Full text of "Fur-bearing animals in nature and in commerce"

See other formats

S686 ZSSE0 LOZL €

eek gg

Prien ihe 08 Ma Yh Nene pada Nin hy

FUR-BEARING ANIMALS

FUR- BEARING ANIMALS

IN NATURE AND IN COMMERCE

BNR Y POLAN Deb eZ:s.

LONDON:
GURNEY & JACKSON, 1,PATERNOSTER ROW.

[.Szccessors to Mr. VAN VOORST.]

MDCCCXCII,

LONDON:
WOODFALL AND KINDER, PRINTERS,

70 TO 76, LONG ACRE, W.C.

“Mv Ad,S OUT »-UOSHIVe Agi »-UOPUO
19eISz sHOID spsojueqs vd ise es si aie

08) — 097 i oz oor iD 09 ceraenOne oz pe Ok cs oz Soy: 00/ Oz! OF/ 097 O87),
Sj site | “ i} = <. II = | _ 09
pIdgi0opn Ss X. GNVW10d Ad NaH AW
: | STVAINV ONTVAd Had
puby uajpnsuey™ nyaeuia b “ u ee U :
e37gi 13Z04
41g8v4
: = 2 ee Sees
= —— -—+—— _—— — :
+ erases fae T wyago 4
q 1W3S 3dyp deo
Abupds 4, UMO_LO
Ny Foo maw | ood wren SPINY? OT LINVILY HLN OS
PHOLJON® auensis e1esgsny'M vNiyvzo00 Saree it
CUO: aa Re ee cee lL alee a _________ |. sarpuerep buy * wsosiudenzo| o/do4y,
{ BESS ange [engine — —_+—- — ——— 0
N Vieload N I is b Slane as WuAa oSe}adiyoip Mo
ms ayas uns
eiaeapa Be 1) uolsusosy MEN Ae)
Swe, e/ SoBe yo: ef \ eng Paboaere 401490
\ :242PWNS s/ erryotes pars | > s/ sofede| ©)
: UuIOS a 4 i 7 ee @ =e % 9
‘ OdUsOBIN‘s eas LOArp/eW 5 \ 4sevod pjoD
. “” “2 . . . . xe Ny atee!
Nie aa | ‘ d & uojdoo\} A: : W hieS ae eneing ysizu
2a <b & 5 4 “ esf0005_ ailio HO) Tot ia ile “a Gea pepiu.
" OF Ses 8! vopy en) oAayxNo 4v9|Hsng 3 ; 95 :
Py se belel gH | duyaos NVINISSA8V Ni s/ $| PABMPUI a s/
Y¥379:0 Aequog pod| boy Sple,'O eo : “9. YOIMPUPS
a Buoy 3 fo l/r pe "Fe | —— J Poo a My —4- o 02
===-=->] ---5 se oenTadNa --Gee----4 aah ee w- --------- ==} - == + = 2 fe == -- = = = == = n= === === = Tesuimunas’! =O Qe---- foo -- <== 22
ae uy a8. : se ‘0’ :
NICK) Ls¥A Seas 2 4dASa b pac; §| ALBUED : j Ne
P : MPISISEB ESS NO Moooupw "= quropew SEpnilloae
} © v ene Isuad snsdhpy, f ' a a? X04 Aauo
‘ er valid, Sea ae a ivoo wuoony $f: § ea | ia N Y = 50) 0) u04du Ys) aN wnssodo
Ot = = PGF OB UIHed eseEYHOg z eee ai a i an —|—- 307687 Se OA ONY 0
906 Y391L ONY @ ey, ; DIUNVILY HLYON | 7 oe
9. a Sea |- 1 a
Quvdb 37 NVAWTY NIH ueypresen 433K6 2YyW ANODE yay é |¥Syvorsa wy
y Plow wa110 |= LIBAVEAE yas NOWWOD) puerunoynan cS
1. Ivas ¥ | Veils da Hou inva e if fate
P uatio was eas & er Ay o } ir qw3s lL304 : NOM ! 4
ys20y7ol87 weve NVISEN auvH Ese (hee Js) sytst awas|duvH % (| 7) Sioned '
3 aN a : 5 QMSILIYS vas aaaoo ¥ " :
a Bingsspyed 4S, 3 Bf jjeMely e4 ‘OD ‘ i ai 4. vas VUSWIV
7 A, II i a Ti 3NIUSAT0OM Ly v Tere 5 eg “7 UOSpnH z = 09
Wp ] Sif Ph ams. . vas QNVIN334NO) Q f waaan 7
Age el ea ujaa 4 N ( $ u CNS IRE, RNa aed ad
AMIS NI soe = © Sh = |
i wi fe Ni , i Ng eee Fe | or = * Stole Sad
=o aod Day yy Rabe i Al eel ey TSANG ee rah ea pe (> ia ea tl fastiee iss a7 ff ae a7 p i)
fot mM Ye 2
| ¢ {a} foie 8 He
| 3uvH | i \ a 1% A
\ | ° z \ x ay
| ) 4) } H
XO4d QIiLOuv ¥ \ 3 Aeg 5 = SNS hy =. i
‘ 3 $2 Say uljgpeg ee ue i FY,
y BAS BABY Vey eBI/Wwsa * ¢ AGU Gils e
ARQ y, 2-1 J B/eAON i ph
pa ; y y
P1215 MO, a ig 47. ‘ ( cA Wn Y
Sr Ly e iba
te oy +
— [ a Va ee) O q fe ON ef ve | 2 |
= ae = Sg ae hg
Rae yi sracr |

PR Ei AC ie

Tuts work is intended, firstly, to aid persons engaged
in trade to recognize readily, and to have a closer know-
ledge of the animals with which they are to some extent
already familiar, and which they would have some
difficulty in finding in more elaborate and_ scientific
works. Secondly, to be a connecting link between
commerce and science. The scientific portions of
natural history are often described with much detail,
but, though interesting and important, they should not
altogether close our eyes to the relations which the
animals bear to man, and the important part they play
with regard to his clothing and, consequently, to his
personal comfort. The Author has also endeavoured to
make this work more interesting to the general public
by adding small sketches of the habits of the animals

described.

CONTENTS:

PAGE
Black Monkey (Colobus vel-

lorosus) .

Black Monkey (Cotobu ur-
simus) -

East African @ulopas

Abyssinian Monkey .

Common Monkey

Campbell’s Monkey

Mona Monkey

Green Monkey .

Grivet Monkey .

Malbrouck Monkey

Patas Monkey

Vervet

Moustache Monten

Grey Monkey

Red Monkey

Pluto Monkey

Blue Monkey

Wanderoo Monkey 5

Blue Monkey, or Mountain
Entellus

China Grey Money.

Guinea Baboon .

Black Lemur

Black and White or Rutfed
Lemur

Red-fronted eerie

Ring-tailed Lemur

Woolly or Dwarf Lemur

Grey Lemur

Lion .

le} (oe) a} CSP CS] CS] SES] GD en fen STS Ch

14
15

Puma

Tiger .

Bengal Tiger : :

Mongolian or Chinese Tiger

Turkestan Tiger

Jaguar F

Ounce, or Snow Deoeerd :

Chinese Leopard

East Indian Leopard .

African Leopard

Persian Leopard

Clouded Tiger

Ocelot

Eyra Cat

Geoffroy’s Cat

African Leopard Cat .

Pampas Cat -

Molina’s Guiana Cat .

Tiger Cat, or Serval .

Bushy -tailed Red-spotted
Cat. 5

Himalayan Leopard- Cat

Desert Cat .

European Wild Cat

House Cat, or Domestic Cat

Persian or Angola Cat

Manx Cat .

Siamese Cat

Abyssinian Cat .

Caffer Cat . :

Siberian or Persian Lynx .

American Lynx .

Vill

European Lynx .

Cat Common, or Bay Lynx 50
Canadian or Halifax Bay
Lynx 51
Caracal, or Red Cat By
Cheetah 53
Bush Cat, or African Gx et
Cat. bys
Chinese Bush or Ga et Cat 56
Common Genet . 57
Blotched Genet . 58
Mountain Cat 58
Two-spotted Paradoxure 59
Woolly Paguma. 60
Egyptian Ichneumon 61
Dusty Ichneumon 61
Grey Ichneumon 61
Aard Wolf. 62
Spotted Hyena . 62
Esquimaux Dog 63
Dingo 65
Common or Ware opean Ww olf 65
American Wolf . 68 |
Indian Wolf 72,
Prairie Wolf, or Coyote 72
South American Wolf 73
Siberian or Chinese Dog 74
Japanese Wolf . 75
Chinese Wolf 7
Common Fox
Norway Red Fox 80
American Red Fox 81
American Cross Fox . 86
American Silver Fox . 87
White Fox 89
Blue Fox
Kitt Fox F 95
Grey Fox, or Virginian Hee 97
Prairie Fox 99
Steppe, or Afghan Fee 100
Persian Fox . 100
East Indian Fox 101
Azara’s Fox 5 GIL
Cape Fox 101

PAGE

“I
O OH

CONTENTS.

Common Jackal
Black-backed Jackal
Racoon-like Dog
Baum Marten,
Marten

tone Marten .
Perwitsky
American Marten
Fisher, or Canadian Marten
Afghan Fisher .
Kolinsky .
Japanese Marten
Russian Sable .
Mink
Russian Mink .

or Pine

| Fitch, or Polecat

Russian Fitch .
Ermine, or Stoat
Wolverine, or Glutton
Cape Zorilla

Ratel

Cape Ratel

American Badger
Badger

Chinese Badger

| Japanese Badger

| Skunk
| Civet Cat, or Little Sinined

Skunk .
South American or Gintan
Skunk .
European Otter
China Otter :
Indian or Calcutta Otter .
West African Otter .
Cape Otter
South American Otter
American Otter
Sea-Otter .
Racoon :
South American or Cab.
eating Racoon
Cashmere Racoon
Panda

PAGE

102
102
103

104
106
107
108
111
118
114
115
116
118
120
121
123
123
127
150
130
130
131
133
136
136
137

140

141
142,
144
145
145
146
146
146
148
152

155
155
156

White or Polar Bear

Russian or Siberian Bear

Syrian Bear

Isabelline Bear ;

Grizzly Bear (American) .

Himalayan or Thibetan
Bear

Black Bear

Brown Bear

East India Bear

South Shetland Fur Se a

Crozet Island Fur Seal

San Louis Fur Seal .

Alaska Fur Seal :

Victoria or North-West
Fur Seal

Copper Island Fur Seal

Robben Island Fur Seal .

Japanese Fur Seal

West Coast Seal

Lima Fur Seal

Cape Horn or Lobos einnd
Fur Seal ‘

Cape Fur Seal .

New Zealand and Aus-
tralian Fur Seal :

New Zealand and West
Australian Hair Seal

Macquarie Island Seal

Steller’s Sea-Lion

Common or Hair Seal

Greenland Hair Seal

Ringed or Fetid Seal

Grey Seal :

Bearded or Ground Seal .

Bladder-nosed Seal .

Sea-Leopard

Mole : : :

Russian Musk-Rat or Des-
man ;

Common Squirrel

Jerelang Squirrel

Malabar Squirrel

American Grey Squirrel .

Norway Goat

Angora Goat

Thibet Goat

Cape Goat

China Goat

Mongolian Goat

Sheep

Iceland aheap J

China Sheep

Arabian Sheep .

Bokharan Lamb

Shiraz, or Half Persian

Thibet Lamb

Persian Lamb .

Pinheaded Persian Lamb.

Astracan Lamb

Ukrainer Lamb

Crimmer, or Crimean Lamb

Transylvanian Lamb

Spanish Sheep .

Shetland Sheep

Russian Sheep .

Red Deer

Wapiti

East Indian Deer, or nies

Fallow Deer

Moose or Elk

North American or Vir-
ginian Deer .

Black-tailed or Mule oe

Reindeer .

Llama

Vicuna

Guanaco .

Great Ant-eater ‘

er ae
Cat

Spotted-tailed Dasyure

PAGE
3812
312
314

315 |

315
317
318
325
326
327
327
328
328
329
330
330
dol
332
332
303
334
335
339
342
343
b44

348
349
350
353
353
354
356

B57
358

CONTENTS.

Long-tailed Dasyure

Banded Bandicoot

Long-nosed Bandicoot

Rabbit-eared Bandicoot

Myrmecobius . ,

Phascogale

American Opossum .

Koala

Australian Opossum

Tasmanian Opossum

Victoria Opossum

Sydney Opossum

Melbourne Opossum

Adelaide Opossum :

Rock Opossum, or Short-
eared Phalanger

Ring-tailed Opossum

Squirrel-like Phalanger

Great Flying Phalanger
or Opossum .

Red Kangaroo .

Blue Kangaroo

Wallaroo .

Great Kangaroo :

Yellow Wallaby, or Yellow-
footed Rock Kangaroo .

Rock Wallaby .

Bennett's Wallaby, ar Beak
Kangaroo :

Swamp Wallaby

Black-striped Wallaby

Short-tailed Wallaby

Bridled Kangaroo

Kangaroo Rat .

Wombat .

Platybus .

Echidna

INDEX

PAGE
358
359
359
360
360
361
361
363
365
367
367
368
369
369

370
370
371

372
373
374
374
375

377
378

379
379
380
380
381
381
381
382
383
385

List OF ILLUSTRATIONS:

—++—

PAGE
Black Monkey , if
Abyssinian Monkey : 5
Mona Monkey . ; ; : : : : 6
Grey Monkey . 8
Siberian or Persian Lynx . : ‘ ; . 44
Caracal, or Red Cat . : : : : 5 GY?
Cheetah : : ; : : : cod
Kitt Fox , ‘ ; : : : se Sb
Wolverine, or Glutton : : ; : 5 lee
White or Polar Bear . : d : F Pre ay
Macquarie Island Seal : : , : = 209
Buffalo, or American Bison . : : ; 290
Koala. é - : : : : . 363
Australian Opossum. : , : ‘ . 866
Great Kangaroo ‘ : : : ; EoD

Yellow Wallaby, or Yellow-footed Rock Kangaroo . 3 oue

IND RODUCLTEON:

CoLour.

In treating of colour, the first prominent fact we
observe is the increase of pigment as approach is made
towards the Equator, and the corresponding decrease
towards the Poles. For instance, the Skunk, Racoon,
European Lynx, Bengal Tiger, and Ermine, are all of a
darker hue the nearer they are to the Equator. There
are, however, one or two exceptions, one being the
Beaver, which attains its greatest depth of colour in a
certain district in the Dominion of Canada, and is
lighter in the Southern States of America. But this
may be owing to the greater altitude in which it lives in
the latter district. Another exception is the Alaska
Red Fox. This is also demonstrated in the case of
plants and birds, and even in the human race. The
negroes, Hindoos, etc., whose dark skins seem to have
been produced by exposure to the sun’s rays, after many
years’ stay in a colder climate lose a great deal of their
colour, becoming a yellow or dusky-brown hue. When
it is past the season of mid-winter, the skins become
lighter, and it is therefore best to trap fur-bearing
animals at this time.

The new growth is always deeper in colour than the
old coat.

In forests and woods the colour is generally deeper.

X1V INTRODUCTION.

White has always been considered a mark of distine-
tion. It is mentioned at an early age in Scripture
(Judges, v. 10). The North American Indians set a
high value on a white Buffalo skin, which they consider
‘‘ oood medicine,” and give several horses in exchange
for it. The Alaska Indians now esteem highly a pure
White Marten skin, and are willing to pay five Otter or
Fox skins for it. The reverence with which the White
Elephants are regarded in Siam is a well-known fact.
The late King Cetewayo kept a herd of royal coronation
white cattle. They must have been very beautiful, as
the Zulu cattle, although smaller than Alderneys, are
extremely well-made and handsome. We cannot but
consider the wild white cattle of Chilliingham Park to
be the descendants of a tame variety become feral.
Their ancestors were probably imported for the sacri-
fices of the Druids, and their descendants became wild
in the turbulent times and drove out the smaller Celtic
Ox from the centre of the country. The Zebu, the
sacred Ox of India, is white, and at the same time tame.
These white animals, including the Charolais breed of
France, seem to have been of great size and strength.
They are perhaps all derived from the same ancestor as
the Chillingham, and the Zebu would probably inter-
breed readily with the latter.

A few Albinos, drab, and parti-coloured animals are
found in almost every species.

The original colour of all wild animals was probably
brown, grey, and black, the first-named being the most
numerous.

White animals, as a race, are only found in the
extreme north. In temperate climes white, spotted,
and mottled colours seem to be produced by artificial
breeding.

INTRODUCTION. XV

The most ancient breed of sheep was probably black,
like the Persian and Arabian sheep. Many dark sheep
are found in the Highlands of Scotland, Shetland,
Iceland, Italy, etc. The white seem to have heen
selected for the sake of the wool.

Blue, which is of such frequent occurrence in plants,
is seldom found in animals, the only species in which
this colour is found being the Blue-faced Mandrill.
The so-called Blue Fox is rather of a deep drab.

Red is of frequent occurrence; for instance, the
Red Fox, Red Squirrel, Red Monkey, Black-backed
Jackal, ete.

Cold has a great effect on the colour of the fur of
animals, as well as on the plumage of birds. It turns
them in many instances pure white, thus preventing
them from being seen in the snow by their enemies, and
also serving to retain the heat in their bodies, white being a
worse conductor of heat than black or drab. The White
Fox, Ermine, and Hare furnish good examples of this ;
and amongst birds the pheasant of the Himalayas and
the ptarmigan of Norway. In severe weather in this
country the common Hare begins to assume the winter
coat; the cheeks, back of the ears, and hind-quarters
becoming white, or greyish-white, and the white of the
belly extending further into the sides.

The Arctic Hare has some of the colour remaining in
the tip of the ears, and the Ermine and White Fox in
the tip of the tail.

QUALITY.

The quality of the fur depends to a great extent on
the mildness or severity of the winter. <A cold winter
produces the best fur, and a mild winter the reverse.

Xvl INTRODUCTION.

This is not, however, always the case, for in a very
rigorous winter, if food be not abundant, the animals
suffer from exposure and want ; their coats become thin,
and many of them die.

The quality depends also on altitude, the fur becoming
thicker and finer as a greater height (and consequently
lower temperature) is attained. The Snow Leopard,
which is found at a height of 8,000 feet, is a good illus-
tration of this.

Open water, such as lakes and seas, render the fur
thicker. When on an exposed sea-coast the sea-air
renders the fur coarse, as in the fauna of Nova Scotia,
Kamschatka, and Kadiak Island.

Exposed steppes have the same effect as the sea-air,
rendering the fur coarse, but to a lesser degree, as in the
Turkestan Leopard.

Woods and forests render the fur finer ; for instance,
the Timber or Forest Wolves have finer fur than those
living on the exposed prairie.

The density of pine or fir forests is a good protection
from the northern blasts, making the country warm
and inhabitable, and tends to increase animal life in
high latitudes. Siberia, when densely covered with
forests, was much warmer than it is at the present
time.

Half-seasoned skins are usually blue-pelted; that is,
with a dark-bluish stripe down the back or sides. The
third quality are generally quite dark, of a deep greenish-
blue hue. Inthe pelt of the Racoon there is sometimes
a peculiar bluish mark, shaped like a horn. This is
probably owing to the skins not having been quite
seasoned.

Veiny skins are usually poor in quality. The young
have usually a thicker, although sometimes a coarser

INTRODUCTION. XVvll

coat, than the adult animals. The Mongolian Tiger is
a good example. Others, such as the Phocide, or Hair-
Seals, are only thickly-furred when quite young, losing
the thick and woolly covering when they enter the
water.

SIZE.

As the wild animals decrease gradually in colour
towards the Poles, so they increase in size. This isa
very natural effect, for in a more northern and colder
latitude, animals have a great range of country to
traverse in order to procure their necessary food, thus
developing bone and muscle, and causing interbreeding
of the species. Moreover, the elimination of the more
weakly animals through rigour of climate, and the
consequent greater abundance of food for those remain-
ing, are causes likely to increase the size. Notable
examples are the White Hare, Beaver, Red Fox, Skunk,
Rabbit, Bay Lynx, and Tiger. The Sitka Musk-rat is
a curious exception, which is difficult to account for,
unless by reason of scarcity of food in this district.

The size of all animals is also increased by domesti-
cation. This is effected by crossing the various strains,
and is intensified by judicious high feeding. The
domestic Rabbit, and many breeds of cattle are cases
in point. In-breeding makes the stock become more
symmetrical, but smaller, and if carried to too great an
extent, sterility ensues.

XV INTRODUCTION.

SrEx.

The number of females of any species is supposed by
many naturalists to exceed that of the males, but this
is pure hypothesis. We only seem to have any true
statistics in the case of the human race, the dog, and
perhaps the Alaska Seal. In these it is generally
accepted that the sexes are of almost the same number.
We must not suppose that by observing an abundance
of one sex in a certain district or at a certain time,
that the particular sex is predominant ; we find a super-
abundance of females in England, and a lke proportion
of the opposite sex in Australia.

Again, the Red Deer and others congregate in herds
of different sexes at different times of the year.

Although the Fur Seal is polygamous, yet the propor-
tion of the young is equal, the young bachelors con-
sregating together separately, as also do the females
before and after leaving the Prybilov Islands.

The males in migrating arrive several weeks before
the females, as in the case of birds.

The sexes of cattle and sheep are of about equal

numbers.

FASHION.

Fashion exercises a great influence over the prices of
furs. Skins, that for some years have been neglected,
and almost unsaleable, owing to the vagaries of fashion,
suddenly assume a high value, an advance of 50 or 100
per cent. in these days of quick communication and
transit not being much thought of, although a rise of

INTRODUCTION. X1X

30 or 40 per cent. was considered sufficient a few years
ago. Any fashion, if constantly kept up, would probably
lead to the extinction of many species, but its frequent
changes give the animals time to increase. The Hudson’s
Bay Company have a good plan of passing over for a
time any district that is exhausted. The furs of a
country are, as a rule, only used to a minor extent there,
a great number being exported, and, on the other hand,
many foreign ones are imported, the want of one country
being supplied by the abundance of another, thus
stimulating and promoting commerce.

(JUANTITIES.

The immense number of fur skins imported will perhaps
astonish many readers, and the more so, as the importa-
tion of the skins of many animals is increasing every
year. Some quantities, however, are stationary; and
others are on the decrease. Certain wild animals,
especially those of large size, are steadily decreasing ;
but, on the other hand, many animals, such as the
Racoon, American and Australian Opossum, increase
with the settlement of the country, feeding in the culti-
vated fields, and thus procuring food more readily than
when the land was unreclaimed.

The prolific nature of the Rabbit was well known in
former times, and its enormous increase in Australia in
a few years, a decade at most, does not cause the same
astonishment; it is, moreover, a matter of history that the
Rabbit almost devastated a small island in ancient times.

Another cause for the increase in the quantities
captured is the facility of transit by means of railways

and steamers.
b 2

xX INTRODUCTION.

Quantities are nevertheless subject to a certain degree
to the demand. If the fashion sets in for a certain fur,
it is soon known to the trappers, who pursue the animal
with greater vigour, and capture as large a quantity as
possible, neglecting those whose skins are in less de-
mand, and which in some cases hardly pay the expenses
of trapping, collecting, and shipping. ‘The Indians, on
the other hand, trap all sorts of fur-bearing animals, and
refuse to do business with a collector if he will not
buy all the kinds. Having therefore paid too much for
the unmarketable skins, and perhaps too little for the
more saleable articles, the collector is obliged to re-value
his purchases after the settlement of the transactions.
In the subjoined list of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s
sales, the quantities quoted are those that are imported
towards the end of the previous year, excepting those
shipments which are delayed by the ice to the north of
Hudson’s Bay; these do not arrive till the year after.
The goods from the North-West district were originally
sold in the year in which they arrived, but since the
September sales have been suspended, they are sold the
following year. As they take much longer in the voyage
than those from the other districts, they have been
quoted for the year in which they arrive.

XX1

INTRODUCTION.

*‘pouLUILoJap 9q LOSUOT OU Wed saTyTZUENb oy Yo waye} usoq Suravy sornp sys, x

8&8'686'G LG6‘GF OF | $06 SIT. GLE‘6IT 9¢9‘GOT GES" 6F6'T FPSTx
618'6F6'T 0G6'86 G6L | QO6‘TAT GO8‘66 GOS‘ 16 806‘T 9T8'‘T SPST
L68‘8F1'S CPS‘ SCT Ors GOS Eh P98‘ Eh 819‘ TOT 9FS'6 TSF'T GFST
090‘068‘T 9TO'T6T 06 868°¢0T 9F9'60T | TLP9E 860‘0% LETT TP8T
GLL 66P T 608 ‘09T = | 9PZ‘T9 666°L8 | GLP‘ Le L8UTL 6E¢ OFPST
968081‘ 6ST‘FTE 098 | 198‘60T 68S‘ LOT 66468 OLP' 1S 868'T 6E8T
FE0°G69'S GIS LET == | GLP'G9 CcST‘I8 G68 SIL LLOFEL | SFG G SE8T
PLY LIG‘S 8ES'FPP 03 | 61699 886°STT SEPEPL 89L‘8T OGLT LEST
FIG‘ FSS ‘S 868'699 OPS | SG Ior GLO‘86 909‘F9G GGa‘8P €F0'T 9E8T
PE8‘689'T 98T‘SIE 006 | L&P‘OS PGP‘0G T69°LOT TPSeT LIG'T GEST
GPS‘ OGF'T ESL‘ 9F9 G6G‘T 89€°90G $&o LP | S06‘FLT LUP‘GP FIST FECL
6F8'8S6'T 190°86 086 GGL'GLT 663'F6 | GOT'SG T02‘8 G68°S &68T
$96 69E'S GPG 'E9G = FLO ES3 some |) iesiag 8961 GOLSG GEST
PIS OLT'T 780'898 PoP G6 ‘0FG LIV‘8h =| = 6 O'STT GEeg'¢ G98‘ TEST
810‘9TE ‘T 981998 098 ST9‘9FS 69L> | G6IT'ShL TS9'F 1666 O&ST
L6F‘08S‘T 9G6 ‘193 026 G06‘SLG 968‘ 6T. GSO‘ L6 GSTS 06'S 6Z8T
T68‘9F6 TLS‘06G OST 616696 0966S 916°6S 9GL‘ST 09'S 8Z8T.
88P'684 6G1L,TST = GSP‘ G8G 002‘8 GOS‘8E 006‘6 919 LEST
FSG LGP 661 S6L = LGP‘GES 8se‘g Geg‘oT G1L8‘6 199 9Z8T
LEL‘ST9 040°00¢ = OST ‘08 O86‘EF 998‘LE 6¢0'0G L6G GZ8T
@98‘°909 LZ9°GTS OF FEE GEG LIP‘ST 9¢6'9¢ LLL‘GP FOGG PES
9OL‘T8G €99‘06F OF | 8L1‘906 008 GILG GLE‘LG 069‘T 6Z8T
TLE‘ PLS 66L'89P OZT | GP8‘6ET 060'F G6L‘TG ESE‘ 1G F16 GEST
GEG‘OLL TEL6 LLG = 10¢°GOL TOs 0Z0°GS ESP'GL 699 TZ8I
OSS‘STL OFS S66 = | LOL‘9PT O83 | O80°FF 8cc‘6 ¥8¢ OZST
Teanky HATPEL cian | “HOU ec ue a aaa SUPE SEE ft) | ea is

"Sun NVadouny dO SHILIGNVA()

XXil INTRODUCTION.

(QJUANTITIES OF AMERICAN

Coat Parchment

Beaver Beare Marten. Otter. Lynx. Fox.

1752 | 10,1438 | 33,675 | 24,639 | 1,296 4,009 913 670
1753 | 9,061 29,041 | 25,725 | 1,338 Yili) |) ato 712
1754 | 17,295 | 22,270 | 10,787 | 1,128 4,198 638 721
1755 | 7,441 27,755 9,671 IG 1,444 753 868

1756 | 7,825 | 25,042 6,050 | 1,192 838 | 1,222 847
1757 | 9,846 | 26,388 5,352 | 1,339 631 572 751
1758 | 8,000 | 22,886 7,882 | 1,305 917 352 652

1759 | 7,000 | 20,110 | 20,295 | 1,250 | 1,881: | 2,445 | 934
1760 | 9,900 | 23,196 | 22,465 | 1,514 | 3,842 | 4,755 | 871
1761 | 18,300 | 30,446 | 18,547 | 2,939 | 5,388 | 2,719 | 952
1762 | 13,000 | 36,265 | 13,389 | 2,557 | 5,820 | 2,057 |1,291
1763 | 9,353 | 24,881 | 17,332 | 1,478 | 6,000 | 2,207 |1,392
1764 | 10,500 | 23,088 | 11,814 | 1,553 | 3,005 | 2,892 | 843
1765 | 14,450 | 30,450 | 7,558 | 1,935 | 1,771 | 1,536 | 755
1766 | 10,400 | 28,536 | 8,066 | 2,144 | 1,188 | 2.445 | 486
1767 | 10,500 | 23,436 | 20,768 | 1,752 | 1,088 | 3,323 | 885
1768 | 6,300 | 17,950 | 19,949 | 1,438 | 1,128 | 1,146 | 473
1769 | 6,750 | 18,767 | 15,897 | 1,171 | 2,508 952 | 481
1770 | 9,500 | 25,273 | 26,047 | 1,296 | 4,012 | 3,583 | 604
1771 | 9,900 | 22,497 | 22.496 | 1,605 | 4,925 | 2196 | 938
1772 | 8,350 | 19,851 | 12,626 | 1,490 | 5,463 | 1,451 | 742
1773 | 5,700 | 17,689 | 9,891 | 1,579 | 2,301 | 1,552 | 570
1774 | 4,600 | 19,472 | 16,739 | 1,958 | 1,744 609 | 407
1775 | 4,050 | 16,668 | 19,742 | 1,698 705 | 911 | 451
1776 | 4,900 | 15,964 | 18148 | 1,773 | 1,157 674 | 337
1777 | 5,700 | 25,597 | 17,798 | 2,144 | 92,893 887 | 434
1778 | 4,300 | 20,033 | 16,730 | 1,584 | 2,478 558 | 199
1779 | 2,900 | 17,320 | 17,484 | 1,343 | 1,245 988 | 193
1780 | 7,070 | 26,867 | 22,060 | 2,401 | 3,168 | 2,188
1781 | 6,360 | 35,763 | 18,277 | 2,174 | 2,966 | 2,149 | 896
1782 | 2,050 | 18,752 | 7,466 | 2,306 | 1,553 593 | 121
1783 | 1,500 | 13,100 | 13,420 | 1,750 960 | 540 | 87

ive)
=
~

1784 | 2,500 | 15,500 | 13,800 | 1,400 980 440 90
1785 | 3,200 | 24,350 | 16,322 | 1,996 822 515 218
1786 | 3,950 | 25,095 | 23,865 | 2,145 801 999 234

1787 | 3,800 | 37,100 | 27,960 | 3,000 | 1,080 | 1,620 | 250
1788 | 2,900 | 38,320 | 25,070 | 2,940 | 2,050 | 1,440 | 270°
1789 | 4,900 | 41,690 | 23,901 | 2,674 | 1,550 | 3,778 | 242
1790 | 3,600 | 41,530 | 18,847 | 2,822 970 | 2,290 | 242
1791 | 5,276 | 49,738 | 20,954 | 3,701 | 1,603 | 5,823 | 202
1792 | 3,600 | 46,930 | 21,095 | 2,983 |- 1,400 | 6,000 | 300
1793 | 4,724 | 42,242 | 11,639 | 3,338 | 1,546 | 2,130 | 295
1794 | 4,024 | 39,517 | 8,627 | 3,787 989 | 1,837 | 296
1795 | 3,664 | 51,123 | 15,547 | 4,667 | 1,102 | 2,834 | 344
1796 | 2,516 | 48,697 | 25,787 | 4,364 | 1,149 | 2,683 | 312
1797 | 2,901 | 44,516 | 30,374 | 4,151 | 1,625 | 8,780 | 388
1798 | 2,595 | 43,418 | 18,488 | 4,006 | 1,541 {11,754 | 410
1799 | 1,728 | 39,995 | 22,875 | 3,997 | 2,269 | 7,440 | 397

INTRODUCTION.

Furs (Hupson’s Bay Co.). -

Wolf.

988
1,820
1,071
1,450
1,927
1,621
2,452
4,008
3,395
4,718
3,212
2,731
4,073
3,461
4,226
5,905
2,914
3,080

5,476

3,565
2,703
4,263
583
1,955
383
613
375
30
2.644
1,166
375
1,430
480
1,820
2,393
3,500
2,580
2,493
3,038
3,237
3,450
3,007
2,619
3,741
4,734
7,681
8,264
11,636

Mink.

233
88

147
120
133
302
307
174
160
129
94
116
168
163
192
290
197
263
221
218
150
200
150
188
371
380
366
464
308
567
388
323
384
876
1,035
1,145
1,148
1,240

Musk-rat.

(= |

553
285

Raccoon.

307
300
416
289

300
430
540
488
401
840
660
502
406
604
347
664
1,075
733
867
910

2,209

| 3,938

Elk and
Deer.

534
419

2,274
3,237
3,944
4,499
3,127
3,920
3,206
3,945
1,252

500
6,421 |
3,025 |

516

100

700
1,403
2,379
1,490
3,665
2,980
3,430
3,036
4,060
1,820
2,923
3,358
4,217
2.876
4,097

Rabbit,
Amer.

8,200
4,440
4,602
9,294
862
4,130
17,470
12,072
9,646
7,917
14,447

XXill

Fisher.

XX1V INTRODUCTION.

QUANTITIES OF AMERICAN Furs

| Coat

Beaver. parce Marten. | Otter. | Lynx. | Fox. bet er Bear. Wolf.
1800 | 1,668 | 85,0387 | 30,053 | 3,694| 3,708) 10,164) 495 605 | 5,693
1801 | 1,406 | 33,253 | 22,949) 3,486) 4,495 | 32,754 | 466 OA ol
1802 | 2,150 | 37,187 | 18,265) 3,911) 3,658 | 17,155 377 683 | 4,666
1803: | 1,642 | 32,127 | 9,898) 3,897) 2;083)| 17,624 365 607 | 4,035
1804 | 1,668 | Bile | 17,182 4,160 | 1,091 | 3,109) 358 560} 3,252
1805 | 1,862 | 28,083 | 22,318) 4,548 | 820 | 8,322! 356 529] 3,199
1806 | 1,011 | 20,732 | 40,182) 3,447) 1,052) 13,284) 313 566 4,260
1807 | 1,050 | 99,759 | 40,476) 4,320) 1,588} 3,052} 401 759 | 4,181
1808 | 1,684 | 32,884] 33,706) 5,077); 2,788] 3,741 163 1,060 3,704
1809 | 1,425 | 32,025) 2,350 | 866 QTT | 2,700 37 | 162 | 97
1810 | 1,274 | 28,720 | 5,807 | 8,206 | 7,029)) Tidal: 401 | 1,560 | 16,330
1811 | 1,060 | 15,524 | 11,3839) 3,044| 2,593) 2,019 155| 495 | 3,162
1812 | 1,525 | 41,873 94,495 | 6,492! 1,884 | 5,273 | 314) 1,036} 5,933
1813 672 | 18,066} 9,990) 3,425 167; 1,319) 163) 684 | 1,280
1814 462 | 17,356 | 93,106 | 3,947 122) 2,353 116 846 | 505
1815 698 | 10,3880 | 21,787 | 2,908 | 131) 8,802; 166 466 1,520
1816 een 11,243 | 116,628 | 9,997 116| 1,923 | 38 154 20
1817 651 | 27,815 | 56,648 | 5,837 347 | 3,704} 182) 1,094) 2,189
1818 551 | 25,493'| 65;1389)|) 73758 | 845 | 2,979] 9291 | 1,568 | 5,077
1819 ANSON aU Bion || Geetok |) ATI) Mais) BSL |). Dar 763 | 2,994
1820 281 | 15,683 | 62,411 | 83,747 | 2,901; 2,964 Q47 260 627
1821 297 | 20,565 | 69,995| 5,394) 4,128) 3,847 | 18 | 1,511 3
1822 210 | 59,847 | 87,884] 7,881) 8,986) 8,048 | 778 | 2,700 285
1823 706 | 46,202 | 62,861] 8,069; 7,173 5,119 5I9)) Q312a) 384
1824 | 1,309 | 76,060) 61,216 | 10,528! 6,456) 3,309| 631! 2,183 727
1825 | 800) 66,600} 61,520) 9,635) 5,1G4) 3,73 694 | 3,139 | 1,141)
1826 | 1,652 | 61,400} 88,839 | 7,895] 5,161 | 10,011 590 | 2,118} 1,568
1897} 472 | 51,195 | 105,561 | 9,051 | 7,254) 27757) 5il8 | 2:600) san0aT
1828 | | 57,200 | 83,417 | 10,552 | 11,550| 7,706} 402 | 2,999 | 1,269
1829 | | 65,614 | 73,860 | 11,192 | 20,558 | 4,122 454 1,941 1,261
1830 95,718 | 25,524) 3,795 | 24,611 | 4,534) 652)1/583| 2,196
HUSBHE | |b 87,000) 96,450 18,100 | 38,200 | 4,453 1,242 3,490) 3,140
1832 | lbs. | 70,100} 37,954 | 13,012 | 16,347 | 4,674 | 1,472 | 4,158 | 6,371

*1833 264 | 32,203 | 17,732| 5,442 870 522, 114 1,500 567
+1834 | 1,074 | 98,288 | 64,490 | 22,303 | 14,255 | 9,937 | 1,571 | 7,451 | 8/484
1835 | 860/'78,908| 61,005 | 15,487 | 6,990 | 15,694 | 1,265 | 4,197 3,722
+1886 | 239°) 51,788 | 56,893 | 10,208 | 4,440] 2.378 145 2,191 958
$1837 | 304 82,927 | 156,168 | 15,934 | 31,887 | 25,008 | 2,166 | 7,563) 7,031
18388 165 | 61,868 | 83,709 10,792 | 45,152 | 6,726 948 | 4,161! 1,875
1839 | 198 | 56,288) 63,129 9,465 66,691; 8,626 1,328 4,087 6,869
1840 220 | 55,431 | 56,860) 8,636 | 35,843 | 12,681 | 1,998 | 4,923) 8,185
1841 | 322) 50,900) 57,848) 7,153 | 45,143 | 8,407 | 2,034 | 5,409 9,550
1842 | 372 | 40,305 | 63,529 5,960 10,0384 | 7,115 | 1,647 5,576 | 8,696
1843 | 184) 39,086 70,532) 6,820) 8,247] 9,061 | 1,229 | 6,040 | 10,733
1844 | 409 | 38,252, 71,954) 6,971] 7,173 | 11,104 | 1,080 | 5,700 | 13,204
1845 484 | 41,111 103,621, 6,398 | 10,359 | 16,312 1,075 4,329 | 10,191
1846 190 | 65,189 | 148,670 | 8,168 | 21,180 | 12,597 938 | 6,339 | 8,522
1847 211 | 26,892 | 146,137 | 6,648 | 31,0627) 19,759 985 . 5,630 | 10,725
1848 | 137 | 40,845 | 115,323 9,266 47,065 | 20,219 | 1,126 | 6,003 | 7,969

* YF, MR not arrived this year.

+ Including YF, MR of 1833.

INTRODUCTION.

(Hupson’s Bay Co.)—continued.

Mink,

1,344
1,073
923
678
847
1,399
1,880
2,662
3,185
706
4,499
660
398
541
1,065
1,324
533
2.475
3,567
1,638
1,722
2.647
4,667
4,549
5,929
5,559
6,952
11,119
13,969
16,592
7,672
22,700
9,990
6,506
25,100
17,809
16,049
27,750
15,641
19,141
22,190
17,093
17,780
25,382
24.855
32,031
53,264
36,621
37,123

|
Musk-rat. |
|

Rac-
coon,

|
15,272 | 1,979
15,894 | 2,329

8,534 | 1,635
10,757 | 1,522
16,153 890
31,100 | 1,062
91,046 | 1,500 |
14,886 | 1,013
24,660 | 1,173 |
21,167 | 1,152 |
32,564 | 1,071
95,268 | 101
44.144| 168 |
80,381 96 |

138,772 46 |
99,534} 70
118:988") 22

154,070| 22
63,357 87
62,4311. 3..
66,236 | 300

113,914 | 350

156,279 | 290 |

217,646} 64

306,891} 51

235,000} 78

397,597 | 153

473,298 | 138

859,093 79

1,062,513 | 107

396,300} ...

728,000| 177

387,000 | 372
63,374 | 210

694,092 | 713

1,111,646 | 522
| 161,053 | 1,900 |

838,549 | 585 |

188,545 | 273 |

573,600 | 1,115

198,236 | 1,034

100,640 | 1,175

549,577 | 1,820

543,155 | 1,898

265,117 | 1,763

295,617 | 1,467 |

303,172 | 1,305

Elk and Rabbit,

248,710 | 1,140 | 1,971 | 25,840

224,347 | 2,091

| Fisher.| Swan.
i

578
393
418
762
228
211
417
502
714
164
980
614
570
317
550
338
51
395
962
802
779
879
1,805
1,289
1,688
1,820
1,440
1,325
1,321

| 1,482

974
3,400
2,970

682
5,296

| 2,479
| 1,435

| Deer. Amer.
| |
5,185 | 21,825 |
2,642 | 24,600 |
| 3,836 | 18,099 |
| 3,556 | 10,618 |
4,314} 9,856 |
4,992 | 28,048 |
4,441 | 34,746 |
4,059 | 54,336 _
5,339 | 25,914 |
45| 34,210 |
4,352 | 101,072 |
513 | 22,580 |
3,854 | 15,008 |
141] 2,506 |
324| 9,105 |
48| 19,855 |
: 19,427 |
35 | 77,052
772 | 14,268 |
49 | 16,955
258 | 19,682 |
300 16,650 |
992| 9,561 |
578 970
3,221 830
712 i
1,633) 2,330
1,000} 5,444
PUTO | 2:
3,340 |
1,330
|
2,492
| 3,790
| 3,790 |
| 2.161 |
306 | 285,607 |
3,518 | 29,006 |
1
2,395 |

| 6,115

3,590
4,962
6,401
5,293

4,040

4,302

4,504

4,678
5,805
5,269

5,894
|

168
435
396 |
1,192
1,067
1,652
4,631
517
588
4,305
3,884
3,835
25
3,670
2,463
279

713
8
447
1,507
3,377
3,911
5,817
5,052
4,307
3,734
5,636
3,559
4,994
7,918
4,703
12
6,600
3,251
2,704
2,129
2,002
1,940
2,456
2,576
2,453
1,922
1,573
1,522

XXV

Casto- Badger,
rum, | Amer.

773| 883
1,055 1,387
2,060 1,115
1,746 | 1,225
1,657 | 798
1,170| 769

+ YF not arrived this year.

§ Including YF of 1836.

XXV1 INTRODUCTION.

QUANTITIES OF AMERICAN FuRS

| |
| Wolver-

25 ;
33 pent | Marten. | Otter. | Lynx. Fox. | "ine, Bear. Wolf. Mink.
a) |
1849 | 135} 32,502] 65,558 | 11,810 | 43,253 | 15,977 | 1,465 6,342 | 12,045 | 34,712
1850 |452| 49,517} 66,069} 9,155 | 20,604 | 10,842 | 1,454) 5,876] 9,783] 24,772
1851 | 147] 62,130} 80,005} 8,296) 9,303 | 12,107 | 1,374] 6,021] 8,087) 17,827
1852 | 61] 52,430} 90,633) 9,221] 6,722) 17,070 ‘1,508; 8,340] 8.558] 27,413
1853 | ... | 60,691} 85,603 | 12,318] 4,850 | 14,883 | 1,104| 6,864] 7,228] 39,686
1854 | ... | 62,914 | 127,019 | 11,385 | 4,907 | 16,003 | 1,036 | 6,612 | 13,830] 49,373
1855 | ... | 72,425 | 177,052 | 10,223 | 10,764 | 23,620 | 1,052 | 9,027) 8,515} 58,628
1856 | ... | 76,825 | 175,494 | 13,992 | 21,511 | 25,178 | 1,065 8,814] 9,499] 54,994
1857 |... | 86,414 | 132,752 | 12,433 | 32,264 | 25,271 | 933! 17,326] 17,451) 65,522
1858 | ... | 94,053 | 136,451 | 13,011 | 33,038 | 22,882 | 1,099 | 8,259 | 12,834| 73,066
1859 | ... | 106,797 | 120,430 | 12,454 | 27,460 | 24,816 | 1,319] 8,589] 8,781] 55,720
1860 | ... | 107,745 | 77,844 | 13,664 | 15,968 | 20,801 | 1,394 7,654) 5,980] 32,548
1861 | ... | 105,562] 74,062 | 14,205 | 17,927 | 16,809 | 1,547] 7,487] 8,909] 38,306
1862 | ... | 109,636} 78,039 | 13,659} 4,616 | 17,479 |1,295| 7,086| 3,904] 45,534
1863 | ... | 127,674 | 105,659 | 14,527 | 4,570 | 21,774 | 1,374 7,792} 8,204] 59,599
*1864 | ... | 118,118 | 115,480 | 12,606 | 4,760 | 17,670 | 1,212} 7,349] 5,497] 63,724
+1865 | ... | 155,880 | 145,889 | 19,991 | 17,044 | 22,344 | 1,057| 8,249} 12.378] 49,349
1866 | ... | 150,192 | 115,560 | 14,626 | 34,732 | 25,829 | 706) 17,687] 6,610) 53,1138
1867 | ... | 145,654 | 96,114 | 14,609 | 68,097 | 42,912 | 927] 6,360] 7,427) 73,752
1868 | ... | 158,110 | 163,088 | 12,673 | 70,372 | 48,836 | 1,643 | 8,116] 9,318] 81,769
1869 | ... | 129,039 | 67,072 | 11,818 | 39,119 | 28,542 | 1,396) 8,600] 5,047) 35,081
1870 | ... | 178,181} 50,193 | 12,623 | 19,992 | 17,797 | 1,824 | 7,778) 5,169] 28184
1871 | ... | 174,461 | 54,333 | 12,778 | 8,806 | 15,861 |1,747| 7,830] 8,701] 35,660
1872 | ... | 157,764 64,587 | 11,431 | 5,679 | 25,400 | 1,637 | 9,357] 7,016) 44,352
*1873 | ... | 105,369} 62,488] 8,875} 4,839 | 20,501 |1,761) 6,884) 3,470) 55,496
+1874 |"... | 139,393 | 125,733 | 11,766 | 10,045 | 23,552 | 1,386 7,163) 2,565} 63,810
1875 | ... | 129,976} 87,803 | 12,414 | 17,849 | 20,555 | 1,265} 6,499] 2,417] 83,319.
1876 | ... | 126,959} 84,439 | 11,559 | 18,868 | 20,145 | 1,282 | 7,737| 2,071] 79,206
1877 | ... | 145,706 | 83,835 | 12,278 | 43,575 | 52,693 | 1,881 | 8,680} 3,128] 90,080
1878 | ... | 147,263 | 55,439 | 13,201 | 37,490 | 26,168 | 2,000| 7,565| 2,575] 63,318
1879 | ... | 182,099 | 52,578 | 9,988 | 21,291 | 22,594 | 1,909] 7,557] 4,813) 36,360
1880 | ... | 120,836 | 46,529 | 10,124 | 14,767 | 18,437 | 2,322 | 8,336] 3,032] 38,828
1881 | ... | 119,698} 54,370 | 10,317 | 10,053 | 14,855 | 1,621 | 7,862| 1,486} 40,834
1882 | ... | 118,728) 66,821 | 12,292) 7,581 | 14,545 | 1,881 | 9,139| 2,081) 56,882
1883 | ... | 104,459} 70,802} 9,207} 8,016 | 13,333 | 1,568] 5,515] 1,555) 52,958
*1884 | ... | 119,549) 78,755 | 12,270 | 27,119 | 6,969 | 1,528 | 10,808 | 1,820 | 110,610
§1885 | ... | 102,589 | 78,857 | 10,867 | 51,414 | 19,039 | 1,198 | 8,386) 1,226] 76,393

| 1886 ... | 83,589 | 50,842] 8,322 | 73,878 | 19,947 | 1,244 8,283] 1,161] 64,215
SSS (lee: 102,745 72,939 | 11,597 | 78,555 | 35,157 | 2,489 | 9,763

| | 4,749 | 82,941
1888 | ... | 33,061] 64,179 | 8,748 | 33,720 | 27,611 | 2,020 9,139| 3,380] 43,641
1889 |. | 73,355| 72,713 | 9,280 | 18,726 | 18,649 | 2,243 | 11,643) 2,495 | 35,400
**1890 | ... | 64,246] 64,689] 8,180 11,445 22,017 | 1,888 | 10,542| 4,937 | 29,363

* MM, EM not arrived this year. + Including M2 EM, of 1864. t Including MR, EM of 1873.
4 Part of YF not imported. Cam Owens wrecked.

INTRODUCTION. XXVU

(Hupson’s Bay Co.)—continued.

a gll| Casto- : ql
monet. | Jes, | Ryeamt) ane | ime.) swan, |‘, adger|suunes] Hale | ue
179,075 | 1,289 653 | 24,301 | 7,500 } 1,510 | 1,796 | 1,140} 1,263) 1,308
192,261 | 1,442} 1,326; 15,621 | 6,522 | 1,016 | 1,728 738 Ses 1,064
991,281 | 1,712 “ee 26,781 | 5,027 | 1,093 | 1,264 | 1,471 | 1,453 129
488,238 | 1,633 abe 54,827 | 6,053 | 1,009 | 2,888 | 1,710] 1,618 953
527,161 } 1,481 we 82,430 | 5,218 | 1,304 | 2,849 956 | 4,459} 1,750
819,444 | 1,052 459 | 82,814 | 4,049 | 1,233 | 3,009 900 | 5,959 | 2,404
260,805 } 1,978 283 | 91,316 | 5,333 | 1,043 | 3,230) 1,240] 11,318} 92,777
995,847 | 1,370 58 | 70,685 | 5,618 646 | 3,179 999 |} 7,728} 5,365
811,953 | 1,929 149; 84,489 | 5,643 775 | 3,994 | 1,185 | 8,124] 8,368

243,862 | 2,140] 2,687] 95,534| 6,258] 802] 3,976/1,369| 8,483 | 14,002
206,156 | 1,959| 3,081] 62,543 | 7,683] 840] 4,181 | 1,773} 9,970 | 12,761
205,471 | 2,560) 2,713] 29,590 | 6,415 | 1,028 | 4,573 | 1,213 | 3,674 | 12,095
330,527 | 2,871| 2,242] 15,409 | 5,984 | 1,028 | 4,046 | 1,091 | 3,204 | 17,833
356,789 | 3,376| 4,279] 18,516 | 5,822] 864] 3,10311,642| 1,908 | 14,250
429,304 | 3,980| 10,491] 39,258] 5,036] 851 | 4,075 |1,295| 2,332 | 16,692
367,302 | 2,384| 3,200] 5,052/ 4,715] 771 | 2,942] 1,562] 2,063] 15,145
494,875 | 4,150] 3,825 | 155,46115,310| 387] 5,335 | 1,235| 2,765 | 16,331
312,543 | 4,832| 3,715 | 144,519/ 4,432] 98915,298| 618] 2,755 | 14,931
610,280 | 24,783 | 4,170 | 106,279 | 5,951| 247 | 3,082] 1,644 6,067 | 14,845
469,775 | 5,811] 6,851] 45,9091 7,376| 725/8,674| 1,781] 6,115| 9,654
275,963 | 4,887| 8,744| 22,.668|8,917] 303] 4,664/ 2,288] 7,062] 3,062
436,509 | 2,411| 9,480 631 | 6,349 | 2,596 | 6,142 | 1,986] 3,293| 2,729
590,916 | 2,967| 6,444] 3,070|6,509| 307] 3,547] 2,974| 2,621] 9,821
711,174 | 1,630] 9,032] 9,93214,348| 305] 3,195 |2,786| 2,162] 3.445]...
659,159 | 3,582| 6,858} 6,434/3,271| 271/3,209/ 1,512! 1,206] 8,775] 891
474,942 | 3,114] 6,995] 60,520/ 3,272] 266]1,923|1,870} 1,789] 6,125| 2,344
626,711 | 7,193 | 12,058} 49,053 | 3,274! 303] 2,911 | 2,280| 2,644 | 12,848 | 2,447
583,319 | 2,147 | 11,229] 50,934/3,262| 303/1,277| 2,973] 2,444] 3.565] 316
464,297 | 999 | 13,623 | 104,123 | 5,706| 164/1,610| 2,474] 6,919! 4,435] 813
511,993 | 506} 9,506} 87,722|5,750| 123] 1,400] 2,031| 8,263] 3,401] 1,779
519,963 | 607| 6,700] 65,585|5,155| 188] 2,951/2,866| 8,140] 7,077] 1,136
830,100 | 813] 6,433] 17,593] 4,987] 250] 2,516|1,867| 6,768] 5,720} 3,308
1,028,187 | 534) 5,056] 10,950|5,171| 198] 3,286/ 1,428} 5,239| 2,192] 3,085
1,081,489 | 803] 2,922] 17,830| 4,977} 22211,571| 1,499] 7,163] 5,963] 5,633

1,082,999 354. Ste 13,595 | 3,784 | 112) 2,640) 746] 6,393) 1,896 134
817,003 142 tes 13,072 | 4,170} 246] 2,020 | 1,330 | 12,628 380 573
347,050 124 Sh 45,118 | 4,029 91 | 3,082 | 1,473 | 21,189; 2,824 6
880,022 825 | 1,553 | 53,522 | 4,492 57 | 1,450} 749] 10,926) 4,284 | 2,071
344,818 239 af 136,726 | 6,188 | 134 | 2,501 | 1,109 | 16,322 | 1,652] 2,095

223,615 217 803 | 137,685 | 5,387} 109/ 2,033) 777 | 11,298) 1,278} 2,588
322,360 153 92} 94,150 | 6,530 93 | 2,372 | 1,301 | 10,747 | 1,632 482
574,742 172 150 | 36,286 | 5,658 38 | 1,646 | 2,445 | 12,583 | 2,195 279

§ Including VR, EM of 1884. No MR, EM of 1885; lost at sea.
§ With part of YF 1886. ** Part of YF not imported.

XXVI1 INTRODUCTION.

QUANTITIES OF AMERICAN FuRS

Beaver. Bear. Otter. | Fisher. | Marten. | Wolf. oe

1763 | 75,040 | 8,340 8,060 | 2,800 | 42,247 | 608 59
1764 | 88,000 5,000 7,000 | 3,000 | 30,000 | 200} 100
1765 | 66,664 4,540 6,126 | 1,183 | 22,340 | 287 57
1766 | 92.295 8,902 | 10,669 | 3,816 | 35,085 | 324] 104
1767 | 75,905 6,625 | 12,383 | 3,486 | 57,871 | 694| 148
1768 | 55,064 6,582 7,773 | 1,895 | 44,490 | 646 74
1769 | 91,388 | 13,982 | 11,753 | 2,688 | 59,050] 1,059 | 211
1770 | 97,182 | 11,201 | 12,000 | 4,345 | 48098°| 815 | 118
1771 | 95,288 6,872 | 12,876 | 3,983 | 51,381 | 1,234 | 172
1772 | 107,829 9,289 | 13,410 | 3,123 | 45,980 | 2,380 | 337
1773 | 94,681 3,429 | 14,176 | 2.912 | 29,841
1774 | 98,827 5,912 | 14,737 | 2,899 | 38,263 | 5,332 | . 358
1775 | 97,148 | 11,292 | 14,668 | 3,884 | 47,840 | 5,393 | 324
1776 | 92,612 6,169 | 11,953 | 3,397 | 56,787 | 8,279 | 3238
1777 | 120,800 | 11,530 | 19,250 | 3,740 | 43,320 | 5,550 | 360
1778 | 109,000 | 12,100 | 14,600 | 3,000 | 45,500 | 6,700 | 400
1779 | 97,000 | 14,000 | 13,600 | 4,100 | 35,000 | 6,300 | 200
1780 | 101,500 | 10,000 | 16,000 | 4,200 | 37,000 | 6,300 | 200
1781 | 91,500 | 5,500 | 13,000 | 2,300 | 22,000 | 5,400 | 180
1782 | 116,000 | 9,550 | 15,100 | 3,300 | 24,000 | 2,900 | 220
1783 | 105,000 | 12,500 | 19,700 | 3,700 | 43,300 | 5,750 | 300
1784 | 126,600 | 14,200 | 21,900 | 4,100 | 42,300 | 7,200 | 300
1785 | 121,000 | 12,400 | 19,600 | 4,500 | 36,000 | 7,700 | 350
1786 | 116,000 | 17,000 | 22,700 | 4,000 | 47,000 |13,000 | 500
1787 | 140,000 "| 18,200 | 32,800 | 6,800 | 73,000 | 9,700 | 700
1788 | 127,000 | 14,000 | 19,300 | 4,600 | 52,000 | 9,500 | 450
1789 | 164,823 | 16,331 | 21,303 | 5,547 | 32,341 | 5,890 | 537
1790 | 161,500 | 16,000 | 21,000 | 5,500 | 33,000 | 5,800 | 550
1791 | 173,500 | 14,600 | 22,500 | 6,000 | 37,000 | 9,600 | 650
1792 | 165,000 | 20,000 | 21,000 | 6,300 | 61,000 | 8,300 | 750
1793 | 172,000 | 19,700 | 21,600 | 5,700 | 25,000 | 9,700 | 700
1794 | 152,800 | 17,200 | 47,200 | 4,800 | 37,000 | 7,600 | 950
1795 | 144,000 | 15,000 | 18,500 | 6,200 | 45,000 | 5,700 | 950
1796 | 130,500 | 15,800 | 16,700 | 3,700 | 31,000 | 6,700 | 950 -
1797 | 56,000 8,800 | 9,500 | 3,600 | 35,000 | 4,000} 450
1798 | 110,000 | 17,000 | 14,500 | 5,500 | 45,000 | 8,700 | 750
1799 | 114,200 | 21,000 | 16,000 | 5,400 | 34,500 | 5,900] 780
1800 | 129,200 | 24,500 | 18,000 6,000 | 40,000 | 2,400 | 1,000
1801 | 116,500 | 22,600 | 21,000 | 5,300 | 23,000 | 3,000 | 1,300
1802 | 140,000 | 17,000 | 19,000 | 6,300 | 20,000 | 4,600 | 1,400
1803 | 93,200 | 23,000 | 17,000 | 7,000 | 32,000 | 5,600 | 1,400
1804 | 110,000 | 17,600 | 20,000 | 6,000 | 25,000 | 8,200 | 1,300
1805 | 91,300 | 19,300 | 15,000 | 4,300 | 13,800 | 4,600 | 1,000
1806 | 106,000 | 16,000 | 12,000 | 7,000 | 54,000 | 1,000 | 200
1807 | 114,000 | 10,500 8,400 | 5,400 | 46,000 |...

1808 | 94,200 1,300 7,000 | 3,900 | 10,000 |... a
1809 | 101,800 550 6,200 | 3,000 300 |... 450
1810 | 101,100 8,000 3,500 | 2,600 500 50 | 550

INTRODUCTION.

(UntreED Srates, CANADA, ETC.).

Fox.

2.300
6,500
1,840 |
1,723 |
2,764 |
1,010 |
3,345
2.521
3,386 |
3,096
3,300 |
3.431
6,006
4,488 |

10,480 |

10,600.

12,000 |

13,000
9,500 |

13,400 |
5,200
7,800
6,000
6,000

13,900
7,000
8,540
8,500

11,000

12,000
8,500
6,100
8,600
8,000
9,600

11,000 |
7,800

14,000

29,000 |

13,090

10,000
9,000
9,100,

10,000
1,500
1,000

200
800

Raccoon.

39,000
37,000
54,951

101,066 |
56,750 |

38,316
117,307

52,504 |
43,025 |

51,503
37,468
40,157
14,586
72,538
198,500
173,000
125,000
19,700

85,000 |
80,500 |

95,000

173,600 |

96,000
105,000
145,000
114,000
161,180
161,000
178,000
182,000
187,000
130,000
125,000
130,500
109,000
185,000

130,000 |

108,000 |

95,000

145,000 |

150,000
180,000
124,000
125,000
80,000
123,000
47,000
39,000

| Musk-rat.

6,080
12,000
32,099
47,011
17,644
15,826
25,826
29,769
30,204
25,022
34,229
52,712
54,451
40,654
44,180
66,800
62,000
64,000
73,000
50,400
69,000
87,800

133,000

190,000

269,000
31,000

201,840

200,000

147,000

138,000
29,000
16,000
82,000
93,000
80,000
50,000

6.000
12,000

25,000
76,000
93,000
66,100
15,500
1,000
5,400
15,000
9,000

Elk.

1,568

700
1,038
2,078
3,348
7,079
5,788
4,050
6,594
3,070

4,633 |

7,815
7,868
4,675
8,200
4,000
5,500
5,800
5,700
5,600
7,500
8,800
6,000
19,000
6,700
4,040
1,000
2,000
1,000
600
250
600
00
300
800
1,000
700
1,200
1,400
600
1,100
1,200
800
1,050
600
860
500

XXIX

N.A. Deer.

6,511
3,000
2,917
8,670
4,808
6,282

15,828
17,695
32,565
46,470
28,734
55,769
85,130
89,199

125,510

130,000

116,000

138,000

71000. | 1_--
2.000

95,000
123,000
227 000
158,000
117,000
142,000
140,000

94,000

86,000
129,000
125,000
130,000
165,000
168,000

80,000
153,000
160,000
197,000
215,000
152,000
204,000
246,000
207,500
216,000
163,000
103,500

81,600

83,000

1,500

1,200

1,000
1,000
1,000
1,400
1,500
2,000
4,000
4,000
6,000
3,000
5,000
2,000
2,000
1,500

200
1,600
2,500
1,000

400

200
1,300

300

700

600

150
100

XXX INTRODUCTION

Quantities oF AMERICAN Furs

Wel: Lynx. Mink. Fox. |Raccoon.

Beaver. | Bear. | Otter. | Fisher. Marten. | Wolf. veri
1811 | 80,000 400 | 2,200 | 2,500 oss fs ae seer al 300 | 28,000
1812 | 93,000 | 4,500 | 7,800 | 1,100 600} ... {1,500} 7,800 3: 4,800} 1,000
1813 | 70,000 | 7,000 | 7,500 | 2,300 5,200} 800) 4,000 200 | 1,800 Ae

1814 | 67,000 | 2,600 | 7,000 | 4,600 | 25,000| 200} 450) 1,700' 4,000| 1,800] 3,000
1815 | 57,500 | 2,500 | 5,600 | 2,500) 36,000} 100] 100} 200! 4,610} 3,000 | 19,000
1816 | 40,600 | 7,000 | 9,500 | 3,500 | 30,000 1,000} 200 2,300) 9,000/ 4,000 | 45,000
1817 | 55,000 | 3,400 | 7,200 | 3,700 | 67,000 |3,100 |" 850 | 2,700| 7,500 | 3,700 | 15,000
| 55,000 | 3,800} 9,600 | 3,900) 84,000 |2,000 | 300} 4,000! 9,000! 3,600 | 15,000
1819 51,000 | 5,500 10,000 | 4,000 | 76,000 1,800} 500 6,000) 11,000 6,000 | 30,000
1820 | 56,000 | 3,000 | 6,000 | 2,400 |105,000 2,600} 400 | 6,200| 7,500| 6,000 | 15,300
1821 58,300 | 7,000 | 8,500 | 4,000! 80,000 |1,100 | 400 10,000 | 11,000 | 13,000 |143,000
1822 | 65,652 | 6,572 | 9,471 | 3,855 |103,098 |1,109 | 394 12,230 | 31,435 | 15,202 [151,622
1823 | 10,016 | 4,063 | 3,096 | 3,474 | 26,254| 31] 33] 3,946| 24,149 |18,072 | 79,390
1824 | 2,616] 3,519| 1,740 | 5,440| 38,898] 146] 6] 5,913/ 19,837! 9,031 | 42,834
1825 | 9,677 | 9,006 | 2,600 | 5,824 | 38,054] 521! 12/| 7,148] 42,617 | 22,131 | 52,643
1826 | 5,923 | 9,851 | 3,899 | 5,829] 63,812] 900] 43! 7,120] 55,901 | 34,703 | 83,257
1827 | 4,906 | 5,958 | 2,524 | 6,847 | 42,451| 149] 12] 5,190) 44,963 |18,810 | 76,405
1828 | 12,581 | 9,640 | 1,440 | 5,681 | 82,257] 194| 37) 6,108| 64,855 |39,817 | 79,415
9,388 |10,616 | 4,148 | 5,518} 66,738] 299] 28/ 5,968) 60,560 | 15,740 [110,340
1830 | 7,332 |12,730 | 7,510] 7,140 | 82,256] 750| 16} 9,220! 90,550 |52,990 [172,470
1831 | 12,002 | 8,789 | 3,624 | 8,920] 78,800] 727] 25 | 9,420 |102,882 |53,648 |209,497
1832 | 5,753 |13,569 | 4,160 [11,143 | 57,151; 829] 7] 8318] 95,712 | 67,647 [347,552
1833 17,871 |20,387 | 5,645 | 6,215 | 53,687 |2,400 | 188 16,940 | 93,216 | 69,730 |363,288
1834 | 13,641 |13,707 | 3,920 | 6,003 | 59,240 |2,370| 557 | 5,529] 96,550 |71,425 |219,164
1835 | 3,318] 7,590| 2,922| 5,700 | 51,425 60 | 2,486 |116,447 | 61,994 |274,651

| 4,460 | 9,974 | 2,840} 4,832 | 53,814 |1,720| 25 8,982 104,471 | 62,099 |273,510
17,065 | 4,202 |10,848 | 5,587 | 55,780 1,750! 15] 9,350] 78,689 |68,458 |204,106
1838 | 10,559 | 5,080 | 9,283 | 5,130) 56,245 |1,442| 11) 6,766 | 75,823 | 58,375 |177,017
1839 | 9,024 | 5,204 | 1,380} 4,350] 71,300 1,750] 10/ 8,725 | 95,700 |52,249 |250,100
1840| 975} 4,819] 7,359] 3,486] 58,900 |1,112| 14 8,982 |101,450 | 41,041 |283,088
1841 | 6,587 | 6,360} 8,720] 6,135 | 46,150 |3,300| 15 14,210 [116,400 | 61,549 |357,200
1842} 5,638 | 6,417 | 7,136 | 6,130 | 39,650 5,460| 34 | 9,580 |121,500 | 63,316 |340,200
1843 | 12,022 | 5,205 | 7,550| 4,994 | 37,963 2,090] ... | 5,077 [118,860 | 67,162 |392,474
1844 | 7,361 | 6,152] 6,240 | 5,370! 31,299] 375 3,852 |107,872 | 59,495 |420,759
1845 | 2.433 4,485 | 7,028 | 6,197 | 43,107 1,553 748 |156,976 | 72,663 |406,709

—
(0.0)
part
@

a
(oa)
bo
Ke)

&
oS
re
=

pr
loo}
Oo
“4

1846 | 4,181 | 7,316 | 9,993 | 6,949 | 41,939 |3,690| ... | 854 |192,294 | 72,631 |486,767
1847 | 2,692| 4,471 | 5,269 | 6,398 | 37,697 |1,120| ... | 880 178,688 |54,356 [423,757
1848| 709] 3,269| 4,477| 5,066| 38,892} 84] ... | 627 |190,133 |48,949 /493,519

3,208 |184,847 | 61,114 |434,878
3,386 |167,675 | 62,535 |507,142
5,465 |207,422 | 55,160 |551,140

1849| 416] 3,719} 5,426| 3,899) 39,894 |1,834 |
1850| 1,829| 3,666 | 3,031 | 5,437 | 27,294] 9235
1851| 800 3,528| 3,815| 4,998/ 18,191

1852 850 | 4,136 | 4,604 | 3,396 | 27,171| 207] ... | 5,968 |181,712 | 59,985 |560,544
1853 | 3,211 | 2,921 | 3,208] 3,584 |- 15,499] ... |... 728 |193,005 | 68,023 507,061
1854 | 3,204 | 3,220} 5,166] 2,588). 9,787] ... ... | 1,151 |153,798 | 47,030 |485,022
1855 | 6,681 | 3,808 | 6,263 | 3,400} 15,090) ... ae 750 141,987 | 54,013 |497,347
1856 | 12,256 | 3,461 | 5,592 | 2,677} 15,966] ... ... | 1,207 | 70,075 | 61,035 |437,038
1857 | 10,087 | 3,644 | 4,787 | 3,961} 15,731] ... ace 776 | 79,698 | 70,394 |475,909
1858 | 12,050 | 3,596 | 6,150 | 3,218 | 15,338 |2,073 | ... | 1,997 |100,596 | 95,707 |467,522
1859 | 18,120 | 4,758 | 9,184 | 5,286 | 13,295 |1,885] ... | 3,942 | 30,805 | 77,219 |581,025
1860 | 28,040 | 4,320 |12,671 | 4,943 | 21,555] ... 4,067 | 99,891 | 75,649 |611,018

1861| 8,458 | 2,132] 8,586 | 3,342/ 17,3385] ... | ... | 2,059] 70,218 | 62,914 |527,054

INTRODUCTION.

(Unrtep StaTEs, Canapa, ETC.)—continued.

XXRI

Musk-rat.

1,000
21,000

68,000 | .

29,000
16,000
172,000
197,000
28,000
268,000
44,000
6,836
41,026
67,661
46,416
178,890
6,749
99,661
103,150
16,305
12,160
12,590
97,466
47,279
68,332
88,264
146,233
405,779
306,515
193,400
117,922
74,294
229,296
921,532
701,284
891,674
460,920
389,455

- 674,740
690,635
1,101,640
1,146,102
1,266,811
1,163,893
1,472,319
933,166
894,075
904,016
1,209,744
1,657,438
1,622,972

Elk.

360

100
24
65
85

282
16

167

324

444

262

140

158

221

191

158

129

381

189

113

145

227

ig)

290

470

200

he. .
COS
Or

No record
kept.

NecA.
Deer.

80,000
5,000
37,000
44,000
26,000
35,000
57,000
125,000
152,000
85,000
54,000
69,710
47,866
78,692
65,639
164,757
132,638
58,509
140,900
139,170
179,350
83,015
159,021
180,186
221,573
199,300
162,798
124,358
98,621
200,454
214,183
163,039
120,773
100,115
160,479
114,049
92,957

77,568 |

29,414
52,767
84,502
53,936
38,641
29,479
16,979
64,187
58,099
48,469
18,788
19,961
14,741

Cas-

torum. |Swan. |

lbs.

12,000
500
500

1,100
1,500

163

No record kept from this date.

4,500
4,400
5,000
6,000
4,000
6,000
300
800
3,200
533
101
270

No record kept.

Cat,
Common

|
|
|

3,220
2,066
5,328
5,025
958
2,826
| 3,473
6,058
9,544
6,125
5,427
5,050
9,751
8,211
6,613
6,338
10,807
8,524
8,706

Chinchilla

88,456
161,894
176,698
226,444
213,532

85,580

66,807
101,602
100,477

80,988

48,072

57,573

50,347
107,997
119,442
146,102

62,551

43,609

52,356

Ameri- | pur
can m| Seal
Opossum -

31,263 |12,391

.. (13,915
... | 9,348
14,444 |16,193
14,334 | 9,714
... {18,199
13,119 (29,464
83,807 |20,641
55,303 | 9,423
17,387 [19,504
41,508 |14,476

100, 295 |13,231

52,284 |24,341

African
Monkey

17,688
5,675
3,885

20,162

19,869
3,642

20,116

38,692

61,653

Skunk,

10,131
76,403
138,376
112,935

XXXI1 INTRODUCTION.
Quantities oF AMERICAN Furs

Date | | | Wol- |

of Beaver. | Bear. | Otter. | Fisher. Marten.) Wolf. | ver- | Lynx. Musk. Fox Raccoon.
Year. ine.
1862 | 9,004 | 2,272} 8,202 | 3,536 | 22,260 2,668 | 32,483 | 43,159 | 476,317
1863 | 9,192! 3,760} 17,359 | 2,997 | 21,651 3,241 | 33,647 | 62,626 | 475,637
1864 | 14,035 | 4,459! 6,566 | 2,714 | 21,437 2,293 | 38,884 | 52,286 | 489,021
1865 | 6,998} 4,140] 5,781 | 1,560 | 16,988 1,776 | 17,948 | 44,698 | 437,763
1866 4,779 | 3,361 | 2,427/1,725| 8,924 4,019 7,056 | 38,418 | 383,346
1867 | 8,931 | 3,630} 4,707 | 3,690 | 23,785 19,764 | 25,304 |121,101 | 526,881
1868 | 5,292 3,326] 4,502 | 2,513 | 21,037 9,468 | 29,429 | 87,395 | 285,735
1869 | 8,945 | 3,387 | 6,548 | 4,982 | 24,258 ae 10,779 | 24,900 | 99,408 | 384,805
1870 52,526 | 4,024 | 17,169 | 3,785 | 31,532 38 32 |11,830 |) 33,935 | 77,493 | 418,405
1871 | 40,891 ; 4,046 | 5,012 | 4,335 | 29,515 | 2,606 | 232) 9,467 | 12,201} 66,390 | 406,749
1872 | 55,134 | 6,028} 5,759 | 3,632 | 31,487 | 1,783] ... 982 | 104,045 117,186 | 457,686
1873 | 63,781 | 6,198 | 8,037 | 3,351 | 30,734 | 2,208 | 132] 2,441} 51,509 | 90,726 | 458,933
1874 | 60,694 | 4,907 | 5,727 | 3,244 | 31,672 |10,897 21 | 3,422} 48,912 | 94,415 | 395,178
1875 | 48,983 | 5,624 | 8,248 | 3,820 | 34,064 | 3,351 23 | 3,659 | 37,889 |119,506 | 439,789
1876 | 37,670 | 6,026 | 6,689 | 2,810 | 30,503 | 6,728 3,668 | 72,448 | 92,215 | 514,863
1877 | 44,057 | 7,043 | 7,074 | 3,218 | 39,589 | 5,890] ... | 9,323 | 115,943 | 86,726 525,344
1878 | 33,258 | 7,063 | 6,039 | 2,424 | 21,390 | 8,884} 195] 4,824 | 103,152 | 72,839 | 382,074
1879 | 36,861 | 7,347 | 12,102 | 4,009 | 48,216 | 3,091 | 224 |10,063 | 160,481 |116,373 | 546,104
1880 | 52,641 | 6,815 | 7,749 | 2,872 | 32,548 6,836 | 268 |10,587 | 178,339 | 97,300 | 660,269
1881 | 58,241 | 8,364 | 9,019 | 4,738 | 36,172 | 2,248 | 597 | 7,374 | 170,620 | 99,363 | 632,270
1882 | 49,995 | 8,449 | 10,940 | 2,958 | 40,843 | 2,289 273 | 4,769 | 200,799 |104,580 | 566,269
1883 | 33,266 | 7,574 | 6,704 | 2,704 | 33,724 988 |1,562 | 3,452 | 127,701 |104,486 | 401,536
1884 | 21,308 | 7,016 | 8,144 | 2,708 | 34,382 524 | 778} 2,926 | 277,383 124,312 | 710,929
1885 | 20,670 | 8,884 | 7,139 | 2,148 | 27,354 273 | 419 | 4,116 | 226,272 | 97 423 | 595,101
1886 | 14,611 | 9,058 | 10,062 | 3,297 | 51,873 | 1,826 | 460] 8,090 | 331,120) 74,143 | 486,201
1887 | 27,272 | 8,423 | 6,349 | 2,700 | 49,168 | 6,420} 496 | 7,629 | 314,726 |127,510 | 399,352
1888 | 21,667 | 6,604 |} 4,292 | 2,495 | 31,057 | 5,727 | 441) 8,938 | 239,126 | 86,337 | 360,298
1889 | 23,963 '10,564 | 8,272 | 3,387 | 34,028 | 6,858 |1,131 | 7,024 | 166,803 |123,373 | 579,551
1890 | 17,798 | 9,355 | 8,595 | 2,391 | 29,111 |10,258 | 682] 4,092 | 366,107 |113,938 | 705,559
1891 | 11,693 |12,795 | 17,3834 | 2,955 | 38,412 10,000} 738 | 6,496 | 173,389 |106,755 | 549,180

INTRODUCTION. XXXL

(UnireD Srates, Canapa, ETC.)—continued.

1,762,742 | 6,354 | 3,687 | 71,995 | 24,427 | 31,949 | 42,447 | 27,765
1,893,898 {20,509 | 5,355 | 37,786 | 89,579 | 27,986 | 32,806 | 92,279
1,919,666 |26,523 | 3,305 | 72,266 | 116,288 | 20,326 | 16,652 |133,939
1,989,297 |17,149 | 3,008 | 39,877 | 134,721 | 17,259 | 18,324 |101,692
1,265,164 | 2,208 | 4,752 | 80,974 | 218,144 | 19,844 | 31,249 | 73,837
9,470,917 | 7,865 | 7,940 | 60,332 | 267,570 | 15,697! 28,241 |134,652
2,478,887 |12,284 | 5,589 |107,567 | 160,133 | 83,941 | 13,094 | 88,413
2,679,302 |11,230 | 6,460 | 43,826 | 166,752 149,808 | 14,104 |104,886
3,361,874 | 3,145 | 8,538 | 39,060 | 115,181 |153,654 ; 10,098 |107,603) ... |

SSIS) N/E). sees 7,705 | 25,7384 | 98,417 |154,959 | 19,814 | 42,377 | 3,824 18,029
3,028,649 | 1,109 | 8,726 | 22,361 | 143,444 168,672 | 26,814 |203,699 | 4,307 41,628

2,171,265 13,670 | 20,563 | 250,464 (170,678 | 23,439 261,542 | 5,095 | 313,343
HEC ORS) Bee 6,460 | 25,876 | 149,862 |161,291 | 23,719 |190,774 | 4,920 | 150,939
2,235,946 | ... {10,068 | 31,221 | 239,549 174,107 | 30,259 |241,704 | 4,564 | 274,311
2,005,217 | ... 5,507 | 20,069 | 251,260 |167,141 | 23,163 |329,270 | 5,059 | 583,050
1,873,434 |... 6,959 | 16,581 | 217,306 |142,671 | 30,200 |280,697 | 5,420 | 734,214
1,940,835 |... 6,854 | 27,176 | 310,538 |169,497 | 30,893 |278,184 | 5,258 | 456,102
9,717,011 | .. | 7,488] 13,714 | 355,589 |175,119 | 50,211 |435,961 | 5,176 | 465,526
3,142,445 | 11,924 | 5,231 | 329,517 205,240 | 84,257 |509,051 | 5,583 | 993,052

2.715,486| ... | 8,735 | 8,763 | 299,568 |210,745 | 98,935 |343,826 | 5,647 |1,493,236

2,169,922 | | 9,397 | 19,408 | 267,699 189,694 | 93,340 |438,672 | 5,657 |1,817,372
1,949,394} ... | 7,895 | 25,956 | 183,160 171,205 | 60,540 |417,482 | 5,680| 934,944
3,000,879 | ... | 7,651| 4,665 | 414,828 157,329 | 99,152 |589,850 | 5,038 |1,639,547
2,368,596 |... | 4,792 | 13,907 , 411,636 180,059 | 91,981 [547,760 | 4,908 |1,893,324
9,064,288 |... | 3,909 | 17,053 | 223,414 217,704 | 113,369 |468,284 | 4,804 |1,999,194
2,154,399 | ... | 3,955 | 3,926 | 230,499 |296,370| 97,051 |614,876 | 4,413 |1,613,067
1,271,263| ... | 3,798| 5,157 | 285,725 |219,670 | 178,695 |509,941 | 4,352 |1,947,596
1,284,679; ... | 4,365 | 1,391 | 265,704 |214,577 | 223,599 |625,566 | 3,511 |3,169,571
2.957,906| ... | 8,280) 2,725 | 591,174 [182,653 | 136,914 |678,199 | 2,713 |2,389,396
1,396,103} ... |

6,707 | 7,793 | 502,133 125,731 | 215,996 [554,815 | 2,392 |2,254,111

€

XXX1V INTRODUCTION.

THE SKINNERS’ ComPaANy.

The Skinners’ Company is one of the oldest guilds in
the City of London. It ranks sixth or seventh, taking
precedence with the Merchant Taylors’ Company in
alternate years.

The Skinners’ Company was originally a company of
furriers or fur-traders, but there is no document from
which the date of foundation or particulars about origin
can be traced.

In course of time two other trades—the Upholders
and the Tawers—were absorbed into it. The latter were
probably fur-skin dressers.

According to the Report of the Commissioners of the
City of London Livery Company’s Commission, the
first Charter was granted by Edward III. on March 1,
1327. It prevented the selling of old fur for new by
skinners or philippars.

By another Charter granted on February 22, 1437,
by Henry VI., the Skinners’ Company regulated the
exposure for sale of furs, mixing old and new furs,
and the scrutinizing of all works, business, and wares
in London and suburbs; also in all places, fairs and
markets in England.

Charles I. seized the lands of the Company, but they
were afterwards restored.

Charles II. granted a further Charter on June 28,
1667, which, besides confirming the Company in their
property of houses and land, gave them jurisdiction
over the manufacture of furs and skins, coney-wool,
and the manufacture, cutting, clipping, and dividing the
wool from the pelt of coney (rabbit) skins and other

INTRODUCTION. XXXV

furs, the manufacture of muffs and linings for garments,
gloves, etc., with especial care to foster the trade in
domestic furs; with a further grant of power to search
and present the offenders against the Guild to the Master
and Wardens for punishment according to law; to seize
wares, sue, etc. ; also to appoint apprentices, who should
serve for seven years.

The Hallis on Dowgate Hill. The Master and six
Wardens form the Court, or governing body. The
Liverymen number about 200, who take up the Livery
on payment of £50, and serve an apprenticeship of
seven years. There are also a clerk, accountant,
beadle, and under-beadle, who transact the legal and
other business of the Company.

The Skinners’ Company possesses some property in
the City and in the north of Ireland. It also owns the
Tunbridge School in Kent, the head-master of which
is appointed by the Court. It has a fine collection of
plate. The chief dinner is on Corpus Christi Day.
This was instituted on April 20, 1392. The ancient
name of the Company was “‘ The Guild or Fraternity of
the Body of Christ of the Skinners of London.”

The Skinners’ Company does not now exercise any
jurisdiction over the fur trade.

West Inp1a Company.

The West India Company was established in 1621.
It was a Dutch Company, and the headquarters were in
New York. It exported Beaver skins only, but these
were shipped in large quantities. Its sole rival was the
Plymouth Company of England.

2
-)

XXXV1 INTRODUCTION.

Norru-West Company.

The North-West Company was formed in 1783 by
several of the principal merchants of Montreal, under
the directorship of Sir Alexander Mackenzie, and was
augmented by amalgamation with a rival Company in
1787. The headquarters were at Fort William, where
creat feasts were held.

‘“Thus was created the famous ‘ North-West Com-
pany,’ which, for a time, held a lordly sway over the
wintry lakes and boundless forests of the Canadas,
almost equal to that of the East India Company over
the voluptuous climes and magnificent realms of the
Orient. The Company consisted of twenty-three share-
holders, or partners, but held in its employ about two
thousand persons as clerks, guides, interpreters and
voyageurs or boatmen.’’—“‘ Astoria,” page 5.

The North-West Company was amalgamated with the
Hudson’s Bay Company in 1821, who also purchased
Astoria. This was founded by the late John Jacob
Astor.

Hupson’s Bay Company.

The Hudson’s Bay Company was established in 1670,
under the patronage of Prince Rupert. The rivalry
between this and the North-West Company between
1811 and 1820 was so great, that hunting parties at
times came to blows, lives being sometimes lost. In
1821 the two Companies were amalgamated.

The Company consists of the Governor, Sir Donald
A. Smith, K.C.M.G.; the Deputy-Governor, Earl of
Lichfield, and seven Directors, as follows:—T. R.

{J <
a ld
i

INTRODUCTION. XXXV11

Grant, Thomas Skinner, John Coles, Sir T. R. Edridge,
S. Fleming, C.M.C., R. Stephenson, W. V. Morgan.

The Secretary is Mr. W. Armit, and the Broker
Mr. EK. Harris.

The capital consists of 100,000 shares of £13 each.
The market value of a share is £15 15s. The last
dividend, which was declared on July 22, 1891, was
unfavourable, being only 6s. 6d. a share.

The fleet of the Company consists, among others, of

the following ships :—
| as eae
Lady Lampson. Perseverance (163 tons).

st! ~Tady Head (457 tons). 9Erik (412 tons).

=~ Labrador (266 tons). Prince Rupert (868 tons).
pee Titania (879 tons—a barque, formerly an old tea-
clipper).

These vessels make one voyage a year, either from
Hudson’s Bay or the North-West coast of America.
The York Fort ship arrives in London in September ;
the Moose River ship at the end of July or beginning of
August; and the Vancouver Island at the end of
November or December. Many shipments are, how-
ever, now made by the great steamship lines from
Montreal, the transit by steam being more expeditious.
Some goods from the North-West district are sent
through the West Indies, the passage by Cape Horn
being only used for the bulkier and less valuable goods.
The Company had a steamer especially constructed for
the Labrador salmon fishery, but this business not
proving lucrative, this vessel was sold. The voyage
from York Fort or Moose River is somewhat hazardous.
A ship from the latter was frozen in in 1884, also in
1779, 1833, 1864, and 1873. These, however, are the
only recorded instances since 1785.

XXXV111 INTRODUCTION.

The Princess Royal was wrecked in a violent storm in
October, 1885, in James’ Bay, near Moose Factory, and
the cargo, valued at £34,000, was lost. The captain and
crew were for some time in a perilous position, but
fortunately succeeded in getting ashore and making
their way to Moose Factory. The barque, Cam Owens,
was wrecked on the outward voyage in 1886.

The fur sales of this Company take place at the
commencement of the year; the Beaver, Musquash,
and American Rabbit in January, and all other furs in
March. Up to 1878 the North-West goods were sold in
September ; in 1880-82 they were sold in July; since
that date they have been included in the March sales.

The annual fur sales amount to about £300,000.

There is also a sale of Castorum, Deer-skins, Eider-
down, Quills, etc., in December, and a sale of salmon in
the same month.

The Buffalo robes of the Company were sold in
Montreal.

The former premises of the Company were in Fen-
church Street, where the sales were held. For many
years subsequently they were held at the London Com-
mercial Sale Rooms, in Mincing Lane. This year (1891)
they have been held at College Hill. The skins are now
shown in the well-arranged warehouse of the Company
in Lime Street, and are attended by buyers from all
parts of Europe and America. ‘The skins are sorted
into colours and qualities, and are sold by the broker,
Mr. E. Harris; but, following an old-fashioned custom,
the lots were, till this year, knocked down by the
Governor, Secretary, or one of the committee of the
Company. In former times, the lots were sold by the
light of the candle ; that is, no further bids were allowed
after a certain portion of the candle was burnt.

INTRODUCTION. XXX1X

The Company divide their hunting-grounds into 388
districts and 152 posts. Most of the latter are under
the charge of a chief trader. They are established
throughout Canada, where blankets, powder, trade-guns,
vermilion, etc., are exchanged -for furs. As it takes a
long time for the outfit to go out, and the expenses of
transit and portages are so great, the profits ought to
compensate for the interest and risks incurred. This
was formerly the case, but now the profits are reduced
by the encroachments of other traders. Still, however,
the Indians give the preference to their old friends, the
Hudson’s Bay Company. ‘The Company formerly leased
Fort Yukon and district in Alaska, and had also an
agency in the Sandwich Islands (1847).

York Factory on Hayes River is the chief depot, and
has substantial buildmgs. The majority of the forts
consist merely of square wooden stockades, sometimes
with the addition of a tower. Fort Pitt was taken by
the half-breeds a few years ago at the rising of Riel.
On the transfer of Rupert’s Land to the Canadian
Government in 1870, it was agreed that £300,000 should
be paid by the latter to the Hudson’s Bay Company ;
the Company should retain all their posts, and have also
the option of selecting a block of land adjoining their
posts within any part of British North America, with
the exception of Canada proper and British Columbia.

The furs, bought or exchanged at the different trading
posts from the Indians, are packed in small square
packages, so as to be easily transported over the differ-
ent portages near the falls. They are carried by canoes
to the depots, whence they are shipped to London, there
to be sold by auction. Next to the Beaver, which is the
most important skin traded with by the Company, the
Mink, Martin, Bear, and Fisher, form considerable

xl INTRODUCTION.

articles of trade, although the price of the two former
has as steadily declined as that of the Beaver has
advanced. The Company import but few Sea-Otters.
They endeavoured to introduce Beavers into Charles
Island, in Hudson Strait, but without success. When
the French possessed Canada, before the establishment
of the Hudson’s Bay Company there, the Beavers were
exported to La Rochelle, in France, and sold there.
The most important tribes of North American Indians
inhabiting the Hudson’s Bay Company’s territory are
the Crees, Blackfeet, and Chippewayans.

The chief marks in the catalogues of the sales, denot-
ing the district where the skin is taken, are :—

\F 5 . York Fort.

MR. : . Mackenzie River.

VR& EM. . Moose River and East Main.
FG&LWR . Fort George and Little Whale River.
B&M : . Bersamis and Mingin.

IND We. : . North-West.

1a) 18) G : . Esquimaux Bay.

Spl saee ; . Severn Bay.

KeaIPC : . King’s Post, Canada.

A : : . Albany.

GR : . Grand River.

) : : . Saskatchewan.

iE F . Lake Huron.

Ibis) a : . Lake Superior.

U : : . Ungava.

a ; ; . Temiscamingue.

Some of the old marks are :—

S BR. Severn River. M D . Montreal District.

C R . Coppermine River, SD_. Severn District.
AR. Albany River. SSM Sault St Marie.
MV. P . . Penetanguishene.
OD. Oregon District. tae Gaal

The outfit, or goods sent out to supply the different
posts, amounts to rather over £100,000.

INTRODUCTION. xli

Russtuan Fur Company.

The Russian Fur Company, which succeeded to more
than sixty smaller companies, was established in 1799.
Its greatest success was under Baranoy’s administration,
from 1808 to 1818. This Company was dissolved in
1867, when its property and rights were sold to the
United States Government. The headquarters were at
Sitka, and the chief trade was in Fur Seal and Sea-Otter
skins.

ALASKA CoMPANY.

The Alaska Commercial Company has its head-
quarters at 310, Sansome Street, San Francisco.
_ The President is Louis Storr.

Most of the furs collected are sent to London, and
sold there.

The chief source of income was the catch of the Fur
Seal on the Pribylov Islands, which the Company leases
from the United States Government. The catch was
limited to 100,000 skins, for which a royalty of two
dollars per skin is paid. After holding this lease for
twenty years, it lost the contract in 1890. The condi-
tion of the natives of the Pribylov Islands since the
establishment of the Company there has much in-
proved. The Company also obtains an abundant supply
of furs from the mainland of Alaska, such as Marten,
Mink, Beaver, Black Bear, and American Fox.

Fort Yukon, although in the province of Alaska, was
formerly worked by the Hudson’s Bay Company.

The Alaska Company carry on also a considerable

xl INTRODUCTION.

trade with the opposite coast of Asia in Squirrel, Fox,
Sable, and Bear skins. These are generally shipped
from Port Aian, either by San Francisco, or through
Japan to London. It has many agencies in the Aleutian
Islands, such as Aktah, Oonalaska, Belcovsky, Oonga,
and Kadiak.

The Sea-Otter is now the chief source of income, the
amount of the sale in 1891 being about £50,000 to
£60,000.

The Company employs a fleet of four steamers, and
about twelve barques or sloops. No port is less than
500 to 600 miles from Sitka, which is the chief trading
depot, corresponding to York Fort depot of the Hudson’s
Bay Company. The Company, by their former charter,
were obliged to furnish dried salmon, fuel, and schools
to the natives of the Pribyloy Islands.

NortH AMERICAN COMMERCIAL COMPANY.

This Company was formed in San Francisco on the
31st December, 1889. The capital is $500,000, of which
$200,000 has been paid.

The Directors are:—Lloyd Tevis, Henry Cowell,
Matthias Meyer, Albert Miller, and Isaac Liebes.

This body has acquired the lease of taking Fur Seal
skins on the Pribylov Islands for twenty years, at an
annual rental of $55,200, and $10.75 for each skin;
provided, after the first year, the catch shall not be
limited to less than 100,000 skins. The skins will, as
before, be sold by Messrs. C. M. Lampson and Co.,
Queen Street, London.

INTRODUCTION. xl

Russtan SEeau SKIN Company.

The Russian Seal Skin Company was established in
St. Petersburg in 1891. The Director and chief promoter
is Mr. Grunevald. This Company has the exclusive
right of taking Fur Seal, Sea-Otter, and Fox skins in
Copper Island (Komandorski) and Robben Island
(Tulenji), both of which are situated in the Behring
Sea, and are leased from the Russian Government.

Harmony Company.

The Harmony Company, although not so important
as the Hudson’s Bay and the Alaska Companies, carries
on a steady and successful business along the coast of
Labrador. The transactions of this Company do not
exclusively belong to the fur trade, but are of a general
character, Hair Seal, Reindeer skins, and oil forming
important branches of their trade. This Company was
formed by, and still consists of, the Moravian Mission-
aries, who settled on the dreary coast of Labrador. The
business is conducted by the Moravian Church Mission.

Every skin is marked in red on the pelt side to denote
the district where it is taken. The following are the
chief stations along the coast with their respective
marks :—

Hebron : Peace Hopedale. Healal
Okak . ‘ “fae(9) Hoar . A es
Nain . ‘ SN | Ramah. é bv gay

The furs from Labrador are about the finest in
America, or perhaps in the world. The Fox-skins

xliv INTRODUCTION.

cannot be equalled in richness and quality. The annual
collection of furs usually arrives in October, and are
sold in the succeeding January or March. The Hair
Seals are, however, usually sold in November.

Roya GREENLAND FuR-TRADING CoMPANY.

The Greenland Company has its chief establishment
in Copenhagen, where it holds public sales twice a year,
in February and the end of November or beginning of
December. Its chief exportation consists of Fox-skins
(blue and white), Polar Bear, and dry Hair Seal-skins,
and Hider-down.

The Hair Seals and Kider-down are sold in November,
and the Blue and White Fox and Bears in February.

The Polar Bears are of finer quality and condition
than in any other part of the world, and realize high
prices :—

In 1886, 14,850 Hair Seals were sold.
In 1887, 10,200 e <5 re
In 1888, 11,700 ss ie 55

AMERICAN Fur CoMPANY.

The American Fur Company was established in 1809
by John Jacob Astor, an enterprising German, who had
previously been engaged for many years as a fur-trader,
and who attempted at great expense to establish a port
on the coast of Oregon. The principal establishment
was at Michilimackniac. This Company possessed a
square fort (300 feet) at the mouth of the Yellowstone
River, where they conducted a profitable business with
the neighbouring Indians.

INTRODUCTION. xlv

Missourr Fur Company.

The Missouri Fur Company was established in 1808
amongst the American Indians in the country of the
Sioux. Mr. Lisa, a Spaniard, was the most active
partner. The headquarters were at Fort Mandan and
San Louis.

Pactric Fur Company.

The Pacific Fur Company was established on the 23rd
June, 1810, by John Jacob Astor, who was appointed
President. The chief trading post was at Astoria. Its
chief competitor was the North-West Company, who
ultimately acquired the stock and forts of this Company.
On the amalgamation of the North-West Company with
the Hudson’s Bay, Astoria formed the head depot on
the North-West coast, but was afterwards abandoned in
favour of Victoria in Vancouver Island.

For a more detailed history of this Company, the
reader is referred to ‘‘ Astoria,” by Washington Irving.

DRESSING.

The process of dressing is the method by which raw
skins are prepared before bemg manufactured into
articles of apparel.

Of the various kinds of dressing, that performed by
the natives excels all others for suppleness and durability,
although they are sometimes surpassed in finish. The
Red Indian is perhaps the best dresser of American fur ;
he undoubtedly was of the Buffalo. We cannot do

xlv1 INTRODUCTION.

better than quote Catlin’s ‘“‘ North American Indians”
(vol. 1. page 45) :—

“The art of dressing skins belongs to the Indians in
all countries ; and the Crows surpass the civilized world
in the beauty of their skin-dressing. The art of tanning
is unknown to them, so far as civilized habits and arts
have not been taught them; yet the art of dressing
skins, so far as we have it in the civilized world, has
been (like hundreds of other ornamental and useful
customs which we are practising) borrowed from the
savage; without our ever stopping to inquire from
whence they come, or by whom invented.

“The usual mode of dressing the Buffalo and other
skins, is by immersing them for a few days under a lye
from ashes and water, until the hair can be removed ;
when they are strained upon a frame or upon the
sround, with stakes or pins driven through the edges
into the earth ; where they remain for several days, with
the brains of the Buffalo or Elk spread upon and over
them ; and at last finished by ‘ graining,’ asit is termed,
by the squaws, who use a sharpened bone, the shoulder-
blade or other large bone of the animal, sharpened at
the edge, somewhat like an adze, with the edge of which
they scrape the fleshy side of the skin, bearing on it
with the weight of their bodies, thereby dryimg and
softening the skin, and fitting it for use.”

The Kaffir is a splendid dresser of Leopard, Antelope,
and other skins, and for suppleness is unrivalled by
continental dressers.

The Germans are unsurpassed in the dressing of
Squirrel, Cat, and Beaver ; of which the first is certainly
a speciality. Nearly the whole town of Weissenfels in
Saxony thrives on this trade ; the soft white pelts, clean
fur, skill in matching the colours, and manufacture,

INTRODUCTION. xlvil

being unrivalled, combined with cheap labour. The
Musk-rat is also well dressed. The drawback to the
German method is that in large skins the pelt is left
somewhat thick.

The English specialities are Chinchilla, Marten, and
Sable, in which they are unequalled. Skunk, Musk-rat,
Fox, and most skins are also dressed well. In the
English method, the skins are first placed in a lye of
alkali; when the pelt has become soft, the skins are
tubbed, and then shaved by passing them over a large
knife, placed in an upright position; they are next
buttered, and put in a large tub of sawdust by men half
naked, who tread on them for some time, the heat of
their bodies rendering the leather soft and supple; they
are then beaten out and finished. The drawback to
English dressing is that in cold climates the moisture in
the skin freezes, and the skin becomes hard.

This latter defect is never found in the Russian
preparation, which, however, leaves an unpleasant smell
in the skins, somewhat difficult to eradicate.

The Chinese method is somewhat similar to the
Russian. There is often a very unpleasant powder left
in the skins, as in Goat-rugs. Sea-Otters and Tigers
are wonderfully well dressed by the ‘“‘ Celestials.”’

DYEING.

The dyeing of fur skins is a very ancient art ; it dates
from the time of the Israelites, when dyed Ram-skins
were used as a covering for the tabernacle.

There are fourteen firms of fur dyers in London.

According to Dr. Richardson, the occupation of a fur
dyer is one of the most unhealthy.

xlviil INTRODUCTION.

The English brown dye, especially that of Fur Seals,
has been brought to a considerable state of perfection.
A mordant of lime is first used, then a dye composed of
copper-dust, antimony, camphor, verdigris, and Turkish
or Chinese gall-nuts roasted. Formerly as many as
twelve or fourteen coats were applied to the skin cold,
the ground colour having previously been trodden in
with boots; but now fewer coats are used, and the
colour is sometimes applied hot, the skins being dipped
into the mixture.

The English dye is celebrated for brilliancy and
durability, but it somewhat reduces the quality of the
skin.

The English dyers have of late years acquired the art
of dyeing black. The skins are dipped into vats con-
taining the dye, and stirred with long poles.

Many skins, such as Beavers and Otters, are
‘‘ silvered,” by passing over them a solution of sulphuric
acid. Angora Goats are dyed red, blue, black, and
brown.

The French dyers have a good reputation for their
black dye. The skins are plunged into large vats, filled
with a dye, the chief ingredient of which is logwood.
When they are brought out, they are green, but on
exposure to the air they soon turn black.

The brown dyes, although not so brilliant as the
English, retain more quality in the skins. This is due
to the use of vegetable dyes, which do not reduce the
quality, but are hardly so permanent. The art of
dyeing fur by dipping is fast superseding that of
brushing.

The Germans excel in dyeing black, Persian, Astrakan,
and Ucrainer Lambs, in which they are unsurpassed,
both as to brilliancy and suppleness of the pelt. Of

INTRODUCTION. xlix

late years they have also successfully dyed the Lynx,
White Fox, and Racoon black; also a peculiar grey
colour, called blue, and quite recently the snowflake dye.
The Belgian dyers, besides the usual black and brown
dyes, prepare a good number of Rabbit-skins with a
cheap madder dye.
The clever Chinaman is a very poor dyer of furs.

Customs’ TarirF anp Duty.

The Customs’ duties on fur-skins and manufactured
furs, after being in force for many years, were abolished
in 1845.

The duties had been previously reduced in 1842.

It was customary to allow a drawback on skins
imported on which the duty had been previously paid.

In some warehouses the goods destined for export
were sold in bond.

If the Custom-house authorities were dissatisfied
with the declaration of value of any entry, it was a
general practice to take or seize the goods, and pay for
them with 10 per cent. profit, but mistakes were some-
times made by the officers; the goods seized were
subsequently sold at the Custom-house Rummage Sales,
and often at a loss.

There are still some discrepancies in the way in
which merchandise is classed under the new. tariff.
Slnk Lamb-skins, according to the official rendering,
should be described as Sheep-skins, but this fact appears
to other officials to be an impossibility, when 3,000 are
imported in a bale. ‘‘ Skins unenumerated being Furs”’
is the proper classification.

Again, Hider-down has to be classed under ornamental

] INTRODUCTION.

feathers, whereas it should be included under the head
of bed feathers or down, being used for stuffing quilts
and muffs. Bird-skins are described as fur-skins.

In Germany all raw or dressed furs are imported
free.

In France all raw furs are free, but dressed and dyed
skins are subject to a duty of seven franes per kilo,
according to tariff; except China Goat-rugs, fur hats,
bluebacks, white coats, etce., which are free.

The United States admit all raw furs and skins free,
except from certain districts, but impose a duty of
20 per cent. on dressed skins, and 35 per cent. on
manufactured.

Canada also imposes a duty of 15 per cent. on dressed
furs, and 25 per cent. on manufactured furs.

Australia, except Victoria, also imposes a duty.

The duties on fur-skins in England was as follows :—

REDUCTION OF DUTY, 1842.
Cuass IX.—SxKINS AND FURS.

Skins, Furs, Pelts, and Tails, viz :—

S| 5 a Former Duties.
| eo z |Foreign. B.P.
Spec) soak
Badger, undressed ...... the doz. skins | 1 6 0 9 0/6 per skin, |
B BYeteh Dimer co todcGebanaerebuen GonoodGd. ..the skin | 3 0)2 0)| 4/6 ... 2/6
Beaver, undressed............... the skin|0 8/0 2;0/8 ... O/4
Cat, undressed.....:.2.... the doz. skins | 1 0/0 6 | O/1 each.
Chinchilla, undressed...the doz. skins | 2 0/1 0} 0/3 do.
Coney, undressed .........the 100 skins | 0 6 O 3 | 1/0 per 100.
Deer undressed terc-cesceee tener the skin | 0 1 | 0 4 | O/1 each, 1/0 100
- Indian, half dressed ...the skin | 0 2 O 1/ 2/0 each.
——- Indian, tanned, tawed, or in
any way dressed ......the skin |0 6/0 3
Dog, in the hair, not tanned, tawed, |
or in. any way dressed,
the doz. skins | 0 2) 0 1 | 0/2 per doz.
Dog-fish, undressed ...the doz. skins | 1 0 0 1 | 5/2 doz., 0/1 doz.
Mk sun dressedtensssie esse aeeeee the skin |0 6/0 38! 1/0 each.
Ermine, undressed...... the doz. skins |0 6 0 3) 0/3 do.

INTRODUCTION.

Crass [X.—Sxkins anp FuRs—continued.

| E a 3S E 8 Former Duties.
BES | 5B8
S*3/56 2 Foreign. BP:
S) idit|isemd!
Ermine, dressed .. ...... the doz. skins | 2 0 {1 O | 0/8 each
Fisher, undressed ...... the doz. skins | 4 0|2 0} 0/6 do. 0/3 ea.
Hox: SUMONGSSCCUI t5..2-<.4<0+cce>2 the skin | 0 6]|0 38/ 0/8 do. 0/4 do.
—— tails, undressed ...... ........ each | 0 2/0 1 | 0/5 do.
Goat, raw or undressed, the doz. skins | 0 3/0 2 | 0/6 per doz.
- tanned, tawed,, or in any way
dressed: -.......:.6-. the doz. skins | 5 O | 2 6 /40/0 per doz.
Goose, undressed......... the doz. skins | 1 01} 0 6 | 0/8 each.
Hare, undressed ......... the 100 skins | 0 61} 0 3) 1/0 per 100.
Husse, undressed........ the doz. skins | 3 0/1 6 | 0/6 each.
Kangaroo, undressed ...the doz. skins | 0 2{|0 1) 0/5 do.
Kid, in the hair, undressed, 100skins | 0 410 2 | 0/4 per 100.
dressed ..... Se eaaseuee the 100 skins | 5 0/2 6 |10/0 do.
— ditto, and dyed and coloured,
the 100 skins |10 0} 5 O {15/0 do.
Kolinski, undressed ...the doz. skins | 1 0 | 0 6 | 0/3 each.
Lamb, undressed in the wool,
the 100 skins | 0 4/0 2 | 0/4 per 100
tanned or tawed, the 100 skins | 5 0} 2 6 {10/0 do.
tanned or tawed, dyed or
coloured j......-. the 100 skins |10 0] 5 O {15/0 do.
dressed in oil...... the 100 skins 40 O 20 0 |80/0 do.
Leopard, undressed ............ the skin | 1 6|0 9 | 2/6 each.
Lion UGGO! G9 Foe ..ceed es theskin | 0 6|0 3/1 1/0 do.
Lynx CibtOae) "re.ss cee the skin | 0 6|0 31 0/6 do.
Marten ditto ........ the skin | 0 4/0 2/ 0/6 do. 0/83 ea.
- tails, do. .the 100 tails | 2 6|1 3 5/0 per 100.
Mink ditto the doz. skins | 1 0|0 6] O/4ea. 0/2 ea.
SIGMOSSOC” <-cncgneseeeesenes ss: the skin | 0 6|0 3 | 2/0 each.
Mole, undressed... . ...the 100 skins | 3 0] 1 6 | 0/6 per doz.
Musquash, ditto ...the 100 skins | 1 0] 0 6 | 1/0 per 100.
Nutria, ditto ...the 100 skins | 1 0/0 6141/0 do.
Otter, Gitior ©... c es. the skin | 1 0/0 6) 1/6ea. 1/0 ea.
Ounce, GuUbtO) F222. 2005: the skin | 0 2/0 1 | 7/6 each.
Panther, ditto — ......... the skin | 0 2/0 11] 2/6 do.
Pelts of all sorts, undressed,
the doz. pelts | 1 0} 0 6 |17/0 per 100.
——- tanned, tawed, or in any way
dressed) cet. ..cc-: the doz. pelts |5 0/2 6
Racoon, undressed ...... the doz. skins /1 6|0 91] 0/2ea. O/1 ea.
Sable, undressed ............... the skin | 2 0/1 O | 2/6 each.
tails or tips, undressed, thedoz. 1 6,0 9 | 0/3 do.
Seal, in the hair, not tanned, tawed,
or in any way dressed, the skin | 0 4/0 41 1/0 do.
of British taking, imported di-
rect from the fishery of a |
British possession,
the doz. skins |0 0/0 1 0/1 per doz.
Sheep, undressed in the wool, |
the doz. skins | 0 6/0 8 /1/0 per doz.
tanned or tawed, the 100 skins 12 0! 6 O (40/0 per 100.

hi INTRODUCTION.

Cuass [X.—Sxkins anp FuRs—continued.

5 a8 Za : Former Duties.
538 Ss E Foreign. BiEs
Sodailtssaas
Sheep, dressed in oil ...the 100 skins |20 0 |10 0 (80/0 per 100
Squirrel or Calabar, undressed,
the 100 skins | 3 0/1 6 |11/6 do.
tawed,
the 100 skins | 5 0} 2 6 /17/6 do.
tails, undressed,
for every £100 value ; £5 |£210s.| 20 per cent.
Swan, undressed .........-..0+- the skin | 0 3/0 2 | 1/0 each.
dbiveyeye” (Glin). Ascasuonedsonk the skin | 1 6/0 9 | 2/6 do.
Weasel, ditto —....... the doz. skins | 0 3] 0 2 |.4/9 per 100.
Wioltjs) iditioiemy ses-2- the doz. skins | 2 0]1 O| O/6ea. 0/3 ea.
lawed. t) baistese th. the skin | 5 0} 2 6 {17/6 each.
Wolverine, undressed ......... the skin |0 3/0 2] 1/Oea. O/6ea.
Skins and Furs, or pieces of skins and
furs, raw or undressed, not
particularly enumerated or de-
scribed, not otherwise charged
with duty, forevery £100 value | £5 |£210s.| 20 per cent.
Skins and Furs, or pieces of skins and
furs, tanned, curried, or in any
way dressed, not particularly

enumerated or described, not
otherwise charged with duty,

for every £100 value | £10 | £5 30 per cent.

Articles manufactured of skins or
HUIS Seerecenee for every £100 value | £10 | £5 75 per cent.

Cuass X.—HipEs, Raw or TANNED.

f or fro
ee i British
OSSES-
Countries. fares,
Hides of Horse, Mare, Gelding, Buffalo, Bull, Cow,
Ox, Calf, Kip, Swine and Hog, Sea-Cow,
Elephant, and Eland, or large Deer ......
— not tanned, tawed, curried, or in any way
‘dressed, viz. :—
PY.” esiceia tern seeds Se oeie= Soeeeeere the cwt 0 6 OF
Mae Babpet seecracacicunoncesSucnone the cwt.| 0 3 (al
tawed, curried, or in any way dressed,
not being varnished, japanned, or
enamelled: :.sacten- cues eee eee the lb. | O 4 0 2

INTRODUCTION. lil

Cuass XII.—Corron, Harr, LInEN, WooL, AND THE MANUFACTURES

THEREOF.
) oto rom] Ho fom
orel
Countries.| Posee*
Wool, viz. :—

- Alpaca and the Llama tribe ......... the ewt. 2 6 2 6
== TESTO Ou eeap nocd ene eret pea Bore ce-uecoone ccacee the lb. | O 6 0 3
—- (oronivematel exorono(eGl Hh weac aeoourieoden the lb iO 0 6
Fa ONC? Sieca. onwescanns svacuoteectecs steaneesees the lb. | O 1 @) al
— Cotton, or Waste of Cotton Wool ...the ewt. Beit O 4
—————GORDS’ OF LAI: .: cc cesccecsaecssenct sade the ewt. | 2 6 Free
AMO Ge conn cues tani aistierar on Sena die taians sears the lb. | O 1 Free
— Sheep or Lamb’s Wool, viz. :—

—- not being of the value of 1s. the lb.

UNETCOR, 28 orcas ceoseeeens-ot selon: the lb 0} | Free
—- being the value of 1s. per lb. or up-

WGUNG Sas, Sark toace caseeea ee actinct et the lb. | O 1 Free

At the present time all Fur-skins and manufactured Furs are
free from any duty: declaration has, however, to be made as to
value and quantity, and the skins have to be entered under the
following heads :—

Skins, Furs, and Pelts, viz. :—

5, Goat, viz.,undressed . : : number.
sf » tanned, tawed, or in any way ee number.
>» eal < : : : 2 3 ; - number.
», Sheep, viz.: undressed, without the wool . number.
x » tanned, tawed, or in any way dressed number.
;, unenumerated, Furs. : : : . number.
,, Other sorts, viz., undressed . : ; number.

rs » tanned, tawed, or in any way dycadad number.
Manufactures of Skins. E : : j . value.

liv INTRODUCTION.

Farrs.

Leipsic Fairs.—The Leipsic Fairs, although not of the
same importance as in former years, are still the chief
medium through which business is transacted in
Germany.

The first fair in the year is that of the New Year; it
is now of little importance, and visited by few merchants.

The Michaelmas Fair, which is held in September, has
also lost some of its importance.

The Easter Fair, which commences the first week after
Easter, and lasts a fortnight, is the chief mart in the
year. It has maintained its status to a great degree,
and is visited by merchants, traders, and furriers from
all parts of Europe and America, France, England,
Russia, Italy, Poland, Sweden, Canada, United States,
ete.

Furs from most parts of the world are here dealt
with: Cat, Squirrel, Persian Lamb, and Asiatic furs as
well as American.

Many quaint costumes are then seen, and the Bruhl,
the street where most of the fur warehouses are situated,
becomes a scene of bustle and activity. Booths are
erected there, and the whole of the Augustus Platz and
other squares are covered with similar erections.

Goods are sometimes bartered, but the general
payment is by cash, which is, as usual, due at the
ensuing fair; that is, the produce of one fair is paid for
at the next. The purchases are usually effected through
a broker, who, after a good deal of haggling, eventually
settles the bargain between the buyer and seller.

Frankfurt Fair.—The fair of Frankfurt-on-the-Oder

INTRODUCTION. lv

is held in January. ‘‘ Landwaare”’ is offered, the pro-
duce of the country, such as Otter, Fox, Fitch, Baum,
and Stone Marten skins.

TIrbit Fair.—The Irbit Fair takes place in February,
at the small Siberian town of that name on the
boundary between the two continents. It is visited by
many Russian, German, and other fur merchants, or
their agents, and is a mart for Russian furs, such as
Squirrel skins and tails, Ermine, Fox, Beaver, Kolinsky,
Russian Fitch, ete. Irbit is generally reached by means
of sledges.

Ischim Fair.—The small fair of Ischim in Siberia is
held in December, when Squirrel skins and tails and
Kolinsky are sold.

Nijni Novgorod Fair.—The Nini Fair is one of the
few which have not suffered so much, and is still
important with regard to the fur trade, and still more
for other merchandise. Nijni is situated in marshy
ground. During the fair, which is held in August, the
town swells to double its normal size. The chief furs
sold here are Persian, Shiraz, and Astrakan Lambs,
Squirrel skins and linings, Russian Musk-rat, Ermine,
Bear, Mongolian Goat-linings, White Fox, and Wolf.
American furs, such as Skunk, Sea-Otter, Land-Otter,
Fisher, Silver and Cross Fox, and Musquash are also
disposed of at this fair.

Kiatka Fair.—The fair of Kiatka on the borders of
China is the depot from which Chinese traders make
their purchases of furs. Hrmine is one of their favourite
articles.

lvi INTRODUCTION.

SaLEs.

The great fur sales in London are now held at the
College Hill Sale Rooms. Previously to 1890, they
were held in the Commercial Sale Rooms, Mincing
Lane. They are of great importance compared to those
of former times, and the annual amount of all classes of
fur-skins sold is little short of £1,000,000.

The Hudson’s Bay Company used to hold their sales
in their warehouse in Fenchurch Street, and later in
Mincing Lane; and other sales were held in coffee-
houses, such as Garraway’s and Simpson’s. The goods
were sold by the light of the candle.

Sales are held four times a year: in January, chiefly
for Beaver and Musk-rat; in March, for furs generally ;
also smaller sales in June or end of May and in
October.

The sales are attended by buyers from nearly all parts
of the world, and the Germans are conspicuous by their
numbers. The room is sometimes full almost to over-
flowing, whilst at other times the articles offered for
sale attract comparatively few.

The bids are silent, by movement of the head, and
the celerity with which the sale proceeds is most
astonishing, a fresh lot being brought up the imstant
that one is sold.

The fluctuations are somewhat considerable, an.
advance of 60 per cent., ora fall of 40 per cent., in
these days of steamers and railways, being not in-

frequent.

FUR-BEARING ANIMALS.

MAMMALIA, QUADRUMANA.

BLACK MONKEY.

Colobus vellorosus.
French: Singe noir. German: Scheitel Affe.

This animal, which is generally called by naturalists
the White-thighed Colobus, is an inhabitant of the West
Coast of Africa, and is especially abundant on the Gold
Coast. Itis about 1 to 2 feet in length, not including

2 QUADRUMANA.

the tail, which is quite another 2 feet long ; its body is
covered with long black hair of from 2 to 4 inches in
length; this fur or hair is of a silky description from
some districts, but from other localities is very coarse
and harsh; again, from some places the hair is divided
by a natural parting in the centre.

The tail is white and slightly tufted; the eyes are
dark, and there is a white line of hair in strong contrast
above them; the centre of the face is however black,
the cheeks and a long fringe round the face are pure
white, the slight beard is also white, and there is a
white spot on the chest; the legs and feet are black,
but the thighs or rump are of a greyish-white colour,
and here the hair is very short. In some examples
white hairs are met with throughout the skin and mixed
with the black fur—these are probably aged animals ;
again, a white spot of fur is found occasionally on the
body.

The Black Monkey has two teats, and feeds on fruit,
nuts, and other vegetable matter ; it hag been brought
alive to this country, but rarely lives beyond a short
time.

The skins of this animal, although arriving in fair
quantities (about 90,000 are imported annually), are not
so fashionable a fur as they were some twenty-five years
ago; 20s. was then freely paid for a good skin, but now
1s. to 5s. 6d. is the usual price. These skins are shipped
from Quittah, Accra, Salt Pond, Winnebah, Sicroe,
Appam, Assinee, Addah, Anamboe, Cape Coast Castle,
Lahou, Elmira, Axim, Grand Bassam, and other
stations of the West Coast.

The Cape Coast Castle skins are mostly shipped rolled
up, and the hair is of rather short length and thick ;
those from Bassam are very coarse and harsh, and are

BLACK MONKEY. 3

generally painted with red paint; the Accra skins are
of the medium sorts.

Black Monkey skins were formerly procured near the
coast, but now they have to be taken much farther
inland; they are to a great extent bartered with the
natives in exchange for British produce, such as trade-
guns, bad brandy, cheap and gaudy crockery, beads,
hair-oil, brass wire (drawn), ete.

The skins are to a great extent used in Germany, but
some are used in the United States, Canada and Italy ;
they are mostly manufactured into muffs, the greater
length of fur at sides adapting them well for this
purpose; a few are used for trimmings, and some are
occasionally dyed dark brown. The grey skin of the
rump is used for outsides of foot-muffs.

BLACK MONKEY.
Colobus ursinus.

Under the name of Black Monkey is another species
imported, viz., the Ursine Colobus; it is rather smaller
than the White-thighed Colobus; the fur is coarse,
harsh to the touch, and of little value; the general
colour is black, except on the shoulders, where the hair
is of a yellowish-white colour. The legs and thighs are
black and the tailis long and white. There are not more
than 50 to 200 skins imported annually.

The Ursine Colobus is an inhabitant of the district
near Sierra Leone.

B 2

4 QUADRUMANA.

EAST AFRICAN COLOBUS.

This Monkey is nearly as large an animal as the
Abyssinian, which it also greatly resembles, except that
the well-marked saddle is wanting. The colour is jet
black, except the fringe of long white fur on the shoulders
and the tip of the tail; the rest of this long appendage
is black ; the tail is also slightly tufted.

The fur is short and thick.

ABYSSINIAN MONKEY.
Colobus quereza.
French: Singe d’ Abyssinie.

This most beautiful species of the Monkey tribe is
also one of the largest, measuring about 2 to 23 feet
long, not including the tail, which is about 4 feet in
length. .

Its rich black fur on the back is surrounded with very
long white silky hair in the form of a circle or saddle,
which gives this animal an unique appearance ; the only
other species where a similar circle is found are the
Wolverine and Musk Ox. .

The tail is black, and furnished at the end with a
beautiful thick white tuft; in fact, the contrast of black
and white is very beautiful.

The skins are extremely rare and much esteemed as a

ABYSSINIAN MONKEY. 5

fur ; the value of a good skin is about 10s. to 15s. The
skin is used as a covering to shields by the natives.

The Guereza inhabits Abyssinia.

There is a mountain variety of this animal described
by Mr. O. Thomas, P.Z.S. fo. 219, 1885. The skins were
procured by Mr. Johnston from Mount Kilimanjaro, in
East Central Africa. The tail in these specimens was

extremely thick and bushy, with individual hairs of the
creat length of 7 to 9 inches; the hairs of the body
mantle, moreover, cover the black at the base of the tail.

The thickness and fineness of the fur and greater
length of hair on body and tail, besides the greater
abundance of white, is produced by the cold altitude
where this variety is found.

6 QUADRUMANA.

COMMON MONKEY.

Under this name skins of various species of Monkeys
are imported, such as

CaMpBELL’s Monkey. Cercopithecus campbelli.

This Monkey is about 18 inches long, not including
its very long tail, which is almost 2 feet long.

The upper part of body is brown, but lower part is
dark blue. The tail is of a blue colour nearest the root,
then a speckled-grey colour predominates, which merges
into dark grizzly at top; about 50 to 100 skins are
sent to the London Market.

Mona Monkey. Cercopithecus mona.

About the same size as the previous species.
The back is reddish-brown in colour, the head
yellowish-speckled, the whiskers, chest, and belly are

COMMON MONKEY. t

white ; the legs are black and white inside. The tail is
long and black, and there are two characteristic white
spots at base of tail.

GREEN Monkey. Cercopithecus callithrichus.
Grivet Monkey. Cercopithecus griseo-virindis.

Maxusrouck Monkey. Cercopithecus cynosurus.

Speckled ; white belly, inside legs and bottom of tail.

Paras Monkey. Cercopithecus patas.

Two feet long, flat reddish-brown, grizzly at flank,
whiter at hind legs.

All these animals inhabit the West Coast of Africa,
they have all long tails, and are extremely lively animals,
living on fruit and other vegetable diet.

Their skins are of little value, about 1d. to 8d., and
but few are imported.

VERVET.
Cercopithecus lalandit.

This Monkey is light-coloured and grey-speckled, its
long fur is also of this hue underneath, and white at
bottom of tail.

It inhabits the Cape and South Africa.

MOUSTACHE MONKEY.
Cercopithecus cephus.

The general colour of this species is speckled-brown,
and the tail is the same colour and very long. The eyes
are brown, the belly light bluish ; the face and nose are
bright blue, with a white mark over its lips like a
moustache.

8 QUADRUMANA.

GREY MONKEY.

Cercopithecus diana.
French: Singe gris. German: Perlaffe.

This beautiful animal, which is commonly known as
the Diana Monkey, inhabits the West Coast of Africa.

It is more numerous than the few preceding species,
but is far less abundant than the Black Monkey.

The colour of this Monkey is very varied and rich ;
the back is of a bright chestnut-brown, and the sides of
silvery speckled-black or dark grizzly colour ; the colours
of back and sides do not merge into one another, but
are quite distinct.

The cheeks, chest, and belly are white, and the eyes
are brown; the white beard and the white line on the
forehead gives the animal an unique and striking appear-
ance. There is, moreover, a white line on the thighs,

GREY MONKEY. i)

separating the brown and silvery part of the body from
the black extremities. The tail is long and black, about
3 feet long ; the length of the body is about 18 inches.

The Grey Monkey is a very lively and graceful
creature, and lives on nuts, fruit, ete. It thrives fairly
well in captivity.

There are from 400 to 800 skins imported annually,
and the price varies from 1s. 6d. to 4s. 6d., according to
demand. The skins make most excellent muffs, and are
sometimes used for manufacture of artificial flies for
fishing. This fur is generally used in France; a few
skins are used in Germany and England.

There is a peculiar variety or sub-species of this
animal inhabiting Sierra Leone; it is smaller in size
and of more vivid markings than the larger and more
numerous variety; the belly of this animal is bright
scarlet, the contrast of colour is very remarkable.

The tail is black, very long, and about twice the length
of the body.

From 100 to 400 skins are imported into London
annually.

RED MONKEY.
Cercopithecus erythrogaster.
French: Singe rouge. German: Rother Affe.

The Red, or Red-bellied Monkey likewise inhabits the
West Coast of Africa.

The fur, or rather hair, is short and black, and the
belly red; the tail is long and red-brown.

The Red Monkey is not numerous, but few skins are
imported (about 100 to 200), and are of little value,
4d. to 6d. being the usual quotations.

10 QUADRUMANA.

Pit WON ken:
Cercopithecus pluto.

This monkey is larger than the two preceding species,
being about 23 feet long, not including the tail. ’

It is of a dark speckled-grey colour, the tail is long
and black, and slightly covered with whiter hairs.

The Pluto Monkey is rather a scarce animal, and its
skins are rarely met with; it is likewise indigenous to
the West Coast of Africa.

BLUE MONKEY.
Cercocebus fuliginosis.
French: Singe bleu. German: blauer Affe.

The Blue Monkey or Sooty Maugabey is another
inhabitant of the West Coast of Africa, but it is not
numerous.

The colour is deep drab, with a dark mark along the
back, the belly is almost white in colour, the head is of
a deep red, with a white crest of hair immediately below.

The skin of this animal is practically valueless, as
the fur is so thin and poor.

WANDEROO MONKEY.
Macacus silenus.

This monkey inhabits the Malabar Coast of India,
its colour is dark brown with tolerably thick fur, its

WANDEROO MONKEY. ila

head is white, with rather long, reverted hair over its
face.

Its length is about 18 inches, not including the tail,
and its skin is not often imported.

BLUE MONKEY, OR MOUNTAIN ENTELLUS.
Semnopithecus schistanus.
French: Singe d’ Himalayas.

The colour of this rather large and fine monkey is
usually light bluish-grey ; it, however, varies in colour
from a dark grey shade to almost whitish-drab.

The fur is dense, thick, and silky, about 3 inches long.
The size of the body and head is about 2 or 3 feet, the
tail is about 2 feet long and tufted with white; there is
a black crest of fur between the eyes. The belly is
lighter in colour, and bare of fur.

The female has two teats.

This remarkable monkey inhabits the Himalayas,
Nepaul, and Cashmere.

About 200 or 300 skins are imported annually ; it is
much esteemed as a fur.

CHINA GREY MONKEY.
Macacus tcheliensis.

This species is not well known, it is of a beautiful
light grey-speckled colour with black thighs and belly ;
the cheeks are white, the tail is also white and long.

The length of this monkey is about 18 inches, not
including the tail.

It is an inhabitant of Cochin-China.

12 QUADRUMANA.

GUINEA BABOON.
Cynocephalus sphinx.

The skin of this baboon occasionally appears in the
lots of African monkey-skins. The Guinea Baboon is
a largish animal, of about 3 feet in length.

Its hair is of a yellowish-red, coarse and harsh, with
whiter hairs on the belly ; the tail is very short.

The skin is of little or no commercial value.

BLACK LEMUR.
Lemur Macaco.

This beautiful animal is of somewhat rare occurrence,
and is probably a variety of another species of lemur.

The colour is jet black and the fur about 1 inch long,
but not very thick except on the head and back ; the chest
is barely covered with short hair of a brown colour with
a whitish patch in the centre.

The Black Lemur is an inhabitant of Madagascar,
living in the dense forests in the centre of the island.

It is about 80 inches in length, and the tail is short.
It has a peculiar way of carrying its young, viz., across
its belly.

The Black Lemur breeds in the Zoological Gardens,
London, and the young are generally of different
colours.

THe Brack anp Wutre or Rurrep Lemur is a variety
of the above animal, of the same size, and inhabits the

BLACK LEMUR. 13

same districts; the hind legs and arms are dark brown,
and the back and lower half of body are of a light brown
colour, almost white. The tailis short, and the fingers,
and arms, and legs are furnished with spongy pads.

The skins are rarely imported, and are adapted only
for mounting.

This is sometimes called the White-fronted Lemur
(Lemur albifrons.)

RED-FRONTED LEMUR.
Lemur rufifrons.

This lemur is of a grey or greyish colour all over its
body, except a patch of red hair extending over the
forehead.

Like all other lemurs, it has a rather narrow head,
long legs, arms and fingers. The tail is short, about 6
inches long.

The Red-fronted Lemur is rather a smaller animal
than the foregoing species.

RING-TAILED LEMUR.
Lemur catta.

The length of body of this animal is about 9 inches.

The general colour is of a light grey, redder at the
shoulders and whiter at chest.

The tail is ringed with black and white, and is about
8 to 12 inches in length.

It is sometimes made a pet of.

Like all other lemurs, it is an inhabitant of Mada-
gascar.

14 QUADRUMANA.

WOOLLY OR DWARF LEMUR.
Microcebus smithii.

This very small lemur is about 6 inches in length,
and is of a brown-grey colour.

GREY LEMUR.
Chirogaleus milir.

The Brown Mouse Lemur is rather smaller than the
Red-fronted, and has a dark stripe on the back. The
general colour is grey-brown.

MAMMALTA. CARNIVORA.

LION.
Felis leo.
French: le Lion. German: Der Lowe.

This well-known and majestic animal, the emblem of
strength and dignity, is now principally found in Africa,
and is most abundant in Algeria, Mashona Land, and
Central Africa. It has become very rare in some parts
of this continent of late years, although they are very
plentiful and bold in East Central Africa, as Mr. H.
Johnston remarks.

In 1653 Lions were very numerous at the Cape of
Good Hope, and even approached Cape Town. In 1847
500 Lions were slain near Schoer’s Spruit. Mr. Selous
says that they are now much rarer in Central South Africa.

The Lion also inhabits South-Western Asia, Arabia,
ete., and Guzarat in India; and in ancient times was
found in colder climates than its present range. It
was slain by one of David’s warriors in winter-time ; it
probably then had a thick coat, like the Turkestan
Tiger. This is also shown in a marked degree in the
extensive manes of the Lions of the Nineveh Sculptures.

The Lion is about 5 feet in length, and of a tawny-
brown colour. The tail is long and tipped with a tuft
of black hair. The male only possesses a mane; that
of a full-grown animal gives it a truly majestic appear-
ance. It grows sometimes beyond the forelegs, and is
usually black or dark brown. It is probably a protec-
tion to the male when fighting. In some animals the
mane is extremely short; and small yellow-maned

16 CARNIVORA.

specimens are not uncommon. These are especially
abundant in Somali Land.

The ears are small, and black or dark brown. The
canine teeth are well-developed, and about two inches
in length. In man-eaters, however, they are either
blunted or broken. The weight of a full-grown Lion is
about 550 Ibs.

The Lioness is smaller than the Lion, and has no
mane. ‘The young, when born, and for several months
‘afterwards, are spotted, especially towards the tail.
They play like kittens or small cats: the mother
carries its young by the back of its neck.

The roar of the Lion is deep and impressive, and has
a marked effect on animals.

The Lion preys on wild animals, and its powers of
carrying its prey and of leaping are very great. The
strength of its paws is prodigious. It is nevertheless
killed sometimes by the Gemsbok, which transfixes the
Lion with its long pointed horns. The Gemsbok is
probably the typical Unicorn of the British Crown.

Lion-hunting was a favourite sport of the Assyrian
kings. The Lions were liberated from cages by attend-
ants, and were shot by the king from his chariot
(arrows were then used instead of bullets). The king
was protected by spearmen from attacks or sudden
springs of the Lion. These men were probably assisted
by horsemen who encircled the Lion.

Since Lions have become so scarce in many parts of
Africa, very few are now shot for sport. It is highly
dangerous to shoot one with the old muzzle-loading gun.

The Lion has been tamed to a certain extent, especi-
ally when taken in hand when young. Care should
then be taken not to feed them with raw meat. They
are made to leap through hoops of fire, and have even

LION. LT

been driven in chariots. The Lion-tamer sometimes
puts his head into their jaws, or leans on a Lion. The
Lion-tamer, however, runs great risk, and requires and
evinces great presence of mind. When performing,
some use a mere horsewhip, others steel whips when in
the cages. All quickly shut the doors when the per-
formance is concluded ; fatal accidents have, alas! been
too frequent.

The Lion does not thrive well in the Zoological Gardens
in London, the young cubs usually dying of rickets,
owing, perhaps, to want of fresh air, and cold flooring
of outside cages. The Cologne, Clifton, Margate, and
especially the Dublin Gardens, are, on the contrary,
successful in rearing the young. The latter Society
derives a certain income from the sale of their surplus
animals. The Lions of travelling menageries thrive
better than those belonging to the Societies, the change
of air having an exceedingly good effect. When out
of condition, Mr. Tegetmeyer says that cows’ livers
and paunches, goats’ or rabbits’ flesh should be given
them.

The Lioness, when in captivity, produces one to six
young—usually four.

The value of a skin of this noble beast depends
on perfectness of condition, colour and beauty of the
mane. A really fine black-maned perfect skin would
now be worth about £50 to £70; yellow-maned and
imperfect, or menagerie skins (which lack the brightness
of wild) are worth considerably less—from £5 to £30.

A Lioness’ skin is worth from 10s. to 30s.

Lion- skins are usually used for mounting, for
museums, or shop-windows.

Very few skins are now met with.

The value of a live Lion is from £150 to £200.

18 CARNIVORA.

PUMA.
Felis concolor.
French: Le Cougouar. German: Kuguar.

This very graceful animal has often been known as
the Lion of America, and has sometimes been called the
Panther or Couguar.

It inhabits many of the States of the North American
Republic, such as Florida, Montana (Yellow Stone Park),
New York State, and Texas, and is also distributed over
the greater part of Central and South America. It is
rarely seen in the Dominion of Canada; a few are,
however, taken in the West (British Columbia) and in
Vancouver Island.

The Puma is about 4 or 5 feet long, and its tail,
which is rather bushy, is nearly as long as its body;
the general colour is an uniform light dun-brown; the
fur of the belly is lighter and longer, and the tail is
tipped with black.

It is rather an abundant animal; its skin is, however,
of little value, and is chiefly used for wrappers or rugs:
a good large skin is worth about 5s.

The value of a live Puma is about £25.

The Puma is capable of making long leaps, a spring
of 20 feet not being uncommon ; it is said to prey on
the Porcupine of North America.

Mr. W. H. Hudson thus describes the Puma as being
a deadly enemy of the Vizcacha in desert parts of South
America: ‘‘ Of these the Puma or Lion (F'elis concolor)
is the most numerous, as it is also the swiftest, most
subtle, and most voracious; for, as regards these traits,

PUMA. 19

the Jaguar (/’. onca) is an inferior animal. To the
insatiable, bloody appetite of this animal nothing comes
amiss; he takes the male Ostrich by surprise, and slays
the wariest of wild things on its nest; he captures little
birds with the dexterity of a Cat, and hunts for diurnal
Armadillos; he comes unawares upon the Deer and
Guanaco, and springing like lightning on them, dis-
locates their necks before their bodies touch the ground.
Often after he has slain them he leaves their bodies
untouched for the Polyborus and Vulture to feast on, so
great a delight does he take in destroying life. The
Vizeacha falls an easy victim to this subtle creature,
and it is not to be wondered at that it becomes wild to
excess and rare in regions hunted over by such an
enemy, even when all other conditions are favourable to
its increase.” (P.Z.S. 1872, p. 826.)

The Guanaco is said to be the favourite prey of this
animal.

TIGER.
Felis tigris.
French: Le Tigre. German: Der Tiger.

The Tiger is handsomer in colour and markings than
the Lion, but does not possess its imposing and grand
bearing ; it is, however, said to equal even if it does not
excel it in strength.

The Tiger is exclusively an inhabitant of Asia, where
it is rather widely distributed ; it is found throughout
India, Turkestan, and some mountainous parts of China,
as far north as Mongolia and the Amoor Province; it is
also met with in Burmah, Sumatra, Java, and Malacca.

It is extremely numerous in some parts of Mysore and

c 2

20 CARNIVORA.

South of India, being often found in the gardens of
remote habitations.

There are two very marked varieties or sub-species of
Tiger.

Tue Beneau Ticer is perhaps the more numerous
of the two, and is distinguishable by the very bright
markings; the general colour of body is of a rich bright
brown colour, with white belly; the stripes on body are
black, and well-defined spots are sometimes seen
between the stripes, especially at hind legs. The black
and white markings of the head are also in strong con-
trast; the whiskers are strong, bristly, and white in colour.

The tail is long and ringed with black.

The canine teeth are well developed.

The hair of the Bengal Tiger is very short, and hes
close to the skin. Like many wild animals, the colour
of the Tiger assimilates itself to the country where it
lives. The stripes are with difficulty seen in the reedy
jungles of India. We recently came across a skin with
a grizzly head, probably from an old animal: such skins
are very uncommon.

The Tiger has at times been tamed to a certain degree,
but its temper is uncertain and treacherous, and many
fatal accidents have occurred in consequence. Its a very
powerful animal, even attacking and eating man; it is
occasionally kept in confinement by the native princes
of India; in that country the Tiger is generally hunted
or driven by means of Elephants, or are shot from stages
erected in trees: these are quite safe, as the Tiger is
unable to climb.

The following incident is very interesting :—A man
walking through the jungle was suddenly confronted by
a Tiger; he had the presence of mind to remain quiet,

TIGER. 21

the Tiger came up to him, smelt about him, and then
rubbed himself against the man, and afterwards left him
untouched.

Tigers are said to begin eating their prey at the hind
quarters. Tigers will at times eat fish, frogs and
carrion.

One thousand four hundred and sixty-four Tigers were
killed in British India in 1886.

The value of a good Bengal Tiger skin is about £4 to
£6; and the value of a Tiger-claw is from 9d. to 5s.:
these are mounted for pins by jewellers. The Bengal
Tiger rarely exceeds 11 feet.

One thousand and sixty-three human beings were
killed by Tigers in India in 1888.

Albinos, or White Tigers, are extremely scarce and
are very beautiful ; the stripes are generally light brown,
but we have seen a white skin with dark drab stripes.
There has recently been an extraordinary number of
Tigers in Java; in 1846 a black, or very dark brown,
Tiger is said to have been seen at Tipperah, near
Chittagong.

THe Moncouian orn CuInesE Ticer.—This woolly
variety of the Tiger has the fur or pelage of great
richness, and has consequently been classed as a different
species by some naturalists. Very little seems to be
known of it in Science, although it is well known in
Commerce.

The fur of this animal, as before said, is very thick,
and is often 13 to 2 inches in length, and on the belly
it is much longer (several inches), like a Lynx.

The general colour is paler than the Bengal animal,
and it is of a less ferocious disposition.

The stripes are scarcely so black as in the Bengal

29, CARNIVORA.

type, and are generally not quite so numerous, al-
though occasionally they are very beautifully and fully
marked. They vary considerably ; in some animals there
are but few stripes on the shoulder, in others the stripes
are long and sometimes triangular: the stripes are
generally deeper towards the tail.

The fringe which surrounds the face of the Chinese
Tiger is long (8 to 4 inches) and thick, composed of
black and white fur like a Lynx; the ears are black,
with a white spot near the tip; the ear of a Tiger varies
considerably in size in the same way that it does in
individual persons.

In many animals there is a hump of longer and thick
fur between the shoulders, and in all there is a thick
ridge of bristly hair running down the back, the same
as Lynx, Cat, and other species of the Felide.

Owing to cold elevated regions where this Tiger lives,
the fur has become dense, thick, and the colour of many
of these animals is very pale, especially in the younger
animals; the larger are mostly of a fine rich brown,
approaching the deep hue of the Bengal variety. The
cubs or quite young have an especially dense coat.

The size of a full-grown animal varies considerably ;
the largest skin we have met with measured 14 feet,
including the tail. The Chinese Tiger inhabits
Manchooria.

The majority of the skins are shipped from Shanghai,
and fetch from £10 to £40, according to quality,
condition, colour, etc.; £66 has even been paid for an
extraordinary large skin. 135 skins were imported in
1891. The Chinese often use black Cat to imitate ear
of Tiger when deficient.

THe Turkestan Ticer is distinct from the Chinese

TIGER. 23

animal in so much as it is deeper and redder in colour,
and coarser in the fur, and also slightly denser. This
is probably owing to exposed regions of Turkestan and
high grounds of Central Asia and Western Himalayas
which it inhabits: the stripes on the Turkestan or
Himalayan Tiger are occasionally brown.

The skins of this animal are imported in the rough
state through Russia and Leipsic, and fetch from £3
to £25.

The skins of all the different varieties of Tiger are
manufactured into handsome wrappers or rugs, or are
used for mounting for museums or shop-windows.

The claws are often mounted as jewellery, and are
worth about 5s. in the rough state.

JAGUAR.
Felis onca.
French: Jaguar. German: Jaguar.

The Jaguar inhabits South America, Mexico, and
British Honduras, but it is not found in Chili or Peru.

It is not a particularly numerous animal, and appears
of late years to have decreased.

The general colour is of a light yellowish-brown, with
very beautiful rings or markings; these rings are black,
with a small black spot in the centre, except those on
the head and the tail ; the hair is very short and bristly.
The belly is whiter.

The Jaguar is about 8 to 10 feet long, including the
tail ; it has a massive and heavy appearance, and climbs
trees with agility.

There is a black variety of this animal.

94 CARNIVORA.

OUNCE, OR SNOW LEOPARD.
Felis Uncia.
French: ’Once. German: Irbiss or Unze.

The Ounce inhabits Cashmere, the Himalayas, and
many parts of high lands of Central Asia.

The general colour of the Ounce is almost white, with
thick pale long fur [2 inches], which is bluer at the
ground, and rather harsh to the touch; this is caused
by exposed and elevated plains in which it lives; the
rings or spots are but faintly marked, and are just
distinguishable.

The tail is very long in proportion to the body, and is
very thickly furred and marked with faint rings. It
seems to us very remarkable that in a wild state and in
cold climates the tails of most animals seem to become
shorter, as in the Wild Cat, Bison, Yak, etc. The
extraordinary length of tail of the Ounce must be sought
for in other causes. ;

The spots on the head are small, black, and solid.

Tt is not so rare an animal as many suppose ; a certain
number of skins are imported into Russia, through
Siberia, annually. The price of a good skin is from 40s.
to 130s. ; and 140s. is the highest price paid.

The mountains of the Leopard (Canticles, iv. 8)
appears to refer to the habitat of this animal in ancient
times in Palestine.

Tue Curinese Leoparp (Felis Pardus) approaches
more closely to the common Leopard in colouring, but
has a rich fur, almost equalling that of foregoing variety

CHINESE LEOPARD. 95

as to thickness; the fur is finer, and over 1 inch in
length ; the general colour is very light yellow ; the spots
are darker, with buff centres. Some animals, however,
vary considerably.

The tail is long and thickly furred, and marked with
spots at the base.

The Chinese Leopard inhabits Amoorland, Man-
chooria, the Corea, the high mountains of China, and
eastern slopes of the Himalayas.

The skins are very beautiful, and fetch from £5 to
£1010s. These are made into very handsome rugs or
wrappers; about 100 skins, splendidly dressed by the
Chinese, are imported annually from Shanghai: in 1891,
123 skins.

The Chinese sometimes use the ear of the Fox to
imitate the Leopard ear when this is wanting.

Both the foregoing are the woolly varieties of the
Leopard.

The Turkestan or Himalayan Leopard is lighter in
colour than the Chinese animal, and rather coarser in
the fur.

KAST INDIAN LEOPARD.
Felis Pardus.
French : Le Léopard. German: Der Leopard.

The Leopard was also called the Pard in former times ;
it is remarkable for its graceful movements and hand-
some markings; it is plentiful in India and many other
parts of Asia.

Although examples of this species vary somewhat,
the usual colour is yellowish-brown; the spots are

26 CARNIVORA.

numerous and black, with lighter coloured centres. On
the face, neck, legs, and middle of the back the spots
are solid ; occasionally the rings or spots are marked in
the centre like those of the Jaguar: the belly is white,
but still spotted, as likewise the under part of the tail.

The tail is marked with black spots and ringed at the
tip.

The head is beautifully marked with black and white,
and the ears are dark, tipped with white.

The hair of the East Indian Leopard is very short,
and harsh. :

The spots are sometimes merely a collection of
blotches with a deep shade of colour in the centre; in
other specimens the rings are quite circular.

The whiskers are white ; the colour of eyes is brown.

In the cubs the hair is rather longer, and the spots
are very numerous and small.

The skins of black variety of this animal are much
prized. In some, although never absolutely black, the
spots are barely perceptible owing to the darkness of
surrounding hair; in lighter and greyer skins the dark
spots stand out in beautiful contrast. Formerly the Black
Leopard was considered a different species; it is now
admitted to be a mere variety, as animals of both colours
are found in the same litter.

The Ceylon Leopard is very rich in colour, and has
rather thicker hair than the East Indian animal.

In Bombay there appears to be a very spotted and
paler type of Leopard.

The Leopard preyson the Axis, or East Indian Deer, and
is said to commence eating its prey on the fore quarters.
It is asserted that it also kills the Kast Indian Bear.

The young are pretty little creatures, and play like
kittens, catching their mother’s tail, etc.

EAST INDIAN LEOPARD. 27

Leopard-skins are used for saddle-clothes for the
officers and bandsmen of the Hussars and other cavalry
regiments. Sometimes the skins are also made into
rugs, foot-muffs, wrappers, slippers, and drummers’
aprons. Some are also bought for theatrical purposes.

Four thousand and fifty-one Leopards were killed in
British India in 1886.

The Indian Government pay a royalty on every
animal taken; the skins are marked by their agents,
either by cutting a circular or triangular piece out of the
skins at the head or root of the tail, or sometimes by
merely giving a cut at the base of the tail.

The claws are occasionally used as scarf-pins.

A few thousand skins are imported into London
annually; the prices fluctuating a great deal according
to demand and supply: 12s. to 52s. are the extreme
prices for a good large skin.

Many skins are brought over by private people.

The value of a live Leopard is about £20, and of a
Black Leopard £150.

AFRICAN LEOPARD.
Felis Pardus.

The African Leopard has much darker and more
numerous spots than the East Indian. The general
colour is, however, paler, or almost white, thus giving
it a very handsome appearance.

It is smaller than the East Indian animal.

It is fairly numerous on the Gold Coast, but here the
natives have a habit of cutting off the legs of the

28 CARNIVORA.

animals they secure. Most of the skins, consequently,
are sent to this country in a mutilated condition.

The African Leopard is also found in Algeria, Natal,
in the Transvaal (where it is called the Tiger), and in
many other parts of Africa. Its numbers have been
ereatly reduced at the Cape, and the baboons, on which
it preyed, have increased considerably, and have
acquired a habit of preying on the young of farmers’
flocks.

Where it is still met with, the Leopard commits
ravages on the flocks, and is sometimes killed by-strych-
nine.

Leopards are found in East Central Africa up toa
height of about 8,000 feet. Mr. Johnston does not,
however, give any remarks as to the colour of the
animals in that part. We should think they would be
lighter in colour and thicker in the fur at that altitude.
The East African Leopard from Zanzibar has a _pale-
yellowish general ground, not a warm brown like the
East Indian, but considerably browner than the West
African variety ; the spots are also not so dark.

The African Leopard rarely shows fight, except when
brought to bay by its escape being cut off; it usually
prefers to seek shelter by flight or by‘climbing.

The Kaffirs prepare the karosses of Leopard-skins
with a suppleness and neatness unsurpassed by Euro-
peans.

The spotted and unchangeable coat of this animal is
mentioned in Scripture (Jer. xill. 28).

Peculiarly spotted skins are occasionally met with.
We have met with three, one of which came from the
Gold Coast. One which was exhibited at the Zoological
Society’s meeting gave rise to a good deal of com-
ment. These skins are merely an incipient black

AFRICAN LEOPARD. 29

variety, such as we should call a dark tabby in the
domestic cat.

Several hundred skins are imported annually. The
price varies from 10s. to 30s., according to demand.

PERSIAN LEOPARD.
Felis Pardus.

The Persian Leopard is a more solid and straighter
animal than even the East Indian. It is, however, not
so graceful.

The fur, or hair, is slightly longer than the East
Indian, and harsh. |

The colour is light, almost white, covered with
numerous spots, many of which are solid, especially on
the neck.

The fur is short, and rather thick.

This Leopard is also found in Afghanistan and in the
Caucasus.

Some 380 to 50 skins are imported into London, and
fetch up to 45s.

All the Leopards sharpen their claws against trunks
of trees in the same way as the domestic cat does.

The peculiar habit of watching is well depicted in
Scripture :—

‘“‘ A leopard shall watch over their cities.”

** As a leopard by the way will I observe them.”

CLOUDED TIGER.
Felis macrocelis.

This very beautiful animal inhabits the southern
portion of China and Assam. Its graceful movements
and large and dark markings do not fail to attract the
notice of the most casual observer.

30 CARNIVORA.

It is about 38 feet long, not including its tail.

The Clouded Tiger lives in trees, and its skin is worth
£3 to £4.

The tail is ringed.

OCELOT.
Felis Pardalis.
French: l’Ocelot. German: Ozelot.

This graceful and well-known animal is most varied
in its markings; the spots are also more of an oblong
shape than the usual round of many of the Felide.

The general colour of the coat is light, with dark
oblong spots, with drab centres. Those on the back are,
however, solid black.

The ears are white at base, and black at top.

The tail rather short, dark, and partly ringed.

The whiskers are part white and part black, according
to the spots.

The colour, perhaps, varies more than most animals.
Some specimens are beautifully striped; others have
dark blotches ike a dark tabby. Some examples are
red-striped.

The Ocelot is about 3 feet in length, and is an
extremely lively and beautiful creature.

It inhabits British Honduras and South America
generally.

Its skin is chiefly used for making wrappers, and its
value is from 2s. to 4s. 6d., according to size, quality,
and demand.

Several hundred skins are imported annually.

The Ocelot brings forth about two young at a time.

Een ACA.
Felis Hyra.

This cat is about 2 feet long, and the tail is another
8 inches.

The hair is short and bristly, and the colour bright
yellow all over the body.

The skins are almost valueless, and but few are
imported.

The Eyra is an inhabitant of South America.

GEOFFROY’S CAT.
Felis Geoffroy.

Geoffroy’s Cat is likewise an inhabitant of South
America, more especially of Buenos Ayres.

Its fur is rather long; medium colour brown, with
black spots of a squarish shape, with brown centres.

The tail is similarly marked and tipped with black,
but not very thickly furred.

It is rather a small animal, of about 14 feet in length,
and is of rare occurrence.

AFRICAN LEOPARD-CAT.
Felis Chrysosthrix.

This cat is sometimes called the African Golden Cat,
and has very short drab or reddish hair, with spots of a
darker hue, either dark brown or darkish red.

The general colour is white underneath. The colour
of this cat varies considerably ; some are even of a very
red-brown colour.

oot CARNIVORA.

The hair or fur is quite short; the skins are conse-
quently of little value—about 1s. to 2s. It is by no

means a numerous animal.
About 20 to 40 skins are imported annually with

monkey-skins.
The Leopard-Cat inhabits West Africa.

PAMPAS. CAT.
Felis passerum.

The colour of this cat is an uniform light grey, witha
tinge of yellow; the fur is rather harsh and much
longer on the back ; the tail is rather short.

The skin is of little value and is rarely imported.

The Pampas Cat inhabits South America.

MOLINA’S GUIANA CAT.
Felis colo colo.

This small cat likewise inhabits South America: its
colour is very light grey, with darker grey markings ; its
length is about 9 inches, not including the tail.

It is a rare animal, and its skin is seldom seen.

TIGER CAT, OR SERVAL.
Felis Serval.
French: Le Serval. German: Tigerkatze.

The Serval is larger than the Leopard-Cat, and its
colours are in more marked contrast than in the latter
animal. The general hue of the body is of a light

TIGER CAT, OR SERVAL. 33

yellowish-brown, with long black narrow stripes of some
three or more inches long down the back ; the spots on
the sides are round, and more or less numerous in
different examples : this is often the case in many species
of this family.

The ears are long and black at base, and the tip or
remaining half the ight yellow colour of the body.

The legs are long for its size, but the head is small ;
it has a peculiar appearance when sitting on its hind
legs, its small head contrasting strangely with its long
ears and legs.

There isa dark stripe under the chin, and a black
corresponding mark on each fore-leg.

The tail is only of moderate length, and is sometimes
ringed and sometimes spotied.

The Serval is an inhabitant of West and East Africa,
and its skin is comparatively rare, and for this reason is
not so valuable as itought to be: 1s. to 4s. is the usual
price for a good skin.

BUSHY-TAILED RED-SPOTTED CAT.
Felis euptilura.

The Red-spotted Cat is an inhabitant of Japan,
Manchooria, and other parts of China, and but little is
known of its habits.

The general colour is light brown, covered with
numerous red spots, from whence it derives its names:
these spots are most clearly shown on the belly.

This animal is about the size of an ordinary cat,
perhaps slightly larger. About 40 to 60 skins have been
recently imported: value is about 1s. 6d. to 2s.

34 CARNIVORA.

HIMALAYAN LEOPARD-CAT.
Felis bengalensis.

This beautiful cat inhabits India, Cashmere, Nepaul,
and the Himalayas.

It is about 1 to 13 feet long; the tail is another 6
inches. This appendage is full furred and partly ringed,
more especially towards the tip ; this is most noticeable
in the Northern or Nepaul variety. The general colour
is light yellow, covered with black spots, which are
irregular in shape and sometimes lighter in the centre ;
the fur is long and fine, and the claws curved and sharp.

The Bengal Leopard-Cat is not numerous enough for
its skin to be appreciated as it justly deserves to be on
account of its bright markings and fineness of quality :
not more than a handful of skins (some six or more) are
seen from time to time. Its value is about 2s. to 3s.

DESERT CAT.
‘elis ornata.

This rare cat likewise inhabits India; it is about 18 to
27 inches long, and the tail about 9 inches.

The colour is light yellowish-brown, covered with
numerous darker spots or small solid black spots ; these
are more abundant on the back. The belly is white or
very light yellow ; the head is marked with black lines,
and the ears are tipped with white ; the tail is spotted at
base, ringed with black towards the tip. The fur is
about half an inch long, full, and rather harsh. The
whiskers are brown or white.

DESERT CAT. 35

- The colour of this animal varies considerably, some-
times the spots are inclined to run into blotches, and
the legs have a tendency to have black lines.

The value of its skin is 1s. 6d. Seventy-one skins
were imported in 1891.

The larger examples appear to be called the Fishing
Cat by some writers.

EUROPEAN WILD CAT.
Felis catus.
French: Chat Sauvage. German: Wilde Katze.

The Wild Cat is indigenous to Great Britain ; it is by
no means rare in Sutherlandshire, Ross-shire, Inverness-
shire, parts of Perthshire, and South Caithness; it is
also found in North Wales, and some of the Northern
counties of England. It is very rare in Lincolnshire, but
is not thought to exist in Ireland. Its habitat extends
to France, Sardinia, Hungary, Prussia, the Caucasus,
and other parts of Europe.

Its yellowish-brown colour and full fur cannot fail to
attract even the most casual observer ; its tail is bushy,
ringed with black at extremity, and shorter than in the
domestic cat.

The Wild Cat is about 2 to 3 feet long, and has a
ridge of hair along the back like the domestic variety.
The fur is about 1 inch long and very thick; the colour
is yellowish-brown, and blue shade at the ground; there
are usually a few narrow black lines or marks between
the ears. The colour of individual specimens, however,
vary ; many are beautifully marked with spots or stripes ;
most are plain, except at the back, which is darker.

D 2

36 CARNIVORA.

The value of its fur is about 1s. to 1s. 6d. for a good
skin, but the number collected is small.

Six hundred and twenty-six Wild Cats were killed in
Prussia in the winter of 1885-6.

It is said to sell its life dearly, and to be very fierce
when attacked, as the following account shows :—

St. John, in his ‘‘ Natural History of the Highlands,”
p- 45 :—‘‘ In the hanging birchwoods that border some of
the Highland streams and lochs the Wild Cat is still not
uncommon, and I have heard their wild and unearthly
echo far in the quiet night as they answer and éall each
other. I do not know a more harsh and unpleasant cry
than that of the Wild Cat, or one more likely to be the
origin of superstitious fears in the mind of an ignorant
Highlander. These animals have great skill in finding
their prey, and the damage they do to the game must
be very great, owing to the quantity of food which they
require. When caught in a trap, they fly without
hesitation at any person who approaches them, not
waiting to be assailed. I have heard many stories of
their attacking and severely wounding a man, when
their escape has been cut off. I was fishing in a river
in Sutherlandshire, and, in passing from one pool to
another, had to climb over some rock and broken kind
of ground. In doing so, I sank through some rotten
heather and moss up to my knees, almost upon a Wild
Cat, who was concealed under it. I was quite as much
startled as the animal herself could be, when I saw the
wild-looking beast so unexpectedly rush out from between
my feet, with every hair in her body standing on end, mak-
ing her look twice as large as she really was. I had three
small Skye terriers with me, who immediately gave
chase, and pursued her till she took refuge in a corner
of the rocks, where, perched in a kind of recess, she

EUROPEAN WILD CAT. ot

stood with her hair bristled out, and spitting and growl-
ing like a common cat. Having no weapon with me, I
laid down my rod, cut a good-sized stick, and proceeded
to dislodge her. As soon as I was within 6 or 7 feet of
the place, she sprang straight at my face, over the dogs’
heads. Had I not struck her in the mid-air as she
leaped at me, I should probably have got some severe
wound. Asit was, she fell with her back half-broken
amongst the dogs, who, with my assistance, dispatched
her. I never saw an animal fight so desperately or one
so difficult to kill. If a tame cat has nine lives, a wild
cat must have a dozen.”

HOUSE CAT, OR DOMESTIC CAT.
Felis domestica.
French: Le Chat. German: Hauskatze.

Who is not familiar with the softly-purring denizen
of our hearths? We know it and play with it from
childhood, and to many it becomes a companion in old
age. It shows its contentment by purring and rubbing
its fur against the trousers of its master; yet, after
saying this, we must still confess that the domestic
cat forms more of an attachment to places than to
persons.

Its intelligence is not much inferior to that of the
dog. It attracts by tapping with its paw the side of one
from whom it expects to receive a dainty morsel, or even
will express its wish by mewing to be let in or out of
the house. When admitted, it shows its satisfaction by
alowpurr. The same cat would be offended if its place
in front of the fire were occupied by anybody. When

38 CARNIVORA.

-the outside bell was rung it would get up from its warm
position on the hearth and run under the table. It
probably did this as a dog was sometimes brought into
the house.

The cat loves warmth, both of the sun or of the fire,
and is one of the animals attached to civilization
throughout the globe.

Every one knows its wonderful agility in catching
mice, small birds, etc., and the way in which it plays
with its prey, allowing it to escape a few we or inches,
and then pouncing on it again.

In some animals the showing of a rather poaching
propensity asserts itself. We knew a rather small cat
to travel about half a mile and bring back a young
rabbit or other prey, leaping two high fences on its
return journey.

Its powers of dropping or falling from a height are
also wonderful. This is probably owing to the elasticity
of its limbs, and the freedom with which its skin moves
over its body. We have seen a cat jump out of a loft
some twelve feet or more high, and alight on a granite
paving without seeming to have worse effects than a
‘few rolls over.

The food of the cat usually consists of small birds,
mice, etc. Itis extremely fond of fish and game, and
will occasionally kill or capture moles and frogs, but
will not eat them. In the domesticated state its usual
diet is horseflesh. Its propensity for fish even over-
comes its dislike of water. It has been known to fish
by means of its paw. The cat will eat grass and
Indian corn, and is active enough to kill the agile
‘squirrel.

A favourite position of the cat is sitting on its
haunches or hind legs, with its tail curled round it;

DOMESTIC CAT. 39

sometimes it squats on all fours, with its fore-paws
doubled under it.

It sharpens its claws by scratching the bark of trees,
window-curtains, table-cloths, ete.

It loves to prowl about roofs and outhouses in search
of sparrows and other prey. Although not fond of
water, it yet swims well, and is very cleanly in its
habits—so different to the habits of the dog. It is
interesting to observe with what care the cat performs
its toilet. It first licks one paw and cleans its head
with it, and then repeats the operation on the other
side. It also loves to roll in the soil or gravel.

The domestic cat produces about four young at a
time, which are born blind. The kittens are generally
of different colours in a litter. When disturbed, it
carries its young in its mouth to a place of safety.

When deprived of its young, it has been known to
suckle young rabbits.

The cat—in fact, most o the Felide—is extremely
fond of valerian. It is sometimes troubled with para-
sites or nits; these are quite minute in size, and attach
themselves to the hair by lobster-like claws. '

Although not a large animal, it can give a good blow
with its fore-paw.

The cat was sacred to the Egyptians, and was often
embalmed by them. Several tons of embalmed cats
were recently (1890) sold in Liverpool, and fetched
£3 18s. 9d. per ton for manure. They were dug up in
Central Egypt, and are supposed to be about 2,000
years old.

Its flesh was eaten during the siege of Paris, and is
said even to have been relished.

Cats fight desperately at times, and generally, during
the night, the caterwauling is often distracting. It is

40 CARNIVORA.

sometimes plaintive, like a child, and sometimes angry
and discordant.

Domestic cats, become wild, soon acquire the habits
and colour of the wild cat. Many are shot by game-
keepers, and are sometimes taken in traps lke the
familiar penny mouse-trap, on a larger scale, with a
drop door instead of the spring flap.

The domestic cat ought to be classed with the wild;
it is the same species.

The trade in the fur.or skins of the cat is of some
importance. The hair is soft, and it is one of the
warmest furs. It is, perhaps, only surpassed in this
respect by that of the buffalo.

Every skin has a ridge of bristly hair running down
the back. This hair has to be taken out when manu-
factured into articles of clothing. When finished, it is
often called genett, and is much used for coat-linings,
muffs, sets, trimmings, and rugs. Although not a very
showy skin, it is a good, durable, and warm fur.

The black skins are of the greatest value.

The best and largest black skins come from Holland,
where many cats are gelded. Denmark and Holstein
also produce many good skins, and medium grades are
collected in Germany, Switzerland, and other districts.
English skins are very mixed in colour and small, but
of fair quality. Russia produces many skins, but of low,
medium, or poor qualities. Many are imported in linings.

American skins, of which about 3,000 are imported
annually, are generally black, blue, white, or tabby in
colour, and of rather low quality. The prices are from
about 3d. to Is. 6d.

Australian skins are very flat, the worst of all in
quality, losmg their rich coat in the warm climate.
The predominating colour is red-tabby.

DOMESTIC CAT. 4]

The prices of all cat-skins vary from year to year.
Six shillings to eight shillings per skin is sometimes
willingly paid for the very best Dutch skins.

The colour of the cat varies considerably, perhaps
more than that of any other animal, excepting the
rabbit—black, white, black and white, brindled, tortoise-
shell, white and tabby, tabby, dark tabby, blue, blue-
tabby, silver-tabby (sometimes called Cyprus), and red-
tabby. Tabby colours are most numerous, and dark
tabby, to our mind, the most beautiful. Some speci-
mens are nearly as finely marked as a miniature tiger.
Silver-grey cats are very rare; we once saw a white cat
with a tabby tail.

Red-brown and other similar coloured skins are
generally topped (dyed on top of the hair) to imitate
the natural colour. The difference can, however, be at
once detected by an experienced eye.

In Canada and other cold climates the domestic cat
reverts to its original colour—mouse, or yellow, mouse-
brown, and black-tabby. Spotted cats are not so often
seen as in this country.

The wild cat and tame cat cannot well be broken into
different species. The greater length and more taper-
ing form of tail of the house cat is explained by the
warmer condition and better feeding under which it
lives.

When the coat or fur of a cat is rubbed it generates
electricity. The sparks may clearly be discerned in a
dark room. The eyes of the cat also gleam and shine
in the dark.

The skin of the cat, like that of the lynx, is much
thicker at the head. ‘This thickening is probably a
natural defence to protect the males, or tom-cats, when
fighting, which is often of a desperate character.

42, CARNIVORA.

The cat bristles up its fur when excited. It is fond of
valerian. At some seasons of the year it will eat grass
with avidity.

The head of the cat is round, with broad and rather
long ears, which are furnished with hair in the inside
and short fur on the outside; the whiskers are long,
and tolerably abundant, and there are a few bristles or
feelers over the eye.

The hind quarters of the cat are much higher than
those of the fore quarters. The claws are retractible.

The antics of young kittens are very amusing. They
love to play with balls, etc.

We have known a cat to live to the advanced age of
twenty years.

THe Persian on ANGouta Cat has a long and rather
flimsy fur, which gives it a woolly, shaggy, and unkempt
appearance ; the colour varies almost as much as in the
smoother-haired variety. The Persian Cat is much
esteemed as a pet; its tail is rather shorter than in the
ordinary cat; it is, however, delicate in constitution.

THe Manx Car is tailless, and resembles the Lynx in
this respect ; most of the other Felidz have long tails.

THE SIAMESE Cat is a bright-looking creature, with
smooth fur of a dark red-brown colour, like a Caracal or
Red Deer; it is very plain-looking, but bright and
intelligent. In a recent Crystal Palace Show a lght-
coloured specimen, with dark markings on head or feet,
exactly like a pug dog, was exhibited.

THE ABYssINIAN Car is another well-formed eat,
similar to above in colour, but rather of a deeper rusty
ereyish-brown.

CAFFER CAT.
Felis caffra.

The Caffer Cat is an inhabitant of the Cape; it is of a
dun yellow-grey colour, with brown or spotted markings,
more or less abundant ; the cheeks and sides are redder ;
sometimes it is of a light blue colour, the tail is rather
short, ringed with black, especially near the tip; the fur
is soft, and the ears are of an ochre-red colour, but
sometimes are dark grey.

It appears to be an uncommon animal, and its skins
are sometimes found in karosses of native manufacture ;
a few hundred skins are, however, imported annually,
and are used for wrappers ; the value of a skin is about
3d. to 6d.

The young are quite striped like a tabby cat. The
adult animal resembles the European Wild Cat, with
which it would no doubt as freely interbreed as with the
Domestic Cat, with which both might well be classed.

The Caffer Cat is very similar to the Afghan Cat, or
Bokhara Chaus (felis caudata) ; but the latter has finer
and longer fur, lighter in colour, and fewer rings on the
tail.

The Chaus, Caffer Cat, Wild and Domestic Cat, are
all undoubtedly one species; their common offspring
would no doubt be fertile.

44 CARNIVORA.

hy N\\ \
Wny\\\\y
iy

SIBERIAN OR PERSIAN LYNX.
Felis Isabellina.

The Persian Lynx is much smaller than any other
Lynx, excepting, of course, the Bay Lynx; it is only
about 3 feet long ; the fur is close, dense, and of a palish
light brown or yellowish colour, sometimes marked with
spots, more or less well defined ; the pale and light hue
of its coat is probably produced by the elevated and
exposed regions in which it lives.

This Lynx inhabits Persia, Siberia, Nepaul, Thibet,
and Central Asia generally.

Not many skins are imported into Western Europe,
and its fur is applied to the same purposes as that of
the American Lynx.

The Persian Lynx is probably a local variety of the
ordinary Lynx.

AMERICAN LYNX.
Felis Canadensis.
French: Loup-cervier or Lynx. German: Luchs.

The American Lynx is distributed throughout the
whole of British North America, with the exception of
Labrador, where it is only found in small quantities.
It is abundant in the territory of Alaska and in California.
It is also met with in Minnesota, but this appears to be
its most Southern range. The Yorkfort district produces
the greatest quantity of skins.

The Canadian variety, coming from Nova Scotia,
Moore River, East Main, and Canada ports of the
Eastern part of Hudson’s Bay, has been classed by
many naturalists with the European animal of Norway,
which it closely resembles in the fineness, silvery
appearance and. beauty of its fur, and texture of its
pelt; in fact, the whole of the Scandinavian fauna
resembles in a marked degree that of Canada and
Labrador, not only in the similarity of the various
species, but also in the way that the skins and pelts are
handled ; we, however, prefer to class the Norway Lynx
with the European example, till the American Lynx,
like the Elk and Reindeer, have been classified with the
Kuropean types.

The Californian and North-West District Lynx is
coarser in pelage and pelt, and redder and stronger in
the fur than the foregoing variety. The Yorkfort and
Alaska skins resemble these, but are paler, or very pale,
with thick soft fur, produced no doubt by the severity of
the climate; the footpads are large, and furnished with
thick hair to protect the feet from the snow. ‘The Sitka

46 CARNIVORA.

skins have a shrivelled appearance, but the fur is soft,
pale and fine.

These characteristic distinctions are only seen as a
whole; the gradation from one district to another is very
gradual.

All Lynx, with the exception of the Bay Lynx, will no
doubt interbreed freely, and their offspring prove fertile :
this is a sure way of proving whether it is a distinct
species or a mere local variety.

The American or Canada Lynx, as it is sometimes
called, is a moderately-sized animal, about 4 feet long
and 2 feet high; the fur along the backis about 1 inch
long, and is of a reddish-brown colour, intermixed with
longer silvery hairs; in the centre of the back the hairs
are very abundant and there is little fur there; this
corresponds to the ridge of hair in domestic Cat, Tiger,
etc. The upper part of under fur is reddish-brown, but
the ground is of a drab-blue colour; the face is sur-
rounded by a fringe of several inches in length of long
coarse hair, black at base and white at extremity ; these
are more abundant under the chin, and gives the animal
a weird appearance.

The tail is very short, about 2 or 3 inches long; for
about two-thirds nearest the base the colour on upper part
is same colour as back, but lighter underneath ; the tip is
quite black. The ears are long and tufted with black hair.

The fur on the belly is much longer and finer than on
the back ; it is soft, about 8 inches long, and white, with
faint dark spots appearing.

Drab-coloured or blue varieties are very beautiful and
rare, and afew are taken every year; light yellow or
fawn skins are very exceptional and rarely seen: we
have once seen a dark tabby Lynx, with deep large
spots on the back like a cat; such incipient melanotic

AMERICAN LYNX. AT

forms are extremely rare, but more or less spotted
animals are often met with, but in these the fur is never
so rich as in the paler and thicker-furred individuals.
In summer the Lynx loses most of its beautiful fur, and
is chiefly covered with brown hair.

The whiskers are white and bristly, the claws are
white, sharp and retractible, and are well concealed
in its thick footpads ; they resemble those of a Leopard,
but are of course smaller.

The skin of the Lynx is rather thin, but at the head
and neck it is much thicker ; this is probably to protect
the males when fighting.

The female has 6 or 8 teats.

The skull of the Lynx is oval-shaped, about 5 inches
long, 23 high, and 8 broad. The canine teeth are well
developed. There are ten molars.

The hind legs of the Lynx are much longer than the
front legs.

The fur or skin of the Lynx formsa rather important
article of trade, the usual quantity of skins imported and
sold by the Hudson’s Bay Company ranges from 8 to
40,000 skins; however, in 1887 over 70,000 skins were
sold by the Company. These large increases usually
occur in two to four successive years. In 1891, 11,445
were sold by the same Company.

Lynx on these occasions follow the Wood Hare or
American rabbits in troops, leaving their usual habitats,
and preying on their favourite food. When American
rabbits are abundant, Lynx are always plentiful.
Martens are also a favourite prey of this animal.

Lynx-skins are used over a great part of the civilized
world, both in the natural and dyed state.

The United States, Germany, France, Turkey, Eng-
land, and Canada, are the chief consumers.

48 CARNIVORA.

Many skins are dyed black, and some are dyed brown,
blue, or silvered.

The fur of the belly is long, and makes very hand-
some boas, trimmings, or muffs; this was much in vogue
in England a few years ago, and is always in demand in
Turkey, Herzegovina, etc., where it is much appreciated.
The officers’ busbies in the English Hussar regiments
are made of Lynx-skins, dyed dark brown, which, being
a free flowmg fur, gives a dashing appearance to the
wearer.

The price of Lynx-skins varies considerably, accord-
ing to demand: 40s. 9d. to 42s. is a high price for a.
prime large skin ; the lower qualities range from about
As. to 15s.

An ancient name of the Lynx is Lucerne, probably
derived from the French name of Loup-cervier.

Dr. Richardson, in his ‘‘ North American Fauna,”
says :—‘‘It isa timid creature, incapable of attacking
any of the larger quadrupeds ; but well armed for the
capture of the American hare, on which it chiefly preys.
Its large paws, slender loins, and long, but thick hind
legs, with large buttocks, scarcely relieved by a short
thick tail, give it an awkward, clumsy appearance. It
makes a poor fight when it is surprised by a hunter in a
tree ; for though it spits like a cat, and sets its hair up,
it is easily destroyed by a blow on the back with a
slender stick; and it never attacks a man. Its gait is
by bounds, straight forward, with the back a little
arched, and lighting on all the feet at once. It swims
well, and will cross the arm of a lake two miles wide ;
but it is not swift on land. It breeds once a year, and
has two young at a time. The natives eat its flesh,
which is white, tender, but rather flavourless, much
resembling that of the American hare.

AMERICAN LYNX. 49

“The early French writers on Canada, who ascribed
to it the habit of dropping from trees on the back of
deer, and destroying them by tearing their throats and
drinking their blood, gave it the name of Loup-cervier.”’

HUROPEAN LYNX.
Felis Lynx.
French: Lynx mouchete. German: Europiaischer Lynx.

The European Lynx is a rather rare animal com-
pared to the foregoing; it mhabits Russia, Norway,
Sweden, Finland, Galicia and Spain, and formerly was
also found in France.

The Northern form is very similar to the Lynx of
Canada Proper and Labrador, having in its winter
pelage a soft, silvery and fine coat ; in its summer dress
it is rather redder than the American type.

The skins are used for the same purposes as the
American Lynx, and are stretched and treated very
much like those of Nova Scotia and Labrador. The
best skins are worth about 22s. (1885).

The colour of the European Lynx varies considerably,
according to the locality where it is found; it is some-
times light brown, and marked with small black spots.

The Southern type, called sometimes Felis pardina
by naturalists, is more spotted and has less fur, owing
to the milder climate which it inhabits.

It can hardly be called a well-defined species, nor can
the European form be consistently separated from the
American type, when the varieties of the Elk, Reindeer,
Wolverine and Ermine (which are common to both
Continents) are classified respectively as one species.

Like the American Lynx, this animal climbs and lives
in trees, and preys on birds, small mammals, ete.

50 CARNIVORA.

CAT COMMON, OR BAY LYNX.
Felis rufa.
French: Chat Cervier. German: Luchs-katze.

This animal is by no means abundant, but this should
be hardly a reason for the confusion which until
recently existed in its classification.

Richardson, who is so careful and accurate in his
description of the North American fauna, described it
as the Banded Lynx, but, in justice to this eminent
naturalist, it must be stated thatebut few Cat Common
are found in the Hudson’s Bay Territory.

It is often described by American dealers and authors
under the name of Wild Cat or Lynx Cat.

The Bay Lynx inhabits New York State, Pennsyl-
vania, Virginia, Texas, California, and other States of
the American Union.

It is about 2 feet long; the back is, as a rule, of a
light brown shade, often marked with handsome spots
or rings; the belly is hght coloured or white ; the chest
is white, and the ears black at base, then white and
black at tip; some of the whiskers are black, and some
are white. The tail is very short and coloured at the
base, the same as the back; towards the tip it is black,
the extreme tip is white, with white hair underneath
the whole length of the tail; this colouring invariably
distinguishes it from the Lynx. The tail is correctly
described by Richardson.

The feet are well padded and furnished with sharp
claws, and the face is beautifully marked with black and
white lines, resembling a miniature Tiger.

The Cat Common varies considerably both in colour
and marking.

CAT COMMON. ' 51

The Californian variety is of a reddish hue, with well-
defined black or dark red spots on the belly; the fur is
tolerably thick; many specimens, especially from the
Western or Middle States, are quite light or pale in
colour ; those from the South are well spotted on the
back, but the fur is very short and harsh.

Many animals are quite plain like Lynx, others are
marked with circular rings lke a Leopard, and again
others are very beautifully marked on the back and
belly with large black spots, which are more oblong on
the back. Some skins are almost white, and others of a
beautiful light blue colour.

When attacked by dogs it defends itself with vigour ;
and by some authors its flesh is said to be excellent
eating, a fact which would not seem probable from its
carnivorous habits.

The skins of Cat Common are not very numerous.
Six thousand seven hundred and seven were sold in
1891 at prices from 3d. to 4s. 9d. It is a useful fur,
and generally used for wrappers in this country; the
bulk, however, usually go to Herzegovina, Bulgaria,
Turkey, etc. A few are dyed black to imitate Lynx.

The Hudson’s Bay Company rarely import these skins;
a few sometimes come from their Columbian posts.

THe Canapran or Haurrax Bay Lynx is a large and
woolly variety of the animal just described; it does not
appear to have been previously described, and seems to
have escaped notice altogether.

It is much larger than the usual type of Cat Common ;
the fur is longer, richer, and denser, and the colour is
of a richer grey-brown; that of the belly is long and
beautifully marked with black spots.

This large Northern variety is not numerous, a hundred

E 2

52, CARNIVORA.

skins or so are sold annually in London, and realize up
to 9s. 9d. for a good large skin; these are usually
shipped from Halifax in Canada.

It inhabits Nova Scotia, or even a little farther North.

CARACAL, OR RED CAT.

Felis caracal.

This small Lynx is usually of a light red colour, but
sometimes it is yellowish-drab or marked with silvery
hairs ; the tail is rather short, and tipped with black ; it
is most remarkable for the length of its ears, which are
black in colour, grey inside, and tufted with long black
hair; the base of the ears is also black, this gives the
animal a weird-like appearance; the legs are marked
slightly with black.

CARACAL. 53

When it closes its eyes it has a peculiar satisfied
expression, but when startled it is all activity, opening
its mouth, hissing, snarling, and showing off the fine
black markings round the mouth and at side of the
eyes.

It is about 25 to 3 feet in length.

The Caracal is an inhabitant of South Africa, Nepaul,
and Northern parts of India, and is occasionally
employed like the Cheetah in hunting birds and game.

Like other members of this family, it climbs trees with
agility, and has a ridge of hair along the back.

The skin is of little value and is rarely imported.
The Cape variety is sometimes yellowish, but generally
of a light red colour.

The name Karakal is derived from the Turkish Kara,
black; Kulack, ear.

CHEETAH.

Cyneturus jubatus.
French: Guépard. German: Jagdleopard.

The Cheetah inhabits South and East Africa, India,
Afghanistan, etc. ; it is rather smaller than the Leopard,
and is of a very pale colour, and marked with numerous
black round spots, which are slightly raised above the
rest of theskin. It hasa slight mane of black and white
hair, the head is small, and there is a characteristic black
line running perpendicularly from the eye towards the
jaw.

In some examples the fur is long on the belly, even
reaching 3 or 4 inches; the tail is rather long, and
spotted at base, but ringed from the latter half of the

54. CARNIVORA.

tail; the ears are black at base and light at the tip; the
eyes are brown. In cold climates the colour is lighter
and the fur and mane much longer and thicker.

Albino specimens are rare; they are very beautiful,
being pure white with light brown spots. The claws
are white, somewhat like dog-claws in shape, and non-
retractible.

The Cheetah is used for hunting the antelope or black

buck in India. It is starved before hunting; it is
usually brought blindfolded in a cart drawn by oxen,
and released when the prey is in sight; it approaches
by bounds, singles out one animal, and soon seizes
the quarry, which it pulls down; the hunter then
hastens up and replaces the bandage over its eyes, the
animal being satiated with a spoonful of blood from its
victim.

CHEETAH. 5D

The late Tippoo Sahib kept sixteen of these animals
for hunting. In the middle ages the Cheetah was also
used in France to hunt the roebuck and hares.

In its wild state the Cheetah will eat fowls and pigs.

Sir Peter Lumsden sent a pair of young Cheetahs
from Afghanistan during his eventful stay; the mother
was shot, and it was at first supposed that young Snow-
Leopards had been captured.

The value of its skin is about 10s. to 15s., but it is
too rare an animal for its skin to find much favour; it
is most suitable for wrappers or rugs.

BUSH CAT, OR AFRICAN CIVET CAT.
Viverra civetta.
French: Civette. German: Zibeth Katze.

This Cat is rather a scarce animal, of about 2 feet in
length ; its coat is composed of very coarse, bristly hair,
of a lightish colour, but thickly covered with dark long
spots, which are more or less numerous in different
examples ; sometimes hghter and more numerous, at
others sparser, darker, and blotched lke a dark tabby
cat; the tail is about 9 inches or a foot long.

The Bush Cat inhabits the West Coast of Africa.

Its skin is of little value, about 2s. 6d., and but few,
certainly not above 50, are imported in the year.

The Rev. J. G. Wood says that the young of the
Civet Cat is almost black.

The Bush Cat secretes civet.

56 CARNIVORA.

CHINESE BUSH OR CIVET CAT.
Viverra zibetha.

French: Civette de Chine. German: Chinesischer
Zibeth Katze.

This Cat is most probably a variety of the foregoing
species, to which it has a great resemblance, but is
rather ighter in colour. The fur or hair is rather finer
and thicker. The general colour is light yellow or grey,
and generally slightly spotted. The head and neck is,
however, distinctly marked with black and white. In
some examples there is a deep stripe of black down the
back, with two fainter lines, one on each side. The tail
is long and thick-furred, and striped with six large
broad black rings, of which the last is at the tip, and
is much smaller. The feet are dark.

The skins are generally imported from China in plates
or linings, but only in small quantities. Sometimes a few
hundred skins are sent; in 1891, 1,200 were imported.

Professor Johnston, in his ‘‘ Chemistry of Common
Life” (p. 55), says that the substance known in commerce
by the name of civet is produced by this and the fore-
going species.

“It is of a pale yellow or brownish colour, has
usually the consistence of honey, and possesses a some-
what acrid taste. Its smell resembles that of musk.
When undiluted, this smell is so powerful as to be
offensive to many; but when mixed with a large
quantity of butter, or other diluting substance, it

CHINESE BUSH CAT. aif

becomes agreeably aromatic, fragrant, and delicate. It
is only used as a perfume, and chiefly to mingle with
and improve the odour of less costly scents.

‘*Numbers of them are kept in wicker cages for the
purpose of collecting the civet they secrete. It is used
by the women (North Africa) for the purpose of powder-
ing the upper parts of their bodies, their necks, ete.”

Civet is imported in small quantities in horns, and
finds a market in London at 12s. to 19s. Civet is
sent to this country from Aden.

This Bush Cat is an inhabitant of China and Nepaul.
It is also called the Zibeth.

A local variety is the Indian Civet (Viverricula mala-
censis).

COMMON GENET.
Genetta vulgaris.
French : Genette.

The Genet, or Wild Cat, inhabits France and South
Kurope. It is a small animal, with dark spots on a
palish yellow ground. The tail is long for its size,
bristly, and ringed with black. The fur is short and
harsh; the skin is consequently of low value, and is
chiefly used for common wrappers.

The Genet is by no means numerous.

58 CARNIVORA.

BLOTCHED GENET.
Genetta Tigrina.

This Cat is hardly larger than the before-mentioned
species, and measures about 10 inches long. It is
marked with dark blotches rather than spots. The
general ground is of a lighter colour. The tail is long
and spotted with six to nine dark or black rings, and is
covered with long bristly hair. There is a white or
lighter mark on each side of the mouth.

This Genet inhabits the West Coast of Africa, the
Cape, and South Africa. The type from the former
district is, of course, darker (because nearer to the
Equator), and has been classified as a distinct species
(Genetta pardina), Pardine Genet.

Both varieties are very scarce, and the fur conse-
quently of little value. The Cape variety is the
more numerous, some hundred skins being imported
yearly.

This sub-species is ighter-coloured and thicker-furred
than the West African type. It is especially bristly
along the back.

MOUNTAIN CAT.
Bassaris_ astuta.

This somewhat rare animal is chiefly noticeable for
the very plain greyish colour of its body, and for its
long, full-furred tail, which is beautifully ringed with
black and white. The belly is very light in colour

MOUNTAIN CAT. 59

—almost white. The ears are short and light in
colour; they are almost devoid of hair. The whiskers
are sparse, and black and white. The fur is short,
and light grey. The ground is dark, and rather darker
along the back. The colour varies, however, in most
examples.

The skin is of little value—about 4d. to 6d., and but
few are imported. Sometimes a hundred or so appear
in the sundry lots (in 1889 624 skins).

It inhabits the Western and Southern parts of the
United States, and is sometimes called the Niagara Cat
or Cacomistle.

Dr. St. G. Mivart, P.Z.S. p. 362, 1885, remarks
that ‘‘ it lives amongst rocks and trees. It is not rare,
but is seldom seen, being nocturnal. It is easily tamed,
and even domesticated, and makes a mild, playful pet.
It is useful for destroying mice and rats, but is very
destructive to poultry, and is naturally bold. It prefers
to inhabit woods traversed by water-courses. It feeds
on small quadrupeds and birds, and makes its nest in
the trunks of trees, in holes from 12 to 18 inches deep
which are the result of natural decay. The tail is
carried bent over the back, much in the fashion of a
squirrel. It has three or four young at a birth.”

TWO-SPOTTED PARADOXURE.
Nandinia binstata.

The Nandine, or Two-spotted Paradoxure, is a native
of the West Coast of Africa, and is a rather small

60 CARNIVORA.

animal, with small dark brown spots on a brown
ground. Along the back there are no spots; these are
placed along the half side nearest the belly. The tail
is about 2 feet long, brown and striped. The total
length of the animal is about 3 feet.

The skin is of little or no value, and is only imported
with the more saleable monkey-skins.

WOOLLY PAGUMA.
Paguma langifer.

Called sometimes the Masked Paguma.

This extremely rare animal is about 4 feet long,
including the tail. This appendage is rather more than
half the length of the body. The head is marked with
dark lines at the mouth, and the nose pointed. The
ears are rather short. There are fine curved nails in its
feet, which indicate its arboreal habits. The toes are
dark brown. Its skin is shaped like a kangaroo; and
the fur is dense, rather harsh to the touch, and about
13 inches long. It is of a greyish colour. The tail is
broader at base than at the tip, which is black.

The Woolly Paguma inhabits Nepaul and China, but
little is known of its habits.

EGYPTIAN ICHNEUMON.
Flerpestes ichneumon.
German: Ichneumon.

The Egyptian Ichneumon inhabits North Africa,
Spain, and Italy, and is rather a rare animal.

Some two or three hundred skins are collected
annually, and sold at about 5s. 6d. ; when the fashion for
pointing furs (that is placing white hair among the fur)
was in vogue, the hair of this animal was in great
request, being superior for this purpose to the hair of
the Skunk or Fox, and even supplanted the Badger, the
greater attraction being the varied white tips.

Its general colour is light brown, covered with longer
hairs of red and white, alternate colours.

Its tail is long and bristly.

Its cry is a sharp hissing sound, and its bite is severe.

It lives on small birds, eggs, ete.

DUSTY ICHNEUMON.
Herpestes pulveruleutus.
This Ichneumon is probably a variety of the following
animal, resembling it in every respect except its colour,
which is dark brown.

GREY ICHNEUMON.
Herpestes gresius.
The Grey Ichneumon is an inhabitant of South Africa.
This little animal, called also the Mongus, is very
similar to the Indian species, but is rather smaller,
and has more grizzly hair.
Several hundred skins are imported from time to
time, and the value is from 2d. to 4d.

62 CARNIVORA.

AARD WOLF.
Proteles cristatus.

This rather small Wolf, the Earth Wolf of the Dutch,
is sometimes called Hyzna by furriers ; it inhabits South
Africa, and is about 3 feet in length. The fur is thick
and rather long, mixed with longer coarse hairs; the
colour is ight brown, with black stripes across the body ;
it has ashght mane of very long bristly hair; the tail
is furnished with long bristly coarse black hairs. The
fur is well adapted for making wrappers; but its skin is
rarely met with, and worth about 1s. 6d. to 3s.

The Aard Wolf is said to feed on ants and carrion.

SPOTTED HYAINA.
Hyena crocuta.
French: Hyene. German: Hyane.

The Spotted Hyena inhabits South Africa, and is
larger than the foregoing species, being 4 feet in length.
The fur is thin, and chiefly composed of hair of a light
brown colour, marked with dark spots ; there is a longer
ridge of hair between the shoulders. The head is
round, and the eyes dark and prominent. The tail is
thin and bristly. The power of the jaw of the Hyena
is immense ; it breaks large bones with the greatest ease.
Its cry is peculiar and unearthly. Its gait is also re-
markable, and might be described as a quick shuftle.

SPOTTED HY-ENA. 63

The Spotted Hyena has bred in the Zoological
Gardens.

One thousand six hundred and fifty Hyznas were
killed in British India in 1886.

ESQUIMAUX DOG.
Canis familiaris.

Many naturalists have suggested that this animal is
of the same species as the Wolf; it interbreeds freely
with this animal, and Indians often use Wolves to
increase the size of their domesticated breed of dogs.
To us it appears to be merely a domesticated Wolf. Like
it, it varies in its colouring, black and white, black,
white spotted with brown, white, dark brown, or grizzled,
being the predominating colours.

The fur is dense and thickly covered with strong
hairs, and is nearly of the same value as a small wolf-
skin.

The Esguimaux Dog inhabits Labrador, and other
eastern parts of British North America. But few skins
are sent to this country, and these principally by the
Harmony Company; an occasional skin is sometimes
found amongst the Hudson’s Bay Company’s sundries, or
is imported from Greenland.

The HaregIndian Dog is a variety of this animal,
from which it however differs in many respects.

The dog of North America was used as a beast of
burden by the Indians, for drawing household utensils,
etc. ; just asin the present day dogs are employed in
Germany and Belgium for drawing milk carts, etc.

The Esquimaux Dog is invaluable for drawing sledges.
On many of the Polar expeditions they were employed

64 CARNIVORA.

as furnishing the most practical means of transport.
They were used in the late Arctic Expedition of Sir
George Nares, and more recently by Major Greeley, who
speaks more highly of dog-sleighs than the former ; but
we must not lose sight of the fact that the dog is unable
to draw on half-frozen snow (as was the case in Nares’
Expedition) ; a fine surface is required in order to travel
with speed.

The Esquimaux Dog will devour its harness if left
within its reach : its appetite is voracious.

The well-known Pomeranian Dog resembles this
animal, both in appearance and disposition.

Dr. Richardson says, p. 75 :—‘‘ Without entering at all
into the question of the domestic dog, I may state that the
resemblance between the wolves and the dogs of those
Indian natives who still preserve their ancient mode of
life continues to be very remarkable, and is nowhere
more so than at the very northern extremity of the
Continent, the Esquimaux Dogs being not only extremely
like the grey wolves of the Arctic circle in form and
colour, but also nearly equalling them in size. The dog
has generally a shorter tail than the wolf, and carries it
more frequently curved at the hip; but the latter practice
is not totally unknown to the wolf, although that
animal, when under the observation of man, being
generally apprehensive of danger or on the watch, seldom
displays this mark of satisfaction. I haye, however,
seen a family of wolves playing together, occasionally
carry their tails curled upwards.”

Dr. Richardson, quoting Captain Lyon, says :—‘“ It
might be supposed that in so cold a climate these
animals had peculiar periods of gestation, like the wild
creatures ; but, on the contrary, they bear young at every
season of the year, and seldom exceed five at a litter.”’

DINGO.
Canis Dingo.

The Dingo is the Wild Dog of Australia.

Its general colour is red-brown, black, and brindled
(like Wolves), or red-brown with black hairs, are some-
times met with.

It is about 3 feet long, and breeds in confinement.

The skin of the Dingo is of small value, and very few
are imported.

COMMON OR EUROPEAN WOLF.
Canis lupus.
French: Loup. German: Wolf.

The Wolf, although extinct in Great Britain and
Treland, still exists in some quantities in the West of
Europe ; it is found in Spain, France, Russia, Hungary,
Austria (Carinthia), Kast Prussia, and Belgium (Forest
of Ardennes).

In severe and cold weather it leaves its refuge in the
hills and comes out of its covert in the forest to commit
ravages among the herds, and even penetrates into the
villages.

In recent years an attempt has been made to exter-
minate or greatly reduce the number of Wolves in
France. In 1883, 1,308 Wolves were killed, for which
£4,105 were paid: 200 francs for a full-grown Wolf,
150 frances for a she-Wolf, 100 franes for a Wolf not
fully grown, and 40 francs for a young Wolf.

66 CARNIVORA.

In 18838, 1,308 were killed at premiums about £4,105

In 1884, 1,035 i - £3,200
In 1885, 900 ie sn £2,600
In 1886, 760 ss Bs £2,284
In 1887, 7O1 _ as £1,920

In 1887 the departments where most Wolves were
killed were the Dordogne (109), Charente (68), Vienne
(50), Haute-Vienne (47), situated nearly in the centre of
France ; it is still hunted in that country.

The Common Wolf is of a bolder and fiercer disposition
than its American cousin (which, although-larger, is more
cowardly) ; in some instances, it attacks man without
fear, and every one is familiar with the thrilling sledge
adventures which have happened.

In olden times, in wild and thinly-populated districts,
such as Flixton in Yorkshire, places of refuge from
Wolves were erected for the convenience of travellers.
It was then so common in Britain, durmg the times of
the Heptarchy, that January was the ‘‘ Wolf Month ” of
the Anglo-Saxons. (Standard, 25th November, 1884.)

In 1684, in a fair held on the ice on the Thames,
the pelts of Irish Wolves occupied a prominent position
in the show.

Mr. J. E. Harting says that, ‘‘ as far as can be ascer-
tained, it appears that the Wolf became extinct in
England during the reign of Henry VII., that it survived
in Scotland until 1748, and that the last of these
animals was killed in Ireland, according to Richardson,
in 1770, or, according to Sir James Emerson Tennant,
subsequently to 1766.”

The Welsh, in whose country the wild fauna existed
to a much later date than in England, paid a tribute
to Edward I. in Wolf heads.

The names of Wolfshole, Wolfscrag, etc., denote the

EUROPEAN WOLF. 67

abundance at one time of this animal in the North of
England. Remains of the Wolf have been found in the
Swiss Lake Dwellings.

The Common Wolf is about the size of a large dog,
but the Russian variety attains larger dimensions. The
colour is generally brown-red, with longer black hair,
the under fur or wool thick and dense, and bluish in
the ground; many are of a lighter or paler colour, and
again a few are almost red; the tail is full, of medium
length, dark brown above and lighter below; this
appendage is tipped with black; the ears are generally
dark brown, and covered with short velvety fur; the
whiskers are black and few in number.

The English Wolf was undoubtedly very much of the
above description, but of smaller size and darker colour,
and was also probably of a fierce disposition.

Wolves imported from Europe would, no doubt, after
the lapse of some years, acquire the former charac-
teristics of the English Wolf, viz., its deep colouring and
smaller size.

The Collie or Shepherd’s Dog is very similar in size,
habits, and colour to the Common Wolf; in fact, there
is a greater resemblance to this animal than to any
breed of dog; the habits of Fox-hounds, packs of Boar
and Stag-hounds, and the occasional predatory manners
of the domestic dog (worrying and slaying Sheep),
clearly indicate that the Wolf (who has likewise these
characteristics) was their common ancestor. If these
hounds were allowed to relapse into the wild state they
would re-acquire these habits.

The Wolf is at times subject to hydrophobia ; its bite
is even more fatal than that of the dog.

Dr. Richardson says, ‘‘ Black Wolves are more frequent
in the Southern parts of Europe than in the Northern,

F 2

68 CARNIVORA.

and to the South of the Pyrenees they are said to be
more common than the ordinary species or variety.”
(Griffith’s ‘‘ Animal Kingdom,” vol. 11. p. 348.)

The Siberian type is of a larger size than the foregoing
species; it is usually of a light colour, with dense and
rather harsh fur; many are of a reddish hue, and a few
are almost quite red.

Several thousand skins are imported into Europe from
Siberia ; these are mostly used for making sleigh-robes,
wrappers, etc., but some are manufactured into boas.

In Russia Wolves are hunted with Wolf-hounds ; when
brought to bay the hunter dismounts, bestraddles the
Wolf, seizes it by the ears, and dispatches it.

The Russian Wolf is sometimes tamed and trained
to stand on backs of chairs, etc. It is estimated that
there are about 170,000 Wolves slain annually in
Russia: the reward for killing a Wolf is ten roubles
(about £1). The number killed in the province of
Wologda, Kasan, was 80,000 in 1889. The number of
persons killed by Wolves was 203. Many Siberian Wolf-
skins are sold at Irbit Fair; many are brought from
Turuschanki, Berevorsky, and Perschorsky districts.

AMERICAN WOLKE.
Canis lupus occidentalis.

French: Loup d’Amérique. German: Amérikanischer
Wolf.

This large animal, which is also called the Timber
Wolf, is about 5 to 6 feet in length, and is found
throughout the wild regions of British North America
(including Vancouver Island), Alaska, and of the
United States. It is larger than the European repre-
sentative; those from the extreme North attain to a

AMERICAN WOLF. 69

very considerable size, especially those from the
Churchill and Esquimaux Bay districts of the Hudson’s
Bay Company; from the first-named districts the white
variety, and those with the hair almost white, are most
abundant: the exposed situation and extreme tempera-
ture undoubtedly produces these effects, and corresponds
with the colour produced in the Arctic Fox. <A similar
conclusion is to be drawn from the blue or dusky variety
of the Wolf, which is most abundant in the E. B. dis-
trict. Black and pied animals are also found, but the
erey 1s the prevailing colour of this animal. Fawn-
coloured specimens are extremely rare.

The large White Wolves which a few years ago were
abundant in the States, going about in troops of 50
to 60, seem to have disappeared with the Buffalo.

The fur of the Wolf from the Northern ports is long
and rather silky; skins from these parts are of good
quality, and consequently very valuable. The blue and
white skins are exceptionally handsome; the hair
between the shoulders is longer and coarser.

The ears of the American Wolf are about 4 inches long,
and dark in colour, and usually protected by the dense
fur with which they are surrounded. The legs of grey
animals are white and grey, with short stubbly hair; the
tail is full, about 18 to 24 inches long, and tipped with
black hair ; the whiskers are sparse, and usually black.

The fur of the Alaska animal is coarse. According to
Elliott, the Wolf is not found farther in the Aleutian
Islands than Oomniak.

Dr. Richardson, p. 62 ‘‘ Northern Zoology,” says:
‘*T do not mean to assert that the differences existing
between it and its European congener are sufficiently
permanent to constitute them, in the eye of the natur-
alist, distinct species. The same kind of differences

70 CARNIVORA.

may be traced between the Foxes and native races of the
domestic dog of the New World and those of the Old;
the former possessing finer, denser, longer fur, and
broader feet, well calculated for running in the snow.”

And at p. 64: ‘The American Wolf burrows and brings
forth its young in earths with several outlets, like those of
a Fox. Isawsome of their burrows on the plains of the
Saskatchewan, and also on the banks of the Coppermine
River. The number of young in a litter varies from
four or five to eight or nine. In Captain Parry’s and
Captain Franklin’s narratives, instances are recorded
of the female Wolf associating with the domestic dog;
and we are informed that the Indians endeavour to
improve their sledge-dogs by crossing the breed with
Wolves. The resemblance between the Northern Wolves
and the domestic dog of the Indians is so great that
the size and strength of the Wolf seems the only
difference. I have more than once mistaken a band of
Wolves for the dogs of a party of Indians; and the
howl of the animals of both species is prolonged so
exactly in the same key, that even the practised ear
of an Indian fails at times to discriminate them.”
Again, p. 70: ‘‘ The Indians do not consider the black
Wolves to be a distinct race, but report that one or two
black whelps are occasionally found in a litter of a grey
Wolf. In conceding to their opinion, I do not mean to
assert that the offspring of black Wolves are not most
frequently black. The black Wolves differ from the
grey ones only in colour, and their haunts and habits
are precisely the same.”

The American Wolf reaches a high latitude. It was
observed in latitude 27° N. during the late Polar Expedi-
tion.

Mr. Fielden states that ‘“‘on the 1st April, 1876,

AMERICAN WOLF. yp

several Wolves made their appearance in the neighbour-
hood of the winter-quarters of the Alert. They were
evidently following a small herd of Musk-oxen, whose
tracks and traces were observed in the vicinity; and
that they were able at times to secure these animals
was shown by their dung being composed chiefly of
Musk-ox wool and splinters of bone. Several of our
sportsmen started in pursuit of these Wolves, but, with
one exception, they did not allow them to approach
them within three or four hundred yards. The follow-
ing day (April 2) the Wolves still continued in the neigh-
bourhood of the ship, and at intervals their long,
melancholy, but not unmusical wail reverberated from
the hills.’’— (“‘ Voyage to Polar Sea,” p. 192.)

Some 460 to 620 skins are imported annually (1891,
263 skins only) by the Hudson’s Bay Company ; and
about 3800 to 500 from other parts of North America.
Grey fetch 4s. 6d. to 23s. 9d.; white, 7s. 6d. to 90s. ;
blue, 50s. to 126s. per skin.

These skins are especially adapted for handsome
sleigh-robes or wrappers. They are especially in vogue
in London, New York, Paris, Montreal, ete.

Dyed black or brown, they are made into excellent
boas, to which they are well adapted, owing to the
lightness of the pelt.

The skull and dentition approaches closely to that of
the dog.

The female has eight teats.

The Wolf, in former times, surrounded the Moose and
drove it over precipices, and then descended to devour
the carcase. It, however, feared to attack the Buffalo,
unless they were infirm, aged, or sickly animals.

In Alaska the Wolf preys on the Reindeer.

72 CARNIVORA.

INDIAN WOLF.
Canis pallipes.

French: Loup des Indes. German: Ostindischer
Wolf.

This Wolf is about 4 feet in length, and inhabits
India, Cashmere, Nepaul, etc.

The colour is of the usual grey hue of the Wolf, but,
generally speaking, much lighter. The fur is dense
from the northern districts, but further south the coat is
chiefly composed of short, harsh, bristly hair. It has
a lanky and hungry appearance.

Six thousand seven hundred and twenty-five were
killed in British India in 1886.

Very few skins are imported.

The Indian Wolf is said to breed occasionally with the
village dogs.

PRAIRIE WOLF, OR COYOTE.
Canis latrans.

The Coyote is smaller than the foregoing species or
varieties of Wolves, and is foundin many States of the
North American Republic, such as Montana, Wyoming,
Colorado, Texas, and is also tolerably abundant in the
Manitoba and South districts of the Hudson’s Bay
Company.

The colour of the Prairie Wolf is grey, or dark
grizzly, with black tops. The tail is tipped with black,
but occasionally is white. The ears are large for its
size, usually reddish and tipped with black. The under-
ground of the fur is blue, and specimens are sometimes
found of an ordinary brown colour. The fur is rather
long, harsh, and dense.

PRAIRIE WOLF. 73

Some 2,000 to 3,000 skins are imported annually,
and another 1,000 to 38,000 by the Hudson’s Bay
Company. In 1891 3,974 skins were sold by the
Company. The skins from the Dominion are, of
course, of fuller and finer quality than those from the
United States.

Of late years it has been hunted in Iowa by packs of
hounds, or dogs of mixed breeds, and affords good sport
to the hunters. It is extremely wary, and difficult to
take in traps.

The Coyote appears to breed occasionally with the
grey or Virginian Fox. It is said to produce five to
eight young at a birth. The female has six teats.

The Prairie Wolf has bred in Epping Forest from
animals escaped from captivity. It breeds freely with
fox-terriers, pointers, &c., thus showing the identity of
the wolf and dog.

The skins of the Prairie Wolf make excellent wrappers
and boas, and take a brilliant dye (black or brown).

Its fur is used all over the civilized world, with the
exception of China.

SOUTH AMERICAN WOLF.
Canis antarcticus.

This small Wolf is grey in colour, and somewhat
similar to the Coyote of the Northern Continent.

There are but few skins; some 50 to 100 are imported
annually. Its fur is consequently little known to
traders. Its skin is, however, sometimes used to replace
that of the grey Fox, as its colour is dark brindled, and
dark on the top hair.

74 CARNIVORA.

The length of this Wolf is about 2 feet, not including
the tail, which is about 6 to 8 inches long, and dark
in colour.

It inhabits South America and resembles a Jackal.

There is a larger species, the Red Wolf (Canis jubata),
of a size between the Coyote and North American Wolf.

The belly of this animal is of a reddish colour ; the
back is dark grey, and also the tail.

It likewise inhabits South America.

SIBERIAN OR CHINESE DOG.

The Chinese Dog is about the size of a large retriever.
Like other wolves or dogs, there is a long ridge of hair
running down the back of this animal. The legs are
long, as well as the ears. The animal has altogether a
starved and lanky appearance. Its tail, being rather
long and not bushy, adds to this effect. Many have
coats almost like a retriever.

One of these animals was exhibited in the Gardens of
the Zoological Society in 1886, but it seems to be practi-
cally unknown to the scientific world, although known
for centuries to the Chinese, and has of late years
become an article of commerce. The bulk is made into
robes of eight skins (sometimes four), and sent from
Shanghai to London and New York. They vary in
colour: black, white. fawn, mottled, and some brindled,
are the predominant colours. These skins or robes are
generally imported in the dressed state.

This animal inhabits China, etc., and about 50,000 to
100,000 skins are imported annually into London.
This does not include the yearly collection which,

SIBERIAN DOG. 75

according to Mr. Edgar, at Newchang, in Manchooria,
reaches from £40,000 to £60,000 in value annually.
He says that ‘there are thousands of small dog and
coat farms dotted over Manchooria and the eastern
borders of Mongolia, where from a score to some
hundreds of dogs are annually reared on each farm,
and where they constitute a source of wealth.”

The Siberian Dog is larger and has a more magnificent
coat than even the foregoing. It is usually black.
Many skins are imported into this country either direct
from Russia or through Leipsic.

The Chinese Dog-skin takes a brilliant black dye, or
may be topped. It makes an excellent sleigh-robe. It
is also used for the manufacture of men’s coats in
Canada.

JAPANESE WOLF.

Canis podophylax, or Canis lupus.

This rare animal is about 4 feet long. Its general
colour is dark blue.
Skins are seldom seen.

CHINESE WOLF.
Cans lupus.

The Chinese Wolf is of a pale light grey colour, and
the fur is dense and rather coarse. It is about the size
of the foregoing species, and is rather larger than the
Coyote.

Very few skins (about 100 to 745) are imported into

76 CARNIVORA.

this country. The best skins sometimes fetch 16s. per
skin. The usual price is much lower.

The Tibetian Wolf (Canis laniger) is a climatic
variety of the Common Wolf. They are usually black.

COMMON FOX.
Canis vulpes, or perhaps Vulpes vulgaris.

French: Renard du pays. German: Land Fuchs.

The Common Fox is one of the most abundant fauna
of the British Islands ; it is found throughout the greater
part of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, and in
the Isle of Wight. It is best known for the sport which
it affords when hunted.

There are (1889) 152 packs of Fox-hounds in Eng-
land, 9 in Scotland, 16 in Ireland, 3 in Wales. Regular
hunting commences about the middle of October, and
ends on the 1st of March. Hunting is often prolonged
to the first or second week in April.

The younger hounds or drafts are trained by a course
of cub-hunting, which commences in September.

Many interesting tales and stories are told about the
wiles and various tricks of the Fox when hard pressed,
such as taking refuge in out-houses, ete. A case is re-
corded in the Field of a Fox when driven from cover,
having climbed a tree covered with ivy, and disappeared
from sight. A man ascended the tree, shook the Fox
down, when he gave an excellent run of 30 minutes,
and ultimately escaped.

Foxes have also been seen nestling on the bough of a
tree 80 feet from the ground. When hotly pursued, they
have been known to run on the tops of walls, hedges, etc.,

COMMON FOX. TT

and to run along some distance before jumping down,
and to spring across the corners.

A Fox, when hunted by a single hound, has been known
to turn on its pursuer, fight with him, and to escape.
The Fox has also been known to play with dogs. A rare
instance is recorded in the Field of a Fox having taken
to the sea in Sussex when pursued by the hounds.

What sportsman does not recollect with pleasure the
mounted gathering at a meet of the Fox-hounds on a
fine winter’s morning, the cheery greetings, the various
mounts, the bright-coloured suits, and the several
carriages, and at last the arrival of the master of the
hounds, who brings forward his charge like so many
school-children, running and playing with each other?
The bright sun, the blue sky, and the autumnual foliage
complete the agreeable surroundings.

After a trot of a few seconds, we either arrive at a
covert or proceed to a field near at hand. The hounds
are now laid on in a copse or wood, or perhaps in a
bunch of furze bushes, which is generally a favourite
hiding-place of the Fox. Whena scent is found, the Fox
is forced, after a few doublings, to leave his shelter, and
crosses a field, followed by his pursuers, both four and
two-legged.

The blow of the horn, so short and invigorating, which
can scarcely be easily forgotten, is now perhaps heard ;
many falls take place at hedges, gates, etc., and when
hounds are running, the foremost are at times thrown
out by taking an injudicious turn, or by a sudden turn
of the Fox; others gain a prominent position, or those
thrown out regain theirs. The Fox, as a rule, has not
a great chance of escape, unless he can reach his earth,
which, if situate in a chalk-pit, or the top of a hill or
precipice, is generally secure ; but he is sometimes dug

78 CARNIVORA.

out of his subterranean refuge—an unsportsmanlike and
barbarous proceeding.

If killed in the open, his brush is given to one of the
first in; at the death, his feet and head are cut off, and
the rest of his body is eaten by the hounds. The skin
is not saved, and many thousand pelts are lost every
year in this way.

Foxes are often trapped and caught in some counties,
and turned down in others.

There existed in Germany, some 200 years ago, a
favourite sport called Fox-tossing.

The English Fox is a rather short, thick- set animal,
of a reddish-brown colour, with short black ears,
and tail with a white tip; it is sometimes of a quite
light colour, resembling that of the Prairie Red Fox of
North America; sometimes, though more rarely, it has a
black belly and deeper markings at the shoulder, thus
resembling the Bastard or Cross Red Fox of the North
American Continent; it is more enduring in speed, and
stronger than its American brother, although perhaps
not so fast for the first few miles.

The Common Fox is a nocturnal animal, and loves to
ramble in the moonlight; it commits many ravages in
the poultry yard, slaying fowls, ducks, and other poultry
with impunity ; even turkeys have been known to fall a
prey to their rapacity.

Its favourite and principal food is rabbits ; it will also
devour sickly lambs, rats, birds; in fact, any small
animal or bird is appreciated.

The Fox has been known to give tongue when hunting.

The scent of the Fox is pungent and peculiar, and, when
the weather is mild and muggy, this hangs about a
locality for some time.

The vixen or female Fox produces about seven or eight

COMMON FOX. 79

to ten young; the cubs are covered with soft yellow
downy wool, and are charming to look at; their antics
and gambols are also interesting. The young Foxes have
sometimes been suckled by a dog.

The Fox burrows about 6 feet deep in the earth;
sometimes its home is made in the inaccessible side
of a chalk-pit, or even of a sea-cliff; it sometimes takes
possession of badger-earths, and has even been known
to live in the same burrow with rabbits, its natural prey.

The Fox sometimes becomes to a certain extent tame ;
it will then enter gardens, etc., and only quit them
on some one approaching. When taken in spring-traps,
it will eat off its paw, if unable to escape otherwise.
However, it is a sagacious animal, and not easily captured.
It is said not to like the smell of old iron placed near
plantations. .

The Fox is at times subject to mange, and also to
hydrophobia. A noble recently died from the bite of a
tame Fox. The Fox will sometimes swim.

Foxes are occasionally poisoned, but farmers, as a
rule, are generally accessible to the great liberality with
which their claims for compensation, whether for
destruction of poultry or damage to crops or fences, are
met by masters of hounds; on the other hand, they have
sometimes just grounds for their complaints by the
heedless way in which their crops are ridden over.

In Scotland and North Devon, where, on account of
the ruggedness of the country, hunting is not prac-
ticable, Foxes are often shot. This is also the case in
North Wales, the Cheviots, ete.

Fox-skins from North Wales and Scotland are larger
and finer than those from other parts of Great Britain.
From North Wales the skins are generally stuffed
with straw. As before said, but few pelts are saved

80 CARNIVORA.

in England; but on the Continent, Fox-skins, which
resemble the English in coarseness of quality, and
even exceed them in this respect, and are also very
light in colour, are collected, and realize several shillings
each.

About 180,000 skins are sold at Easter Fair in
Leipsic ; about 200,000 Fox-skins of all sorts at Ivbit
Fair in Siberia. Many are also sold at the Frankfort
Fair.

The collection of German Fox-skins is about 500,000 ;
and 314,416 Foxes were killed in Russia in the winter of
1885-6.

The Common or Red Fox is found throughout most of
the counties of the Continent; it also inhabits Sardinia,
but in this island it is very tawny, and of a dirty red
colour.

The Swiss, Saxon, and Pomeranian skins are superior
in quality to the French, German, and Danish. Spanish
skins are of good quality, but open; the price is about
2s.

In Scotland the Fox lives in stony and mountainous
districts.

Tur Norway Rep Fox has much finer fur than those
on the Continent, and closely resembles the Labrador
animal in Canada. The skins are also handled in much
the same way. Silver and Cross Foxes are also found in
Norway and Sweden ; the former are very rare, and are
not found, as far as we are aware, in any other part of
Europe.

Fox-skins are generally used for cheap wrappers, or are
dyed.

The price of a live Fox is about 10s.

The Common Fox is the same species as the Red
Cross, or Silver Fox of North America.

AMERICAN RED FOX.
Canis fulvus.
French: Renard rouge. German: Rother Fuchs.

The American Red Fox is rarely hunted for sport,
and is usually captured by trapping, for the sake of its
fur ; itis rather larger than the European variety, but
it is not such a robust animal, and has a somewhat
lanky appearance; its legs are longer than in the
European animal, and are in most cases black; the
belly is generally black, except among the Prairie and
Alaska Foxes. The tail is very bushy, of a lightish
brown colour, with longer black hair at the top; the tip
of the tail is white ; the ears are black, and covered with
short, black, velvety fur; the whiskers are black, and
the fur is much finer than in the EKuropean variety.
The female has six teats.

The Red Fox is widely distributed in the Northern
Continent of North America; it is not found in Louis-
iana, its most Southern range being probably North
Carolina, Tennessee, and Pennsylvania. In Virginia and
in the most Southern districts the American Red Fox
attains its deepest colouring, but its size is much smaller
than in the more Northern types; the bellies are
generally black, but occasionally white.

The Prairie or North-west Red Fox inhabits the more
Northern plain districts, such as Montana and Dakota,
in the United States, the Red River district, Manitoba,
and York Fort district of the Canadian Dominion. This
variety is large, very light in colour, almost white; the
belly is white, and the tail, as a rule, extremely bushy ;

82 CARNIVORA.

the pale colour is no doubt produced by exposure to
weather and sun.

In Labrador, where the Harmony Company is estab-
lished, the Red Fox skins are noted for their large size
and fine quality, but in this desolate and forsaken region
their number is but limited, and the pelts collected are
but few, and realize a high price, 15s. to 30s.

The Esquimaux Bay (E.B.) skins of the Hudson’s
Bay Company resemble these very closely, but are not
quite so large.

The Halifax Red Fox is large, the quality of fur rich,
and the colour usually bright red ; the belly is sometimes
white.

The American Red Fox is also found in Newfoundland
and Nova Scotia ; here the furs produced are broad, full
in quality, rather coarse, and yellow or pale in colour ;
this coarseness is probably produced by the sea-air. It
will beseen from the above remarks that the fur and colour
of the Red Fox varies in each district of the Hudson’s
Bay Company as well as in the different Northern
States of the United States. The Red Fox is also
abundant in the Province of Alaska, and in most of the
Aleutian Islands; here the fur is of a fine rich red, the
quality full, but sometimes rather coarse, especially
those from Kadiak Island; the pelt is spongy; the belly
is usually red or white; the legs are much redder than
in the United States Fox, but the paws are black. The
Alaska Red Fox is of a good average size.

The Red Fox occasionally visits the Pribylov Islands
on packs or fields of ice; but it is killed, and not suffered
to remain on the Islands, for (as it is stated) fear of
spoiling the fur of the blue and white Foxes which exist
there: the fact of their being different species appears
not to be taken into account by those in authority.

AMERICAN RED FOX. 83

The Columbia Red Fox is very similar to the Alaska
animal.

There is a very large variety of Red Fox, nearly the
size of small Wolves, inhabiting Kadiak Island; these
skins, the largest of all Foxes, measure as much as 8 feet,
not including the tail, which is another 18 to 20 inches ;
the colour is pale or light red, and the quality coarse ;
the ears are partly red and partly black, about one-third
from the tip ; the belly is of a light colour, but the paws
and part of the legs are black; in this respect they
resemble the Alaska.

The Kamschatka Fox surpasses all other Foxes in the
depth and richness of the red colour; the fur is also of
very fine quality.

The Chinese Fox is of a pale light yellow, and the
skin is coarse in quality, and of small value, about
1s. 6d. to 2s.

The Japanese Fox is very similar to the Chinese; it
is, perhaps, of a little deeper colour.

In most districts, except the North-west district,
there are found examples (animals) of a slightly darker
colour on the shoulders and rump, and blacker in the
belly ; these approach, but are not quite, the colour of a
Cross Fox. These skins are called “‘ Bastards” in the fur
trade. They are intermediate in colour between the
Red and the Cross Fox, and it is difficult to say which
they resemble most. These skins realize a price about
halfway between each variety, and are sold by themselves
in the Hudson’s Bay Company’s sale, after the Red Fox
skins.

There are, besides the ordinary, ‘‘ Bastard ’”’ Foxes,
that is, dark Foxes with black bellies and legs, found
in most States of the Union.

' White varieties (White-Red Fox) are extremely rare ;
G 2

84 CARNIVORA.

we have only seen one. This extraordinarily scarce
specimen had a black mark on the belly, black legs, and
the tail white, and marked with longer black hairs—a
most interesting variety of colour.

A Silvery-Red Fox (red animal with long white hairs
interspersed in the body) is of rare occurrence, but not
quite so uncommon as the white variety ; we have also
once seen a skin of a light fawn variety of the Red
Fox.

Red Fox skins are most purchased for export to
Russia, Turkey, Greece, Servia, Bulgaria, and other
Eastern countries, where they are used for trimming,
men’s coats, etc. The red-coloured skins are most
eagerly competed for by the three former countries, and
the pale or lighter colours go to Galicia, etc.

Many skins are also used in other parts of the
Continent, either made up natural into wrappers or
dyed black, brown, and other colours, and made into
various articles. The tails are also used for boas when
dyed black, or natural are made into hand-brushes.

The North American Indians occasionally make these
skins into very handsome robes.

About 70,000 to 90,000 skins are imported annually
into and sold in the London market. In 1891, 13,948
were sold by the Hudson’s Bay Company; and 56,118
from Alaska, United States, and Canada, thus making
a total of 70,061 skins for the year.

In 1816 the price ranged from 9s. 6d. to 23s. 3d.,
which latter was an unusually high price: in 1819 21s.
was paid. The usual prices range from 2s. to 16s.

In the North-eastern part of Asia the skin of the Red
Fox was the chief medium of barter, in the same way
that the Beaver skin was in other parts of America.

As regards its habits, Dr. Richardson writes, in his

AMERICAN RED FOX. 85

“Northern Zoology,” p. 92: ‘“‘ The Red Fox burrows in
the summer, and in the winter takes shelter under a
fallen tree. It brings forth four young about the
beginning of May. They are covered at birth with a
soft downy fur, of a yellowish-grey colour, the orange-
coloured hair not beginning to appear until they are
five or six weeks old. Even the Indian hunters do not
know the cubs at an early age from those of the Cross
or Silver Foxes, and I therefore cannot now place the
reliance I was once induced to do on their report of
young Cross Foxes being found in the burrows of the
Red Fox.

“The Red Foxes prey much on the smaller animals
of the rat family, but they are fond of fish, and reject
no kind of animal food which comes in their way. They
are taken in steel-traps, also in fall-traps, made of logs,
but much nicety is required in setting them, as the
animal is very suspicious. Some of the best Fox-hunters
in the fur countries ascribe their success to the use of
assafeetida, castoreum, and other strong-smelling sub-
stances, with which they rub their traps, and the small
twigs set up in the neighbourhood, alleging that Foxes
are fond of such perfume. The Red Fox hunts for
its food chiefly in the night, but it is also frequently seen
in the daytime. In the winter-time their tracts are
most frequent on the borders of lakes, which they
quarter much lke a pointer dog.

“The Red Fox does not possess the wind of its
English congener. It runs for about a hundred yards
with great swiftness, but its strength is exhausted in
the first burst, and it is soon overtaken by a Wolf or
mounted huntsman. Its flesh is ill-tasted, and is eaten
only through necessity.”

There is no reason to consider this Fox as distinct

86 CARNIVORA.

from the European type; it differs, of course, in some
characteristics, but so do the Moose, Reindeer, Ermine,
etc., from the European varieties; these mbhabit the
same districts as the Red Fox, but for some reason have
not been broken up into different species, although the
American and European Moose were separated for a
time.

The American Red Fox would, no doubt, freely inter-
breed with the European, and the offspring would be
fertile.

AMERICAN CROSS FOX.
Canis fulvus.
French: Renard croissé. German: Kreuz Fuchs.

The Cross Fox is merely a variety of colour of the
foregoing animal ; it is so called from the darker hair on
the shoulders. It is found in all the same districts as
the Red Fox, but it does not range so far South. The
remarks regarding difference of quality of fur, size,
distribution, etc., apply equally to this variety.

The darkest and finest skins come from the Labrador
and Esquimaux Bay districts; the least valuable skins
are the North-western from Montana, Dakota, Red
River, etc. These are quite pale in colour, and are
usually coarser-haired. They are scarcely distinguish-
able from the pale North-western Red Fox.

The Silver, Cross, and Red Fox skins are packed
together in the Hudson Bay packages, the only differ-
ence being the colour.

The belly and legs of the Cross Fox are black, the
ears are also black, and the tail is tipped with white.

AMERICAN CROSS FOX. 87

Cross Fox skins are sorted into qualities and colours ;
the darkest are scarcely. distinguishable from the Silver
Fox; the red and pale coloured skins are only a few
shades darker than the Red Fox. The fur of the Cross
Fox is more valuable than the Red Fox. The finest
dark skins fetch from 100s. to 145s. each, an average
skin being worth from 20s. to 50s. About 5,000 to
7,000 skins are imported annually into London ; 2,457
were sold by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1891, and
2,824 from Alaska, Canada, and United States. These
quantities show that it is scarcer than the Red Fox, but
more abundant than the Silver Fox.

The majority of skins are bought for Russian con-
sumption.

The Cross Fox is also found in Kadiak Islands in
Kamschatka; it almost reaches the size of Wolves.

AMERICAN SILVER FOX.
Canis fulvus.
French: Renard argenté. German: Silber Fuchs.

The Silver Fox is also called the Black Fox. It is
scarcer, and its fur is consequently of greater value, than
either of the foregoing varieties. Similar remarks as to
size, locality, and quality of fur, again apply to this
animal; but no Silver Foxes are found in the Southern
districts of the United States, and are only found in
California and Western States of the Republic.

The Silver Fox is much rarer than the Cross Fox,
and the highest value is attached to skins which are
nearly or quite black, there being but one, two, or three
such skins in a whole year’s collection. Some immense

88 CARNIVORA.

tracts or districts do not produce a perfectly black skin
during a whole winter. A good black skin, with only
the characteristic white tip at the tail, will fetch from
£50 to £72.

Some skins are silvery nearly all over; that is, the
dark under fur is thickly covered with longer black and
white hair or fur; such skins are very beautiful; as a
rule, the more black there is in a skin the greater is its
value. There are a great many shades of colour, rang-
ing down to the pale silvery, and cross silvery skins,
which are much lower in price, say £4 to £8.

The belly is generally black, although occasionally a
spot of white fur of greater or less extent is found
there; the tip of tail is invariably white, even in the
blackest skins; the under fur or ground is dark drab.
The finest quality skins come from the Labrador coast.
The tail is extremely bushy and thick, and it has five
toes in its feet. About 1,500 to 2,000 skins are annually
sold in London: in 1891, 554 by the Hudson’s Bay
Company, and 815 by other brokers from Alaska,
Canada, ete.

The fur of the Silver Fox is one of the finest and
most expensive skins. It is usually made into mufis,
trimmings, ete., and is principally purchased for Russia
and France. It is also in favour, though to a less
extent, in England and Canada.

Richardson says :—‘‘ Like the two preceding varieties,
the black Silver Foxes have the soles of their feet thickly
covered with wool in the winter ; no callous spots being
then visible.”

Wee in: Ri Oexe
Canis lagopus.
French: Renard blanc. German: Weiss Fuchs.

This small but interesting Fox, called the White or
Arctic Fox, inhabits the most northern part of the
Dominion of Canada. It is most numerous on the east
coast of Hudson’s Bay, that is in the Little Whale
River district; it is also found in Newfoundland and in
Labrador, where it attains its largest size, and the fur
is then of the best quality.

The White Fox is also abundant in the York Fort
and Esquimaux Bay districts. A great many are also
captured in Alaska; but from this latter province the
skins are coarse in the fur, and sometimes rather matted,
although otherwise of good quality. A similar variety,
but still coarser owing to the sea-air, is found in the
large island of Kadiak, off the Alaska coast, and in the
Pribylov Islands.

The White Fox is likewise plentiful in Siberia,
especially in the provinces of Jeneisisk, Jakutsk, and
Obdovsk. About 25,000 to 60,000 are imported
annually; these usually find their way to Europe,
through Leipsic or Irbit. The skins are, as a rule,
rather coarse. The White Fox is found in the Faroe
Islands and in Greenland. The Greenland Fox is
slightly smaller in size than the usual American type,
but has very fine fur, and in this respect approaches
its Labrador brethren of the opposite coast.

The White Fox is of rather small size, and is about 2
feetlong. In winter it is pure white, except a few blackish
hairs, which are usually found at the tip of the tail, and

90 CARNIVORA.

occasionally in the back. In the summer the colour is
said to be sometimes drab. The tail is thickly furred and
about a foot long ; the toes are provided with five rather
long white or dark claws, and the pads of the feet are
covered with thick hair to protect them from the ice. The
nose is black, and the whiskers white. In the young
animal the colour is usually drab-blue, rather darker
at the back.

The fur is long, close, and of a beautiful white, but
sometimes it is yellowish or quite yellow; the under fur
is sometimes white and sometimes bluish.

The fur until recent years was of little value, but
now it is much admired, and exceeds the price of Red
Fox. It is dyed light brown, blue, dark brown, black,
imitation Silver Fox, ete.; it is made up into muffs,
trimmings, ete., and its tail makes excellent boas. In
the natural state it also makes excellent wrappers or
sleigh-robes.

In 1816 10d. to 8s. were paid; but now (1891) the
price ranges from 2s. 6d. to 16s. 9d.; 38,704 being
imported by the Hudson’s Bay Company, and 5,366 by
the Alaska Company and others, making a total, with
a few other importations, of about 9,000 skins in 1891.
Nine hundred and eighty-nine White Fox skins were
soid in 1891 by the Royal Greenland Company of
Copenhagen.

Mr. Fielden, in the ‘‘ Voyage to the Polar Sea,”
p- 198, says :—‘‘ The Arctic Fox decreases in numbers as
we proceed up Smith Sound.—At Floeberg Reach, the
winter quarters of the Alert, footprints of the few were
occasionally seen in the snow; but it was not till
July 18, 1876, that I obtained a specimen in the flesh.—
Parr fired at it, when it dropped down, and crawled
below some large rocks; out rushed the female from its

WHITE FOX. 91

lair, and we secured her. The flora in the neighbourhood
of this den was remarkably rich, the soil having been
fertilized by the presence of the Foxes.—As we rested
there, many Lemmings popped up from their holes, and,
undismayed by our presence, commenced feeding on the
plants. Wenoticed that numerous dead Lemmings were
scattered around. In every case they had been killed in
the same manner: the sharp, canine teeth of the Foxes
had penetrated the brain. Presently we came upon two
Ermines killed in the same manner. These were joyful
prizes, for up to this time we had not obtained these
animals in North Grinnel Land. Then, to our sur-
prise, we discovered numerous deposits of dead
Lemmings; in one hidden nook under a rock we pulled
out a heap of over fifty. We disturbed numerous ‘ caches’
of twenty and thirty, and the earth was honeycombed
with holes, each of which contained several bodies of
these little animals, a small quantity of earth being
placed over them. In one hole we found the greater
part of a Hare hidden away. The wings of young brent
geese were also lying about; and as these birds were at
that time just hatching, it showed that they must have
been the results of successful forays of prior seasons, and
that consequently the Foxes occupy the same abodes
from year to year. I had long wondered how the Arctic
Fox existed during the winter.”

Dr. Richardson, p. 85, quoting Captain Lyons,
writes :—‘‘ When the animal is standing still, the hind
legs are so placed as to give the idea of weakness in the
loins, which is certainly not the case, as few animals
can make more powerful leaps. The general weight
was about eight pounds, although some were as low as
seven, and a few as high as nine pounds and a half
when in good case.

92, CARNIVORA.

“The Arctic Fox is an extremely cleanly animal, being
very careful not to dirt those places in which he eats
or sleeps. No unpleasant smell is to be perceived even
in a male, which is a remarkable circumstance. To
come unawares on one of the creatures is, n my
opinion, impossible; for even when in an apparently
sound sleep, they open their eyes at the slightest noise
which is made near them, although they pay no
attention to sounds when at a short distance. The
general time of rest is during the daylight, in which
they appear listless and inactive; but the night no
sooner sets in than all their faculties are awakened ;
they commence their rambles and continue in
unceasing and rapid motion till the morning. While
hunting for food they are mute, but when in captivity
or irritated they utter a short growl like a young puppy.
It is a singular fact that their bark is so undulated
as to give an idea that the animal is at a distance,
although at the very moment it lies at your feet.”

P. 87: ‘They breed on the sea-coast, and chiefly
within the Arctic Circle, forming burrows in sandy
spots,—not solitary like the Red Fox, but in little
villages, twenty to thirty burrows being constructed
adjoming each other.”

Elliot informs us :—‘‘ That Blue and White Foxes are
found on the Pribylov Islands, and find among the
countless chinks and crevices in the basaltic formation
comfortable holes and caverns for their accommodation
and retreat, feeding fat upon sick and pup Seals, as well
as water-fowl and eggs, during the summer and autumn,
living through the winter on dead Seals left on the
rookeries, and their carcases on the killing grounds.”
(Elliot’s ‘‘ Seal Islands of Alaska.’’)

The Arctic Fox preys on the Eider-duck, and destroys

WHITE FOX. 93

many eggs of this bird. It is captured in traps made
of blocks of ice. Its bark is short and brisk, resembling
that of a Squirrel.

There are three to five young in a litter. Its flesh,
especially when young, is edible and white; that of the
Red Fox is rank and disagreeable.

Bele Re vOrxs.
Canis lagopus.
French: Renard bleu. German: Blaufuchs.

The Blue Fox is of the same size and form as the
White Fox. It only differs from it in the Alaskan
Islands, where it attains a larger size, owing probably
to the abundant animal food found there.

The pelt, fur, and habits are exactly the same as in
the White Fox; it is simply a variety of colour of this
animal, and has rightly been classed as one species.
Some naturalists (scientific) are wrong in supposing
that a Blue Fox turns white in winter. It always
remains a Blue Fox. This error has probably arisen in
the fact that a White Fox often turns a drab or slate-
blue in the summer.

The Blue Fox is not, as one would suppose it to be, of
an ultramarine or sky-blue colour; it is rather of a
slate, drab, or darkish purple hue.

The fur of the Alaskan Blue Fox, although coarse, is
of a dark blue sooty colour, and is most valued on
account of its rich deep colouring.

About 2,000 skins are imported yearly into London
by the Alaska Commercial Company, and fetch up to
222s., and are collected in the Pribylov and Attoo Islands.

According to Elliot, the Blue Fox feeds on birds’ eggs,

94 CARNIVORA.

young Seals, etc., and was found on these Islands (St.
Paul’s), on first arrival of the natives. The Blue Fox
was introduced into the Island of Attoo on the west of
the Aleutian chain. The Alaska Commercial Company
apparently draw their supplies from these districts.

The Blue Fox is rare in the York Fort district, and
on the coast of Labrador. This is the more remarkable
as the White Fox is common in these parts. It does not
attain a large size in these parts, and the colour also
varies considerably—from almost white, light buff-
brown, brown, dark purple-brown, to pale: blue, inter-
spersed with white hairs, medium-coloured blue being
about the darkest shade. The quality of fur from these
parts is fine, and much esteemed by French buyers for
this reason. £14 each has in 1888 been paid for such
skins.

Greenland produces some 500 skins. The fur of
these is fine, and the size about the same as the
Labrador type, and rather larger than the York Fort
variety. The colour also resembles the latter; but, as
a rule, they are browner in colour. The Greenland
skins are sold in Copenhagen by the Royal Greenland
Company. ‘The Iceland Blue Fox resembles the above,
but is of coarser quality, and deeper in colour; the
Faroe Islands Fox is very similar.

The tail of the Blue Fox is thickly furred, and in
some examples the paws are white.

In 1891 38,379 Blue Fox skins were imported by the
Alaska Commercial Company, and realized from 22s. 6d.
to 250s., and 88 skins by the Hudson’s Bay Company :
these fetched from 19s. to 170s. In 1890 666 Blue Fox
skins were sold by the Royal Greenland Company in
Copenhagen; in 1891, 1,451 skins.

The Blue Fox is also found in Wrangel Island.

106) Wd Ma Ae os 1

Canis velox.
French: Renard Ture. German: Kitt Fuchs.

The Kitt Fox is a small animal, measuring about 1}
to 2 feet in length. It is of a light grey colour on the
back, mixed with longer white hairs. The sides are
light yellow and the belly white. The tail is full, about
11 inches long, grey in colour, but underneath of a
lighter yellow and tipped with black hairs. The eyes
are brown; the ears brownish-grey and tipped with
black. The fur is thick and soft, and the pelt is thin.
The whiskers are also black.

The Kitt Fox has become rather scarce of late years,

owing probably to the advance of settlements in the

96 CARNIVORA.

North-west district of Canada. The few skins imported
are either shipped from York Fort or sent from Winni-
peg. They are mostly taken near the latter city.

The Kitt Fox inhabits, or rather was an inhabitant
of, the more southern districts of the Dominion of
Canada, such as Manitoba. It is also found in Dakota
and other Northern States of the North American
Republic. It is never found in Virginia.

Fawn or light brown specimens are sometimes met
with. By some naturalists this Fox has been confounded
with the Grey Fox.

The French name of this animal arises probably
from the Kitt Fox being of the same colour as the
Turkish Fox.

Richardson, p. 99, says :—‘‘ The Saskatchewan is the
northern limit of its range. Its burrows are found in
the open part of the plains, at a distance from the
woody country. According to Mr. Say, it exceeds even
the Antelope in swiftness.”

In the Zoological Gardens of London this Fox seems
to suffer considerably from the heat in summer.

The skin is of little value. A very few skins are now
imported, and realize from 8d. to 2s. 5d. Hight hundred
and fifty-six skins were sold by the Hudson's Bay Com-
pany in 1891; 148 in United States and Canada sales.
These are chiefly made up into cheap wrappers, but
sometimes are dyed black.

GREY FOX, OR VIRGINIAN FOX.
Canis virginianus.
French: Renard de Virginie. German: Gries Fuchs.

The Grey Fox inhabits, as its Latin name denotes,
Virginia, and is also abundant in many of the more
Southern States of the Union, such as New Jersey,
Missouri, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, and
Indian Territory. It is found as far South as Florida
and Louisiana, where they are said to be very abundant.
It also inhabits some of the more Western States, such
as Michigan, Ohio, etc., and this is its most northern
range. The Western Grey Fox is larger, about 3 feet
long, thicker furred, and lighter in colour than the
Southern type; its under fur is more abundant; the
sides are also much redder ; in fact, this is the Northern
variety.

The Grey Fox likewise inhabits the Pacific Coast,
California, and Oregon. . This variety is rather smaller,
and has very fine silvery fur or hair. There is a white
stripe at the head ; there is no yellow at the sides. The
tail is very long, about 16 inches, well grizzly, with a
dark line at the top. The body is about 19 inches
long.

The mountain variety of the Grey Fox has very
thick, long, and rather dark fur on the back, with
a pure white belly; the general colour is light grey;
the fur is much longer and softer than in the other
types.

The range of the Virginian Fox is scarcely so far
_ north as the Dominion of Canada. Its skin is rarely
H

98 CARNIVORA.

imported by the Hudson’s Bay Company; the few skins
which are sometimes sold by them are probably brought
to one of their Southern posts by a trader.

The Pennsylvanian and Southern State Grey Fox is
the most numerous variety of this species, and may be
taken as the type.

The general colour is grey or dark grey, the back
being covered with long coarse hair, each hair being of
two colours, two lines of black, two of white, of alternate
marking. The under fur is dark drab or blue. The
ears are dark grey and red, and white inside; the throat
is white; the whiskers black; the chest is red, and the
belly white, and covered with soft fur; the sides are
usually striped with a red or reddish colour—this varies
considerably in different individuals. The tail is long
and silvery, of the same colour as the back, but red
underneath, and marked at the top with a stripe of
blackish hair—in fact a black line; the tip of the tail is
black. The eyes are dark brown or black, and the nose
is black.

The Grey Fox is about 2} feet long. It appears to
interbreed occasionally with the Red Fox, and sometimes
with the Coyote or Prairie Fox.

It has been confounded with the Kitt Fox, from which,
however, it 1s readily distinguished by its larger size, by
the coarseness of its hair, its different colour and distri-
bution, by its longer tail, which has the characteristic
black line, and by its thicker pelt.

The Virginian Fox is sometimes hunted, but itis soon
killed, after an hour’s chase. It does not run so straight
as the Red Fox, but runs in circles, and sometimes takes
to trees.

Its fur is a serviceable one; it is made into excellent
wrappers, trimmings, etc. It is much used in England

GREY FOX. 99

and France, especially in Brittany. The fur is sometimes
dyed a bluish shade.

The price of a Grey Fox skin varies from 6d. to 4s. 6d.
according to quality. A few years ago 12s. 6d. was
paid.

In 1891 25,384 skins were sold in London.

We have once seen a black variety. This skin in
question had blackish fur instead of the characteristic
red fur of the sides: the tips of the fur were white.
A closely allied species is the Rude Fox (Canis rudis) of
British Guiana.

PRAIRIE FOX.

This small Fox inhabits the United States of North
America, probably the most central.

In size it is even smaller than the Kitt Fox, and
measures about afoot in length. It is much the same
colour as the Virginian or Grey Fox; that is, it is of a
silvery colour. The fur is very dense, and the tail is
tipped with black.

The Prairie Fox is rarely met with, and but little is
known of its habits.

Its skin or fur is of little value (about 2s. 38d.) on
account of its small size.

A few hundred skins are imported from time to time.

100 CARNIVORA.

STEPPE, OR AFGHAN FOX.
Vulpes leucopus.

This animal, sometimes called the Hill or Stone Fox,
inhabits the high central Table Lands of Asia, Cashmere,
etc. The usual type is of a very ight brown colour,
with black belly, ears, and legs ; many, however, are of
adarker shade on the back and rump, approaching the
colour of a Cross Fox.

The Steppe Fox is of medium or small size. The fur
is soft and long, and the tail is tipped with white.
Several thousand skins are imported through Arabia,
and some hundred thousands through Nishin to Leipsic.
The value is about 1s. 6d. to 3s.

This Fox, or a very similar sub-species, is probably the
animal referred to in Cant. i. v. 15: ‘‘ The little Foxes
which spoil the vines.”

Here we find the food of the Fox to be of a vegetable
character, which fact is also exemplified by the well-
known fable of AXsop of the Fox and the Grapes.

PERSIAN FOX.
Vulpes persica.

The Persian Fox is a variety of the above animal. A
similar variety is found in Arabia. Both these types are
rather lighter in colour than the Afghan Fox. The

smell of the skin is very peculiar, and the value is
about 1s. 9d.

101

EAST INDIAN FOX.
Vulpes leucopus.

This very small Fox is also called the Indian Desert
Fox. It is of a pale light colour, similar to the Hill
Fox of Afghanistan; the tip of the tail is white, and the
back is covered with silvery white hairs, sometimes of a
brownish shade. The fur is only of poor quality and of
little value, and is sometimes shipped from Kurrachee.
The East Indian Fox inhabits the Punjaub.

AZARA’S FOX.
Canis azarea.

Azara’s Fox inhabits South America. Its colour is
silvery-greyish light brown; the tail is dark grey and
tipped with black ; the belly white; the legs are grey in
front and rufous colour behind. In size it is about the
same as the Grey Fox.

Very few skins are imported into this country, and
are worth about 1s. 8d.

CAP Tose

Vulpes chacma.

This Fox is an inhabitant of the Cape. The fur is of
a yellowish colour, and is made by the natives into
karosses. A few skins are met with from time to time.

102 CARNIVORA.

COMMON JACKAL.

Canis aureus.
French: Chacal. German: Schakal.

This well-known animal abounds in India and Algeria.
In the latter country the French Government pay 1}
francs for the slaughter of this animal. Many thou-
sands (about 30,000) are killed annually.

The Jackal is of a rather small size, being about 2 feet
in length ; its colour is of a lightish red-brown, with a
small white mark on the throat ; the back is of a deeper
shade. The fur is harsh and of little value.

The Jackal is nocturnal, and its cry, generally heard
on moonlight nights, is a peculiar long wail, rather
piercing, but not altogether unpleasant. It is a very
lively animal, and bites quickly and sharply. Its nose
is black and sharply pointed, and its smell very pungent.
It thrives well in captivity.

It is sometimes hunted in India with Fox-hounds,
which are sent out from England ; it affords good sport.
The hunt usually takes place in the morning at an early
hour. When hard pressed it will turn up a second
Jackal.

BLACK-BACKED JACKAL.
Canis mesomelas.

This handsome animal is larger than the foregoing,
and inhabits the Cape and South Africa. The hairs of
the back are long and coarse, and of a dark silvery-grey
colour; the sides are covered with soft red-brown fur,

BLACK-BACKED JACKAL. 103

and the division between the fur and the long hair on
the back is well marked, making a striking contrast ; the
tail is of a blackish colour.

There are not enough skins imported to give this fur
the attention it deserves, and they are mostly made up
into wrappers, the value of a skin being about 3s.

RACOON-LIKE DOG.
Canis procynides.

The skin of this animal is sometimes sold by im-
porters under the name of Jackal, Badger, or Japanese
Fox, and is sometimes sent to this country with the top
hair removed, leaving only the soft under fur.

This animal has a very lively disposition. Itis rather
small, about a foot in length ; the general colour is dark
brownish-grey, and there is sometimes a dark mark
across the shoulders like that of a Cross Fox; the under
fur is abundant, soft, and of a light brownish-red colour,
resembling the hue of a Red Fox, and the ground of this
fur is dark; the ears are dark brown; over the eye
there is a white stripe; the tail, which is rather short
and not very bushy, is covered with dark brown fur, and
also with longer bristly hairs, which are black; the tail
is occasionally tipped with white; the legs are short.
Sometimes there is a white spot in the dark fur, but
this is rare.

The Racoon Dog is an inhabitant of China, Japan,
and North-eastern Asia generally, and it is sometimes
sold in captivity in Northern China. Most of the skins
are exported from Japan, and chiefly from the port of
Hiogo. In 1884 about 18,000 skins were imported, and

104 CARNIVORA.

in 1891 about 70,000. The fur, both dyed and undyed,
is manufactured into capes, trimmings, ete.

The value of a skin varies from 4d. to 7s. 6d., accord-
ing to the quality and demand.

BAUM MARTEN, OR PINE MARTEN.
Mustela martes.

French: Martre de Prusse. German: Baum Marder,
or Edel Marder. .

The Pine or Baum Marten, although much rarer than
in former years, still exists in Scotland, Ireland (Kerry
County), North Wales (Carnarvonshire), and in some
parts of England (Suffolk, North Devon, Cumberland,
Lincolnshire). It appears to have been lately met with
in Mid Hants, and it is believed to still exist in Epping
Forest ; it is also said to have been seen in Hereford-
shire as late as 1884. It is extensively found in Norway,
Germany, Italy, Russia, Switzerland, rarely in Spain,
and in other parts of Europe, and is usually to be met
with in pine forests. Courland and Lithuania produce
yearly about 3,000 skins. Its fur is rich and valuable,
although much depreciated in price of late years; it
is fine in texture, and soft to the touch. The value of
a skin is about 10s.

The length of this animal is about 2 to 2} feet, in-
cluding the tail. The colour varies considerably from
brown to dark brown, of a more or less yellow shade.
The longer hairs are thicker on the back; the throat is
covered with spots or patches of a more or less light
colour. When the throat is very light, this Marten is
sometimes confounded with the Stone Marten, but in

BAUM MARTEN. 105

the latter animal the throat is pure white, the line
between the two colours well defined, and the fur coarse.
The tail of the Baum Marten is about 6 inches in
length; it is thick and bushy, and generally of a
yellowish-brown shade, but sometimes a very light
brown ; it is very rarely tipped with white. The fur is
valuable, and is generally made into capes. The tails
are of greater value than those of the Stone Marten,
and are used for the same purpose. The heads are
much esteemed for sporrans in Scotland.

The Norwegian animals produce the best fur, being
finer and thicker than that from other parts.

The Pine Marten has been called the Sweet Marten in
distinction to the Foul Marten or Polecat, and in some
parts of England it is called the Marten Cat. It lives
in trees, and feeds principally on young birds, such as
wood pigeons, ete. Itis very probable that it sucks eggs.

Drab, yellow, or fawn examples are occasionally met
with. It is probably the same species as the American
Marten. The late St. John, in his ‘‘ Natural History of
the Highlands”’ (page 124), says :—

“The Marten Cat is a very beautiful and graceful
animal, with a fine fur, quite devoid of all smell, but,
owing to its great agility, it must be one of the most
destructive of the tribe. When hunting, their move-
ments are quick and full of elegance, the effect of which
is much heightened by their brilliant black eyes and
rich brown fur, contrasted with the orange-coloured
mark on their throat and breast. The Marten, when
disturbed by dogs, climbs a tree with the agility of a
Squirrel, and leaps from branch to branch, and from
tree to tree. I used frequently to shoot them with my
rifle on the tall pine-trees of Sutherlandshire. In this
part of the country they are now seldom seen.”

106 CARNIVORA.

STONE MARTEN.
Mustela foina.
French: Fouine. German: Stein Marder.

The Stone Marten is called the Beech Marten in most
works on Natural History. It is still extensively found
in Europe—Russia, Germany, Spain, France, Italy,
Greece, Turkey, Bosnia, Herzegovina being its chief
habitats. It is also found in Scotland, Switzerland,
Denmark, Ireland, and perhaps in North Wales. It is
probably extinct in England. It is also met with im
Cashmere, the North-west Provinces of India, and
other parts of Central Asia. The fur is harsh to the
touch, but it is much softer and finer in the Asiatic
type. This change is produced by the greater altitude
and lower temperature of those regions.

The general colour of the longer hair is purplish-
brown, and nearly the whole of the body is of this
colour; the ground or under fur is white; the throat
is pure white, and marked generally like a horse-
shoe; the tail, which is bushy, is from 6 to 9 inches
long, and is of the same colour as the body; the tail is
very rarely tipped with white, and occasionally sprinkled
with white hairs.

The furs from Spain, Italy, and France are darker than
those from most other European countries: the Bosnian,
however, excel most in richness of colour. The Russian
skins, although found in greater quantities, are lighter,
and of coarser quality. The Cashmere animal is small,
and of light colour.

The tails are valuable, and much sought after. They

STONE MARTEN. 107

are of less value, however, than those of the Baum
Marten, and are utilized for the same purpose. The
skins are chiefly bought by Russian dealers, and are
sometimes dyed. This fur was in great request at the
beginning of this century: 119,875 Baum and Stone
Marten skins were imported into London in 1844.

The Stone Marten lives in rocks and stony cairns, the
colour of the fur assimilating it well to these surround-
ings. This animal has often been confounded with the
Baum Marten, but it is readily distinguished by its
having no vestige of yellow, by the harshness of its fur,
and by its well-defined white throat. Its length is
about 2 feet, including the tail.

Pure white Stone Martens have occasionally been
found, but they are very rare.

The canine teeth are well developed, but the two
middle incisors in the lower jaw are extremely small,
and scarcely discernible.

PERWITSKY.
Mustela sarmatica.

This very small animal inhabits Siberia. The under
part of the body is black; the back is brown, marked
with lighter spots; the tail is black, and about 4 to 6
inches long; and the body is about 5 inches in length.
The fur is short and harsh, and is chiefly suitable for
linings. It is rarely met with in commerce, and is of
little value, although about fifty years ago it arrived in
larger quantities.

108 CARNIVORA.

AMERICAN MARTEN.
Mustela martes.
French: Martre. German: Marder.

This beautiful animal abounds in most parts of the
Dominion of Canada, in the province of Alaska, and in
the northern parts of the United States of America.

It has for several centuries yielded its valuable fur to
the trapper, who has sought it in the dense forests of
these countries, and it is one of the chief fur-bearing
animals whose skin repays him for his long winter’s
tramp and toil.

Its fur is erroneously known under the name of sable
in the manufactured state, such as it is presented to
the public in the form of muffs, capes, boas, ete.

The fur of this animal is used in almost every
civilized country, and is chiefly procured by the
English, French, Italian, and American traders ; it is
also worn to a less extent in Russia, Turkey, Spain, and
Norway. The tails, which are about 5 to 8 inches
long, are made up separately into very valuable capes,
etc., and are also used in the manufacture of the very
finest ‘‘ sable’? paint-brushes. Robes or coats are
occasionally made of these skins by the North American
Indians, who match and sew them beautifully. Nothing
is lost; even the skins of the paws and throat, or gills
as they are usually called, are made into valuable coat-
linings, tobacco-pouches, ete. These pieces are sold by
the pound to German, Turkish, and other traders. The
Hudson’s Bay Company imports annually about 70,000
skins; 64,689 skins were sold by them in 1891, and
about 38,412 by other firms in the same year.

AMERICAN MARTEN. 109

The price of this skin varies considerably, and has
much depreciated in value of late years, the present
value being 2s. 8d. to 42s. The first quality furs are
sorted by the Hudson’s Bay Company into large dark,
small dark, large pale, and small pale; the seconds are
more numerous, and of all shades. There are also
third, and sometimes fourth qualities.

Most American Martens are trapped. Many Martens
are destroyed by Lynxes ; therefore, when the latter are
abundant, the Martens generally diminish.

This animal is closely allied to the Baum or Pine
Marten, and by some naturalists it is considered the
same animal.

The general colour is rich brown, but it is sometimes
of a light yellow colour, and more rarely almost black.
The last-named are highly prized, and are found in the
East Main and Fort George districts of the Hudson’s
Bay Company. There are many intermediate shades,
many of which are of a rich orange tint. The soft under
fur is drab; the longer hairs of the back are darker
than the rest of the body; the throat, except in the
brown and dark brown animals, is covered with white
or light brown patches; the tail, which is thick and
bushy, is of the same shade as the body, but the longer
hairs at the tip are generally dark brown. Sometimes
the extreme tip of the tail is white. The feet and legs
are dark brown, except in the lighter-coloured animals
the paws are sometimes white; the ears are short, and
white inside; the sides of the cheeks are also white;
the whiskers are black. Very light-coloured examples
are also found, almost the colour of Kolinsky. Others
are sprinkled with silvery-white hairs, almost like
a Russian Sable.

Slate-coloured animals like dark Stone Martens are

110 CARNIVORA.

also met with. Martens that are nearly white are
sometimes captured, principally in Alaska. They are,
as Mr. Elliott says, highly prized by the natives, who
are glad to acquire them in exchange for twenty or
thirty Beaver or other skins.

The Californian animal is smaller than most other
Martens, and is of a uniform brown or light brown
colour. The Labrador type is large, rich in fur, but
scarce, and the Nova-Scotian is very similar to this.
The Alaskan is coarse-haired, large, and light in colour,
and in some examples almost white, especially the head
and neck. Many skins of the last-named district are
turned inside out, leaving only the tail exposed to view,
and are sorted into qualities and colours from the look
of the pelt and tail. The poorest skins come from the
northern parts of the United States, which is the most
southern limit of the Marten, and the fur is conse-
quently thin and of little value. Hach district of North
America has its own peculiar type.

The fur is used both dyed and undyed. Dr. Richaré-
son, in his ‘‘ North American Fauna ”’ (page 51), says :—

‘‘The Marten preys on mice, hares, and partridges,
and in summer on small birds’ eggs, etc. A partridge’s
head, with the feathers, is the best bait for the log-
traps in which this animal is taken. It does not reject
carrion. ...It may be easily tamed, and it soon
acquires an attachment for its master, but it never
becomes docile. Its flesh is occasionally eaten, though
it is not prized by the Indians. The females are smaller
than the males. They burrow in the ground, carry
their young about six weeks, and bring forth from four
to seven in a litter about the latter end of April. Mr.
Graham says that this animal is sometimes troubled
with epilepsy.”

TAL

FISHER, OR CANADIAN MARTEN.
Mustela pennanti.
French: Pecan. German: Virginischer IItiss.

The Fisher or Pekan, as it is sometimes called, is the
largest of the Marten tribe, being about 2 to 8 feet in
length. The tail is from 11 to 19 inches long.

It inhabits North America, but its range is somewhat
limited, comprising the whole of the Dominion of
Canada, from the province of New Brunswick to that
of British Columbia on the Pacific. It is only met
with in the United States in the western and most
northerly parts, such as Oregon, Maine, etc. It does
not appear to exist now in Virginia, although the
German name of Virginian Fitch or Polecat implies that
it once was found there. It is most probably extinct
in this and many other States of the American Republic,
where it was no doubt at one time abundant. A few
are still found in South America, the skins from these
parts having only hair.

The colour of the Fisher is dark brown, with longer
and still darker hairs; it is lighter towards the head,
which is short and thick; the ears are rather short ;
the tail is long, thickly furred, and tapering beautifully
to a point; this appendage is usually dark brown or
almost black, corresponding to the general colour of the
body, and has sometimes a white tip. Many animals
are of a light or pale colour over about half of the body,
the tails in these cases being brown. In some of the
thickly-wooded districts of Canada, Fishers are found
which are almost black. White specimens are occa-

1B bye CARNIVORA.

sionally met with; light brown, or fawn, and mottled
are extremely rare. The pelt is in many instances very
thick, especially in Columbia and British Columbia.

The fur of the Fisher is rich and valuable, and ranges
in price from 2s. 9d. to 55s., but good dark skins often
realize 70s. to 80s. when in great demand. It is prin-
cipally bought for Russia, and the tail is largely used in
France, England, and America for various purposes, the
value being about 3s. to 6s. Small skins often realize
as much as the large—an apparently anomalous fact,
which is however accounted for by the Russian import
duty being charged according to weight, and not to size ;
the smaller skins, having a thinner pelt, weigh less.

The finest fur comes from some of the more northern
provinces of Canada Proper.

In 1891 the Hudson’s Bay Company sold 5,658 skins ;
2,955 were sold by other brokers, at prices ranging from
3s. 6d. to 77s. 6d.

In 1812 a Fisher’s skin realized only 7s., and in 1816,
8s. to 14s.

The Fisher is also called the Wood-shock. The female
has four teats.

Dr. Richardson, in the ‘‘ North American Fauna”’ (page
53), thus describes its habits :—‘‘ The Pekan is a larger
and stronger animal than any variety of the Pine
Marten, but it has similar manners; climbing trees
with facility, and preying principally on mice. It lives
in the woods, preferring damp places in the vicinity of
water, in which respect it differs from the Marten, which
is generally found in the driest spots of the pine forests.
The Fisher is said to prey much on frogs in the summer
season ; but I have been informed that its favourite food
is the Canada Porcupine, which it kills by biting on the
belly. It does not seek its food in the water, although,

FISHER. iS

like the Pine Marten, it will feed on the hoards of frozen
fish laid up by the residents. It inhabits a wide extent
of country, from Pennsylvania to Great Slave Lake,
being thirty degrees of latitude, and I believe its range
extends completely across the continent. It is found on
the shores of the Pacific. It brings forth, once a year,
from two to four young.”

AFGHAN FISHER.
Mustela flavigula.

This Fisher, which is smaller than the above, has the
tail nearly the same length; this appendage is black,
and covered with hair, but, unlike that of the former, is
of little or no value. The general colour of the body is
light brown, but deeper and darker yellow towards the
tail; the fur is shorter than that of the American
Fisher.

The value of a skin is about 7s.; it would be a more
serviceable fur if it could be procured in sufficient quan-
tities. It inhabits Cashmere, Nepaul, and Northern
Hindostan, and is said by Dr. St. G. Mivart to extend
to Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. It is singular that a
species so closely allied to the American Fisher should
be found in Northern India, a district where another
American species, the Racoon, is found.

The Afghan Fisher is very rare.

A similar variety is found in Japan; it is very much
of the same colour as the Afghan Fisher, but it has a
whiter throat ; it is also very rare.

114 CARNIVORA.

KOLINSKY.
Mustela sibirica.
French: Kolinski. German: Kolinsk1.

The Kolinsky, sometimes called the Red Sable, appears
not to be mentioned in any work on Natural History in
this country, and to be unknown to scientists, with the
exception of the Russian Professors.

Its fur forms an article of commerce, but it is not so
much in request as it was about twenty yearsago. It is
used both dyed and undyed; in the latter state it is
much appreciated by the Quakers. Its chief value lies
now in its tail, which is largely used for paint-brushes.
These brushes are strong and of a very fine quality, and
are sold under the name of Red Sable.

The price of tails fluctuates considerably, from 1s. 8d.
to 4s. 6d. each. Many brushes are made out of one tail.

The fur is short, and rather dense; it is yellow or
brownish-yellow, and the tail is of the same hue as the
body ; the ears are short; the throat is covered with
patches of white.

The Kolinsky is rather a small animal, about 18 inches
long, the tail being about 4 inches.

The price of this fur varies considerably; the high
price of 7s. 6d. per skin was paid in 1872; now, in 1891,
it is worth about 2s. About 50,000 to 80,000 animals
are trapped annually in Siberia, many being sent to this
country and to France.

The finest and largest skins come from Kusnetsk,
but the tails of these have soft and weak hair. About
10,000 to 40,000 are collected there annually.

KOLINSKY. 115

The skins from Yakutsk are large and strong, with
coarse fur, but large and full tails, which are well
adapted for brush-making. The Irschimsky and Tomsky
are also well-known sorts.

The Amoor district produces skins of a worse quality,
but the wooden skewers that are put through the tails
reduce their value.

Civell is probably the ancient name of this fur.

The Kolinsky is also met with in Japan and China.
The fur is very short and harsh, resembling that of a
Mink ; the tail has generally very short hair like a low-
quality Mink. It is, however, used for brushes, but on
account of its inferior quality is only worth 5d. to 8d.

About 15,000 skins are imported from Japan and
China.

JAPANESE MARTEN.
Mustela melanopus.

This animal bears a certain resemblance to the
American Marten, but has a closer affinity to the
Kolinsky. It is of a beautiful light yellow colour,
resembling the Kolinsky, but rather more yellow; the
tail is fuller, the fur softer, longer, and thicker than the
latter’s ; the under fur is almost white ; the cheeks are
white, and the ears short. The length is about 18
inches, slightly exceeding that of the Kolinsky. The fur
is not in great request, and is only worth about 1s. to
1s. 8d., but 2s. 6d. was paid a few years ago. About
two to five thousand skins are annually sold in London.
These were recently imported in the dressed state by
Chinese, Japanese, and other merchants, but are now

more often sent raw.
r2

116 CARNIVORA.

RUSSIAN SABLE.
Mustela zibellina.
French: Martre zibelline. German: Zobel.

The Sable, which yields, for its size, the most costly
fur of all animals, is found throughout Siberia. It is
most abundant in Kamschatka, Yakutsk, the Amoor
province, and the extreme north of China. . It is also
found in the Island of Saghalien.

The hunter has many a hard day of exposure and
toil in these bleak inhospitable regions before trapping
this small but valuable animal, whose tracks he barely
discerns in the snow.

The Russian Sable is about 9 inches long, including
the tail, which is 5 inches; the ears are short, and as a
rule of a lighter shade than the rest of the body; the
colour varies considerably, but not so much as in the
Marten, brown and dark brown being the predominant
shades. Light brown, silvery, and animals intermixed
with silvery or white hairs, are by no means uncommon.
A perfectly white example is rarely met with. There is,
except in a few instances, no mark on the throat.

This animal is closely allied to the Baum and Ameri-
can Martens.

The choicest and most valuable furs are those which
the rich fur-bearing province of Yakutsk produces. £33
per skin has been paid for prime black skins of the
Crown Collection. The Okhotsky type is smaller, and
inferior to these in colour, but yet furnishes a useful,
marketable skin. Kamschatka produces, perhaps, the
most abundant supply of this fur. The animals from

RUSSIAN SABLE. 2 a g

this part are large, and their fur full and good; the
colour, however, is lighter, being in most cases brown,
light brown, or silvery. Those from Amoor rank next
in abundance. About 12,000 to 25,000 are caught
annually. Many of the skins are used for Mandarin
robes, and the tails are exported to this country. These,
as well as the Saghalien Island skins, are of inferior
quality, and consequently of little value; the tips of
the fur are often dyed, or smoked by the Chinese; ‘the
prevailing colours are brown and dark brown; the
eround is blue; and the tail is sometimes tipped with
white.

Henry Lansdell says that the finest and blackest
Sables are caught in the forests of the Vitim and
Olekma in the province of Yakutsk. It is a curious fact
that the North-eastern portions of North America and
Asia should each produce the finest Marten and Sable
respectively, and that immediately below this region the
most inferior skins of each sort should be found.

The finest black skins are usually bought for Paris,
London, and New York, and the silvery skins for
Russia.

Part of these furs are imported by the Alaska Com-
mercial Company, and part by other traders. 9,247
Sable skins were sold in London in 1891.

The tails are valuable (from 2s. to 6s.); they are
made into boas, ete.

The usual prices of Russian Sable skins range
between 10s. to 300s., according to colour and quality,
the palest being the cheapest.

118 CARNIVORA.

MINK.
Mustela vison.
French: Vison. German: Nerz.

The habitat of the Mink is very extensive. In North
America it ranges from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and
from Alaska and York Fort to Louisiana, Arkansas, and
Kentucky.

The Mink is rather a small animal, of 6 to.18 inches
in length, not including the tail, which is another 6 or
9 inches; the usual colour is various shades of brown,
but albinos and nearly black, mottled, and drab-coloured
examples are sometimes met with, as well as animals
with white hairs sprinkled in the brown fur; there is
often a white spot on the throat, somewhat similar to
that of the Marten ; a white line or spot is also some-
times found underneath, varying very much in length;
the tail is generally brown or dark brown, of a darker
shade towards the tip, and it is sometimes tipped with
white ; the whiskers are usually brown or dark brown;
the ears are short; the under fur is usually dark bluish-
brown, and in black animals, dark blue; sometimes the
under fur is white. The Mink has six teats; there is
a deeper ridge of colour on the back. Sometimes skins
spotted with white are found.

The Mink is amphibious, but spending most of its time
in the water, preying on fish, etc. It gives out a fetid
smell, which is not, however, as strong as that of the
Skunk. The largest animals are found in Alaska and
the most northerly provinces of Canada. The blackest
animals are found in the wooded districts of Canada,
Nova Scotia, etc. Almost equally dark examples are met

MINK. 119

with in the Eastern States of the American Republic.
In the Central States, and on the Lakes, good medium
dark Minx abound; and in Columbia and the Western
States, large, coarse-haired animals. In the Southern
States, such as Louisiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee,
Minx are lighter in colour, coarser in the fur, and
thicker in the pelt.

The tail of the South-western States animal is fuller
and thicker than that of the Northern. The Kolinsky
supplies us with a similar instance.

The immense province of Labrador produces only
some fifty skins per annum. ‘The fur, as in most other
amphibious animals, is short; it is the very best for
wear, lasting for many years, and sometimes for a
generation or so. At one time it was much sought
after, 80s. being paid for a single skin, but now it is
generally considered to be a moderately-priced fur.
However, we should never have supposed that the skins
would be burnt in the Hudson’s Bay Territory, as re-
lated by Dr. Richardson, to avoid the expense of
carriage. He probably refers to some other animal.

In 1890, 862,675 Mink skins, imported from the
United States and Canada, were sold in London; in
1891, 173,789 skins, besides 29,263 imported by the
Hudson’s Bay Company, were brought under the
hammer, at prices ranging from 5d. to 21s. 6d.

These skins are usually manufactured into muffs,
etc., both in the natural state and dyed and pulled to
imitate Seal. They are also used for coat-lnings, and
the tails are made into capes, etc.

The pelt of the Mink is thick and heavy, like that of
most aquatic animals. The skin of this animal was
often adopted by the North American Indians as their
“totem” or crest.

120 CARNIVORA.

The Mink feeds on fowls, water-hens, etc. It pairs
in March, and sometimes even earlier. Some years ago
an attempt was made in the United States to breed
Minks for the sake of the fur, but this enterprise ended
in failure. These breeding establishments were called
farms. As regards its habits, we think it best to quote
Dr. Richardson (p. 49) in his own words :—

“The Vison passes much of its time in the water,
and when pressed seeks shelter in that element in pref-
erence to endeavouring to escape by land, on which it
travels slowly. It swims and dives well, and can remain
a considerable time under water. Its short fur, forming
a smooth, glossy coat... . and the shortness of its
legs, denote its aquatic habits. It preys upon small fish,
fish spawn, fresh-water mussels, etc., in the summer,
but in the winter, when its watery haunts are frozen
over, 1t will hunt mice on land, or travel to a consider-
able distance through the snow in search of a rapid or
fall, where there is still open water. . . . . The Vison,
when irritated, exhales next to the Skunk the most
fetid smell of any animal in the fur countries. The
odour resides in a fluid secreted by two glands situated
at the anus. It is not very timid when in the water,
and will approach near to a canoe out of curiosity,
diving, however, instantly on perceiving the flash of a
gun, or any movement from whence it apprehends danger.
It is easily tamed and capable of strong attachment.
In the domestic state it is observed to sleep much in the
day and to be fond of warmth. It has four to seven
young at a time.”

Russtan Minx.—This variety of the Mink is found in
Siberia. It is of medium size, with coarse, dark brown
fur. Not so many skins appear now to be imported as
in former years. The value was about 3s. 6d. to 4s. 6d.

MINK. 121

Some Minks are still found in Germany, European
Russia, Poland, and parts of Switzerland. A very few
of a similar variety are found in Nepaul; the colour is
reddish-brown, and the throat and upper part of the
face are white.

PITCH “OR POLNOAT.
Mustela putorius.
French: Putois. German: Iltiss.

This animal is known under many names, such as
Fitchferret, Foulmart, Foumard, and Foul Marten,
these three latter being given it in distinction to the
Sweet or Baum Marten. It derives these names from
the very pungent and somewhat fetid odour which it
exudes. It appears to be the European representative
of the Skunk.

The Polecat has become scarce in this country of late
years ; it is not found now in parts of Kent and York-
shire, and many other counties, owing probably to the
ill-directed zeal of gamekeepers, who seem to have a
craze for killing every animal or bird that preys upon
game, not regarding the fact that game is generally
stronger and more healthy where the fere nature are
not exterminated. The weakly, sickly, and diseased
fall an easy prey, and the healthy and stronger animals
are left to perpetuate a hardy race.

The Polecat is still found in North Wales, Scotland,
and parts of England and Ireland. It frequents woods,
and preys upon young birds, Rabbits, frogs, etc. In
capturing Rabbits it approaches its prey by springs or
leaps, its victim uttering a piercing cry when killed. It

a CARNIVORA.

sucks the blood of its victim, but leaves its carcase. It
will capture eels when travelling over the wet grass at
night. It is often domesticated, and known as the
Polecat Ferret, catching Rats with great skill, and is
often preferred to the Ferret for this purpose, on account
of its superior size and strength. It is advisable to
keep it well secured, as otherwise it will commit ravages
in the poultry yard. We heard of a Polecat escaping,
and eating off part of a turkey-hen’s head, when on
her nest. The turkey recovered, but was seriously
injured.

The Fitch, to call it by its commercial name, is about
a foot long; the tail, which is covered with long black
hair, is 5 to 8 inches long; the general colour is a beau-
tiful shiny black; the under fur is abundant, and varies
from light to deep yellow; the hairs along the back are
very long; the ears are short and white; the head is
broad, and covered with short fur; round the jaws the
colour is white or yellowish-white; the nose and whiskers
are black; the under part of the body is quite black,
and the hairs are very short. In aged animals there
are sometimes white hairs interspersed.

The English Polecat is rather smaller than the con-
tinental variety.

This animal is also found throughout a great part of
Europe. The largest and finest skins come from
Holstein. Bosnia and Germany produce a large number
of skins. Those, however, from the latter country are
not so valuable, the under fur being lighter.

Polecats of good colour are also found in Holland, and
a few animals are still found in Switzerland. The fur
is good, serviceable, and of a rich appearance. It is
principally used in England for aldermen’s and civie
robes. The skins from North Wales are fine.

FITCH, OR POLECAT. 123

Very few Fitch skins are now imported from the
continent. In 1827, 282,482 skins were imported. In
1814, 4s. 2d. to 4s. 4d. was paid for Dutch Fitch.
About 100,000 skins are sold at the Easter fair at
Leipsic, from 1s. 6d. to 3s. each. The price of a live
Polecat is from 2s. to 5s.

PU Sor AUN, BeAr
Putorius eversmant.

The Russian or Siberian Polecat is a sub-species of
the foregoing, but the fur is poorer in quality, and
lighter in colour. The general colour is dark greyish-
brown; the under fur is ight yellow, and the longer
hairs are darker; it is smaller than most of the other
species, its length rarely exceeding 1 foot; the tail is
about 4 inches long.

This fur has much depreciated of late years, and is
now seldom imported, whereas many thousands were
imported a few years ago. The present value is about
1s. a skin.

On account of the shortness of the fur, it is very
suitable for coat-linings. It is sometimes dyed brown.

ERMINE, OR STOAT.
Mustela erminea.
French: Ermine. German: Hermelin.

The Ermine, which is distributed throughout the
northern parts of both hemispheres, seems not to have

(4 CARNIVORA.

attracted much notice from scientists, having escaped
being split up into species, which we find so often the
case with other animals living in nearly the same lati-
tudes. Take, for instance, the Hare, which has nearly
as wide arange, and which is divided into several species,
two alone of these, however, being well defined, whilst
the Ermine, varying so much in many respects, and
inhabiting three large continents, has only been de-
scribed as one.

It inhabits North America, Great Britain, Ireland,
Norway, Russia, and Siberia. The North -American
Ermine, which is found in Labrador, York Fort
district, and province of Canada, is small and white ;
it is not particularly abundant: 5,417 skins were
sold in London in 1891 by the Hudson’s Bay Com-
pany.

The well-known English Stoat, which is found in
most counties of England, is brown on the back and
white underneath, and rarely assumes its white winter
coat. In Scotland, however, it invariably changes in
winter to a pure white, with the exception of the tip of
its tail, which always remains black.

Siberia, where most of the Ermines are (taken,
produces examples of widely divergent sizes and
characteristics.

The Barabinsky type is the largest ; it is perhaps two
or three times as large as the diminutive Slisky, which
is even smaller than the American or Scotch.

Those found in the province of Irschim are larger and
white, with rich fur.

The Tomsky and Baschirsky are well-known medium
sorts.

Those from the province of Yakutsk are small, some-
what similar to its American cousin on the opposite

ERMINE, OR STOAT. 125

coast. The best skins from this part are collected as
tribute to the Crown.

Viatka in Russia produces skins of small size.

The Ermine is from 5 to 12 inches long, not including
the tail, which is about 4 inches; the fur is short, and
is pure white in winter, with a black tip to its tail; the
whiskers and the nose are black.

An Albino Ermine, with whitish coat in summer, and
with no black tip to the tail, has recently been chronicled
in the Freld.

This fur is worn by the Queen, some of the judges
and high officers of state, and is used for the state robes
of the peers. . It was once regarded as a princely fur,
and only to be devoted to the use of royalty, but it has
now become very much neglected, and a few years ago
it was practically unsaleable. It still seems to be bought
by the Chinese at the great fur-market of Kiatka.

The skins are very neatly tied up with bass in bundles
of 10, 20, or 50. They are sold by the timber (40 skins).
The present market value is 20s. to 80s. per timber, and
a few years ago it was even less. The highest price
recorded for good skins is 180s. per timber. 264,606
skins were imported into London in 1886; these were
sent in the well-known bark-boxes, but on account of
theft on the water, they were afterwards sometimes
imported in large iron-bound cases, with peculiar
Russian locks, which gave a musical sound on being
opened.

The fur of the Ermine is the emblem of purity.

This fur is used for robes, mantle-linings, muffs,
glove-linings, ete. It is one of the furs of heraldry.

The fur of the Ermine, with black spots instead of tails,
is called Minever.

There are a good many skins called Greyback ; they

126 CARNIVORA.

are those which are just turning white, that is, with a
few grey hairs on the back lke the Russian Hare.

This animal is sometimes called the Clubster in
England. It is said to be more destructive to game
than the Weasel, although its numbers have been much
reduced by gamekeepers. It preys on Rabbits, small
birds, game, poultry, partridges’ eggs, etc., and even
captures the Mole. It bas been known to continue
fichting with its winged prey at a considerable distance
from the earth. It swims well. It is asserted that it
sometimes climbs trees. The Stoat is easily captured
alive in long box-traps, and has occasionally been tamed.
Like the cat, it carries its young by the nape of the neck
to a place of safety. Many Stoats have been sent to
New Zealand at considerable expense (about 5s. a head),
in order to reduce the enormous quantities of Rabbits
which are over-running parts of those islands; 38,000
Stoats and Weasels were sent from Lincolnshire at the
beginning of December, 1885, and 4,000 pigeons were
sent as food during the voyage.

Dr. Richardson, in his ‘North American Fauna ”
(page 47), says that, according to Indian report, the
Ermine brings forth ten to twelve young at a time.

Fielden, in the ‘‘ Voyage to the Polar Sea” (page
194), says :—‘‘ I obtained specimens in Grinnel Land as
far north as 82° 32’, and several examples were shot near
Discovery Bay. Itis hunted and killed by the Arctic
Box?

WOLVERINE, OR GLUTTON.

Gulo luscus.
French: Glouton. German: Vielfrass.

This widely-spread species inhabits the northern parts
of America, Asia, and Europe, Norway, Sweden and
Russia being the chief habitat in the last-named
continent.

The Wolverine is noticeable for the peculiar saddle or
round mark on the back. A similar peculiarity is only
found in the Abyssinian Monkey and Musk-ox. This
saddle, or oval-shaped mark is usually of a dark brown
colour, surrounded by longer fur of a lighter brown
hue; in the lghter-coloured animals the surrounding
fur is nearly white; in the darker animals the centre is
almost black, and the encircling hair dark brown; the

128 CARNIVORA.

neck and head are grey or grizzly; the tail is short, and
covered with long bushy hair, which is longer and almost
black at the tip, and shorter and browner at the base ;
the throat has a few white marks or patches like the
Marten ; thelegs are usually very dark brown ; the feet
are furnished with powerful claws, which are not re-
tractile ; the under part is very dark brown, and covered
with long coarse hair; the snout is brown; it is from
3 to 4 feet in length ; the female has four teats.

In the American animal there is little fur on the head.
This variety is large, especially in Labrador, and the
Esquimaux Bay district, but it is not numerous, and is
usually of a light colour.

The Wolverine is most abundant in the York Fort
district.

The Columbian type is dark brown, rather coarse-
haired, and large, somewhat resembling the very large,
coarse-haired, and light-furred species of Kamschatka
on the opposite coast.

The Wolverine is also found in Alaska.

The Siberian and Russian variety is smaller and
darker than the American, and it differs from the latter
in the extreme fineness of its fur. These rather diver-
gent types have not been split up into different species.

In Albinos, which are very rare, the white saddle is
scarcely perceptible. Almost black examples are not
uncommon, especially in parts of Siberia.

The fur of the Wolverine is rich and valuable, and
has much enhanced in value of late years, partly on
account of its scarcity, and partly through greater
appreciation of a very serviceable fur.

In London 1,388 skins were sold in 1891 by the
Hudson’s Bay Company, and 734 by other American
traders, but this does not comprise the whole importa-

WOLVERINE. 129

tion, as many Siberian skins are imported by other
merchants ; 30s..is not an unusual price paid for a good
skin. In 1816 they only fetched 5s. to 7s. 10d.

Very handsome wrappers, capes, and trimmings are
made from this fur, which is sometimes dyed black.

The Glutton is one of the wilder animals which is not:
likely to increase with civilization. It is extremely
voracious, and the Reindeer isa favourite prey. Its gait
is very peculiar. It is very fond of water. The young
are covered with long whitish hair.

Dr. Richardson, in the ‘‘ North American Fauna”
(page 43), says :—‘‘ The Wolverine has great strength,
and annoys the natives by destroying their hoards of
provisions, and demolishing their Marten-traps. It is so
suspicious that it will rarely enter a trap itself, but
beginning behind pulls it to pieces, scatters the logs of
which it is built, and then carries off the bait. It feeds
also on meadow mice, marmots, and other rodentia, and
occasionally on disabled quadrupeds of a larger size. I
have seen one chasing an American Hare, which was at
the same time harassed by a snowy owl. It resembles
the Bear in its gait, and is not fleet; but it is very
industrious, and no doubt feeds well, and is generally
fat. Itis much abroad in the winter, and the track of
its journey in a single night may be traced for many
miles.

‘Tt brings forth from two to four young once a year.
The cubs are covered with a downy fur, of a pale or
cream colour.”

130 CARNIVORA.

CAPE ZORILLA.
Ictonyx zorilla.

This small animal resembles the American Civet Cat
or little striped Skunk, and is also similar to the Skunk,
but it has much coarser hair than either.

It is about 5 inches long, and its tail is nearly the
same length ; the colour is black and white, and the tail
is the same colour. It inhabits Cape Colony.

A few hundred skins are imported annually. In 1890
they fetched about 5d. to 7d.

RATEL.
Mellivora indica.

The Ratel is one of the few animals in which the
belly is darker than the back. The former is black, and
the latter black and white or grizzly, forming a striking
contrast. The other animals which form exceptions to
the general rule are the Hamster, Panda, and Badger.
It is an inhabitant of India and Western Asia.

Its skin is of little value, and is usually imported
with the Badger skins which come from Western Asia.

The Ratel climbs trees with facility.

CAPE RATEL.
Mellivora capensis.

This variety of the Ratel is occasionally met with, but
it can hardly be classified separately.

131

AMERICAN BADGER.
Taxidea americana.

French: Blaireau d’Amerique. German: Ameri-
kanischer Dachs.

The American Badger differs from the European
species in the extreme fineness of its coat, and in colour.
Its general colour is light yellowish-grey ; the under fur
is soft, and of a light brown colour, and drab near the
roots; the fur is covered with longer black and white hairs,
and white at the extreme tip ; the under part is white or
light brown; the tail is short, and covered with rather
harsh hair of the same colour as the body; the legs are
dark, and sometimes almost black ; its feet are furnished
with five strong claws, slightly curved inwards, about 23
inches in length, half an inch of which is embedded in
the socket ; there is a white mark or line on the head,
commencing between the ends, running down between
the ears, along the back, and sometimes extending even
to the tail; this white line is more or less developed in
different animals ; there is a characteristic white line on
each side of the head; the head is small, and the few
whiskers are black. The fur is very long at the sides
(about 2 inches), and shorter on the back, and is con-
sequently well adapted to the manufacture of muffs.
This peculiarity is also noticeable in the Asiatic Souslik.

It is not a particularly abundant animal. ‘Two thou-
sand four hundred and forty-five skins were sold by the
Hudson’s Bay Company in 1891, and 5,307 skins by
United States traders, and others.

The fur is rather valuable, a good seasoned skin

K 2

152 CARNIVORA.

being worth 6s. to 22s. 6d., according to demand. This
fur is occasionally dyed dark brown. Few skins are
adapted for brush-making, the hair being usually too soft
for this purpose, except some from the Southern States of
America. ‘The heads are sometimes stuffed, and used
for ornamenting sporrans. ‘The best skins are exported
to France, Italy, and Spain.

The smell of the skin is nut-lke.

The colour of the American Badger is dark silver in
the Southern States ; it is much lighter in colour and
larger in its northern range.

This animal is found in the York Fort district, and in
many of the States of the American Republic ; it is not
found in Labrador, nor Alaska.

It burrows with facility, the formation of its powerful
claws assisting it greatly.

It is said by the Rev. J. G. Wood to feed on prairie-
dogs.

The following remarks are selected from a letter on
the American Badger in the /F%eld :—‘‘ When taken
young, they are easily tamed, and make capital pets.
As for their food, when in a wild state they will eat any
carrion, preferring fresh meat, mice, beetles, gophers
(an animal something lke an exaggerated field-mouse,
about the size of a rat), grasshoppers, snakes, frogs, and
almost anything they come across.”’

Dr. Richardson, in his ‘‘ North American Fauna”’ (page
39), says :—‘‘ Whilst the ground is covered with snow,
the Badger rarely or never comes from its hole, and I
suppose that in that climate it passes the winter from
the beginning of November to April in a torpid state.
Indeed, as it obtains the small animals on which it feeds
by surprising them in their burrows, it has little chance
of digging them out at a time when the ground is frozen

AMERICAN BADGER. 133

like a solid rock. Like the Bears, the Badgers do not
lose much flesh during their long hibernation, for, on
coming abroad in spring, they are observed to be very
fat. As they pair, however, at that season, they soon
become lean.”

BADGER.
Meles taxus.
French: Blaireau. German: Dachs.

The Badger is an animal of quiet disposition and
extremely cleanly habits, and although it gives out a
certain pungent smell, it hardly deserves its stigma in
the proverb ‘‘to stink lke a badger.” The other
popular term of badgering a person is more appropriate,
as the Badger possesses high courage, defending itself
against odds to great advantage, even in the cruel sport
of Badger-drawing, where it fights although minus its
teeth.

The ancient name was Brock, and the Badger-dogs
were called Brocksdogs. It is still found im many
names of places; such as:—Brockdish, Brockholes,
Brockswerth, Brockmoor, Brockley, Brockshill, Brocks-
field, Broxbourne, Brockenhurst, Brocklesby, Brocks-
bridge, Brocksham, and Brockhampton. From this it
will appear that the Badger was abundant in most
counties of England ; it is still found in Gloucestershire,
Nottinghamshire, Staffordshire, Derbyshire, Devonshire,
Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, and Cornwall. It is very rare
in Sussex, and appears to be extinct in the greater part
of Kent, although one was recently captured at Lydden,
near Dover, and a few are found near Hythe. It is not
uncommon in the Isle of Wight, where it attains a large

134 CARNIVORA.

size. It also inhabits Scotland, North Wales, Switzer-
land, Greece, Russia, Poland, Bosnia, Western Asia,
Siberia, but few are found in Germany and France.

The Badger is a nocturnal animal, leaving its den,
which is made in the earth, at nightfall. It preys
occasionally on poultry, and has sometimes been
caught in fowl-houses. It is, however, very difficult to
trap, and more so to dig out, as it burrows as fast or’
faster than a man can dig. They are sometimes drawn
from their dens with brambles. In Devonshire and
other parts it is shot on moonlight nights by. persons
concealed in trees. It is said to love warmth.

It feeds on fungus, roots of the wild hyacinth, and
other plants, beech-nuts, acorns, fruit, honey of wasps,
larve, insects, eggs, frogs, rats, and mice.

A writer in the Feld says that Badgers are parti-
cularly fond of blue-bell roots and toads, and will
occasionally capture young rabbits. According to
another writer in the same paper, Badgers lie more
closely underground in winter than in summer.

Foxes sometimes occupy Badgers’ earths. When
tamed, Badgers have been utilized for hunting rats. The
weight of the English Badger varies from 26 lbs. 8 ozs.
to 34 lbs., according to the Feld.

This animal is of a brown, or rather of a grey colour ;
the under part is darkish ; the hair is coarse, dark, and
tipped with white ; the hair is longer at the sides; the
head has black and white stripes on it; the tail is short,
and covered with bristly hairs; the young are thickly
covered with long black and white hair, which is softer
than in the adult animal. About three young are
produced at a birth. White specimens are occasionally
met with.

The English Badger is of a good dark colour, and the

BADGER. 185

hair is particularly adapted for brush-making, for which
these skins are exclusively used. The quantity of skins
produced, however, is too small to be of much value for
commercial purposes. Those from North Wales are of
especially good quality.

The Grecian and Asiatic skins are pale in colour, and
weak in the hair, and there is more under-wool than in
many of the others.

_ The Polish type has long hair.

The Russian and Bosnian are of good colour and size,
being about 2 feet; and from the former country are
procured most of the skins for brush-making.

The value of askin is from 1s. to 2s., according to
quality and demand.

Five hundred and eighty-four skins were imported
into London in 1820, and 2,991 in 1830; but since the
duty on skins has been removed, the quantity imported
is difficult to ascertain. About 4,000 skins may be
taken as the yearly importation. Two thousand two
hundred and seventy-five skins were imported in 1883,
and 3,487 in 1884, by one merchant only. In Prussia
5,098 Badgers were killed in the winter of 1885-6.

For brush-making the skins are first shaved, and
then washed with alkali to remove the grease; the hair
is then cut off close to the pelt, and sorted with great
skill into sizes by women, tied up into neat bundles,
and sold by weight.

The longest hairs are used for making graining-
brushes, the medium for shaving-brushes, and the short
for tooth-brushes. The pelt is only suitable for glue or
manure.

Badger skins form a very durable and serviceable
material, and were formerly used for making pistol-
holsters. In Switzerland they are now used for

136 CARNIVORA.

ornamenting horse-collars and whips. The covering of
the Israelitish tabernacle was partly made of these
skins.

The remains of Badgers have been found in the ruins
of the Swiss lake-dwellings. Charles St. John relates
that the fossil remains which have been found prove its
race to have been co-existent with that of the mammoths
and megatheriums which once wandered over our
island, and that they are eaten in France, Germany,
and other countries, and pronounced to make excellent
hams. It is said that the ham resembles bear’s-flesh.

CHINESE BADGER.
Meles leptorhynchus.

French: Blaireau de Chine. German: Chinesischer
Dachs.

This animal is also called the Sharp-nosed Badger.
Tt is of middling size, and pale colour. The under fur
is rather thick, but the skin is of little value, except
perhaps for brush-making. It is used for food in China,
where it may be seen in the meat-markets by the dozen,
exposed for sale. This is perhaps the species described
by Dr. St. G. Mivart under the name of Arctonyz.

JAPANESE BADGER.
Meles ankuma.

French: Blaireau de Japan. German: Japanischer
Dachs.

This Badger is similar to the foregoing, but it is

darker, and the under fur is more abundant. It is

JAPANESE BADGER. 137

about 13 feet long, i.e., rather smaller than the European

species. The value of a skin is about 1s. to 2s., and very

few are imported, but are sometimes used by furriers.
It is also called the Sand-Badger.

SKUNK.
Mephitis mephitica.
French: Skunk. German: Skunk.

The Skunk is perhaps better known for the very
pungent and powerful fluid it exudes than for its rich
black fur, which is of the finest natural black, almost
rivalling the Russian Sable in appearance and depth of
colour. If it were not for this powerful scent, which is
not entirely got rid of even in the manufactured state,
it would be a very valuable fur. This secretion is said
by anatomists to be seated in the anus. The Skunk
ejects this fluid when excited or attacked, and when
pursued, squirts it into the faces of its enemies, almost
blinding them. When a garment is tainted with it, it
is quite valueless. Even when a train has run over a
Skunk, it is placed in a siding for cleansing. ‘This
secretion is said to be especially efficient as a cure for
rheumatism, but the patient has often more cause to
complain of the scent of the remedy than of the pain
which it relieves.

The general colour of the Skunk varies from jet black
to almost pure white. The black examples have a white
mark, line, or incipient fork on the head, and a white
tip to the tail. An absolutely white animal is almost as
rare as a perfectly black one. The intermediate sorts
are black with white striped, more or less pronounced,

138 CARNIVORA.

and are more abundant than the others. In these
striped examples, lateral prongs are sometimes seen
branching out from the main fork, and uniting with it
again, but we have never seen the fork or stripe with
more than two prongs. Sometimes the white stripe is
continued down the tail. Rare instances are found of
one long, and one short prong. The white mark on the
belly is in the same ratio as the amount of white on the
back. Specimens are often found of white hairs inter-
mixed with the black. Drab or brown Skunks are
occasionally met with; they are of a beautiful light
brown colour, with a white fork more or _ less
marked.

The length of the Skunk is about a foot, and the tail
another 6 inches.

The tail is covered with long bristly hairs, 3 or 4
inches in length, especially towards the tip, where the
eround is lighter.

In the striped varieties the tail is beautifully edged
with white ; in the white, the tail is pure white.

The skins collected in the Dominion of Canada are
more striped than those from other parts, the northern
range and cold climate producing, as usual, a large,
thick-furred, and lght-coloured variety. These are
sometimes called the Hudson’s Bay Skunk. The fur of
this variety is about 13 inches long.

The Skunk is found in the Fort York and Moose
River districts, about the same range north as the
Fisher ; it isnot found in Alaska nor Labrador. As the
southern range is approached, the size becomes smaller,
and the colour darker. Michigan, Ohio, and New York
produce the finest dark skins. New Jersey, Virginia,
Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, and Missouri produce a greater
number of black skins, but the fur is coarser and

SKUNK. 139

inferior. The western skins have red pelts, and meet
with little favour.

The skins arrive in New York covered with green fat,
which is scraped off before shipping, an operation
which is far from pleasant. The Canadian skins are
cleansed and well handled by the Indians, and are
therefore always sent in good condition.

The quantity of Skunk skins imported has increased
considerably of late years. In 1891, 12,583 skins were
sold by the Hudson’s Bay Company, and in 1890, 678,191
by other traders, quantities which would have been
considered enormous some years ago. Previous to 1840
Skunk skins were considered almost valueless, and were
sold in the Sundry-lots of the Company’s sale.

The value of a best black skin varies from 7s. to 10s.
although 18s. is sometimes paid. White, and inferior
skins fetch from 38d. to 2s., and striped realize from
2s. to 7s. This skin is used all over HKurope and
America, for muffs, capes, etc.

White skins are sometimes dyed black or dark brown.

The American Opossum and the Skunk occasionally
interbreed, the pelt partaking of the thin texture of the
Opossum, with a slight feeling of harshness, which is
always found in that of the Skunk. The Skunk has
been known to interbreed with the American Squirrel.
The tail is sparingly covered with black hair, intermixed
with white; the hair is short and of fine texture. The
Skunk lives in burrows, and isnocturnal. It has twelve
teats.

Dr. Richardson, in the ‘‘ North American Fauna” (page
56), says:—‘‘ It breeds once a year, and has six to ten
young at a time.”

Dr. Mivart, in the “ Proceedings of the Zoological
Society,” 1885, page 370, says:—‘‘ The Skunk is very

140 CARNIVORA.

prolific, bringing forth eight or ten young. It is more
eregarious than most creatures of the Weasel kind
(Mustelide), more than one family congregating in one
burrow. It eats worms, insects, birds’ eggs, frogs, and
mice, and sometimes rabbits, as also roots and _ berries ;
it occasionally robs the poultry-yard, and is said to be
fond of milk. It falls a prey to dogs and the Great
Horned Owl. Its bite sometimes produces hydro-
phobia ; it can be readily semi-domesticated like a Ferret,
and it is said pomolimes to have had its anal glands
successfully removed.

The flesh of the Skunk is often eaten by a Indians,
and is even said by Americans to be good eating,
white, tender, and sweet like chicken, as Dr. Merriam
describes it; but by other authorities it is considered
unpalatable, and not to be recommended.

CIVET CAT, OR LITTLE STRIPED SKUNK.
Mephitis putorius.

This animal is not so large as the foregoing, being
only 6 to 8 inches long, without the tail, which is nearly
as long as the body. Its range is not so extensive as
the Skunk’s. It is not found in the Dominion of
Canada, and only in some of the central and southern
states of the North American Republic. The largest
skins are collected in the more northern districts, and
the smallest, coarsest, and most fatty in the southern.

The colour is black, marked with white square-like
patterns, a shape almost unique in nature. The mark-
ings of any two animals are never alike. The tail is black,

CIVET CAT. 141

and covered with very long hairs; the tip is sometimes
white, and sometimes black.

It does not appear to have any pungent ejection like
the Skunk.

The fur of the Civet Cat is of little value; being at
one time sorted into the third quality Skunk skins.
The usual price is 6d. to 2s. 38d. per skin, according to
quality. This fur. is chiefly used for coat-linings.
About 5,000 to 10,000 skins are imported annually. In
1891, 18,292 skins were sold.

SOUTH AMERICAN OR CHILIAN SKUNK.
Conepatus mapurito.

The South American Skunk does not attain the size
of its North American cousin, nor does it seem to
possess the same pungent smell.

It is a small animal, generally black with a white
stripe. Sometimes the whole of the back is white,
without any black central division, as in the North
American species. A few animals are quite black.

The tail is very bushy, and is usually striped.

This Skunk inhabits the whole of the South American
continent, Central America, Mexico, and the most
southern of the United States, such as Tennessee,
Kentucky, ete.

The fur is coarse, and of comparatively little value ;
it varies from 1d. to 2s. 6d. per skin. Only a few
thousand skins are imported annually.

142 CARNIVORA.

EUROPEAN OTTER.
Lutra vulgaris.
French: Loutre du pays. German: Land Otter.

The Otter was probably abundant at one time over
the whole of the United Kingdom. It is now extinct in
some counties, but abounds in others. Its former
existence is shown by the names of places, towns, etc.,
such as Ottercap, Otterburn, Otterford, Upper Ottery,
St. Mary’s Ottery, Otterington, Otterhampton, Otterton,
the river Otter, most of these places being in Devon-
shire; also Otterham in Norfolk, and Otterpool and
Otterden in Kent. The Otter is occasionally found in
the Thames.

There are eighteen packs of Otter-hounds in the
United Kingdom: thirteen in England, four in Wales,
and one in Scotland. Each pack consists of ten to
twenty-five couples of hounds, which hunt two or three
days a week. Fox-hounds are occasionally used, but
rough-coated Otter-hounds of pure or mixed breed (dogs
which bite and do not hold) are preferred. Packs are
sometimes moved from county to county. The season
is a summer one, from April to September.

Otter-hunting has increased in favour in the last few
years, but not to the same extent as in the olden times,
when this sport was extremely popular. The old-
fashioned spear is not now used.

The Otter affords much sport at times, drowning the
hounds by holding them under the water, and at others
it escapes by hiding under a reed or rock, with merely
its snout above water in order to breathe.

EUROPEAN OTTER. 143

The Otter is web-footed, swimming and diving with
ereat ease, and is able to remain under water for some
time. It pairs under water, and its gestation lasts sixty-
one days. It is not terrified by the bark of a dog, and
other means have to be employed to drive it from its
place of refuge. It will even attack a single hound.

Its food consists chiefly of fish, and it is very fond of
eels and frogs. Crawfish, water-hens, young rabbits,
mollusca, duck, and other water-fowl are also eaten by
the Otter. It occasionally partakes of celery, and
potatoes. When it has captured a fish, it usually begins
eating it at the gills. It is said to be able to smell fish
under water.

Otters have occasionally been tamed, especially young
ones. These, when captured, may be fed on bread-and-
milk, or brought up by cats or other foster-mothers.

The ordinary weight of a male Otter is from 12 lbs. to
22 lbs., and of a female about 153} lbs. The length is
about 33 feet.

When Otters are abundant, fish are usually plentiful
and in good condition, therefore anglers should look on
the presence of Otters in streams with more favour.

These animals travel considerable distances over land
during the night or early morning, and they have been
met with twelve miles from the nearest water. It sheds
its fur in spring. (The Field, October, 1888.)

The skull is flat and rounded, and the teeth short and
stunted.

Otters are found nearly throughout the globe, with
the exception of Australasia. All the various forms or
sub-species are only climatic developments, and would
probably all interbreed.

The English and Irish Otters are small, about 3 feet
long; the general colour is dark brown, and lighter

144 CARNIVORA.

under the neck and belly; the under fur is very thick ;
the tail is about a foot long; while spots are sometimes
found in the under fur. In Norfolk the colour is
lighter.

In France and Germany the Otters are more abundant
and larger than the English. In Scandinavia they are
of a fine dark brown colour, and much larger than the
ordinary continental Otter, and have a richer and
thicker fur ; they resemble the Halifax species in thick-
ness of fur, darkness of colour, and in the coarse pelt.
Otter fur is much esteemed. About 10,000 skins are
sold annually at the Easter Fair at Leipsic, and also a
good number at the Frankfurt Fair. Four thousand
one hundred and two Otters were killed in Prussia alone
in the winter of 1885-6.

Remains of the Otter have been found in the Swiss
lake-dwellings.

The value of a Land Otter skin is from 5s. to 30s.

In Scotland the skins are often used for making the
well-known sporrans.

CHINA OTTER.
Lutra felisa.

The Chinese Otter is small, about 2 feet long; the
neck is whitish; the hair is of a light grey or grizzly
colour.

The skins are beautifully dressed by the Chinese, but
the fur is of comparatively little value on account of its
poor quality; it is sometimes imported in the pulled
state, i.e., with the top hair removed. The value of a
skin is about 3s. 6d. to 7s.

INDIAN OR CALCUTTA OTTER.

Lutra leptonyx.

French: Loutre des Indes. German: Ostindischer
Otter.

This is the smallest of all the Otters, with the excep-
tion, perhaps, of the South American. Its length is
scarcely more than a foot, sometimes even less. The
colour is light brown; the fur short, and inferior in
quality ; the neck is lighter in colour, almost white ; the
belly is white.

The value of a skin is about Is.

A similar variety is found in Cashmere, but it 1s
rather larger and has thicker fur.

This species is sometimes called the Small-clawed
Otter.

Another variety comes from Persia; the fur is light,
coarse, and abundant.

“WEST AFRICAN OTTER.

The West African Otter is large—about 4 feet long.
The fur, or rather hair, is hardly more than one-eighth
of an inch in length, and is consequently almost value-
less.

The cheeks are white, and the rest of the body brown.

This Otter is very rare.

146 CARNIVORA.

CAPEK OTTER.
Lutra dedalandi.

This variety is small, of a light brown colour, with
white cheeks and throat. It is similar to the foregoing
animal, but the quality of the fur is hardly so poor.
This Otter is also rare.

SOUTH AMERICAN OTTER.
Lutra brasiliensi.

This small animal is found in fair quantities. Its
size is about 1 to 2 feet; the fur is tolerably good, but
of a light brown colour. The cubs are scarcely larger
than large Musk-rats.

The value varies from 1s. to 6s.

AMERICAN OTTER.
Lutra canadensis.

French: Loutre d’Amérique. German: Amerikanischer
Otter.

This is the largest of all the Otters. It is found over
the greater part of North America, including British
Honduras. The colour varies considerably in the
different districts from which it is taken. In Alaska it
is of a quite light brown. The skins are large, and
many of the pelts are painted red by the Indian
trappers.

AMERICAN OTTER. 147

In the York Fort district the colour varies from light
to dark brown. It is large, with thick fur, dark whiskers,
and the tail about 18 inches long.

In the East Maine district the colour of the Otter is
very dark—in fact, almost black. Some of the skins
here are painted vermilion by the natives.

The skins from Canada, Nova Scotia, and Labrador
are dark brown, very thickly furred and well flayed, and
have clean pelts.

Halifax skins are dark, but rather coarse, and similar
to the Norwegian.

In Columbia the Otter is very large. The skin is
about 4 feet without the tail, which is 2 feet long.

Many Otters are found in the United States. In
California and the Western States they are large.

In the Southern States, such as Louisiana and Ten-
nessee, the skins are thick-pelted and of low standard,
but the fur is dark.

In Georgia the skins are small and dark brown.

A silvery animal is very rare, as well as mottled,
grizzly, and slate-coloured. White Otters are more
often met with.

The feet of the Otter are small, and both hind and
fore feet are slightly webbed, and furnished with five
short claws. The legs are short. It has four teats.

According to Dr. Richardson, the American Otter pro-
duces one to three young about the middle of April. It
swims and dives with great facility, and it feeds on fish.
Dr. Merriam asserts that Otters in winter are fond of
sliding down-hill in the snow head foremost, repeating
the operation several times ; and that they also slide on
the ice. Dr. Richardson says they dive through the ice
with great rapidity.

This fur is used both natural and dyed and pulled

L 2

148 CARNIVORA.

to imitate Fur Seal, which it excels in quality. When
unhaired or pulled, it is used by glovers, the short, thick
under fur rendering it very suitable for glove-tops.

Many of the natural dark skins are used in Russia,
the United States, and Canada, for coat-collars, ete. ;
and many pale skins in France, England, etc. A few
skins are clipped.

In 1811, York Fort Otter skins fetched 18s.; in 1818,
99s.; and East Maine first large, in the same year,
105s. In 1889 Labrador skins realized 95s., but the
ordinary price ranges from 30s. to 50s. for a good
seasoned skin.

The yearly importations were as follows :—In 1891,
8,171 skins were sold by the Hudson’s Bay Company,
and 7,334 by the Alaska Commercial Company, and
others.

Many skins from Nova Scotia have a singed appear-
ance on the top hair. This is probably caused by their
being dried too quickly by the fire or sun. This defect
lessens the value considerably.

SEA-OTTER.
Enhydra lutra.
French: Loutre de mer. German: See Otter.

This animal, formerly called the Nootka Sound
Otter, is much larger than the Land-Otter. It is
about 4 to 5 feet long, not including its short tail, which
is covered with thick fur, and is 6 inches to 1 foot long.

It lives in the sea, and feeds on clams and other
shell-fish. The range of the Sea-Otter formerly
extended from Washington Spring to Point Greenwich.

SEA-OTTER. 149

The chief habitat of the Sea-Otter is the Aleutian
Islands and along the western shore of Alaska. It is
also found in the Island of Kadiak and along the coast
of Vancouver Island, but it is not so numerous here as
formerly. A few are also found in Kamschatka and in
Japan. Otter Island, in the Pribylov group, was
formerly a favourite resort of this animal, but now it is
never found there.

Elliott says that the Sea-Otter is most abundant on
Saanak and the Chernaboor Islands, situate at the com-
mencement of the Aleutian chain.

The colour is very varied, the general shade being
dark brown. In many animals this verges into black,,
and in some to a light brown or mouse colour. The fur
is generally interspersed with white hairs of greater
length than the fur. According to the number of these
white hairs, the skin is more or less valuable. Many
animals have a white head, and are more or less white
underneath. Some examples are too abundantly fur-
nished with these hairs, and are therefore of less value.

There is no recorded instance of a wholly white Sea-
Otter, but black and very dark brown are by no means
uncommon. A peculiar and rare instance of colouring
is a white bar of fur across the tail.

The young are covered with long white, fluffy, coarse
hair, and have a much thinner pelt. In the adult
animal the pelt is thick and heavy ; the feet are webbed,
covered with very short dark brown hair, and furnished
with very short claws; the whiskers are usually white,
and not very numerous; it has four teats; the fur is
very rich and soft, consisting of an under fur of bluish
colour, covered with slightly longer hairs.

The skins from Columbia and Vancouver Island are
usually of a yellowish hue.

150 CARNIVORA.

The skin of the Sea-Otter has greatly enhanced in
value of late years, owing to its steadily decreasing
numbers. £200 is the highest recorded price for a
skin, and £100 is not considered an extraordinary price,
although afew years ago £88 was considered pheno-
menal.

Two thousand three hundred and sixty-nine skins
were imported by the Alaska Commercial Company and
other traders in 1891, and nine by the Hudson’s Bay
Company. The amount of the Sea-Otter sale is about
£100,000. The average price in 1888 was £21.10s. ; in
1889, £33; and in 1891, £57. According to Ellioit,
from 1772 to 1774, about 10,000 were captured annually,
and 15,000 in 1804. He also says that Belcovsky is
the chief trading station.

The skins are occasionally smoked, and are also dyed
or topped. The Alaska or Aleutian skins are open at
the end, and imported cased.

This fur is principally consumed in Russia, where it
is used for collars of noblemen’s coats. Small skins
are used in France. A few skins are bought for the
United States and Canada.

The import of Sea-Otter fur was formerly prohibited
in Russia; it is now subject to a high duty. It is said
that this fur was formerly extensively used by the
Chinese. Nearly every skin procured is sold in London.

The Sea-Otters on the North-west coast of America
are hunted in canoes formed into a circle. When the
animal is sighted, it is pursued and shot at. It then
dives, remaining for some time under the water. When
it reaches the surface, it is again pursued, and it dives
once more to elude its pursuers. This is repeated many
times, the dives being gradually shortened, until it is at
last caught. The hunters generally meet the schooners

SEA-OTTER. 151

at a fixed rendezvous. It is sometimes speared, and the
natives also kill it on shore with clubs, or net it in
inlets of the sea.

H. W. Elliott, in ‘‘An Arctic Province” (pages 131
and 132), says :—

“The Sea-Otter seldom visits the shore, and then
only when the weather is abnormally stormy at sea.
Instead of being a fish-eater, like Lutra canadensis, it
feeds almost wholly upon clams, crabs, mussels, and
echinoderms, or ‘sea-urchins,’ as might be inferred
from its peculiar flat molars of dentition.

“The Sea-Otter mother clasps her young to her
breast between her fore-paws, and stretches herself at
full length on her back in the ocean when she desires to
sleep, and she suckles it also in this position. The pup
cannot live without its mother, though frequent attempts
have been made by hunters to raise them, for the little
animals are very often captured alive and wholly
uninjured; but, like some other animals, they seem to
be so deeply imbued with fear or dishke of man that
they invariably die of self-imposed starvation. The
Enhydra is not polygamous, and it is seldom, indeed,
that the natives, when out in search of it, ever see more
than one animal ata time. The flesh is very unpalat-
able, highly charged with arank taste and odour. A
single pup is born, as the rule, about fifteen inches in
length.”

452 CARNIVORA.

RACOON.
Procyon lotor.
French: Marmotte. German: Waschbir or Schuppe.

The Racoon, or Raccoon, is a well-known animal,
inhabiting the United States and part of the province of
British Columbia.

It is rarely taken by Hudson’s Bay traders, except in
the latter district, although it was a leading article of
commerce in the time of the North-west Company, with
which the Hudson’s Bay Company was ultimately
amaleamated.

It is difficult to account for the French name of
Marmot, which the early settlers or trappers gave to the
Racoon, unless it is due to the similarity in colour. The
German name of Wash-bear is more appropriate, as it
washes its food in water before devouring it.

The best furred skins come from Wisconsin and
Mlinois, and almost equally good from Michigan. Nova
Scotia also produces a few well-furred skins. Those
from California and British Columbia are coarse, and
covered with short fur of deep and bright colour.
Missouri and the Western States produce skins of
medium quality. Among the latter grade may be
reckoned those from New Madrid, where a great part
of the Racoon skins are collected. These pelts are
square-handled.

Kentucky, Arkansas, and other Southern skins are
coarse, and of low value, but the worst of all are the
Mexican.

The Racoon is about 2 to 8 feet in length, without the

RACOON. 155

tail. Some species are much larger, especially the
Northern.

The colour is grey or grizzly, with longer black
and white hairs (about 8 inches); the under fur is
abundant and dark blue; the nose is pointed and black ;
the ears are of medium length, and usually grey; the
whiskers are scarce, and black and white; the tail is
about 6 inches long, yellow, and ringed with black, the
number of rings varying from four to six; the feet are
thin, and covered with short hair ; the face is marked
with black and white stripes, and there is a black circle
round the eye ; the belly is usually light.

The leather of out-of-season skins is usually blue or
dark in the centre of the back, as in most animals.
An extremely rare occurrence is to find this dark mark
in the shape of a half-moon.

White and light fawn Racoons are sometimes met
with. The latter variety is very beautiful, the tail being
ringed with bands of a slightly deeper shade.

A white spot is sometimes seen on the body, and
sometimes there is a white tip to the tail. Black and
dark brown specimens are somewhat rare; these are
mostly taken in wooded districts ; they command a high
price, 30s. being sometimes paid. The usual assortment
of Racoon skins comprised twenty different sizes, colours,
and qualities, ranging in price from 6d. to 10s.; now
there are fewer sorts.

The greatest depth of colouring is in the Southern type.

This fur is used over the greater part of the civilized
world, the cheaper sorts being used in Canada and
Germany for coats, coat-linings, ete., and the better
sorts in France, Russia, and England, for trimmings,
capes, etc. The better pale skins are usually dyed
black or brown.

154 CARNIVORA.

When clipped, the skins are sometimes used for
glove-tops. When pulled, i.c., with the long hair
removed, they are used as imitation Beaver. The heads
are often used for ornamenting foot-muffs, and the tails
for making rugs, mats, and boas. This fur is also used
for the busbies of the Volunteer Artillery. About
500,000 are sold annually in London; 549,180 were
sold in 1891.

The Racoon is only partly carnivorous, and is
extremely fond of Indian corn. Its flesh is said to be
good eating.

It has six teats, and probably produces from four to
six young. It is said to climb trees with facility. It
appears sometimes to interbreed with the American
Opossum. An allied species is met with in Honduras.

In an old work entitled ‘“‘ America,’ this animal is
thus described :—‘‘ The Rackoone is a deep TFurr’d
Beast, not much unlike a Badger, having a Tail like a
Fox, as good Meat asa Lamb. ‘These Beasts in the day
time sleep in hollow Trees, in a Moon-shine night they
eo to feed on Clams at a low Tide, by the Sea side,
where the English hunt them with their Dogs.”

Dr. Mivart, in the ‘‘ Proceedings of the Zoological
Society’? (1885, page 347), quoting Dr. Clinton Hart
Merriam, says :—‘‘ The Raccoons do not like the dense
evergreen forests but more open woods; they are the
most strictly nocturnal of all mammals, except Bats
and Flying Squirrels, and yet they may sometimes be
seen abroad on cloudy days. They are very expert in
breaking down the stalks of corn, and stripping the
husks from the ear, using their fore-paws as we do our
hands. Though very sly, they are caught in traps.
They are not swift runners, and if pursued take to a
tree, when they may be readily killed. Though capable

RACOON. 155

of being made pets of, they cannot be let loose with
impunity, on account of their great curiosity, which
leads them to find their way, if possible, into their
master’s house, and there examine everything. They
hibernate early, becoming active again in February or
March.”

SOUTH AMERICAN OR CRAB-EATING
RACOON.

Procyon cancrivorus.

This Racoon is rather smaller than the North
American species, but rather redder in colour. It
inhabits South and Central America, and perhaps
Texas, Kentucky, and the Southern States.

The fur is harsh, coarse, poor, and of much less value
than that of the usual Racoon. It is used for coat-
linings.

CASHMERE RACOON.

This extremely rare animal inhabits Cashmere, and
the extreme north of India.

The head is ringed like the American Racoon ; the fur
is rather darker, and the feet are furnished with sharper
claws. The nose is pointed.

156 CARNIVORA.

PANDA.
Ailurus fulgens.
French: Panda. German: Katzenbir.

The Panda is rarely met with, and but few skins find
their way to London.

The fur is thick, close, and of some value, a perfect
skin fetching from 7s. to 21s. It is most used for
stuffing, ornamenting furriers’ shops, and museums.

The belly is black; the back and sides are covered
with thick fur of a beautiful brownish-red colour, about
13 inches in length, and with a dark ground ; it is lighter
at the shoulders; the tail is moderately long (about
9 inches), of a yellow colour, and ringed with red; the
tail is very rarely red, with black rings; the head is
round and broad, and has white markings between the
eyes; the ears are of moderate length ; the tips of the
feet are usually white, but are sometimes red; the soles
are covered with woolly hair as a protection from the
cold; the toes are short, and the nails rather long and
blunted.

The Panda is an inhabitant of Nepaul, and North-east
India. Dr. Mivart says that it is said to live amongst
rocks and trees at a height of 7,000 to 12,000 feet.

It is one of the few animals, such as the Hamster
and Ratel, in which the belly is darker than the back.
It is a very beautiful animal, and it is a matter of regret
that its rarity prevents its greater commercial utility.

157

WHITE .OR POLAR BEAR.
Ursus maritimus.
French: Ours blane. German: Eisbar.

The Polar Bear has a wide distribution. It is found
on the western shores of Iceland, in Greenland, the
northern parts of Norway and Sweden, St. Matthew
Island in the Behring Sea, the Arctic circle of Canada
and of Alaska, and throughout the Polar regions gener-
ally.

This Bear attains a very large size, and is perhaps
the largest of all the Bears, some skins measuring
10 feet, and even more. The feet are furnished with
long powerful claws. Both feet and legs are covered
with long coarse hair, which gives it a peculiar appear-
ance when emerging from the water. The tail is short

158 CARNIVORA.

about 4 inches long; the fur is white, and rather
coarse, owing to living in the sea; the nose and eyes
are black; the neck is longer than in the other Bears;
the pelt is thick, harsh, and rather heavy; there is no
hump of fur between the shoulders; the canine teeth
are well developed; in the incisors of the upper jaw is
a groove, into which the lower incisors fit, thus forming
so firm a hold that its slippery prey is unable to escape.

The flesh of the Polar Bear was largely eaten by the
seamen wrecked in the ship Hira when exploring in the
region of San Josef Land.

It is of a bold disposition, fighting with tenacity,
though not with the grim ferocity of the Grizzly Bear.
It dives and swims well, and is often captured and sent
to Europe. Whilst on board ship, it is generally
enclosed in a cask. Captain Markham says that the
Polar Bear is easily killed in the water, but it is more
difficult to shoot on the ice.

Polar Bears are supposed to have opened the depot of
clothes and provisions left by Captain Beechey on Mel-
ville Island. The contents were scattered, and the cloth
unrolled and torn into shreds. The spirit casks, how-
ever, were left untouched.

The White Bear feeds on fish, but Seals are its
favourite food. It is also said to feed sometimes on
crass, and at times to capture a Walrus.

It is occasionally taken by sealers on the look-out for
Seals on the floes of ice in April. These skins are
thinner and of poorer quality than those taken in the
winter ; these are generally salted by the seamen.

The best skins come from Greenland, where they are
well flayed by the natives in prime winter condition.
They are generally in perfect condition, and remain
white, which is said to be due to the skins being dragged

WHITE OR POLAR BEAR. 159

through the snow after the process of flaying, thus pre-
venting the oil from turning them yellow.

Thirty to a hundred skins are imported annually into
Copenhagen by the Royal Greenland Company. The
best are worth from £10 to £30. The skins (88 in
1891) sold in London by the Hudson’s Bay Company
usually fetch 35s. to 170s. They are generally collected
from Esquimaux Bay, and York Fort, and Little Whale
River districts. These are of little value, as they are
badly flayed, being without paws and claws.

This fur is usually made into rugs and sleigh-robes.
It is sometimes dyed black.

The value of a Polar Bear’s skull is about 21s. The
cub is very small when born.

“In the Hira Expedition to San Josef Land in 1881-
82, many White Bears were killed, mostly males, and
one measured 11 feet from the root of the tail to the
nose. Female Bears were never obtained during the
dark days. On examining the stomach we often found
nothing but grass.’’—(‘‘ Proceedings of the Zoological
Society,” 1882, p. 654.)

Dr. Richardson, in his ‘‘ North American Zoology,”
(pp. 83 and 35), says :—

‘*The Polar Bear being able to procure its food in the
depth of even an Arctic winter, there is not the same
necessity for its hibernating that exists in the case of
the Black Bear, which feeds chiefly on vegetable
matters; and it is probable that, although they may all
retire occasionally to caverns in the snow, the pregnant
females alone seclude themselves for the entire winter.”

‘*Our seamen relish the paws of the Bear, and the
Ksquimaux prefer its flesh at all times to that of the
Seal. Instances are recorded of the liver of the Polar
Bear having poisoned people.”

160 CARNIVORA.

“Their young, which are generally two in number,
are not larger than rabbits, and make a footmark in the
snow no bigger than a crown-piece.”

RUSSIAN OR SIBERIAN BEAR.
Ursus arctos.
French: Ours de Russie. German: Russicher-Bar.

This widely-distributed Bear is generally called the
Brown Bear, but it is in reality a Grizzly, as it is of a
ereyish colour. It is darker, almost black, in some dis-
tricts, and paler in others; but in nearly all specimens
the black and white longer hairs are perceptible, and
the white collar or spot on the neck is usually con-
spicuous.

This Bear inhabits the Pyrenees, the Carpathian
Mountains of Austria, Transylvania (Gorgeny Sz Imre),
Upper Hungary, and some parts of Switzerland. It
is common in Russia, the Caucasus, and parts of Nor-
way and Sweden. In the British Islands it is now
extinct but many centuries ago it was abundant, and
was hunted.

Bear-baiting then formed a favourite pastime of our
forefathers, the English Bear, although small, being of
the same ferocious nature as its Russian and Asiatic
brother, and its cousin, the well-known Grizzly Bear of
the Rocky Mountains. The Bear was tied to a post and
allowed 40 feet of chain, within which limit no one was
allowed to enter. It was then attacked by dogs, which
were thrown at it, the Bear defending itself, and often
hugging its opponents to death in its powerful arms.
In 1665, the year of the Plague, Bear-baiting was pro-

RUSSIAN OR SIBERIAN BEAR. 161

hibited in the City of London, by — of the Lord
Mayor and Aldermen.

This Bear is still hunted in Russia, being driven by
beaters towards the sportsmen. In Scotland the Manes
of the slain Bear was exorcised by the women. <A some-
what similar custom is possessed by the North American
Indians, called the ‘‘ Bear Dance,” but this is per formed
before the hunt of the animal.

This Bear is often exhibited.

The Russian Bear which was kept by Lord Dufferin
during his viceroyalty in Ireland, throve well in that
country.

The ears of this Bear are short, and the snout rather
elongated; the feet are furnished with powerful claws ;
the tail is short; the fur is finer than that of the
American Grizzly; the eyes small and brilliant; the
general colour is pale brown, the longer hairs having
often white tips. Many animals are black over two-
thirds of the body, and again are often of a pale colour,
all intermediate shades being found. The Pyrenean
animal is probably paler. There is a characteristic
hump or longer growth of fur between the shoulders ;
this is also found in the American Grizzly.

The Russian Bear is of moderate size.

The fur when pale is occasionally dyed or topped. It
is used for trimmings, wrappers, rugs, sleigh-robes,
boas, ete.

Many skins are imported into this country by fur-
traders. The cubs are, as a rule, lighter in colour.

The young cubs play together in a rough-and-tumble
fashion, occasionally making a buzzing sound of satis-
faction.

This Bear is omnivorous, eating young buds and

vegetable matter, and having a special liking for honey,
M

162 CARNIVORA.

their thick skins protecting them from the revengeful
stings of the bees. Remains of this Bear have been
found in the ruins of the Swiss lake dwellings at
Robenhausen, and other places. ‘The teeth were pierced
for ornaments.

SYRIAN BEAR.

Ursus syriacus.

The Syrian Bear is the Bear of the Scriptures. It
appears to be merely a large light-coloured variety of
the Russian and Siberian Bear, this difference being
produced by the climate and the exposed regions in
which it lives.

ISABELLINE BEAR.

Ursus isabellinus.

This is another variety of the so-called Brown Bear.
It has thick, coarse, harsh hair or fur, in many cases
almost white, and some light grizzly. It is found in
Assam, Burmah, and North India, and is abundant in
the Himalayas.

GRIZZLY BEAR (AMERICAN).
Ursus ferox.
French: Ours gris. German: Grauer Bir.

This Bear is in reality a variety of the foregoing
species. It exceeds all others in ferocity and strength,
attacking the hunters without fear, especially when

GRIZZLY BEAR. 163

excited by wounds, and often dealing death with its
powerful claws.

Many Indian chiefs and hunters used to be adorned
with necklaces of these claws as emblems of their
prowess. It was indeed a powerful foe to overcome in
the days of bows and arrows, and even in those of the
old flint-lock muskets; but now the modern breech-
loader has considerably lessened the risk.

The settlers or hunters often call this Bear ‘“‘ Old
Ephraim,” sometimes ‘‘ Caleb.”

The Grizzly Bear often attains the size of 8 feet.
The fur is rather harsh, of a dark grizzly colour, tipped
with grizzly hairs in some examples, in others of a
lighter hue ; the young especially are lighter, and some-
times almost white. Yellow-grizzly are abundant, and,
in fact, all shades of colour from pale to dark grizzly
are found. A white or albino Grizzly is extremely rare.
The tail is short ; the claws are long and powerful, about
34 inches in length, 1 inch of which is enclosed in the
flesh ; the ears are short; the skin is thick and heavy.
The hump of fur between the shoulders is well developed
in this species, and in the best skins this adds consider-
ably to their beauty and value.

The Grizzly Bear inhabits nearly the whole range of
the Rocky Mountains, where it finds a suitable resort.
The Bears inhabiting Mount Elias attain to a large size.
It is abundant in the Alaska Territory and the Aleutian
Islands, and a certain number are taken near York
Factory, but it is not now found in the Missouri district,
where it was abundant in the days of the old Fur
Companies. Itis not an abundant animal. In 1891,
175 skins were sold by the Hudson’s Bay Company. <A
larger quantity are sold by other traders: 3,234 in
1891. The Grizzly Bear skin is of some value, about

uM 2,

164 CARNIVORA.

150s. being paid for the best skins. They are chiefly
used for sleigh-robes, rugs, and wrappers. They are
sometimes made into boas—cub-skins especially. In
some specimens, when young, or in some of the early
stages of the growth of the fresh coat, the colour is
brown, and it is then very difficult to distinguish it from
the Brown Bear (Ursus americanus).

The Grizzly Bear is said never to ascend trees like the
Brown and the Black, except when it is young. It feeds
occasionally on vegetables, but it is also carnivorous.
It sometimes eats Reindeer, and has been known to kill
and carry away a Bison. It feeds occasionally on
salmon, catching them at the leaps with its paws, as
they ascend the river.

Dr. Richardson, in his ‘‘ North American Fauna ”’
(page 28), thus describes the habits of the Grizzly
Bear:—‘‘The Grisly Bears are carnivorous, but
occasionally eat vegetables, and are observed to be
particularly fond of the roots of some species of
psoralea and hedysarum. They also eat the fruits of
various shrubs, such as the bird-cherry, choke-cherry,
and Hippophte canadensis. The berries of the latter
produce a powerful cathartic effect upon them. Few of
the natives, even of the tribes, who are fond of the flesh
of the Black Bear, will eat of the Grisly Bear, unless
when pressed by hunger. (Page 29): The young Grisly
Bears and gravid females hibernate, but the older males
often come abroad in the winter in quest of food.”

H. W. Elliot, in ‘‘ An Arctic Province ”’ (page 89), thus
writes :—‘‘ Everywhere throughout this large extent of
Alaska the footpaths, or roads, of that omni-present
ursine traveller arrest your attention. The banks of
all streams are lined by the well-trodden trails of these
heavy brutes, and offer far better facilities for progress

GRIZZLY BEAR. 165

than those afforded by the paths of men. Not only are
the swampy plains intersected by such well-worn routes
of travel, but the mountains themselves and ridges, to
the very summits thereof, are thus laid out.”

A closely allied sub-species is found in Kamschatka,
and the North-eastern coast of Asia; and Langsdorff,
according to Richardson, says that it also inhabits the
Aleutian Islands. It has been called Ursus piscator and
Hairy-eared Bear. It is a Grizzly Bear, but is of a
more golden or red colour than the Ursus ferox, and the
tips of the longer hairs are whiter. The pelt is very
thick and heavy, and is often painted red by the natives
on the leather side. The fur varies very much, being
sometimes harsh and coarse, and at others very fine.
This Bear is not unlike the Ursus arctos, but is larger.
Several hundred skins are imported by the Alaska Com-
mercial Company through the United States.

THe Himanayan or Turpetan Bear (Ursus tibetanus).
The German name is Kragenbiir. It inhabits Northern
India, China, and the Himalayas. It lives in caves, and
is very difficult to dislodge. The colour is black, grizzly,
or light grizzly. According to the Field, the Himalayan
Bear is glossy black, the hair very thick and long about
the back of the neck, marked with a white crescent on
its chest, and having a patch of the same colour on its
chin. From the same authority we also gather that,
unless cornered, or with cubs, these bears very rarely
show fight; that if they once get in rocks or a cave, it
is almost impossible to drive them out; that they are
found from the foot of the Himalayas up to the snows,
but that during the winter they leave the higher ranges,
and come down to the wooded valleys in search of food,
which at that season consists principally of acorns ; that

166 CARNIVORA.

they generally feed on fruit, roots, the villagers’ crops,
and they sometimes take to killing animals; that the
female has generally two at a birth.

BLACK BEAR.

Ursus americanus.
French: Ours noir. German: Schwarzer Bir.

This Bear, so well known, both to naturalists and to
fur-traders, and also in a lesser degree to the general
public, is of comparatively small size, rarely reaching 6
feet in length. It is of a quiet disposition, and is easily
killed with a stick, rarely showing fight.

The Black Bear hibernates in winter, concealing the
mouth of its den with a mass of twigs, to give it
warmth. It leaves its winter quarters in the beginning
of May. Its diet is principally of a vegetarian nature,
such as blackberries, gooseberries, and other wild fruit.
Its flesh is consequently good eating, and is much
esteemed by the Indians. The paws are also relished
by the settlers, as well as the ham from a young animal
about two years old.

The Black Bear is often taken in traps, made of a
board with a pike attached.

This Bear yielded the well-known Bear’s grease, which
was really the best pomade for the hair. With a pre-
paration of this fat the Indians used to dress their black
locks, which at times grew to the extreme length of 8
feet.

Before hunting the Bear, the Indians used to try to
appease its spirit by the Bear Dance. This was one of

BLACK BEAR. 167

their characteristic dances. They mimicked the actions
of the Bear, and wore masks of Bear-scalps.

The Black Bear is widely distributed in North America,
It inhabits Alaska, the whole of the Dominion of Canada,
including Labrador, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia.
It is also found in many of the United States, viz.,
Maine, Minnesota, Montana, Oregon, Washington,
California, Texas, South Carolina, and Florida.

The best skins come from Canada. Those from Alaska
are good, but slightly coarser. The Columbian skins
are coarser in the pelt, which is often painted red by
the Indians. The Southern are the blackest, but are
very greasy, and of poor quality.

The colour is black, with a rich brown ground from
some districts, but from others the under fur is darker.
A white spot is often found on the chest, and it is some-
times in the shape of a crescent. The tail is short,
about 8 inches long; the ears are short, black, and
covered with thick short hair; the nose is pointed and
brown, which is the general colour of the lower half of
the face ; the leather is thin, especially in the cubs and
yearlings ; in the Southern skins, however, the pelt is
thick, coarse, and harsh. Blue examples are rare, three
or four appearing at times in the annual sales. Black
animals with white hairs (silvery) are more common,
Albinos and Brown will be treated in the following
article. It is very remarkable that in the island of
Anticosti the Black Bear has a white muzzle and white
ears tipped with black. There is no hump of fur in
this Bear, neither does it associate with the Grizzly.
The female Bear has four teats.

This fur is very valuable, it is fine to the touch, and
the hair ranges from 1 to 4 inches in length. The best
skins fetch £12. This quality is generally purchased

168 CARNIVORA.

by army contractors for the bear-caps of the Grenadier
regiments of the British Army. These, although of a
good natural black, are dyed to make them uniform.
Two caps are usually made out of one skin. The
Belgian and old French Imperial Guards had skins of a
less fine quality, and the Bavarian regiments used this
fur to make the tufts or ‘“‘ Raupen”’ on their busbies.
Many of the longer-furred skins are made into trim-
mings, capes, muffs, and boas.

The fur of the cubs is extremely soft, and is highly
prized by Russians for the manufacture of coat-collars.
Many of the lower grades are made into sleigh-robes,
and the fourth quality skins with no under fur are made
into brushes in Germany. When tanned by the North
American Indians, the skin makes extremely durable
mocassins and hunting shirts.

The Black Bear is fairly numerous, but will probably
decrease in number with the advance of the settlers.
Hight thousand nine hundred and sixty skins were sold
by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1891, and 8,049 by
the Alaska Commercial Company and other traders.

Dr. Richardson, in the ‘‘ Fauna Boreali-Americana ”’
(page 17), relates that :—‘‘ The females bring forth about
the beginning of January, and it is probable that the
period of their gestation is about fifteen or sixteen weeks,
but I believe it has not been precisely ascertained. The
number of cubs varies from one to five, probably with
the age of the mother, and they begin to bear long
before they attain their full size.”

Dr. Merriam says the young are not more than 6
inches long at birth, are not covered with hair, and do
not open their eyes for forty days.

An old work named ‘ America,” describing New
Amsterdam or New York, thus reads, page 172 :—‘‘ There

BLACK BEAR. 169

are likewise many black Bears, fearful of human kind,
but if Hunted, they run direct on those that pursue
them: they sleep all the Winter, lying six Weeks on one
side, and six on the other, and sucking their Feet all
the time: They generally lurk among Brambles, or in
the Concavities of some hollow Mountain.”

BROWN BEAR.
Ursus americanus.
French: Ours brun. German: Brauner Bar.

The Brown or Cinnamon Bear is merely a variety of
the foregoing species, being identical in length, fineness
and fulness of pelage, and thickness of pelt, the only
difference being the colour. Its habits are the same as
those of the Black Bear, and it inhabits the same
districts, with the exception of the Southern States,
where it is not found. The colour varies considerably,
from dark brown to brown, light brown, light yellow,
and almost white. In fact, a few examples might be
described as white Black Bears. The under fur of many
skins, especially the dark brown, is of a deep purplish-
drab colour.

Some fifty years ago there was a great demand for
the trimmings made from the light yellow skins, which
were called Isabella. Thirty pounds was often paid for
a good skin, now about £13 is paid, and less than that
for cubs and young animals. The fur of the Brown
Bear is now much appreciated for boas and trimmings,
especially by Australians and English. <A few of the
lower qualities are still used for rugs.

The Brown Bear is not so abundant as the Black.

170 CARNIVORA.

One thousand four hundred and eleven skins were sold
by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1891, and 1,515 by
other traders.

The Brown and Grizzly Bears are readily distin-
guished, except when quite young. It is therefore
surprising to note the difficulties and confusion which
have arisen between these two- species, as the texture of
the fur, the thickness of the skin, and the size and
habits of the animals are so widely different. Accord-
ing to Lewis and Clark, the Black and Brown Bears
were classed together by the Indians under the name of
Yackah, and the Grizzly were called Hohhost.

There are only three species of Bear in America, the
White, the Black, and the Grizzly.

EAST INDIA BEAR.
Melursus ursinus.

French: Ours jongleur. German: Ostindischer Bar,
or Lippen Bar.

The East India Bear, called also the Sloth Bear, is
rather small, and is covered with long coarse black hair,
more like bristles than fur. The feet are armed with
long claws, and the legs appear to be bowed, giving the
animal a rather clumsy appearance. ‘There is occasion-
ally a white mark on the throat. The Sloth Bear is
sometimes captured alive, and exhibited, displaying
antics similar to those of the European Bear. It is
said to fight sometimes when attacked, but it often falls
a prey to the Leopard. The flesh is said to be esteemed
by the natives. It feeds on fruit, etc. It inhabits East
India, and has its den in caves or jungles.

EAST INDIA BEAR. aL

The skins are almost valueless, 5s. to 10s. being the
usual price. They are usually brought over in small
quantities by private collectors.

One thousand six hundred and sixty-eight Bears of all
species were killed in British India in 1886.

The Kast India Bear would probably interbreed with
the Black Bear of America, and if the offspring of these
two Bears should prove fertile, it would necessitate their
being classed as one species.

SOUTH .SHETLAND FUR SEAL.
French: Loup marin. German: Seehund.

We now arrive at a most interesting group, that of
the Otariide, and we shall first treat of the South
Shetland Seal, which stands at the head of the family.
It is one of the rarest species, as well as the producer of
the richest Seal-skins. This Seal is an inhabitant of the
South Shetland, South Georgia, and the Sandwich
Islands in the Antarctic Ocean. It was very numerous
some seventy to eighty years ago, the fur-traders then
buying the skins by the cargo of 5,000 to 10,000 at
about 4s. 6d. to 8s. each. But owing to over-catching,
and indiscriminate slaughter of the young or ‘ Black
Pups,” the race has been almost exterminated.

One million two hundred thousand skins were said to
have been taken in South Georgia soon after its dis-
covery, and nearly an equal quantity from the Island of
Desolation, when the Seal trade was carried on in that
region. In 1800, when the Fur Seal trade was at its
highest, 112,000 skins were taken from the South
Georgia Islands, 57,000 of which were captured by one

172 CARNIVORA.

ship. In 1810, 21,367 South Sea Seal-skins were sold
in London.

On the 5th of March, 1812, 2,500 were sold at 22s. 6d.
to 25s. In 1816, 20,776 were sold at 6s. to 8s. In
1819, 11,928 ; and in 1821-2, 320,000 are said to have
been imported from the South Shetland Islands.

The value of the skin has enhanced of late years. A
few years ago 212s. was paid for large pups.

A few years ago a schooner or so left New London in
the United States for South Georgia, sometimes return-
ing with a few hundred or thousand skins, and some-
times with but six or eight. The supply has since been
gradually diminishing, till only 200 skins were imported
in 1887. The last few schooners seem to have started
from Sandy Point in the Straits of Magellan, but for the
last few years this fishery has been abandoned owing to
the risks attendant on it. One year a crew was left a
whole season in these inhospitable regions.

The general colour is light grey with a beautiful
silvery hue ; the cheeks and neck are whitish ; the colour
of the sides and belly behind the flippers is deep, bright,
rich brown. The under fur is extremely thick and
abundant, of a reddish or deep pink colour. In the
smaller animals this under fur is white. The pelt is
rather thick and spongy. The ears are short; the
whiskers are strong; and the flippers placed about the
centre of the body.

This Seal closety resembles that of the Kerguelen
and Crozet Islands (Otaria gazella).

The South Georgian Seal is rather yellower than the
South Shetland, having yellow cheeks ; it appears to be
intermediate between the South Shetland and the
Crozet Island Seals.

173

CROZET ISLAND FUR SEAL.
Otaria gazella.

Under the title of Crozet Island, the Kerguelen Island
Fur Seal is also included. Both these animals, with
the foregoing and several others, were grouped under the
general name of South Sea Fur Seals, which name is
still given to many in the Southern Seas. Since the
falling-off of these fisheries, this term is being fast
supplemented in the trade by the name of Alaska,
whence the chief supply of skins is now drawn.

This Seal is yellow on the cheeks and neck, and has a
yellow belly. The hair is grizzly, the fur rich, and the
under fur thick and abundant. It was probably at one
time abundant on the Heard Islands.

The skins were worth 60s. to 100s. in 1885. A young
Seal caught off Crozet Island was exhibited in London
in 1848, but it only lived a short time. It was captured
on an iceberg by Captain Triscott, of the Mathesis.

Kerguelen Land is a barren island in the Indian
Ocean, and it was one of the islands which were visited
in the early days of the trade. It would be a good
project for some Government to annex this inhospitable
island and regulate and foster the Seal-fishery there. It
would probably prove a lucrative investment after a few
years, but no Seals ought to be taken for some time.

Lieutenant Spry, in the ‘‘ Cruise of H.M.S. Chal-
lenger’’ (page 127), narrates thus :—

‘*The manner in which the Seal-fishery is carried on
in the surrounding seas is both extravagant and
destructive, for at the time of the discovery of this

174 CARNIVORA.

island it swarmed with Sea-Elephants, Whales and Fur-
Seals. On this becoming known, it soon became a
favourite cruising ground for those engaged in the
‘trade.’ This led, in an incredibly short space of time,
to the reduction of all these species to a mere remnant ;
and in a few years their utter extinction is sure to
follow, for it can hardly be expected to be otherwise.
The men, engaged in such arduous avocations as they
are in these wild and inhospitable regions, must be
expected to make all they can; and they care for none
who come after them, but kill old and young as they fall
across them in their cruises.”

This Seal is said to have increased, when Kerguelen
Land was recently visited by H.M.S. Wolverine.

SAN LOUIS FUR SEAL.
Otaria gazella.

The San Louis Fur Seal inhabits Marion, Prince
Edward, and St. Paul’s Islands. It is very similar to
the foregoing, and, in fact, nearly identical with it, and
might be grouped with it. It is of the same yellowish
hue, but the fur is not quite so rich in quality, and it is
not quite so thick on the sides. The whiskers are
white, thick, and strong.

The skins are imported in limited quantities of about
200 to 300, and were worth about 40s. to 60s. in 1884.
They arrive in indifferent condition, on account of their
bad preservation, being placed in the casks in an inferior
large-grained salt.

These skins were brought to France a few years ago
by French vessels, but the importer died a few years

SAN LOUIS FUR SEAL. 175

after, and the fishery seems to have since been left
undisturbed.

*“‘ Sealing-schooners have visited Marion and Prince
Edward Islands from time to time from the Cape, but of
late without any success.”—(‘‘ The Cruise of H.M.S.
Challenger,” page 122.)

This Seal was very abundant at St. Paul’s and
Amsterdam Islands some years ago, but it is now
practically extinct there. The glorious time of fishing
in the earlier part of this century has departed with the
injudicious and needless slaughter of the Seals.

ALASKA FUR SEAL.
Callorhinus wrsinus.
French: Loup marin d’Alaska. German: Seehund.

The Alaska Fur Seal is the most numerous of all the
eared Seals now existing. According to Elliott, there
are about 4,500,000 annually visitng the Pribylov
Islands. Until last year about 100,000 were killed
annually, and were sold in London in October or
November.

The old Royalty to the U.S. Government was two and
a quarter dollars per skin.

The Alaska Commercial Company was bound by
contract not to take more than 75,000 on St. Paul’s
Island, or more than 25,000 on St. George’s; but the
Secretary of the Treasury had power to alter the ratio.
No dogs or vessels other than those in the employ of
the Company were permitted to touch on those islands,
or land persons and merchandise, except in cases of
shipwreck or distress. In 1890 the catch of Seals was

176 CARNIVORA.

restricted to 20,000, the contract having been obtained
by another Company.

The skins taken are those of the bachelor Seals, from
one to five years old. Since 1847 no females have been
allowed to be killed; but sometimes a few are found
amongst the number, evidently by mistake. In the
early days of the Alaska Commercial Company, a few
bulls, or ‘‘ wigs,” as they are called on account of the
long hair at the back of the neck, were taken; but this
has been discontinued for some years. Most of the
skins are now taken in good condition, the animals being
selected before slaughter. If the skinsare not flayed at
once, and the weather be warm, an hour to an hour and
a half’s delay will suffice to spoil a skin. They then
become pinky, which condition is also brought about
through the salt not being rubbed in sufficiently. Skins
out of condition in the fur are called ‘“‘ stagey,”’ 2.c.,
when the new hair grows up in the fur.

The skins are imported in batches of 200 to 300
casks, through San Francisco and New York, to London.
Each cask contains 40 to 45 skins, rolled up separately,
tied with cord, and packed in salt. In London they are
stowed in the spacious vaults of the South-Hastern
Wharf.

The skins are sorted into

Middlings, )
Middlings and Smalls, J See eee
Smalls, 4 years old.
Large Pups, 3 years old.

Middling Pups, )
Small Pups, ‘i
Extra Small Pups, )
Grey Pups, )

2 years old.

1 year old.

ALASKA FUR SEAL. sly arg

The skins have a faint pungent odour. The average
price of the Alaska Fur Seal-skin in 1888 was 78s.

The general colour of the males is dark grizzly, but.
sometimes yellowish, or of a light brown. The under
fur is abundant, of a deep red colour. The snout is
brown, the mane is light grizzly, the belly reddish, and
under the ears the colour is lighter. The ears are
small, about one inch long, pointed, and covered with
short hair. The Fur Seal has four long flippers. In
the hind flippers the five toes are much elongated ; the
three central ones are furnished with external nails.
The five divisions of the flipper extend beyond the toes.
The front flippers have no- external nails. All the
flippers are covered with an outer skin, resembling
indiarubber, thick and ribbed in the exposed parts,
which prevents its being injured by abrasion on the
rocks, and thinner in the less exposed parts.

The tail is short. The whiskers are long and whitish.
The skull is long and flat, very similar to that of an
Otter. The canines are well developed, but, unlike the
Felide, they are rounded towards the interior of the
mouth, being sharpened outwards. Another marked
peculiarity is the groove in the upper incisor teeth, into
which the lower and sharp incisors fit, thus forming a
vice from which it is almost impossible for a fish to
escape.

The female is much smaller than the male, nearly
half the size. She is of a bright silvery colour, light in
the belly, and redder underneath the flippers. The
young, when born, are black or very dark brown, with a
light mark under the flippers. Their skins are almost
valueless.

We have never seen a white Fur Seal, although
Elliott says that such are sometimes found; we have

178 CARNIVORA.

once seen one slightly mottled with white spots. Elliott
states that a million Seals are born annually, of which
one-half are males, and one-half females; as yearlings,
only about 500,000 return the next year, but the
following year the percentage lost is much less. He
also says that 5,000 to 6,000 pups are killed annually
by the natives for food, and that pigs feed on the bodies
of Seals. The flesh is not esteemed by everybody, but
when every particle of blubber has been removed, and it
has been cut in slices, soaked in salt water, and fried in
butter, it is very palatable. The liver is wholesome.

Fur Seals often avoid capture by throwing themselves
over cliffs, which are sometimes 200 feet high; at 50 to
60 feet they appear to suffer no hurt. The average age
of the males, according to Elliott, is 15 to 20 years,
and of the females 9 to 10 years. It has recently been
stated that the female Seal does not feed during the
time she suckles her young.

The chief breeding-place of this Seal is the Hutchinson
Hill Rookery on St. Paul’s Island. It sleeps as often at
sea as on land, floating on its back. It is in the finest
condition from June 14th to August Ist.

The skins are usually bought for American, Canadian,
French, and English consumption. In former times
many were sold to the Chinese.

Elliott, in his ‘Seal Islands of Alaska,’ says :—
‘From the time of the first arrivals in May up to the
first of June, or as late as the middle of this month, if
the weather be clear, is an interval when everything
seems quiet, very few Seals are added to the pioneers.
By the first of June, however, or thereabouts, the fogey,
humid weather of summer sets in, and with it the bull
Seals come up by hundreds and thousands, and locate
themselves in advantageous positions for the reception

ALASKA FUR SEAL. 179

of the females, which are generally three weeks or a
month later, as a rule.

‘The labour of locating and maintaining a position in
the rookery is really a serious business for those bulls
which come up last, and for those that occupy the water-
line, frequently resulting in death from severe wounds
in combat sustained.

“Tt appears to be a well understood principle among
the able-bodied bulls that each one shall remain
undisturbed on his ground, which is usually about 10
feet square, provided he is strong enough to hold it
against all comers; for the crowding in of fresh bulls
often causes the removal of many of those who, though
equally able-bodied at first, have exhausted themselves
by fighting earlier, and are driven by fresher animals
back farther and higher up on the rookery.

“Some of the bulls show wonderful strength and
courage. Ihave marked one veteran, who was amongst
the first to take up his position, and that on the water-
line, where at least fifty or sixty different battles were
fought victoriously by him with nearly as many different
Seals, who coveted his position, and when the fighting
season was over, after the cows have mostly hauled up,
I saw him covered with scars and gashes, raw and
bloody, an eye gouged out, but lording it bravely over
his harem of fifteen or twenty cows, all huddled together
on the same spot he had first chosen.

“The fighting is mostly or entirely done with the
mouth, the opponents seizing each other with the teeth
and clenching the jaws; nothing but sheer strength can
shake them loose, and that effort most always leaves an
ugly wound, the sharp incisors tearing out deep gutters
in the skin and blubber, and shredding the flippers into
ribbon strips.

Nn 2

180 CARNIVORA.

‘“* They usually approach each other with averted heads
and a great many false passes before either one or the
other takes the initiative by gripping; the head is
darted out and back as quick as flash, their hoarse
roaring and shrill piping whistle never ceasing, their fat
bodies writhing and swelling with exertion and rage, fur
flying in air and blood streaming down, all combined,
make a picture fierce and savage enough, and, from its.
ereat novelty, exceeding strange at first sight.

‘Tn these battles the parties are always distinct, the
offensive and the defensive; if the latter’ prove the
weaker he withdraws from the position occupied, and is
never followed by his conqueror, who complacently
throws up one of his hind flippers, fans himself as if it
were to cool himself from the heat of the conflict, utters
a peculiar chuckle of satisfaction or contempt, with a
sharp eye open for the next covetous bull or ‘ ree-catch.’

‘“The period occupied by the males in taking and
holding their positions on the rookery, offers a favourable
opportunity in which to study them in the thousand and
one different attitudes and postures assumed between
the two extremes of desperate conflict and deep sleep—
sleep so sound that one can, by keeping to the leeward,
approach close enough, stepping softly, to pull the
whiskers of any one taking a nap on a clear place; but
after the first touch to these whiskers, the trifler must
step back with great celerity if he has any regard for
the sharp teeth and tremendous shaking which will
surely overtake him if he does not.

‘All the bulls now have the power and frequent
inclination to utter four distinct calls or notes—a hoarse,
resonant roar, loud and long; a low, gurgling growl;
a chuckling, sibilant, piping whistle, of which it is
impossible to convey an adequate idea, for it must be

ALASKA FUR SEAL. 181

heard to be understood ; and this spitting, just described.
The cows have but one note—a _ hollow,. prolonged,
bla-a-ting call, addressed only to their pups; on all
other occasions they are usually silent. It is something
like the cry of a calf or sheep. They also make a
spitting noise, and snort when suddenly disturbed.
The pups ‘bla-at’ also, with little or no variation, the
sound being somewhat weaker and hoarser than that of
their mothers for the first two or three weeks after
birth ; they, too, spit and cough when aroused suddenly
from a nap or driven into a corner. A number of pups,
crying at a short distance off, bring to mind very
strongly the idea of a flock of sheep ‘ baa-aa-ing.’

““Indeed, so similar is the sound, that a number of
sheep brought up from San Francisco to Saint George’s
Island during the summer of 18738, were instantly
attracted to the rookeries, running in among the Seals,
and requiring to be driven away to a good feeding-
ground by a small boy detailed for the purpose.

‘The sound arising from these great breeding-grounds
of the Fur Seal, where thousands upon thousands of
angry, vigilant bulls are roaring, chuckling, piping, and
multitudes of Seal mothers are calling in hollow,
bla-a-ting tones to their young, which in turn respond
incessantly, is simply indescribable. It is, at a slight
distance, softened into a deep booming, as of a cataract,
and can be heard a long way off at sea, under favourable
circumstances, as far as five or six miles, and frequently
warns vessels that may be approaching the Islands in
thick, foggy weather of the positive, though unseen,
proximity of land. Night and day throughout the
season, the din of the rookeries is steady and constant.

“The Seals have to suffer great inconvenience from a
comparatively low degree of heat; for with a tempera-

182 CARNIVORA.

ture of 46° and 48° on land during the summer, they
show signs of distress whenever they make any exertion,
pant, raise their hind flippers and use them incessantly
asfans. With the thermometer at 55° to 60°, they seem
to suffer even when at rest, and at such times the eye
is struck by the kaleidoscopic appearance of a rookery,
on which a million Seals are spread out in every imagin-
able position their bodies can assume, all industriously
fanning themselves, using sometimes the fore flippers as
ventilators, as it were, by holding them aloft motionless,
at the same time fanning briskly with the hind flipper
or flippers, according as they sit or lie. This wavy
motion of flapping and fanning gives a peculiar shade of
hazy indistinctness to the whole scene, which is difficult
to express in language; but one of the most prominent
features of the Fur Seal is this fanning manner in
which they use their flippers, when seen on the breeding-
grounds in season. They also, when idling as it were
off shore at sea, lie on their sides, with only a partial
exposure of their bodies, the head submerged, and hoist
up a fore or hind flipper clear of the water, whilst
scratching themselves or enjoying a nap; but in this
position there is no fanning. I say ‘scratching,’
because the Seal, in common with all animals, is preyed
upon by vermin, a species of louse and a tick, peculiar to
itself.

‘ Allthe bulls from the very first, that have been able
to hold their positions, have not left them for an instant,
day or night, nor do they do so until the end of the
rutting season, which subsides entirely between the 1st
and 10th of August, beginning shortly after the coming
of the cowsin June. Of necessity, therefore, this causes
them to fast, to abstain entirely from food of any kind
or water for three months, at least, and a few of them

ALASKA FUR SEAL. 183

stay four months before going into the water for the first
time after hauling up in May.

“This alone is remarkable enough, but it is simply
wonderful when we come to associate the condition with
the unceasing activity, restlessness, and duty devolved
upon the bulls as heads and fathers of large families.
They do not stagnate like Bears in caves ; it is evidently
accomplished or due to the absorption of their own fat,
with which they are so liberally supplied, when they
take up their positions on the breeding-grounds, and
which gradually diminishes while they remain on it.
But still some most remarkable provision must be made
for the entire torpidity of the stomach and bowels, con-
sequent upon their being empty and unsupplied during
this long period, which, however, in spite of the violation
of a supposed physiological law, does not seem to affect
them, for they come back just as sleek, fat, and ambitious
as ever in the following season.

“T have examined the stomachs of a number which
were driven up and killed immediately after their arrival
in the spring, and natives here have seen hundreds, even
thousands of them during the killing season in June and
July, but in no case has anything been found other than
the bile and ordinary secretion of healthy organs of this
class, with the exception only of finding in every one a
snail or cluster of worms, from the size of a walnut to
that of one’s fist, the fast apparently having no effect
on them, for when three or four hundred old bulls were
slaughtered late in the fall, to supply the natives with
bidarkee or canoe-skins, I found these worms in a lively
condition in each paunch cut open, and their presence, I
think, gives some reason for the habit which these old
bulls have of swallowing small boulders, the stones in
some of the stomachs weighing half a pound or so, and

184 CARNIVORA.

in one paunch I found about five pounds in the aggregate
of larger pebbles, which in grinding against one another
must destroy, in a great measure, these intestinal pests.
The Sea-Lion is also troubled in the same way by a similar
species of worm, and I have preserved a stomach of one
of these animals, in which there are more than ten
pounds of boulders, some of them alone quite large. The
greater size of this animal enables it to swallow stones
which weigh two or three pounds. I can ascribe no
other cause for this habit among the animals than that
given, as they are of the highest type of the carnivore,
eating fish as a regular means of subsistence; varying
the monotony of this diet with occasional juicy fronds of
seaweed or kelp, and perhaps a crab, or such, once in a
while, provided it is small and tender, or soft-shelled.

‘** Between the 12th and 14th of June, the sea-cows
come up from the sea; and the bulls signalize it by a
universal, spasmodic, desperate fighting among them-
selves.

“The strong contrast between the males and females
in size and shape is heightened by the air of exceeding
peace and amiability which the latter possess.

‘“‘ The cows appear to be driven on to the rookeries by
an accurate instinctive appreciation of the time in which
their period of gestation ends; for in all cases marked
by myself, the pups were born soon after landing, some
a few hours after, but usually a day or two elapses before
delivery.

“The cows seem to haul in compact bodies from the
water up to the rear of the rookeries, never scattering
about over the ground ; and they will not lie quiet in any
position outside the great mass of their kind. This is
due to their intensely gregarious nature, and for the
sake of protection. They also select land with special

ALASKA FUR SEAL. 185

reference to the drainage, having a great dislike to water-
puddled ground. This is well known at Saint Paul.

“T have found it difficult to ascertain the average of
cows to one bull on a rookery, but I think it will be
nearly correct to assign to each male from twelve to
fifteen females, occupying the stations nearest the water,
and those back in the rear from five to nine. I have
counted forty-five cows all under the charge of one bull,
who had penned them up on a flat table rock, near Kee-
kwee Point ; the bull was enabled to do this quite easily,
as there was but one way to go to or come from this
seraclio, and on this path the Old Turk took his stand
and guarded it well. At the rear of all these rookeries
there is always a large number of able-bodied bulls, who
wait patiently but in vain for families, most of them
having had to fight as desperately for the privilege of
being there as any of their more fortunately located
brethren, who are nearer the water than themselves.

“As soon as the pup is dropped (twins are rare if
ever) it finds its voice, a weak husky bla-at, and begins
to paddle about with its eyes open.

‘“«¢ Hauling grounds’ upon which the yearlings, and
most all the males under six years, come out from the
sea in squads from a hundred to a thousand, and, later
in the season, by hundreds of thousands, to sleep and
frolic, going sometimes a quarter to half a mile from the
sea,as at English Bay. This class of Seals are termed
‘hollus-chukie,’ or bachelor Seals, by the natives. It is
with Seals of this division that these people are most
familiar, since they are, together with a few thousand
pups and some old bulls, the only ones driven up to the
killing grounds for their skins.

“The ‘hollus-chukie,’ too, are the champion swim-
mers ; at least they do about all the fancy tumbling and

186 CARNIVORA.

turning that is done by the Fur Seals when in the water
around the islands. The grave old bulls and their
matronly companions seldom indulge in any extravagant
display, such as jumping out of the water like so many
dolphins, describing, as these youngsters do, beautiful
elliptic curves, rismg three or four feet from the sea,
with the back slightly arched, the fore flippers folded
back against the sides, and the hinder legs extended
and pressed together straight out behind, plumping
in head first, reappearing in the same manner after an
interval of a few seconds.

“They have a peculiar smell when they are driven
and get heated. It may be, perhaps, truly inferred that
the bulls live to an average age of eighteen or twenty
years, if undisturbed, in a normal condition; and that
the cows attain ten or twelve under the same circum-
stances. I saw but three albino pups among the
hundreds of thousands on Saint Paul’s, and none on
Saint George’s. They did not differ in any respect from
the other Normal) pups in size and shape. The hair in
the first coat was all over a dull ochre ; the flippers and
muzzle were a flesh tone, and the iris of the eye sky-
blue. The second coat gives them a dirty yellowish-
white colour, but it makes them exceedingly conspicuous
when in among the black pups, grey yearlings, and
‘ hollus-chukie.’

‘“* The Seals have neither increased nor diminished to
any noteworthy degree from the date of their discovery
in 1786-87.”

Selection and Rule in Killing.

‘“As the proportion of males and females is about
equal at birth, the polygamous nature of these animals
will allow of the killing of seven out of every ten males,

ALASKA FUR SEAL. 187

without any injury whatever to the rookeries, and leave
still a large surplus of bulls for the breeding-grounds ;
but a good margin should be left for the death-rate,
which must be larger among the bulls, both on land and
in the sea, by reason of their more adventurous and less
timid disposition; and also the great labour and unceas-
ing vigilance which they insist upon assuming and
maintaining on the rookeries, three and four months
every year, must tend to render quite a large number
partially or wholly impotent for the repetition of their
duties.

“Tn the early part of the season large bodies of the
young bachelor Seals do not haul up on land very far
from the water—a few rods at the most—and the men
are obliged to approach slyly and run quickly between
the dozing Seal and the surf before they take an alarm
and bolt into the sea; and in this way a dozen men,
running down the long sea-beach of English Bay, on
some fine driving morning early in June, will turn back
from the water thousands of Seals, just as the mould-
board of a plough lays over a furrow of earth. As the
Seals are first startled they arise, and seeing men
between them and the water, immediately turn, lope,
and scramble rapidly back upon the land. The natives
then leisurely walk on the flanks and in the rear of the
drove thus secured, directing and driving them to the
kailling-grounds.

“The Seals, when brought upon the killing-grounds,
are herded there until they are rested and cool. Then
squads or ‘ pods’ of fifty to two hundred are driven out
from the body of the herd, surrounded, and huddled up
one against and over the other by the natives, who carry
each a long, heavy club of hard wood, with which they
strike the Seals down by blows on the head. A single

188 CARNIVORA.

blow, well and fairly delivered, will lay any Seal out,
but this whacking is repeated three or four times before
the Seal’s life is extinguished.

“ The killng-gang, under the supervision of their chief,
have, before going into action, a common understanding
what grades to kill, sparing the others, which are per-
mitted to escape and started off to the water as soon as
the marked ones are knocked down. The men then
drag the slain out from the heap in which they have
fallen, and spread the bodies over the ground, finishing
the work by thrusting a long, sharp knife into the vitals
of the animal, so that the bodies will not ‘heat’ by
lying one upon the other; and then another pod is
started out, killed in this way, if a cool day, and so on
until a thousand or two are laid out, or the drove is
finished from which they have taken these squads.”

“The flesh of the Fur Seal, when carefully cleaned
of fat, can be cooked and eaten by most people, who,
did they not know what it was, might consider it some
poor, tough, dry beef, rather dark in colour and over-
done. The pup, however, while on the land and milk-
fed, is tender and juicy, but insipid.

‘¢The skins are taken from the field to the salt-houses,
where they are laid out open, one upon another, ‘ hair
to feet,’ lke so many sheets of paper, with salt profusely
spread upon the fleshy sides, in ‘ kenches’ or bins; then
after lying a week or two salted in this style, they are
ready for bundling and shipping, two skins to the
bundle, the fur outside and strongly corded, having an
average weight of about twelve to fifteen pounds when
consisting of two or three-year-old pelts.

‘“* The Government interest on these Islands represents
the commercial value of twenty or twenty-five millions
of dollars. The course which I have indicated in my

ALASKA FUR SEAL. 189

chapter upon the management of the Sealing business
of gradually increasing the killing of the surplus males,
with careful watch for effect upon the rookeries, year
after year, and, on the other hand, of watching the
market so as not to overstock it, will, I trust, be taken
in hand very soon; but let this fact be noted: these
animals are liable at any time to be terribly diminished
in number by a visitation of plague or distemper,
over which we can have no control, and to which,
like all other congregations of animal life, as well as
vegetable, are ever subject. The diminution may run
on for many years before they shall recuperate and
increase to their normal number. This may not happen
for an indefinite time to come, or it may be apparent
next year ; and for this reason especially I lay such stress
upon the necessity of mapping out and jealously watch-
ing the breeding-grounds every season, so that one past
year may be accurately compared with the present one.

“The Seals suffer no loss from natural foes while they
are in the vicinity of the Islands; for were they dis-
turbed by Sharks, killers, ete., it would be observed.
They meet with these enemies as they go south, during
the summer, in the North Pacific. Should the weather,
however, be stormy during the season that the pups
begin to swim, the surf will drown thousands upon
thousands of the awkward little animals. During the
two seasons of my residence upon the Islands, the sea
was quite rough, and no loss, of mention, was sustained
by this class.”

The Fur Seal-skin, after being sold in the rough
state, undergoes many processes before it appears before
the public in the form of the well-known Seal-skin ; in
fact, if any uninitiated person were to see the skin in
the salted state, he would not be able to recognize it in

190 CARNIVORA.

the dirty, greasy, hairy mass. When the Seal-skins
arrive at a Seal-dresser’s factory they are counted and
marked, and then they undergo the first process of
* blubbering,” which is that of placing the raw skin on
a beam of wood placed at an angle in the ground, and
removing with a blunt knife the strips of blubber or
flesh which still adhere to the skin after the necessarily
hurried flaying at the slaughter of the animals. The
blubber, ears, and strips of skin are sold by the ton as
a valuable manure, which is much prized by hop-
growers.

The ears are then cut off, and the skins washed in a
tank in warm water with a weak solution of alkali.
When the skins are taken out of the water, they have a
beautiful silvery grizzled appearance, but they soon lose
this when dried. The skins are next stretched on iron
hoops, and dried in warm rooms where currents of hot air
pass. In the dried state skins will keep a considerable
time. After this, the skins are soaked in water till the
hair is loosened, but not the fur, one day being sufficient
for some skins, and several days for others.

When ready the skins are warmed on the fur side in
the stove room, and placed across the unhairer’s beams,
and the top hair is then removed with a blunt knife.
The hair comes off in handfuls. The skins have to
be kept warm during the whole process.

“ Stagey ’ skins, as a rule, have to be unhaired from
the pelt side. This is not such a difficult matter as
might be supposed, as the hairs penetrate much deeper
into the skin than the fur, which grows nearer the
surface, the hairs thus being able to be extracted by the
roots, without touching the roots of the fur. The skins
now have only the fur left, which is of a light drab
colour.

ALASKA FUR SEAL. 191

The skins are then tubbed, generally by machinery,
in order to soften the leather, and shaved (old process),
repaired, or sent as they are to the dyers.

The process of dressing takes from one to three
months.

The dyeing process is nearly as intricate as the
dressing. The skins are first limed, and then pasted
back to back with a thicker layer of brown paper over
the fur holes, in order to prevent the dye penetrating
into the pelt, and thus damaging the skin. The ground
coat of dye is then applied cold, and trodden in, after
which they are dried gradually. They then have from
nine to fourteen coats of colour brushed in, each coat
drying before another is applied.

By the new process a darker top is acquired by
dipping the skin in the liquid, which in this case must
be warm, and the number of coats of colour is also less.
English dyers have long been celebrated for their
excellency in dyeing Fur Seals, and at one time were
the almost exclusive dyers, but the French now dye
them very well.

Some of the chief ingredients in the dye are gall-nuts,
copperas, and camphor. The skins are sometimes dved
gold by means of sulphuric acid. The process of dyeing
takes about six weeks to two months. This art was for
many years a secret.

After being dyed, the skins are scraped or shaved,
and then cleaned by being placed in a revolving drum
or cage, in which there is a large quantity of clean
sawdust. They are then beaten out, and afterwards
trimmed and sorted.

There is a very ingenious invention for removing by
machinery the small fine hairs, called water-hairs, from
the dyed Seal-skins, which still remain after the

192 CARNIVORA.

unhairing. The skins are placed by machinery across
a fine edge of a board. The fur is then blown aside and
divided by a current of air, and a pair of small knives
descend, cutting the small hairs which stand upright.
The knives are then lifted up, the skin is moved on, and
the process is continued as before. This process,
although it renders the skin softer and more beautiful,
usually makes the fur thinner and less durable, and, in
unskilful hands, some skins were cut and injured by the
machine when first introduced.

The waste edges or trimmings from the Seal-skins
are either used for the manufacture of caps of an inferior
quality, hundreds of scraps being used for one cap; or
the fur is cut off the edgings and made into felt.

VICTORIA OR NORTH-WEST FUR SEAL.
Callorhinus ursinus.

The Victoria Fur Seal, of which so much has been
heard of late years through the recent diplomatic
controversy about the close time for Fur Seals in the
Behring Sea, comes now under our notice. For some
years the American Government maintained that
Behring’s was a closed sea, and in 1886 the British
schooners Carolina, Thornton, and Onward, and the
American schooner St. Jago, were seized, and some of
the crew were imprisoned for thirty days for catching
Fur Seals. One seizure took place 500 miles west of
Alaska, another 60 miles. The Judge ruled that the
claim of the United States over the greater part of the
Behring Sea was acquired by treaty with Russia,

VICTORIA FUR SEAL. 193

This absurd contention has been now waived (1891)
owing to the firm attitude of Lord Salisbury.

A great many of these seizures were made by the
American steamer Rush. Some of the vessels which
were seized in 1890 were ordered to Sitka, with a prize
crew of one man each, but sailed to Victoria instead.
The Black Diamond and the Pathfinder were two of the
most celebrated vessels in these transactions.

Since the establishment of the close time, the English
Government have sent three men-of-war to assist the
three American vessels in maintaining the new regula-
tions.

The number of vessels engaged in this fishery have
increased from fifteen in 1886 to eighty in 1890. Many
of these vessels carried Indians, who are very experienced
hunters.

Most of these schooners, which are owned by Canadian
firms, carry canoes, which are launched when a herd is
discovered. If the animals should be asleep, they are
speared, otherwise they are shot, but in the latter case
many are lost, as they sink before the canoes can get
up to them.

The shore-fishery is carried on by the Indians on the
North-west coast of British Columbia. They go outa
short distance from the shore in canoes, and spear the
Seals when asleep, in the head or middle of the back.

All the Victoria Seal-skins taken are chiefly females,
with the exception of a few old bulls, and are generally
captured at a rather earlier period of the year than the
Alaska Seals.

Behring Sea and the adjacent part of the Atlantic is
the only known habitat of this Seal (female and young
Seals of both sexes), after leaving the Pribylov Islands,
which latter they inhabit for five months. The sea-

194 CARNIVORA.

migration of the males, with the exception of a few aged
males, is unknown.

The Hudson’s Bay Company also take a small
quantity of skins from Vancouver Island, about 800 to
1,000 annually. The above-mentioned schooners cap-
ture now about 80,000 to 50,000 skins.

The price of the skin of this Seal is about 20 per cent.
less than that of the Alaska. In 1891 it was 30s. to
80s.

The shore-taken skins are nearly always of poor
quality, and out of season. The other catches are
better, but the flanks are less thickly furred than in the
Alaska Seal, owing probably to their being females.

A few skins are imported dried by the Hudson’s Bay
Company and other traders. These are generally
bought by the Russians for use in the hair, that is, with
the hair unremoved, the silvery colour of the small
skins being very beautiful, and much appreciated for
gentlemen’s coat-collars. About twenty-five years ago,
when the salted Alaska skins were monopolized, many
Victoria skins were imported in the dry state at a much
lower price, and proved a source of profit, although dry
skins require a special process before unhairing.

Most of the skins taken are those of the females;
they take a much better dye than those of the males,
but they are narrower at the head. The only males
taken are a few “ wigs” or old bulls of very large size,
but no bachelor or adult males seem to be taken in the
open sea.

The colour of the Victoria Seal is bright grizzly or
silvery, with a paler belly, and with a red mark at the
base of each fore flipper. The few males taken are of a
deep grizzly colour. The throat of the female is light,
and the chin and neck yellowish. The nose is dark.

VICTORIA FUR SEAL. 195

Some of the females have a slight wig or crest on the
head, and a few have a crest between the eyes as well,
but both of these are very rare. The under fur is red,
but in the small skins it is usually light.

The increase of the numbers of the Victoria skins
imported is probably owing to the increase of general
numbers on the Pribylov Islands. This is due to the
restricted number killed there.

Most of the salted skins are bought by English,
French, and American houses.

In 1891, a Bill was passed by both Houses of Parlia-
ment for establishing a close time in Behring Sea till
next May.

COPPER ISLAND FUR SEAL:
Callorhinus ursinus.

Copper Island, which is the habitat of this Seal, is
one of the Aleutian group, close to Kamschatka, and
still belonging to Russia. The fur is inferior to that of
the Alaska Seal, although it is probably the same animal
taken at a different season of the year. The colour is
also lighter, being usually dark brown, and the fur is
generally not of such good quality. The quality of the
fur varies considerably, owing probably to climatic in-
fluences, being sometimes almost equal to the Alaska,
and at others vastly inferior. The habits are probably
identical with those of the Alaska Fur Seal.

The yearly catch of these skins is about 40,000 to
50,000. The skins are tied up singly, a little salt being
rubbed into the pelt, and packed in casks.

They are sorted in the same way as the Alaska. The

o 2

196 CARNIVORA.

length of the under fur is greater than that of the
Japanese Seal.

The price varies considerably, and is much less than
the Alaska. The present price (1891), is from 31s. to
95s.

ROBBEN ISLAND FUR SEAL.
Callorhinus ursinus.

The Robben Island Fur Seal has short, even red fur,
and the hair is yellower and coarser than the Alaska ;
towards the tail it is quite brown. Robben Island, or
rather peninsula, is situated on the south of Kamschatka.
This Seal seems to be intermediate between the Copper
Island and the Japanese. The latter and the Robben
Island produce a red under fur of shorter staple, but
usually of better quality, and might be classed together,
whilst the Copper Island might be classed with the
Alaska.

About 1,000 to 2,000 skins are collected annually.
This fur was at one time considered equal, and even
superior, to that of the Alaska, but it is coarser and of
worse condition, and is now of less repute, and lower in
price.

JAPANESE FUR SEAL.
Callorhinus ursinus.
French: Loup marin de Japon. German: Japanischer
Seehund.

The Japanese Fur Seal has only been known to the
commercial world, to any extent, of late years. The
chief characteristics of the females, of which sex most

JAPANESE FUR SEAL. 197

of the skins are taken, are the yellow necks, cheeks,
and sides of the mouth, and the shortness of the fur.
The hair is short, and slightly grizzled, the ears are
short, and the under fur abundant. The males are of a
dull grizzly colour, and are lighter near the fins. The
skins are usually taken with much blubber attached to
them, and are preserved in fine salt, but skins are also
taken in the stagey or out-of-season condition. They
usually arrive about January, and vary from 2,000 to
12,000 skins. In 1890, there were 11,098 skins. A
crest of longer hairs is occasionally found between the
eyes. The young, or black pups, have a white mark
under the fore flipper. This Seal, when young, has often
been confounded by the older naturalists with the South
Sea Seal.

The shortness of the fur is probably due to the new
erowth of fur not having attained its full length. The
salt used for preserving these skins is afterwards sold,
the Tramway Companies buying at times several tons.
It is also sometimes sold for manuring lawns.

The skins, when prepared, are especially suitable for
caps, and other small articles, where evenness and
shortness of fur are desirable.

Although the Japanese Fur Seal resembles the Robben
Island more closely than any of the others, the four
varieties, Alaska, Copper Island, Robben Island, and
Japanese might well be included under one species.
The relative habits, the time of arrival at and departure
from the various islands, deserve the attention which has
been bestowed on the Alaska Fur Seal.

198 CARNIVORA.

WEST COAST SEAL.
Otaria gillespie.

The West Coast Seal, called sometimes the Black Sea-
Lion, has been classed as a distinct species, although to
some extent similar to the Vancouver Island Seal,
especially in the females and younger animals, which
are of the same bright silvery colour, with red marks on
the flippers. The bulls, and older animals, however,
are almost black, being covered with black hair; the
under fur is red, and very little fur is found on the
larger animals, the habitat being too far south. The
bulls attain a large size, about 9 to 10 feet. The bark
is well sustained and loud.

This is the Seal which lived and bred in the Brighton
Aquarium. Most of the eared Seals have been taught
to perform tricks, climbing on chairs, etc. This Seal
inhabits the Farralones Islands off San Francisco, and
St. Barbara, and other islands on the coast of California.
At Seal Point, about six miles from San Francisco, the
Seals are considered one of the sights of California, and
the capture or disturbing of them is forbidden by law.

Most of the skins are of poor quality, except on the
back. They fetched a high price a few years ago, but
are now rarely imported on account of the inferiority of
the fur. They only pay when the price of other Fur
Seals is very high. 72s. has been known to have been
paid for these poor skins, but the actual value is from
5s. to 30s.

1199

LIMA FUR SEAL.

The Lima Fur Seal produces the lowest quality fur of
all the Otariide, and hardly any skins have been im-
ported of late years. In 1886, after a lapse of several
years, 993 skins were imported, the price realized being
3s. 6d. to 13s.

The hair is abundant and bristly, and in the adult
animals is almost entirely black. The under fur is red
and very scarce. The crest of the large bulls or “‘ wigs”
is light brown, and sometimes almost white. The
females are very dark brown, almost black, like the
small ones.

The range of this Seal is rather considerable, includ-
ing the islands near Callao and other parts of Peru;
probably also the Galapagos Islands. Some were killed
by Alexander Selkirk during his sojourn in Juan Fer-
nandez. According to Murray, he killed them from
behind with a hatchet, escapmg from their bites by his
greater agility in turning. In 1798, a New York skipper
is said to have filled his vessels with pelts obtained in
the island of Masafuera, nine miles from Juan Fernan-
dez, and to have taken them to Canton.

200 CARNIVORA.

CAPE HORN OR LOBOS ISLAND FUR SEAL.
Arctocephalus falklandicus.

The habitat of this Seal extends from the Gulf of Tres
Montes (N. of Wellington Island), and from perhaps
even higher, to the Straits of Magellan. It is very
abundant on the Cordova Peninsula (Straits of Magel-
lan) ; also on the Lobos Islands, at the mouth of the
Rio de la Plata, and the Falkland Islands.

The Cape Horn Fur Seal is of a yellowish, greenish-
brown colour, with brown sides of a darker hue; the
ears are mostly of a light speckled-brown. The bulls
are of a lighter brown, having in many cases a yellow
mane; they attain 8 feet in length, and fight with great
stubbornness, tearing the skin off each other’s cheeks
and heads. Every sort of animal is taken, both sexes
and all ages being slaughtered indiscriminately.

Most of the American vessels set out from Sandy
Point, and the schooners fish up and down the Straits.
A few Chilian vessels are also fitted out. Captain
Temple says:—‘‘The fishing commences about the
month of July, and lasts until February of the follow-
ing year, that is to say, about six months out of the
twelve. It is very rarely that the female has more than
one pup, and the time of gestation is about ten months.
The pupping season is from October to March.”

The under fur of this Seal is long compared with
other species. The skins are easy to work, and, like the
South Shetland, take the dye well and with great
briliancy. The number of the catch is very varied,
sometimes amounting to many thousands, and some-
times only a few hundreds.

CAPE HORN FUR SEAL. 201

The skins usually arrive in London in time for the
November and January sales. Many skins are imported
in ‘‘pinkey’’ or unseasoned condition. The name
pinkey is derived from a pink mould which comes on
the pelt. In November, 1888, 138,333 skins were sold in
London. Mr. Cunningham, in the ‘‘ Natural History of
the Straits of Magellan” (page 270), thus relates :—

‘*Near the Island of St. Magdalena, the water was
populous with Sea-Lions, and other Seals, which, from
being seldom disturbed by man, were apparently much
astonished and little dismayed at our appearance. A
herd of between thirty or forty of the former followed
our boats at a few yards’ distance, plunging beneath the
water, and then raising themselves partially out of it,
gazing at us with intentness, showing their white tusks,
and occasionally uttering a cry intermediate between a
growl and a roar; while many of the latter, bending
themselves into a curve, leaped high out of the water
in all directions. The herd on the beach allowed us to
land, and then rearing up so as to display their manes,
rushed into the water, from which they eyed us at a safe
distance.”

The Lobos Island Fur Seal appears o be more
numerous, frequenting the islands at the mouth of the
La Plata in great numbers, but it is to be feared that
the indiscriminate slaughter of the young, more than
half the number taken being yearlings or two-year-old
animals, will end in extermination. The lease of these
islands for the Seal fishery lasts only a period of four
years ; still, if the lessees would forego one year’s catch,
they would almost double their income in the following
year, if they were to take only two-thirds of the
quantity of the two years’ total ; nay, half the quantity
ought to pay them, and in the third and fourth years

202 CARNIVORA.

there would be a greater number of larger skins. The
fishing would then be able to recover itself.

The small skins realize at times hardly more than the
price of some of the Hair Seals, but a few shillings being
paid for them. The large pups, i.e., the three-year-
old animals, fetch about 50s. to 60s. The “wigs” or
bulls are very similar to the Cape Horn, and are worth
only a few shillings, being fit for little more than leather.
Skins with no fur are sometimes met with. The pelt of
this Seal, like that of the Cape Horn, is thin and rather
spongy. Many skins of both these Seals are washed,
and exported to Russia for use with the hair unremoved.
The Lobos Island skins arrive in London in October,
November, and January. The Falkland Islands Seal,
sometimes classed as Otaria jubata, attains to an enor-
mous size, a good many reaching 20 feet, and the skins
often weighing 653 pounds. These Seals delight in
rough stormy weather. They are said to be becoming
scarce. The price of the skins varies from 2s. 6d. to
15s. 6d. Several of this species have been taught to
perform tricks in the Zoological Gardens. Many skins
are used for leather, but some are used for fur pur-
poses, the latter being mostly pups, while the large
and heavy skins are used for leather. The aged males
here appear to have an island to themselves wherein
to end their days, like the Callorhinus ursinus, and
Steller’s Sea-Lion in the Pribylov Islands.

203

CAPE FUR SEAL.
Otaria pusilla.

The Cape of Good Hope Fur Seal inhabits the small
islands round the Cape of Good Hope, and is also
found in some rocky islands some forty miles from
Port Elizabeth. It probably once inhabited Tristan
d’Acunha, and Inaccessible Island.

This Seal is fairly abundant, but the fur, except in
the young animals, is short and poor, and consequently
of low value, only exceeding the Lima skins in price.
Many skins have no fur on the flank, and only a small
quantity on the back. Sometimes this is wholly
wanting, and they are then called Hair Seals. The
skins are as a rule indifferently cured, and the price
varies from 4s. and 8s. to 30s. or more, according to
demand. Several thousand skins are imported annually,
and they are usually sold in London in November and
January. ‘The skins of the bulls are only fit for leather.

The colour of this animal is very light brown, with a
erey shade on the back; the under fur is brown. The
females have brown sides and belly, and the younger
animals are of a more silvery colour, with a white hue
on the head, and have under fur of a better quality,
although it is sometimes white. The whiskers are
black.

Many of these pups are used unhaired, or are washed
and exported to Russia.

In captivity these Seals have been known to live to
the age of fifteen years. It is advisable to feed the
animals at short intervals, except perhaps in the breed-

ing season.

204 CARNIVORA.

The Seals on the islets near Algoa Bay are killed with
clubs, the slaughter usually taking place on the slanting
eround by which the animals arrive and leave these
islands. A catch of 200 to 300 Seals is considered a good
night’s work. The old bulls sometimes fiercely attack
the Sealers’ boat. (Field, 1887, p. 649.)

NEW ZEALAND AND AUSTRALIAN FUR SEAL.
Arctocephalus forsteri.

This Seal is one of the less abundant species of this
group, and is found in New Zealand and the southern
parts of Australia.

The colour of the hair in the males is usually dark
grizzly, the belly being dark brown. The female is
yellow or light brown, with a brown belly. The whiskers
are black, with the exception of those on the top of the
mouth, which are white. The general colour of the
under fur is red, and brown near the flippers. The
under fur is abundant, except sometimes on the sides.

The fur of this animal is most beautifully curled, and
is extremely well adapted for use in the undyed state.

This species seems also to be decreasing. It was very
abundant in former times, but the quantity of skins now
imported is unimportant. During the years 1814 and
1815 as many as 400,000 skins were imported from
these parts. The skins are usually shipped from
Adelaide.

The following localities were formerly frequented by
these Seals :—The Seal Rocks near Port Stephens, New
South Wales, the small Seal Islands near Port Albert,

NEW ZEALAND FUR SEAL. 205

Victoria; also those near Doubtful Bay, West Australia;
Seals’ Bay, King’s Island, and Tasmania.

In Flinders’ “‘ Voyage to Terra Australis,” page exxix,
it is stated that in 1798, at Passage Point, to the north-
east of Van Diemen’s Land, ‘‘ The number of Seals
exceeded everything we had any of us before witnessed ;
and they were smaller, and of a different species from
those which frequented Armstrong’s Channel. Instead
of the bull-dog nose, and thinly-set sandy hair, these
had sharp-pointed noses, and the general colour of the
hair approached to a black; but the tips were of a
silver-crey, and underneath was a fine, whitish, thick
fur. The commotion excited by our presence, in this
assemblage of several thousand timid anmals, was very
interesting to me, who knew little of their manners.
The young cubs huddled together in the holes of the
rocks, and moaned piteously; those more advanced
scampered and rolled down into the water, with their
mothers ; whilst some of the old males stood up in defence
of their families, until the terror of the sailors’ bludgeons
became too strong to be resisted. Those who have
seen a farmyard well-stocked with pigs, calves, sheep,
and oxen, and with two or three litters of puppies, with
their mothers in it, and have heard them all in a tumult
together, may form a good idea of the confused noise of
the Seals at Cone Point. The sailors killed as many of
these harmless and not unamiable creatures as they
were able to skin during the time necessary for me to
take the requisite angles; and we then left the poor
affrighted multitude to recover from the effects of our
inauspicious visit.”

(Page cxxxill): “‘ The Hair Seal appears to frequent
the sheltered beaches, points, and rocks; whilst the
rocks and rocky points exposed to the buffeting of the

206 CARNIVORA.

waves are preferred by the handsomer and superior
species, which never condescends to the effeminacy of a
beach. A point or island will not be greatly resorted
to by these animals unless it slope gradually to the
water, and the shore be, as we term, steep too. This is
the case with the islet lying off Cape Banen, and
with Cone Point; with part of the Passage Islands, and
the south end of Clarke’s Island; and at these places
only did I see Fur Seals in any number.”

The shape, attitude, and colour of this and other Fur
Seals must not be judged by the ill-mounted, badly
stuffed, faded, and sometimes moth-eaten specimens,
which are sometimes seen in museums. These are too
liable to mislead the public, whose ideas on Seals are
sometimes already confused, classifving the eared and
earless Seals all under one term of Seal, and thinking
that the Hair Seals of the Asiatic Seas produce the
well-known Seal-skin. Even amongst scientists, the
knowledge of the habitats of Seals is somewhat un-
certain, H. W. Elliott, the Government Inspector of the
Seal Islands of Alaska, however, being a marked
exception, his notes and works on the subject being
most excellent, and true to nature.

NEW ZEALAND AND WEST AUSTRALIAN HAIR
SEAL.

Otaria cinerea.

This Seal inhabits New Zealand and the West coast
of Australia, and in former times Kangaroo Island, and
Waterhouse Isle.

This is not a well-defined species. The colour of this

NEW ZEALAND HAIR SEAL. 207

Seal in the warm season is light brown or yellow, with
slightly darker hairs on the back. The bulls have a
crest of long white hair. The young appears to be
brown or dark brown. The skin is thin, and almost
valueless, except for leather. It is, as a rule, devoid of
fur, when imported, but sometimes there is a scant
covering. One-half of the skins of a shipment are
sometimes worth 40s. to 50s., while the other half fetch
only 4s. to 6s. The majority of the skins are washed
for use in Russia, but if taken in the proper season, it is
very probable that the greater part might be used for
fur purposes.

Flinders writes, page exxvill, that on the north-east
point of Clarke’s Island, ‘‘ these rocks were also
frequented by Hair Seals, and some of them (the old
males) were of enormous size, and of extraordinary
power. I levelled my gun at one, which was sitting on
the top of a rock with his nose extended towards the
sun, and struck him with three musket-balls. He
rolled over and plunged into the water ; but in less than
half an hour had taken his former station and attitude.
On firing again, a stream of blood spouted forth from
his breast to some yards’ distance, and he fell back,
senseless. On examination, the six balls were found
lodged in his breast; and one, which occasioned his
death, had pierced the heart; his weight was equal to
that of a common ox.” At Floe Hummock Island Mr.
Ross landed. ‘‘ The Seals were of the usual size, and
bore a reddish fur, much inferior in quality to that of
the Seals of Furneaux Islands.”

(Page 91): In speaking of Recherches Archipelago,
South coast of Australia, a.p. 1802, he relates :—
‘* All the islands seemed to be more or less frequented
by Seals; but I think not in number sufficient to make

208 CARNIVORA.

a speculation from Europe advisable on their account ;
certainly not for the China market, the Seals being
mostly of the hair kind, and the fur of others as were
seen was red and coarse.”

In the Investigator’s group, page 125: ‘The
beaches were frequented by Seals of the hair kind. A
family of them, consisting of a male, four or five
females, and as many cubs, was lying asleep at every
two or three hundred yards. Their security was such
that I approached several of these families very closely ;
and retired without disturbing their domestic tran-
quillity, or being perceived by them.”

(Page 184): ‘One of the sailors having attacked a
large Seal incautiously, received a very severe bite in
the leg, and was laid up.”

(Page 89): ‘‘ In Goose Island Bay a few Hair Seals
may be procured, probably at all times.”

MACQUARIE ISLAND SEAL.
Otaria hookeri.

Very little is known of the Macquarie Island Fur Seal,
which appears to be now almost extinct, although it was
at one time very numerous. In 1811, 80,000 were
killed in Campbell’s and Macquarie Islands, but in 1887,
only 179 skins were imported. A few of this species
still inhabit Campbell’s, Macquarie, Ross, and Auckland
Islands, the last named being still visited by sealers.

A cargo of these skins arrived in London in a rotten
state, on account of want of salt, and they had to be dug
out of the hold, and sold for manure.

Three fine specimens of this species have lately been

MACQUARIE ISLAND SEAL. 209

presented to the Zoological Society. They were driven
into a narrow creek, their escape was cut off, and they
were then captured by means of thick nets.

The quality of the skin of this Seal was no doubt
good. The colour is yellowish-grey in the males, with
yellowish-white chest, brown belly, and darker grizzly
back. The females, and young animals, are light yellow-
grey, almost white. When the new growth appears, the

males are very yellow, and have little or no fur, except
on the back, where it is very dense. The flippers are
shorter than those of the Otaria jubata.

The eyes are dark brown and limpid; they are round,
and easily moved in their sockets, thus enabling the
Seal to see under water. The ears are rather short, as
in the Otaria jubata, and probably all the other species

210 CARNIVORA.

of Eared Seals. There is a constant discharge of
water, or watery liquid, from the eyes, even when asleep.
This is probably a provision of nature to keep the eye
moist, and to remove foreign substances.

STELLER’S SEA-LION.
Eumetopias stellert.

This large Seal is chiefly valuable for its skin, which
is used by the natives for covering their boats. Very
few skins are imported into this country, commonly
about ten to twenty, and these are brought by the
Hudson’s Bay Company and other North-West traders.
The price of 4s. 6d. hardly pays for the importation.
This Seal inhabits the Aleutian and Pribylov Islands,
and the North-West coast of America, and Elliott says
it is also found off the Island of Kadiak.

The following are extracted from Ellott’s Report on
the Pribylov Islands :—‘‘ The Sea-Lion rookery will be
found to consist of about ten to fifteen cows to the bull.
The cow seems at all times to have the utmost freedom
in moving from place to place, and to start with its
young, picked up sometimes by the nape into the water,
and play together for a spell in the sea-wash, a move-
ment on the part of the mother never made by the Fur
Seal, and showing in this respect much more attention
to its offspring.”’

““The natives have a very high appreciation of the
Sea-Lion, or Sea-Vitchie, as they call it, and base their
regard upon the superior quality of the flesh, fat, and
hide, for making covers for their skin-boats, bidarkies,
and bidarsaks.”’

“As I have before said, the Sea-Lion seldom hauls

STELLER’S SEA-LION. 211

back far from the water, generally very close to the surf
margin, and in this position it becomes quite a difficult
task for the natives to approach, and get in between it
and the sea unobserved, for unless this silent approach
is made, the beast will at once take the alarm and bolt
into the water.

‘‘Those that go for the water are of course lost, but
the natives follow the land leaders and keep urging
them on, and soon have them in their control, driving
them back into a small pen, which they extemporize by
means of little stakes with flags, set around a circuit
of a few hundred square feet, and where they keep
them until three or four hundred, at least, are captured,
before they commence their drive of ten miles overland
to their village.

‘“ After the drove has been brought to the village on
the killing grounds, the natives shoot down the bulls
and then surround and huddle up the cows, spearing
them just behind the fore flippers.”

This is not a well-defined species. It appears very
like a large Alaska Fur Seal; it is about 10 feet long,
and is of the same grizzly colour. We are inclined to
the opinion that this species may prove to be the aged
animals of the Alaska Fur Seal. According to Elliott,
it has similar habits, being divided into classes, taking
the alarm so readily, and arriving at and leaving the
islands at the same time; it has the same length of
flipper. The colour and the habitat are also similar.
The decrease of the Sea-Lions on St. George Island
being simultaneous to the increase of the Fur Seal is a
remarkable fact.

The flesh certainly seems to be different, being of a
better flavour ; but this may perhaps be owing to the
greater amount of blubber. Where the fur is abundant,

p 2

RD CARNIVORA.

the flesh would consequently lose its flavour and be less
palatable.

The affection of the mother for its offspring, however,
is a noteworthy trait, which seems to point to the
contrary.

COMMON OR HAIR SEAL.
Phoca vitulina.

French: Veau marin, vache marine. German:
Kofferseehund.

This Seal, as well as all that follow, have no external
ears; the toes are joined, not distinct as in the Fur
Seals or Otariide ; and the hind flippers are shorter.

This lively and beautiful Seal inhabits the shores of
Great Britain and Ireland; the north-western shore of
North America as far north as Akoon Island in the
Aleutian chain, Yakutal Bay, and other parts of Alaska.

The skins are exported from these latter districts as
an article of commerce, but those from the former seem
to be thrown away, not being found in sufficiently large
numbers to be worth collecting. The oil is said to be
used by old people in Scotland as a physic.

The Hair Seal is found in the Island of Harris, on
the south coast of Wales, the north and south coasts
of Devon, the extreme north coast of Cornwall
(Tintagel Head), and Lundy Island. One was captured
at The Needles in 1884, and lately a specimen was seen
in Loch Awe.

Hair Seals were probably once found in Sutherland,
and on the south coast of England. Selsey (Sussex)
derives its name from this fact, being originally Seals’ ei

COMMON OR HAIR SEAL. 218

or Seals’ Island, and fishermen still living there can
remember having seen a few specimens, but there is no
other record of Seals having been found there. This
was probably at the time when Selsey was an island,
and the communication with the mainland was by
means of a ferry near the little village of Siddles-
ham.

About 8,000 skins are exported from North-West
America. These are sorted into extra large, large,
middling, small, and small well marked.

The large animals vary considerably in colour, many
being light brown, and but slightly spotted, while others
are lighter still and better marked. The smaller
animals are very beautiful; many of them have grey
backs spotted with black and blue, and a lighter belly,
covered thickly with dark or black spots. Others are of
a light colour all over the body, but they are also
spotted. The eyes are large and expressive. The
length varies from one to five feet. Like all the
other Hair Seals, it closes its hind feet together,
when in the water, and propels itself with them,
as a whale or porpoise does with its tail. On land
it advances by means of a half jump, half wriggle,
except when driven, and its rate of progression
is consequently very slow; but it has been known
to travel across country in winter as far as_ thirty
miles.

If shot in the head, whilst in the water, its carcase
will not sink for a short time.

This is the Seal seen in Heraldry.

The young Seals are small, and covered with white
hair, and are called Whitecoats.

The large skins are sometimes used for the
manufacture of leather, but the smaller are used for

214 CARNIVORA.

covering boys’ knapsacks and tobacco-pouches, for hats,
covering trunks, etc.

The value of an extra large skin ranges from 5s.
to 5s. 3d.; 4s. to 4s. 6d.is the price of a large one;
2s. 9d. to 3s. of a middling; and 2s. 3d. to 5s. for a
small one.

The larger skins weigh about 4 Ibs.

The skins are usually dried, but a few arrive in the
salted condition. The greater part are bought for
France, and a few for Norway. <A few years ago, when
the fashion for Hair Seal hats was introduced into
England, they were much sought after. The large
skins are almost always purchased by English tanners
for leather.

This Seal is sometimes taken in nets during the
winter months, in pursuit of herrings and other fish.
When captured, it is exhibited at a small charge in the
seaport town, and then perhaps sold to a Zoological
Collection for about £5. When in captivity, the ease
and grace with which it swims is remarkable. It turns
on its back, and swims just as readily in that position.
It is taught many tricks, such as ringing a bell.

This Seal is extremely fond of music.

The Caspian and Balkan Hair Seals appear to be
local varieties of this species. They exist in consider-
able quantities, and are captured by means of nets.
Whitecoat skins, probably of these varieties, are sold at
the Nijni-Novgorod Fair.

215

GREENLAND HAIR SEAL.
Phoca greenlandica.
French: Phoque. German: Schwarzseitige Seehund.

The Greenland Seal is also called the Saddle-back or
Harp Seal, from the very peculiar dark mark on the
back of the male animals. This mark has been called a
saddle or harp, but the former term is more correct.
The German name of Black-side is by no means
inappropriate, as the mark is irregular, and thicker at
the sides. The mark varies considerably, no two skins
being exactly alike.

The general colour of the hair is light, and the saddle
is almost black. The female is of a hight brown colour,
and yellow on the belly. The adult females, as well as
the young animals, have a few large black spots or
patches, which are especially noticeable on the belly.
It has no external ears. On each foot there are five
toes, which are furnished with five rather long claws :
the two outer toes are much longer than the three
interior ones. The feet are partially webbed, and
covered on the upper side with coarse hair. The hind
feet or pes are covered with yellowish hair like the rest
of the body, and are stretched out behind. The fore-
arms or manus are short, and placed well forward in the
body. The eyes are dark and expressive. The few
longer hairs in the whiskers are white, but all the others
are black. According to Clutterbuck, the Greenland
Seal is shy.

The young Greenland Seals about four to six weeks
old are called Whitecoats, from the long white fur or

216 CARNIVORA.

hair with which they are covered, before they take to
the water, and which corresponds to the fluff or down
on young birds. At this age the Whitecoat is about
three or four feet long; the tail is short—about two
inches ; and it has two black spots over the eyes. At
this age it looks very docile. It is called the Wool Seal
by the Americans from the woolly nature of this
yellowish-white fur. At the age of four or six weeks,
the young Seal, which has hitherto been nourished by
its mother, begins to take to the water. It now loses
its fat; the white fur begins to fall off, commencing at
the head; the dark spots appear, and it increases
rapidly in weight, but the skin decreases in this respect.
As the long fur disappears, the animal gradually
changes into what is called the ‘small spot.” At two
years old it has become a ‘‘ middling spot” or
*‘bedlamite.”’

Since the close time was established in 1876 by con-
vention between the English, Norwegians, and Germans,
the Whitecoats taken are mostly large, and the fur con-
sequently not so thick; but this respite is most bene-
ficial to the Seal, and more ‘‘ spots ’’ (the name given to
the older animals, which are spotted) are taken. The
close time ends on April 8rd, and the penalty for killing
Seals before this date is £500. If the later suggestions
of Captain Grey, the famous Arctic sealer, for extending
the close time be adopted, but few Whitecoats will be
taken, and a great number of the older Seals will have
to be shot with the rifle, as they will have taken to the
water.

The Greenland Seal inhabits the Arctic Seas in the
neighbourhood of Jan Mayen Island, and Greenland,
and the coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland. The
immense area over which this fishery extends les

GREENLAND HAIR SEAL. 217

between the parallels of sixty-seven and seventy-five
degrees north latitude, and the meridian of five degrees
east, and seventeen degrees west longitude. This
fishery is prosecuted principally by English, Norwegian,
and German vessels, the English taking perhaps the
most skins, and the Norwegians excelling in the flaying.
The steamers leave Dundee, Hamburg, and Norway in
March. A few also start from Greenock, and from St.
John (New Brunswick). There are about sixty vessels
in all. Those from Newfoundland are not allowed to
clear before March 10th.

This is a very important fishery ; over 132,762 skins
from Greenland, and 274,995 from Newfoundland,
together 407,757, were imported in 1891: this is a
marked improvement to the last few years. The catch
varies considerably from year to year. Sometimes large
quantities are taken, owing to the facility with which
the sealing steamers get at the herds; while at other
times, though the Seals are abundant, it is impossible to
approach them on account of the closeness of the ice
floes, and the vessels are detained several weeks, and at
the end of that time many of the younger animals have
taken to the water. The risk incurred is considerable,
the vessels being sometimes enclosed by the floes, and
the sailors have to keep a good look-out from the crow’s
nest at the top of the mast. Approach is sometimes
made to the Seals by the steamers ramming the ice with
their prows. The Dundee Seal and Whale Fishing
Company lost the Resolute in this way in 1886, and the
Dundee steamer the Hagle was wrecked off the coast of
Newfoundland in 1887 ; the crew, consisting of 250 men,
being all lost. The skins, already piled together, have
sometimes to be abandoned on the ice, as the floes begin
to close in.

218 CARNIVORA.

On the coast of Newfoundland most of the Seals are_
taken on shore with nets, women and children helping
to catch them. The season is looked forward to in
Newfoundland, as the harvest is in more temperate
regions, and the prospects are discussed in the same
manner. Bonavisto Bay is a celebrated fishing-ground.
The Newfoundland Sealing and Whaling Company, St.
John’s, is one of the firms chiefly engaged in this
fishery. In Labrador the Seals are also taken on land
by means of nets. These are called Shore-taken skins ;
they are better flayed than those taken on the ice.
These Seals breed on the ice, and sleep there, plunging
in the water at the first sound of alarm. They feed in
the sea. The young Seals are despatched by the
seamen with clubs on the ice. The flaying is neces-
sarily hurried, but it is to be regretted that it is done so
clumsily, as some of the skins are injured. The sojourn
on the ice is so short and uncertain, and the low price
of the skins prevents special skilled hands being
employed in this work, as they are in the case of the
Fur Seals. An instance has been recorded of a Seal
which had been flayed, recovering from the effects of the
blow on the head, and escaping to the water, but such
instances are fortunately rare. It is extremely seldom
that a case of intentional cruelty occurs, and the state-
ment that Seals are flayed alive for the sake of adding
brilliancy to the hair is unfounded.

The larger skins of the Greenland Seal are, as a rule,
imported in the wet or salted state, but a few arrive dry
from Labrador, and several hundreds by the Greenland
Company. The Saddlers fetch from 7s. 6d. to 9s. 8d. ;
the large spots 7s. 9d. to 10s. 8d.; and the middling
spots 5s. to 6s. 3d. These are manufactured into
leather of fine quality, which is used for the bands of

GREENLAND HAIR SEAL. 919

machines, etc. The Whitecoat skins are of uncertain
value, the large well-furred skins from Greenland fetch-
ing from 5s. to 8s., and those from Newfoundland,
which are of inferior quality, rather less. But in
1890, when the catch was small, 12s. 3d. to 18s. was
paid for a skin. The lower qualities of the Whitecoats,
like the Saddlers, and large spots, are used for tanning.
The female skins are much preferred to the male, as
the latter are so much bitten at the fore flippers by the
males fighting. The majority of the skins are sent to
London for sale, but some are also sold in Liverpool,
Dundee, and Hamburg.

The Whitecoat skins are blubbered, washed, and dried,
like in the first stages of the Fur Seal. The thick-
ness of the skin is sometimes reduced by passing the
skins over an emery wheel, worked by machinery.
They are then dyed black or brown, the former being
used for military purposes (Hussar or Fusilier busbies),
and also a few for fur, such as edgings for robes, etc.
The brown skins are used for fur purposes, and the
inferior qualities find a ready market in France.

The oil of this and other species taken on the ice is
very valuable, and they appear to be mixed together.
The skins are removed with the blubber attached, and
on arrival at St. John’s, the blubber is removed from the
skins, which are then salted. The blubber is melted in
vats, and the oil is extracted, and sampled in long, thin
phials, the buyers judging of its quality by tasting a little
on the back of the hand, or by smelling it. Seal oil varies
in colour from white to dark brown, or almost black, the
pale oil fetching £25 to £28 a tun, and the yellow rather
less. Itis generally used mixed for illuminating, as light-
house lights, ete., and also for dressing jute in Dundee.
There is a duty on Seal oil in the United States.

22.0 CARNIVORA.

RINGED OR FETID SEAL.
Phoca fotida.
French: Phoque commun.

This Seal is called Fetid, on account of the peculiar
odour it exudes, and Ringed, from the numerous circular
markings on its back. Its small size has also earned
for it the name of Floe-rat, and another name is the
Floe Seal.

The Ringed Seal inhabits Labrador, Anticosti Island,
the east coast of Hudson’s Bay, the coasts of Green-
land and Newfoundland, and Esquimaux Bay. It has
been also met with in the Hudson’s Bay territory, and as
far north as Smith’s Sound. Elliott says it is also
found on the northern shores of Alaska.

Many skins are imported in the salted state from the
trading steamers, and are sold exclusively for leather,
the small fetching 3s. to 4s. 2d., and the extra small 2s.
to 2s. 11d.

About 8,000 to 40,000 dry skins are sold by the Green-
land Company; these are likewise used for leather.
A few skins are also imported from Labrador in the
dry state, and are sometimes dressed by thenatives. The
Hudson’s Bay Company import about 1,000 skins from the
east coast of Hudson’s Bay; these are sorted into large,
middling, and small spots, the last bemg the most
numerous. The Whitecoat skins, though small, are
of a suitable quality for dyemg. They usually arrive
dry from the Hudson’s Bay coast, but in the salted
state they are mixed with those of other species, and are
found among the small sizes.

RINGED OR FETID SEAL. OO

The Fetid Seal is the smallest and most numerous of
the Phocide. The length of the adult animal is from
23 to 4 feet. It is of a bluish-grey colour, the circular
marks on the back being dark; the belly is almost
white. The Whitecoat is about 18 inches in length,
and some skins taken are only 6 inches; it is
thickly covered with very dense coarse hair, almost like
wool.

This species is found farther north than any other
Seal, and it keeps its breathing holes open even
when the surrounding ice is frozen to a considerable
depth.

The Esquimaux take a certain number of these
Seals through holes which they cut in the ice, pro-
tecting themselves from the piercing northern winds by
a wall of snow erected near the opening. In fact, this
animal is almost invaluable to them ; it furnishes them
with food and lamp-oil, and from the skins they make
boats, coats, trousers, and boots. The skins are beauti-
fully dressed by them. In making boats, the hair is
removed, and several skins are sewn together, and
stretched so tightly over the framework of wood as to
render the boats impervious to water.

The female is said to erect a small habitation of snow
over the hole in the ice through which it breathes.

According to Clutterbuck, the kidneys of this Seal are
good eating.

229, CARNIVORA.

GREY SEAL.
Halicharus grypus.

The Grey Seal, called also the Square Flipper, is the
largest of all the true Seals in the northern hemisphere,
but it is by no means numerous. It occasionally visits
the English coast, but usually breeds in the northern
part of Norway. Its chief habitat is Norway, but it is
also found in Hudson’s Bay, where the skins are used
by the hunters for making shoe-leather.

Few animals are captured by Norwegian and Green-
land sealers.

The length of the adult male is about 10 to 12 feet.
The young or Whitecoat is very large, about 4 to 5 feet
in length, and is very thickly furred, but the skinis very
rarely met with in commerce. We have once seen a
Whitecoat, probably of this species, which measured as
much as 5 feet.

The few skins that are imported are bought by tanners.
The Hudson’s Bay Company import a few skins; in
1886 the number was 42.

Mr. Collett, in the ‘‘ Proceedings of the Zoological
Society ’’ (1881, pp. 382-387), says :—

‘** After the lapse of three weeks the young one has
entirely lost its woolly hair. The Seals probably begin
to breed at the age of four years, or at the earliest three
years, and give birth to only one young one annually.
The food of the Seals on the Fro Islands seems to be
principally fish; halibut appears to be a delicacy to
them.”

According to the same author, these Seals breed at
the end of September, and are polygamous, a male
having from two to five females.

223

BEARDED OR GROUND SEAL.
EBrignathus barbata.

This Seal has obtained the name of Bearded from
the abundant bristly whiskers with which itis furnished.
It is one of the largest Seals, bemg about 6 feet long,
and is spotted. It inhabits the Greenland Seas, and is
one of the species for which a close time has been
provided by Act of Parliament. It was met with in
Smith’s Sound by the Polar Expedition of Sir G.
Nares. The tail is short and stumpy, and is 8 to 4
inches long. The hind feet are about 12 inches in
length, furnished with nearly straight claws about 13
inches long. The claws of the manus or front feet
are long and grooved, the second claw being the longest.
The neck is long compared to the rest of the body.

The skins, weighing from 39 to 45 lbs., are principally
used for leather; the large skins fetch from 9s. 7d. to
13s. 6d., and the extra large 20s. 11d. to 28s. 8d.

BLADDER-NOSED SEAL.
Cystophora cristata.
German: Klappmutze.

The Bladder-nosed Seal is well known, and the males
are easily recognized by the appendage on the nose,
which they are able to distend at pleasure. It is also
called the Crested or Hooded Seal for the same reason.
A similar appendage is found in the Saiga Antelope, but

29.4 CARNIVORA.

it has not yet been ascertained to what purpose it
serves.

This Seal inhabits the Greenland Seas, especially
round Jan Mayen Island and Iceland, also Newfound-
land and Anticosti Island. In the latter it is said to be
possible to take it in the summer as well as the spring.

The Bladder-nosed Seal is one of the three chief and
most abundant species of the Seals which are protected
by a close time established by Government. The
animals are captured in the same way as the other
species of Seals, on the ice, and many are taken off the
shores of Newfoundland with nets.

The general colour of the adult animal is light
brownish-yellow, with large black blotches or patches
scattered over the back, which is light blue. Many are
irregularly marked bluish-black, no two animals being
exactly alike. The length is about 8 feet, and the tail
is short—about 2 inches. The flippers are placed very
far forward. The skins of the adult animals are sold
chiefly for leather purposes, as imitation morocco, etc.
These skins require to be soaked in the tan-pits six
weeks.

In the second year this Seal becomes light blue on
the back, and is hence called the Blueback. The belly
is lighter, almost white. The blue hair of the back is
about two-thirds of an inch long, and a white spot is
occasionally found on it. In the earlier growth, the blue
is of a deeper shade. At this age many skins are taken,
the hair being short, bristly, strong, and durable. A few
skins are sometimes dyed with spots in imitation of
Leopard skins, but most are dyed black or brown, and
used in the manufacture of shoe-trimmings, gloves,
muffs, etc. Dyed black skins are also used for busbies
and caps for the military in Canada, and some of the

BLADDER-NOSED SEAL. 925

volunteer regiments in England. <A few Blueback skins
are also used for imitation morocco, the surface being
tightened up by means of cork. The Greenland skins
are larger than the Newfoundland, and are a deeper
blue on the back. About 500 in the dry state are sold in
Copenhagen by the Greenland Company. The weight of
a salted Blueback skin varies from 5+ to 641bs., and the
price ranges from 3s. 6d. to 7s. 4d. (1891). After two
years, when the animal is adult, the Blueback begins to
lose its rather short hair, which has now turned almost
yellow, and is succeeded by a much shorter growth of
sleek hair. It is now blue on the back, and black spots
appear on the head and sides. The fore-feet are short,
and furnished with five short, strong, sharp claws. The
hind flippers are longer and webbed, the two outer
toes being longer than the three middle. The toes are
covered with short thick hair, and the nails are about an
inch long. At this age the skins are called middling
spots, large, and extra large spots.

The young are covered with white hair or fur, and
are called Whitecoats. The whiskers are generally of a
very light brown, but sometimes they are black; they
are bristly and granulated, or notched. A small pro-
portion of Whitecoat skins are imported, but they can
hardly be distinguished from the more abundant young
of the Greenland Seal, unless perhaps by their being
thicker in the wool.

The skin of the Bladder-nosed Seal is often made into
coats and trousers by the Greenlanders. The Polar
Expedition under Captain Nares was furnished with
coats made out of Bluebacks. This skin was probably
chosen as being one of the only cheap furs at that time,
but in other respects it was not a judicious choice. The
skins were extremely heavy, and liable to get damp,

296 CARNIVORA.

owing to the difficulty in thoroughly extracting the salt
from the pelt, except by a more expensive process ; and,
besides, afforded little warmth to the wearer, owing to
the spare amount of fur on the skin. Third or fourth
quality Mink, Yearling Sheep or Tuluppen, Koala or
Wallaby, would have combined lightness with dura-
bility and warmth, and were also cheap; or perhaps the
Reindeer skins as prepared by the Esquimaux would
have surpassed them all.

The skins, on arriving at a dresser’s factory, are
blubbered, that is, the fat remaining on the skins and
the dirt are removed; they are washed in large tubs of
alkali and soap, wrung dry, stretched on hoops, and
dried in the hot room. They are next softened, and the
final process, before or after dyeing, is shaving and
cleaning, which is performed with sharp two-bladed
knives like tanner’s paring knives.

According to Lady Blake (Nineteenth Century, p. 577),
Hoods and Harp Seals are never found in the same floe.
Hooded Seals are always found to the eastwards of
Harps, but the young are born two or three weeks later.

SEA-LEOPARD.
Leptonyx weddeh.

The Sea-Leopard is the largest of all the Hair or true
Seals, being from 8 to 15 feet long, and its skin is
very valuable for leather purposes. It inhabits the
South Shetland and Auckland Islands, and the Antarctic
Ocean. The general colour is yellow with numerous
small spots, both dark and light, these markings being
beautifully contrasted, and extending to the belly. A

SEA-LEOPARD. 297

specimen of this Seal was exhibited some years ago in
London as the ‘‘ Talking Fish.” The Sea-Leopard has
become very rare of late years, and, according to some
authorities, it is almost extinct. A few hundred skins
are imported from time to time.

Another species of Seal, which is now extinct, is the
Saw-toothed Seal of the South Seas.

Q 2

228 INSECTIVORA.

MAMMALIA. INSECTIVORA.
MOLE.

Talpa europea.
French: Taupe. German: Maulwurf.

The common Mole is widely distributed in Great
Britain, being found in almost every county, except in
parts of Scotland and in the Channel Islands, and is
also abundant on the Continent.

Although it causes a certain amount of inconvenience
to gardeners, spoiling the walks and uprooting plants,
it has a beneficial effect on meadows, by devouring the
larve of insects, especially those of the Crane-fly, or
Daddy-long-legs (Tipula gigantea), which causes so
much destruction to the roots of grass in many
places near town, where recourse has to be had to
artificial remedies in order to get rid of these pests. It
is very fond of moist localities, where it is of great
utility in draining the land, but it is also found in hills.
The presence of the Mole in meadows is also said to
prevent the foot-rot in Sheep, by draining the sub-soil,
but care should be taken to distribute the Mole-hills
several times in the year, otherwise the field will have a
patchy appearance.

The Mole is about 4 inches long. The eyes are
extremely small, and scarcely discernible, and are pro-
tected by thick fur, which prevents the earth from
entering them when it is burrowing. The snout is
long and naked, and furnished with a few black
whiskers. It has no external ears, but the orifices are
readily distinguished just above the fore-feet. The

MOLE. 229

paws are short, and the fore-feet, which are large, are
furnished with five strong, sharp claws, turned out-
wards. The tail is small, from two-thirds of an inch
to one inch long, and covered sparingly with bristly
hairs, which are rather more abundant at the tip.
The senses of smelling and hearing are well developed.
The Mole swims well. The general colour is shining
black on the back, and lighter underneath. The fur
is short, and extremely fine, but almost black at the
extreme tip, and the ground-colour is deep blue. Moles
that are white, fawn, mottled white and black, buff
with grey spots on the back with orange belly, and even
tortoise-shell, are occasionally met with.

Mole-skins are of little value as fur, on account of
their small size. They are mostly made into waist-
coats, for which the short fur is especially adapted.
Several thousand skins are collected annually, and
their value is about 1d. to 14d.

The provincial name of Mold-worp seems an adapta-
tion from the German name of Maulwurf (mouth-
thrower). The Mole makes long passages under the
earth, which are very visible, as well as its nest,
which it forms by throwimg up the earth in the
shape of a hillock with its fore-feet. In its sub-
terranean dwelling it is attacked by a species of flea,
which, like its victim, is nearly blind. The Mole does
not hibernate, and continues its excavations in winter.

The Mole usually feeds early in the morning, and
in the evening, boring long tunnels in pursuit of its
prey. It may be taken before eight in the morning,
and after six o’clock at night, by a person watching it
throwing up the earth, and placing a spade a few
inches below where it is working, and then catching
it with the hand. Many thousands are captured with

230 INSECTIVORA.

spring-traps, and the carcases of the poor ill-used Mole
may be seen hanging up by scores on hedges and stiles.
In some parts of England Mole-catching is a regular
business.

The Weasel succeeds in capturing the Mole, and the
Kestrel is also said to seize it when above ground.

The food of the Mole is entirely of an insectivorous
nature. It is said sometimes to feed above the ground.
According to the Penny Magazine, the Mole has 4 to 5
young, usually in the month of April.

In the drought of 1887 many Moles are said to have
died for want of food, the earth, especially in clay
soils, having become so hard that even digging was
impossible. In severe frosts, the Mole often retreats to
the shelter of hedges.

There are about 5,000,000 to 6,000,000 Moles in the
British Isles, and the Rey. J. G. Wood mentions that the
most conspicuous varieties are the Shrew, Changeable,
Cape, and Star-nosed Mole.

The following lines are taken form Paley’s “ Natural
Theology” (p. 155) :—‘‘ The plush covering which, by
the smoothness, closeness and polish of the short piles
that compose it, rejects the adhesion of almost every
species of earth, defends the animal from cold and
wet, and from the impediment which it would ex-
perience by the mould sticking to its body. From soils
of all kinds the little pioneer comes forth, and clean.
Inhabiting dirt, it is of all animals the neatest.

‘But what I have always most admired in the Mole
is its eyes. This animal, occasionally visiting the
surface, and wanting, for its safety and direction, to be
informed when it does so, or when it approaches it, a
perception of light was necessary. I do not know that
the clearness of sight depends at all upon the size of

MOLE. 231

the organ. What is gained by the largeness or
prominence of the globe of the eye, is width in the
field of vision. Such a capacity would be of no use to
an animal which was to seek its food in the dark. The
Mole did not want to look about it; nor would a large
advanced eye have been easily defended from the
annoyance to which the life of the animal must con-
stantly expose it. How, indeed, was the Mole, working
its way under ground, to guard its eyes at all? In
order to meet this difficulty, the eyes are made scarcely
larger than the head of a corking pin; and these minute
globules are sunk so deeply in the skull, and lie so
sheltered within the velvet of its covering, as that any
contraction of what we may call the eyebrows not only
closes up the apertures which lead to the eyes, but
present a cushion, as it were, to any sharp or pro-
truding substance which might push against them. This
aperture, even in its ordinary state, is like a pin-hole in
a piece of velvet, scarcely pervious to loose particles of
earth.”

RUSSIAN MUSK-RAT OR DESMAN.

Myogale moschata.
German: Russicher Bisamratte.

This small animal is chiefly conspicuous by its long
proboscis. It is aquatic, living in holes in the banks
of rivers. It is also called the Wuychuchol, and the
Musk-shrew. The length of the body is about 5 inches,
not including the tail, which is about another 4 inches.
The fur is short, very fine and soft, and of a dark
purplish-brown colour on the back. It is a beautiful

232 INSECTIVORA.

silvery-white on the belly, and the under fur is dark
blue. The whiskers are very abundant at the base of
the mouth.

The fur of the Russian Musk-rat is appreciated to a
certain extent in this country for mantle trimmings,
and sometimes for glove-tops, but it meets with more
favour in America. From 7,000 to 12,000 skins are
collected annually, and the price varies from 6d. to
1s. 6d. per skin. The tails are sold to perfumers at 1d.
to 13d. each. By some naturalists the tails of this
animal have been confounded with those of the
American Musk-rat. This skin was supposed to keep
away moths from articles of clothing, but this idea is
erroneous, as it is itself very subject to attacks from
this destructive insect.

This animal is found abundantly in Russia, and a
few are met with in the Pyrenees.

233

MAMMALIA. RODENTIA,
COMMON SQUIRREL.

Sciurus vulgaris.

French: Ecureuil; Commercial, Petit gris. German:
Eichhérnchen ; Commercial, Feh.

This lively and graceful animal, so agile in its move-
ments, and amusing in its antics, is found in a great
part of the British Isles, wherever woods and _ forests
exist, but.few are met with in Scotland. It is found in
Ireland, and is abundant in the counties of Kent,
Sussex, and Surrey, and is met with as near London
as Shooter’s Hill. Squirrels formerly abounded in
Richmond Park and the New Forest; in the former
place they had to be killed off, on account of persons
shooting them on Sundays. In some parts, where it is
very abundant, and is left undisturbed, it becomes
almost tame, and wili approach the dwellings of man,
and even enter by the windows, more especially in the
winter-time. Cats have been known to bring up young
Squirrels, and it is said to be sometimes found in Rabbit-
warrens.

The Squirrel is arboreal in its habits, making its nest,
a large collection of twigs, resembling a Magpie’s nest,
and sometimes called a ‘‘drey,” at the top of a tree,
and sometimes in a hole in the trunk. It sometimes
leaves the shelter of the trees, and feeds at several yards’
distance from them, but at the first sound of alarm it
bounds by small springs, rather than runs, to the
nearest tree, placing itself behind it, in the same way
that creepers and some other birds do. When in the

234 RODENTIA.

woods, the Squirrel jumps from branch to branch, and
from one tree to another, with the greatest ease. Its
special favourites are the pine, fir and beech trees.
The ery of the Squirrel is of a chuckling character, and,
when disturbed, it erects its ears, and bristles up its tail.
At times it becomes the prey of the Goshawk, or Cat.

It is diurnal in its habits; it makes hoards, and
partly hibernates, awaking at intervals to partake of
its stores. It swims well. Dr. Buckland says its flesh
is very good eating.

It is a favourite pet, but it is cruel to keep it con-
stantly revolving in a circular cage, as is so often the
case. The price of a live Squirrel is 3s. to 5s.

The food of the Squirrel consists of fir cones, wal-
nuts, acorns, beech and other nuts, buds of the larch
and young trees. It is said to be very fond of fruit,
such as raspberries and strawberries, and some natu-
ralists say it eats young birds. It picks off the husks
of nuts with its powerful incisor teeth.

The Squirrel breeds from February to April.

The young, when born, are blind, and destitute of
hair, and look like young rats. It has 6 to 8 teats,
and produces 3 or 4 young at a time.

The Squirrel in England, and some parts of the
continent, is from 6 to 8 inches long, not including the
long bushy tail, which is another 6 inches. The ears
are long and bushy. The feet are furnished with sharp
claws. When adult, the colour is deep reddish-brown,
and lighter underneath ; when young, the back is red.
The long hairs of the tail are lighter than the rest of
the body, and sometimes even white. In the north of
England the animal assumes a grey coat in winter, as
it does in Russia. White specimens are sometimes
found, and black are by no means uncommon.

COMMON SQUIRREL. 235

A white Squirrel was captured in Norfolk in 1885,
and a pied one was seen in 1888 in the same county.
Drab varieties are sometimes met with in the Siberian
Squirrel.

The skin and the tail might both be used for com-
mercial purposes in this country, but a great drawback
is the high cost for collecting them.

The Squirrel in former times was called the Calabar
in commerce. It is found in large quantities in Sweden,
Lapland, Russia, and Siberia, where it forms an ex-
tensive article of commerce, being exported to Germany,
France and England in the form of linings. The
skins and tails are also exported unmanufactured.

America also consumes a large quantity of Squirrel
skins, and China is at times a large buyer. In fact,
this serviceable fur is used nearly all over the world,
being justly appreciated for its lightness, warmth, and
at the same time low price. Squirrel skins are still
collected as taxes or tribute in parts of Siberia, where
they are taken in snares.

The fur of the Squirrel was formerly extensively used
for boas in England, a few millions being imported
annually. In 1839, 2,730,826 skins were imported, but
this trade seems gradually to have declined, the
Germans surpassing every one in dressing and pre-
paring this fur. The Weissenfels dressers seem now to
have almost monopolized this trade. This is chiefly
owing to the advantages Weissenfels possesses in the
various clay and salt deposits available near the town.
There are about 20 firms engaged in this trade in
Weissenfels, employing 300 dressers, 500 workmen, and
from 5,000 to 6,000 women and children for sewing and
piecing. By some firms 500,000 skins or more are
dressed annually. The skins are sorted and matched

236 RODENTIA.

by them with consummate skill, and the backs are cut
away from the bellies, and tied up in bundles of twenty.

The Russian dressing is much inferior.

Squirrel tails are extensively used in the manufacture
of boas, fringes of mantles, and paint-brushes (so-called
camels’ hair). They are very suitable for the latter
purpose, being soft to the touch, especially those from
Kazan in Russia.

The raw tails are usually sold by weight; 6 lbs. being
the recognized weight of 1,000 tails; when dressed, they
are sold by the hundred.

The bellies of the skins are manufactured into those
beautiful blue-white fur-linings, so much esteemed for
opera-cloaks, etc. The backs arealso made into similar
articles, the more subdued grey colour rendering them
more suitable for elderly persons. In Russia, the head,
neck, and ears are also made into beautiful linings by
themselves, labour in that country being so cheap.

The backs are also used for capes, glove-linings,
trimming, and sets.

This skin is rarely dyed, except the large skins of
Telautka, to imitate Marten.

The fur is occasionally used for felting, that is,
making felt hats.

The Squirrel, which is red in England, becomes grey
as we approach the East, growing darker and darker, till
it reaches black in Japan.

The province of Kazan in Russia yields red, and red-
dish-grey skins, Viatka and Kargopol still greyer, and
the eastern side of the Ural Mountains, as at Obskoi,
grey. Then light blue skins are found in Yeniseisk, and
near the river Lena blue, and still farther east, in the
provinces of Yakutsk, Okhotsk, and Sakaminoi, dark
blue and black, the ears and tails of these bemg almost

COMMON SQUIRREL. 237

black. The only exception is the Tobolsky, which are
dark blue, and to the east of the Ural Mountains. The
very dark skins are of greatest value. Many are sent
to Germany, but some reach the London market
directly. The Okhotsk skins, from 50,000 to 100,000
(in 1891, 43,235 skins) arrive in London through
Japan, or are imported by the Alaska Commercial
Company vid San Francisco. Each district producing
a somewhat different variety, the price varies accord-
ingly. It requires a good judge to distinguish the various
sorts.
The chief sorts are as follows :—

Kazan Odnoutsky
Viatka Nertchinsky
Kargopol Kolinsk
Obskoi Irkutsky
Tobolsky Podgomay
Yeniseisky Altaisky
Lensky Beisky
Petchorsky Okhotsky
Sakaminoi Podgrodin
Telautka Kusnetsky
Tabaikalsky Nominsky
Irschikorsky Zardinsky (Kazan)
Imgaisky Tinkiauky
Olekminsky Kinisky
Wilmsky Sawodsky
Sabaikalsky Syrainsky

238 RODENTIA.

JERELANG SQUIRREL.
Sciurus bicolor.

This Squirrel inhabits Nepaul, and other parts of
India. It is rather large, being about 18 inches in
length, including the tail. The fur is thick and
abundant, about an inch long, and of a deep brown
shade with a darker ground. The belly is hght. This
species is rare.

MALABAR SQUIRREL.
Sciurus maximus.

The Malabar Squirrels exceed all the species of this
family in size, the body being about 14 inches long, and
the tail 16 inches. The colour is very peculiarly dis-
tributed ; it is black on the shoulder, then deep red at
the centre of the body, and the remainder black ; the
head is dark brown; the chest and fore-paws are light
brown ; the lower part of the hind legs is red, but the
paws are brown; the belly is brown. The tail is long,
and covered with long black bristly hairs. The fur is
rather harsh, and is about three-quarters of an inch in
length. The feet are furnished with strong claws. In
some districts the colour of the Malabar Squirrel is red,
with the exception of the hinder part of the body, which
is black. The black tail in these specimens is tipped
with white.

This Squirrel inhabits Southern India. Too few skins
are imported to give a fixed value to this fur, which is,
however, serviceable for small articles.

This species thrives very well in the Zoological Gardens
of London.

239

EAST INDIAN OR THREE-STRIPED SQUIRREL.
Sciurus tristriatus.

French: Ecureuil des Indes. German: Ost-indisches
Feh.

This small Squirrel is about 5 inches long, not includ-
ing the tail, which measures 3 inches. It inhabits East
India and Ceylon, and, as would be expected of an
animal living in so warm a climate, its skin is of little
or no value, barely fetching a few shillings per hundred
when imported. The colour of the back is brown,
divided by three long longitudinal white stripes; the
belly is light brown. The hair is harsh, short, and
coarse. The tail is covered with harsh hairs of five
different shades, yellow-brown at the base, then black,
then white, another band of black, finishing with white
at the tip of the tail. A few hundred skins are occa-
sionally sent to this country.

AMERICAN GREY SQUIRREL.
Sciurus cinereus.

The American Grey Squirrel is as large as the
European and Siberian Squirrel, to which it is probably
closely allied. The fur, however, is coarse, and of a light
or deep grey colour, not the characteristic blue of the
Siberian variety. The belly is slightly red. The tail is
bushy and grizzly. It is rarely met with in commerce,
although living animals are often to be seen in the
Zoological Gardens. The black variety is by no means
uncommon, and is at times imported. It inhabits a
small portion of the Dominion of Canada, where it is
sparingly distributed.

240 RODENTIA.

HUDSON’S BAY SQUIRREL.

Seciurus hudsonius.

This Squirrel is smaller than the foregoing, and is
certainly a distinct species. It is about 4 inches long,
with the tail of the same length. It is of a grizzly
chestnut colour, or greenish colour, with a band of red
on the back. The tail is thinly covered with coarse
greyish hairs. The teeth are set in a circular socket.

This Squirrel is exclusively an inhabitant of the
Hudson’s Bay Territory, and has been called the
Chickaree.

Six thousand skins were sold by the Hudson’s Bay
Company in 1885, at 3s. 6d., 4s. 6d., and 7s. per 100.
In 1886, 8,441 skins were imported by the Company,
but in 1891, only 473, which sold at 3s. 9d. per hundred.

Its fur, as may be seen from the above prices, is of
little value, and is hardly worth collecting. It is some-
times made into linings. The skins are probably taken
with those of other animals.

Dr. Richardson, in his ‘‘ Northern Zoology,” p. 187,
says :—‘‘It digs its burrows generally at the root of one
of the largest and tallest trees it can select, and forms
four or five entrances, around which very large quanti-
ties of the scales of spruce-fir cones are in process of time
accumulated. It does not come abroad in cold or stormy
weather, but even in the depth of winter it may be geen,
during a gleam of sunshine, sporting amongst the bark
of its tree. In the fur countries it subsists chiefly, if not
entirely, on the seeds and young buds of the spruce-fir.”

‘‘The flesh of this Squirrel is tender and edible, but
that of the male has a strong murine flavour.”

241

RED-BELLIED FLYING SQUIRREL.
Pteromys magnificus.

This Squirrel inhabits Nepaul, Cashmere, and other
parts of the Himalayas. It is about eight inches in
length, and the tail another six. The colour is deep red,
and covered sparingly with white hairs; the belly is
lighter in colour ; the tail is long and bushy. The skin
is of little value.

AMERICAN FLYING SQUIRREL.
Sciuropterus volucella.

The American Flying Squirrel is about the same size
as the foregoing, being 8 inches in length, not including
the tail. The fur, as in all flying animals, is extremely
fine and soft; it is of a darkish grey colour on the back ;
white and very soft on the belly; the tail is dark grey
and bushy.

This is a rare animal, and is found in the Dominion
of Canada. Its power of leaping or flying from tree to
tree, with its lateral membranes distended, is very great.

AFRICAN FLYING SQUIRREL.
Anomalurus beecrofti.

This large Flying Squirrel inhabits the West Coast of
Africa, and its skin is sometimes found in importations
from that country. The length of this animal is about

949, RODENTIA.

3 feet, including the long black tail. The back and
upper part of the parachute are black or dark brown ;
the under part is white. The fur is soft, and the
parachute well developed. It is a very rare animal, and
the skins are practically valueless for commercial pur-
poses.

EUROPEAN SOUSLIK.
Spermophilus citillus.

The European Souslik measures about 6 inches, with
a short tail of 2 inches in length. The general colour
is yellowish-brown, covered with lighter spots. The tail
is sparingly covered with short black bristly hairs about
an inch long, white at the tip, and witha yellow ground.
The hair is very short and harsh, about one-eighth of
an inch, and tipped with white; the belly is almost
bare, but the hair is longer at the sides, like the
American Badger. The female has 4 teats.

The larger animals have a yellowish tinge, especially
at the neck; the smaller are browner.

It inhabits the south of Russia, where it is found
in large quantities, and causes considerable loss to the
farmer by the great damage it does to the crops.

The Souslik is known commercially as the Kaluga or
Susliki. It has only become an article of commerce the
last few years. It is imported in the form of linings,
and is chiefly utilized for making low-priced mantles.

It is said to burrow 9 feet deep.

There is an American variety of the Soushk, very
similar to this animal, but rather larger. It is said to
inhabit the western side of the Rocky Mountains.

243

RUSSIAN MARMOT.
Arctomys bobak.
French: Marmotte. German: Murmelthier.

This large Marmot is about a foot to a foot and a half
in length, and exists in large quantities in Southern
Russia, consuming grass and other crops, and also
annoying the farmer by the hillocks which it throws up.

The burrows descend to a depth of 7 to 10 feet, and
hillocks are raised outside by the earth which is
removed. The Marmots make a hole to escape besides
the main entrance ; they hibernate in winter, and have
many habits in common with the Prairie Marmot or
Dog of North America, such as sitting on its haunches,
whistling, ete.

The colour is generally yellow, with longer, darker,
bristly hair; the belly is yellow, and the colour of the
under fur dark. Many animals, however, especially
when the fresh coat of fur begins to grow, are very dark,
almost black. A fawn or dun variety is not uncommon.
It has 8 teats. The fur is generally harsh, and not of
much value, 2d. to 6d. being the usual price per skin.
About 30,000 were imported one year.

Many skins are manufactured into rugs, and some
are dyed brown, and used for capes, ete.

The Russian Marmot begins to hibernate in October,
having previously laid in a store of hay for the winter.
Mr. E. P. Thompson says the ordinary temperature of
the Marmot is 102°, but during hibernationit is only 43°.
Their fat is said to be used for machinery (Ield,
March 13, 1886). The Marmot, when captured young,
makes an excellent pet.

R 2

244 RODENTIA.

The Alpine Marmot (Arctomys marmotta) is a well-
known variety.

QUEBEC MARMOT.
Arctomys monax.

The Quebec Marmot is called the Weenusk by the
Cree Indians, and also in commerce. By Richardson it
is described under the name of the Woodchuck, and the
name of the Whistling Marmot has also been given
to it.

This Marmot is but very slightly smaller than the
preceding species, being about a foot in length. The
under fur is rather abundant, soft, and of a dark colour,
and covered sparingly with long black and white hairs.
A few long coarse reddish hairs are scattered over the
belly, which is almost bare. The tail is from 3 to 4
inches long, and is also sparsely covered with bristly
hairs. It produces nine young in a litter. Its food
consists of vegetables, and in captivity it feeds on
carrots and cabbages, and, like other Marmots, erects
itself on its hind legs, and burrows in the ground.
Black and drab specimens are met with not infrequently.

The Quebee Marmot inhabits the Dominion of Canada,
especially Fort York district, and is also found in the
United States.

The general colour of the fur is rather similar to that
of the Grey Fox, and has a rusty tint. Its fur is of
little value, the usual price being 5d. to 7d. a skin.
About 400 or 500 skins are imported annually by the
Hudson’s Bay Company.

In 1891, 424 skins were sold, and fetched only 2d.
each.

245

CASHMERE OR HIMALAYAN MARMOT.
Arctomys caudatus.

This Marmot, also called the Long-tailed Marmot, is
very similar to Arctomys bobak in size, and in the deep
grey hue of the fur, but it has not the very yellow hue
of the latter.

CHINESE MARMOT.

The Chinese Marmot shows a marked similarity to
the preceding variety, with the exception of the colour.
It is a regular drab, with a white mark on the chest,
and a white tip to the tail. These skins are sometimes
imported (several thousands at a time), but the fur is of
little value, not realizing more than 1d. to 2d. a skin.

PRAIRIE MARMOT OR DOG.
Cynomis ludovicianus.

The well-known Prairie Dog, or Wish-ton-wish, only
finds a place in this volume on account of its being very
similar to the Russian Marmot in size, habits, etc. Its
skin is, however, only casually imported, and is of a
dark grey or yellowish colour.

As regards their habits, we think it best to quote the
following graphic description by Catlin, in his ‘‘ North
American Indians,”’ vol. 1. p. 76 :—

246 RODENTIA.

“The Prairie Dog of the American Prairies is un-
doubtedly a variety of the Marmot; and not probably
unlike those which inhabit the vast Steppes of Asia.
It bears no resemblance to any variety of dogs, except
in the sound of its voice, when excited by the approach
of danger, which is something like that of a very small
dog, and still much more resembling the barking of a
grey squirrel.

‘* The size of these curious little animals is not very far
from that of a very large rat, and they are not unlike
in their appearance. As I have said, their burrows are
uniformly built in a lonely desert; and away both from
the proximity of timber and water. Each individual,
or each family, dig their hole in the prairie to the depth
of 8 or 10 feet, throwing up the dirt from each
excavation in a little pile, in the form of a cone, which
forms the only elevation for them to ascend; where
they sit to bark and chatter when an enemy is approach-
ing their village. These villages are sometimes of
several miles in extent ; containing (I would almost say)
myriads of these excavations and little dirt hillocks, and
to the ears of their visitors the din of their barkings
is too confused and too peculiar to be described.

‘The holes leading down to their burrows are four or
five inches in diameter, and run down nearly perpendicu-
lar ; where they undoubtedly communicate into something
like a subterraneous city (as I have formerly learned
from fruitless endeavours to dig them out), undermined
and vaulted ; by which means they can travel for a
great distance under the ground, without danger from
pursuit.

“Their food is simply the grass in the immediate
vicinity of their burrows, which is cut close to the
ground by their flat shovel teeth ; and, as they some-

PRAIRIE MARMOT OR DOG. 247

times live twenty miles from any water, it is supposed
that they get moisture enough from the dew on the
grass, on which they feed chiefly at night; so that (as
is generally supposed) they sink wells from their under-
ground habitations, by which they descend low enough
to get their supply. In the winter,’ they are for
several months invisible; existing, undoubtedly, in a
torpid state, as they certainly lay by no food for that
season—nor can they procure any. ‘These curious little
animals belong to almost every latitude in the vast
plains or prairie in North America.”

This Marmot, according to Elliott, is also found in
Alaska, but few skins are imported. It would dye well,
and would be serviceable as a low-priced fur if it were
not for the cost of trapping. The fur, or rather hair,
is of a harsh character, and of a darkish grey colour.
The Prairie Dog breeds well in captivity in this country.
It is about 1 foot in length.

It is very difficult to secure the body of the Prairie
Dog when shot, as it disappears so quickly into its
burrows. Like the Hamster and Marmot, it is constantly
erecting itself and sitting on its hind feet.

The Prairie Dog is found in most of the Central States
of America, such as Texas, etc.

BEAVER.
Castor canadensis.
French: Castor. German: Biber.

The well-known Beaver, the largest Rodent in exist-
ence, furnishes one of the most important furs in the
world. In the old days of the fur trade, its pelt was the

248 RODENTIA.

standard by which all barters were settled: so many
blankets went to a Beaver skin, so many Mink or Musk-
rat skins, more or less, were considered equal to a
Beaver, and a certain number of Beaver skins to a gun.
The Beaver skin, in fact, throughout British North
America passed currency. We must, however, receive
with a certain amount of doubt the story of the exchange
of a musket for Beaver skins, which transaction is said
to have taken place on the Peace River, and the Beaver
skins are stated to have been heaped up to the height of
the musket standing on end.

The Indians now are mostly paid in cash, instead of
in kind. They know the value of the skins, and
although they still bring the bulk of their collection to
their old friends, the Hudson’s Bay Company, yet they
are open to an advantageous bid from a private trader.

The Beaver has been adopted as the crest of the coat-
of-arms of the Dominion of Canada, and was formerly
depicted on the old postage stamps of the province of
that name.

The Beaver measures from 1 to 23 feet long, but a
few exceed 3 feet. The tail, which is flat, scaly, and
devoid of hair, is about 9 inches long.. The incisor
teeth are extremely strong and well developed, and are
set in a circular socket. The hind feet are webbed, but
the front are not. The upper part of the fore-paws are
protected with harsh hair. The claws are very strong.
The nails on two of the toes of the hind feet are double,
the use of which has not yet been discovered. The
colour of the fur varies from light to dark brown; in
many cases it is almost white. Pure white, fawn,
brown with silvery hairs, mottled, and grizzly Beavers
are rarely met with, only about twenty animals of these
colours being found annually in the large importation of

BEAVER. 249

about 80,000 skins of the Hudson’s Bay Company.
Black specimens are more abundant; from 200 to 500,
and sometimes even 800, are taken in one year; these
are chiefly from the Moose River district, and Columbia.
The under fur is about two-thirds of an inch long, thick,
dense, soft, and of a beautiful drab colour; it is shorter
and denser on the belly than on the back, to protect it
from the cold water. The longer hairs on the back,
called water-hairs, are from 2 to 8 inches long. The
tail of the Beaver was considered a great delicacy in the
time of the old fur-trading companies, and was one of
the dainty dishes of the board. ‘The flesh is also good
eating, and even the pelts have been eaten by the
trappers, when other provisions have failed, the fur
being cut off, and preserved.

The Beaver inhabits the greater part of North
America, the range extending farther north than most
other fur-bearing animals, except the Hare, Lemming,
Polar Bear, Arctic Fox, and Ermine. It was once
extensively found in Alaska, where the animals are large,
and light-coloured, but of late years they have much
decreased in numbers there. Those from the district of
Nooshagak are the best. The Beaver is sparingly found
in Labrador. Fort George produces very large animals,
about 8 feet in size; these, as well as those from Moose
Factory (a very important producing district), are very
dark brown in colour. It is also found in the Lakes,
Nova Scotia and California. The Beavers inhabiting
Oregon and the Rocky Mountains are of avery light
colour, almost white ; this is probably owing to the alti-
tude at which they live, and the animal should not be
classed as a different species. Mexico, Arizona, and
others of the Southern States, are also habitats of this
animal, but the skins from these parts are of poor

250 RODENTIA.

quality, being heavy in the pelt and pale in colour.
The Mexican have a glazed appearance on the pelt.
The Beaver formerly inhabited England, and it was
abundant in Wales at a comparatively recent period.
Mr. EK. P. Thompson says (Standard, 18th October,
1887) that the name of Beverley in Yorkshire appears to
have been derived from the Beaver, and in the arms of
this town occur three Beavers. Beveraige in Worcester-
shire, Bevercotes in Nottinghamshire, Beverstone in
Gloucestershire, and Beversbrook in Wiltshire are
similar names.

A few Beavers still exist on the Rhone in France, a
specimen of which is occasionally white, and it is still
found, though in very reduced numbers, in Austria,
Russia, Norway, and Prussia. In the winter 1885-86
seventeen Beavers were killed in Prussia. Two Beaver
colonies have lately been discovered at Amlid near
Christiana Sound, where it is said to feed on the bark
of birch and aspen trees.

The Beaver has the wonderful power, which no other
animal possesses, of felling trees; this it effects by
gnawing through the wood with its powerful chisel-like
teeth, and it causes the tree to fall in the direction
required by gnawing one side lower than the other.
They swim with the pieces of wood, and place them in
position. They erect dams across a valley, getting a
body of water to collect in what would otherwise be
small streams, thus forming the fertile Beaver meadows,
with the moisture and alluvial soil collected by the dam.
The Beaver also causes the water of a lake to rise, by
building a dam at the outlet. It only works at night.
Beavers erect circular dwellings of logs, mud, and stones,
plastered down with mud on the roof, and with an
entrance on the water side. Beavers generally live in

BEAVER. O51:

companies ; when living singly, it sometimes lives in a
hole in the bank. The usual manner of capture is by
trappings, but they are sometimes taken in nets, or
their houses are broken into, and when the animals take
refuge in holes in the banks, they are speared. Whena
Beaver is surprised in the water, it gives the alarm by
striking the surface with its tail.

The Beaver, both male and female, has two glands,
situated in the hinder part of the body, and filled with a
secretion resembling sealing-wax, known in the crude
state as Castorum. This is highly appreciated as a
drug, fetching from 38s. to 45s. 6d. per lb. according
to the brand and quality. The Hudson’s Bay Company
import about 2,000 lbs. of Castorum annually, which is
~ sold in December and January, and is briskly competed
for. A smaller quantity is imported by other traders
from the United States, and Canada from time to time.
In 1891, 1,486 lbs. were sold in London. Castorum is
chiefly purchased for Germany, and the continent. The
districts that produce the largest quantities are Fort
York and Moose River. The sort most valued is that
with a reddish hue. It has a peculiar, but not disagree-
able smell, and, when it is sold, is quite hard, and has
somewhat the appearance of the green fig when ripe in
this country. On the death of the animal, the two
glands, or, more correctly, the double gland, must be
extracted at once.

The quantity of skins imported is considerable.
Beaver skins, as well as Musk-rat, are always sold by the
Hudson’s Bay Company in January. This Company
sold 63,419 Beaver skins in January, 1891. They vary
in price from 5s. 3d. to 69s., according to size and
quality.

The quantity seems not to have materially decrease

952, RODENTIA.

since 1748, in which year 127,080 skins were imported
into La Rochelle in France, the French then enjoying
the monopoly of the fur trade. Before that period,
when New York was occupied by the Dutch, Beaver
skins were sent to Amsterdam. Beaver skins in those
days were sold for wampum, which was then the means
of barter. According to Adrian Vander Donk, 80,000
skins were taken yearly in the State of New York.

The incisor teeth of the Beaver were used by the
North American Indians, as well as by the earlier
inhabitants of Britain, as cutting instruments.

Many skins are sold with the long top or water-hairs
removed, thus showing the beautiful soft under fur.
This process is called pulling, and is performed with a
long wooden knife, and is chiefly the work of women.
Another method, which is called unhairing, is to soak
the skins, and then remove the upper hairs by scraping
with a knife.

Some skins are dyed brown or black, either with or
without these water-hairs. In the dyed state, the skin
is sometimes furnished with white hairs to imitate the
Sea-Otter fur, and many pulled and unhaired skins are
silvered with acid.

Beaver skins are made into sets of trimmings, cuffs,
or muffs, according to the prevailing fashion, and a few
clipped skins are used in the glove trade.

Many skins are exported to France, Germany,
Russia, and America, but a large quantity are also used
in this country.

In the days of the Beaver hat trade, Beaver skins,
which felt very well, were exclusively bought for cutting
and felting, and were sold by the pound, but now this
trade has almost ceased, owing to the introduction of
silk hats. Messrs. Christy & Co., in the last 10

BEAVER. 258

years, have only bought some of the smaller skins at the
public auctions, and now buy scarcely any. At the
collapse of this trade, some houses went into the leather
trade, whilst others devoted their energies to the fur
trade.

In the olden times, much care and capital were
devoted to the manufacture of the Beaver hat: theskins
were first washed to remove the grease; then pulled,
that is, the top hairs were removed; the fur was then
cut off the pelt by machinery, and blown to remove the
coarser hairs, and afterwards worked on the nap of the
hat, and dyed.

The following are some of the prices paid for Beaver
fur in 1857 :—

Cleaned. | Uncleaned.
Black Beaver, per lb. ; : : 32/-
Brown ,, SAM I ‘ ‘ ‘ 36/-
Sy ee aCUUen . c : - | 38/- as
£ pee LOS i ars r ‘ : 36/- 37/-
om » rosy cut s ‘ F 38/- 39/-
White _,, ‘ ‘ : : ‘5 34/- 32/-
- = Cut 5 : : 5 36/- 34/-
3 5 OE : : : 34/- 32/-
es » rosy cut ‘ . : 36/- 34/-
Pale . : : ; : : : 36/- Be
“A am clu: . 5 : 38/-
silvery 4; : : . : : 50/-
“3 PCL - : : 6 52/-
5 »» superior : : : 58/-
Rocky Mountain Beaver . : c 70/-

The Beaver, as might be inferred from its having
formerly inhabited England, breeds in captivity in this
country. The food of the Beaver is of a vegetable
nature, and it is often fed on bread and cabbage in

254 RODENTIA.

captivity. Those introduced by the Marquess of Bute
thrive very well near Rothesay in the Isle of Bute. <A
similar attempt was also attended with success in Suffolk
in 1872.

Dr. Richardson narrates, in his ‘‘ Northern Zoology,”
plot

‘‘The Beaver attains its full size in about three years ;
but breeds before that time. According to Indian
report, it pairs in February, and after carrying its young
about two weeks, brings forth from four to eight
or nine cubs, towards the middle or end of May.
Hearne states the usual number of young produced
by the Beaver at a time, to be from two to five, and
that he saw six only in two instances, although he
had witnessed the capture of some hundreds in a gravid
state. The female has eight teats. In the pairing
season the call of the Beaver is a kind of groan; but
the voice of the cubs, which are very playful,
resembles the cry of an infant.”

In an old work on America (p. 174), we find that,
speaking of New York, ‘‘ The Beaver live in the Water
and on the Shore in great Companies together, in Nests
built of Wood, which deserve no small admiration, being
made after this manner: The Beaver first gather all
the loose wood, which they find along the banks of the
Rivers, of which, if there be not enough, they bite the
Bark off from the Trees in the neighbouring Woods, then
with their Tusks, of which two grow above and two
below in their Mouths, they gnaw the main body of the
tree so long that it drops asunder. Their nests, very
artificial, are six Stories high, cover’d on the top with
Clay to keep out Rain ; in the middle is a passage which
goes to the River, into which they run so soon as they
perceive a Man; to which purpose one of them stands

BEAVER. 255

Sentinel, and in the Winter keeps open the Water from
freezing, by continual moving of his Tail, which is flat

without hair, and the most delicious Meat that can be
had.”

BEAVER RAT.
Hydromys chrysogaster.

The Beaver Rat, or, as it is sometimes called, the
Golden-bellied Beaver Rat, is one of the few mammals
of Australia which possesses a thick under fur. It is
of a grizzly colour, like a Rat; the belly is either of a
golden colour, like a Musk-rat, or of a light grey. The
hair or fur is short, and the under fur abundant.

The tail is about 6 inches long, dark or black in colour,
and the part nearest the top is white.

The length of the body is from 6 to 8 inches.

This animal inhabits Australia, and from 50 to a 100
skins are imported amongst sundry other skins from
that continent; but they are not of much value owing
to their scarceness.

HAMSTER.
Cricetus frumentarius.
French: Hamster. German: Hamster.

The Hamster inhabits Germany and Russia, where
it is found in considerable numbers, causing great
destruction to crops by the amount of grain it consumes.

256 RODENTIA.

It is exclusively a vegetarian. It burrows in the
earth, and hibernates. Like the other Rodents that
hibernate, 1t awakes at intervals during the winter to
feed on its store of food. It is a prolific animal, but
some years it is more abundant than in others. Mr.
EK. P. Thompson says that its cheeks are furnished with
pouches which hold about two ounces of grain each.

The Hamster, which somewhat resembles a Rat, is
about 8 to 10 inches in length, not including the short
tail, which is 1 to 13 inches long, and almost bare of
hairs, especially at the tip. The general colour is
brownish-grey, and the under fur is blue. The cheeks
are irregularly marked with red, with a white patch
immediately below. The ears are short, and nearly bare.
The throat is white, and there is a yellowish-white patch
on the fore-leg, and another close to it on the side.
The belly and legs are black, but the feet are white, and
are furnished with small white claws. The middle toe
is the shortest, and the two exterior toes the next
shortest. The whiskers are sparse and black. The
incisor teeth are long, especially those of the lower jaw.
Like other Rodents, it has the power of raising itself on
its hind feet.

As a fur it is of little value, except for linings, for
which purpose it is well adapted by the lightness of its
pelt, and the beautiful contrast of colours on the back
and sides, part of the belly being cut away. Many
thousands are imported annually into England in this
shape. Two collections take place annually, in May,
and in September and October, the former catch being
the better, like the winter catch of the Musk-rat.

Black examples are sometimes met with, and white,
or ight fawn, are by no means uncommon.

257

Wari VOLE.
Arvicola amphibius.
French: Rat d’eau, or Campagnol amphibie.

The Water Vole, or Water Rat, as it is commonly
called, is a fur-bearing animal, although the skins are
not used for fur purposes.

It is aquatic, and vegetarian in its diet, living on the
roots of plants, bark of trees, fallen apples and pears,
etc. It dives with great rapidity, and lives in holes in
the banks of rivers and ponds, in the same way that the
Beaver does in Europe. The Water Vole carries its
young in its mouth to a place of safety (The Field). It
is of a greyish-brown colour, and the under fur is blue
like that of the Musk-rat. Black specimens are occa-
sionally found, and instances of white ones are from
time to time recorded in the FYeld, but they are not
common.

The Water Vole inhabits England and France, and
is killed by the Weasel, and the common Black or
Norwegian Rat.

The resemblance of this animal to the Musquash is
very striking, both in form and habits, and it may even
prove to be the same animal. It would be interesting
to be able to ascertain whether in ancient times the
Water Vole lived in mud dwellings like the Musk-rat.
Probably, like the European Beaver, the habit of
dwelling in holes in river-banks is an acquired one, and
was adopted in order to escape from the attacks of
hunters, who are able to destroy an earthen mound with
sreater facility.

258 RODENTIA.

LEMMING.
Myodes lemmus.
French: Lemming. German: Bellichmaus.

The Lemming, which is only about 3 or 4 inches in
length, bears great similarity in colour to the Hamster,
being brownish-grey, and a lighter brown underneath.
It also resembles it in the abundance with which it is
found in certain seasons, moving in thousands from
place to place, until at last they are stopped by the sea
or some other natural obstacle. The food of the
Lemming is entirely vegetarian. Its flesh is said by the
Rev. J. G. Wood to be good eating. This fur is of little
value, except as a lining, and the skin is barely worth a
penny.

The Lemming inhabits Norway and Sweden, and a
similar species is found in the extreme North of
America.

MUSQUASH.
Fiber zibethicus.
French: Rat musque. German: Bisamratte.

The Musquash, or Musk-rat as it is sometimes called,
especially in America, derives its name from the
pungent odour which its skin exudes. It was also
known at one time under the name of Besam, which
was probably a corruption from the German.

The size of the Musquash is from 6 to 12 inches, some
large specimens exceeding one foot; this does not include

MUSQUASH. 259

the tail, which is another 8 inches. This appendage is
dark, scaly, and almost destitute of fur, having only a
few short hairs, which are ranged chiefly along the
edges ; it is not rounded like a rat’s tail, but is blunt
and flat. The general colour is brown, but the back is,
as a rule, darker; the cheeks are lighter, and the belly,
although sometimes of a chestnut brown in the Canadian
districts, is almost white in others, but in the majority
grey, and speckled. Theears are very short, and hidden
in the fur. The whiskers are long, black, and few in
number. The fore-feet are short, but the hind legs are
long, and the feet slightly webbed. The female has ten
teats, six of which are situated near the fore-legs, and
the others near the hind legs. In the Northern districts
the skin is thin, but in the Southern States the pelt is
very thick, like that of most other aquatic animals. The
fur on the back is rather short and soft, and covered
with longer hairs, called water-hairs; on the belly the
fur is very much shorter. The ground-colour of the fur
is generally blue, but in some cases it is whitish.
Situated near the tail are oye glands, containing the
musk-like secretion.

The Musk-rat is aquatic, or rather amphibious, in its
habits, living in the water, and diving with great quick-
ness as soon as it is observed. It erects circular huts,
somewhat after the style of a Beaver. Its food, like the
Water Vole of Europe, is vegetarian. Musk-rats bite
each other to a great degree, and in times of famine it
is said that they will devour one another.

The Musk-rat is found throughout the Dominion of
Canada, with the exception of the Barren Lands, and it
attains its largest size in the province of Canada. A
certain quantity are found in Alaska, and a few in
Labrador and Nova Scotia. It is most abundant in

s 2

»¥

260 RODENTIA.

Minnesota and Red River Settlements, and extends from
New York to California, Wisconsin, Virginia, Pennsyl-
vania, and Delaware.

The skins from Labrador and Nova Scotia are a very
fine colour. In Alaska and the Mackenzie River district,
the Musk-rat is of small size, owing no doubt to the
scarcity of vegetarian food, but the fur is extremely fine
and of a light silvery colour; the belly is almost white.
Skins from these districts were much sought after when
Beaver hats were in fashion.

The black variety, although sometimes found in the
Western States and in Canada Proper, exists only in
considerable quantities in the more Southern States,
such as New Jersey and Delaware. In this variety the
long hair of the back is of a beautiful black ; the under
fur is black, with a bluish ground; the fur on the belly
is short and of a speckled whitish-grey colour, with a
black stripe in the centre; the cheeks are dark and
speckled. These skins are chiefly used in Russia for
coat-linings, but a few are sometimes used in this
country and in France for cloaks, etc., and with the top
hairs removed for gloves. No black Musk-rats are found
in the extreme north, they therefore furnish an instance
of greater depth of colour being found more south. The
present price (1891) is from 1s. 38d. to 1s. 11d. for No. 1
large skins ; in January, 1875, 3s. 11d. was paid for this
sort. White Musquash are uncommon, and fawn and
mottled are sometimes met with, as well as skins with
silvery hairs, but these are very rare.

The skins are stretched in various ways; those from
Alaska and Columbia are turued inside out, and are
nearly closed, looking like little pieces of dried flesh or
skin. Others are cut quite open or flat, and are then of
less value. Others, again, are only cut at the head, and

MUSQUASH. 261

stretched into a flat circular form ; these are called bags
or pockets, and are abundant in the western districts of
the United States, and a few also in Canada Proper.
Skins that are ‘‘ doubled wrong,” or folded sideways,
called by the French bonnets d’évéque, are now rarely met
with. The usual way is to open them at the head and
tail, turn them inside out, and fold the back against the
belly. A few are sent, hair outwards, from Nova Scotia
and Canada.

The Musquash is a very prolific animal. “In latitude
55° it has three litters in the course of the summer, and
from three to five young at a time. They begin to
breed before they attain their full growth” (Northern
Zoology). The enormous quantities in Minnesota and
Red River district are perhaps due to the abundance
of water; but extreme frosts, which freeze up the
entrances to their huts, and also diseases at times, carry
them off by thousands.

Most animals are trapped; but some are also speared
and shot. There are two collections in the year, one
in the autumn, which consists of the half-seasoned
summer skins, and the other in the spring, consisting of
the winter skins, which are of better quality, and bring
a higher price. The latter catch is sometimes shortened
by the severity of the weather.

This fur is one of the best known furs, and is exten-
sively used in Europe, America, and Australia. From
3,000,000 to 4,000,000 skins are imported annually.
In 1891 the Hudson’s Bay Company sold 554,104 skins.

These skins are used almost exclusively for fur,
either in the natural state, or dyed black, and light and
dark brown. They are sometimes pulled and dyed to
imitate Seal, and are made into boas, capes, jackets,
muffs, bags, etc., the bellies being especially suited to

262 RODENTIA.

this purpose. Many are also used for coat-linings,
kittens or the young animals being especially suitable.

At one time this fur was only used for cutting, that is,
for making hats. The late Sir William H. Poland was
the first to have these skins dressed in any quantities,
and he purchased two entire importations of the
Hudson’s Bay Company for this purpose.

In 1857 the following prices are quoted for Musquash

fur :—
White Musquash . ‘ 3 . 26s. per lb.
Silvery ; : ; j 3! OSS | jaa
» superior . ; ; 5 28s.
- Mackenzie River. * 1S0steeee
F cheek . ; 7 J O0Ss ae
i a superior F 3 B4s:-SRe
re . Mackenzie River . 38s. _,,

The price of Musquash fluctuates very much. The
usual price for the best from Canada is from 1s. to
1s. 6d. Second and third quality and small skins are
much cheaper. In January, 1875, 2s. 6d. was paid for
No. 1 large brown Canada, and in 1806, 2s. 9d. was even
paid per skin.

By some white people, the flesh is said to be esteemed
good eating, and to resemble wild duck.

In an old work on America the following account of
the Musquash is given (p. 147) :—

“The Musquash is much like a Beaver for shape, but
nothing near so big; the male hath two stones, which
smell as sweet as Musk, and being killed in Winter
never lose their sweet smell. The skins are no bigger
than a Coney skin, yet are sold for five shillings a piece,
being sent for tokens into England ; one good skin will
perfume a whole house full of Clothes if it be right and
good.”

MUSQUASH. 263

(P 178): “This Country (New York) breeds many
Musk Cats, especially in Marshy Grounds. These Beasts
are beautiful to the eye, having black Speckled Skins,
their Mouths full of sharp teeth, and their tails being
long trail after them.”’

According to this work, the Musk-rat seems also to
have inhabited Tobago. This local variety is thus
described.

(P. 882): “‘The great Musk-rats are as big as a
Rabbet, and like them live in holes made in the ground,
but resemble an European Rat, only their skins are
black, except one part of their bellies, which are white ;
they smell so strong of Musk that it overcomes those
that carry them.’

Dr. Richardson, in his ‘‘ Northern Zoology,” p. 117,
says that “‘ their flesh is eaten by the Indians, and when
it is fat they prize it for a time, but are said to tire of
it soon : it somewhat resembles flabby pork.”

COYPU RAT, OR NUTRIA.
Myopotamus coypus.
French: Rat gondin. German: Affe.

This large Rodent, next in size to the Beaver, is only
found in Brazil, and the Argentine Republic.

The Coypu Rat is about 2 feet long, not including the
tail, which is from 9 to 10 inches in length. The
general colour is a speckled yellowish-brown ; the cheeks
and belly are yellowish, the whiskers white. Many are
a light brown colour all over, some are nearly white, and
others are very dark on the back. The ears are short.
The water-hairs are long, about 3 inches, speckled, and
bristly. The tail is long, and covered with bushy hairs.

264 RODENTIA.

The under fur is ‘dense, except on the back. The food
of the Nutria is strictly vegetable. It brings forth about
6 or 8 young ata time. The teats, which are about 8
in number, are placed on the side of the back, thus
enabling the young to feed without diving.

The Coypu Rat is an aquatic animal, swimming and
diving with great ease. Itis very abundant in its native
country.

It is said to be readily tamed, and breeds well in
captivity in England.

The skins of this Rodent are exported from Buenos
Ayres and the Brazils, chiefly to New York, where the
annual importations vary from 46 to over 900 bales.
The annual collection varies considerably from year to
year, the average quantity being from 300,000 to
500,000 skins.

A certain quantity are also exported annually to
Hamburg and France, and from 50 to 100 bales to
England.

Like most other Rodents, its fur is used for cutting,
or hat purposes, and is sold by the Ib.

The following are the prices of Nutria fur in 1857 :—

Side - : : . 28s. per lb.
Bt XX (superior) ef (SUBS. es
Back wee : . i QOS ae

The Nutria skin is also used as a good durable fur.
It is pulled or unhaired, and the under fur is dyed dark
brown, when it is one of the best imitations of Fur Seal,
for caps, muffs, and other small articles. This skin is
also dyed black, and brown, with the hair unremoved,
and it is also pulled and silvered in imitation of Beaver.

The best way to flay the Nutria is by opening it up
the back, as by this means the good short fur of the
belly is obtained in one piece.

265

CHINCHILLA.

Chinchilla brevicaudata.
French: Chinchille. German: Chinchilla.

This beautiful creature, so well known on account of
its soft fine fur, is an inhabitant of Peru and Bolivia,
the best skins coming from the mountainous districts
near Arica. During the late war between Chili and
Peru but few skins were imported. The usual quantity
sent to this country ranges from 5,000 to 80,000, and
the price varies from 6s. to 240s. per dozen for large
skins, according to demand, the general value being 89s.
Middling-sized and small skins are cheaper.

Chinchilla fur is justly appreciated, being the finest
and most delicate of all furs. The skin is thin and light,
and the fur is about two-thirds of an inch in length.
These skins are used in England, France, and America,
and a few also in Canada, Australia, and Italy.

The Chinchilla, like most of the Rodents, lives on
vegetable matter. It is about 9 inches long, and the
tail from 5 to 6 inches. The ears are rather large,
broad, silky, and almost devoid of hair. The whiskers
are from 2 to 38 inches long, and bristly, some being
white and some black. The general colour of the fur is
erey, and varies from light slatish-white to dark blue
along the back; the belly is lighter; and the ground-
colour of the fur is blue. The tail is covered with long,
bristly, coarse, grey hairs, which are thicker towards the
tip. The female has two teats.

White varieties are rarely found, and drab are
extremely rare.

266 RODENTIA.

CHIL. (GESING Einav
Chinchilla brevicaudata.

The Chili Chinchilla resembles the foregoing, but it is
slightly smaller, and much lighter in colour, and its fur
is consequently of less value. It fetches 10s. to 45s. per
dozen, according to demand. Many of the skins are
ereasy. The fur is long. Its food is vegetable. It is
an inhabitant of Chili, and is a variety of the foregoing
Chinchilla.

BASTARD CHINCHILLA.
Chinchilla lanigera.

French: Chinchille batard, or de la Plate. German:
Bastard Chinchilla.

The Bastard Chinchilla is more numerous than either
of the foregoing varieties, but is much smaller, being
about 6 inches long, and the tail about 4 inches.

This pretty animal inhabits La Plata.

The fur is short, although from some districts it is
longer and thicker, and is very soft to the touch. The
general colour of the fur varies from light to dark blue
or grey, like the real Chinchilla. The whiskers are
long, grey or white. The tail is bristly, and thicker at
the tip. It produces from five to six young at a birth.

The price of a dozen skins varies from 3s. 6d. to 30s.,
according to demand; the present value is about 8s.
A large quantity of skins is sometimes imported, some

BASTARD CHINCHILLA. 267

arriving in London, and some vid le Havre in France.
This fur is chiefly used in England and the United
States, and a few in Germany. It is manufactured into
sets of trimmings, muffs, capes, boas, ete. Many skins
are shipped with pepper to preserve them from moth
or worm.

CHINCHILLONE, OR LAGOTIS.
Lagotis cuviert.

One would naturally infer from the Spanish name
Chinchillone, or small Chinchilla, that this animal was
very small, but it is, on the contrary, almost double the
size of the Chinchilla proper, being about 1 foot long,
not including the 8 inches of the tail.

The fur is long, fine, and rather thick, but being
ragged, is consequently of little value, and but a few
hundred skins are imported annually, fetching about 5s.
per dozen.

The Lagotis is yellower than the Chinchilla ; it is of a
dingy purplish-drab, yellower at the neck, and there is
a ridge of black running down about one-third of the
back. The ears are rather long and upright, like those
of a wild Rabbit. The tail is covered with bristly hairs
similar to the Chinchilla. There is said to be a black
variety of this animal, but we have never seen one.

The Chinchillone inhabits Buenos Ayres, and other
parts of South America—perhaps Bolivia and Peru.

By some persons this animal is supposed to be a cross-
breed between the Rabbit and Chinchilla.

268 RODENTIA.

VISCACHA.
Lagostomus trichodactylus.
German: Biscacha.

The Viscacha, or, as it has sometimes been called, the
Vizeacha, or Biscacha, is at times described in the
catalogues of skin and hide sales under the name of
Deer.

It is rather a large Rodent, being about 2 feet long to
the root of the tail. The colour is dark brown or black,
with a white belly, and a light under fur. The head is
long, thick, and broad, and closely attached to the body.
There is a black line across the eyes, and another along
the mouth. The hair is long and bristly, with very
little under fur. The whiskers are black and abundant.
The ears are short. The short tail, measuring about 6
inches, is sparsely covered with short bristly hairs. The
skins of this animal are sometimes imported in rather
large quantities, but they are of little or no value, except
for leather.

The Viscacha breeds very readily in captivity, and
thrives and breeds well in the Gardens of the Zoological
Society.

It is an inhabitant of South America.

Mr. W. H. Hudson, in the ‘‘ Proceedings of the
Zoological Society,’’ 1872, thus describes the habits of
the Viscacha :—

(P. 822): ‘‘ The Vizcacha in the pampas of Buenos
Ayres livein societies, usually numbering twenty or thirty
members. The village (called here ‘ Vizcachera’) is
composed of a dozen or fifteen burrows or mouths; for

VISCACHA. 269

one entrance often serves for two or more distinct holes.
Often, when the ground is soft, there are twenty or
thirty or more burrows in an old vizcachera, but on
stony, or ‘ tosca,’ even an old one may have no more than
four or five burrows. They are deep, wide-mouthed holes,
placed very close together, the entire village covering an
area of from 100 to 200 square feet of ground.”

(P. 828): ‘It is probably a long-lived, and certainly
it is a very hardy animal. Where it has any green
substance to eat, it never drinks water; but after a long
summer drought, where for months they have subsisted
on bits of dried thistle-stalks, and old withered grass, if
a shower falls they will come forth from their burrows
even at noonday and drink eagerly from the pools.

“It has been erroneously stated that they subsist on
roots. Their food is grass and seeds; but they may
sometimes eat roots, as the ground is occasionally seen
washed up about the burrows. In March, when the
stalks of the perennial cardoon or castle-thistle (Hchinops
ritro) are dry, the Vizcachas fell them by gnawing
about their roots, and afterwards tear to pieces the great
dry flower-heads to get the seeds imbedded deeply in
them, of which they seem very fond. Large patches of
thistle are often found served thus, the ground about
them literally white with the silvery bristles they have
scattered.

‘The strongest instinct of this animal is to clear the
ground thoroughly about its burrows; and it is this
destructive habit that makes it necessary for cultivators
of the soil to destroy all the Vizcachas in or near their
fields.

(P. 829): “The Vizceachas are cleanly in their habits ;
and the fur, though it has a strong earthy smell, is kept
exceedingly neat.”

270 RODENTIA.

(P. 830): ‘* The language of the Vizcacha is wonderful
for its variety. When the male is feeding he frequently
pauses to utter a succession of loud, percussive, and
somewhat jarring cries; these he utters in a leisurely
manner, and immediately after goes on feeding. Often
he utters this cry na low grunting tone. One of his
commonest expressions sounds like the violent hawking
of aman clearing his throat. At other times he bursts
into piercing cries, which may be heard a mile off,
beginning like the excited and quick repeated squeals of
a young pig, and growing longer, more attenuated, and
quavering towards the end. After returning alarmed
into the burrows, he repeats at intervals a deep internal
moan.”

(P. 831): “It is a very unusual thing to eat the
Vizeacha, most people, and especially the Gauchos,
having a silly unaccountable prejudice against their
flesh. I have found it very good, and while engaged
writing this paper have dined on it in several ways.
The young animals are rather insipid, the old males
tough, but the mature females are excellent, the flesh
being tender, exceedingly white, fragrant to the nostrils,
and with a very delicate game flavour.”

SPRING HAAS.
Helamys capensis.

The Spring Haas reminds one of the Lagotis, but it is
larger, being about 18 inches in length. The tail is
long, nearly the same length as the body, and is covered
with hair, which is black at the tip. The hair is
bristly, and the general colour is ight brown, but the
belly is pure white. The skin is of little or no value.

This Rodent inhabits South Africa.

COMMON HARE.

Lepus europeus.
French: Liévre. German: Hase.

The Hare in England is coursed by Greyhounds, and
hunted with Harriers. It shows great apprehension
when being chased, and, when seized, utters a piercing
ery. Itisacomparatively inoffensive, harmless creature,
living in fields and open country, and rarely doing
damage to crops or vegetation, except in the winter,
when, if the winter be severe, it enters gardens, and
enaws the bark of young trees and shrubs. When the
snow is very deep, the Hare avails itself of this means
to reach the higher twigs or branches. We cannot
therefore see the reason of its having been included in
the Ground Game Act, its powers of destruction, and
increase being so limited in comparison to the Rabbit,
and its numbers have considerably declined since the
passing of this measure.

The Hare is protected by a close time in Ireland,
commencing April 20th, and ending August 11th.
Hare-hunting begins in England on October 28th, and
continues till February 28th, but many are shot before
the hunting season, and some are killed in March by
Harriers.

Hares are hunted two or three days a week, with
packs of from 12 to 55 Hounds.

There are 99 packs of Harriers in England ;
- 6 -* 2 in Scotland ;
and a 25 re 5 in Ireland.

Hares sometimes take to the sea when hunted, and

272 RODENTIA.

they have also been known to take refuge in a hole or
burrow when close pressed. We have seen a strong
Hare, surrounded by a pack of 12 Hounds, escape from
their clutches by leaping, and very fine dodging. The
Hare has been known, when escaping from the Hounds,
to have rushed against a Sheep unnoticed in its fright,
and to have been killed by the collision. The hind legs
of the Hare being so much longer than the fore, enables
it to travel with great speed, and thus elude the attacks
of its enemy, the dog. Its habit of crouching at times
on the ground is the reason of its being coursed with
two Greyhounds. In turning down Hares, 8 to 10 does
should be found to one buck.

The Hare is about 23 to 3 feet in length, and its
average weight is 7 or 8 lbs. An enormous English Hare
is recorded in the Fveld to have weighed 133 lbs. The
teeth are highly developed, and are placed in a circular
socket in the skull. The upper lip is divided. The
hind feet are thickly padded. The general colour of the
fur is brownish-grey of a rather warm shade; the cheek
is rather yellower, and the belly whiter. The under fur
is of a whitish hue. The ears are long, and tipped with
black. The tail is short, white underneath, and black
above. The eyes are large and dark. The fur is rather
short and thick. In winter the white of the belly
extends to the sides, and the ears, cheeks, and haunches
also become whiter, especially if the winter be severe,
and in northern regions the grey gradually, but wholly,
disappears. The average life of a Hare is said to be
from six to seven years. It is in best condition in
January and February. Black varieties, although very
rare, are sometimes found. One was shot in Suffolk in
1848, another was coursed and killed at Enville in 1853,
and several have been shot near Rugby. Parti-coloured

COMMON HARE. 23

and pied examples are sometimes met with; fawn-
coloured are great rarities.

The Hare does not live in a burrow like the Rabbit,
but in a hollow or depression in the surface, which is
called its ‘‘form.” It pairs in March. One, two, or
five young are produced at a birth, but the latter
quantity is not often met with, and two is the most
usual. The young are born in April, May, June, July,
or August. They are born with their eyes open, and are
called leverets. The Hare chews the cud, and, like other
Rodents, is able to raise itself on its hind legs. This
animal is sometimes tamed, and exhibited at shows,
beating drums, ete.

The flesh of the Hare is highly esteemed ; it is close-
grained, and rich in flavour. It is easily digested, and
nutritious, although somewhat dry. The liver and
kidney are excellent eating, but the heart has, as well as
the marrow in the hind leg, less flavour. The price of a
Hare varies from 3s. 6d. to 5s.

The wool or fur is extensively used by fur-cutters,
who remove the fur from the pelt, and use it for felting.
Many Turkish skins are used for this purpose. A
certain number of the best skins are carroted, i.e.,
brushed with acid, when it becomes of a carrot colour,
as after this process they felt more easily. Some skins
are dressed and lined with red cloth, and are sold for
chest protectors. Hare’s feet are used by costumiers for
putting on colour, the effect being unattainable by
brushes.

The Hare is found in the United Kingdom, with the
exception of the Shetlands and Faroe Islands, France,
Germany, Switzerland, Scandinavia, Russia, Turkey ; in
fact, throughout almost the whole of Europe, but the
size and quality vary considerably in the various lati-

274 RODENTIA.

tudes. The Hare has been introduced into New
Zealand, but, as was to be expected, the fur has become
very poor on account of the mild climate. The skin of
the Brown Hare fetches from 3d. to 5d. The supply in
England and Scotland is considerable, the latter produe-
ing the finest skins, but flesh of less flavour and value.

In the winter of 1885-6 as many as 2,373,499 Hares
were killed in Russia.

The Brown Hare has been known to cross with the
Blue or varying Hare in Scotland.

POLAR OR WHITE HARE.
Lepus glacialis.

The Polar Hare can only be regarded as the same
species as the ordinary European Hare.

This animal is larger than the Brown Hare, being
usually about 26 inches long, and sometimes as much
as 29 inches. The skins of the latter are called Kopfe
and Oberképfe, and are all furnished with a leather
stamp. The ears are tipped with black, and the
whiskers are white. The tail is short, and pure white.
The legs are very thin near the junction to the body,
and are covered with long bristly hairs, with very little
fur. The feet are well padded with very thick fur to
protect them from the snow. This Hare has six to eight
teats. Like the foregoing variety, it 1s very good eating,
and changes its coat in winter.

The Polar Hare inhabits Scandinavia, Russia, Siberia,
and Labrador, and a few other districts, such as Fort
York. It varies considerably in character and numbers
in these different localities, the Scandinavian being
extremely fine and white, and the Labrador, which are

POLAR OR WHITE HARE. 275

very scarce, being very thickly furred. The White Hare
was met with in the late Polar Expedition as far north as
82°27’. A burrow, about 4 feet in length, was discovered,
which had been dug out horizontally in a snowdrift.

This Hare is grey in summer, growing whiter in the
autumn, and in the winter it is pure white. The ground-
colour changes by degrees from the drab and red shades
to faint slate and pink, and then merges into pure white.

The chief quantities of Hare skins imported are those
of the Russian Hare (Lepus glacialis), from 2,000,000 to
5,000,000 being collected annually. Many of these are
sent from Siberia, and have mostly their thick white
winter coat, but some are grey or red grounded, and are
only suitable for cutting. Others, again, have the
merest vestige of grey hairs.

From 50,000 to 100,000 careases are sent to this
country annually, with the skin on, the bodies being
used for food. A 20s. fine is imposed when it is sold
out of season. A large quantity of these skins are used
for fur purposes, both natural white, in imitation of
White Fox, and dyed lynx colour, brown, dark brown,
black, and snowflake. The peculiar dye called snow-
flake is effected by passing a solution of wax over the
points of fur, and then dyeing the under fur a beautiful
brown. ‘The tips of the hairs thus retain their natural
white colour. The wax covering is removed, the skins
are cleaned, and the fur has then a beautiful appearance,
somewhat like the Silver Fox.

Many skins are clipped, and then dyed black, brown,
and snowflake.

The dyeing is chiefly done in France and Leipsie.

Some Hare skins are made into linings in Russia and
China, and in the latter country a few are dyed in imita-
tion of Kitt Fox.

276 RODENTIA.

AMERICAN HARE OR RABBIT.
Lepus americanus.

French: Lapin d’ Amérique. German: Amerikanischer
Kanin.

The American Hare, called also the Wood Hare, has
for many centuries been called the American Rabbit by
the Hudson’s Bay officials, and other fur-traders. It is
perhaps the only instance of a misnomer among fur-
traders; such errors, however, are common amongst
retailers, and are not infrequent even with scientists.

This Hare is from 9 to 12 inches long. In the
summer it is brown like the English Hare, but the under
fur is blue instead of white. In this state of pelage it
closely resembles a Rabbit, especially as its ears are
short. In winter it assumes a whitish or white coat of
long fur, the under fur just below turning brown, but
retaining the blue colour close to the skin. The ears
are tipped with black. The skin is very thin. i

The flesh of this animal is not much esteemed by
man, but it is a favourite prey of the Lynx.

The American Hare is rather numerous, but the
quantity of skins imported varies considerably, being
very abundant in one year, but not in another, when its
enemy the Lynx is more numerous. 386,256 skins were
imported in 1891 by the Hudson’s Bay Company from
Fort York, Moose River, East Maine, and Esquimaux
Bay, and about 50,000 by other traders. The skins
imported from East Main are tied up neatly into bundles
with bass.

The summer skins are used for cutting, the winter are

AMERICAN HARE. 277

dyed light brown, black, etc., to be used as fur. The
usual price is 1s. to 1s. 6d. per dozen skins, but in some
years they have realized the high price of 6s. per dozen ;
in 1814 15s. per dozen was paid.

The American Hare inhabits Newfoundland, Nova
Scotia, Manitoba, and the Hudson’s Bay Territory, but
very few are found in Labrador. Its range is more
southern than that of the Polar Hare. The Albany
skins are the best.

Dr. Richardson (‘‘ Northern Zoology,” p. 217) says
regarding the habits of this animal :—‘‘ The American
Hare does not burrow. In the northern districts it
resides mostly in willow thickets, or in woods where
willows or dwarf birch constitute much of the under-
wood. The bark of the willow forms a great part of its
food in the winter, but in the summer it eats grass and
other vegetables. It is reported to do much damage in
cultivated districts, to fields of cabbage or turnips.”

This Hare. is closely allied to the Varying Hare of
Scotland, and is probably the American type of the same
species.

VARYING HARE.
Lepus variabilis.

The Varying, called also the Blue or Mountain Hare,
is smaller than the English Hare; its weight is also
less, the ears are shorter, and its flesh is not of such
excellency. It is larger than the American Hare, which
it somewhat resembles, especially in the similarity of
appearance to a Rabbit.

The fur is brown in summer, and turns a whitish hue
in December. It inhabits Scotland and Ireland, where

278 RODENTIA.

many are shot by sportsmen. The Irish Hare is pro-
tected by a close time from April 20th to August 12th.

Hybrids between this and the Brown Hare have ocea-
sionally been recorded.

According to a correspondent of the Field, the average
weight of a doe is 74 lbs., and of a buck 7 lbs.

The price of the body of a Varying Hare ranges from
1s. 9d. to 2s. The skins are worth about 2s. per dozen,
several thousands being collected annually.

RABBIT.
Lepus cuntculus.
French: Lapin. German: Kanin.

The Rabbit is extremely numerous in this country.
In the wild state it is from 10 to 12 inches long. The
general colour is greyish-brown, with slightly longer
grizzly hairs, the latter, however, being black on the back,
and more numerous towards the tail. The belly and
throat are whiter, and between the ears it is fawn-
eoloured. The under fur is blue. The tail is short,
black above, and white underneath. ‘The ears are short,
about 23 inches long, and are covered with very short
hairs. The whiskers are black. The upper lp is
divided. The incisor teeth are long, and set in a
circular socket. The toes are short. The skin of the
buck is thicker than the doe’s. An unusually heavy
weight for a wild Rabbit is 5} lbs. Rabbits are said to
be able to swim well. They run with a short quick step
for a few paces, and then enter their burrows, leaving
their white tails visible at the end of each run. The
incisor teeth sometimes grow erratically to a great

fond

RABBIT. 279

length, twisting upwards or downwards, and at times
even endangering the sight of the eyes.

The wild Rabbit inhabits the British Isles, France,
Belgium, and Germany, and also abounds in the Falk-
lands, and Ascension Island.

The Rabbit dwells in burrows, about 4 to 6 feet deep,
generally excavated in dry loose soil or sand, and often
in banks and slightly elevated situations. It is adverse
to marshy and wet districts. It loves positions near the
sea-side, such as dunes, and is often found on the edge
of dry sandstone cliffs, even on the edges of precipitous
cliffs, and among rocks, such as the Bass Rock. It
thrives best on sandy and dry soils. It usually quits its
burrow to feed in the early morning, and just before
twilight. It is not nocturnal, but is averse to the
scorching heat of the sun. Stock-doves, Wheat-ears,
Sheldrakes, and Puftins often inhabit the same burrow
as the Rabbit.

The Rabbit feeds on most vegetable food, and is some-
times carnivorous. It is especially fond of cow’s
parsley, and nibbles the gorse bushes very close, causing
this plant to grow into fantastic shapes, almost like the
figures in a Dutch garden. It sometimes nibbles the
furze bushes into a series of flat shelves or platforms one
above the other. The ravages it commits in corn-fields
and hop-gardens is considerable, but wire netting is a
very effectual remedy. The Ground Game Bill has
acted beneficially in this instance ; but it was anticipated
to a certain extent in Kent by the tenants being allowed
to kill this animal on the land they rented before this
Bill was passed. In severe winters, when the snow lies
thick on the ground, the Rabbits are thus enabled to
reach the thin twigs in hedges and copses, and after the
snow has disappeared, the white marks, where they have

280 RODENTIA.

peeled the branches, become visible, often 3 to 6 feet
from the ground, and in a fairly straight line.

The wild Rabbit was often killed in former times by
hawking, but now it is usually shot, being dislodged
from the burrow by Ferrets. It is also sometimes slain
near hedges, by Terriers working on each side of the
hedge. Itis very quick for a short distance, requiring
a good quick marksman to kill it. When alarmed, the
Rabbit signals the danger by stamping with its hind
foot on the ground. By the recent Game Act, tenants
are allowed one gun to shoot Rabbits, but they may use
any number of traps. Rabbits have recently been
coursed by dogs, a decidedly cruel sport, as they stand
very little chance of fair play. Foxes and Cats prey on
this animal to a great extent.

The Rabbit is extremely prolific, more so than any
other animal. It has two, four, or six young, which are
born blind. The period of gestation is one month.
The female lines its nest with the fur from her own
body.

In turning down Rabbits, five or six does to one buck
will be found most conducive to success.

The flesh of the Rabbit is white, when cooked. The
wild Rabbit is good eating, but the tame variety often
tastes insipid or rank. The flesh of the leg is more
succulent than that of the back, which is closer grained.
The kidneys, although small, are tender and palatable,
and the liver, though not so delicate in flavour, is still
nutritious and good.

The fur of the wild Rabbit is chiefly utilized by fur-
cutters for feltmg or hat purposes. The skins are
collected in enormous quantities in this country ; in fact,
the Rabbit is the great fur-producing animal of the
kingdom. The skins are called Wilds, and are sorted

RABBIT. 281

into wholes and halves, quarters, racks, and suckers, the
northern districts producing, as usual, the largest, best
furred, and most expensive skins.

The skins for felting are first cut open, then washed,
the longer hairs then pulled off by women furnished
with long wooden knives. The fur is then cut off by
machinery, and afterwards sorted, and blown by air.
The fur of the back, ribs, cheeks and tail is sold
separately, and by the pound. The price for the best
Coney back wool is 5s. to 7s. 6d. per lb.

The pelt is sold for making gelatine, jujubes, ete.

Coney wool is chiefly used in New York for the
manufacture of felt hats. It felts, or adheres together,
with great readiness. The fur is placed in small hand-
fuls into a tray, whence it passes through the blower,
which drives the fur on to a revolving copper disc. The
fur gradually accumulates, and forms a thick covering,
which is removed, and washed, and is then ready for
making soft felt hats.

A certain number of skins are “‘ carroted ”’ or silvered ;
that is, brushed with acid before cutting.

About 2,000,000 Rabbit skins are used annually for
cutting. Fur-cutting was practised as early as the
year 1667.

About twenty to thirty years ago, wild Rabbits were
introduced into Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand.

At first a few bales of skins were sent to London
annually, but now from 400 to 1,500 bales are sold by
public auction six times a year. In October, 1891, there
were as many as 2,025 bales offered. As each bale of
fair quality skins contains 200 to 250 dozen skins, and
inferior bales contain many more on an average, the
enormous quantity of 15,000,000 to 20,000,000 skins
is imported annually.

282 RODENTIA.

The skins are sold by the pound, and only the samples
‘ are counted, as the cost of counting the skins would
render the business unprofitable. The best skins weigh
13 lbs. per dozen; the fair average 1% to 23 lbs.; the
medium 14 to 2}; and the suckers } to 4.

The following lst shows the number of bales of
Rabbit skins from Australia and New Zealand offered
for sale in London during the last twelve years :—

In 1880 ... 3,250 bales | In 1886 ... 3,858 bales
7 L881"":.2 BO8Oeg 4 0 ee SS) hese
» 1862, 02 B61l0h,-\ |. 45, U688il.<-5/800Kee
5s USGS Be250 Ai by 1) (A USBOME GS
PERE tee SARE ote i A890, S088 ie

{plSB5nteMibsAS8 0 sl) (160i ape

The Rabbit exists in the greatest auanenie: in New
Zealand. Vast numbers are killed for tinning by the
Meat Preserving Companies, and it is asserted that
these even refuse to take more than 2,000 pairs a day.
They are tinned with the small bones, and are con-
sequently more palatable than most other tinned meats.
Large quantities of these tinned Rabbits are imported,
and are much appreciated by seamen.

The numbers in New Zealand are so prodigious, that
extensive tracts of pasture-land have become useless,
and unsaleable.

A correspondent of Nature thus writes ;—‘‘ The Rabbit
plague has become so severe that 1,346,554 acres have
been surrendered to the Crown on account, the loss of
revenue being £32,803. The Rabbit has simply
devastated whole tracts of country, rendering the land
unfit for pasturage. During August, 1887, the Rabbit
Inspectors travelled 20,202 miles, and destroyed
2,069,128 Rabbit scalps, and from January Ist to
August 1st they destroyed 10,588,778 scalps.”

RABBIT. 283

It is said that 1s. 3d. is the price for killing a Rabbit
in Australia, and 690 persons are said to be engaged in
this way. Sums of £40,000 and £50,000 have been
paid annually to exterminate them, and matters have
become so serious that a Rabbit Department has been
for some years in existence in the colony. In 1887,
the sum of £25,000 was offered by the Government of
New South Wales for any method for the effectual
extermination of Rabbits not previously known. 1,400
schemes were brought out, but none seem to have met
with success.

Weasels, Stoats, and Cats have been imported at
considerable expense, but with no permanent benefit.
Mr. Pasteur suggested the plan of spreading chicken
cholera among the Rabbits, but on experimenting it was
found that the infection did not spread to other animals.
A recent effort has been made to reduce the numbers
by suffocating them in their holes with gas, and
bisulphide of carbon has also been tried. A plan that
has been attempted with a certain amount of success,
is to kill the does, and liberate the bucks, the latter
then fighting together, and killing one another. Wire-
netting fences seems to be the best remedy. It is said
that Australian Rabbits have recently developed the
power of climbing trees, and of making their nests in
shrubs, and the claws are said to have become longer
and more slender.

New Zealand produces skins of good quality, but the
fur of Tasmanian and Australian skins is much inferior
to English and Scotch. The hair on the back has
become much darker in most districts, but the general
colour is lighter, and the skin much thinner than the
English Rabbit.

The majority of Australian skins are used for felting,

284 RODENTIA.

but some are dyed black. The New Zealand skins are
shipped from Port Otago or Dunedin, and the
Tasmanian from Hobart Town, the latter being the
only skins imported with the head and ears.

The Silver-grey Rabbit was also introduced into
Australia, but the fur in some districts has become
lighter than the English variety. The skins of these
are used exclusively for fur.

Fawn-coloured wild Rabbits are occasionally met with
in England. Many black animals are found, and are
especially numerous in Gloucestershire, and parts of
Surrey. In Lincolnshire many warrens of the Silver-grey
variety, called Silvers, are found, and they are surrounded
with brick walls to prevent intermixture with the ordinary
grey. There is an extensive one at Normanby, near
Brigg, Lincolnshire, formerly belonging to Sir R. Shef-
field, and now owned by Colonel Ingles. This variety is
grey, or black, more or less beautifully furnished with
longer white hairs; the under fur is blue. This colour
is called ‘‘ Silvers,” when the top white hairs are
abundant ; ‘‘ Sprints,’ when there are a few vestiges of
white hairs; and ‘‘ Blacks,” when these are altogether
absent. An extremely rare very light-grey variety,
called ‘‘ Doves,’’ is sometimes found in these warrens.

The skins of the Silver-grey Rabbit were at one time
in great demand for China and Russia, the price then
realized being very remunerative, but now they are
almost unsaleable in these markets.

In France, and also in England, there is a very
peculiar variety called ‘‘ Jardiniére ;”’ this is half black,
half deep grey, the peculiar distribution of colour being
quite unique.

Silver-grey Rabbits, probably tame, of large size, and
of a beautiful light colour, are produced in the centre of

RABBIT. 285

Franee. The skins are bought and dressed by French
houses, and sold to English, French, and German
merchants. Many of these animals seem almost to
revert to the white type, and are called ‘‘ Millers.”

Blue Rabbits are extensively met with in France, and
Belgium.

Fawn varieties are common in all the fore-mentioned
countries.

White Rabbits are very abundant in Poland. In this
country they are generally called Himalayan Rabbits.
They are quite wild, and are kept in large warrens.
They are small, and generally have a smut on the nose
or tail; the tail is drab, or dark drab, and is brown, and
sometimes black, at the tip. They are sometimes marked
with grey spots. The Polish skins are produced in large
quantities, and are used for coat-linings, linings of shoes,
cloves, ete., and for making boas. Many are also used
for clerical vestments in England, instead of Ermine.
The Australian skins, except those from Melbourne, are
opened at the head and tail, the ears are removed, and
the skins are stretched on wire, cleaned, and dried.

The Tame or Hutch Rabbit is much larger than its
wild brother, and it varies more in colour, mottled,
black and white, black, white, fawn, grey, and silver-
erey being very abundant. ‘The fawns have usually
white bellies, and a white under fur. Dove and drab-
coloured animals are very rare, and have usually white
bellies. Lynx-coloured and dark tabby are still rarer,
especially the former; scarcely one is found in 4,000
skins. In these the ground-colour is deep blue, and
the top hairs are yellow and white.

In the domesticated state the ears grow longer, and
become pendant, and this formation has become a fancy,
some ears even measuring 233 inches in length, and 6}

286 RODENTIA.

in breadth. The lops and half lops were once much
admired, but the fancy seems to have languished of late
years. Many of the old-fashioned Rabbit Clubs are now
defunct, and the size of the Rabbit has depreciated in
consequence. Rabbit-rearing is a favourite pastime
with many people, especially boys. The very fine lop
ears are rather delicate, and are often kept warm by
means of gas stoves. The open-hutch rearing of Rabbits
appears not to be very successful. These hutches are
open at the bottom with the exception of wire netting,
and are placed on the grass. The position has to be
changed from time to time, as occasion requires. The
females have a special compartment for breeding. A
Rabbit-hutch is easily made out of an old cask or case,
a division being made for a sleeping apartment, and an
aperture being made at the back to keep it sweet, and
to enable it to be cleaned. The hutch scrapings furnish
an excellent manure. Hutches are sometimes made in
tiers. Tame Rabbits should be handled as little as
possible.

The food of the tame Rabbit consists of cabbages,
lettuces, parsley, sow-thistle, dandelion, grass, and, in
fact, everything of a vegetable nature. These may be
varied with oats and bran, and, when kindling, a few
tea-leaves will be of great advantage to the doe. Water
should rarely be given. The tame Rabbit lives to the
age of eight or nine years. The doe breeds when six
months old, and makes her nest in a circular form,
lining it with the fur torn from her own breast. The
young are born quite naked and blind. When disturbed,
the mother often devours her offspring. The time of
sestation is thirty days, and there are four to six, some-
times eight or ten, and even eighteen in a litter. Differ-
ently coloured young are often found in the same litter

RABBIT. 287

of tame Rabbits. The buck isa strong animal. He
fights with courage, and deals severe blows to his adver-
sary ; when jumping over his back, pieces of fur often
being knocked out. We have witnessed a very curious
fight between a Cock and a tame silver-grey buck
Rabbit, the latter invariably getting the best of the
encounter.

Rabbits are subject to several diseases in captivity,
amongst which snuffles is one of the commonest. This
is caused by wet and damp, and dry food and warmth
are the best remedies. They are sometimes made ill
by over-feeding, and diarrhoea is also prevalent in damp
localities. The price of a tame Rabbit varies from 1s.
tu 6s., but good lops and superior sorts fetch 5 to 20
guineas each.

The old-fashioned Rabbit-man, with dead Rabbits
slung on a stick across his shoulder, is now rarely seén.

The quantity of tame Rabbit skins imported into this
country is very great. From 50,000 to 80,000 dozen
dyed skins are imported into London from France and
Belgium, and, besides this, many are sent direct from
these countries to the United States, Germany, etc.
The total annual collection of French and Belgian skins
is about 2,000,000; but these are not all of Flemish
origin, as many skins are exported in the raw state
from England and Scotland, the cost of dressing and
dyeing being so much less abroad. The annual
collection of English skins is about 30,000,000. About
110,000 ewt. of Rabbit carcases are imported annually,
the value of which is about £30,000.

The Belgian skins are taken off the bodies of the Ostend
Rabbits, so familiar to the Londoner as an article of food.
Many thousands of these tame Rabbits are imported
annually, but, although large, the flavour is insipid.

288 RODENTIA.

Most of the above-mentioned skins are dyed brown
or black. They are sometimes clipped and dyed dark-
brown as initation Fur Seal, or clipped and dyed black,
or they are dyed as imitation Beaver, and a few are
dyed light-brown; in fact, the fur of the Rabbit is used
more extensively than any other fur, except that of
the Musk-rat and Squirrel. It exceeds these in size,
is very cheap, and is of almost universal use, being
employed on the Continent, in North America, and
some also in Australia. The fur is, however, not
otherwise desirable, as it soon wears out. Some white
skins are clipped and dyed Snowflake, the ground of
the fur being dyed, and having the tips of the hair
white.

Rabbit fur is used for capes, trimmings, caps, boas,
mufis, imitation Seal bags, and edgings for boots and
cloves. Some are also made into round balls for fringes
to garments, and hat and bonnet ornaments. Natural
skins, blue and white, are used for hats, glove-linings,
and other purposes. Many skins are used for cutting ;
and the clipped skins, dyed brown, are used for the
mantles and caps of watermenin England. Some skins
are exported to the United States, Canada, and Japan.

The fur of the tame Rabbit varies in strength in the
various colours; thus the grey are the strongest, the |
fawn rank next, then the mottled, the black, and last of
all the white.

When collected by the scavenger, or rag and bones
collector, a skin is exchanged for a halfpenny, or orange,
or at most a penny. A certain number being thus
obtained, they are sold to collectors, who sell them
again to dyers or merchants.

It is quite a sight to enter the warehouse of a Rabbit-
skin collector. Thousands of skins hang from the roof,

RABBIT. 289

and the piles of sorted and unsorted skins are striking
in their numbers. Raw skins have a peculiar, rather
nauseous odour.

Rabbit skins are sorted into wholes, halves, quarters,
racks, and suckers, or very small skins. The _half-
seasoned have a small black patch on the pelt. The
quarters are three-quarters black, and the racks are
quite black.

The English flayed skins, both wild and tame, are
merely cut halfway down the belly, and turned inside
out, forming a sort of pocket. The price of Coney wool
(Rabbit Fur) is 5s. to 7s. per lb. for best Coney back.

A curious custom practised in olden times at Bidden-
ham, a village in Bedfordshire, was mentioned some
time ago in the Standard. It took place on September
22nd, which was called Rabbit Day, and the last
celebration is believed to have been in 1840.

‘A little procession of villagers carry a white Rabbit,
decorated with scarlet ribbons, through the village,
singing a hymn in honour of St. Agatha. All the
young unmarried women who chance to meet the pro-
cession extend the first two fingers of the left hand
pointing towards the Rabbit, at the same time repeating
the following doggerel :—

‘ Gastin, Gastin lacks a bier,
Maidens, maidens, bury him here.’

This ceremony is said to date from the year of the
first Crusade.”’

290 UNGULATA.

MAMMALIA. UNGULATA.

BUFFALO, OR AMERICAN BISON.

Bison americanus.
French: Bison. German: Buffel.

The Buffalo, so well known and so abundant some
twenty to thirty years ago, 1s now hardly more numerous
than the European type (Bison bonasus). This latter,
misnamed the Aurochs, is now confined toa few forests
in Lithuania, one herd at Bielostock in Poland, and a
few are still seen in a wild state in the Caucasus, and
perhapsin the Urals. It is very similar to the American
Bison, but is decidedly taller and larger.

The total quantity is not reckoned at more than 400.
The American Bison is reduced to a few scattered herds

BUFFALO. 291

in the Dominion of Canada, such as a_ partly
domesticated herd at Stony Mountains; there 127
animals have recently been sold to Mr. Jones, Kansas
city, and perhaps a few near Peace River. In the
United States about 300 are said to exist in the Yellow-
stone Park in the province of Wyoming. There are
also still a few remaining in the Indian Territory; a
few Wood-buffalo are occasionally seen near the Great
Slave Lake; and some are still found in the moun-
tainous parts of Mexico. In 1889 there were said to
be barely 500 Bison in the United States, and 1,000 in
Canada. The Buffalo formerly existed in countless
herds in North America, although, like the Red Indian, it
has been driven east of the Mississippi, or exterminated
some eighty years ago. The yearly migrations or
wanderings of these mighty beasts tended to inter-
mingle the breed, and continue the race. Many were,
however, drowned in crossing rivers. Their diminution
was chiefly caused by the hide-slaughterers, who recklessly
killed this noble animal, not merely for the sake of its
robe, but also for the leather, leaving the carcase to rot
on the plains. The majority were killed in the summer.
All the many years of hunting by Indians and white
men did not make such havoc as the railways and hide-
slaughterers. From 1871 to 1874 it is estimated that
between 4,000,000 and 4,500,000 animals were killed.
In 1881 to 1882, 250,000 hides were taken in Montana,
and sent chiefly from Miles City. In 1884, a large trade
was done by collecting and selling the heaps of Buffalo
bones found on the prairies, and which they piled at the
railway stations. These piles were often 20 feet high,
and 50 to 60 feet long. These bones were sold for
grinding for manure, and other purposes. In the
regular Fall hunts, a great many hunters banded
u 2

299, UNGULATA.

together, and took carts with them. These hunted and
killed the Bison by thousands, in order to obtain the
meat and robes. During the construction of the
Kansas Pacific Railway, many were slaughtered to feed
the labourers. This line divided the large Buffalo herd
into two portions.

The male Buffalo is from 43 to 5 feet high at the
shoulders, but the hind-quarters are much lower. The
tail is rather short, and furnished with a thick tuft of
black hair. The head and shoulders are covered with a
dense mane of rather curly dark brown hair, giving to
the Bison a grand and savage appearance. In some
animals the hair grows between the horns to the great
length of 153 to 16 inches, and in some the side hair
extends down to the knees. The beard or dewlap is
rather long, generally from 3 to 5 inches, and in aged
animals it is grizzled. The horns are short, and but
slightly curved. They vary somewhat in length, some
being stunted, and only 5 to 6 inches long, whilst others
attain nearly a foot. In some males the horns are
much worn and blunted. The skull is broader than
that of the domestic cattle, and the muzzle is short
and broad. ‘The general colour is drab-brown. The
hair is thick, rather coarse, and covered with longer
dense hairs. In summer the coat is lighter. The
female is smaller, fleeter, and more gentle in appearance
than the male, and has also horns, but only a very
slight mane.

The Bison bears a certain resemblance to the Sussex
and Devon cattle, in shortness of tail, large size of fore-
quarters, and in colour, especially to the Sussex.

Schoolcraft says that the Bison works excellently
when broken to the plough. It has a peculiar habit,
similar to the Reindeer, of scraping away the snow with

BUFFALO. 293

its hoofs to get at the dry grass underneath. The
Buffalo has been known to live over twenty-five years in
captivity.

The fur or hair is very warm, and was much prized
and used by the Red Indians for robes, tent-coverings,
boats, mocassins, etc.; by the white man it was con-
sidered as the most serviceable sleigh-robe, even if not
the warmest.

Dr. Richardson says that the hair has been woven
into excellent cloths or wrappers; a Company was
started in 1822 at Winnipeg, called the Buffalo Wool
Company, the capital of £2,000 was nearly subscribed,
but the Company. soon became bankrupt.

The yearly collection of Buffalo robes was very
large; in Catlin’s time it reached 150,000 to 200,000
annually; subsequently the quantity fell to 180,000.
One firm, that of Pierre Chouteau and Co., collected
alone 50,000 annually. The Hudson’s Bay Company’s
collection amounted to about 30,000 per annum; these
were usually sold in Montreal. In 1879 the collection in
the United States was 50,000 robes. In’ the same year
2,239 raw Buffalo skins were imported into London,
besides 439 dressed robes. The former sold at 6s. to 10s.
each, but since that date no raw skins have been sent.
In 1885 only 1,000 skins were collected in the North-west.

This extensive trade has now entirely ceased.

The North American Indian excelled all others in
dressing these skins. The hides were first steeped in a
liquid, they were then shaved with the scapula bone of
the Buffalo, the squaws rubbing in the brains at the
same time to soften it. Beautiful designs and figures
were often painted on the skins.

The price of a Buffalo robe was about 20s. to 35s. ;
the few now collected realize about £4.

294 UNGULATA.

Bison heads are also much sought for.

Taking the number of horned cattle in the United
States as about 50,000,000, and as about 3,500,000 in
the Dominion of Canada, we should estimate at a guess
that on the discovery of America there could not have
been less than 60,000,000 Buffaloes at that time,
probably even 80,000,000.

Extensive cattle ranches now occupy the vast tracts
which were the chief home of the Bison. To these cattle,
more or less fierce, pedigree shorthorns were intro-
duced to improve the breed; but as their constitution
was not well adapted to the climate, this cross has been
superseded by the Hereford, which has in its time given
way to the Aberdeen or Angus. The cross with this
latter breed would probably suit the climate best, owing
to their thicker coat and more robust frame. The ranches
owners’ losses would then be lessened, which are now
very great in a severe winter.

The flesh of the Buffalo is very good; the hump is
excellent, and the flesh of the cow is even more
succulent and juicy. The tongue is delicious. Some
fifteen or twenty years ago, a few tongues were imported,
and though they were sold at 5s. each, they were con-
sidered a great delicacy, the flavour being very rich and
delicate. Some thirty or forty years ago, a few humps
were imported, but they are now quite unknown.

The Bison appears to be merely a woolly variety of
the domestic cattle. It interbreeds freely with the
Gayal and domestic cattle, and the offspring from these
crosses is fertile ; and as the Gayal also interbreeds with
the domestic cattle, it might be argued from these
results that they are all varieties of the same species.

The North-west Buffalo Breeding Company was formed
in the United States in 1886. The object was to inter-

BUFFALO. 295

breed with selected native or Scotch cattle, and the
chief points aimed at were superiority of the flesh, coat,
and head.

A white Buffalo was very rare. A skin of this colour
was highly prized by the Indians, who would pay several
horses for it.

The Buffalo was killed or captured in several ways
by the Indians, who sometimes pursued them on horse-
back, sometimes drove them into pounds, usually con-
structed in winter, at others clothed themselves in white
Wolf skins, and approaching the herd in this disguise,
picked out the best animals. In winter they glided over
the snow in pursuit of the Bison on snow-shoes, and
then killed their huge victims, who were floundering
slowly through the drifts. The Buffalo was then every-
thing to the Indian—out of his flesh he made pemmican
(pounded flesh, mixed with melted fat, and enclosed in
Buffalo-skin) ; out of the hide he made tent-coverings,
robes, etc.; the bones were used for spoons and the
manure for fuel. The Buffalo Dance was one of the
characteristic dances of the Indians. They put on
Buffalo heads, and imitated very cleverly the movements
of that animal. This dance was continued day and
night, until the Buffalo appeared. Spreading a Buffalo-
robe on the ground was a sign of peace.

Catlin. writing in 1866, in his “ North American
Indians” (vol. i. p. 248), says :—

‘‘These animals are, truly speaking, gregarious, but
not migratory—they graze in immense and almost in-
credible numbers at times, and roam about and over
vast tracts of country, from East to West, and from
West to East, as often as from North to South; which
has often been supposed they naturally and habitually
did to accommodate themselves to the temperature of

296 UNGULATA.

the climate in the different latitudes. The limits within
which they are found in America, are from the thirtieth
degree to the fifty-fifth degree of North latitude; and
their extent from East to West, which is from the
border of our extreme Western frontier limits to the
Western verge of the Rocky Mountains, is defined by
quite different causes than those which the degrees of
temperature have prescribed to them on the North and
the South. Within these twenty-five degrees of latitude
the Buffaloes seem to flourish, and get their living with-
out the necessity of evading the rigour of the climate
for which Nature seems most wisely to have prepared
them by the greater or less profusion of fur with which
she has clothed them. .

“Tt is very evident that as high North as Lake
Winnipeg, seven or eight hundred miles North of this,
the Buffalo subsists itself through the severest winters ;
getting its food chiefly by browsing amongst the timber,
and by pawing through the snow for a bite at the grass,
which in those regions is frozen up very suddenly in the
beginning of the winter, with all its juices in it, and
consequently furnishes very nutritious and efficient
food; and often, if not generally, supporting the animal
in better flesh during these difficult seasons of their
lives than they are found to be in, in the thirtieth degree
of latitude, upon the borders of Mexico, where the
severity of winter is not known, but during a long and
tedious autumn the herbage, under the influence of a
burning sun, is gradually dried away to a mere husk,
and its nutriment gone, leaving these poor creatures,
even in the dead of winter, to bask in the warmth of a
genial sun, without the benefit of a green or juicy thing
to bite at.

“The place from which lam now writing may be

BUFFALO. 297

said to be the very heart or nucleus of the Buffalo
country, about equidistant between the two extremes;
and, of course, the most congenial temperature for them
to flourish in. The finest animals which graze on the
plains are to be found in this latitude; and I am sure
I never could send from a better source, some further
account of the death and destruction that is dealt
among these noble animals, and hurrying on their final
extinction.

“The Sioux are a bold and desperate race of horse-
men, and great hunters; and in the heart of their
country is one of the most extensive assortments of goods,
of whiskey, and other valuable commodities, as well as a
party of the most indefatigable men, who are constantly
calling for every robe that can be stripped from the
animals’ backs.

“These are the causes which lead so directly to their
rapid destruction; and which open to the view of the
traveller so freshly, so vividly, and so familiarly, the
scenes of archery—of lancing, and of death-dealing, that
belong peculiarly to this wild and shorn country.

‘““The almost countless herds of these animals that are
sometimes met with on the prairies have often been spoken
of by other writers, and may yet be seen by any traveller
who will take the pains to visit these regions. The
‘running season,’ which is in August and September,
is the time when they congregate into such masses in
some places as literally to blacken, the prairies for miles
round. Itisno uncommon thing at this season, at these
gatherings, to see several thousands in a mass, eddying
and wheeling about under a cloud of dust, which is
raised by the bulls as they are pawing in the dirt, or
engaged in desperate combats, as they constantly are,
plunging and butting at each other in the most furious

298 UNGULATA.

manner. In these scenes, the males are continually
following the females, and the whole mass are in constant
motion ; and all bellowing (or ‘roaring’) in deep and
hollow sounds; which, mingled altogether, appear, at
the distance of a mile or two, like the sound of distant
thunder.

‘During the season, whilst they are congregated
together in these dense and confused masses, the
remainder of the country around for many miles
becomes entirely vacated; and the traveller may spend
many a toilsome day and many a hungry night, without
being cheered by the sight of one; whilst, if he retraces
his steps a few weeks after, he will find them dispersed,
and grazing quietly in little families and flocks, and
equally stocking the whole country. ‘A bull in his
wallow,’ is a frequent saying in this country; and has a
very significant meaning with those who have ever seen
a Buffalo bull performing ablution, or rather endeay-
ouring to cool his heated sides, by tumbling about in a
mud-puddle.

‘“‘In the heat of summer, these huge animals, which
no doubt suffer very much with the great profusion of
their long and shaggy hair or fur, often graze on the low
grounds of the prairies, where there is a little stagnant
water lying amongst the grass, and the ground under-
neath, being saturated with it, is soft, into which the
enormous bull, lowered down upon one knee, will
plunge his horns, and at last his head, driving up the
earth, and soon making an excavation in the ground, into
which the water filters from amongst the grass, forming
for him in a few moments a cool and comfortable bath,
into which he plunges like a hog in his mire.”

Washington Irving, in his “ Astoria” (Missouri

tiver), p. 96, narrates :— .

BUFFALO. 299

“The bodies of drowned Buffaloes floated past
them in vast numbers; many had drifted on the shore,
or against the upper ends of the rafts and islands.
These had attracted great flights of Turkey-buzzards.”’
Richardson and other writers state that there is a wood
variety of this species; there is also a mountain variety in
the province of Zacetecas in Mexico; these, as would be
supposed, have long and thick hair or fur on the belly ;
tail like the Yak, very thick and full. This might well
be inferred from the elevated regions where they live.
A similar example is the Guerza or Abyssinian Monkey.

Chateaubriand, p. 351, narrates—

“That the Bison has irregular times of migration :
one does not know where it goes, but it appears that it
goes further North in summer, since it is found on the
confines of the Great Slave Lake. Perhaps it also
reaches the Rocky Mountains of the West and the
plains of New Mexico on the South. The Bisons are so
numerous on the green steppes of the Missouri that,
when they migrate, the herd take several days defiling,
like an immense army ; their footsteps are heard several
miles off, and one feels the earth tremble.”

The Bison does not thrive very well in this country, a
dry climate suits it best; it suffers very much from fogs.
A magnificent bull lived for many years in Manchester.

A similar variety of cattle, also called Bison by many,
but more generally known as the Gaur (Bos Gaurus),
inhabits the Himalayas and other parts of India; it
resembles the American type in its short curled but
blacker hair; its horns are longer and nearly as thick ;
its legs are, however, white.

300 UNGULATA.

YAK.
Poephagus gunniens.
French: Yack. German: Grunzochse.

The Yak inhabits Nepaul, the mountains of Tibet,
and other mountainous parts of the Chinese Empire.

It is a peculiar, and somewhat ungainly-looking beast,
this appearance being partly caused by the thick growth
of long hair under its body. This undergrowth is no
doubt produced by the snow, and protects its body from
the cold ground. The Yak, like other cattle, is some-
times horned and sometimes polled. It resembles the
North American bison in having the fore-quarters con-
siderably higher than the hind, and it has also a slight
hump on its back. The colour is black, white, or grey.
The tail is extremely thick and bushy, and the hairs are
of great length, about 25 inches long. Many tails are
imported for the manufacture of wigs, etc., about 3,400
animals being killed annually. The white are in
sreatest demand, being used for white peruques and for
the tassels in the harness of cavalry, and are worth
2s. 6d. to 38s. 6d. The black and grey are less in
request for wigs, and fetch 4s. and 2s. respectively.
The hair is sold for commercial purposes ; the hide also
is used in trade.

The Yak is sometimes ridden, or used as a beast of
burden, and its milk is very good. It breeds in confine-
ment in this country, and is readily crossed with other
cattle, such as Gayals, Zebus, Bison, ete.

The grunt of the Yak is very like that of the Pig.

301

MUSK-OX.
Ovibos moschatus.
French: Beuf musqué. German: Bisamstier.

The Musk-Ox approaches so closely to the Sheep in
its habits, that, until a specimen has been dissected, it
is impossible to rightly determine its place in a work of
Natural History. It may probably be found to be a
large northern woolly variety of Sheep, of the original
brown colour, such as is seen in the Shetland and Ice-
land Sheep. The texture of the wool of all these also
resemble one another in the intermixture of Jong hairs
in the wool. The so-called Musk-Ox inhabits the
extreme northern portion of North-East Greenland, and
the Dominion of Canada, including Chesterfield Inlet
and Melville Island. It is not very abundant, yet is
only surpassed in numbers in these regions by the Hare,
and Lemming, and perhaps the Arctic Fox.

This animal is from 3 to 4 feet high. The general
colour is dark brown. The body is covered with long,
thick, brown wool, with extremely long dark brown hair
on the flank, head and tail, these hairs reaching almost
to its feet. The feet are generally white. The Musk-
Ox has probably the thickest, densest covering of any
living animal, being almost impenetrable to the cold.
The skin is thick. The horns are rather short, curved,
and very thick at the base. There is often a beautiful
hump of fur on the shoulders, about 4 inches long.
The flesh is highly prized by the northern explorers,

302 UNGULATA.

although at certain seasons it is said to have a musk-
like flavour.

In Grinnell Land, 100 animals were killed by the
Greely Expedition, whilst as many as 200 were seen ;
this would therefore seem a favoured locality. The
dwarf willow grows here one inch high, and dense
masses of saxifrage, and the Musk-Ox thrives on both
of these. Many Musk-Ox were also met with in the
Nares Expedition, and they were sometimes found in
herds of nine animals. 1,358 skins were sold by the
Hudson’s Bay Company in 1891, fetching 6s. to 120s.
The skin of this animal is much appreciated, and
deservedly so, by the Canadians for the manufacture of
fine sleigh-robes. The hair was once made into excel-
lent gloves, but is now too expensive to be of any
practical use. In the Barren Lands, the Musk-Ox is
said to be hunted by the Esquimaux with dogs, who
collect them into a herd.

H. W. Fielden, in his ‘‘ Voyage to the Polar Sea,”’
vol. 11. p. 200, says :—“‘ In the month of August, 1875, we
met with abundant traces of the Musk-Ox in the valley
of the Twin Glacier, leading inland from the shore of
Buchanan Strait. I noticed where these animals had
been sheltering themselves under the lee of big boulders,
as sheep do on bleak hill-sides, and that the same spots
were frequently occupied was shown by the _ holes
tramped out by the animals, and the large quantities of
their long soft wool which was scattered around.

‘‘Tt is an animal by no means fitted to travel through
the deep snow which blocks up the heads of all these
valleys. On one occasion, in Westward Ho! Valley, in
the month of May, Lieutenant Egerton and I came
across fresh tracks of this animal m soft snow, through
which it had sunk belly-deep, ploughing out a path and

MUSK-OX. 303

leaving fragments of wool behind in its struggles. Its
progression under such circumstances is similar to that
of a snow-plough. We noticed that spots on hill-sides
where the snow lay only a few inches deep had been
selected for feeding-grounds, the snow having been
pushed away in furrows banked up at the end, as if the
head and horns of the animal had been used for the
task ; a few blades of grass and roots of willow showed
on what they had been feeding. The dung of the Musk-
Ox, though usually dropped in pellets like sheep or deer,
is very often undistinguishable from that of the genus
Bos. No person, however, watching this animal in a
state of nature, could fail to see how essentially ovine
are its actions. When alarmed they gather together
like a flock of sheep herded by a collie dog, and the way
in which they pack closely together, and follow blindly
the vacillating leadership of the old ram is unquestion-
ably sheep-like. When thoroughly frightened they take
to the hills, ascending precipitous slopes, and scaling
rocks with great agility.”

Dr. Richardson, ‘‘ Northern Zoology,” p. 277, says :—
‘Its foot-prints are very similar to those of the Caribou,
but are rather longer and narrower. These oxen
assemble in herds of from twenty to thirty, rut about
the end of August and beginning of September, and
bring forth one calf about the latter end of May or
beginning of June.”

304 UNGULATA.

WEST AFRICAN STRIPED DEER.

The skins of this small and beautifully marked animal
have only been met with during the year 1887.

It probably inhabits Sierra Leone and the West Coast
of Africa.

Its general colour is brown, with fourteen or fifteen
long and rather triangular black stripes; the two last,
nearest the tail, are joined by a black bar ; the hair is
short and harsh.

HARNESSED ANTELOPE.
Tragelaphus scriptus.

This Antelope is about 23 feet high, and 3} feet in
length. The colour is a beautiful rich orange-brown,
marked with white irregular markings disposed some-
what in the form of a square, and from which it
derives its name of Harnessed Antelope. The horns
are small and triangular. The ears are long. There is
a white spot underneath the eyes. There are also two
white spots on the neck, one at the knees of the fore-
legs, and two just above each hoof, all these giving the
animal a very beautiful appearance.

A few skins of the Harnessed Antelope are imported
with Monkey skins, and they are principally used for
leather, although, from the quaint markings, it would
make up well for fur.

This animal, which is also called the Harness Deer,
inhabits the West Coast of Africa.

SPRING-BOK.
Gazella euchore.

The Spring-bok, or Springer Antelope, is a very beau-
tiful and graceful creature. It inhabits the Cape and
southern parts of Africa in rather considerable numbers.
It is still numerous within the boundaries of the colony,
and is fairly abundant on the Great Karroo, and Great
Bushman land; in the former country the herds consist
of 25,000 to 30,000 animals.

The Spring-bok is about 2 feet in length, and is
beautifully marked. The general colour of the back is
a delicate light brown, terminating in a dark brown
horizontal stripe on each side; beyond this the belly is
pure white. There is a ridge of long, white, bristly
hairs, from 38 to 4 inches long, running along the
hinder part of the back. The tail is black. The horns
are short, ringed, and curved inwards lke a lyre.

The Spring-bok derives its name from its power of
leaping. One mode of hunting these animals is to
drive them towards the sportsmen.

Some 10,000 skins or more are imported annually.

Many skins are made into excellent glove-leather, and
a few are manufactured into robes. The price of good
skins 1s about 9d. per lb., amounting to about 1s. 3d.
per skin.

306 UNGULATA.

SNOW ANTELOPE.
Keruas hodgsoni.

The Snow Antelope is also called the Chiru. It is a
very rare and curious animal, inhabiting the high
mountainous ridges of Nepaul, and part of the
Himalayas. As might be expected, from these elevated
and exposed regions, the hair is brittle, coarse and thick.
It is of a greyish-white, which is also the general colour
of the body. The head is marked with black, and the
forepart of the legs is also black. The horns are very
long and beautiful, about 23 feet, ringed at the base, and
curving slightly forwards; they spring in a slanting
direction from the head; these, seen in profile, give the
appearance of one horn. The nose is thick, and is
covered with short hairs. The earsare short and sheep-lke.
The skin is thick, and there are two peculiar glands on
the shoulders. The upper incisors are wanting, and
are replaced by a plate of bone; the under incisors are
numerous.

INDIAN ANTELOPE.
Antilope cervicapra.

This small, graceful Antelope inhabits India, where
it is tolerably abundant. It is about 2 feet in height.
The male is of a dark brown colour; the belly and
insides of leg are white; the top of the head and ears
are a light fawn colour; the muzzle whitish; there is
a white mark above and around the eyes, and the rest of
the head is deep maroon. The tailis short. The colour of

INDIAN ANTELOPE. 307

female is light brown. The horns are about 1 foot in
length, ringed and beautifully twisted. We have seen a
very fine specimen which measured 25} inches in length.
Some of the skins imported are used for tanning ; a few
are dressed and sometimes used by furriers.

The Indian Antelope is often hunted in India by
Cheetahs; both male and female are hunted, and the
flesh is good eating. It is the regimental crest of the
6th Royal Warwickshire Regiment, and is sometimes
called the Black Buck.

BLESS-BOK.
Alcelaphus albifrons.

This rather large Antelope was once much more
numerous than it is at the present day, and it is said to
be now extinct in Cape Colony. Its habitat is South
Africa. A comparatively small number of skins are
now imported; in fact, this skin has almost ceased to
be an article of commerce. The colour is dark pink on
the back, merging into a drab-brown, and the belly is
lighter.

The Bonte-bok has often been described under this
name.

The skins of the Bless-bok make excellent leather,
and at one time were chiefly bought by skin-merchants,
but they are now in the hands of hide and leather brokers.

In 1878, 12,000 skins were sold in London, and 3,915
in 1886. These fetch about the following prices :—

Large skins, 50 to 65 lbs. per doz., 9d. to 11d. per Ib.

Middling ,, 338 to 43 _,, ye Ode todd: Fe

Dry damaged 23 to 30. ,, a Uh Gdetonitd: “
Ke

308 UNGULATA.

GNU.
Connochetes taurina.

The Gnu, so quaint in its shape, is also called the Brown
or Brindled Gnu. The hoofs are divided, like those of a
Stag. The horns are curved or hooked, and are rather
thick. The tail is like that of a horse. There isa brush
of hair above the nose, and another between the fore-
legs, and it has a bristly upright mane. It was at one
time abundant in South Africa, but its area is now
much restricted.

The White-tailed Gnu (Connochetes gnu) is a closely-
allied species.

The hides of the Gnu were at one time much sought
after. They are sorted into best heavy, best light, ete.,
and are sold by the pound, the average price being 5}d.

The Gnu is said to have been broken to the plough.

COMMON GOAT.
Capra lurcus.
French: Chévre. German: Ziege.

The Goat is found abundantly in Europe, as well as
in many other parts of the globe; in fact, it inhabits
most civilized countries. In England it is tolerably
numerous, and large herds exist in South Wales, and
are sold in the market-places at certain seasons of the
year. It might, however, be advantageously reared in
greater numbers, as it thrives well on poor land, such as

COMMON GOAT. 309

railway embankments, ete. On the Continent special
sheds are sometimes erected for Goats.

293,920 is the statistical amount of Goats in Ireland
for 1888 ; in France there were 1,505,670 in 1889 ; and
2,826,827 in Spain. The importation of Goats is pro-
hibited into Tasmania.

The colour, character, and size of the Goat vary con-
siderably. Black, white, fawn, and mottled are among
the predominant colours, and while some are smooth-
haired, others have the hair very long and coarse. A
few are hornless, and others, again, have long glands
or wattles on the neck. The horns vary considerably in
size; some are quite short, others are long, and others
are thick, close together at the base, and branching out
beautifully to the length of about 2 feet. Most Goats
have a beard of long hair, and in some this appendage
grows to about 7 inches.

Many have a growth of long shaggy hair on the hind
legs, and in the Levant Goat this measures as much as
15 inches.

The hair is very bristly; the new growth in the
summer is bright and coarse, but as the hair increases
in length, it becomes finer. The teats of the she-Goat
are long, and usually two in number. It has generally
two or three kids at a birth; four is uncommon, and five
extremely rare. The tail is short and bristly, and the
ears are soft, and not very long, and are sometimes
lopped or pendant. The Goat, especially the male, has
a habit of erecting its hair when excited or disturbed.
The he-Goat has a strong pungent smell, probably to
attract the female when at a distance.

Goats’ milk is rich and nutritious, and in Germany
they are often kept in small stalls. In Switzerland,
and many other parts of the Continent, cheeses are

310 UNGULATA.

made from Goats’ milk, two of the chief kinds being
Gruyere and Camembert. ‘Those manufactured in
Germany are highly odoriferous, and hardly as pala-
table to strangers as to the natives; these are kept
in special attics and other airy places.

The food of the Goat is vegetable. It grazes, and
also browses on shrubs, and it does great injury to
young plantations by peeling the bark from the saplings.

It thrives on water-hemlock and meadow-sweet, both
of which are injurious to cattle. It is very particular
in what it eats, smelling the proffered food, and reject-
ing anything tainted. It eats bread, apples, and even
paper with avidity.

The Goat chews the cud.

The flesh of the kid and young Goat is very
palatable, either roast or stewed, and the old Goat may
even be eaten stewed, but is not to be so_ highly
recommended.

The duty on live Goats imported into the United
States used to be 6d. from the British Dominions, and
1s. from other countries, but this duty has since been
repealed.

This animal is a splendid climber, and is very sure-
footed. It loves high and rocky districts, and on low
ground it is sometimes subject to foot-rot.

The kid is extremely frisky and playful.

The call or cry of the she-Goat is peculiar but distinct,
and that of the kid resembles it. The voice of the
he-Goat is ike a low grumbling. It is sometimes
dangerous to approach the latter, as it will butt, or
raise itself on its hind legs, and charge.

The skin of the Goat is largely used in commerce.
In order to be used for morocco and other leather, the
skins are soaked in lime-pits, and are then drawn out

COMMON GOAT. Bal

with long poles and pincers, and placed in other pits
successively. When the hair is sufficiently loosened,
the skins are taken out and unhaired, dyed various
colours with sumach, and then finished.

Goat leather is used for a great variety of purposes,
such as coach-linings, chair-covers, book-covers, etc.
Morocco leather is so called, as the skins were originally
imported from that country.

The skins of kids are dressed with eggs and plaister
of Paris, and made into gloves, boots, etc.,

The skins of the common Goat are rarely used for rugs.

The curtains of the Israelitish tabernacle were made
of Goats’ hair. Babies’ hair-brushes are made of white

Goats’ hair. Goats’ wool is used for shawls, etc.

Several million pounds of Goats’ hair or wool are
imported annually into this country.

Other Goats used for leather are the Madagascar,
Arabian, Javan, and East India. Of the latter as many
as 7,259,212 were imported tanned in 1891.

RUSSIAN GOAT.
Capra hircus.
French: Chéevre de Russie. German: Russischer
Ziege.

The Russian Goat, called also the Bear Goat by the
French (Chévre ours), differs from the foregoing in the
oreater abundance of hair, and the thickness of the
under-wool. Many are long-haired, and the predominant
colours appear to be dark brown, black, and mottled.
The majority of skins imported for fur purposes are
dyed, and used for mats, rugs, etc. Many are also
used for leather, about 20,000 being imported annually.

oe, UNGULATA.

ITALIAN GOAT.
Capra hircus.

The hair of this Goat is rather long, and silky.
Many were dyed black some ten or twelve years ago,
and sold in imitation of black Monkey, when the latter
was in such greit demand. These skins are now chiefly
used for leather.

NORWAY GOAT.
Capra hircus.

The hair of this Goat is especially adapted for the
manufacture of sporrans, on account of the length of
the hair.

ANGORA GOAT.
Capra hircus.
French: Chevre d’Angora. German: Angora Ziege.

This beautiful Goat, which produces the mohair of
commerce, inhabits the dry mountainous districts of
Asia Minor. It is rather larger than a common Goat ;
the horns are Jong and white ; the hoofs are also white ;
but its chief characteristic is its long, curly, and silky
white fleece, from 8 to 7 inches in length, hanging so
luxuriantly from the shoulders and flanks.

Black specimens are rare, and a few are occasionally
met with of a light fawn or grey colour ; but these are

ANGORA GOAT. 313

not numerous. About 3,000, sometimes more, skins are
imported annually into London ; the annual collection
is 10,000.

The value of a skin is about 12s. Some twenty years
ago 20s. was paid; at the beginning of the century even
90s. was reached. The longer-woolled skins are used
for trimmings and tassels for opera cloaks ; the shorter-
woolled are used for rugs.

For the manufacture of these skins it is essential
that no particle of grease should remain in the hair.
The skins, on arrival at the dresser’s, are therefore
soaked, and, when moist, stretched on frames and then
limed. The pelt is afterwards shaved with a circular
knife, and the next process is that of bleaching. The
skins are then either finished off, and dressed, or dyed
black, brown, or grey, as the case may be.

The bleaching of the sun is, however, far preferable to
that of the bleaching-house.

The import of mohair into London is about 190 bales.

The Angora Goat has for some years past been intro-
duced and acclimatized at Cape Colony. The quality
and length of fleece has much depreciated on account
of domestic and other influences. A certain quantity of
skins are imported annually, but the price is low.
3,071,527 Angora Goats were in Cape Colony in 1889.
In the wild state the Angora Goats are branded at the
flank.

The Field, of 8th June, 1878, remarks :—‘‘ The
climate and soil of Central Asia Minor are of extreme
dryness, with an average elevation of 2,500 feet above
the level of the sea, and an abundant growth of oak,
either in the form of trees or scrub bush, the leaves of
which furnish the Goats with their favourite food, not
only whilst green in summer, but dried for winter

814 UNGULATA.

fodder. In addition to the varieties of oak mentioned,
these plateaus grow a scanty supply of short tufted grass.
During the intense heat of summer this meagre
herbage is burnt up; but the Goats thrive and find
sustenance where any other animal would perish.”

“The flesh of mohair Goats in good condition much
resembles mutton.”

According to the same authority, about 50,000 lbs.
of mohair are imported into this country, the best
quality bales consisting of 170 lbs.

THIBET GOAT.
Capra hircus.
French: Chevre de Thibet. German: Thibet Ziege.

The Thibet Goat resembles the Angora in the fineness
of its fleece, but the length of the wool is not so great,
3 to 4 inches being the usual length. It also varies
more in colour, the chief shades being white, black, and
brown. The hair is extremely fine and soft, and it is
said that the celebrated Cashmere shawls are made from
this wool. The value of a skin varies from 3s. 6d. to 6s.,
according to demand. ‘These skins are chiefly used for
rugs and mats, and a few of the shorter-woolled skins
for dolls’ hair. About 500 to 1,000 skins are imported
annually, but the supply is spasmodic. These skins take
a dye very readily, and are dyed black, blue, red, and
brown.

B15

CAPE GOAT.
Capra hircus.

The Cape Goats are descended from the Angora, which
were imported. As they have deteriorated, they are now
used chiefly for leather, but the better skins are called
Cape Angoras, and are used for rugs and mats, although
they cannot compare with the beautiful fine fleeces of
the Asia Minor Angoras.

Several hundred thousand skins are imported annually.
In 1891 there were 1,423,030 sold in London. The
majority of the skins for leather are bought for France
and America. The Cape Angoras are chiefly consumed
by the Americans and English.

In 1889 there were 2,065,940 live Goats in Cape
Colony.

CHINA GOAT.
Capra lircus.
French: Chévre de Chine. German: Chinische Ziege.

The skins of the China Goat have only become prom-
inent as an article of commerce the last seven to ten
years, although before that time they arrived in small
quantities.

The hills and mountains of the interior of the
southern provinces of China, and of Manchooria, are
covered with vast herds of Goats. These vary con-
siderably in colour—grey, black, white, and fawn being
predominant, and mottled, grizzly, and bronze being
also met with. The length of the hair also varies

316 UNGULATA.

considerably, and in some he-Goats the hair is bristly
and coarse, whilst in others it is long, shaggy, and poor
in quality, reaching even to 7 or 8 inches. Others, again,
in the mountainous districts, have a thick, fine fleece,
although of a lighter colour. 272,709 China Goat skins
were sent to London in 1891, and sold there, to be used
in the manufacture of good leather, but the majority
are imported in the shape of rugs. In 1886 about
400,000 Goat and Kid rugs were imported, for which
supply about 1,000,000 Goats were said to be killed.

Two skins are usually made into one rug. The
Chinese dress the skins beautifully.

The grey rug is used extensively in Canada, England,
the United States, and France, chiefly for sleigh-robes,
and also for perambulator rugs, theatrical purposes, etc.
The natural black skins are used in Canada for sleigh-
robes, and the very low qualities in France for aprons.
When the black skins are dyed squirrel-tail colour or dark
brown, they make very excellent boas, and the inferior
black skins dyed black are used for common rugs. Grey
skins dyed black are used for coachmen’s collars, ete.
White Goat skins are used for a variety of purposes ;
when dyed blue they make excellent boas.

The black and grey Kids are usually imported in the
form of Mandarin robes, or crosses, as they are called.
These make excellent light boas, and the lower qualities
are used for coat-linings. The hair of the Kids is
extremely soft and silky.

The under fur or wool of this Goat is largely used in
commerce, and is sometimes even extracted from the

rugs.

MONGOLIAN GOAT.
Capra hircus.
German: Kosoll.

It is only of recent years that the Mongolian Goat
has been at all widely known or used in trade. The
skins of these Goats were first imported about seven or
eight years ago, as robes, which fetched £4 to £10 each,
but in the last few years the importation of these skins
has increased to a very large extent. About 30,000 to
80,000 skins are now imported annually vid Russia, and
range in price from 5s. 6d. to 13s. They are misnamed
Mouflons and Llamas, and are more correctly called
Mongolians. By the Germans they are named Kosoll.
These skins are always imported in the dressed state,
and with the top hair removed. The under-wool thus
left is very fine and silky. White, light and dark brown,
and drab are the predominant colours. This fur takes
a very bright dye, such as blue, salmon colour, beaver,
and bronze. These dyes seem to eradicate the un-
pleasant smell which is prevalent in the undyed skins.
The pelt is of light weight, and is consequently very
suitable for trimming muffs, etc. The Yearling Goat
yields the best fur. This fur is used in England,
though not so much as formerly, and is now in most
favour in the United States.

318 UNGULATA.

SHEEP.
Ovis aries.
French: Mouton. German: Schaaf.

The Sheep is perhaps of greater service to mankind
than any other animal. It is to the Englishman what
the Buffalo was to the North American Indian, and the
Reindeer to the Laplander. From its wool clothing is
made; its skin is used for gloves, hat-leathers, etc. ; in
fact, there are few persons who are not clothed with a
portion of it ; almost every part of its body is used for
food. Frozen mutton is imported in large quantities
from Australia and New Zealand, and 1,038,965 live
Sheep were imported in 1886.

The Sheep is extremely docile, but somewhat foolish,
following the leader unhesitatingly whether it be into
danger or not. It lives in a semi-wild state in the
Highlands of Scotland and Wales, cropping the scant
herbage in elevated positions where one would imagine
it could not find foot-hold. These mountain Sheep leap
with great agility, and can clear a wall of six feet high
at a bound, or four feet without touching. The Sheep
stands about two feet high, and is about four feet long.
The coat is composed of a thick coat of wool, of greater
or less length in the various breeds. ‘The usual colour
of domestic Sheep, with the exception of some cases to
be treated later, is white, but black and parti-coloured
Sheep are by no means rare. The wool is a wonderful
protection to the animal in cold and damp weather.
In summer, if it is not shorn, it sheds its coat, thus
relieving it from the heat, which it does not well

SHEEP. 319

support. The tail is rather long, from six to eight
inches, but this is usually removed at a few weeks old,
leaving only the stump. In Wales, and the Highlands
of Scotland, where there is great difficulty in catching
the lambs, the tails are often suffered to remain. The
Sheep chews the cud. It is both polled and horned.
In some breeds of domestic Sheep, the rams alone have
horns, whilst in the mountainous districts, such as
Scotland, Wales, and Devon, both sexes are horned.
The celebrated Southdown Sheep are polled. The horns
of the rams are long, well curved, and much finer than
those of the ewes. The Devonshire ram horns are
thick and beautifully curved. Horns are usually of
larger size in high latitudes.

The milk of the Sheep is rich, and of an oily ap-
pearance. The Sheep is milked in Heligoland and
St, Kilda. In the latter island the Sheep are generally
black, with four or five horns: they are small, and the
wool is said by the Field to be good, and the flesh
excellent.

Sheep feed in flocks, and graze very closely: in
winter they are penned and fed on turnips and swedes.
They will eat hemlock without injury. In damp or ill-
drained localities Sheep are liable to foot-rot. They are
also liable to foot-and-mouth disease, which is extremely
infectious. The Sheep has generally one or two lambs
in January, February, or March, but this last month is
late. Lambs are sometimes born when frost or snow is
on the ground, but they suffer more from damp than
from great cold. Lambs are frisky and frolicsome, and
their bleat is prolonged and plaintive. Screens of straw
hurdles are placed to shelter the young from the wind.
During the lambing season, the ewes are fed with swedes,
beet, etc., with occasionally some dry food, such as hay.

320 UNGULATA.

Sheep washing and shearing have been practised
since time immemorial. We read of Judah going to
shear his sheep. In this country the washing usually
takes place in May, but in cold seasons, in June. After
this the Sheep are shorn, and are then re-marked with
red ochre or other substances. In Scotland the washing-
pools are circular, and are formed in the hills and
mountains by the side of a brook. Although washing
has been discontinued to a great extent in Australia, it
is still most desirable it should be continued in England,
on account of the superiority of the fleece. If the
Sheep in the London parks were washed from time to
time, it would benefit the animals, improve the wool,
and give a brighter aspect to the dreary landscape. A
steam-shearing machine has recently been introduced
into Australia; although slower than a first-class
shearer, it is said to have the advantage of never
cutting the skin.

Sheep, before being admitted into Tasmania, have to
undergo ninety days’ quarantine, and various declara-
tions are also required from the owners, veterinary
surgeons, and captains.

The wool of the Sheep forms an important industry
in this country. The total clip of wool in the United
Kingdom, not including the Isle of Man, was estimated
in 1886 by the Bradford Observer at 136,544,876 lbs.,
which, taken at 11d. per lb., amounts to £6,258,300.
Five to six classes of wool are found on each animal.

The best wool in England is that of the Super-South-
down. That of the Scotch, Welsh, and Devonshire
breeds is also very fine and good. In Devonshire the
clip is packed in long bags or bales, and then conveyed
to market in the carts peculiar to that country. This
is sold to the wool-staplers, who re-sell it to manu-

SHEEP. 321

facturers. About a million and a half bales of colonial
wool (Australian and Cape) are imported yearly, and as
the average price of a bale is £15, it makes a total of
over £20,000,000.

There are various sales of wool in London, which
are held at the Wool Exchange in Coleman Street.
The wool is exposed for view in the extensive and well-
lighted wool warehouses of the London and St.
Katherine’s Dock Company. ‘The bales are well
arranged on extensive floors, between which com-
munication is effected by slides, etc. The sales take
place at four o’clock in the afternoon of the day on
which they are viewed. The price of wool ranges from
4d. to 2s. per lb.

A sort of soap has been extracted from the oily matter
in the wool. In Bradford and other towns the wool-
sorters are subject to a disease called wool-sorter’s
disease, or anthrax (internal form). This is caused by
the particles of dust or bacilli bemg taken in by the
lungs, and attacking the intestines, and often proves
fatal. One of the chief preventives is a diet of animal
food and weak spirits and water; beer and vegetables
should not be taken. The tumour should be treated,
and cut out at once by a surgeon. The coat should be
changed after sorting, and food should on no account
be touched with unwashed hands.

Leeds is now the chief seat of the wool trade, but
some years ago the West of England was celebrated for
its cloth.

The Sheep inhabits the greater part of the civilized
world. In 1891 there were 33,533,088 live Sheep and
Lambs in the United Kingdom. The losses by severe
weather are sometimes enormous: 8,000 to 10,000
were frozen in one winter on the Welsh hills. They are

322 UNGULATA.

sometimes suffocated by the snow, but at others they
have been discovered grazing under the deep drifts,
having thawed an open space under the snow with the
heat of their bodies.

An instance is known of Sheep having been found
alive after being thirty-eight days under the snow,
but they had eaten each others’ wool.

In France, in 1889, there were about 22,000,000 Sheep.
In Spain, in 1889, there were about 163 millions. In
the Australian colonies there were about 80 millions.

In Australia the flocks number about 2,000 each, and
are herded. In New Zealand they number 10,000 to
20,000, and are rarely herded, but are allowed to wander
about, and.are penned once or twice a year.

In the United States there are about 43,000,000 Sheep,
and in the Dominion of Canada about 3,000,000.

On the whole globe there are about 500,000,000
Sheep and Lambs.

In England the well-known Lincoln and Leicester
Sheep furnish the heaviest fleeces. These skins are
collected annually in December and January.

The length of the wool ranges from 5 to 9 inches, 10
inches being an exceptional length. The price ranges
from 10s. to 14s. per skin: On arrival at a Sheep-
skin dresser’s factory, the skins are counted, then struck
on the head and every part of the skin where any fatty
or meaty substance still adheres, in order to loosen it.
The skins are then washed, dried, and lmed; they
are next stretched on frames in hot rooms, causing the
grease to absorb the lime, and are then allowed to cool.
In this state they may be stacked for months or even
years.

To finish the skins they are again washed, and
stretched on frames, fleshed with a circular knife, and

SHEEP. 323

bleached either by the sun (which is the best bleacher)
or in the bleaching-room, then dried off and paired.

After washing, the skins, which so readily absorb the
water, are wrung out by the wringer: this machine, a
revolving disc, is very efficacious, and saves a great deal
of labour.

For dyeing, logwood, galls, etc., are used. Sheep-
skins are dyed black, brown, and grey, and also many
fancy colours. The black colour is rather dull com-
pared with that of the Goat.

Long-woolled Sheep-skins are very curly, and are
used for fringes, lamp mats, tassels for opera cloaks,
etc., and many are exported to the Continent.

The short-woolled skins are used for door mats, carriage
mats, etc., and the shortest of all are used for saddle-
cloths for the Household Cavalry and Hussars.

Many skins of not so good a quality, called Butchers’
skins, are sold in London. Many thousand woolled
skins are also imported annually from the Australian
colonies.

The Tabernacle of the Israelites was covered with
Ram skins dyed red.

The collars of most of the French dray horses are
covered with dyed blue Sheep-skins, which seem to
correspond well with the round form of the French
horse.

A good Lincoln Ram will fetch from £8 to £15 when
alive, and one was even known to realize 25 guineas.

The skins of English Lambs are very soft and thick
in the wool, and many are used for boas (so-called
Lapland boas), and a few for rugs.

The skins of Slink Lambs, that is, those that are still-
born, or die soon after birth, are used for glove-linings,
and trimmings and linings of shoes. The English skins

ven

324 UNGULATA.

are very curly and good. The yearly collection is about
120,000 to 200,000, and the price ranges from 1s. 6d. to
6s. per dozen, according to demand. The longest-
woolled Slink Lambs are sometimes dyed grey, light
brown, etc. The majority of Slink Lambs are sent raw
from Buenos Ayres to France and Germany, where they
are dressed, the cheap labour and process quite sup-
planting the English dressers.

The horns of Highland and other breeds make beauti-
ful mounts.

For leather purposes the skins, after various processes,
are split into two by machinery. The top part is called
Skivers, and is dyed and used for book-binding. The
under part is very soft, and is called chamois or wash-
leather, and is used for domestic purposes. Many
thousand salted pelts (skins without wool) are imported
from New Zealand, and find a ready sale. The chief
supply of mutton-tallow sent to this country comes from
Australia and New Zealand. Many thousand casks are
imported annually. The samples are drawn from each
cask, looking like tallow-candles without a wick, and
are classified according to colour and quality. The
samples are shown to the buyers on large slate tables.
The sales are held in the Baltic Sale-rooms, usually on
Fridays. The price is about 21s. to 30s. 6d. per cwt.
A large quantity is used for the manufacture of soap,
and some is even sold as butter or margarine. A great
deal of English tallow is also used.

325

ICELAND SHEEP.

The Iceland Sheep is not so large as the ordinary
English Sheep. It resembles more the Shetland in
colour, size, and texture of the wool. The predominant
colours are black, white, brown, and mottled. Grey
(blue), black-spotted, dark brown, dark brown-spotted,
and brown animals with black bellies are not uncommon.
The wool is not quite so fine as in the Shetland Sheep,
but it is longand beautifully curled, and the under-
wool is dense. The skins are not of much value, being
chiefly used for low-priced wrappers. A year or so ago
they were used for muffs and boas, and many were
dyed fancy colours; the skins then realized much higher
prices. The yearly collection of skins ranges from
16,000 to 77,000, and the usual value is from 2s. 6d. to
5s. a skin, but when the demand is abnormal the price
is much higher. The skins are generally imported
salted, and shipped in bundles of two skins. <A few are
also imported dry. The Sheep are slaughtered in
October, and the skins arrive in November, December, and
January. About 20,000 live Iceland sheep are imported
into this country annually. In Iceland there are about
500,000 to 600,000 Sheep. The horns of this breed are
conspicuous by their number, six being not uncommon ;
eight, however, are very rare.

The Sheep are not shorn in Iceland, and the wool is
said to be pulled off the animals, when it is just
becoming loose in the late spring.

Mr. D. F. G. Macdonald informs us in his work,
“Cattle, Sheep and Deer,” p. 532: ‘ For milk, as well
as for their warm fleece, these patient and hardy

326 UNGULATA.

animals, as has been observed, are a great boon to the
poor, snow-covered Icelanders. The wool forms the
material of the long, hair-like articles before described ;
and also the under covering of fine downy wool.”

Iceland Lamb-skins are imported dry ; they are of the
same colour as the adult animal: white is the pre-
dominant colour. They are fine, silky, and beautifully
curled. The best are used for children’s jackets, etce.,
and the commoner ones for glove-linings. The yearly
collection of skins varies from 12,000 to 20,000, and the
price ranges from 3d. to 1s. 6d. per skin. Many of
these Lambs are killed by Foxes and Eagles.

CHINA SHEEP.

Nearly all the China Sheep-skins imported are white.
The generality are rather coarser than the Iceland, and
some are very short in the wool and coarse. On the
other hand, some of the best are nearly equal to the
English in quality. Many thousand rugs are imported
annually from China, and range in price from 8s. to
6s. 6d. These are generally bought by Manchester
warehousemen, and are cleaned and dyed various
colours. A few thousand skins are imported raw for
leather. The wool of the China Sheep affords also an
important article of commerce, and is shipped from
Shanghai to London.

The China Lamb is generally imported as Mandarin
Crosses, many skins being used to form one Cross.
The wool of these is very coarse, and in very small curls,
and these Crosses are worth 15s. to 20s. each, and are
dyed various colours.

ARABIAN SHEEP.

The Arabian Sheep has long and very coarse wool.
The principal colours are black, mottled, and white.
The skin is not of much value, but about 40,000 or
more are imported, and made into good leather.

The Lamb-skins, however, are used for fur purposes.
These are generally black, rather coarse, and curly, and
are usually sold to Canada for the manufacture of cheap
coats. They are generally imported salted, and fetch
about 6d. to 1s. A few years ago many thousand skins
were imported from Bussorah, as the fur was supposed
to be the same as the Persian Lamb, but the result was
very disappointing to the owners. 7,700 Arabian Sheep
were delivered to Jehoshaphat as a tribute by the
Arabians ; itis also recorded that many were sold in
Tyre.

BOKHARAN LAMB.

The Lamb-skins collected in Bokhara are very similar
to the Astracan, but they are larger, rather coarser and
thicker in the wool, and better curled. They are dyed
black in Germany, and treated like the Astracan skins.
They are chiefly purchased by Canadians, and a few are
bought by English furriers. The price of a dyed skin is
about 2s. to 5s.

328 UNGULATA.

SHIRAZ, OR HALF PERSIAN.
German: Schiraz.

The Shiraz, or half Persian Lamb-skin is collected in
the province of the same name situated in the south of
Persia.

According to Professor Vambéry, the flesh of this
animal makes excellent mutton.

The colour of this Lamb is generally black, but it is
sometimes brown ; the hair, although finer than that of
the Bokharan, is coarser than that of the Persian Lamb,
to which it has certain points of resemblance as to curl,
but it is more woolly.

The annual collection of skins is about 130,000 to
150,000, and the price ranges from 2s. 6d. to 5s., accord-
ing to demand. The skins imported are painted with
Persian characters, and are generally dyed black.

The commoner skins are used for military purposes,
and the better sorts by furriers.

A small skin similar to the above is known as Salz
Persianer, or Salt Persian; these are so named from
being dried in salt.

THIBET LAMB.

The skins of this Lamb are white, extremely fine and
silky, and rather long in the wool. They are made
into beautiful Mandarin robes or coats. The former,
when imported, are called Crosses, and fetch from 50s.
to 110s. The coats realize 100s. to 170s.

Some dressed skins are also imported from China, and

THIBET LAMB. 329

about 10,000 are sent overland vid Russia to Leipsic.
These skins take a beautiful dye, such as black, grey,
pink, yellow, light brown, and other fancy colours.
They make beautiful boas, and are now much in fashion
in France for trimmings.

PERSIAN LAMB.
French: Persianne. German: Persianer.

The Persian Sheep is said to be the most ancient
breed of Sheep; from its colour (black) and general
appearance it would be difficult to upset this statement ;
it is very akin to the Shiraz and Bokharan Sheep,
which are also very ancient types. The colour of the
Persian Sheep is black, brown, or white; the wool is
very coarse and dense.

Unlike its parent, the skin of the Persian Lamb is
very soft and beautifully curled; the prevailing colour is
black, but a few are mottled with white ; occasionally a
erey or brown skin is met with, but all skins, of what-
ever colour, are dyed black in Canada or Germany: the
water of the English rivers does not seem to be suitable
for this dye.

This skin or fur is often known by retailers under the
name of Astracan ; it is much admired in this country,
Canada, and France, and to a lesser extent in the United
States, and is one of the few furs worn by men as well
as by ladies.

It is used for caps, muffs, coat-facings, and other
articles.

The value of a raw skin is from 7s. to 15s., according
to demand and quality ; these are imported in bales of

330 UNGULATA.

200 to 300, and are often marked in figures or drawings
with red or blue designs.

The annual collection of skins is from 200,000 to
700,000 ; in 1891 it was about 500,000.

Unlike many Lamb-skins, the Persian Lamb takes a
brilliant dye. The Afghan Lamb is similar to the
foregoing, the curl is rather larger, and the hair
coarser ; the priceis about 20 per cent. less than that of
the Persian Lamb.

Tue Broaprain, oR BreirscHwavuze, is probably the
Slink or unborn Persian Lamb; it is undoubtedly the
skin about which so much nonsense has been written,
as to slaying the parent Sheep for the sake of its skin,
although the popular fallacy is attributed to the Persian
Lamb.

When dyed, this skin has the appearance of watered
silk, and is worth from 2s. to 12s., according to fashion,
etc. Few are used in England or in the United States.

PINHEADED PERSIAN LAMB.

The skin of this animal is also called Danadar ; it is
grey, with extremely small and numerous curls, and the
value is about 7s. to 10s., according to demand.

ASTRACAN LAMB.
French: Astrakan. German: Astracan.

The skins of the Astracan Lambs are collected by
thousands in the province of Astracan in the South of
Russia; the annual collection is about 600,000, or rather

ASTRACAN LAMB. 331

exceeds this number; these are generally sold in the
cleaned state at Moscow or Nishni-Novgorod, and the
price ranges from 8d. to 2s., according to demand, and
are mostly bought by German firms. The skins are sent
to Leipsic, and are dyed black in the well-known dyeing
establishments on the Pleisse. This dye cannot be
equalled in Europe for giving brilliancy or suppleness to
leather. When finished, the skins are chiefly bought
for Canada and the United States, although at one time
many were used in this country, when Astracan jackets
were in fashion.

The Astracan Lamb is not more than 6 to 12 inches
long. The usual colour is brown; a few are white,
and some are black.

The larger Lambs and half-grown skins are not so
valuable; these are usually made into coat-linings, and
are partly dyed, and are called Taluppen; these are
bought by Canadians for low-priced coats, for use
in the North-west Territory. Similar coats are worn in
Afghanistan and Beloochistan ; there they are worn pelt
out, and the hair is turned outside when the weather is
wet or snowy.

UKRAINER LAMB.

The Ukrainer Lamb equals the Persian in size, and is
much larger than the foregoing ; it may be considered to
be a medium-sized Lamb.

Nearly all the skins collected (about 20,000) are black,
although sometimes a white spot is found in the skin.
The price of a skin ranges from 38s. to 6s.; these are
usually dyed black in Leipsic. When dyed, the wool,
which is short and curly, has rather a dull appearance ;

332 UNGULATA.

it, however, wears well, and for this reason it is pro-

bably used for cavalry saddles (officers) in England,

although a few of the higher class are used by furriers.
The Ukrainer Sheep appears to be an ancient type.

CRIMMER, OR CRIMEAN LAMB.

It would hardly be supposed that in going from one
province to another, such a marked difference would be
found in the colour of the Sheep, but this is the case ;
for although some black Crimmer skins are collected,
the majority are grey ; sometimes this grey is of a dark
slate colour, and at other times it is much lighter, and is
almost white ; the curl also varies considerably ; some-
times it is large and bold, at others it is very small and
coarse; of course most skins are between these two
extremes.

About 65,000 to 70,000 skins were collected in 1891,
and the price ranges from 3s. 6d. to 7s. 6d. (raw) according
to demand, fashion, supply, ete. These are chiefly in
vogue in Canada and the United States (especially for
juvenile wear), but a few are used in this country for
capes, ladies’ caps, cavalry saddle-cloths, ete.

Some skins are imported brined or dry-salted.

The Crimean Lamb derives its name from the
celebrated Crimean Peninsula.

TRANSYLVANIAN LAMB.

The skins of the Transylvanian Lamb are black, and
the wool is dense and coarse, but they are very warm,
and well suited for coat-linings. The value is a few

TRANSYLVANIAN LAMB. 333

shillings each. On account of their cheapness and
durability, they are in constant demand.

Black Sardinian Lambs, Corsican, Calabrian, and
other Italian skins are used for similar purposes, and
are sold in Leipsic.

SPANISH SHEEP.

Several thousand skins are imported. These are
very coarse, and are white. .

The wool of the Slink Lambs has a larger curl than
the English, and the skins are used for glove-linings.
A few of the Spanish Lamb-skins are black, and fetch
43d. to 5d. per lb.

SHETLAND SHEEP.

Shetland Sheep are usually of a brown, or light
brown colour. They are noted for the fineness of the
fleece ; in fact, hke the Musk-ox, many long hairs are
found in its fine coat. Both the male and female have
horns. A similar variety lives in the Farde Isles; the
colour varies, but is chiefly black. The fleece is more
like hair than wool. The chief time for slaughter is in
November. The flesh, when hung, is considered a
delicacy.

The wool of the Shetland Sheep is made into beautiful
shawls, and the skins are used for rugs.

834 UNGULATA.

RUSSIAN SHEEP.

The Russian Sheep is usually either grey or grizzly,
but some are brown, anda few black. The hair or wool
is short, coarse, and close. The skins are chiefly used
for sleigh-robes in Canada, but a few are sometimes
used for theatrical garments. Several thousand skins
are imported occasionally, the value being about 3s. to
4s. Many thousand Lamb-skins are also imported.
These are of little value, and are chiefly used for
leather.

Besides the fore-mentioned Sheep, there are several
varieties whose skins are used exclusively for leather.

The skins of the Cape (Good Hope) Sheep are
imported in large bales bound with iron, and are sold
now in original packages, and realize 13d. to 52d. per Ib.,
according to quality. The commoner, lighter weighted
skins are used by glovers; the wool of these is short and
thick. Enormous quantities are imported; in 1891,
3,978,640 skins were sold in London.

The skins of the East Indian Sheep are imported in
thetanned state; these are sold at low prices, from 1s. to
4s. per lb., and are used when dyed for many purposes.

In 1891, 5,613,996 skins were sold in London.

Dindigul is one of the chief tanneries.

The East Indian Sheep is thin, and has a poor
carcase.

Several thousand Falkland Island Sheep-skins are
also imported.

330

hep. D E-E.R.
Cervus elephas.
French: Le Cerf. German: Hirsch or Edelhirsch.

The Red Deer is the largest Deer now living in the
British Isles. At one time it ranged over nearly the
whole of these countries, but it is now only found wild
on Exmoor, although still preserved tame in many
parks in England. The Red Deer has been exterminated
in the Shetland and Orkney Islands, but it is still
numerous in a wild state in the extensive deer-forests of
the Hebrides and other parts of Scotland. These deer-
forests are almost devoid of trees, and, like Exmoor, are
merely extensive tracts of elevated moorland. The
Rothiemurchus Forest (Inverness) is one of the largest,
consisting of 17,000 acres. These forests, which com-
prise altogether about 2,000,000 acres, are rented at
prices from £500 to £3,000 per annum, and it is
estimated that every stag shot costs the lessee about
£50. About 4,600 stags and the same number of hinds
are killed every year. The quantity of Deer ranging in
these forests is estimated at 225,000.

The Red Deer was hunted in the New Forest, and the
Andrida Silva. In the former forest the last Red Deer
were shot a few years ago, on account of the depreda-
tions of poachers. In Ashdown Forest, north of Sussex,
the last remnant of the Andrida Silva, a few fine Deer
are still found. The last Red Deer (a hind) in Hainault
Forest was shot in 1825, but this fine forest is now a
thing of the past.

The Red Deer inhabits France, Germany, and Norway,

336 UNGULATA.

as well as the British Isles, but none are found in the
Isles of Wight, Man, and Lundy, nor in the Channel
Islands, although, in the time of the Roman occupation,
it was abundant in the first-named island.

The stag is of a reddish-brown colour; the legs are
dark brown ; the tail and buttocks are whitish, or very
light brown. The beautifully-formed head is pointed.
The eye is large, dark brown, and expressive, with a
lighter shade of colour round it. The under-jaw is also
light. In summer the head is often lighter. There isa
dark mark along the back. The hind is rather lighter,
and has a more pointed nose. The period of gestation
is about eight months, and the young is called a calf.

The male sheds his horns every year about the month
of March, and in April the new horns begin to grow.
During this growth he eats largely. The new horns are
soft, being covered with a velvety substance, and are
full of blood-vessels. If the horns are injured at this
early stage the animal often bleeds to death. The
horns harden gradually, and in September the velvet
falls, or is rubbed off.

The points of a stag’s head increase year by year till
the animal is full-grown, which is at twelve years; after
that age the horns decrease and grow thin. The heads
of wild stags are hardly so grand as in former times ;
in Fontainebleau, Exmoor, and in Scotland the heaviest
have seldom more than twelve to fourteen tines; ten
tines is considered a good head. In captivity, and in
parks where Deer are well fed, heads of sixteen to
twenty points are not so uncommon.

In Germany the heads are much finer, and at the
Castle of Moritzburg one is shown with eighty or ninety
tines; also two pairs of horns interlocked when fighting,
the stags dying of hunger.

RED DEER. Soil

A royal stag has twelve points, six on each antler.
Deer often eat the shed horns.

Hammels, or hornless males (called Notts or Haviers),
are sometimes met with; these are said to fight as well
as their horned brethren.

In the month of October the necks of the males swell,
and the rutting season begins; fierce combats occur
between the males, who during that time do not eat;
at the end of the season they consequently are thin and
in poor condition; previously they were very sleek and
fat. In Australia and New Zealand, where Red Deer
have lately been introduced, the rutting time is in
Mach.

Cross-breeding with English Red Deer has been tried
in Scotland with the best results; another judicious
step would be to import a few German or French stags
with good heads, to breed them with English, and then
to introduce the cross into Scotland. In turning down
Deer there should be about one to the acre, in the pro-
portion of one male to two females. Red Deer are very
hardy, and live where Sheep would perish.

There is no close time for Red Deer in England and
Scotland. In Ireland male Deer are protected from
January 1 to June 9. In England stag-hunting begins
about August 10, and finishes about the end of October.

There are thirteen packs of Stag-hounds in England
and two in Ireland; these, with the exception of Devon
and Somerset, and the New Forest paek, which follow
the Fallow Deer, hunt carted Deer, which have their
antlers sawn off; this style of hunting is searcely
sportsmanlike, as it is unfair to the Deer, which are
without their natural defence. The only part of the
United Kingdom where the Red Deer is hunted in its
wild state is in Devonshire and part of Somersetshire.

Bites UNGULATA.

Stag-hunting commences in August and hind-hunting
in November; both stags and hinds lie very close till
aroused, and will swim out to sea when hard pressed.
The English Stag-hound appears to be extinct; the
hounds now used are large Fox-hounds, selected for size
and strength. Blood-hounds were employed by Lord
Wolverton a few years ago. The French still possess a
few fine Stag-hounds of the ancient Poitou breed ; these
are large, fine hounds, with good noses and deep dew-
laps, but somewhat slow. Drafts of large English Fox-
hounds are also used in Fontainebleau. In England
the huntsman has the skin and the master the head of
the Deer taken.

In the month of May we have seen two Red Deer
stand on their hind-legs and play with their forefeet.

The value of a live Red Deer is about seven to ten
guineas for stags and five guineas for hinds and young
stags. The skins are made into excellent leather. The
horns are made into knife-handles, ete.; in ancient
times the antlers were used as picks and hammers.

The Hon. John Fortescue, in ‘‘ Records of Stag-hunt-
ing on Exmoor,” says (p. 107) that ‘‘ hinds consort with
the stag in the second year of their age, and, as a rule,
produce but one calf at a time.” “It has also been
several times asserted that a hind never has twin calves;
but this, again, has been decisively disproved.” “‘ Dr.
Collyns lays it down that hinds invariably drop their
calves between the 7th and 21st of June, and he can
adduce but two exceptions to this rule, the calf having
been, in both the excepted cases, born in the month of
September.”

(P. 109): ‘* The calf, male or female, is at the time
of birth white-spotted like a Fallow Deer, and remains
so up to the age of three or four months, when the

RED DEER. 339

spots disappear and the colour of the true Red Deer
asserts itself. Calves remain with the hinds often till
they are nearly two years old, though, of course, they
are able to take care of themselves much earlier.”

WAP TM:
Cervus canadensis.

This noble stag, the largest of the Cervide now
living on the globe, is an inhabitant of North America.
It formerly existed in large herds throughout the
northern continent, but now it is much restricted in
range and reduced in number. However, it is still
fairly abundant in Oregon, California, Montana,
Wyoming, and in Vancouver Island, in Canada. Very
few now exist east of the Mississippi.

The Wapiti has been called the Red Deer by some
naturalists, and is still known by this name by some
Hudson’s Bay traders, and, although a larger and more
powerful animal, it is no doubt identical.

The Wapiti, or Elk as it is called by the Americans,
is about 5 to 6 feet high; the legs are dark brown, the
body and back lighter; there is a ring of light brown
round the eyes, and two light brown spots over the
nostrils; the buttocks and the short tail are white.

The male, when adult, has a mane or ridge of hair on
the throat, and another on the back; the ears are
moderately long, and brown; the eyes are dark brown.

A full-grown stag is really a magnificent spectacle ;
no one can fail to admire its grace and the symmetry of
its figure, and the ease with which it carries its horns.

~The hind is about 5 feet high, and lighter in colour

Zz 2

340 UNGULATA.

than the male; the nose is more pointed, and the eyes
are large, fine, and plaintive. The male makes a
whistling noise. When the horns are growing, the
stags eat a large quantity of food; in the rutting season,
on the contrary, they eat very little.

The Wapiti sheds its horns in March or April; the
new pair begins to grow shortly afterwards. Like the
Red Deer, the size and number of the tines increase by
good feeding.

The splendid animal in the Zoological Society’s
Gardens has a remarkable head; the brow and bay
antlers have grown to an abnormal length of 2 or 3 feet;
some tines are, however, imperfect, growing knotty and
misshapen, probably on account of confinement.

No two pairs of horns of the Wapiti are exactly alike :
some heads are beautifully symmetrical and regular,
each point almost exactly matching its fellow on the
opposite antler. The brow and bay tines are usually
thrown forward and slightly curved upwards; we have
seen them perfectly straight and almost perpendicular ;
others, again, are hooked.

The top tines in a full-grown animal are thrown out
boldly forwards and backwards in graceful curves; in
only one example have we seen a tine which has grown
out laterally ; the top tines are sometimes very long and
beautiful ; rarely are they small and numerous at top,
like Red Deer, but this is sometimes the case.

Once we saw a head with no brow nor bay points, but
it is not uncommon to find only one wanting. The
usual number of points is twelve, but thirteen and four-
teen are not uncommon.

In a remarkably fine head the length between the top
tines was 4 feet 9 inches, between the third tine from the
top 4 feet 2 inches; the third left tine was nearly 2 feet

WAPITI. 341

long, and edged like a blunt sword; the horn of this
magnificent head was granulated. In another fine
specimen the bay tine grew downwards, thus protecting
the neck on each side.

The most interesting, perhaps, were the antlers of a
very fine old stag; these were extremely thick, every
point broken off by fighting, and had a small hook
which grew from the back of one of these horns. Ex-
crescences, knobs, and small hooks are seen on or at the
base of the tines.

Heads from Oregon and the Western States have the
antlers shorter, thicker, and wider apart than those from
the more eastern parts; the horns are heavier at top,
the tines shorter, and the colour deeper.

The value of a good pair of horns is from £3 to
£9 15s., according to perfectness of horn, skull, etc.,
and demand. About twenty to forty pairs are imported
into London annually.

The Wapiti is found ‘“‘in dense forests, in boggy
swamps, and amongst thick pines” (FY%eld). It trots
very fast, but when it breaks into a gallop it is soon
exhausted.

Wapiti is an Indian name, meaning ‘‘ stinking head.”
The female brings forth one young once a year.

From 80,000 to 100,000 skins are imported annually,
and are made into excellent leather.

Richardson writes, ‘‘ North American Fauna,”’ p. 252 :
“The flesh of the Wapiti is coarse, and is little prized
by the natives, principally on account of its fat being
hard like suet. It seemed to me to want the juiciness
of venison, and to resemble dry but small-grained
beef.”

A closely-allied variety or species is Luhdorf’s Deer
(Cervus luhdorfi); this Deer interbreeds freely with the

342 UNGULATA.

Wapiti, to which it has a great resemblance ; it is, how-
ever, rather smaller and lighter; its horns are also more
tapering, like those of the Red Deer.

Luhdort’s Deer inhabits Amoorland and the eastern
part of Siberia.

{AST INDIAN DEER, OR AXIS.
Cervus Axis.

This graceful and beautiful creature inhabits India,
and is well known for its well-marked light brown coat,
which is spotted with numerous white spots; these,
however, change into white lines at the belly ; there is
a ridge of hair along the back, which is much darker.

There are usually three poimts on the antlers, which
are thrown forward, with the exception of the second
tine, which points backwards. This trait is character-
istic of the Axis.

The East Indian Deer is a rather abundant animal ;
53,922 skins were sold in London in 1891. These skins
are made into excellent leather. Some years ago many
were bought by fur merchants for the Bavarian market,
it then being the fashion for the peasants to wear buck-
skin leggings ; this trade no longer exists. A few skins
are sometimes bought for the United States, also a few
by English furriers for foot-muffs, etc.; but the majority
are now purchased for leather. The skins are sorted
into large, middling, small, extra small, and dry
damaged ; a few years ago these were sold by the dozen,
and now by the pound. A good large skin is worth
6s. to 7s.

The horns are largely imported for the manufacture of

EAST INDIAN DEER. 343

knife-handles ; 424 tons weight were sold in London in
1891, and realized 20s. to 260s. per ewt. The horns
are sorted into large, medium size, small, and very
small, these latter commanding the highest price.

RATE OW Dek ER:
Dama vulgaris.
French: Daim. German: Dammbhirsch.

This Deer is probably better known to the general
public than any other Deer, and is seen in many parks
in this country, where it is a general favourite, on
account of its small size and docility. The Fallow Deer
is found in the greater part of Europe, but it is not in-
digenous to the country. The dark-coloured variety is
said to have been introduced by James I. from Norway ;
by others it is asserted to have been imported long
before that date, perhaps by the Romans.

The usual colour of this Deer is ight brown, spotted
with white; the tail is black and tipped and edged with
white; the inside of the legs is of a beautiful fawn
colour, and the ears are light brown. In the dark
variety the colour verges on black; the legs and points
are brown, and the tail is black. It seems altogether
to be a larger and heavier animal than the spotted
variety ; the head is short and well formed, the nose is
full and round, and the eyes are dark and expressive.
Pure white animals are not uncommon.

The horns are rather palmated at the top, with a few
rugged points, which are usually turned backwards ; the
brow and tray antlers are well developed. The horns
fall off in April, sometimes a little later. In July and

344 UNGULATA.

August the bucks get rid of the velvet from the new
growth by striking the branches of trees, sometimes
raising themselves on their hind legs for this purpose,
in order to get rid of this troublesome exterior.

The value of a good pair of horns is about 20s. to 60s.

The rutting season is in September, when the males
fight and roar, though not with the fierceness of Red
Deer ; at this season the males seek out the females ; at
other times the bucks and does generally congregate in
separate herds. The does bring forth in May one or
two young.

In this country the Fallow Deer is only hunted in the
New Forest. Like the Red Deer, it is aroused by
‘“‘tufters.” The value of a live Fallow Deer is about
30s.

There is no close time for Fallow Deer in England
and Scotland. In Ireland it extends from September 29
to December 31.

The skin is made into excellent leather, called buck-
skins, and is much used for hunting breeches. The
flesh is much esteemed for venison.

MOOSE OR ELK.
Alces machlis.
French: Elan. German: Elenthier.

This quaint and interesting animal inhabits the north-
ern portion of North America, e.g., Nova Scotia, Manitoba,
Alaska, and New Brunswick, being especially abun-
dant:in the last province. It is also found, although less
abundantly, in parts of Europe, such as East Prussia,
Russia (the Government Forest near Moscow), Norway,

MOOSE OR ELK. $45

and Sweden ; besides these, it is found in Siberia, and
its range is said to extend as far as North China.
Recently a Moose has been shot in Galicia, which had
probably wandered from a more northern district.

The American and European varieties, which pre-
viously were classed as two species, are now described
as one.

The Moose is about 5 to 6 feet in height. Its length
of leg and shortness of body render its appearance very
striking. The general colour is dark brown; and it is
lighter on the belly. The head is large and massive in
appearance. ‘The nose is also large, thick, and project-
ing. The eyes are large and expressive. The ears are
rather long, and brown. There is a small mane of
dark brown hair, more or less developed, and there is
also a beard under the chin of the male animals. The
neck is thick and short, rendering it incapable of grazing,
but it reaches with ease the twigs and brushwood on
which it feeds. The hoofs are large and broad. In
spite of these peculiar dimensions, the Moose cannot be
said to be ugly.

The horns of the male Elk are very handsome; they
are large, solid, and palmated, with one or two separate
tines on the brow. Those of the American Moose are
larger and finer than those of the European, although
neither can compare with the horns of the extinct Irish
Elk, some of which have 8 feet expanse of antlers.

The Moose generally produces one at a birth, and
twins are a rarity. The young are easily tamed. A
pair of female Elks were driven in a sledge at the
Montreal Winter Carnival. According to the Feld, the
Moose does not attain to maturity until nearly nine years
of age. In the rutting season, the males fight almost
as savagely as Wapiti; and, like most Deer, the horns

346 UNGULATA.

sometimes become interlocked, when the combatants die
of starvation.

The pace of the Moose is not extremely fast ; its trot
is, however, a long, swinging stride, with which it pro-
ceeds at a good speed. It was formerly used in sledges
in Sweden, but as so many convicts escaped by this
means, 1ts use is now prohibited.

Like other large game, its numbers have decreased of
late years. It is protected in parts of Sweden and
Russia, and by a recent Act of the Ontario Legislature,
the shooting of this animal is prohibited in that province
until 1895, as it had almost become extinct there. In
America generally, it appears to prolong its existence by
its extremely acute sense of smell, and by its ability of
keeping some time under water, rendering it difficult to
capture except in the rutting season, when its combative-
ness overcomes its prudence. It is attracted by the
Birch-bark call of the Indian hunter, who imitates the
note of the cow Elk, andis thus enabled to approach the
quarry. In Alaska and Nova Scotia it is sometimes
killed in the water by the Indians. In Russia, it is
hunted by the sportsmen approaching in semi-circles,
who thus strike the track at intervals, whilst keeping to
the windward of the chase. In Norway, a dog is used to
track the Elk, but it is led ina leash. In Sweden, Elk
are driven and hunted in battues, or stalked with dogs
at liberty. On September 5, 1885, the forest of Hune-
berg (14,000 acres) was shot over by the King and Crown
Prince of Sweden, the Prince of Wales, and others.
The Elk had been preserved there for over thirty-five
years, and had increased to over 100 head. Fifty-one
Elks were shot on that occasion. On September 14,
1888, this forest was again shot over by the King and
Crown Prince of Sweden, and the Prince of Monaco, and

MOOSE OR ELK. Ot

sixty-six Elk were killed, this being the largest quantity
known to have been killed in Scandinavia. The Elk is
said not to be shy in Sweden, and to approach farms,
and play with cattle and horses, and they are also said
not to call to each other as they do in America. Many
of the Elk-forests in Norway belong to the Crown.

In America it is pursued by packs of wolves, who

drive it over precipices. The wolves then descend and
devour the carcase ; but in winter-time the Moose make
spaces in the snow, called Elk-yards, which they tread
down, and are thus able to move about with freedom,
and defend themselves easily from the wolves.
Its flesh is excellent eating, preferable to that of all
other Deer. In Norway and Sweden, the carcase is the
property of the man on whose land the animal is killed,
the sportsman reserving the head, and sometimes the
skin, for himself (The F%eld).

A few Elk heads with horns are imported annually,
and realize from £12 to £16. The hide is very large
and valuable, and makes excellent leather. A few hun-
dred skins are imported from Russia from time to time.
In 1890, 910 skins were offered in public sales in London.
The Hudson’s Bay Company at one time purchased
these for the Indians. In Alaska the Indians use these
skins for their tents or lodges, which are usually made
double to exclude the piercing cold of these regions.

In an old work on America, it is stated that the
Moose was abundant at one time in the State of New
York.

(Page 172): ‘‘ Towards the South of New York are many
Buftles, Beasts which (according to Erasmus Stella) are
betwixt a Horse and a Stag ; though they are of a strong
Constitution, yet they die of the smallest wound, and are
subject to the Falling-sickness. They have broad branchy

348 UNGULATA.

horns like a Stag, short Tail, rough Neck, Hair colour’d
according to the several Seasons of the Year, broad and
long Ears, hanging Lips, little Teeth, and Skin so thick as
not easie to be pierced: The Females differ from the
Males, for they have no Horns ; both may easily be made
tame: when hunted they vomit out a sort of scalding
Liquor on the dogs: they have great force in their Claws,
for they can killa Wolf with the same at one blow: their
Flesh, either fresh or salted, is a good Diet: their Claws
also cure the Falling-sickness.”

NORTH AMERICAN OR VIRGINIAN DEER.
Cariacus virginianus.

The Virginian Deer, called also the White-tailed
Deer, is widely distributed, but has of late much dimin-
ished in numbers. It formerly inhabited the Eastern
States of America in vast quantities, and is still found
in Montana. It also exists in large quantities in the
islands of Alaska, but very few are now found in
Canada.

This Deer is of a light grey colour, sometimes marked
with small spots, especially on the hind-quarters. The
hair is rather short and bristly. The horns are small,
branched, and abruptly curved forward; the points are
sometimes abnormally abundant, as many as forty being
found on one head.

The skins of the Virginian Deer were imported in
great quantities, and exported from London to Germany,
where they were used in the manufacture of leather
leggings for the Bavarian peasants.

NORTH AMERICAN DEER. 849

Like other Deer, the horns of the males get inter-
locked when fighting.

Albinos, or rather almost pure white varieties of this
Deer, are sometimes met with.

BLACK-TAILED OR MULE DEER.
Cariacus macrotis.

The Mule Deer has been so called from the great
length of its ears. It inhabits Montana, the Western
Coast of North America, and parts of Canada.

This species is rather larger than the White-tailed
Deer. The general colour is reddish-brown. The tail
is black and bushy. The horns are small; they curve
forward and branch into four or five points on each
antler. The value of a-pair of horns varies from 3s. 6d.
to 12s. 6d., and rises even to 25s. when in great
demand.

Mule Deer bucks may be shot from July Ist to
November Ist (F%eld).

The Black-tailed is more numerous than the
Virginian Deer, and a few thousand skins are imported
by the Hudson’s Bay Company. ‘These skins are used
extensively for leather, and are now chiefly bought by
German leather traders for export to the Continent.
In 1784, 227,000 Deer skins were imported, but these
included Virginian and other Deer.

350 UNGULATA.

REINDEER.
Rangifer tarandus.
French: Renne. German: Rennthier.

The Reindeer is invaluable to the inhabitants of the
Arctic regions, whether of Europe, Asia, or America.
It inhabits the northern portions of these three conti-
nents, being found as far north as Spitzbergen, and
although differing somewhat in these parts, it has been
classed as only one species. In former times the Rein-
deer was abundant in Scotland, especially in the
Orkneys, but attempts to re-introduce it have ended in
failure. Im Germany similar attempts have been made,
mostly without success. It was successfully introduced
into Iceland in 1770, and a few are found wild in that
country.

In Norway, and other countries, the Reindeer is quite
domesticated, some farms owning herds of 2,000 head.
It is harnessed and used for sledging ; the females yield
abundance of milk; the flesh, especially the kidneys,
is excellent eating, and the tongue is considered a great
delicacy. The Reindeer is also ridden, the seat being
on the neck, instead of on the back.

The Reindeer is about 8 to 4 feet high. The general
colour is light buff or brown, and a lighter shade on
the belly and head, but this varies considerably ; in
Labrador it is almost white; a few mottled examples
are found in Russia; and pure white are often met with
in Lapland.

The hair is brittle, extremely bristly, and abundant,
thus protecting the animal well from the severe cold of

REINDEER. Byon |

the regions in which it lives, and the great breadth of
the feet enables it to walk on the snow with ease.
When the feet are raised the hoofs close together,
making a peculiar noise. The canine teeth are little
developed ; and it has twenty-four molars, six on each
side of the upper jaw, and six on each side of the lower.
The horns are peculiar, and vary more in formation
than those of any other Deer, no two pairs being alike.
They nearly always curve forward, and usually consist
of two branches radiating into many points. The
majority of the males have a brow antler, which is a
triangular growth of horn called the spatula, reaching
between the eyes, and hanging over the nose. This
antler springs sometimes from the right horn, some-
times from the left, and in rare cases a spatula springs
from each horn. Itis said to make use of this antler
to scrape away the snow from the moss on which it
feeds. ‘There is no tray antler in the Reindeer, and a
good head possesses as many as thirty-seven points.
The female has horns as well as the male.

About 30,000 Reindeer horns are imported annually
into Denmark from Greenland, and about 8,000 from
Russia, the latter realizing from £18 to £14 7s. 6d.
per ton. The principal food of this animal is lichens,
and Reimdeer-moss.

The hair of the Remdeer is said to have high floating
qualities, superior even to cork, and _ life-belts and
buoys are sometimes made of it.

In Alaska this Deer is hunted from August 10th to
the middle of September. At certain seasons of the
year it crosses to the Island of Oommak, in_ the
Aleutian chain. In Norway it is driven into pounds
and shot.

The skin of the Reindeer is made into excellent coats

Soo UNGULATA.

by the Esquimaux, for which it is very suitable, being
both light and impervious to cold. It is also used for
sleeping bags by the natives. By Europeans these skins
are generally used for leather. Some are made into
leather gloves, which are both pliant and durable. By
the Indians they are used for making snow-shoes.

Several thousand skins are imported annually from
York Fort; these are described as winter or summer
skins, and are sorted into three or four qualities.
Shaved skins are also sold from time to time. The
summer skins fetch a higher price, the pelt being
stouter at that season. The skins of Labrador Reindeer
are very good, and about 800 are collected annually ;
these are sold in London, and sent to Germany to be
dressed. Some Russian Reindeer skins are imported
vid Archangel from time to time.

The skins of the young animals are made into excel-
lent linings in Russia, called Pijiky; they are light,
warm, durable, and of a dark brown colour. The neck
and belly are sometimes made up separately. Several
thousand Reindeer tongues used to be imported annually
by the Hudson’s Bay Company, but the importation has
ceased of late years, probably owing to the low prices
recently obtained (about 2s. to 6s. per dozen). The
flavour of these tongues was excellent.

The Reindeer is very much troubled with the attacks
of the gadfly or tick, which in the summer lays its
eggs in its coat. These ticks form boils, or circular
masses of matter in the Reindeer’s skin, causing great
pain to the animal, and reducing its condition, besides
lessening the value of the skin.

The horns of the Barren Land Caribou, or American
Reindeer, are much larger than those of the usual
type.

REINDEER. 353

The Caribou has decreased considerably in Newfound-
land, owing to the indiscriminate slaughter of both
males and females in former years. The hunters used
to station themselves at the peninsula of Avalon, and
shoot the Reindeer as they passed across it. It is now
stalked in this island by visitors and other hunters.

LLAMA.
Lama peruana.
French: Lama.

This peculiar animal belongs to the Camel tribe. It
is about 8 to 4 feet in height. The neck is extremely
long. The usual colour is white, black, or brown, the
legs in the two latter cases being black. The hair is
long, coarse, and very dense, giving it an extremely
peculiar appearance. In the young Llama, the hair is
very soft and silky.

The Llama is an inhabitant of Peru, where it is used
by the natives as a beast of burden. Its wool is used in
this country.

VICUNA.
Lama vicugna.
French: Vigogner.

The Vicuna, or Vicuna Sheep, is also an inhabitant of
South America, where it is most abundant in the
southern portions.

Including its very long neck of about 23 feet, the

354 UNGULATA.

Vicuna is about 6 feet high. The colour is light fawn,
with a whiter belly. The tail is short, tufted, and fawn-
coloured. The wool is rather long, thick, and close,
with a few longer hairs projecting beyond it, and is
especially well adapted for the manufacture of light
woollen garments.

The skin is very suitable for sleigh-robes, and the fur,
being soft and light, pelts extremely well, but its costli-
ness prevents it being used more extensively for this
purpose. It is usually prepared raw.

The Vicuna is hunted by horsemen with the bolas, or
two balls tied together, which are swung round the
rider’s head.

GUANACO.
Lama huanacos.

The Guanaco, or Huanaco, is tolerably abundant in
Patagonia, and other parts of South America. Itis a
very quaint animal with a long neck, and is probably
the same species as the Vicuna. The colour is light
brown or fawn.

Large robes of fine quality are made from the skins
of the young animals, and the pelt is painted red by
the South American Indians.

Mr. P. O. Cunningham, in his ‘‘ Natural History of
the Straits of Magellan,” thus describes its habits,
p- 109 :—

‘** Their cry is very peculiar, being somewhat between
the belling of a deer and the neigh of a horse. When
at a distance, and fired at with the rifle, they in general
go through some very singular antics, ducking down
their heads, and as it were falling on their knees on the

GUANACO. 355

eround—a habit which often at first induced our men to
suppose they were severely wounded, when they were in
reality perfectly intact. Mr. Darwin has commented on
the singular habit which they possess of depositing their
droppings on successive days in the same defined heap,
and this I have likewise frequently observed. It would
be difficult to over-estimate their numbers on the
Patagonian plains; for in whatever direction we walked
we always came upon numbers of their skeletons, and
detached bones. Their two principal enemies are the
Patagonian Indians and the Puma, as they constitute
the principal food of both. The flesh is somewhat dry,
and with very little fat, but is very palatable, particularly
in the absence of other fresh provisions ; and the skin
is invaluable to the Patagonians, as furnishing the
material from which their long robes are constructed.
Occasionally bezoar stones are to be met with in the
stomach, which are regarded by the Patagonians as of
medicinal value.”

AAQ

356

MAMMALIA. EDENTATA.

GREAT ANT-EATER.
Myrmecophaga jubata.
French: Fourmilier. German: Armeisenbar.

This quaint animal, which inhabits South America, is
noticeable for its very long narrow neck, its long
tongue, the dense bristly hair of its bushy tail, and the
triangular band of short black hair across the chest
and fore-legs. The toes are armed with two curved
claws of equal length, and a lesser one on the side.
Its mode of progression is in consequence peculiar, as
it walks on the joints of its toes. The Ant-eater has no
teeth, and, as its name implies, feeds upon ants.

The value of a skin is about 5s.

357

MAMMALIA, MARSUPIALIA.

MAUGE’S DASYURE, OR NATIVE CAT.
Dasyurus maugei.

This pretty little animal, called also the Spotted Cat
of Australia, is tolerably abundant in that continent.
It is about 9 to 10 inches long, including the tail of 4 to
5 inches. The colour is either light yellowish-grey, or
black marked with beautiful white spots. These spots
are very varied, both in size and in quantity, no two
skins being alike. The tail is tipped with white, and is
composed at the top of long bristly hairs. The eyes
are black, and prominent; the nose is pink, and soft.

Maugé’s Dasyure is carnivorous and nocturnal.

The fur being soft, the skins are very suitable for
lining garments, and for making small articles.

The value of a grey skin in 1890 was 54d. to 64d.,
and of a black 10d. to 1s., but now the price is some-
what less.

From 2,000 to 5,000 skins are imported annually.
Those from Sydney are generally larger and finer than
those from other districts in Australia.

358 MARSUPIALIA.

SPOTTED-TAILED DASYURE.
Dasyurus maculatus.

This second marsupial, or pouch-bearing animal, of
which we treat, is much larger than the preceding, being
about 2 feet in length, including its long tail.

The hair of this animal is coarse and harsh to the
touch.

The colour is of a dirty dusky-brown, with a few white
spots at the sides. The tail is spotted with white.

This Dasyure inhabits Queensland, New South Wales,
and Tasmania.

Its skin is of little value.

LONG-TAILED DASYURE.
Dasyurus macronis.

This Dasyure is the rarest of the three species
described, and its skin is very rarely seen.

It is remarkable for the great length of its tail, which
is about a foot. About half of the tail nearest to the
tip is black, and the half nearest to the body brown.
The legs are light brown, and the feet are furnished with
small sharp claws. The length of the body slightly
exceeds a foot.

The general colour is brown, a little deeper than in
Maugé’s Dasyure, and it is likewise spotted with white.
The white spots are more abundant on the head, and
the colour of the belly is lighter.

LONG-TAILED DASYURE. 359

The whiskers are black, and the ears are brown, and
almost bare. It has 24 molars, which are joined to the
canines.

BANDED BANDICOOT.
Perameles fasciata.

This small animal, of 6 inches in length, is remark-
able for the length of its ears, and the length and
slenderness of its legs and feet.

The hair with which it is covered is very harsh and
short, and grizzly in colour. This Bandicoot is marked
with three black bands just above the tail, whence it
derives its name.

It is an inhabitant of Australia; and there is also a
white variety.

The skin is, practically speaking, of no value.

LONG-NOSED BANDICOOT.
Perameles nasuta.

This Bandicoot is larger than the preceding, and is
about the same colour, without the black bands, but the
ears are shorter.

It is likewise an inhabitant of Australia.

The hair is very harsh.

360 MARSUPIALIA.

RABBIT-EARED BANDICOOT.
Perameles lagotis.

This very curious and most peculiar animal has also
been called the Cheropus, or Rabbit-eared Perameles.

It is a rather small animal, of about 12 inches in
length.

The ears are very long, soft, and bare like a Rabbit’s,
but longer for its size. The fur is silky, long, and fine,
but not thick in texture. The great contrast of colour
is remarkable ; it is of a beautiful pink on the upper
part, and of a pale slaty-ash hue on the hinder parts,
and the belly is white. The tail is brown at the base,
then about half of it is black, and the other half, near
the tip, white. The forefeet are furnished with three
long claws, and the hind-feet with only one, which is
extremely long. The pelt is very thin.

About 20 to 50 skins are imported annually among
the Australian sundries. If this animal were more
numerous, its fur would be better appreciated in com-
merce.

MYRMECOBIUS.
Myrmecobius fasciatus.

The Myrmecobius is a small marsupial of 4 to 6 inches
in length, and is very quaint in appearance.

The shoulders are red ; the hinder part is dark brown,
striped with darker bands; and the tail is rather bushy.

Skins of this animal are found among the sundries,

MYRMECOBIUS. 361

but are of little value, the hair being very coarse and
bristly.

It is an inhabitant of Australia, and is sometimes
called the Banded Ant-eater.

Mr. Nichols says the Myrmecobius feeds upon ants
and other insects, and climbs with facility.

PHASCOGALE.
Phascogale penicillata.

The skin of this small animal is rarely met with,
except amongst the sundries. The fur is extremely
short, and of a blue or grey colour ; the tail is covered
with long black, bristly hairs.

This animal also inhabits Australia, and the skins are,
practically speaking, of no value.

AMERICAN OPOSSUM.
Didelphys virginiana.

French: Opossum d’Amérique. German: Amerika-
nischer Opossum.

The American Opossum is one of the few marsupials
found out of Australasia. It varies from 4 inches to
about 8 feet in length, according to age, but these
dimensions do not include the long bristly tail. The
average size is 14 to 18 inches.

The ears of the American Opossum are small, black,
wide, and bare. The whiskers are black. The general
colour is grey or grizzly. The under wool is white,

362 MARSUPIALIA.

slightly darker at the tip, and in some specimens almost
black. The longer hairs are grey or whitish. The
belly is very sparingly covered with short hair of a drab-
brown colour, with a white hne running from the centre,
which becomes yellow near the neck. ‘The tail is long,
scaly, devoid of fur, and about two-thirds of it towards
the tip is white.

White specimens are by no means uncommon, but
fawn are much rarer. We have only once seen a mottled
grey and white skin, which is extremely rare.

The fur, although rather coarse, is thick and good in
the full-seasoned animal, and a skin varies in price from
1s. to 2s. 8d. (1891), according to sizeand quality. This
fur forms an important article of commerce, beg used
in the natural state, and also dyed black, brown, and
grey, for capes, muffs, etc. About 200,000 to 300,000
skins are imported annually.

The pelt is generally very greasy, owing to the fatty
nature of the Opossum.

This Opossum appears to have increased considerably
with the advance of the settlers in America.

It inhabits the United States exclusively, and is
never found in Canada, and its principal habitats are
Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Kentucky, ‘Tennessee,
Illinois, Indiana, and Honduras. 7

The flesh of this animal is said to be good eating.

In an old work on America, p. 329, the Opossum is
thus described :-—

“The Opossum is as big as a Cat, hath a sharp
Mouth, the upper jaw-bone -hanging over the lower,
long, straight, and broad Ears, and a very long Tail, bald
at the end, which winds in a Circle; on its Back black
Hair sprinkled with grey Spots, and with its sharp Claws
climbs up the Trees, where it feeds on Fruit, and some-

AMERICAN OPOSSUM. 363

times preys on Fowls. Nature hath furnish’d this Beast
with a strange Bag under its Belly, whereof the inside
hath a far softer Doun than the outside, in which the
young ones lie and suck, after which the Bag opening,
they creep out upon the Ground. The Males have also
a Bag, which serves onely to carry their Young in, for
they and the Females carry them by turns.”

KOALA.

Phascolarctus cinereus.
French: Koala.

To this peculiar animal the name of Australian or
Native Bear has been given, probably on account of its
being the largest Australian mammal living on trees. It
is very unlike the Bear, both in its habits, which are

364 MARSUPIALIA.

nocturnal, and its size and colour, and resembles the
Sloth in its habits and slow movements.

The size of an adult Koala is from 18 to 24 inches.
The general colour is light grey, the tips of the coarse
hair being white ; the upper part of the belly and chest
are white, as well as the insides of the legs ; the lower
part of the belly is reddish-brown, of various hues,
approaching at times to dark brown or dark purple.
The fur on the hind-quarters is much shorter, and has
patches and spots of white. From some districts, such
as Melbourne, the shoulders are quite brown, and there
are sometimes a few white spots on the lower part of the
back and chest, whilst other specimens are quite dark
brown, verging on black, and those from Adelaide are
dark purple. The ears are very short, broad, and tufted
on the inside with longer white hairs. The head is very
broad and short, and surrounded with a fringe of hair.
The nose is bare, and whiskers are absent. The forma-
tion of the feet is singular; the claws of the fore-paws
are five in number, the two inner ones being opposable
to the other three ; on the hind-paws the first toe is very
short, and is opposable to the other toes like the thumb
of aman to the fingers; the next two toes are small and
jomed together; the fourth is the longest, and is
separate; the fifth is likewise separate, but rather
shorter. The Koala has no molar teeth, neither has it
a tail.

The whiskers are black, and the ears almost bare and
brown. It has 24 molars, which are joined to the canines.

The Koala is a vegetarian, and lives in the giant
Eucalyptus or Blue Gum trees, on the foliage of which
it feeds. It is said to be rather stupid, and to be easily
killed with a stick.

Mr. Arthur Nicols says that ‘‘ the voice of the Koala

KOALA. 365

is plaintive, and unvaried, but by no means unpleasant,
and frequently repeated in three syllables.”

The Koala is tolerably abundant, and from 10,000 to
30,000 skins are imported annually. In 1889 the large
quantity of 300,000 were sold; and in 1890, 190,000.
The present value (1891) of a good skin is about 5d. to
1s. In 1871 and 1872, 1s. 6d. was paid, but the price
fell later to 24d. to 5d. These skins are made into
perambulator mats, sleeping and travelling bags, coats,
rugs, and many other articles for which a cheap, durable
fur is required. Some are dyed brown, and a few are
clipped and used for glove purposes.

The skins from Sydney and other mountainous dis-
tricts are generally large, fine, and light in colour.

AUSTRALIAN OPOSSUM.

Phalangista vulpina.

French: Opossum d’Australie. German: Australischer
Opossum.

This abundant and well-known animal is also called
the Vulpine Phalanger. It is found in the greater part of
Australia ; it lives on the great blue gum trees of this
continent ; and, as it is nocturnal in its habits, it is
usually shot on bright moonlight nights, when its posi-
tion can be most easily perceived.

The Australian Opossum, like the Musk-rat, Skunk, and
American Opossum, seems to have increased in the last
few years ; it increases in semi-settled countries, living on
the corn crops, fruit trees, etc., introduced by the new-
comers, which give these semi-wild animals a better
supply of food.

366 MARSUPIALIA.

Some twelve or fifteen years ago a few thousand skins
were imported annually, now the annual supply exceeds
two million skins, which realize from 2d. to 1s. 5d. accord-
ing to demand, colour and quality. It is now justly
appreciated for its cheapness, light weight, pretty grey
colour, and general usefulness. It is made into rugs,
perambulator mats, capes, boas, &c., and the tails are
made into mats; many are dyed black and dark brown,

some are also used for glove tops, either brown-topped or
clipped in imitation of Beaver.

England, Germany, France, and America, are the
chief buyers of this fur; the skins usually begin to arrive
in London in October.

The colour of the Australian Opossum is a beautiful
srey, with longer and darker, or dark grey, hairs on the
back; the under fur is blue, except in the redder animals,

AUSTRALIAN OPOSSUM. 367

when it is red at the shoulders. The tail is two-thirds
black towards the tip, and one-third grey like the rest of
the body; the belly is yellowish, and has very short, fine
fur; there are a few long black whiskers on the mouth.

Tue Tasmantan Opossum is the largest of this species,
and nearly the rarest except the Victorian Opossum ; a
large skin of this animal, which we measured, was 36
inches long, body 25 inches, tail 11 inches.

This Opossum inhabits exclusively Tasmania, and is
much sought after for its large size. The grey-coloured
variety is not generally so blue as the Opossums from
other parts of Australia ; its colour is yellower, and fur
much longer and thicker, the ears grey tipped with
white, the tail very bushy and black for about two-
thirds from the tip ; the tip on one side is devoid of fur,
and this bare space enables it to cling to twigs and
branches with great facility. The value of skin, good
No. 1, is from 1s. 4d. to 2s. 6d. according to demand.
The large black or dark brown variety, called the Black
Tasmanian Opossum, exists in larger proportion in this
colour than in any other region, such as Sydney and
Melbourne. The qualities of skins which are imported
vary considerably ; sometimes a few hundred, sometimes
5,000 to 10,000 are sent, but since 1889 the killing of
the Tasmanian Opossum has been prohibited. This fur
is much esteemed by furriers in all countries, especially
Herzegovina. Prices vary for a large No. 1. skin from
38. 6d. to 6s. 6d. according to demand.

The colour of this animal is a rich black-brown; some
specimens are much redder. A few of dark skins have
a white belly.

Victorta Opossum.—This variety is nearly as large as
the Tasmanian. The colour is of a clear dark grey-

368 MARSUPIALIA.

blue, of a much darker and richer shade than other
Opossums ; the under fur is deep blue, the belly white,
the ears dark, the tail thick and bushy; the fur on back
is often blacker. A black variety, the Black Victorian,
is sometimes met with. The value of a good blue skin
is about 2s. 6d.

Its skin is scarcer than that of any other Opossum, and
is much esteemed by the English and Canadian trade.

Sypney Opossum.—The Sydney Opossum is less in
size than either of the foregoing, but exceeds that of
the Melbourne and Adelaide types. The tail sometimes
measures 12 inches; the usual length is about 8. The
colour is usually of a bluish-grey, the tail generally
tipped with black; but occasionally a white tip is found
to this appendage, and sometimes a white spot is found
in the fur of the body.

The fur is from 1} to 2 inches in length, blue in under
fur but occasionally red, and redder principally at the
necks, sometimes almost white when in full-seasoned
skins; the upper fur is mingled with larger and coarser
dark hair. Some skins are nearly red in colour, except
the hind-quarters. The whiskers are rather long and
black, the ears are grey with a white spot on them, the
nose and fur on face is very soft and delicate.

Many of these animals are shot, more so than in
Tasmania, Melbourne, and Adelaide; the best time for this
sport is on a fine moonlight night, when it is clear
enough to see them on the branches of trees. The fur of
many is spoilt just above the tail by friction with the
bark of trees when sitting on their haunches; or when
taking hold of the branches with their tails, which are
bare on one side near the top.

The Sydney Opossum appears to interbreed with

AUSTRALIAN OPOSSUM. 369

the Koala, and sometimes with the Brush-tailed Kan-
garoo (Rock Wallaby), partaking of the nature of both
of these.

Most of the Sydney skins are obtained from the
mountain regions about that part, thus accounting for
the rich and thick fur.

White Opossums are uncommon, but not scarce.

Tne Metsourne Opossum exceeds all other varieties in
number; in size it is smaller than the Sydney type,
which it resembles much in colour. Its length is about
16 inches including the tail; this is generally black for
two-thirds of its length, but is sometimes erizzled,
though this freak of nature is extremely rare. Dark
brown Opossums with white bellies and albinos are
sometimes met with ; jet black animals are very rare;
we have once seen a dark drab skin.

The fur of the Australian Opossum takes a brilliant
dye, and becomes very soft and silky in the process.

The Australian Opossum breeds well in confinement.
About 3,000,000 skins of all sorts of Australian Opos-
sums were sold in London in 1891.

THe ADELAIDE Opossum is the smallest in size of this.
species, but its colour is the best, being of a very
decided blue; the majority of skins are of this descrip-
tion, having an abundance of longer black hair on the
back, giving it the appearance of a Chinchilla.

A certain number are, however, red.

The fur is short, $ to 1 inch in length; the tail rather
thin in fur, and often having a white tip; sometimes it
is even white for half its length.

The West Australian and Swan River Opossums
resemble the above, but they are more mousey, redder

370 MARSUPIALIA.

in colour, and also much smaller. Many of the tips of
these tails are also white. Black and brown varieties are
by no means uncommon, often described by naturalists
under other names, such as Phalangista Lemuroides.

ROCK OPOSSUM, OR SHORT-EARED
PHALANGER.

Phalangista cannia.

This Opossum is the rarest of the family, and inhabits
the rocky parts of New South Wales.

It exceeds slightly in size the Sydney Opossum, but
is inferior to the Tasmanian.

The colour is of a red hue, especially towards the
head ; the back is covered with darker hair, rather greyer.
The value of a skin is about Is.

There are occasionally dark brown varieties.

RING-TAILED OPOSSUM.
Phalangista cookt.

This Opossum is also called Cook’s Phalanger, and
was probably first noticed by this celebrated navigator.
It is a small animal, of about six inches long, with a
long tail which measures as much as 13 inches, and is
slightly thicker at base ; it is white for about two-thirds
from the tip. In one example we have seen a ring of black
in this white portion; from such a rare specimen the
name of Ring-tail has probably been derived. The Ning-
tailed Opossum of Adelaide is the most numerous of

RING-TAILED OPOSSUM. 371

this species, about 2,000 to 6,000 skins being imported
annually. The colour is of a rich blue, with darker hair
on back, like a dark Chinchilla.

The fur is short, fine, and soft; the belly is pure
white. The ears are very short and white. The value
of a skin is from 2d. to 6d. according to demand:
especially suitable for boas, children’s muffs, and other
small articles.

There is a black variety of the same animal which is
very beautiful, and called Phalangista herbertensis by
some collectors; in fact, the colour of Cook’s Opossum
varies very much, quite light, whitish-looking specimens
are met with ; yellowish, steel, dark grey, like Victorian
grey, are also not uncommon.

The Sydney Ring-tailed Opossum is light brown in
colour, not nearly so pretty, and its skin isnot so much
appreciated. It is sometimes called Phalangista archeri.
The tail of all varieties of Cook’s Opossum is broader at
the base, and white at the tip.

SQUIRREL-LIKE PHALANGER.
Belidens Scirreus.

This very small animal has soft fur. It is short-
headed, and has dark lines at the neck. It is
nocturnal.

BB 2

372 MARSUPIALIA.

GREAT FLYING PHALANGER OR OPOSSUM.
Petaurus australis.

This nocturnal animal is very diversified in colour ;
the general hue is a light brown or grey with a dark
stripe running down the back; the fore legs and edge of
the parachute are dark brown; the hind legs are only
dark brown on the low parts; the head is dark brown ;
the whiskers are sparse, short, and black; the eyes are
dark; the tail is long, dark brown half way from the
end; the lower half near the root is fuller, ighter, with
a brown stripe at the top; the neck and belly are
yellowish; the ears are long, broad, and almost bare of
fur, and the claws are sharp and hooked; the fur is very
soft, and that on the flying membrane or parachute is
extremely so, and very short.

In black varieties the belly is white, the tail of these
sometimes exceeds 2 feet; white varieties are also
occasionally met with.

According to Mr. Nichols this animal feeds on moths,
leaves, and berries.

Like all other flymg mammals, the skin is too thin to
allow this fur to be used for any other purpose than as
mounted specimens.

373

RED KANGAROO.
Macropus rufus.

We now arrive at the large and important family of
the Kangaroos. All are noticeable for great length of
hind legs in comparison to the fore legs ; long, thick and
tapering tail, which is used as a support when resting
on the hind legs—a favourite position of all Kangaroos ;
the fore legs are very short and small, and are rarely
used except when feeding.

The hind legs are furnished with three strong claws,
the centre of which is longest, and which inflict fearful
wounds on hounds when at bay.

The Red Kangaroo is one of the largest species, and
is only surpassed in this respect by the Great Kan-
garoo.

Its fur is red; at one season of the year light slate-
blue or reddish-blue: on account of its wooliness and
harshness it is not sought for by furriers, and its skin
is not liked by tanners, as it is too harsh for leather.

The Red Kangaroo is one of the most numerous sorts.
Several thousand skins are imported annually.

Its food, like all other Kangaroos, is essentially
vegetable. The Red Kangaroo is sometimes called the
Sand Kangaroo.

All the Kangaroos possess a pouch, into which the
young get when alarmed. The young are born very
small, and pass the beginning of their existence in this
pouch.

374 MARSUPIALIA.

BLUE KANGAROO.
Macropus erubescens.

The blue, roan, or grey Kangaroo is not so numerous
as the foregoing, and is not quite so large.

Its colour varies from very light pinkish-yellow, in
fact almost white, to light blue with longer white hairs,
and then to dark blue and dark brown-blue, the colour
of a dark blue Fox; the belly is white.

- The fur is long and rather soft; the under fur or
ground is pink or light blue.

The tail is brownish or light yellow, but the tip is
browner and slightly bristly ; the feet are dark brown,
and white underneath.

The pelt is soft and thin; in the raw state it has a
glazed and fresh appearance, and is appreciated by
tanners. When used as a fur it is made into boas,
rugs, &¢., and its value is about 1s. to 3s.

The skins of this animal are imported with those of
other Kangaroos. The yearly collection is therefore
difficult to ascertain; it would perhaps amount from
30,000 to 40,000.

WALLAROO.
Macropus robustus.

The Wallaroo is still smaller, and is perhaps the most
scarce of all the Kangaroos.

Its colour is whitish-grey, with a yellow or white mark
on each side of the tail ; the tail is greyish, and the hair
is very short and harsh.

The skin of the Wallaroo is only suitable for making
into leather; it is, however, often found in the sundry
lots of the Australian furs.

B79

GREAT KANGAROO.
Macropus giganteus.
French: Kangourou. German: Kanguruh.

This large animal is also called the Boomer, Forester,
or Old Man Kangaroo. It appears not to have decreased
much since the settlement of the country; its numbers
have certainly been considerably diminished in the prox-
imity of towns, but on the other hand its numbers have
increased on the sweet pasture and cultivated grounds
of the newly-settled districts, and does there a certain
amount of damage. It is said in ‘‘ Marsupial Reptiles ”
that its increase is due to the destruction of the Dingoes.
The Boomer is the most numerous of all the Kangaroos ;
the full-grown animal is about 4 to 5 feet high when
sitting on its haunches.

It is hunted by means of dogs, and is very difficult
to capture on broken ground on account of the long

376 MARSUPIALIA.

jumps which it takes on its hind legs, its usual means
of progression when chased. When at bay it defends
itself by means of its claws, seizing the hounds with the
front paws, and ripping them open with the hind ones.
The ordinary mode of progression is a series of leaps.

The colour of the Great Kangaroo is dark brown or
drab, or light drab with whiter top hair; the belly is
lighter, almost white, and the fur is longer and thicker
underneath ; the tail is long, and tipped with black; the
ears are long; the fur is not very dense except in the
younger animals, which are more serviceable for furriers,
and used for wrappers, rugs, coats, etc., and low quality
skins are made into linings. The larger skins are usually
bought by tanners and leather-dressers, and are ja-
panned or tanned for leather, and used in the manu-
facture of shoes, etc. The larger skins are also much
appreciated by the American leather trade.

Kangaroo skins are now sold in auction by weight,
and as large skins weigh about 2 lbs., and as the price
often reaches 3s. per Ib. or more, a large skin is worth
about 6s., but the extra small are not worth more than
3d. to 9d. About 100,000 skins are sold annually in
London.

In 1885, 57,294 skins
>, 1886, 165,690" -,
5) 2E8K, 146,354 |:
spe listete mL ei Geko
», 1889, 368,480 _,,
3 2890,7 308,456"...
3 LeU, 126:673" |;

These include all species of
Kangaroos.

Kangaroo flesh is said to be excellent eating, especially
that of the young; the tails are made into excellent soup.
Like most animals, the Kangaroo swims well.

GREAT KANGAROO. 377

White Kangaroos are sometimes met with; these are
very beautiful, and have pink eyes; black varieties have
been described as a different species of the black-faced
Kangaroo (Marcopus melanops).

YELLOW WALLABY, OR YELLOW-FOOTED
~ ROCK KANGAROO.

Petrogale xanthopus.

This animal is of rather small size, about 14 to 2 feet
long; the tail, however, is another 2 feet long, hairy
and ringed ; the head is narrow, and the ears long, as is
usual in all Kangaroos or Wallabies.

The fur is soft, long, dense, and fluffy; it is of yellow
hue generally; the back is of a light brown, with a black
stripe down the centre; there is a white mark on each
side. It inhabits South Australia.

This species is not very numerous. Some hundreds
of skins are imported annually from Adelaide ; the value

378 MARSUPIALIA.

ranges from 1s. 4d. The Yellow Wallaby has bred in
the Zoological Gardens of London.

ROCK WALLABY.
Petrogale pencillata.

The Rock Wallaby, or Brush-tailed Kangaroo as it is
also called, is more numerous than the foregoing. Several
thousand skins—about 5,000 to 15,000—are imported
annually, and are mostly bought by furriers and fur
traders for use in England, France, Germany, and
Canada.

The fur, which is tolerably thick, is also about 23
inches long and of a reddish-brown silvery hue, somewhat
like a red Lynx; the top hair is rather longer ; the belly
is brownish; the colour of the fur is red, brown towards
the tail, and grey-speckled on top of the back; the
under fur is blue; the fore legs are short, and the five
toes of the front feet are covered with fur. The tail is
very long, about 2 to 24 feet long, and covered with
bristly brown hair.

The eyes are black, and there is a black line between
them. Occasionally there is a white spot in the brown fur.

The Rock Wallaby dwells amongst rocks, and is an
excellent jumper, easily clearing six to eight feet at a
bound ; it appears to interbreed with the Australian
Opossum, and thrives well in captivity in this country.
The usual value of a good skin is from 38d. to 9d., but
sometimes they have been driven up to Is. 8d., which
is beyond its real value. It is a serviceable skin for
coats, capes, etc., and is sometimes dyed.

The Rock Wallaby inhabits New South Wales and
Victoria. The skins shipped from Sydney are the best.

379

BENNETT’S WALLABY, OR BUSH KANGAROO.
Halmaturus Bennetit.

Another name for this Wallaby is Bennett’s Wallaby;
it is also sometimes called the Hill Wallaby or Kangaroo ;
and is one of the more numerous species, but the exact
quantity of skins imported is difficult to ascertain, as
so many species are sold under the general name of
Wallaby or Kangaroo ; probably 20,000 to 30,000 of this
sort are imported. The fur, or rather hair, is short,
grizzly, and harsh and thin, like a common Raccoon in
colour, but rather redder. The tail is grizzly like the
skin, but the tip is black.

The skin is only fit for common wrappers or coats (as
an imitation of common Raccoon), or for making into
leather. Its value is from 4d. to 1s.

There is a white variety of this species. The Bush
Kangaroo is said to swim well. It inhabits New South
Wales and Victoria.

SWAMP WALLABY.
Halmaturus walabutus.

The Swamp or Black Wallaby is the largest of the
Wallaby family; it is about 24 to 3 feet long. This
measurement does not include its tail. The general
colour is a deep reddish-brown, rather redder towards
the tail. The under fur, or hair, is coarse, and covered
with long, black, harsh hair; the belly is brown.

The ears are long and brown and the feet are black.
In some examples there isa white spot in the fur. The

380 MARSUPIALIA.

fur, although so harsh, is strong and good, and is much
appreciated in Canada for coats, and a few are some-
times used dyed in Europe. The larger skins are made
into leather.

Some 10,000 or 20,000 skins are imported yearly into
London, and the price ranges from 6d. to 1s. 9d., but in
1889 3s. 2d. even was reached.

BLACK-STRIPED WALLABY.

Halmaturus dorsalis.

This small Wallaby is very numerous ; many thousand
skins are imported and bought by tanners for leather.
The hair is short, sparse, and grey, with a black stripe
running down a great part of the back. It is also
called the Hill Wallaby. Most of the foregoing Walla-
bies are said to be very good eating.

SHORT-TAILED WALLABY.
Halmaturus brachyurus.

This small Wallaby is also called the Wood Wallaby,
or Kangaroo. It probably lives in trees, and it gets
over the ground very quickly, its pace being between a
hop and a run.

Its length is about 12 inches to 18 inches, not including
the tail. The general colour is dark brown but rather
grizzly, and redder underneath; the tail is speckled.
The fur is short and tolerably dense, and is well adapted
for making into coats; its value is about from 6d. to
1s., some 5,000 to 10,000 skins forming the annual
importation.

381

BRIDLED KANGAROO.

This small Kangaroo is sometimes called the Paddy
Melon. The fur is very short and flat, and is speckled-
grey in colour, the tail is also speckled. There is a
characteristic stripe round its head, from which it de-
rives its name of bridled. The skin of this animal is
very serviceable for lining coats, but not more than a
few hundred skins are sent to this country. It appears
to be a scarce animal.

KANGAROO RAT.
Hypsiprymnus rufescens.

The Kangaroo Rat isa small animal, rather larger
than a Musk-rat, its length, without the tail, rarely ex-
ceeding 12 inches. Its fur is reddish with longer white
hair, the under fur blue and tolerably abundant. The
skin is thin and light, and for this reason makes one of
the lightest and most serviceable coat-linings. The
belly is white, and there is generally a white tip to the
tail.

WOMBAT.
Phascolomys wombat.

This large marsupial is sometimes called the Aus-
tralian Badger. It lives in burrows in the ground, and
is nocturnal in its habits. It is about 4 feet long, and is
covered with dark brown, bristly hair. The skin has no
use as a fur and is simply good for leather. It is an
inhabitant of Australia.

382 MONOTREMATA.

MAMMALIA. MONOTREMATA.

PLATYBUS.
Ornithorhynchus anatinus.
French: Ondatras.

This most singular of all animals is also called the
Duck-billed Platybus. It has the bill of a Duck per-
forated with two holes at the base for nostrils; the fore
feet are webbed, and besides this deep web they are
furnished with five long nails ; the hind feet are webbed,
but in a less degree. The claws are longer and project
beyond the web. They are also furnished with a
longish spur hike that of a game cock, but not so long;
there is a small hollow duct running through the spur ;
by some this is said to contain poison. The tail is short
and bristly, but like the rest of the body. The fur is
short, dense, and silvery-brown; the under fur is
extremely dense and fine, and blue in colour. It is the
richest of all under furs, excelling that of the Fur Seal.
The belly is lighter, almost white in some specimens.
There is a white mark round the eyes. Like all water
animals its pelt is thick, fur short. The Platybus has
no external ears. The vent is like that of a bird, and
its internal organisms are very similar. It lives in the
water and makes its holes in the bushes. It has been
said to lay eggs; this, however, seems never to have
been proved. It probably, like the Echidna, produces
broken shells at the same time that the young are
born.

The Platybus has no teeth, but their place is taken in

PLATYBUS. 383

the jaws by flat, long plates, which are adapted to crush
the small molluscs and crustaceans on which it feeds.

The Platybus inhabits Australia; a few skins—not
more than a hundred or so—are imported annually.
Pulled and dyed they excel Fur Seal in quality, and are
well adapted for caps and small ornaments. When
pulled and silvered, they are used for glove tops, and in
the natural state for capes, trimmings, etc. The value
of a skin is from 1s. to 2s. 6d., according to size and
demand. There are several local varieties of Platybus,
some of which have finer fur. The Platybus lives in
long burrows near the water. The flesh is said to be
eaten and relished by the Australian natives.

Mr. J. Nichols says that the Platybus excavates bur-
rows 20 to 40 feet deep, and that it has two entrances
to its nest, one on the land and one under water (p. 126).
The young are born hairless and blind, and totally un-
like the full-grown animal. That which becomes the
duck bill in the adult is a pair of short fleshy lips, with
which they obtain the milk. The female has no pouch ;
the eye possesses the third eyelid or ‘‘ nictitating mem-
brane.”

ECHIDNA.
Echidna hystrix.
French: Echidne.

This small but interesting animal is only surpassed
in quaintness by the foregoing. Its body is covered
with small and abundant bristles or quills of about 1 inch
to 2 inches long, and black or light brown in colour. On
account of these quills it has been called the Australian

384 MONOTREMATA.

Porcupine. The tail is also composed of quills. The
general colour is brown; it, however, varies in different
parts of Australia. In specimens from some localities
the under wool is abundant, and have consequently been
described as different species by some authorities.

The head has a long bill but no teeth; the animal
feeds solely on ants, which it obtains by means of its
long tongue.

The Echidna is an inhabitant of Australia. Its skin
is of little value for any purpose.

INDEX.

==
Aard Wolf, 62 | Bear, Polar, 157
Aelurus fulgens, 156 | —— Russian, 160
Alcelaphus albifrons, 307 | —— Siberian, 160
Alces machlis, 344 | —— Syrian, 162
Anomalurus beecrofti, 241 | —— Thibetan, 165
Ant-eater, Great, 356 White, 157
Antelope, Harnessed, 304 | Beaver, 247
— Indian, 306 | —— Rat, 255
—— Snow, 306 Biscacha, 268
Antilope cervicapra, 306 | Bison, American, 290
Arctocephalus falklandicus, 200 americanus, 290
forsteri, 204 — bonasus, 290
Arctomys bobak, 243 — HKuropean, 290
— caudatus, 245 Black Buck, 307
——- monax, 244 Bless-bok, 307
Arvicola amphibius, 257 Bos Gaurus, 299
Astracan Lamb, 330 Breitschwiinze, 330
Axis, 342 | Buffalo, 290
Baboon, Guinea, 12 Cacomistle, 59
Badger, American, 131 | Calabar, 235
— Chinese, 136 | Callorhinus ursinus, 175, 192, 195,
— Common, 133 196
— Japanese, 136 Canis antarcticus, 73
Bandicoot, Banded, 359 | —— aureus, 102
— Long-nosed, 359 —— azarea, 101
Rabbit-eared, 360 | —-— dingo, 65
Bassaris astuta, 58 | familiaris, 63
Bear, Black, 166 —— fulvus, 81, 86, 87
—— Brown, 169 —— lagopus, 89, 93
Cinnamon, 169 — latrans, 72
East India, 170 — lupus, 65, 75
— Grizzly, 162 — occidentalis, 68
—— Hairy-eared, 165 —— mesomelas, 102
— Himalayan, 165 | —— pallipes, 72
—— Isabelline, 162 | —-— podophylax, 75
—— Native, 363 | —__ procynides, 103

386

Canis velox, 95

virginianus, 97

vulpes, 76

Capra hircus, 308, 311, 312, 314,
315, 317

Caracal, 52

Cariacus macrotis, 349

-—— virginianus, 348

Castor canadensis, 247

Cat, African Civet, 55

——— ——-— Golden, 31

—— —— Leopard, 31

—— Bush, 55

——— Bushy-tailed Red -spotted,
=== (Opie, 455}

— Chinese Bush, 56

—— Civet, 140

— Common, 50

— Desert, 34

—— Domestic, 37

—— European Wild, 35
—-— Hyra, 31

Geoffroy’s, 31

—— Himalayan Leopard, 34
= LOUSE wall

Molina’s Guiana, 32
——— Mountain, 58

—— Native, 357
Niagara, 59

—— Pampas, 32

—— Red) 52

— Spotted, 357

—— Tiger, 32
Cercocebus fuliginosis, 10
Cercopithecus callithrichus, 7
campbelli, 6

—— cephus, 7

—— cynosurus, 7

——— diana. (3

—— erythrogaster, 9
—— griseo-virindis, 7
—— lalandii, 7

mona, 6

—— patas, 7

pluto, 10

Cervus axis, 342
canadensis, 339
— elephas, 336

INDEX.

| Cervus luehdorfi, 341

Cheetah, 53

Chinchilla, 265

Bastard, 266

—— Chili, 266

—— brevicaudata, 265

lanigera, 266

Chinchillone, 267

Chirogaleus milii, 14

Colobus, East African, 4

—— Ursine, 3

White-thighed, 1

guereza, 4

ursinus, 3

vellorosus, 1

Colour, xiii

Company, Alaska Commercial, xli

American Fur, xliv

Harmony, xlili

Hudson’s Bay, xxxvi

- Missouri, xlv

North American
cial, xlii

North-West, xxxvi

—— Pacific Fur, xlv

—- Royal Greenland Fur Trad-

ing, xliv

-——— Russian Fur, xii

—— Russian Seal Skin, xliii

—— Skinners’, xxxiv

West Indian, xxxy.

Conepatus mapurito, 141

Commer-

- Connocheetes taurina, 308
| Coyote, 72

Cricetus frumentarius, 255
Crimmer Lamb, 332
Customs, xlix

Cynailurus jubatus, 53
Cynocephalus sphinx, 12

| Cynomis ludovicianus, 245

Cystophora cristata, 223

Dama vulgaris, 343

| Danadar, 330

Dasyure, Maugé’s, 357
Long-tailed, 358
Spotted-tailed, 358
Dasyurus macronis, 358
maculatus, 358

INDEX. 387

Dasyurus, maugei, 357 Felis leo, 15
Deer, East Indian, 342 — lynx, 49

Fallow, 343 — macrocelis, 29
— Mule, 349 — onca, 23
—— North American, 348 — ornata, 34
— Red, 335 ——- pardalis, 30
— West African Striped, 304 — pardus, 25, 27, 29
—— Virginian, 348 —— passerum, 32
Desman, 231 rufa, 50
Didelphys virginiana, 361 — serval, 32
Dingo, 65 —— tigris, 19
Dog, Chinese, 74 —- uncia, 24

Esquimaux, 63 Fiber zibethicus, 258
— Racoon-like, 103 Fisher, Afghan, 113
— Siberian, 74 —— American, 111
Dressing, xlv Fitch, 121
Duty, xlix Russian, 123
Dyeing, xlvii Fox, Afghan, 100

—— American (cross), 86

Kchidna, 383 — (red), 81
—— hystrix, 383 — (silver), 87
Elk, 344 — Arctic, 89, 93
Enhydra lutra, 148 Azara’s, 101
Entellus, Mountain, 11 —— Blue, 93
Erignathus barbata, 223 — Cape, 101
rmine, 123 — Kast Indian, 101

Eumetopias stelleri, 210 —— Grey, 97
Eyra, 31 —— Kitt, 95

—— Persian, 100
Fair, Frankfurt, liv — Prairie, 99
—— Irbit, lv ~— Steppe, 100
— Ischin, lv Virginian, 97
—— Kiatka, lv —— White, 89
—— Leipsic, liv
—— Nijni-Novgorod, lv
Fashion, xviii Gaur, 299
Felis bengalensis, 34 Gazella euchore, 305
—— caffra, 43 Genet, Blotched, 58
—— canadensis, 45 — Common, 57
— caracal, 52 Genetta tigrina, 58
— catus, 35 -—— vulgaris, 57
— Chrysosthrix, 31 Glutton, 127
— colo colo, 32 Guu, 308
— concolor, 18 Goat, Angora, 312
— domestica, 37 — Cape, 315
—— euptilura, 33 —— Chinese, 315
—— Hyra, 31 — Common, 308
— Geoffroii, 31 —— Italian, 312

—- Isabellina, 44 — Mongolian, 317

388

Goat, Norwegian, 312
Russian, 311
Thibet, 314
Guanaco, 354

Gulo luscus, 127

Halicheerus grypus, 222
Halmaturus Bennetii, 379
brachyurus, 380
—— dorsalis, 380
walabutus, 379
Hamster, 255

Hare, American, 276

—— Blue, 277

— Common, 271

—— Mountain, 277

—— Polar, 274

Varying, 277

—— White, 274

Helamys capensis, 270
Herpestes grisius, 61
ichneumon, 61

—— langifer, 60

—— pulveruleutus, 61
Huanaco, 354

Hyena, Spotted, 62
crocuta, 62
Hydromys chrysogaster, 255
Hypsiprymnus rufescens, 381

Ichneumon, Dusty, 61
Egyptian, 61
Grey, 61
Ictonyx zorilla, 130

Jackal, Black-backed, 102
Common, 102
Jaguar, 23

Kangaroo, Blue, 374

— Bridled, 381

— Bush, 379

—— Great, 375

--— Red, 373

— Yellow-footed Rock, 377

INDEX.

Keruas hodgsonii, 306
Koala, 363
Kolinsky, 114

Lagotis, 267
cuvieri, 267

Lagostomus trichodactylus, 268

Lama huanacos, 354
—— peruana, 353

—— yvicugna, 353
Lamb, Astracan, 330
— Bokharan, 327
— Breitschwiinze, 330
— Corsican, 333

—— Crimean, 332

—— Persian, 329

—— Pinheaded Persian, 330
—— Sardinian, 333
—— Shiraz, 328

— Slink, 323, 330
— Thibet, 328
Transylvanian, 332
-—— Ukrainer, 331
Lemming, 258

Lemur, Black, 12

— Dwarf, 14

Grey, 14
Red-fronted, 13
—— Ring-tailed, 13
—— Ruffed, 12

Lemur catta, 13

—— macaco, 12

— rufifrons, 13
Leopard, African, 27
—— Chinese, 24

—— East Indian, 25
Persian, 29

_ — Snow, 24
| Leptonyx weddeli, 226

Lepus americanus, 276
— cuniculus, 278
—— europeus, 271
glacialis, 274

—— yariabilis, 277
Lion, 15

Llama, 353

Lutra brasiliensi, 146
—— canadensis, 146
— dedalandi, 146

Lutra, felisa, 144
leptonyx, 145
— vulgaris, 142
Lynx, American, 45
-_— Bay, 50

——— European, 49
—— Persian, 44
—— Siberian, 44

Macacus silenus, 10
tcheliensis, 11
Macropus erubescens, 374
—— giganteus, 375
—— robustus, 374

—— rufus, 373
Mangabey, Sooty, 10
Marmot, Cashmere, 245
—— Chinese, 245

—— Himalayan, 245
—— Quebec, 244

-— Russian, 243
Marten, American, 108
—— Baum, 104

—— Beech, 106

—- Canadian, 111
—— Japanese, 115
— Pine, 104

—— Stone, 106

Meles ankuma, 136
leptorhynchus, 136
—— taxus, 133
Mellivora capensis, 130
—— indica, 130
Melursus ursinus, 170
Mephitis mephitica, 137
—— putorius, 140
Microcebus smithii, 14
Mink, American, 118
Russian, 120.
Mold-worp, 229

Mole, 228

Monkey, Abyssinian, 4
—— Black, 1

—— Blue, 10, il

-— Campbell’s, 6

—— China Grey, 11
—— Common, 6

— Diana, 8

INDEX.

Monkey, Green, 7
— Grey, 8

—— Grivet, 7

—— Malbrouck, 7

— Mona, 6

— Moustache, 7

—— Patas, 7

—— Pluto, 10

— Wanderoo, 10

Moose, 344

Musk-ox, 301

Musk-rat, 258

— Russian, 231

Musquash, 258

Mustela erminea, 123

—— flavigula, 113

-—— foina, 106

—— martes, 108

—— melanopus, 115
— pennanti, 111

——— putorius, 121
—— sarmatica, 107

—— sibirica, 114

vison, 118

—— zibellina, 116

Myodes lemmus, 258

Myogale moschata, 231

Myopotamus coypus, 263

Myrmecobius, 360

—— fasciatus, 360

Myrmecophaga jubata, 356

Nandine, 59
Nandinia binotata, 59
Nutria, 263

Ocelot, 30

Opossum, Adelaide, 369
——— American, 361
—— Australian, 365
-—— Cook’s, 370
Melbourne, 369
—— Ring-tailed, 370
— Rock, 370

| —— Sydney, 368

—— Tasmanian, 367
—— Victorian, 367

389

| Ornithorhynchus anatinus, 382

Otaria cinerea, 206

390

Otaria gazella, 173, 174

gillespie, 198

—— hookeri, 208

—— pusilla, 203

Otter, American, 146

—— Cape, 146

Calcutta, 145

——- Chinese, 144

—— European, 142

—— Indian, 145

Sea, 148

South American, 146

— West African, 145

Ounce, 24

Ovibos moschatus, 301

Ovis aries, 325, 327, 328, 329, 330,
331, 332, 333, 334

Paddy Melon, 381

Paguma, Woolly, 60
langifer, 60

Panda, 156

Paradoxure, Two-spotted, 59
Perameles, fasciata, 359
lagotis, 360

nasuta, 359
Perwitsky, 107

Petrogale pencillata, 378
xanthopus, 377
Phalanger, Great Flying, 372
Short-eared, 370

—— Squirrel-like, 371

—— Vulpine, 365
Phalangista canina, 370
cooki, 370

scirreus, 371

vulpina, 365
Phascogale, 361

— pencillata, 361
Phascolarctus cinereus, 363
Phascolomys wombat, 381
Phoca foetida, 220
groenlandica, 215
— vitulina, 212
Platybus, 382

Poephagus grunniens, 300
Polecat, 121

Prairie Dog, 245

INDEX.

Procyon cancrivorus, 155
—— lotor, 152

Proteles cristatus, 62
Pteromys magnificus, 241
Puma, 18

Putorius eversmanii, 123

Quality, xv

Quantities, xix, xx

— of American Furs, xxviii,

XXiX, XXX, XXXi, xxxii, xxxili

— of European Furs, xxi

—— of Hudson’s Bay Company’s
Furs, xxii, xxiii, xxiv, xxv, Xxvi,
Xxvil

Rabbit, American, 276
—— Domestic, 278
Racoon, 152

— Cashmere, 155
—— Japanese, 103
——- South American, 155
Rangifer tarandus, 350
Rat, Coypu, 263

—— Kangaroo, 381
—— Water, 257
Rattle, 130

— Cape, 130
Reindeer, 350

Sable, Russian, 116
Sales, lvi

Sand Badger, 137
Sciuropterus volucella, 241
Sciurus bicolor, 238
cinereus, 239
hudsonius, 240
—— maximus, 238
—— tristriatus, 239
—— vulgaris, 233
Sea-Leopard, 226
Sea-Lion, Steller’s, 210
Seal, Fur, Alaska, 175
—— Cape, 203

—-— Cape Horn, 200
— Copper Island, 195

Seal, Fur, Crozet Island, 173
—- Falkland Island, 200
-—— Japanese, 196

—— Lima, 199

— Lobos Island, 200
— Macquarie Island, 208
—— North-west, 192
Robben Island, 196
—— San Louis, 174
South Shetland, 171
—- Victoria, 192

— West Coast, 198

— Hair, Bearded, 223
—— Bladder-nosed, 223
—— Common, 212

— Crested, 223

— Fetid, 220

—— Greenland, 215

—— Grey, 222

—— Ground, 223

—— Harp, 215

— Hooded, 223

— New Zealand, 206
— Ringed, 220
Semnopithecus schistanus, 11
Serval, 32

Sex, xvili

Sheep, 318

-— Arabian, 327

— China, 326

—— Iceland, 325

—— Shetland, 333

— Spanish, 333

— Russian, 334

Size, xvii

Skunk, 137

—— Chilian, 141

Little Striped, 140
Souslik, European, 242
Spermophilus citillus, 242
Springbok, 305

Spring Haas, 270

Squirrel, African Flying, 241
American Flying, 241
—— --— Grey, 239

—— Common, 233

—— Kast Indian, 239
—— Hudson’s Bay, 240
—— Jerelang, 238

INDEX. 391

Squirrel, Malabar, 238
— Red-bellied Flying, 241
—— Three-striped, 239

Talpa europea, 228
Tariff, xlix

Taxidea americana, 131
Tiger, Bengal, 20
Clouded, 29

-— Himalayan, 23
—— Mongolian, 21
Turkestan, 22
Tragelaphus scriptus, 304

Ursus americanus, 166, 169
—— arctos, 160

ferox, 162

isabellinus, 162

— maritimus, 157
piscator, 165

—— syriacus, 162

—— tibetanus, 165

Vervet, 7

Vicuna, 353

Viseacha, 268

Viverra civetta, 55
-—— zibetha, 56

Vole, Water, 257
Vulpes chacma, 101
leucopus, 100, 101
persica, 100

— vulgaris, 76

Wallaby, Bennett’s, 379
— Black, 379

—— Black-striped, 380
Rock, 378

—— Short-tailed, 380
—-. Swamp, 379

—— Wood, 380

—— Yellow, 377
Wallaroo, 374

Wapiti, 339

Weenusk, 244
Wish-ton-wish, 245

“Wolf, Aard, 62 *- | Wolf, South American, 73
—— American, 68 Wolverine, 127

— Chinese, 75 Wombat, 381

— Common, 65
_—— European, 65 Yak, 300

—— Indian, 72 |

—— Japanese, 75 | Zibeth, 57 ;
—— Prairie, 72 - Zorilla, Cape, 130

Woodfall & Kinder, Printers, 70 to76, Long Acre, London, W.C,

University of Toronto |
Library

DO NOT
REMOVE
THE
CARD
FROM
THIS
POCKET

Acme Library Card Pocket H

Under Pat. “Ref, Index File” j
Made by LIBRARY BUREAU

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Fur-bearing animals in nature and in commerce"

See other formats