be proceeded with by the Waters and
Forests officers, in the same manner as for State woods.
The sale by auction comprising several successive felling areas
and the transfer by mutual agreement can only be effected with
the assent of the municipal council or of the officers of public
institutions.
The auction can only take place in the presence (the hereafter
182 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
mentioned people having been duly summoned) of the mayor,
or of a deputy for the woods of the communes, or of one of the
officials of the public institutions.
Any sale or cutting made contrary to the injunctions of the
present article shall render the person giving or consenting to
such an order liable to a fine of 100 to 1000 francs ($19.30 to
$193.00) without prejudicing claims for damages. Sales thus
effected shall be declared null and void.
ART. 85. The invalidation and prohibition provided under
Article 23 for the sales of wood which the department has con-
fided to them shall be applicable to mayors, deputies, or col-
lectors of the communes as well as to officers and collectors of
public institutions.
In case of offence they shall be liable to the penalties pre-
scribed under the aforesaid article, and the sales shall be declared
null and void.
ART. 86. The felling areas of communal woods designed to
be exploited by the residents or divided in kind between them,
and the felling of other forest products, can only take place after
the permit has been granted previously by the Waters and
Forests officers under conditions set forth by orders from the
Governor General, given in conformity with Art. 73, all of
which shall be under penalty of being considered a trespass,
if not conformed with.
ART. 87. The acts relating to felling areas and permits for
standing trees in accordance to the conditions of the preceding
article shall be endorsed, stamped, and registered on the debit
side of the account and duty shall only be collected on them
in case of judicial action.
ART. 88. If there is no contrary claim, the division of the
fuel right whether for fuel or for building purposes shall be
made in one of the three following ways:
1. Either by hearth, that is to say by the head of a family
or of a household, being truly and regularly domi-
ciled in the commune before the publication of the list.
2. Or half by the head of a family, and half per head of
the population under the same conditions of residence.
COMMUNAL AND PUBLIC INSTITUTION FORESTS 183
In the two preceding cases, only an individual really in actual
charge and care of a family or possessing a district household
in the place where he lives or takes his food shall be considered
as the head of a family or household.
3. Or by inhabitant, being truly and regularly domiciled
in the commune before the publication of the list.
Every year, at the May session, the municipal council or
the municipal commission shall determine which of these
methods of allotment shall be applied.
They shall also decide on the sale of the fuel rights, in whole
or in part, for the benefit of the communal treasury.
In this last case the sale shall be made by public auction,
under the direction of the Waters and Forests Service.
Any other methods of allotment are (hereby) abolished.
Foreigners who fulfill the requirements mentioned above can
only share in the allotment after having been authorized to
establish their domicile there, in conformity with the laws and
regulations applicable to Algeria.
ART. 89. The inhabitants of communes and the officials or
employees in public institutions cannot introduce, or cause to
be introduced into the woods belonging to these communes
or public institutions, sheep, goats, or camels under the penalties
set forth in Art. 177.
ART. 90. The means afforded to the government to free
the State forests from all rights under Art. 62, to expropriate
the, interior holdings under Art. 77, and to expropriate ground
necessary for the purpose of constructing roads for felling pur-
poses under Art. 78, are applicable, under the same conditions,
to communes and public institutions for the woods which they
own.
ART. 91. All the provisions (with the exception of Art. 74)
contained in Part III, Section VII, upon the exercise of rights
in State woods, are applicable to communes and public insti-
tutions for use in their own woods, as well as to the rights with
which they may be burdened, except as modified in the present
part (of the law).
1 84 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
PART V. — JOINT TENANCY FORESTS 16
ART. 92. All the provisions of the present law, relating to
the preservation, and to the administration of the woods which
form part of the State domain, as well as the prosecution of
crimes and offences committed in the woods, are applicable to
the woods in joint tenancy mentioned under Art. i of the present
law, save for the modifications given in Part IV, for woods of
communes and public institutions.
ART. 93. No felling area, ordinary or extraordinary, no ex-
ploitation or sale, can be made by joint owners under penalty
of a fine equal to the total value of the wood so felled or sold;
all sales thus effected shall be declared null and void.
ART. 94. The costs of establishing boundaries, surveying,
and patrol shall be borne by the State and the joint owners,
each in proportion to their interests.
The Waters and Forests Service shall nominate the guards,
regulate their salaries, and shall have sole right to dismiss them.
ART. 95. In case of refunds and awards for damages the
joint owners shall receive the proper amount each in proportion
to their interests, as in the case of sales returns.
ART. 96. The provisions set forth under Arts. 92 and 93 are
applicable to woods in litigation mentioned under Art. i.
The proceeds arising from sales, refunds, or (civil) damages
shall be paid into the treasury17 for remittance to the owners,
after final judgment, prorated in .accordance with their recog-
nized interests, after deducting the expenses of patrol and office
administration, unless disputes arise or claims are made for
indemnity or damages on the ground that the administration
records (are incorrect).
PART VI. — PRIVATE FORESTS, REFORESTATION AREAS,
AND CLEARINGS
ART. 97. Private individuals exercise all the rights of owner-
ship over their woods, except for restrictions enumerated in
the following articles.
16 Literally this could be rendered undivided or litigated woods placed under
forest administration.
17 La caisse des depots et des consignations.
PRIVATE FORESTS, ETC. 185
ART. 98. No private individual can claim the right to grub
or clear his woods without having previously made a declara-
tion at the office of the under prefect at least three months
in advance, during which time the department can make known
to the owner its opposition to the clearing. This declaration
should give the election domicile in the canton where the woods
are situated.
Within two months after the declaration, a Waters and
Forests officer shall examine the condition and the situation
of the woods, and shall draw up a detailed report.
After a consideration of this report, the conservator of
Waters and Forests shall lodge his objection to the clearing
if any exists.
In this case, the report shall be transmitted to the owner
who can state his case. This report shall then be transmitted
to the Governor General, who shall decide, after deliberation
with the government council, if the objection shall stand.
If, within six months after the objection has been presented,
the decision of the Governor General has not been rendered
and the proprietor of the woods notified, the clearing may be
effected.
ART. 99. Clearing can only be opposed in case the preserva-
tion of the woods is recognized as necessary:
1. For the maintenance of lands on mountains or slopes.
2. For protecting the soil against erosion and the encroach-
ment of rivers, streams, or torrents.
3. To insure the existence of springs or water courses.
4. For the protection of dunes and shores against erosion
by the sea and encroachment by the sand.
5. For the defence of territory in the frontier zone which
shall be determined by a regulation of the civil
authorities.
6. For the sake of public health.
ART. 100, In case of any violation of Art. 98, the person
who shall have effected, or caused to be effected, the clearing
shall be sentenced to a minimum fine of 200 francs ($38.60),
and a maximum fine of 500 francs ($96.50) per hectare (2.5 acres)
of woods which have been cleared.
l86 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
Moreover, if ordered so to do by the Governor General, he
shall replant the areas denuded within three years.18
ART. 101. In case the owner does not carry out the planting
or sowing within the time prescribed by the order of the Gov-
ernor General, the Waters and Forests Service can see that it
is done at its own expense upon previous authorization from
the prefect who shall order a memorandum of the work drawn
up and the cost levied against the owner.
ART. 102. The provisions in the four preceding articles are
applicable to sowing and planting executed in accordance of
the Governor General's decision, for the replacement of denuded
woods.
ART. 103. The following are excepted from the provisions
of Art. 98:
1. Young woods during the first twenty years after their
sowing or planting, except in the case set forth in the
previous article.
2. Parks and gardens either fenced or adjoining habi-
tations.
3. Woods not fenced, less than 10 hectares (24 acres) in
extent, on condition that they do not form part *of
another wood which would bring up the area to 10
hectares (24 acres), or that they are not situated on
the summit or slopes of a mountain.
4. Those portions of forests which the owners have been
authorized to cut down in virtue of Art. 9 of the
decree of Feb. 2, 1870.
5. The land which has been reserved as woods and forests
included in areas (set aside for) colonization.
ART. 104. Excessive exploitation, grazing after fellings, cop-
picing operations or fires, which may cause the total or partial
destruction of the forest in which they are practiced, shall be
treated as deforestation, and in consequence those who have
ordered them shall be subject to the penalties set forth under
Arts. 100 and 101.
All owners of stock allowed to enter, or found in woods less
than six years of age, shall be fined in accordance with the rules
set forth under Art. 177, paragraph 2.
18 Literally this is: "in a term which cannot exceed three years."
PRIVATE FORESTS, ETC. 187
ART. 105. The provisions of the preceding article are not
applicable to the afforestation enumerated under Art. 103.
ART. iog.19 Woods or brush situated within reafforestation
areas are considered as coming under the conditions set forth
in Art. 76, and cannot be denuded at any time without the
authorization of the Waters and Forests Service.
ART. no. Owners desirous of special guards for the pres-
ervation of their woods must have them approved by the
sub-prefect, in conformity with the provisions of the law of
April 12, 1892.
The orders approving of these guards can be drawn up in
accordance with paragraph i of the above-mentioned law.
These guards can only exercise office after having taken oath
before the justice of the peace.
ART. in. All private individuals shall have the privilege of
freeing their forests from rights in the same manner, and under
the same conditions as the State.
ART. 112. The rights of pasturage and of gathering of acorns
in private woods can only be exercised (in case of disputes
between the proprietors and right owners) in those portions of
the woods declared closed by the Waters and Forests Service
and according to the condition and yield of the forests reported
by the Service.
The expenses resulting from the intervention of the Waters
and Forests Service shall be adjudged according to the tariff
applicable to experts, and shall be borne equally by the in-
terested parties.
The roads over which the stock must pass to go to and
from the pasturage shall be indicated by the owner. Their
minimum breadth shall be 20 metres (22 yards).
ART. 113. All the provisions contained in Arts. 68, 69, 70,
paragraphs i, 71, 72, and 74 of the present law are applicable to
the exercise of rights in woods belonging to private individuals.
The owner, in this case, exercises the same rights and the same
19 Arts. 106 to 108 have been treated above in Section VIII of Part III. The
classification of the articles does not follow their sequence in the code but in ac-
cordance with the more logical arrangement adopted by Guyot in his commentary.
l88 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
control as the Waters and Forests officers exercise in woods
placed under forest administration.
ART. 114. The right holders shall contribute to the main-
tenance of the roads over private property where they exercise
their rights.
ART. 115. In case of disputes between the owner and the
right holder the case shall be brought into court.
ART. 116. Areas sown or planted on the summits or slopes
of mountains and upon the dunes shall be exempt from all
taxation for thirty years. Woods and forests which have been
burned over shall be exempt from all taxation for a period of ten
years so far as the part which has been destroyed by the fire
is concerned, and in case the fire has not been caused by the
owner.
PART VII. — POLICE AND CONSERVATION OF WOODS
AND FORESTS
SECTION I. — PROVISIONS APPLICABLE TO ALL WOODS
Re damage other than fire.
ART. 117. Whoever shall have injured, destroyed, moved, or
obliterated any boundary marks or fences which serve to the
boundaries of the forests, or forest cantons, shall be punished
by a fine of 5 to 500 francs ($0.96 to $96.50).
If a series of boundary marks, or a considerable length of
fence has been destroyed, moved, or obliterated, the offender can
in addition be sentenced to imprisonment for three days to
three months. This without prejudice to the claim for civil
damages.
In any event the return of the objects that have been re-
moved and their repair shall be obligatory.
Imprisonment shall be obligatory in case of a repetition of
the offence.
ART. 118. All unauthorized quarrying or removal of stones,
sand, minerals, earth, turf heather, gorse, grass, green or dead
leaves, manure found on the forest soil, acorns and other fruits,
seeds of woods and forests, shall be punished by fines of 2
PROVISIONS APPLICABLE TO ALL WOODS 189
to 5 francs ($0.39 to $0.96) for each harnessed animal em-
ployed, of i to 2 francs ($0.19 to $0.38) for each pack animal,
and i franc ($0.19) for each man.
In case of a repetition of the offence, the maximum fine shall
always be enforced, and the offender can, in addition, be sen-
tenced to from one to three days' imprisonment.
ART. 119. The Bridge and Road Service (Fonts et Chaussees)
has the right to designate where excavations shall be made for
materials for public works; nevertheless contractors who have
undertaken such works shall be bound by the State, communes,
and public institutions, as well as by private individuals to pay
all legal indemnities and to observe all the prescribed laws and
regulations in connection with such excavations.
ART. 1 20. Whoever shall have ploughed up any portion of
the woods and forests shall be condemned to a proportionate
fine from a minimum of 50 francs ($9.65) to a maximum of 200
francs ($38.60) by the hectare (2.5 acres), but no fine can be
less than 10 francs ($1.93).
In case of a repetition of the offence the maximum fine shall
be always enforced and the offender can be sentenced in addition
to eight days' imprisonment.
ART. 121. Any persons found in the woods and forests at
night, off the highways and ordinary roads, with bill-hooks,
axes, hatchets, saws, or other instruments of a similar nature,
shall be sentenced to a fine of 5 to 10 francs ($0.96 to $1.93) and
have the aforesaid instruments confiscated.
The maximum fine shall be enforced in case of repetition of
the offence.
ART. 122. Any persons whose wagons, stock, pack, or saddle
animals shall be found in the forest off the highways and ordi-
nary roads shall be sentenced as follows:
To a fine of 5 to 10 francs ($0.96 to $1.93) for each wagon
found in the forest, 10 years of age and upwards, and 10 to 20
francs ($1.93 to $3.86) if the wood is less than that age.
And for each head of stock of any kind unharnessed, to the
fines fixed for grazing trespass under Art. 177. This without
prejudice to the claim for civil damages.
I go THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
In case of repetition of the offence the maximum fine shall
be enforced.
ART. i34.20 Decrees of the Governor General, delivered in
the government council, shall determine the conditions for
exploitation, advertisement, sale and export of cork, tan -bark,
charcoal, wood and wood ash,(alfa, resinous products of the
^S^V \^ ^*s '
>- forests, and sticks intended for cane manufacture.
Any person violating this regulation shall be sentenced to
a fine of i to 100 francs ($0.19 to $19.30). They may, in
addition, be liable to five days' imprisonment and the confis-
cation of the products without prejudice to the application of
Art. 142 of the present law.
In case of a repetition of the offence, the imprisonment shall
be obligatory.
ART. 135. No exploitation or even the felling of a tree can
take place in the dayas 21 without the authorization of the
Governor General or his deputy.
Re fires.
ART. 123. Kindling fires or carrying lights outside logging
houses or buildings is prohibited inside and within a distance
of 200 metres (218 yards) of woods and forests.
From the ist of July until the 3oth of October this prohibi-
tion is applicable even to owners of woods and forests, and
includes the manufacture of charcoal, the distillation of tar and
resin.
Nevertheless, during the period November i to June 30, the
owners of woods and forests, or those having rights (over them),
whatever may be the distance of the neighbouring property
and provided that it is separated from their wood by a trench
built and maintained in accordance with the following article,
are authorized to establish charcoal pits and charcoal furnaces
for the distillation of tar and resin, and to kindle fires in their
workshops, as well as to burn in piles the brush and stumps
left over and debris from the felling operations.
The employment of fire in the logging houses and buildings,
20 Arts. 134 and 135 logically follow Art. 122.
21 A local native subdivision. -
PROVISIONS APPLICABLE TO ALL WOODS 191
shelters, camps, timber-yards, or workshops situated in the
forest, or within a zone of 200 metres (218 yards), during the
period from the ist of July to the 3ist of October, shall be
subject to the regulations and decrees given in pursuance of the
execution of this law.
ART. 124. An owner of wooded or forested land which has
not been brushed out, or of land covered with dead wood, can
be forced by the owner of a similar adjoining property to con-
struct and maintain, on his side, on the boundaries between the
two estates a (fire) line cleared of all brush, and of all coniferous
wood, and to keep it thoroughly cleared of brush. This (fire)
line, whose width may vary from 10 to 100 metres (n to 109
yards), shall be constructed half on each side of the adjoining
boundaries, by agreement between the interested parties, and
in case of disagreement, by the prefect, the conservator of the
Waters and Forests acting for him. Actions concerning the
construction and the maintenance of such protective lines shall
take place, be put in practice, and judgment delivered in the
same manner as in the case of boundaries.
ART. 125. Setting fires, as well as the burning of standing
growth, shall conform to regulations and decrees promulgated
in the enforcement of this law.
Setting fire shall only be allowed after authorization by the
Waters and Forests officers, and under the surveillance of em-
ployees, if it is a question of ground situated less than 200
metres (218 yards) from the woods and forests, during the
period from the ist of November until the 3oth of June, and
less, than 500 metres (546 yards) between the ist of July and
the 3 ist of October.
ART. 126. If a case arise when, in spite of observing the
precautions enjoined in the foregoing articles, the fire should
extend to the neighbouring properties, the originator of the fire
shall be liable to all damages, if any occur.
Any person setting a fire in violation of the provisions of the
foregoing articles, which shall damage the neighbouring prop-
erties, shall be condemned to prison for from one to five years.
In this case, Art. 363 of the Penal Code shall be applicable.
192 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
ART. 127. In the forest regions, the native rural population,
and in general all right holders, shall be compelled, during the
period July i to November i, under pain of the penalties set
forth in Art. 136, to act as watchmen, which duties shall be
regulated by decree from the Governor General of Algeria.
This watch duty shall be obligatory for the right holders and,
if there are insufficient, for all able-bodied men residing in the
communes or section of communes bordering the forests. They
shall not necessarily be paid.
ART. 128. During the period of watch duty the Governor
General can have detachments, commanded by officers and sub-
alterns, sent into the forests to co-operate with the Waters and
Forests officers, in carrying out such measures as are legally
undertaken against fires.
The officers and subalterns thus delegated shall be placed
under the local administrative authority, and invested with
legal police powers which the constabulary possess. The regu-
lation of this force shall be applicated to them, in their relations
with the official and civil authorities.
ART. 129. Any European or native requested to help in
putting out a fire, who has refused his services without legiti-
mate reasons, shall be liable to the penalties carried by Art. 136.
As concerns the native population, the request shall be con-
sidered as having been made legitimately, when it has been
addressed to the headman (sheik, adjutant, hudsman (or),
ouakhaf) by any officer of the civil authority or by a Waters
and Forests officer, or employee, or even by a specially sworn
guard- war den.
The right holders shall besides be punished by the suspension
of their rights for a period of three months and a maximum of
five years; sentence shall be pronounced by the justice of the
peace.
ART. 130. In all territory, either civil or military, inde-
pendent of the sentence passed on individuals incurred by the
originators or accomplices of crimes, delinquencies or offences
relative to forest fires, the tribes, douars, or divisions can be
fined collectively in the following manner and conditions:
PROVISIONS APPLICABLE TO ALL WOODS 193
These fines shall be imposed by the Governor General at the
government council, after review of the minutes, reports, and
recommendations of the local administrative authority and of
the Waters and Forests Service, the chiefs of tribes or douars
having been previously notified.
The proceeds of the fines shall be deposited at the Treasury.
They can be entirely or partly employed towards repairing the
damage caused by the fires. In this case the Governor General
shall draw up the assessment statement and shall forward it to
the injured parties; these may protest to the Council of State
against the decisions made by the Governor General with re-
gard to them, within a period of two months after having re-
ceived the notification.
When the fires by their nature, or by the fact of their occur-
ring simultaneously, indicate preconcerted action on the part of
the natives, they may be treated as acts of rebellion and in
consequence can lead to an application for sequestration in
accordance with the provisions actually in force under the
Royal decree of October 13, 1845.
ART. 131. The right holders are forbidden to use their
grazing privileges for a period of at least six years, throughout
the whole area of woods and forests which have been burnt,
under pain of the penalties imposed in Art. 177, paragraph 2,
of the present law.
In private woods this prohibition can be removed by the
Governor General at the request of the owner, after consul-
tation with the Waters and Forests Service.
ART. 132. Railway or steam tramway companies having
grants or leases, and built within or bordering woods and forests
shall not allow any grass or herbaceous growth to grow on the
railway right-of-way from June i to November i under penalty
of a fine of 16 to 300 francs ($3.09 to $57.90).
Moreover, fire lines may be (required to be) constructed along
the track, cleared of all brush and, if it is considered necessary,
of all conifers, and constantly maintained in good condition.
These fire lines shall be 20 metres (22 yards) in breadth, com-
mencing at the railway right-of-way and shall be constructed
1 94 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
within six months from the date of the official order for their
construction.
The work of constructing and maintaining these lines shall be
performed by the companies at their own expense. In default
they shall be punished by the penalties established by para-
graph i , and Art. 42 of the present law shall apply.
Within a month after the construction of the fire lines the
owners can remove all or a part of the debris, the companies
being bound to carry away the remainder. If any question of
indemnity arises it shall be decided by expert authority, and
in case of dispute, by the district council.
ART. 133, In cases of fire, the management of the fire fighters
shall be assigned to the French Waters and Forests ranking
officer on the ground, and if there is none, to the mayor or civil
servant. In default of the Waters and Forests officers, of the
mayor or civil servant, the ranking employee of the Waters and
Forests shall direct the fire fighters.
In case it is necessary to back fire, the same persons shall
take charge and direct this procedure.
This measure can never give grounds for damages against
them.
ART. i36.22 All violation of Arts. 123, 124, 125, 129, and 135
of the present law, or against the decrees issued for its execution,
shall be punished by a fine of 20 to 500 francs ($3.86 to $96.50),
and in addition the offender can be imprisoned for six days to
six months, without prejudice in cases of fire of the penalties
declared under Art. 126 of the present law, and of all damages
if any such occur.
SECTION II. — PROVISIONS APPLICABLE ONLY TO -WOODS AND
FORESTS PLACED UNDER FOREST ADMINISTRATION
ART. 137. No industrial works, employing fire or necessi-
tating a story of combustible materials, can be established
within or at less than 500 metres (546 yards) from the forest,
without the authorization of the prefect, under penalty of a
22 Arts. 134 and 135 follow Art. 122.
PROSECUTIONS 195
fine of ioo to 500 francs ($19.30 to $96.50) and the demolition
of the buildings.
ART. 138. Aside from the native settlements already in exist-
ence, no tent or gourbi,23 no building covered or thatched with
straw diss24 or any other inflammable material can be built
within or at less than ioo metres (109 yards) distant from woods
and forests, under penalty of a fine of 5 to 50 francs ($0.96 to
$9.65) and demolition within a month from the day on which
judgment was given.
Within such enclosures too limited in area for the preced-
ing provisions to be put into practice, the distance between
the dwellings and the borders of the forest can be reduced to
50 metres (54 yards), without any authorization, and below
that figure by authorization of the sub-prefect, upon recom-
mendation of the Waters and Forests Service, but under con-
dition that the ground contained in the space between the
dwellings and the forest boundaries shall be cleared of all coni-
fers, and of all inflammable material and kept absolutely clear
of all brush.
PART VIII. — PROSECUTIONS FOR MISDEMEANOURS
AND OFFENCES
SECTION I. — PROSECUTIONS UNDERTAKEN IN THE NAME OF THE
WATERS AND FORESTS SERVICE
Re prosecution.
ART. 139. The Waters and Forests Service undertakes, not
only in the interest of the State, but also in the interest of the
other owners of woods and forests placed under forest adminis-
tration, to prosecute for misdemeanours and offences committed
in these woods and forests.
The Service also undertakes to prosecute for misdemeanours
and offences set forth in Arts. 98, 104, 123, 125, 126, 127, 129,
131, and 134.
Actions and prosecutions shall be brought and undertaken by
the Waters and Forests officers, in the name of the Waters and
23 Gourbi — Arab term meaning a brush hut.
24 Diss is a local grass used for thatching native gourbis.
196 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
Forests Service without prejudicing the rights of the public
prosecutor.
ART. 140. Before final judgment has been delivered the
Waters and Forests Service is authorized to compromise tres-
passes and offences, for which it undertakes to prosecute in
virtue of the preceding article.
Even after judgment has been delivered, it is also authorized
to compromise civil suits and fines.
ART. I50.25 All actions and prosecutions undertaken at the
request of the Waters and Forests Service are brought before
the police courts, or the justice of the peace, according to the
jurisdiction as determined by the decrees of Aug. 19, 1854,
March 29, 1902, and May 29, 1902.
ART. 152. The Waters and Forests employees have the right
to present the case before the court and are expected to support
their own conclusions.
ART. 161. The Waters and Forests Service officers can, in
the name of the Service, lodge an appeal against the sentences,
and appeal against decrees and sentences of last resort, but
they cannot withdraw their appeals without the special author-
ization of the Governor General,
ART. 162. The right given to the Waters and Forests. Service
and to its officers to go beyond sentences and decrees by appeal,
or by recourse to the supreme court, is independent of the same
privilege, which is granted by law to the public prosecutor, who
can always avail himself of it, even when the Service or its
officers shall have acquiesced in the sentences and decrees.
Re examination.
ART. 141. The officers and employees of the Waters and
Forests investigate and prove the trespasses and offences as
follows: The officers over the whole territory for which they
are commissioned, and the employees, within the jurisdiction of
the court in which they have taken oath.
ART. 142. The employees are authorized to seize cattle which
are trespassing, and implements, wagons, and teams of tres-
26 To secure a more logical arrangement of subject matter the numerical order
of the code has been somewhat modified.
PROSECUTIONS 197
passers and to sequestrate them. They shall trace all articles
removed by trespassers to the places where they have been
transported, and shall also sequestrate them there.
They cannot, however, enter the houses, courts, or enclosures,
unless in the presence either of the justice of the peace or his
deputy; of the mayor or his adjutant; of a commissary of
police, or in addition, so far as natives are concerned, of either
the native adjutant or the headman, sheik, or ouakaf.
ART. 143. The officials designated in the preceding article
cannot refuse to accompany the employees in the field, when
they have been thus requested to assist at the search.
In addition to this, they shall be bound to sign the report
of the sequestration or of the search made in their presence,
with the provision however, in case of a refusal to sign, that
mention shall be made of this in the report.
ART. 144. The employees shall arrest and conduct before the
justice of the peace, or before the mayor, or before the headman
of the tribe or of the douer, any native entirely unknown to
them, if he is caught in the act of trespass.
ART. 145. The officers and employees of the Waters and
Forests Service have the right to requisition, directly, the help
of the police in suppressing forest misdemeanors and offences,
as well as for the search and seizure of forest products which
have been illegally removed, sold, or advertised contrary to
decrees of the Governor General as set forth under Art. 134.
ART. 147. The justice of the peace may allow a provisional
withdrawal of the goods seized to cover the costs of seizure,
after reliable bail has been given.
In case of any dispute as to the solvency of the bail, judgment
shall be delivered by the justice of the peace.
ART. 148. Owners shall be notified of all seizures by the
officer or employee of Waters and Forests, within a period of
three days.
If the articles, or the cattle seized, are not reclaimed within
five days following the seizure, or if good and sufficient bail
has not been provided, the justice of the peace shall order them
to be sold by auction at the nearest market. If the owner of the
198 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
articles or of the cattle is not known, the sale can be ordered
five days after the seizure*
Proceedings shall be taken at the convenience of the public
receiver who will announce them 24 hours in advance.
The expenses of seizure and sale shall be levied on the sale
proceeds by the justice of the peace; and the surplus shall
remain in the hands of the public receiver to be assigned to
whomsoever it is due.
If the objection to any decision only takes place after the sale
the owner can only claim the restitution of the net profit of the
sale with all expenses deducted, in the case where judgment has
been decided in favour of this restitution.
ART. 146. Officers and employees shall write their reports
themselves and shall sign them, under penalty of their becoming
null and void.
If, by reason of any impediment, the report is only signed by
the guard but not written entirely in his hand, mention of this
fact under oath shall be made in the report, and sworn to
within a period of three days, before the cantonal magistrate
or one of his deputies or before the mayor or his deputy, either
of the commune where he resides or of that where the offence
has been committed or proved, under penalty of becoming null
and void.
The public officer who shall receive the affirmation shall
previously read the report to the officer in charge, and after-
wards make mention of this formality under penalty of becoming
null and void.
In cases where the report shall lead to seizure, immediately
after the closing of the case a copy of it shall be made, which
shall be deposited within three days at the registry of the
justice of the peace court, so that those who might wish to
reclaim the articles seized can be notified.
ART. 149. Under penalty of becoming null and void the re-
ports shall be registered within four days of the affirmation or
closing of the case, when the registrar resides in the locality
inhabited by the clerk who has drawn up the report. Should
he reside elsewhere 10 days will be given.
PROSECUTIONS 199
In all cases within military territory the period of time is a
fortnight.
The registration may be paid for by instalments.
ART. 153. Offences or trespasses against forest property shall
be proved by reports, or by witnesses in default of reports, in case
these documents are insufficient.
ART. 154. Reports invested with all the formalities pre-
scribed by Arts. 146 and 149, and which are written and signed
by two French Waters and Forests officers, shall be taken as
proofs until they have been disproved of material facts relating
to the trespasses and offences which they describe, whatever
may be the convictions to which these offences and trespasses
may lead. Consequently, no proofs beyond or against the
material (facts) of these reports will be admitted unless legal
ground exists for challenging one of the signatories.
ART. 155. Reports, invested with all the formalities pre-
scribed, which are drawn up or signed only by a single French
Waters and Forests officer, shall also be taken as proofs until
they have been disproved, but only when the offence or tres-
passes shall not lead to a conviction for more than 100 francs
($19.30) either as fine or civil damages.
When one of these reports shall authenticate charges of dis-
tinct and separate offences and misdemeanors simultaneously
against several individuals, it shall be equally admissible, ac-
cording to the terms of the present article, for each offence or
misdemeanor which shall not lead to a conviction for more than
100 francs ($19.30) for fines or for damages, whatever may be
the amount of all the aggregate sentences.
ART. 156. Official reports which, according to the preceding
provisions, do not furnish sufficient proofs or have been shown
to be in error, as well as reports drawn up by native guards, can
be corroborated or corrected by all the legalized tests as set
forth in Art. 154 of the code of criminal procedure.
ART. 157. The accused, who wishes to disprove a report, shall
be obliged to make in person, or else by proxy having a proper
power of attorney, an affidavit to that effect at the registry of
the court, or at the court of the justice of the peace, before
the session mentioned in the summons.
200 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
This affidavit shall be received by the registrar and signed by
the accused or his proxy; in case of his being unable or not
knowing how to sign, express mention of the fact shall be made.
On the day fixed for the hearing, the tribunal shall certify and
fix a period of three days at the least, or a week at the most,
during which the accused shall be obliged to deposit at the
registrar's office the proofs of the falsity, and the names, titles,
and residences of the witnesses he wishes to have summoned.
After the expiration of this period, and without a new sum-
mons being necessary, the tribunal shall accept the proofs of
the falsity, if they are of a nature to destroy the effect of the
report, and they shall proceed on that assumption, in accordance
with the law.
In the opposite case, or if the accused fails to comply with
all the formalities described above, the tribunal shall declare
that the proofs of falsity cannot be accepted, and shall order
that sentence be pronounced.
ART. 158. The accused, against whom judgment has been
given by default, shall be allowed to make his affidavit as to
falsity during the period of time permitted him by the law,
when he must appear personally at the hearing of the contest
he has made.
ART. 159. When a report has been drawn up accusing several
persons and when one or more of them shall plead "not guilty,"
the report shall still be held valid as proof against the others,
unless the fact which the former declare false applies in like
manner to the other persons accused.
ART. 151. The Waters and Forests Service employees can,
in actions and prosecutions undertaken in the name of the
Service, issue all necessary summonings, and judicial notices
of writs, without formal subpoenas. The summons must con-
tain a copy of the official report, under penalty of becoming
null and void.
The remuneration due employees for these summonings (in
the case of their being removed from office) shall be calculated
according to the tariff applicable to the writs of sheriffs' officers
or bailiffs, by orders of the justice of the peace.
PROSECUTIONS 2OI
ART. 1 60. If, in case of reparation for an offence or misde-
meanour, the accused pleads a property right or other real
right, the tribunal before which the case is presented shall
deliver judgment in this matter, according to the following
rules:
The aforesaid exception can only be admitted, if it be founded
on some manifest title deeds, or rights, either on the facts of
actual possession or their equivalent by the accused or his
predecessors, and precisely enumerated by him, and if in the
case where they shall be admitted by a competent authority,
the deed produced and the facts enumerated shall be of a nature
to remove from the case which serves as a basis to the prose-
cution, all character of misdemeanour or offence.
If the case is sent to the civil courts, the sentence shall be
delayed for a brief period, during which the party who has
raised the aforesaid question, shall lay it before competent
judges of the case and justify his suit; if not, judgment shall
be pronounced.
However, in case of conviction, there shall be a delay of
execution as regards imprisonment, if this sentence has been
pronounced, and the sum total of fines, restitutions, and
damages shall be paid into the government bank of deposits,
to be handed over to whomsoever the court shall order, who
shall pass judgment on the question of these rights.
ART. 163. Actions in reparation of misdemeanours and
offences, connected with forest matters, are enjoined for six
months, to count from the day when the misdemeanours and
offences have been verified, without prejudice (with regard to
purchasers and contractors) to the provisions set forth in Arts.
48, 49, 51, 52, and 73 of the present law.
ART. 164. Actions having to do with the denudation of wood
and brush, undertaken contrary to the provisions prescribed
in Art. 98, are enjoined for two years, to date from the period
when the clearing has been effected.
ART. 165. The provisions of Art. 163 are not applicable to
offences, misdemeanours, and malpractices committed by Waters
and Forests officers or employees in the exercise of their office;
202 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
the delays in carrying out the sentences passed upon them or
their accomplices are those determined by the criminal code.
ART. 1 66. The provisions of the code of criminal procedure
with regard to the prosecution of misdemeanours and offences,
upon summonses and delays upon defaults, oppositions, judg-
ments, appeals, and recourse to the court of appeal, are and
shall remain applicable to the prosecution of misdemeanours
and offences specified by the present law, except with regard to
the modifications resulting from the present part.
SECTION II. — PROSECUTIONS FOR MISDEMEANOURS AND OFFENCES
IN WOODS NOT UNDER FOREST ADMINISTRATION
ART. 167. Misdemeanours and offences committed in the
woods not under forest administration shall also be inquired
into and verified by federal or private forest employees, as well
as by rural police, police, and in general by the officers of the
judiciary police.
Reports drawn up by the federal employees shall be received
in evidence as stated in Arts. 154 and 155 of the present law.
Those of the private French guards shall hold good until con-
trary proof is given. Those of private native guards shall only
be regarded as reports for the information of the officials. The
weight given to the reports drawn up by officers of the judiciary
police, policeman, and the rural police is determined by the law
which applies to them. These reports, with the exception of
those drawn up by private guards, shall be registered without
advance payment.
ART. 168. The provisions contained in Arts. 142, 143, 144,
147, 148, 149, 160, 163, and 166 as above are applicable to the
prosecution of misdemeanours and offences committed in words
not subject to forest jurisdiction.
The provisions of Art. 146 shall be applicable to the drawing-
up of reports made by private guards when they are able to
write their reports themselves. If unable to write, these reports
written out by a third party shall be subject to the formality
of oath, and registered within the time fixed by Arts. 146 and
149.
PENALTIES AND SENTENCES 203
ART. 169. Reports drawn up by private guards shall be for-
warded to the attorney for the Republic, or the justice of the
peace, according to their respective jurisdictions, within a period
of ten days, to date from the registration.
Those drawn up by federal (forest) employees shall be trans-
mitted, after the formalities prescribed by the present law have
been complied with, and within the same period of time, by the
Waters and Forests inspector to the attorney for the Republic,
who alone shall undertake the prosecutions.
ART. 170. Cases of offences and misdemeanours committed
in woods and forests belonging to private individuals shall be
tried according to the regulations concerning jurisdiction indi-
cated in Art. 1 50.
PART IX. — PENALTIES AND SENTENCES APPLICABLE
TO WOODS AND FORESTS IN GENERAL
Re penalties.
ART. 171. The cutting or removal of trees 2 decimetres (7.9
inches) or more in circumference, one metre (i.i yards) above
the ground, shall be punished by a fine of i franc ($0.19) per
tree as a minimum which shall not be less than the value of
the tree.
In case of a repetition of the offence, the fine shall not be less
than double the value of the tree.
In addition the offender can be condemned to a maximum of
three months' imprisonment.
The report describing the trespass must give the number and
size of the trees cut down or removed, or mention the circum-
stances which have prevented the recording of these details.
The (civil) damages shall be awarded by the court according
to the data of the report and the merits of the case, but they
shall not be less than the minimum fixed by Art. 180.
ART. 172. The fine for cutting down, pulling up, or carrying
away trees less than 2 decimetres (7.9 inches) in circumference
shall be for every cart load from 3 to 10 francs ($0.58 to $1.93)
per harnessed animal, and from 2 to 5 francs ($0.39 to $0.96)
for every pack load, and from 0.50 to 2 francs ($0.09 to $0.39)
204 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
for every fagot load carried by a man. In addition the offender
can be sentenced to a maximum of five days' imprisonment. If
trees sown or planted in the forests less than 5 years ago are
concerned, the penalty will be a fine from 3 to 5 francs ($0.58
to $0.96) per tree, without respect to its size and in addition a
maximum imprisonment of 15 days.
In case of a repetition of the offence, the maximum fine shall
always be imposed.
ART. 173. Those persons who have lopped, barked, or muti-
lated trees in the woods or forests, or who have cut off the main
branches, shall be punished as if they had cut them down at the
stump.
ART. 174. Those persons who have taken or removed cork
(liege de reproduction)26 from the woods and forests, or those
who are illegally keeping it contrary to the decrees promulgated
by the Governor General, in accordance with Art. 134 of the
present law, shall be condemned to a minimum fine of 20 francs
($3.86) and a maximum fine of 40 francs ($7.72) for every 100
kilos (220 pounds) of cork, in proportion to the amount removed
or retained, also to imprisonment for a fortnight to six months.
Those persons who have removed ordinary cork-oak bark
(liege male (i)) without damaging the tree shall be punished
by fines which shall not be less than 10 centimes ($0.02) nor
exceed i franc ($0.19) per tree.
Those persons who, in removing the cork-oak bark, have
damaged the tree, shall be punished according to the penalties
enacted in Art. 172.
In case of a repetition of the offence, the maximum fine shall
always be enforced.
ART. 175. Whoever shall remove windfalls or wood cut in
trespass shall be condemned to the same fines and payments
as if he had felled it himself.
ART. 177. The owners of animals trespassing during the day
in woods 10 years and upwards in age shall be condemned to a
fine of from 20 centimes ($0.04) to i franc ($0.19) for a hog,
sheep, or calf; from 40 centimes ($0.08) to 2 francs ($0.39) for
26 See p. 59 for a description of cork-oak management.
PENALTIES AND SENTENCES 205
a steer, cow, goat or beast of burden; from i franc ($0.19) to
5 francs ($0.96) for a camel.
If the woods are less than ten years old, the fine shall be from
40 centimes to 2 francs ($0.08 to $0.39) for a hog, sheep, or calf;
from 80 centimes to 4 francs ($0.16 to $0.77) for a steer, cow,
goat, or a beast of burden; from 2 to 10 francs ($0.39 to $1.93)
for a camel.
All of those fines without prejudice as to claims for damages
if there be any.
In addition the herder may be sentenced to imprisonment for
from five days to six months.
In case of repetition of the offence, or if it has been committed
in the night, the maximum fine shall be enforced.
ART. 178. Those persons who have counterfeited or tam-
pered with the brands of private individuals, or those who have
made use of brands that have been tampered with or counter-
feited, or those who have illegally secured the real brands and
have applied them, or made use of them in a manner prejudicial
to the interests and the rights of private individuals, shall be
punished by imprisonment for from three months to two years.
ART. 185. In all cases not specified in the present law, re-
course shall be made to the Penal Code.
Re enforcement of penalties, etc.
ART. 176. Where wood or other productions of forest soil
have been illegally removed, damages may be claimed, over
and above the fines for the return of the articles removed, or
their equivalent value.
The saws, axes, bill-hooks, hatches, and other implements of
a similar nature, with which the trespassers and their accomplices
are provided, shall be confiscated.
ART. 179. If within the twelve months immediately preceding
the day, when an offence has been committed, the offender has
already been punished for a misdemeanour or offence, this shall
be considered as a repetition of the aforesaid misdemeanour or
offence.
ART. 1 80. In all cases of award for damages, these shall not
be less than the fine imposed by the court.
206 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
ART. 181. Except in the case provided for in Art. 126 of the
present law, Art. 463 of the Penal Code shall not be applicable
to matters regulated by the present law, nor to the law of
March 26, 1891.
ART. 182. Private owners are entitled to restitutions and
damages; fines and confiscations are always reserved for the
State.
ART. 183. In all cases where sales or auctions are declared
null and void, by reason of fraud or collusion, the buyer or
purchaser, independent of the fines and damages pronounced
against him, shall be sentenced to return the wood which has
already been cut down, or to pay the stumpage value of the
auction or sale price.
ART. 184. The husbands, fathers, mothers, and guardians,
and generally speaking all foremen and employees, shall be
civilly responsible for the misdemeanours and offences com-
mitted by their wives, children who are minors, wards living
with them and unmarried, workmen, teamsters and other sub-
ordinates, except in the case of legal redress.
This responsibility shall be regulated in accordance with the
last paragraph of Art. 1384 of the Civil Code, and shall apply
to restitutions, damages, and costs.
PART X. — EXECUTION OF JUDGMENTS
SECTION I. — JUDGMENTS CONCERNING MISDEMEANOURS AND
OFFENCES IN WOODS UNDER FOREST ADMINISTRATION
ART. 1 86. Judgments delivered at the request of the Waters
and Forests Service, or after proceedings by a public officer,
shall be denoted by simple abstracts containing the name,
residence of the parties, and the verdict of the court.
This notification will hold good during the delays of protest
and appeal from judgments.
ART. 187. The recovery of forestry fines is entrusted to the
general tax collectors (receveur des contributions di verses).
These collectors are likewise charged with the recovery of res-
titutions, expenses, and damages, resulting from sentences for
MISDEMEANOURS AND OFFENCES 207
misdemeanours and offences committed in the woods under
forest jurisdiction.
The Waters and Forests Service can allow trespassers to
settle fines, civil payments and costs, by means of maintenance
or improvement work on rural roads (up to three days) or in
the forests.
The general council shall fix the value of a day of such labor
for each commune.
The labor can also be furnished by piece-work.
If this labor is not forthcoming, within the time fixed by the
Waters and Forests Service, the offenders shall be prosecuted
according to the previous sentence.
ART. 1 88. Imprisonment for debt is exercised in matters con-
nected with the Forest Code, according to the law of July 22,
1867. The duration of such imprisonment is fixed by the
sentence within a limit of a week to six months. If the offender
has already been previously convicted, however, the sentence
can run to a year.
SECTION II. — JUDGMENTS CONCERNING MISDEMEANOURS AND
OFFENCES COMMITTED IN WOODS WHICH ARE NOT
UNDER FOREST ADMINISTRATION
ART. 189. Judgments given in favor of private individuals
for damages for misdemeanours and offences committed in their
woods shall be, at their request, notified and executed accord-
ing to the same forms and acts of constraint as in the case of
judgments delivered at the request of the Waters and Forests
Service.
The recovery of fines shall be effected by the general tax
collectors.
Insolvent offenders shall be permitted to discharge their debts
as already stated in Art. 187, but only in the case of fines and
costs claimed by the State.
In this case the work of labor must be done on the rural
roads depending on the commune in the territory where the
offence has been committed.
208 THE ALGERIAN FOREST CODE
PART XI. — GENERAL PROVISIONS
ART. 190. The laws, regulations, decrees, and orders laid
down as to matters dealt with by the present law are abrogated
as to every point in which they are contrary to the regulations
(of this Code) reserving to the Code the rights previously ac-
quired, and especially the laws of May 21, 1827, May 4, 1837,
June 1 8, 1859, Nov. 23, 1883 (in all matters concerning Algeria),
July 17, 1874, Dec. 9, 1885. Likewise the regulations, decrees,
and orders laid down as to subjects dealt with by the present
law are abrogated in every point in which they are contrary to
its regulations, and reserving to the Code the rights previously
acquired, especially the regulations of Aug. i, 1827, June 23,
1830, Mar. 10, 1831, May 20, 1837, June 10, 1840, Aug. 24,
1840, Dec. 4, 1844, Mar. 23, 1845, Feb. 5, 1846, Jan. 13, 1847
(in all matters concerning Algeria), the decrees of Apr. 2, 1857,
May 19, 1857, Oct. 16, 1858, Dec. 21, 1859, Dec. 22, 1879,
Feb. 17, 1888, Apr. 25, 1888, Mar. 19, 1891 (in all matters
concerning Algeria), the decrees of Oct. 17, 1861, Aug. 26, 1881,
and Aug. 18, 1885.
CORSICA-STATISTICS
209
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1-
214 CORSICA-SALES CLAUSES
SALE OF A SPECIAL FELLING AREA27 AUTHORIZED BY DECREE
OF JUNE 8, 1909, IN THE COMMUNAL FOREST OF ASCO
The auction will take place at Corte, Wednesday, July 25,
1911, at precisely 9 A.M. in the Town hall.
SPECIAL CLAUSES
PART I. — AUCTION
ART. i. The felling area comprises the whole of the com-
munal forest of Asco which is under forest control and includes
the trees (marked on the bole and root with the federal marking
hatchet) whose number, species, size, distribution between the
15 forest compartments, estimated yield in lumber and beams,
in fire wood and in resin will be found after the printed clauses
of this circular, which will give a rough idea of the forested
compartments . . .
ART. 2. The sale will be made in one lot, without guarantee
as to boundaries, area, number of trees, volume, species, age,
condition, or quality.
ART. 3. The auction is made under the clauses and con-
ditions of the general sales circular, approved Aug. 4, 1909,
except as hereafter modified.
ART. 4. The sale will be made at reduced prices; it will take
place at Corte.
ART. 5. ... each bidder must deposit 20,000 francs ($3860)
before the auction . . .
ART. 6. Within 20 days after the auction the successful
bidder will deposit:
1. One- tenth of the purchase price . . .
2. ... stamp rights and registry charges . . .
3. ... municipal levies ...
ART. 7. Within 40 days after the auction the purchaser must
pay . . . the remaining nine-tenths of the price . . .
ART. 8. ... fiscal arrangements enumerated ... a sum
of 4000 francs ($772) is added to the purchase price of the
felling area.
27 Translated by the writer; the portions omitted are of no interest or applica-
tion.
CORSICA-SALES CLAUSES 215
ART. 9. > . . for:
1. Cost of estimate made because of the sale.
2. Maintenance of official marks during felling.
3. Working plan of the forest after exploitation.
PART II. — EXPLOITATION AND REMOVAL
ART. 10. Under the penalties given in Art. 40 of the Forest
Code of France, the exploitation and the removal over the en-
tire felling area must be completely finished within a period of
1 8 years counting from the auction day. The compartments
will be cut over in the order decided upon by the purchaser,
and will theoretically each correspond to a separate sale. Yet
several compartments may be exploited simultaneously, but the
logging of a compartment cannot be commenced until the
purchaser obtains from the inspector for this particular com-
partment a special cutting permit . . . stating that he has
complied with all the requirements which are set by Art. 18 of
the general circular.
Dating from the delivery of this compartment permit, which
the purchaser must procure, there will be three years for the
felling and removal of the wood from the compartment and
under no circumstances can the time for removal exceed the
period of 18 years fixed above for the removal of the whole sale.
On the other hand extensions of time may be granted, in
case of accident, for good and unforeseen causes, under the con-
ditions cited by Arts. 29 and 44 of the general circular; but
the aggregate of these extensions cannot in any case exceed two
years for any one compartment.
The stumps shall be checked by compartments, in the order
of expiration of the term for felling figured for each from the
date of the cutting permit.
ART. ii. The imprint of the federal marking hatchet on the
stumps of trees designated for felling must be pointed out by
the purchaser when the stumps are checked.
If it is shown that these imprints have a tendency to become
2l6
CORSICA-SALES CLAUSES
obliterated in the last compartments to be cut over, the trees
which bear them shall be freshly stamped with the federal
mark in one or more operations, carried out by the Waters and
Forests Service, always with the purchaser or his representa-
tive (present).
ART. 12. The volume of the wood to be delivered to the
purchaser in the compartments during exploitation and during
the regular felling term, in accordance with Arts. 21, 31, 36,
40, and 45 of this circular, shall be calculated on the basis of
the diameters of the trees and in accordance with the following
volume table:
D.B. H.
Volume
metres (inches).
cubic metres (cu. ft.
Remarks.
0.10 (3.94)
0.03 (1.06)
0.20 (7.87)
0.13 (4.59)
0.30 (n.8i)
o-3S (12.35)
\
0.40 (15.75)
0.50 (lQ.68)
0.60 (23.62)
0.70 (27.56)
0.80 (31.50)
0.90 (35.43)
.00 (39.37)
.10 (43-31)
.20 47.24)
.30 5I.I8)
0.75 (26.48) .
1.30 (45-90)
2.15 (75.92)
3.25 (114.77)
4-35 (i53.6i)
6.05 (213.64)
7.60 (268.39) .
8.95 (316.05)
1 1. 60 (409.64)
13.80 (487.33)
The o.io-metre (3.9-inch) diameter
class will include all the stems measuring
from 0.06 to 0.15 metre (2.4 to 5.9 inches)
inclusive at breast height (1.30 metres
* (1.4 yards) above the ground); that of 0.20
metre (7.9 inches) trees will include all the
stems measuring from 0.16 to 0.25 metre
(6.3 to 9.8 inches) in diameter inclusive,
and so on following.
.40 55.12)
16.20 (572.08)
.50 (59.07)
19.00 (670.97)
1. 60 (62.99)
22.60 (798.10)
The volume of wood delivered in accordance with Articles
21, 31, and 40 of the general circular will be paid for at the
average price of dimension stuff resulting from the sum total
of the auction, that is to say, at the price obtained by dividing
the grand total of the auction (both sales price and charges)
by the total volume of the products estimated in board and
dimension stuff in accordance with Article, i.
The volume of wood delivered in accordance with Arts. 36
and 45 of the general circular (reserved trees) shall be paid for
at the same price be it more or less.
However, these prices shall not be applied in the calculation
of the amounts due except to wood of merchantable size and
quality or to products of merchantable value, which may be
used by the purchaser.
CORSICA-SALES CLAUSES 217
The cost of stamping and registering papers relative to these
deliveries shall be at the cost of the purchaser.
ART. 13. The sale is made under the actual conditions pre-
vailing, and the Waters and Forests Service, as well as the com-
mune of Asco, declines all responsibility because of delays
which may retard the construction of the parish road of Asco.
The removal will take place along existing roads or by any
other ways and means created by the purchaser, that is to say:
mule trails, secondary roads, suitable for carts, skidding trails or
slides, installation of Decauville lines, roll ways, inclined planes
or cables, established in virtue of permits which shall be re-
quested under the conditions given in Art. 33 of the general
" cahier de charges."
In this respect the Waters and Forests Service will give all
possible facilities, but because of a refusal the purchaser cannot
base claims for a reduction in the purchase price or any in-
demnity whatsoever, even if the difficulty (of logging) was
thereby increased, or in case of the impossibility of removal.
ART. 14. The purchaser shall bear all costs of the improve-
ment or construction on existing logging roads or on any he
may be authorized to establish. The betterments will revert
without payment to the commune of Asco after exploitation
is finished. The same will apply to all the ties laid under
Decauville lines or on sled roads, bridges, and fences (con-
structed) of wood, dams, flood gates including their fittings
which shall become at the same time and without payment
the property of the Asco commune. The total equipment
only can be removed by the purchaser.
ART. 15. Every facility shall also be accorded the purchaser
by the Waters and Forests Service for establishing in the forest
under the conditions prescribed by Art. 31 of the general cir-
cular, huts, shanties, workshops, and mills necessary for the
requirements of exploitation either of wood or gum, and to
utilize, if there are any, streams for the generation of power.
The purchaser shall be granted a period of six months after
the exploitation is finished (within which) to remove the lumber
or other material from houses erected, as well as the tool equip-
218 CORSICA-SALES CLAUSES
ment and furnishings; but after this period the commune of
Asco shall become the owner, and do as it pleases with all build-
ings and material which may not have been removed by the
purchaser.
ART. 1 6. The responsibility decreed by Art. 45 of the Forest
Code will be in force in compartments during exploitation,
from the time the special permit for felling in these compart-
ments is given until they are checked over, or until the release
is given the purchaser.
Moreover no reduction in the price of the sale nor any refund
can be claimed because of trespass damage committed on trees
sold comprised in the compartments remaining for exploitation.
ART. 17. The purchaser cannot raise any claim for damages
because of windfall or the death of trees, which shall have taken
place since the marking among trees designated and marked for
the sale.
PART III. — TAPPING
ART. 18. The purchaser shall have the privilege of tapping
trees marked for felling.
ART. 19. In the compartments opened for felling and in the
ordinary course of exploitation the tapping will be conducted
at the option of the purchaser who can work the trees as desired.
For this purpose a special tapping to death permit will be
included in the logging permit, on the preliminary written re-
quest from the purchaser, and in this event the period for the
exploitation and removal for each compartment shall be fixed
at 5 years, commencing from the date of the cutting permit
(and) without any extension permissible.
ART. 20. In the compartments not yet opened for felling,
but which have already been settled for, . . . the purchaser
shall have in addition the right to tap alive the trees marked
for felling by making a written request to the inspector, who
after seeing the remittance receipt, will deliver to him a special
permit for tapping alive. This permit will be valid up to the
time (the compartment) is opened for regular felling and com-
mencing with the date of the felling permit the purchaser will
CORSICA-SALES CLAUSES 219
have 5 years, as given above, to tap to death if he wishes, and
to entirely finish the exploitation and removal in each com-
partment.
ART. 21. The tapping alive in the compartments not yet
opened for felling must conform to the following rules :
The trees to be tapped alive shall be cut with only one face
at a time which shall be begun above the root collar and always
continued vertically. The face may be raised during the first
year it is cut to 60 centimetres (23 inches), and each of the
following years 70 centimetres (27 inches) provided that the
total height of the face does not exceed 3.40 metres (3.7
yards).
The width of the face should not exceed 9 centimetres (3.5
inches) for the first two years they are cut, 8 centimetres
(3 inches) commencing with the third year and 7 centimetres
(2.7 inches) during the last year.
Their depth must not exceed i centimetre (0.4 inch), meas-
ured from a cord stretched from one side of the scar to the
other, beginning with the cambium.
The successive faces shall be cut so far as possible on opposite
sides of the tree perpendicular to each other.
The old faces shall be abandoned no matter what their height
may be.
However, in the first compartments in which the period for
tapping alive may be less than 5 years, the width of the faces
or height may be modified by the conservator on the request
of the purchaser.
ART. 22. Every tree worked contrary to the preceding rules
in compartments not yet opened for cutting will be considered
as having been mutilated and (therefore) falling under the force
of Arts. 192 and 196 of the Forest Code (of France).
The purchaser will incur the same penalties every time (in
order to conduct the gum into the cup) he shall cut at the base
of the trees tapped alive circular incisions deep enough to hit
the wood.
ART. 23. The tapping alive will only be allowed from March
i to October 31 of each year, but the purchaser can com-
220 CORSICA-SALES CLAUSES
mence to clean off the (bark of the) pines which are to be tapped
and place the nails from the first of February.
He can also collect resin barrels up to the i5th of December
each year during the period for tapping alive.
ART. 24. The purchaser will have the privilege of barking
(up to 4 metres (4 yards) in height) the trees to be tapped alive
in the compartments not yet opened. He must immediately
dispose of the products of this work.
ART. 25. In the case of tapping operations the exploitation
and removal of the wood or resin must be completely finished
within a maximum term of 20 years for the whole cutting area
counting from the day of the auction and without any extension
possible.
PART IV. — MISCELLANEOUS RULES
ART. 26. The Waters and Forests Service and the commune
of Asco do not hold themselves responsible for:
1. Fires and acts of Providence (storms, floods, avalanches,
slides, etc.) which may take place in the forest during
the cutting period.
2. Delays which may affect the construction of the Asco
parish road.
These occurrences will give under no circumstances any in-
demnity, deduction or reduction whatever in the sale price.
ART. 27. Of the total number of workmen employed by the
contractor either for exploitation, handling or tapping, the pro-
portion of foreign laborers must not exceed a percentage of 90.
ART. 28. The contractor must send to the Waters and Forests
agent, chief of cantonment at Bastia, on every request, the
complete list of the workmen employed on the woodyards and
workshops of the felling area. The conservator can, on the
recommendation of the local agents, strike from this list those
persons who have committed any forest trespass, or those con-
victed either of poaching or insult or insubordination against
an official.
Approved at Paris by the Secretary of Agriculture,
January 21 , 1910.
EQUIVALENTS 221
ADDITIONAL LITERATURE
TUNISIA
1. Arthur White. Le developpement de 1'Afrique. Bruxelles. 1894.
2. Servonnet. Le golfe de Gabes en 1888. Paris. 1888.
3. Guillochon. Traite" pratique d'horticulture pour de nord de 1'Afrique.
Tunis. 1907.
4. Bulletin de direction de 1'agriculture et du commerce et de la colonisation,
Tunis. 1903-1908.
5. Ch. Degreaux. Notice sur les forets de la Khroumirie. Tunis. 1905.
6. Direction des forets. Notice sur les forets de la Tunisie. Tunis. 1889.
7. Compte rendu de la direction generate des travaux publics. Paris. 1898-
1908.
8. Duveyrier. La Tunisie. Tunis. 1881.
ALGERIA
1. Gautier. Sahara Algerien. Paris. 1908.
2. Ghudeau. Sahara Soudanais. Paris. 1909.
3. Battandier. Du role du boisement dans 1'avenir de I'Alge'rie. Paris. 1898.
4. Combe. Les forets de 1'Algerie. Alger. 1889.
5. Lefebvre. Les forets de 1'Algerie. Alger. Mustapha. 1900.
6. Gouvernement general de 1'Algerie. Programme du reboisement. Alger.
1885.
7. Gouvernement general de 1'Algerie. Alger. 1904.
8. Maurice Wahl. L'Algerie. Paris. 1882.
EQUIVALENTS
The following equivalents have been used in conversions:
i pound (avordupois) = 0.45359 kilogram
i pound (Troy) = 0.37324 kilogram
i millimetre = 0.03937 inch
i centimetre = 0.3937 inch
i metre = 3.28083 feet
i metre = 1.093611 yards
i kilometre = 0.62137 mile
i square millimetre = 0.00155 square inch
i square centimetre = 0.1550 square inch
i square metre = 10.764 square feet
i square metre = 1.196 square yards
i square kilometre = 0.3861 square mile
i hectare = 2.471 acres
i cu. millimetre = 0.000061 cubic inch
i cu. centimetre = 0.06 1 cubic inch
i cu. metre = 35.314 cu. feet
i cu. metre = 1.3079 cu. yards
i litre = 1.05668 quarts (liquid)
222 EQUIVALENTS
i litre = 0.26417 gallon (liquid)
i litre = 0.9081 quart (dry)
i litre = 0.11331 peck
i hectolitre = 2.83774 bushels
i gram = 15.4324 grains
i gram = 0.03527 ounce (avordupois)
i gram = 0.03215 ounce (Troy)
i kilogram = 2.20462 pounds (avordupois)
i kilogram = 2.67923 pounds (Troy)
i franc = 19.3 cents (current rate in 1912-13)
INDEX
Abies pectinata. See Fir
Acacia, planting of, in Algeria, 79, 84
in Tunisia, 36
Acer. See Maple
Acorns, gathering of, in Algeria, 187
sowing of, in Algeria, 82-83, 86
in Tunisia, 42
Administration of forests. See Forest
administration
Administrative units, size of, in Algeria,
103
in Corsica, 124
in France, 103
See also "Chefferies"
Aeration of seedlings, in Algeria, 7, 87
"Afares"oak. See Oak, "af ares"
Agricultural crops, in Tunisia, 14, 15
Agricultural land, extent of, in Algeria,
54
Agricultural settlement, in Algeria, 56
in Tunisia, 18
Aitone forest, Corsica, working plan for,
132-133, 137-138
Ajaccio, Corsica, administrative center,
2, 123
Alder, occurrence of, in Corsica, 123
in Tunisia, 14
Aleppo pine. See Pine, aleppo
.Alfa, collection of, in Algeria, 89
occurrence of, in Tunisia, 40
sales of, in Algeria, 175
Algeria, chapter on, 46-110
conclusions and summary, 4-7
See also -specific subjects in their
alphabetical positions
Algeria — Commission d'etudes f orest-
ieres. "Rapport," referred to,
5i, 57, 58, 72, 101, 103
Algeria — Gouvernement general.
"Programme du reboisement,"
referred to, 221
"Statistique generate de 1'Alg^rie,"
referred to, 57, 90
Algerian forest code, referred to, 4, 23,
53, 75
summary of, 109-110
translation of, 161-208
Algerian oak. See Oak, zeen
Algiers, Algeria, administrative center,
2, 5, 103
forest museum at, 88
Alnus. See Alder
Aran, Algeria, reforestation at, 86
Arbute, occurrence of, in Algeria, 55
Areas, of Algeria, 2, 47
of Corsica, 2, 113
of Tunisia, 2, 10
Asco timber sale, Corsica, description of,
214-220
reference to, 146-147
Ash, occurrence of, in Algeria, 56
in Corsica, 123
in Tunisia, 14
planting of, in Algeria, 79
Aspen, occurrence of, in Corsica, 123
Assassination of forest officers, in
Algeria, 103
Auction frauds, penalties for, in Algeria,
167-168
Auctions, in communal forests, in
Algeria, 181-182
in Corsica, 214-215
in state forests, in Algeria, 166-169,
174-175
Azerolier, occurrence of, in Tunisia,
14
223
224
INDEX
Backfiring, objections to, in Algeria, 101
regulations regarding, in Algeria, 194
Bainen, Algeria, reforestation at, 7,
83
Ball planting, in Algeria, 6, 78, 86
in Tunisia, 3
Bamboo tubes, in nursery practice, in
Tunisia, 42-43
Baraban, Leopold V., reference to, 31
Bark peeling, cost of, in Tunisia, 16
methods of, in Algeria, 61
regulations regarding, in Algeria, 171,
204
in Corsica, 142, 220
time of, in Algeria, 60
in Tunisia, 16
See also Tan bark
Battandier, Jules A., on "Du role du
boisement dans 1'avenir de 1'Al-
ge"rie," 221
Bavella forest, Corsica, working plan
for, 128-129, 137
Beech, distribution of, in Corsica, 115,
118, 121
uses of, in Corsica, 121
Betula. See Birch
Bibliography, 221
Birch, occurrence of, in Corsica, 123
Birds, damage by, in Algeria, 78,
82-83
Bizerte, Tunisia, dunes near, 36
Blanks, leasing of, in Algeria, 175
reforesting of, in Algeria, 78
situation of, in Corsica, 115
Blight disease of chestnut. See Chest-
nut blight disease
Bon Rahma forest, Algeria, reforesta-
tion of, 86
Bonuses, for Algerian service, 106-107
Boundaries of forests. See Forest
boundaries
Boundary lines, construction of, in
Algeria, 94
obliteration of, in Algeria, 188
See also Fire lines
Boutilly, V., on "Recueil de la legisla-
tion forestidre Alggrienne," 102
reference to, 6, 78
Boxes, of aleppo pine, in Tunisia, 17
Branding stock, regulations regarding.
in Algeria, 174
Brands, illegal use of, in Algeria, 205
Bridge and road service, Algeria, rights
of, 189
Bridges, construction of, in Corsica, 143,
148, 159
in timber sales operations,- Algeria,
166
Brush, for erosion correction, in Tu-
nisia, 38
for seedling protection, in Algeria, 82
included in timber sales, in Corsica,
141
Brush burning, regulations regarding,
in Algeria, 92, 190
in Corsica, 144, 155
Brush lands, administration of, in
Algeria, 162
cause of, in Algeria, 55
clearing of, in Algeria, 6, 79
extent of, in Corsica, 113, 135
planting of, in Algeria, 6
Brushing. See Clearing
Bryony, black, occurrence of, in
Tunisia, 14
"Bundles of management," descrip-
tion of, in Algeria, 71
reference to, 5
Burning of brush. See Brush burning
Burning of charcoal. See Charcoal
burning
Caird, I. H., on "The History of Cor-
sica," III-II2
Callistris quadrivalvis. See Thuya
Camel grazing, in communal forests, in
Algeria, 183
in state forests, in Algeria, 178
Camps near forests, law regarding, in
Algeria, 195
in Tunisia, 23
Canals, in timber sales operations, in
Algeria, 166
Carob tree, occurrence of, in Tunisia, 15
planting of, in Algeria, 79, 86
in Tunisia, 41-42
INDEX
225
Castanea vesca. See Chestnut
Casuarina, planting of, in Tunisia, 36
Cattle grazing, amount of, in Corsica,
156
fees for, in Algeria, 88-89
in state forests, in Algeria, 177-178
Cedar, coffin from, in Algeria, 64
distribution of, in Algeria, 54-56
management of, in Algeria, 64-65
planting of, in Algeria, 78-79
sales of, in Algeria, 57
thinnings in, Algeria, 64-65
Cedrus atlantica. See Cedar
Ceratonia siliqua. See Carob tree
Charcoal, from aleppo pine, in Tunisia,
17
from holm oak, in Corsica, 121, 135
from zeen oak in Tunisia, 17
sales of, in Algeria, 58
Charcoal burning, regulations regard-
ing, in Algeria, 190
Charvet, Joseph L., reference to, 30, 45
Chazalette, Henri, reference to, 86
" Chefferies," system of, in Algeria, 5,
53, 104
Chestnut, distribution of, in Corsica,
115, 122
for tannin, in Corsica, 122
Chestnut blight disease, in Corsica, 122
Chestnuts, as food, in Corsica, 122
Chudeau, R., on "Sahara Soudanais,"
221
Cinto, Monte, in Corsica, 113
Cistus, occurrence of, in Algeria, 55
Classification of land. See Land classi-
fication
Clearing, of brush lands, in Algeria,
6, 86
of fire lines, in Algeria, 7, 95
in Corsica, 155
in Tunisia, 18, 27-28, 30-31
Clearing regulations, in private forests,
Algeria, 185-186
Climate, of Algeria, 48-49
of Corsica, 1 13
of Tunisia, 11-12
See also Humidity; Rainfall;
Temperature; Winds
Coffin, from cedar, in Algeria, 64
Collection of seed. See Seeds, collection
of
Colonization, increase of, in Tunisia, 14
Combe, Ad., on " Les f orets de 1'Algerie "
221
Communal forests, administration of, in
Algeria, 161, 180-183
extent of, in Algeria, 56
grazing of, in Corsica, 156
species found in, Corsica, 118
subdivision of, in Algeria, 181
Compartment letters, painting of, in
Corsica, 159
Cones, aleppo pine, opening of, 82
lodgepole pine, opening of, 82
Conifers, on fire lines, in Tunisia, 30
Constantine, Algeria, administrative
center, 2, 5, 103
fire lines in, 98
reforestation at, 7, 82-83
Contract conditions, in clearing fire
lines, in Tunisia, 31
in timber sales, in Corsica, 141-145,
217
in turpentining, in Algeria, 62
Controller. See Inspector
Coppice, extent of, in Tunisia, 15
management of, in Corsica, 135
yield of, in New England, 6
Coppicing, of oak, in Algeria, 65
in Tunisia, 24
of olive, in Tunisia, 24
Cork, collection of, in Algeria, 60, 68,
74-75
in Tunisia, 21, 23
price of, in Algeria, 66, 75
in Tunisia, 16-17
sales of, in Algeria, 6, 57-58, 73-74
in Corsica, 121
in Tunisia, 14, 16-17, 21
thefts of, in Algeria, 204
Cork-oak, amount of, in Algeria, 58
in Tunisia, 16
cuttings in, Algeria, 6, 67
distribution of, in Algeria, 54-56
in Corsica, 115, 118, 121-122
in Tunisia, 12, 14
226
INDEX
Cork-oak, fire lines in, Algeria, 96-97
in Tunisia, 27, 30
fire protection in, Algeria, 91
in Tunisia, 2, 26-28
for fire wood, in Algeria, 61
in Tunisia, 16
for tannin, in Algeria, 61, 67
in Tunisia, 16
management of, in Algeria, 50, 58-61
in Corsica, 121-122
in Tunisia, 2-3, 16-17, 20, 22-24
planting of, in Algeria, 78-79. 82-83,
86
privately owned, in Algeria, 56, 73
resistance to heat, in Algeria, 6-7
rotation for, in Tunisia, 24
sales of, in Algeria, 4, 50, 72-73
sprouting of, in Algeria, 61
working plan for, in Algeria, 66-68
yield of, in Algeria, 5-6, 67
Cork-oak production, study of, in
Algeria, 87
Cora, Indian, for seedling protection,
in Tunisia, 43
Coronado national forest, Ariz., admin-
istration of, 5
"Corse (La) agricole," reference to, 122
Corsica, chapter on, 111-160
conclusions and summary, 8-9
See also specific subjects in their
alphabetical positions
Corsican pine. See Pine, Corsican
Crataegus azarolus. See Azerolier
Crates, from aleppo pine, in Tunisia, 17
Crops. See Agricultural crops
"Culee noire" method of coppicing, in
Algeria, 65
Cultivated lands as fire lines, in Tunisia,
3, 18
Cupressus semper virens. See Cypress
Cuttings, areas reserved from, in Al-
geria, 165
excessive, in Algeria, 55
in Corsica, 8, 115, 137-139
in Tunisia, 15
in aleppo pine, in Tunisia, 23
in cork-oak, in Algeria, 6, 67
in Corsican pine, in Corsica, 8
Cuttings in holm oak, in Tunisia, 23
in reserved forests, in Tunisia, 3, 23
in Valdoniello forest, Corsica, 135
in zeen oak, in Tunisia, 23-24
regeneration, in Algeria, 63-64
in Corsica, 8, 132, 135
regulations regarding, in Algeria, 76,
181-182
in Corsica. 141, 215
Cypress, occurrence of, in Tunisia, 15
planting of, in Algeria, 79, 84
Damage to trees, from logging, in
Corsica, 142, 150
Dams, for erosion correction, in ~Tu-
nisia, 37-38
Date palm. Ste Palm, date
Dead wood, included in timber sales,
in Corsica, 141
Debris. See Brush
Debt, imprisonment for, in Algeria, 207
Degreaux, Ch., on "Notice sur les
forets de la Khroumirie," 221
Delacourcelle, Louis A., reference to, 41
Destruction of forests. See Forest
destruction
Diary of a forest ranger, quotation from,
21
Discipline, of forest officers, in Algeria,
108-109
Diseases of chestnut. See Chestnut
blight disease
Diss, for thatching, in Algeria, 195
Ditch method, of reforestation, in
Algeria, 84
Ditches, for erosion correction, in
Tunisia, 36-37, 40
Djerid oases, Tunisia, 2, 18
Dorsale Mts., Tunisia, position of, n
Drought resistant trees, in Algeria, 54
in Tunisia, 36, 40-41
Dry season, in Algeria, 48
in Corsica, 113
in Tunisia, 3
Duff, Miss Nora, translator of Algerian
code, 161
Dumouriez, General Charles Francois,
reference to, 112
INDEX
227
Dundas, Henry, reference to, 112
Dunes. See Sand dunes
Duveyrier, Henri, on "La Tunisie," 221
Ecological studies, in Algeria, 88
"Ecumoire" system of cutting, in Cor-
sica, 133
El-Feidja, Tunisia, forest administra-
tion at, 21
El-Hamma oasis, Tunisia. 34, 38
Elm, occurrence of, in Algeria, 56
El-Ouidan oasis, Tunisia, 34, 40
English conquest, of Corsica, in
Equivalents, table of, 221-222
Erosion, damage from, in Tunisia. 33, 36
protection from, in Corsica, 159
in Tunisia, 2-3, 23, 36-40
Eucalyptus, planting of, in Algeria, 83
in Tunisia, 36, 40-42
Evergreens, large number of, in Algeria,
54
Excavations, regulations regarding, in
Algeria, 189
Expenditures. See Forest expenditures
Experiment stations, in Algeria, 87, 105
Expropriation of lands, in Algeria,
179-180, 183
Extensive forestry, value of, 1-2
Fagus sylvatica. See Beech
Failures, of reforestation, in Algeria, 82, 84
in Corsica, 153
in Tunisia, 43
Federal forests. See State forests
Fellings. See Cuttings
Fences, sand, construction of, in Tu-
nisia, 34-35
Fines, collection of, in Algeria, 206-207
See also Penalties
Fir, distribution of, in Corsica, 115,
121-122
Fire, causes of, in Algeria, 66, 91
in Corsica, 155
in Tunisia, 26
damage from, in Algeria, 50, 55-56,
61, 91
in Corsica, 8, 63, 112, 115, 155
in Tunisia, 15
Fire, danger of, in Corsica, 123, 130
in Tunisia, 14, 27-28
in or near forests, law regarding, in
Algeria, 190-191
in Tunisia, 2, 23, 25
in Vizzavona forest, Corsica, 132
penalties for setting, in Algeria, 191
Fire fighters, conscription of, in Algeria,
7,92,192
direction of, in Algeria, 194
Fire line record, sample of, in Algeria,
100
Fire lines, along railways, in Algeria, 94,
194
in Tunisia, 3, 23, 27, 30
* clearing of, in Algeria, 7, 95, 99
in Corsica, 155
in Tunisia, 18, 27-28, 30-31
cost of, in Tunisia, 29
cultivated lands as, in Tunisia, 3, 18
in aleppo pine, in Algeria, 96-97
in cork-oak, in Algeria, 96-97
in Tunisia, 27, 30
in holm oak, in Algeria, 97
in plantations, in Algeria, 83
in thuya, in Algeria, 96-97
in zeen oak, in Tunisia, 30
location of, in Tunisia, 29
necessity for, in Algeria, 101
in Tunisia, 29
regulations regarding, in Algeria, 91,
93-95, 191
table of, in Algeria, 95-98
width of, in Algeria, 94, 98
in Corsica, 155
in Tunisia, 29-30
Fire notices, in railway cars, in Tunisia, 27
Fire protection, by settlers, in Algeria,
192
in Tunisia, 3
in aleppo pine, in Algeria, 91
in Tunisia, 2
in cork-oak, in Algeria, 91
in Tunisia, 2, 26-28
methods of, in Corsica, 154-155
in Tunisia, 24-31
problems of, in Algeria, 7
in Tunisia, 28
228
INDEX
Fire regulations, in Algeria, 91-93,
172, 191-194
in Corsica, 142
in Tunisia, 22
Fire reports, preparation of, in Algeria.
93
Fire-wood, of aleppo pine, in Tunisia.
2, 17
of beech, in Corsica, 121
of cork-oak, in Algeria, 61
in Tunisia, 16
of holm oak, in Corsica, 121, 135
in Tunisia, 17
sales of, in Algeria, 57, 182-183
Food, from chestnuts, in Corsica,
122
Forest administration, cost of, in Al-
geria, 58
in Corsica, 127-128
in Tunisia, 21-22
early difficulties of, 4
land under, in Algeria, 161-162
methods of, in France, i
in Tunisia, 18
progress of, in Algeria, 4, 7, 49-53
in Corsica, 112
in Tunisia, 3
Forest boundaries, problem of, in Tu-
nisia, 1 8
regulations regarding, in Algeria,
163-165 ^
in Tunisia, 22
Forest commission, Algeria, appoint-
ment of, 50
findings of, 52
work of, 4, 52-53, 109
Forest commission, Tunisia, appoint-
ment of, 22
Forest destruction, in Algeria, 50,
55-56
in Corsica, 122
in Tunisia, 15
Forest houses, construction of, in
Algeria, 89
in Corsica, 157
in Tunisia, 18, 43-45
cost of, in Algeria, 90
furnishings of, in Corsica, 157
Forest houses, furnishings of, in
Corsica, 125
in Tunisia, 45
Forest industries, of Algeria, 58, 74
of Corsica, 153
of Tunisia, 11-12
Forest influences, in Algeria, 52, 185
See also Forest meteorology
Forest laws, of Algeria, 4, 52-53, 109-
110, 161-208
of Tunisia, 22-23
See also Algerian forest code
Forest management, in state forests, in
Algeria, 165-166
methods of, in Tunisia, 2
objects of. in Algeria, 58-59
in Corsica, 129
records of, in Algeria, 71-72
study of, in Algeria, 87-88
Forest meteorology, study of, in Algeria
87
Forest museum, Algiers, Algeria, 88
Forest officers, appointment of, in
Algeria, 163
assassination of, in Algeria, 103
discipline of, in Algeria, 108-109
duties of, in Algeria, 5, 53, 87, 105,
195-203
in Corsica, 124-125
in Tunisia, 17, 20
French, in Algeria, 103-104
in Tunisia, 19
military duties of, in Algeria, 106
native, in Algeria, 103-104, 163
in Tunisia, 20
as horsemen, in Algeria, 108
number of, in Algeria, 103-104
in Corsica, 124
in Tunisia, 19
pay of, in Algeria, 5, 53, 106-108
in Corsica, 124
in Tunisia, 20
promotions of, in Algeria, 108-109, 162
reports of, in Corsica, 125-126
titles of, in Algeria, 102, 106
in Tunisia, 19
travel expenses of, in Algeria, 5, 106-107
in Corsica, 125
INDEX
229
Forest officers, travel expenses of, in
Tunisia, 20
See also Forest rangers; Guards;
Inspectors
Forest plantations, establishment of,
in Algeria, 7
for erosion correction, in Tunisia, 40
of oak, in Algeria, 78
Forest preservation, importance of, in
Algeria, 4
Forest products, regulations regarding,
in Algeria, 74~?6, I74~i75, !9°
Forest ranger, diary of, quotation from, 2 1
Forest regulation, in Tunisia, 23-24
Forest revenues, in Algeria, 53, 57-58
in Corsica, 127, 139, 146, 152
in Tunisia, 18, 22
See also Timber sales
Forest rights, in communal forests, in
Algeria, 182-183
in private forests, in Algeria, 187-188
in state forests, in Algeria, 175-179
redemption of, in Algeria, 176-177,
183, 187
See also Free use privileges;
Grazing rights
Forest service, Algeria, criticism of,
organization of, 53, 101-104, 162-163
prosecutions by, 195-203
Forest service, Corsica, organization of,
123-124
Forest service, Tunisia, beginnings of, 17
organization of , 18-21
Forest soils, study of, in Algeria, 87
Forests, communal. See Communal
forests
Forests, description of, in Algeria, 54~55
in Corsica, 113-118
in Tunisia, 14-16
extent of, in Algeria, 54, 56-57
in Corsica, 115, 123
in Tunisia, 14, 1 6
Forests, private. See Private forests
Forests, state. See State forests
France — Direction generate des trav-
aux publics. "Compte rendu,"
referred to, 221
France, forest administration in, i, 4, 6
See also Gascogne; Landes;
Nancy; Pyrenees Mts.
Fraxinus. See Ash
Free use privileges, in Algeria, 55,
76-77, 178-179
in Corsica, 112
See also Forest rights
French conquest, of Algeria, 2, 46
of Corsica, 2, in
of Tunisia, i
Fuel. See Fire-wood
Gabes oasis, Tunisia, 34
Gascogne, France, sand dunes in,
31-32
See also Landes, France
Gautier, E. F., on "Sahara Algerien,"
221
Genoa and France, treaty between,
regarding Corsica, in
Geographical position, of Algeria, 47
of Corsica, 113
of Tunisia, 10
Goat grazing, amount of, in Corsica,
112, 135, 156
damage by, in Algeria, 55
fees for, in Algeria, 88-89
in communal forests, in Algeria, 183
in state forests, in Algeria, 178
"Gourbis." See Huts
Grasses, as sand binders, in Tunisia,
35, 4o
See also Alfa; Diss
Grazing, areas reserved from, in Tunisia,
35
damage by, in Algeria, 55-56, 64
in Corsica, 8, 112, 115
in Tunisia, 15, 33, 35-36
in communal forests, Corsica, 156
of cattle, in Algeria, 88-89
in Corsica, 156
of goats, in Algeria, 88-89
in Corsica, 112, 156
of hogs, in Corsica, 156
in Tunisia, 24-25
of horses, in Corsica, 156
of sheep, in Algeria, 89
230
INDEX
Grazing of sheep, in Corsica, 156
Grazing after fire, regulations regard-
ing, in Algeria, 193
in Tunisia, 24
Grazing fees, in Algeria, 88-89
in Corsica, 156
in Tunisia, 25
Grazing lands, extent of, in Algeria, 89
in Tunisia, 16
situation of, in Algeria, 88
in Tunisia, 15
Grazing regulations, in Algeria, 88-89,
174, 176-178, 183, 186-187
in Corsica, 112-113, :56
in Tunisia, 3, 22, 24-26
Grazing rights, conflict over, in Corsica,
112, 157
Grazing trespass, by natives, in Algeria,
50, 88
in Corsica, 154-155
penalties for, in Algeria, 174-175, 178,
204-205
in Tunisia, 22
in state forests, in Corsica, 156
Gsell, Stephane, on "Le climat de
1'Afrique du nord dans 1'anti-
quite," 48
Guards, for private forests, in Algeria,
187
in timber sales operations, in Algeria,
169-170
Guillochon, L., on "Traite pratique
d'horticulture pour le nord de
1'Afrique," 221
Guyot, Ch., on " Commentaire de la loi
forestiere algerienne," 109
Hammam-Lif, Tunisia, reforestation
at, 42-43
Haut-Plateaux. See High Plateau
Heat damage, to reforestation, in
Algeria, 7
Heather, occurrence of, in Algeria, 55
in Corsica, 123
Heather roots, for pipes, in Algeria, 58
in Corsica, 153
Hedges, for erosion correction, in
Tunisia, 38, 40
High Plateau, Algeria, description of,
47-48
High Plateau, Tunisia, position of, 10
History, early, of Corsica, 111-112
Hogs, grazing of, in Corsica, 156
in Tunisia, 24-25
Holly, occurrence of, in Tunisia, 14
Holm oak. See Oak, holm
Horsemen, native foresters as, in Algeria,
108
Horses, grazing of, in Corsica, 156
Houses. See Forest houses; Huts;
Logging buildings; Ranger sta-
tions
Humidity, of Tunisia, 12
Huts, building of, in Tunisia, 18, 25
Huts near forests, law regarding, in
Algeria, 195
Ilex. See Holly
Imperata cylindrica, sowing of, in
Tunisia, 36
Imprisonment for debt, in Algeria, 207
Indemnity, for forest administration,
in Algeria, 181
Indian corn. See Corn, Indian
"Indicateur Tunisien," reference to,
10, 27, 32, 34
Industrial works, in or near forests, in
Algeria, 194-195
Industries. See Forest industries
Influences of forests. See Forest in-
fluences
Inspectors, duties of, in Algeria, 105
Instruments for marking. See Mark-
ing instruments
Intensive forestry, in France, 1-2
Irrigation, of nurseries, in Tunisia, 43
of oases, in Tunisia, 33-34
Joanne, Paul, on "Geographic du de-
partement de la Corse," 113
reference to, 115
Joint tenancy forests, administration
of, in Algeria, 184
Jonnart, Governor of Algeria, address
of, 51-52
reforms of, 50-51
INDEX
231
Judgments, execution of, in Algeria,
206-207
Juniper, distribution of, in Algeria.
54-56
occurrence of, in Tunisia, 15
planting of, in Algeria, 79, 83, 86
Juniperus phcenicea. See Juniper
Kefofsa canton, Algeria, planting in,
84
Kermes oak. See Oak, kermes
Khroumirie Mts., Tunisia, forests of, 14
position of, 10
Labor, in payment of fines, in Algeria,
207
Laborers, regulations regarding, in
Corsica, 220
Land classification, in Tunisia, 16
Landes, France, turpentining in, 63
Lanoir, A., on "Recherche et constata-
tion des delits forestieres et de
chasse," 90
Lapasse, L. M. R. de, reference to, 112,
115, 122, 123, 125, 133, 135, 139,
145
Laporte, V. P., on "Exploitations et
gemmage du pin d'alep," 61,
69-70
reference to, 57, 81
Laurel, occurrence of, in Tunisia, 14
Laws of forests. See Forest laws
Lefebvre, Henri, on "Les forets de
1'Algerie," 48, 54-55, 221
Lentisk, occurrence of, in Algeria, 55
Ligue du reboisement de 1'Algerie.
"Manual du planteur d'arbres
en Algerie," reference to, 79
Linden, occurrence of, in Corsica, 123
Lodgepole pine. See Pine, lodgepole
Logging buildings, in timber sales, in
Corsica, 217-218
fire regulations for, in Algeria, 191
See also Sawmills
Logging roads. See Roads
Lookout stations, in Algeria, 93
Lumber, from aleppo pine, in Tunisia,
17
Lumbering, difficulties of, in Corsica, 2
methods of, in Corsica, 150
See also Cuttings
Management of forests. See Forest
management
Maple, occurrence of, in Corsica, 123
"Maquis." See Brush lands
Maritime pine. See Pine, maritime
Marking, of cork-oak, in Algeria, 60
of timber, in Corsica, 112, 135-136,
146, 148, 215-216
of western yellow pine, in the United
States, 135
Marking instruments, regulations re-
garding, in Algeria, 163, 170
Marmano forest, Corsica, working plan
for, 129-130, 132, 134, 139-140
Matmata Mts., Tunisia, position of, n
Mexican pines, planting of, in Algeria,
81
Military duties, of forest officers, in
Algeria, 106
Military lands, forest administration of,
in Algeria, 162
Mine timber, from aleppo pine, in
Tunisia, 17
Mogod Mts., Tunisia, forests of, 15
position of, 10
Museums. See Forest museum
Mustapha Superieur, Algeria, nursery
at, 83
Myrtle, occurrence of, in Algeria, 55
Nancy, France, experiments at, 64
Napoleon, sales of cork-oak by, in
Algeria, 4
Native population, for patrol service,
in Algeria, 92
treatment of, in Algeria, 51-53
unruliness of, in Corsica, 8-9, 112, 125
Nefta oasis, Tunisia, 32, 34
Nefzaona oasis, Tunisia, 34
Nefze, Tunisia, forests of, 15
North African forest research station.
See Station de recherches for-
estieres du nord de PAfrique
Nurseries, in Algeria, 6-7, 83-84
232
INDEX
Nursery practice, in Algeria, 80
in Tunisia, 42-43
Nursery stock, in Tunisia, 41, 43
Oak, coppicing of, in Algeria, 65
in Tunisia, 24,
rotation for, in Algeria, 65
Oak, "afares," distribution of, in Al-
geria, 54-55
Oak, Algerian. See Oak, zeen
Oak, cork. See Cork-oak
Oak, holm, cuttings in, Tunisia, 23
distribution of, in Algeria, 54-56
in Corsica, 115, 118-119, 121
in Tunisia, 15
fire lines in, Algeria, 97
planting of, in Algeria, 78-79
in Tunisia, 41-42
uses of, in Corsica, 121, 135
in Tunisia, 17
Oak, kermes, distribution of, in Algeria,
55-56
Oak, rowan, occurrence, in Corsica,
123
Oak, vert. See Oak, holm
Oak, zeen, cuttings in, Tunisia, 23-24
distribution of, in Algeria, 54-56
in Tunisia, 14
fire lines in, Tunisia, 30
growth of, in Tunisia, 17
management of, in Algeria, 64
in Tunisia, 14, 17
planting of, in Algeria, 78-79
rotation for, in Tunisia, 24
uses of, in Algeria, 57, 64
in Tunisia, 17
Oases, irrigation of, in Tunisia, 33-34
protection of, in Tunisia, 2, 18, 22,
31-35
Officers. See Forest officers
Olea. See Olive
Olive, coppicing of, in Tunisia, 24
occurrence of, in Algeria, 56
in Tunisia, 15
planting of, in Algeria, 79, 86
in Tunisia, 41-42
Olive plantations, extent of, in Tunisia,
16
Oran, Algeria, administrative center,
2, 5, 103
fire lines in, 95-97
reforestation at, 7
Orleansville, Algeria, reforestation at,
7,84
Ouled-el-Nadj forest, Algeria, working
plan for, 59, 66-68
Over-cutting. See Cuttings, excessive
Palm, date, in Tunisia, 16, 32-33
Palms, occurrence of, in Tunisia, 15-16
Parkinsonia aculeata, as a sand binder,
in Tunisia, 36
Pastures. See Grazing lands
Patrol service, organization of, in
Algeria, 92
Peeling. See Bark peeling
Penalties, for clearing, in Algeria, 185
for damage to trees, in Corsica, 142
for ploughing of forests, in Algeria,
189
for timber sales irregularities, in
Algeria, 167-171, 182, 206
for trespass, in Algeria, 174-175, 178,
188-190, 203-206
in Tunisia, 22
for violation of fire regulations, in
Algeria, 192-194
for violation of rights, in Algeria, 179
Phoenix dachtylifera. See Palm, date
Pigs. See Hogs
Pinchot, G., preface by, v-viii
Pine, aleppo, cones of, 82
cuttings in, Algeria, 63-64
in Tunisia, 23
distribution of, in Algeria, 54-56
in Tunisia, 15
effect on water level, in Algeria, 64
felling table for, 69-70
fire lines in, Algeria, 96-97
fire protection in, Algeria, 91
in Tunisia, 2
for erosion protection, in Tunisia, 2
for wind protection, in Tunisia, 2
management of, in Algeria, 61-64
in Tunisia, 2, 24
planting of, in Algeria, 78-80, 82-87
INDEX
233
Pine, planting of, in Tunisia, 36, 40-43
shelterwood system for, in Algeria, 63
turpentining in, Algeria, 5, 57, 61, 68
uses of, in Tunisia, 2, 17
working plan for, in Algeria, 63, 68-71
Pine, Corsican, distribution of, in Cor-
sica, 115, 118-119
growth of, in Corsica, 118-119, 137
inaccessibility of, in Corsica, 8
management of, in Corsica, 8, 129-
130, i35~I36
resin from, in Corsica, 146
rotation for, in Corsica, 137-138
turpentining in, Corsica, 118, 153
uses of, in Corsica, 118
yield of, in Corsica, 138
Pine, lodgepole, cones of, 82
Pine, maritime, distribution of, in
Algeria, 54-56
in Corsica, 115, 118-119, 121
growth of, in Corsica, 119
planting of, in Tunisia, 36
resin from, in Corsica, 146, 151-152
turpentining in, Corsica, 121, 151-152
Pine, pinon, planting of, in Algeria,
79, 83
in Tunisia, 41-42
Pine, western yellow, marking of, in the
United States, 135
turpentining in, United States, 119
Pinon pine. See Pine, pinon
Pinus edulis, planting of, in Algeria, 81
Pinus halipensis. See Pine, aleppo
Pinus laricio. See Pine, Corsican
Pinus maritima. See Pine, maritime
Pinus montezumae, planting of, in
Algeria, 81
Pinus patula, planting of, in Algeria,
81
Pinus pinea. See Pine, pinon
Pinus ponderosa. See Pine, western
yellow
Pinus pseudostrobus, planting of, in
Algeria, 81
Pipes, heather roots for, in Algeria, 58
in Corsica, 153
Pistacia lentiscus. See Lentisk
Plantations. See Forest plantations
Planting. See Ball planting; Reforest-
ation; Sowing
Platanus. See Sycamore
Ploughing of forests, penalties for, in
Algeria, 189
Poles, from aleppo pine, in Tunisia, 17
sales of, in Algeria, 57
Police help, for forest officers, in Al-
geria, 197
Poplar, occurrence of, in Algeria, 56
in Tunisia, 14
Populus. See Aspen; Poplar
Prairies, extent of, in Tunisia, 16
Private forests, administration of, in
Algeria, 184-188
extent of, in Algeria, 56
in Corsica, 115
species found in, Corsica, 118
Products. See Forest products
Promotions, of forest officers, in Algeria,
108-109
Prosecutions, by forest service, in
Algeria, 195-203
Protection forests, in Corsica, 137-138
in Tunisia, 15
Protection from fire. See Fire protec-
tion
Pruning, of plantations, in Algeria, 83
Public institution forests, administration
of, in Algeria, 162, 180-183
Public land policy, in Algeria, 56-57
Pyrenees Mts., France, lumbering in, 2
Quercus afares. See Oak, "afares"
Quercus coccifera. See Oak, kermes
Quercus ilex. See Oak, holm
Quercus mirbeckii. See Oak, zeen
Quercus suber. See Cork-oak
Railroad cars, fire notices in, Tunisia,
27
Railroad rights-of-way, laws regarding,
in Algeria, 91, 193-194
in Tunisia, 3, 22-23, 27
planting on, in Tunisia, 40
Railroad ties, of aleppo pine, in Tunisia,
17
of zeen oak, in Algeria, 57, 64
234
INDEX
Railroad ties, of zeen oak, in Tunisia, 7
sales of, in Algeria, 57
Rainfall, in Algeria, 14, 49
in Tunisia, 12-14
Rainy season, in Algeria, 48-49
in California, 3
in Tunisia, 3
Ranger stations, isolation of, in Corsica,
125
reception of visitors at, in Corsica,
157-158
in Tunisia, 45
size of, in Algeria, 53
in Corsica, 157
See also Forest houses
Rangers. See Forest rangers
Reclamation of dunes, in Tunisia,
32-36, 40
Reforestation, cost of, in Algeria,
83-84, 86
experiments in, Algeria, 80-82
failures of, in Algeria, 82, 84
in Corsica, 153
in Tunisia, 43
government policy, in Algeria, 77,
79-80
in Tunisia, 41
methods of, in Algeria, 6-7, 77-79,
82-87
in Corsica, 153
in Tunisia, 3, 42
object of, in Algeria, 83-84
in Tunisia, 17
of cleared land, in Algeria, 186
regulations regarding, in Algeria,
179-181
See also Ball planting; Forest
plantations; Sowing
Reforestation service, Algeria, organi-
zation of, 105
Regeneration cuttings. See Cuttings,
regeneration
Regulation of forests. See Forest reg-
ulation
Reports, of fires, in Algeria, 93
of forest officers, in Corsica, 125-126
of-trespass cases, in Algeria, 198-200,
202-203
Reproduction, study of, in Algeria, 87
Research studies, in Algeria, 87-88
Resin, from Corsican pine, in Corsica,
146
from maritime pine, in Corsica, 146,
151-152
Resin distillation, regulations regarding,
in Algeria, 190
Responsibility, in trespass cases, in
Algeria, 206
Retem, a desert shrub, in Tunisia, 40
Revenues. See Forest revenues
Ricinus communis, sowing of, in Tu-
nisia, 36
Rights. See Forest rights
Rights-of-way. See Railroad rights-of-
way; Road rights-of-way
Road rights-of-way, in state forests, in
Algeria, 180
in Corsica, 159
Road service, Algeria. See Bridge and
road service, Algeria
Road system, in Tunisia, 16
Roads, as fire lines, in Tunisia, 29
construction of, in Corsica, 143, 146,
158-159
in Tunisia, 18
in private forests, in Algeria, 187
in state forests, in Algeria, 178
in timber sales operations, in Algeria,
166
in Corsica, 9, 217
location of, in Corsica, 158
Roads department, Tunisia, work of, 38
Rodent damage, in Algeria, 6, 78, 82, 87
Roots. See Heather roots
Rotation, determination of, in Corsica, 8
for cork-oak, in Tunisia, 24
for Corsican pine, in Corsica, 137-138
for holm oak, in Algeria, 65
for zeen oak, in Tunisia, 24
Rowan oak. See Oak, rowan
Sahara Atlas, Algeria, description of, 48
Sahara region, Algeria, description of, 48
Sahara region, Tunisia, rainfall in, 13
Sales of timber. See Timber sales
Salix. See Willow
INDEX
235
Salt lakes, situation of, in Algeria, 48
Sample plots, in Valdoniello forest,
Corsica, 135
Sand binders, grasses as, in Tunisia, 35
shrubs as, in Tunisia, 35-36
Sand dunes, damage from, in Tunisia, 33
extent of, in Tunisia, 16
movement of, in Gascogne, 31-32
in Tunisia, 31-32
protection from, in Tunisia, 3, 18, 23,
3i
reclamation of, in Tunisia, 32-36, 40
situation of, in Tunisia, 15
Sand fences, construction of, in Tu-
nisia, 34-35
Sawmills, regulations regarding, in
Corsica, 159-160
Scaling, in timber sales operations, in
Corsica, 145
Scipio, Lucius Cornelius, Corsican in-
vasion by, in
Seasons. See Dry season; Rainy season
Securities required, in timber sales, in
Algeria, 168-169
Seed beds, in nursery practice, in Tu-
nisia, 43
Seed-spot method, in Algeria, 6-7, 78,
82, 84, 86
in Tunisia, 3, 41-43
Seedlings, planting of, in Algeria, 83-84
in Tunisia, 42
protection of, in Algeria, 7, 82
in Tunisia, 42
Seeds, collection of, in Corsica, 153
Seized goods, sales of, in Algeria,
197-198
Seizures, in trespass cases, in Algeria,
196-197, 205
Selection system, adoption of, in Cor-
sica, 112, 132-133, 155
advantages of, in Corsica, 8, 132
description of, in Corsica, 133-135
in cork-oak, in Algeria, 59-60
in Tunisia, 24
Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, reference to,
112
Servonnet, on "Le Golfe de Gabes en
1888," 221
Settlers, fire protection by, in Algeria,
192
in Tunisia, 3
forest work by, in Tunisia, 18
See also Agricultural settlement
Sheep grazing, amount of, in Corsica,
156
areas for, in Algeria, 89
in communal forests, in Algeria, 183
in state forests, in Algeria, 178
Shelterwood system, failures of, in
Corsica, 8, 130, 155
in aleppo pine, in Algeria, 63
in Corsican pine, in Corsica, 129-130
in zeen oak in Tunisia, 24
Shrubs, as sand binders, in Tunisia,
35-36, 40
as undergrowth, in Algeria, 55
in Corsica, 123
in Tunisia, 14
Sidi Bagdad canton, Algeria, planting
in, 84
Silvicultural systems, in Tunisia, 24
See also Coppicing; Selection
system; Shelterwood system
"Sirocco" winds, in Algeria, 49
Soils, of Tunisia, 14-15
See also Forest soils
Sowing, in Bon Rahma forest, Algeria, 86
methods of, in Algeria, 78, 81, 86
in Corsica, 153
in Tunisia, 42-43
time of, in Algeria, 6, 77, 79, 81-82
in Tunisia, 3, 42
See also Seed-spot method
Spacing, in planting operations, in
Tunisia, 42
Springs, for irrigating oases, in Tunisia,
34
improvement of, in Tunisia, 3, 23
protection of, in Tunisia, 15, 40
Sprouting, of cork-oak, in Algeria, 61
State forests, administration of, in
Algeria, 161-180
in Tunisia, 3, 23
extent of, in Algeria, 56
in Corsica, 115
grazing in, Corsica, 156
236
INDEX
State forests, location of, in Corsica, 116
roads through, in Corsica, 159
species found in, Corsica, 118
table of, in Corsica, 209-213
Station de recherches forestieres du
nord de 1'Afrique, Algeria, 87-88
"Bulletin," reference to, 87
Stipa tenacissima. See Alfa
Stock branding. See Branding stock
Stump extraction, for turpentine, in
Corsica, 153
Stumpage prices, estimation of, in
Corsica, 147, 151
Swamp drainage, in Corsica, 156
Sycamore, occurrence of, in Corsica, 123
Takrouina forest, Algeria, working
plan for, 68
Tamarind, occurrence of, in Tunisia,
14
Tamarindus indica. See Tamarind
Tamarisk, for hedges, in Tunisia, 38, 40
planting of, in Algeria, 79
in Tunisia, 35-36, 40
Tamarix. See Tamarisk
Tan bark, cost of, in Tunisia, 17
sales of, in Algeria, 57-58
Tannin, from chestnut, in Corsica, 122
from cork-oak, in Algeria, 61, 67
in Tunisia, 16
from holm oak, in Corsica, 121
"Tapping alive," in Algeria, 63, 68
in Corsica, 148, 151, 218-220
"Tapping to death," in Algeria, 63, 68
in Corsica, 148, 218
Tar distillation, regulations regarding,
in Algeria, 190
Taxation, areas exempt from, in Algeria,
188
Telegraph poles. See Poles
Tell Atlas, Algeria, description of, 47
Temperature, of Algeria, 49
of Tunisia, 11-12
Thinnings, in aleppo pine, in Algeria,
63-64
in cedar, in Algeria, 64-65
in Corsican pine, in Corsica, 135
in selection forests, in Corsica, 8 •
Thuya, distribution of, in Algeria, 54-56
fire lines in, Algeria, 96-97
occurrence of, in Tunisia, 15
planting of, in Algeria, 79, 86
in Tunisia, 41-42
Ties. See Railroad ties
Tilia. See Linden
Timber sales, by Napoleon, in Algeria, 4
comparison between, in Corsica and
the U. S., 8-9
contract conditions, in Corsica, 141-
145, 217
data furnished bidders, in Corsica,
149-150
in communal forests, in Algeria,
181-182
in Corsica, 127
in cork-oak, in Algeria, 4, 50, 72-73
in joint tenancy forests, in Algeria,
184
in state forests, in Algeria, 166-174
in Corsica, 127, 138
in France, 6
in zeen oak, in Tunisia, 14, 17
large, examples of, in Corsica, 145-148
necessity for, in Corsica, 9, 140-141,
H5
persons excluded from, in Algeria,
167, 182
purchasers' risks, in Corsica, 144, 148,
217, 220
securities required, in Algeria, 168-
169
special rules for, in Corsica, 149
verifications of, in Algeria, 173-174
See also Asco timber sale, Corsica
Timber sales guards. See Guards
Timber sales irregularities, penalties for,
in Algeria, 169-171, 182, 206
Topography, of Algeria, 47
of Corsica, 113
of Tunisia, 10-11
Tozeur oasis, Tunisia, 32, 34
Trails, as fire lines, in Tunisia, 29
construction of, in Corsica, 158-159
in Tunisia, 18
cost of, in Corsica, 143, 158
location of, in Corsica, 158
INDEX
237
Transportation regulations, in timber
sales, in Algeria, 172
Travel expenses, for forest officers, in
Algeria, 5, 106-107
in Corsica, 125
in Tunisia, 20
Treaty between Genoa and France,
regarding Corsica, in
Trespass cases, comparison between, in
Corsica and the U. S., 9
frequency of, in Algeria, 90
in Corsica, 154
method of recording, in Algeria, 71-72
penalties for, in Algeria, 188-190,
203-206
regulations regarding, in Algeria, 90,
172, 196-203
trials of, in Algeria, 200-201, 203
See also Grazing trespass
Tubes, bamboo, in nursery practice, in
Tunisia, 42-43
Tunis, Tunisia, administrative center
2, 19
Tunisia, chapter on, 10-45
conclusions and summary, 2-4
See also specific subjects in their
alphabetical positions
Tunisia — Direction de 1'agriculture et
du commerce et de la colonisa-
tion. " Bulletins," referred to,
221
Tunisia — Direction des forets. " Notice
sur les forets de la Tunisie,"
referred to, 221
Tunnels, in timber sales operations, in
Algeria, 166
Turpentine, from pine stumps, in Cor-
sica, 153
Turpentine industry, problems of, in
Algeria, 62
Turpentining, in aleppo pine, in Algeria,
5, 57,61,68
in Corsican pine, in Corsica, 118, 153
in maritime pine, in Corsica, 121,
151-152
in western yellow pine, in the U. S.,
119
methods of, in Algeria, 62
Turpentining, methods of, in Corsica,
148-149, 152
regulations regarding, in Corsica,
218-220
Ulmus. See Elm
Undergrowth, density of, in Algeria, 55
in Tunisia, 27
shrubs as, in Algeria, 55
in Corsica, 123
in Tunisia, 14
United States, timber sales in, 8-9
trespass cases in, 9
United States timber culture law, ref-
erence to, 122
Valdoniello forest, Corsica, cuttings in,
i35
sample plots in, 135
working plan for, 128, 130, 133, 138
Vert oak. See Oak, holm
Vineyards, in Tunisia, 15-16
Visitors, reception of, at ranger stations,
in Corsica, 157-158
in Tunisia, 45
Vizzavona forest, Corsica, working
plan for, 132
Volume table, in Asco timber sale,
Corsica, 216
Wahl, Maurice, on "L'Algerie," 221
War duties. See Military duties
Water level, effect of aleppo pine on,
in Algeria, 64
Water supply, protection of, in Tunisia , 15
See also Springs
Water surface, of Tunisia, 16
Waters and forests service, Algeria.
See Forest service, Algeria
Western yellow pine. See Pine, western
yellow
Wet season. See Rainy season
White, Arthur, on " Le deVelopement de
PAfrique," 221
Willow, occurrence of, in Tunisia, 14
Windfalls, included in sales, in Corsica,
141
thefts of, in Algeria, 204
INDEX
Winds, direction of, in Algeria, 48-49
in Tunisia, 1 1
protection from, in Tunisia, 2, n
Wood, sales of, in Algeria, 57-58
in Corsica, 216
Working plan, for Aitone forest, Corsica,
132-134, 137-138
for aleppo pine, in Algeria, 63, 68-71
for Bavella forest, Corsica, 128-129,
137
for cork-oak, in Algeria, 66-68
for Marmano forest, Corsica, 129-130,
132, 134, 139-140
for Valdoniello forest, Corsica, 128,
i3°> i33> *38
for Vizzavona forest, Corsica, 132
Working plans, examples of early, in
Corsica, 128-129
Working plans, forests under, in Corsica,
209-213
lack of, in Algeria, 66
in Tunisia, 23
Yield, estimation of, in Corsica, 8, 140
in cork-oak, in Algeria, 5-6, 67
in Corsican pine, in Corsica, 138
of coppice, in New England, 6
table showing, in Corsica, 140
Zaghouan, Tunisia, reforestation at,
42-43
Zeen oak. See Oak, zeen
Zon, Raphael, reference to, 15
Zonza forest, Corsica, turpentine opera-
tions in, 151-152
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