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THE FUNDAMENTALS
LIVE STOCK JUDGING
SELECTION
BY
ROBERT S. CURTIS, B.S.A.
ASSOCIATE CHIEF, ANIMAL INDUSTRY DIVISION, ANIMAL HUSBANDMAN, BEEF
CATTLE AND SHEEP INVESTIGATIONS, NORTH CAROLINA AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMENT STATION, WEST RALEIGH, NORTH CAROLINA
ILLUSTRATED WITH 180 ENGRAVINGS
LEA & FEBIGER
PHILADELPHIA AND NEW YORK
Copyright
LEA & FEBIGER
1915
TO
STUDENTS AND STOCKMEN
No detail is too small to be studied for truth."
Stevenson.
PREFACE.
The recent progress of the teaching of Animal Husbandry,
especially live stock judging and selection, commends this
division of the subject to a full modern treatise dealing with
all domestic animals. Rapid advancement in special fields
of production and selection, and the addition of new phases
of animal judging, have furnished much new material for
the work.
In developing the subject various viewpoints ranging
from that of the extensive live stock breeder to the city
fancier must of necessity be considered. Not only the col-
lege student and the professional judge, but also the live
stock breeder, general farmer, salesman, buyer, and the
city fancier of stock at one time or another inspects animals
from the standpoint of the critic. He thus becomes the
judge whether in the show ring or in the field, and when
the term "judge" is referred to in the text it should be
understood that it is not specifically used. In certain
instances attention may be directed to the student or the
professional judge while in other cases any of the above
meanings may be inferred. Any individual who selects
stock is placed in the position of the judge, specifically speak-
ing, and he should, therefore, be so considered in construing
the various discussions herein given.
The improvements of this volume upon former presenta-
tions of the subject consist in logical groupings of the sub-
ject matter, as well as many entirely new features of special
(V)
VI PREFACE
significance. These are brought out mainly in the first
five chapters deahng with the methods and practices and
general principles applicable to the judging and selection
of all classes of live stock. In the fifth chapter information
is included relative to important factors or problems of the
individual, the breeds and the selection of the same, other-
wise than by an external examination on which student and
show ring judging is necessarily based. One chapter is
devoted to the jack, jennet, and mule, since the latter has
become of great economic importance and former discus-
sions of the subject have been incomplete.
A complete and convenient reference to breed descrip-
tions through photographs and concise breed characteristics
is included and supplemented with the latest standard of
excellence and scale of points of each of the important breeds.
Market and show ring considerations are discussed fully
because of the tendency toward the more practical phases
of commercial or market live stock judging. The additions
include a number of the newer breeds of live stock which
have recently come into prominence and therefore deserve
comment.
The material included herein, especially the breed studies,
has in certain instances been submitted to prominent authori-
ties to obtain accurate and impartial criticism. It has been
the aim of the author to mention only the more important
phases of the subject, leaving the detailed or exhaustive infor-
mation for reference reading. It can be readily realized that
no single volume of this nature can exhaust the information
available. The work is intended primarily for students,
farmers and stockmen who wish to become familiar with
the methods and practices in judging the pure breeds and
market and show classes of live stock. The subject matter
has been arranged systematically to facilitate the study of
PREFACE Vll
particular phases in the judging and selection of the various
breeds, types and classes. The author hopes that the work
will fit the needs of the class room, the stockman and the
general farmer.
He desires to acknowledge credit to the many books and
periodicals on Animal Husbandry from which valuable help
and suggestions were obtained in the preparation of this
work. He is especially indebted to Carl W. Gay, University
of Pennsylvania; C. S. Plumb, Ohio State University;
the late John A. Craig, formerly of Oklahoma Agricultural
College; Robert Wallace, University of Edinburgh; M. H.
Reynolds, University of Minnesota; and F. W. Wilder,
Packing Plant Superintendant, Chicago, 111., for the help
and suggestions obtained from their works.
General acknowledgement is hereby given to all other
sources from which helpful information was obtained. The
contributions from the various books, pamphlets, bulletins,
and periodicals dealing with the subject of farm animals has
been invaluable in the preparation of this work.
Acknowledgement is due Robert F. Hildebrand, Chicago,
111., and Schrieber and Sons, Philadelphia, Pa., who, under
the direction of the author prepared most of the illustrations,
which are such a valuable source of information in a work of
this nature. They therefore deserve the special touch which
the animal photographer only can give them by securing
the natural pose and position of the subject.
R. S. C.
North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station,
West Raleigh, N. C, 1915.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
The Live Stock Industry 17
CHAPTER II.
Relation of Structure to Animal Judging 24
CHAPTER III.
The Manifestations of Form, Function, and Capacity . 28
CHAPTER IV.
Methods and Practices in Judging and Selection ... 35
CHAPTER V.
Factors and Principles Applicable to the Judging and
Selection of Live Stock 57
CHAPTER VI.
Judging Horses, Fundamental Considerations .... 89
CHAPTER VII.
Judging Draft Horses 113
CHAPTER VIII.
Judging Light Horses 133
CHAPTER IX.
Judging Jacks, Jennets, and Mules 182
X CONTENTS
CHAPTER X.
Judging Beef and Dual Purpose Cattle 221
CHAPTER XI.
Judging Dairy Cattle 271
CHAPTER XII.
Judging Swine 317
CHAPTER XIII.
Judging Sheep 361
CHAPTER XIV.
Application of Judging and Selection to Breeding and
Finishing Farm Animals 423
Bibliography 426
Appendix 429
Index 445
LIVE STOCK Jl DGIXCx AND SELECTION.
CHAPTER I.
THE LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY.
Method of Development. — The subject of live stock judging
has become of widespread importance not only through the
teacliing of these courses in agricultural colleges, high
schools and other institutions but also through the increased
demand for knowledge among farmers who anticipate
following some phase of live stock work. Keen competition
among breeders and vendors of market animals has placed
the subject on a high plane. The real constructive breeder,
whose work is generally unappreciated, has perfected beauty
and utility of form which is responsible in the main for
revolutionizing the live stock breeding industry. Compara-
tively few people appreciate the improvement which has
been made in animal form thereby owing to the priority
of original development. A full realization of the im-
provement may be readily recognized, however, by com-
paring the original long-horn steer with the symmetrical,
deep-set, well-developed, compact form of the modern
bullock.
This change from the lank, rangy animal to the close
compact form has been accomplished step by step. It
represents the work of more than a century and the guidance
of men who had clear mental pictures of what the ideal
animal should be. It represents the guidance of men who
have, through their own originality, principally, been able to
grasp, direct and mould the consequent forces of heredity.
2 (17) ^
18 THE LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY
This work represents the result of judgment and selection
of animal form through which a gradual and persistent
improvement has been made possible. It may be com-
pared to two animals with widely varying marks of merit,
the one representing the acme of modern development,
and the other an animal of the same breed a decade prior.
These visual pictures enabled the breeder to foresee what
proper moulding of animal form would bring a decade hence.
The breeders who, through their superlative genius, brought
about these improvements are among the highest and most
renowned judges of animal form. They not only painted
visual pictures of what art later accomplished, but they
were able to recognize readily the good and the bad and
thereby eliminate the unpromising from their future breeding
work. This is the same principle by which a modern
judge selects the ideal type in a class and graduates the
remainder of the animals in their respective positions or
order of merit.
Fields for Development. — The subject of live stock judging
and selection may be divided into two distinct divisions,
the one representing the pure breeds of live stock used
for foundation or reproductive and improvement purposes;
and the other animals possessing commercial attributes as
found in these breeds, either in the pure bred, cross bred or
grade form when grouped in their proper type or market
classes. Breeds represent the product of definite foundation
blood, soil, climate, feeds, certain objects or purposes and
the fancy of the various constructive breeders. While
in most instances in the various types and classes of stock
several breeds may conform closely to a specific purpose,
almost invariably there are special characteristics which
make one or the other excel under changed environment,
purpose or condition. They may do likewise from the stand-
point of market requirements which should be the nucleus
of all live stock improvement. It is this last analysis of
an animal in ascribing its fitness for work or for the block
in which the majority of stockmen are interested. Breed
type is important to the producer of pure bred breeding
stock, but market type is of greater importance to the pro-
IMPORTANCE OF KEEX JUDGING AND SELECTION 19
ducer of market animals. These two special phases of ani-
mal improvement have opened two distinct fields for work
and consequently a need for definitely arranged information
on the subject.
Importance of Keen Judging and Selection. — The rapid
development of the live stock industry for special productive
purposes and for farm land improvement makes it not only
desirable but profitable to have a thorough knowledge of live
stock judging and selection. The importance of this state-
ment can be more fully realized after becoming acquainted
with the magnitude and monetary value of the industry.
The loss from an individual animal through inferior breeding,
careless selection, or improper feeding may be small, and
therefore not seriously affect the breeder or owner. If
this loss was occasioned, however, in a large herd over a
long period of years, it would mean the loss of a substantial
sum. Considering that faults in animal form can be largely
overcome by wise judging and selection without entailing
any appreciable additional outlay of money, the importance
of the subject should be doubly emphasized or appreciated.
The decrease in the finished weight of fat cattle at nine of the
leading live stock markets in 1912 shows an average shortage
of IS pounds per head. Based on the total number of animals
shipped to these markets, there was a total decrease of
144,793,620 pounds of beef. This loss could have been
largely overcome by either closer selection or better methods
of feeding. \Yhile other causes may have been responsible
for the condition, it serves to illustrate the importance of
keen judging and selection. Based on all the cattle slaugh-
tered for a period of ten or twenty years the figures would be
almost insurmountable.
It would be exen more important to remedy the defects of
the breeding animal than in the market animal because the
former would continue to reproduce the undesirable char-
acteristics. This factor of inferiority would be of great
importance, however, even in market animals for the lack
of only a few pounds gain, due either to faulty selection or
feeding of the individual, would mean a large loss in the
aggregate.
20
THE LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY
Value of Domestic Animals. — The magnitude of the live
stock industry can best be understood by citing the figures
giving the value of these animals on tlW farms of the United
POSSIBILITIES OF IXDUSTRY 21
States. The Census for 1910 gives the following value of
the various kinds of live stock maintained :
Kind of stock. Number. Value.
Horses 19,833,113 S2,083,588,195
Jacks, jennets, and mules . . 4,315,737 538,591,975
Cattle 61,803,866 1,499,523,607
Sheep 52,447,861 232,841,585
Swine 58,185,676 399,338,308
Total 196,586,253 $4,753,883,670
These figures are sufficient to indicate the vast economic
importance of the live stock industry. Live stock judging
and selection has maintained an important part in developing
the industry to its present magnitude and importance,
both from the standpoint of numbers and value. How
much greater the value would have been through keener
methods and practices in judging and selection, it would be
difficult to ascertain. Suffice it to say, however, that the
increase in quality which might have been attained by better
methods and practices would have reduced the cost of keep
materially as measured in terms of the finished value of the
product. As this is the problem in which the live stock
husbandman is interested, the application of better methods
would not only increase the quality of the product from a
connoisseur's standpoint, but add profit as well to the
industry.
Possibilities of Industry. — The figures given above illus-
trate the possibility of securing increased revenue by more
careful judging and selection and better ultimate handling
and management. The opinion is thoroughly conversant
and borne out by facts that it does not require any more
to maintain an animal with a high order of merit than it
does an inferior one. Based on this statement, an average
increase in weight of one pound on all kinds of domestic
animals hereafter considered, exclusive of horses, mules, and
asses, would mean an increase of 172,437,403^ pounds of
edible meats. It is readily imaginable how this increase could
be obtained by closer selection alone. From these figures it
1 United States Census, 1910.
22 ^ THE LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY
is not difficult to perceive the wonderful possibilities of close
judging and selection of animal form. The average value of
horses per head in 1910 was $105.06/ and while this includes
young stock, it would be possible to increase their value 50
per cent, by more careful judging, selection, and ultimate
management. Other classes of animals are equally suscep-
tible to the same amount of improvement under like
conditions.
It is recognized that it is impossible to ascribe all of the
possible improvement in weight, form, and quality or other
attributes to keen judging and selection, yet breeders and
students of animal form readily recognize its importance.
The foundation for profit in live stock farming is substantially
based on the type of animal selected for breeding, work,
or for direct meat productive purposes. Ill-bred animals,
which means careless selection largely, are attributed as
being generally unprofitable, either for breeding or feeding
purposes. Close scrutinized judgment in selection could
not remove all the faults of animal form at once but its
continuance would be clearly apparent for a substantial
period of years. Proper application of the principles of
judging and selection would not only remedy many destroy-
ing influences in live stock production, but it would increase
or improve almost without apparent cost the world's total
supply of meat, milk and wool, and form, quality, and effi-
ciency in work and pleasure animals.
Faculties and Requirements in Judging. — There are two
special faculties necessary to select or judge accuratel}^ a
class of live stock. These are, first, a proper knowledge of
what constitutes the utility points which are judged, either
from a breeding standpoint, or from that of market and
show requirements; and second, a quick and keen observance
of both the major and minor faults in animal form. Craig
states that "When a distinct ideal based on the best types
and their highest qualities has been formed in the mind, and
this is supported by a discriminating eye, it is but another
step to render a correct judgment."
1 United States Census, 1910.
FACULTIES AND REQUIREMENTS IN JUDGING 23
This increased activity and keen competition in modern
judging is due to the success which constructive breeders
have attained as students of Hve stock problems. The
science of breeding, feeding, and development was formerly
considered too simple for a study of the scientific roads of
improvement. Live stock breeders and feeders, however,
are awakening to the fact that it takes brain as well as brawn
to produce prize-winning animals. Not since the days of
the Collings, Booth, Bates and Cruikshank, have stockmen
realized the depth of the problems in live stock selection,
breeding, and feeding.
The real student of judging and selection must be
practical and keen sighted to attain success, either as a judge
or as a breeder. Since this is the final test of the breeder's
art, the student of judging and selection must have clearly
in mind the ideal animal for the various purposes intended in
the breeding or commercial world. Not until he has dis-
tinctly mastered these details of utility, and becomes keenly
alive to the minor differences in all parts of animal form,
can he expect to be classed as a dependable live stock critic.
CHAPTER II.
RELATION OF STRUCTURE TO ANIMAL JUDGING.
In animal judging there are special fundamental attributes
or attainments, the value of which must be fixed or measured
in terms of the animal mechanism to be defined or studied.
Without a knowledge of these fundamental problems and
their relation to the particular type of animal involved
judging and selection of live stock would be at best a hap-
hazard undertaking. The following representation of these
.fundamentals is not exhaustive, yet it emphasizes the impor-
tance of having a knowledge of the specialized foundation
structure and its correlated parts.
PURPOSE OF ANIMAL MECHANISM.
The purpose of animal mechanism varies widely. Animals
are produced for draft, speed, show, pleasure, meat, milk,
and wool. In certain instances these purposes or uses
may be combined in the same animal, as described subse-
quently. In the first four instances, wherein special reference
is made to the horse, the general form of the machine is
the same, although the purpose or adaptation is at a wide
variance. The difference is largely in the details of structure,
the mastery of which constitutes one of the main funda-
mentals of animal judging.
Meat is ordinarily obtained from three sources in domesti-
cated animals. However, that of the best quality is a pro-
duct of an animal bred specially for the purpose. The beef
animal, the fat and bacon hog, and the mutton sheep produce
what may be termed a specific product. Milk is obtained
from an animal differing more widely in form and mechanism
than any of those classed as food-producing animals. Meat
obtained from a milk-producing animal may be classed as a
(24)
RELATIOX OF PERFORMANCE AND PRODUCTION 25
by-product. Although a large proportion of meat products
are ultimately obtained from this source, the dairy animal
possesses a specific type and has a specific function in milk
production. Its purpose must therefore be so defined, and any
surplus obtained in meat or otherwise should be classed as a
by-product. In the dual purpose animal, the meat and milk-
giving functions are supposed to be ecjually correlated. The
degree of manifestation in either is arbitrary with the
breeder who may change the ratio of production by a simple
modification of the type through the natural source of
selection and reproduction. The sheep may be classed as a
dual purpose machine in one instance and as a specific
machine in the other. The mutton breeds of sheep are
bred for a specific purpose, although their wool is an mipor-
tant by-product. In the strictly wool-producing breeds, the
mutton is a by-product being analogous in this respect to
meat from a dairy animal.
The animal mechanism must of necessity vary greatly to^
perform or manifest these various phases of production.
The relation between the machine and production is intimate
and it is only by having a definite knowledge of the former
that conformity to purpose or the power of production can
be accurately measured.
RELATION OF MECHANISM TO PERFORMANCE AND
PRODUCTION.
The form which an animal assumes is an embodiment of
the inner or unseen structure, more specifically of the bone
and muscle development. It is these two fundamentals
that directly or indirectly determine size, shape, locomotion,
compactness and disengagement or looseness of structure.
The draft horse is low set, massive, and compact. This
condition is a direct result of the structural units in the
mechanism. Every condition of development is a manifesta-
tion of what the completed animal will be. The broad
head, the short thick neck, the broad breast and deep chest,
the wide, deep body and the full massive quarters are funda-
mental in the aquisition of weight, which is one of the chief
26 RELATION OF STRUCTURE TO ANIMAL JUDGING
requisites of draft horse attainments. These quaHfications
are direct exponents of the principal nuclear structure which
is the bony framework.
The speed horse is the direct opposite of the draft animal.
Both the bones and muscles are longer, attaining a smaller
diameter and therefore a greater manifestation of speed,
which is directly associated with qualifications which possess
or exhibit reach or extension. The structural development
of other types of horses are modifications or combinations
of the two types described. The degree of modification
measures their utility, whether they still retain draft or
speed qualifications or assume entirely new attainments
characteristic of other distinct types of horses.
Likewise the beef and dairy animal, the fat and bacon
hog, and mutton and wool-producing sheep are measured in
value by their conformity to type standards which have
been determined the most economical for productive pur-
poses. The mechanism which, grossly defined, includes the
bone and muscle development, determines the value of an
animal. This is true, however, only when the more vital
functions are working in perfect harmony with these two
fundamentals of animal formation. Without proper nerve
force or development, circulatory, digestive or reproductive
functions, the gross materials which give size, shape, and
locomotion would be of no value.
Gross Structural Material. — The bones and muscles are
substantially the foundation upon which all animals are
constructed. It is important, therefore, to have a clear
conception of the part which these gross structural materials
play in giving size and shape to the animal. The ultimate
value of a dressed animal, for example, is directly dependent
on the amount and quality of edible products obtained. The
framework of the horse is equally important, as strength,
durability, and longevity are closely associated with the at-
tainments in this respect other than the part which they play
in the formation of size and shape in the finished animal.
The muscles of an animal are directly related to the
attainments of power, speed, and meat production, but
more specifically to the latter. Short, thick muscles char-
RELATIOX OF PERFORMANCE AXD PRODUCT lOX 27
acterize the draft animal; long and thin muscles the speed
animal. The fundamental purpose of the muscular system
is to operate the bones. The secondary function is to give
shape and a certain degree of finish to the animal. A careful
study of the skeleton and muscles will reveal that much of
the animal form is determined by the mass of muscles,
especially in certain parts. In other regions animal form is
characterized largely by the development of the bony frame-
work. A knowledge of these relations is of extreme im-
portance to the student of animal form.
Special and Combined Functions. — Specific functions char-
acterize animals which are bred for one definite purpose,
although they may produce liberally in other directions.
Animals of the special type are easily depicted or measured
in performance or productive value. Every part of their
structure is perfected toward one definite end. Every attain-
ment in the structural development is a manifestation of
some definite purpose. Where there is thus no division
of energy it is comparatively easy to make an alignment of
values.
The dual purpose animal is bred for two pm-poses, both
of which must be embodied in the animal form. This
represents an average development, theoretically, or a com-
bination of two special functions. For example, beef and
milk, and mutton and wool represent the two commonly
accepted dual purpose functions or standards. The equation
of value must be measured in such animals by their specific
structural development. Although it is recognized that high
milk production, extreme speed, or unusual block tests are
antagonized in two purpose animals because of the alteration
of structm-e necessary to harmonize or equalize these two
purposes, they have a place in animal production. Student
judging should so depict every purpose, relation, structural
development and special and combined functions that a
perfectly clear analysis of these factors may be made before
undertaking a decision in any class of animals. Otherwise
gross errors may occur under the best of reasoning power.
A broad working foundation, an accepted ideal, and a logical
mind are herein extremely essential.
CHAPTER III.
THE MANIFESTATIONS OF FORM, FUNCTION,
AND CAPACITY.
The practical stockman is not directly interested with the
intricate mechanism and development of the animal organ-
ism, yet there are certain manifestations of form, function,
and capacity which stamp the value of an animal in its
various phases of use and development. The value of an
animal to the stockman is largely determined by the forma-
tion of the anatomy of the bony framework, the muscular
development, the digestive system, the circulatory system,
the mammary organs, the reproductive system, and the
nervous development. Because of the close association of
these attributes, from the standpoint of the stockman, a
deficiency or weakness in development of any one would
retard gro^vth and normal development in the individual
and sacrifice what otherwise might be cardinal points in
breed, type or class attainments. An analysis, therefore,
of their utility value is important.
Bony Framework. — The bony framework is a measure of
the height and weight or scale which will be attained by an
animal. Unless an animal possesses a foundation or frame-
work whereon the muscular system may normally develop the
ultimate size at maturity- will be materially decreased. The
sleek-bodied colt, the short, round body of the calf and
the small, early maturing hog are indicative of insuffi-
cient capacity as associated with bone development. The
size which an animal attains can be no greater than the
maximum number of structural units which are normally
present in the framework. An animal may be forced on the
right kinds of feeds and thus induce greater development.
However, such a method of feeding would not always be
(28)
MUSCULAR DEVELOPMENT 29
prudent or profitable. In selecting live stock, therefore,
special consideration should be given to the indications of
normal development at maturity.
The size of the bone as exemplified in the canon of the
horse, and in the leg of the steer, the hog, and the sheep are
directly associated with the size and weight of an animal
at maturity. The animal which inclines to fatten early
in life before normal development has been reached does
not possess the structural units to perfect normal maturity
upon which the profits from live stock usually depend. In-
dications of the probable development are in evidence in
the condition which an animal assumes as related to bone,
muscle, and fat formation. The young animal or the
matured animal low in condition indicate their probable
maximum attainments by the character of the framework.
While the spare, open development is characteristic only of
the dairy animal, a certain degree of it is necessary in the
other types in order that they may attain the maximum
degree of size, form and finish. Early fattening qualities,
except under certain specialized conditions, such as in the
baby beef animal or other early market maturing quali-
fications, as fixed by farm practice, are antagonistic to
maximum development. Animal attainments relating to size
are measured almost entirely by the foundation structure
imposed in the bony framework.
Muscular Development. — With the exception of the dairy
cow and wool sheep, the value of domestic animals is directly
or indirectly dependent on the degree of muscle formation.
The value of the beef animal, the mutton sheep, and the
fat or bacon hog is directly dependent on this attribute.
The value of the draft horse, heavy and light harness horses,
saddle horses and ponies are dependent on this qualifica-
tion, yet in each the manifestation of it is developed in a
different form of energy or work. In the dairy cow and
the wool sheep the muscular development is of secondary
importance because the usefulness of these animals is meas-
ured by their capacity to produce products not dependent
on the degree of muscle formation. The dairy cow produces
milk, the maximum degree of muscle and fat formation
30 FORM, FUNCTION, AND CAPACITY
being directly antagonistic to the maximum degree of milk
production. The wool sheep is measured in value by its
output of wool, regardless of its value from the mutton
standpoint. The value of the horse is measured in terms of
muscular development, although the kind of work and its
degree of attainment is greatly different from that expected
in meat-producing animals. The character of the muscular
system is a measure of work in some form, yet association
with other attributes should be clearly fixed because of the
final balance of the manifestations enumerated under form,
function, and capacity.
Digestive System. — The digestive system of an animal is
of specific importance because an animal grows and becomes
useful to a degree dependent on the amount of food consumed
and its elaboration or manifestation in the various forms of
animal energy, whether it is meat, milk, wool, or horse
power. The measure of value in an animal is therefore
determined by the digestive capacity to a degree depending
on the character of energy to be produced. The manifesta-
tion of a strong digestive system is evidenced in the length,
depth and width of the barrel, this in turn being influenced
largely by the maximum degree of development possible
in the bony framework. The direct association of this
attribute with constitution, vigor, and general capacity is
readily apparent from an analysis of these various factors
in detail.
Circulatory System. — The bony framework, the muscular
development and the digestive system constitute the gross
attainments necessary for an animal to assume shape and
continue normal development when properly associated
with the other life-giving functions. From the stockman's
point of view there is nothing more important than the
circulatory system on which life-giving depends directly,
and in one instance the development of a specific function,
namely, the milk-giving capacity of the dairy cow. In
formulating the value of a dairy animal one of the chief
requisites for consideration is the degree of development
of the circulatory system, especially as evidenced in the
mammary system. The elaboration of milk from the gross
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OR BREEDING CAPACITY 31
food products to the finished product is vitally connected
with the circulatory system, as the blood carries the elements
of milk elaboration. The stimulation received, therefore,
from the blood supply measures quite accurately the capacity
of an animal and the profits which will be obtained therefrom.
Although the evidence of a strong blood supply is especially
significant in the dairy animal, it is of no less importance in
the animal which is used for draft, light harness or saddle
work, or in those animals which are used directly for food-
producing purposes. The blood supply and the energy which
it carries in the way of assimilated food materials is all
manifested in some specific way no matter what the character
of work to be performed. The amount and continuity of
work is thus measured by the circulatory system w^hich
carries the elements or products of energy to the specific
place of use.
Mammary Organs. — The mammary organs or the mam-
mary glands are of special significance in the dairy cow
wherein stimulation of milk-giving capacity has been in-
creased by breeding, selection, and by the administration
of proper food materials. Although it is in the dairy animal
that the most vital consideration is usually given to the
mammary organs, they must, of necessity, become a con-
sideration, either in the meat-giving or work-producing
animals. The difference in the degree of development in
these. three broad classes of animals is not as great as might
be first suspected. The dairy cow is measured by her milk-
giving capacity, the meat-producing animals by the amount
and quality of the meat products which they elaborate, and
the work-producing animals by the quality of the offspring
as suited to the production of energy or work in their various
phases of development. The mammary system should be
considered, therefore, as an important part of animal attain-
ments regardless of the specific use of the product obtained
from the individual or future generations.
Reproductive System or Breeding Capacity. — The measure
of value in a breeding animal is largely centered in its capacity
to reproduce like attainments of the individual in question.
The reproductive system, therefore, becomes an important
32 FORM, FUNCTION, AND CAPACITY
problem in analyzing animal value. The breeding animal
should clearly indicate its capacity for the reproduction of
not only its attainments as a pure bred, but also as exemplified
in the market animal. The consideration of the reproductive
functions from the standpoint of the breeder is one of practical
value. In making a study of the individual its probable
reproductive powers should be considered in conjunction
with the intrinsic value of the animal itself. It is only when
these two factors are properly correlated that a breeding
animal can transmit to its maximum capacity the qualities
which are of vital importance to the breeder in the reproduc-
tion of pure bred animals and the production of market
individuals with an outcome.
Nervous Development. — The nervous system or nervous
development of an animal may be divided into the nervous
or highly organized, the lymphatic, and the sluggish tem-
peraments. Each of the three is characterized in various
individuals representing the breeds of domestic animals.
A nervous temperament is characteristic of the dairy
animal in which all of the energy from the food materials
is manufactured into milk with the exception of that used
in body and reproductive maintenance. The typical dairy
cow is spare and lean in conformation, as this condition is
evidence that the food is being used as indicated above. A
highly developed nervous organization is as closely associated
with maximum milk production as the lymphatic or less
active temperament is associated with fat production. The
two are antagonistic, one representing the result of elimina-
tion, as evidenced in high milk production, and the other in
accumulation, as evidenced in muscle and fat formation.
Indication that food is being so used is as much a part of
animal attainments as a strong, healthy digestive or cir-
culatory system on which life directly depends.
The sluggish temperament is the lowest form of nervous
development and one which should not be directly asso-
ciated with any specific type of animal. Manifestation of
a sluggish temperament is an attribute not to be desired.
It is suggestive of lack in constitution, a weak circulatory
system, and improperly associated nerve development. The
NERVOUS DEVELOPMENT 33
fat animal which manifests or shows a sluggish temperament
may, from one standpoint, apparently be a profitable animal.
When balanced, however, with the other attributes of chief
importance to the stockman, the animal possessing such a
quality is not a desirable specimen for reproductive or
market use. The lack of nerve force is evidenced in one way
or another and will ultimately depreciate an animal in value
to the extent of the insufficient nerve force manifested.
CHAPTERIV.
METHODS AND PRACTICES IN JUDGING AND
SELECTION.
Definition. — Live stock judging, strictly defined, refers to
a determination of the value of a single animal or the com-
parative value of a class of animals for a specialized purpose.
The individual animal ma}' be judged in a similar manner
to a class of animals, yet the student in so doing must have
learned to attain, either through practical experience or
college training, a fixed mental picture of an animal which
conforms to the established ideal of the type in question.
In reality, therefore, one animal may form a class as the
ideal animal, or a standard of comparison must always be
clearly fixed in the mind before judging or fixation of value
logically begins. In judging or ranking animals, the problem
is to establish a rating or rank according to the conformity
to the ideal, and from this affix a productive or market
value, the latter being the final test of block animals.
Whether the animal is considered from the standpoint of
breed, show, work, or for the block, there- is a fixed value
which depends on the breeding, individuality and the
environment to which the animal has been subjected.
These are the main points or factors of development with
which the student must familiarize himself before judging,
in its strictest sense or selection, based on ancestry and per-
formance records, may be accurately performed.
Live stock judging, broadly defined, may be considered
from the standpoint of comparative show yard placing, where
exterior qualifications or characteristics are the only guides,
or from the standpoint of individual herd or flock merit
based both on individual characteristics and performance
records. The work of the student, in making comparative
(35)
36 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION
or show yard placings, may be specifically considered animal
judging, his opinion being based solely on exterior character-
istics. The work of actually detecting the best individuals
in the herd from their ancestry and actual performance
records may be considered animal selection. It is rather
unfortunate, especially with certain classes of animals, that
the latter cannot be successfully carried out in show ring
judging. In facilitating the passing of judgment on animals,
therefore, the student judge must learn to detect the points
which indicate value for special productive purposes^ The
determination of the value of animals through the form or
conformation lies at the basis of successful and popularly
so termed live stock judging.
Objects. — The main objects in judging live stock are
twofold. First, the detection of the characteristics which
fit animals for breeding or reproduction; and second, for
work, broadly defined, or for the block. While the two
purposes are in a sense closely related, from the viewpoint
of the judge, there are important difterences which should
not be overlooked. The breeding animal, for example, should
be judged from the standpoint of present individual excel-
lence, and the likely transmission and continuity of these
characteristics to the oft'spring. In judging an animal for
the block, any future usefulness beyond the fattening or
finishing period may be entirely disregarded, since the
present intrinsic value of the animal to the butcher is the
real paramount factor for consideration.
Animal Knowledge. — The increasing magnitude of student
and show yard judging has brought into employment certain
customs in establishing the value or rating on the numerous
classes of animals coming before the eye of the judge. While
the exterior characteristics are not absolutely reliable
guides, more especially in breeding animals, a history and
knowledge of the performance of other similarly made
animals and keen detection of their merits or faults will
enable the student to form very accurate conclusions in
the judging ring.
In judging breeding animals there is no absolute assurance
that certain desirable characteristics will be transmitted,
IDEALS, QUALIFICATIONS, AND CONSISTENCY 37
Former records of other animals of like conformation must
be used as a guide or basis for passing judgment or opinion.
This is in reality the basis of all live stock judging, as the
accomplishments of one animal under certain known con-
ditions may reasonably be expected to obtain under like
conditions in other instances. If it were not for this infor-
mation which has been accumulated, either in writing or
through the teaching of practical stockmen and college
live stock judges, the subject would not have attained its
present magnitude or accuracy. It is only by correlation
of individual characteristics, as measured by the success of
other animals and actual records, that any assurance may be
obtained regarding the value of an animal as a breeder.
When judging direct fitness for the block or for dairy purposes
all breeding and ancestral records may be disregarded as all
practical evidences of utility and quality are largely visible
on the exterior of the animal. This, however, has been made
possible only by careful studies of the conformation of work,
milk, and meat-producing qualities of other similar animals.
Ideals, Qualifications, and Consistency. — The beginner in
live stock judging must necessarily acquire a definite working
knowledge of the principles on which stock judging is based.
He should learn the peculiar structural form of the various
types, breeds, and classes by studying each animal individ-
ually. By so doing, he is soon able to correlate the various
parts and thereby fix the individual as a whole in its relation
as applied to the various standards of excellence employed.
In the show ring the method of procedure is different. It
is not a question necessarily of depicting the minuteness of
form, or becoming acquainted with the various structural
parts or units. The judge of long experience grasps and
analyzes the form of the animal or animals as a whole and
makes the alignment according to merit or conformity to the
standard of excellence used for the type or breed in question.
The requirements are that the animal coming closest to the
ideal standard be selected to head the class. Thereafter,
each of the others should be placed according to the degree
of conformity with the animal selected as possessing the most
ideal type qualification.
38 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION
A judge should have a clear, concise idea of each standard
with which he is expected to compare and place competing
animals. Unless he is thoroughly acquainted with these
standards it is impossible to determine which of the animals
in the class should be taken for the ideal or standard. One<
of the frequent troubles encountered at the smaller live
stock shows and fairs throughout the country is the lack of
an adequate classification providing for the separation of
each distinct type and breed. Wherever such a condition
exists there can be no true standard, and consequently no
justification in the methods of judging pursued or the
decisions made. Ideals are the foundation of equity and
justice in live stock shows. Unless the judge has an adequate
classification whereby he may establish an ideal and place
the animals according to their degree of conformity, his work
will necessarily be faulty. It is impossible to judge a Stand-
ardbred and a Percheron in the same class, because an ideal
must be selected or a definite purpose adhered to in a written
or mental standard of excellence. Where two distinct
breeds of such varying conformation compete against each
other this is manifestly impossible, as no two animals with
extreme breed types can have an equal or even a close
relationship with any single standard of excellence.
Type and Breed Standards. — Live stock judging as ordinarily
practised in the show ring or by prospective buyers is not
accomplished by the aid of the score card. However, most
colleges have adopted a system of score card judging,
especially for beginners in the subject. This is done to
familiarize the student with the various structural parts of
the animal and to fix in the mind the relative importance
of them. For college work score cards are usually arranged
to cover the types of animals and not individual breeds.
This enables the student to become familiar with the various
types of horses, cattle, sheep, and swine. After these basic
principles of type have been mastered a fuller and better
understanding of the various breed characteristics may be
obtained by consulting breed standards of excellence adopted
by the registry associations or by reading descriptive litera-
ture on the subject.
SCORE CARD JUDGING 39
Most breed associations, with the exception of horse
registry organizations, have adopted a standard of excellence
and scale of points for the breed represented. Usually it is
not practical to use these standards for show yard or market
judging. They serve as an important guide and not as
an absolute standard for practical judging, except in
special cases, such as scoring for advanced registry in dairy
cattle.
Score Card Judging. — From the viewpoint of the student
judge, there are three well-defined methods of arriving at
the value of an individual or a class of animals. The first
is by the score card method, the second by examination which
is followed by oral or written comparisons, as practised in
advanced classes of live stock judging, and the third by
simply placing the animals in their comparative order of
merit, as practised in the show ring. Each of these methods,
after the first, is perfected by having attained proficiency in
the preceding one. The score card is not adapted to practical
live stock judging, it being used solely as a means to an end.
The score card system of judging is used in the class room
primarily to instruct beginners in the fundamental art of
judging. Its principal value is in teaching the location and
value of the various parts of an animal. i\.fter proficiency
is obtained in this part of the work, the score card is usually
replaced by more advanced methods and practices.
Practically the only value of the score card, aside from
that mentioned, is its use in standardizing the value of an
individual animal. It is used for this purpose largely by
dairy cattle record associations in conjunction with advanced
registry tests. Certain score card requirements are often
employed by these associations in measuring the value of
both male and female animals. In reality the score card
is not practicable in live stock judging because a complete
balance of points or a true decision cannot always be logically
obtained. If there was a fixed unit of value to each part of
the animal, regardless of the development of other correlated
parts, such a method might be satisfactorily employed.
However, the value of an animal varies greatly for special
purposes, this depending on the relative degree of perfection
40
METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION
' *\5*fe
■ -d . Jb^ ^ . __
k, _
t !
SHOW RING JUDGING 41
of the related parts, thus making it impossible to establish
fixed units of value.
Comparative Judging. — The method of judging by com-
parison is the logical result of score card proficiency. After
the details of location, names and the value of the various
parts of the animal organism are once mastered, a class of
animals may be placed in their comparative order of merit
and the reasons for so doing written or given oralh'. The
former method is usually employed in the beginning to per-
fect briefness and accuracy. In the employment of the com-
parative method of judging it is necessary to have not only
a clear idea of animal form, but also a logical mind in form-
ing a complete or true balance of points among the animals
under judgment. Numerous questions usually arise per-
taining to the value of animal conformation in its relation to
the various factors which must be considered. As there is
no fixed rule which can be followed in these cases it is neces-
sary for the student to have a clear conception of the
value of various animal conformations in the many relations
which they assume in the class room and on the farm. It is
for this reason principally that score card judging is not the
most satisfactory method to employ. It is this balance of
the practical or productive capacity which must be considered
in judging animals for specialized purposes. Comparative
judging of individuals entails a complete harmonious balance
of pomts which cannot give unjust or untrue decisions if
based on fixed fundamental principles.
Show Ring Judging. — Show ring judging is a practical
repetition of the work of the student in the class room, with
the exception that reasons are usually not given for the rating
of the animals, although from an educational viewpoint
such a course would be practical and highly desirable.
^Modern show ring judging is based entirely on the evidences
of utility and quality exliibited in the external characteristics.
Blood lines are considered only to the extent which the
animal shows improved breeding and pronounced individual-
ity. Otherwise, animals are judged and ranked according
to their individuality at the time judgment is passed. Form
and quality, in the broad sense, include all essential considera-
42 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION
tions in the show ring, as they exhibit in one way or another
the possession or absence of the characteristics defined under
all subdivisions considered in judging animal form. These
two characteristics are inseparable from the viewpoint of
the critic. The form varies according to purpose or utility,
but if the correct form is fixed in the mind and the meaning
of quality is clearly understood the fundamentals of judging
are largely mastered. Gross faults in one or the other
means a serious defect, and consequently the show ring
judge is critical in his estimate of these factors. It is only
in judging the horse, where action is a prime requisite, that
the judge varies from these two broad standard qualifications.
The essentials for successful student or show ring judging
are a keen vision in analyzing animal form, in the broad sense,
and detecting the most devious faults therein. A fault once
seen in an animal should be indelibly stamped on the mind and
the degree of faultiness clearly fixed. Unless such a plan is
pursued, the judge not only becomes entangled in his original
impressions but tiring of the judgment through prolonged
decisions is apt to render them even more faulty. A steady
and fixed purpose, alert detection of merit and faults, and
prompt, yet deliberate decisions are responsible for making a
successful show ring judge.
Fundamental Requirements in Judging. — Judging involves
the possession of five attributes or attainments. These
will be considered in their order.
Utility Requirements . — It is necessary to have a definite
knowledge concerning the use or utility of the animal.
Every factor or part directly or indirectly related to the
purpose or productive end should be mastered. Merit
as related to the type, breed, or class, must be firmly fixed
in the mind. Every requirement of the animal or animals
in question must be clear to measure value accurately.
This involves a broad foundation knowledge in animal breed-
ing and work, meat, market, show, and speed requirements.
Keen Observation. — The accuracy of a decision in the show
ring, feed lot or stock yard, where many decisions are daily
intuitively made, is largely dependent on the powers of
observation. The good and the bad points, whether gross
FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS IN JUDGING 43
or largely apparent, should be detected with promptness.
The possession or acquirement of this faculty is not always
deep seated, yet it is a foundation principle in live stock
judging. The degree of possession or attainment of keen
observation measures one of the important attributes of a
keen live stock judge.
Comparative Qualities. — The individual animal is measured
by a standard, which may be real, written or pictured in the
mind or on canvas. Under any condition, it is the standard
by which the judge pronounces the value of an animal.
In a class a comparison of the animals under judgment is of
greatest concern to the judge. While the written or oral
standard is involved in selecting the best individual in the
class, thereafter this individual becomes the ideal by which
the other animals are rated. Comparison not only involves
a strict analysis of the form of each animal, but a comparison
of the simultaneously located parts to determine the com-
parative degree of merit. This comparison must of necessity
be in accordance with the purpose or utility standard for
the animal under observation. The viewpoint becomes of
special significance at this time, as animals have component
values which differ, depending on type, breed, or class con-
formity.
Balance of Points. — ^The balance of points involves deeper
thought and greater responsibility than any other factor
mentioned, as it is on the equated knowledge that a decision
is- reached. Individuals differ greatly in merits and faults,
both as individual units and in the correlation of parts within
the individual. If all animals differed precisely the same
in their component parts, and if there was a fixed value to
these parts for every purpose of animal formation and
design, judging would be simple indeed. Because of the
great variation in animal conformation, as related to the
location of merits and faults in the individual structure, it
becomes necessary to balance the points of form which are
at variance. For example, it is easy to decide on the
objectionable features of an open shoulder or a flat rib in a
fat steer class. It is not so easy, however, to decide on the
relative merits and demerits of an animal with a low back,
44 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION
scantily covered with flesh, and one with a drooping rump,
thin thighs, and high or open twist. This involves an
accurate balance of points to determine the relative value
of the animals concerned. It involves principles fixed
entirely on utility requirements and the comparative value
of correlated parts or units from which a conscientious, con-
servative judge will not swerve.
Decisions.— Th.e decision is the logical result of the fore-
going factors involved in rendering judgment. Decisions
should be made promptly, yet with deliberation. A decision
once made is charged against the animal knowledge which
the judge possesses. Careless decisions not only reflect on
the judge but often on the animals and their owner as well.
It is a rare thing that a good judge changes a decision if he
proceeds understandingly concerning the standard by which
the animals are being judged. A misunderstanding of purpose
or utility requirements could easily be responsible for a
complete reversal of a decision. No other just cause could
be advanced for a change of a decision. Keen discrimination
and fixed principles are therefore important in analyzing,
comparing, and balancing the points under observation,
the sum total of which make an honest, accurate decision
possible.
Uniformity of Decisions. — Correct ideals are largely respon-
sible for accurate and uniform decisions in the judging ring.
Unless the student possesses a keen knowledge of animal
form and has a clear vision in balancing the various points
of the animals in a class, there is likely to be a serious lack
of uniformity in the decisions made. Because of the prob-
ability of such a condition, it is exceedingly important that
the foundation principles for judging practice be correctly
fixed in the mind. This involves, not only a knowledge of
the exterior characteristics of the animal, but also of the
vital machinery of digestion, circulation, nerve force, repro-
duction, and development. The value of a strong head, a
broad muzzle, and capacious chest development, and the
relation of them to animal vigor, and a long period of use-
fulness, must be fully understood. The value of nervous
development, style, action, symmetry of form and handling
POSITION OF ANIMALS 45
quality, must be clearly fixed in the mind of the judge
before he can proceed with a continuity of decisions which
will stand the test of minute criticism.
Fixed ideals of the various types, breeds, and classes of
animals are the foundation for uniform and correct de-
cisions. After a type is once established by the judge in a
class it should be followed closely until the animals are all
ranked according to their conformity to this type. It is
only in exceptional cases that it becomes necessary to break
type and in instances of this kind there must be some unusual
reason for so doing. If there is a specific ideal or type of
animal established at the head of a class, there will rarely
be an occasion for following it with an animal of another
distinct type. In judging animals it is universally recognized
that there is a distinct tj'pe best suited for all specialized
purposes. A distinct break in type would therefore be ad-
verse to such a principle. In a class for breeding animals
such a condition might arise through the presence of disease,
or from lack of proper constitutional development or spe-
cific breed attributes. An animal lacking in constitutional
development or one in an incipient or advanced stage of an
hereditary disease should not be given priority in a class
of breeding animals. A clear understanding of the purpose
for which an animal is bred, a distinct conception of the type
adopted for the standard, and the reasons for discarding an
animal which does not conform to the established type, are
necessary for convincing, uniform, clear-cut decisions.
Position of Animals. — ^In critically examining animals
in a class or otherwise, it is advantageous to have them all
headed in one direction in a uniform line on a level surface.
They should be lined up on a smooth, even surface, for if
placed otherwise the animals will usually assume an ill
position, appear larger or smaller according to the view-
point from w^hich the examination is made, or such an
unnatural position may accentuate merit or hide or cover
defects. If the viewpoint is below the animals, they will
appear larger, while if it is above they will appear smaller.
It is very easy to deceive the eye in this respect. The animals
should be placed level from the broadsides view. It is
46 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION
important to have the front feet on a level with the rear feet.
If otherwise placed they will appear high or low at the withers,
as the case may be. A position assumed to emphasize good
qualities is permissible while one assumed to cover faults
is deceit and, therefore, objectionable. There is always
an opportunity to deceive the eye, and especially is this
true with the beginner. Salesmen and showmen sometimes
take advantage of these points to sell or exhibit an animal
which otherwise might be an encumbrance on their hands
or a loser in the show ring. Many other gross and minor
practices are resorted to in showing animals. The fairness
of such practices are, of necessity, questionable.
System. — Decisions are reached most accurately and com-
prehensively by using some definite method of procedure.
This is important for the beginner, although the best
judges use system. This may not be readily apparent to
the observer, but if a close watch is kept on the movements
of the judge it wall be noticed that he usually has a definite
order in which he surveys the animals in a class. Even the
judge himself may not be aware that he uses system in his
work. In such cases it is merely intuition which prompts
and which thereby obtains the most accurate decisions in
the briefest period of time.
Point of Approach. — In examining a class of animals the
student should proceed as quietly as possible, approaching
the animal from the front, not only to avoid frightening a
nervous animal, but because this is the logical viewpoint
from which to start the examination. It also permits a
student class to proceed with work in a regular manner
without any unnecessary delay. This is very important,
especially where a large class of animals is to be gone over.
Regularity and promptness are not only important but
necessary in live stock judging for accurately coordinated
results.
General Examination. — In judging live stock it is important
that some regular method of procedure be employed to
determine the merits of the individual or class. By so doing
much greater headway can be made than by following a hap-
hazard method of making the comparisons. If the animal
GENERAL EXAMINATION 47
is properly viewed the student or the prospective purchaser
will not allow any important point to pass unnoticed on the
first examination. This is very important in judging, as
first impressions are always valuable. If a judge allows
himself to get in the habit of returning the second or third
time to reinforce his previous impressions, he is very likely
to become biased or render faulty decisions. For this
reason every part of the animal in view from any particular
angle or position should come criticially under the eye of the
judge. INIuch of the work can be done by taking certain
standard points of view and make it a practice to get
all the information desired from the first examination. If
the class of animals is properly arranged for judging this
can be done conveniently. It will save much annoyance
to the judge, the animals, and the spectators.
Front. — The first view of an animal should always be from
the front, as many of the impressions gotten from this posi-
tion will enable the judge to eliminate undesirable animals
immediately. While this statement has qualifications, it is
true in a large measure, and especially so with pure-bred
stock where breed type enters largely into consideration.
The head, is an excellent index of what may be expected
in the animal when viewed from the side or rear. Animals
with strong breeding qualities as a general rule have very
characteristic clear-cut features about the head. From
the front view the shape and character of the head, neck,
width and depth of chest, set of legs and feet, and the
quality of all of these parts may be determined without
actually handling the animal. While it may be difficult
for the beginner to keep from handling, such a practice
will ultimately lead to undesirable results. In making a
critical study of the head, the length and width should be
determined, especially between the eyes and across the
forehead because of the special significance of a strong
development in these parts. A broad head indicates intelli-
gence and a mild or kindly disposition. This is especially so
in the horse, because docility and intelligence are naturally
looked for in such animals. However, it is no less important
in cattle, swine or sheep, as a broad, clearly defined head
48 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION
is a universal indication of intelligence, docility, and thrift.
The size of the eyes, their prominence, brightness and ex-
pression should all be given due consideration as these
characteristics should be prominently developed.
Side. — Viewed from the side, every part accessible to
the eye should be examined carefully. The general style
and symmetry, length and depth of body, chest capacity,
set of legs and any other special attribute of form or quality
peculiar to the animal under consideration should be carefully
fixed in the mind from this viewpoint. No factor which
should be considered in the final balance of points should
be omitted from the first examination. This is of unusual
importance where the class of animals is large.
Rear. — In viewing the animal from the rear the width,
fulness, and depth of form should be examined carefully as
well as the length, position, set, and shape of legs, especially in
the horse. After this examination is completed the opposite
side from the one first viewed should be gone over to detect
anything unusual or faulty in the conformation which would
give the animal an unsymmetrical appearance or depreciate
its value in any way. This is of special importance in the
horse, where a blemish or an unsoundness would be a serious
detriment.
Action. — Action is of primary importance in the horse,
although in judging breeding animals of any description due
consideration should be given to this point. Animals which
have been pampered are often stilted in their action which is
not in keeping with strong prepotent reproducing qualities.
While it is desirable to have breeding animals showy in form
by having a reasonable amount of finish, this should not be
gained at the expense of depressed vigor or faulty action.
In judging breeding animals of any description each animal
in the class should be walked to determine any unusual
condition or fault in form and action. What may apparently
be an ideal animal in form at rest will be depreciated greatly
in value because of faulty movement or action. A breeding
animal should be useful for a period of years and a well-
balanced condition in form, constitution and action is
essential to this end.
HANDLING ANIMALS 49
Handling Animals. — ^The handling of animals is involved
in determining conditions which cannot be readily perceived
by the aid of the eye. In the several types of animals there
are various parts which must be handled more or less carefully
to determine the condition of the structural parts.
Amount of Handling.— It is always preferable in judging a
class of animals to handle them as little as possible. While
it will be necessary for the beginner to occasionally reinforce
his opinion obtained with the eye, it is preferable not to
handle an animal any more than is absolutely necessary.
It is very easy to get in the habit of allowing the hands to
do that which should be determined by the eye. This not
only involves risk but prolongs the examination and decision.
The best judges of live stock, by constant practice, have
developed the capacity of comprehending or determining
what lies under the skin of the animals largely by the aid of
the eye alone. While it is necessary for the best judges to
use the hands at times, and especially where the decision is
close, it is not good general practice. The beginner should
always use precaution to see that he does not form the habit
of relying on the hands, except in a case where a close
decision justifies the practice.
Determining Handling Quality. — Quality can often be
determined or measured largely by the eye alone. It is
permissible, however, to use the hands to a limited degree to
determine the handling quality of the skin, its fineness,
pliability, and elasticity. The condition of the hair and
skin may be determined by the hands, although this is not
always necessary.
Mammary Development. — In judging dairy cattle the
development of the mammary system is of special significance
because of its direct relation to the value of these animals.
The hands may be used to determine the pliability and
elasticity of the skin on the udder, the length, size, and shape
of the mammary veins, the number of branches, and the size
of the mammary wells. Other than this the eye should be
used to determine the relative merits of the mammary system.
Determination of Unsoundness. — Unsoundness is of pri-
mary importance in the horse. Any unsound condition
4
50 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION
should be determined as far as practicable by the eye.
Questionable cases should be determined by the use of the
hands. Too much handling is not a good form, however,
and should be avoided.
Examination of Sheep. — In judging sheep a thorough
examination by the use of the hands is necessary The
practice is perfectly justifiable on the ground that the form
of a sheep may not be in conformity with the outline of the
wool covering. Sheep are trimmed to give beauty of form
and to cover faults and defects. While the latter practice is
natural, it is questionable whether it is justifiable.
Any fault or defect in form can easily be determined by a
rigid examination with the hands in all important parts
considered in animal judging. The method of examination
will be explained more fully in a subsequent discussion.
Exterior Faults and Defects.— The three most common
kinds of faults and defects are classified under the terms
unsoundness, blemishes, and operations which are of impor-
tance in judging as described below.
Unsoundness. — Unsoundness is of particular importance
in the horse. Because of the character of work for which
the horse is used it is of special importance to have a sound
and otherwise healthy animal. While this is important in
judging any class of animals it is especially necessary in the
horse when used for hard and persistent service. Cattle,
hogs, and sheep intended for the block may have slightly
imperfect structural forms and still be satisfactory meat
producers. If they were to be retained for a period of
years, like the breeding animal, the pleasure or work horse,
it would be very important to have them free from any
hereditary or predisposed unsoundness. Of all the animals
named, however, the horse is of special interest, as severe
driving or work often develops troubles which might not
occur if they were not subjected to actual road or field work,
something which other farm animals are not required to do.
On the streets of the large cities horses are much shorter
lived from an active utility standpoint, because their con-
stant contact with the hard pavements usually aggravates an
unsoundness or develops any predisposed trouble. Many of
EXTERIOR FAULTS AND DEFECTS 51
these horses, if kept on the farm, might never develop
unsoundness. City-used horses may be rejuvenated by a
rest and the less exacting service in the field or on the
farm.
Blemishes. — A perfect specimen of a horse should not only
conform in his lines to the standard of perfection, as outlined
for the type or breed, but there should be absolute freedom
from blemishes and unsoundness. While an animal may be
a perfect breeder or worker, although blemishes occur, such
marks are unsightly and decrease the market value. An
unsoundness, on the other hand, may not only seriously
interfere with the usefulness of the animal but in many
cases such troubles are transmitted. A predisposition to
such diseases as bone spavin, side bones, ring bones, or curbs,
often causes serious trouble. A blemish will neither be trans-
mitted nor will it often interfere with the usefulness of the
animal, unless it occurs in a serious form on some part of
the leg or foot. When it so interferes with usefulness it
becomes an unsoundness. Wire cuts, bruises, scars from
cuts or abrasions constitute a few of the marks which are
termed blemishes. Any scar or mark which is acquired
through accident maj^ properly be termed a blemish, while
an unsoundness is acquired through transmission or a pre-
disposition to the trouble because of faulty conformation,
or from a severe accident, or unusual strain. Some of the
more common and serious kinds of unsoundness will be
described in the chapters on horses and mules.
Operations. — Operations on animals for improving show
condition have been practised with considerable regularity
and at times with much success, as far as the immediate
results were concerned in the show ring. From the stand-
point of the individual as a utility animal or as a breeder,
such practices are not justified. Show ring judging from
this standpoint has not been all that it should be. While
the individuals may be otherwise meritorious, if there is
any indication of an operation having been performed,
such animals should be discriminated against severely. If
an animal cannot appear in the ring in a natural condition
it is not justifiable to allow such animals to win over those
52 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION
which are normall}' constituted, although less perfect than
those made so by superficial alterations.
There are several very satisfactory operations which may
be performed without marring the appearance of the animal
or without causing abrasions of any kind. These conditions
should be carefully observed in examining an animal.
Usually close examination will reveal any alteration of
structure from an operation. It is highly important, there-
fore, that the student become familiar with the natural
structural form and condition of the animal in order that
he may determine any unusual alteration of the nature
suggested.
One of the most common operations is that known as
"bishoping" the teeth to make an animal appear younger
than otherwise. This consists in burning artificial cups in the
teeth which normally develop and disappear in the animal
between the ages of five and eleven years. This condition
is often used to advantage to make an old animal appear
3'oung and thus sell more profitably. Another operation,
quite often performed, is that of injecting air beneath the
skin to make the animal appear full and plump. This may
be done to fill out the hollows above the eyes which appear
with old age. It may also be used to improve the condition
of a once "sweenied" shoulder or atrophied muscles in other
parts. Nerving or nerve cutting is also practised to prevent
lameness.
Functional Points in Judging and Selection. — In judging
animals in the show ring the exterior points of merit are
largely the sole basis on which decisions are made. However,
in the actual selection of some animals, especially horses,
there are certain points which are vitally important in
estimating future usefulness. Selection, as specifically differ-
entiated from animal judging, brings into use certain pre-
liminary qualifications for detection. Real selection, for
the purpose of learning all of the good and bad points,
has underlying determinations which must necessarily be
determined outside of the class room or judging ring. While
attention should be given to these factors in other animals
they are not equally important.
FUNCTIONAL POINTS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION 53
Horses. — The judging and selection of the horse differs
fundamentally from other animals because of the relation
of its disposition, temperament, soundness, and action to
its value in the breeding or commercial world. A horse
must possess all these additional attributes to make it
most acceptable and serviceable.
Unlike most other farm animals the principal value of the
horse lies in the amount and quality of work which can be
performed. This of necessity requires strict observance to
the special attributes named. The horse should therefore
be examined in and out of the stable. While customary
student or show ring judging will not permit this additional
examination, it is important that it be accomplished when
conditions warrant.
An examination of the horse in the stall will reveal many
of the vices which mar and prevent a ready sale of an other-
wise valuable and well-formed animal. The most common
vices detected in the stall are cribbing, weaving, wind sucking
and halter pulling, all of which lower the value of an animal
materially. Unsound feet or legs may also be frequently
detected by the position in which the animal stands. When
the weight is thrown on one leg or foot, either in the fore-
quarters or hindquarters, there is indication of lameness or un-
soundness. Weak or imperfect eyes may also be determined
by the size, shape, and condition which they assmne when the
animal is brought from a dark stable into the outside light.
After the test of the eyes is completed it is of vital im-
portance to examine the condition of the wind carefully.
Unsound wind is detected by hitching the animal to a vehicle
and giving severe exercise. Any questionable unsoundness
of wind from collar or harness adjustment should be decided
by having the harness readjusted or by exercising the ani-
mal vigorously under the saddle. After stopping the animal
suddenly, the judge should advance quickly to the nostrils
and note the character of the breathing. If it is character-
ized by a wheezing sound the probable trouble is either
roaring or whistling. When the breathing is irregular or
spasmodic the animal is likely affected with the heaves.
In the latter case, the air is apparently partly expelled
54 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION
from the lungs, respiration stops for a short period when the
breathing or expulsion of the air is continued, Heavey
horses are characterized by irregular depressions of the
flanks, these movements being coordinated with the stoppage
and expulsion of the air from the lungs.
Other Animals.- — In other animals than the horse con-
tagious, infectious, and hereditary diseases are the most
likely troubles or imperfections which cannot always be
determined in the show ring. For example, tuberculosis and
contagious abortion in cattle, cholera in hogs, and parasitic
diseases in sheep are the most common, and the ones usually
the most important to detect. Unsoundness, as applied
to the horse, is not an important determination in cattle,
swine, and sheep. Their individuality, outside of precautions
against disease, can be determined very accurately from the
exterior characteristics. Breeding animals may be considered
as the exception.
In the actual selection of a male or female for breeding,
they should be tested if feasible to do so. This is especially
important in selecting high-priced breeding stock. However,
it may not always be economy or good policy to test young
animals. In fact, a large percentage of both males and
females are sold at an age when testing would be impossible.
Average or moderate-priced animals are seldom tested for
breeding qualities. The comparative financial risk is not
sufficient to warrant such a method of selection. Older and
more valuable animals are worthy of greater consideration.
Sires should be tested with females which have proved their
merit in the breeding herd. Likewise, females Should be
tested with sires which have proved their efficiency. Any
special merits or faults are thus readily detected. The
animal used for breeding to the untried individual should
always be a tried and proved breeding animal. Otherwise
the test is of no value.
Promptness, Accuracy, and Thoroughness. — The student
should proceed with the examination of the animal as rapidly
as possible. However, it is necessary to take sufficient time
to judge the various parts accurately. If this is not accom-
plished in the beginning it usually leads to hazy, uncertain
ARRIVING AT DECISIONS 55
conclusions. The first decision, if carefully reached or
decided upon, is usually the most accurate, granting that
the student has proceeded in his examination with a determin-
ation to locate the various points of merit accurately and
place the class accordingly. If an animal is viewed hurriedly
and no definite impression is made of the basic merits or
faults possessed it will usually cause misjudgment. It
will save time and usually induce greater accuracy to survey
carefully both major and minor merits and faults during the
first examination.
Arriving at Decisions. — Decisions are based on ideals and
reached in the following manner :
Basis of Judgment. — Live stock judging implies the passing
of judgment on a class of animals from some specific view-
point. The establishment of distinct types, breeds and
market classes is fundamental in fixing the viewpoint from
which the student or show ring judge may work. INIodern
live stock judging* implies a fixation of t^'pe from the standard
of which the awards in a class must be made. It is very
important that before judging begins a standard of com-
parison or purpose be established upon which the decisions
may be based. A class of mares, for example, may be judged
either as purely draft animals, as breeders, or a combination
of the two. Unless the standard is understood in the be-
ginning there is likely to be a great variation in the awards
owing to the difterence in the standards selected. Two
mares judged strictly as draft animals might be reversed
when judged from the breeding standpoint. It is this
basis of judgment which must be kept constantly in mind to
avoid erroneous decisions. In judging any class of animals,
the basis or standard of comparison should first be clearly
fixed in the mind, and then each animal should be placed
according to the degree of conformity to this basis or stand-
ard. This rule is fundamental in all live stock judging.
Culling Inferior Animals. — If the class which is being
judged contains a large nmnber of animals it is usually good
practice to go through the entire number and eliminate those
which have no chance of winning a place. By so doing, it
will avoid any burden to the mind or eye which the viewing
56 METHODS IN JUDGING AND SELECTION
of a large number of animals might cause. After elimi-'
nating all of the inferior specimens, the selected class should
then be examined carefully and the remaining number placed
according to individual merit. It is not good practice to
cull the class to the exact number which it is desired to
place. This is especially true if there are no outstanding
winners. If the animals are of about the same merit when
the points are balanced it will be advantageous to retain
several surplus animals in the short leet from which the
winners are to be selected. This will avoid any likelihood
of eliminating a possible winner from the selected class.
Draft or Short Leet. — The term draft or short leet is the
term applied to the animals retained in a class to be placed
according to their comparative merit. If the class is small
in number it is not necessary to eliminate the inferior animals
or resort to the short leet, as the eye can readily determine
those which are entitled to win. At some of the larger
shows, where several animals are brought into the ring, it
is necessary to use the eliminating process. In a small
class it is neither necessary nor advisable, unless for some
unusual reason.
CHAPTER V.
FACTORS AND PRINCIPLES APPLICABLE TO
THE JUDGING AND SELECTION OF
LIVE STOCK.
INDIVIDUAL MERIT.
In judging the various types, breeds, and classes of animals,
there are certain fundamentals which are directly related
to their form and functioning capacity. These points are all
of primary importance and may be accurately measured when
compared with the proper standard significant of the breed,
type, or class in question.
Utility. — A proper definition of the term utility is funda-
mental for accurately judging all classes of live stock.
Insufficient evidence of utility or conformity to a standard
is largely responsible for eliminating individuals from a
placing. Animals are not always eliminated from the
judging ring because of absolute inferiority, but rather
because of improper adaptation to the standard with which
they are to be compared. Before making a decision on a
class of individuals, one should become thoroughly acquainted
with the purpose for which the animals are being judged.
Linless such information is first obtained gross errors may
occur in the decisions.
There are instances where the most inferior animal in a
class might be placed at the head because of its closer con-
formity to the type taken for the standard. A fat steer
in a feeder class might be an outstanding winner, barring
purpose or utility. It may readily be supposed that such a
steer would be popularly classed as deserving of first merit,
yet utility or conformity to purpose must be taken into con-
sideration. If such a class is being placed from the stand-
point of feed-lot adaptation then the thinner and less attrac-
(57).
58 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK
tive type of animal would rightfully be the winner, other
conditions being equal. In other instances the round,
sleek-bodied colt might be popularly classed as the most
deserving animal, yet from the standpoint of future develop-
ment and final value, the animal with the larger bone, more
angular and growthy form should be selected.
Numerous other examples could be cited where the most
inferior animal, barring adaptation to purpose, might be
placed first in a class. A definite knowledge of utility,
however, is the foundation and keynote of successful live
stock judging. A class of animals should never be given
a rating before information pertaining to their usage is
obtained. One class might be placed in a certain order and
later in a reverse order by changing the viewpoint for
making the decision. The student should be watchful in
placing classes of stock, as utility or usefulness is the real
foundation on which decisions are made.
General Appearance. — Ordinarily there are certain dis-
tinctive characters possessed by an animal which distin-
guishes it from all others. The first impression obtained
of an animal implies general appearance, signifying the size,
shape or Jorm, weight, color, peculiar markings, symmetry
and general demeanor, all being of special significance in
approaching or establishing the degree of conformity to
the standard implied or written. The factors pertaining to
general appearance should be determined at a distance and
not at a close angle, as such a position would likely obscure
symmetry or peculiarities in the animal under observation.
General impressions should always be obtained at a distance
sufficient to bring the real utility value in the proper sphere
of form and development. Other more detailed studies
may be made at close range which will enable the observer
to obtain a clear-cut picture of the value of an animal in
actual service. This involves a determination of the value
of several fundamental factors significant of the various
types, breeds, and classes of animals, as discussed in the fol-
lowing.
Form. — The form of most domestic animals, especially
meat-producing or block animals conforms closely to a
INDIVIDUAL MERIT 59
parallelogram. The principal exceptions are the dairy
breeds of cattle, the Thoroughbred (running) horse, the bacon
hog, the JNIerino breeds of sheep, and one or two other
breeds not of special importance. This type has been
developed because of the value accruing through the increased
amount of edible products in animals of such conformation.
The form of practically all English and Scotch breeds of
live stock is parallelogramic, barring a few important excep-
tions. From a knowledge of these facts, students in judging
can very often determine in a general way the points upon
which stress should be placed.
In judging live stock, if a proper analysis is made of the
various types of domestic animals, it will not be extremely
difficult to decide on the general merits of any class of
individuals. While this knowledge cannot be used in making
keen discriminations between individuals, it can be used very
successfully in establishing a foundation for the beginner.
If the particular points qualifying the specific type of an
animal are conjoined with the general type upon which the
animal is developed, it will be especially helpful in deter-
mining the rating of a class. For example, in a class of pure-
bred animals, if the points indicating breed character have
been mastered and they are properly correlated with the
general form of the animal, the rating of the animals in the
class can be practically determined.
One of the next important types of live stock with which
the student has to deal is the angular, w^edge-shaped form
of the dairy cow. If the type of the dairy animal is once
well fixed in the mind and the points of utility clearly
defined and distinguished, it will furnish an excellent founda-
tion on which to build a knowledge of the important differ-
ences in the various dairy breeds.
The bacon hog is different from the fat type of hog,
especially in the width of the animal, which is comparatively
narrow considering its length and depth. It is necessary
to have a long, smooth, deep and lean side in the bacon hog,
as it is not possible to obtain bacon characteristics in the
square, compact form of the fat hog which conforms to the
general type first described. This is one of the exceptions
60 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK
in the English type of stock which is very largely bred on
the low, square, compact order. From the breed standpoint
the two prominent exceptions are the Tamworth and York-
shire breeds of swine. The American type of hog is more
nearly like the English type of beef and dual purpose cattle
and sheep, i. e., parallelogramic.
The Merino breeds of sheep, developed for wool primarily,
have an unusual conformation due to the wrinkled, uneven
condition of the skin and fleece. While the type of these
animals is generally that of a parallelogram, their unusually
wrinkled condition gives them an odd, ungainly appear-
ance. This formation of the skin and fleece has added
greatly to their value, however, because of the increase in
the surface on which wool may be grown. The Thorough-
bred (running) horse, which is bred for speed at the run exclu-
sively, has developed into a long, angular, and racy type of
animal. Likewise, the race-horse type of the Standardbred
trotter and pacer has in many instances developed into a
light, lithe type not characteristic of the road-horse type of
this breed. With these exceptions noted, all of the important
breeds of horses, cattle, sheep and swine should have a
broad, deep, long, and compact or close knit and symmetrical
form. This is essential in any breed of animals developed
for work or for the production of edible products such as
beef, pork, or mutton.
Height. — Height is of special significance in the horse.
It is determined by measuring from the highest point of
the withers to the ground. In other animals the height is a
matter of sjTnmetry in the correlation of other parts rather
than an absolute determination to a fixed standard, as in
horses.^
Weight. — The .weight of an animal varies according to the
breed, type, class, individual, age, and condition. In most
1 In measuring height the horse should stand on a level surface and the
measure made to the highest point of the withers. The legs should be per-
pendicular to the floor and parallel with each other. The measuring
apparatus should also be held perpendicular to the floor and the cross bar
should be level. The shoes should be taken into consideration. The actual
height can be determined only by measuring the horse without shoes or
by deducting the height of the shoes.
INDIVIDUAL MERIT
61
classes of stock weight is of primary consideration. This is
especially true in draft horses, beef cattle, swine, and sheep.
Abnormal weight above the required standard is a dis-
criminative quality. In judging, the weight should be
estimated or its value fixed according to the factors mentioned
above. One of the principal examples of a breed where
height and weight do not qualify the animal for service is
in the Shetland pony. The height to which this breed
Fig. 5. — Method of measuring height of horse. (Courtesy of Prof. C. S.
Plumb, Columbus, Ohio.)
attains is limited to forty-sLx inches in animals which qualify
for registry in the recognized record book. Other similar
cases might be cited, but it is not considered necessary to
give them special consideration.
Scale. — The scale of an animal is fixed by the height and
weight attained. The term is synomTnous with size but is
often used in designating the combined quality of height
and weight.
62 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK
Substance. — -The term substance refers to structure. Gay
defines it as being manifested by the scale of the animal in
general and the amount of any one particular tissue such as
bone. Quality and substance are not correlated but more
or less of each is essential, depending upon the type of the
animal.
Quality. — Quality in an animal is not a material attribute.
The best method to use in impressing the significance of
quality upon the mind is to study two animals carefully
which have diverging qualifications in this respect. Where
quality is clearly evident it is not only an indication of what
will be found on minute examination of the exterior, but
it represents also the character of the bone, tissue and flesh,
for example, of meat-producing animals. From the breeder's
standpoint evidences of quality are seen in a fine, clean,
mellow skin which is pliable and elastic to the touch. Animals
possessing quality usually have a fine clean bone, a fine-
textured flesh, and a minimum of waste on the block if
produced for this purpose. In other than meat- and wool-
producing animals quality is manifested in the clean-cut,
smooth, firm conformation. Evidence of the blood circula-
tion is also usually clearly apparent in such animals.
In judging quality the mistake should not be made of
placing an undue value on a thin, papery skin, as such a
condition does not represent quality. A thick, harsh,
inelastic skin is likewise undersirable because it is usually
accompanied with large, coarse bones, rough, prominent
joints, and coarse-textured flesh. A further characterization
of quality is indicated in the head, shoulders, and tail setting.
The head should be clear in outline, clean and free from any
abnormal condition such as roughness, coarse hair, undefined
features or facial outlines. The muzzle should be large. yet
indicative of quality. The shoulders should be compact,
smooth and evenly covered, except in the dairy breeds, which
should have light shoulders and sharp withers. In cattle,
swine, and sheep inferior quality is also indicated by a rough,
open condition over the top of the shoulders. In the horse
it is manifested by a coarse, unsymmetrical blending of the
neck, shoulders, and withers. Taken as a wdiole, the animal
INDIVIDUAL MERIT 63
possessing quality shows extreme individuality, clear-cut
outlines, fine-textured skin, hair and bone, and a general
harmonious blending and symmetry of all parts.
Individuality. — Individuality is a quality or state peculiar or
distinctive to an individual. In live stock judging it is used
in a narrower sense than character, which is a supreme breed
mark in the best pure-bred animals. Character is thus
used in signifying the degree of conformity to the breed
which it represents. Individuality conveys the idea of clear-
cut contour which distinguishes an animal, not only from
other types but from other animals of the same general type..
The critical live stock judge will quickly select the animal
in a class possessing the greatest individuality because of its
distinctive or clear-cut lines. This may be done regardless
of whether an animal represents any particular breed.
A clear understanding of individuality in its minutest
sense is really the basis of accurate Hve stock judging.
A student who can master and balance the characteristic
differences among individuals promptly will usually make a
successful live stock critic. It is these minor variations in
detecting individuality which bring out the contrast between
the average and the keen judge who never allows a single
point in an animal to pass unnoticed. The most successful
judges are those who have made such a study of animal
form that they can determine the gross form and its value
by merely observing a single part, such as the head or any
other region of the body. It is individuality or distinc-
tiveness in outline and features which enables them to
do so.
Constitution. — The term constitution is significant of
ruggedness, vitality or robustness of form, duration or
persistency in performance, and longevity. In breeding
animals constitution ranks as an especially important
attribute, as the use of strong, vigorous animals is necessary
to fix this and other desirable characteristics in the offspring.
If the constitution of the breeding animal is weak the same
condition will likely be transmitted to future generations.
It is not so important to emphasize this point in market
animals because of their shorter period of usefulness. It
64 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK
should be given consideration only to the extent which it is
indicative of immediate health and vigor.
A capable judge will recognize the characteristics indicating
constitution even without making a special examination of
the animal. A full, broad head, a large muzzle and open
nostrils, a full, deep chest and barrel which indicate capacity,
aptly characterize an animal with strong constitutional
development. The reverse characteristics, such as a long,
narrow head, a pointed muzzle and small nostrils, a narrow,
shallow chest, and a long, loosely coupled body indicate a
decided weakness. Such animals should never be used in a
breeding herd as they will neither breed nor develop into
satisfactory breeding or market individuals. Animals of
this type are usually the result of indiscriminate breeding,
although occasionally they appear in well-bred herds.
This may be the result of faulty management in early life.
However, it is more often the result of some constitutional
fault or defect in the ancestral animals. The best results
can never be obtained from a breeding or market animal
which is lacking in the factors which help to maintain
the vital functions. Many animals, however, are so main-
tained and bred, generation after generation, only to add to
the number of weak, impotent individuals.
Constitution in the breeding animal is analogous to
endurance in the speed animal. Without it neither can
perform their functions satisfactorily. While it is an attri-
bute of importance in block animals, it is of unusual
importance in breeding, work, or speed animals. It does
not matter to what extent an animal is endowed with other
special functions, unless it has the constitution to balance
the other necessary attributes of milk, beef or speed, there
cannot be a maximum amount of energy developed or work
performed. Constitution is of first and last importance in
a breeding animal, not only to perfect maturity of its own
body but that of the growing fetus and those of future
development. A dairy cow may possess a maximum amount
of quality, the highest developed nervous temperament, but
unless she is endowed with the vitality to continue the milk-
producing function, such an animal is extremely faulty; both'
IXDIVIDUAL MERIT 65
as a milk-producer and a reproducer of her own inherited
attainments. The animal of low vitality or, as otherwise
expressed, weak constitution, usually shows evidence of the
condition in the eyes, the development of the chest, the
size of the muzzle and nostrils, and other indications of
general capacity. When strongly endowed with constitutional
characteristics it bespeaks persistency of performance and
continuity of strongly inherited offspring.
Capacity. — Capacity is bred and developed in an animal
the same as any other quality or characteristic. Naturally,
animals should be selected which have an inherent ten-
dency toward such development. Animals which have
small capacity are usually the result of using inferior breed-
ing stock, although they may occasionally be the offspring
of exceptionally strong and vigorous breeding animals.
Capacity is indicative either of breeding or feeding quali-
ties. Like constitution, this factor is of greater importance
in the breeding animal because of the influence which it
exerts throughout the entire period of usefulness and on
future generations. A short, shallow-bodied animal makes
an inferior breeder because of its inability to properly
nourish and develop a strong, vigorous fetus. The cramped
condition of the animal is not only indicative of improper
self-maintenance, but it naturally checks the development
which the reproductive system should convey to the unborn
animal.
In a measure, capacity may be either natural or acquired;
for example, it can be developed by liberal feeding or retarded
by witholding proper maintenance rations. The young
animal may be grown into a shallow-bodied, flat-ribbed
individual by witholding the roughage part of the ration,
either wholly or in part, or capacity may be materially in-
creased or developed by feeding liberally on rich, nutritious
feeds. A clear line of demarcation should be drawn between
the breeding animal and the one intended for feeding pur-
poses in estimating the necessity of capacity requirements.
In either case it is important, yet on the whole the animal
which has a long period of usefulness should have capacity
unusually marked in its development.
5
66 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK
Symmetry. — The symmetry of an animal is dependent on
the blending of the individual parts, such as the head, neck,
shoulders, body, and quarters. In an unsymmetrical animal
each of the parts above named and the minor structural
details stand out independent of each other. The head,
for example, may be large and coarse at the junction with
the neck. The shoulders may be abrupt instead of blending
Fig. 6. — French Coach stallion, showing symmetry of form.
smoothly into the body proper. The coupling may be long
and, therefore, make the animal appear long and out of
proportion with the other parts. The coupling should not
only be short to give strength but to add style, beauty, and
symmetry of form. Symmetry involves a construction indi-
cating that the parts are made one for the other, instead of
having an independent formation. Symmetry of the whole
involves a complete harmonious blending of all the parts,
thus indicating a unified structure.
INDIVIDUAL MERIT
67
Temperament. — Temperament signifies the degree and
character of development of the nervous system. It is
especially significant in judging certain types, such as the
horse, beef, and dairy animal. Each type of live stock has
peculiar temperamental characteristics significant of their
adaptability to various specialized purposes. The value of
the horse for pleasure or work is measured in a large degree
by the temperament possessed. Draft animals are character-
ized by lymphatic temperament or nerve force, while speed
Fig. 7. — Jersey bull, showing nervous temperament.
horses are characterized in an extreme manner in the highly
developed nervous temperament possessed.
The temperament of the dairy cow is likewise of a nervous
character. Heavy milk production is largely dependent on
the lean, spare framework indicative of a highly developed
nervous system. The degree of perfection reached in dairy
breeds is closely associated with the degree of development
of the nervous organization. Such a condition indicates
that the animal is turning all of the food materials, over and
above maintenance, into milk production. The beef animal,
having a close, compact, smooth form is characterized by
68 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK
a IjTnphatic temperament which is just the reverse of that
possessed by dairy breeds and certain types and breeds of
light horses.
Temperament is controlled largely by the development
of the nervous system. The breeding of the animal enters
into consideration in analj^zing this characteristic. A
running horse, for example, with a lymphatic temperament
would be practically useless on the track and, likewise, one
with a highly developed nervous organization would be of
little value as a pleasure animal. Generally speaking, the
animal which accumulates the energy from the food material
on its own body has a comparatively low state of nerve force
or development, while one which eliminates the products of
energy through milk or high-speed development is char-
acterized by a highly developed nervous organization.
Condition. — Condition is a broad term which is used to
designate the amount of fat which an animal carries at any
particular stage in life. While fat accumulation is not
necessarily a requisite of breeding animals, the acquisition
of fat is often employed to bring out the ultimate or final
effect in .an animal. In discussing condition, the two terms,
natural flesh and fat, should be clearly differentiated. Natural
flesh, to a specified degree, is a requisite of all animals, speak-
ing from a broad viewpoint. The term is more particularly
used in discussing the flesh merits of cattle. However, it
may be very properly applied in a broad way to all animals.
Natural flesh or muscle is acquired during the growing stage.
Fat may be acquired to a limited extent during the same
period. However, it is a natural phenomenon of the matured
animal. The two terms, fat and flesh, are often used inter-
changeably. However, a clear line of demarcation should
be drawn.
Market Condition. — jMarket condition is significant of the
accumulation of fat in placing market or show animals in
the best possible condition to sell or show advantageously.
While such animals are often fattened to an extreme degree,
this is not necessarily significant of overfattening or pam-
pered condition. JMarket animals are put in high condition
to improve the quality of the finished product. Show animals
INDIVIDUAL MERIT
69
are so handled, not because of added value for breeding
purposes, but rather to show what the ultimate result would
be in the offspring from such animals if finished for the
block.
Breeding Condition. — Breeding animals should be main-
tained in medium condition for obtaining the best results.
This is especially true if such animals are to be handled by
amateur feeders. The experienced feeder can take an
animal which has been placed in high condition and remove
the excess fat in such a way that the animal may not be
Fig. 8. — Shorthorn cow, showing high or pampered condition and IjTnphatic
temperament.
materially injured. \Yhile there is a sentiment against
placing breeding animals in high condition for show purposes,
it is not possible to bring out the ultimate results which
may be obtained unless breeders use this method of prepa-
ration. There is merit in such a practice if not overdone.
Pampered Condition. — The average breeder should not
undertake to breed from animals which have been highly or
excessively fitted for market or show purposes. Such a
pampered condition is, without doubt, detrimental to the
breeding capacity of any individual. The period of usefulness
70 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK
is usually not only shortened but in many instances the
quality of the offspring is not what it would be under
ordinary conditions. The varied experience of the construc-
tive breeder in watching the process of development and
fattening enables him to determine the probable underlying
structure with considerable accuracy. A breeder who
possesses this experience can often select a highly fitted
animal with profit because he recognizes value which the
average person would fail to detect. While this plan of
selection may be followed by breeders of this stamp, it is
not generally recommended for the average stockman.
QUALIFICATIONS OF BREEDING ANIMALS.
There are certain distinctive qualifications required of
breeding animals which render them most useful from the
viewpoint of the breeder and the showman.
Breed Character. — Breeding animals, strictly speaking,
are those of pure lineage with the blood lines sufficiently
concentrated so that certain distinctive breed features are
reproduced in every detail. Pure-bred animals are char-
acterized by certain features or breed markings which
typify or distinguish them from all other breeds and which
are under the proper conditions uniformily transmitted to
the offspring. As these breed features or markings should
represent utility qualifications, breed type becomes an
important factor in judging pure-bred animals. The term,
breed character, should be taken to signify the characters or
features which typify standard representatives of the breed.
From an economic standpoint those breed characters or
features which qualify from the practical standpoint are
the ones which should be instrumental in defining the
purpose of a breed. Unfortunately, such a condition has
not always existed, and because of this some breeds qualify
in a measure because of those characteristics or markings
which are not essentially of value.
Breed character is a supreme mark which dominates
all animals deserving of the highest rank among breeders.
While breed character is of vital importance in judging
QUALIFICATIONS OF BREEDING ANIMALS 71
pure-bred breeding classes, other characteristics or condi-
tions of significance should not be disregarded. Judgment
in breeding classes is passed relative to the conformity of
animals to certain arbitrary standards which have been fixed.
There should be a clear-cut conformity to these breed char-
acteristics, otherwise a break in type may become necessary.
Breed character bespeaks a lineage of carefully bred animals
which a prospective purchaser cannot conscientiously disre-
gard in selecting breeding stock. There is a special signifi-
cance in animals of high-bred character which it is necessary
Fig. 9. — Breed character in an Aberdeen-Angus cow.
to recognize in the breeding herd and in the show ring.
Every breeding animal should portray vividly, even to the
finest points of discrimination, the features which charac-
terize or typify each animal within the breed and each breed
among breeds.
Herd Uniformity. — There is no problem more difficult to
solve or direct than that of breeding a herd of live stock
of uniform tj-pe and quality. While the eliminating process
can be used to good advantage in discarding the inferior
specimens from the herd, there still remains the important
72 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK
problem of unifying the various breed characteristics of the
animals retained. Variation is the real source of breed im-
provement, yet variations occur, not only for good qualities,
but for undesirable ones as well. This makes the establish-
ment of uniform characteristics doubly difficult. If breeders
practice culhng their herds closely, the inferior qualities
may thus be largely removed and along with them the
characteristics which tend to make the herd variable in
transmission. There will always remain, however, a certain
natural variation even among the better developed specimens
in the herd.
The original practice of breeding and maintaining several
distinct types of animals in a herd kept it in an admixed
condition. Fortunately, however, this practice is being
rapidly replaced by more favorable conditions. The practice
of maintaining an animal because of its excellence, disregard-
ing its conformity to a definite type, is rapidly giving way,
by the better class of breeders, to a system which will allow
greater uniformity. The best herds have all been built up
by this one-type method of improvement and it is merely
a question of practising it rigidly for breeders to reach
ultimate success in breed or herd uniformity. These con-
ditions should all be noted in a herd from which a purchaser
anticipates selecting animals for a foundation.
Adaptation. — Breeds of live stock should be selected with
special reference to their adaptation to the section in which
the herd is to be established. In most of the standard breeds
of live stock there is quite a wide latitude of adaptation,
yet there are specialized conditions under which unusual
results may be obtained. The Jersey breed of cattle is well
adapted to dpse pasture confinement, having been reared
under such conditions in their native home. The Holstein-
Friesian breed, which is considerably larger than the Jersey,
thrives best where it has access to good pasture lands. In
Holland where this breed originated the farms are level, and
it is on such land that this breed reaches its highest state
of development, although like the Jersey, the breed will
thrive under varying conditions. The Ayrshire breed origi-
nated in northwestern Scotland where the land is rough,
QUALIFICATIONS OF BREEDING ANIMALS 73
hilly, and the pastures are scant and not of the best quality.
Because of these rather unfavorable conditions the Ayrshire
has developed into a breed which is especially noted for
its adaptation to rough, sparse pasturage conditions. In
selecting a breed of dairy cattle for a rough, hilly country
where pasture lands are not of the best quality, the Ayrshire
is credited as being an excellent breed to suit these conditions.
The Hereford has developed into an excellent breed for
western range conditions, largely because of its adaptability
to range country conditions. The Shorthorn, although an
excellent breed, is more favorably adapted to sections where
pasture lands are naturally abundant. Usually this breed
has found its home under these conditions notably in Ken-
tucky, Virginia, Ohio, Illinois, Iowa, and Indiana. Although
rightly considered the cosmopolitan breed of beef cattle, be-
cause of their wide distribution, it is better naturally adapted
to conditions like those mentioned.
Confining the discussion to certain types of animals, it is
a fixed principle that small breeds of animals, for example,
are more thrifty under sparse or average pasturage conditions
than otherwise. The large breeds of sheep may be main-
tained under rather artificial conditions and attain a certain
degree of success. However, they are very much better
adapted to sections where they have access to rich, natural
pasture lands. The same principle may be applied to all
breeds of live stock, and in so doing it will be found upon
close study and observation that these breeds have become
disseminated largely according to this principle.
Breeding Test. — If circumstances will permit, it is prefer-
able to select breeding animals which have been rigidly
tried out in the herd. This is impossible, however, with
young stock which has not reached breeding age. The only
guarantee of breeding qualities which the purchaser usually
gets with an individual is the fact that the ancestors were
successful breeders according to the records. This is not an
absolute guarantee, however, 'that the progeny will breed
as satisfactorily as the parents. The purchaser is reasonably
safe in selecting breeding animals if he takes special pre-
cautions to select the descendants of animals having a long
74 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK
line of successful breeding ancestry. If these records are
reinforced with a strong, vigorous sire and dam, it is reason-
able to believe that the individual selected will prove the
equal of its ancestors. If extremely young stock is selected
special stress should be placed on this point, largely because
of immaturity. In applying the breeding test the greatest
care should be exercised in mating the untried individuals
to those which have thoroughly proved their worth in the
breeding herd.
Productiveness. — Productiveness is a measure of breeding
value as applied to prepotency in the male and prolificacy
in the female. Prepotency refers to strength and surety
of transmission of the qualities inherent in the sire, while
prolificacy refers to the number of animals in the progeny
and the continuity of transmission, especially in swine
and sheep. The term regularity may be more logically
used in connection with horses and cattle. These qualities
are important in building up a herd or flock and should be
given the most careful consideration. Breeding animals which
are selected without having obtained a knowledge of their
breeding record from this standpoint may not always prove
their worth. However, if for several generations the breed-
ing record shows a high measure of productiveness, it is only
natural to assume that the same characteristics will be con-
centrated in the immediate progeny.
Natural Thrift. — Natural thrift is an inherent quality of
the individual herd or breed. Naturally it is of greatest
importance in the breed. Individual animals in certain
instances often surpass other members of the herd or breed
in size, quality, form, and thrift. Such animals, provid-
ing their unusual growth and development does not indi-
cate an abnormal or undesirable condition are in strong
demand. This is a natural consequence, since such animals
are productive of exceptional profits, both from the breeding
and market standpoint. The blood lines of the runt pig
are the same as the larger and more vigorous litter mates.
This is a condition illustrating the variation which may exist
in different individuals.
The pedigree may place the stamp of approval on an
animal or on a herd, yet if the individuals are not potent or
QUALIFICATIONS OF BREEDING ANIMALS 75
naturally thrifty blood lines are essentially of no value.
Whether this condition is termed individuality or natural
thrift, it is of extreme importance in selecting any animal.
The close, compact horse with the smooth, symmetrical,
round-turned body is naturally an easy keeper. Such an
animal carries its own stamp of individuality or natural
thrift. While the breeder should naturally be interested
in the pedigree, the individual, herd or breed attainments
should not be disregarded.
Age Limitations. — Age qualifications are important, especi-
ally with breeding animals which are to be retained for a
considerable time in the herd. Many breeders make the
mistake of selling their best animals because they have
supposedly passed their real period of usefulness. A breeding
animal is valuable as long as it continues to produce meri-
torious animals, no matter what the age attained. Master-
piece, for example, one of the great boars of the Berkshire
breed, was used actively until nine years of age. After the
breeding value of an animal is clearly established it is
unwise to discard it from the herd merely because of
advancing age.
It is always preferable to purchase an animal in its prime
as soon after its breeding qualities have been tested as
possible. If the animal proves to be a valuable breeder the
purchaser has the opportunity of getting the full benefit
of the offspring possessing the blood lines of the individual.
This is extremely important, as a few good animals from one
extraordinary breeder are far more valuable than a much
larger number from one or more inferior individuals. Ex-
perience has taught that a promising animal should never
be sacrificed without having given it a reasonable trial in the
breeding herd. Some excellent examples may be cited where
dairy cows have not only themselves been placed in the
advanced registry when seventeen or eighteen years of age,
but they also have progeny which w'on distinction either as
breeders or because of their ease of meeting advanced registry
qualifications. These facts strongly indicate that a breeding
animal should not be sacrificed as long as the previous
valuable records are being duplicated, regardless of the age
of the animal.
76 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK
Pedigree and Individuality. — Pedigree and individuality
should always receive iirst consideration in selecting pure-
bred live stock. Animals intended for meat, milk or work
alone are judged entirely according to their individuality.
The lineage of the pure-bred animal is very important,
yet individuality should not be disregarded. A purchaser
can make no greater mistake than to select a pure-bred
animal on pedigree alone, as the pure breeds of live stock
contain some very inferior individuals. If the ancestors
of an animal have all been successful breeders, and the
individual corresponds closely to the' information contained
in the pedigree, such an animal will usually prove to be
a successful breeder. The individual is often considered
favorably without placing proper emphasis on the pedigree.
This is a mistake even more serious than the former. Indi-
viduals may be very impressive on conformation alone, yet
uniform characteristics may not always be transmitted.
Breeding animals are often selected on individuality
alone. Others are selected on pedigree alone. These two
factors, pedigree and individualtiy, should be evenly balanced
to get the most valuable breeding animal. If the pedigree
meets with approval and the individual is lacking in some
essential characteristics, such as constitution, vitality, or
quality, the chances are that the offspring will be so char-
acterized. This emphasizes the point that a pure-bred
animal may, because of unfavorable conditions, develop into
a very inferior individual, which will in turn transmit unde-
sirable characteristics to the progeny. A well-constituted
individual may have every indication of possessing prepotent
breeding qualities, yet some weakness occurring in its ances-
tors renders it unable to transmit the desirable individual
qualities.
The only safe method to pursue in selecting breeding
animals is to pay strict attention to both of these factors.
Constructive breeders have been very ardent in correlating
these factors and the animals which they have succeeded
in producing are evidence of the wisdom of such a practice.
Amos Cruikshank, in developing the Scotch type of Short-
horn, did place special emphasis on the individual because
QUALIFICATIONS OF BREEDING ANIMALS 77
he was looking for a low-set type of animal with ample
chest capacity and a deep, thick body. His idea in selecting
a healthy, robust animal was to get one which would stand
the rigorous winters of northern Scotland. It was necessary
to select a rugged animal for this purpose and consequently,
from his standpoint, individuality was placed ahead of pedi-
gree, although only for the reasons stated. Good judgment
ordinarily directs emphasis on both these factors. .
Maturity. — ^Maturity, properly speaking, signifies the
period at which an animal reaches full development in bone
and muscle. From the market standpoint a mature animal
may not have reached or attained full growth or develop-
ment. Markets make certain demands for animals of a
specified weight and condition ; therefore the term maturity
is often applied to animals in proper condition to meet the
demands of these markets. ^laturity, as applied to the
breeding animal, signifies full growth and development in
every respect in height, weight, form, constitution, and
utility. A horse is considered fully mature at four years of
age, a bull or cow at three, and swine, sheep, and goats at
two.^ Many animals, however, reach this age without having
attained normal maturity or development.
This problem is of vital concern in selecting breeding
animals. Any animal which is purchased for breeding pur-
poses should have attained its proper degree of maturity,
considering age, at time of purchase. Development which is
lost through improper care, feeding, or management devi-
talizes a breeding animal to a degree equal to the deficiency
in maturity. The animal used for reproductive purposes
should have attained full development, although the progeny
is to be placed on the open market before normal maturity
is reached. This will insure maximum growth and develop-
ment up to the time the animal is placed on the market.
Breeding animals which are small, weak, and immature
in stature, produce unprofitable market animals, because
market maturity is attained at a maximum cost on such
animals, due to the failure of the ancestors to transmit
this normally rapid early development.
^ Show yard classification, except mature milking form in dairy cattle,
is specified as five years,
78 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK
SUGGESTIONS ON SELECTION.
In the selection of animals, especially for breeding purposes,
there are special points of significance on which more than
the usual stress should be placed. More attention should
be given to the breeder and his methods, the adaptability
of his animals, the uniformity of the breeding qualities,
and the particular lines followed in developing the herd.
These are points specifically differentiated from the methods
and practices used in judging or depicting the best indi-
viduals.
Breeder. — In selecting breeding animals it is a judicious
practice to purchase from a breeder who has a substantial
reputation for producing high-class animals and selling them
for what they are represented to be in the pedigree. The
pedigree of an animal is no more reliable than the breeder
who furnishes it. Breeders who have made the greatest
success in their work are those who have bred unswervingly
toward a specific ideal and kept permanent breeding records,
showing not only the lines of ancestry, but also the value of
all individuals in the herd or flock. This permits close
culling and the maintenance of a high standard in the herd.
Breeders may be divided into two classes, the true con-
structive breeder and the dealer or vendor whose operations
are largely limited to a multiplication of individuals. The
former type should be patronized, as their animals and first-
hand statements concerning them are more dependable than
from breeders of the other sort. This is an important con-
sideration in determining where the initial start in the pure-
bred or even-grade herd will be obtained. The best bred
animals originated with breeders of the constructive type.
While few live stock breeders have attained the position
deserving of this distinction, they should be patronized,
whenever accessible, as the vendor of live stock is ordinarily
not a constructive breeder. The purchaser should therefore
take every precaution in determining the character and
reliability of the breeder and the desirability of the animals
which are selected from the herd.
Pedigrees should be carefully considered, as every breeding
SUGGESTIONS ON SELECTION 79
animal should have not only individuality but a pedigree
showing them to trace at least for four or five generations
to strong and unmistakable parentage. The individuals in the
pedigree should possess qualities such as size, constitution,
prepotency, and prolificacy. These are the things which
make a breeding animal valuable. If the records have been
properly kept all of this information can be obtained. The
latter type of breeder mentioned, however, does not main-
tain such records, and for this reason the better qualified
breeder should be sought.
Lineage of Animals. — Lineage is analogous to the pedigree
of an animal. Reference is made here, however, to the
Fig. 10. — Select breeding sheep as well as all other kinds of live stock
under field conditions where the sire, dam, and offspring may be examined.
(Photograph by author.)
immediate ancestry on which the prospective purchaser
may make a critical examination to determine their probable
desirable or undesirable transmitting qualities. This
examination is seldom carried out in practice beyond the
sire and dam because the grandsires, grandams, and other
ancestors further removed, have usually either died, gone
into other herds, or passed their period of active usefulness
and have therefore been eliminated from the herd. A large
amount of valuable information may be obtained from the
immediate sire and dam. Their type can be studied closely,
their disposition, quality, constitution, and all other external
80 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK
factors which constitute the desirable breeding animah Aside
from their external characteristics their productiveness, uni-
formity of breeding, and the persistence with which these
qualities are maintained may be studied.
One of the best examples of this is in the dairy cow where
it is not only a question of studying the animal and her
ancestors from the standpoint of type, but also the yearly
milk and butter records of the individual, her ancestry,
and even her progeny. This serves as a useful guide in
selecting the progeny from animals in established herds.
It is of special value to the prospective purchaser to study
the type of the animal along with the ancestral, breeding
and producing records. This serves as a double guarantee
of the usefulness of the younger, untried breeding animals
selected. In beef breeds, it is impossible to have access to
the present records of the animal because productiveness
and profit from beef animals are measured by the value
of the animals resulting at maturity. The immediate
ancestral individualities and their performance records may
be studied, however, in a similar manner to the other con-
siderations mentioned.
Healthfulness. — In passing judgment on stock in the show
ring or elsewhere, it is not always possible to determine the
condition of the animal from the standpoint of general
healthfulness. Unless there are unmistakable indications
of unhealthfulness or lack of vigor, the judge or purchaser
does not give such matters consideration, his work covering
the rating of the animals according to their present intrinsic
value. In selecting live stock for breeding or feeding pur-
poses, this is a matter of vital consideration and more
especially of animals selected for the former purpose.
Breeding animals which are expected to reproduce for a
period of years should be naturally healthy and vigorous.
This has become of even greater importance, since animals
are housed under more artificial conditions than formerly, and
are therefore more likely to contract contagious or infectious
diseases.
In selecting stock for breeding purposes, the condition of
the individuals may be used as a guide in most cases, although
SUGGESTIONS ON SELECTION 81
there are some diseases, especially tuberculosis, which can-
not usually be detected by a casual examination. Some of
the worst affected tuberculosis specimens are those which
have on gross examination shown the least indications of the
trouble. This is one of the few diseases which may seriously
affect the vital organs or inner structure of the animal
without first making an exterior impression. Even in
an advanced stage there may not be sufficient evidence
to detect it. The purchaser should have the tuberculin test
applied by a competent veterinarian who can thus determine
whether the disease is in the system. Other diseases should
be detected before the purchase is made and thereby save
time and multiplication of troubles in the herd.
Breed Selection. — In selecting a breed of stock the pur-
chaser should have a definite idea of the kind of live stock
farming which it is desired to follow. Breeds have been
developed along specialized lines for performing definite
kinds of work. Practically all of them may be grouped
into certain standard types. The prominent breeds of the
draft t\-pe of horse, for example, include the Percheron,
Belgian, Clydesdale, and Shire. These breeds have all been
developed especially for draft purposes. However, not all
of them are equally well adapted to the varying conditions
of work, soil, feed, and climate. Here is where breed selection
should receive important consideration. Certain individuals
of any of these breeds may perform their work very satis-
factorily under all conditions. Breeds as a whole, however,
will be more successful when they are used under the con-
ditions in which they were originally bred and developed.
The question is often asked concerning the best breed to
select. The answer depends entirely on the particular
conditions of soil, feed and climate existing in the section
as well as the local conditions on the farm. There is no
rigid rule which can be followed in selecting a breed of live
stock for a specific purpose.
In making a selection, individual likes and dislikes should
be considered and should be properly balanced with the
other important points. After the type of the animal
and the breed from this type is fully decided upon the
6
82 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK .
man becomes an important factor. Not as much depends
on the breed after these factors have been determined as the
kind of care and management which will be given the indi-
vidual or herd.
Established Herds. — Animals purchased from old estab-
lished herds usually have a higher intrinsic value than
individuals of apparently equal qualifications from a herd
of shorter duration. It is better to select animals from a
herd which has made a permanent reputation rather than
from one which has only attained a few years of superficial
success. If more animals were so purchased from breeders
who maintain a single-type standard the various breeds
of live stock would advance more rapidly than at present.
While it would not be possible for the few old-established
breeders of live stock to supply the numerous calls, an effort
to patronize them would of necessity place the live stock
breeding industry on a higher plane.
The veteran breeder of pure-bred animals should receive
greater commendation, as breeders of this stamp are usually
suJSficiently far-sighted to see that an extraordinary animal
is never placed in the hands of an inexperienced breeder.
One herd so started which proves to be a failure is very
detrimental to the best interests of the breed. One unsuccess-
ful herd is responsible for keeping a great many otherwise
successful men out of the business.
The average man can breed any number of inferior animals
which his financial condition will justify, but to produce
successful herd headers is a problem which only the best
breeders have been able to accomplish. When buying
from one of these old-established herds, regardless of whether
it is intact, there is reasonable assurance that the purchaser
is getting good individuals with strong, pure-bred lineage,
individuality, and quality.
Herd Records. — ^The dairy cow is the principal animal
where the real productiveness can be actually measured.
It is unfortunate from the standpoint of practical herd
improvement that the capacity of all farm animals cannot
be measured or determined in this way. Endurance or speed
records and block tests are the only other real determinations
SUGGESTIONS ON SELECTION 83
which can be made on an animal. Dairy records are of value,
depending on the length of time the tests are conducted.
Weekly or even monthly tests should not be used in estimat-
ing or determining the value of an animal. The variation
in the lactation period of dairy cattle is so great that only
tests conducted for yearly periods or longer should be given
absolute credence. Such a test furnishes the average pro-
duction from the high to the low point in lactation and,
consequently, the average ability in productiveness. A
iik
^
|*v
mm
^A
^gg
1^ V^^M
^^Hr M
ainiiWi'iB--jg^ ^
■ ^d^BKr^-^
3
Fig. 11. — Ayrshire cow with a record of 13,789 pounds of milk and
564.39 pounds of butter fat in one year. Not an exceptionally high record
but a good standard of production.
record taken from a dairy animal in the early stages of
lactation represents an abnormal or unnatural condition.
Any one purchasing an animal with a record so determined
is usually disappointed in the ultimate results. Oftentimes
animals with large early lactation records are non-continuous
producers and therefore unprofitable to the stockmen or
dairymen. A record based on a low productive period may
likewise show apparent inferiority when an average record
for a year would show such an animal to be an acceptable
producer. These tests should be made at a normal period of
84
JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK
SUGGESTIONS ON SELECTION 85
life for a siiflBcient length of time and by accurate methods.
When made in this way their value can hardly be over-
estimated to the stockman.
Animals descending from sires and dams with accredited
records have the predisposition to high production. How-
ever, in some cases they may fail to respond satisfactorily
to the test. This is usually not true, yet the test should
be continued to ascertain doubtful specimens. Young
animals should be given reasonable latitude for increased
production when mature form is reached. In the authen-
ticated tests supervised by the breed associations a scale
or standard for animals of various ages is maintained. Due
allowance should be made for the undeveloped form of the
animal.
Endurance or Speed Records.^The American Standard-
bred horse and the Thoroughbred (running) horse are the
only examples, other than the dairy-cow test and the block,
test, where the actual measure of value of the individual
can be determined. A speed record is the primary measure
of a Standardbred animal. The Standardbred Trotting
Association maintains two distinct standards for measuring
the value of the trotter and the pacer. Certain provisions
are made therein whereby an animal may enter the record
under different requirements. ^Yhile there is greater latitude
in the method of standardization than that used by dairy
record associations, the results all lead to the same end, a
known fixed efficiency for performing work.
Although tried animals always command greater values,
the money so expended is for a good purpose, not only to the
individual and the herd but to the breed as well. The
high speed records acquired by the Standardbred animal are
the result of breeding and training to a fixed standard.
Successive lowering of records has been achieved by persistent
methods of improvement. Selection of animals for speed
purposes should, like the dairy animal, be based on health,
form, capacity, and repetition of records under normal
conditions.
Block Tests.— The ultimate value of a finished meat
animal is obtained by the block test. The dressing percentage
86
JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK
can thereby be obtained, the relative proportions of bone,
lean meat, fat and other tissues, and the quality of the
Fig. 13. — Prime or standing rib, front view. (Photograph by author.)
Fig. 14:— Pi
-landing rib, rear view. (Photograph by author.)
product. Unfortunately, a test of this kind is of indirect
value to the breeder. If such determinations could be made
SUGGESTIONS ON SELECTION
87
in the live animal they would be of greater practical value.
Even under the conditions of the test, however, information
of this character is of great value to stock breeders. It
represents the ultimate attainment of animals and can
therefore be applied indirectly in producing other animals
of like qualifications.
Breeders' Fads. — All breeders of live stock have certain
utility requirements which should be bred and retained,
regardless of predominating fads and changing conditions.
This should be done notwithstanding that some breeders
demand useless or fancy points. Breeders of live stock
%bi.J^5"'
Fig. 15. — Loins, showing marbling and finish. The rib and loin cuts
figure prominently in value in the block test. (Photograph by author.)
as a class are not responsible for the development of useless
qualities. Absurd type standards have been maintained,
however, in some breeds largely to the detriment or develop-
ment of useful or utility points. The experienced live stock
judge will usually rate these points on their merit. In a
close decision, all other conditions being equal, the animal
possessing the fancy points would receive first consideration.
If there was a decided difterence in favor of the utility
points, the animal possessing the greatest merit from this
viewpoint should be given a first rating.
In judging live stock, either for breeding or direct market
purposes, the essential factors considered should be the adapt-
ability of the animals to their ultimate use. Breeders'
88 JUDGING AND SELECTION OF LIVE STOCK
fads and fancies, while of temporary value and beauty,
usually lead to ultimate failure in breed development. The
breeder who can retain the useful qualities in his herd and
incorporate prevailing fancies may afford to do so. When
something must be sacrificed, however, it should be the
fads and fancies which serve no real useful purpose. Breeders
who are classed as constructive in their methods are the
men who have pursued the lines of utility. Their ideal
of animal character and usefulness which would eventually
be in demand was portrayed ten, twenty, and fifty years
hence. Men of this character have made the useful breeds
of live stock.
The breeder who has clamored to reach the topmost
standard of popularity entirely disregarding breed useful-
ness has left nothing to his credit in breed history. One
of the most convincing arguments against fads is the
generally recognized popularity of certain breed colors.
Why one animal, family or breed should be better because
of a peculiar fascinating color scheme is usually unsatis-
factorily answered. Certain colors or combinations of
colors may be more pleasing to certain classes of breeders,
yet any requirement or quality which does not add to the
actual value of an animal as a breeder, on the block, or for
work, is a destructive attribute or character. The true
constructive policy which has been followed by those breeders
aiming at continuous improvement will remain prominent
in raising the standard of value in the breeds of live stock.
CHAPTER VI.
JUDGING HORSES.
FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS.
Uses. — Before placing a value on a horse or giving it a
rating in the show ring or otherwise it is necessary to have
a definite knowledge of the particular character or kind of
work to be performed. The horse, like the dairy animal,
has a specialized function or work. In the former this is
dependent largely on locomotion in one or more of its various
phases. Whatever the character of work to be performed,
whether for draft, for racing or for pleasure purposes, the
degree of perfection of the organization, which, either in its
parts or as a whole, is responsible for locomotion, measures
the value of an animal.
Block animals may be temporarily or permanently im-
paired in structure and still possibly render an acceptable
service to mankind in meat production. This is essentially
true under certain conditions, considering the comparatively
short period of usefulness of the block animals. While in
the breeding classes of block animals locomotion is impor-
tant, it is secondary to other considerations, and therefore
of less importance than in the horse. If the structure of
the horse is so injured through disease, accident, or from
unsoundness, or the conformation is faulty, either in body
or limb, it reacts directly and most forcibly on the value
of that animal for any specialized purpose. Speaking from
a broad viewpoint, a horse must work to be useful, and
to work continuously and satisfactorily to the maximum
capacity calls for a well-balanced individual in body, limb,
and mental attainments.
A proper study of the horse necessitates a knowledge of
the structure responsible for the activities in the organization
(89)
90
JUDGING HORSES
F UNDAMENTAL CONSIDER A TIOXS
91
of the horse on which limited or maximum production of
work depends. Manifestly, for a horse to do his greatest
and most satisfactory service requires a perfect organization,
which is known or determined only by a detailed study of
type and conformation and their correlation in service.
Structure Analogous with that of Man.^ — The structure
of the horse, so far as bones, joints and muscles are concerned
is, with a few minor exceptions, very closely analogous to
the structure of man, provided that man assumes the hori-
zontal and quadrupedal position, and rests on the tips of his
fingers and toes. The horse has no collar bone, the union
between trunk and anterior extremities being wholly muscu-
lar, and the relative length of forelegs and hindlegs is such as
to maintain the body in a perfectly horizontal, rather than an
inclined, attitude. He has one digit instead of five and rests
only on the last segment of it, so that the wrist corresponds
to the horse's knee, the knuckle to his fetlock joint and the
three phalanges of the finger to his first and second pastern
and pedal bones. Likewise, the knee of the man is the
stifle of the horse, the calf of his leg the gaskin of the horse,
his heel the horse's hock, and so on as in the foreleg. As
the man raises his weight well up on his toes and feels the
tension of the muscles of the thigh and lower leg he can well
1 Gay, Principles and Practice of Judging Live Stock.
EXPLANATION OF FIG. 16.
1— Mouth.
2— Nostrils.
3— Nose.
4 — Face.
5 — Eye.
6 — Forehead.
7 — Ears.
8— Poll.
9— Throat-latch.
10 — Jaw.
11— Chin.
12 — -Windpipe.
13— Neck.
14— Crest.
15 — Withers.
16 — Shoulder bed.
17 — Breast.
18— Shoulder.
19 — Forearm.
20 — Knees.
21 — Canons.
22 — Fetlock joints.
23 — Pasterns.
24— Feet.
25 — Feather.
251 — Elbow.
26— Flank.
27 — Heart girth.
28— Back.
29 — Loin.
30— Hip bone.
31 — Coupling.
32— Ribs.
33 — Belly or underline.
34— Hindflank.
35— Stifle.
36— Thigh.
37 — Buttocks.
38— Croup.
39— Tail.
40 — Quarters.
41 — Gaskin or lower
thigh.
42 — Hocks.
92 JUDGING HORSES
understand what takes place when the horse "lifts" in the
starting or moving of a load or in merely projecting his own
body forward in locomotion.
Mechanical Structured — The structure of the horse, mechan-
ically considered, consists of a trunk suspended by an arch,
the vertebral column, supported at each end by four vertical
columns, the legs, the anatomical features of which have
already been described. Greater weight is borne on the
forelegs because the appended head and neck bring the centre
of gravity well forward of the centre of the body. The
arrangement by which the body is slung between the two
forelegs by the great pectoral muscles and the slope of
shoulder and pastern provide for the supporting of this
weight, especially during locomotion, with least concussion.
The centre of gravity being displaced further forward when
the horse is in motion, still greater weight is thrown on
the forelegs, the hindlegs serving as propellers. The
articulation of the thigh directly with the pelvis conveys the
propulsive effort throughout the entire length of the spinal
column. The supportive action of the forelegs meets the
propulsive action of the hindlegs in such a way as to restore
the equilibrium of the body.
The joints of the leg are hinge joints, capable of motion
in two directions only, flexion and extension, while the joints
of the hip and shoulder, points at which the legs articulate
with the body, are ball-and-socket joints, which permit of a
rotary motion. The legs, generally speaking, are therefore
capable of alternate flexion and extension, which takes place
in the order named, although the flexion of the leg as a whole
may involve the extension of some one joint, as in the case
of the shoulder at the commencement of flexion of the leg.
Relation of Bone and Muscular Development. — In accordance
with the use of the horse, it is necessary to understand the
relation of the bones and muscles, especialh' in determining
normal value, quality of structure, and the amount of natural
muscular development. In passing judgment on a horse,
the general shape of the bony framework and its correlation
with the muscles should be kept in mind, as it will be helpful
in determining the relative merits of animals in low or medium
^ Gay, Principles and Practice of Judging Live Stock.
FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 93
condition. Although the character of the muscles, their
length and thickness, vary considerably in different animals,
the development of them is a safe guide in determining the
ultimate value of an animal, either in draft or light horse
service. Between these divisions there is a wide variation in
the size, length, shape and thickness of the muscles, yet their
relative position and the part which they play in giving an
animal its characteristic shape and locomotion are the same.
Draft animals have short, thick, muscles which indicate
strength, while light animals have long and rather thin
muscles, productive of speed. Aside from this difference the
position of the muscles on the framework is the same, it
being a question of a difference in form or development and
not in location.
Beginning with the head, this portion of the body is
largely formed by the peculiar construction of the bony
framework in this region, the skin being drawn rather tightly
over it. The neck of the animal is constructed almost
entirely by the muscles leading from the head to the shoulders.
The shoulders are partially formed by the bony framework.
Howe^'e^, a large portion of the animal in this region is
defined by the development of the muscular tissues. The
body proper is formed largely by the position which the
ribs assume. Although the contour is not determined by the
rib development, the general shape of the body is largely
thus defined. The rear quarters are shaped largely by the
muscle formation, especially over the croup, the upper thighs,
and in the quarters proper.
The muscular development of the lower thigh or gaskin is
of such a nature that it is used as an index to the muscular
development of the animal throughout. In an animal which
has been highly fattened the natural muscular formation can
be determined by this index, as this region does not accumu-
late fatt}' tissue to any appreciable extent. It is therefore a
safe guide to the development in other parts because of the
close correlation usually existing between this and other
regions. The legs, from the knees and hocks down, are
formed almost entirely by the bones, tendons and ligaments.
For this reason the canon bones are used as an index to
94
JUDGING HORSES
FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 95
the size and quality of bone which the animal possesses.
A horse of good quality can be readily determined, for
example, by passing the hand along the canon bone. If the
skin is smooth, soft and oily, and the bone is hard, smooth,
and dense it is an excellent indication of superior quality
throughout. Other than in the head, body, and legs of the
horse the skeleton is somewhat deceiving in the lines which
a finished animal possesses because of the relatively large
amount of muscle compared with the bone tissue.
Relation of Form to Utility. — The value of a horse is funda-
mentally based on the structure which governs or defines
the type. The make or build of a horse is closely analogous
or suggestive of the work which it can do. The draft horse
with a long, broad, deep body, short, stout legs, all involved
in securing weight and massiveness, is suggestive of power
or work at a comparatively slow pace. The close-knit, sym-
metrical, smooth-turned, refined, heavy harness horse is
suggestive of style and action at the expense of both the
maximum work of the draft horse and the speed of the light
harness horse. The latter, although of two distinct types, is
generally suggestive of more speed and less style than in the
heavy harness horse. Although the light harness horse is
a comparatively smooth-turned, symmetrical animal, the
deeper, narrower body, longer legs, and less pronounced scale
are all indicative of speed qualifications. The saddle horse,
with a short back, light forehand development, high withers
EXPLANATION OF FIG. 17.
I.H., atlas; 7.H., seventh cen-ical vertebra; I.R., first thoracic vertebra;
17. R., seventeenth thoracic vertebra; I.L., first lumbar vertebra; 6.L.,
sixth lumbar vertebra; K, sacrum; I.S., first coccygeal vertebra; 16. S.,
sixteenth coccj-geal vertebra; 6.R., sixth rib; 6.K., costal cartilage; 18.R.,
last rib; 1, scapula; 1', cartilage of scapula'; 2, spine of scapula; 4, humerus;
4', external epicondyle of humerus; 5, external tuberosity of humerus;
6, deltoid tuberosity; 7, shaft of ulna; 8, olecranon; 9, radius; 10, carpus;
11, accessory carpal bone; 12, metacarpus; 13, digit; 14, sternum; 14",
xiphoid cartilage; 15, ilium; 16, 16', external and internal angles of ilium;
17, ischium; 18, femur (shaft); 19, trochanter major; 27, trochanter minor;
28, trochanter tertius; 20, patella; 21, tibia (shaft); 21', external condyle of
tibia; 22, tarsus; 23, fibula; 24, tuber calcis; 25, metatarsus; 26, digit.
(After Ellenberger-Baum, Anat. f. Klinstler.)
96 JUDGING HORSES
and sloping shoulders, is suggestive of an animal with weight-
carrying capacity. Likewise the pony, which is typified in
the Shetland and Welsh breeds, is indicative of less draft
and slower going, comparatively speaking, than in the other
types mentioned.
The draft horse with weight and massiveness, in contra-
distinction to the light horse with a lithe, rangy form, is
capable of developing power instead of show or speed in
their various phases. A detailed study of the horse for
these reasons is not only desirable from a general viewpoint,
but necessary to understand the various applications in
work and pleasure.
Propelling Power. — The propelling power of the horse is
in the hindquarters, the forelegs serving as a support or
balance to the body. Evidence of the location of the pro-
pelling power may be seen in an animal doing actual work.
Additional natural evidence is in the heavier muscling through
the coupling, loin, croup and quarters, as compared with other
regions. The energy is developed in the hindquarters, while
the strain of the propulsion comes in a large measure on the
coupling and loin muscles. A shallow flank is therefore in-
dicative of a general body weakness. If the power developed
cannot be borne by the correlated parts, additional or unusual
development in any special region is not of any distinct value.
That a chain is no stronger than its weakest link is evidenced
in the horse when placed in severe work or endurance trials.
The long, shallow body and loosely coupled animal cannot
endure severe strain, while the short, compact and deep-
muscled animal with a full, strong coupling can usually
continue in service indefinitely. The degree of power de-
velopment is dependent upon the formation of the bones
and muscles, especially in the hindquarters. In the fore-
hand the shoulder blade does not form a direct attachment
with the mechanism proper, the horse having no collar bone.
The shoulder bone is sustained by the muscles which give
form or shape to the animal in this region. The difference
in the mechanism of the forehand and hindquarters is thus
indicative of the source of power and emphasizes the necessity
of full development in the latter region.
FUNDAMENTAL COXSI DERATIONS 97
Nervous Development. — The bones and muscles of an animal
represent the foundation machinery by which work is per-
formed when properly connected or correlated with the
nervous organization. From the brain, which is the centre
of the nervous system, there is a direct connection with all
parts of the body which act in accordance with the degree
of nerve stimulation. The stimulation which comes from
the nervous system without proper coordination with the
bones and muscles, or vice versa, would be of very little
value. There is a direct relationship between the nerves
and muscles which stimulate work, speed, or action in its
various phases which is dependent upon the type of animal
under consideration.
Animals with a sluggish temperament are simply lacking
in nerve tone and consequently do not perform their work
with the persistence or satisfaction of animals more highly
developed in this respect. A horse with a nervous tempera-
ment usually has greater intelligence, greater nerve force,
and, therefore, more persistence or endurance in performing
work. An irritable, erratic animal is the result of imperfect
nerve control. This condition should be differentiated
sharply from the nervous-tempered animal which signifies
a more highly developed nervous organization, susceptible of
perfect control. These three conditions of nervous develop-
ment or nerve force are exceedingly important in judging
horses and mules and should be given special consideration.
Action. — Action in the horse, termed by Gay, "way of
going," is one of the chief fundamentals of the organized
structure. The degree of development or perfection is
directly dependent on the nature of the machine. This is in-
fluenced first, by the breeding, second, by the t^-pe, and third,
by the individual. It may be otherwise affected by training
or education and mechanical appliances. The latter two,
however, are of chief interest to light horse breeders where
show, speed or pleasure are involved. From a broad utility
standpoint the breeding, t}T)e, and individuality of the animal
are of fundamental importance. Education and mechanical
appliances which influence action are of deep significance
in certain types and classes of horses. They involve the
98
JUDGING HORSES
making or unmaking of some animals whose work is to show,
to develop speed, or to be driven for pleasure.
Fundamentally, there are several distinct gaits of pro-
nounced importance which are the walk, trot, pace, canter,
rack, gallop, running walk, fox trot and slow pace. These gaits
are described as follows and will be applied to the various
breeds, types and classes in the consideration of these subjects.
Gaits. — A gait is significant of one of the characteristic
methods used in producing locomotion. It is characterized
by certain definite phases or features which thus gives the
horse a distinctiveness in adapting itself to various uses,
whether for draft, speed, road, show, or saddle purposes.
Walk. — The walk is one of the fundamental gaits of
horses. It is a comparatively slow four-beat gait character-
istic of the draft horse especially and also of light horses,
although of less significance compared with the draft animal.
It is a distinct form of locomotion and when executed properly
is a very useful gait.
Trot. — The trot is a two-beat gait, the diagonal forelegs and
hindlegs moving together. There are three distinct varieties
Fig. 18
Fig. 19
Fig. 18.— Vie\\ang action at the walk coming toward the observer.
Observe movement of forelegs and shoulders especially. The legs should
be placed directly under the body and there should be no winging, rolling,
or paddling motion. (Courtesy of Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station.)
Fig. 19. — Viewing action at the walk going from the observer. Observe
the snap, flexion of the joints, directness and hock movements. (Courtesy
of Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station.)
FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
99
Fig. 20
Fig. 21
Observe general style
(Courtesy of Indiana
Fig. 20. — Viewing action at the trot coming toward the observer
of the animal, carriage, shoulder movements, directness and spring.
Agricultural Experiment Station.)
Fig. 21. — Viewing action at the trot going from the observer. Observe directness, elasticity,
snap, and carriage of hocks. (Courtesy of Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station.)
Fig. 22
Fig. 23
Fig. 22. — Viewing action at the walk, side view. Observe length of stride, height, elasticity,
flexion of joints and balance. (Courtesy of Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station.)
Fig. 23. — Viewing action at the trot, side ^dew. Observe length of stride, height, regularity,
balance and hock action. (Courtesy of Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station.)
100 JUDGING HORSES
of the trot, including that of the trotting horse, the heavy
harness horse, and the saddle horse.
Pace. — The pace, like the trot, is a rapid two-beat gait
distinguished from the latter in that the lateral foreleg and
hindleg move together. It is characterized by more or less
side motion and is adapted only for speed purposes or on
very smooth roads which otherwise would seriously impede
action or locomotion.
Canter. — The canter is a slow gallop which is accomplished
under more or less restraint. It is a gait characteristic of
the saddle horse. Such animals are frequently trained to
lead on either foot to avoid the excessive wear on the leading
forefoot and the diagonal hindfoot.
Rack. — The rack is a four-beat gait which is characteristic
of the five-gaited saddle horse. It was formerly termed
"single foot" because of its peculiar cadence. The latter
term has been discarded, however, the term "rack" being
used by the American Saddle Horse Association.
Gallop. — The gallop is a three-beat gait, two diagonal legs
moving together, the one beat of the two falling between the
successive beats of the other two legs.
Running Walk. — The running walk is a four-beat gait
intermediate between the walk and the rack. It is an easy
gait on both the horse and the rider.
Fox Trot. — The fox trot is a broken trot characterized
by more or less of a pace as indicated by the movements
of the animal. This gait, like the running walk, is character-
istic of the five-gaited saddle horse.
Detailed Structural Form. — The detailed structure of the
horse will be considered under one general outline as follows :
Head and Neck. — The head should be neat and clean,
clear in outline, and well defined. It should have length,
depth and breadth proportionate to the size of the animal.
The lower jaw should be broad and open in the angle to
accommodate the larynx when the neck is flexed and
extended. The contour of the head should be clearly defined,
thus indicating superior quality.
Forehead. — The forehead should be broad, flat, and
straight. Good width between the eyes is especially sig-
nificant of intelligence,
FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 101
Ears.— The ears should be medium in size, erect, pointed,
and show superior quality by having a fine, clean coat of
hair.
Eyes. — The eyes should be large, bright, clear, and promi-
nent. There should be no indication of present or recurring
disease.
Muzzle. — The muzzle should be large, broad, deep, and
indicate quality. A large, coarse muzzle is not associated
with superior quality throughout the animal. The lips
should be regular, and the teeth sound, with no indication
of alterations having been made.
Nostrils. — ^The nostrils should be large and open, which
is indicative of a plentiful supply of air in the lungs.
Neck. — The neck should be proportionate in length,
depth, and thickness to the type of the animal. The crest
should be well developed, the throat -latch fine, with the
neck smoothly joining the shoulders.
Forehand. — Withers. — The withers should extend high,
well back, and should be free from scars or other alterations.
Low withers are objectionable.
Shoulders. — The shoulders should be long, smooth, and
sloping. Straight shoulders are usually associated with short,
upright pasterns. Both of these conditions are antagonistic
to free action and freedom from diseases of the feet.
Arms. — The arms should be well muscled and carry well
forward. Such a formation is usually associated with sloping
or oblique shoulders.
Forearms. — The forearms should be broad, deep, straight,
and muscular. The length should be proportionate to the
type of the animal.
Knees.- — -The knees should be long, broad, smooth and
deep, thus indicating a well-supported animal, and ample
space for muscle attachments.
Canons. — The canons should be short, broad, and flat.
The tendons should set well back, which gives squareness of
form to the leg and thus added strength. Cut-under canons
are very objectionable, showing permanent faultiness in an
animal.
Fetlocks. — ^The fetlocks should be wide, smooth, regular,
and strongly supported.
102
JUDGING HORSES
Skin
Tendon of common extensor
Bursa
11
Capsule of fetlock joint /w i i
Cavity of fetlock joint / / /'
Cavity of pastern joint
Cavity of cojfm joint ^ "0 /^9
Corium
of periople
Periople
Coronary mi
corium -mrr i .
Lamince -^ — ^/ - i ^
Middle sesamoidean lig.
Digital synovial sheath
Cavity of pastern joint
Superficial sesamoidean lig.
Deep flexor tendon
Distal end of digital sheath
12
11
Digital cushion
Sole Corium of sole
Fig. 24. — An important consideration in judging horses. Sagittal section
of digit and distal part of metacarpus of horse: A, metacarpal bone; B,
first phalanx; C, second phalanx; D, third phalanx; E, distal sesamoid bone;
1, volar pouch of capsule of fetlock joint; 2, intersesamoidean ligament; 3, 4,
proximal end of digital synovial sheath; 5, ring formed by superficial flexor
tendon; 6, fibrous tissue underlying ergot; 7, ergot; 8, 9, 9', branches of
digital vessels; 10, distal ligament of distal sesamoid bone; 11, suspensory
ligament of distal sesamoid bone; 12, 12', proximal and distal ends of bursa
podotrochlearis. By an oversight the superficial flexor tendon (behind 4)
is not marked. (Courtesy of L. W. Sisson, from Anatomy of Domestic
Animals.)
FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 103
Pasterns. — The pasterns should be long, strong, and
slopmg. Short, straight pasterns indicate imperfect action
and lack of wearing qualities.
Legs. — The legs should, as a whole, be straight, strong, and
well placed under the body. A perpendicular line dropped
from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg and foot
into two lateral halves. A line dropped from the point of
the scapula should divide the elbow-joint and pass through
the centre of the foot.
Feet. — The feet should be large, round, open at the heel,
and the sole concave. The wails should be straight and the
slope should correspond to the slope of the pasterns. The
bars should be strong, the frog large and elastic, the heels
wide, the horn dense, dark colored, and smooth in texture.
Body. — Heart girth.- — ^The heart girth is synonymous
with the chest. It should be deep, broad and full, thus
giving ample space for the heart and lungs.
Ribs. — ^The ribs should be long, well arched, and placed
close together. Good length is indicative of full depth in
the body, and close spacing to compactness or close knit form.
Back. — The back should be short, straight, broad, and
strong.
Loins. — The loins should be smooth, broad, strong, deep,
and full, which is indicative of a close, full-made coupling,
one of the chief characteristics of a well-made animal.
Underline. — The underline should be long and well let
down in the flanks, which indicates good depth of body.
Hindquarters. — Hips. — The hips should be wide, level,
and smoothly covered. Prominent hips are usually indica-
tive of open conformation.
Croup. — ^The croup should be long, smooth, level, broad,
and muscular. A dropping croup is not only unsightly
but objectionable from the standpoint of power or action.
Thighs. — The thighs should be long, muscular, and deep.
The width of the animal from the hips should be carried
perpendicularly to the ground, a line thus drawn coinciding
with the thighs.
Gaskins or Loiver Thighs. — The gaskins or lower thighs
should be long, broad, and muscular. The muscular develop-
104 JUDGING HORSES
ment in this region is indicative of the natural muscular
development of an animal, thus making it possible to judge
the muscular development as well in high as in low condition.
Fig. 25. — Right forehoof of horse, ground surface: 1, basal or ground
border of wall; 2, laminse of wall; 3, angle of wall; 4, bar; 5, sole; 5', angle
of sole; 6, white line (junction of wall and sole); 7, apex of frog; 8, central
sulcus of frog; 9, 9, collateral sulci between frog and bars; 10, 10, bulbs of
hoof. (Courtesy of L. W. Sisson, from Anatomy of Domestic Animals.)
Hocks. — The hocks should be wide, deep, smooth, and
strongly supported. The point of the hocks should be
prominent. The size should be in proportion to the weight
of the horse. The hocks are of fundamental significance in
FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 105
the horse because of their direct correlation with efficient
power and speed development.
Canons. — The canons should be short, strong, and broad,
and the tendons should be well set back.
Fetlocks. — The fetlocks should be strong and well sup-
ported. ^Yeak fetlock-joints in the hindfeet as well as in
the forefeet are very objectionable.
Pasterns. — The pasterns should be long, sloping, and
strongly supported.
Legs.— The hindlegs of a horse are of unusual significance
and should, therefore, be straight, strong, and well supported
throughout. A perpendicular line dropped from the point
of the buttock should divide the leg and the foot into two
equal parts. A perpendicular line dropped from the hip-
joint to the ground should divide the foot, meeting the
ground half-way between the heel and the toe.
Tail. — The tail should be set high, well carried, and
should show quality by the character of the hair thereon.
Determination of Age. — Since the use of the horse is depend-
ent on the amount and continuity of work performed and
not on the quality of an edible product, as in meat-producing
animals, which are influenced by age only under certain
specified conditions, it is important to know the fundamentals
of age determination. While in a general way the age of an
animal can be approximately determined by their general
appearance or condition, the teeth are the most reliable
indications for practical usage. In judging age by the teeth
it is very important to know the condition of the normal
mouth, as the teeth are at times seriously affected by the
soil on which animals graze or by the character and quantity
of feed received. Liberal feeding on hard or flinty feeds
may apparently hasten maturity, while light feeding on soft
feeds or pasturing may retard it.
The teeth are also "bishoped" sometimes by unscrupulous
dealers to renew the appearance of the cups which gradually
disappear with age. This operation is performed by the use
of a hot iron which burns a cup in the center of the teeth,
thus making it appear that the natural cups are still present.
Up to the age of five 3'ears the order of appearance of the six
106
JUDGING HORSES
Injundihulum
Central enamel
Dentijie
Peripheral
enamel
Cement
permanent incisors in each jaw is indicative of the age.
After this period the cups are reUed upon to determine the
age up to eleven years. After this second period of develop-
ment the angle or slope of the teeth from the jaws and the
general appearance of the animal are the only guides. While
some variations may occur in
the displacement of the tem-
porary teeth by the perma-
nent ones and in the rapidity
of the disappearance of the
cups, the appearance of the
teeth will show, within rea-
sonable limits, the age of
horses with normal mouths.
Temporary or Milk Teeth.
—The age of young animals
may be determined by the
characteristic appearance of
the milk or temporary teeth,
which are twelve in number,
each jaw having six incisors.
Peripheral enamel Cement
Dentine -
Central enamel -
Cement-
FiG. 26. — Longitudinal section of
lower incisor tooth of horse: C, pulp
cavity. Cement is shown in the
infundibulum, but is not marked.)
Courtesy of L. W. Sisson, from Ana-
tomy of Domestic Animals.)
Fig. 27. — Cross-section of lower
incisor tooth of horse: 7, infundi-
bulum. (Courtesy of L. W.
Sisson, from Anatomy of Domestic
Animals.)
The temporary teeth are slender, narrow, constricted at the
neck, and much whiter than the permanent teeth. The
permanent incisors are broader, thicker, and of a darker
color. The temporary incisors, which are all visible at one
year, remain intact until the two central temporary incisors
are replaced by the first pair of permanent central incisors.
FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
107
This occurs when the animal is two and one-half to three
years of age, the remainder of. the temporary teeth being
replaced as described subsequently.
Order of Appearance of Incisors.- — The permanent incisors
of both the upper and lower jaws appear at the same time,
and in determining the age during this stage of dentition
reference should be made to the teeth in both jaws. The
horse has six permanent incisors in each jaw in a full mouth
and these appear as follows :
Fig. 28. — Lower incisor and
canine teeth of horse, five years
old: /', 72 /3 incigQi-g. (7^ canine.
(Courtesy of L. W. Sisson, from
Anatomy of Domestic Animals.)
Fig. 29. — Upper incisor and
canine teeth of horse five years old :
/\ I"^, P, incisors; C, canine.
(Courtesy of L. W. Sisson, from
Anatomy of Domestic Animals.)
The center pair of incisors appear first, displacing the
temporary pair when the animal is two and one-half to three
years old. The second or intermediate pair displace the tem-
porary teeth when the animal is three and one-half to four
years old, and the third or corner pair displaces the corner
temporary incisors at four and one-half to five 3'ears old.
When these permanent incisors are all completely up and in
wear the horse has a full mouth. After the animal reaches
this five-year stage, the age is determined by the order of
disappearance of the cups in the incisors.
108 JUDGING HORSES
Disappearance of the Cups. — The cups, which appear on
the tables of the teeth, are quite rehable indications of age
from the five to the eleven-year stage. At five years the
cups in the central pair of incisors of the lower jaw show
some wear, but it is not until the animal reaches the six-year
stage that they disappear. The canines in males may appear
at this age. At seven years of age the intermediate incisors
lose almost all trace of their cups through wear, and at eight
the corner incisors are worn and free from the cups described
at the earUer stage.
At nine years of age the cups are either worn or disappear
from the central pair of incisors in the upper jaw. At ten
the cups of the two intermediate incisors have worn until
they have disappeared, and at eleven the cups of the corner
incisors have disappeared. After a horse passes this stage
the age may be determined by the general appearance and
condition of the teeth. As the age advances the tables or
biting surface of the incisors become more triangular and
the teeth spring from the jaw at a greater angle.
Method of Examination. — The examination of a horse
involves two distinct viewpoints, the one from that of the
purchaser and the other that of the judge in the show ring.
The methods of examination are somewhat different, owing
to the two distinct viewpoints from which animals are
examined.
Involving the Purchaser. — The purchaser of a horse is
more deeply interested in the peculiar traits or any unsound
conditions which may prevail than is the show ring judge
who merely passes on the vahie of an animal as indicated
by a mere external examination. The purchaser should
examine the horse in the stall to note how he stands and any
other peculiarities which may be present. An examination
should be made for cribbing, weaving, or other objectionable
stable habits. The horse should then be backed out of the
stall, noting closely any peculiarities in the use of the legs,
particularly the hindlegs, or any serious disorders of the
nervous system. Spavin may often be first detected by
this examination.
After the horse is taken out the eyes should be examined
FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 109
carefully, after which he should be observed at the walk,
and at the trot, in both cases, as he comes toward, passes by,
and goes from the observer. Defects in action, lameness, or
other peculiarities may thus be detected. Any indications of
stable vices, lameness, unsoundness or defects can usually be
detected in this examination.
After completing the examination in the stall and while
in action, the horse should be hitched to an appropriate
vehicle and be given rather severe exercise to bring out any
weakness or unsoundness in the wind. In making this
examination, care should be taken to see that an apparent
wind trouble is not due to an improperly adjusted harness.
After the exercise has been completed the ear should be
held close to the nostrils to determine whether wind troubles
are present. A thorough examination should thus be made
of the entire animal to determine any unusual condition
which may exist. If in the case of a breeding animal an
examination of the records from the standpoint of breeding
qualities is important.
hivolving the Judge. — The judge of horses in the modern
show ring does not usually have the responsibility of detecting
disease or unsoundness. This work is done by the official
veterinarian who makes a report on such animals and their
condition from the standpoint of soundness thus determined.
The judge may not apparent!}" follow a definite procedure
in making the examination. However, such a course is
desirable. The examination should be started by viewing
the animal from in front, thus noting the expression, the
features of the head, width and depth of chest, and the
directness and conformation of the feet and legs. He
should then pass to the side, noting the length, depth,
weight, and scale. The slope of the shoulder, length of the
back and carriage of the head and neck, height of the withers,
and the conformation of the feet and legs, back, loin, croup,
thighs, and flanks should be examined.
From the rear view the width and depth of the hind-
quarters, the direction and conformation of the legs and
feet should be determined. The width and slope of the
croup should also be noted, the tail setting and the fulness
110 JUDGING HORSES
of the quarters. After this examination is completed the
opposite side should be examined to determine any unusual
condition which might be present.
The animal should then be moved, noting the various
phases of action as the animal comes toward, passes by, and
goes from the observer. The length, height, directness,
regularity, and balance of the stride should be observed.
This completes the examination, and after having reached
this point a balance of the animal should be effected. Many
times an animal which appears to be a perfect individual
from the standpoint of conformation is very defective in
action, thus giving it a very much lower rating than other-
wise. The importance of action can be best determined
by making a close examination for the various conditions
of unsoundness, defects, and peculiarities in the action. The
value of a horse cannot be determined until the actual
combined examination is made when at rest and in motion.
CLASSIFICATION OF HORSES.
Horses may be divided into two fundamental divisions for
the purpose of studying their distinctive conformation and
uses. The first includes the draft or power division, and the
second, the light horse division which is subdivided into
several other type and breed groupings, depending on breed
qualifications and the specific use of the animals. These
two main divisions will be adhered to in discussing the
subject, being used only for arbitrary purposes.
Horses are more specificially divided into groups or types,
breeds, classes, and subclasses. The five groups or types
are represented in the draft, heavy harness, light harness,
saddle, and pony groups. These five groups or types may be
subdivided into the various pure breeds which conform to the
broad use or purpose, and second, into specific market and
show classes. In the first division of the groups or types
into breeds, the distinction is based solely on pure breeding
or blood lines, or on certain standard qualifications and
requirements. The second division of the types into classes,
and the third into subclasses is based on specialized uses
CLASSIFICATION OF HORSES
111
or purposes, regardless of blood lines or purity of breeding.
While these classes and subclasses may contain pure speci-
mens of the various breeds represented in the groups or
types, this is not a requirement.
Classification of Horses.
Breed.
Type.
Class. Subclass.
Percheron
Drafter ( ^ght
\ Heavy
Draft
Belgian
Division <
Clydesdale
Shire
■ Draft
^"Sg" f Eastern and
. Suffolk
1 Chunk \ j,2i;-'
[ Southern
Expresser
Cleveland bay 1
Coach horse
German coach 1 Heavy
Park horse
French coach \ harness
Cob (intermediate with
Hackney J
Cab [pony type)
> Runabout
American 1 Light 1
Speed or f Trotter
race horse \ Pacer
Standardbred \ harness i
J 1
Roadster
^ Combination
( horse
Light
J Walk-trot-
Division
canter
American
Gaited
Saddle horse
f Light
Saddle
Hunter -j Medium
[ Heavy
*
Race horse
Thoroughbred
runner
Running horse
Cavalry
Shetland 1 f
Polo pony
Welsh Pony ^
Shetland (under 46 inches)
Hackneyi J
I
11-2 to 14-2
Conformity to all of the attributes, namely, weight
quality, conformation, symmetry, temperament, disposition,
style, action and finish, which constitutes utility or purpose
in the specific division under observation, is the basis of
1 Hackney under 14-2 hands, with breed characteristics accentuated-
112 JUDGING HORSES
distinction. Because of the varied and specialized purposes
for which horses are used, there is occasionally an overlapping
or combination of classes. This fact is brought out in case
of the expresser, runabout, and combination horse. It
is recognized that classifications vary somewhat, depending
on the authority and the basis on which they are made.
Gay divides horses into four types, namely, power, speed,
show, and saddle. This division is made on the basis of
mechanics, each type being subdivided into classes in
accordance with market and show ring demands.
. CHAPTER VII.
JUDGING DRAFT HORSES.
DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE.
The term draft is significant of weight, massiveness,
and, therefore, the development of power. An animal
possessing these qualifications has certain definite attributes
which qualify it for work of this character. The draft type
is divided into three generally significant classes, namely:
drafter, logger, and chunk.
Draft Conformation. — The form of the draft horse should
be massive and compact. Animals of this type should
be low set, wide and deep in the body, with strong bone
and deep muscling, both of which are characteristic of the
horse with power attainments. These attributes should be
correlated so that the animal possesses perfect symmetry
throughout. A draft horse properly made should be low
set, square and compact and at the same time symmetrical
from every angle. Weight properly distributed is the first
essential of a draft animal. Based on weight alone, a horse
might possess sufficient weight, yet because of long legs and
a rangy body such an animal would not be acceptable on
the market or in draft service.
From a structural viewpoint the head should be long,
broad and deep, yet symmetrical with the other parts of
the body. The neck should be of sufficient length and depth
to harmonize perfectly with the weight of the animal. The
head and neck should blend smoothly, and the neck should
deepen gradually toward the shoulders, which should be long
and sloping, and extend well back in order to give strength
in the back, proper style, and symmetry. A moderately
sloping shoulder on a draft horse is usually associated with a
8 (113)
114
JUDGING DRAFT HORSES
short back, which is characteristic of a typical draft animal.
The back should be short, broad, and deeply muscled. The
loin should be broad, level, heavily muscled, and should be
indicative of a close, short coupling. The ribs should be well
arched, closely placed, and the chest should be deep and
broad on the floor. The flank should be full and low.
The hindquarters should be broad, deep, the croup level,
well muscled, and the thighs deep and compact. The bone
Fig. 30. — Characteristics of a good draft gelding, illustrating the draft type.
should be large, square, fine and dense, and the forearm
and gaskin heavily muscled. As a whole, the draft animal
should be broad, deep, compact, and massive in appearance
throughout.
Quality.— Quality in the draft animal signifies the same
condition as applied to the light horse or other classes of
live stock. However, in the light horse there is usually
a more significant indication of quality in the hair, skin, and
bone. While quality is just as essential in the draft horse
it is usually not present to the same degree. The principal
DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE 115
indications of quality are in the head, hair, hide, and bone.
The head should be broad, deep, and clearly outlined by
distinct facial features. Each part of the head should be
clearly outlined, there being no evidence of plainness or
lack of definition or refinement. The head is one of the
best indications of quality. It usually portrays intelligence
also, and indirectly constitution and form requirements.
A large, coarse ear, a straight undefined face and head, and a
large, plain muzzle portray a general lack of quality, char-
acter, and intelligence. A fine glossy, mossy coat of hair,
soft to the touch is indicative of what may be found beneath.
The skin on an animal with a coat of hair so characterized
is usually soft, pliable, and elastic. The bone is an unusual
indication of quality. If it is fine, hard and dense with fine
texture, it is ordinarily accompanied by a corresponding
degree of quality throughout the body. It may be possible
to get too much quality, although as much should be apparent
as consistent with the required weight and substance of the
draft animal.
Constitution and Endurance. — The value of the draft horse
is significantly magnified by the amount of constitution and
endurance possessed. The indications of constitution are
largely in the development of the muzzle, nostris, head, and
chest. The head should be long, broad, and clearly defined.
The muzzle should be broad, deep, and the nostrils large and
open to give free access of air into the lungs. The jaw
bones should be long and broad at the angle or opening.
The chest should be broad and deep to accommodate the
vital organs. A broad spring of rib and a short coupling
are indicative of constitutional development. The correla-
tion and compactness of the body measures quite accurately
the amount of constitution which an animal possesses.
Endurance is closely associated with constitutional
development. The value of a draft animal is therefore
dependent in a large measure on its enduring or lasting
qualities. Endurance is associated and otherwise indicated
by the structural condition of the animal, especially in the
head, chest, coupling and the character of the bone, skin
and hair. A coarse-textured bone, rough, coarse hair, lack
116 JUDGING DRAFT HORSES
of definition and other quality attributes are significant of low
enduring qualities. Such development when associated with
inferior constitutional development is doubly significant of
inferior lasting or enduring qualities.
Temperament. — The temperament of an animal is generally
portrayed by its general conformation and condition. The
work of the draft animal is to move loads or propel weight.
This naturally suggests the massive, compact form previously
described and therefore a less active temperament than in
the light animal, which is naturally characterized by unusual
life and vigor. While there is usually a wide variation in
the temperament or nerve force of the draft and light ani-
mals, sluggishness should not characterize either type. The
temperament of the draft horse is usually lymphatic. Any
tendency toward sluggishness, however, is especially objec-
tionable, as the draft animal should work willingly and con-
sistently. There should be a sufficient tone of the nervous
system maintained, therefore, to insure this condition.
Style and Action. — The style and action of the draft horse
is hardly comparable to that of the lighter types of horses,
although unusual style and action are often exhibited.
Draft horses are of lower breeding than light horses and are,
therefore, not capable of exhibiting comparable attainments
with the lighter animals. However, there should be every
indication of style consistent with the type in the general
make-up of the animal. The head should be clean in outline,
the neck arched, the shoulders sloping, the body closely
coupled, the quarters w^ell muscled, and the body low set.
The draft horse should exhibit compactness and symmetry
of form throughout.
The action of the draft horse, while not as highly developed
as in the light horse, should possess all the requisites of the
associated gaits. Every phase of the action should be com-
parable with the type of the animal in question. Both
the walk and the trot should be characterized w'ith a long,
regular stride and a smooth, straight, well-balanced action
otherwise. The walk is the most important gait of the
draft animal. It should be characterized by directness,
regularity, smoothness, and balance. Any deviation from
DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE 117
this line of action is objectionable as it shows faulty con-
formation and may injure the value of the individual in
question or that of future generations.
A stilted or rolling motion caused by a wide front or by
the legs being set improperly on the body should be discrimi-
nated against severely, A winging or paddling motion of
the feet, either at the walk or trot, is extremely objection-
able. A free, quick, snappy walk and trot are usually
correlated with other important attributes such as style,
breeding, individuality, and finish.
Score Card for Draft Horses.
Perfect score.
General Appe.\rance — 19 Points.
Height: estimated hands, actual..
Weight: over 1600 lbs.; estimated lbs. score accord-
ing to age 6
Form: broad, massive, evenly proportioned, symmetrical,
blocky 4
Quality: refined; bone clean, large, strong; tendons clean,
defined, prominent; skin and hair fine; "feather," if present,
silky 6
Temperament: energetic; disposition, good 3
Head and Neck — 8 Points.
Head: proportionate size, clean cut, well carried; profile
straight 1
Forehead: broad, full 1
Eyes: bright, clear, full, same color 1
Ears: medium size, well carried, alert 1
Muzzle: neat; nostrils large, flexible; lips thin, even, firm . 1
Lower Jaw: angles wide, space clean 1
Neck: muscled, arched; throat-latch, fine; windpipe large . 2
Forehand — 22 Points.
Shoulder: moderately sloping, smooth, snug, extending well
back 3
Arm: short, strong muscled, thrown back, well set ... 1
Forearm: long, wide, clean, heavily muscled 2
Knees: straight, wide, deep, strong, clean 2
Canons: short, wide, clean; tendons clean, defined, promi-
nent 2
Fetlocks: wide, straight, strong, clean 1
Pasterns: moderatelj' sloping, strong, clean 3
Feet: large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy; soles concave;
bars strong, fuU; frogs large, elastic; heels wide, one-half
length of toe, vertical to ground 8
Carried forward 49
118 JUDGING DRAFT HORSES
Perfect score
Brought forward 49
Body — 9 Points.
Chest: deep, wide; breast bone low; girth, large .... 2
Ribs: deep, well sprung, closely ribbed to hip 2
Back: broad, strong, muscular 2
Loins: short, wide, thick muscled 2
Underline: low, flanks full 1
Hindquarters — 32 Points.
Hips: broad, smooth, level, well muscled 2
Croup: wide, heavily muscled, not markedly drooping . 2
Thighs: deep, broad, strong, muscular 3
Quarters: plump with muscle, deep 2
Stifles: large, strong, muscular, clean 2
Gaskins: (lower thighs) long, wide, clean, heavily muscled . 2
Hocks: large, strong, wide, deep, clean, well set ... . 8
Canons: short, wide, clean; tendons clean, defined, promi-
nent 2
Fetlocks: wide, straight, strong, clean 1
Pasterns: moderately sloping, strong, clean 2
Feet: large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy; soles con-
cave; bars strong, full; frogs, large, elastic; heels, wide,
one-haK length of toe, vertical to ground 6
Action — 10 Points.
Walk: fast, elastic, regular, straight 6
Trot: free, springy, balanced, straight 4
Total 100
Breed and Class Characteristics. — The draft type of
horse is characterized by five distinct breeds, namely: the
Percheron, Belgian, Clydesdale, Shire, and Suffolk. While
the latter is not of special significance, it is well worthy of
consideration. From these breeds are drawn the various
market and show classes of draft horses which include
drafters, loggers, and chunks. The drafter is subdivided
into light and heavy, and chunks into eastern and export,
farm and southern. These terms are used to distinguish for
market and show purposes only.
The following descriptions are used to bring out the chief
characteristics of the draft breeds and the market and show
classes which are produced, either in the pure bred or grade
form, from these breeds.
Percheron. — The original home of the Percheron horse is
La Perche, France. The breed has been developed into an
excellent type of draft animal except for some lack of scale
DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE
119
and inclination to light bone. The general appearance
of the Percheron is characteristic of the draft type, although
specimens of the breed possess more rotundity, smoothness
of form, general activity and refinement than other draft
breeds. Stallions of approved breeding should weigh 2000
Fig. 31. — Percheron stallion.
to 2200 pounds. The weight of the mares ranges from 1600
to 1800 pounds. The two colors most in favor are gray and
black, the former being more desirable usually. Other
colors such as bays, browns, and chestnuts, characterize
the breed. One of the chief distinguishing characteristics
of the Percheron breed is the weight which they attain,
at the same time retaining quality and refinement more
120
JUDGING DRAFT HORSES
characteristic of the light horse breeds. The temperament
of the Percheron is energetic, the disposition good, ranking
above other draft breeds. The action of the Percheron is
rather unusual because of the extreme flexion possessed
compared with other draft breeds. The distinguishing
features of the Percheron from other breeds is the unusual
refinement, lighter bone, action, and high station. The bone
is unusually clean, not having feather on the legs. Com-
FiG. 32. — Percheron mare.
pared with the Clydesdale and the Shire the Percheron is
smaller, having less substance, and a more characteristic
smooth turned body and finish.
The Percheron breed is sometimes erroneously designated
as Norman or French Draft. The latter terms are not now in
use. They include several types of draft horses produced in
France but not generally recognized as of great significance in
this country. Certificates of registration should specify the
Percheron breed approved both in France and America if
DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE
121
an imported animal and trace to properly recognized stock
if home-bred.
Belgian. — The Belgain breed of draft horses is a native
of Belgium and in this coimtry has reached a rather promi-
nent position among other draft breeds. This breed is noted
for its extreme low station, massiveness, and compactness.
The head is square, the neck very short, usually having a
Fig. 33.— French Draft stallion.
rather heavy crest. The body is broad, deep, and exceed-
ingly compact. One of the chief objections to the Belgian
has been the legs, which are inclined to be large and undefined,
both in the joints and in the canons, pasterns, and feet.
This objection has been overcome, somewhat, by careful
breeding. The two colors usually predominating are roan
and chestnut, although other colors such as bay, brown,
122
JUDGING DRAFT HOUSES
gray, and black occur. Because of the extreme compact-
ness of the Belgian breed, grade animals are very popular
for feeding purposes.
The general appearance of the Belgian is that of a massive,
robust-constitutioned animal. The body is broad and deep,
Fig. 34. — Belgian stallion.
the coupling short, and the hindquarters exceptionally well
developed. The action is characteristic of their broad,
massive development. Considering the weight and mas-
siveness of the breed, the action is very smooth and free.
The chief objection to the Belgian is their tendency to
grossness, especially in the legs, rather small feet, short
neck, and general lack of refinement. The legs are devoid
DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE 123
of the long hair or feather characteristic of the Clydesdale
and Shire breeds. The roan color of the Belgian is becoming
very characteristic and in many cases it is a distinguishing
mark in some of the leading specimens of the breed which
have been shown in this country. Compared with other
draft breeds the Belgian is lower set, broader, deeper, and
more compact throughout. Specimens do not possess as
much refinement as the Clydesdale or the Percheron breeds.
Clydesdale. — The Clydesdale breed originated in Scotland
along the river Clyde. The breed is especially noted for
its quality and characteristic action. The weight varies
from 2000 pounds upward in stallions of approved breeding
and in mares from 1600 to 1800 pounds. The color varies,
including bays, browns, blacks, and grays. Gray is not a
characteristic color, although at one time it was so. The
breed is characterized by white markings, especially on the
face and the four legs. White occurs sometimes in large
splashes on the body and there may be an intermixture of
white throughout more or less of the body. The conforma-
tion of the Clydesdale is not as drafty as in other breeds. The
body is rather long, comparatively shallow, the ribs lacking
in length, and the back somewhat inclined to be low. The
shallowness of the body gives specimens of the breed a
rather upstanding appearance. Although the weight is
acceptable, the animal is not built to the best advantage for
draft purposes, especially as compared with other more
massive compact breeds.
The action of the Clydesdale is one of its most accept-
able features. The stride is long, quick, regular, and well
balanced. The hock is unusually strongly constructed, and
the action corresponds with this condition. The quality of
the Cl3^desdale is an important attribute, this characteristic,
as in the Percheron, being unusually developed. Action is
exemplified in the slope of the shoulders, pasterns, and leg
development. The breed is characterized by feather on
the legs and open-textured, shelly feet. The chief criti-
cisms of the breed are deficiency in scale, their short-rib
development and a criticism of the color markings, especially
the white, which has no special distribution. The Clydes-
124
JUDGING DRAFT HORSES
Fig. 35. — Clydesdale stallion.
Fig. 36. — Clydesdale mare.
DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE
125
dale breed is comparable in many respects to the Shire,
although it possesses much better quality and action but less
scale than the latter.
Shire. — The Shire horse originated in England. It is in
many respects a complement to the Clydesdale, which is
a product of Scotland. The Shire is one of the heaviest
draft breeds, from this standpoint giving them a peculiar
draft horse characteristic. The colors of the Shire are black,
-.Milie- c-iailKiU
bay, brown, chestnut, roan, and gray. The breed possesses
a very wide variation in respect to color. It is characterized
by white points similar to those in the Clydesdale. While
the Shire possesses unusual substance, the breed is lacking
in quality, especially as compared with the Clydesdale. The
hair and the bone have a rather coarse, meaty tendency,
while the hoof is often open and shelly in texture. The
contour of the Shire is fair. The head is rather large and
inclined to be plain. The same condition is exhibited
126
JUDGING DRAFT HORSES
throughout the animal, meatiness being too closely asso-
ciated with the breed.
Closely associated with the lack of quality and finish is
the rather sluggish temperament characteristic of the breed.
The rather unusual development of feather, which is in great
favor with English breeders, is not entirely popular with
Fig. 38. — Shire mare.
American breeders. The action of the Shire is what would
be expected in an animal possessing the massiveness and
inclination toward grossness which characterizes the breed.
Compared with the Clydesdale the action is not as snappy,
direct, or as well balanced. The breed has not become
popular in this country, largely because of the criticisms
made. More quality with less scale and substance, a better
DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE
127
temperament and more characteristic action would make the
breed much more popular. When crossed on lighter breeds
the Shire imparts unusual size and substance not usually
obtained from other breeds.
Suffolk.— The Suffolk is a native of Suffolk County,
England. AYhile the breed has been introduced in America
to some extent, it has never become popular. Information
concerning the breed is more interesting from an authorita-
FiG. 39.— Suffolk stallion.
tive standpoint. The color of the Suffolk is characteristic.
Chestnut of some shade with very little white accompanying
it is an established breed attribute. The mane and tail
are often light or flaxen. The breed is not typical of the
true draft type, as it often lacks in scale and is inclined to be
light in bone. The head is of medium size, the ears rather
small and erect, and the nose slightly inclined to be Roman.
The neck is comparatively short, the body fair in depth, and
the hindquarters only medium in development of muscle.
The bone is clean and the legs free from feather, this being a
128 JUDGING DRAFT HORSES
rather popular, although a rather unimportant, feature of
the breed.
The action of the Suffolk ranks well, although there is
a slight tendency to twist the hocks when moving. This
has been largely overcome, however, through careful breed-
ing. The temperament and disposition of the breed is
exceedingly well developed. Specimens of the breed are
easy to keep, and considering their weight, are capable of
doing heavy and continuous work. They are docile, quiet,
and well managed under a variety of conditions. The chief
objections to the breed are lack of weight, light bone, and
their rather soft, shelly feet. The breed has not been
imported to any extent and consequently is not widely
distributed in this country. Wherever used, however, they
have become quite popular for general work on the farm.
Wallace describes the Suffolk Punch as follows :
"The Suffolk Punch is named from its native county,
and from its compact and rounded form, its thick-set body,
and short, hard, clean legs and fairly short pasterns, free from
coarse hairs. The color is chestnut. White legs or a bald
face are very objectionable. It is said that the color was
derived through a cross with imported Norwegian horses,
brought, like some of the progenitors of the trotting Hackneys,
by the earl}^ Norse invaders. The form and action of certain
of the Norfolk hackneys of the day leave no reasonable
grounds for doubting that; however, the Norfolk trotter and
Suffolk Punch may now differ in size, style, and general
appearance, they must have been intimately connected
with one another at some period."
Class Characteristics. — The recognized classes involved
in the draft group or type, as exemplified in the market
and show classes, include drafters, loggers, and chunks.
Drafter.^ — Draft horses are representative of the ideal
which characterize the market and show ring. Such animals
should be broad, deep, massive, and possess ample bone and
muscle development with quality and refinement. They
should stand from 15-3 to 17-2 hands high and weigh not
under 1600 pounds. Drafters are worked in various ways
^ See illustration, p. 114.
DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE
129
but usually in pairs and four-in-hand hitches. Single and
six-in-hand hitches are rather uncommon, especially the
latter, except for show ring purposes. The drafter should
be low set, compact, and smooth in finish. This class is
characterized from the logger largely by the superior quality,
greater symmetry, and unblemished condition" which they
should possess. Drafters are sometimes divided into light
and heavv.
Fig. 40. — Expresser.
Logger. — Loggers are a complement to drafters except
for smoothness, quality, and finish. Such animals are
often used for rough, heavy work where general appearance,
such as quality and finish, are not required. Loggers may
be blemished without detracting seriously from their value,
as they are used chiefly in lumber camps or other work where
showy appearance is not an important attribute.
9
130
JUDGING DRAFT\HORSES
DRAFT GROUP OR TYPE
131
Chunk. — Chunks are exemplified in animals possessing
draft form but lacking in scale and weight. The range
of this class is from 850 to 1500 pounds. Chunks are well
proportioned, compact, and therefore of greater value under
conditions where handy weight is desirable, such as rather
rapid work in the city or work of a general nature on the
farm. Chunks are divided into three classes: Eastern and
export chunks stand from 15 to 16 hands high and weigh
Fig. 42. — Fire horses.
from 1300 to 1550 pounds. The action should be elastic,
straight, quick, and well balanced. Farm chunks are
moderate-sized animals standing from 15 to 15-3 hands high
and weighing from 1200 to 1400 pounds. The action
should be quick, straight and well balanced, trotting well
if necessary to do so. Southern chunks range in height from
15 to 15-3 hands and weigh from 850 to 1250 pounds. They
are usually fine in bone, possess good quality, and should
have good action. Because of the varied sources from which
132 JUDGING DRAFT HORSES
they are drawn there is a plentiful supply on the market
and, consequently, they sell for very moderate prices.
Expresser. — Expressers are draft horses which have
draft form with a reasonable amount of coach horse finish.
They range in height from 15-3 to 16-2 hands and weigh
from 1200 to 1500 pounds. Such a horse must have the
weight to carry a good load and the finish and action to
take it at a reasonably fast rate. Expressers should there-
fore walk and trot well, having straight, regular and well-
balanced action with both knee and hock development and
more than the usual flexion.
CHAPTER VIII.
JUDGING LIGHT HORSES.
Classification. — Light horses are divided into four rather
distinct groups or types which inchide heavy harness, hght
harness, saddle horses, and ponies. Under each of these
groups or types are classed the various breeds and classes
representing or conforming to the standard requirements.
The four main types included are those recognized from the
market and show yard standpoint. The pure-bred represen-
tatives of these types are represented in the coach breeds, the
American Standardbred,^ American Saddle Horse, Thorough-
bred Running Horse, and the Shetland, Welsh, and Hackney
pony breeds.
HEAVY HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE.
The distinguishing marks of the heavy harness group or
type are principally the form, symmetry, finish, and action.
Unless these qualifications are possessed in all important
details horses belonging to this group will neither show nor
sell to advantage. Their value is fixed largely by these
qualifications. Contrasted with the other light types of
horses, they are smoother, closer knit, have more finish,
symmetry, and action. The head should be medium in
size, clearly defined, the eyes large and the forehead broad,
thus showing great intelligence. The face should be straight,
the muzzle large, the nostrils open, lips thin, and the angle
of the lower jaw-bone wide. The throat-latch should be
clean, the neck of medium length, depth, smoothly muscled,
and set well back on clearly defined, oblique shoulders. The
' Bred to standard requirements. See official trotting and pacing standards,
page 152.
(133)
134 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
body should be round, the ribs well sprung, the coupling
short, and otherwise full, smooth, and close knit in form.
The legs should be straight, strong, the joints well defined,
the bone hard, smooth, and dense, and the tendons should
extend well back from the bone, thus giving a square, clean-
cut, well-defined appearance. Viewed from any angle the
heavy harness horse should be a model of style, smoothness
symmetry, and action. Rough, undefined joints or other
parts of the body so defined detract seriously from the
value of animals belonging to this type. Quality, as indicated
in the bone, hair, and general refining attributes, is impor-
tant. Rotundity of form, smoothness, symmetry, general
M
Id
■^Bwjlg.11*
wK^Mrn^'
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r^
tPi
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piC..^'^^
V
J m
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...'■mmmimju
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Fig. 43. — The cnach t\i)r.
refinement, and action with extreme flexion are the important
attributes of this group or type.
Quality. — The quality of the heavy harness horse is one
of the chief attributes. Combined with smoothness and
extreme finish it constitutes one of the real fundamentals
in judging heavy harness horses. Without quality and the
usually associated style and prominent carriage, animals pur-
porting to represent this type would not only be objectionable
but ordinarily disqualified. Representatives of the type
should be able to appear and act in accordance with the
highest qualifications of show ring judging.
Temperament. — The temperament of the heavy harness
horse should be lively and characteristic of continued display
HEAVY HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE
135
of style and action. Any inclination to a lymphatic or
sluggish temperament depicts qualities not associated or
acceptable in the heavy harness breeds. As a whole a mere
glance at an animal of this type should indicate a complete
harmonious correlation in a smooth, close-knit form, high
finish and extreme flexion of the knees and hocks in action.
These qualities should all be directly associated or correlated
with a strong, highly developed nervous organism.
Fig. 44. — -Action oi the coach horse, illustrating extreme flexion.
Action. — Action in the heavy harness horse is intermediate
in speed between the draft and light harness breeds. Extreme
speed is not desirable. Such qualities are unassociated with
the high knee and hock action desired. Speed and style in
the action of the heavy harness horse are antagonistic. The
stride should be of medium length, direct, regular, high, and
well balanced. A continuous, regular folding and unfolding of
136
JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
the legs when in action is characteristic of the desired move-
ment in this type of horse.
Breed Characteristics. — The heavy harness group includes
three rather significant breeds and one other, the Cleveland
Bay, not of special importance in this country. From the
standpoint of market and show ring classes, this group
or type includes four regular classes, namely: coach, park.
French Coarli stallion.
cob, cab, and the runabout, which is intermediate between
the heavy and light harness types.
French Coach. — The French Coach breed was originally a
Demi-sang or Half-blood. Because of this fact the breed is
not as uniform in type as those which have been purer bred for
a specific purpose, keeping the blood lines intact, as in all
recognized pure breeds. The type of the French Coach is
somewhat rangier and more upstanding than the German
Coach. The height averages about 16 hands and the weight
HEAVY HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE 137
ranges from 1150 to 1400 pounds. The color is usually solid,
with one or more white points. Brown, dark bay, chestnut,
and black are the predominating colors. Specimens of this
breed are usually showy in front, although the type varies to
a considerable extent. Some animals show too much slug-
gishness at times for the best display of style and action.
The body of the French Coach is longer, and has less depth
than the German Coach. The head is broad and of medium
length, the ears erect, and the eyes bright and prominent, the
general make-up of the head and neck showing considerable
intelligence and refinement. The shoulders are usually slop-
ing, the back reasonably short, and the underline long and
straight. The action of the French Coach is quite character-
istic of the heavy harness breeds, showing considerable style
and flexion in the execution of the gaits, although there is a
tendency for the hock action not to correspond to that in
front. The quality is not as well developed as in the Hack-
ney, although it is somewhat better than in the German
Coach. The temperament is active, although a characteristic
not generally as regularly associated with this breed as with
the Hackney.
German Coach. — The German Coach breed is a native of
Northwestern Germany. It is bred especially in Han-
over, Oldenburg, Schleswig-Holstein, and the district
of East Friesland. Representatives of this breed have
been variously distributed in this country as Hanoverian,
Oldenburg, and German Coach. The breed is characterized
by a solid color, either of bay, brown or black, with one or
more white points, usually on the hindfeet and in the face.
The breed averages about 16 hands high and ranges from
1200 to 1450 pounds in weight. The body is somewhat
larger and coarser than in the French Coach. On the whole,
the breed possesses more scale, less quality, and not as
characteristic action as the French Coach. There is an
inclination to grossness and meatiness which is objectionable,
especially in heavy harness horses.
Compared with the French Coach, the breed is less
rangy, having a closer knit form. The back is shorter, the
coupling closer, and there is usually greater depth of body.
138
JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
In quality the breed does not exhibit as much smoothness
or finish as desirable. The hair and bone have an inclination
to be coarse and the joints somewhat large and meaty.
The temperament is very good, although too much grossness
and sluggishness are exhibited in some specimens of the
Fig. 46. — German Coach stallion.
breed. Conformation with less draftiness and more refine-
ment in the features throughout would be desirable attributes.
The action is not as high or as flashy as in the other recognized
coach breeds. Often not enough speed is exhibited to give
a harmonious, pleasing, well-balanced action, which is so
much desired.
HEAVY HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE
139
Hackney. — The Hackney horse is an Enghsh product,
and from the standpoint of style, smoothness, symmetry,
and action is especially characteristic of the attributes and
attainments desired in heavy harness horses. The type is
usually associated with a prominent breast, short back, a
long, level, broad croup, deep ribs, short legs, and an extreme
carriage of head and neck. The body is round, close knit, well
coupled, and usually exhibits good bone and extreme refine-
FiG. 47. — Hackney characteristics.
ment. The height, exclusive of ponies and intermediate
tjT)es, ranges from 15-2 to 15-3 hands, and the weight from
1100 to 1300 pounds. The color of the Hackney varies.
Chestnuts, bays, and browns are the leading colors, the
former predominating; white markings all around are quite
characteristic. The Hackney breed is typical of the attributes
desired in heavy harness animals, possessing the refinement,
the smooth-turned form, unusual style and well-balanced
hock and knee action, the former being especially developed.
140
JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
HEAVY HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE
141
The breed as a whole is smaller but closer knit than either
the French or German Coach. The contour and lines of
the Hackney are well proportioned. The face is straight,
the neck of medium length, well crested and the body and
hindquarters deeply and smoothly muscled throughout,
giving the smooth finish desired. The temperament is good,
specimens of the breed being bold, active, and stylish in
appearance. The disposition is docile, and the breed
otherwise well mannered. The action of the Hacknev is
Fig. 49.---K.',1 i |,.U(1— 1
ting bred.
characterized by extreme height and retarded speed because
of the high action exhibited. The Hackney is regarded as
having more of the true coach characteristics than other
coach breed. The Hackney Stud Book does not discriminate
between full-sized Hackneys and Ponies which are 14-2 hands
or under in height. Many specimens of the breed are pro-
duced by mating mares with pony stallions or vice versa,
resulting in undersized individuals which possess extreme
cobby characteristics.
Cleveland Bay. — The Cleveland Bay is not a widely
distributed breed, although deserving of consideration.
142
JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
HEAVY HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE
143
This is the largest of the coach breeds, the height ranging
from 16 to 16-3 hands and the. weight from 1200 to 1500
pounds. Because of the extreme size, and ahhough classed
as a coach breed, it is used for various kinds of work. For-
merly the breed was used for general diligence purposes.
Later crossing with the Thoroughbred reduced the size
somewhat and added style and finish. The body of the
Cleveland Bay is rather large, the shoulders sloping, the
back short, and the body deep. The head is somewhat
lacking in refinement and not as much quality is exhibited
Fig. 51. — Coach horses.
generally as is desirable. The action is not characteristic
of heavy harness breeds but rather strong and powerful in
execution.
The color of the Cleveland Bay is either light or dark bay,
as the name indicates. The legs, mane, and tail are usually
black. White is permissible only to a very limited extent,
there frequently being a small star in the forehead. The
temperament is not characteristic of the typical coach breeds.
This is indicated in the more drafty form, weight, and lack
of style, finish, and action. The disposition of the breed is
only fair. It is important in this country only from an
144
JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
HEAVY HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE 145
authoritive standpoint, very few specimens having been
introduced.
Class Characteristics. — The heavy harness group includes
coach, park, cob, cab and runabout, the latter being inter-
mediate between the heavy and light harness groups.
Coach Horse. — The coach horse should have quality,
style, smoothness, and action. The weight usually ranges
from 1150 to 1250 pounds and the height is approximately
16 hands. Coach horses are driven to various vehicles and
should go about 8 miles per hour. The specific use to which
they are put requires a lively temperament, good disposition
and faultless manners. They are used largely in cities
where style should be manifested, both at the walk, trot,
and when at rest.
Park Horse. — Park horses are classified by height. They
should possess unusual style, symmetry, refinement and
action as they represent the extreme show type. They are
driven singly, in pairs, and in fours to various types of vehicles.
Cob. — Cob horses are very close, full-made animals with
extreme finish and high action. They should possess
superior quality, fine, clean bone, unusual muscular develop-
ment, and comparatively short legs. They are intermediate
between the heavy harness and pony groups.
Cab Horse. — Cab horses are of much the same type as
the coach horse, many of them being the lower grades of the
coach class. They should possess symmetry of form, good
bone and feet, a close coupling, and unusual constitution and
endurance. These horses are used for a cheaper trade than
coach horses and are usually not maintained in as high
condition.
Runabout. — The runabout horse is intermediate between
the light and heavy harness groups. It should approximate
15 hands high and have both the characteristics of the road
horse and the park horse, the speed of the former and the
style and action of the latter, although not to the extreme.
The name indicates the kind of service for which the runabout
horse is used.
10
146 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
Score Card for Heavy Harness Horses.
General Appearance — 12 Points. Perfect score.
Height-
Weight:
Form: close, full made, smooth turned, symmetrical ... 4
Quality: bone clean, dense, fine, yet indicating substance;
tendons and joints sharply defined; hide and hair fine;
general refinement, finish . ... 4
Temperament: proud, bold, stylish, disposition good, intelli-
gent 4
Head and Neck — 7 Points.
Head: size and dimensions in proportion, clear-cut features,
straight face line, wide angle in lower jaw 1
Forehead: broad, full 1
Eyes: prominent orbit, large, full, bright, clear, lid thin, even
curvature 1
Ears: medium size, fine, pointed, set close, carried alert . . 1
Muzzle: fine, nostrils large, lips thin, trim, even .... 1
Neck: long, lofty carriage, high crest, throttle well cut out,
head well set on 2
Forehand — 22 Points.
Shoulders: long, oblique, smooth 2
Arms: short, muscular, carried well forward 1
Forearms: broad, muscular 1
Knees: straight, wide, deep, strongly supported .... 2
Canons: short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well
back 2
Fetlocks: wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported . 2
Pasterns: long, oblique (45 degrees), smooth, strong ... 2
Feel: large, round, uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel to
slope of pastern, sole concave, bars sti'ong, frog large, elastic,
heels wide, full, one-third height of toe, horn dense, smooth,
dark color 6
Legs: direction viewed from in front, perpendicular line
dropped from the point of the shoulder should divide the
leg and foot into two lateral halves; viewed from the side,
a perpendicular line dropped from the tuberosity of the
scapula should pass through the center of the elbow-joint
and meet the ground at the center of the foot .... 4
Body — 11 Points.
Withers: well set up, narrow, extending well back ... 2
Chest: wide, deep 2
Ribs: well sprung, long, close 2
Back: short, straight, strong, broad 2
Loin: short, broad, strongly coupled 2
Flank: deep, full, long, low underline 1
Carried forward 52
LIGHT HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE 147
Perfect score.
Brought forward 52
Hindquarters — 32 Points.
Hips: broad, round, smooth 2
Cro7ip: long, level, round, smooth 2
Tail: set high, well carried 2
Thighs: full, muscular 2
Stifles: broad, full, muscular 2
Gaskins: broad, muscular 2
Hocks: straight, wide, point prominent, deep, clean cut,
smooth, well supported 6
Canons: short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set
well back 2
Fetlocks: wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported . 2
Pasterns: long, oblique (50 degrees), smooth, strong ... 2
Feet: large, round (slightly less than in front), uniform^
straight, slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole
concave, bars strong, frog large and elastic, heels wide,
full one-tliird height of toe, horn dense, smooth, dark
color 4
Legs: direction viewed from the rear, a perpendicular line
dropped from the point of the buttock should divide the
leg and foot into lateral halves; viewed from the side this
same line should touch the point of the hock and meet the
ground some little distance back of the heel. A perpen-
dicular line dropped from the hip-joint should meet the
ground near the center of the foot 4
Action — 16 Points.
Walk: straight, snappy, springy, proud, stylish .... 6
Trot: in line, bold, flashy, extreme flexion of knees and hocks,
balanced, regular 10
100
LIGHT HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE.
The light harness group or type is represented by two
rather distinct classes known as the speed or race horse, and
the roadster. While these classes are distinctly different,
they are both characterized by certain well-defined attributes
or qualifications.
Conformation. — Speed and roadster attainments in light
harness horses are the chief requisites to be considered
in judging these animals. These attainments are depicted
in the height, weight, structural conformation, quality, tern-
148
JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
perament, and finish. The form of the light harness
horse should show all indications of speed and roadster
qualifications, yet maintain the desired style, endurance
and finish to a degree depending on the use made of the
animal. This necessitates an animal with a more rangy,
yet reasonably close-made form than in the heavy har-
ness group or type. The head should be medium in
size, broad between the eyes and clearly defined, showing
ample intelligence, as this is very much desired in horses
Fig. 53. — The light harness type.
used for light harness purposes. The shoulders should
be long and oblique, the back short, the underline long,
the animal closely coupled, but with more depth of body
in comparison to width, than in the heavy harness group,
A close, full-made form impedes free action and the
ability to walk and trot at well-balanced, uniform gaits.
While the walk is an important gait, a large amount of the
work of the light harness group is performed at the trot,
and this gait therefore should be given chief consideration,
except in animals which are specially characterized by the
pacing gait.
LIGHT HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE 149
In contradistinction to the heavy harness group, Hght
harness horses, as the name suggests, possess less weight, a
more rangy and upstanding body, a deeper body in propor-
tion to the width, longer and thinner muscles, more reach
in the stride, and all-around lower going action. This
group should be characterized by just the reverse of the
heavy harness type, which is characterized by high action
with a degree of flexion, depending on the particular class
under consideration.
Quality. — Quality is an essential characteristic in animals
which perform under severe strain. This is particularly
true of the light harness horse which may be subjected
to moderate road driving or to the severest trials on the
track. Quality is indicated by a clearly defined head, fine,
dense bone, with no inclination to meatiness, smooth, well-
made joints, fine, silky hair, and in general, a finish indicative
of hard, wearing qualities. Undefined features, open, spongy
bone, characterized by meatiness, rough, open joints and lack
of symmetr\^ and finish indicate just the reverse of what
is wanted in speed and endurance requirements. Animals
of this group should look and appear as possessing the hard,
enduring usage which is required of them.
Durability.- — Durability is an attribute which is usually
associated with an animal possessing the quality attainments
formerly described. As the term indicates, every part of the
conformation should be of such quality and so constructed
in the blending of the finished animal that it emphasizes
the possession of durability attributes to the very depth
or nucleus of the structure. A strong constitution is indi-
cated in a large, well-defined muzzle, large nostrils, large,
bright, prominent eyes, and a broad, and unusually deep
chest. These qualities are directly associated with dura-
bility.
Temperament. — The temperament of the light harness
group should be highly developed and active, thus directly
opposed to the temperament which characterizes the draft
group. Hard, wearing qualities are directly associated with
the strong nerve force exhibited in the characteristic light
harness horse.
150
JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
Breed and Class Characteristics. — The light harness
group is represented by the American vStandardbred, which
is the nearest exponent of pure breeding, as grouped under
the breeds in the classification of horses, and by the speed
or race horse and roadster, as grouped under class charac-
teristics. The former is subdivided, merely by a distinction
in the gaits, into the trotter and pacer.
American Standardbred. — The American Standardbred, as
an exponent of pure breeding/' is represented by the trotter
and pacer. This subdivision in conjunction with the top
crossing with the Thoroughbred, which has been introduced
in the Standardbred, is responsible for the wide variation
which exists in the type. The color is not uniform, a large
number of colors prevailing in various allied shades, bay
being the predominating color. The height ranges from
' See Official Trotting and Pacing Standard, page 152.
LIGHT HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE
151
15-1 to 16 hands, and the weight from 800 to 1100 pounds
or over in animals possessing the smoother road horse
characteristics, although there are many smaller types
possessing more or less value, depending on the use made of
the animal. In the best development of this breed, specimens
possess good quality, conformation, and refinement. Such
specimens should possess clean, well-defined heads, a neck
Fig. 55. — Morgan hors
of medium length, refined, and moderately arched, sloping,
well-made shoulders, a strong back, broad loin, muscular
croup, strong coupling, clean, well-defined bone, and general
symmetry and finish.
Horses of this latter stamp are more largely used for road
purposes, as defined under the roadster class. Top crossing
with Standardbred stallions of this stamp is practised widely
' The U. S. Government has important work under way with this horse
at Middlebury, Vermont.
152 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
in breeding grade roadster horses possessing the quality,
conformation, endurance, and finish of the smoother made
representatives of the breed. The style and temperament
of such animals is usually good, possessing sufficient spirit
and snap to render them most acceptable for light harness
service, as equipped for road work. Taken as a whole, the
Standardbred, from the breed standpoint, varies greatly in
type, size, color, and performance. This of necessity requires
a special treatise on the various types represented by the
general type to understand the breed thoroughly.
Official Standard of the American Trotting Register Asso-
ciation— Trotting Standard,^ — When an animal meets these
requirements and is duly registered it shall be accepted
as a Standardbred trotter :
1, The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse
and a registered standard trotting mare,
2, A stallion sired by a registered standard trotting horse,
provided his dam and grand dam were sired by registered
standard trotting horses, and he himself has a trotting
record of 2:30 and is the sire of three trotters with records
of 2 :30 from different mares.
3, A mare whose sire is a registered standard trotting
horse, and whose dam and grand dam were sired by regis-
tered standard trotting horses, provided she herself has a
trotting record of 2:30 or is the dam of one trotter with a
record of 2:30,
4, A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse,
provided she is the dam of two trotters with records of 2 :30,
5, A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse,
provided her first, second, and third dams are each sired by
a registered standard trotting horse.
Pacing Standard. — When an animal meets these require-
ments and is duly registered, it shall be accepted as a
Standardbred pacer:
1. The progeny of a registered standard pacing horse and
a registered standard pacing mare.
2. A stallion sired by a registered standard pacing horse,
provided his dam and grand dam were sired by registered
standard pacing horses, and he himself has a pacing record
LIGHT HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE 153
of 2:25, and is the sire of three pacers with records of 2:25,
from different mares.
3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard pacing horse
and whose dam and grand dam were sired by registered
standard pacing horses, provided she herself has a pacing
record of 2 :25, or is the dam of one pacer with a record of 2 :25.
4. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse,
provided she is the dam of two pacers with records of 2:25.
5. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse,
provided her first, second, and third dams are each sired by
a registered standard pacing horse.
6. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse
out of a registered standard pacing mare, or a registered
standard pacing horse out of a registered standard trotting
mare.
Class Characteristics. — The light harness type is repre-
sented by the speed or race horse and the roadster, differing
in the following attributes:
Speed or Race Horse. — ^The speed or race horse has two
distinct gaits, namely, the trot and pace, the former being
a diagonal two-beat gait and the latter a lateral two-beat
gait. The chief distinction is in the action. However,
there are certain points in the conformation which makes the
speed horse naturally trot or pace. By the use of mechanical
appliances or under proper training otherwise, a trotter may
be trained to pace or vice versa. The speed horse should
have ample enduring qualities for the severest test on the
race course. Speed is the first requirement and, consequently,
conformation is not given the usual amount of consideration.
While a great many speed horses have the conformation of the
smoother road horse type, it is only by direct association and
natural inclination that such animals become noted speed
performers. Pacers, as distinguished from trotters, are fre-
quently prominent at the withers, usually higher and more
sloping in the croup, in general showing a less symmetrical
development than the trotting animal.
Roadster. — The roadster animal should possess a smooth,
well-finished conformation with the approved symmetry and
finish characteristic of the smooth-turned Standardbred indi-
154
JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
tf
LIGHT HARNESS GROUP OR TYPE
155
vidiial. Specimens should possess in addition regular, well-
balanced action for drawing a light vehicle at a rapid rate
when necessary. Pacers are not usually recognized as the
most acceptable in this class. They require a smooth surface
for their best performance, and because of this they are not
widely adapted to general road purposes.
Fiu. 57. — Roadster team.
Score Card for Light Harxess Horses.
Perfect score.
General Appearance — 12 Points.
Height:
Weight:
Form: symmetrical, smooth, stylish 4
Quality: bone clean, firm, and indicating sufficient substance;
tendons defined; hair and skin fine
Temperament: active, kind disposition
Head and Xeck — 6 Points.
Head: lean, straight
Muzzle: fine, nostrils large; lips thin, even, teeth sound .
Eyes: full, bright, clear, large
Forehead: broad, full
Ears: medium size, pointed, well carried, and not far apart
Neck: muscled; crest high; throat-latch, fine; windpipe large
Carried forward
18
156 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
Perfect score.
Brought forward 18
Forehand — 23 Points.
Shoulders: long, smooth with muscle, oblique, extending
into back 2
Arms: short, thrown forward 1
Forearms: muscled, long, wide 2
Knees: clean, wide, straight, deep, strongly supported . . 2
Canons: short, wide; sinews, large, set back 2
Fetlocks: wide, straight 1
Pasterns: strong, angle with ground 45 degrees .... 3
Feet: medium, even size, straight; horn dense; frog large,
elastic; bars strong; sole concave; heel wide .... 6
Legs: viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point of
the shoulder shoxild fall upon the center of the knee, canon,
pastern, and foot. From the side, a perpendicular hne
dropping from the center of the elbow-joint should meet
the ground at the center of the foot, fall upon the center
of the knee and pastern joints and back of hoof. . . 4
Body — 10 Points.
Withers: muscled and well finished at top 1
Chest: deep, low, large girth 2
Rihs: long, sprung, close 2
Back: straight, short, broad, muscled 2
Loin: wide, short, thick 2
Underline: long; flank let down 1
Hindquarters — 29 Points.
Hips: smooth, wide, level 2
Croup: long, wide, muscular 2
Tail: attached high, well carried 1
Thighs: long, muscular, spread, open angled 2
Quarters: heavily muscled, deep 2
Gaskin or Lower Thighs: long, wide, muscular .... 2
Hocks: clearly defined, wide, straight 5
Canons: short, wide; sinews, large, set back 2
Fetlocks: wide, straight 1
Pasterns: strong, sloping 2
Feet: medium, even size; straight; horn dense, frog large,
elastic; bars strong; sole concave; heel wide, high ... 4
Legs: viewed from behind; a perpendicular Une from the
point of the bottock should fall upon the center of the
hock, canon, pastern, and foot. From the side, a perpen-
dicular line from the hip joint should fall upon the center
of the foot and divide the gaskin in the middle; and a per-
pendicular line from the point of the buttock should run
parallel with the line of the canon 4
Action — 20 Points.
Walk: elastic, quick, balanced 5
Trot: rapid, straight, regular, moderately high .... 15
Total 100
SADDLE GROUP OR TYPE
157
SADDLE GROUP OR TYPE.
The saddle group or type is represented from the pure-
bred standpoint in the American Saddle Hor^e and the
Thoroughbred running horse. The group is further exem-
plified in the following classes, which include the combination
horse, possessing both light harness and saddle attributes,
Fig. 58. — The saddle type.
the walk-trot-canter horse, the gaited horse, the hunter,
cavalry, and race horse or runner.
American Saddle Horse. — The x\merican Saddle Horse is
an American product, as the name suggests. It is the result
of using Thoroughbred blood with mares which had the
inclination to amble, this forming the foundation for the
saddle horse gaits. The general form of the saddle horse does
not differ materially from the Standardbred roadster, possess-
ing the superior, close-knit conformation. The height of the
158 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
American Saddle Horse varies on the average from 15-1 to
15-3 hands, and ranges in weight from 950 to 1050 pounds.
Specimens of the well-bred saddle horse usually exhibit ex-
treme style, the body being very close and neatly turned.
The shoulders and pasterns should be oblique, yet strong
enough to endure the work for which they are used. The
predominating colors are bay, brown, chestnut, and black,
usually being marked with one or more white points. The
best types of the American Saddle Horse are exemplified in
beauty, symmetry, and finish. They are well proportioned,
the lines clearly defined, the countenance intelligent, and
the head and neck usually possessing a most characteristic,
lofty, graceful, carriage, or position. The especially marked
carriage of the head and neck, the sloping shoulders and
pasterns, the smooth, round-turned body and the long,
level croup with high set and gracefully carried tail are char-
acteristics which are not only desired but usually possessed
in superior specimens of the breed. The American Saddle
Horse is typified by five characteristic gaits, namely : the walk,
trot, canter, rack and the running walk, fox trot, or slow pace.
The American Saddle Horse Association defines the
American Saddle Horse from the show ring standpoint in
the following: The saddle horse must be sound, of good
conformation, substance, finish, style, and shown without
artificial appliances, and up to carrying at least one hundred
and sixty (160) pounds.
The three-gaited horse should go plain, walk briskly, and
with speqd equal to four (4) miles an hour; canter reasonably,
high and gentle, trot steady, straight, and true; action enough
to be attractive; well balanced, and with speed equal to
twelve (12) miles an hour.
Added to the foregoing the five-gaited horse should go
running walk, fox trot or slow pace, smoothly and equal
to six (6) miles an hour; rack easily without being forced,
with speed equal to twelve (12) miles an hour. Must stand
quietly, back readily, and lead with either foot in a canter
from a halt. (Not required or desired to change lead in
action.)
High rate of speed and racing is forbidden.
SADDLE GROUP OR TYPE
159
High school gaits are not saddle gaits. It is understood
that an animal which has been educated in high school may
inadvertently show a step or two in this school when changing
gait. Such evidence is not to disqualify a horse, though it is
objectionable, but any intentional exhibition of high school
is prohibited and shall disqualify an entry.
The three-gaited horse should show the three distinct
gaits: walk, trot, and canter.
Fig. 59. — Thoroughbred stalHon.
Thoroughbred. — The Thoroughbred horse is derived from
the amalgamation of the Arabian Barb and Turkish Blood
with the lighter English-bred horses. From this union has
been developed a breed of unusual speed and endurance.
The acme of perfection in the Thoroughbred horse is the
attainment of speed at the run. In gaining this one special
attribute the type is often unsymmetrical or at least not as
pleasing in its lines as the roadster type of Standardbred or
the American Saddle Horse. The breed is characterized
by an energetic, racy temperament or nerve force, which
160
JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
is exemplified in the extreme speed attained by specimens
of the breed. Although unusually refined and possessing
striking quality characteristics, the Thoroughbred is rangy,
with a long body, long legs, and comparatively long neck.
These are all conducive to a long stride, which is so necessary
in the running horse. The best representatives of the breed
Fig. 60. — Combination horse.
average about 15-2 hands high and range from 900 to 1050
pounds.
The color is bay, chestnut, brown, black, and gray with
white markings. The former colors are the most character-
istic, blacks and grays not being in demand. Compared
with the Standardbred trotter and pacer, the Thoroughbred
is more rangy, having more sloping pasterns, finer bone,
sometimes extreme and smaller feet of unusually fine texture.
The withers are usually high, the shoulders are ratherjong
SADDLE GROUP OR TYPE
161
and sloping, and the head carried forward rather thaiji
upward. The hindquarters are long, strongly muscled, and
the gaskins broad, with a strong junction at the hock.
Because of the special purpose for which the Thoroughbred
has been developed, it is used almost solely for breeding and
racing purposes in its pure-bred form, the temperament being
dr«
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Fig. 61. — Walk-trot-canter saddle mare.
too nervous and erratic for general use. Pure specimens of
the breed are used otherwise for crossing to obtain various
classes of horses, such as the walk-trot-canter, hunter, and
cavalry horse.
Combination Horse. — The combination horse possesses
both saddle and light harness attainments. However, such
animals are often better naturally developed or trained for
one purpose than the other. The combination horse is
11
162
JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
more representative of the saddle type, but is customarily
shown in harness first. It should possess considerable
smoothness, style and finish, although these attributes are
not usually attained to an extreme. The combination horse
is usually distinguished from the saddle horse by possessing
more of the harness-form attainments, principally in the
Fig. 62. — Gaited saddle stallion.
speed at the trot. Combination horses which possess,
either naturally or by training, an equal balance in harness
and saddle requirements possess unusual value, both from the
market and show ring standpoint.
Walk-trot-canter Horse. — The walk-trot-canter horse re-
ceives its name from the three gaits which it possesses.
It is divided into two types which are derivatives of the
American or Saddle-bred and the English or Thoroughbred
SADDLE GROUP OR TYPE
163
horses. The American or Saddle-bred type is a complement
to the gaited saddle horse, except that it is trained only
to go the three gaits. It is customary also to dock and pull
the manes. The Thoroughbred type is represented in the
better shaped Thoroughbreds which possess the three dis-
tinctive gaits, the walk, trot, and canter, in a distinctive form.
i'lG. tj.j. — i-ive-gaited saddier.
This type of three-gaited horse is usually undocked and the
mane hogged.
Gaited Saddle Horse. — The gaited saddle horse is exem-
plified in the five-gait attainments, namely: the walk, trot,
canter, rack and running walk, fox trot or slow pace. Many
of the gaited saddle horses are of pure-bred saddle-horse
origin, although those of grade origin ha^-ing the standard
five-gait requirements are so classified.
164
JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
Hunter Horse. — The hunter horse, as the name suggests,
should possess saddle requirements, capacity and endurance,
for carrying weight and jumping easily and safely. He
should possess a good disposition, ample quality, and refine-
ment, and a strong, lively, nervous temperament. Intelligence
Fig. 64. — Light-weight hunter.
is important, because of the varied attainments which such
an animal must possess. Hunters are classified as light,
medium, and heavy, on a basis of the weight which they
are capable of carrjdng safely. This ranges from 135 to
190 pounds or over. They should possess capacity for
carrying the rider safely and for long, continuous cross-
country runs over the various obstacles which are usually
encountered.
Cavalry. — Cavalry horses are used, as the name suggests,
for army purposes. While many of them are range bred
SADDLE GROUP OR TYPE
165
and do not possess a desirable conformation, there are certain
standard qualifications set forth by the Quartermaster-
General of the war department. Specimens of this class
should be geldings of good color, from four to eight years
old, stand from 15 to 15-3 hands high, and weigh from 950
to 1100 pounds. They should be sound, good in quality,
Fig. 65. — Hunter, Irish Hose.
possess a docile disposition, be well broken to saddle, have
a well-balanced action, and be free from blemish or other
defects.
Specifications for Cavalry Horses, Prepared under Direction
OF THE Quartermaster-General.
The cavalry horse must be sound, well bred, of a superior class,
and have quahty; gentle and of a kind disposition; thoroughly broken
to the saddle, with Hght and elastic mouth, easy gaits, and free and
prompt action at the walk, trot, and gallop; free from vicious habits,
without material blemish or defect; and otherwise to conform to the
following description:
A gelding of uniform and hardy color, in good condition; from four
to eight years old; weighing from 950 to 1100 pounds, depending on
height, which should be from 15 to 15-3 hands.
166
JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
Head. — Small and well set on neck; with ears small, thin, neat and
erect; forehead broad and full; eyes large, prominent, and mild, with
well-developed brow and fine eyelid; vision perfect in every respect;
muzzle small and fine; mouth deep; lips thin and firmly compressed;
nostrils large and fine, and branches of underjaw (adjoining neck)
wide apart.
Neck. — ^Light, moderately long, and tapering toward the head, with
crest firm and longer than underside; mane fine and intact.
Withers. — Elevated, not unduly fine, well developed and muscled.
Shoulders. — ^Long, oblique, and well muscled.
Chest. — Full, very deep, moderately broad, and plump in front.
Fig. 66. — High jumper.
Forelegs. — Vertical, and properly placed; with elbow large, long,
Erominent, and clear of chest; forearm large at the elbow, long and
eavily muscled.
Knees. — Neatly outlined, large, prominent, wide in front, well
situated, and well directed.
Back. — Short, straight, and well muscled.
Loins. — Broad, straight, veiy short, and muscular.
Barrel. — Large, increasing in size toward the flanks, with ribs well
arched and definitely separated.
Hindquarters. — Wide, thick, very long, full, heavily muscled, rounded
externally, and well directed.
Tail. — Fine and intact, well carried and firm.
SADDLE GROUP OR TYPE
167
Hocks. — Neatly outlined, lean, large, wide from front to rear, well
situated, and well directed.
Limbs. — From knees and hocks downward vertical, short, wide
laterally, with tendons and hgaments standing well out from bone
and distinctly defined.
Pasterns. — Strong medium length, not too oblique, and well directed.
Feet. — Medium size, circular in shape, sound; with horn dark, smooth,
and of fine texture; sole moderately concave, and frog well developed,
sound, firm, large, elastic, and healthy.
Each horse will be subjected to a rigid inspection, and any animal
that does not meet the above requirements should be rejected.
Fig. 67. — L'avaliy remount.
Running Horse. — The race horse is exemplified by the
extreme speed whicli it is able to obtain at its natural
gait, which is the gallop. It should have long reach
and unusual stamina and endurance. The race type is an
exponent of the Thoroughbred formerly described, gaining
prominence either in the pure-bred or grade form. The
attributes and attainments specified under the Thorough-
168 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
bred are the same as those expected in the race-horse class.
Speed at the run is the one requirement which is either in
the straight running race or the steeplechase course.
Score Card for Saddle Horses.
Perfect score.
General Appearance — -12 Points.
Height:
Weight:
Form: close but not full made, deep but not broad, symmet-
rical 4
Quality: bone clean, dense, fine, yet indicating substance,
tendons and joints sharply defined, hide and hair fine,
general refinement, finish 4
TemTperament: active, disposition good, intelligent ... 4
Head and Neck — 8 Points.
Head: size and dimensions in proportion, clear-cut features,
straight face line, wide angle in lower jaw 1
Forehead: broad, full 1
Eyes: prominent orbit, large, full, bright, clear, lid thin, even
curvature 1
Ears: medium size, pointed, set close, carried alert ... 1
Muzzle: fine, nostrils large, lips thin, trim, even .... 1
Neck: long, supple, well crested, not carried too high, throttle
well cut out, head well set on 3
Forehand — 22 Points.
Shoulders: very long, sloping yet muscular 3
Arms: short, muscular, carried well forward 1
Forearms: long, broad, muscular 1
Knees: straight, wide, deep, strongly supported .... 2
Canons: short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well
back 2
Fetlocks: wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported . 2
Pasterns: long, oblique (45 degrees), smooth, strong ... 2
Feet: large, round, uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel
to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frog large,
elastic, heels wide, full, one-third height of toe, horn dense,
smooth, dark color 5
Legs: direction viewed from in front, perpendicular line
dropped from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg
and foot into two lateral halves ; viewed from the side, a per-
pendicular line dropped from the tuberosity of the scapula
should pass through the center of the elbow-joint and meet
the ground at the center of the foot 4
Body — 12 Points.
Withers: high, muscular, well finished at top, extending well
into back 3
Chest: medium width, deep . . 2
Ribs: well sprung, long, close 2
Back: short, straight, strong, broad .... . . 2
Loin: short, broad, muscular, strongly coupled .... 2
Flank: deep, full, long, low underline 1
Carried forward 54
PONY GROUP OR TYPE 169
Perfect score.
Brought forward 54
Hindquarters — 31 Points.
Hips: broad, round, smooth 2
Croup: long, level, round, smooth 2
Tail: set high, well carried 2
Thighs: fuU, muscular 2
Stifles: broad, fuU, muscular 2
Gaskins: broad, muscular 2
Hocks: straight, wide, point prominent, deep, clean cut,
smooth, well supported 5
Canons: short, broad, fiat, tendons sharply defined, set well
back 2
Fetlocks: wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2
Pasterns: long, oblique (50 degrees), smooth, strong ... 2
Feet: large, round (slightly less than in front), uniform,
straight, slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole
concave, bars strong, frog large and elastic, heels wide,
full, one-third height of toe, horn dense, smooth, dark
color 4
Legs: direction, viewed from the rear a perpendicular line
dropped from the point of the buttock should divide the
leg and foot into lateral halves; viewed from the side this
same line should touch the point of the hock and meet
the ground some little distance back of the heel. A per-
pendicular line dropped from the hip-joint should meet
the ground near the center of the foot 4
Action — 15 Points.
Walk: rapid, flat-footed, in line 5
Trot: free, springy, square, going well off hocks, not extreme
knee fold 5
Canter: slow, collected, either lead, no cross canter ... 5
Total 100
PONY GROUP OR TYPE.
The pony group or type is exemplified in the Shetland,
Welsh, and Hackney, from the pure-bred standpoint, the
latter being an undersized Hackney formerly described under
the heavy harness group. From the standpoint of class
attainments the type is represented by the Polo Pony,
Shetland (under 46 inches), and the 11-2 to 14-2 hand pony.
Shetland. — The Shetland pony in all respects possesses
the type and conformation of a small draft horse. The
Shetland is the smallest of the breeds of horses. The
American Shetland Pony Club requires that specimens of
the breed come under 46 inches in order to be eligible for
170
JUDGING LIGHT HOUSES
registration. The breed is a native of the Shetland Islands
where they are used frequently to carry rather heavy loads.
They are used in this country largely for pleasure purposes,
chiefly among children. The Shetland is docile, rather
lymphatic in temperament, although occasionally ill natured.
Shetland stallion.
The colors vary considerably, browns, blacks, bays, chestnuts,
and often odd and irregular colors characterize the breed.
The solid colors are most preferable among the breeders,
although broken-colored ponies find ready sale, chiefly for
the use of children. Action is not well developed as a
usual thing. The American type of pony is less blocky and
more refined than the type accepted in its native home.
PONY GROUP OR TYPE
171
Score Card for Shetland Ponies.
Perfect score.
Constitution: Constitution indicated by general healthy appear-
ance, perfect respiration, brightness of eye 10
•Si.ee; Ponies over four years old, 42 inches and under in height,
two points to be deducted for every inch over 42 inches up to 46
inches, fractional portions to count as full inches 25
Head: Head symmetrical, rather small and fine, wide between
eyes, ears short and erect 10
Body: Barrel well rounded, back short and level, deep chest, good
breast, compact "pony build" 10
Legs: Legs muscular, flat-boned, hindleg not cow-hocked or too 25
crooked
Mane and Tail: Foretop, mane and tail heavy 10
Feet: Good " 10
Total . . . • 100
Fig. 69. — Welsh staUion.
Welsh Ponies. — Welsh ponies are descended from ponies
which are native of the Welsh mountains in Wales. The
type is quite variable, specimens of the breed having been
172
JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
improved by the use of Arab and Thoroughbred blood.
The Welsh Pony and Cob Society divides the breed into four
types. The first consideration is height, including specimens
ranging 12-2 hands or under, 12-2 to 13-2 hands, 13-2 to 14-2
hands, and 14-2 to 15-2 hands. The first type resembles
a small Arabian horse, the second being more of the cob type,
Fig. 70. — Hackney pony stallion.
while the third comes in the cob class. Those conforming to
the latter height are suited to infantry and cavalry service.
Welsh ponies possess more style and action than the Shet-
land, the larger, better developed specimens making good
saddle or harness horses. The color ranges quite widely,
bays, browns, chestnuts, grays, and roans characterizing the
breed. Many of these ponies have good hock and knee action
and unusual speed and stamina for a pony. However, there
are very many ill-developed specimens, little care and atten-
PONY GROUP OR TYPE
173
tion having been given to their breeding, especially under
native conditions.
Hackney. — The Hackney pony is merely an undersized
Hackney horse conforming to pony requirements with a
maximum height of 58 inches or 14-2 hands. All of the breed
qualities, as formerly described, should be exhibited in the
Hackney pony.
Fig. 71. — Polo pony.
Class Characteristics. — The principal characteristics of
ponies are described under the following:
Polo Ponies. — The Polo pony, although referred to some-
time as a breed, does not possess true breed qualifications.
The maximum height allowed by the American Polo Pony
Association is 14-2 hands. The Polo pony may be a deriva-
tive of small Thoroughbreds, western ponies, or half-breds.
They are of a hunter type, must possess a good disposition,
a lively temperament, good quality and endurance in order
174
JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
to meet the requirements of the game. Endurance and
intelhgence are associated qualities which are very important
in the most typical representatives of the class.
Fig. 72. — Pony turnout.
Fig. 73. — Thirteen-hand Hackney ponies.
Ponies, 46 Inches or Under. — Ponies conforming to this
requirement are largely Shetland and Welsh ponies and
their derivatives. All of the individual requirements for-
merly described under Shetland and Welsh ponies should
characterize the class,
JUDGING BREEDING CLASSES 175
Ponies between 11-2 Hands and 14-2 Hands. — This is a class
of ponies of heavy harness or saddle-horse breeding with
miniature size. They are used principally for children for
purposes where the Shetland and Welsh do not conform well
to the requirements. Good solid colors are most desirable,
having in this respect more of the qualifications of the mature
horse and less of the Shetland pony color attributes.
JUDGING BREEDING CLASSES.^
In judging breeding classes, there are certain factors of
special significance not considered under the requisites of
draft and light-horse attributes. These problems involve
conformation, temperament, sex characteristics, and the
factors of special significance in judging young stock.
Breeding Attributes. — The judging of horses for breeding
purposes is not radically different from judging such animals
from a strictly draft or light-horse standpoint, barring
reproductive characteristics. The principal factors to con-
sider, aside from those already discussed, are health fulness,
constitution, and breeding conformation. Temperament is
important. Special emphasis should always be given to
the healthfulness, constitution, and form in judging breeding
classes. The type of animal which will make a durable and
otherwise satisfactory draft or light horse will not always
be a satisfactory breeder. The draft horse proper should
be compact in form, short, and closely coupled. Such an
animal would not of necessity make a strong, vigorous
breeder, although these characteristics are all important.
Capacity should be closely associated with these points.
The breeding animal should be long in the body, deep,
broad and roomy. While compactness or fulness of form is
highly desirable, this should not be obtained at the expense of
breeding capacity. Breeding requisites are in all essential
factors the same as draft form. It is of special importance,
however, that the larger, more capacious form be associated
with a strong constitution, and a large, strong, fine-qualitied
' Applicable to draft and light horses.
176 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
bone. These two factors should be closely associated, as the
future and continuous usefulness of the breeding animal are
of primary importance. Quality and constitution or vigor
should, therefore, be given special attention.
Quality. — The significance of quality and its influence
on the individual is only a mere part of its manifestation as
compared to its relation to the breeding animal. This is
especially true in the horse where enduring qualities in a
large measure determine the value in its special field of work
and reproduction. The horse, above all animals is expected
to show, along with other necessary attributes, an extreme
degree of quality and general refinement. The degree of
manifestation of necessity varies, depending upon the type
of the animal and its specialized use. However, in the horse,
quality above all considerations should be plainly in evidence.
The work of the horse is based on some form of locomotion.
No matter what the particular phase of use may be, quality
is necessary, with other attributes, to endow the animal
with the maximum amount of durability. While the attain-
ment of this particular attribute should not overshadow
either scale or substance, it must stand out boldly, yet be
properly associated with the other elements of the mechanism.
A thick, meaty, spongy-boned horse is not only objectionable
in the individual, but the transmission of such characteristics
to the offspring is doubly so. An animal so characterized
can neither be a satisfactory breeder nor supply stock suitable
for breeding, market, or show ring demands.
Conformation. — The conformation in the male and female
vary to a noticeable degree. While on the whole the general
form is just the same, there are certain characteristics which
endow the male and female, respectively, with masculine and
feminine attributes upon which the reproduction of highly
developed individuals depend. The stallion should be bold
and fearless in appearance, strong in the crest and through
the shoulders and chest, yet not to the extent of rendering
the individual unsymmetrical from any viewpoint. It
should be characterized with all attainments significant of
prepotency signifying the regular transmission of individually
possessed qualities to the offspring.
JUDGING BREEDING CLASSES 177
The female should likewise possess the qualities indicative
of strongly endowed maternal functions. The head and
neck should be lighter and more feminine in appearance than
in the male. The shoulders should be lighter and more
harmoniously developed with the other body regions. As
with all breeding animals, the body and hindquarters should
be more strongly developed than the head, neck, and
forehand. In the stallion this is exhibited in the heavier,
coarser head, larger, thicker neck, heavier crest, shoulders,
and chest. In contradistinction, the mare is less prominent
in the development through this region and comparatively
more so in the body and hindquarters. On the whole, the
stallion should be more compact or close knit, this depend-
ing on the type, the mare having a more open conforma-
tion, which is a natural phenomenon in all well-developed
breeding females.
Temperament. — The temperament of individual animals
varies greatly. However, it is necessary that breeding
animals have a uniform, active temperament characteristic
of the various types to which they belong. Horses, espe-
cially, should have an even, uniform temperament and a
lively, docile disposition. Usually the high-strung, easily
excited animal is lacking in nerve force or capacity. This is
detrimental to a breeding animal, as it not only detracts
from the value of the individual but such characteristics
are usually transmitted to the offspring in a like or greater
degree.
Compared with the light horse, the draft horse is naturally
somewhat more lymphatic in temperament. A light horse,
which performs its work at a light vehicle, is supposed to
show more life, or spirit, than the heavier tj^pe of animal.
The temperament of any animal should be keen and active,
yet it should not be unduly emphasized at the expense of
the usefulness or purpose for which an animal is bred. The
draft horse should show all desirable temperamental charac-
teristics, yet in a modified degree as compared with the light
horse. The draft animal which exhibits the same traits as
a Standardbred or Thoroughbred would not be considered as
thoroughly conforming to draft-horse characteristics. There
12
178
JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
should be an exhibition of temperament, however, in con-
formity with type characteristics.
Sex Characteristics. — The primary differences between
the stallion and the mare are those which relate to size,
proportion, compactness, and sex characteristics. The
stallion should be thoroughly masculine without any indica-
tions of femininity in the form, structure, or otherwise.
The head should be large and while characterized by quality
Fig. 74. — Percheron stallion, showing the desired masculine qualities.
and clearness of outline, it should show without question
the masculine characteristics. The neck should be long,
broad, deep, and heavily muscled. The crest should also be
well developed, any lack of development indicating weak
constitution and a lack of prepotency. The body should
portray every factor which characterizes a strong, vigorous
individual. It should be in conformity with the develop-
ment of the head, neck, and all other parts. The animal
JUDGING BREEDING CLASSES
179
should show a large, strong bone, deep muscling, and a
compact, massive form throughout. The hindquarters should
likewise be long, deep, and prominently developed. The
first impression of the stallion should be that of boldness
and strength, combined with symmetry of form, quality,
constitution, and prepotency.
The major difference between the stallion and the mare is
the size and the characteristics which relate to sex differences.
Fig. 75. — Percheron brood mare, showing femininity and breeding capacity.
The form of the mare should in general be the same as that
of the stallion, differing in the fineness of the features and
the feminine qualities exhibited. While the mare should
be strongly muscled, there should not be the same degree of
massiveness as found in the stallion. The head should
be large, broad, clear cut in outline, and have the feminine
characteristics clearly portrayed. The neck should be
relatively longer than in the stallion, while there should not
180 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES
be any undue indication of crest development. The body
proper should be long, capacious, and deeply muscled, as
such characteristics are indicative of maternal qualities.
The bone should be large, clean and fine, yet the same
degree of compactness should not be exhibited as in the
stallion. Otherwise, the characteristics of the male and
female are the same. The draft characteristics should be
clearly in evidence in both male and female.
Fig. 76. — Young colts with an outcome. Indicated in the large bone, open,
growthy frame, and general breedy appearance.
Colts and Fillies. — In judging colts and fillies there is
always a certain amount of outcome or development which
must be taken into consideration. While all animals must
be judged in the show ring according to their immediate
condition, yet in selecting for future breeding purposes,
the final outcome must be given consideration. Usually
JUDGING BREEDING CLASSES 181
the large, strong-boiied colt or filly does not make the most
attractive appearance, yet such animals seldom fail to grow
into the most valuable matured specimens. The sleek-
bodied animal presenting the round, smooth, plump form
is likely to catch the eye of the uninitiated, yet an animal
of this type will rarely grow into a large, capacious breeder,
or a strong, vigorous, market animal.
If the fundamental principles of animal development have
been completely mastered, it will have been learned that the
animal makes growth and development on the bony frame-
work available for this purpose. If there is not sufficient
surface for the animal to expand or grow it cannot possibly
develop into a large, useful animal. The young animal
which is characterized by a large framework possessing
quality and other requisites will develop to the maximum
degree of efficiency. It is impossible for the small-boned
colt or filly to make development in a normal manner.
It is the universal law of growth that the size or weight
attained is dependent on the development of the bone and
the amount of surface exposed for the reception of the
muscles and other elements entering into the animal form
or make-up.
CHAPTER IX.
JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES.
JACKS AND JENNETS.
Structure. — The general structure of the domestic ass is
very much Hke the horse, although there are some features
quite different. The essential differences are the lack of
symmetry, quality, and finish. Otherwise, with a few
exceptions, the qualifications are the same and the method
of judging is identical. The head of the ass is usually large
and often not well proportioned with the other parts of the
body. The ears are large, long, and somewhat coarse. The
neck is medium in length, deep, and does not usually possess
a crest.
The body is moderately compact, deep, and reasonably
smooth in outline. The ass, as a whole, does not possess
the massiveness of the draft type of horse. Comparing it
with the horse, it is narrower and lighter in the body, and
especially lacking in the hindquarters, which are inclined
to be short and not well muscled. The hair is longer than in
the horse, somewhat coarser, and the mane and tail possess
an unusually scanty supply.
The legs usually show strong bone, but the joints are
quite frequently large and coarse. The feet are smaller
and narrower than in the horse, both the legs and feet
being less subject to unsoundness than in the latter animal.
There are no callosities on the hindlegs of the ass. The age
is determined in the same manner as in the horse.
General Appearance. — In general appearance, the ass does
not possess the pleasing lines, the rotundity or symmetry
of form or the massiveness of the horse. These are char-
acteristics which are deeply fixed, however, and therefore
(182)
JACKS AND JENNETS 183
cannot be criticised absolutely. Considered from the utility
standpoint, the general form and appearance of the ass is
subject to much less criticism than when compared with
the horse. Beauty and appearance are exemplified largely
by the type of animal under consideration.
Form Scale and Quality. — Criticisms of the ass, other
than the general differences ascribed in comparison with
the horse, are the lack of shape, definition, and finely drawn
features. The shoulders are not as sloping, the ribs usually
not as well sprung, the hindquarters not as well developed
or muscled, and there is not as much definition, quality, or
refinement in the bones and joints. There is a general lack
of smoothness and coordination of parts, although this is
usually more apparent in the head, neck, and hind-
quarters.
The height and weight of the ass varies considerably,
this depending on the breed and condition of the animal.
In the more approved t^'pes, the height approximates 16
hands. In selecting a jack for breeding, consideration
should be given to the mating which is to be made. If the
jack is selected for mating with a mare, the height is not as
important as when selected for mating with a jennet. A
larger, rangier animal and one with more height is desirable
for this purpose. The weight of necessity is determined
largely by the height and type of the animal, the weight
ranging from 900 to 1100 pounds in the better bred and more
desirable types of the approved breeds.
The quality of the ass is determined in identically the
same manner as in the horse, although there may be quite
varying differences in the coordination of the structural
development of the animal. In the horse lack of quality
is usually general, while in the ass it is more frequently the
result of a lack of coordination in structure, although it may
be generally faulty, the same as in the horse.
Soundness and Condition. — The ass and the mule are pro-
verbially less subject to unsoundness than the horse. This
is due largely to the structure, especially of the feet and the
use to which the animals are subjected. Condition is largely
determined by the care and management given these animals.
184 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
Careless treatment usually develops a very objectionable
condition in form, appearance, and the prevailing jack
sores.
Color.- — The several breeds of jacks have characteristic
colors, the same as in the distinct breeds of horses. The
jacks most in demand, however, are those possessing black
or dark brown bodies with white or light points. Gray
jacks are not desirable either for jennet or mule breeding.
The darker colors, because of their more stable qualities
under all conditions of crossing and market adaptability,
are in much greater demand than any other. Broken colors,
stars, or white stockings are rare in jacks, jennets, and mules.
Style and Action. — While these qualities are not usually
considered important requisites in judging and selecting
jacks and jennets, they are deserving of consideration, since
the hereditary tendencies vitally affect the mule, which is
the standard market animal obtained from crossing the jack
and the mare. Considered from this standpoint these char-
acteristics should be given the same consideration as in
judging the horse. The standard of excellence should be
clearly in mind, and judgment passed the same as in the
horse, except that the degree of attainment of style and
action will not be as noticeable.
Nervous Development.^ — The horse and the ass represent
the extreme in nervous development. The comparison is
largely identical with the one used in describing the differ-
ence in the temperament of beef and dairy animals. The
horse is naturally high spirited, although the degree differs
materially, depending on the type or breed in question.
Compared with the more nervous temperament of the horse,
that of the ass would be classed as lymphatic. In actual
use both the ass and the mule are very docile, being less
subject to extremes in temperament than the horse.
Sex Characteristics. — The principal differences to be ob-
served in judging the jack and jennet are in the sex char-
acteristics. The jack should have greater scale and should
be thoroughly masculine in appearance. The jack should
have a well-developed body, thus indicating strength, vitality,
and other evidences of strong reproductive power. The jennet
JACKS AXD JENNETS 185
should be strongly developed in the region of the reproduc-
tive organs and be thoroughly feminine in appearance.
Breeding qualifications are fundamentally the same as in
judging the mare, other than the normal peculiarities
involved.
Uses. — Jacks and jennets, from a commercial viewpoint,
are used entirely for breeding purposes. The ultimate
object is the perpetuation of the male for the production of
mules, which are rapidly increasing in importance. The
judging of jacks and jennets should be considered on a basis
of their adaptability for breeding high-class mules. The
opposite cross made by mating the stallion with the jennet,
which produces the hinney, is not of great importance. Be-
cause of this peculiar adaptability of the jack in mule pro-
duction greater attention should be given to the outcome
of the cross, when judging the jack, than otherwise. This
emphasizes the importance of having a definite knowledge
of the results which will be obtained when a jack of a certain
type is crossed on mares of different types. Judging jacks
and jennets therefore brings in greater speculation than when
judging other classes of breeding animals. Their commercial
value for this reason depends almost entirely on their heredi-
tary qualities. Their value in the judging ring is not, there-
fore, determined on their conformation absolutely but on the
probable "nick" or blend which will be made on the females
to which they are bred for mule production.
Selection. — In selecting a jack consideration should be
given to the environment to which the animal has been
subjected. Jacks which have been reared with jennets
do not cross successfully on mares for mule production.
This is a trait peculiar to the hybrid cross and, consequently,
a factor of special significance in purchasing a jack. Jacks
which prove to be the most successful for mule breeding
are those which have been reared in company with horse
colts, young mares, or fillies, therefore jacks should be
purchased from farms where such environment has been
provided.
186 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
Score Card for Jacks.
Perfect score.
General Appearance — 20 Points.
Height: (score according to age) 4
Weight: (score according to age) 4
Form: broad, symmetrical, well proportioned, smooth . . 4
Quality: bone large, strong, clean; hair fine, glossy ... 4
Temperament: active, disposition agreeable 4
Head and Neck — ^10 Points.
Head: well proportioned, bone large; profile of nose straight
or slightly Roman 4
Muzzle: neat; nostrils large; lips thin, firm 1
Eyes: full, clear, intelligent, prominent 1
Forehead: broad, full 1
Ears: long, pointed, well set, alert (33 inches or over, from tip
to tip, preferred for aged jack) 1
Neck: long, muscled, throat-latch heavy, windpipe large . 2
Forehand — 23 Points.
Shoulders: sloping, smooth 2
Arm: short, well muscled, correctly set 2
Forearm: long, clean, heavily muscled 2
Knees: very wide, deep, strong, clean 2
Canons: wide, clean, tendons defined, fluted bone ... 2
Fetlocks: wide, straight, clean 1
Pasterns: sloping, clean, strong 4
Feet: large, deep, wide, dense and lively horn 8
Body — 12 Points.
Chest: deep, wide, girth large 2
Ribs: deep, well sprung, closely ribbed to hip 4
Back: straight, long, muscular 2
Loins: short, wide, heavy muscled 2
Underline: long, straight, flanks low 2
Hindquarters — 29 Points.
Hips: smooth, weU muscled 2
Croup: wide, muscled, not too sloping 2
Thighs: deep, broad, muscled, strong 2
Quarters: deep, well muscled 2
Stifles: clean, muscular, strong 2
Gaskins: long, wide, clean 2
Hocks: large, strong, free from meat, clean, well set ... 2
Canons: wide, clean, tendons defined 2
Fetlocks: wide, clean, strong, straight 1
Pasterns: clean, straight, sloping. Any indication of knuck-
ling should be severely scored 4
Feet: large, deep with dense and lively horn 8
Action — 6 Points.
Walk, straight, elastic, true; trot, true, straight, should show
bottom of foot when trotting 6
Total 100
Breed Characterization. — The following information re-
garding jacks and jennets is of special interest from an
JACKS AND JENNETS
187
authoritative standpoint, as only one or two of these breeds
have become fundamentally important in developing the
mule industry, which is the basis of the usage of jacks and
jennets. The jacks now most largely used for mule pro-
duction are an American product, having originated from
various crosses and selections from the following breeds and
others of lesser importance. The American or Mammoth
Fig. 77. — Catalonian or Spanish jack.
jack, which is significantly a product of Kentucky largely, is
most important in the mule industry of today.
Catalonian. — The Catalonian breed is a native of northern
Spain. This is an important breed of jacks from an American
standpoint, owing to the relation of it to the mule-breeding
industry of this country. It is the foundation breed of the
American or Mammoth jack, which is strictly an American
product. The breed averages from 15 to 15-2 hands high and
has good style, symmetry, and action. The bone is fine in
188 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
texture, although not as large and strong as in the Andalusian.
The color is black or brown, the former color usually pre-
dominating. The points are light or mealy in color. The
ears are large and usually erect, the head broad, the eyes
large and prominent, and the facial lines unusually strong.
The breed is unusually refined, showing much character,
style, and action. It is early maturing and extremely popular
among breeders for mule production. The principal points
in favor of the breed are the style, quality, color, and refine-
ment. Compared with the Andalusian it possesses superior
color, bone, and quality.
Andalusion. — The Andalusion breed of jacks is a native of
southern Spain. The breed is of ancient origin and has a
number of very desirable qualifications. It is characterized
usually by a gray color. Some specimens of the breed are
black, although this is rather unusual. The breed has never
become popular in America, this being partly due to the
gray color which is considered objectionable. Representative
specimens of the breed range from 14-2 to 15-2 hands high.
The breed is characterized by good bone, which is hard and
fine in texture. The head is broad, well shaped, and expres-
sive. The breed possesses considerable style and cleanness
and trimness of outline. Some of the other breeds, because
of more desirable color qualifications and their special
adaptability to mule production, have become more promi-
nent. The quality and temperament of the breed are very
acceptable. While a great many jacks of this breed have
been imported, they have not gained special prominence.
Poitou. — The Poitou breed is a native of France, where
it is regarded very favorably. Specimens of this breed
have never been widely introduced into the United States,
and they are therefore not of practical interest. The color
is black with light points, although grays are not uncommon.
The gray color is neither popular with this or other breeds,
Poitou jacks, gray in color, not being eligible to registry in
the French Record Book. In the native home the animals
are ill-managed and usually present a very unattractive
appearance. The hair is allowed to become long, shaggy,
and matted, the natural tendency being to a profuse growth
JACKS AND JENNETS
189
of fine-qualitied hair. The head is large, the ears long, the
neck short, chest broad, and the joints and hocks unusually
large. The bone is large and the feet of superior size. As a
whole the breed is large and massive in development, although
not the most attractive and apparently not the most useful
under the conditions which they are produced. They are
said to breed large, superior, weighty mules. Better care
Fig. 78. — A Poitou jack, one of the rare breeds of imported jacks.
(Courtesy of Adirondack Stock Farms, Glens Falls, N. Y.)
and attention is important in subserving the best interests
of the breed in their native home.
Maltese. — The Maltese jack is a native of the Island of
Malta in the Mediterranean sea. This breed has never
become popular in American trade, as it has been sup-
planted by other more important imported and American-
bred jacks. Specimens of the breed are small, ranging on
the average about 14 hands high. The color is either black
190 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
or brown. One of the principal criticisms of the breed is
its lack of size, bone, and substance. The head is very well
developed, the ears upright and fine in quality. Although
the breed has several very desirable attributes its lack of size
has reacted very much against it. These jacks are vigorous
and show unusual vitality when in service. The attainment
of more size is necessary to make the breed of practical
value in mule production. This is very important in a
jack because of the general inclination toward miniature
development in the offspring, either from a jennet or a
mare. While the largest jacks are not always the most
useful or valuable, size, quality, and substance are important
attributes in mule production.
Majorca. — The INIajorca jack, imported from the Island
of Majorca in the Mediterranean sea, while one of the largest
breeds imported, has not become popular as a breeder in
this country. With the exception of the French Poitou, it
is the largest breed of jacks, often measuring 16 hands high;
the average being somewhat under this height. The lack
of style, finish and action, however, has mitigated against
its popularity. The breed is characterized by extreme
sluggishness not desired in any breeding animal. The
head and ears are unusually large and the body, as a whole,
lacks compactness and symmetry. Although pure bred
for a great many years in its native home, its sphere of use-
fulness has been rather limited. In Spain it has met with
considerable success in breeding army mules. The breed
is suggestive of criticism from almost every standpoint
except size and weight. Breed description is largely a matter
of interest rather than utility qualifications.
Italian. — The Italian jack is the smallest of the breeds,
the average height ranging from 13 to 14 hands. The color
is black usually, although gray is not uncommon. The bone
is rather large and above the average in quality. The jacks
are of very little importance either as jack or jennet pro-
ducers. In their native home they are used principally
for packing purposes. They resemble the Maltese jack
very much, it being believed by some that one is the de-
scendant of the other. The breed is too small for using on
JACKS AND JENNETS
191
jennets, although very desirable for the production of small
mules. The small size of the breed and, therefore, a limited
demand for them, has been responsible for the discontinuance
of their importation.
American.— The American or Mammoth jack is a distinc-
tive breed which is a derivative of the several breeds of jacks,
principally the Catalonian, imported into this country at an
earlv date. The breed is distinctly American and was not
Fig. 79. — An American or Mammoth jack with weight, style, and quality.
(Courtesy Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station.)
pedigreed by a systematic plan until 1892. A registry asso-
ciation—American Jack Stock Stud Book— was established
in 1888. Up to the former date jacks which did not attain
a height of 14-2 hands and jennets 14 hands were not eligible
to registry. After this date jacks and jennets to be eligible
to registration were required to be 15-2 hands and 15 hands
respectively, unless produced from recorded ancestry. In
case of an imported jack, the minimum height standard
was set at 15 hands.
192 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES'
The following measurements are given as typical of this
breed :
Tip to tip of ears 33 inches
Width between eyes 9 "
Length of face (poll to end of upper lip) ... 33 "
Circumference of jaw and face 40 "
" neck 42 "
" girth . 70 "
" flank 72 "
" arm 16| "
" knee 16 "
" canon 9i "
" hock 19 "
" canon . lOi "
From poll (between ears) to end of tail (total length of
body) 84 inches. The principal factors to consider in
selecting the jack are weight, bone, style, action, constitution
and finish. A jack measuring 15| to 16 hands and weighing
about 1050 pounds in moderate flesh is a good standard to
follow in selection.
Description of American Jack. — Hooper and Anderson^
describe prize- winning jacks of today as having size and
weight, good legs and feet, and fluted bone of desirable
size. The head should be long, well formed, and the ears
33 inches or more from tip to tip. The prevailing color is
black with light points. The standard height at maturity
is 15 to IG hands, such animals weighing from 1050 to 1150
pounds. The girth measurement ranges from 68 to 72
inches. The loin measurement should not be more than
one or two inches less than the girth measurement. The
canon bone should be from eight to nine and one-half
inches in circumference. A jack 15 hands, 3 inches high,
and weighing 1150 pounds should measure not less than
nine inches below the knee. The hock should be from 18
to 21 inches in circumference, the gaskin measurement
approximating 16 inches, and the rear canon 10 inches in
circumference.
1 Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station.
MULES 193
MULES.
Uses and Adaptation. — The mule is a hybrid obtained from
crossing a jack on a mare, the hinney being the result of the
opposite cross, or a stallion on a jennet. The latter cross
is not recommended and is very infrequently made, as
the hinney is inferior to the mule in size and other draft
qualities. In this country the principal use of the mule is
on the farm, in lumber and railroad camps, in the mines,
and in army service. The mule is not adapted to city use,
principally because of insufficient weight and small feet,
which are not adapted to hauling on pavements. Through-
out the South the mule constitutes the work type of animal
almost to the exclusion of draft horses. Very few mules
are raised in this section, however, a large proportion of
them being shipped from the important mule-producing
States, which are Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri. The
mule is especially adapted to Southern conditions, having
a greater resistance to heat and the unusually hard usage
to which they are subjected by colored teamsters. Their
hardiness is unusually apparent and because of this attribute
they are placed at rough work where the more nervous
temperament of horses would receive a severe test. Mules
are also used largely in the South for driving purposes,
select animals making very acceptable substitutes for the
horse. The lymphatic temperament of the mule and the
accompanying hardiness and resistance to rough treatment
makes them especially valuable in draft service of this
character. Because of the increase of this character of
work and the correspondingly increasing magnitude of the
mule industry, the mule and its ancestral relations are
deserving of more specific study in the class room and on the
farm.
General Requirements. — The characteristics which mark a
perfect type of horse will in a general way coincide with the
attributes desired in the mule. From a purely market stand-
point the requirements for the mule are largely the same
as those of the horse. Market requirements prescribe that
they must be sound, possess quality, have a fine, sleek coat
13
194 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
MULES
195
of hair, and be in good flesh. The mule should be compact,
and should possess ample strength and endurance, these
qualities being indicated by a full, capacious chest, broad
muzzle, and large nostril. The color should be solid, except
when characterized by light points, which adds to the fancy
and qualifications for discriminating judges and buyers.
Mare mules are usually preferred because of early maturing
qualities.
Age Limitations. — Mules, like horses, usually have a higher
market value and sell to better advantage when from four
to eight years of age, although young mule colts sell ad-
vantageously on the open market. From a purely utility
standpoint, the mule possesses an unusual amount of vitality.
Fig. bl. — Alulci witL style and liui^li lui\'c an inl'ubiun uf light hur.-u bluoJ
often continuing in service to an extreme age under adverse
circumstances. While advancing age interferes with the
normal capacity of the mule it retains very exceptional
enduring qualities until late in life, on the average being
much superior to the horse in this respect. Market con-
siderations are based on the age, conformation, quality,
style, and action. These factors are all important in the
prime mule, the age limit mentioned being directly correlated
with these factors in mules possessing the most desirable
market attributes. On the whole, age does not affect the
selling qualities of mules to the same extent that it does the
horse. They sell both younger and older to better advantage.
Height and Weight.- — The height and weight of the mule
depends entirely on the proposed use or market class con-
196 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
MULES 197
siderations. Mature mules range in weight from 600 to 1600
pounds or over. It is only on the larger markets that the
heavier and draftier animals may be obtained. The 1100 to
1200-pound mule is -best suited to average conditions and is
therefore in greatest demand, as a general rule. The heavier
bred mules are not generally as much in favor because they
are frequently not as smooth in form or as agile as the horse
of similar weight. The lighter mules are used for work
which is less exacting in its requirements and usually where
weight is not of first consideration. The height and weight
are very closely associated, except in unusual instances where
dissimilar or rare crosses have been made. The draftier,
weightier mules average about 16 hands high or over and
weigh from 1200 to 1600 pounds.
General Conformation. — In general, the form of the mule
should conform closely to that of the horse. While the
best individuals do not equal the horse in its square, compact
form, the nearer this ideal is approached the greater the value
of the animal from the market standpoint. Mules do not
possess the same amount of symmetry or rotundity of form
as the horse. The correlation of the parts is not as sig-
nificant, there being a greater tendency for each part to
individualize itself. This is not necessarily a fault, how^-
ever, as a complete harmonious cross would not naturally be
obtained under the conditions in which mules are produced.
The mule has a grosser appearance than the horse, less
definition of structure, and clear-cut lines. The tendency
to resemble the jack is apparent.
The body of the mule is less cylindrical than that of the
horse, smaller, and less capacious. However, the nearer
the general body conformation of the mule approaches
that of the draft horse the better it is liked, both on the
market and in the show ring. The feet of the mule are
smaller and longer than in the horse and the arch of the
foot is greater. The mule is characterized by moderately
clean, square legs, and good feet. The ears are long, the body
comparatively narrow, and the hindquarters inclined to be
light and unsymmetrical as compared with the horse. Fre-
quently the croup is higher than the withers, thus resembling
198
JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
the male parent. The foretop, mane and tail are not as
profuse with hair as in the horse, the tail of the ass or mule
having a brush or tuft. The bone of the mule is usually
acceptable, although the joints are sometimes coarse and
undefined. The chief distinctions between the mule and
the horse are the smaller size, lighter weight, less style and
symmetry, less definition of form, and less refinement of
the mule.
Fig. S3. — s\. draft mule with quality aud tiuibh.
Quality. — Mules do not show the same amount of quality as
horses, breeding considered. The indications of these qualities,
however, are the same. The head should be fine, trim and clear
in outline; the neck and shoulders smooth and compactly
laid in ; the bone hard, square and well defined ; and the hair
straight, sleek, and oily. The joints should be well defined,
and the tendons should stand back perceptibly from the
MULES 199
canon bone. Coarseness of quality is indicated by a soft,
spongy bone, coarse, rough hair, and undefined features.
In judging quality in the mule the line of demarcation
should not be too rigidly drawn between it and the horse,
as while the same standard is used it is not often as closely
approached. General symmetry and refinement of the whole
animal should otherwise be indicative of the possession or
absence of quality.
Condition. — Condition in the mule has the same general
application as in the horse. Most mules are fattened for
market often to an excessive degree. This excessive accumu-
lation of fat is objectionable from the standpoint of judging,
selecting, and working capacity. Although a mule in high
condition has a higher market value than otherwise, such
preparation is often the cause of misjudging an animal.
Great care should be taken in selecting mules, especially
those from large sale barns where high fitting is practised.
A mule in low condition is not attractive, although it is
often more valuable than after having been fattened and
later reduced in flesh.
The stress placed on condition should be governed largely
by the type of the mule under consideration. The natural
form or muscular development should fix the value of a
mule the same as of a horse. The general muscle develop-
ment is determined by the length and width of the gaskin
or lower thigh. Prominent muscular development in this
part is indicative of the general body covering. A well-
formed mule will naturally fatten and finish smoothly, while
excessive fat on an ill-formed mule will cover many defects.
These factors are mentioned because of the uniform practice
of shaping and selling mules in high condition in most sale
stables. When selections are thus made fat and flesh should
be clearly distinguished.
Color. — ^The color of the mule is important from the
market standpoint, as a premium is usually paid for mules
possessing some standard solid color. The most acceptable
colors are black, dark brown, bay, dark gray, sorrel, and
light gray. The dark, solid colors are in greatest demand.
Black or dark-colored jacks are always in greatest demand
200 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
for mule-producing purposes. Gray or light-colored jacks
have never become popular, although some excellent steel or
dark gray mules are placed on the market. However, this
may be the result of using gray or light-colored mares.
Fancy mules are drawn from black, dark brown or dark
gray-colored animals.
Soundness. — The mule is ordinarily subject to the same
kinds of unsoundness as the horse. However, these troubles
are not usually developed to the same degree. The natural
hardiness of the mule has apparently developed the quality
of resistance to hereditary and transmissible diseases. This
condition, in conjunction with the sure-footed qualities of
these animals in rough, treacherous places of work or travel,
gives them a specially significant value. It renders a service
possible in the mule which could not ordinarily be developed
in animals possessing less hardiness or stability of action.
Temperament and Endurance. — The mule is a steady, per-
sistent animal, moving loads more by intrinsic muscular
effort rather than by weight qualifications, one of the chief
attributes of the draft horse. In this respect there is very
little analogy between the mule and the horse. Notwith-
standing the lymphatic temperament of the mule, it should
show active, energetic qualities as well as good style, sym-
metry, and action. Under the labor conditions in the South,
the mule is worked very much more successfully than the
horse. It will do work under the severest conditions without
necessarily showing any indication of fatigue. The credited
resistance of the mule to disease, its endurance, patience
and docility are commendable attributes, these factors being
largely responsible for the widespread favor of these animals
under severe or trjdng conditions.
Style and Action. — The mule is a draft type of animal,
broadly considered, although it is used largely for general
farm and other utility purposes. In the South it is emploj'ed
for driving, especially among the smaller farmers. Style
and action should be judged consistently with hybrid
qualifications. Compared with the horse, these attributes
are only moderately developed, although as much of both
should be obtained as possible. The stride should be long,
MULES 201
straight, uniform, and well balanced. Both walk and trot
should be brisk, free, smooth, even, and balanced. The
various phases of action should be judged on the same basis
as in the horse.
Structural Form and Qualifications. — The detailed struct-
ural form of the mule is the same as in the horse. Ordinarily
the mule does not attain the same size, although it is higher
in proportion to weight than in the latter animal. The
head should be broad, deep, and have length in proportion.
The facial outlines should be clear cut, the eyes large and
prominent, and the ears large, erect and pointed. The neck
should be long and deep and blend evenly into the shoulders,
which should have sufficient obliquity to give a reasonably
high carriage of head and neck and a short, strong back.
The body should be long, closely coupled, deep ribbed, and
symmetrical. The chest should be broad and deep and the
forelegs set well apart, thus giving good support.
The hindquarters should be long, the croup level, the
thighs smooth and symmetrical. It is in the hindquar-
ters, however, that the greatest and most noticeable faults
are found in the mule. The croup is often too steep, the
hips sloping, and the thighs narrow. This condition should
be avoided as much as possible. The hindlegs should be
straight, strong and square in bone and well muscled in
the thighs and gaskins. The feet should be large and the
horn fine and dense in quality. These qualifications should
be closely observed, as the feet of the mule are frequently
narrow and contracted. The pasterns should be strong and
have a sufficient slope to give ease and balance of move-
ment. Other than these considerations, the points of the
horse should form the basis of comparison.
The following points on judging the mule were furnished
by J. W. Jones, Jock and Mule Judge, Xashrille, Tenn.
The mule should be of some good solid color. White
points are desirable, although they add fancy and not utility.
The mule should have quality, as the expert buyers term
it. This is an all-around fineness that portrays good blood
and breeding with conformation that indicates the best
development of the nervous system, together with stamina
and abilitv to withstand much work.
202 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
The head should be large and unusually bony, with a Roman
nose free from a meaty appearance. The features should
be prominent, with a pleasant appearance.
The neck should come out well back on the shoulders and
should be arched, thus making an inclined plane from the
shoulders to the top of the head. The chest should be
deep and prominent, protruding like the breast of a turkey.
The shoulders should be long and protrude well into the
back. The collar-bone should be broad and sloping.
The legs should be nearly straight, with broad, clean,
large bone, free from meatiness. The feet should be large,
well rounded, and strongly braced from all quarters of the
inner joints.
The knees should be broad, deep, and firmly set. The
hocks should be broad and muscular, but the feet free from
meatiness.
The forearm and stifle should be well developed, thickly
covered with muscle tapering to the knee and hock in regular
well-defined lines.
The hoof should not present a ribbed appearance, but
should be smooth and inclined to look sleek and oily. It
should not be contracted, but well sprung and supported by
a well-extended, healthy frog. The old saying, "no foot no
mule," is literally true, as it is in any other kind of travelling
animal.
As an evidence of strength and indication of great staying
qualities, the loin and croup, as well as the chest, should be
broad and well developed.
The spring of the ribs is important, as they should range
close up to the hip-bone and come out from the spine well
sprung and extended. A flat rib is very objectionable.
The ears should be long, thin and tapering to the points,
presenting a rather folding appearance about the middle.
They should be set on the head erect.
The coat of hair should be soft and shiny, covering a pliable
skin, mellow and soft to the touch. This denotes good
fattening qualities.
The mule should have good length with a low-set flank
and bowels. He should have all the weight possible.
MULES 203
Score Card for Mules.
General Appearance — 16 Points. Perfect score.
Weight: score according to age and type.
Height: 14 hands and up; estimated.. hands; actual
hands 4
Form: symmetrical, smooth 4
Quality: bones clean; tendons defined; skin and hair fine . 4
Temperament; energetic; good disposition 4
Head and Neck — 6 Points.
Head: well defined; medium size
Muzzle: fine; nostrils large; lips thin and even ....
Eyes: full, bright, clear
Forehead: flat, broad, full
Ears: large, well carried, tapering
Neck: muscled, crested; throat-latch defined; windpipe large
Forehand — 21 Points.
Shoulder: long, sloping, well muscled 2
Ar7n: short, muscled, thrown well forward and backward;
forearm well muscled, long, wide 3
Knees: wide, clean, straight, deep, well supported; canons
short, wide; tendons well defined 4
Fetlocks: wide, straight, strong; pasterns short, clean, straight,
angle with ground 45 degrees 4
Feel: size medium, even; horn dense; sole concave; bars
strong; frog prominent, elastic; heel wide, high .... 6
Withers: smooth, well muscled, continuous with neck and
back 2
Body — 8 Points.
Chest: deep, low; girth large 1
Rihs: long, sprung close 2
Back: straight, short, well muscled 2
Loins: wide, short, thick 2
Underline: long; flank low 1
Hindquarters — 29 Points.
Hips: smooth, wide, level; croup wide, muscular .... 4
Tail: attached high, well carried 1
Thighs: long, well muscled, open angled 2
Quarters: heavily muscled, deep 2
Gaskin: wide muscled 2
Hocks: wide, well defmed, strongly supported, straight;
canons short, wide, tendons set well back 9
Fetlocks: wide, straight; pasterns short, angle with ground
55 degrees 5
Feet: medium size, even; horn dense; frog prominent, elastic;
bars strong; sole concave; heel high, wide 4
Action — 20 Points.
Walk smooth, stride long, active; trot rapid, straight,
regular 20
Total 100
Qualifications of Mule Mares. — The qualifications of
mule mares vary, depending on the type of mule which is
204 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
to be produced. There are certain attributes, however,
which a mule mare should possess regardless of this factor.
Such an animal should have size, weight, good conformation,
quality, and refinement. The head should show an intelligent,
lively disposition, and the temperament should be active.
The barrel should be long, deep, broad, thus indicating
capacit3^ The feet and legs should be normal from every
viewpoint, including the normal position of the feet and legs
as formerly described, and quality should be therein indicated.
Fig. 84. — A characteristic mule mare. (Courtesy Kentucky Agricultural
Experiment Station.)
Because of the generally recognized, comparatively coarse
qualities of the jack, mule mares should possess unusual
quality and refinement. Heavy draft mares are not as
desirable for this purpose as those possessing some of the
blood from the lighter breeds, such as the Standardbred
or Thoroughbred. There shoukl be sufficient blood from
these breeds incorporated in the mule mare to overcome
the coarser qualities dominating in the jack. Suffolk mares
are credited with good mule-producing qualifications.
The body of the jack has a tendency to angularity and,
MULES 205
therefore, he should not be mated with mares of this con-
formation. ]Mares with comparatively large, smooth, sym-
metrical bodies will add size, smoothness, and refinement to
the mule. ]Mares possessing an undue amount of cold blood
are not adapted to mule production. In seeking refinement
it should not be carried to the extreme and thus decrease the
size of the mule, as such animals are not readily salable at
remunerative prices. The principal attributes of the mule-
producing mare are included in moderate height and weight,
a body with squareness of form, well proportioned with the
other regions, smoothness and symmetry-, strong bone,
quality and general refinement, thus showing a moderate
amount of light horse finish and refining characteristics.
Market Classes of Mules. — ^The mule markets recognize
several classes which include the following: draft, farm,
sugar, cotton, and mining mules. The first two classes
are generally of special significance, although not the most
widely bred or used. IMarket mules are sold wholly on
their fitness for draft, agricultural, army, or mine use.
The Illinois Experiment Station defines them on a basis
of height and weight qualifications as follows:
Class. Height in hands. Weight range.
Draft mules 16 to 17-2 1200 to 1600
Farm mules 15-2 to 16 900 to 12.50
Sugar mules 16 to 17 1150 to 1300
Cotton mules 13-2 to 15-2 750 to 1100
:Mming mules 12 to 16 600 to 1350
Draft Mules. — This type of mule is the largest which is
placed on the market. Their height ranges from 16 to 17-2
hands, and their weight from 1200 to 1600 pounds. They
should be large and strong in bone, although the quality
should be up to standard, the same as in the horse. They
should be compact, deep bodied, low set, closely coupled, and
have symmetry of form throughout. The muscling should
be heavy, especially about the thighs and quarters. They
should have a hardy and rugged appearance, such as that
which characterizes the draft type of the horse. INIules of
this type possessing plenty of quality and substance are
capable of doing heavy team work, and their value for this
206 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
purpose is being appreciated more as they are given fair
trials.
Farm Mules. — Farm mules, as the name designates, are
used almost exclusively for agricultural purposes. The
type varies considerably, although many very valuable
Fig. 85. — Draft mules 16^ hands high, weighing 1650 pounds
animals are classed as farm mules. The height of this type
ranges from 15 to 16 hands, and the weight ranges from 900
to 1300 pounds. Mules of this type are not as symmetrical
or as heavily muscled as those of the draft type, which are
supposed to represent the acme of mule production. Farm
mules are somewhat rangier, the bone is inclined to be lighter,
the body less compact, and the animal, as a whole, more
MULES
207
upstanding. They should possess good bone, feet of moder-
ate size and quaUty sufficient to make them sell readily
on the market.
Sugar Mules.— Sugar mules are used largely throughout
the Southern states on the sugar farms or plantations.
The name is significant of the work which is required of
Fig. 86. — Draft mules, showing two good colors. Suitable either for draft
or farm purposes.
them. These mules range in height from 16 to 17 hands,
and weigh from 1150 to 1300 pounds. Usually they are
heavier and more compact than the cotton mule. ^Nlare
mules are most desired for the trade, ranging from three to
six years old. The quality is usually above the average and
the general appearance is very striking, especially in the
indication of breediness. Weight, finish, and quality are
208 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
greater on the average than that of the cotton or farm mule.
For this reason sugar mules sell for more money. In judging
sugar mules special attention should be given to weight,
quality, and adaptability to the work in question. The bone
should be fine and strong, the joints well developed, and the
feet somewhat larger than that of the average mule. They
should be symmetrical in their build, possess an intelligent
Fig. 87. — A choice sugar mule.
(Courtesy Illinois Agricultural Experiment
Station.)
and shapely head, be strong in the neck and shoulder develop-
ment, and compact throughout the body.
Mining Mules. — Mining mules are used in the mines and,
consequently, do not possess the size and weight of the other
classes mentioned. The character of work for which they
are used, especially pit mules, necessitates a rather small,
agile type of animal. They range in weight from 600 to
1350 pounds, this depending upon whether they are used in
the pit or above. Only the smaller types are used under
MULES 209
ground, and as a large majority of them are purchased for
this purpose the average height and weight runs low. In
height they range from 12 to 16 hands. The body should
be compactly built, the legs short and strong, the bone
rather heavy, and the feet large. It is necessary to have
animals without blemishes, as such a condition is likely to
Fig. 88. — A mine mule, showing characteristics of medium pitter.
(Courtesy Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station.)
give trouble because of the sulphur and chemicals to which
they are subjected underground.
Cotton Mules. — Cotton mules are used largely for the culti-
vation of cotton throughout the Southern states. The
demand is usually for a rather small type of animal, the
weight ranging from 650 to 1100 pounds and the height
14
210 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
from 13 to 15-2 hands. This type of mule is of still lighter
build than the mining mule^. The body is inclined to be
somewhat rangy, the bone small, and the body upstanding.
The quality should be uniform and of about the same stand-
ard as that possessed b}- the mining mule, the difference
being in favor of the latter.
These mules are usually brought into the South in the early
spring before the cotton-planting season begins. In the fall
Fig. 89. — A choice cotton mule. (Courtesy Illinois Agricultural
Experiment Station.)
they are frequently sold back to the dealers, refattened at
the close of the year and sold again the following season.
For this reason the age varies considerably. Although a
standard market type, the age is not as uniform as in other
types, which are sold and placed immediately in continuous
service.
1 Compared with surface-mining mule.
HORSES, JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 211
EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS AND FAULTY
CONFORMATION.^
HORSES, JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES.
Relation of Soundness to Utility. — In consideration of domes-
tic animals, it is largely in the horse and mule that the
determination of the degree of soundness, specifically con-
sidered, is of practical consideration. In other animals,
structural development and the nature of work performed
does not tend to produce such conditions. In horses and
other draft animals, broadly speaking, an unsoundness or
faulty conformation is of vital concern, as the presence or
absence of these conditions determines or measures value
both in breeding and draft service. While the ratio of value
may differ, depending on the use of the animal and nature of
the unsoundness or faulty conformation, under any conditions
the value is depreciated, ranging from that of a slight objec-
tion to practical worthlessness. Determination of these con-
ditions involves not only a broad knowledge of the structure
of horses and mules whereby abnormalities may be detected
but also a knowledge of the resulting depreciation in value
for draft or breeding purposes.
Definition and Limitations. — An unsoundness is any
abnormal condition which makes an animal less capable or
which will, during development, decrease natural usefulness.
An absolutely sound animal does not possess the slightest
deviation from the normal structure. Such animals are
rare, however, as slight defects are usually present in the
most perfect specimens, although they do not usually interfere
with the usefulness or market value. Soundness is relative
and not absolute, a horse usually being practically sound and
not absolutely so.
An unsoundness should be differentiated from a blemish
which simply depreciates the market value of an animal
usually without impairing usefulness. A blemish may
^ Special credit due M. H. Reynolds, University of Minnesota.
212 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
occasionally impair usefulness; however, such conditions
are rare. Blemishes usually decrease market value only,
while an unsoundness decreases both market value and use-
fulness. A theoretically sound horse is one which has no
disease or other condition that interferes with his usefulness
or market value. He may have a disease from which he
will recover, yet at the time of the examination such an
animal will be unsound.
Unsoundness may be temporary or permanent. Tem-
porary unsoundness may be illustrated by an influenza from
which a horse will probably recover, or by light sprains or a
bruised ankle from interfering. In the latter case the
question would arise at once whether the interfering was due
to faulty conformation or to faulty shoeing. In the former
case the condition would be serious, while in the latter it
would be unimportant as it could be remedied by shoeing
the animal properly.
Normal Conditions. — It is necessary to become familiar
with the usual normal and abnormal conditions for com-
parative purposes. The hocks may be perfectly sound
and ytt have a peculiar bony development. In such cases
it will generally be found that both hocks are alike. The
knees may have a similar peculiar development and yet be
perfectly sound. It is necessary to become familiar with all
such conditions before an animal can be examined rapidly
and accurately.
General Examination. — An examination for soundness
should be systematic and thorough, although it may be
rapidly accomplished. The examination should be made with
the horse in the stall, as he backs out, stands at rest, and in
motion. In the stall he should be examined for cribbing,
weaving or any other stable habit which is objectionable.
As the horse backs out of the stall, he may show a peculiar
use of the hindlegs or imperfect control, due to serious
disorders of the nervous system. Frequently the first
intimation of spavin may be detected as the animal is made
to stand from side to side, particularly as he steps toward the
spavined leg.
After the animal is taken out of the stall his movements
HORSES, JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 213
should be observed while walking and trotting. He should
be viewed coming toward, passing by, and going from the
observer, who should note the movement of the entire body
and the use of each limb. It is especially important to
observe the head and hips in locating the diseased limb.
The front foot is a very common seat of lameness.
Locating Lameness. — It is usually quite easy for any
observer to recognize that an animal is lame, provided the
lameness is at all decided, but there are many cases where
the lameness is so very slight that it is difficult for an expert
to locate it or even be sure that the animal is lame. A very
common error is that of locating the lameness on the wrong
side. This is easily avoided if it is remembered that the
head and weight of the body in general come down most
noticeably with the sound limb. For instance, a horse which
is lame in the left front leg will drop the head very perceptibly
as he lands upon the right front leg.
Some forms of lameness are detected with great difficulty
when the animal is walking, but are easily seen when trotting.
It is usually conceded that the latter is the best gait for
diagnostic purposes, although the observer should study the
movements at both the walk and trot if possible. The
animal should be tried on both hard and soft ground, and
on the side of a hill. If the lameness is in the foot, it is
most marked when the animal travels on hard ground. On
the contrary, when a horse is lame in the shoulder, he is
apt to travel with great difficulty in deep mud or snow.
Bony Growths. — Splints, spavins, and ringbones, are simply
developments of bony tissue, the result of an inflammation
of the periosteum. These are all recognized as forms of
unsoundness, and usually cause lameness. This inflamma-
tion may have its origin in bruises or other injuries, or possibly
the inflammation in this tissue may be the result of an extend-
ing inflammation from some adjoining tissue, but in any case
the result is usually a projecting development of bony tissue.
Sylints. — These appear as small tumors along the meta-
carpal bones, usually at the junction of the large and small
metacarpals. They may be of various shapes and sizes.
They are generally more serious when located near the knee.
214 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
Occasionally there appears what is known as a pegged splint,
in which the growth extends across the back of the canon,
beneath the suspensory ligament.
The lameness which results from splints is rather easily
recognized: (1) By locating the splint, noting the sensitive-
ness to pressure at this point. A peculiarity of the lameness
is that the horse w^alks nearly or quite sound, but trots very
lame, especially on hard ground. There is a natural tendency
to recover. Lameness from splints is rarely seen in aged
horses for this reason. (2) When the splint appears very
close to the knee, or in the pegged form, there is less prospect
of natural recovery, and with the latter form lameness is very
apt to be permanent, unless relieved b}^ surgical means.
Ringbone. — This is characterized by enlargement of some
portion of the pastern bones. It may be in front, behind,
on either side, or extend entirely around this region. It
may be located near the crown of the hoof or very much
higher, thus dividing ringbone artificially into two classes,
high and low.
Ringbones are very much more serious forms of unsound-
ness than splints, as they are more apt to be permanent
in effect, and even if the soreness is relieved, there is likely
to be a mechanical lameness because of a stiffened joint.
This unsoundness and the lameness resulting from it are very
easily detected.
Sidebones. — A sidebone indicates an abnormal condition
of the lateral cartilages, which are naturally elastic. Side-
bones are detected as bonelike structures which appear above
the crown of the hoof and just beneath the skin on either
side. They may cause lameness during the period of inflam-
mation and hardening. In some cases the lameness is
persistent.
Spavin. — The cause of lameness, recognized under the name
of bone spavin, is an abnormal condition of the tarsal bones
at the lower, inner, front portion of the hock. There is
usually an enlargement, varying from a very small growth,
commonly called a jack, to a very large growth, known as
bone spavin.
There is another form of bone spavin in which there is a
HORSES, JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 215
slight or possibly no external development at all. In this
form of spavin there may be diseases of the bones in the
deeper parts; particularly erosions of the articular cartilages.
Animals with bone spavins have a tendency to recover with-
out treatment, although in many cases the period required for
natural recovery is very long, extending through a period of
years. In other cases recovery can never occur. Recovery,
when brought about by natural or artificial conditions, imphes
that certain of the tarsal bones have united in the process
called technically, anchylosis, and the inflamed surfaces are
no longer rubbing together as the limb moves.
Many bone spavins doubtless appear as the result of slight
injuries in susceptible subjects, particularly those that have
a strong hereditary tendency to diseases of this kind. Bone
spavin is one of the most serious forms of unsoundness. A
spavined horse steps on the toe, and carries the hock-joint
with as little movement as possible. The lameness usually
disappears or at least greatly improves with exercise. What
is known as the hock test is made by holding up the limb,
with the hock sharply bent, for several minutes. The horse
is then started suddenly. In case of spavin the first few steps
are very lame. Old horses not aft'ected by spavin may respond
to this test and lead to error in judgment.
Synovial Sacs. — The ordinary wind puffs of the ankle,
and bog spavins and thoroughpins at the hock, are typical
illustrations of enlarged sj'novial sacs. They are not usually
the cause of lameness, but are to be regarded rather as
symptoms.
Wi7id puffs usually indicate considerable amount of hard
road work.
Bog Spavins. — These are enlargements of the synovial
sac of the hock-joint, and appear at the inner and front
part of the hock. They are often hereditary.
Thoroughpins are very similar to bog spavins and wind
puffs, except in location. Thoroughpins appear at the
upper and back part of the hock. They may or may not
connect with the synovial sac of the hock-joint.
Open Joint. — Lameness from open joint is quite common
among city horses. This usually results from punctures of
216 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
the synovial sacs and the entrance of foreign matter, resulting
in an acute inflammation or synovitis. This form of lame-
ness can usually be very easily detected, and the cause
recognized. It is very serious under all circumstances, and
frequently results in loss of the animal.
Curb. — This is a result of an injury or strain at the back
of the hock-joints, and is characterized at first by a hot,
sensitive swelhng just back of the lowest part of the hock-
joint. After the period of swelling and inflammation sub-
sides, there is apt to remain a hard tumor, particularly on
what is known as curby hocks. In cases of young animals
given proper treatment the remaining enlargement may be
very slight or may practically disappear.
Capped Hock. — Capped hock is not usually a cause or
condition of lameness; but is mentioned for other reasons.
This is an unusual prominence at the point of the hock,
produced by bruises. Some horses get it by backing against
the stalls, so that they injure the point of the hock. Other
cases are produced in car shipments, or from a natural
tendency. The first swelling may usually be reduced by
prompt treatment, but it returns with very slight provoca-
tion, and after several attacks is likely to be permanent.
This abnormality does not injure horses for actual use, but
it is unsightly, and materially reduces the sale value.
Shoe Boil. — This appears as an enlargement in the point
of the elbow or superior extremity of the ulna. It is very
similar to capped hock in cause, character, and subsequent
history. Shoe boils are unsightly and injure sale, but do not
usually cause lameness.
Other Important Examinations. — The poll should be
examined for evidences of enlargement, roughness or scars,
which are the result of fistula or poll evil. The poll and
back of the ears should be examined for sitfasts, due to
pressure from the bridle or halter. If the sitfast has been
present an animal is likely to offer some resistance when
the hand is passed over the region of the trouble.
Ears. — The ears in a well-bred animal should be lean,
clean, and covered with soft, fine hair. The ears should be
freely movable, this being a good index to temperament.
HORSES, JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 217
In examining them it should be noted whether small tumors
are present. Horses in which there is little or no movement
of the ears, are usually afflicted with deafness.
Eyes. — The eyes should be of equal size, large, clear, free
from tears, the pupils black, the lids thin and free from
wrinkles. They should be equally prominent and set on the
same level. Small eyes are known as pig eyes and generally
indicate a sullen disposition or an animal lacking in courage.
Exceptionally large, prominent eyes are frequently associated
with short-sightedness. Horses which show an unusual
amount of white in their eyes generally possess some form of
visciousness.
Nostrils. — The nostrils should be flexible and large enough
to admit an ample supply of air. Small nostrils usually
denote narrow chest, weak lungs, and, therefore, low constitu-
tion or vitality. Nostrils which are constantly dilated pre
indicative of wind troubles. If the cartilages at the opening
are hard, the condition usually denotes heaves. During
exercise the movements are accelerated in proportion to the
exertion. The color of the nostrils should be rosy pink, this
becoming brighter with exercise. The presence of scars,
irregular in shape and extent, or the appearance of ulcers
show indications of glanders. Occasionally small tumors
may be found. Openings from the teeth or from the facial
sinusus may be the source of pus discharges.
Teeth. — The teeth of the horse should come in direct
opposition. If the upper teeth overhang the lower, the
condition is known as parrot mouth. Excessive forms of
this trouble prevent grasping of food, prevents even wearing
of the incisors and molars, and interferes with the nutritive
powers. The front teeth should be examined for evidence
of cribbing. Horses addicted to this vice have the outer
border of the teeth worn off more than the inner, thus
leaving a distinct wedge-shaped opening between the upper
and lower teeth. The presence of premolars or wolf teeth
is not considered an unsoundness. They have no relation to
the eye diseases.
Withers. — The withers are subject to abuses from various
sources, such as narrow stalls, tight collars or saddles. These
218 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
sometimes cause abscesses or a fistula, and even the destruc-
tion of the ends of the bony spine. A depression may thus be
formed in the top of the neck or withers. A fistula may appear
as a small, hard, swelling on one or both sides of the neck,
near the top where the collar is placed. Running sores
or swellings in this region should be regarded with suspicion.
Shoulders. — The shoulders should be examined for sweeney
or atrophy of the muscles, for tumors, collar boils, and abnor-
mal growths. Atrophy of the muscles may be slight wherein
some weak, counter-irritant may be used to cause temporary
fulness. A well-marked atrophy may be filled with air for
the temporary effect of deceiving the eye. The point of
the shoulders should be examined for enlargement due to
osteoporosis or articular joint disease
Feet. — The hoof is composed of a hardened sole and frog
which should be elastic and tough. The wall is that part of
the hoof which, is seen when the foot is on the ground. The
wall is divided into the toe, side, quarter and heel. The
frog is the wedge-shaped soft horn lodged in the angle formed
by the bars and the back of the sole. The sole is all that
portion viewed when the foot is lifted without including the
margin of the wall and frog. These parts are important in
the examination.
The feet should be examined for sand cracks, toe cracks,
quarter cracks, and other such conditions. Examination
should be made for the parallel rings that mark the effect
of laminitis or founder. The presence of calk marks indi-
cates restlessness or carelessness with which the animal
handles himself. The heel should have good width and be
wider at the bottom than at the top. The frog should be full,
wedge-shaped, and firm. It is this part which becomes the
seat of thrush or canker. The character of the shoe should
be noted for balancing the action and preventing inter-
ference.
Examination in Harness. — The horse should be placed in
harness and attention given to his behavior while the harness
is being fitted. It should be observed whether he kicks,
strikes or bites when the girth is tightened. The reins
should be taken to determine whether an animal is hard or
HORSES, JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES 219
tender in the mouth. It should be observed whether he
frightens at strange objects when being driven. A tight-
fitting collar may be responsible for rejecting an animal
which is duly qualified with proper collar adjustments. The
wind should be tested for whistling, roaring, and heaves.
The ear of the examiner should be put to the throat, the sides
of the chest, and the hands placed on the flank to detect
any unnatural sounds or conditions in breathing.
Going Surface.^ — The surface over which the horse steps
has a marked influence on the character of his stride, which
may be taken advantage of in the schooling process. As a
general rule, heavy, soft or deep going causes a high stride,
while a hard, smooth surface is conducive to speed. Of
the speed horses, trotters and pacers take more kindly to the
hard track than the runners, which do best on the turf or a
deeply scratched dirt track. The difference in the going
will frequently account for a horse trotting or pacing, the
heavy or deep going causing double-gaited horses to trot,
while a change in footing will shift them to the pace.
The common defects and peculiarities in the way of
going, for which any of the preceding factors may be re-
sponsible or tend to overcome are:
Forging. — Striking the ends of the branches or the under
surface of the shoe of a forefoot with the toe of the hindfoot.
Interfering. — Striking the supporting leg at the fetlock
with the foot of the striding leg. It is a common result of
the horse standing in the base-narrow, toe-wide or splay-
footed position.
Paddling. — An outward deviation in the direction of the
stride of the foreleg, resulting from the toe-narrow or pigeon-
toed standing position.
Winging. — ^Exaggerated paddling in horses that go high,
and, consequently, deviate more noticeably.
Winding. — A twisting of the striding leg, around in front
of the supporting leg, after the manner of a rope walker;
most commonly seen at the walk in wide-fronted draft
horses.
^ Courtesy of C. W. Gay.
220 JUDGING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES
Scalping. — Hitting the front of the hindfoot above or
at the line of the hair against the toe of the forefoot as it
breaks over.
Speedy Cutting. — In which the spreading trotter at speed
hits the hindleg above the scalping mark against the inside
of the breaking-over forefoot as he passes.
Cross Firing. — Essentially forging in pacers, in which the
inside of the near forefoot and off hindfoot, or the reverse,
strike in the air, as the stride of the hindleg is about com-
pleted and the stride of the foreleg just begun.
Pointing. — A stride in which extension is more marked
than flexion, as is commonly seen in the trot of a Thorough-
bred. Pointing also indicates the resting of one forefoot
in an advanced position to relieve the back tendons while
the horse is standing.
Dwelling. — A scarcely perceptible pause in the flight of
the foot, as though the stride had been completed before the
foot reaches the ground, and noticeable in actors.
Trappy. — A quick, high, but comparatively short stride.
Pounding. — Hitting the ground hard at the conclusion of
a high stride.
Rolling. — Excessive side motion of the shoulders, usually
confined to wide-fronted horses.
CHAPTER X.
JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE.
EVOLUTION AND IMPORTANCE OF BEEF CATTLE
INDUSTRY.
The evolution of the beef cattle industry has had as its
basis the application of better methods of breeding and
feeding, the extent of these developments having depended
largely on closer selection of animals for these two purposes.
Selection involves judging, which is the nucleus of all live
stock improvement. The improvement of the beef cattle
industry through this agency is therefore important, both
from the standpoint of present-day and future breeders.
Viewed from the standpoint of the large cattle markets which
are responsible for directing the large number of cattle
passing through them, the importance of the industry
becomes eminent.
The cattle breeding industry is supported in a large meas-
ure by the small breeder, who is responsible for the kind and
quality of cattle placed on the markets. His knowledge of
animal form, therefore, should be exacting. It is within his
range of practical operations to increase form and quality to
the utmost. Whether this is done will be determined by the
knowledge which he acquires in properly applying these
agencies of improvement in the herd. Figures have been
cited where the increase of one pound on the total weight
of every finished meat-producing animal would mean an
increase of 172,437,403 pounds of edible meats. From this
statement it is readily imaginable how the most modern
methods of breeding, selection and feeding would bring a
greatly added profit, not only to the individual, but to the
beef cattle industry as a whole. Considered from the broad
(221)
222 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 223
viewpoint, there is still a field for improvement which is
magnified many times, compared with the improvement
which has been made in the past.
Beef Cattle Products and Their Uses. — The uses of beef
cattle products are varied. In former years, before the advent
of modern abattoirs, practically the only parts utilized were
the carcass proper, the hide, and certain edible parts of the
viscera. Modern methods of killmg and handling cattle
products have made it possible to utilize almost every part
of the carcass. This has been of special importance to the
producer and feeder, although in an indirect way. Their
interest lies directly in the improvement of animal form,
which in the beef animal involves a long, broad, deep body,
and square, full, compact quarters with the minimum of
waste products. The more highly developed, therefore, that
the breeder can perfect animal form, the nearer will he
approach the ultimate demands of the feeder or finisher and
the butcher.
Relation of Structure to High-priced Cuts. — In perfecting
animal form the breeder is vitally concerned with the
development of certain parts. This development must be
made, however, in perfect correlation with those character-
istics which give the animal life, vigor, and thriftiness.
The parts of a beef animal which are of greatest concern
to the packer, the butcher and the meat eater are not
directly concerned with the functions of life and vitality
EXPLANATION OF FIG.
90.
1— Mouth.
13— Neck.
26-
-Scrotum or cod,
2— Nostrils.
14 — Shoulder junction.
27-
-Hindflanks.
3— Face.
15 — Top of shoulder.
28-
-Sides or ribs.
4 — Ears. '
16— Crops.
29-
-Back.
5 — Eyes.
17 — Heart girth.
30-
—Loin.
6 — Forehead.
18— Shoulders.
31-
—Loin.
7— Poll.
19— Fore flank.
33-
—Thighs.
8 — Horns.
20— Knees.
34-
—Rump.
9 — Jaws.
21— Shanks.
35-
-Tailhead.
.0— Throat.
22— Feet.
36-
—Twist.
.1 — Dewlap.
23 — Dew claws.
37-
-Tail.
.2 — Brisket.
24 — Belly or underline.
25— Sheath.
38-
-Hocks.
224 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
u
2 a
s .s
=> a
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 225
which govern the breeder's operations. The butcher, from
his viewpoint, would be pleased to secure only those animals
which possessed the largest relative proportion of the highest-
priced cuts, providing his trade merited such selection. This
would be dependent on conditions. The better the quality
of the product which can be purchased on an equal-price basis,
the better the butcher and his patrons will be satisfied.
A beef animal must possess, however, other attributes
aside from meat-producing qualities. It must possess con-
stitution, capacity, early maturity, quality, and the requisites
for prime finish. These, of necessity, call for development
of animal form which in most cases is antagonistic to the
production of the maximum of the highest priced cuts. There
must be, therefore, a close and direct correlation between
the attributes of life-giving functions and meat-producing
qualities. The higher the attributes of beef-productive con-
formation can be perfected without detracting from these
life-giving functions, the nearer the perfect animal will be
approached from the standpoint of the packer, the butcher,
and the meat eater.
Coordination of Bone and Muscle. — The muscular part of
an animal and associated fat-producing qualities represent
in the main the factors of importance in judging a beef
animal. In order to know what lies beneath the skin, the
examiner must have a thorough knowledge of the bony
development in its relation to muscle and fat formation. A
EXPLANATION OF FIG. 91.
Skeleton of cow, showing relation of bone and muscle: I.H., atlas; 7.H.,
seventh cervical vertebra; I.R., first thoracic vertebra; 6.R., sixth rib; 12. R.,
twelfth thoracic vertebra; 13. R., last rib; I.L., first lumbar vertebra; 6.L.,
last lumbar vertebra; K, sacrum; I.S., first coccygeal vertebra; 6.K., sixth
costal cartilage; x, wing of atlas; 1, scapula; 1', cartilage of scapula; 2, spine
of scapula; 3, acromion; i, humerus; i-', external condyle of humerus; 5,
external tuberosity of humerus; 6, deltoid tuberosity; 7, ulna; 8, olecranon;
9, radius; 10, carpus; 11, accessory carpal bone; 12, metacarpus; 13, pha-
langes; H, sternum; ly, manubrium; ly, xiphoid cartilage; 15, ihum;
16, external angle of ilium; 16', internal angle of ilium; 17, tuber ischii;
18, femur; 19, trochanter major; 20, patella; 21, tibia; 21', external condyle
of tibia; 22, tarsus; 23, distal end of fibula; 2^, tuber calcis; 25, metatarsus;
26, phalanges. (After Ellenberger-Baum, Anat. f. Kunstler.)
15
226 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
study of the skeleton and the outline drawing will indicate
quite vividly the relation of these parts. The head of the
beef animal is formed largely by the bony development of
this region. The variation from the form as examined on
the exterior is very slight from what would be found on
an examination of the bony framework beneath. The neck
is just the reverse, being formed largely by the muscles con-
stituting this part of the animal. Meat obtained from this
region, however, has a comparatively low market value.
The shoulders are also formed in a large measure by the
muscles composing this part. Although meat from this
region has a comparatively low value, it is important that
the shoulders be smooth and compact. Rough, open, thinly
covered shoulders are not only indicative of relatively
low muscle formation, but they are otherwise indicative
of coarse quality and a low dressing percentage. The body
proper is outlined largely by the rib development. This is
especially true in that part which is taken off with the fore-
quarter in carcass beef, this including all except the last rib,
which is usually left on the hindquarter. The hindquarters
of the beef animal contain a relatively large proportion of
the high-priced cuts because there is a relatively large pro-
portion of muscle to bone and the quality of the product is
superior to that in any other region. The region of the loin,
prime ribs, and thighs or round are especially valuable from
the market standpoint because of these factors. A clear
knowledge of this condition is, therefore, necessary to have
a broad understanding of the value of the carcass cuts and
the qualities or characteristics which indicate them in the
live animal.
Conformation. — The desired conformation of the beef
animal should be self-evident after the former consideration
of the main attributes which give value to the correlated
parts of the structure. The body should be long, wide,
deep, and low set. The back should be broad, thus desig-
nating the shape and turn of the ribs, which should be square,
and extend low to give depth of body. The coupling should
be short, the loin broad and deep, and the flank low. There
should be in all the close, compact condition which is
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 227
evidenced by the smooth, compact, even finish character-
istic of an animal best suited to market demands.
The head should be broad, long, and clearly outlined,
the muzzle large, and the eyes clear and prominent. The
neck should be short and compact and should blend evenly
into the head and shoulders. The width of the animal
should be uniformly developed from the forequarters to
the buttocks. The thighs should be broad and thick, the
quarters well filled, and the twist full and low.
Fig. 92.— Fat steer,
illustratin.n t liick-ilc<liiii;.
and. finish.
•haracteristics, quality
The most valuable cuts in the beef animal are taken from
the loin, ribs, and thighs. This makes it necessary to empha-
size the development of an animal in these regions. Coarse-
ness about the head, neck, and forequarters is objectionable,
as it still further reduces the value of the already cheapest
cuts, and, in addition, the value of the best cuts, because
of the close association with the value of these parts.
Such a condition usually has associated with it a narrow
back and loin, rough, undeveloped quarters, high flanks,
shallow body, and lack of natural flesh in general. The
228 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
final disposition of the beef animal is on the block, where
the crucial test is made. Lack of development in the parts
mentioned cannot fail to escape the eye of the butcher who
pronounces final judgment and who therefore signifies the
value of animals, this being based directly on their general
conformation as above described.
Fleshing Qualities. — In judging cattle it is not possible to
have too much natural flesh, meaning lean meat, providing
it is properly distributed. This is largely a factor which is
transmitted in the animal and should therefore be a guide
in selecting a breeding animal, as well as a block animal,
from which the most desirable returns are anticipated. A
clear distinction should be made between a wealth of natural
flesh and a soft, flabby covering which accumulates with
high feeding and excessive condition. In examining an
animal in the show ring the judge should search for those
points which will enable him to determine between fat
accumulation and natural flesh development. Patchiness,
soft, flabby flesh, rolls and ties, are very objectionable,
indicating lack of quality and the general smoothness
desired. These points are significant both in the breeding
animal and the feeder, as in the former such undesirable
qualities are transmitted and in the latter they are seriously
objectionable on the block. An animal either in high or low
fiesh should show a straight, even contour and be firm and
uniformly covered with flesh and fat.
Quality. — The flesh of the beef animal is one of the most
important products which enters into the trade for human
consumption. While a large percentage of the slaughtered
beef, especially that utilized on local markets, represents
the products from the lower grades of cattle, there are
other important markets to be supplied wherein the standard
of quality is an important consideration. This attribute
is essential, not only in the production of a better quality
of meat to satisfy the demands of the trade, but it is signifi-
cant of a generally higher price level for those producing it.
A clear-cut, refined animal possesses important attributes
which signify the presence of this characteristic.
The head should show clear-cut character, clean facial out-
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 229
lines, and a general expression of intelligence and thriftiness.
The bone should be smooth, hard, and dense, the skin of
medium thickness, pliable, and of a healthy color, and the
hair fine, straight, and uniformly covering the body. The
shoulder development is important, as roughness, openness
or coarseness are indicative of lack in general refinement and,
therefore, quality characterization. Large bone, undefined
joints and a coarse-textured horn, are likewise indicative of
Tk.. \Jo.—Y
.>iccr ili-iliajjL-d aud lackiii
(Photograph by author.)
ill natural flesh.
inferior quality. The presence or absence of these character-
istics in general determines the degree of quality or general
refinement which an animal possesses. A close, compact,
symmetrical development throughout, which condition is
indicated by head and facial development, bone formation,
and the condition of the skin and hair, is indicative of an
animal qualified to fulfill the requirements of the breeder,
feeder, or the butcher.
Constitution. — Indications of constitution are not only im-
portant to the breeder because of hereditary qualifications,
230 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
but also to the feeder in preparing an animal for market. It
has been mentioned that there are certain portions of the
animal which are equally important from the viewpoint of
the producer, the feeder, and the butcher. Constitution is
one of these attributes which must be possessed not only
to reproduce strong, thrifty, individuals, but also to
render the feeding animal of greater significance in the
process of market preparation. Weak constitution and
low vitality are the bane of both the breeder and the
feeder.
The indications of constitution are significant in the
head and chest development. The head should be strong,
clean and impressive, the nostrils large and open, the muzzle
large and broad, the forehead broad and the chest full and
deep. This insures a large girth measurement within which
the vital organs have ample opportunity to perform their
normal functions. If for any reason the natural process
of these organs is interfered with it results in low vitality.
Such a condition is especially marked about the head. The
eyes become dull and sunken, the skin dry and harsh, and
the hair deficient in the normal amount of secretion. There
is a characteristic appearance in any animal possessing
strong constitutional development. Animals possessing these
attributes have strong, vigorous bodies, thus insuring a
robust animal capable of reproducing or finishing for the
block in a most satisfactory manner.
Nervous Development.- — The evidences of nerve develop-
ment are very strikingly portrayed in comparing the beef
arid dairy animal. The former usually maintains a quiet,
satisfied attitude regardless of environment. The beef
animal is thus described as being lymphatic or comparatively
low in nerve force or nerve development. In the dairy
animal there is an alertness and activity very different from
that exemplified in the beef animal. A highly developed,
nervous organization portrays activity such as that mani-
fested by the dairy animal in utilizing the feed to the best
advantage for milk-productive purposes. The beef animal,
on the contrary, having a low nervous development uses the
food for storing fat on the body. The two conditions are
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE IXDUSTRY 231
strikingly significant of what animals will do when placed in
their respective conditions for work.
Weight and Maturity. — From the standpoint of the breeder,
a beef animal matures when three years of age. However,
the same animal may be matured when from twelve months
or thereabout to two years of age from the standpoint of the
feeder and market requirements. Animals finished at the
former age or somewhat older, go on the market as baby beef.
This is a very desirable method of finishing these animals,
especially if the dealer caters to a fancy trade. Whether
this is a wise practice is dependent on the feeder and his
markets largely. While this is a problem which does not
concern the judge of animal form, it is important to have
a clear understanding of the attributes of early maturity
in animals used in the various fields of the breeder, the
feeder, and the packer. From the standpoint of the breeder
proper, maturity has reference to the time when an animal
attains its normal weight and development. This is largely
a matter of age, methods of maintenance, and care and
handling, problems which do not aftect the consumer of
the product.
One of the important requisites of a beef animal is that
they show in their structural make-up an inclination to
develop rapidly and mature at an early age. This is im-
portant, either in the breeding or feeding animal. Weight
for age in either case is important. Late-maturing qualities
are very objectionable and should be bred out by the selec-
tion of animals having an inclination to develop their normal
size at an early period in life. Evidences of this character-
itsic are indicated in a broad, deep muzzle, a wdde, intelligent
head, a bright, placid eye, a deep, broad, chest; a square,
compact body; full hindquarters with compactness, sym-
metry, and correlation of parts throughout. The reverse
of these conditions is indicative of late maturity, a con-
dition which not only makes the growing of beef cattle
unprofitable but hinders as well the production of the
highest class of beef products. Normal development at an
early age is not only important to the breeder, but to the
feeder, and indirectly to the consumer, as these character-
232 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 233
istics indicate quality in carcass beef. Animals produced
with these attainments will not only be more profitable to
the producer and feeder, but more satisfactory to the trade.
Capacity. — The usefulness of a beef animal is measured
by its power to consume feed and convert it into the proper
material for body maintenance and development. The
breeding animal should have capacity as applied both to
reproduction and body development. This condition, there-
fore, should be doubly emphasized in such animals. The
capacity is dependent largely on the body development,
the blood supply, and the health and vigor manifested. A
narrow, shallow-bodied animal or one with an insufficient
blood supply cannot be healthy and vigorous, and conse-
quently cannot have the capacity for consuming and manu-
facturing feed into the ultimate material needed for body
growth and development. Capacity is cjuite closely correlated
with constitution and the general conformation of the animal.
The one condition should be indicative of the other. Lack
of capacity is usually associated with lack of constitution
and reproductive development. Its application is far-reach-
ing in studying animals from these two viewpoints.
Condition. — Condition is significant of the quantity of fat
deposited in the muscular tissues and over the body of
an animal. While breeding stock is frequently placed in
high condition for the show ring it is generally recognized
that when a breeding herd is maintained in moderate con-
dition the results are more satisfactory. Market animals,
however, should be fitted in high condition, although many
of them are marketed without having acquired sufficient
fat to make them sell most advantageously. A good quality
of meat is obtained only when the fat is properly interspersed
through the muscular tissues and over the outside of the
carcass. Animals may be overfinished, however, which
detracts greatly from their value. This condition is more
frequently met with in the show ring.
The indications of finish or condition are quite numerous;
however, there are certain fixed attributes which are indicative
of this qualification. A finished animal has a round, smooth,
plump body in contradistinction to the thin body, showing a
234 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
decided lack of muscle and fat development. The most char-
acteristic specific indications are a fulness at the tongue root,
a well-filled shoulder vein, a low and well-filled flank, and a
firm, well-filled cod or purse.
Fig. 95. — Showing a beef carcass from the viewpoint of the butcher
(Courtesy Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station.)
Dressing Percentages. — The dressing percentage of carcass
beef varies from 45 to 65 per cent. Animals occasionally
dress as high as 70 per cent, or over. Such animals, however.
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 235
are the result of exceptionally high fitting which does not
always involve a profitable transaction. The dressing per-
centage of an animal varies with the type, age, conformation,
quality, and finish or condition.
Considerable stress should be placed on the probable out-
come of an animal on the block. However, high finish does
not always indicate that an animal will be profitable from the
block standpoint. This is dependent on the ultimate dress-
ing percentage. An animal to dress well should be square,
low set, deep, broad in the body, compact and smooth,
with a relatively large amount of the weight placed in the
regions which sell for the highest market price. A good
feeding animal should have capacity, yet with all it should
be trim and free from excess offal. A heavy-shouldered
animal, low in the back, and inclined to be paunchy will not
dress a high percentage. Such a condition is usually indica-
tive of flat ribs, a large paunch, and excess weight in the waste
or cheap parts. Animals making the highest dressing per-
centage conform to the block or rectangular, low set, broad,
arched rib, deep-bodied sort.
Marbling of Meat. — The marbling of meat is indicative
of the interspersion of fat between the muscular tissues.
EXPANATION OF FIG. 95.
1, 2, 3— Round. 9— Flank.
4, 5, 6— Loin. 10, 11— Plate.
7— Rib. 12— Shank.
8— Chuck. 13 — Suet.
1 — Hind shank. 6 — Pinbone loin.
2 — Round, R and S, off. 5, 6 — Flatbone loin.
3 — Rump. 10 — Navel.
4, 5 — Loin end. 11 — Brisket.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 — Hindquarters.
7, 8, 10, 11, 12— Forequarter.
7, 8— Back.
7, 10— Piece.
8, 11, 12— Kosher chuck.
8, 10, 11, 12— Triangle.
a — Aitch-bone. e — Chine-bones.
h — Rump-bone / — "Buttons."
c — Crotch. g — Skirt.
d — Cod h — Breast-bone.
236 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
This condition is reached when an animal is properly finished
for the block. While one animal or one breed may marble
Fig. 96. — Porterhouse cut, showing marbling and desirable amount of
fat covering.
Fig. 97. — Prime or standing rib, including portion between loin and chuck.
better than another, the condition is necessary to give meat
its best quality. In conjunction with the marbling there
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 237
should be a uniform pad of fat over the outside of the body
to protect the meat and retain its succulence when in the
dressed-carcass condition. It requires in addition a certain
amount of fatty tissue to add succulence and flavor to meat.
\.\'«
"^ J .
4 I ,
ffump
I ffomp .
Round rump S shank off
£, Round ^fe^k, firjf cu/
J-/J ITOLind steaks.
14 Raand Sfcok. /asf cut.
15 Kni/cf</e ^oop bone
/o Pot roast
f^ind shank.
IZ/.^Joup bones
IS fiocA soup bone
Loitv
3u/t-end sirlom Jteok.
Wedge - bor?e 3ir/oin j/eak ■
J; 4 Pound -bone
5,6 Double -bone
7 Hip -bone
S /i/p -bone Rarterhause .steo
9-15 Recjulcir ••
~ /6-ia Club sreak^
FLAt/K
I Flonk sfeoM
f^OR£ QUARTER
Rib
I ll'-l! A 121" R.'b roast.
£. S'JiS JOtt-
J I'i & B'i>
4 gU - -
Chuck
I 5ti R/b roasf
£-9 Chuck st^oMs
10 -IJ Pot roasts
/-3- Clod
/.:>: Nack
PLAT£
I I}ri.sMet
3,-4- R,b end.',
fXtflE .SHANK
I .3tew
£ Knuckle .^oup hone.
J-6 3oup bones
■ RETAIL • CUT3 ■ OF ■ BEEF ■
Fig. 98. — Retail cuts of beef. (Couitesy Illinois Agricultural Experiment
Station.)
Percentage of Different Cuts of Beef. — Judging a beef
animal accurately for a given purpose necessitates a knowl-
edge of the location and relation of the various regions of the
animal. These regions are defined by certain rather uni-
238 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
versa! market terms which are designated in the following
tables. While the way in which a carcass is cut may influence
the value of the various market cuts, the value of the sum
total will not be materially altered. Most every large city
has its method of cutting a beef carcass for wholesale and
retail purposes.
The following table is a record of results obtained from a
cutting test and shows the percentage of "Chicago cut"
meat with square-cut chucks. This shows the different cuts
which are obtained from a carcass and the proportionate
amount of each obtained, based on the total weight:
Cuts. Per cent.
Chucks 28.00
Rounds -. . . 23.00
Navel 8.00
Flanks 2.00
Flank steaks .50
Kidney -25
Ribs ■ 10.00
Loins 15.00
No. 2 suet .50
No. 1 suet 3.00
Shanks 4.00
Brisket 5.00
Necks .75
Total 100.00
It is thus seen from this table that the two most valuable
parts, the loins and ribs, constitute only one-fourth of the
total weight of the carcass. The rounds and chucks each
constitute approximately one-fourth the total weight of
the carcass, leaving the other one-fourth to be distributed
among the lowest priced cuts which include the navel,
flanks, shanks, neck, and brisket.
The following table shows in a more condensed form the
percentage of the parts of the beef animal grouped more
nearly according to their market value. This table is
representative of the cuts made Philadelphia style:
Cuts. Per cent.
Rump and round 34 . 00
Rattler (Chuck, plate, brisket and shank) . . 44.00
Ribs and loins 22.00
Total 100.00
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 239
Fig. 99. — Sirloin or loin end.
Fig. 100.— Round representing the principal thigh cut.
240 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
This grouping represents three rather distinct portions of
the beef animal. The rattler which includes the chuck, plate,
brisket, and shank, includes the cheaper and less desirable
Fig. 101. — Chuck cut taken off between fifth and sixth ribs. (Photograph
by author.)
parts of the animal. The rump and round, combined
constitute about one-third the total weight, while the ribs
and loins combined constitute slightly less than one-fourth
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 241
of the total weight. It is thus seen that the proportionate
amounts of the parts designated in the two tables vary
somewhat with the method of making the cuts. Based on
the universal practice of cutting meat, the former table
represents more nearly the usual method of preparing or
cutting the beef animal for block-distribution purposes.
Determination of Age. — Like the horse, the age of cattle
can be determined by observing the eruption and appearance
of the milk and permanent incisor teeth. While the age
can thus be determined very satisfactorily, it is only in rather
exceptional instances that the teeth are used as an index in
arriving at the age attained. The teeth of cattle are some-
FiG. 102. — Chucks, showing some of the cheaper cuts of beef.
(Photograph by author.)
what different from those of the horse, as the incisors, eight
in number, appear only in the lower jaw. The teeth are
not firmly imbedded in the jaw as in the horse, but are rather
set in cartilage, so as to allow of rather free movement.
As the teeth are not opposed by incisors in the upper jaw,
this is necessary. Instead of having teeth in the upper jaw,
it is provided with a pad or cushion for crushing the feed
when opposed by the incisors in the lower jaw.
The two sets of incisor teeth appear in cattle in the follow-
ing order, and it is by this eruption and appearance that the
age may be determined up to about the ten-year stage.
At birth the calf usually has four incisors, the third pair
appearing about the tenth or twelfth day, and the corner
pair from the latter time up to the thirtieth day or there-
16
242 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
abouts. The permanent central incisors appear from eigh-
teen to twenty months, the first intermediates at twenty-four
to thirty months, the second intermediates at thirty-six
to forty-two months, and the corners from forty-five to
fifty-four months. These are designated as the one, two,
three, and four-year stages.
At five years the central incisors have begun to wear and
at six years they are worn level. At this stage both pairs
of the intermediates are partly worn and the corners have
commenced to wear. At seven years the first pair of inter-
mediates is worn completely and the second pair is worn
considerably. When the eight-year stage is reached the
tables of all the teeth are worn level and a concavity appears
in the central incisors. At nine years this concavity appears
in the first intermediates and at ten years in the second
intermediates.
From this stage the age may be determined by the general
condition of the animal, by the general alterations which
occur in the teeth, or by the horns as described in the fol-
lowing paragraph :
Indication of Age hy Horns. — The age of cattle possessing
horns may be determined by the rings which appear at the
base. The first ring appears at about three years of age.
Each year a new ring develops, thus indicating the age by
adding two to the number of rings which are in evidence.
One ring, for example, indicates a three-year-old and two
rings a four-year-old animal.
Structural Form and Examination. — The following attri-
butes of form are of special significance in determining the
qualifications of beef-producing animals. These apply
with equal significance to both breeding and fat animals,
with the exception of the sex characteristics, which should
be developed in the former.
Head. — ^The head of the beef animal should be broad,
deep, and have length in proportion, this being a good
indication of thriftiness and feeding capacity. There should
be good width between the eyes, thus showing intelligence.
The angle of the jaw should be wide to allow free respira-
tory action. The head should be neat, trim, and the general
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 243
expression should indicate intelligence. A well-formed head
is indicative of various attributes such as quality, feeding
capacity, intelligence, breed t^^pe, and general refinement.
Eyes. — The eyes should be large, clear, and bright, this
being a good indication of constitution, healthfulness, and
breeding capacity. A small, sunken eye indicates low vitality
and possibly disease.
Ears. — The ears should be medium in size and covered
with fine, mossy hair. A medium-sized ear with fine, silky
hair is indicative of quality, the opposite condition showing
coarseness and lack of refinement.
Horns. — In horned breeds the horns should be fine in texture
and free from a rough, dry, scaly condition.
Poll. — The width of the poll is dependent upon the natural
presence or absence of horns. In polled breeds there is a ten-
dency for the poll to assume a comparatively narrow, pointed
condition.
Muzzle. — The muzzle should be broad and deep, as the
size of it is indicative of constitution and capacity. A
small, pointed muzzle is characteristic of an animal with
low vitality and faulty breeding or feeding qualities. The
nostrils should be large and open. The muzzle should
broaden toward the extremity, such a condition indicating
strong, vigorous breeding and feeding capacity.
Neck. — The neck should be short, broad, deep, and
blend evenly and smoothly into the shoulders. Coarseness
indicated by the presence of loose folds about the neck,
dewlap or brisket is very objectionable. Unnecessary
appendages of this character decrease the dressing per-
centage. The junction of 4he neck with the head should
be smooth, the throat-latch being free from loose folds
of skin. The junction at the neck should show smooth-
ness and refinement. The crest should be absent in the
female.
FoREQUARTEES. — The forcquartcrs include the shoulders,
shoulder vein, brisket, feet, and legs. The shoulders should
be broad, smooth, and evenly laid in, there being no tendency
to openness or a light-fleshing quality. Undue prominence
of the shoulder-blades and the resulting open formation indi-
244 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
cate coarseness of quality. The smoothness and compactness
of the top of the shoulder should likewise characterize the
sides of same. The shoulders should blend evenly into the
body proper, there being no tendency to depressions in the
crops or flanks.
Shoulder Vein. — The shoulder vein should be full, thus
giving smoothness of neck and shoulder development.
Brisket.— rThe brisket should be trim and neat, extending
forward sufficiently to give the animal proper conformation,
although this should not be extreme.
Legs. — The legs should be short, straight, and strong, with
dense, hard bone, this condition indicating quality. They
should set well apart and directly under the body. If they
are set too close together it is indicative of a narrow chest
and thus weak constitution and vitality. The feet should
be medium in size, and the animal should stand well up on
the toes.
Body. — The body proper includes the chest, back, ribs,
loin, underline, and flanks. The chest should be broad, deep,
and full. There is a marked difference in the chest of the
beef and the dairy animal. In the former, the width should
be the same through the crops and in the flank region, the
latter having an angular formation at the top, thus necessi-
tating greater width on the floor to obtain the desired chest
capacity. There should be no depression whatever back of
the shoulders. Full conformation in this region gives the beef
animal the most desirable attainments, from the butcher's
standpoint. A high flank is objectionable. Any noticeable
decrease in the body in the chest or flank region is indicative
either of low vitality or undesirable feeding qualities.
The value of a breeding or feeding animal is influenced
largely by the development of the bark because of the
relatively large proportion of high-priced cuts coming from
it. It should be straight, broad, and uniformly carried out
from the shoulders to the hindquarters. The amount and
character of natural flesh is important. The back should
be characterized by smooth, firm, uniform covering through-
out. A low, weak back is objectionable, as such a condition
is associated with a lack of form and symmetry in general
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 245
and otherwise indicates a low dressing percentage. Often
an animal so characterized is paunchy, this condition being
doubly antagonistic to beef-productive capacity.
The rihs should be long, arched, and thickly and smoothly
fleshed. They should be well sprung, coming squarely
from the back hone and extend low to give depth of body
and its accompanying capacity. Flat ribs are very objection-
able, usually being associated with animals of low vitality
and unthriftiness.
The loin contains the highest-priced cuts of the beef
carcass. It should be broad, long, level, and thickly fleshed,
thus giving the largest proportionate amount of meat from
this region.
The underline should be straight, trim, and parallel with
the top line. The fiends should be full, even, and extend low.
HiXDQUARTEKS. — The hindquarters include the hips, rump,
thighs, twist, and legs. The hips should be broad, smooth,
and level. The rump should be long, wide, the tail head
smooth and level, and the pin-bones wide apart. The animal
should be smooth and firm throughout this region. The
thighs should be broad, deep, and full, carrying well down
to the hocks. Long, narrow, incurving thighs in the beef
animal are seriously objectionable. Such an animal should
possess just the opposite condition, being fully developed
from every viewpoint. The twist should be deep and full. A
high twist is indicative of inferior fleshing qualities. A short
hindquarter with a drooping rump, and rough, prominent
development otherwise is extremely objectionable.
The legs should be wide apart, straight, short, and the
shanks fine and smooth. The bone should possess quality,
as indicated by density and texture. The feet should be
of medium size, well shaped, and the animal should stand
well up on the toes.
246 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
Score Card for Beef Cattle.
General Appearance— 40 Points. Perfect score.
Weight: score according to age 6
Form: straight topline and underline; deep, broad, low set,
stylish 10
Quality: firm handling, hair fine; pliable skin; dense bone;
evenly fleshed 10
Condition: deep, even covering of firm flesh, especially in
regions of valuable cuts 10
Temperament: lymphatic, inclined to fatten 4
Head and Neck — 7 Points.
Muzzle: broad; mouth large; jaw wide; nostrils large
Eyes: large, clear, placid
Face: short, quiet expression
Forehead: broad, full
Ears: medium size, fine texture
Horns: fine texture, oval, medium size
Neck: thick, short; throat clean
FoREQUARTERS — 8 Points.
Shoulder vein: full 2
Shoulder: covered with flesh, compact on top, smooth . 2
Brisket: advanced, breast wide 1
Dewlap: skin not too loose and drooping 1
Legs: straight, short; arm full; shank fine, smooth ... 2
Body— 32 Points.
Chest: fuU, deep, wide; girth large; crops full 4
Ribs: long, arched, thickly fleshed 8
Back: broad, straight, smooth, even 10
Loin: thick, broad 8
Flank: full, even with underline 2
Hindquarters — 13 Points.
Hips: smoothly covered; distance apart in proportion with
other parts 2
Rump: long, wide, even, tail head smooth, not patchy . 2
Pin-bones: not prominent, far apart 1
Thighs: f uU, deep, wide 2
Twist: deep, plump 2
Purse: full, indicating fleshiness 2
Legs: straight, short, shank fine, smooth 2
Total . . . • 100
Breed Characteristics. — The several breeds of beef and
dual purpose cattle are all characterized by rather significant
marks of size, color, form, and adaptation. The most
significant points are described in the following:
Shorthorn. — The Shorthorn breed of cattle originated in
the counties of York, Durham, and Northumberland, Eng-
land. The breed is one of the most interesting historically
of any of the beef breeds. The breed is characterized by
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 247
three distinct colors, red, white, and roan. Specimens of the
breed may be soHd red, soHd white, or a combination of
the two, forming large red-and-white body colors, the former
predominating, or an intermingling of these two colors, thus
giving the characteristic roan. The shades of roan vary
from light to dark. The weight of mature males ranges
from 1800 to 2200 pounds on the average, although these
weights are often exceeded. The horns are comparatively
short, usually curving forward and slightly downward. The
conformation of the animal adheres closely to the beef type,
Fig. 103.— Shorthorn bull.
although there are two rather sharply defined types. The
Scotch type of Shorthorn conforms closest to the beef type,
the Bates type representing an animal of both beef and milk-
producing qualities. The Shorthorn ranks high in quality,
and docility, and " nicks" well with common cattle. The
breed is adapted especially to rich pasture lands, although it
has a wide adaptation. The breed shows unusual refinement
and breed character.
Polled Durham. — The Polled Durham breed of cattle
is designated as single or double standard, according to
origin. The aim is to breed in them all of the characteris-
tics of Shorthorns excepting the horns. The head is the
248 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
same as that of the Shorthorn except the poll, which is gently
rounded at the crown. The single standard Shorthorn was
the first type of hornless Shorthorn in America. The breed
is the result of crossing pure-bred Shorthorn bulls on native
cows of hornless character. Animals bred in this way are
eligible for registration only in the Polled Durham Herd-
book. Cattle of this breeding, while having Shorthorn char-
acteristics, do not possess strong Shorthorn qualifications.
Double Standard Polled Durhams are descendants from
the cow, Oakwood Gwynne the Fourth, which was a regis-
I'l... 104.— Pulled Durban
Hill.
tered Shorthorn cow. This cow was practically polled and
when bred to Seventh Duke of Hillhurst, produced twin
female calves with polled heads. Animals descended from
this origin are known as double standard, as they are eligible
to registration, both in the Polled Durham Herdbook and
the American Shorthorn Herdbook. Animals of the Polled
Durham breed should have the color and other character-
istics of the Shorthorn breed. While not bred to as high
state of perfection as the breed from which they descended,
some excellent individuals have been produced, showing the
true polled character.
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 249
Aberdeen-Angus. — The Aberdeen- Angus breed originated
in Scotland in the counties of Aberdeen, Kincardine, and
Forfar. The breed is characterized by the absence of horns
and a sohd black color, with slight exceptions as given in the
standard of excellence. The weight of the males ranges
from 1700 to 2000 pounds on an average, many indi-
viduals exceeding this weight. In general conformation the
breed is quite typical of the characteristics of the beef ani-
mal. The form is inclined to be more cylindrical than in the
Shorthorn or Hereford. In quality and dressing percentages
the breed ranks high, having obtained numerous prizes.
Fig. 105 — Aberdeen-Angus bull.
both on foot and on the block for the possession of these
qualifications. The form is compact, low set, and animals
of the breed are characterized by a strong, vigorous con-
stitution. The breed ranks only fair in milking qualities,
not comparing favorably with the Shorthorn in this respect.
The possession of the unusually well-developed beef-produc-
ing qualities has been antagonistic to this end. In character
and general refinement the breed ranks high. The disposition
is inclined to be nervous. The body of the Aberdeen-
Angus has unusual depth, and the breed as a whole possesses
unusually early maturing qualities.
250 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Aberdeen-
Angus Cattle.
Bull.
Points.
Color. — Black. White is objectionable, except on the under-
line behind the navel, and there only to a moderate extent; a
white scrotum is most undesirable 3
Head. — Forehead broad; face slightly prominent, and tapering
toward the nose; muzzle fine; nostrils wide and open; distance
from eyes to nostrils of moderate length; eyes mild, full and
expressive, indicative of good disposition; ears of good medium
size, well set and well covered with hair; poll well defined, and
without any appearance of horns or scurs; jaws clean ... 10
Throat. — Clean, without any development of loose flesh underneath 3
Neck. — Of medium length, muscular, with moderate chest (which
increases with age), spreading out to meet the shoulders, with
full neck vein 3
Shoulders. — Moderately oblique, well covered on the blades
and top, with vertebrse or backbone slightly above the scapula
or shoulder-blades, which should be moderately broad ... 6
Chest. — Wide and deep; also round and full just back of elbows 10
Brisket. — Deep and moderately projecting from between the legs,
and proportionately covered with flesh and fat 4
Ribs. — Well sprung from the backbone, arched and deep, neatly
joined to the crops and loins 8
Back. — Broad and straight from crops to hooks; loins strong;
hook-bones moderate in width, not prominent, and well covered;
rumps long, fuU, level, and rounded neatly into hindquarters . 10
Hindquarters. — Deep and fuU; thighs thick and muscular, and
in proportion to hindquarters; twist filled out well in its "seam"
so as to form an even, wide plane between thighs .... 8
Tail. — Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a Une with the back
and hanging at right angles to it 3
Underline. — Straight as nearly as possible; flank deep and full 4
Legs. — Short, straight, and squarely placed; hindlegs shghtly
inchned forward below the hocks; forearms muscular; bones
fine and clean 4
Flesh. — Even and without patchiness 4
Skin. — Of moderate thickness and meUow touch, abundantly
covered with tliick, soft hair. (Much of the thriftiness, feeding
properties, and value of the animal depends upon this quality,
which is of great weight in the grazier's and butcher's judg-
ment. A good "touch" will compensate for some deficiencies of
form. Nothing can compensate for a skin hard and stiff. In
raising the skin from the body it should have a substantial, soft,
flexible feeling, and when beneath the outspread hand it should
move easily as though resting on a soft, cellular substance,
which, however, becomes firmer as the animal ripens. A thin,
papery skin is objectionable, especially in a cold climate) . . 10
General Appearance. — Elegant, well bred and masculine. The
walk square, the step quick, and the head up 10
Perfection 100
When bulls are exhibited with their progeny in a separate class,
add 25 counts for progeny.
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 251
Cow.
Points.
Color. — Black. White is objectionable, except on the underline
behind the navel, and there only to a moderate extent ... 2
Head. — Forehead moderately broad, and slightly indented;
tapering toward the nose; muzzle fine; nostrils wide and open;
distance from eyes to nostrils of moderate length; eyes full,
bright and expressive, indicative of good disposition; ears
large, slightly rising upward, and well furnished with hair;
poll well defined, and without any appearance of horns or scurs;
jaw clean 10
Throat. — Clean, without any development of loose flesh under-
neath 3
Neck. — Of medium length, spreading out to meet the shoulders,
with full neck vein 3
Shoulders. — Moderately obhque, well covered on the blades
and top, with vertebrae or backbone shghtly above the scapula
or shoulder-blades, which should be moderately broad ... 6
Chest. — Wide and deep; also round and full just back of elbows. 10
Brisket. — Deep and moderately projecting from between the
legs and proportionately covered with flesh and fat ... . 4
RiRS. — Well sprung from the backbone, arched and deep, neatly
joined to the crops and loins 8
Back. — Broad and straight from crops to hooks; loins strong;
hook-bones moderate in width, not prominent, and well covered;
rumps long, full, level, and rounded neatly into hindquarters . 10
Hindquarters. — Deep and full; thighs thick and muscular, and
in proportion to hindquarters; twist filled out well in its "seam"
so as to form an even plane between thighs 8
Tail. — Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a line with the
back and hanging at right angles to it 3
Udder. — Not fleshy, coming well forward in line with the body, and
well up behind; teats squarely placed, well apart and of good size 8
Underline. — Straight as nearly as possible; flank deep and full 4
Legs. — Short, straight, and squarely placed; hindlegs slightly
inchned forward below the hocks; forearms muscular; bones
fine and clean 3
Flesh. — -Even and without patchiness 3
Skin. — Of moderate thickness and mellow touch, abundantly
covered with thick, soft hair. (Much of the thriftiness, feed-
ing properties, and value of the animal depends upon this
quality, which is of great weight in the grazier's and butcher's
judgment. A good "touch" will compensate for some defi-
ciencies of form. Nothing can compensate for a skin hard and
stiff. In raising the skin from the body it should have a sub-
stantial, soft, flexible feeling, and when beneath the outspread
hand it should move easily as though resting on a soft, cellular
substance which, however, becomes firmer as the animal ripens.
A thin, papery skin is objectionable, especially in a cold climate) 10
General Appearance. — Elegant, well bred, and feminine. The
walk square, the step quick, and the head up 5
Perfection 100
In judging heifers, omit No. 12 and add 3 counts to No. 15 and 5
counts to No. 17.
252 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
Hereford. — The Hereford breed is characterized by an
unusually striking combination of colors. The body proper
is red; the head, top of neck, shoulders, over the crops,
lower part of the neck, brisket, floor of the body, the feet,
legs and switch are more or less characterized by white.
This varies somewhat. A medium shade of red is most
desirable, light colors being objectionable. The general ten-
dency is toward these marks, however, the principal variation
in color is in the regions mentioned other than the head.
This is one of the largest of the beef breeds, the weight of
Fig. 106.— Hereford bull.
males being from 1800 to 2400 pounds. The breed ranks
high as a meat producer, although there is some tendency
to lack of development in the hindquarters especially. In
milk production it is average. Herefords graze well on
rather sparse pasture and in this respect they are superior
to most of the other recognized beef breeds. The head of
the Hereford is square and broad, showing marked character
and refinement. The horns are fine, waxy, rather prominent,
and add much to the natural beauty of the breed. The
disposition of the Hereford is more nervous than the Short-
horn and less so than the Aberdeen-Angus. The quality is
usually superior, as shown in the condition of the hide, hair,
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 253
and bone development. The constitution and vigor of the
Hereford is a significant characteristic of the breed with-
standing the changes of cUmate on the range to a remarkable
degree.
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Hereford
Cattle.
Points.
Color. — ^Medium, deep, rich red, with white head, breast, belly,
crest, switch, and ankles 5
He.u). — Forehead broad and prominent, face short, shghtly
tapering toward nose; muzzle full; nostrils wide and open;
eyes large and expressive; ears of medium size, well set and well
covered with hair; horns of medium size; even color, coming
from head at right angles, set on level with crop, back and tail
head, curving forward and downward 8
Throat. — Cleah, without any excessive development of loose flesh
or fat underneath 2
Neck. — Short, neat, spreading out to meet shoulders, with full
neck vein, free from loose skin. (Males: neck muscular, with
full crest, according to age) 2
Shoulders. — ^Straight, round, full, smooth and well covered; top
of shoulder-blades slightly below vertebrae, good width on top . 6
Chest. — Wide, deep, round and full just back of shoulders . . 6
Brisket. — Deep and wide, moderately projecting, free from flabbi-
ness 2
Ribs. — Well sprung from backbone, close together, long and
arched, carrying the full width of shoulders and deeply and
smoothly covered 8
Back and Loin. — Broad, straight and heavily covered from
crops to hooks, hooks moderately wide and well covered . . 10
Rump. — Long, wide, smooth and well covered, carrying width in
proportion to width of back and hooks, joining smoothly into
quarters 5
Quarters. — Long, straight, muscular, fuU, deep and thick . 4
Thigh and Twist. — Fiill and thick, carried well down to hocks . 3
Tail. — Tail head level with line of back, tail dropping at right
angles to back line 1
LTnderline. — Straight; flanks deep and full 3
Legs. — Short, straight and squarely placed, perpendicular both
from side and end view, forearm muscular, bones strong and
clean 6
Flesh. — Deep, firm, smooth, uniform covering of all parts and
free from patchiness 8
Skin — Of moderate thickness, mellow, pliable and loose, abun-
dantly covered with long, thick, silky hair tj
General Appearance. — Vigorous, compact and symmetrical. ^
Bulls masculine and possesing an abundance of quaUty and
predominant breeding characteristics. Females matronly,
roomy, smooth, showing quality and feminine appearance
throughout 10
Weight. — Age and condition to be considered 5
Total 100
254 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
Galloway. — The Galloway breed originated in Scotland
in the counties of Wigton, Ayr, and Dumfries. The original
Galloway was characterized by a number of objectionable
points, principally in the lack of rib development and early
maturing qualities. The modern type of Galloway, however,
has been improved very much in these respects, representing
a comparatively compact, low set, thick-fleshed beef animal.
The weight of the males ranges from 1700 to 2000 pounds on
the average, cows weighing considerably less. This is one
of the smallest breeds of beef cattle not ranking with the
Fig. 107 — Galloway bull.
former three described in this respect. The breed is polled.
The standard color of the Galloway is solid black, although
white frequently occurs. The coat of hair is exceedingly
long, thick, curly, mossy, and evenly distributed, and for
this reason the hide is used in the manufacture of robes.
The quality is without objection, the bone being fine
and the skin mellow and elastic. The constitution is good,
the hardiness of the breed being especially significant in
its adaptation to colder, less protected conditions than the
other beef breeds. The Galloway ranks well in its meat-
producing qualities.
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 255
Standard of Excellence for Galloway Cattle.
Color. — Black, or black, with a brownish tinge. White markings
on feet, ankles or legs, or on any portion of the body above the
underline, are very objectionable.
Head. — Short and wide, forehead broad, crown wide and oval, not
rising to a point. Anj^ trace of scurs or horns debar an animal from
registration. Face clean, muzzle broad, and nostrils large.
Eye. — Large and prominent.
Ear. — Moderate in length and broad, pointing forward and upward,
with fringe of long hairs.
Neck. — Short, clean, and filUng into the shoulder in such a manner
as to make the neck and shoulder of fleshy animals appear moulded
as one piece. The top of the neck in line with the back in a female,
and in a male gradually rising with age.
Body. — Deep, wide, well rounded, moderate in length and symmetrical.
Shoulders.— Broad, but well laid into body, joining smoothly; com-
pact and deeply fleshed on top.
Ribs. — Deep and well sprung, crops deeply fleshed, making width of
shoulders and body at ribs uniform.
Hook-boxes. — Not prominent; in fleshy animals not visible.
Loin. — Moderate in length, wide and deeply fleshed.
Hindquarters. — Long, wide and well fUled.
Rump.— Straight, vnde, carrying width of bodv out uniformly. Well
filled with flesh.
Thighs. — Broad as viewed from side, thick as viewed behind; straight
and well let down at hock, rounded buttocks very objectionable.
Legs. — Short and clean, with fine bone.
Tail. — Set on straight and smoothly laid in with flesh at sides. A
high tail-head ver}' objectionable.
Skin. — Mellow and moderate in thickness.
H.UR. — Soft and wa\w, with mossy undercoat. Harsh or wiry hair is
very objectionable. " Curly hair, if soft, is not objectionable.
Points to be Avoided.
by the late JAMES BIGGAR, DALBEATTIE, SCOTLAND.
Long, narrow head with light crown.
Narrow, tapering muzzle.
Long, drooping ears.
Small, deep-set eyes.
Small, light neck.
Light, scraggy breast.
High, narrow shoulders.
Flatness behind shoulders.
Light fore or back ribs.
Square and prominent hook-bones.
High or drooping rumps.
Weak or slack loins.
Rounded buttocks.
Fleshy double thighs.
Big, coarse bones.
Thick, stiff skin.
Hard, wirj' hair without soft undercoat.
256 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
Sussex. — ^The Sussex breed of cattle is not of special
significance in beef production in this country. The native
home of the breed is in the county of Sussex, England. In
this country interests were centered in this breed largely in
Tennessee. The breed was first imported in 1884 by Mr.
Overton Lea who maintained quite a large herd. Later other
importations were made; however, the breed has not become
important. The size is comparable to the largest breeds of
beef cattle, the bulls attaining a weight equal to that of the
recognized breeds. The color of the Sussex is deep red and
it is characterized by horns of rather prominent develop-
ment. The body is capacious and low set, and while ranking
very favorably, the breed is not widely disseminated. The
form of the Sussex is reasonably blocky, thus meeting the
requirements of the typical beef animal to quite a marked
degree. The quality is somewhat deficient, the head, neck
and shoulder development especially showing an inclination
to coarseness. The breed is fair in milk-producing qualities.
Specimens of the breed graze well and mature early. The
chief criticisms of the breed are its coarseness and lack of
general refinement.
Dual Purpose Breeds. — The dual purpose breeds are
characterized by a two-purpose function — the production
of both meat and milk. Much has been said and written
about the merits of these breeds, at times favorable and again
unfavorable. While it is recognized that perfection of both
meat and milk-giving attributes cannot be reached in the
same animal, there is undoubtedly a place for the dual
purpose breeds on the small farms especially. Under such
conditions neither strict dairying nor beef production can
be made a specialty. A combination of the two, although
each showing comparatively lessened proficiency, seems to
more fully meet the needs of the smaller and more isolated
class of farmers. The three breeds of importance in helping
to meet these requirements are characterized as follows :
Shorthorn {Dual Purpose Type). — The Shorthorn breed
of cattle, formerly described under the beef type, is significant
in having a strain or family in the breed having well-developed
dual purpose characteristics. Animals partaking of these
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 257
qualities are often referred to as Bates-bred cattle because
of the particular attention which this breeder gave to milk-
giving characteristics in the breed. Shorthorns possessing the
dual purpose functions do not have the beef -producing quali-
ties which the specialized beef strains possess ; however, they
have a beef-producing conformation which is strikingly ex-
hibited in the offspring. Although not as early maturing
as the popular Scotch type of animals, the correlated func-
tions of meat and milk production are very acceptable. In
Fig. lOS. — Dual purpose 8hortlioru cow.
England large numbers of dual purpose Shorthorns are bred
because of their significant double-producing functions.
Numerous creditable records have been made which indi-
cate the possibility of developing Shorthorns in these two
capacities. There is probably no other beef breed which
will equal the Shorthorn in dairy performance, although
these qualities are not equally developed in all animals. In
selecting Shorthorns for milk and beef production, special
attention should be given to the type and breeding records.
The incorporation of Scotch or other blood with specific
meat-producing tendencies would of necessity unbalance the
17
258 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
dual purpose function. The general Shorthorn character
should be kept in mind in judging dual purpose animals of
the breed.
Red Polled. — The Red Polled breed is the most significant
breed which has been developed entirely for dual purpose
production. It is a native of Norfolk and Suffolk counties,
England, having become disseminated rather widely in certain
states in this country. The breed is characterized by a solid
red color, except white is permissible up to the navel and on
the switch. The breed possesses a polled head and a very
109.— Red Polled bull.
well-balanced dual purpose capacity. The type of this
breed varies considerably, this being a condition difficult
to govern in any dual purpose animal, not necessarily be-
cause of the breed but because of the likelihood of different
standards being maintained by various breeders. The
weight of mature males varies from 1800 to 2000 pounds
on the average. As would be expected in a dual pur-
pose animal the form is usually not as deep, broad, or
compact as in the special beef breeds. The Red Polled
is somewhat lacking in natural flesh and in the development
of the hindquarters. The quality is regarded as fair and the
temperament somewhat nervous. The chief objections to
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 259
the breed are the variation in type, the lack of uniform udder
development, and of good fleshing qualities. The teats are
objectionable because of the extreme variation in size. A
better -defined standard toward which breeders could work
would overcome a great many of the present faults of the
breed, and aid in its distribution.
Fi... 11(1. i;..I I>,,11, ,1 cow.
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Red
Polled Cattle.
Bull.
General Description.— Strong, impressive, low set, and of good
carriage. Weight 1800 pounds to 2000 pounds when mature
and nnished.
Color.— Any shade of red, the switch of tail may be white, with
some white runnmg forward to the navel. Nose of a clear flesh
color. Interior of ears should be of a :^ellowish, waxv color 2
Objections: An extreme dark or an extreme light red is not desir-
able. A cloudy nose or one with dark spots.
Head.— Wide, strong and mascuhne, relatively short. Poll
stronger and less prominent than in cow. Ears' of medium size
and well carried; eyes prominent; muzzle wide with large nostrils 12
Objections: Long, narrow, or lacking in masculine character
Neck.— Of medium length, fuU crest, of good thickness, strong,
or masculine appearance g
Shoulder.— Of medium thickness and smoothly laid, coming up
level with line of back g
Carried forward 27
260 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
Points.
Brought forward 27
Objections: Shoulder too prominent, giving the appearance of
weakness in heart girth, shoulder protruding above line of
back.
Chest. — Broad and deep, insuring constitution. Brisket promi-
nent and coming well forward 12
Back and Ribs. — Back medium long, straight and level from
withers to setting on of tail, moderately wide, with spring of
ribs starting from the backbone, giving a rounding appearance,
with ribs flat and fairly wide apart ........ 14
Objections: Front ribs too straight, causing depression back of
shoulders. Drop in back or loin below the top line.
Hips. — Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well covered ... 3
Quarters. — Of good length, full, rounding and level; thighs wide,
and moderately full, deep 6
Objections: Prominent hooks and sunken quarters.
Tail. — Tail-head strong and setting well forward, long and taper-
ing to a full switch 2
Legs. — Short, straight, squarely placed, medium bone ... 3
Objections: Hocks crooked; legs placed too close together.
Rudimentaries. — Large, wide apart, and placed well forward 12
Position of rudimentaries 6
Objections: Rudimentaries placed back on scrotum, or placed
itoo close together, indicating tendency to transmit badly formed
udders.
Hide. — Loose, mellow, flexible, inchned to thickness, with a good,
full coat of soft hair 5
Objections: Thin, papery skin or wiry hair.
Condition. — Healthy, moderate to liberal flesh evenly laid on;
glossy coat; animal presented in full bloom 10
Total 100
Disqualifications.
Scurs, or any evidence whatever of a horny growth on the head.
Any white spots on body above lower hne or brush of tail.
Cow.
Points.
General Description. — Medium wedge form, low set, top and
bottom lines straight except at flank; weight 1300 pounds to
1500 pounds when mature and finished.
Color.— Any shade of red. The switch of tail and udder may be
white with some white running forward to the navel. Nose of a
clear flesh color. Interior of ears should be of a yellowish, waxy
color 2
Objections: An extreme dark or an extreme light red is not desir-
able. A cloudy nose or one with dark spots.
Carried forward 2
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 261
Points.
Brought forward 2
Head. — Of medium length, wide between the eyes, sloping gradu-
ally from above eyes to poll. The poll well defined and promi-
nent, with a sharp dip behind it in center of head. Ears of
medium size and well carried. Eyes prominent; face well dished
between the eyes. Muzzle wide, with large nostrils ... 6
Objections: A rounding or fiat appearance of the poll. Head
too long and narrow.
Neck. — Of medium length, clean cut, and straight from head to
top of shoulder, with inclination to arch when fattened, and
may show folds of loose skhi underneath when in milking form 3
Shoulder. — Of medium thickness and smoothly laid, coming up
level with line of back 6
Objections: Shoulder too prominent, giving the appearance of
weakness in heart girth, shoulder protruding above line of back.
Chest. — Broad and deep, insuring constitution. Brisket promi-
nent and coming well forward 10
Back axd Ribs. — Back medium long, straight and level from
withers to setting on of tail, moderately wide, with spring of
ribs starting from the backbone, giving a rounding appearance,
with ribs fiat and fairly wide apart 14
Objections: Front ribs too straight, causing depression back of
shoulders. Drop in back or loin below the top line.
Hips. — Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well covered ... 3
Qu.ARTERS. — Of good length, full, rounding and level; thighs
wide, roomy, and not too meaty 6
Objections: Prominent hooks and sunken quarters.
Tail. — Tail-head strong and setting well forward, long and taper-
ing to a full switch 2
Legs. — Short, straight, squarely placed, medium bone ... 3
Objections: Hocks crooked; legs placed too close together.
Foreudder. — Full and flexible, reaching well forward, extending
down level with hindudder 10
HixDUDDER. — -Full and well up behind 10
Teats. — Well placed, wide apart, and of reasonably good size . 4
Objections: Lack of development, especially in forward udder.
Udder too deep, '"bottle-shaped," and teats too close together.
Teats unevenly placed and either too large or too small.
Milk Veins. — Of medium size, full, flexible, extending well for-
ward, well retained within the body; milk wells of medium size 6
Hide. — Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thickness, with a good,
full coat of soft hair 5
Objections: Thin, paper}' skin or wiry hair.
CoxDiTiON. — Healthy, moderate to liberal flesh evenly laid on;
glossy coat; animal presented in fuU bloom 10
Total 100
Disqualifications .
Scurs, or any evidence whatever of a horny growth on the head.
Any white spots on body above lower line or brush of tail.
262 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
Devon. — The Devon breed is a native of Devon and
Somerset counties England. It is characterized by a soHd
red color except for white around the udder and scrotum,
white being permissible in neither sex in front of the navel.
The shade of red varies from light to dark, the latter being
preferable. The muzzle should be flesh-colored, and the hair
around the eyes and muzzle a creamy tint. The weight of the
males ranges from 1500 to 2000 pounds; however, the latter
is somewhat excessive for average conditions. The horns are
1 l.--lJc\-i
rather long, spreading and upturned. The size of the horns is
medium, the l3ase light and waxy, and the extremities are of
a darker shade. The form of the Devon is rather low set,
the body deep, the ribs well sprung, and the heart girth
usually well developed. The breed is usually very refined, and
it possesses unusual activity, which is manifested especially
in the oxen quite generally used throughout the New Eng-
land States. The chief faults with the breed are the lack
of size, early maturity, and uniform milk-giving capacity.
The distinctive breed attributes are the color, horns, refine-
ment, and activity. INIore size would be acceptable, but
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY ' 263
breeders contend that to increase it would injure the quahty.
While the breed is quite widely disseminated it is not re-
garded as important except under special localized condi-
tions.
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Devon
Cattle
Bull.
Head.— Masculine, full and broad, tapering toward the nose,
which should be flesh-colored; nostrils high and open, muzzle
broad; eyes full and placid and surrounded with flesh-colored
nng; ears of medium size and thickness; horns medium size
growmg at right angles from the head, or slightly elevated,'
waxy at the base, tipped with a darker shade 10
Cheek. — Full and broad at root of tongue; throat clean ... 2
Neck. — Of medium length and muscular, widening from the head
to the shoulders, and strongly set on 4
Shoulders.— Fine, flat, sloping, and well fleshed; arms strong,
with firm joints g
Chest. — Deep, broad and somewhat circular . . . . . 10
Ribs.— Well sprung from the backbone, nicely ai'ched, deep, with
flanks fully developed 10
Back. — Straight and level from the withers to the setting on of
the tail; loin broad and full; hips and rump of medium width
and on a level with the back 20
Hindquarters. — Deep, thick, and square [ '_ 12
Tail.—- Well set on at a right angle with the back, tapering, with
a switch of white or roan hair and reaching the hocks ... 2
Legs.— Short, straight and squarely placed when \-iewed from
behind, not to cross or sweep in walking; hoof well formed 4
Skin. — Moderately thick and mellow, covered with an abundant
coat of rich hair of a red color; no white spot admissible unless
around the purse g
Size. — Minimum weight at 3 years of age 1400 pounds '. ' ' 4
Gener.^ Appear.ajn-ce.- As indicated by stylish and quick
movement, form, constitution, and vigor, and the underline
as nearly as possible parallel with the line of the back ... 8
Total 100
Cow.
Head. — Moderately long, with a broad indented forehead, taper-
ing considerably toward the nostrils; the nose of a flesh color,
nostrils high and open; the jaws clean; the eve bright, lively
and prominent, and surrounded by a flesh-colored ring; throat
clean; ears thin; the e.xpression gentle and intelligent; horns
rnatching; spreading and gracefully turned up, of a waxy color,
tipped with a darker shade ' s
Carried forward
264 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
Points.
Brought forward 8
Neck. — Upper line short, fine at head, widening and deep at
withers and strongly set to the shoulders 4
Shoulders. — Fine, flat and sloping, with strong arms and firm
joints 4
Chest. — Deep, broad, and somewhat circular in character . . 8
Ribs.— Well sprung from the backbone, nicely arched, deep, with
flanks fully developed 8
Back. — Straight and level from the withers to the setting on of
the tail, loin broad and full, hips and rump of medium width,
and on a level with the back 16
Hindquarters. — Deep, thick, and square 8
Udder. — Not fleshy, coming well forward in line with the belly
and weU up behind; teats moderately large, and squarely placed 20
Tail. — Well set on at a right angle with the back, tapering with
a switch of white or roan hair and reaching the hocks ... 2
Legs. — Straight, squarely placed when viewed from behind, not
to cross or sweep in walking; hoof well formed 4
Skin. — Moderately thick and mellow, covered with an abundant
coat of rich hair of a red color; no white spot admissible, except
the udder 8
Size. — Minimum weight at 3 years of age, 1000 pounds ... 2
General Appearance. — As indicated by stylish and quick move-
ment, form, constitution and vigor, and the underline as nearly
as possible parallel with the line of the back 8
Total 100
Class Characteristics. — From the standpoint of the judge,
cattle may be divided into fat, feeder, stocker, young stock,
or calves, and breeding animals which should possess the
following characteristics :
Fat Cattle. — Fat cattle, which includes steers usually,
are judged largely on their conformation, quality, and
condition. This class of animals is further divided into
grades, ranging from inferior to choice. A consideration
of these grades, however, is not important at this time.
While it is desirable for the fat animal to possess the same
form as the highly developed breeding animal, their con-
dition is of fundamental importance, especially from the
market standpoint. Show ring fat cattle should possess
faultless conformation and quality as w^ell as condition.
The inferior grades of fat cattle will, of necessity, possess
serious faults. However, proper fitting will give them
acceptable condition and value.
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 265
A steer may be ideal from the standpoint of form alone,
but unless it is accompanied by the proper amount of con-
dition or fat, it would be eliminated from a place in a fat
class for this reason alone. The fat animal should be long,
broad, deep and low set; the top and underline should be
straight and parallel, the ribs well sprung, the loin broad
and thick, the coupling short, and the twist well filled. The
head should be broad and long, the muzzle prominent, the
eyes large, clear and bright, the neck short and full and
evenly blended with the shoulder.
The condition of a fat animal may be determined, first,
by the general appearance, including symmetry and smooth-
ness, and lastly by an examination of the tongue root, which
should be full and firm. The flanks should be low and well
filled and the cod or purse fully distended with fat. The
back, loin and ribs should be deeply and uniformly covered.
The amount of fat may be determined by passing the hand,
palm down, along the back and sides which should be deeply
and smoothly covered if the animal is in high condition.
Rolls, ties or patches are objectionable to the extent of
their occurrence. A true, well-balanced trim animal, with
a minimum of waste is the ideal for the feeder and the
butcher.
Feeders. — Feeder cattle should be of similar form to fat
animals except for the condition or fat accumulation.
Ordinarily such animals are lacking materially in fat, this
depending, however, on the way in which they have been
handled. Strictly speaking, an animal is a feeder until
it has accumulated a sufiicient amount of fat to place it in
the most desirable market condition. Usually animals
which class as feeders have only a limited amount of fat,
the result of ordinary feeding or grazing conditions on the
range or farm.
The lines of the animal should be straight, the form
square, low set and it should possess quality and a sufficient
amount of constitution to get the best results under feed
lot conditions. Otherwise, constitution is not of special
significance in an animal of this type. Feeders should
possess all the requisites of the fat animal except for fat
266 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
EVOLUTION OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 267
accumulation, which, is the ultimate purpose for purchasing
such animals. The feeder is the prospect and the finished
animal the product of the stockman's goal. The desirability
of the form and finish of the fat animal is directly dependent
on the kind of animal selected in the beginning.
Stockers. — Stocker cattle should be the same in type and
breeding as feeders or fat animals, although the grades may
vary likewise. Stockers are young animals, ordinarily
yearlings, which are wintered on roughage, grazed the
following summer and finished for market usually during
the fall and winter period, though sometimes finished in
summer. The stocker should possess all the attributes of
the feeder or fat animal except age and condition. Con-
siderable attention should be given to the outcome. The
desirability of the stocker is determined by the market grade
of the animal, which ranges from inferior to choice. Like
feeders and fat animals they may be either pure bred or
grades from some of the prominent beef breeds, most of them
coming under the grade class. It is only in selecting animals
for some special purpose, like feeding, and later fitting for
some of the large stock shows, that pure breeds are likely
to be used. Even then many of the best-fitted animals are
of grade origin. In selecting a stocker constitution is usually
of somewhat greater importance than in the feeder or fat
animal.
Calves. — Calves are subject to judging for future use on
the same basis as discussed under stocker, and feeder
cattle. They should possess quality, constitution, and
vigor, a full, square form, and show evidence of develop-
ment in a square frame, a strong bone, a deep, uniform
amount of natural flesh, and capacious feeding qualities.
Evidence of continuous thrift should be apparent. Young
animals with small bone, cramped heart girth and upstand-
ing, shallow bodies seldom develop into thrifty specimens.
In judging calves a great deal of stress should be placed on
the outcome or future usefulness. The small, fat, sleek-
bodied calf seldom develops into a large, thrifty, capacious
animal. One with a square, compact form, although some-
what inclined to be rough, will usually make good growth
268 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
and develop into an animal at least with acceptable form
and quality. Calves should show every evidence of early
maturity and natural fleshing qualities.
BREEDING ANIMALS.
Breed Type. — In selecting a breeding animal of pure
lineage, the breed type should receive first consideration.
If the animal is lacking in any substantial breed character-
istics this is sufficient to cause severe discrimination. Animals
which are maintained for the reproduction of pure-bred
animals should possess the accepted form and features
maintained by the breeders or the organization which cham-
pions the cause of the breed. An animal which fails to con-
form to breed type is not only at fault itself, but the faulty
characters will be reproduced and thus magnify the condition.
In establishing a pure-bred herd the type accepted for a
foundation should stand for some definite purpose. The
breed which is making the greatest headway is the one
which has embodied in it the fundamentals necessary for
accomplishing the specific purpose in view. If the aim is
to breed high-class, pure-bred animals the best is none too
good. Unless animals can be produced which satisfy the
critical breeder or feeder, it is useless to spend money toward
this end. To do this involves a knowledge of breed type or
character. The student or purchaser should therefore be
familiar with the attributes or type qualifications, which
should be an embodiment of correlated utility functions.
Conformation. — The breeding animal is not materially
different from the type described under Beef Conformation.
The breeding animal, however, should possess scale, an
abundance of constitution, and show evidence of capacity
both in the digestive and reproductive systems. The con-
stitution should be unusually well developed because of the
long period of usefulness in these animals. A long, deep,
roomy barrel in the breeding female is important, although
symmetry and quality should conform with the other
requisites of the animal. Males should show strong repro-
ductive qualities in the head and crest, and females evidence
BREEDING ANIMALS
269
of a^ strongly developed reproductive system and milking
qualities. In the female the hindquarters should be long,
level, the thighs broad, and the hook points rather prominent
when the animal is in medium flesh. The latter attribute
is indicative of strong maternal qualities.
Constitution and Vigor. — All breeding animals should be
qualified with unusual indications of strong bodies and
natural vigor. Such animals, very much unlike fattening
animals, must undergo a severe strain incident to re-
rujigc!.! ouuaiiiuauu.
production. This requires an unusual amount of vitality
for best results. These characteristics are indicated in the
large, broad muzzle, broad, clear-cut head, bright, prominent
eyes, and a deep, full chest. A capacious," compact yet
roomy body is also indicative of this qualification. Consider-
ation of these points is vital in selecting breeding animals.
Temperament. — Temperament has reference to the develop-
ment of the nervous system or the amount of nerve force.
In beef cattle the temperament should be lymphatic, which
signifies rapid fattening propensities. In animals maintained
for breeding purposes activity and thrift should be closely
270 JUDGING BEEF AND DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE
associated with this attribute, although not to the extent
of depreciating the normally accepted qualification. Any
indication of nervousness in a beef animal is seriously
objectionable, although some excellent beef animals are dis-
posed to have this fault. Such a condition is antagonistic
to rapid fleshing qualities. Breeding animals should possess
a bold, stylish carriage, although the temperament should be
lymphatic, thus indicating easy handling and management.
A sluggish temperament is very objectionable.
Sex Characteristics. — The sex of a breeding animal should
be shown by a glance at the head and neck. The bull
should be strong in the head, although there should be
every evidence of style and refinement. The neck should
be short, thick, and the crest well developed, although not
to a disproportionate extent. The body should be broad,
deep, long and compact, indicating the transmission of
weight and early maturing qualities. Indication of feminine
characters should be disqualifying marks. Delicacy of
constitution and lack of capacity are serious faults.
The head of the female should be finer and cleaner cut
than in the male. Any indication of masculinity is very
objectionable. There should be an expression of refinement
in the head which should characterize the entire animal.
There should be no indication of crest development. The
head, neck and shoulders should be on a level, there being
neither a rise nor a depression in the lines of these parts.
The mammary system should be well developed, although in
beef animals it is not expected that extraordinary evidences
of milk-producing capacity will be present. There should
be sufficient development, however, to nourish the calf
until its growth and development can be cared for otherwise.
Evidences of masculinity in the male and femininity in the
female should be readily apparent.
CHAPTER XL
JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE.
Purpose of the Dairy Animal. — The purpose of the dairy
animal, and therefore the fundamental factors in judging,
are strikingly different from any other farm animal. The
indications of intrinsic value and capacity are determined
from an entirely different viewpoint than in judging the horse
or block animals. The form is not only different but its
associated attributes for attainment of purpose are deeper
lying than in other animals. From the standpoint of
capacity the development of the vital organs are of much
greater importance in the dairy animal than in any other.
For example, the direct association of the circulatory system
with milk-giving capacity, which is the important and one
vital attainment of the dairy animal, represents quite
forcibly the depth of this statement. Without a strong cir-
culatory system, whereby the food can be manufactured into
milk through the various processes of digestion, absorption,
and assimilation the capacity of the dairy animal would be
limited. The limitation would depend on the degree of
development of the circulatory system. An animal with a
weakened system would have low vitality and therefore
not only would it be limited in point of present attainment,
but the durability and persistency of production would be
lessened in the ofTspring.
As the dairy animal gives off the products of food diges-
tion, absorption and assimilation, daily the natural result
would be an animal with the spare, open conformation such
as the dairy animal possesses. The block animals, which
accumulate the products of the manufactured food, assume
an entirely different form. Instead of the food products
being given off daily there is an accumulation on the body
of the animal, based on dry matter, a similar or like amount
(271)
272
JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
«^ ^ to K)
DAIRY FORM
273
of manufactured food materials. We have, therefore, the
two distinct types, one eUminating from the body through
the mammary system and the other accumulating the prod-
ucts in the bone and muscular tissues, the former being
represented in the dairy animal and the latter in the block
animal.
Dairy Form, — The type of a typical dairy cow presents a
striking contrast to meat-producing animals. This is only
natural, however, considering the peculiar nature of the work
to be performed. In all other food-producing animals the
effect of food consumption is cumulative, the digested por-
tions of the food eaten being stored in the body of the animal.
The square, blocky, compact form produces the most econom-
ical results from a meat-productive standpoint because the
maximum amount of the manufactured product can be
stored under such conditions. Likewise the dairy type of
animal produces the largest quantity of milk because of the
adaptation of the triangular or wedge-shaped form to milk
production. The dairy animal does not have need for a
broad, smooth, compact shoulder, back, loin, or thighs.
The one great work of this type of animal is to produce,
through the digestive and mammary systems, the maximum
amount of milk possible under the conditions of individual
form, kind and quantity of feed consumed and general care
and management. This necessitates a striking contrast in
the development of the body of beef and dairy animals.
EXPLANATION OF FIG. 114.
1— Mouth.
2 — Nostrils.
.3 — Muzzle.
4 — Face.
5 — Eyes.
6 — Forehead.
7 — Ears.
8— PoU.
9 — Horns.
10 — Jaws.
11 — Dewlap.
12 — Brisket.
13— Neck.
18
14— Withers.
15— Crops.
16 — Shoulders.
17— Heart girth.
18 — Foreflank.
19— Legs.
20 — Feet.
21 — Dew claws.
22 — Belly or underline.
23 — Mammary orifices
or wells.
24 — Mammarj' veins.
25 — Fore udder.
26— Teats.
27 — Barrel.
28— Back.
30 — Hindflank.
31 — Hook points.
32— Tail-head.
33 — Pin-bones or thurls.
34 — Rump.
35 — Escutcheon.
36— Tail.
37— Thighs.
38— Hind udder.
39— Switch.
274 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
The digestive system and the mammary system are
indirectly related to the production of muscle which
constitutes the food product in the block animal. This
fact is emphasized in the spare form and the nervous develop-
ment of the dairy animal which shows that the feed eaten is
not stored on the body, but rather manufactured into milk
through the digestive, circulatory, and mammary systems.
The large capacious barrel for feed consumption, the strongly
developed circulatory system indicated in the eyes, chest, and
general vigor displayed by the animal and the well-developed
mammary system are the three vital attributes for the
maximum production of milk.
A strong constitution indicates durability and vitality,
which are essential in any animal, constantly drawing
on its own food resources. A strong blood circulatory
system indicates health, vigor, and the proper distribution
of the digested materials taken from the feed, while a large
and well-developed mammary system is indicative of a
capacious manufacturing plant for milk elaboration. When
these factors or parts of the animal are properly developed
they form distinguishing features of unusual significance.
The wedge-shaped form of the dairy cow is significant in
its indication of capacity, mammary development, and
nerve force or nerve temperament. Each part of the
animal has its own important part in milk production. Any
one part removed or impaired would seriously impede the
milk-productive capacity and otherwise injure the delicate
mechanism of the animal.
Dairy Function. — The primary function of the dairy cow
is to produce milk, and the secondary function to reproduce
herself. Her ability to accomplish these purposes depends
on six fundamental points of development. These are dairy
form or type, constitution, capacity, nervous temperament
or nerve force, the mammary system, and circulatory devel-
opment. A proper correlation of these factors is necessary
for an animal to produce to its maximum capacity. The
fundamental factor is capacity for food consumption. If
an animal is limited in its ability to consume food the final
product or milk-producing capacity is limited likewise, as
DAIRY FUNCTION 275
it depends directly on the quantity of food consumed.
While the. producing abiUty of an animal may be hindered
through other sources than limited food consumption and
a deficient mammary system, these two factors are of the
utmost significance.
A well-balanced animal involving the factors named
above will usually have normal activity and ultimate milk-
producing capacity, although certain unknown factors may
impair or permanently retard one or more of these func-
tions. While it is not always possible to use production as
a basis in selecting dairy cows, it is alwaj^s desirable to do
so, especially when animals can be selected having records
extending over long, continuous periods. It is not possible
for a student to follow this practice, neither has it been
established in show ring judging except under specialized
conditions. Because of the impracticability of always
measuring the capacity of a dairy animal on her actual
producing ability, the body form and other exterior evidences
of heavy and continuous production are used as a basis
for selecting animals.
Experience and observation have taught that there are
certain basic conditions or relations between heavy and
continuous milk production. It is on these foundation
principles that dairy cattle are judged by making general
and scrutinized examinations of the exterior form and
development. The degree of productiveness or usefulness
is determined by the degree of development of the factors
mentioned above. Deficiency or delicacy in one or all
impairs the efficiency of the animal to the extent of the
deficiency, whether singly or combined in influence. The
judge of long experience is able to detect very accurately
the actual working capacity of an animal because of the
known relation of each factor to this capacity as well as their
combined influence. Limited observation or experience can
only assume the actual effect on production of a deficient
form, cramped digestive capacity, weakened constitution
or low vitalit}', a small mammary system, or a weak circu-
latory system. A complete knowledge based on jears of
observation and practice is essential to a determination of
276
JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
the value of these factors, singly or combined. Likewise,
correct judgment on dairy form and capacity is the result
of continuous practice in determining the value of a single
factor or its combined influence with one or more of the
others essential to high and continuous production.
Wedges of the Dairy Animal. — The extreme development of
the dairy animal toward the wedge-shaped form is significant
of factors not wholly understood by the average person.
Why a dairy animal should be so extremely different from a
block animal would ordinarily cause comment, yet a basic
Fig. 115.
-Front wedge of the dairj < < - i iwing the general tendency to
grow wider toward the hindquarters.
understanding of this development is comparatively simple
and significant in its meaning. One of the fundamental
principles involved in a heavy producing dairy animal is the
extreme development of the body or barrel compared with
the size of the animal. In a heavy producer the barrel is
wholly out of proportion with any other part, region, or a
combination of them.
Viewed from three dift'erent angles the dairy animal
presents three distinct wedges, namely, the front wedge, the
side wedge, and the top wedge. The meaning of these
QUALITY
277
terms is simple. They imply an increasing depth of body
toward the rear as viewed from the side, an increasing
width of body toward the rear as viewed from in front, and
an increasing width toward the floor of the barrel as viewed
from above. The whole of this development is significant of
barrel capacity which is one of the real fundamentals of dairy
production. It is exemplified in magnified body capacity
and in this respect is widely different from any other type
of animal.
Fig. 116. — Side wedge of the dairy cow, showing the general tendency to
grow deeper toward the hindquarters.
Quality. — The dairy animal should possess an abundance
of quality. It should have a clean-cut, refined appearance
about the head and neck and sharp, well-defined withers.
The spine should be spare and open, the skin pliable and
elastic, the hair fine and oily, and the bone dense and fine in
texture. This attribute is important, not only because of
its special relation to the type and refinement of the animal,
but because of its influence on maintenance and cost of
production. A large, coarse-boned dairy animal is seldom
an economical producer. Although such an animal may
278
JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
produce large quantities of milk, it is usually at a loss because
of the excessive food requirements of a large, unrefined
Fig. 117,
■Top wedge of the dairy cow, showing the general tendency to
grow wider toward the belly or underline.
CONSTITUTION 279
animal. Heavy framed, coarse-boned dairy animals usually
convert a larger comparative amount of food into body fat
and maintenance than animals of fine texture and quality.
An examination for quality is made by the hand to deter-
mine the pliability and elasticity of the skin, fineness, and
texture of the hair. If there is a tendency toward harshness
or dryness in the skin or hair it is significant of inferior
quality or temporary ill health. Ordinarily it is the former.
Other than the examination made by the hand, quality is
evidenced in the fineness or texture of the bone, clean-cut
lines, sharp withers, long, thin neck, and general refinement
or expression. Some judges lay considerable stress on the
waxy, yellowish condition of the interior of the ears and the
fineness of the hair thereon. Guernsey admirers are especially
ardent in their application of this principle to determine
quality and richness of milk in the breed.
Constitution. — The constitution of a dairy animal is of
more than usual significance. The value of such an animal
is not only dependent on present capacity or usefulness but
on the length of time which production will be normally and
profitably continued. This involves durability or vitality. As
the form of the dairy cow naturally precludes the highest
development in constitutional capacity, it is especially sig-
nificant that this attribute receive close consideration. While
a dairy animal need not be weak in constitution or low^ in
vitality the peculiar type of the animal naturally favors such
a condition. Naturally the wedge-shaped form minimizes
the space in which the vital organs may develop and perform
their function. Constitution should be equally correlated
with the other factors essential to heavy and economical
production. Naturally the development of the body or
barrel and the organs of milk production magnify these
parts and minimize the chest capacity on which a vigorous
constitution largely depends.
Constitution, as in other animals, is evidenced by depth
of body in the chest region and extreme width through the
lower portion of the ribs and on the chest floor. The true
dairy form involves a light and spare development at the
withers, thus to perfect the true wedge-shape accepted as
280 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
a fundamental requisite of dairy form and production.
Other than this indication constitution is evidenced in the
same manner as in the beef animal. The muzzle should be
large, broad, well developed, the eyes large and bright, the
skin pliable and elastic, the hair thick, mossy, and evenly
distributed over the body. The bone should be dense, fine,
and show every indication of refinement and form, although
not to the extent of delicacy. If there is weakness in the
vital parts of the animal, and especially in the dairy animal, it
is an imperfect machine and therefore cannot perform its
function continuously in a satisfactory manner.
Nervous Temperament. — The term, nervous temperament,
is significant of the ability of an animal to utilize its food
other than that required for body maintenance completely
for milk production. It represents the exact opposite of
the conditions which most nearly meet maximum beef pro-
duction. The beef animal is lymphatic in temperament
and utilizes its food for body maintenance and muscle
and fat formation. The dairy animal is nervous in tem-
perament and uses its food for milk production, which
is contingent on directing the largest possible part of the
food nutrients for this purpose. The nervous tempera-
ment is exemplified in the spare, open, conformation. The
head should be expressive of character, and clean and free
from excess flesh. The neck should be long and thin, the
withers sharp, the spine open, the ribs wide, the hook points
prominent, the thighs thin and incurving, the rear flanks
high and the barrel large. All of these points are indicative
of nerve force, showing that the food is elaborated or used
otherwise than on the body.
Capacity. — Capacity in its strictest sense signifies the
ability of an animal to perform its work with a minimum
of food and exertion on the working organism, with a
maximum resulting production. An animal without barrel
capacity for the storage of large quantities of food will
be unproductive sooner or later from the standpoint
of profitable returns; Usually an animal will maintain
average development for a short time, but the heavy strain
of milk jjroduction soon saps the vitality of the small animal
CAPACITY
281
lacking in capacity for food consumption. The result is
seen directly in the lessened milk flow which eventually
eliminates such an animal from herds maintained on a
profitable basis. In the early stages of lactation an animal
with comparatively small capacity may produce a reasonably
large quantity of milk. Later in the period, however,
owing to the lack of food-consumptive ability and digestive
capacity, the mammary system ultimately subsides and fails
to produce until again stimulated by reproduction.
Fig. 118. — Nervous temperament exemplified in the Jersey bull. Note
the keen expression of the eyes, the finely drawn features, and the activity
and energy displayed in the general demeanor.
Capacity as Indicated hy Milk and Butter Standards. —
The adoption of yearly milk and butter fat tests is significant
that the leading dairy breed associations recognize the need
for such data in determining the real practical value or
capacity of an animal. It may be possible in judging dairy
attainments to be mistaken in the real productive capacity,
as evidenced by exterior points or factors. With the aid of
the standard, if properly applied, the value of an animal can
be determined absolutely. Student or show ring judging must
be done by measuring an animal by an adopted system,
282
JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
as it is impossible to determine the productive value by
applied tests in the modern show ring. If it were possible
to develop such a system it would be highly desirable from
several viewpoints. However, capacity may be very accu-
rately rated or determined if the examiner has a keen knowl-
edge of true dairy form and its correlated functions.
Mammary System. — The mammary system represents one
of the real fundamentals of the dairy cow. The animal may
Fig. 119. — A typical udder exemplified in the Holsteiii-Friesian cow. Note
size, length, shape, general balance, and capacity of the cow.
be perfectly developed from the standpoint of dairy form
and nervous development, yet if the mammary system is
insufficiently developed or faulty for any reason, the machine
is imperfect. After the food is taken into the stomach
it is digested, absorbed, and finally elaborated into milk
through the mammary system. The blood carries the
assimilated food products to the mammary system where
they are manufactured into milk. If there is not sufficient
development in the mammary system to ultilize these
products, the animal is imperfect from the standpoint of
MAMMARY SYSTEM
283
efficiency to the extent of the difference in the capacity of
the animal form and the mammary system.
The udder of the dairy cow is the important part of the
machinery, as it is within the udder that the milk is elaborated.
The size of it is indicative of capacity for milk production,
the same as the size of the barrel is indicative of the capacity
for food consumption. A typical dairy cow should have the
udder attached high behind. It should extend forward
sufficiently to allow the teats to be placed at least six inches
apart. The floor of the udder should be long, broad and
a
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^^Hh 1 ^M
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Fig. 120. — (a) a pendulous udder with small, wart-like teats, lacks
capacity and is easily injured; (6) a small funnel-shaped udder lacking in
capacity. Cows with such udders usually have a short lactation period.
level, as such development furnishes the largest space for
the absorption of food nutrients for milk elaboration from
the blood. A small, fleshy udder attached low or just
between the legs, with a short distention and extending in
a funnel shape from the underline indicates small milking
capacity.
The mammary veins are important, as their size and
development indicates the amount of blood which passes
through the udder, this regulating the supply of nutrients
for the manufacture of milk. The mammary veins should
be long, large, tortuous, and have numerous branches which
enter the body through the mammary orifices. These should
284 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
be large to accommodate the mammary veins and the branches
extending therefrom. An animal with cramped mammary
development and small barrel capacity cannot produce
economically because the machine is essentially imperfect.
If both the original intake and outlet of the animal are so
developed it is impossible to produce a normal continuous
flow of milk, as the one condition reacts directly against the
other.
Durability and Persistency. — In no class of animals, with
the possible exception of the horse, is durability as essential as
in the dairy animal. Her work is not only at a high tension
for a large portion of the year but in the heaviest producers
it is so practically during the entire year. A dairy animal
usually rests for about one month to six weeks from the
standpoint of direct milk production. However, during
this time she is usually nourishing a fetus which will soon
turn the maternal functions to milk production again and
thus entail the severest labor through which any animal
must go. The ability to withstand this pressure is a meas-
ure of her capacity and value as a dairy animal. The
brood mare works and nourishes a fetus and the colt, but
she is not compelled to forego the severe strain which the
dairy cow does during heavy milk production and through
gestation. The beef animal, the sheep and the hog, have the
strain of reproduction but they are not compelled to undergo
the severe and persistent work of heavy milk production
during this period. The dairy cow, therefore, is subjected
to a severer strain than any other animal, all of which involves
the highest development of durability and persistency.
Structural Form and Examination. — The structural form of
the dairy animal implies certain specific conditions which are
best explained by giving a detailed description of these parts.
Head and Neck. — The head of the dairy cow should be long,
narrow, intelligent in expression, and show every evidence of
femininity. The lines of the head should be clear cut and
generally expressive of life, vigor, and activity.
The forehead should be broad and flat or slightly concave.
This is indicative of intelligence and capacity in the develop-
ment of nerve force.
STRUCTURAL FORM AXD EXAMIXATION 285
The face should be straight, except as specifically altered
by breed qualifications. Quality should he apparent.
Fig. 121. — Cross-section of mammary glands of cow: a, body of gland;
b, lactiferous sinus; c, cavity of teat; d, duct of teat; e, intermammarj' groove;
/, septum between glands; g, supramammary fat. (Courtesy of L. W.
Sisson, from Anatomy of Domestic Animals.)
286 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
The eyes should be large, clear, bright, and indicative
of nerve force and general vitality. Small, dull eyes are
objectionable, showing weak constitution and, therefore, lack
of vitality or durability.
The ears should be medium in size and covered with fine,
soft hair. The interior should be waxy and covered with a
very fine coat of soft, oily, silky hair. This is considered to
be a good indication of quality.
The horns should be developed according to the breed.
Under any condition they should be medium in size, fine in
texture, and correspond with the refinement of the animal
throughout.
The muzzle should be broad, deep, and should show a
slight enlargement, thus giving the head the appearance
of being incurving between the eyes and the junction with
the muzzle. A straight, coarse head and a pointed muzzle
are very objectionable.
The nostrils should be large and open, thus indicating a
large supply of air into the lungs.
The neck should be long, and lean, there being no indi-
cation of beefiness or coarseness. There should be a clear-
cut junction of the head with the neck. A rather long, thin
neck with incurving lines is indicative of quality, general
refinement, and dairy capacity.
Forequarters. — The forequarters of the animal are sig-
nificant, as they indicate in a large measure the conformity
of the animal to the wedge-shaped form which is accepted
as the true dairy type.
The shoulders should be long, light, smoothly laid in,
narrow on top, and gradually broaden toward the region of
the chest floor. Heavy, coarse shoulders are not only
indicative of non-conformity to the true dairy type but they
indicate coarseness of quality and lack of general refinement.
Any indication toward fulness in the shoulders exhibits a
tendency to beefiness.
The brisket should be rather light, spare, and otherwise
lacking in prominence. An extended brisket with fulness
and compactness is indicative of beef-producing qualities.
The legs should be straight, and the bone dense and fine.
The canons should be clear cut and otherwise indicative of
STRUCTURAL FORM AND EXAMINATION 287
quality and refinement. A heavy bone with coarse, undefined
joints indicates plain quality.
The feet should be medium in size, strong, and well sup-
ported with upright pasterns.
Body. — The body of the dairy animal includes the chest,
chine, ribs, loin, flanks, and navel, each of which should
have distinctive qualities for best results.
The chest development of the dairy animal is of special
significance because of its relation to constitutional develop-
ment. A narrow, shallow chest indicates small lung capacity.
The severe and continuous strain which is placed on the dairy
animal necessitates a deep, full chest, broad on the floor,
where the dairy animal gets the major portion of its chest
development. Width is secured on the floor of the chest
rather than above, as in the beef animal.
The chine should be narrow, light, the spines sharp, open,
and placed wide apart. The back should be straight and
strong to insure capacity in maintaining a strong, repro-
ductive and mammary system. A low back is objectionable,
although not as faulty as in the beef animal. The loin
should be broad, flat, long and spare of flesh. Openness of
form throughout the back and loin region is one of the chief
indications of nerve force.
The ribs should be long, deep, and arched. The rib
development is especially significant in the dairy animal
because of its relation to barrel capacity. Short ribs closely
spaced show objectionable form, this being characteristic of
cramped capacity and compactness, two attributes not con-
sistent with dairy-cow development.
The flanks should be deep and open. The hindflank
especially should be high and open to accommodate the
udder. Low, full flanks are objectionable, as they show a
beefy tendency.
Hindquarters. — The hindquarters are divided into the
hips, rump, thighs, and feet and legs, as designated in the
following descriptions :
The hips should be wide apart and prominent, thus
showing the absence of any beefy tendency. Smooth,
compact hips exemplify the beef type of animal and should
therefore not be a characteristic of the dair}' animal.
288 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
The rumy should be long, broad, and level. The tail-
head should be smooth and show refinement; otherwise,
it is indicative of coarse, undefined form. The pin-bones
should be high, wide apart, and spare in their surrounding
development.
The thighs should be long, lean, and incurving. They
should be the exact opposite of the development in the beef
animal. Heavy, coarse thighs are seriously objectionable,
both from the standpoint of quality and nerve development.
The legs should be straight, strong, and well supported
on feet of medium size with strong, upright pasterns.
The tail should be long, fine, and terminate in a switch
with hair of fine quality. Some breeders lay considerable
stress on the length of the tail, maintaining that it shows
deep development in dairy capacity.
Mammary System. — The mammary system includes the
udder proper, the mammary veins, wells, teats, and escutch-
eon. These parts have a significant bearing on the capacity
of the animal and are described in detail in the following :
The udder should be large, attached high behind, extend
well forward, and be carried closely to the body. A pendu-
lous funnel-shaped udder is seriously objectionable. The
udder should not exhibit any tendency to beefiness. The
skin should be pliable, elastic, and the hair smooth and fine
in quality. A fleshy udder covered with heavy, tight skin
and long coarse hair is indicative of beef-producing qualifica-
tions. The length of the udder is important. It should ex-
tend well forward, the floor should be level, and the quarters
well balanced. This is all conducive to maximum capacity
in milk production.
The mammary veins should be long, large, tortuous,
and have numerous branches. This indicates a strong
circulatory development which is one of the essentials in
high productive capacity.
The mammary orifices should be large for the entrance of
the mammary veins in the body. Small mammary orifices
are indicative usually of small mammary veins and are
therefore objectionable.
The teats should be medium and uniform in size, evenly
STRUCTURAL FORM AND EXAMINATION 289
placed, and well balanced. Large teats, uneven in size and
unevenly placed are very objectionable.
The escutcheon, should be high and spreading. Its chief
indication is in the development of a large, well-balanced
udder.
Score Card for Dairy Cattle.
Perfect score.
General Appearance — 24 Points.
Weight: . • 4
Disposition: quiet, gentle 2
Form: triangular, wedge-shaped, symmetrical, straight top
line 6
Quality: free from coarseness throughout; skin soft, pliable;
secretions abundant; hair fine 6
Temperament: inherent tendency to dairy performance, show-
ing economic use of food nutrients 6
Head and Neck — 8 Points.
Muzzle: broad 1
Jaw: strong, firmly joined 1
Face: medium length, clean . 1
Forehead: broad between eyes, dishing 1
Eyes: large, full, mild, bright 1
Ears: medium size, fine texture; secretions oily and abundant,
yellow color 1
Throat: clean 1
Neck: long, spare, smoothly joined to shoulders, free from
dewlap 1
Forequarters — -7 Points.
Withers: narrow, sharp 3
Shoulders: sloping, smooth; brisket fight 3
Forelegs: straight, clean, weU set under body 1
Body — 25 Points.
Crops: free from fleshiness 1
Chest: deep, roomy; floor broad 6
Back: straight, strong; vertebras open 3
Ribs: long, deep, sprung, wide apart 3
Barrel: deep, long, capacious 10
Loin: broad, strong 2
Hindquarters — 12 Points.
Hips: prominent, wide apart 1
Rump: long, level, not sloping 4
Pin-hones: wide apart 1
Tail: neatly set on, long, tapering 1
Thighs: spare, not fleshy 3
Hindlegs: well apart, giving ample room for udder ... 2
Mammary Development — 24 Points.
Udder: large, very flexible, attached high behind, carrying
well forward; quarters even, not cut up . . . . . . 10
Teats: wide apart, uniformly placed, convenient size . . 4
Mammary Veins: large tortuous, extending well forward,
branching 4
Mammary Orifices: large 6
Total 100
19
290 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
Breed Characteristics. — The dairy breeds of cattle are
characterized by the following breed marks including
weight, quality, constitution, conformation, temperament,
and adaptation.
Jersey. — The Jersey breed originated in the Island of
Jersey in the English Channel. This breed has attained
wide popularity and is adapted to a variety of conditions.
The weight of mature Jersey cows ranges from 800 to 1000
pounds. It is one of the smallest of the recognized dairy
breeds.
Fig. 122. — ^A Jersey cow with breediness and capacity.
The horns in the bull are rather short and strong. On the
cow they are longer with greater curvature. The color of the
Jersey is variable. The base of the body color is usually fawn.
However, there are numerous shades, such as a yellowish,
brownish, grayish, reddish or silvery fawn, whiclj may charac-
terize the breed. In some animals, especially bulls, a large
part of the body may be nearly black. Such animals are
usually characterized by dark or black heads, necks, and
shoulders, thighs, flanks, or other combinations. Some
animals are practically all dark brown or black. The quality
of the Jersey is good and its skin secretions are usually very
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 291
. much in evidence from the standpoint of pHability and
elasticity. The nervous temperament is highly developed.
Specimens of the breed are not considered heavy producers
ordinarily but the quality of the milk is considerably above
the average. One of the common faults of the Jersey is the
slack development in the forequarters of the udder. Delicacy
in constitution is also a recognized fault. The Jersey is widely
adapted, both as a cow for city use and milk and butter
production in general.
Standard of Excellexce and Scale of Points for Jersey
Cattle.
Bull.
Head: Points.
Broad, medium length; face dished; narrow between horns;
horns medium in size and incurving o
Muzzle broad, nostrils open, eyes full and bold; entire expres-
sion one of vigor, resolution and masculinity .... 5
Neck:
Medium length, with full crest at maturity; clean at throat . 7
Body:
Shoulders full and strong, good distance through from point
to point, with well-defined withers; chest deep and full
between and just back of forelegs 15
Barrel long, of good depth and breadth, with strong, rounded,
well-sprung ribs 15
Back straight and strong 5
Rump of good length and proportion to size of body, and
level from hip-bones to rump-bones 7
Loins broad and strong; hips rounded, and of medium width
compared with female 7
Thighs rather flat, well cut up behind high, arched flank 3
Legs proportionate to size and of fine quaUty, well apart,
with good feet, and not to weave or cross in walking . . 5
Rudimentary Teats:
Well placed 2
Hide :
Loose and mellow 2
Tail:
Thin, long, reaching the hock, with good switch, not coarse
or high at setting-on 2
Size:
Mature bulls, 1200 to 1500 pounds 5
General Appearance:
Thoroughly masculine in character, with a harmonious blend-
ing of the parts to each other; thoroughly robust, and such
an animal as in a herd of wild cattle would likely become
master of the herd by the law of natural selection and sur-
vival of the fittest 15
Total 100
292 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
Cow.
Dairy Teynperament and Constitution.
Points.
Head:
Medium size, lean; face dished; broad between eyes; horns
medium size, incurving 3
Eyes full and placid; ears medium size, fine, carried alert;
muzzle broad, with wide, open nostrils and muscular lips;
jaw strong 4
Neck:
Thin, rather long, with clean throat, neatly joined to head
and shoulders 4
Body:
Shoulders light, good distance through from point to point,
but thin at withers; chest deep and full between and just
back of forelegs 5
Ribs amply sprung and wide apart, giving wedge shape, with
deep, large abdomen, firmly held up, with strong muscular
development 10
Back straight and strong, with prominent spinal processes;
loins broad and strong 5
Rump long to tail-setting, and level from hip-bones to rump-
bones 6
Hip-bones high and wide apart 3
Thighs flat and wide apart, giving ample room for udder . 3
Legs proportionate to size and of fine quality, well apart,
with good feet, and not to weave or cross in walking . . 2
Hide loose and mellow 2
Tail thin, long, with good switch, not coarse at setting-on . 1
Mammary Development.
Udder:
Large size, flexible and not fleshy 6
Broad, level or spherical, not deeply cut between teats . . 4
Fore udder fuU and well rounded, running well forward of
front teats 10
Hind udder well rounded, and well out and up behind . . 6
Teats:
Of good and uniform length and size, regularly and squarely
placed 8
Milk Veins:
Large, long, tortuous and elastic, entering large and numerous
orifices 4
Size:
Mature cows, 800 to 1000 pounds 4
General Appearance:
A symmetrical balancing of all the parts, and a proportion of
parts to each other, depending on size of animal, with the
general appearance of a high-class animal, with capacity
for food and productiveness at pail 10
Total 100
BREED CHARACTERISTICS
293
Guernsey. — The Guernsey breed originated in the Island
of Guernsey, which is located near the Island of Jersey, in
the English Channel. In many respects the Guernsey is very
much like the Jersey breed, although the former is larger and
somewhat stronger in constitution. The production of milk
and butter-fat is about on a par w^ith the Jerse.y. The weight
of the Guernsey cow ranges from 950 to 1050 pounds, being
somewhat larger than the Jersey breed. The color is variable,
a reddish shade of fawn prevailing. Reddish and yellowish
Fig. 123. — A Guernsey cow exhibiting striking dairy capacity.
fawn are color characteristics. These colors are often broken
by white, which usually occurs on the lower part of the body
and on the legs. The muzzle is buff or flesh color and
the horns are light or amber. The horns in the bull are
somew^hat shorter than in the cow. The temperament
is superior, the dairy temperament being characteristic
of both sexes of the breed. The quality of the Guernsey
is excellent. It has a mellow, elastic skin and rather fine
hair. As a whole it is somewhat coarser than the Jersey,
although it cannot be greatly criticised. The mellow, elastic
294 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
skin, yellowish color and secretions are considered to be of
great importance by advocates of the breed. The lack of
uniform breeding qualities and strong udder development,
chiefly in front, are the main criticisms.
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Guernsey
Cattle.
Bull.
Counts.
Dairy Temperament, Constitution — 38 Points.
Clean-cut, lean face; strong, sinewy jaw; wide muzzle with
wide-open nostrils; full, bright eye with quiet and gentle
expression; forehead long and broad 5
Long, mascuhne neck with strong juncture to head; clean
tlu-oat. Backbone rising well between shoulder-blades;
large rugged spinal processes, indicating good develop-
ment of the spinal cord 5
Pelvis arching and wide; rump long; wide, strong structure
of spine at setting of tail. Long, thin tail with good switch;
thin, incurving thighs 5
Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart, giving an open
relaxed conformation; thin, arching flank 5
Abdomen large and deep, with strong muscular and navel
development, indicative of capacity and vitahty ... 15
Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling and texture, but not
thick 3
Dairy Prepotency — 15 Points.
As shown by having a great deal of vigor, style, alertness,
and resolute appearance 15
Rudimentaries and Milk Veins — ^10 Points.
Rudimentaries of good size, squarely and broadly placed in
front of, and free from, scrotum. Milk veins prominent . 10
Indicating Color of Milk in Offspring — 15 Points.
Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at base of
horns and body generally; hoofs amber-colored ... 15
Symmetry and Size — 22 Points.
Color of hair, a shade of fawn with white markings. Cream-
colored nose. Horns amber-colored, curving and not
coarse 8
Size for the breed: Mature bulls four years old or over,
about 1500 pounds 4
General appearance is indicative of the power to beget
animals of strong dairy qualities 10
Total 100
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 295
Cow.
Counts.
Dairy Temperament, Constitution — 38 Points.
Clean-cut, lean face; strong, sinewy jaw; wide muzzle with
wide-open nostrils; full, bright eye with quiet and gentle
expression; forehead long and broad 5
Long, thin neck with strong juncture to head; clean throat.
Backbone rising well between shoulder-blades; large, rugged
spinal processes, indicating good development of the spinal
cord 5
Pelvis arching and wide; rump long; wide, strong structure
of spine at setting on of tail. Long, thin tail with good
switch. Thin, incurving thighs 5
Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart, giving an open,
relaxed conformation; thin, arching flanks 5
Abdomen large and deep, with strong muscular and navel
development, indicative of capacity and vitality ... 15
Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling and texture, but not
thick 3
Milking Marks Denoting Quantity of Flow — 10 Points.
Escutcheon wide on thighs; high and broad, with thigh ovals 2
Milk veins long, crooked, branching and prominent, with
large or deep wells 8
Udder Formation — 26 Points.
Udder full in front 8
Udder full and well up behind 8
Udder of large size and capacity 4
Teats well apart, squarely placed, and of good and even
size 6
Indicating Color of Milk — 15 Points.
Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at base of
horns, on udder, teats, and body generally. Hoof, amber-
colored 15
Milking Marks Denoting Quality of Flow — 6 Points.
Udder showing plenty of substance but not too meaty . . 6
Symmetry and Size — 5 Points.
Color of hair a shade of fawn, with white markings. Cream-
colored nose. Horns amber-colored, small, curved, and not
coarse 3
Size for the breed: Mature cows, four years old or over,
about 1050 pounds 2
Total 100
EXPLANATORY NOTES ON GUERNSEY BREED BY AMERICAN
GUERNSEY CATTLE CLUB.
The Guernsey should be: First. A dairy animal with a
distinctive dairy temperament and conformation, having a
strong, nervy structure with a corresponding flow of nervous
energy, and every indication of capacity and vitality.
296 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
Second. In color of hair, a shade of fawn, with white on
limbs and under part of body are considered the prevailing
markings, and some degree of uniformity is desirable.
Third. One of the important distinguishing features of
the breed is the presence of a yellow color in the pigment of
the skin, which is indicative of rich golden color in the milk.
This is very pronounced in the Guernsey and held by her to
the greatest extent under all conditions of stabling and
feed. The intensity of this trait is more marked in some
animals and families than in others, but it should be kept at
the highest standard. It is fast being recognized that this
color is accompanied by a superior flavor in the milk and thus
in the butter.
Dairy Temperament.— ^y "dairy temperament" is
meant a strong over-ruling predisposition or tendency to
turn the consumption of food toward the production of
milk with a high content of solids, especially butter-fat,
as against the constitutional tendency so often seen to turn
food into flesh. Even in the strongest dairy breeds there
are more or less frequent out-crops in male and female of
the flesh-making temperament. To breed from such
animals, while we are striving to establish a prepotent dairy
temperament or tendency, is not wise. All cattle bred
specifically for dairy purposes should possess a clear and
decided dairy temperament, for it is that quality of character
we most desire to establish, enlarge, and perpetuate in the
Guernsey cow.
This is especially indicated by the shape of the head,
showing brain capacity, wide muzzle, open nostril, full,
bright eyes, feminine neck, and a construction of the back-
bone indicating a strong flow of nerve power and support
from the brain to all of the maternal organs.
Constitution. — In breeding our domestic animals, especially
for long service, like the dairy cow, it is very important that
they should have abundant vital power which we call
"constitution." But constitution must be judged and
measured by the peculiar function the animal is bred to fulfil.
With the race horse the function is speed; with the steer,
the laying on of flesh; with the dairy cow, the production of
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 297
milk solids. In all these various functions, the animal
that is to represent any one of them must show not only
large capacity in the line of that function, but also the
ability to endure long and well the strain of such function,
and keep in good health. Constitution is best indicated by a
full development at the navel, and strong abdominal walls,
showing that the animal when in a prenatal state was
abundantly nourished by the mother through a well-
developed umbilical cord.
Prepotency. — In the scale for bulls, for the first time, we
believe, in the history of dair^^ breeds, this point is intro-
duced. The reason we have included it is that "prepotency"
is the chief consideration in the selection of all male breeding
animals. The pedigree and conformation is often all that
can be desired, but because the bull is lacking in prepotent
breeding power he is an expensive failure. This quality
is in a sense difficult to perceive or describe, but we know
certain animals have it in high degree and others fail of it
completely. It is fairly well indicated by vigor of appear-
ance, strong resolute bearing, and abundant nervous energy.
We would distinguish this from an ugly disposition. A
bull is ugly by the way he is handled rather than by his
breeding. What we want is strong, impressive blood. A
dull, sluggish spirit and action we consider indicative of a
lack of true dairy prepotency, but we would prefer to breed
to a rather sluggish-appearing bull with first-class rudimen-
taries than to a stylish one with badly placed rudimentaries.
Rudivientary Teats. — We consider that a well-balanced
and well-shaped udder in the cow is largely due to the way
the rudimentary teats are placed on the sire. If they are
crowded close together the result is likely to be narrow,
pointed udders. If they are placed well apart, of good size,
and well forward of the scrotum, the effect, we think, will
be to influence largely the production of well-shaped udders
in the resulting heifers and counteract the tendency to ill-
shaped udders inheritable from dams deficient in this respect.
We believe the future excellence of the Guernsey cow will
be greatly aided by close attention on the part of her breeders
to this point.
298
JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
Holstein-Friesian. — The Holstein-Friesian breed is a native
of Holland. The breed ranks as the largest of the dairy
type. Bulls often weigh as much as 1800 to 2000 pounds,
the average of the cows being about 1250 pounds. The
color is black and white. There is a great variation in this
respect, some animals being nearly black and others largely
white. There is a tendency to breed more white than
formerly. In Holland some herds are characterized by a red
and white color, although this is not characteristic or accep-
FiG. 124
-A Holsteiu-Friesian cow showing a typical side u ■
balanced udder.
table in American herds. The quality of the breed is fre-
quently deficient, as indicated in a thick skin, coarse hair,
and rough joints. The dairy temperament is not as well
developed as in some other breeds. There is a decided
tendency to beefiness in some specimens. The body of
the Holstein-Friesian is unusually large, giving them great
feeding and milk-giving capacity. The udders are large and
often pendulous. The breed is characterized by some un-
usually large producers. Cases are on record where more
than 27,000 pounds of milk has been produced annually. The
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 299
quality of the milk is not as rich as in other recognized dairy
breeds. It ranks considerably below the Jersey and the
Guernsey in this respect. In judging Holsteins, while they
should be compared with the dairy standard it will fre-
quently be found that they are not as distinctly developed
in this direction as either the Guernsey or Jersey breed. The
chief faults are lack in dairy temperament, drooping rumps,
and unsj'mmetrical, pendulous udders.
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Holstein-
Friesian Cattle.
Bull.
Counts.
Head. — Showing full vigor; elegant in contour ...... 2
Forehead. — Broad between the eyes; dishing 2
Face. — Of medium length; clean and trim, especially under the
e3^es; the bridge of the nose straight 2
jMuzzle. — Broad with strong lips 1
Ears. — Of medium size; of fine texture; the hair plentiful and
soft; the secretions oily and abundant 1
Eyes. — Large; full; mild; bright 2
Horns. — Short; of medium size at base; gradually diminishing
toward tips; oval; inclining forward; moderately ciu-ved
inward; of fine texture; in appearance waxy 1
Neck. — Long; finely crested (if the animal is mature); fine and
clean at juncture with the head; nearly free from dewlap;
strongly and smoothly joined to shoulders 5
Shoulders. — Of medium height; of medium thickness, and
smoothly rounded at tops; broad and full at sides; smooth over
front 4
Chest. — Deep and low; well filled and smooth in the brisket;
broad between the forearms; full in the foreflanks (or thi'ough
at the heart) 7
Crops.— Comparatively fuU; nearly level with the shoulders . . 4
Chine. — Strong ; straight, broadly developed, with open vertebrae . 6
Barrel. — Long; well rounded; with large abdomen; strongly and
trimly held up 7
Loins and Hips. — Broad; level or nearly level between hook-
bones; level and strong laterally; spreading out from the chine
broadly and nearly level; the hook-bones fairly prominent . . 7
Rump. — Long; broad; high; nearly level laterally; comparatively
full above the thurl; carried out straight to dropping of tail . 7
Thurl. — High; broad 4
Quarters. — Deep; broad; straight behind; wide and full at sides
open in the twist 5
Flanks. — Deep; full 2
Legs. — Comparatively short; clean and nearly straight; wide
apart; firroly and squarely set under the body; arms wide,
strong and tapering; feet of medium size, round, solid and deep 5
Carried forward 74
300 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
Counts.
Brought forward 74
Tail. — Large at base, the setting well back; tapering finely to
switch; the end of bone reaching to hocks or below; the switch
full '-^
Hair and Handling. — Hair healthful in appearance; fine, soft
and furry; skin of medium thickness and loose; mellow under
the hand; the secretions oily, abundant, and of a rich brown or
yellow color 10
Mammary Veins. — Large; full; entering large orifices; double
extension; with special development, such as forks, branches,
connections, etc 10
Rudimentary Teats. — Large; well placed 2
Escutcheon. — Largest; finest • • 2
General Vigor. — For deficiency discredit from the total received
not to exceed eight points.
General Symmetry and Fineness.- — For deficiency discredit
from the total received not to exceed eight points.
General Style and Bearing. — For deficiency discredit from
the total received not to exceed eight points.
Credits for Offspring. — A bull shall be credited one point in
excess of what he is otherwise entitled to, for each and every
animal of which he is sire actually entered in the Advanced
Register, not to exceed ten in number.
In scaling for the Advanced Register, defects caused solely by
age, or by accident, or by disease not hereditary, shall not be
considered. But in scaling for the show ring, such defects shall
be considered and duly discredited.
A bull that in the judgment of the Inspector will not reach,
at full age and in good flesh, 1800 pounds, five weight, shall be
disquahfied for entry in the Advanced Register.
No bull shall be received to the Advanced Register, that with
all credits due him, will not scale, in the judgment of the in-
spector, at least 80 points. (See amendment to Rule IV, an
exception to these requirements).
Perfection 100
Cow.
Head. — Decidedly feminine in appearance; fine in contour . . 2
Forehead. — Broad between the eyes; dishing 2
Face. — Of medium length; clean and trim especially under the
eyes, showing facial veins; the bridge of the nose straight . . 2
Muzzle. — -Broad with strong hps 1
Ears. — Of medium size; of fine texture; the hair plentiful and soft;
the secretions oily and abundant 1
Eyes. — Large; full; mild; bright 2
Horns. — Small; tapering finely toward the tips; set rnoderately
narrow at base; oval; inchning forward; well bent inward; of
fine texture; in appearance waxy 1
NECK.^Long; fine and clean at juncture with the head; free from
dewlap; evenly and smoothly joined to shoulders .... 4
Carried forward 15
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 301
Counts.
Brought forward 15
Shoulders. — Slight!}' lower than the hips; fine and even over
tops; moderately broad and full at sides 3
Chest. — Of moderate depth and lowness; smooth and moderately'
full in the brisket, full in the forefianks (or through the heart) . 6
Crops. — Moderately full 2
Chine. — Straight; strong; broadly developed, with open vertebrae 6
Barrel. — Long; of wedge shape; well rounded; with a large
abdomen, trimly held up (in judging the last item age must be
considered) 7
Loin axd Hips. — Broad; level or nearly level between the hook-
bones; level and strong laterallj^; spreading from chine broadly
and nearly level; hook-bones fairh' prominent 6
Rump. — Long; high; broad with roomj- pelvis; nearly level later-
all}-; comparatively full above the thurl; carried out straight
to dropping of tail 6
Thurl. — High; broad 3
Quarters. — Deep: straight behind; twist filled with development
of udder: wide and moderately full at the sides 4
Flaxks. — Deep; comparatively full 2
Legs. — Comparatively short; clean and nearly straight; wide
apart; firmly and squarely set under the body; feet of medium
size, round, solid and deep 4
Tail. — Large at the base; the setting well back; tapering finely
to switch; the end of the bone reaching to hocks or below; the
switch full r 2
Hair axd Handling. — Hair healthful in appearance; fine, soft
and furry; the skin of medium thickness and loose; mellow under
the hand: the secretions oily, abundant and of a rich brown or
yellow color 8
I\L\MMARY Veins. — Very large, very crooked i^age must be taken
into consideration in judging of size and crookedness) ; entering
very large or numerous orifices; double extension; with special
developments, such as branches, connections, etc 10
L'dder. — ^'ery capacious; very flexible; quarters even; nearly
filling the space in the rear below the twist, extending well
forward in the front; broad and well held up 12
Teats. — Well formed; wide apart, plump and of convenient size 2
Escutcheon. — Largest; finest 2
General Vigor. — For deficiency discredit from the total re-
ceived not to exceed eight points.
General Symmetry and Fineness. — For deficiency discredit
from the total received not to exceed eight points.
Gener.\l Style and Bearing.^ — For deficiency discredit from the
total received not to exceed eight points.
Credits for Excess of Requirement in Production. — A cow
shall be credited one point in excess of what she is otherwise
entitled to, for each and every S per cent, that her milk or
butter record exceeds the minimum requirement.
In scaling for the Advanced Register, defects caused solely by
age, or by accident, or by disease not hereditary, shall not be
considered. But in scaling for the show ring, such defects
shall be considered and duly discredited.
Perfection 100
302
JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
A cow that in the judgment of the inspector will not reach
at full age, in milking condition and ordinary flesh, 1000
pounds live weight, shall be disqualified for entry in the
Advanced Register.
No cow shall be received to the Advanced Register that,
with all credits due her, will not scale, in the judgment of
the inspector, at least 75 points. (See in last paragraph
of Rule VI an exception to these requirements.)
Fig. 125. — An Ayrshire cow of modern type.
Ayrshire. — The Ayrshire breed originated in the shire of
Ayre, Scotland. It is characterized by good dairy form,
especially in the udder development. The weight of the
cows ranges from 900 to 1000 pounds, the males ranging
considerably heavier. The color of the modern Ayrshire
is largely white, the head and neck or other body parts
being marked with red or dark brown spots. The horns are
very characteristic of the breed because of their peculiar
upright growth. The Ayrshire is strong and vigorous in
constitution, the barrel capacious, and the temperament fair
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 303
in its development as indicating dairy characteristics. The
quality of the Ayrshire is medium. The udder is one of the
distinctive qualifications of the breed. It is attached high,
extends well forward, and is unusually well carried. Pendant
udders are not common in the breed. The quality of the
milk is fair, ranking somewhat higher than that from the
Holstein-Friesian. The breed is adapted to sparse pasture
conditions. It is hardy, and does well under conditions
where other less vigorous breeds would fail. The general
conformation is long, low, and deep in the body. Lack of
size and pronounced dairy temperament are the chief criti-
cisms of the breed, although these are not serious.
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Ayrshire
Cattle.
Bull.
Head — 16 Points. Points.
Forehead: broad and clearly defined 2
Horn: strong at base, set wide apart, inclining upward 1
Face: of medium length, clean cut, showing facial veins . . 2
Muzzle: broad and strong without coarseness 1
Nostrils: large and open 2
Jaws: wide at the base and strong 1
Eyes: moderately large, full and bright 3
Ears: of medium size and fine, carried alert 1
Expression: full of vigor, resolute and mascuhne .... 3
Neck — 10 Points.
Of medium length, somewhat arched, large and strong in the
muscles on top, inclined to flatness on sides, enlarging
symmetrically toward the shoulders; throat clean and free
from loose skin 10
Forequarters — 15 Points.
Shoulders: strong, smoothly blending into body with, good
distance through from point to point and fine on top . . 3
Chest: low, deep and full between back and forelegs ... 8
Brisket: deep, not too prominent and with very little dewlap . 2
Legs and Feet: legs well apart, straight and short, shanks
fine and smooth, joints firm, feet of medium size, round,
solid and deep 2
Body — 18 Points.
Back: short and straight, chine strongly developed and open
jointed 5
Loin: broad, strong and level 4
Ribs: long, broad, strong, well sprung and wide apart . . 4
Abdomen: large and deep, trimly held up with muscular
development 4
Flank: thin and arching 1
Carried forward 59
304 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
Points.
Brought forward 59
Hindquarters — 16 Points.
Rump: level, long from hooks to pin-bones 5
Hooks: medium distance apart, proportionately narrower than
in female, not rising above the level of the back ... 2
Pin-bones: high, wide apart 2
Thighs: thin, long and wide apart 4
Tail: fine, long, and set on level with back 1
Legs and Feet: legs straight, set well apart, shanks fine and
smooth, feet medium size, round, solid and deep, not to
cross in walking 2
Scrotum— 3 Points.
Well developed and strongly carried 3
RuDiMENTARiES, Veins — 4 Points.
Teats of uniform size squarely placed, wide apart and free
from scrotum; veins long, large, tortuous with extensions
entering large orifices; escutcheon pronounced and cover-
ing a large surface 4
Color — 3 Points.
Red of any shade, brown, or these with white; mahogany and
white; each color distinctly defined 3
Covering — 6 Points.
Skin: medium thickness, mellow and elastic 3
Hair: soft and fine 2
Secretions: oily, of rich brown or yellow color 1
Style — 5 Points.
Active, vigorous, showing strong masculine character, temper-
ament inchned to nervousness but not irritable or vicious 5
Weight — 4 Points.
At maturity not less than 1500 pounds 4
Total 100
Cow.
Head — 10 Points.
Forehead: broad and clearly defined 1
Horns: wide set on and inclining upward 1
Face: of medium length, slightly dished; clean cut, showing
veins 2
Muzzle: broad and strong without coarseness, nostrils large . 1
Jaws: wide at the base and strong 1
Eyes: full and bright with placid expression 3
Ears: of medium size and fine, carried alert 1
Neck — 3 Points.
Fine throughout, throat clean, neatly joined to head and
shoulders, of good length, moderately thin, nearly free
from loose skin, elegant in bearing 3
FoREQUARTERS — 10 Points.
Shoulders: light, good distance through from point to point
but sharp at withers, smoothly blending into body . . 2
Chest: low, deep and full between back and forelegs ... 6
Brisket: fight 1
Legs and Feet: legs straight and short, well apart, shanks fine
and smooth, joints firm; feet medium size, round, solid and
deep 1
Carried forward 23
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 305
Points.
Brought forward 23
Body— 13 Points.
Back: strong and straight, chine lean, sharp and open-
jointed 4
Loin: broad, strong and level 2
Ribs: long, broad, wide apart and well sprung .... 3
Abdomen: capacious, deep, firmly held up mth strong mus-
cular development 3
Flank: thin and arching 1
Hindquarters — 11 Points.
Rump: wide, level, long from hooks to pin-bones, a reason-
able pelvic arch allowed 3
Hooks: wide apart and not projecting above back nor
unduly overlaid with fat 2
Pin-bones: high, wide apart 1
Thighs: thin, long and wide apart 2
Tail: fine, long and set on level with back 1
Legs and Feet: legs strong, short, straight, when viewed
from behind and set well apart; shanks fine and smooth,
joints firm, feet medium size, round, solid, and deep . . 2
Udder— 22 Points.
Long, wide, deep but not pendulous or fleshy; firmly
attached to the body, extending well up behind and far for-
ward; quarters even; sole nearly level and not indented
between teats; udder veins well developed and plainly
visible 22
Teats — 8 Points.
Evenly placed, distance apart from side to side equal to
half the breadth of udder, from back to front equal to one-
third the length; length 2j to 3§ inches, thickness in
keeping with length, hanging perpendicular and not taper-
ing 8
Mammary Veins — 5 Points.
Large, long, tortuous, branching and entering large orifices 5
Escutcheon — 2 Points.
Distinctly defined, spreading over thighs and extending well
upward 2
Color — 2 Points.
Red of any shade, brown, or these with white; mahogany and
white, or white; each color distinctly defined. (Brindle
markings allowed but not desirable.) 2
Co\^RiNG — 6 Points.
Skin: medium thickness, mellow and elastic 3
Hair: soft and fine 2
Secretions: oily, of rich brown or yellow color 1
Style — 4 Points.
Alert," vigorous, showing strong character; temperament
inchned to nervousness but still docile 4
Weight — i Points.
At maturity not less than one thousand pounds .... 4
Total 100
20
306
JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
Brown Swiss. — The Brown Swiss breed until recently has
been bred from a dual purpose standpoint. The Registry
Association and advocates of the breed are now paying more
attention to dairy qualities. The breed is horned, solid
brown in color, excepting the udder wdiich is usually of a
lighter color. There is usually a light streak of hair on the
poll, inside the ears and along the back. The muzzle is
Fig. 126. — A Brown Swiss cow, shomng dairy capacity in the general form
and development.
mealy colored and the nose, tongue, and switch are black.
The breed possesses an exceptionally strong, vigorous con-
stitution. The weight ranges from 1100 to 1300 pounds in
standard females. However, the average weight is some-
what less. The general form is inclined to be rather coarse
and lacking in dairy attainment and refinement. The neck
is somewhat large and heavy, and the shoulders and thighs
are inclined to be beefy. The body is capacious, and the
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 307
udder usually very well proportioned. The mammary veins
and wells are medium in size. The quality is only average,
the skin being too thick, the hair inclined to be coarse, and
the joints large. In dairy temperament the breed ranks
fair. It is adapted to rough, mountainous conditions, not
having become widelv disseminated in this countrv.
St.\nd.\rd of Excellence and Scale of Points for Brown
Swiss Cows and Heifers.
Points.
Head. — jNIedium size and rather long 2
Face. — Dished, narrow between horns and wide between eyes . 2
Ears. — Large, fringed inside with hght colored hair; skin inside
of ear a deep orange color 2
Nose. — Black, large and square with mouth surrounded by mealy
colored band, tongue black 2
Eyes. — Moderately large, full and bright 2
Horns. — Short, regularly set with black tips 2
Xeck. — Straight, throat clean, neatly joined to head, shoulders
of good length and moderately thin at the shoulder ... 4
Chest. — Low, deep and full between and back of forelegs . . 6
Back. — Level to setting on of tail and broad across the loin . . 6
Ribs. — Long and broad, wide apart and well sprung with thin,
arching flanks 3
Abdomen. — Large and deep 5
Hips. — Wide apart, rump long and broad 4
Thighs. — Wide with heavy quarters 4
Legs. — Short and straight with good hoofs 2
Tail. — Slender with good switch 2
Hide. — Of medium thickness, mellow and elastic 3
Color. — Shades from dark to light bro^m, at some seasons of
the year graj'; white splashes near udder not objectionable,
light stripe along back. White splashes on body or sides
objectionable. Hair between horns usually lighter shade than
body 4
Fore tdder. — Wide, deep but not pendulous or fleshy, extending
far forward on the abdomen 12
Hind udder. — Wide, deep, but not pendulous or fleshy, extending
well up behind 12
Teats. — Rather large, set well apart and hanging straight down 8
Milk Veins. — Large, long, tortuous, elastic and entering good
wells 6
Escutcheon.— Well defined, spreading over thighs and extend-
ing well upward 2
Disposition. — Quiet 2
Size. — -Mature cows should weigh noi less than 1100 pounds . 3
Total 100
308 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
Bull Same as in Cows and Heifers Except for the Following:
Points.
Expression. — Full of vigor, resolution, and masculinity ... 3
Neck. — Of medium length, somewhat arched, large and strong in
muscles on top, sloping symmetrically to shoulders. Shoulders
large and strong, smoothly blending into body 10
Scrotum. — Well developed and strongly carried 3
Rudimentary Teats. — Squarely placed, wide apart, and free from
the scrotum 6
Mature Bulls. — Should weigh not less than 1600 pounds . . 3
Dark, smoky skins very objectionable.
French-Canadian. — The French-Canadian breed it is sup-
posed originally came from the same stock which forms the
nucleus of the Jersey and Guernsey breeds. The develop-
ment of the breed, however, was in the province of Quebec,
Canada. The size ranks smaller than the Jersey. The breed
is not as highly developed as the Jersey, and is not widely
distributed. It is adapted chiefly to colder and more rig-
orous climates than the Jersey. Compared with this breed,
it is stronger in constitution and less subject to disease. The
color of the French-Canadian is black or brown with a yellow-
ish fawn stripe along the back and around the muzzle. Black
is preferred in the males. The conformation of the breed is
very similar to that of the Jersey. The horns are medium
in size and usually curve outward and then inward. One
of the chief points in favor of the breed is its hardiness.
It ranks high in grazing and early maturing qualities. The
quality of the milk is somewhat lower than the Jersey or
Guernsey, the average butter-fat test for the breed being
about 4 per cent. The quality of the breed is especially
characteristic, as shown in the mellow hide and orange color
in the ears and around the udder. The breed is important
more from an authoritative standpoint, being disseminated
principally in Quebec.
Dutch Belted. — The Dutch Belted breed is a native of
Holland. It is characterized b}^ a band or belt of white which
extends entirely around the body, usually from just back of
the shoulders or thereabouts to the region of the hook points.
The remaining portions of the body are almost invariably
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 309
black. The size of the breed ranks smaller than the Holstein,
comparing more favorably with the Ayrshire in this respect.
The breed is not especially significant from the dairy stand-
point, although there are several rather prominent herds in the
country. The breed is deficient in dairy development, not
showing the characteristic dairy temperament or udder
development. The udder is usually small, attached low, and
Fig. 127.— a Dutch Belted cow.
the teats placed close together. The breed does not compare
favorably with the Holstein-Friesian, as its origin would pos-
sibly indicate. It does not possess a large number of high
producers. It is especially adapted to favorable pasture
and feed conditions. The breeding qualities are unusually
marked, owing to the almost invariable transmission of the
belted quality to grade animals. The breed is not widely
disseminated. It is distinctive principally on account of the
peculiar color markings.
310 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points fob Dutch
Belted Cattle.
Cow.
Points.
Body. — Color black, with a clearly defined continuous white
belt. The belt to be of medium width, beginning behind the
shoulder and extending nearly to the hips 8
Head. — Comparatively long and somewhat dishing: Broad
between the eyes. Poll prominent; muzzle fine; dark tongue 6
Eyes. — Black, full and mild. Horns long compared with their
diameter 4
Neck. — Fine and moderately thin and should harmonize in
symmetry with the head and shoulders 6
Shoulders. — Fine at the top, becoming deep and broad as they
extend backward and downward, with a low chest .... 4
Barrel. — Large and deep with well-developed abdomen; ribs
well rounded and free from fat 10
Hips. — Broad and chine level with full loin 10
Rump. — High, long and broad ....". 6
Hindquarters. — Long and deep, rear line incurving. Tail
long, slim, tapering to a full switch 8
Legs. — Short, clean, standing well apart 3
Udder. — Large, well-developed front and rear. Teats of con-
venient size and wide apart; mammary veins large, long and
crooked, entering large orifices 20
Escutcheon 2
Hair. — Fine and soft; skin of moderate thickness, of a rich dark
or yellow color 3
Disposition. — Quiet and free from excessive fat 4
General Condition and apparent constitution 6
Perfection 100
Dutch Belted Bull.
The scale of points for males shall be the same as those given for
females, except that No. 11 should be omitted and the bull credited 10
points for size and wide spread, placing of rudimentary teats, and 10
additional points for perfection of belt.
Kerry. — The native home of the Kerry is in the Kerry
Mountains in western Ireland. There are two types of the
breed, known as the Kerry and the smaller type known as the
Dexter Kerry. The Kerry is recognized as a dairy animal.
The weight ranges from 500 to 600 pounds in the females
and from 700 to 1000 pounds in the males. The color is
usually black, although red sometimes occurs. White is
objectionable. The breed is horned and is moderately well
proportioned in its dairy attainments. The breed is not
important in this country, although significant from a
BREED CHARACTERISTICS
311
historic standpoint. As a milk producer, the Kerry is
very good. While the quantity produced is not large it is
rather rich in butter-fat. The breed is hardy, enduring
unusual privation. It has been developed under particularly
adverse feed conditions. It is known in Ireland as the poor
man's cow. In quality and early maturity the breed ranks
as average compared with other more prominent breeds.
Very few specimens have been introduced into this country.
Kerry Cattle — Scale of Points.
Bull. Points.
General formation and character 25
Head, horns, and hair 25
Quality and touch 20
Color 30
Total 100
Cow.
General formation and character, head, horns, and hair ... 15
Body, tophne, underline, ribs, setting of tail, and shortness of leg 25
Udder, size, shape, situation of teats, milk veins and escutcheon 40
Quality and touch 10
Color 10
Total 100
CLASS CHARACTERISTICS 313
Class Characteristics. — The development of the dairy
animal may be divided into three rather distinct stages or
periods which include the mature form in the aged dairy
cow, heifer development, and calves.
Mature Form. — The mature dairy animal can be judged
or qualifications depicted from the dairy standpoint reason-
ably accurately. The chief difficulty in determining the
value of such animals is during their non-productive period
or after the cessation of lactation. This brings into use
reasoning power based on the possible value of the dairy
animal as determined by quality, conformation, and dairy
temperament. The udder development is usually a good
indication of the value of an animal, although it may be
misleading.
In judging mature animals, particular stress should be
placed on present dairy qualifications and the records in
the herd if they are available. When an animal is selected
during the lactation period allowance should be made for the
duration or brevity of time which the animal has been
milked. Unusual development at the beginning of the
lactation period and slack development at the end of the
period may be misleading. However, a close estimate can
be made by balancing the udder development with the
other dairy characteristics possessed. In selecting after
the close of the lactation period, the size and shape of the
udder, the character of the mammary veins, and the size of
the wells should all be noticed closely. Proper correlation
of all these characteristics and other evidences of dairy
form will usually furnish a close estimate of the value of an
animal.
Heifer Development. — In selecting heifers close attention
should be given to the outcome of such animals. Present
dairy form or other attributes are valuable, but the possi-
bilities must be taken into consideration. Stress should be
placed on the weight for age, quality, constitution, dairy
temperament, and indications of mammary development.
Short, shallow-bodied animals, thus lacking in capacity, and
having slack development otherwise in the constitution and
mammary system are very objectionable.
314
JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE
Dairy Calves. — Dairy calves should be judged in the same
manner as discussed under the general topic of Selecting
Live Stock. The individuality should be considered along
with the probable outcome in dairy form and capacity.
Evidences of growth, thriftiness, and capacity, both in the
digestive and mammary systems, should be apparent. The
small calf with a shallow body and flat ribs never develops
into a large productive individual. The head should be
broad, clearly outlined, the muzzle strong, the neck of
Tig. 130. — Au Ayrshire bull exeiiiplifyiug breed type, quality, and con-
stitutional development.
medium length, the body long, broad, and deep, these all
being suggestive of rapid growth and capacity. Quality
should be exhibited in the skin, hair, and bone, the latter
showing evidences of producing an animal with a large frame
which is directly associated with dairy capacity.
Breeding Requisites. — The requisites of breeding cattle
have been fully considered under the chapter on Beef Cattle.
There are certain factors, however, in connection with dairy
animals, which should have special consideration. Like
beef animals, dairy cattle should show evidences of mascu-
CLASS CHARACTERISTICS 315
Unity and femininity in the male and female respectively.
They should also exhibit strong constitutional development,
good quality, and capacity. In the dairy animal, however,
special emphasis should be placed on dairy form and capacity,
this being indicated in the long, deep, spacious barrel. Cor-
related with this, dairy temperament should be manifested
in large, bright, keen, expressive eyes; clean, facial outlines;
and a lean, spare, or open conformation. The development
of the rudimentaries should be emphasized in males.
In addition to these qualifications, the breeding female
should possess striking evidences of strong maternal functions
or reproductive capacity. This, like the general dairy form
and capacity, is exhibited in the prominent hook points,
lengthy hindquarters, broadly placed pin-bones or thurls, a
deep body, and striking mammary development. Coupled
with the individual examination of the breeding animal,
the ancestral records should be closely examined as well as
the offspring if the animal has attained a sufficient age to
have animals in the active stage of production. The dairy
animal which has reached this stage is unusually strongly
reinforced with evidences of reproductive capacity. Not
only may the individual be studied from the standpoint of
present attainment, but the breeding and productive records
of the ancestors and in certain instances that of the progeny.
Summing up the discussion, the requisites in the breeding
animal include evidences of deep dairy development cor-
related with constitution, quality, nervous temperament,
and productive capacity.
M ^
CHAPTER XII.
JUDGING SWINE.
Structure. — The structural development of swine is in a
general way like that of cattle and sheep. The framework,
especially in the head and forequarter, fixes the form of
these parts to a large extent. The neck and hindquarters
are largely constructed of muscular tissue. The shoulders,
however, especially in their filling over the sides, are com-
posed of muscular tissue. It is quite frequent in judging
to find that the shoulders protrude on top, thus giving an
open, undesirable condition. The back of the hog, especially
along the spinous processes, is rather heavily filled with
muscle and fat tissue in the finished animal. In this respect
swine are different from sheep, having a larger proportion
of valuable cuts in the forequarters and body proper. From
the market standpoint these regions are more important,
in judging, than in sheep.
In the region of the loin and coupling there is a large
amount of muscular tissue. Animals should be thickly
covered in this region and the flanks should be low and full
and the sides smooth and even. Like cattle and sheep,
the form and development of the hindquarters is largely
determined by muscle and fat development. The ham of
the hog is especially valuable, it being comparable to the
EXPLANATION OF FIG. 131
1— Mouth.
9— Shoulder.
18— Back.
2 — Nostrils.
10— Foreflank.
19— Loin.
3— Face.
11 — Chest floor.
20 — Rump.
4 — Eyes.
12 — Legs.
21 — Coupling.
5 — Ears.
13 — Dew claws.
22— Hindflank.
6 — Jaws.
14— Sheath.
23— TaU.
7— Jowl.
15— Belly.
24— Thighs.
8— Neck.
16 — Sides or ribs.
17 — Heart girth.
25— Hocks.
(317)
318
JUDGING SWINE
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PURPOSE AND METHOD OF USE 319
leg of mutton in sheep. In swine the shape of the head
especially is very largely determined by the bony frame-
work, next the shoulders, then the body and least of all the
hindquarters. The importance of these points will be fully
appreciated in scoring or comparing a class of animals to
determine merit from the market standpoint. Block animals
are judged according to the amount, location, and quality of
the edible products. In swine there is a more uniform
distribution of natural flesh, and a higher dressing percentage
than in other animals. The value of these parts therefore
varies less than in cattle or sheep.
Purpose and Method of Use. — The carcass of swine is used
either in the fresh form or in a cured condition. Practically
all of the cuts, with the exception of the edible parts of the
viscera, may be prepared in a permanent condition for market
uses. Portions from the head, neck, and jowl may be
minced and made into various products for immediate or
future consumption. Backbones and ribs are usually con-
sumed in a fresh condition or left intact with the sides.
Otherwise practically all of the cuts from the hog can be
prepared intact for future use. Such parts include the
shoulders, hams, sides, belly meat, and leg portions. When
prepared in this condition the cuts become standard market
products.
There is probably no other animal in which the use is as
wide or varied. On this account pork products are very
wide in adaptation among all classes of people. The various
cuts obtained from the hog are not only prominent from
the packing-house standpoint, but also from that of the
farmer and the city patron. No other farm animal can be
produced as profitably under such a range of conditions.
The greater uniformity in the value of the various cuts and
their edibility, in both the fresh and cured form, gives a
double significance to this type of animal. Knowledge of
the form of the hog and its value is more widely disseminated
than that of any other block animal. It constitutes one of
the main sources of meat, especially among the average
class or common people. In judging the hog, its adapt-
ability to the purposes and conditions mentioned should be
given close consideration.
320 JUDGING SWINE
Age. — The age of swine may be determined by the teeth,
although this method is seldom used. The general appear-
ance of swine can usually be relied upon to determine the
age to the extent which it is needed in the class room, show
ring, or on the farm. Aged boar and sow classes include
animals two years old or over, this being the upper age limit
in show yard classifications. The stage between one and
two years and under one year can usually be determined
satisfactorily by the general appearance of the animal.
Furthermore, swine are difficult to handle to determine the
age by dentition.
Breed Classification. — Swine are divided into two distinct
types on a basis of their adaptability to the production of
pork and lard, and bacon products. Certain breeds of hogs
go to the market designated as lard or fat hogs, others as
bacon hogs. The distinction is in the peculiar characteristics
of the two types which adapt one to the production of an
average-qualitied edible product and the other to the produc-
tion of a high-class bacon product characterized b}^ alternate
layers of fat and lean. The former type has a thick pad of fat
over the outside of the body, the latter type having a thinner
outside covering of fat with a characteristic streaking of the
fat and lean. The classification is made by breeds as follows:
Fat Type. — Berkshire semifat, Poland-China, Duroc-
Jersey, Chester White, Hampshire,^ Cheshire, Victoria, Essex,
Suffolk, Middle Yorkshire, Small Yorkshire, and Mule-foot.
Bacon Type. — Large Yorkshire and Tamworth.
Fat Type. — The qualifications of the fat type of hog,
while covering many of those which characterize the bacon
type, have a peculiar significance, as given under several
important headings, which include age, weight, form, quality,
constitution, capacity, condition, and maturity. Constitu-
tion and capacity are of special significance in breeding swine.
The other qualifications are especially important in consider-
ing the hog from the market standpoint.
General View of the Hog. — In judging the hog the quality,
confonnation, style, constitution and vigor should be care-
fully considered. By quality is meant fineness of bone,
1 Classed also as a bacon animal, depending on growth and development.
AGE AND WEIGHT 321
straight glossy hair, fine, clean skin and a clear-cut contour,
especially about the head and ears. The bone in the leg
should be large, straight and strong, the nostrils open, the
eyes prominent and bright, and the chest, broad, deep and
full. If an animal is being selected for a breeder, breed
character and constitution are of special importance. One of
the most common faults of the hog, especially in some breeds
is to narrow abruptly behind the shoulders and gradually
become narrower toward the buttocks, thus giving the
animal, not only an ungainly appearance, but a very undesir-
able condition from the market standpoint. Such a con-
dition is likely to be magnified in the male because of the
natural tendency to be heavy through the shoulders owing to
the development of shields. This is a common fault in sows,
and should be avoided.
Age and Weight. — The age at which a hog reaches market
maturity and the ultimate weight attained at this period is
dependent on the use or purpose of the animal. The method
of feeding also bears directly on the problem. A hog grown
under the proper condition for breeding purposes naturally
develops into a larger and stronger animal than otherwise.
Growth takes place during a longer period than when the
same animal is fed properly for market. " A clear distinction
should therefore be made in judging hogs for breeding and
market purposes. Special stress should be placed on the
bone development in a breeding animal because of its in-
fluence on the duration of usefulness. From the market
standpoint it is necessary to develop only sufficient bone and
substance to carry the finished market weight.
The various breeds of hogs differ greatly in their weight
for age, growing period, and maturing qualities. The Essex
is a small early maturing breed, the small size being one
of the principal objections to the breed. The Tamworth
is a larger and later maturing breed, the latter characteristic
being one of the chief objections to them. Weight for age
and maturing qualities are dependent on the breed, the
individual, and the method of feeding and management.
Exceptional weight for age is desirable, providing it is cor-
related with market demands. A hog weighing 200 to 225
21
322 JUDGING SWINE
pounds is always in ready demand. Small, unfinished hogs
or overgrown specimens with excessive waste are not salable
at remunerative prices. It is therefore better to have less
weight, more quality, more smoothness and symmetry of
form than to have extraordinary weight at the expense of
these attributes.
Conformation. — ;The fat type of hog is closely analogous
to the beef animal in form and development. Consideration
should be given to the length, width, depth, symmetry and
Fig. 133. — A Berkshire barrow, showing the desired form, quality, and
condition in the fat hog.
compactness, all of which should be closely correlated in the
utility animal. The form of the breeder is not greatly
different from the animal used for feeding purposes. The
principal difference is in the larger, broader, capacious frame
of the breeding specimen. It is not necessary, therefore,
to differentiate greatly in judging these two types of ani-
mals. The body of both should be long, wide, and deep,
the back slightly arched, the shoulders smooth, the sides
smooth and even and the loin broad. The animal should have
good depth, this being largely determined by the spring
INDICATIONS AND VALUE OF QUALITY 323
and length of the ribs. The shoulders, sides and thighs
should be smooth and free from creases or wrinkles. A
line stretched from the shoulder to the thigh, either at the
rib spring, mid-body or at the underline should touch
the parts mentioned. The width should be sufficient
to furnish the maximum amount of back and loin cuts.
Occasionally animals taper from the top line toward the
underline. This is not only objectionable because of the
decrease for productive purposes, but it renders the animal
much less capacious as a feeder or breeder than otherwise.
The nearer the hog conforms to the parallelogram in all of
its- lines and measurements the nearer it approaches the
ideal. The legs should be short, straight and strong, this
being especially important in breeding animals. The bone
should be large, dense and smooth, the pasterns straight and
strong, and the animal should stand well up on the toes.
A break in the pasterns such as to allow the animal to
walk on the dew claws is seriously objectionable. The
general appearance of the hog should show smoothness,
symmetry, style, and compactness. Constitution and vigor
should be clearly evident both in breeding and feeding
animals.
Indications and Value of Quality. — Quality indicates both
texture of bone and carcass and the dressing percentage,
these determining in a large measure the ultimate value of
the product. Quality is exhibited largely as in other animals,
although there are special characteristics which indicate its
presence or absence. The general appearance of the animal
should present clean-cut features and outline, there being no
tendency to grossness or flabbiness in any part. Lack of
clean-cut, trim lines are especially indicative of inferior
qualit^^ The indications are seen in an even distribution
of a fine, silky coat of hair. Coarse hair and frequently
associated swirls are the most noticeable indications of
faulty quality. Coarse quality is further indicated by either
long, coarse, straight or kinky hair or the reverse condition
in which it curls rather tightly to the body. The latter
is more objectionable as it detracts, both from the usefulness
and the general appearance of the animal. Swirls are very
324
JUDGING SWINE
BREEDING AND FEEDING CAPACITY 325
objectionable, these occurring usually about the head, jowl,
on the back, or over the rump.
The bone of the animal is one of the chief indications of
the quality possessed. A large, coarse, open bone and rough,
undefined joints are extremely objectionable. While there
should be sufficient bone to sustain the weight of the
animal under all conditions, quality should not be sacrificed
to obtain it in an extreme degree. A bone of somewhat
smaller size with sufficient quality is more desirable than a
large, spongy bone devoid of quality. This latter condition
usually signifies open or loose conformation, w^hich is a very
objectionable feature. Large, overgrown ears, a heavy,
flabby jowl, coarse, open shoulders, rough, undefined joints,
coarse hair and a large, coarse bone are the chief indications
of objectionable quality. Taken as a whole, there should be
a general indication of smoothness, compactness and refine-
ment both in form and finish.
Constitution and Vigor. — Constitution is especially signifi-
cant in the breeding animal. Because of the comparatively
short period w'hich the feeding animal is maintained, con-
stitution is not of equal significance. The breeding animal is
usually maintained for a long period of years, comparatively
speaking, and to sustain the burden of reproduction and
development it is necessary to have as much constitution as
consistent with the size and type of the animal. Con-
stitution is indicated by a broad, strong head, large, clear,
bright eyes, a large muzzle, large nostrils and a broad, deep
chest, the latter indicating capacity for heart and lung
development. The general appearance, capacity, move-
ments and demeanor should otherwise indicate a strong or
weak-constitutioned animal.
Breeding and Feeding Capacity. — Capacity signifies the
ability of an animal to economically use sufficient feed to
attain normal and economic development as a feeder or to
properly nourish the body and that of the fetus and oft'-
spring. A long, broad, deep, capacious body is important
in accomplishing this end. Capacity is closely coordinated
with constitution, as one cannot be developed to a maximum
degree without the other. Capacity indicates roominess of
326 JUDGING SWINE
body. This term should not be confused with the coarse-
quahtied, large, open-framed body formerly described.
Capacity and compactness should be consistently developed
in the animal. A cramped chest floor and a narrow floor
line in the body with insufficient length and width otherwise
are important indications of insufficient capacity.
Meaning and Value of Condition. — The term condition is
used to signify the amount of marketable finish acquired
by an animal. A hog with a small amount of fat develop-
ment is said to be in low condition, thus lacking the proper
amount of fat for placing it in the most acceptable condition
for market purposes. A high condition may be obtained
economically or at considerable expense, thus largely elimina-
ting the possible profit from swine husbandry. When an
animal is excessively fattened, there is a double loss, as
superfluous fat is extremely objectionable in market animals.
The important evidences of condition are not difficult to
recognize. A high-conditioned hog is smoothly covered with
fat, thus giving an even, smooth, symmetrical appearance.
The jowl should be full and firm, the shoulders smooth, well
filled, and the flanks low. If the flanks are well filled and
carried low it signifies the general deposition of fat, this
being one of the last places where fat is deposited at which
time normal marketable finish is completed. A full, smooth,
even, symmetrical appearance is indicative of finish desired
in market animals.
Maturity. — Maturity has a double significance. It signifies
the attainment of definite qualifications for two fundamental
purposes. The term may signify either breeding or market
maturity. An animal should be matured for breeding pur-
poses under normal growing conditions to influence the
growth of a strong, dense bone, full muscle development, and
to otherwise induce strong constitutional powers primarily
for reproductive purposes. Market maturity in a hog should
be attained at six to eight months of age, and to obtain the
desired weight for age different feeding methods must be
followed. Indications of forced market maturity are usually
in evidence in the form, vigor displayed, carriage of body
and bone development, as indicated in the legs and feet.
PERCENTAGES OF YIELD 327
Small bone, an overabundance of fat, weak, low pasterns,
spreading feet, and stilted carriage usually indicate forced
maturity. This condition necessarily indicates the posses-
sion of objectionable qualifications. The comparison used
should not be taken as absolute but rather as indicative of
the fundamental meaning of the two conditions. In the mar-
ket animal these conditions should not be in evidence to an
extreme degree. The principal requirement in such animals
is a sufficiently strong bone to maintain the finished weight
providing no ill effects are caused otherwise. As a breeder,
however, where normal size, weight for age, constitution,
capacity, and reproduction are involved, such a condition
as the above is highly objectionable. Such animals, judged
from the breeding standpoint, should be subject to extreme
criticism, and likewise in market animals, where utility is
depreciated.
Dressing Percentage. — A well-bred hog with pronounced
individuality should normally dress from 75 to 85 per cent,
of the live weight. The dressing percentage is of necessity
dependent upon the type, age, breeding, individuality, and
condition. An inferior-bred individual, low in condition, will
dress a low percentage, as the conformity of the animal to the
accepted standard and the condition attained influence the
percentage of edible product obtained from the live animal.
Young pigs or unfinished shoats will not dress as high as
older or finished animals respectively. The accumulation of
fat throughout and over the body parts is largely responsible
for the ultimate ratio between the live apd dressed weight.
Exceptional individuals or lots of hogs have been known
to dress as high as 87 to 88 per cent. This is an extreme
condition, however, and should not be taken as the average.
A hog in average condition will dress about 75 per cent., and
one in high condition about 80 per cent. These figures are
based on averages obtained under normal conditions of breed,
individuality and condition.
Percentages of Yield. — The variety of cuts into which a
hog can be divided varies considerably. The total yield of
the various cuts mentioned in the following table will vary
with the market, and to a certain extent depending upon the
328
JUDGING SWINE
Fig. 135. — English and domestic cuts of swine carcass. (Courtesy of
Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station.)
A- — Long cut ham.
1 — Short cut ham.
2 — Loin.
3— Belly.
4 — Picnic butt.
5 — Boston butt.
6 — Jowl.
7— Hock.
8— Fat back.
English cuts.
B — Long side or middle.
Domestic Cuts.
9 — Clear plate.
2, 8— Back.
2, 3, 8— Side.
4, 7 — Picnic shoulder.
5, 9 — Shoulder butt.
8, 9 — Long fat back.
4, 5, 7, 9 — Rough shoulder.
DETAILS OF FORM 329
size of the hog and the season of the year. These variations
will not be, on the average, more than 2 per cent, of the total
yield. The figures given are based on hogs weighing from
240 to 275 pounds.
A hog cut in the following manner will yield the following
percentages based on live weight.
Cuts. Per Tint.
Loin 9.00
BeUy 12.00
Backs 12.00
Shoulders 9.00
Hams 12.50
Lard 13.00
Total 67.50
The remaining portion of the animal is included in the
head, neck, shanks, feet, and viscera, thus constituting 32|
per cent, of the total weight, making the standard edible
products from the hog constitute slightly more than two-
thirds of the total live weight.
Based on the short-rib method of cutting a hog carcass,
from heavy weight hogs weighing 300 to 350 pounds, the
following yields will be available:
Cuts. Per cent.
Ribs 37.00
Hams 12.50
Shoulders 8.00
Lard 14.50
Total 72.00
This leaves a total of 28 per cent., which is included in the
head, viscera, and other minor parts of the animal. The
variation in the two methods of cutting and the size of the
hog makes a difference of 4^ per cent, in the total yield of
the products.
Details of Form. — A somewhat better understanding can
be obtained of the desired qualities of the hog by making a
detailed study of the various parts as follows.
330 JUDGING SWINE
Head. — The head should be short, straight or medium
in dish and broad between the eyes. The eyes should be
large, clear, and prominent. Features of the breed or type
should be especially significant. The head should be deep
as viewed from the side, showing a straight face or medium
dish, a large muzzle, and open nostrils.
Ears. — ^The ears should be medium in size, erect, semi-
erect, or pendant, depending on the breed, and covered with a
short, fine coat of hair. Heavy, coarse, pendant ears indicate
inferior quality. The Berkshire has an erect ear, the Poland-
China a semidrooping ear, and the Chester White a droop-
ing or pendant ear. These factors are not as important in
judging market hogs as when considering animals from the
breed t^^pe standpoint.
Jowl.— The jowl should be firm, trim, and closely carried.
A large, heavy, pendant jowl is objectionable, as it indicates
coarseness of quality or overdevelopment in condition. A
smooth, trim jowl is most desirable, as this condition is
usually significant of quality. Superfluous, flabby flesh
or fat is objectionable in this region both in breeding and
market animals.
Neck. — The neck of the hog should be short, broad, deep,
and smoothly and evenly blended with the head and shoul-
ders. A long, thin neck is objectionable as it usually signifies
inferior breeding, low condition or general unthriftiness. The
neck of the hog is extremely short, especially in the fat type,
there being a longer, more pronounced formation in the
bacon type of animal.
Shoulders.- — The shoulder development of the hog is
extremely important, as the form of it is indicative of several
important factors. Large, coarse, open shoulders detract
seriously from the value of an animal, either for breeding
or feeding purposes. The same characteristics will be
transmitted by the breeding animal, and such a condition
is objectionable in finished animals owing to the relatively
high value of the cuts in this region. The shoulders should
be broad, although not to such an extent that the fore-
width of the body cannot be carried out to the extremity.
This is one of the common faults of the hog and therefore
DETAILS OF FORM 331
attention should be given in overcoming this objectionable
characteristic. The shoulders should be broad, level, smooth,
and compactly covered over the top and sides. The depres-
sion characteristic of the so-called open shoulder indicates
lack of condition and coarseness of quality.
Chest. — The chest measurement is determined by the
width and depth of the animal attained through the body
part back of the shoulders. There should be no depression
in this region, as such would interfere with the normal
constitutional capacity and therefore with the future useful-
ness. Good width and depth in the heart-girth region are
significant of streng^ and vigor. Any tendency toward
narrowness at the base of the chest is extremely objectionable.
Back. — The back should be long, uniform in width from
shoulders to hindquarters, smooth, and slightly arched.
There is a decided tendency for hogs to narrow as the hind-
quarters are approached. Special discrimination should be
made against an animal of this conformation.
Sides and Ribs. — The length and depth of the body are
determined largely by the formation of the ribs. They
should spring squarely from the back to give width of body,
and be long and extend low to give depth of body. The coup-
ling should be short. The sides should be smooth, extend on
a direct line with the shoulders and thighs and be free from
wrinkles, creases, or any other characteristic rough condition.
Flanks. — The flanks should be full and low. High flanks
detract from the usefulness and general appearance of an
animal. They give the impression of ranginess which is
objectionable. They also indicate weak constitution, espe-
cially the foreflank, which determines chest capacity in a
large measure. An animal cut high in the hindflank seldom
breeds or feeds well.
Feet and Legs. — The legs should be short, straight, strong,
and squareh' placed under the body. The pasterns should
be upright and the animal stand well up on the toes. Low,
weak pasterns are very undesirable.
332 JUDGING SWINE
Score Card for Fat Hogs.
Perfect score.
General Appearance — 40 Eoints.
Weight: score according to age 6
Form: low set, rectangular, broad, deep, long, smooth, sym-
metrical 10
Quality: refined head, smooth, sides free from wrinkles, fine
straight hair, clean bone 10
Condition: thick, even covering of firm flesh 10
Temperament: lymphatic, disposed to fatten 4
Head and Neck — 7 Points.
Head: short, broad, deep
Snout: comparatively short, fine
Eyes: large, bright, wide apart
Face: moderately dished, according to breed, broad between
the eyes
Earn: medium size, pointed, thin, carried well up ...
Jowl: full, deep, trim
Neck: thick, deep, short, top line sharply curved upward
Forequarters^ — 8 points.
Shoulder: wide, smooth on sides, compact on top ... 4
Breast: prominent, full 2
Legs: short, straight, strong, clean bone 2
BoDY^ — ^31 points.
Chest: deep, wide, full, no constriction 3
Back: broad, thickly covered, weU supported, arched . . 10
Sides: long, deep, smooth, firm, thickly covered .... 6
Loin: broad, thickly covered 10
Flank: deep, full, underline straight 2
Hindquarters — 14 points.
Rump: long, broad, level 2
Ham: wide, deep, full, well rounded, firm 10
Legs: short, straight, strong, clean bone 2
Total 100
Breed Characteristics. — The various breeds are character-
ized by the differences in type, size, weight, color markings,
thriftiness, adaptabiUty, maturity and condition as follows:
Berkshire. — The Berkshire is a native of the Shire of
Berk, England. The breed is important, not only as a
typical breed in itself, but also from its use in developing
other newer breeds. The Berkshire figured prominently
in the development of the Poland-China breed of swine in
Ohio. Ordinarily this breed classes among the fat types.
The writer gives it a place between the fat and bacon types,
designating it as a semifat breed. Considered from the
BERKSHIRE
333
standpoint of its use in specific bacon production it comes
much nearer filling these requirements than any of the other
breeds belonging to the fat type. In size the Berkshire
ranks among the larger breeds. The average weight of
boars in fully mature condition ranges from 500 to 600
pounds. The color is black with the exception of six white
points, namely: the snout, the four feet, and the tip of the
tail. White may appear on the forearm, shoulder or jowl
r
t
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Fig. 13(3. — Berkshire boar.
without disqualification. One or more black points may
also be present. However, they are objectionable, among
most American breeders. The form is smooth, compact,
and unusually neat, clean and trim in outline. The head is
short, and either moderately or excessively dished, depend-
ing upon the fancy of the breeder. The face is broad, the
poll usually wide, the ears erect and the neck and jowl
smooth and firm. The Berkshire is unusually alert, expres-
sive in facial outlines and possesses unusual refinement
otherwise, being a typical show hog.
334 JUDGING SWINE
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Berk-
shire Swine.
Points.
Color. — Black, white feet, face and tip of tail, but skin and hair
occasionally showing tinge of bronze or copper color. An occa-
sional splash of white not objectionable; lack of either of white
points admissible 3
Face and Snout. — Face well dished and broad between eyes;
snout short and broad . 7
Eyes. — Prominent, clean, clear, large, dark hazel or gray ... 2
Ears. — Medium size, setting well apart, carried fairly erect,
inclining forward, especially with age 3
Jowl. — Full, firm, not flabby or hanging too low, running back well
on neck 3
Neck. — Full, short and slightly arched, broad on top, well con-
nected with shoulder 3
Hair. — Fine, straight, smooth, lying close to and covering the
body well; free from bristles 3
Skin. — Smooth and mellow 3
Chest. — Deep, full and wide, with good heart girth .... 6
Shoulder. — Smooth and even on top and in line with side . . 6
Side. — Deep, smooth, well let down, straight side and bottom
lines 6
Back. — Broad, fuU, strong, level or slightly arched; ribs well
sprung 10
Flank. — Extending well back and low down on leg, making nearly
a straight line with lower part of side 5
Loin. — Full, wide and well covered with flesh 6
Ham. — Deep, wide, thick and firm, extending well up on back
and holding thickness well down to hock 10
Tail.- — Well up on line with back, neither too fine, short or
tapering 2
Legs and Feet. — Straight and strong, set wide apart, short
in pastern, with hoofs nearly erect, capable of carrying great
weight 10
Size. — Size all that is possible without loss of quality or symmetry
with good length. Weight in good condition, boars at 12
months, 350 to 450 pounds; at 24 months, 500 to 700 pounds;
sows at 12 months, 350 to 400 pounds; at 24 months, 500 to 700
pounds 6
Appearance and Character. — Vigorous, attractive, of good
disposition, firm and easy movement 6
Total 100
Poland-China. — The Poland-China ranks as one of the
extreme fat breeds. It is an American product characterized
by an unusual prevalence or accumulation of outside fat.
The weight of boars may reach as high as 500 to 600
pounds or more in mature breeding specimens. Like the
Berkshire, the breed is characterized by a solid black color
POLAND-CHINA
335
with the exception of six white points, namely, the snout,
four feet and tip of tail. One or more black points are
sometimes found but they are not desirable. This, however,
is a fad or fancy adhered to by breeders. One of the chief
objections to the Poland-China is the method of breeding
which has been followed, this reducing the size and vigor
of the breed as a whole. The modern type of animal is
characterized by larger bone, more vigor, and rustling quali-
FiG. 137. — Poland-China boar.
ties. In the last decade considerable attention has been
given to the improvement of the breed in these respects.
The head of the Poland-China is broad and short, the face
usually straight, the neck short and full, the body long, wide,
deep, and the animal as a whole comparatively low set.
Ears which best characterize the breed are semidrooping,
the upper one-third of the ear breaking over. The jowl is
usually heavy, the legs short, and the thighs plump. Lack
of size, small litters, a drooping rump, and inferior rustling
qualities are faults with the breed.
336 JUDGING SWINE
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Poland-
China Swine.
Points.
Head and Face. — Head short and wide; cheeks full; jaws broad,
forehead high and wide; face short, smooth, wide between the
eyes, tapering from eyes to point of nose and shghtly dished
surface, even and regular 4
Objections: Head long, narrow, coarse; forehead low and narrow
or contracted, lower jaw extending beyond upper; face long;
straight and narrow between the eyes; nose coarse, thick or
crooked, ridgy, or dished as much as a Berkshire.
Eyes. — Large, prominent, bright, lively, clear and free from
wrinkled or fat surroundings 2
Objections: Small, dull, bloodshot, deepset or obscure; vision
impaired by wrinkles, fat or other causes.
Ears. — Small, thin, soft, silky, attached to the head by a short
and small knuck, tips pointing forward and slightly outward,
and the forward half drooping gracefully, fully under control of
animal, both of same size, position and shape 2
Neck. — Wide, deep, short, and nicely arched at top from poll of
head to shoulder 2
Objection: Long, narrow, thin, flat on top, not extending down
to breast bone, tucked up.
Jowl. — Full, broad, deep, smooth and firm, carrying fulness back to
near point of shoulders, and below line of lower jaw, so that lower
line will be as low as breast-bone when head is carried up level 2
Objections: Light, flabby, thin, wedge-shaped, deeply wrinkled,
not drooping below line of lower jaw and not carrying fulness
back to shoulder and brisket.
Shoulder. — Broad, deep and full, not extending above the line of
back and being as wide on top as on back, carrying size down
to line of beUy and having good lateral width 6
Objections: Narrow and not same depth as body, narrow at top
or bottom, extending above line of back, less than body in
breadth at top or bottom portions, or lacking iij lateral width,
shields on boars under eight months of age, or large, heavy
shields on hogs under eighteen months of age.
Chest. — Large, wide, deep, roomy, indicating plenty of room for
vital organs, making a large girth just back of shoulders, the
breast-bone extending forward so as to show slightly in front
of the legs and extending in a straight line back to end of breast-
bone, showing a width of not less than six inches between fore-
legs in a large, full-grown hog 12
Objections: Flat, pinched, narrow at top or either end of breast-
bone; breast-bone crooked or not extending slightly in front
of forelegs.
Back and Loin. — Broad, straight or slightly arched, carrying
same width from shoulder to ham, surface even, smooth, free
from lumps, crease or projection, not too long, but broad on top,
indicating well-sprung ribs, should not be higher at top than
at shoulder, and should not fill at junction with side so that
a straight-edge placed along top of side will touch all the way
from point of shoulder to point of ham; should be shorter than
lower belly line 14
Carried forward • . . . . 44
POLAND-CHINA 337
Points.
Brought forward 44
Objections: Narrow, creased back of shoulders, swayed or hollow,
drooping below a straight line, humped or wrinkled, too long,
or sunfish shaped, loin high, narrow, depressed or uneven, width
at side not as much as shoulder and ham.
Sides and Ribs. — Sides full, smooth, firm and deep, carrying
sides down to belly and evenly from ham to shoulder, ribs long,
strong, well sprung at top and bottom 10
Objections: Flat, thin, flabby, pinched, not as full at bottom as
at top, drawn in at shoulder so as to produce a crease, or pinched
or tucked up and in as it approaches the ham, lumpy, or uneven
surface, ribs flat or too short.
Bflly and Flank. — Wide, straight and full, dropping as low as
flank at bottom of chest, back of foreleg, making a straight line
from lorelegs to hindlegs; flank full and out even with surround-
ing portions of body, belly at that point dropping down on a Une
with lower line of chest; the loose skin connecting ham and
belly being on a line even with bottom of side 4
Objections: Belly narrow, pinched, sagging or flabby, flank thin,
tucked up or drawn in.
Hams and Rump. — Hams broad, full, long and wide. They
should be as wide at point of the hip as at the swell of ham.
Buttocks large and full, should project he3'ond and come down
upon and fill full between the hocks. The lower front part of
the ham should be full, and stifle well covered with flesh and a
gradual rounding toward the hock. Rump should have a
rounded slope from loin to root of tail; same width as back and
filling out full on each side and above the tail ..... 10
Objections: Ham narrow, short, thin, not projecting beyond and
coming down to hock; cut up too high in crotch twist; lacking
in fulness at top and bottom, lacking in width from stifle straight
back, lower forepart thin and flat, straight from root of tail to
hock; buttocks light, thin or flabby. Rump flat, narrow and
peaked at root of tail, too steep.
Feet and Lep.s — Legs medium length, straight, set well apart
and squarely under body, tapering, well muscled and wide
above knee and hock, below hock and knee round and tapering,
capable of sustaining weight of an animal in full flesh without
breaking down, bone firm and fine texture, pasterns short and
nearly upright; feet firm, short, tough and free from defects . 10
Objections: Legs long, slim, coarse, crooked, muscles small above
hock and knee, bone large, coarse, as large at foot as above knee,
pasterns long and slim, crooked or weak, the hocks turned in
or out of straight line, legs too close together, hoofs long, slim
and weak, toes spreading or crooked or unable to bear up weight
of animal without breaking down.
Tail. — Well set on, smooth, tapering and carried in a curl . . 1
Objections: Coarse, long, crooked or hanging straight down like a
rope.
Coat. — Fine, straight, smooth, laying close to and covering the
body well, not clipped, evenly distributed over the body . . 3
Carried forward 82
22
338 JUDGING SWINE
Points.
Brought forward 82
Objections: Bristles, hair coarse, harsh, thin, wavy or curly,
swirls, standing up. ends of hair spUt and brown, not evenly
distributed over all the body except belly. Chpped coats
should be cut 1.5 points.
Color. — Black, with white in face and lower jaw, white on feet
and tip of tail, a few small, clear white spots on body not objec-
tionable 4
Objections: Solid black, more than one-fourth white, sandy hair
in spots, a grizzled or speckled appearance.
Size. — Large for age and condition. Boars two years old and over
if in good flesh, should weigh not less than 500 pounds. Sows
same age and condition, not less than 450 pounds. Boars
eighteen months old, in good condition, not less than 400
pounds; sows 350 pounds. Boars twelve months old, not less
than 300 pounds; sows 300 pounds. Boars and sows six months
old, not less than 150 pounds. Other ages in proportion . . 5
Objections: Overgrowth, coarse, gangling, or hard to fatten at
any age.
Action and Style. — Action easy, vigorous, quick and graceful.
Style attractive, high carriage and in male testicles should be
of same size and carriage readily seen and yet not too large . 3
Objections: Slow, dull, clumsy, awkward, difficulty in getting
up when down, low carriage, wabbhng walk. In males testicles
not easily seen, not of same size or carriage, too large, or only
one showing.
Condition. — Healthy, skin clear of scurf, scales or sores, soft
and mellow to the touch, flesh fine, evenly laid on and free from
lumps or wrinkles. Hair soft and lying close to the body, good
feeding quahties 2
Objections: Unhealthy skin, scaly, wrinkly, scabby, or harsh,
flabbiness or lumpy flesh, too much fat for breeding. Hair
harsh, dry and standing up from body, poor feeders, deafness,
partial or total.
Disposition. — Quiet, gentle and easily handled 2
Objections: Cross, restless, vicious or wild.
Symmetry of points 2
Total 100
Disqualifications.
Form. — Upright ears; small, cramped chest; crease back of shoulders
and over back so as to cause a depression in back easily noticed;
deformed or badly crooked legs; feet broken down so that animal
walks on pastern joints.
Size. — China build or not two-thirds large enough for age.
Condition. — Excessive fatness; barrenness; deformed; seriously dis-
eased; total blindness, caused by defective eyes, or by reason of fat
or loose and wrinkled skin over the eyes.
Score. — Less than sixty points.
Pedigree. — Not eligible to record.
DUROC-JERSEY 339
Duroc-Jersey. — The Duroc-Jersey is one of the leading
fat breeds. It is characterized by a red color which may
vary from light to dark. A tendency to black is objection-
able, a cherry red color being preferred. The size of the
Duroc-Jersey is on the average about the same as the Poland-
China or Chester White. Mature boars may reach as high as
600 pounds or more in weight, the sows averaging 100
pounds less at the same age and condition. The breed
has good rustling qualities and is very popular in many
sections. A tendencv to coarse bone and lack of refinement
Fig. 138. — Duroc-Jersey boar.
are objections to the breed. The head is reasonably short
with a moderate dish. The ears are drooping or arching
in appearance. The neck is short and full, the shoulders
reasonabl}' compact, the sides of good length and the quarters
or thighs reasonably smooth and well filled. The principal
points in favor of the breed are the size, rustling qualities,
and their economic producing qualities. Excessive fat
formation, lack of quality, smoothness, and refinement are
the principal objections. As a whole, however, the breed
conforms very closely to the fat-hog type. In many respects
it favors the Poland-China in size, general form and finish.
340
JUDGING SWINE
Scale of Points for Duroc- Jersey Swine.
Points.
Head 4
Eyes 2
Ears 2
Neck 2
Jowl 2
Shoulder 6
Chest 12
Back and Loin 14
Sides and Ribs 9
Belly and Flank 4
Ham and Rump 10
Feet and Legs 9
Tail 1
Coat 3
Color 2
Size 8
Action and Style 3
Condition 2
Disposition 2
Symmetry of Points 3
Total 100
Chester White. — The Chester White breed received its
name from the soHd white color characteristics.^ Bluish
Fig. 139.— Chester White boar.
spots on the skin are permissible. The breed ranks as a
strictly fat breed. Mature boars range in weight from 500
' Originated in Chester County, Pa.
CHESTER WHITE 341
to 650 pounds. It ranks in size with the other leading fat
breeds. One of the principal objections to it is its general
lack of refinement. The ears are often heavy and extremely
pendant, the shoulders prominent, and the hair coarse and
curly. The head is rather large, the face straight, the jowl
large and the body proper inclined to be rough. The breed
has the extreme tendency to narrow materially from the fore-
to the hindquarters.
The O. I. C. breed, meaning the Ohio Improved Chester
White, is merely an offspring from the original Chester
White, having been decidedly improved in quality and
conformation. The size has been somewhat decreased and
the attributes of quality and compactness introduced.
Considered as a whole, the improved form of the Chester
White is a very acceptable breed. The body has good width
and carries out well. Coarseness in bone, prominent shoul-
ders and general lack of quality are still faults, however,
with some specimens of the breed.
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for O. I. C.
Swine.
Points.
Color. — White. Black spots in hair disquahfy, but bhie spots
in hide (commonly known as freckles), while objectionable, do
not argue impurity of blood 2
Objections: Color any other than white.
Head and Face. — Head short and wide; cheeks neat (not too
full); jaws broad and strong; forehead medium, high and wide;
face short and smooth; wide between the eyes, which should
be prominent, clear, and bright and free from fat surroundings;
nose neat, tapering and slightly dished 5
Objections: Head long, narrow or coarse; forehead low and nar-
row; jaws contracted and weak; face long, narrow and straight;
nose coarse, clumsy or dished like a Berkshire; eyes small,
deeply sunken or obscure; impau'ed vision.
Ears. — Medium size; soft; not too thick; not clumsy; pointing
forward and slightly outward; drooping gracefully and fully
under control of the animal 2
Objections: Too large or too small; coarse; thick; stiff or upright,
drooping too close to face; not under control.
Brisket. — Full; well let dowm; joined well to jowl in line with belly 3
Objections: Narrow; tucked up or depressed.
Jowl.- — Smooth; neat; firm; full; carrying fulness well back to
shoulders and brisket when head is carried up level ... 2
Objections: Light; rough and deeply wrinkled; too large and
flabby; not carrying fulness back to shoulders and brisket.
Carried forward 14
342 JUDGING SWINE
Points.
Brought forward 14
Neck. — Wide; deep; short and nicely arched; neatly tapering
from head to shoulder 3
Objections: Narrow, thin; long; flat on top; tucked up; not extend-
ing down to breast-bone.
Shoulders. — Broad; deep and full; extending in line with the
side, and carrying size down to line of belly 6
Objections: Deficient in width or depth; extending above hne of
back; thick beyond hne of side and hams; shields on boars too
coarse and prominent.
Chest and Heart Girth. — Full around the heart and back of
the shoulders; ribs extending well down; wide and full back of
forelegs 10
Objections: Narrow; pinched; heart girth less than flank measure
or length of body from top of head to root of tail; or creased
back of shoulders.
Back. — Broad; straight or slightly arched; uniform width; free
from lumps or rolls; same height and width at shoulder as at ham 7
Objections: Narrow; swayed; humped; creasing back of shoul-
ders; sunfish-shaped; uneven width; lumps or rolls.
Sides. — Full; smooth; deep; carrying size down to line of belly;
even with line of ham and shoulder 5
Objections: Flat; thin; flabby; uneven surface; compressed at
bottom; shrunken at shoulder and ham.
Ribs. — Long; well sprung at top and bottom; giving animal a
square form 7
Objections: Too short; flat.
Loin. — Broad and full 7
Objections: Narrow; depressed.
Belly. — Same width as back; full; straight; drooping as low at
flank as at bottom of chest; line of lower edge running parallel
with sides 4
Objections: Narrow; pinched; sagging or flabby.
Flank. — Full and even with body . 2
Objections: Thin, tucked up or drawn in.
Ham and Rump. — Broad; full; long; wide and deep; admitting
of no swells; buttock full, neat and clean; stifle weU covered
with flesh, nicely tapering toward the hock; rump shghtly
rounding from loin to root of tail, same width as back, making
an even line with sides 10
Objections: Narrow; short; not filled out to stifle; too much cut
up in crotch or twist; not coming down to hock; buttocks
flabby; rump flat, narrow, too long, too steep, sharp or peaked
at root of tail.
Tail. — Small; smooth; nicely tapering; root slightly covered with
flesh; carried in a curl 2
Objections: Coarse; too long; clumsy; straight.
Legs. — Medium length; strong and straight; set well apart and
well under body; bone of good size; firm; well muscled; wide
above knee and hock, round and tapering below knee and hock,
enabling the animal to carry its weight with ease; pasterns
short, and nearly upright 5
Carried forward 82
HAMPSHIRE 343
Points.
Brought forward 82
Objections: Too short or too long; weak; crooked; too close
together; muscles weak; bone too large and coarse, without
taper; pasterns long, crooked or slim.
Feet. — Short; firm; tough; animal standing well up on toes . . 8
Objections: Hoofs long, slim, weak; toes spreading, crooked or
turned up.
Coat. — Fine; either straight or wavy, with preference for straight;
evenly distributed and covering the body well; nicely clipped
coats, no objection 3
Objections: Bristles; swirls; hair coarse, thin, standing up, not
evenly distributed over all the body except the belly.
Action. — Easy and graceful; high carriage; active; gentle and
easily handled. In males testicles should be readily seen, and
of same size and carriage 3
Objections: Sluggish; awkward; low carriage; wild; vicious. In
males, testicles not distinctly visible, or not of same size and
carriage.
Symmetry. — A fit proportion of the several parts of the body to
each other, forming a harmonious combination 4
Objections: A disproportionate development in one or more
points; or lack of proper development in any point.
Total 100
Hampshire. — The Hampshire or Thin Rind, as it is some-
times designated, is said to be a native of Hampshire,
England, although the origin is somewhat obscure. The breed
is usually characterized by a white belt, which completely
encircles the body, beginning at the back of the forelegs or
shoulder origin and extending back, sometimes about midway
on the body. The forefeet and legs are usually white, the
remainder of the body being solid black. Some animals
are almost pure black. This standard is used sometimes
to avoid the extension of the belt over the body which
should range from four to twelve inches wide. Black speci-
mens are not uncommon. The breed has been classed both
in the fat and bacon types. Barrows have been shown
mostly in fat classes. The size of the Hampshire ranges
from 400 to 500 pounds in mature breeding males. Usually,
however, this weight is not obtained under average con-
ditions. The head of the Hampshire is of medium size,
the face straight, and rather long and full. The ears are
usually erect, the jowl is trim, the shoulders smooth and
compact, the back slightly arched, the sides smooth and
344 JUDGING SWINE
deep, thus characterizing good, useful form. The legs are
somewhat long, although reasonably strong and straight.
The breed is very popular considering the time of introduc-
tion into this country. It has shown a good account of
itself in individual, lot, and car-load showings in some of the
larger live stock shows.
''■£,■' •" • -/-Hte^M^ *K\
^■f^^ ../•'' .- . '.• >Vf'-^ ''•-••' V
b "■■^:-v''''-'-|^k
Fig. 140. — Hampshire sow.
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Hamp-
shire Swine.
Points.
Head and Face. — Head medium length, rather narrow, cheeks
not full; face nearly straight and medium width between the
eyes, surface even and regular 4
Objections: Head large, coarse and ridgy, nose crooked or much
dished.
EYES.^Bright and lively, free from wrinkles or fat surroundings 2
Objections: Small, deep or obscure, or vision impaired by fat or
other cause.
Ears. — Medium length, thin, slightly incliaed outward and
forward 2
Objections: Large, coarse, thick, large or long knuck, drooping or
not under good control of the animal.
Neck.^ — Short, well set to the shoulders, tapering from shoulder
to head 2
Obieclions: Long, thick or bulky.
Jowl. — Light and tapering from neck to point, neat and firm . 2
Objections: Large, broad, deep or flabby.
Shoulders. — Deep, medium width and fulness, well in line with
back 6
Objections: Narrow on top or bottom, thick beyond line with
sides and hams.
Carried forward 18
HAMPSHIRE 345
Points.
Brought forward 18
Chest. — Large, deep and roomy; full girth, extending down even
with line of belly 12
Objections: Narrow at top or bottom; small girth, cramped or
tucked up.
Back and Loin. — Back straight or slightly arched ;- medium
breadth, with nearly uniform thickness from shoulders to hams
and full at loins; sometimes higher at hips than at shoulders . 15
Objections: Narrow, creased or dropped behind shoulders; surface
ridgy or uneven.
Sides and Ribs.^ — Sides smooth, full, firm, carry size evenly
from shoulders to hams; ribs strong, well sprung at top and
bottom 8
Objections: Sides thin, flat, flabby or creased; ribs not well
sprung.
Belly and Flank. — Straight and full, devoid of grossness; flank
full and running nearly' on line with sides 6
Objections: Belly sagging or flabby; flank thin or tucked up.
Hams and Rump. — Hams of medium width, long and deep; rump
slightly rounded from loin to root of tail; buttock full, neat and
firm, devoid of flabbiness or excessive fat 10
Objections: Ham narrow, cut too high in crotch, buttock flabby,
rump too fat, too narrow or too steep, or peeked at root of tail.
Legs and Feet. — Legs medium length, set well apart and
squarely under body, wide above knee and hock, and rounded
and well muscled below, tapering, bone medium, pasterns
short and nearly upright, toes short and firm, enabling the
animal to carry its w^eight with ease 10
Objections: Legs too long, slim, crooked, coarse or short; weak
muscles above hock and knee-bone large and coarse and legs
without taper, pasterns too long to correspond w'ith length of
leg, too crooked or too slender; feet long, slim and weak; toes
spreading, too long, crooked or turned up.
Tail. — Medium length, slightly curled 1
Objections: Coarse, long, clumsy, swinging like a pendulum.
Coat.- — Fine, straight, smooth 2
Objections: Bristles or swirls, coarse or curly.
Color. — Black, with exception of white belt encircling body, in-
cluding forelegs 2
Objections: White running high on hindlegs, or extending more
than one-fourth length of body, or solid black.
Size. — Large for conditions: boar, two years and over, 450; sow,
same age, 400; eighteen months boar, 350; sow^ 325; twelve
months boar or sow, 300; six months, both sexes, 140 .. . 5
Action and Style. — Active, vigorous, quick and graceful; style,
attractive and spirited 4
Objections: Dull, sluggish and clumsy.
Condition. — Healthy, skin free from all defects, flesh evenly laid
on and smooth and firm, not patchy, and devoid of all excess
of grossness 4
Objections: Skin scurfy, scaly, mangy or otherwise unhealthy; hair
harsh, dwarfed or cramped, not growthy.
Disposition. — Docile, quiet and easily handled 3
Objections: Cross, restless, vicious or with no ambition.
Total 100
346 JUDGING SWINE
Disqualifications.
Color. — Spotted or more than two-thirds white.
Form. — Any radical deformity, ears very large or drooping over eyes,
crooked or weak legs or broken-down feet.
Condition. — Seriously impaired or diseased, excessive grossness,
barrenness in animals over two years of age, chuffy or squabby fat.
Size. — Not two-thirds standard weight.
Pedigree. — Not eligible to record.
Middle Yorkshire.— The Middle Yorkshire is a smaller and
fatter type of animal than the Large Yorkshire, which is a
strictly bacon breed. The color is white and the size ranks
between the large and small types of the breed. This is not
a recognized breed in the same sense as the Large or Small
Yorkshire. Li many instances it is the result of a cross
between the Large and Small Yorkshire breeds, which class in
the bacon and fat type respectively. Although bred in this
way the Middle Yorkshire is more of a fat type of hog, thus
more nearly meeting the American ideal in respect to form
and finish than the Large or Small Yorkshire, the latter
being too small when matured to be an economic producer.
The Large Yorkshire is the only type of this breed of impor-
tance in this country. Knowledge of Middle Yorkshire char-
acteristics is therefore more important from an authoritative
than from a practical standpoint. Middle Yorkshires are
recognized as a breed in their original home. Compared
with the Large Yorkshire, this breed is smaller, having
greater fat-producing qualifications and more refinement
in form and finish.
Small Yorkshire. — The Small Yorkshire belongs to the fat
type, although it is not important, as a breed, in this
country. The size is small, ranking as one of the lightest
breeds of swine produced. The weight ranges on the aver-
age from 175 to 200 pounds at maturity. In a general
way it is comparable in form to the Essex. The color is
solid white the same as the large type of the breed. Black
spots may occur on the skin. The form is rather square and
compact, specimens of the breed being easily fattened at
almost any stage of natural maturity. The head is short,
the neck full and firm, the jowl compact, the body com-
paratively short, although quite deep and symmetrical.
VICTORIA 347
The hindquarters are full, plump and extend well down to
the hocks. The quality of the breed is very good, although
the carcass contains too much fat and therefore is not in
special market demand. Pigs from this breed are used
often for roasting purposes. The chief objections to them
are the small size, excessive amount of fat and rather slow
maturing qualities. Information is of interest more from
an authoritative than from a practical standpoint.
Essex. — The Essex breed of swine has never become
popular primarily because of its small size. It is reasonably
early maturing and from this standpoint is acceptable,
although it is not an economical producer of pork. It ranks
among the smallest of the breeds. The breed color is solid
black, without exception. The body is rather cylindrical
in form, having reasonably good length and depth of body.
The head is short and broad, the face slightly dished, the
ears small and usually erect, the neck short and compact,
the back slighth' arched, the sides smooth and the quarters
and thighs very well developed. The quality ranks well,
the bone being of medium size and fine texture. The
hair is usually fine, straight, smooth, and uniformly dis-
tributed over the body. The shoulders are smooth and
compact, the jowl trim, neat and closely carried. The breed
is not adapted to productive swine husbandry, at least on a
large scale. The chief objection is in the size and weight
attained. This breed represents one of the extreme fat
types of English production, the origin being in the county
of Essex.
Victoria. — The Victoria breed is of two types, one originat-
ing in Indiana and the other in New York. The former is
the result of crossing several of the leading breeds already
discussed, principally the Poland-China, Berkshire, Chester
White, and Suffolk. It belongs to the fat-hog type, although
it is not popular or widely disseminated. The size of the
Victoria ranges from 400 to 550 pounds at maturity. The
breed is characterized by a solid white color. The body is
broad, comparatively deep and long. The head is broad
and the face moderately dished. The ears are medium in
size and semierect, although they are inclined sometimes to
348 JUDGING SWINE
droop. The quality is very good, the hair being of medium
length, straight and fine in quality. The body is compara-
tively low set and compact. The shoulders are inclined to
be thick and heavy at times, thus making the animal appear
narrow over the loin and through the hindquarters. This
breed has not been widely introduced into the swine produc-
ing sections. It has been much more popular in the states
where it originated. On the whole, the breed is not rela-
tively important as it has no special qualifications over
other breeds. The type originated in New York is likely
extinct.
Cheshire. — The Cheshire breed is not an important breed
except under localized conditions. It ranks in the middle-
weight class, the weight ranging from 400 to 600 pounds
in well-matured specimens. This represents the extreme,
however, as the average is considerably lower. The color is
pure white, although black spots sometimes occur on the
skin. The form is reasonably straight and smooth in out-
line. The head and face are inclined to be long and the
latter slightly dished. The ears are small and usually
erect. The back is slightly arched and attains quite good
width. The shoulders are smooth and compact, the sides
straight and smooth, although somewhat lacking in depth.
The quality is good, the bone being quite fine and the hair
smooth, straight, and evenly distributed. The principal
merit of the breed is its quality and refinement. Economic
conditions have not fostered the development of this breed,
owing to the better adaptation of other standard qualified
breeds. The Cheshire originated in the northern part of
New York where the climate is cold and not especially suited
to swine growing.
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Cheshire
Swine.
Form.- — Short to medium in length, short in proportion to length
of body; face somewhat dished and wide between the eyes; ears
small, erect, in old animals often slightly pointed forward; neck
short; shoulders broad and full; hips broad, body long, broad
and deep; hams broad, nearly straight with back, and running
well down toward hock; legs long and slim, set well apart and
supporting the body on the toes; tail small and slim; hair fine,
medium in thickness and quantity; color white. When grown
and well fattened should dress from 400 to 600 pounds.
MULE-FOOT SWINE 349
Scale op Points.
Points.
Head. — Short to medium in length, short in proportion to length
of body 8
Face. — Somewhat dished and wide between the eyes .... 8
Jowl. — Medium in fulness 3
Ears. — Small, fine, erect, and in old animals .«!lightly pointing
forward 5
Neck. — Short and broad 3
Shoulders. — Broad, full and deep 6
Girth. — Around heart 8
Back. — Long, broad and straight nearly to root of tail ... 10
Side. — Deep and full, nearly straight on bottom line .... 7
Flank. — ^Well back and low down, making flank girth nearly
equal to heart girth 3
Hams. — Broad and nearly straight with back, and running down
well over toward hock 10
Legs. — Small and slim, set well apart, supporting body well on
toes 10
Tail. — Small, slim and tapering 3
Hair. — Fine, medium in thickness and quantity 3
Color. — White, and colored hairs to disqualify, color or spots in
skin objectionable 2
Skin. — Fine and pliable, small blue spots objectionable, but
allowable 3
Symmetry. — Animal well proportioned, handsome and stylish . 8
Total 100
Mule-foot Swine. — The Mule-foot breed of swine derives
its name from the pecuHar structure of the foot which does
not have the cleft or division in the hoof. The origin is not
authoritatively known. The breed has been introduced in a
few states, principally through the middle west, but has not
gained a wide foothold. The breed is medium in size, solid
black in color and only fair in refinement and maturing
qualities. A few herds have been shown at various fairs
throughout the country where they have attracted special
attention from the standpoint of curiosity. One of the
serious objections to the breed is its inability to with-
stand heavy feeding. Moderate or excessive weight causes
animals to break down in the pasterns or w^eaken otherwise
in the feet which are small, narrow, and contracted. The
breed has been advertised as being immune from cholera
infestation, but practical tests have not indicated the relia-
bility of these statements. The breed is not important at the
present time. It is more interesting from an authoritative
and breed-description standpoint than from practical utility.
350 JUDGING SWINE
Scale of Points for Mule-foot Swine.
Points.
Head and Face 4
Eyes 2
Ears 2
Neck 2
Jowl 2
Shoulder 6
Chest . 12
Back and Loin 15
Sides and Ribs 8
Belly and Flank 6
Ham and Rump 10
Feet and Legs 10
Tail 1
Coat 2
Color 2
Size 5
Action and Style 4
Condition 4
Disposition 3
Total 100
Bacon Type. — The former discussion on the hog has
been especially significant of the fat or lard type of animal,
which is so designated because of the large amount of fat
stored in the finished animal and the ultimate use made of
it. The bacon hog is so designated because of the specific
products which are made from it. Practically the entire
carcass of the bacon type of hog is converted into products
which go on the market as cured bacon. The sides are
ultimately cut into bacon strips. Because of the use made
of the bacon hog, it is extremely important that animals
purporting to represent this type attain a definite fixed form.
Thin or half-fat hogs of the fat type will not make high-
class bacon products.
Origin and Uses. — The bacon hog is characterized by
uniform interspersing of the fat and lean tissues, with a
comparatively small amount placed on the outside of the
body. A thin or medium-conditioned fat type of hog will
not produce the desirable results. The bacon type is the
result of breeding for this specific purpose and feeding such
rations that the quality of the product will be most acceptable
to the trade. In the lard hog bacon is a by-product of pork
QUALITY 351
and lard production. In the bacon hog the bacon products
are of primary consideration, there being practically no
by-products as in the fat or lard type. Bacon is obtained
from the fat type of hog from the lower part of the side,
between the shoulder and ham regions. This is one specific
product obtained from the fat hog. The whole carcass of
the bacon type is ultimately placed on the market as bacon-
hog products which thus designates the specific purpose of
the animal.
Score Card for Bacon Hogs.
Carcass Examination.
Perfect score.
General Appearance:
Skin: thin, mellow, smooth 5
Form: long, deep in proportion to thickness 10
Quality: flesh, firm, even, streaked with fat and lean; back
fat, thin; bone dense 20
Kidney fat: white, firm 5
Carcass :
Head: fine, neat, longer than in lard hog 2
Neck: short, not heavy 3
Shoulders: smooth, well covered 10
Sides: long, deep, evenly fleshed, firm; loin heavy ... 25
Hams: large, plump, firm; light covering of fat .... 20
Total ........... '100
Weight. — -The weight of the bacon type of hog averages
less than that of the fat type. Animals weighing from 180
to 190 pounds are in greatest demand for bacon-producing
purposes. The bacon type represents a strictly finished
product from the market standpoint. A smaller, unfinished
lard type of hog should not be confused with it. Weight
and form in the bacon hog are of special significance. Either
over- or underweight with lack of proper smoothness,
quality, and finish disqualify an animal for the most dis-
criminating purposes.
Quality. — Quality in the bacon hog corresponds very
closely in its attainments to the most desirable acquisition
of this characteristic in the fat animal. In bacon hogs
there is a more pronounced individuality of the correlated
parts, thus emphasizing the clear-cut form and features
indicative of general quality. The head should be clear cut,
352 JUDGING SWINE
smooth in outline, the jowl comparatively small and trim,
the ears of medium size, the neck smooth and comparatively
long, the shoulders smooth and compact, the sides long,
smooth, and even, bone of medium size and dense, trim
underline, and a fine, silky coat of hair. Other indications
are signified by the general refinement in form and indi-
viduality.
Conformation. — Compared with the fat type of hog, the
bacon animal is longer, narrower, and deeper in the body.
Fig. 141. — The bacon type exhibited in a Large Yorkshire.
The head is cleaner cut, the ears usually finer and more
erect, the jowl smaller and smoother, the neck longer, the
shoulders narrower and firmer, the sides longer, smoother,
deeper, and more uniform, the quarters squarer, the thighs
longer and thinner and the underline straighter, thus showing
little waste.
Taken as a whole, the animal is characterized by more
quality, cleaner-cut features, more trimness of form, less
waste, higher station and straighter feet and legs. The ribs
are not as broadly sprung, but extend lower, thus giving
the characteristic straight, even sides.
CONDITION OR FINISH 353
Smoothness. — Smoothness and trimness of form in the
bacon hog are of pronounced importance. A rough, coarse,
large-jointed animal with heavy bone or folds or wrinkles
in the shoulders, sides or thighs will not make a desirable
bacon product. Such animals have too much loss in carcass
weight, and when placed on the market the sides do not
present the delicate, palatable appearance required. Rough
animals make rough, coarse sides of bacon and are otherwise
undesirable in quality and edibility.
Uniformity of Product. — Bacon hogs are produced under
specific conditions where the proper kind of nitrogenous
feeds are available. In Canada bacon hogs are produced
largely to the exclusion of the fat type. Special breeds
and feeds are utilized in the production of a uniform
marketable product. The first acquisition of the producer
of bacon should be a type of hog closely conforming to
the accepted standard for bacon production. Unless the
breeding is uniform this condition cannot be obtained in
the finished product. Cross-bred animals of proper type
may make an acceptable bacon product. However, indis-
criminate breeding should not be resorted to in bacon
production. Greater dissimilarity of type can be tolerated
in the fat animal if the individuality and market condition
are obtained. The bacon hog is a specific product bred under
uniform conditions of breed, type, and feed requirements.
Where these conditions prevail a most acceptable type of
bacon hog can be produced. Uniformity of product can
be obtained which will command a premium on the market.
Condition or Finish. — Condition or finish in the bacon type
of hog is significant of the same requirements as in the
fat animal. The degree and character of condition attained,
however, is widely different. The fat animal accumulates
a large amount of fat, especially over the outside body region.
The bacon hog intersperses the fat and lean in so-called
streaks throughout the carcass. The high finish obtained
in the fat hog is not desirable or even acceptable in the bacon
animal. There should be only a sufficient amount of fat
accumulated over the outside of the body to give the sides
smoothness, firmness, and to retain the succulence and flavor
23
354 JUDGING SWINE
of the product. From one to one and one-half inches of fat
on the bacon hog is the accepted standard, while in the fat
animal it may reach or exceed three or more inches.
Market Value. — Ordinarily, the bacon hog, when placed
on the average market, will not sell above the fat-hog market.
This is largely because the markets in the near and surround-
ing country do not generally demand this kind of a product.
In sections where bacon production is specifically followed,
as in Canada or Ireland, the bacon hog sells for a premium
of fifty cents to one dollar per cwt. over the fat type of animal.
Score Card for Bacon Hogs.
Perfect score.
General Appearance — 36 Points.
Weight: 170 to 200 pounds, largely the result of thick cover
of firm flesh 6
Form: long, level, smooth, deep 10
Quality: hair fine; skin thin; bone fine; firm, even covering
of flesh without any soft bunches of fat or wrinkles . 10
Condition: deep, uniform covering of flesh, especially in
regions of valuable cuts 10
Head and Neck — 6 Points.
Snout: fine 1
Eyes: full, mild, bright . 1
Face: slim 1
Ears: trim, medium size 1
Joivl: light, trim 1
Neck: medium length, light 1
Forequarters — 10 Points.
Shoulders: free from roughness, smooth, compact and same
width as back and hindquarters 6
Breast: moderately wide, full 2
Legs: straight, short, strong, bone clean; pasterns upright;
feet medium size 2
Body — 34 Points.
Chest: deep, full girth 4
Back: medium and uniform in width, smooth 8
Sides: long, smooth, level from beginning of shoulders to
end of hindquarters. The side at all points should touch
a straight edge running from fore- to hindquarter ... 10
Rihs: deep 2
Belly: trim, firm, thick without any flabbiness or shrinkage
at flank . 10
Hindquarters — 14 Points.
Hips: smooth, wide; proportionate to rest of body ... 2
Rump: long, even, straight, rounded toward tail .... 2
Gammon: firm, rounded, tapering, fleshed deep and low
toward hocks 8
Legs: straight, short, strong; feet medium size; bone clean;
pasterns upright 2
Total 100
LARGE YORKSHIRE
355
Bacon Breeds. — The bacon breeds from the American pro-
duction standpoint consist of the Large Yorkshire and the
Tamworth. The Hampshire has been classed both as a fat
and a bacon hog. It is of considerable interest and utility,
both from market and show-yard standpoint for both purposes.
Large Yorkshire. ^The Yorkshire breed of swine is of three
distinct types, namely,- the Large, Medium, and Small
White. The Large type is the only one which has gained
prominence in this countr}^ The color is solid white,
although bluish or black spots at times occur on the skin.
I'lu. 142. — Lary;t_' Yorkshire
The body is long, comparatively deep and wide. The head
is broad, the snout of medium length and slightly upturned.
The ears are medium in size and should stand erect, although
they are at times inclined to be pendant. The neck is of
moderate length, the jowl reasonably trim, and the underline
straight. The width of the back conforms to bacon re-
quirements. The sides are long and full between the
shoulders and hips. This breed ranks as one of the largest
in size. Weights of 1000 pounds have been attained, although
this is excessive. The Large Yorkshire is very popular in
bacon production, although it is at times inclined to be
somewhat coarse in quality and lacking in general refine-
356 JUDGING SWINE
merit. This breed is quite prevalent in bacon-producing
countries, both in America and in its native home and
surrounding countries. A weak loin and too much length of
leg are objections in the breed.
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Large
Improved Yorkshire Swine.
Points.
General Outline. — Long and deep in proportion to width, but
not massive; slightly arched in the back, symmetrical and
smooth, with bo ly firmly supported by well-placed legs of
medium length 5
Outline of Head.— Moderate in length and size, with lower
jaw well sprung, and some dish toward snout, increasing with
advancing maturity 4
Forehead and Poll. — Wide 1
Jowl. — Medium, not carried too far back, toward neck, and not
flabby 1
Eye. — Medium size, clear and bright . 1
Snout. — Turning upward with a short curve, increasing with age 1
Ear. — Medium in size, standing well out from head, nearly erect,
but inclining slightly forward 1
Neck. — Of medium length, fair width and depth, rising gradually
from poll to withers, muscular, but not gross, evenly connect-
ing head with body 3
Outline of Body. — Long, deep, and of medium breadth,
equally wide at shoulder, side and hams; top line slightly
arched, underline straight 7
Back. — Moderately broad, even in width from end to end; strong
in loin, short ribs of good length 10
Shoulder. — Large, but not massive; not open above . . . . G
Arm and Thigh. — Broad an 1 of medium length and development 2
Brisket. — Wide and on a level with underline 3
Side. — Long, deep, straight and even from shoulder to hip . . 8
Ribs. — Well arched and deep 5
Heart Girth and Flank Girth. — Good and about equal . . 8
Hindquarters. — Long to correspond with shoulder and side,
deep with moderate and gi-adual droop to tail ..... 5
Ham. — Large, well let down on thigh and twist and rear outline
somewhat rounded 10
Twist. — Well down and meaty 1
Tail. — Medium, not much inclined to curl 1
Legs. — Medium in length, strong, not coarse, but standing
straight and firm 5
Hair. — Abundant, long, of medium fineness without any bristles 4
Skin. — Smooth and white, without scales, but dark spots in skin
do not disquahfy 2
Color. — White on every part 1
Movement. — ^Active, but not restless 5
Total 100
TAMWORTH
357
Tamworth. — The Tamworth, like the Large Yorkshire is
one of the largest breeds. Excessive weights have been
attained, although average male animals will weigh
between 550 and 650 pounds. The color is solid red, the
shades varying from light to dark, a medium color being
preferred. Blackish spots on the skin are objectionable.
This breed is long and deep compared with its width. There
is considerable inclination toward upstanding qualities
although this is significant to a certain extent with bacon
breeds. The head and snout are rather long and pointed,
Fig. 143. — Tamworth boar.
the face narrow, and the jowl light and trim. The eyes are
large and bright, the ears large and erect or semidrooping.
The shoulders are usually smooth but of extreme width. The
back is slightly arched, the sides long, smooth and deep and
the quarters and thighs moderately developed. The quality
is very good, the breed ranking well in l3acon production.
The chief objections to the Tamworth are its late maturing
qualities, its lack of width and high-standing body. The
breed has never become generally popular with American
breeders owing to the extreme type as compared with the
fat hog. The temperament of the Tamworth is active,
the breed on the whole possessing good rustling qualities.
358 JUDGING SWINE
Long legs and prominent shoulders are other objections to
the breed.
Standard of Excellence for Tamworth Swine.
Color. — Golden red hair on a flesh-colored skin, free from black.
Head. — Fairly long, snout moderately long and quite straight, face
slightly dished, wide between ears.
Ears. — Rather large, with fine fringe, carried rigid and inclined slightly
forward.
Neck. — Fairly long and muscular, especially in boar.
Chest. — Wide and deep.
Shoulders. — Fine, slanting, and well set.
Legs. — Strong and shapely, with plenty of bone, and set well outside
body.
Pasterns. — Strong and sloping.
Feet. — Strong, and of fair size.
Back. — Long and straight. %
Loin. — Strong and broad. i
Tail. — Set on high and well tasselled. 1
Sides. — Long and deep.
Ribs. — Well sprung and extending well up to flank.
Belly. — Deep, with straight underline.
Flank. — Full and well let down.
Quarters.- — Long, wide, and straight from hip to tail.
Hams. — Broad and full, well let down to hocks.
Coat. — Abundant, long, straight, and fine.
Action. — Firm and free.
Objections: Black hair, very light or ginger hair, curly coat, coarse
mane, black spots on skin, slouch or drooping ears, short or turned-
up snout, heavy shoulders, wrinkled skin, inbent knees, hollowness at
back of shoulders.
Breeding and Class Characteristics. — Swine are judged
from the breeding standpoint largely on the same basis as
the fat specimens. There are a few points, however, of
special significance well worthy of consideration.
Breeding Requisites. — Breeding swine should be judged from
the standpoint of the individual and the transmission of
desirable breeding attributes to the offspring. Weight
for age is important. Hogs are normally mature at least
from the show-yard standpoint at two years of age. While
extreme weight is important, if consistent with breed and
utility qualifications it should not be obtained at the expense
of weak bone, impaired constitution and vigor. In judging,
therefore, evidences of such treatment should be taken into
consideration. Conformity to breed type is important, not
SEX CHARACTERISTICS
359
only in character but in general conformation, capacity and
maturing qualities. The form should be long, wide,"' deep
and otherwise uniform, thus exhibiting a capacious, repro-
ductive system. Special attention should be paid to breed
type, quality and bone formation. The feet and legs should
be strong, straight, and the animal should stand well up
on the toes. A low back, weak pasterns and small capacity
are necessarily objectionable. All evidences of constitution
and vitality which largely determine future usefulness should
be apparent.
Fig. 144. — A Chester White sow, showing the attributes of a good breeder.
Femininity, smoothness, qualitj- and refinement in evidence.
Sex Characteristics.— The sex characteristics should be
strongly developed, the boar masculine, vigorous, and
alert. The head should be strong and broad, the eves
large and bright, the jaws square and broad and the chest
wide and deep with lines conforming to the hindquarters.
The head as a whole should exhibit masculine qualities.
The neck should be of good length. and blend smoothly with
the shoulders which should be broad and otherwise strongly
developed, although they should be smooth and possess
refinement. The shields should be well developed, although
not to the extent of causing coarseness of quality.
360 JUDGING SWINE
The sow should possess just the opposite extreme in sex
development. Refinement should be in evidence through-
out, although not to the extent of lowering constitution and
vitality. The head should possess clear, pleasing lines. The
neck should be straight, the shoulders more refined than in
the boar, the body more capacious and the hindquarters
fully developed from every angle. Width and depth of
body are important. The chief indications of usefulness
in the sow should first be conformity to breed type. Re-
finement and general quality, constitution, capacity, strong
feet and legs, and early maturing qualities should all be in
evidence. She should have numerous well-developed teats.
Feeders. — This class of hogs is not important from the
open-market standpoint. Because of the prevalence of
cholera and other communicable diseases hogs are not shipped
to and from market as a usual thing for feeding purposes.
Hogs of this class are usually purchased in the country and
moved from farm to farm rather than from the open market
to the farm. Like other animals, uniformity of breeding,
a square, compact form, and quality are desirable. Hogs
weighing from 75 to 150 pounds are used largely for feeding
purposes, the age and weight selected depending upon feed
and market conditions. Barrows constitute the best animals
for feeding purposes. In judging, the same factors should
be considered as in other types and classes, weight, form,
quality, and indications of health and thriftiness being the
main factors for consideration.
Young Stock. — ^Young stock, whether in the pure-bred or
grade form, should be judged on a basis of their probable
outcome. Indications of thriftiness and desirable ultimate
form and finish are the chief attributes to be considered.
Weight for age is important. Quality and constitution
should be apparent. Further evidences of good qualities
are seen in the general refinement and symmetry of form,
although this should not be gained at the expense of the
other important utility requirements.
CHAPTER XIII.
JUDGING SHEEP.
Purpose. — Sheep are maintained for two distinct purposes:
mutton and wool production. In judging them these
qualifications should be given close consideration. While
both types are in a measure dual purpose in design, they are
specifically bred for one or the other of these products.
The mutton type, although specifically bred for mutton-pro-
ducing purposes, is more strictly dual purpose, as the wool
obtained from it constitutes a large proportion of the total
supply of this product. Although the aim of breeders
has been primarily toward perfecting mutton form, this type
of sheep has given a good account of itself in wool products.
The wool t^'pe is not as well balanced as the mutton
type in the production of these two products. The quality
of wool is unsurpassed, but the form of the animal has a
low measure of value in mutton production. The mutton
obtained from a wool sheep, therefore, is essentially a
by-product.
Method of Use. — -The mutton carcass is consumed in a
fresh condition with few exceptions. The principal market
classes of the fat sheep are the lamb, yearhng, wether, and
ewe. While sheep are placed on the market in other forms,
the same as cattle and swine, these classes mentioned consti-
tute the standard finished market products.
The wool obtained from the sheep either once or twice
yearly is used in the manufacture of various kinds of woven
or felted materials. This depends on the class and grade of
the wool, as described later. In judging sheep a careful
estimate should therefore be made concerning the value of
this product in its various uses.
Determination of Age. — Sheep have eight incisor teeth in
the lower jaw. On the upper jaw a rough pad or cushion is
(361)
362
JUDGING SHEEP
^h to tV/-
DETERMINATION OF AGE 363
provided which serves the purpose of teeth in biting and
masticating the feed. The age of sheep under one year is
easily determined by the teeth, there being a full set of eight
milk or temporary incisors after twenty-eight or thirty days.
These temporary teeth are much smaller and whiter than
the permanent set. This is clearly evident on the appearance
of the first pair of permanent central incisors which are
darker in color, larger, broader and longer.
At one year to fifteen months of age the two permanent
central incisors appear. These are much larger and stronger
than the milk teeth. They can easily be detected by this
difference. At eighteen to twenty-four months of age the
first intermediate incisors appear and at two and one-half
to three years the second intermediates appear. At four
years of age, or thereabouts, the fourth or corner pair of
incisors displace the temporary teeth, when the sheep has
a full mouth, and the age must thereafter be determined
by other signs. While it is not, frequently necessary to
determine the age of sheep after the four-year stage, it is
sometimes desirable to do so. The only practical way
which this can be done is by observing the general
condition of the animal. As the age advances the loin
becomes hollow, the nostrils wide and the mouth assumes
a characteristic condition known as "broken mouth."
\Yhen an animal reaches this stage it is beyond its practical
period of usefulness except in cases of valuable animals which
it is sometimes profitable to maintain by giving special
attention to the preparation of the feed.
EXPLANATION OF FIG. 145
1— Mouth. 11 — Shoulder base. 21— Belly.
2— NostrUs. 12— Legs. 22— Sheath.
3 — Eyes. 13 — Foreflanks. 23^Scrotum or cod.
4 — Forehead. 14 — Heart girth. 24 — Hindfianks.
5— Poll. 15— Crops. 25— Thigh or leg of
6 — Ears. 16, 17 — Back and loin. mutton.
7 — Neck. 17 — Loin. 26— Twist.
8— Throat. 18— Upper thigh. 27— Tail or dock.
9 — Brisket or breast. 19 — Coupling. 28 — Rump.
10 — Shoulder junction. 20 — Sides.
Fig. 146. — Mutton and lamb cuts. (Courtesy of Illinois Agricultural
Experiment Station.)
1, 2— Saddle. 1— Leg.
3, 4, 5 — Rack. 2 — Loin.
1, 2, 3— Long saddle. 3 — Short rack.
2, 3, 4, 5— Body. 2, 3— Back.
4 — Breast.
5— Chuck.
4, 5— Stew.
EXAMINATION OF FORM
365
Examination of Form. — The examination of a sheep when
properly made requires a different method of procedure than
when judging other animals. The usual method of examina-
tion may be employed if the wool is removed. However,
most sheep are judged when the wool is intact. This con-
dition requires a careful sense of touch and vivid imagina-
tion in order to picture the general form and character of the
underlying structure. A sheep with a full coat of wool
Fig. 147. — Determining the development of the neck and over the shoulders.
should always be examined cautiously, as the art of trimming
is so perfected that an experienced shepherd can block out
most any form desired. This is a common practice in the
show ring and experienced judges are always on the alert
for such a condition. While an animal need not be examined
with the hands to determine beauty and general appearance,
it is very essential to do so to determine the merits and
imperfections of the underlying structural form. Each
movement made by the person examining a sheep should
reveal the true condition of form of the part under examina-
366
JUDGING SHEEP
tion. Nothing should be passed over until a true visual
picture is obtained of the sheep as it would appear with the
wool removed. In order to accomplish this end most
satisfactorily some systematic method of examination should
be employed.
Head and Neck. — The examination should begin at the
head, first determining the age as previously indicated.
The shape of the head, its length, width and wool covering
Fig. 1-lS. — Determining the fulness through the shoulders and chest.
should be determined, and likewise the expression, size and
brightness of the eyes and the set of the ears. While very
few breeds of domesticated sheep possess horns, it is well
to determine whether there is any indication of them appear-
ing. In pure polled breeds of sheep this is of special sig-
nificance, as the appearance of horns, abortive or otherwise,
would likely indicate impurity in breeding. After completing
the examination of the head, the hands should be passed
along the neck to determine the form and condition of
this part. The blend of the neck into the shoulder should
EXAMINATIOX OF FORM 367
likewise be determined by continuing the hands toward the
shoulder, feeling the fulness of the shoulder vein during the
process.
Shoulders. — After completing this part of the shoulder
examination the right hand should be placed on top of the
shoulders to determine the width, smoothness, and firmness.
The hands, one on each side of the animal, should then be
passed down the line of the chest or girth which is back of the
^^^^^^^^^B>^ % ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^M
■t—is
m ^L
"'"^-.
«*-j '
^p^^T^ ,- ^
Fig. 149. — Determining the development through the lower chest region
and in the flanks.
withers and shoulders, this constituting the junction of the
forequarters and body proper. The spring and depth of rib,
and fulness of chest and foreflank should thus be deter-
mined.
Body. — After determining the size and fulness of the
heart girth, the right hand shoidd be brought to the top of the
shoulders, or slightly back of them, whence the left is passed
to the floor of the chest to determine the depth of the animal
in this part. The right hand should then be. passed along
368
JUDGING SHEEP
0^
M
iSifeii^f^^T''^
m^p^^^^^iIIBSk
^^5C
1^
^^r . .""^^^B
^jj^^. '^^
^^J
n^^
Fig. 150. — Determining the amount of covering, its distribution and firm-
ness over the back and loin.
Fig. 151. — Determining the width and thickness of the loin.
EXAMINATION OF FORM
369
the back, pressing firmly with outstretched palm on the wool
to determine the thickness, firmness, and uniformity of the
flesh and condition in this part. After reaching the region
of the loin insert the tips of the fingers of each hand in the
barrel depression to determine the width of the loin. The
spring of rib should be determined by passing the hands along
the sides and on either side of the back-bone in such a way
that the true form will be revealed. The depth of the body
^
1^^^ -
'■^mft
tJD
'■^^M
1^
\ \f\
_^^IK^^^^^^^E
^^ ^^^^ ^^S8^SWi^^^B^ '^^
2
' HTfiJ^^^^HHHBK'
■i
Fig. 152. — Determining the development through the hindquarters.
in the region of the hindflank should be determined by placing
the right hand at the hook point and the left in the region
of the flank.
Hindquarters. --The fulness of the hindquarters should be
determined by passing the hands one on either side toward the
region of the tail-head. The left hand should then be placed
at the region of the hook point and the right at the point
of the buttock to determine the length of the hindquarters.
The size of the leg of mutton is determined by grasping the
leg with the left hand on a level with the flank and with the
24
370
JUDGING SHEEP
right at the rear, just below the extremity of the twist.
The size and fuhiess of the leg of mutton should thus be
determined by noting whether the hands meet in encircling
the part or whether there is an appreciable lack of so doing.
After this examination has been completed the student
should be able to picture vividly in his mind an exact model
Fi(.. i;
Di-teriiiiiiing tlic iliMliipincnt of the leg of mutton.
of the animal examined. Each animal in the class should be
examined in this way and after balancing the points of vital
consideration an estimate should be made of the usefulness
for the purpose in question, whether for breeding, show or
market.
Fleece. — In judging the fleece it should be opened at three
distinct places. It should be examined over the shoulder
MUTTON TYPE 371
about midway of the body and on the outside of the thigh.
The wool is finest in the shoulder region, coarsest in the thigh
region and medium in the body region. The wooling of the
face, legs, and belly should also be examined, as this is very
important, especially in breeding classes. While not of
such great importance in market animals, close and uniform
wooling characteristics are desirable. Close, compact wool
is indicative of good mutton qualities. In examining the
fleece it should be parted at a natural opening by pressing
the inner side of the hands on either side of the place to be
opened.^ This will avoid ruffling the wool, which is very
much disliked by shepherds and experienced handlers of
sheep. This examination for determining the quality of
the fleece should be made at the same time that the animal
is being examined to determine the characteristics of form.
The length, uniformity, density, crimp, quality, and yolk
constitute the main points for examination.
Mutton Type. — The mutton type of sheep is analogous
in form to the beef steer or the fat hog. The primary object
of production is to produce an edible product. The nearer
the form of a sheep approaches the established economic
meat-producing type, the more valuable it becomes. The
essential considerations, therefore, in mutton production are
involved primarily in the same attributes as possessed by
other meat-producing animals.
Weight. — The weight varies, depending upon the breed,
individuality and condition, the range in mature animals
with approved breeding varying from 125 to 400 pounds
gross. In market animals the weight is likewise dependent
upon breeding, age, and condition. Weight for age is the
standard of determining this attribute. The Southdown is
the smallest of the mutton breeds, although it is very com-
pact and especially desirable from the standpoint of mutton
production. The long-wool breeds which are represented
by the Lincolns, Leicesters, and Cotswolds, and the Oxfords
from the medium-wool type represent the other extreme.
Conformation. — ]Most of the domesticated breeds of sheep
are of English and Scotch origin. Breeds from this source
' See Fig. 158, page 379.
372
JUDGING SHEEP
constitute the principal mutton-producing animals. The
form should be square, compact, and the animal low set.
The body should be long, broad and deep. This should be
largely the result of long, well-sprung ribs closeh^ spaced,
which gives width, depth, length, and compactness of form.
The head should be broad and full, the neck short and
compact, blending smoothly into the shoulder. The shoulder
Fig. 154. — An ideal type of Shropshire wether.
should be broad and smooth over the top, and full and com-
pact over the sides. In the region of the heart the form
should be full and the chest deep. There should be no
appreciable depression of form in the junction of the fore-
quarters with the body proper. The crops and flank should
be full and smooth. The back should be straight, carry out
well to the tail-head, and it should be parallel with the under-
line. The ribs should be w^ell sprung, long and full, thus
MUTTON TYPE 373
giving width and depth to the body. The hindquarters
should carry out square to the tail-head and buttocks.
Any inclination to narrowness in this region is exceptionally
objectionable. The leg of mutton constitutes the most
valuable part of the carcass and development in this region
should, therefore, be given special consideration.
Quality. —QiiaWty in sheep is important, the same as in
other animals, although the method of determination is
somewhat different from that used in horses, cattle and
swine. A measurement of this condition cannot be made
as largely by the eye and hand in sheep as in other animals.
Quality is usually in evidence about the head, which should
be clear in outline and free from any indication of coarseness.
Large, drooping ears, a heavy muzzle and a coarse, open
fleece are indicative of objectionable quality. The shoulders
should be smooth, the joints clean in outline and the bone
hard and refined in appearance. A fleece of fine quality,
showing density, and fine hair on the face, ears and legs is
also indicative of this attribute. The general demeanor
should all indicate clean, trim features and outline of form
devoid of waste. The skin should present a bright, pink,
healthy appearance. A light, pale skin is indicative of
general lack of health and thriftiness.
Constitution. — Constitution is of special significance in
breeding sheep. If the butcher could eliminate the parts of
the sheep indicative of constitution it would be a desirable
thing from his standpoint, as all of the readily salable por-
tions are located in the loin and leg of mutton, while the
head, neck, and forequarters, the parts which indicate con-
stitution, are comparatively low-priced cuts. In actual
practice the breeder and feeder have problems to contend
with as well as the butcher. It is therefore necessary to
have a broad, strong head, a large muzzle and nostrils, and
a broad and deep chest, these being the chief indications of
constitutional vigor. Like quality, every part of the animal
should portray strong breeding and feeding attributes.
These are dependent largely on form and constitution, the
former indicating possession of qualities which will enable the
sheep to use feed to good advantage, and the latter the con-
374 JUDGING SHEEP
tinuance of this process until the period of breeding or feed-
ing is terminated. The general appearance of the animal is
quite indicative of strength and vigor. A weakly constitu-
tioned animal is portrayed by a small, pointed head and
muzzle, small, sunken eyes, a narrow, shallow chest, and a
dull, lifeless fleece.
Capacity. — ^The attributes of capacity have been given
consideration largely under the description of form or
conformation. Length and depth of body are important,
as sheep of this description develop rapidly during the
normal growing period and thereby attain other important
qualifications. Every part of the animal form should show
capacity for breeding and feeding. The shallow body is
very objectionable, as an animal with such conformation is
usually cramped in the digestive capacity and therefore
cannot use feed to advantage. Flat ribs, depressed crops,
and a narrow loin are especially objectionable. Taken as a
whole, the animal should show sufficient length, depth
and symmetry of form to make, not only a strong vigorous
breeder, but a producer of market animals conforming
closely to the standard type desired.
Condition. — Condition is one of the first qualifications
noticed by the buyer of animals fattened for market purposes.
This is true because it is necessary to mingle muscle and fat
to give a carcass a tender, juicy condition. The extent of
fitting sheep for market, show or sale depends on conditions.
They are usually fitted to the extreme for the show ring as
custom has fixed this standard in bringing out all there is in
an animal. Sheep should be highly fitted for the market,
although fitting should never be overdone, as a soft, blubbery
carcass is inferior in quality from the butcher's standpoint.
An animal fitted to such a condition never appears to the
best advantage in the show ring or on the market.
An overconditioned animal can be determined by noting
whether the fat has slipped. When in an overdone condition
there is an accumulation of soft fat either in the foreflank,
at the tail-head, on the ribs, or around the loin. A sheep in
the best condition for the butcher is smooth, firm, and uniform
in the fat covering. Any adverse condition is not only
MUTTON TYPE
375
objectionable but unsatisfactory in securing the best market
prices. Buyers often test the condition by grasping the
animal with one hand over the region of the back, loin and
ribs or at the dock. A full, firm, yet springy, even condition
of these parts is indicative of proper finish.
Maturity. — Sheep are mature when two years of age,
considered from the standpoint of the breeder. In mutton
production, broadly speaking, the age may range from
that of the early lamb to the yearling, or to normally
mature animals sold or discarded from the breeding herd. In
judging market animals, maturity from the purely market
standpoint is all that need receive attention, other condi-
tions being equal. In judging breeding animals, however,
weight attainments for age are especially important.
Deception from Trimming.— Deception from trimming is
best illustrated by examining a sheep with the wool under
376
JUDGING SHEEP
Fig. 156. — A sheep trimmed for show, illustrating how form can be improved.
(Photograph by author.)
Fig. 157. — A sheep with wool removed, showing natural contour. (Photo-
graph by author.)
FLEECE CHARACTERISTICS 377
normal field conditions, with the sheep blocked out in a
square, compact form, and the same sheep Avith the wool
removed. This will bring out all of the possible points of
deception. It will be noted that a very unsymmetrical
sheep from the structural standpoint may be made to appear
as having an ideal mutton form. Ordinarily the defects
covered by blocking and trimming may be located on almost
any part of the body exclusive of the legs or other portions
where wool does not normally grow.
Fleece Characteristics.' — The intrinsic value of an animal
i? determined by the sum total of all of its marketable
products. The sheep, unlike most other animals, has an
additional commodity in the wool, which not only serves as
a protection to the animal, but which enters into commerce
as an important product. The value of the wool, therefore,
should be carefully determined in connection with the
mutton-producing qualities. Although the fleece from an
individual animal is not normally a large consideration,
measured in dollars and cents, it is oftentimes, under certain
conditions, sufficient to cover the annual cost of maintenance.
While extreme wool and mutton-producing qualities are
antagonistic, it is important to produce as good a quality of
wool as consistent with the production of mutton of the
best quality.
There are three commonly accepted types of wool, measured
in terms of breed production. These are namely : fine wools,
medium wools, and long wools. In judging fleece character-
istics it is necessary to take into consideration the type of
sheep on which the wool is produced. The flne-wool breeds
produce wool comparatively short and fine in quality. The
crimp is close and the yolk excessive. The medium-wool
breeds produce wool of average length and fineness. On
the best individuals of these breeds the wool is unusually
fine and uniform in distribution. The long-wool breeds
produce a long and rather open fleece, lacking in crimp,
and the excessive amount of yolk, as found in the fine-wool
breeds. In order to judge these characteristics understand-
' Special reference, The Wool Grower and The Wool Trade, by F. R.
Marshall and L. L. Heller, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
378 JUDGING SHEEP
ingly, it is necessary to have a clear idea of the kind of
wool produced by the various types of sheep. Market
considerations are also important, but if the three distinct
types of wool are clearly understood and their qualities
defined from the breed-production standpoint, the value of
the fleece may be judged accurately from the viewpoint of
the stockman.
Method of Examination. — In judging fleece characteristics
the best results are obtained by following some regular
procedure in making the examination. The wool covering
of the head should first be noted, after which it should be
examined over the shoulder, mid-body, and outer thigh
respectively. With the fingers extending straight and held
close together, the wool should first be opened over the
shoulder. This should be done by parting the wool at a
natural opening to avoid ruffling or matting it. The finest
wool grows in this region, and a determination of the quality
in this part should not be taken as the standard. The wool
should next be opened over the mid-body and outer thigh
in the same manner. A balance of the fleece characteristics
indicated in these parts will furnish an accurate guide to
the wooling qualities throughout.
Before deciding finally on the value of the fleece the
sheep should be turned up on the buttocks and an examina-
tion made of the wool covering over the belly and on the
legs. The quantity, quality, length, density, purity, close-
ness of crimp, yolk, and soundness should all receive close
consideration in the general examination. In making a final
summary of the value of a mutton sheep, the mutton and
wool qualifications should both be taken into consideration.
While the wool is a by-product in the mutton sheep its value
should be coordinated with the mutton-producing qualifica-
tions. In the fine-wool breeds the reverse condition is true,
the wool being of chief consideration.
Throughout the examination the fingers should be extended
and held closely together to avoid ruffling the wool. The
fingers should never be thrust in the folds of the wool as it
usally leaves an impression which it is difficult to overcome,
especially in sheep fitted for show. As in judging the form
FLEECE CHARACTERISTICS
379
and condition of an animal the first examination should
reveal the true condition and value of the fleece.
Quality. — The quality of a fleece is determined by the fine-
ness of the fiber, the closeness of the crimp, and the softness
or pliability of the staple.
The fineness has reference to the size of the fiber. This is
very closely associated with the crimp, which should be
close and uniform in contradistinction to the open-spiralled
fleece of the long-wool breeds. A diseased or ill-fed sheep
usually has a very objectionable fleece because of weakness
Fig. 158. — Method of examiniim ih^ character, quality and condition
of the flieece. Wool should be parted at a natural opening. Fingers should
be kept close together to avoid ruffling wool.
of fiber and irregularity in the crimp. In a healthy, well-
fed sheep the crimp is uniform, while otherwise it is long
and wavy. An irregular growth is undesirable because of
the lack of uniform fineness and strength of fiber. If a sheep
remains in an unhealthy condition for any great length of
time, the wool retains a weak place which usually reduces the
value very materially. Wool with a perceptible weakness
goes in a class for shorter stapled wools.
In making an examination of the quality of a fleece, the
fineness and closeness of crimp should be carefully deter-
mined as well as the condition of the fiber. The softness
380 JUDGING SHEEP
or pliability is readily determined by pressing on the fleece
with the palm of the hand, fingers extended. If there is a
firm yet pliable condition the wool possesses the requisite of
softness. If there is a dry, harsh touch, the wool is lacking
in yolk or oil to give it the necessary pliability to retain a
normal, healthy condition. When the secretion is ample,
the scales on the fibers retain their close-fitting position,
while if the secretion is not sufficient the scales stand out
and give the harsh, grating touch characteristic of a dry,
unhealthy or cotted fleece. A sheep which is well fed and
otherwise properly managed usually exhibits it in the con-
dition of the fleece as well as the body.
Quantity. — The quantity of the fleece is indicated by the
length, density, and uniformity of staple. The length of
staple varies, depending on the breed and the season of the
year. The fleece should be judged with these three factors
in mind. The long or coarse wools include those produced
by the Lincoln, Leicester, and Cotswold. The medium
wools include those from the Southdown, Shropshire, Hamp-
shire, Oxford, Suffolk, Cheviot, and Dorset, and the fine or
short wools those produced by the Rambouillet, American
and Delaine Merino. Short-staple wools are used in the
manufacture of woolens and felts, while long-staple wools
are adapted to producing worsted goods made from strong,
fine yarn.
Density refers to the closeness or compactness of the
fibers. If the fibers are not close it depreciates the value of
the fleece greatly, not only on account of the amount of wool,
but because of the depreciation in quality. An open fleece
is also very objectionable because of the lack of protection
afforded the sheep. An open fleece is often influential in
causing an animal to become diseased through continuous
exposure to storms and it is diflEicult to keep such a fleece
free from foreign matter.
Uniformity of covering influences greatly the wool clip.
Sheep which are bare on the head, belly and legs are very
undesirable, unless it is with breeds which are not naturally
heavily wooled over these parts. Not only are these regions
important but the uniformity of covering as well over the
back, shoulders, sides, and thighs. An open, spiral condition
FLEECE CHARACTERISTICS 381
about the thighs or elsewhere is very objectionable, although
it frequently occurs.
Purity. — An examination of the fleece should reveal a clean,
pure condition. The skin should be of a healthy pink color
and from it the wool should grow evenly and without any
indication of kemp or dead fibers. The original sheep was
covered with a harsh, hair-like covering beneath which was 9,
soft-wool fiber. Domestication and improvement by man
has eliminated the coarse outer covering and in its place a
uniform covering of wool has been bred by proper selection.
Inclination to revert to the original condition should be dis-
covered, as dead, kempy wool is very objectionable because
of its undesirable qualities in the manufacture of fabrics.
Kemp will not absorb dyes and wherever these fibers appear
in the cloth they reduce the value materially because of the
discoloration and the harsh appearance in the product.
Other than these dead fibers of wool, there should be
freedom from foreign material of any kind. While allowance
should be made for judging sheep in field condition, proper
care will avert a large part of the dirt and filth often found
in the fleeces upon examination. The introduction of any
preparation to increase the oil or yolk content or to improve
the texture or general appearance of the fleece is very
objectionable.
Lustre. — The lustre of a fleece refers to the character or
glistening appearance of the fiber. Lustrous wools have a
glistening or brilliant appearance. While this would seem
to make wool harsh it does not cause such a condition. Dull
wools are dead or lifeless in appearance and on handling
there is a very decided harshness characteristic of dead or
dry hair. When held to the light there is no tendency to
glisten. Wools of this character are very much less valuable
than those of a lofty, fresh lustrous appearance.
Yolk. — Yolk is an oil secreted by oil glands. This exudes
on the fibers of wool and out to the extreme outer surface
where it collects and in some breeds forms a hard crust on
the coat. This condition is especially characteristic of the
fine-wool breeds which have an unusual amount of this oil
in the fleece. _ Sheep in healthy condition should show a
382
JUDGING SHEEP
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MARKET CLASSIFICATION OF WOOL 383
uniform distribution of yolk throughout the fleece. This con-
dition in sheep may be compared to the much-coveted oily
condition of the skin and hair of the Guernsey cow. Only
enough yolk should be exuded to keep the fleece in a soft,
healthy condition. Any in excess of this amount is of no
use whatever, as the manufacturer uses only the scoured
wool. An uneven distribution of yolk indicates unthriftiness.
Layers or flakes of yolk throughout the fleece show that the
glands secreting this fluid are out of condition. This is an
index to the regularity of the vital organs of the animal.
When such a condition is present the feeding and manage-
ment of the animal should be investigated, as invariably it
is the result of improper care or a generally unhealthy con-
dition.
Soundness. — Sound wool is of great importance to the
manufacturer because of the increased value given to the
finished product. Unsound wools would of necessity make
unsound cloth, because of the irregularity in the strength
of the yarn, whether in woolen or worsted goods. There
should be a uniform condition of strength and crimp through-
out the fleece.
A diseased condition of the animal may cause dead or weak
places in the fleece. The location of the unsoundness depends
on the stage of development of the fleece when the disease
appears. The weakness may be in the top, the bottom or
middle of the wool. This leads to the expression of wools
with weak tops, weak bottoms or weak middles. In classi-
fying wools, what would otherwise be a combing wool if
sound would enter into the class for clothing wools because
of the shortness of fiber made necessary through dividing
the fiber at the location of the weakness.
Market Classification of Wool. — Market wool is classified
into clothing, delaine and combing staple. This classification
is based on the length, strength and fineness of fiber, shrink-
age or condition, color and character. Each of the domestic
staples is divided into various commercial grades.
Clothing Wool. — Clothing wool is used for making the
highest grades of woolen cloth. It is a fine, short staple
averaging about two inches in length. Clothing wools are
384 JUDGING SHEEP
graded on their quality into Picklock, XXX, XX, X, No. 1
or one-half blood, No. 2 or three-eighths blood, and No. 3
or quarter blood. Picklock and XXX are rare.
Delaine Wool. — Delaine wool is about three inches in
length, sound in staple and is used in manufacturing delaine
cloth. The wool is further graded into fine, medium, and
low. It is also classed under combing wools.
Combing Wool. — Combing wool averages three or more
inches in length. It should be strong enough to withstand the
combing process. Such wool is graded into half-blood, three-
eighths blood, quarter blood, low-quarter blood, and braid.
Variation in Fleece. — Each fleece contains a number of
distinct grades of wool; for instance, the finest wool of the
fleece is found over the heart or along the shoulders, the
next finest along the sides. The back of the fleece which has
been most exposed to the rays of the sun and weather is
usually dry and harsh. The neck, legs, and lower parts of
the fleece yield shorter wool, while the lowest grade is found
on the hindquarters.
Before any of the wool is actually worked in the mills
it is sorted according to the grade and thence used for the
various purposes for which it is adapted. This emphasizes
the necessity of having the fleece uniform in quality and
condition throughout. While this is difficult to find in
the average sheep, yet the nearer this condition can be
approached the higher the wool will grade and the more
valuable it will be on the market. Kemp and foreign matter
damage the wool materially and for this reason care should
be exercised in detecting the condition.
Score Card for Mutton Sheep.
General Appearance — 40 Points. Perfect score.
Weight: score according to age 6
Form: long, level, deep, broad, low set, stylish .... 10
Quality: clean bone, silky hair, fine skin, light in offal, yield-
ing large percentage of meat 10
Condition: deep, even covering of firm flesh especially in
region of valuable cuts. Points indicating condition or
ripeness are thick dock, back thickly covered with flesh,
thick neck, full purse, full, low flank, plump breast . . 10
Temperament: lymphatic, inclined to fatten 4
Carried forward 40
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 385
Perfect score.
Brought forward 40
Head and Neck — 6 Points.
Muzzle: fine, mouth large, Ups thin, nostrils large
Eyes: large, clear, placid
Face: short, clean-cut features
Forehead: broad, full
Ears: fine, erect
Neck: thick, short, throat free from folds
FOREQUARTERS — 4 PointS.
Shoulder Vein: full
Shoulder: covered with flesh, compact on top, smooth
Brisket: projecting forward, breast wide
Legs: straight, short, wide apart, strong; forearm full, shank
smooth and fine 1
Body — 26 Points.
Chest: wide, deep, full, indicating constitution .... 6
Back: broad, straight, long, wide, thickly fleshed, ribs arched 10
Loin: thick, broad, long 10
Hindquarters— 12 Points.
Hips: far apart, level, smooth 2
Rump: long, level, wide to tail-head 3
Thighs: full, deep, wide 3
Tivist: plump, deep 3
Legs: straight, short, strong; shank smooth, i.ue .... 1
Fleece — 12 Points.
Kind: domestic, territory, carpet or blanket. '
Class: clothing, delaine or combing.
Grade: fine, medium, or coarse.
Quantity: long, dense, even distribution 4
Quality: fine, pure; crimp close, regular, even 4
Condition: bright, sound, clean, soft, light 4.
Total . 100
Breed Characteristics. — Sheep are classified by types and
breeds as follows, the classification being based on muttori-
and wool-producing qualifications:
Mutton. — Long wool: Lincoln, Leicester and Cotswold.
Medium w^ool : Shropshire, Southdown, Hampshire, Oxford;
Cheviot, Dorset, Romney, Suffolk, and Tunis.
Wool. — Fine wool: American Merino, Delaine Merino,
and Rambouillet.
They are further described in detail as follows on a basis
of type and breed characteristics:
Lincoln. — The Lincoln breed of sheep originated in
Lincolnshire, England. It is among the largest breeds
produced. The weight of the rams varies from 250 to 300
25
386
JUDGING SHEEP
pounds, the ewes ranging somewhat lighter in weight. The
color is pure white, the wool extending up to the poll and
throttle with a characteristic tuft on the forehead. The
wool extends down to the knees and hocks. The head
and legs are covered with white hair. The fleece is long,
moderately fine, considering type, and hangs in spirals or locks.
In general appearance the breed is massive, some specimens
-Liiicijlii ram.
reaching a weight of 400 pounds. The back is broad,
level and the flesh reasonably firm. The breed is polled,
broad between the eyes and inclined to be Roman-nosed.
It does not rank high as a mutton producer, as the quality
of mutton is not extra and there is an excessive amount
of w^aste in the dressed carcass. The disposition is docile,
although the breed is not the best suited to general pro-
duction. The fleece attains an extraordinary length. It
should not be less than eight inches in length for one year's
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 387
growth. In quality it is somewhat better than that of the
Leicester. The breed ranks fair in breeding quaHties.
For average conditions it is too large and does not possess
enough quality either in the mutton or wool.
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Lincoln
Sheep.
Points.
Constitution. — Body deep, back wide and straight; wide and
full in the thigh; bright, large eyes; skin soft and of a pink color 25
Size. — ]\Iatured rams not less than 2.50 pounds when in good
condition. ^Matured ewes not less than 200 pounds. ... 10
.\PPEARANCE. — Good Carriage and symmetry of form .... 10
Body. — Well proportioned, good bone and length; broad hind-
quarters; legs standing well apart; breast wide and deep 15
Head. — Should be covered with wool to the ears; tuft on forehead;
eyes expressive; ears fair length; dotted or mottled in color . 10
Neck. — ]\Iedium length; good muscle; well set on bodj' ... 5
Legs. — Broad and set well apart; good shape; color white, but
some black spots do not disqualify; wooled to the knees . 10
Fleece. — Of even length and quality over body; not less than
eight inches long for one year's growth 10
QrALiTY OF Wool. — Rather fine, long wool; strong, lustrous
fiber; no tendency to cot 5
Total 100
Leicester. — The Leicester ranks as one of the large breeds,
although it is the smallest one belonging to the long-wool
t^-pe. The rams average in weight from 200 to 250 pounds,
the ewes ranging 50 to 75 pounds lighter. The form is
square, although inclined to be somewhat upstanding. There
are two types of the breed, the Bakewell and Border Leicester,
however, the standard of excellence makes no distinction in
them. The Bakewell type is white in color, large, long
wooled, and is somewhat long in the leg. The head of the
English Leicester has a tuft of wool and the face has a
bluish tint, small black spots often appearing on the head
and ears. The ears are erect, thin, and well poised. The
neck is short, the body wide in the rib, although the
quarters are inclined to be rounded and narrow. The
breast is prominent, thus giving an unusually square appear-
ance. The breed is polled and somewhat inclined to be
Roman-nosed, The quality of the fleece is good for a long-
388 JUDGING SHEEP
wooled breed. It is medium in length and hangs in spiral
locks over the body. The fleece does not extend beyond
the ears usually or below the knees or hocks. The two
types of Leicesters are distinguished by the white face and
freedom from wool thereon in the Border Leicester, and the
bluish-white face and tuft of wool on the head of the English
Leicester. The breed is unusually refined and possesses a
docile disposition. It is more popular in Canada than in
the United States.
Fig. 161. — Leicester ram.
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Leicester
Sheep.
Points.
HEAD.^Long, moderately small, tapering toward the muzzle;
white and well covered with hair; lips and nostrils black 6
Nose. — Somewhat narrow, almost straight in ewes, and slightly
Roman in rams 2
Face. — Having a wedge-shaped appearance, well covered with
fine white hairs 2
Carried forward IQ
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 389
Points.
Brought forward 10
Ears. — Thin, rather long, mobile and directed backward; a black
speck on face and ears not uncommon 2
Eyes. — Large and prominent 4
Neck.— Strong and moderately short, level with the back and
broad at the base where it leaves the chest, gradually tapering
toward the head, being fine where head and neck join; neck
straight from chest, showing a straight line from rump to poll 6
BRE.A.ST. — Deep, broad and full 8
Shoulders. — Upright, wide across the top, giving good thickness
through the heart 6
Chest. — Well filled behind the shoulder, with large girth . . 6
Back. — Broad and well fleshed, ribs well sprung, loins wide, hips
level, quarters straight and long 12
Barrel. — Round, well-ribbed home, straight lines above and
below 10
Legs. — Of moderate length, fairly large and wide apart, with
strong, fiat bone, covered with white hair: brown hair or spots
objectionable 6
Flesh. — Firm, springy pelt; pink skin 8
Fleece. — Fine, uniform and sound in staple, curly, with good,
bright lustre and no dark hairs or kemp, belly well covered . 10
Carcass. — Rectangular, legs well set on, hocks straight, pasterns
good, with neat feet, good general appearance 12
Total . 100
Cotswold. — The Cotswold breed, a native of the Cotswold
Hills, England, is of remote lineage. The breed, ranks with
the Lincoln in size, rams weighing from 250 to 275 pounds or
more in moderate flesh. This is an average mutton breed,
the quality being somewhat inferior and the percentage of
fat and offal too great. The breed is hornless, and the face
usually white, although sometimes spotted with gray or brown.
The head is broad between the muzzle and eyes, while the
nose is somewhat Roman. The breed is alert, having con-
siderable expression, and often a dignified appearance. The
back is broad, although the body is at times shallow, making
the animal appear leggy. The legs have the same color
markings as the head. The breed ranks only fair in mutton
quality, considering type, the coarse texture of mutton and
external fat being criticisms against the breed. The fleece is
similar to the Lincoln, hanging in locks or ringlets over the
body. The breed is characterized by a heav}' forelock of
wool which hangs over the face and eyes. The fleece often
390
JUDGING SHEEP
has extreme length, attaining a length of ten inches or more.
Although considerable improvement has been effected in the
weight, symmetry, maturing qualities, and fleece charactistics
the demand for a smaller, earlier maturing breed of mutton
sheep has mitigated against the general introduction of the
Cotswold.
Fig. 162. — Cotswold ewe.
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Cotswold
Ram.
Points.
Head. — Not too fine, moderately small, and broad between the
eyes and nostrils, but without a short, thick appearance, and
in young animals well covered on crown with long, lustrous wool 8
Face. — Either white or slightly mixed with gray, or white dappled
with brown 4
Nostrils. — Wide and expanded, nose dark 1
Eyes. — Prominent, but mild looking 2
Ears. — Broad, long, moderately thin, and covered with short
hair ^
Carried forward 19
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 391
Points.
Brought forward 19
Collar. — Full from breast and shoulders, tapering gradually all
the way to where the neck and head join. The neck should be
short, thick and strong, indicating constitutional vigor, and free
from coarse and loose skin 6
Shoulders. — Broad and full, and at the same time join so gradu-
ally to the collar forward and chine backward as not to leave
the least hollow in either place 8
Forelegs. — The mutton on the arm or forethigh should come
quite to the knee. Leg upright with heavy bone, being clear
from superfluous skin, with wool to fetlock, and may be mixed
with gray 4
Breast. — Broad and well forward, keeping the legs apart, girth
or chest, full and deep 10
FoREFLANK. — Quite full, not showing hollow behind the shoulder 5
Back and Loin. — Broad, flat and straight, from which the ribs
must spring with a fine, circular arch 12
Belly. — Straight on underline 3
Quarters. — Long and full, with mutton quite down to the hock 8
Hock. — Should stand neither in or out 2
Twist. — Or junction inside the thighs, deep, wide and fuU, which,
with a broad breast, will keep the legs open and upright . . 5
Fleece. — The whole body should be covered with long, lustrous
wool . 18
Total 100
Medium Wool. — Shropshire. — The Shropshire is one of the
most widely distributed breeds of sheep in existence. While
there is some variation in type, the breed possesses certain
well-defined characteristics. The quality of the Shropshire
is excellent, and when matured for market the lambs and
mature sheep make a good quality of lamb and mutton.
The quality is exhibited very strikingly in the general
trimness of the animal. The bone is medium in size and
possesses good quality.
The size of the rams ranges from 175 to 225 pounds, and
the ewes from 125 to 175 pounds. The breed possesses good
constitution and exliibits considerable hardiness, although
there are other breeds which surpass it. The most striking
characteristics are the head which is broad, deep and almost
completely covered with wool. The eyes and the extremity
of the muzzle are the only parts which are not covered
with wool, although in some cases it is so dense that the eye-
sight is almost completely obstructed. The fleece is medium
392
JUDGING SHEEP
in length, compact, and should extend from the muzzle ex-
tremity well down to the hoofs on characteristic animals
of the breed. The muzzle is usually dark brown or black
and also that part of the legs w^hich may not be covered
with wool. The Shropshire possesses most striking breed
characteristics. The breed is hornless, the ears small, short,
and should be covered with short, fine wool. Large ears are
Fig. ms. — .>hroi)shirc ram.
objectionable. The Shropshire is a strong-backed breed*
and usually has good depth of bod}'. The brisket is usually
full and square. The fleece covers the entire body uniformly
and exhibits unusual quality. The breed is early maturing,
the lambs growing and fattening uniformly at an early age.
The mutton and wool combination, size, quality, and
maturity are popular with the numerous advocates of the
breed.
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 393
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Shrop-
shire Sheep.
Poiats.
General Appearance. — Attractive, indicating breeding and
quality, with stylish carriage, and a symmetrical form covered
with a dense fleece 25
Constitution. — Robust, as indicated by width and depth of chest,
r strength, and formation of neck, and by bold, active movement 10
Size. — In breeding condition when fully matured, rams should
. weigh not less than ISO to 225 pounds, and ewes not less than
125 to 170 pounds . 10
Fleece and Skin. — Fleece of good length, dense, elastic to
touch, medium fine, free from black fibre, slightly crimped,
with evenness of texture throughout; scrotum of rams well
covered with wool. Skin light cherry color, free from dark
spots 15
Body. — Well proportioned, with shoulders well placed, fitting
smoothly upon the chest, which should be deep and wide, broad
and straight back, thick loins well covered with firm flesh;
hindquarters well finished; twist deep and full 20
Head and Neck. — Head short, broad between the ears and ej'es,
bold and masculine in rams, without horns, well covered with
wool, ears short and erect, eyes bright, color of face and ears
. dark brown. Neck of medium length, strong and muscular
, (especially in rams), symmetrically joined to head and shoul-
] ders. Rams with horns or stubs are disqualified as heads of
• flocks 15
Legs. — Well set apart, broad, short, straight, color dark brown,
and well wooled; pastern strong and upright 5
Total 100
Hampshire. — ^The Hampshire breed ranks rather large
in size and like the Shropshire, has certain very marked
breed characteristics. The face is dark brown in color,
broad, long, and the nose very strikingly Roman in appear-
ance. The legs are also dark brown or black in appearance.
The fleece is medium in length, reasonably dense, but not as
good in quality as in the Shropshire or Southdown, lacking
in length, density, fineness and an even distribution.
In general appearance, the Hampshire is a large, long,
broad, and deep animal. It is second to the Oxford in size.
The legs are of medium length, thus giving the animal a
fairly low-set appearance. There is some inclination to
narrowness and shallowness in the heart girth. The weight
of the rams ranges from 200 to 250 pounds and the ewes
394
JUDGING SHEEP
from 175 to 200 pounds in sheep of standard weight. The
quahty is fair, there being some inclination to coarseness.
The breed is hornless, and ranks well for crossing on other
breeds for the production of mutton. One of the principal
points in favor of the breed is the large size to which it
attains early in life, thus giving size and maturity to the
lambs at a much younger age than otherwise. Taken as a
Fig. 164. — Hampshire ram.
whole, the Hampshire is not as compact or as good in quality
either in mutton or fleece as the Shropshire or Southdown.
However it ranks well as a mutton sheep, having a reasonably
wide distribution in England, America and other countries.
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Hamp-
shire Sheep.
Detailed Description.
Head and Legs:
Head: moderately large, but not coarse; well covered with
wool on forehead and cheeks.
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 395
Nostrils: wide.
Color: (head and legs) dark brown or black
Eyes: prominent and lustrous.
Ears: moderately long and thin, and dark brown or black
color.
Legs: well under outside of body, straight, with good size
of bone, black.
Neck, Shoulders and Chest:
^'eck: A regular taper from shoulders to head, without any
hollow m front of shoulders, set high up on body.
Shoulders: sloping, full, and not higher than the line of back
and neck.
Chest: deep and full in the heart place, with breast prominent
and full.
Body:
Back: straight, with full spring of rib.
Loin: wide and straight, without depression in front of hips.
Quarters: long from hips to rump, without sloping, and deep
in thigh. Broad in hips and rump, with full hams. Inside
of thigh full.
Scale of Poixts:
. Points.
Head: size and shape, 5; ears and eyes, 3; color, 5; legs and
feet, 2 • * 25
Neck: shoulders and breast— neck, 5; 'shoulders,' 10: chest
and breast, 15 3q
Body: back and loins, 15; rib, 5 . . . oq
Quarters: length, 10; width, 10; twist, 5 ..'"'' ' 95
Tl ool: forehead and cheeks, 2; belly, well covered, 3; quality, 5 10
Total
100
Southdown. — The Southdown is the smallest of the
middle wool breeds of sheep. The weight of rams ranges
from 150 to 175 pounds and ewes from 130 to 140 pounds.
From the standpoint of form and quality, the breed is
almost ideal. The animal is straight in its lines, squarely
built, and compact throughout. The latter attribute is
one of the most desirable qualities of the breed. The bone
IS fine, the fat not excessive and the flesh of the finest flavor.
The color of the face and legs is of a rich grayish brown. The
fleece extends over the poll and forehead, up to the eyes and
to the extremity of the lower jaws. On the legs it extends
well below the knees and hocks. The fleece is of medium
length, fine in quality, very dense and has a close crimp for
396
JUDGING SHEEP
a medium wool breed. The fleece is short, however, and
lacking in yolk.
The breed is hornless, the head broad, the ears rather small
and neatly set, the eyes bright, the muzzle large and the
nostrils open. The neck is short and compact, the shoulders
smooth, and the crops full. The body of the animal is very
nearly ideal from the mutton standpoint, it having the
desired length, width, squareness and fulness of body, back
Fig. 165. — Southdown ram.
and loin. The leg of mutton is w^ell developed, having
quality and compactness. The constitution is quite well
developed as indicated by the rather large muzzle and
nostril and the broad, deep chest. The legs are of medium
length, the bone of medium size and fine quality. The con-
formation of the Southdown meets the demands of the
butcher in compactness and quality. The breed lacks size,
however, and may be criticised somewhat from this stand-
point, as well as having a light fleece.
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 397
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for South-
down Sheep.
Points.
Head. — Medium in size and hornless, fine, carried well up, the
forehead or face well covered with wool, especially between the
ears and on the cheeks, and in the ewe slightly dished ... 5
Lips and Under Jaw. — ^Fine and thin 1
Ears. — Rather small, tolerably wide apart, covered with fine
hair, and carried with a lively back-and-forth movement . . 2
Eyes. — Full and bright 3
Face. — A uniform tint of brown, or gray, or mouse color 3
Neck. — Short, fine at the head, but nicely tapering, and broad
and straight on top at the shoulders 4
Shoulders. — Broad and full, smoothly joining the neck with the
back 5
Breast. — Wide, deep and projecting well forward, the forelegs
standing wide apart 5
Back. — Back and loin broad and straight from shoulders to rump 7
Ribs. — Well arched, extending far backward, the last projecting
more than the others ,6
Rump. — Broad, square and full, with tail well set up ... . 6^
Hips. — Wide, with little space between them and last ribs 6
Thighs. — Full and well let down in twist, the legs standing well
apart 6
Limbs. — Short and fine in bone, and in color to agree with the
face 3
Forelegs. — Well wooled and carrying mutton to the knees, but
free from meat below 2
Htndlegs. — Well filled with mutton and wooled to the hocks,
neat and clean below 2
Belly. — Straight and covered with wool, the flank extending so
as to form a line parallel with the back or top line .... 5
Fleece. — Compact, the whole body well covered with moderately
long and close wool, white in color, carrying some yolk ... 12
Form.— Throughout smooth and symmetrical, with no coarseness
in any part 9
General Appearance. — Spirited and attractive, with a deter-
ined look, a proud and firm step, indicating constitutional
'igor and thorough breeding 8
Total 100
Oxford. — The Oxford, which is a derivative of a Hamp-
'shire-Cotswold cross, is the largest of the medium wool
breeds of sheep. In some respects it resembles the Shrop-
shire and Hampshire breeds, although it is larger in size.
The breed is somewhat variable in this respect, standard
rams of the breed weighing from 250 to 350 pounds and
ewes from 180 to 275. The constitution of the Oxford is
well developed, as indicated by the broad, deep chest which
398
JUDGING SHEEP
extends well forward, thus giving a large chest capacity. The
frame is large, which provides for the extraordinary size to
which the breed develops. The animal is long in body, deep,
broad, and square over the back.
The head is large and somewhat inclined to be plain,
although not to a serious extent. The forehead is broad,
the jaws deep and the muzzle large and characterized by
Fig. 166. — Oxford ram.
open nostrils. The neck is full, broad, and compact, the
shoulders smoothly developed and the chest girth square and
full. The leg of mutton is large, although it does not possess
the quality of some of the smaller breeds. The fleece covers
the entire animal, with the exception of the face, cheeks,
muzzle extremity, and frequently the legs from the knees
and hocks down. The face and legs are uniformly brown
in color. The fleece of this breed is rather coarse and open.
It is ordinarily classed as the longest and coarsest fleece
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 399
grown by the Down breeds. The skin of the Oxford is not
as desirable as it should be, there being some tendency to
a bluish tinge which is an objectionable feature in any breed.
The Oxford is prolific and meets with most favor on level
or rolling lands.
Staxdard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Oxford
Down Sheep.
Breed Type — 30 Points.
Form: Of a good general appearance, made bj- a well-balanced
conformation, free from coarseness in any" part, and show-
ing good style both at rest and in motion 15
Head: Of moderate length and width between the ears and
between the eyes, and well covered with wool over poll and
down to the eyes. Color of face an even dark gi-ay or bro^-n.
either with or without gray spot on tip of nose . . 6
Rams: When fully matured and in good condition rams]
should weigh 250 to 350 pounds. I
Ewes: When fully matured and in good condition ewesf ^
should weigh ISO to 275 pounds J
Ears: Medium size, not too thick and of an even brown or
dark graj- color 2
Legs: Short, strong in bone, flat and of even dark grav or
bro^-n color, placed squarely under the bodv and well apart 2
Constitution — 25 Points.
Heart Girth: Large and wide and full in the chest ... 10
Movement: Must be bold and vigorous 5
Eyes: Bold, prominent and bright 4
Skin: Bright pink in color 3
Neck: Strong and muscular in rams and well set on in both
sexes 3
Mutton Form and Quality — 30 Points.
Shoulders, Back, Loin, and Rump: Wide and straight on top
from base of neck to tail 15
Shoulders and Thighs: Full and well meated both inside and
outside 5
Flanks: Well filled and strong so as to make the lower lines
of the body as straight as possible, and side lines straight
or rather full 4
Carcass: Evenly covered with good, well-marbled meat . . 6
^ OOL — 15 Points.
Fleece: Of moderate length, close and of even quality, cover-
ing the whole carcass, well and free from black patches
upon the body, neck or head 15
Total 100
Cheviot. — The Cheviot is a very characteristic breed. Its
stylish form and sprightly movements are noticeable bv anv
400
JUDGING SHEEP
casual observer. The breed is medium in size, rams weigh-
ing 200 pounds on the average, and ewes from 140 to 150
pounds. The head is usually hornless and devoid of wool,
the latter extending to the base of the ears and the throttle.
The legs are bare of wool below the knees and hocks, the
head and legs usually having a white color. The fleece is
more than average in length, and is very uniformly dis-
tributed over the body. It is not as dense as in other medium
wool breeds, the openness of fleece being objectionable.
Fig. 167. — Cheviot ram and ewe.
The head of the Cheviot is rather broad, the muzzle large
and the nose slightly Roman. The ears are free from wool,
of medium size, rather pointed and slightly erect. The neck
is short, broad, and deep and has a rather characteristic crest
formed partly by the conformation of the neck and shoulder
and otherwise by the fleece. The body of the Cheviot is deep,
the legs rather short, thus giving the animal a characteristic
low-set appearance. The shoulders and body are not as
broad as in the Shropshire and usually not as smooth and
compact. The ribs extend well down, thus giving a charac-
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 401
teristic depth of body. Mutton from this breed ranks high,
because of superior quahty and minimum of waste fat. The
constitution is quite remarkably developed, as indicated by
the depth of body and the forward extension of the brisket.
The breed, as a whole, is rarely surpassed in rustling quali-
ties. In some cases the rams have horns, although this is
rare. Characteristic animals of this breed have a very alert,
stylish, and distinctive appearance. The principal objections
to them are lack of compactness and thin, light, open fleeces.
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Cheviot
Sheep.
Points.
General Conformation and Quality. — Deep and full breast
and large through chest. Back wide and straight, with well-
sprung, deep ribs, legs well placed and leg of mutton full and
thick. Bod}' well fleshed, skin pink with no blue or dark color-
ing, fleece compact and medium fine, bone strong and fine, gen-
eral appearance graceful, symmetrical, active 20
Size. — In good flesh when fully matured a twenty-four- months-
old ram should weigh not less than 225 pounds, and a ewe not
less than 150 pounds 10
Head. — Should be medium short and broad with ample breadth
between the eyes. Ears should be of medium length and
usually erect when at repose. Head covered with clear white
hairs, extending from nostrils to back of poll. Ridge of head
from between eyes to nostrils straight or slightly arched with
females and more strongly arched or Roman with rams. Color
of tip of nose black 15
Body. — Well proportioned, having notable depth, with thickness
on top and at flanks. Loins should be very broad and thick,
shoulders should set well back and be smoothly covered, and
crops be full and well arched. The rump should be long, broad
and level 20
Legs. — Should be short, well set apart and be covered with clean
white hair, with no wool below hocks and knees. The hind
legs should be flat and deep below hocks. Pasterns should be
strong and not show weakness, supporting the body well . . 10
Feet. — Symmetrical, squarely placed when in repose and hoofs
black in color 5
Fleece. — Should cover the body completely to behind the poll
and ears and down to knees and hocks. Under part of the body
should be well covered. In mature animals should be not less
than three inches long for annual growth and be compact and
of medium wool class. Rams should shear at least 12 pounds
and ewes 8 when in mature form to be desirable representatives
of the breed 20
Total 100
26
402
JUDGING SHEEP
Objections. — Scurs on the head, black spots on the head, flesh-
colored or spotted skin about the nostrils, hair about the thighs
or kemp on the body, reddish or sandy hair on head or legs, lack
of wool on under part of body.
Disqualifications. — All male lambs shall be inehgible to registra-
tion if having scurs or horns exceeding one inch in length.
Dorset Horn. — The Dorset Horn breed, as the name
implies, is one of the few domesticated breeds of sheep
which possesses horns. In the rams the horns have a very
Fig. 168.— Dorset Horn ram.
characteristic spiral form. They are large at the base,
extend slightly outward from the head, then backward
and curve forward. The face and legs of the breed are white.
The fleece extends to the base of the lower jaw and the under
side of it, extending in a circle around the eyes and over the
poll and forehead. The fleece is medium in length and fine-
ness. It extends to the knees and hocks, the remaining por-
tion of the legs being white. The fleece is usually too short,
BREED CHARACTERISTICS 403
and not well distributed. The underside of the body and
legs is often scantily covered with wool.
The size of the breed ranges from 200 to 225 pounds in the
rams and from 150 to 175 in the ewes. The form of the
Dorset Horn is somewhat inclined to be rangy, the ribs
flat and the back low. The body has not as much scale
and compactness as desirable for a typical mutton sheep.
The Dorset Horn is an exceptionally good breeder, the ewes
making excellent mothers, often breeding twice yearly. The
quality of the lamb and mutton is above the average. The
constitution is very well developed, although there is some
tendency to shallowness of chest. Lack of mutton form
and even distribution of fleece are criticisms of the breed.
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Dorset
Sheep.
Points.
Head. — Neat, face white, nostrils large, well covered on crown
and under jaw with wool 5
Horns. — Small and gracefully curving forward, rather close to
jaw 5
Eyes. — Prominent and bright 2
Ears. — Medium size, covered with short white hair .... 2
Neck. — Short, symmetrical, strongly set on shoulders, gradually
tapering to junction of head 5
Shoulders. — Broad and full, joining neck forward and chine
backward with no depression at either point (important) . . 15
Brisket. — Wide and full, forward, chest full and deep ... 8
Foreflank. — Quite full, showing little depression behind
shoulder S
Back and Loin. — Wide and straight, from which ribs should
spring with a fine, circular arch 10
Quarters. — Wide and full, with mutton extending down to
hocks 10
Belly. — Straight on under line 3
Fleece. — Medium grade, of even quaUty presenting a smooth
surface and extending over belly and well down on legs . 12
General Conformation. — Of the mutton type, body moderately
long; short, stout legs, placed squarely under body, sldn pink,
appearance attractive 15
Total 100
Romney. — The Romney breed is a native of Kent county,
England. The breed is comparatively new and untried in
America. The head and legs are white, the wool extending
404
JUDGING SHEEP
down to the knees and hocks and up to the extremity of the
jaws, reaching over the poll and terminating in a tuft on
the forehead. It is fair in mutton production, the back
being broad and the body very compact in form. The early
type of the breed was small, fiat-ribbed and late in maturing
qualities. The modern type is more refined and compact
and has better fattening propensities. The back is broad,
long and the quarters are well developed. The breed is
hornless. It is claimed it is free from foot-rot, but this
Fig. 169. — Romney ram. (Courtesy of Messrs. Hickman and Kent, Sciuby,
England.)
may be somewhat exaggerated. The breed is adapted to
low-lying lands, although it is not likely that it is entirely
immune from this disease, peculiar to sheep when main-
tained on low lands. The quality of the breed is fair in mut-
ton and wool. There is some inclination to coarseness of bone
and open fleece characteristics, an average fleece weighing
about eight pounds. The breed has considerable merit and
has met with favor in Australia and some of the British
BREED CHARACTERISTICS
405
colonies. It is not important in this country, although it
is well worthy of consideration both from a utility and
authoritative standpoint.
Suffolk. — The Suffolk breed is not widely distributed in
this country. It resembles the Hampshire Down in many
respects, the face and legs being either black or a very dark
brown. The breed is polled, the wool extending from the
back of the ears and the lower extremity of the jaws down
Fig. 170.— Suffolk ram.
to the knees and hocks. Specimens of the breed are about
equal to the Hampshire in size, rams weighing from 200
to 250 pounds, the ewes ranging about 50 pounds lighter.
The Suffolk is a strongly constitutioned breed and it is said
that they are immune from foot-rot. The ears are medium
to large in size and are covered with a fine coat of soft
hair. The head is rather broad, the neck moderately long,
and the chest broad and full. On the whole, specimens of
406 JUDGING SHEEP
the breed are inclined to be rangy. However, it has a
well-sprung rib. The fleece is moderate in length, and reason-
ably dense and fine in quality. The rather distinct black
covering of the head and legs is a peculiarity of the breed.
As a mutton breed it ranks well, possessing fat and lean-pro-
ducing attributes which are especially favorable to lamb and
mutton production. The constitution is well developed, as
Fig. 171. — Tunis ram.
indicated by the strong chest development. The breed is
especially suited to low or rolling lands.
Tunis. — The Tunis breed is not widely distributed in
America. The origin is unknown; however, it has existed
in Tunis for several centuries. The breed is polled generally
and characterized b}" a brownish color about the face and
legs, the head being bare of wool from the forehead down
and likewise the legs below the knees and hocks. The fleece
is quite fine in quality, fairly compact, and averages about
three to four inches in length. The color varies consider-
WOOL TYPE 407
ably. In some specimens the color of the fleece is white,
while in others there is a reddish cast, and in still others,
reddish fibers intermixed with the white.
The breed is rather small in size, the weight ranging from
140 to 160 pounds in rams and from 125 to 130 pounds
in the ewes. The form is inclined to be rangy, the type
not being expecially well fixed in the breed. The head is
rather long and inclined to be narrow, the ears large and
the neck long and not compactly developed. The breed is
fairly low set, although there is some tendency to extreme
length of leg. The body possesses very good depth, however;
it is inclined to be narrow and lacking in the spring of rib.
One of the characteristic features of this breed is the broad
tail, which often measures four to five inches in width. It
is thick and moderately long, the fleshy part extending
down six to eight inches at maturit}^ The principal objec-
tions to the breed are its lack of size and uniformity in type.
There is considerable opportunity- for improvement in the
breed, especially in these twt>^spects.
WOOL TYPE.
Wool sheep-^e produced primarily for the fleece. In
former years the variation in the mutton and wool type was
greater than it is at present. Economic conditions have
so changed that the breeders of strictly wool sheep are now
giving more attention to the form or mutton-producing
qualities. The fine-wool breeds w^ere bred so carefully in
wool-producing qualities that the weight of the fleece not
only formed an unusually large proportion of the total
weight, but the constitutional development was thereby
injured. The increase in the price of beef and other meat-
producing animals has had a beneficial effect on the produc-
tion of more and better sheep. It is also significant that the
fluctuation in the price of fine wool, due to several conditions,
has caused the fine-wool breeders to place more stress on
mutton-producing qualities.
Conformation. — Compared with the mutton sheep, the
wool type is smaller, longer in the leg, less symmetrical,
408
JUDGING SHEEP
flatter in the ribs and not as heavily or uniformly covered with
natural flesh. The type is wooled, however, practically from
head to foot. The head is usually so densely covered with
w^ool that the animal sees with difiiculty. It is wooled to the
extremity of the muzzle, over the belly, in the arm pits and
down to the pasterns. Some of the breeds of this type are ex-
cessively wrinkled, thus giving a maximum area on which
wool may be grown.
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Fit
172.
-Wool type of sheep.
The modern type of fine-wool sheep is more symmetrical,
less angular and smoother in form than formerly. This has
been brought about largely by the desire to obtain better
mutton-producing qualities. Attention has been given to
breeding out the folds and wrinkles, thus materially improving
the mutton form. Even wdth these improvements the wool
sheep does not possess the thickness, smoothness and uni-
formity of natural flesh of the mutton type. In judging
this type of sheep mutton-producing qualities should be
emphasized consistently with the wool-producing attributes,
which are of primary consideration.
WOOL TYPE 409
Quality. — The wool type of sheep possesses an unusual
degree of refinement. This is natural, however, considering
the purpose of the animal. Naturally an animal producing
a fine quality of wool would show correlated characteristics
in other respects. While smaller, more angular, and less
symmetrical than the mutton type, these animals possess
unusual quality.^ The head is clear cut, the bone fine, the
skin soft and pink, and the hair of fine quality where it
appears on the animal.
A close examination of the fleece on a fine-wool sheep
will indicate the possession of these attributes. The close-
crimp, soft, compact nature of the fleece is indicative of
correlated qualities otherwise. Other than the points men-
tioned the wool sheep is judged largely the same as the
mutton animal. The fleece should be given first considera-
tion, mutton-producing qualities being secondary.
Fleece Characteristics. — The fleece of the fine-wool breeds
is shorter, finer and denser than the wool grown on any other
breed. The term fine wool is significant of quality as related
to fineness. As extreme length and fineness are antagonistic,
the fleece on the fine-wool breeds is comparatively short.
The staple usually ranges from two to three inches in length
having a close crimp and being very dense, meaning tech-
nically a large number of fibers per square inch. It contains
an excessive amount of yolk, scoured wool often shrinking
as much as 60 per cent, or more of its original weight.
The fleece of the fine-wool breeds completely covers the
body from the muzzle extremity to the pasterns. Absence
of wool over any part is seriously objectionable. The area
or surface for producing wool has been materially increased
by the development of the folds or wrinkles over the body.
These folds are excessively developed in the American
Merino, less so in the Delaine, with the fewest number
appearing in the Rambouillet. The fineness and density
of the fleece ranks in the same order, the American Merino
producing the finest and the Rambouillet the coarsest wool
of the three breeds.
_ In judging fine wools, the length, crimp, density, distribu-
tion, lustre, soundness and condition should all be carefully
410 JUDGING SHEEP
considered. The amount of yolk is also important, as an
even distribution through the fleece indicates that the animal
is in a healthy condition and therefore the wool is likely
sound. The fleece should be thoroughly examined over
all parts including the head, shoulders, back, sides, thighs,
belly, and armpits. An evenly distributed, dense fleece with
a close crimp and in a bright, lustrous, healthy condition is
indicative of value, as measured by the demands of the
manufacturer. This should be the guide in judging a fine-
wool sheep the same as mutton form is judged according to
the demands of the butcher and mutton consumer.
Score Card for Fine-wool Sheep.
Perfect score.
General Appearance — 26 Points.
Weight 4
Form: level, deep, stylish, round rather than square ... 6
Quality: clean, fine bone; silky hair; fine skin 6
Temperament : active 4
Condition : thick, even covering of firm flesh; full purse and
flank, showing ripeness . . , . 6
Head and Neck — 6 Points.
Muzzle: fine, broad, wrinkled nose; pure white .... 1
Eyes: large, clear, placid 1
Face: wrinkled, covered with soft, velvety coat . . .' . 1
Forehead: broad, full 1
Ears: soft, thick and velvety 1
Neck : short, muscular, well set on shoulders 1
FOREQUARTERS — 8 PointS.
Shoulder: strong, being deep and broad 4
Brisket: projecting forward, breast wide 2
Legs: straight, short, wide apart; shank smooth and fine . 2
Body — 16 Points.
Chest: deep, full, indicating constitution 6
Back: level, long; round-ribbed 4
Loi7i: wide, level 4
Flank: low, making underline straight 2
Hindquarters — 8 Points.
Hips: far apart, level, smooth 2
Rump: long, level, wide 4
Legs: straight, short, strong; shank smooth, fine .... 2
Carried forward 64
WOOL TYPE 411
Pertect score.
Brought forward 64
Fleece — 36 Points.
Kind: Domestic, clean and bright.
Territory, dirty or discolored.
Bkinket f^^^^y ^^ having dead fibers.
Class: Clothing, fiber under two inches in length or unsound.
Delaine, fiber two to three inches in length.
Combing, fiber over three inches in length and sound.
Grade: fine, medium or coarse.
Quantity: long, dense, even covering, especially over crown,
cheek, armpit, hindlegs and belly 12
Quality: fine fiber, crimp close, regular; even quality includ-
ing tops of folds 12
Condition: bright, lustrous, sound, pure, soft, even distribu-
tion of yolk, with even surface to fleece 12
Total 100
Fine-wool Breeds. — The fine-wool breeds of sheep as
described below are derivatives of the Spanish Merino.
These breeds exhibit marked pecuHarities in the skin folds
and the unusually fine quality and large quantity of the
wool produced.
Merinos are sometimes classed into A, B, and C types on
the basis of the presence or absence of the skin folds.
Class A has heavy folds at the neck, over the body and hind-
quarters. They are characterized by high percentage of wool
and yolk to carcass weight. This class is represented by the
Spanish or American Merino.
Class B, has a smoother body than Class A and there are
fewer folds in the skin and less yolk in the staple. This class
is represented also by Spanish or American blood.
Class C has a comparatively smooth body with very
few folds except possibly around the neck and shoulders.
This class is represented by the Delaine Merino and Ram-
bouillet.
American Merino. — The American Merino is the smallest
of the Merino breeds, rams ranging in weight from 125 to
135 pounds and ewes from 90 to 100. The form is angular,
lacking in symmetry, and therefore desirable mutton-pro-
ducing qualities. The body is wooled from the upper part
412
JUDGING SHEEP
of the muzzle to the top of the hoofs with the exception of the
ears and nose. The pecuHar development for wool production
gives the breed unusually dense fleece characteristics. The
skin is excessively wrinkled over the neck and body. The
head is small and has large, spirally twisted horns in the rams.
The ewes are polled. From the standpoint of mutton pro-
FiG. 173. — American Merino ewe.
duction the breed is unusually defective, the heavy wool-
producing qualities being antagonistic to the development
of this quality. The fleece is short and very fine, and at
times contains as much as 50 to 70 per cent, of yolk. The
fleece is not excelled by any other breed in quantity or
quality. Shearings of forty pounds or over are on record.
The accumulation of foreign matter in the wool, caused by
WOOL TYPE
413
the excessive amount of yolk, gives the fleece an unusually
dark appearance. Scouring removes this entirely. The color
of the muzzle is white like the other parts, which are very
infrequently exposed, owing to the uniform and dense wool
covering. The head is rather broad, the neck thin and the
shoulders light. The body has fair depth, although it is some-
what short and narrow. The breed is famous only for wool
production.
Fig. 174. — Delaine Merino ram.
Delaine Merino. — The Delaine Merino is larger in size
and smoother in form than the American type. Rams
range in weight from 125 to 175 pounds and the ewes from
100 to 140 pounds. The breeding out of the folds of the skin
has been instrumental in the improvement of the mutton
characteristics. The quality of the Delaine is good, both
in wool and mutton production. The lower part of the
face, muzzle, and lips are white and also that portion of
the legs not covered by the fleece. The ears are rather
414 JUDGING SHEEP
small and covered with a fine quality of soft hair. The
quality of the fleece in the Delaine is inferior to that of the
American Merino, in not having the same degree of crimp
or density. The fleece is also more open than in the Ameri-
can type. The breed is either horned or polled, depending
on the line of breeding which has been followed. The
introduction of crosses has caused considerable variation,
not only in the development of horns, but also in the size,
smoothness, and compactness. The fleece characteristics
have likewise varied with the breeding. The Delaine Merino
does not have as much yolk in the wool as the American,
however, the fleece is somewhat stronger and longer. Shear-
ings of 15 to 20 pounds are not uncommon.
Standard of Excellence and Scale of Points for Delaine
OR Class C Merino Sheep.
Points.
General Appearance — 23 Points.
Weight: according to age: 30 pounds, six months; 60 pounds,
twelve months 4
Form: low, compact, symmetrical 9
Quality: bone and wool fine, hair silky ...:... 10
Head and Neck — 9 Points.
Muzzle: fine of good size, face medium length .... 2
Eyes: bright, easily seen ; forehead broad 2
Ears: medium size, set well apart, coated with fine hair . 2
Neck: short on top, deep, neatly blending head and shoulders 3
Forequarters — 14 Points.
Shoulders: well placed; chest deep, medium thick ... 8
Brisket: carried well forward, with some breadth and fold or
apron 2
Legs: straight, short, strong; feet good 4
Body — 10 Points.
Back: straight, medium wide; loin wide 6
Ribs: well sprung, long; flanks low 4
Hindquarters — 12 Points.
Hips: smooth; rump, long, level, wide 5
Thighs: ranging from muscular to plump 3
Legs: straight, short; stifle full; feet good 4
Wool— 32 Points.
Quality: fine, soft, clean, even 10
Density: compact all over body 9
Length: uniform, at least 2y inches for twelve months . . 9
Oil: light colored, evenly distributed 4
Total lOU
WOOL TYPE
415
Rambouillet. — The Rambouillet is the largest of the
Merino breeds. More attention has been given to the
mutton-producing quahties than in the other two breeds of
the fine-wool type. The breed may be considered dual purpose
in its characteristics. The fleece is coarser and more open
than in the other breeds. It covers the entire body, however,
with the exception of the muzzle extremity and the ears. Rams
Fig. 175. — Rambouillet ram.
of this breed range in weight from 175 to 200 pounds and ewes
from 125 to 150. The constitution of the Rambouillet is
exceptionally good. Specimens of the breed are large and
vigorous in appearance. The body has good length and fair
depth, although there is some inclination to stand high on the
legs. The head is large, the nose strongly developed, and
horns usually characterize males of the breed. From the
mutton-producing standpoint the Rambouillet is very desir-
able, although compared with the best Down breeds they are
416
JUDGING SHEEP
somewhat inferior. One of the principal objections to the
breed is the incHnation to coarseness of bone. The fleece
averages about three inches in length and does not possess
an excess of yolk like the other fine-wool breeds. As a
combined wool and mutton producer the breed ranks well,
having an acceptable mutton form and reasonably early
maturing qualities. The breed is widely distributed.
Fig. 176. — Lincoln ewe, illustrating femininity and breeding qualities.
Breeding and Class Characteristics. — From the standpoint
of the stockman sheep may be divided into breeding, fat,
and feeder classes. The first includes pure breds of the
various breeds, their grades and crosses. The second class
includes fat sheep and lambs, and the third feeder sheep.
Breeding Classes. — In selecting sheep for breeding purposes
whether pure bred or grade, special attention should be
given to age, weight, health, quality, constitution, and con-
dition. These subjects have been fully treated only from
the standpoint of the pure-bred and fat sheep, and the
application of the points mentioned here is therefore neces-
WOOL TYPE
417
sarily important. In selecting sheep for breeding purposes
the age is important. Broken-mouthed ewes will neither
thrive themselves nor produce strong, vigorous lambs. Ewes
selected for this purpose should show indication of health,
proper weight for age, good constitution, and quality of both
wool and mutton attributes. Such ewes should be large
and roomy and uniformly covered with a fine, dense fleece.
In pure-bred classes breed type and sex characteristics are
Fk
-Grade-breediiifj; ewe. (PliotoKiapli b> auLiiur.)
important. Rams and ewes should show masculinity and
femininity respectively.
Fat Sheep and Lambs. — Fat sheep and lambs should be
judged according to the standard given formerly. Weight,
quality, and condition are important. The fat sheep or
lamb should be square, low set, compact, and fine in flesh
texture. The back should be level, the loin wide, firm, and
the quarters well developed. Fleece characteristics are not of
special importance except that a reasonably dense fleece
is usually associated with good mutton-producing qualities.
27
418 JUDGING SHEEP
Open fleeces are objectionable on fat sheep as they are antag-
onistic to good mutton-producing form and quahty.
Feeder Sheep. — Sheep selected for feeding purposes should,
like breeding ewes, show unbroken mouths, good health,
form, constitution, quality, and capacity. Large-framed
sheep with angular bodies and long, open fleeces do not
make good feeders. The age may vary, depending on the
object in view. Early lambs are usually sold and consumed
immediately, and therefore do not constitute a large propor-
tion of sheep used for feeding purposes. Late lambs, wethers,
and sheep which have attained the age of one year or more
or ewes of proper qualification are frequently purchased for
this purpose. A square, low-set body, thrift, capacity and a
close, compact fleece are important.
ANGORA GOATS.
Importance. — The production of Angora goats is of consid-
erable importance, especially in certain sections and under
specialized conditions. The breed is a native of Angora, in
Asia Minor, havmg been imported into this country in 1849.
As a general thing, the Angora is not an important factor
on the average farm. However, it is deserving of consid-
eration in its special fields of production.
Purpose.— The introduction of the Angora goat into ,the
field of live stock husbandry is comparatively recent, although
the popularity which the breed has attained in some sections
gives it a conspicuous place in the field of live stock pro-
duction. The primary object for breeding the Angora is to
obtain the fleece which usually sells for high prices, this
depending, as in wool, on the length, quality and condition.
The Angora is bred secondarily for mutton production.
In judging stress should be placed, first, on the length,
density, fineness and uniformity of fleece covering. Mutton-
producing attributes should be given a secondary considera-
tion. Angoras are judged in this respect very much like the
fine-wool breeds of sheep.
General Appearance. — In general appearance the Angora
of approved breeding shows neatness and tidiness of form
ANGORA GOATS 419
and features. It is usually pure white in fleece markings.
It is alert, having a keen expression, long, pendant ears, a
body of medium length and depth but inclined to be narrow.
The fleece parts along the back and hangs in wringlets almost
to the ground in well-bred animals.
Conformation. — The Angora is on the average smaller than
the common goat. The weight ranges from 50 to 100 pounds,
depending on the age, breeding and condition. The body
should be reas9nably broad, long, deep and low set. The
back should be straight and level. The body is inclined to
be somewhat narrow and the legs short and strong. The head
should show strong, clear-cut features. The ears usually
droop and attain a length of six to eight inches. The eyes
should be large and bright. The horns are grayish in color,
inclining inward, backward, and then upward and outward,
with a reasonable spread at the tips. In the females the
horns are smaller, straighter and shorter and are inclined
to grow more in an upward direction.
The head should be broad and strong at the poll and
taper gradually to the muzzle. In females, there is an
incurving facial outline which is very characteristic. Taken
as a whole, the animal should present a reasonably square,
strong-lined contour. In many cases, however, this condition
is emphasized by the peculiar growth of the fleece.
Constitution. — Evidences of constitution are exhibited in
a large, bright, prominent eye, a strong muzzle, and large,
open nostrils. The chest should be broad, deep, and the
heart girth full and the brisket rather prominent. There
should be no indication of delicacy about the head and
neck, although feminine characteristics may apparently por-
tray this condition. Low, narrow shoulders and long, slender
bone indicates a lack of vigor and constitutional develop-
ment. Other than these points constitution is evidenced by
the same characteristics as in other animals.
Quality. — The horns should not be excessively large or
coarse in texture. A coarse horn indicates coarse quality
and otherwise undesirable characteristics. The bone should
be clean, dense, and of ample size to insure a vigorous, con-
tinuous period of usefulness. The head is indicative of
420
JUDGING SHEEP
ANGORA GOATS 421
quality by the clean-cut features possessed. There should be
no indication of coarseness about the muzzle or shoulders.
The fleece is a reliable guide to general quality. A close,
compact fleece, soft to the touch and with tightly twisted
spirals indicates quality development. A bright,"^ lustrous
fleece, free from kemp and a pink, healthy skin, characterize
these animals as having desirable breeding qualities.
Fleece— The fleece should be dense and cover the entire
body uniformly. Special emphasis should be placed on the
belly covering. The annual growth should not be less than
ten inches. The density should be such that an average-
sized Angora will shear from three to five pounds. The
fleece should hang in wringlets or spirals tightly twisted up
to the skin. Loose, wavy hair is objectionable as it indi-
cates coarseness throughout. The fleece should be bright
and lustrous, having great tensile strength and freedom from
kemp or lead-colored hair. This depreciates the value of
the fleece regardless of its quality otherwise. Formerly it was
thought impossible to breed out these undesirable qualities
but recent improvements disprove the idea.
The fleece of the Angora, known as mohair from a com-
mercial point of view, differs from the wool in sheep in
not having exterior scales and felting characteristics. The
mohair covers an undergrowth of hair which is technically
known as kemp. Mohair is lustrous and white, at times
attaining a length of sixteen to eighteen inches. Its value is
determined by the length, density, fineness and condition.
Emphasis should be placed on these characteristics as well as
on uniformity of covering and freedom from kemp or other
foreign matter. The fleece should extend from the base of the
horns, completely encircling the neck, and thence back over
the body, covering the body proper, arm pits, belly and legs.
Angoras which have been graded up by using a pure-bred
sire on common goats are frequently bare over the belly,
in the arm pits, on the legs, and have an inferior quality of
mohair.
Breed and Sex Characteristics.— The breed is character-
ized by the possession of horns, both in males and females,
the characteristic fleece known as mohair, and the absence of
422 JUDGING SHEEP
the strong musky odor of the common goat. Specimens of
the breed are comparatively small in size, although reason-
ably strong in constitution, especially after attaining the age
of two months. The fleece is exceptionally long in well-bred
individuals and does not possess felting qualities like wool.
The fleece is shed each spring if not shorn. This should be
considered in judging when in this shedding condition. While
some Angoras are colored it is rather a rare characteristic in
well-bred specimens. Colored spots on the skin are very
objectionable.
The sex characteristics should be portrayed the same as
in other animals. The males should possess a broad, strong
head, rather large horns, a full neck, and a broad, deep body.
Femininity is indicated by bright expressive eyes, incurving
facial outlines, and a general appearance of refinement.
Adaptation. — Angoras seem especially adapted to a dry
climate, although they are found in nearly every State in the
Union. Large flocks are maintained through the west and
southwest, principally in New Mexico and Texas. With good
care they will adapt themselves to a wide range of conditions.
Standard of Excellence for Angora Goats
Points.
Fineness and Lustre of Fleece:
Extra Good 20
Good ! 14
Medium 8
Quantity of Fleece:
Extra Good 20
Good 14
Medium 8
Freedom from Kemp:
Extra Good 20
Good 14
Medium 8
Size of Bone, Breadth and Depth of Carcass:
Extra Good 20
Good 14
Medium 8
Constitution and Form:
Extra Good 20
Good 14
Medium 8
Total points for perfect animal 100
Total points for good animal 70
Total points for medium animal 40
CHAPTER XIV.
APPLICATION OF JUDGING AND SELECTION TO
BREEDING AND FINISHING FARIM ANIMALS.
Individual. — The individual animal is the nucleus for
live stock improvement. This fact is evidenced by the
immense practical use which is being made of the pure-bred
sire in the improvement of herds and flocks of horses, cattle,
sheep and swine. Davenport quotes that the sire is half
the herd or even more. He is half of the first generation,
three-quarters of the next, seven-eighths of the third and
so on until, if judicious selection be maintained for a few
generations, the character of the herd will be fixed by the
sire alone. This emphasizes the fact that if the breeder
must choose between the selection of a pure-bred sire and a
number of varying females, in all cases the pure-bred sire
should be selected in preference to following the latter
course. This plan of breeding has direct application from
the standpoint of live stock judging and selection. Grant-
ing this statement, the sire can be made of much greater
importance by keener judging, closer selection and wider
usage on farm herds and flocks.
Herd Improvement. — Herd improvement is divided into
two fundamental divisions, namely, the breeding of pure-
bred and grade animals. In either case, the most careful
judging and selection will accomplish the most noticeable
results in a given time. The breeder who eliminates the
inferior individuals from the standpoint of individuality as
well as those which fail to respond satisfactorily to the
breeding test, must not only be a breeder in the general sense
of the term, but a judge of the highest order. If otherwise,
the maximum results obtainable from careful judging and
close selection will not materialize in the herd. The breeder,
(423)
424
APPLICATION OF JUDGING
ATTRIBUTES OF THE BREEDER
425
in other words, must be a keen student of animal form and
attainments. He must be able to detect to a reasonable
degree of accuracy the probable outcome of the individuals
which he chooses to raise the standard of his herd. It is
only by continuous elimination, generation after generation,
that the maximum results of selection are obtained. There
must be a standard or an ideal toward which breeding opera-
tions may be directed. This involves an unusual amount of
animal knowledge, both as applied to the individual, the
herd and the breed which is being perfected or improved.
Fig. 180.
-Uniform type, illustrating careful judging and selection for the
show ring.
Attributes of the Breeder Responsible for Degree of Improve-
ment.— A proper knowledge of the habits and treatment
of animals is most important from the breeder's point of
view. Those who have been Ultimately associated with
animals during their entire lifetime almost without exception
rank as the keenest judges and breeders of live stock. The
best shepherds are those who have assisted and grown in
the ranks from early life to finally attain the management of
a flock. It is not only a knowledge of animals which may
have been obtained early or late in life but the direct associa-
tion in feeding and management which makes the best
judge, and therefore the best breeder. A first-class judge
who produces prize-winning animals is almot invariably
426 APPLICATION OF JUDGING
one who spends much time in studying the peculiar traits,
form and quaUty of his animals. It is in this way usually
that the master breeders have learned the details of structure,
the peculiarities of individuals, herds and breeds and thereby
attained the greatest success as breeders on the farm and in
the show ring.
Live Stock Shows.^ — The importance of live stock shows
in establishing standards for herd and breed improvement
can scarcely be overestimated. While much mediocre stock
has been shown and irrational practices followed in prepar-
ing specimens for exhibition much valuable knowledge
has been so gained. The fact that the good and bad con-
ditions have both existed has given the student of judging
and selection an opportunity to consider and decide logically
on the value of such practices in perfecting animal form and
studying its related problems. Wherever sound practices
have been followed they have usually continued with the
result that future generations have been improved thereby.
A better opportunity of carefully studying these conditions
has never been afforded the student or breeder. Live stock
shows have formed a most important nucleus by which the
best practices of breeding, feeding and fitting have been sifted
from the various methods and practices followed in the
preparation of breeding and fat animals for the show ring.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
General.
A Partial Index to Animal Husbandry Literature, by C. S. Plumb.
Published by the author, Columbus, Ohio.
Principles and Practice of Live Stock Judging, by Carl W. Gay.
Macmillan Co., New York.
Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, by C. S. Plumb. Ginn & Co.,
New York.
Judging Live Stock, by John A. Craig. Kenyon Printing Co.,
Des Moines, la.
Farm Animals, by Hunt & Burkett. Orange Judd Co., New York
Principles of Breeding, by Eugene Davenport. Ginn & Co., New
York.
Beginnings in Animal Husbandry, by C. S. Plumb. Webb Pub-
lishing Co., St. Paul, Minn.
* Study International Live Stock Show Catalogue.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 427
Farm Live Stock of Great Britain, by Robert Wallace. Oliver &
Boyd, London.
Breeding Farm Animals, by F. R. Marshall. Sanders Publishing
Co., Chicago.
Farmers' Cyclopedia of Agriculture, by Wilcox and Smith. Orange
Judd Co., New York.
The Study of Breeds, by Thomas Shaw. Orange Judd Co., New York.
The Book of Live Stock Champions, by P. H. Hale. Hale Pub-
lishing Co., St. Louis, Mo.
Manual of Farm Animals, by M. W. Harper. Macmillan Co.,
New York.
Animal Husbandry for Schools, by M. W. Harper. Macmillan
Co., New York.
Live Stock Judging for Beginners. Cir. No. 29, revised edition,
July, 1912. Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station, Lafay-
ette, Ind.
Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Swine, by G. W. Curtis. Rural Pub-
lishing Co., New York.
Age of Domestic Animals, by R. S. Huidekoper. F. A. Davis, Pub.,
Philadelphia.
Domestic Animals, by R. L. Allen. A. O. Moore, Pub., New York.
Horses and Mules.
Productive Horse Husbandry, by Carl W. Gay. J. B. Lippincott
Co., Philadelphia.
The Horse Book, by J. H. S. Johnstone. Sanders Publishing Co.,
Chicago.
The Horse, by I. P. Roberts. Macmillan Co., New York.
Horse Breeding, by J. H. Sanders. Sanders Publishing Co., Chicago.
Market Classes and Grades of Horses and Mules, by R. C. Obrecht.
Bulletin No. 122, Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana.
Examination of Horses for Soundness. Bulletin No. 109, Purdue
University Agricultural Experiment Station, Lafayette, Ind.
How to Judge a Horse, by F. W. Bach. William R. Jenkins, Pub.,
New York.
Points of the Horse, by M. H. Hayes. Thacker & Co., London. «■
Ponies, Past and Present, by Sir Walter Gibbey. Vinton & Co.,
London.
Breeding and Rearing of Jacks, Jennets, and Mules, by L. W.
Knight. Cumberland Press, Nashville, Tenn.
Horses, Asses, Zebras, and Mules, by Tegetmeier and Sutherland.
Horace Cox, London.
Cattle.
Shorthorn Cattle, by A. H. Sanders. Sanders Publishing Co.,
Chicago.
Little Sketches of Famous Beef Cattle, by C. S. Plumb. Published
by the author, Columbus, Ohio.
History of Hereford Cattle, by McDonald and Sinclair. Vinton
& Co., London.
Beef Production, by H. W. Mumford. Published by the author,
Urbana, 111.
428 APPLICATION OF JUDGING
History of Abderdeen-Angus Cattle, by McDonald and Sinclair.
Vinton & Co., London.
Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, by C. H. Eckles. MacmUlan
Co., New York.
Modern Packing House, by F. W. Wilder. Nickerson and Collins,
Chicago.
Market Grades and Classes of Cattle, by H. W. Mumford. Bulletin
No. 78, Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana.
Market Classes and Grades of Meat, by L. D. Hall. Bulletin No.
147, Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana.
Stoine.
Swine, by William Dietrich. Sanders Publishing Co., Chicago.
Hog Book, by H. C. Dawson. Sanders Publishing Co., Chicago.
Swine in America, by F. D. Coburn. Orange Judd Co., New York.
Swine Husbandry, by F. D. Coburn. Orange Judd Co., New York.
Market Classes and Grades of Swine, by WUliam Dietrich, Bulletin
No. 97, Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana.
Productive Swine Husbandry, by G. E. Day, Lippincott & Co.,
Philadelphia.
Sheep and Goats.
Sheep Farming in America, by Joseph E. Wing. Sanders Publishing
Co., Chicago.
The Domestic Sheep, by Henry Stewart, Chicago.
Modern Sheep, Breeds and Management, by W. J. Clarke. Ameri-
can Sheep Breeder Co., Chicago.
Fitting Sheep for Show and Market, by W. J. Clarke. Draper
Publishing Co., Chicago.
Manual of Angora Goat Raising, by G. F. Thompson, Chicago.
Market Classes and Grades of Sheep, by W. C. Coffey. Bulletin
No. 129, Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana.
The Wool Grower and the Wool Trade, by F. R. Marshall and L.
L. Heller. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Poultry Husbandry, by J. P. Lippincott. Lea & Febiger, Philadel-
phia.
Anatomy of Domestic Animals, by L. W. Sisson. W. B. Saunders
Pubhshing Co., Philadelphia.
APPENDIX.
Pure-bred Live Stock Registry Associations.
Horses.
Percheron Society of America, Wayne Dinsmore, Secretary, Union
Stock Yards, Chicago, 111.
National French Draft Horse Association, C. E. Stubbs, Secretary,
Fairfield, Iowa.
American Clydesdale Association, R. B. Ogilvie, Secretary, Union
Stock Yards, Chicago, 111.
American Shire Horse Association, Chas. Burgess, Secretary, Wenona,
Illinois.
American Association of Importers and Breeders of Belgian Draft
Horses, J. D. Connor, Jr., Secretary, Wabash, Ind.
American Suffolk Horse Association, A. Graham Galbraith, Secretary.
DeKalb, 111.
American Hackney Horse Society, Gurney C. Gue, Secretary, 308
W. 97th St., New York, N. Y.
French Coach Horse Society of America, Duncan E. Willett, Secre-
tary, Oak Park, 111.
German Hanoverian and Oldenburg Coach Horse Association of
America, J. Crouch, Secretary, Lafayette, Ind.
Cleveland Bay Society of America, R. P. Stericker, Secretary,
Oconomowoc, Wis.
American Morgan Register Association, T. E. Boyce, Secretary,
Middlebury, Vt.
American Saddle Horse Breeders' Association, R. H. Lillard, Secre-
tary, Louisville, Ky.
American Trotting Register Association, W. H. Kiiight, Secretary,
355 Dearborn St., Chicago, 111.
The Arabian Horse Club of America, Henry K. Bush Brown, Secre-
tary, Newburg, N. Y.
The Jockey Club, W. H. Rowe, Secretary, 5th Ave. and 46th St.,
New York, N. Y.
Welsh Pony and Cob Society of America, Geo. E. Brown, Secretary,
Aurora, 111.
American Shetland Pony Club, Miss Julia M. Wade, Secretary,
Lafayette, Ind.
American Jack Stock Stud Book, J. W. Jones, Secretary, Columbia,
Tenn. ^
( 429 )
430 APPENDIX
Cattle.
American Shorthorn Breeders' Association, F. W. Harding, Secre-
tary, Chicago, 111.
The Polled Dui-ham Breeders' Association, J. M. Martz, Secretary,
Greenville, Ohio.
American Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association, R. J. Kinzer,
Secretary, Kansas City, Mo.
American Aberdeen-Angus Breeders' Association, Chas. Gray,
Secretary, 17 Exchange Ave., Chicago, III.
American Galloway Breeders' Association, Robt. W. Brown, Secre-
tary, 817 Exchange Ave., Chicago, 111.
The Red Polled Cattle Club of America, H. A. Martin, Secretary,
Gotham, Wis.
American Devon Cattle Club, L. P. Sisson, Secretary, Charlottes-
ville, Va.
American Jersey Cattle Club, R. M. Gow, Secretary, 8 W. 17th
St., New York, N. Y.
American Guernsey Cattle Club, William H. Caldwell, Secretary,
Peterboro, N. H.
Holstein-Friesian Association of America, F. L. Houghton, Secre-
tary, Brattleboro, Vt.
Ayrshire Breeders' Association, C. M. Winslow, Secretary, Brandon,
Vermont.
Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association, Ira Inman, Secretary,
Beloit, Wis.
Dutch Belted Cattle Association of America, G. G. Gibbs, Secretary,
Marksboro, N. J.
' Swine.
American Berkshire Association, Frank S. Springer, Secretary, 510
E. Monroe St., Springfield, 111.
National Poland-China Record Association, A. M. Brown, Secretary,
Winchester, Ind.
Standard Poland-China Record Association, Geo. F. Woodworth,
Secretary, Maryville, Mo.
American Poland-China Record Association, W. M. McFadden,
Secretary, Union Stock Yards, Chicago, 111.
National Duroc-Jersey Record Association, J. R. Pfander, Secretary,
Peoria, 111.
American Duroc-Jersey Record Association, T. P. Pearson, Secre-
tary, Thornton, Ind.
• Ohio Improved Chester White Swine Breeders' Association, J. C.
Hiles, Secretary, Cleveland, Ohio.
Cheshire Swine Breeders' Association, Ed. S. Hill, Secretary, Free-
ville, N. Y.
American Essex Association, F. M. Strout, Secretary, McLean, 111.
American Yorkshire Club, Harry G. Krum, Secretary, White Bear
Lake, Minn.
American Tamworth Swine Record Association, E. N. Ball, Secretary
Hamburg, Mich.
GLOSSARY OF HORSE AND MULE MARKET TERMS 431
American Hampshire Swine Record Association, E. C. Stone, Secre-
tary, Peoria, 111.
National Mule-foot Swine Record Association, W. H. Morris, Secre-
tary, Indianapolis, Ind.
Sheep.
American Leicester Breeders' Association, A. J. Temple, Secretary,
Cameron, 111.
American Cotswold Registry Association, F. W. Harding, Secretary,
Waukesha, Wis.
The National Lincoln Sheep Breeders' Association, Bert Smith,
Secretary, Charlotte, ]\Iich.
American Southdown Breeders' Association, Frank S. Springer,
Secretary, Springfield, 111.
American Shropshire Registry Association, Miss Julia 'M. Wade,
Secretary, Lafayette, Ind.
American Oxford Down Record Association, W. A. Shafor, Secretary,
Hamilton, Ohio.
American Hampshire Sheep Association, Comfort A. Taylor, Secre-
tary, 310 East Chicago St., Coldwater, Mich.
Continental Dorset Club, Joseph E. Wing, Secretary, Mechanicsburg,
Ohio.
American Cheviot Sheep Society, F. E. Dawley, Secretary, Fayette-
viUe, N. Y.
America-n Tunis Sheep Breeders' Association, Chas. Roundtree,
Secretarj', Crawfordsville, Ind.
Romne}' Marsh Sheep Breeders' Association, J. E. Wing, Secretary,
Mechanicsburg, Ohio.
Vermont, New York and Ohio Merino Sheep Breeders' Association,
Wesley Bishop, Secretary, Delaware, Ohio.
National Delaine Merino Sheep Breeders' Association, J. B. Johnson,
Secretary, 24S West Pike St., Canonsburg, Pa.
American Rambouillet Sheep Breeders' Association, Dwight Lincoln,
Secretary, Milford Center, Ohio.
GLOSSARY OF HORSE AND MULE MARKET TERMS. ^
A Bull. — A horse so windy that he cannot stand much
exertion without choking.
A Few Hairs Off. — A skin blemish not haired over; usually
a wire mark which may be either large or small.
A Hole In. — Used in speaking of an animal that is believed
to be defective in some manner but at present it is not
apparent.
An Indian. — A wild or vicious horse difficult to handle
in or out of the stall.
1 From Bulletin Xo. 122, Courtesy Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana, 111.
432 ■ APPENDIX
At the Halter.— See No. 6, Auction Rules.
Beefy Hocks. — Thick, meaty hocks, lacking in quality.
Bench-legged. — See knock-kneed.
Blue-eye. — ^An unsound eye with blue appearance. The
sight may or may not be entirely gone.
Bobber or Jig Back. — A horse or mule that wobbles in hind-
quarters when he moves, due to an unsound or weak back
in the region of the loin.
Boggy in Hocks. — Bog spavins.
Bow-legged. — Too wide apart at the knees, the opposite
of knock-kneed.
Bowed Tendon.— An enlarged tendon back of the canon,
due to an injury. »
Broken Knees. — Knees which have had the skin broken
from a fall or a bruise and much enlarged.
Buck-kneed.— Knees bent forward when standing.
Bull Pen. — An auction ring at any market where horses
are sold.
Bush. — To deduct a part of a stated sale price on account
of a blemish, or unsoundness not mentioned or not apparent
at time of sale, or for other reasons.
Calf-kneed. — Knees bent too far back — the opposite of
buck-kneed.
Capped Hock. — The point of the hock back of the web
enlarged. Caused by a bruise of the bursa.
Car Bruise. — Bruised in car in shipping. If freshly done
swelling and inflammation will be present.
Cartilage. — Prominent lateral cartilage or incipient side
bone.
Chancy. — Purchased at a moderate price because of an
uncertainty, with prospects for developing into something
good.
Cock Ankle. — Standing bent forward on the fetlocks— more
often on the hind ones.
Coon-footed. — Long and very low pasterns.
Coupling. — The space or connection between the dorsal
vertebrae and the pelvis on top of the back. An animal
that has a long coupling is too long in the lumbar vertebrse.
This is best measured by the distance of last rib from hip.
GLOSSARY OF HORSE AND MULE MARKET TERMS 433
Cow-hocked. — Standing with hocks together and hind-
toes out.
Crampy. — In hindlegs — raising either one or both legs
up with a jerk. More apparent when the animal has been
standing and is cool.
In the Back. — When the head is elevated and the animal
is compelled to move backward he raises his tail and shows
a quivering of the flanks, soreness of the loin and an inclina-
tion to drag his feet.
Cribber. — An animal having the vice of biting or setting
the teeth against something and "sucking wind."
Cross-firing. — Hitting one of the forefeet with the opposite
hindfoot when traveling.
Curb. — An injury or sprain of the ligament at the back
of the hock which usually causes an enlargement.
Curby Hock. — ^The back of the hock is rounding when
viewed from the side.
Cushion. — An enlarged bursa occurring just below the
hock near the forward edge on the outside of the canon.
A Michigan pad.
Cutting. — ^Interfering.
Docked. — Having the end of the tail cut off.
Docked and Set. — By an operation the end of the tail is
cut off and the stump is set up.
Dummy. — A horse whose brain is affected, the cause
usually being overfeeding and lack of exercise. The symp-
toms are listlessness and hesitancy in moving; a vacant
stare in the eyes and a proneness to cock the ears and look
sideways and upward; also, the holding of hay and feed
in the mouth without any attempt at mastication.
Ewe Neck. — A deficiency of muscling causing a depression
at the top of the neck just in front of the withers.
Falls Out of Bed. — Pulls back on halter rope.
Feather in Eye. — A mark across the eyeball not touching
the pupil, often caused by an injury. It may or may not
impair the sight.
Filled-in Hocks. — ]\Iay mean either bog spavins or thorough-
pins, though most generally the former.
28
434 APPENDIX
Fistula. — Fistulous withers. An abscess occurring in the
region of the withers.
Forging. — Striking the front shoes with the toe of the
hind ones.
Founder. — Inflammation of the feet causing lameness.
Technically known as laminitis.
Glass-eye. — See wall-eye.
Goose Rump. — A short, steep croup and narrow at point
of the buttock.
Gristle. — An incipient side bone.
Halter Puller. — Pulls back on halter rope.
Hand.- — Four inches. Horses are measured at the highest
point on the withers in terms of hands. 14-2 would mean
14 hands and 2 inches, or 58 inches.
Heavey. — Having the heaves.
Hipped. — Having the point of one hip broken over so
that it appears lower than when normal. It does not materi-
ally impair usefulness.
Hitching. — Having a shorter stride in one hindleg than
the other.
Hog Back. — A roached back, the opposite from sway back.
Hollow Back. — A sway back.
Interfering.— Striking the fetlock or canon with the
opposite foot as it passes, either in front or behind.
Jack. — A bone spavin.
Jibber. — An unguidable horse, often "green."
Knee-banger. — One that interferes^ — hitting his knees.
Knee-sprung. — Over on the knees caused by relaxation
of the extensor muscles — sometimes spoken of as buck-
knees.
Knock-kneed. — The front legs bent in at the knees with
feet wide apart. Sometimes called bench-legged.
Legs Go. — See No. 5, Auction Rules.
Light in the Timber. — Light bones, especially in the canons.
Little Green. — Not thoroughly broken. Often means an
animal that will not pull.
Lugger. — One that pulls or lugs on the bit.
Lunker. — An exceptionally big, heavy-boned horse.
Makes a Little Noise. — A verytlwindy.
GLOSSARY OF HORSE AND MULE MARKET TERMS 435
Michigan Pad. — A puff or cushion that occurs just below
the hock on the outside of the hind canon near the forward
edge. The same as outside cushion.
Moon Blindness. — Periodic opthahnia.
Nicked.^ — An operation severing the cords on one side of the
tail to straighten it.
Nigger-heeled. — Front toes turned out, heels in.
Old Skin or Skate. — A worn-out animal.
Outside Cushion. — The same as cushion or Michigan pad.
Over-reach. — Reaching farther forward w^ith the hindfeet
in traveling than where the front ones were picked up.
Paddle. — Winging out with the front feet.
Parrot Mouth. — The upper submaxillary longer than the
lower jaw.
Periodic Ophthalmia. — Inflammatory affection of the inte-
rior of the eye. It usually disappears in a week or ten days
and returns again in a few^ weeks. The cycles are often com-
pleted in about a month and because of this fact many
people believe the trouble is in some way related to the moon
changes, hence the name "moon blindness."
Pig-eye. — A small eye set too much in the head and with
thick eyelids. It accompanies, in general, animals with a
lymphatic temperament and with imperfect vision.
Pigeon-toed. — Front toes turned in — the opposite of nigger-
heeled.
Pink-eye. — A disease causing a white skum to form over
the eye often causing blindness.
Poll Evil. — A fistulous condition or abscess on or near
the poll.
Pones. — -Lumps of fat on a mule's body.
Posting. — Rising and falling in the saddles with each
alternative step when the horse is trotting.
PufiEs. — Wind galls, bog spavins, or thoroughpins.
Quarter Crack. — A vertical crack on the side of the hoof
often running to coronet.
Quittor. — A fistulous opening upon the heel or coronary
band of the foot.
Rat Tail. — A tail with but little hair.
436 APPENDIX
Rejects. — Animals not filling the guarantee and conse-
quently turned back on the hands of the seller.
Rickety. — The same as bobber or jig back.
Ring-bone. — A bony growth on the upper or lower pastern
bones and most alw^ays causing lameness.
Ripper. — An exceptionally good big animal.
Roach Back. — See hog back.
Roarer. — Defective in wind. Very windy.
Rough Behind.— Having a bone spavin.
Rounding Hock. — Having a curb.
Sand Crack. — A vertical crack in the middle of the hoof
often running to coronet.
Scalping. — When speeding, the horse strikes the front
side of the hind coronet, pastern or canon against the front
toe. Also, applied to a trader that buys and sells animals
on the market.
Seam in Hoof. — A scar in hoof from an injury of some kind,
such as cracks, wire marks, calks, etc.
Seedy Toe. — A separation of the walls of the toe from the
sensitive laminse. Very often the end of the toes turns
slightly up.
Serpentine. — An animal that extends and withdraws his
tongue as a serpent.
Serviceably Sound. — See No. 2, Auction Rules.
Shoe Boil. — A bruise at elbow which results in an abscess,
caused from the animal lying on his foot in such a way
that the heel of the shoe strikes the elbow.
Sickle Hock. — Too much bend in the hock. A conformation
predisposed to curbs.
Side-bone. — An ossified lateral cartilage occurring on
either side at the top of the foot.
Slab-sided. — Flat-ribbed.
Smoke His Pipe. — An animal with lip torn where the bridle
bit rests.
Smoky Eye. — A clouded eye with whitish appearance.
Smooth Mouth. — An aged horse.
Sound. — See No. 1, Auction Rules.
Speck in Eye. — ^A spot on the eye not covering the pupil.
It may or ma}^ not impair the sight.
GLOSSARY OF HORSE AXD MULE MARKET TERMS 437
Speedy Cutting. — Striking the inside of the hind canon
against the front foot as the hindfoot is brought forward
and passes the front foot on the outside in over-reaching.
This only happens in speedy horses.
Splay-footed. — Nigger-heeled.
Splint.— A bony growth on the canon-bone occurring
most often on the front legs and either on the inside or out,
but more often on the inside.
Stands a Little Careless in Front. — Knees sprung or buck-
kneed.
Stringy. — String-halt. A convulsive action in the hind-
legs flexing either one or both up with a jerk.
Stump-sucker. — A cribber.
Sucker. — An animal with some defect which is not always
apparent.
Sweeney. — Atrophied shoulder muscles causing a depression.
Thick Neck. — A neck too thick at the shoulder for a collar
to fit well.
Thoroughpins. — PufBness occurring in the web of the hock.
Tongue Loller. — Permitting the tongue to hang out.
Trephined. — A hole in the jaw bored for removing a molar
tooth.
Trot Out Short.— Sore in front, having a short stride.
Wall-eye. — The iris a pearly white color, due to a lack
of pigment. Sometimes called glass-eye.
Weaver. — Continual swaying back and forth when standing
in the stall.
Wind and Work. — See No. 3, Auction Rules.
Wind Galls. — Puffs occurring at the upper part of the
fetlock joints.
Windy. — One that whistles or roars when exerted.
Whistler. — Defective in wind. See windy.
Winging. — Throwing the front feet out or in when traveling.
Worker. — See No. 4, Auction Rules.
AUCTION RULES.
Note. — In the auction ring sales are made under certain
well-understood rules which are published and announced
from the auction stand, recorded and stand as a guarantee.
The following are the principal rules which govern sales in
the auction ring. Exceptions to these rules may be an-
nounced from the auction stand pointing out the defects,
in which case they are recorded and go with the horse.
1. <So?//?f/.^Perfectly sound in every way.
2. ServiceaUy Round. — Virtually a sound animal, barring
slight blemishes which do not interfere with his usefulness
in any way. His wind and eyes must be good, but a spot or
streak in the eye which does not affect the sight will be
considered serviceably sound as long as the pupil of the eye
is good. He must not be lame or sore in any way.
3. Wind and Work. — The only guarantee this carries
with it is that the animal has good wind and is a good worker.
4. Work Only. — He must be a good worker and everything
else goes with him. No other guarantee than to work.
5. Legs Go. — Everything that is on the animal's legs go
with him; nothing is guaranteed except that he must not
be lame or crampy. He must, however, be serviceably sound
in every other respect.
6. At the Halter. — Sold just as he stands without any
recommendations. He may be lame, vicious, balky, kicker
or anything else. The purchaser takes all the risk. The title
only is guaranteed.
(438)
BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS APPLICABLE TO MOST
BREEDS OF CATTLE, SWINE, AND SHEEP.
By Robert Wallace,
UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH.
General Points of Beef-producing Cattle. — The masculine
or the feminine characteristics naturally represented in
individual specimens of each sex.
General appearance stylish, and showing quality; figure
compact and well-proportioned, deep, broad, and low set
as opposed to being leggy.
Head broad between the eyes, flat across the crown (with
exceptions in polled breeds) and down the face, which should
be neither "dished" nor Roman, but short, or of medium
length, with a quiet expression; forehead broad and full;
muzzle broad, full, distinct, and dewy; mouth large; jaw
wide; nostrils large; eyes large, placid, and clear; horns
none, or varying in length, color, and strength, according to
breed, fine and symmetrical, set on the crest of the head;
ears full and sensitive, of fine texture, well covered with
hair, and varying slightly in position in the different breeds.
Neck medium length, full at the " neck-vein," or " shoulder-
vein" where it joins the body, broad (muscular and crested
in the male), but fine, and tapering tow^ard the head — to
which it should join without thickness or chokiness — and
straight from the shoulder top to the roots of the horns,
excepting when it rises into the crest of a bull.
Body long and deep, equally balanced before and behind;
back broad throughout its length, smooth and even, and
straight from the top of the shoulders to the tail-head; the
frame well and equally covered with firm flesh, especially
in the regions of the best cuts, not patchy on the hooks,
tail-head, rump, shoulders, or other parts (when prime fat,
a little pit may be felt on the point of each hook). The trunk,
(439)
440 APPENDIX
looked at from any point, should resemble as nearly as
possible a parallelogram; the under and upper lines straight
and parallel; brisket projecting well forward and wide,
making the forelegs stand well apart; loin thick and broad;
flank full and deep, even with the underline; foreflank
to correspond, well filled; tail thin, set on well back (but
not too high), and falling perpendicularly.
Skin moderately thick (not papery), pliable, and mellow
or mossy to touch; hair soft and abundant, covering all
parts w^ell.
Shoulders well covered with flesh and laid back over the
ribs, so that the natural depression behind them in the
region of the heart or girth line should not be too pronounced,
broad and compact on top; the shoulder-blades adhering
closely to the trunk; shoulder-points fine, "snug," and well
covered.
Chest, viewed from before or from behind the shoulder,
full, wide, deep, and massive; girth large; crops full.
The forearm and leg straight and short; muscle large
and broad; leg-bones dense and strong, though smooth,
fine, and flat (abnormally small bone shows tendency to
diminished size); legs short and well under the body; hoofs
clear and oily looking.
Hindquarters full and well packed, lengthy from the
hook-bones to the pin-bones (which should be well apart);
rump wide and even, and the tail-head smooth, not patchy,
and no part rising above the back level; hips smoothly
covered, distance from each other to harmonize with other
parts; thighs broad, thick, and well dow^n toward the
hocks; twist or inner thigh full, deep, and plump.
Ribs thickly fleshed, well sprung (arched), and deep, filling
up deficiency behind the shoulder and hollow in front of the
hooks, i. e., "well-ribbed home."
Legs straight and short, shanks fine and smooth.
The lines of the body flowing, not sharp or abrupt, with
a general balance of parts to please the eye; carriage stylish.
Points Generally Applicable to all Breeds of Swine. — In
judging, it is best to begin at the feet and legs, as these are
most important, on account of their having to carry the
POINTS APPLICABLE TO ALL BREEDS OF SWINE 441
weight when the animal is fat and heavy, and to insure
firm, free action. The feet should be proportionate and
neat; the pasterns strong; the legs perfectly straight and
well set, level with the outside of the body, with plenty
of fine, flat bone, fleshed well down in both fore and hind-
quarters; feet wide apart; loin strong, and as broad as the
shoulder-head, which should be compact and free from any
opening or looseness; the back broad all the way, straight
and level, not drooping too much at the rump when the
animal walks, and extending over the neck. Pigs are all
liable to arch in the back and droop at the rump when
standing. The underline should be parallel, and continued
below the jowl; the chest wide and deep; the belly full,
but not flabby; the quarters long and wide, and straight
from hip to tail; hams broad, full and deep to hocks; the
flank thick, full, and well let down; the ribs well sprung,
and sides deep; the neck thick, especially toward the
shoulders, and of proportionate length; the ears vary from
a foot long to a few inches, each breed having its own special
size, shape and position; the head broad between the eyes;
the nose long or short, according to breed; the under jaw
shorter than the upper; the cheeks full; the eye not too
small, quick, but mild; the tail stout and long, and set high,
but not coarse, and a tuft of long, fine hairs on its tip; the
body well covered all over with flesh, and of a rectangular
shape from all points of sight, deep and wide before and
behind; the skin medium in thickness, and covered with
a sufiicient coat of characteristic hair.
Though the points enumerated are those looked for at
shows, it has been most forcibly pointed out by Sanders
Spencer, one of the most successful breeders and exporters
of white pigs in England, and also by those interested in the
bacon-curing trade, that the most economical pig to breed,
and consequently the one which ought to be encouraged in
the show yard, should be long in the body, a good medium
depth in the ribs, light in the neck and forequarters, and
heavy and deep behind in the hams or gammon; or, as
A. W. Shaw, of Limerick, has tersely put it: "What is really
wanted, is a pig that is neat in the head, light in the neck
442 APPENDIX
and shoulders, deep in the heart, thick in the loin, stout in
the thighs, and short in the legs" — the reason being that
changes in the curing trade and pork market have resulted
in certain parts of the animal being of greater value per
pound than other parts. The shoulder and neck being of
least value, it is shown that it is a waste of food substance
to transform it into flesh of inferior quality, if by selecting
animals with tendencies to greater development in the more
valuable parts a greater amount of material on the higher
division of the scale of market values can be produced.
Points Applicable to Most British Breeds of Sheep. — 1. A
graceful carriage and springy style of walking.
2. A characteristic head with good depth and strength of
jaw, and breadth across the bridge of the nose, and full,
bright eyes, indicating both docility and courage.
3. The neck thick toward the trunk, tapering to the head,
arching slightly, and not too short.
4. The chest broad, deep, and projecting well over the
forelegs, and descending from the neck in a perpendicular
line.
5. The back level and broad behind and before (except
in the Cheviots and Lonks, which have sharp shoulder-tops
or withers), with a uniform covering of flesh, not boggy, but
to the touch firm and muscular; under and upper lines
straight.
6. The ribs well sprung, rounded and deep.
7. The shoulders well laid and covered with firm flesh.
The regions immediately behind the shoulders filled up.
8. The thighs and gigots and also the arms and the fore-
flanks fleshed well down.
9. The rump or part near the dock well developed, though
not too large, as is sometimes the case in Cotswolds, Border
Leicesters, and other heavy-fleshed breeds.
10. The quarters long and not drooping behind, and the
spaces between them and the last ribs short.
11. The legs straight and set well apart, not too long; the
bone clean and fine, and neither coarse nor deficient; the
hocks are much better shghtly out than at all in or "cow-
hocked."
MARKET GRADES AND CLASSES 443
12. The characteristic wool of the special breed covering
well the body, and particularly the belly; also the scrotum
of the ram.
MARKET GRADES AND CLASSES.
The most intelligent producer of live stock should have a
knowledge concerning the various grades and classes of live
stock which fulfil market requirements. Very often a pro-
ducer of stock, on account of his lack of knowledge con-
cerning these problems, does not receive the maximum price
for his product. In studying this problem a clear distinc-
tion should be made between classes and grades. A class
represents some special type of animal designated for a
specific purpose. The term grade should be construed as
indicating the degree of perfection attained as compared
with the standard for the class. For example, in cattle the
market classes are beef cattle, butcher stock, canners and
cutters, stockers and feeders, veal calves, Texas and Western
range cattle, and distille^rs, the latter two constituting sub-
classes. The miscellaneous classes include baby beef, export
cattle, shipping steers, dressed beef cattle and stags. Each
of the above main classes is then subdivided into prime,
choice, good, medium, common and inferior grades. These
represent the principal market distinctions. In certain
classes there are additional grades, such as fancy selected;
this term being used in designating feeder cattle.
The division by classes is based on use and into grades
on conformity to this use or purpose. The designation by
grades is based on weight, quality, conformation, maturity
and condition. Horses, cattle, sheep and sw^ine are all so
classed and graded, although there are certain specific mar-
ket terms which are used in designating each of the classes
and grades fixed by different market requirements.
INDEX.
Aberdeex-Angus, nativitj' and
description of, 249
standard of excellence and scale
of points, 250, 251
Action, 48, 97
defects of, 219
of draft horse, 116
examination of, 110
of hea\'>' harness horse, 135
of jacks and jennets, 184
of mules, 200
Adaptation, 72
of Angora goat, 422
Age, determination of, in cattle,
241, 242
in horse, 105
in sheep, 361
in swine, 320
limitations, 75
of mules, 195
of sheep at maturity, 375
of swine at maturity, 321, 326
classification, 320
American jack, description of, 191
Guernsey Cattle Club Notes, 295
Merino, characteristics of, 411
Saddle Horse, description of,
157, 158, 159
Association, 100
requirements for Ameri-
Saddle Horse, 158
Standardbred, description of,
150, 151, 152
official standards, 152, 153
Andalusian jack, nativity and de-
scription of, 188
Angora goats, adaptation of, 422
breed and sex characteristics
of, 421
Angora goats, constitution of, 419
fleece of, 421
form of, 419
general appearance of, 418
importance of, 418
purpose of, 418
quality of, 419
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 422
uses of, 418
Appendix, 429-443
Ass, 182. See Jacks and Jennets.
Auction rules, 438
Ayrshire, 72
nativity and charactefistics of,
302 "
standard of excellence and scale
of points, 303-305
B
Bacon hog, form of, 59
tYY>G, 350
Beef cattle, breed characteristics,
of, 246-256
brief description of, 439, 440
capacity of, 233
class characteristics of, 264-
268
condition of, 233
conformation of, 226
constitution of, 229
coordination of bone and
muscle of, 225
determination of age of, 241
dressing percentages of, 234
fleshing qualities of, 228
indications of quality of, 228
industry, evolution and impor-
tance of, 221
(445)
446
INDEX
Beef cattle, marbling of meat of,
235
nervous development of, 230
percentage of different cuts of
beef of, 237
products and their uses, 223
relation of structure to high-
priced cuts, 223
score card of, 246
weight and maturity of, 231
dressing percentages of, 234
marbling of, 235
percentage of different cuts of,
237
Belgian, nativity and characteris-
tics of, 121, 122, 123
Berkshire, nativity and character-
istics of, 332
standard of excellence and scale
of points, 334
BibUography, 426-428
Blemishes decrease value of ani-
mal, 50
definition of, 51
not transmitted, 51
one class of defects, 50
Block tests, 85
Bog spavins, 215
Bone and muscle, coordination of,
225
indicates quality, 62, 115
quality of, indicated by canon
bone, 93, 95
size of, indicates scale, 29
Bony growths, 213
Breed character, 70
characteristics of Angora goat,
421
of beef cattle, 246-256
of dairy cattle, 290-311
of draft horses, 118-128
of dual purpose cattle, 256-264
of heavy harness horses, 136-
145
of jacks and jeimets, 186-192
of light harness horses, 150-
153
of ponies, 169-173
of saddle horses, 157-161
of sheep, 385-407, 411-416
of swine, 332-350
selection, 81
Breeder, attributes of, 425
two classes of, 78
Breeders' fads, 87
Breeding animals, conformity to
breed type, 268
constitution and vigor of, 269
form of, 176, 268
qualifications of, 70
quality of, 176
sex characteristics of, 178, 270
temperament of, 177, 269
attributes, 175
classes of sheep, 416
condition, 69
requisites, 268, 314, 358
test, 73
Breeds, beef cattle, 246
draft horses, 118
dual purpose, 256
factors contributing to their
origin, 18
heavy harness horses, 136
horses, classification. 111
jacks, 186
light harness horses, 136
ponies, 169
saddle horses, 157
sheep, 385
swine, 332
Brown Swiss, characteristics of, 306
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 307
Cab horse, description of, 145
Calves, characteristics of, 267
Canter, description of, 100
Capacity of beef cattle, 233
of dairy animal, 280
how determined and developed, 65
indicated by milk and butter
standards, 281
of mutton sheep, 374
of swine, 325
Carcass of swine, uses of, 319, 350
Catalonian jack, nativity and de-
scription of, 187
Cavalry horse, characteristics of,
164
specifications of Quarter-
master-General for, 165
Cheshire, characteristics of, 348
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 348
INDEX
447
Chester White, characteristics of,
340
Cheviot, characteristics of, 399
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 401
Chunk, classes of, 131
description of, 131
Circulatory system, affects elabora-
tion of milk, 30, 31, 271
importance of, 30
Class characteristics of beef cattle,
264-268
of dairy cattle, 313-314
of draft horses, 128
of heavy harness horses, 145
of light harness horses, 153-
155
of mules, 205-210
of ponies, 173-175
of sheep, 416-418
of swine, 358-360
Classes of beef cattle, 264
of dairy cattle, 313
of draft horses, 128
of heavy harness horses, 145
of horses, 111
of light harness horses, 153, 155
of mules, 205
of ponies, 173
of saddle horses, 161
of sheep, 416
of swine, 360
Classification of horses, 110
of light horses, 133
Cleveland Bay, description of, 141-
145
Clydesdale, nativity and descrip-
tion of, 123
Coach horse, description of, 145
Cob, description of, 145
Color of Guernsey, 296
of jacks, 184
Colts and fillies, 180
Combination horse, description of,
161, 162
Condition, definition of, 68, 69, 70
for breeding, 69
for market, 68
indicates healthfulness, 80
of ass, 183
of beef cattle, 233 ,
of mules, 199
of mutton sheep, 374
of swine, 326, 353
Conformation of beef animals, 226
Constitution and vigor of Angora
goat, 419
associated with endurance or
durability, 115, 149
of beef animals, 229
of beef breeding cattle, 269
of dairy animals, 279
of Guernsey, 296
of horses, draft, 115
how determined, 63
importance of, in breeding
animals, 63
of mutton sheep, 373
of swine, 325
Cotswold, nativity and character-
istics of, 389
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 390
Cotton mules, description of, 209
Craig quotation, 22
Cribbing, 53
indicated by condition of teeth,
217
Cross firing, 220
Cruikshank, Amos, plan of breed-
ing, 77
CuUing herds, 72
inferior animals, 55
Curb, 216
Dairy cattle, breed characteristics
of, 290-311
breeding requisites of, 314
capacity of, 280
as indicated by milk and
butter standards, 281
class characteristics of, 313-
314
classes of, 313
constitution of, 279
durability and persistency of,
284
form of, 273
function of, 274
mammary system of, 282
nervous temperament of, 280
purpose of, 271
quality of, 277
score card of, 289
structural form and examina-
tion of, 284-289
448
INDEX
Dairy cattle, wedges of, 59, 274,
276, 277, 278
classes, calves, 314
heifer development, 313
mature form, 313
form of, 273
function of, 274
correlation with other factors
of, 275
records measure productiveness
of, 82, 83, 85
are reUable when covering long
period, 83
temperament of Guernsey, 296
Deafness, indicated by lack of ear
movement, 217
Deception from trimming, 375
Decisions, uniformity of, 44
Defects, exterior, classified, 50
in way of going, 219
Delaine Merino, characteristics of,
413
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 414
Detailed structural form of beef
animal, 242
of dairy animal, 284-289
of horse, 100
of mules, 201
of sheep, 365
of swine, 329-331
Devons, nativity and characteris-
tics of, 262
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 263
Digestive system, factors indicat-
ing a strong, 30
importance of, 30
Disease of frog, 218
Dorset Horn, characteristics of, 402
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 403
Draft animals, breeds of horses, 118
conformation of, 113
group or type of, 113
temperament or nervous de-
velopment of, 67
mules, description of, 205
or short leet, 56
Drafter, description of, 128, 129
Di'essing percentages of cattle, 234
of swine, 327, 328, 329
Dual purpose breeds, 256
Durability of dairy animal, 284
Durabilitj' of light harness horse,
149
Duroc-Jersey, characteristics of,
339
scale of points of, 340
Dutch Belted, nativity and char-
acteristics of, 308
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 310
Dwelling, 220
E
Ears of horses, jacks, jennets and
mules, 216
Endurance associated with consti-
tution, 115, 149
of mules, 200
or speed records, 85
Essex, characteristics of, 347
EstabUshed herds, 82
Expresser, description of, 132
overlaps other classes, 112
Eyes, description of, 217
indicate certain characters, 217
Fads of breeders, 87
Farm mules, description of, 206
Fat cattle, characteristics of, 264
hog, form of, 59
production, dependent upon ner-
vous development, 32
sheep and lambs, characteristics
of, 417
type of swine, 320
Feeders, characteristics of, 265,
360, 418
Feet, diseases of, 218
Fine- wool breeds, 385, 411
Fistula, location and detection of,
218, 434
Fleece, Angora, 421
characteristics of, 377
lustre of, 381
method of examination of, 378
puritj^ of, 381
quality of, 379
quantity of, 380
soundness of, 383
types of, 377
INDEX
449
Fleece, variation in, 384
yolk of, 381
Form of Angora goat, 419
of ass, 183
of bacon hog, 59, 60, 352, 353
of beef cattle, 226
of breeding cattle, 268
horses, 176
of dairy cow, 59, 273, 276, 277
of draft horse, 113
of horse, detailed structural, 100
of light harness horse, 147
of meat animals, 58, 59, 60
of mules, 197
of mutton sheep, 371
relation of, to utility, 95
of speed animals, 59, 60
of swine, 322, 350, 352
of wool sheep, 60
Forging, 219, 434
Fox trot described, 100
Framework affects development of
digestive system, 30
muscular development, 29
compared with that of man, 91
determines scale, 28, 29
of swine, 317
of young animal, 181
French Canadian, characteristics
of, 308
Coach, nativity and description
of, 136
Draft, 120. See Percheron.
Fundamental considerations in
judging horses, 89
Gallop described, 100
Galloway, nativity and character-
istics of, 254
points to be avoided in, 255
standard of excellence of, 255
Gaited saddle horse, 163
Gaits, description of, 98, 99, 100
of gaited saddle horse, 1 63
of speed or race horse, 153
of walk-trot-canter horse, 163
Gaskin, a guide to muscular devel-
opment, 93
Gay, 62, 91, 97, 112, 219
General appearance, 58
29
German Coach, nativity and de-
scription of, 137, 138
Glossary of horse and mule market
terms, 431
Goats, Angora, 418
Guernsey, explanatory notes by
American Guernsey Cattle
Club, 295-297
nativity and characteristics of,
293
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 294-295
Hackney, nativity and descrip-
tion of, 139-141
pony, description and require-
ments of, 173
Halter pulling, 53
Hampshire hog, disqualifications
of, 346
nativity and characteristics of,
343
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 344
sheep, characteristics of, 393
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 394
Handling, amount of, 49
animals, 49
generally undesirable, 47
quality, how determined, 49
to determine mammary develop-
ment, 49
Healthfulness, 80
Heaves, indications of, 217
Heavy harness group or type^
action of, 135
breed characteristics of,
136
general description of,
133, 134
market and show classes
of, 136
quality of, 134
temperament of, 134
Height of horse, how measured, 60
Shetland pony, 61
Herd improvement, 423
use of pure-bred sire in, 423
records, 82
uniformitv, 71
450
INDEX
Hereford, characteristics of, 252
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 253
Holstein-Friesian, 72
disqualifications for advanced
registry, 302
nativity and characteristics of,
298
stantlard of excellence and scale
of points of, 299-301
Hoof, description of normal, 218
diseases and defects of, 218
Horns, indication of age by, 242
Horse, detailed structural form of,
100
examination for faults, 211
in stable, 53
fundamental considerations in
judging, 89
mechanical structure of, 92
propelling power of, 96
relation of bone and muscular
development of, 92, 96
tests for unsoundness and vices
in, 53, 108, 109
Horses, breed characteristics of,
118-128, 136-145, 150, 157-
161
classification of, 110, 111
examination of, in harness, 218
Hunter, requirements for, 164
Individuaijty and pedigree, 76
how determined, 63
or thrift, 74
Interfering, 219
Ifalian jack, description of, 190
Jacks and jennets, breed charac-
teristics of, 186
color of, 184
description of American, 191
form, scale, and quality of,
183
general appearance of, 182
nervous development of, 184
score card for, 186
selection of, 185
Jacks and jennets, sex character-
istics of, 184
soundness and condition of,
183
structure of, 182
style and action of, 184
uses of, 185
Jersej% nativity and characteris-
tics of, 290
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 291
Judging Angora goats, 418
application of, to improvement,
423
beef and dual purpose cattle, 221
breeding classes, horses, 175
by comparison, 41, 43
colts and fillies, 180
consideration of fads in, 87, 88
dairy cattle, 271
as distinguished from selection,
36, 52
definition of, 35
draft horses, 113
factors and pi'inciples applicable
to, 57
horses, 89
importance of keen, 19
jacks, jennets, and mules, 182
light horses, 133
methods and practices in, 35
by purchaser, 108
objects of, 36
relation of structure to, 24-27
requires wide knowledge of
animals, 36, 37, 425
requirements for, 22, 23, 37, 42-
44
sheep, 361
should be prompt and thorough,
54 55
in show ring, 41, 108, 109
swine, 317
use of ideals and standards in,
37-39, 42-45
of score card in, 38, 39
of S3'^stem in, 46
Kerry, nativity and characteris-
tics of, 310
scale of points of, 311
INDEX
451
Lameness, causes of, 214, 215, 216
detection of, in horses, 108
locating, 213
Large Yorkshire, characteristics of,
355
standard excellence and scale
of points of, 356
Leicester, characteristics of, 387
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 388
Light harness group or tjT^e,
breeds of, 150
classes of, 150
conformation of, 147, 148,
149
durability of, 149
quality of, 149
temperament of, 149
two distinct types of,
147
Lincoln, nativity and characteris-
tics of, 385
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 387
Lineage of animals, 79
Live stock industry, field of devel-
opment of, 18
method of development of,
17, 18
possibilities of, 21
judging, defined, 35
shows, importance of, 426
value of, 20
Logger, description of, 129
Long-wool breeds, 385
Lymphatic temperament of beef
animals, 67-68
of draft animals, 67
M
Maltese jack, nativity and de-
scription of, 189
Mammary organs of dairy cow,
282-284
of special importance in dairy
animals, 31
use of hands in judging devel-
opment of, 49
system, 282, 288
veins in dairy cow, 283, 288
Majorca jack, nativity and descrip-
tion of, 190
Marbhng of meat, 235
Market classes of mules, 205
of sheep, 361
of wool, 383
condition, 68
grades and classes, 443
value of swine, bacon, 354
Maturity, age of, in beef cattle,
231
in different animals, 77
in mutton sheep, 375
in swine, 326
Measuring height of horse, 60
Medium- wool breeds, 385, 391
Merino sheep, 60
American, 411
Delaine, characterics of, 413
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 414
Middle Yorkshire, characteristics
of, 346
Milk production dependent upon
nervous development, 32
Mining mules, description of, 208
Mule mares, quahfications of, 203
-foot swine, characteristics of,
349
scale of points of, 350
Mules, age limitations of, 195
condition of, 199
cotton, 209
draft, 205
farm, 206
general conformation of, 197
requirements of, 193
height and weight of, 195
market classes of, 205
mining, 208
quahty of, 198
score card for, 203
soundness of, 200
structural form and qualifica-
tions of, 201
style and action of, 200
sugar, 207
temperament and endurance of,
200
uses and adaptation of, 193
Muscular development depends
upon bony framework, 28
of different parts should be
correlated, 96
.452
INDEX
Muscular development, relation of
bone to, 92, 93, 225, 226
value of animals dependent
upon, 29
Mutton type, characteristics of,
371-377
N
Natural thrift, 74
Nerve cutting, 52
Nervous development of ass, 184
of beef cattle, 230
characterization of, 32
controls temperament, 68
correlation with other func-
tions, 32, 97
indicates use and value of
animal, 32, 33
in different classes of animals,
32, 67
temperament of dairy breeds,
67, 280, 281
indicates endurance, 97
milk production, 67
of speed horses, 67
Norman, 120. See Percheron.
Nostrils, description of, 217
Official standard of the American
Trotting Register Association,
152
O. I. C. swine, characteristics of,
341
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 341
Open joint, 215
Operations prastised to improve
show condition, 51
should be discriminated against,
51-52
Oxford, characteristics of, 397
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 399
Pace described, 100
Pacing standard, 152, 153
Paddling, 219
Pampered condition, 69
Park horse, 145
Parrot mouth, 217, 435
Pedigree and individuality, 76
not all important, 74, 75
should be considered, 78, 79
Percentage of different cuts in
swine, 327, 328, 329
Percheron, nativity and descrip-
tion of, 118-121
Persistency of dairy animal, 284
Point of approach, 46, 47
Pointing, 220
Poitou jack, nativity and descrip-
tion of, 188
Poland-China, disqualifications of,
338
nativity and characteristics of,
334
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 336-338
Polled Durham, breed character-
istics of, 247, 248
Polo ponies, description and re-
quirements of, 173
Ponies between 11-2 and 14-2, 175
description of, 173
under 46 inches, 174
Pony, breeds of, 169
classes, of, 173
group or type of, 169
Position of animals for judging, 45
Pounding, 220
Prepotency, definition of, 74
of Guernsey, 297
Productiveness, 74
Propelling power, 96
Pure-bred live stock associations,
429 ■
Quality of Angora goat, 419
fleece, 421
of breeding animals, 176
of dairy animals, 277
of draft horse, 114, 115
of fleece, 379
of heavy harness horse, 134
how determined, 62
indications of, in beef cattle, 228
in horses, draft, 114, 115
of light harness horse, 149
of mules, 198
INDEX
453
Quality of mutton sheep, 373
of swine, 323, 351
Quantity of fleece, 380
Rack described, 100
Rambouillet, characteristics of, 415
Red Polled, disqualifications of,
260, 261
nativity and characteristics
of, 258
standard of excellence and
scale of points of, 259, 261
Registry associations, pure-bred
live stock, 429
Regularity of breeding, 74
Reproductive system affects value
of animals, 31, 32
Reynolds, M. H., 211
Ringbone, location and effect of,
214, 436
Roadster, description of, 153, 155
Roaring, 53
RoUing, 220
Romney, nativity and character-
istics of, 403
Rudimentary teats of Guernsey,
297
Rimabout horse, description of,
112, 145
Running horse, description and re-
quirements of, 167, 168
walk described, 100
S
Saddle group or tj^pe, breeds of,
157
Scale of ass, 183
determined by bony framework,
28
fixed by height and weight, 61
at maturity, 29
of mules, 195
Scalping, 220, 436
Score card for bacon swine, 354
carcass determination, 351
for beef cattle, 246
for dairy cattle, 289
for draft horses, 117
for fat swine, 332
Score card for fine- wool sheep, 410
for heavy harness horses, 146
for jacks, 186
for light harness horses, 155,
156
for mules, 203
for mutton sheep, 384
for saddle horses, 168
for Shetland ponies, 171
use of, 38, 39
Selection of a breed, 81
as distinguished from judging, 36
factors and principles of, 57
importance of, 19
of a jack, 185
possibihties of, 21, 22
suggestions on, 78
Sex characteristics of Angora goat,
421
of ass, 184
of breeding cattle, 270
horses, 178
of swine, 359
Sheep, breed characteristics of,
385-407, 411-416
breeding classes of, 416
capacity of, 374
class requirements of, 416-418
condition of, 374
constitution of, 373
deception by trimming of, 375
determination of age of, 361
examination of, 50, 365
fat, 417
feeder, 418
fine- wool breeds of, 411
fleece characteristics of, 377
form of, 371, 407
market classes of, 361
maturity of, 375
mutton type of, 371
points applicable to most British
breeds of, 442
purpose of, 361
quality of, 373, 409
score card for mutton type, 384
for fine- wool type, 410
types of, 385
use of products of, 361
variation in fleece of, 384
weight of, 371
Shetland, 61, 169
description and requirements of,
169, 170
454
INDEX
Shetland, score card for, 171
Shire, nativity and description of,
125
Shoe boil, 216, 436
Shorthorn, dual purpose charac-
teristics of, 256
nativity and description of, 246
Short leet, 56
Shoulders, examination of, 218
Shropshire, characteristics of, 391
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 393
Sidebones, 214, 436
Small Yorkshire, characteristics of,
346
Soundness of ass and mule, 183
general examination for, 212
of mules, 200
relation of, to utility, 211
Southdown, characteristics of, 395
standard of excellence and scale
of points of, 397
Spavin, 214, 215
Speed or race horse, 153
records the result of breeding, 85
Speedy cutting, 220, 437
Splints, 213, 214, 437
Standardbred. See American stan-
dardbred.
Stockers, 267
Structure analogous with that of
man, 91
of ass, 182
of swine, 317
relation of, to animal judging,
24-27
to high-prcied cuts, 223
Structural form of beef cattle, 242
of dairy animal, 284-289
of horse, 100
of mules, 201
of swine, 329-331
Style and action of draft horse, 116
of jacks and jennets, 184
of mules, 200
Sub-class of horses. 111
Substance, definition of, 62
Suffolk horse, nativity and char-
acteristics of, 127-128
sheep, characteristics of, 405
Sugar mules, 207
Sussex, nati^^ty and characteris-
tics, 256
Sweeney, 218, 437
Swine, age of, determination of, 320
of classes, 320
at maturity, 326
weight of fat, 321
bacon type of, 350
breed characteristics of, 332, 355
breeding and feeding capacity
of, 325
requisites of, 358
carcass of, uses of, 319, 350
class characteristics of, 358, 360
constitation and vigor of, 325
details of form of, 329-331
dressing percentage of, 327-329
fat type of, 320
form or conformation of, 322,
352, 353
general considerations of, 320
indications and value of quality
of, 323, 351
meaning and value of condition
of, 326, 353
market value of, 353, 354
maturity of, 326
percentage of cuts of, 327-329
points applicable to all breeds of,
440-442
purpose and method of use of,
319, 350
score card for bacon, 354
for fat, 332
sex characteristics of, 359
structure of, 317
type classification of, 320
weight of bacon type of, 351
Symmetry, 66
Synovial sacs, 215
System, use of, in judging, 46
Tamworth, 60
characteristics of, 357
standard of excellence of, 358
Teeth, "bishoping" of, 52, 105
disappearance of cups in, 108
how to determine age by, 105
indicate age of beef cattle, 241,
242
of sheep, 361, 363
normal and abnormal condition
of, 217
order of appearance of, 107
INDEX
455
Teeth, temporary or milk, 106
Temperament of breeding cattle,
269
horses, 177
of dairy cow, 67, 2S0
definition of. 67
depends upon nervous develop-
ment, 32, 67
of draft animals, 67, 116
of Guernsey, 296
of heavj^ harness horse, 134
indicates use an I value, 32
of light harness horse, 149
of mules, 200
of speed animals, 67
Thoroughbred, breeding and de-
scription of, 159-161
Thoroughpins, 215, 437
Trappv, 220
Trot described, 9S-99
Trotting standard, 152
Tuberculin test by purchaser, SI
Tuberculosis, 81
Tunis, characteristics of, 406
Type of breeding animals, 26S
Tj'pes of horses. 111, 112
of light horses, 133
of ponies, 169
of sheep, 371, 385, 407
of swine, 320
of wool, 377
Udder of dair^' cow, 283
Unsoundness affects value of horse,
89
definition of, 211
detection of, 49, 108
examination for, 211
may be transmitted, 51
one of common defects, 50
recovery from, 51
Utility, relation of form to, 95
soundness to, 211
Utilization of beef cattle products,
223
of sheep products, 361
Vices, detection of, in horse, 109
Victoria, characteristics of, 347
W
Walk described, 98
Walk-trot-canter horse, descrij)-
tion of, 162, 163
Weaving, 53
Wedge shape of glairy cow, 59, 273,
276, 277, 278
Weight, 60
of bacon swine, 351
a factor in determining scale,
61
of mutton sheep, 371
Welsh ponies, description and n^-
quirements of, 171-173
Whistling, 53
Wind puffs, 215
sucking, 53
Winding, 219
Winging, 219, 437
Withers, troubles affecting, 217,
218
Wool, clothing, 383
combing 384
delaine, 384
lustre of, 381
market classification of, 383
purit}' of, 381
qualitv of, 379
quantity of, 380
soundness of, 383
t>'pes of, 377
yolk of, 381
Young stock, characteristics of,
360
Yorkshire, Large, 60, 355. See
■Middle Yorkshire, and Small
Yorkshire, 346.
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