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FOR THE PEOPLE

FOP. EDVCATION

FOR SCIENCE

LIBRARY

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

NATURAL HISTORY

SEMICENTENNIAL PUBLICATIONS

OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

1868-1918

UNIV. CALIF. PUBL.

[GR^NNELL, BRYANT, STORER] PL. 1

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fu-tf^f .

CALIFORNIA QUAIL, MALE

THE GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

CONTRIBUTION FROM THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
MUSEUM OF VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY

JOSEPH GKINNELL
HAROLD CHILD BRYANT

AND

TRACY IRWIN STORER

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS
BERKELEY

1918

J. GRINNELL

v\-(aai^- ioj^^i*^

ISSUED DECEMBER 28, 1918

PREFACE

In the fall of 1912 it was decided that the staff of the California
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology should begin to apply a portion of its
knowledge of the vertebrate natural history of the state along prac-
tical lines, more particularly in an active effort towards conserving
the native fauna. In the course of extended field work throughout
California we had been forcibly impressed with the rapid depletion
everywhere evident among the game birds and mammals, but at the
same time we found reason to believe that a careful study of the
situation would reveal some effectual means of retarding this down-
ward trend.

After observing the course of legislation for several months during
the season of 1913, and recalling the popular indifference we had
encountered in various parts of the state toward existing game laws,
we had come to the conclusion that however numerous or stringent
the game laws might be, they of themselves could not be expected to
furnish adequate protection. The people at large must be apprized
of the facts, and shown the need for, as well as the most effective means
of, conserving our game resources.

About this time our plans became known to a Berkeley gentle-
man who was already intensely interested in any and all agencies for
the protection of wild life. It was through the financial aid tendered
by this man, whose name I am pledged to withhold, that the beginning
of our work along economic lines was made possible. The actual task
of Avriting the present book on the status of the game birds of Cali-
fornia was begun on June 1, 1913, when Dr. Harold Child Bryant
joined the staff of the ]\Iuseum of Vertebrate Zoology under salary
provided as above indicated, and, in collaboration with the director
of the museum, devoted his time exclusively to this enterprise.
Bryant's services formally terminated on August 1, 1914, when he
was called to a position as director of education, publicity and
research, under the State Fish and Game Commission. He thereby
cafried the slogan "Game Conservation through Education" into
a sphere of application the scope of which he has been able steadily
to enlarge and perfect.

The work on the game-bird book was immediately taken up where
Bryant had left off, by Mr. Tracy Irwin Storer, and the latter, under
salary at first supplied from the anonymous source above alluded to,
and later by Miss Annie M. Alexander, has, again with the collabora-
tion of the director of the museum, faithfully and unremittingly
labored on the book until its completion at the end of 1916.

[iii]

]\Ieanwliilo, Bryant's interest in the undertaking has not flagged,
and he has embraced opportunities in connection with his new work
under the Fish and Game Commission, to secure information for use
in our general chapters, as well as here and there throughout the
accounts of species.

It is but just to state here that the whole game-bird book has
been brought to a conclusion only through the opportunities afforded
under the auspices of the University of California Museum of Verte-
brate Zoology; and the maintenance of this museum in all its func-
tions has been due to the continued financial support furnished in
generous measure by Miss Alexander.

The arduous typing and retyping of the manuscript was a neces-
sary labor, done faithfully by Miss Margaret W. Wythe, of the
museum staff. Corrections in the phrasing were suggested by Mr.
Aubrey Boyd, instructor in English in the University of California.
Mr. Albert H. Allen, manager of the University Press, evinced personal
interest in the enterprise in many ways during the process of compila-
tion. The line drawings were done by Miss Frieda Lueddemann,
directl}'' from museum specimens. Of the sixteen colored plates, nine
were done specially for this book by Louis Agassiz Fuertes; three
colored drawings, also by Fuertes, were loaned for our use by the
California Fish and Game Commission; and the use of four colored
drawings done by Allan Brooks was allowed by their owners, two
of them by Miss Annie M. Alexander, one by Mr. A. Brazier Howell,
and one through Mr. W. Leon Dawson, the latter from the stock of
Brooks drawings owned by the Birds of California Publishing Com-
pany, and intended for use ultimately in Dawson 's Birds of California.

I would like to repeat here a principle in which I fully believe ;
nameh^ that the highest plane of scientific output can be accomplished
only through cooperative effort. If the present contribution proves to
have reached an unusually satisfactory plane in any respect it will be
because the attention of several workers rather than of a single indi-
vidual has been devoted to it. "Where one author working alone would
make mistakes unawares, two or, better, three, are able to cheek one
another's output to advantage. The best results, always granting
mutually sympathetic interest, will follow organized cooperative toil.

Joseph Grinnell

Director of the California Museum
of Vertebrate Zoology.
Transmitted Novem,ber 30, 1916.

[iv]

CONTENTS

PAGE

Preface iii

Table of contents „ v

List of colored plates vii

List of figures in the text viii

List of tables x

Introduction 1

Decrease of game and its causes 6

The natural enemies of game birds 19

The gun club in California 23

History of attempts to introduce non-native game birds into California 29

The propagation of game birds 45

Legislation relating to game birds in California 55

Glossary of special terms used in this book 62

Method of taking measurements 66

Key to the game birds of California 67

General accounts of the game birds of California 79

American Merganser 79

Eed-breasted Merganser 84

Hooded Merganser 89

Mallard 92

Black Duck 101

Gadwall 103

Baldpate 106

European Widgeon Ill

Green-winged Teal 113

European Teal 119

Blue-winged Teal : 120

Cinnamon Teal '. 123

Shoveller 129

Pintail 134

Wood Duck 140

Eedhead 146

Canvasback 150

Greater Scaup Duck 156

Lesser Scaup Duck 159

Ring-necked Duck 164

American Golden-eye 167

Barrow Golden-eye 173

Bufiae-head - 177

Old-squaw 181

Harlequin Duck 186

King Eider 192

American Scoter 194

White-winged Scoter 197

Surf Scoter 201

[V]

PAGE

Euddy Duck 205

Lesser Snow Goose _ 210

Eoss Snow Goose 215

American White-fronted Goose 218

Canada Goose 222

Hutchins Goose 230

Cackling Goose 234

Black Sea Brant _ 237

Eastern Sea Brant 241

Emperor Goose : 243

Fulvous Tree-duck 246

Black-bellied Tree-duck 251

Trumpeter Swan _ 253

Whistling Swan 256

Eoseate Spoonbill 262

Wood Ibis 266

White-faced Glossy Ibis 269

Little Brown Crane 273

Sandhill Crane 279

California Clapper Eail 283

Light-footed Eail 289

Virginia Eail 291

Sora Eail 296

Yellow Eail 301

California Black Eail 304

Florida Gallinule 309

Mud-hen 313

Eed Phalarope 320

Northern Phalarope 326

Wilson Phalarope 332

Avocet 337

Black-necked Stilt 344

Wilson Snipe 350

Long-billed Dowitcher 358

Knot 363

Pectoral Sandpiper 368

Baird Sandpiper 373

Least Sandpiper 376

Eed-backed Sandpiper 381

Western Sandpiper 386

Sanderling 391

Marbled Godwit 396

Greater Yellow-legs 401

Lesser Yellow-legs 408

Western Solitary Sandpiper 411

Western Willet 416

Wandering Tattler „ 422

Upland Plover 427

Spotted Sandpiper 431

Long-billed Curlew 438

Hudsonian Curlew 445

[vi]

PAGE

Black-bellied Plover 452

American Golden Plover 458

Killdeer 463

Semipalniated Plover 469

Snowy Plover 473

Wilson Plover 479

Mountain Plover 481

Surf-bird 485

Ruddy Turnstone 489

Black Turnstone 493

Black Oyster-catcher 498

Frazar Oyster-catcher 502

Mountain Quail 504

Painted Quail 513

Valley Quail 514

California Quail 537

Catalina Island Quail 537

Desert Quail 538

Sierra Grouse 544

Sooty Grouse 552

Oregon Ruffed Grouse 552

Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse 558

Sage-hen 564

Ring-necked Pheasant 572

Band-tailed Pigeon 575

Western Mourning Dove 588

White-winged Dove 603

Mexican Ground Dove 606

Literature cited 611

Index 633

Colored Plates

1. California Quail (drawn by Louis Agassiz Fuertes) Frontispiece

2. Mallard, male and female (Fuertes) — .., facing page 94

3. Baldpate, male and female; European Widgeon, male (Fuertes) 110

4. Cinnamon Teal, male and female (Fuertes) 126

5. Canvasback and Lesser Scaup Duck, males and females (Fuertes) 150

6. American White-fronted Goose and Lesser Snow Goose (Fuertes) 214

7. Fulvous Tree-duck (drawn by Allan Brooks) 246

8. White-faced Glossy Ibis (Fuertes) 270

9. California Clapper Rail (Fuertes) 286

10. Mud-hen (Brooks) 318

11. Avocet and Black-necked Stilt (Fuertes) 342

12. Snowy Plover (Brooks) 478

13. Surf-bird (Brooks) 486

14. Mountain Quail (Fuertes) 510

15. Sierra Grouse, male and female (Fuertes) 550

16. Ring-necked Pheasant (Fuertes) 574

[vii]

Text Figures

Note. — Numbers in parentheses following titles of figures, and usually accom-
panying the figures in the text, are those of the specimens in the Museum of
Vertebrate Zoology from which the drawings were made; figures drawn from
specimens in private collections have numbers followed by initials of owners
(e.g., 209 H.SS.). All figures natural size except as noted.

PAGE

1. General outline of a Mallard showing names of parts and areas referred

to in describing a game bird; X i/4 62

2. Outer surface of spread wing of Green-winged Teal showing names of

regions and feathers employed in descriptions (24635); X % 63

3. Under surface of spread wing of Black-bellied Plover showing axillars

and lining of wing (24868); X % 64

4. Side view of Hudsonian Curlew showing method of taking the measure-

ments used in this book (6940) ; X Vi 66

5. American Merganser, side of bill (21609) 80

6. American Merganser, top of bill (21609) 80

7. Eed-breasted Merganser, side of bill (18814) 86

8. Eed-breasted Merganser, top of bill (18814) 86

9. Mallard, side of bill (21615) 93

10. Mallard, top of bill (21615) 93

11. Mallard, side of tarsus and foot (21615) 94

12. Gadwall, top of bill of female (21643) 104

13. Green-winged Teal, side of bill of female (21699) 116

14. Cinnamon Teal, side of bill of female (21739) 125

15. Cinnamon Teal, top of bill of female (21735) 125

16. Blue-winged Teal, top of bill of female (1647 H.S.S.) 125

17. Shoveller, side of bill (21768) 131

18. Shoveller, bill from below (21768) 181

19. Pintail, top of bill of female (21827) 136

20. Eedhead, side of bill and head (585) 148

21. Canvasback, side of bill and head (10607) 153

22. Canvasback, side of foot and tarsus (10607) 153

23. Buffle-head, head of female (18825); X Vs 179

24. Old-squaw, head of female (111) ; X % 183

25. Harlequin Duck, head of male; X % 188

26. Harlequin Duck, head of female (74); X % 189

27. American Scoter, side of bill of male (4847) 196

28. White-winged Scoter, side of bill and head of male (18826) 199

29. Surf Scoter, side of bill of male (113) 202

30. Lesser Snow Goose, side of bill (5493) 212

31. Eoss Snow Goose, side of bill (21905) 216

32. Canada Goose, side of bill (21949) 224

33. Hutchins Goose, side of bill (22001) 224

34. Cackling Goose, side of bill (22028) 225

35. Canada Goose, side of tarsus and foot (21949) 226

36. Hutchins Goose, side of tarsus and foot (22001) 227

37. Cackling Goose, side of tarsus and foot (22028) '. 227

38. Fulvous Tree-duck, side of tarsus and foot (21573) 248

39. Fulvous Tree-duck, side of bill (21573) 249

40. Whistling Swan, side of bill and head (21284) 257

[ viii ]

PAGE

41. Whistling Swan, side of tarsus and foot (21284) 259

42. Eoseate Spoonbill, side of bill (23325) 265

43. Eoseate Spoonbill, top of bill (23325) 265

44. White-faced Glossy Ibis, side of bill (6188) 271

45. Little Brown Crane, side of bill and head (1125) ; X V2 275

46. Sandhill Crane, side of bill and head (X2067 J. & J. W. M.); X V2 280

47. California Clapper Eail, side of foot and tarsus (6995) 284

48. California Clapper Eail, side of bill (6995) 285

49. Light-footed Eail, side of bill (3497) 285

50. Virginia Eail, side of bill (4071) 293

51. Sora Eail, side of bill (5486) 298

52. Yellow Eail, side of bill (17250) 303

53. California Black Eail, side of bill (16701) 306

54. Mud-hen, head showing "shield" (22149) 315

55. Mud-hen, top of foot showing lobes on toes (22148) 316

56. Eed Phalarope, tarsus and foot showing webbing and lobes (4804) 322

57. Eed Phalarope, side of bill (4804) 322

58. Northern Phalarope, side of bill (18932) 329

59. Wilson Phalarope, side of bill (14018) 334

60. Avoeet, side of bill (22169) 340

61. Avoeet, top of foot showing webs between bases of toes (22169) 341

62. Black-necked Stilt, side of bill (22183) 346

63. Black-necked Stilt, top of foot showing practical absence of webs (22183) 347

64. Wilson Snipe, side of bill of female, with sense pits near tip (1068) 352

65. Long-billed Dowitcher, side of bill of female (22232) 361

66. Knot, side of bill (24578) 365

67. Least Sandpiper, side of bill (3482) 378

68. Western Sandpiper, side of bill (165) 378

69. Least Sandpiper, top of foot showing absence of webbing (3482) 379

70. Western Sandpiper, top of foot showing webs between bases of toes (165) 379

71. Eed-backed Sandpiper, side of bill (9835) 384

72. Western Willet, outer surface of spread wing showing color patches

(24783) 417

73. Long-billed Curlew, side of bill of female (24867) 440

74. Hudsonian Curlew, side of bill of female (3997 J. G.) 447

75. Black-bellied Plover, side of bill (22342) 454

76. Black -bellied Plover, side of tarsus and foot, showing presence of small

hind toe (22342) 455

77. Killdeer, side of tarsus and foot, as typical of Plovers (18983) 465

78. Surf-bird, side of bill (9875) 488

79. Black Turnstone, side of bill (107) 495

80. Black Oyster-catcher, side of bill (19016) 499

81. Mountain Quail, head 506

82. Valley Quail, head of male 516

83. Valley Quail, side of tarsus and foot (11955) 517

84. Curve showing by half -month periods the time when Valley Quail begin

to lay their eggs 529

85. Sierra Grouse, side of tarsus and foot, showing feathering (14076) 546

86. Band-tailed Pigeon, head (15619) 577

87. Map showing distribution of the Band-tailed Pigeon in California 578

88. Band-tailed Pigeon, lower surface of tail (238 H.S.S.) 589

[ix]

PAGE

89. Western Mourning Dove, lower surface of tail (209 H.S.S.) 589

90. White-winged Dove, lower surface of tail (239 H.S.S.) 589

91. Western Mourning Dove, head (209 H.S.S.) 591

92. Graph showing nesting season of the Western Mourning Dove in Cali-

fornia, according to opinions of deputies of the California Fish and
Game Commission 596

93. Graph showing changes in open season for hunting doves in California,

1880-1915 599

94. Graph showing open season for hunting doves in states which allow

these birds to be shot (1915) 601

T.\BLES

Table 1. Game birds S'hot on the grounds of the Empire Gun Club (Elk-
horn, Monterey County, California) in four seasons between
1905 and 1913 10

Table 2. Estimates of numbers of ducks sold in the markets, between 1911

and 1916 13

Table 3. Ducks received by the American Game Transfer Company at San

Francisco in the season of 1910-11 13

Table 4. Geese received by the Independent Game Transfer Company, of

San Francisco, during the season of 1909-10 — 13

Table 5. Ducks received by the Hunters Game Transfer Company of San

Francisco, during the five seasons, 1906-11 14

Table 6. Ducks sold on the markets of San Francisco by five game transfer

companies during the season of 1910-11 14

Table 7. Showing open seasons for hunting game birds in California, 1852-

1915 (opposite) 60

Table 8. Data relative to the nesting of the Mallard in California 96

Table 9. Data relative to the nesting of the Gad wall in California 105

Table 10. Data relative to the nesting of the Cinnamon Teal in California 126

Table 11. Data relative to the nesting of the Euddy Duck in California 207

Table 12. Data relative to the nesting of the Virginia Eail in California 294

Table 13. Data relative to the nesting of the Mountain and Painted quails

in California 507

Table 14. Crop contents of Mountain Quail 512

Table 15. Data relating to nesting of Vallej^ and California quails in Cali-
fornia 522

Table 16. Sets of eggs of Valley Quail examined by C. S. Sharp in the
vicinity of Escondido, San Diego County, California, 1896-
1913 525

Table 17. Sets of Valley Quail eggs showing more than one type of colora-
tion 528

Table 18. Data relative to the nesting of the Band-tailed Pigeon in Cali-
fornia 582

Table 19. Data relative to the nesting of the Western Mourning Dove in

California 594

[X]

INTRODUCTION

In preparing the present volume the authors have attempted to
meet the requirements of a varied public. The hvmter wishes informa-
tion concerning the haunts and habits of our game birds ; the naturalist
wishes to have the completest possible data regarding their life
histories ; the legislator who appreciates the necessity of judicious game
laws wishes to have the facts that are relevant to his purpose presented
in concise form ; and the conservationist desires that information which
will assist him in his efforts to perpetuate our bird life for the ultimate
benefit of the greatest number of people. Whether the needs of these
various classes have been adequately met in the following pages
remains to be proved, but it may at least be stated here that none of
them has been overlooked. To each of the four categories of persons
above mentioned, this book is offered as a working manual.

The authors also have appreciated the fact that the literature
relating to California game birds is widely scattered, and not accessible
for immediate use by the public ; an exhaustive review and compilation
was necessary to make it easily available. Furthermore, they have
realized that many California game birds are rapidly disappearing,
and that any postponement of the time of writing the histories of
these species might mean losing entirely the opportunity to record
much that pertains to them. An effort has been made to organize
the material at hand in such a form as to provide a convenient sum-
mary of our knowledge of the subject to date. "While the book may
thus prove of positive value to the active field naturalist, the writers
hope that the deficiencies apparent in the data presented will of them-
selves furnish an incentive to further research. A more thorough
observation of the bird life within our boundaries is urgently needed.

In comparison with the Atlantic states California has thus far
produced but a small number of careful observers, and many more are
needed for the purpose of watching and recording the changes in
the population of the birds from year to year, of chronicling their
migrations, learning their food habits, and determining their relation
both to sport and agriculture. Should the present volume succeed
in enlisting even a few intelligent and active recruits in this work, an
excellent end will have been served.

Many game birds in eastern North America had almost or entirely
disappeared before their value was realized or any attempts were
made to conserve them. Adequate knowledge and forethought would
have prolonged the life of these species and perhaps have saved many

[1]

2 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBNIA

of thein for all time. Here in California the situation has not yet
become so serious ; we are in a somewhat earlier stage of development.
We have still an opportunity of studying the circumstances, learning
the facts, and taking the remedial measures indicated thereby. But
the time for action is short ; already one species, the Columbian Sharp-
tailed Grouse, is gone, and certain others are threatened. The neces-
sity of calling attention to this danger is another reason for the
publication of this book now.

The authors fully recognize the fact that there are a number of
people in this state who by reason of their long experience as hunters
possess, in this regard, better qualifications for the authorship of a
book on game birds than the present writers. But these persons are as
a rule so engrossed in business that they themselves have not sufficient
time to put through such a work. Some of them, however, together
with certain other interested people, have placed the necessary means
at the disposal of the authors, who, realizing their own shortcomings,
have utilized their opportunities to the best of their ability. They
have attempted to compensate for their lack of direct knowledge in
the field of hunting by conversing and corresponding with sportsmen
of experience, and they have each visited hunting grounds at the
opening of different shooting seasons, with the object of learning
something of the viewpoints, methods, and field-lore of Californian
gunners.

As regards the technical handling of the book the authors feel
themselves on much surer ground. They have been able to derive
first-hand information for almost all of the technical descriptions from
museum specimens or from live or freshly killed birds in the field,
and they have reviewed the literature of the subject in an exhaustive
and discriminating manner. They are accordingly reasonably confi-
dent of the accuracy of their descriptions of birds, nests, and eggs,
places of nesting, and of the habits of the several species. But with
regard to the sportsman's notions and evaluations of the several
species, and his preferred methods of hunting them, they have had to
rely chiefly on second-hand information.

The authors have been fortunate in having at their disposal a large
amount of museum material. The specimens contained in the Cali-
fornia IMuseum of Vertebrate Zoologj% and in the private collections
of J. and J. W. Mailliard, J. Grinnell, H. S. Swarth, and G. F. Morcom,
have provided a basis for almost all assertions, independently of what
has been previously published on the subject. "When western mate-
rial failed to supply needed facts, recourse has been had to eastern
collections. Among eastern institutions which have granted the use
of specimens or given information are the United States National
IMuseum and Bureau of Biological Survey, in Washington ; the

INTBODUCTION 3

Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia; the Jonathan Dwight,
Jr., collection in the American Museum of Natural History, New York
City ; and the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard College,
Cambridge. To all of these institutions and their officers we express
our appreciation of the spirit of cordial cooperation they have shown.
In response to our direct request a great many persons have
furnished specific information. Wherever such information has been
used it has been credited to the individual contributor. Much use has
been made of Ljanan Belding's manuscript Water Birds of the Pacific
District, now on deposit in the Bancroft Library of the University of
California. The field observations of the three present co-authors and
of W. P. Taylor and R. H. Beck have been taken from the note books
of these persons on file in the California Museum of Vertebrate
Zoology. All of these various sources of information are referred
to in the text as "MS."

The hearty cooperation of the California Fish and Game Commis-
sion has been of great assistance in assembling data. Much new
material has been obtained by means of circular letters to the com-
mission's deputies, as in the cases of the Mourning Dove and Valley
Quail. Mr. Ernest Schaeffle, former secretary of the commission,
assisted us in a multitude of ways both official and personal.

Finally, Mr. Harry S. Swarth, curator of birds in the California
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, has read the entire proof of the book,
and by reason of his extensive knowledge of western birds has been
able to make important corrections and improvements.

It was found necessary arbitrarily to set a date beyond which no
new information should be incorporated into our manuscript. This
date was fixed at June 30, 1916. "Work done subsequently, and up to
the time of going to press, consisted solely in revision.

The list of "literature cited" at the end of the book must not be
taken as a complete bibliography of the subject ; it contains titles only
of those articles or books from which material is actually taken either
indirectly or by quotation.

Many of our readers will probably disapprove of our frequent
use of direct quotations. In defense of this practice we urge the
greater accuracy thereby obtained. Experience has taught us that
rewording an account often leads unintentionally to a perversion of
the original author's exact meaning, and we believe that scientific
accuracy of fact should take precedence over smoothness of diction or
an appearance of originality. We also recognize the fact that inter-
polation of citations in the text mars its typographical appearance ;
but their presence makes verification possible, and, together with the
list of articles and books under the heading "literature cited," they
serve to assist those readers who are interested in following the sub-

4 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

ject farther. We believe that placing citations in the text rather than
in footnotes results in a smaller percentage of error even though it
somewhat interrupts the smoothness of the printed page.

The order in which the species chapters follow one another is essen-
tially that used in the American Ornithologists' Union Check-list of
Noiih American Birds (1910).

The small-type paragraphs at the beginning of each species chapter
are intended primarily for reference purposes, as for example in com-
paring two or more species, and are consequently reduced to essentials.
Many of the points briefly given in these paragraphs are elaborated
upon in the general (large-type) account which follows.

Each species chapter is headed by the most generally accepted
common name, followed by the current scientific name and its author.
Under "other names" are included, as a rule, only those names by
which the species has been called in California, either colloquially by
sportsmen or naturalists, or more formally in published articles. Mere
variations in the spelling of names have not been listed. For a few
common or widely distributed species, names used in other parts of
North America are included, as a convenience in referring to other
books. The word "part" indicates that the name which it follows has
also been used for one or more other species in California.

Under "description" are included only details of plumage (color)
and size (measurements). Peculiarities in the structure of feathers,
bill and feet are rarely mentioned because if important in diagnosis
they are clearly shown in the accompanying illustrations or discussed
in the running account. For each plumage a specimen has always
been selected showing typically the particular phase to be described.
Many species which occur in California, such as certain shore birds,
are, in migration time, in a mixed transitional state between the winter
and summer plumages. Of course these, and such additional variants
as are produced by wear or fading of the feathers, are not ordinarily
mentioned in the description.

Under "marks for field identification" are mentioned such char-
acters as will be of service in long-range observations. In most
instances are included characters which will separate a species under
discussion from others with which it is likely to be confused. In the
running account there will usually be found one or more paragraphs
discussing these field characters in greater detail.

A number of our game birds differ slightly in color and measure-
ments in different parts of the country and naturalists are accustomed
to recognize such geographic races as subspecies. In some instances
it is known that such races exhibit marked differences in behavior,
so that we do not feel justified in citing the habits of eastern races in
illustration of the behavior of western birds (e.g., see Oregon Ruffed

INTRODUCTION 5

Grouse). However, in the case of certain birds which are represented
in California by two or more subspecies, such as the valley and the
mountain quails and the "blue" grouses, our knowledge of the birds
has led us to believe that there are no important differences in the
behavior of the different races, and we have consequently combined
the general accounts under that of the more widel}^ distributed race.
For example, in the account of the Valley Quail the habits of the
California and Catalina Island quails are to be considered as covered.
Whenever a bird in hand cannot be identified by the use of the
' ' key ' ' or does not fit any of the descriptions, the specimen should be
sent at once to some natural history museum for identification. Such
a bird may be a representative of a rare species or of one new to the
state, and so of particular value to science. The California Museum
of Vertebrate Zoology stands ready at all times to receive and identify
such specimens.

Joseph Grinnell,
Harold C. Bryant,
Tracy I. Storer.
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology,
University of California,

Berkeley, September 15, 1916.

GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

DECREASE OF GAME AND ITS CAUSES

It is easy to make statements to the effect that game has either
increased or decreased ; but to find reliable figures with which to sub-
stantiate such statements is well-nigh impossible. Yet the material
gathered under this heading, even though fragmentary, seems not
unworthy of consideration. The evidence we have been able to obtain
may be grouped under four headings: the judgments of dependable
observers; the records of the kills of waterfowl on gun-club grounds;
the records of market sales and shipments of game ; and the toll taken
by various agencies, natural as well as artificial.

The decrease in the numbers of game birds in California began
to arouse comment more than thirty-five years ago. In 1880 that
pioneer ornithologist, Dr. J. G. Cooper, stated (1880, p. 243) that
game birds had already "very much diminished" locally. In his
opinion this reduction was due to "persecution by the gun," and to
poisoned grain intended for "vermin" (probably squirrels and
gophers).

In 1913 letters of inquiry on this subject were sent out from the
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology to responsible observers throughout
the State. Questions were asked as to the status of ducks and geese,
shore birds, quail, and other game birds. Seventy replies were
received, representing twenty-seven counties of the State. Many of
these reports covered periods of ten to forty years, and one observer
stated that he had kept track of game conditions for sixty-one years.

A compilation of these reports showed that sixty-eight of the
seventy observers had noted a decrease in ducks and geese. The other
two reported that these birds were "holding their own." Not one
reported an increase! The estimates of the decrease in ducks ranged
from twenty-five per cent to ninety-nine per cent, and average close
to fifty per cent. The same observers agreed in reporting the greatest
decrease in the ease of geese ; six stated that the birds had entirely
disappeared from their accustomed localities, and five said that they
were now seldom seen. The percentages of decrease for geese were
given as fifty per cent and more, the average being about seventy-five
per cent.

Forty-one reports on the status of quail showed a considerably
smaller decrease. Thirty-six observers reported a decrease, four
stated that the birds were "holding their own," and one reported an
increase. Of eleven reports relative to the Mourning Dove, seven indi-

DECBEASE OF GAME 7

cated a marked decrease, and four no change. The amount of decrease
ranged from twenty-five to seventy-five per cent.

A few excerpts from the letters received are given here to show
the general character of the reports. Mr. Henry Grey, writing of
San Diego and vicinity, under date of March 17, 1913, says :

Eight and nine years ago I could go down to a iiond near my house and
shoot six Widgeon in twenty minutes. After shooting what I wanted, ducks
would come streaming in from the ocean and the water-hole would soon
be so filled with ducks while I stood in full view that they hardly had room
to flap their wings. . . . Now all is changed. ... A nearby resident declared
that in the season of 1911-12 there was only one duck for over 100 seen in the
same place four years before, and this season (1912-13) I failed to see even
that proportion.

Mr. Samuel Hubbard, Jr., under date of March 12, 1913, writes us :
In 1876 ducks were very plentiful in all the marshes from Sausalito north
to Petaluma, Napa and Vallejo. In those days it was easy for a boy to kill
from twenty to thirty ducks in a day's shooting and very much larger bags
were obtained by experienced hunters. Today, in the region between Sausalito
and Novato, I think it is safe to say there is not one duck in the marsh now
where there were a hundred then. Beyond Novato there is still some shooting,
but it is mostly confined to baited ponds where the birds are regularly fed.
There are still large flocks of Canvasbaeks and Bluebills on San Pablo Bay,
but nothing like as many as in former years. On Oakland Creek where ducks,
rail, curlew, and shore birds w^ere formerly plentiful, they are seldom seen
today. I have killed as many as forty rail on one ti<le in Oakland Creek but
I doubt if there is a single one there today.

The same observer has told us that many Wood Ducks were form-
erly killed along Oakland Creek. But none has been seen in this
vicinity for ten or fifteen years.

Mr. C. I. Clay, under date of March 16, 1913, states that the
Canada Goose was not uncommon on Humboldt Bay seven to ten
years ago. Duck hunters frequently killed fair-sized bags from their
hunting boats. But he has not seen or heard of a Canada Goose being
killed on Humboldt Bay within the past five years.

Mr. W. E. Unglish, under date of March 10, 1913, says that geese
were once abundant on the plains between Gilroy and Hollister, San
Benito County. Now, although the fields are still sown to grain, there
are not a dozen geese killed there in a year.

Mr. T. M. Lane writes:

Twenty years ago wild geese came to the grain fields near Reedley, Fresno
County, by the thousands. It would be a safe estimate to say we have seen
at least five or six acres of ground covered with them. They were so thick
they looked like scattered banks of snow with the ground showing through
in black streaks. We have seen them covering a strip over a half mile in
length. As the country was settled up and put out to fruit they gradually
disappeared, but for several years we would see many fioeks flying over; today
we scarcely ever see or hear any.

8 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOBNIA

Mr. A. D. Ferguson, also speaking of the Fresno region, states
(November 30, 1912) that flocks of geese may yet be seen in certain
sections along the San Joaqnin River and in some grain fields many
miles from the river. But ten to twenty years ago the ^yhole San
Joaquin Valley literally swarmed with wald geese during midwinter.
From the windows of a moving train myriads of geese were to be
observed, reaching as far as the eye could see on either side of the
railroad from Fresno to Stockton — certainly a thousandfold more geese
than can be seen today along the same route.

Some published statements concerning the decrease of ducks and
geese in the central and northern parts of the State may be introduced
here. Tyler (1913&, p. 7) says:

It is with regret that we note a gradually rliminishing number of waterfowl
returning to us each fall. . . . While it is probably true that gunners are in
a large measure responsible for the decrease in numbers of many species, par-
ticularly of the ducks and geese, yet a changed environment has been a potent
factor in bringing about the present condition. . . . The large grain and stock
ranches are being subdivided, reclamation work is steadily reducing the
swamp-covered areas, vineyards and orchards are springing up everywhere
with a consequent great increase in population. Even the tule ponds that
remain are often unsuitable for a nesting place on account of the custom of
using them as foraging grounds for bands of hogs.

As early as 1890 the decrease in the numbers of geese had begun to
attract attention. W. E. Bryant (1890, pp. 291-292) makes the
following statements :

There has not, so far as I am aware, been a very marked decrease in the
number of geese which annually visit California, but the area over which they
now feed is considerably less than in 1850. In the fall of that year, my father,
while going from San Francisco to San Jose, met with acres of white and gray
geese near San Bruno. They were feeding near the roadside, indifferent to
the presence of all persons, and in order to see how close he could apjnoach he
walked directly towards them. When within five or six yards of the nearest
ones they stretched up their necks and walked away like domestic geese; by
making demonstration with his arms they were frightened and took wing,
flying but a short distance. They seemed to have no idea that they would be
harmed, and feared man no more than they did the cattle in the fields. The
tameness of the wild geese was more remarkable than of any other birtls, but
it must be understood that in tliose days they were but little hunted and
probably none had ever heard the report of a gun and few had seen men. This
seems the most plausible accounting for the stupid tameness of the geese, forty
years ago. What the wild goose is today on the open plains of the large interior
valleys of California those who have hunted them know. By 1853 the geese
had become wilder and usually flew before one could get within shotgun
range, if on foot, but in an open buggy or upon horseback there was no diffi-
culty. There was a very marked contrast between the stupidly tame geese
after their arrival in the fall and the same more watchful and shy birds before
the departure in spring of the years 1852 and 1853.

DECBEASE OF GAME 9

H. L. Bryant, an early settler in southern California, has told us
of thousands of geese which formerly fed on the open fields of Los
Angeles County and describes the snow-like effect produced there by
the herds of white geese. Few feed in the same localities at the present
time, and comparatively few can be seen flying overhead.

]Mr. Henry Grey, under date of March 17, 1913, states:

There are no geese to be seen in the vicinity of San Diego now. Although
fifteen years ago numbers of Black Brant came into San Diego Bay, the
numbers are hardly noticeable at the present time.

Additional testimony that certain species of ducks have noticeably
decreased is to be found in magazines devoted to field sports, where
attention is continually being called to the lessening numbers of the
more desirable species. For instance, Hinman (1903, p. 179) speak-
ing of marshes in southern California, states that Mallards and
''Cans" seem to be getting scarcer every year, and the Redhead is a
very rare visitor in that vicinit3^ P. G. Clark (1905, pp. 110-112)
describes the killing of 279 ducks in one morning in a favorable sec-
tion of the San Joaquin Valley, 179 of which were Mallards. There
are many complaints to the effect that Mallards are now scarce in the
same vicinity; comparatively few of these birds are taken there each
year.

Mr. "W. H. Bastian, keeper of the Santa Barbara Gun Club at
Guadalupe, Santa Barbara County, wrote in February, 1914, as
follows :

I shot here for the market twenty years ago. Then it was no trouble to
kill fifty to seventy-five ducks a day, mostly "Cans," and using no decoys.
At present, it is a scratch to kill twenty-five birds per day, and when that
does happen, half are usually Euddies.

The marked decrease in the Band-tailed Pigeon is indicated by
the following statements :

We have had no pigeons near Gilroy for several years. Formerly we had
large flights, and the birds were slaughtered by the thousands (W. E. Unglish,
March 10, 1913). The Band-tailed Pigeon is so scarce here in Humboldt
County that it is hardly worth one's while to try to get a mess for the table.
One can see the numbers diminish almost year by year (C. I. Clay, March
16, 1913).

Many other instances of decrease will be found cited under the
general accounts of the different game birds, in the chapters follow-
ing, notably in the cases of the Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse, the
Clapper Rails, and the Wood Duck.

Present conditions are such that they often lead to exaggerated
estimates of the relative numbers of birds existing now and formerly.
The ducks and geese which were once distributed throughout the state

10 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

are now crowded into the few ponds and marshes which are not yet
reclaimed. It now takes a seientifieally managed gun-club pond with
every attraction that can be offered to wild fowl to bring the birds
in large numbers. The same numbers of birds that can now be seen
on baited ponds were present formerly on every small natural pond
in the state. An example of tliis concentration is to be found in the
vicinity of Gridley, Butte County, where geese still congregate
annually in immense numbers; but most of the localities in the San
Joaquin and Sacramento valleys which formerly favored the winter-
ing of these birds, are completely devoid of them now. INIany observers,
seeing thousands of ducks on a few sections of overflowed land, fail
to realize that the same sort of ground once extended far and wide
through the valleys, and that these immense areas were then as well
populated as are the smaller areas at the present time.

The annually diminishing kills on club grounds also indicate that
both waterfowl and upland game birds have decreased in this state.
Although the gradual reduction that has been made in the bag limit
might be expected to favor the maintenance of an adequate supply
of ducks, the increase in-the efficiency of firearms and methods of
attracting waterfowl has undoubtedly facilitated their capture. The
old-timers continue to complain of the decreasing number of birds
brought to bag. The following table (no. 1) compiled from the books
of the Empire Gun Club, one of the best managed clubs in California,
will serve to indicate the changes in abundance of the several species
of game birds visiting those grounds. Of course the figures do not
take into account the varying number of shooters each year, nor the
fewer shooting days from year to year. A noticeable decrease in the

Table 1. — Game birds shot on the grounds of the Empire Gun Club (Elkhorn,
Monterey County, California) in four seasons between
1905 and 1913
1905-06 1910-11 1911-12 1912-13

Mallard 106 18 13 22

Gadwall 5 7 1 10

Widgeon 525 537 328 227

Teal 2028 436 780 1198

Spoonies 905 332 881 651

Sprig 449 1839 1660 1645

Canvasback 251 8 87 23

Bluebill 91 125 44 29

Black-jack 28 5 5

Quail 693 776 600 382

Snipe 117 189 95 24

Sundry 96 34 38 16

Totals 5266 4329 4532 4232

DECREASE OF GAME 11

iiuinber of large ducks such as Canvasback and Mallard, is, however,
indicated. The kill of quail and snipe also shows noticeable decrease.

In 1913 and again in 1914 a questionaire was sent out by the
writers to different gun clubs asking for reports of the kills on the
opening day of the season. Among the questions asked were : Number
of hunters on hand ; number of hunters securing the limit ; number
of ducks in each bag examined ; total number of ducks for the day ;
kinds represented ; and, how the birds were shot. Most of the reports
returned, show a preponderance of small ducks such as teal, and also
of the less desirable species such as the Spoonbill. The larger ducks,
especially the Mallard, are relatively few in numbers. It also appears
from these reports that although about as many limit bags are pro-
cured as in former years it takes more hours to secure the full quota
of birds, notwithstanding the increased facilities for shooting and the
increased efficiency of the firearms used.

Sale of game on the open market has been fundamentally the most
important factor in reducing California's supply of game birds. So
great has been the depletion from this cause in past years that it has
been found necessary to prohibit the sale of all kinds except ducks
and geese. These, too, should be removed from the sale list. All our
neighboring states now prohibit the sale of all game, as do most of
the eastern states. Were it not for certain San Francisco cafe and
hotel men who reap a rich harvest from the retailing of game, Cali-
fornia would have done likewise in 1913, when a "no-sale" bill passed
the Legislature, but was nullified by referendum. The high prices
offered the market hunter usually tempt him to go beyond the legal
limit. So long as a market demand exists men will continue to hunt
the birds regardless of any law. Government authorities are right in
saying that "the free marketing of wild game leads swiftly to exter-
mination." California must prohibit the sale of all game species, if
all are to be conserved as natural resources.

The type of market hunter who in former days took the largest
toll of wildfowl used an animal blind in approaching his quarry. This
"bull hunter," as he was called, proceeded to the hunting-ground
leading a trained steer or cow. After a good-sized flock of ducks or
geese had been located, he proceeded to "walk a shot." Moving along
behind the animal, which was easily guided, he approached the birds
by a process of "tacking," each tack bringing him nearer his game.
A direct approach would have tended to frighten them, but this
indirect method rendered them unsuspecting. Throughout the process
of "working the shot," which required an average period of from
two to three hours, an attempt was made to bunch or "bank" the
birds as much as possible. When the birds were finally in proper
position, the hunter whistled, whereupon the birds would raise their

12 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

heads ; then aiming over tlie back of the animal with his large-bore gun
or automatic, and bracing himself for the recoil, he fired the first
shot or shots while the birds were sitting, and the second or subsequent
sliots while they were rising. Formerly a 2-, 4-, or 8-bore gun was
used, but most commonly a double-barreled, number 4, muzzle-loader ;
in more recent years, a 12-gauge automatic with an extension magazine
carrying from seven to nine loads, lias been employed. The resulting
slaughter was simply enormous. Mr. M. Becker is authority for the
statement that he watched Sischo, a famous market hunter of Los
Bafios, Merced County, with two assistants kill 400 ducks with six
shots from number 4 guns. Two shots were fired from the animal
blind while the birds Avere sitting on the ground, and four while they
were rising. Mv. Becker was rewarded with twenty-two ducks for not
disturbing the flock before the shot. Mr. Ralph P. Merritt tells us
that a single bull hunter in the same vicinity killed 104 ducks with
two shots from a number 4, and Mr. J. Walter Scott, president of the
Los Baiios Gun Club, reports a kill of 108 geese wath fovir shots.

Hunting by means of an animal blind was first discouraged by the
establishment of a bag limit of twenty-five birds ; but for several years
the difficulty of apprehending the violator and the practical impossi-
bility of procuring a conviction after his apprehension prevented the
elimination of bull hunting. Then, too, the men employing this method
of hunting continually threatened the lives of those who attempted to
enforce the law. Several shooting frays between game deputies and
bull hunters took place near Los Baiios, and in 1915 a deputy was
killed there while attempting to make an arrest. After the law pro-
hibiting bull hunting for ducks was passed, this sort of hunting was
still continued under the guise of hunting for geese. It was not until
1915, when all hunting with animal blinds was prohibited, and the
market for birds was largely destroyed by the elimination of the
illegally formed game transfer companies in San Francisco, that bull
hunting became a thing of the past.

The automatic shotgun allowed the market liunter to reap a copious
harvest. Ilornaday (1913, p. 148) records the killing of 218 geese in
one hour with automatic guns in Glenn County, and 450 on the same
day, by the two men concerned. The use of the automobile has also
reacted against the birds. Some market hunters at Los Baiios killed
198 white geese from automobiles in less than an hour in February,
1913.

The sale of game birds on the market, then, has been a large factor
in the general decrease of game. This is well shown by statistics relat-
ing to San Francisco. The figures for the following tables, heretofore
unpublished, were secured by us direct from the records of the game
transfer companies named, and show the magnitude of the business
which existed during the period from 1906 to 1912.

DECREASE OF GAME

Table 2. — Estimates of numbers of ducks sold in the markets, between 1911

and 1916. Data from J. S. Hunter, Assistant Executive Officer,

California Fish and Game Commission

1911-12

San Francisco markets 250,000

All markets in California.... 350,000

1912-13

1913-14

1914-15

1915-16

150,000

82,000

81,000

75,000

200,000

160,000

150,000

125,000

Table 3. — Ducks received by the American Game Transfer Company at San
Francisco in the season of 1910-11

z
s

c
a

S S

1910

Oct.

541

424

1489

1685

235

143

4620

435

260

856

1224

169

241

3233

Nov.

472

445

1089

1330

137

248

3783

382

693

1485

1097

438

4225

1010

1135

1359

651

163

372

4723

1027

1254

1522

964

620

5458

Dee.

452

784

944

769

277

3292

796

773

1410

568

118

486

4207

672

904

926

468

156

431

3635

700

1205

1345

725

115

244

4434

404

884

746

630

324

3133

1911

Jan.

456

783

862

613

107

353

3222

436

511

905

640

100

321

2936

471

736

880

872

188

404

3610

547

840

1242

1500

184

705

5044

Feb.

225

484

664

823

341

2613

322

481

606

129

1651

136

866

639

731

151

2549

300

1322

1396

1262

280

4577

213

264

274

848

Totals 9562 45 14,838 20,504 17,432 119 1917 807 6569 71,793

Table 4. — Geese received by- the Independent Game Transfer Company of
San Francisco during the season of 1909-10

White Gray Honker Brant Totals

October 543 2847 1442 4832

November 1002 1673 19 2196 4890

December 529 1256 125 1592 3502

January 667 929 151 1578 3325

February '.- 646 1027 135 1225 3033

March 1-5 82 321 5 116 524

Totals 3469 8053 435 8149 20,106

GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

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DECREASE OF GAME 15

Occupation and settlement of a country by white men affects game
birds in many other ways than through hunting. The reclamation
and cultivation of the land not only introduces such major disturb-
ances as a decrease in the birds' food, but involves minor dangers to
bird life in the form of telegraph wires, oil pools, and so forth. The
rapid-flying birds are the most frequent victims in the former case,
particularly during seasons of wind and fog. Many birds which do
not meet death immediately suffer injury and are later caught by
predacious animals. Among waterfowl the Mud-hen is the bird which
most often meets death by flying against a barbed wire fence or tele-
graph wire. In Los Banos marshes it is not uncommon to see a Mud-
hen still hanging from the barbed wire of the fence it struck, or lying
beneath a telegraph line. There are several records of the Sora and
Virginia rails having met death by striking a wire. Among the shore
birds phalaropes are common victims of overhead wires. H. C. Bryant
(MS) found one live Northern Phalarope and two dead ones, each
with a wing completely severed from the body, beneath telegraph wires
west of Madera, Madera County, May 14, 1915. F. H. Holmes found
two or three dozen phalaropes beneath telegraph wires near San Jose,
in November, 1898 (Emerson, 1904, p. 38). Emerson (1904, pp. 37-
38) contributes considerable information in this regard. On Septem-
ber 8, 1898, he found several dead sandpipers and a phalarope with a
broken wing under some telegraph wires in a salt marsh near Hay-
ward, Alameda County. Furthermore, several sandpipers were seen
to meet death by flying against the same wires. In all, on this one
day, forty dead birds were picked up beneath the wires. A trip to the
same place the next day revealed thirty dead birds, mostly Northern
Phalaropes, and Red-backed, Western and Least sandpipers. Again
on March 11, 1903, he found a number of birds of each of the above
species at the same place. It is apparent that ovly species that fly
at heights corresponding to those of the wires are exposed to this
danger. The birds chiefly affected are species also of migratory and
gregarious habits. The large number of Mourning Doves reported
as found beneath telegraph wires in southern California shows that
even this species suffers in the same way.

Ponds of crude oil, such as are common in the oil fields and near
pumping stations, constitute a menace to bird life, and in some locali-
ties the toll exacted of game birds is considerable. H. C. Bryant
(1915d, p. 184), on May 11, 1915, found the bodies of more than three
hundred birds in an oil pond about 50 by 150 feet in extent, at Brito,
Merced County. Along the shores of the pond there was a winrow
made up of bones and feathers of many other birds that had met the
same fate. Among the game birds noted were five different species of
ducks, one goose, several Mud-hens, some Avocets, Black-necked Stilts,

16 GAME BIHDS OF CALIFORNIA

Killdeer and sandpipers. Ducks appeared to have been trapped most
frequently. The moment a bird's feet touch the sticky oil its doom
is sealed ; for each of its successive efforts to free itself with its wings
involves these members more completely in the oil. Even if a bird
were able to reach shore the adhering oil would prevent flight, and on
penetrating into its body would soon cause death. Rescued birds, even
when well cared for, die quickly.

The old practice of dumping waste oil into bays and estuaries
resulted in the death of many waterfowl. Many birds dead, or dying
and unable to fly because of the oil they have collected on their
plumage while swimming, have been noted along beaches by different
observers. To obviate the danger to fish arising from the dumping of
refuse oil into state waters, a law was passed prohibiting this practice.
As a result, there will be a saving of fish and also a saving of water-
fowl. There still remains a considerable danger to the sea-ducks on
the open ocean, where "tankers" (oil ships) are accustomed to flush
out their tanks into the water. Many dead and dying birds, believed
to be victims of this practice, are at times cast up along the sea-facing
beaches of San Mateo, Marin, and Los Angeles counties.

There are many reports to the effect that nests of upland game
birds are broken up by the trampling of cattle or sheep. The scarcity
of grouse and sage-hen in certain closely "sheeped" localities has been
attributed to this cause. There are also here, of course, the factors of
reduced food-supply and cover.

On the overflowed pasture lands in the vicinity of Los Baiios,
Merced County, the herds of cattle do some destruction to nests of
ducks and shore birds by trampling (H. C. Bryant, 1914e, p. 237).
In this particular locality, also, the raising and lowering of the Avater
accompanying the process of irrigation, alternately inundates nests
and exposes them to discovery by predatory enemies such as raccoons
and skunks.

Where ducks, quail and pheasants (see p. 33) resort for nesting
purposes to grain and alfalfa fields there is plentiful testimony to
prove that many nests are broken up when mowing-time coincides
with the breeding season of these birds. In some instances the incubat-
ing l)ird has been actually cut to pieces by the knives of the mower.

During the extensive campaigns against the spread of plague by
rodents, statements (no doubt considerably exaggerated) have been
given publicity, to the effect that many game birds have fallen victims
to the poison used. Mourning Doves and Band-tailed Pigeons in small
numbers have been found dead on poisoned ground. As regards quail,
tests made by the LTnited States Public Health Service show that this
bird, at least, is not easily susceptible to the action of strychnine.
Pierce and Clegg (1916, p. 13) state tliat poisoned barley as used for

DECREASE OF GAME 17

ground-squirrel eradication does not cause the death of California
Valley Quail under natural feeding conditions.

Game birds are as a rule remarkably free from disease in Cali-
fornia. Only one serious point of outbreak is known to us, and water-
fowl alone were here affected. In 1908, an epidemic broke out among
the water birds (especially ducks) in and around Tulare Lake, Kings
County, and Buena Vista Lake, Kern County (see Clarke, 1913, pp.
214—226), and this has recurred during the summer and fall months
of each year since that time. The disease first appears during the
hot summer weather, about August, and has run its course at the
advent of the cooler weather of October. It then rather suddenly
'abates, and no more sick birds are to be found until the following
summer. It has generally, though not always, been confined to areas
of stagnant water.

Most of the ducks that die are fat and have the appearance of
being in normal condition. The first symptoms of the disease are loss
of the power of flight ; following this, the ability to walk is lost.
Finally in the later stages, the sick birds sit with their breasts on the
ground or mud, and after a few days, during which time a diarrhoea
develops, they die, apparently of paralysis.

During an investigation in 1913 careful counts and estimates were
made of the numbers of dead ducks on Buena Vista and Tulare lakes.
A conservative estimate for the former lake was 15,000, and 25,000
for the latter. Thus a total loss of over 40,000 ducks was sustained
in 1913, in the two counties of Kings and Kern, besides many hundreds
of other water birds.

Experiments carried out there seemed to prove that the water in
Tulare Lake, which is heavily charged with mineral matter, is respon-
sible for the death of the birds. However, during other years many
birds have been found dead in this and some other lakes when the
water was comparatively fresh. The pface where infection occurred
during those years is not definitely known, but is currently supposed
to have been near where the birds were found dead.

Investigations by the United States Biological Survey (Wetmore,
1915, jjp. 6-7) of a similar disease occurring around Great Salt Lake,
Utah, also indicate an alkaline poison, the exact nature of which is
yet to be determined. As was the case in California, a large percentage
of affected ducks recovered when placed on fresh water. The increased
leaching of the adjacent lands by irrigation may be responsible for
all these outbreaks. The only remedy yet suggested is to capture the
sick birds and place them on fresh water.

We know of no other instances of game birds dying as a result of
disease except quail which in captivity often fall victims to a "quail
disease." This disease is known technicallv as coccidiosis. No cure

18 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA

is known, but good sanitary surroundings appear to be a preventative.
There are no recorded instances of the disease becoming epidemic
among wild birds in this state. Although quail and other game birds
are often infested with tape worms and round worms, these parasites
seldom, if ever, cause death directly.

The array of evidence above given shows beyond question that
waterfowl and upland game birds have both on the average decreased
by fully one-half within the past forty years. Very likely the reduc-
tion totals much more in many individual species. Obviously, from
the nature of the data which we have been able to assemble, accurate
estimates of comparative population are now impossible to give. Cer-
tain it is, that one game species has totally disappeared from its former
range in California — the Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse, in the Modoc
region. The Trumpeter Swan, if it ever occurred here in sufficient
numbers to rank as of game value, must, also be set down as vanished.
Some other waterfowl and shore birds, which are so seriously depleted
as to warrant alarm as to their persistence, are the Wood Duck, Ring-
necked Duck, Redhead, Mountain Plover, and Long-billed Curlew.

The causes of this decrease are many and diverse, but all are
due in last analysis to the settlement of the state by the white man.
Some of these factors, such as excessive hunting and sale of game, are
subject to control ; but others, such as reclamation of land, and over-
head wires, are inevitable. The reduction in natural enemies by man's
agency is a factor favorable to some game birds. But this must not
be overemphasized ; hunting has intensified the decrease far beyond
any balancing compensation from this factor. The game supply of
the future must rely upon correct inductions based upon careful study
of the entire problem, and final adoption of those means which it is
found feasible to employ.

THE NATURAL ENEMIES OF GAME BIRDS

]\Iany people have mistaken ideas regarding the general effect of
predacious animals on wild game. It is true that certain hawks and
predatory mammals prey extensively upon game, but that they con-
stitute the most important or critical factor in reducing the numbers
of individuals of game species we believe to be untrue. We need but
point to conditions as they exist in the wild to prove that this idea is
erroneous. Where game is abundant predacious birds and mammals
are also abundant; where game is scarce (due probably to a lack of
food) predacious birds and mammals are also scarce. In other words,
the number of predacious animals is controlled by the supply of game.
It can be seen, therefore, that a certain balance exists between wild
game and its enemies. Forbush (1912, p. 541) says: "It is the mis-
sion of the native natural enemies to help preserve birds, to keep
them up to full efficiency and at the same time to prevent their
increase in numbers beyond the limit of safety.

Predacious birds and mammals are to be looked upon as constitut-
ing but one of many factors which affect the numbers of game birds
and mammals, and care should always be taken that the importance
of this factor be not overemphasized. No attempt is being made here
to underestimate the actual damage to game caused by any of its
enemies, but rather to point out that there is a tendency among many
people at the present time to interpret wrongly the relative importance
of the different categories of enemies.

However, at times and under more or less artificial conditions,
control of enemies may be advantageous to game birds. Destruction
of predacious animals is of value when they have become abnormally
abundant due to a destruction of ^/(etV enemies, or to th«ir taking
advantage of the increased food supply furnished by cultivated crops.
The crow in the eastern United States is a case in point. In Africa,
where numerous game refuges have been established in the Transvaal,
it has been found that the systematic destruction of certain predacious
birds and mammals has been distinctly beneficial in increasing game.

Destruction of mountain lions here in California has tended to
eliminate one of the chief factors in the decrease of deer and hence
increased the supply of the latter animals for the use of man. But
in most attempts at control, many really, though indirectly, beneficial
animals are destroyed, while some of the worst enemies of game go
free. The reason for this is that in but few instances can friend and
foe be so easily distinguished as in the case of the mountain lion. It
is very easy to jump to a conclusion in regard to the effect of any

[19]

20 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

given predator on game. But that such a couehision is the correct
one can be decided only after careful and far-reaching study of the
problem. We would urge extreme caution in declaring sweeping
destruction of sui)posed enemies of game birds, except in the few well
established cases. It is hoped that the following comments on some
of the enemies of game in California may be of h(4p to those who wish
to distinguish foe from friend.

Three typical bird-destroying hawkc are unprotected by law in this
state. All three of them prey systematically upon, game and insecti-
vorous birds. The best known of these hawks, and apparently the
most destructive, because of its habit of feeding upon Valley Quail,
as well as poultry, is the Cooper Hawk, or "bullet hawk," as it is
commonly called. This bird has a dark-barred tail as long or longer
than its body, and in silhouette against the sky, in flight, the wings
show bluntly rounded at the ends, and the tail also is rounded rather
than squarish at the end. The bird flies with a quick darting flight
and usually perches in some nearby tree, or flies along through the
trees, suddenly darting down and carrying off its prey with lightning
speed. It does not as a rule soar about in plain sight overhead. This
is the real "chicken hawk," and should be carefully distinguished from
the larger Red-tailed Hawk. The latter species sails about high in the
air like a buzzard, but its food consists almost entirely of ground
squirrels. In the hand these two birds can readily be distinguished
by a comparison of their feet. The Cooper Hawk has very slender
legs and feet, whereas the Western Red-tailed Hawk has very heavy
legs and feet.

A near relative of the Cooper Hawk, called the Sharp-shinned
Hawk, is closely similar to it. The main points of difference are the
much smaller size of the Sharp-shinned, and its square-ended rather
than rounded tail. In flight as well as in habits the Sharp-shinned is
practically a small edition of the Cooper Hawk. It is to be seen beat-
ing along over the brush and trees, especially along streams, and not
infrequently alights on the limbs of trees beneath concealing foliage.
In these situations the Sharp-shinned Hawk preys upon small birds
of every kind and will not infrequently help itself to young game birds
and to chicks in the barnyard.

The Duck Hawk, a true falcon, is the most powerful of the three
species unprotected by law and is able to attack birds even as large as
ducks. This hawk is said to kill more birds than it can eat, apparently
killing for the pleasure it finds in the sport. The Duck Hawk is not
now very common and is found chiefly about marshes and along the
sea coast where it preys upon water birds. Fairly large size, sharply
pointed wings, a slaty back, and black patches on the face help in
identification. At Santa Cruz Island in November, 1907, Linton

NATURAL ENEMIES 21

(19086, p. 127) observed a pair of Duck Hawks capture a Red Phala-
rope. Black Turnstones were considered the favorite prey at one
locality on the island.

A fourth species, the Western Goshawk, which is rare in California
except in the extreme northern and northeastern portions of the state,
should also be ranked among the harmful species. It is similar in
form to the Cooper and Sharp-shinned hawks but is of much larger
size. The adults have bluish gray backs and gray-and-white breasts,
while the immature birds have brown backs and streaked bellies.
Where it is abundant the Goshawk is known to do serious damage to
grouse and quail.

The two members of the cat famil}'^ found in California, the moun-
tain lion, ' ' puma " or " cougar, ' ' and the wildcat, ' ' bob-cat, " or " lynx-
cat," are both enemies of game. The mountain lion is accused on good
evidence of killing an average of at least one deer a week throughout
the year. In addition it probably kills the larger game birds. It can
readily be seen, therefore, that the systematic destruction of the moun-
tain lion means the saving of a large number of deer, and perhaps
some game birds. The wildcat feeds habitually upon birds, and it is
doubtful whether the number of rodents eaten compensates for the
destruction of quail and other valuable birds. There is considerable
evidence that the wildcat is, in certain localities, a very important
enemy of quail. For instance, a wildcat killed at Petaluma, December
29, 1908, contained a recently caught California Quail (Dixon, MS).

These, then, are the principal undoubted enemies of game birds in
California. To the mammals might be added, according to local cir-
cumstances and season, the weasel, skunk, coyote, and raccoon ; but
all of these, especially the first two, do considerable good by destroying
small rodents and in most instances probably do more good than harm.
Before any of these mammals are killed an attempt should be made to
determine whether or not, in the particular locality and as regards
other interests than those of the game, they are doing more harm than
good. Circumstances sometimes alter cases, however, and the system-
atic destruction of coyotes in Modoc County in 1916, because of the
spread of rabies by them, was to be favored. Also, on occasion, indi-
vidual animals, as when found destroying ducks' nests, should be
destroyed. An account of such depredations by a coyote in Sutter
County is given by Neale (1916, p. 161). In certain localities raccoons
rob the nests of ground-nesting birds. The breaking up of the nests
of ducks and other water birds in the Los Baiios district of the San
Joaquin Valley has been attributed to these animals (H. C. Bryant,
19Ue, p. 237).

The only bounty paid by the state on any of these animals is twenty
dollars each for mountain lions. Several of the counties offer bounties

22 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

on coyotes, and a few also on wildcats. Whether the bounty system is
the best means of attacking the problem is still in doubt. It can be
justified only when the animal on which the bounty is paid is
individually of great destructiveness, and at the same time not so
abundant that the paying of bounties is too great a tax on the treasury.
When the average hunter becomes able to distinguish between friend
and foe there will probably be a large enough toll of predacious birds
and mammals taken voluntarily by him to enable game to hold its own,
without resoi-t to bounties or other special means (see Forbush, 1916,
p. 56).

There is danger that some of the introduced game birds may become
enemies of native game birds, not so much because of any predacious
habits of the former or of their pugnacity, as because of usurpation
of food supply. This matter has been covered in our chapter on ''His-
tory of attempts to introduce non-native game birds into California"
(p. 43) . Although it has been suggested that the Ring-necked Pheasant
would not only appropriate the food supply of Valley Quail but also
by its pugnacity drive it out of its habitat, what little evidence is at
hand points the other way. The Valley Quail can apparently hold its
own, and it is even said to drive out the pheasants (Neale, 1915, pp.
153-155). What effect the few introduced game birds have actually
had on our native species we are unable to state.

The ground-foraging Roadrunner has been accused of destroying
the eggs and young of Valley Quail. An attempt to obtain light on
this point brought little positive evidence. The investigation included
a review of every published reference to the food of the Roadrunner
in California, as well as the analysis of eighty-three stomachs of Road-
runners taken in southern California (H. C. Bryant, 1916). The
investigation showed that, although the Roadrunner may occasionally
attack small birds, its bird-eating and egg-eating habits have been
exaggerated, and that the killing of this bird as an injurious species
is wholly unjustified. It is only in very rare cases that young quail
are molested. The benefits conferred by the Roadrunner in the
destruction of insect and rodent pests plus its great esthetic value
leave a balance greatly in favor of the bird and mark it as a beneficial
rather than injurious species. Here, again, decisions were jumped
at, which subsequent careful study failed to supi)ort.

Among reptiles, a few of the snakes are commonly believed to rob
the nests of birds. There is no doubt that individual gopher snakes
do resort to a diet of quail's eggs when opportunity offers. Four well-
attested cases of this sort are on record (Hoover, 1899, p. 75). But
here, as with most predators, the normal or usual toll, of the species
as a whole, should be taken into account, and the service of this snake
as a rodent destroyer compels favorable consideration.

THE GUN CLUB IN CALIFORNIA

The last twenty years has seen a great change in the attitude of man
towards wild game. In the early days game was so plentiful that no
thought was taken for its preservation. As a result it was slaughtered
without restriction. Two instances are typical. One is the well known
case of the Passenger Pigeon in the East ; the other a less known and
much more recent one relating to geese in California. Here more
than two hundred geese have been killed within a few hours by a
single hunter using a large-bore gun.

Now tliat game birds have become so scarce that they cannot be
secured with ease in large numbers, a reaction has set in, and the public
at large does not countenance such wholesale slaughter. In consequence
restrictive laws have been enacted. A further, less formal, step has
been taken locally in attempts to attract birds in various ways. These
efforts are at present chiefly confined to so-called gun clubs, and much
ingenuity, as well as considerable sums of money, is used to bring
about the desired results. The process of game extermination is being
succeeded on a small scale by game conservation.

There are many problems which must be. carefully worked out in
determining methods of game conservation. Of first importance are
those whicli bear directly on the survival of the species : market hunt-
ing, natural enemies, disease, safety of breeding places, and native
food supply. Other problems must be considered from the standpoint
of the citizen — public rights to wild game, equable legislation, and the
like. There is one important problem that must be looked at from
both points of view, for it intimately concerns both the bird and the
citizen. This is the problem of the private and club game preserve,
best illustrated at the present time by the familiar "duck club." For
a long time the duck preserve has been an object of contention among
sportsmen, the outsider maintaining that the preserve curtails his
liberties by usurping all the available shooting grounds and hence the
birds, and the clubman defending his point of view by pointing out
the advantages to the duck population afforded by his preserve. In
fact, the gun-club question must take first rank, if the importance of
the problem be judged by the amount of protest raised against such
preserves.

Every one of the conditions which assail the native game popula-
tion and which are due to the settlement of the country by man, such
as the effacement of breeding, feeding, and loafing grounds for ducks,
the replacement of native vegetation by introduced plants, the destrue-

[23]

2-4 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

tion of game, for food or sport, the introduction of exotic birds and
mammals, and the introduction of diseases, are all affected by the
preserve. Thus we see that the problem is a complex one and needs
careful treatment. The present brief discussion can Ite considered
as only a very inadequate contribution to the subject.

Preserves are really of three kinds — public, club, and private.
The first, a far different type from the otlier two, is exemplified in
the state game refuge now being establislied in different parts of
California, and of the utility of this there can be no question. Let
us examine somewhat critically the club and private preserves as they
exist at the present time.

Club preserves are tracts of land, either rented by groups of men
or owned by them for the common advantages they offer for exclusive
hunting. Every degree of equipment ma}" be found, from a rented
house-boat on some slough at the edge of a bay marsh to an elaborate
shooting lodge situated on a valuable tract of land owned jointly by
the club members. A representative instance of this last type is the
Empire Gun Club, which consists of about twenty business men of
San Francisco, and whose holdings are located along the Elkhorn
Slough, near Castroville, in Monterey County. The land is largely
marsh, such as is suitable for ducks, but some of the adjoining hill
land affords favorable ground for quail. The improvements consist
of a house for the keeper, who patrols the grounds the year round, and
a substantial clubhouse for the accommodation of the members at
shooting time. Expenses are met by dues and assessments.

The most necessary improvements connected with this type of pre-
serve are those concerned with the furnishing of attractive places for
the ducks. These consist chiefly of a number of fresh water ponds
made by constructing levees and flooding the enclosed land with fresh
water. This water is piped from springs, or pumped in from wells.
In a short time the fresh water drives out the salt marsh plants, such
as "pickle weed," and their place is taken by a better type of vegeta-
tion. The ponds are kept free from rank or undesirable growths, and
are in other ways made attractive for the more desirable kinds of
ducks. An effort is made to keep the ponds deep enough to attract
Sprig, rather than Spoonbills or other less desirable ducks, which
prefer shallower water. The ponds are baited twice a Aveek. "Wheat,
whole corn, and maize, are used to the amount of a carload and a half
each year. The slough itself affords excellent Canvasback and Blue-
bill shooting during the latter part of the season, so that the club is
ideally situated from the standpoint of the hunter.

The rules of the club are few but well observed. Shooting is
allowed on two days of each week only — Wednesday and Sunday. The
use of pump guns and automatics is prohibited. Trained dogs are

THE GUN CLUB IN CALIF OMNIA 25

kept for retrieving. Blinds are chosen by lot, and a regular order
followed in rotation throughout the season. Each bag is recorded by
species in a ledger, so that the shoot for each year since the organiza-
tion of the club can be ascertained. It is of interest to note that in
the twelve years of this club's history there has been no marked dim-
inution in the total annual bag. There has, however, been a change in
the make-up of the bag in that certain larger ducks are now taken
in smaller numbers (see table 1, p. 10).

This particular club is looking forw^ard to the complete reclama-
tion of its land in the more or less distant future ; in other words,
the property will sometime be sold for agricultural purposes, so that
the initial outlay is looked at in the light of an investment. It is to
be observed that the large sums of money now invested in duck pre-
serves, although primarily for sport, are secondarily for the purpose
of obtaining land capable of reclamation. Whenever the growth of
the country demands it, these lands will be available for agriculture.

Differing but slightly in the method of operation is the preserve
owned by only one individual, or but two or three. Let us take as an
example that owned by Mr. W. W. Richards at Cygnus, Solano County,
one of twenty or more shooting preserves on the Suisun marshes.
The equipment is similar in a general way to that of the club-owned
grounds just described. The locality offers slightly different condi-
tions so that we find the ponds made both by excavation and by the
building of levees, the slightly brackish water being admitted by
means of head gates at high tide. A further step is taken to attract
ducks by flooding large areas which are diked off to afford loafing and
feeding gi'ounds. In addition to grain, "grit," or crushed quartz, is
put out. Useless vegetation is burned off and every favorable con-
dition maintained for the growth of those native plants which furnish
food for ducks. In the ponds thrives the California fennel pondweed
(Potamogeton pectinatus), sometimes locally known as "nutgrass,"
which is the best of the natural food plants for many kinds of ducks,
both surface feeders and diving ducks. An attempt has been made
to introduce Yallisneria, the famous duck food of the Atlantic coast,
but this has proven unsuccessful.

The blinds used on the preserves are usually of two kinds, the
barrel or box blind consisting of a large barrel or box sunk nearly
to the level of the ground, and the platform blind which is a wooden
platform surrounded by high brush or tules. These blinds may be
elaborately equipped to insure the comfort of the occupant as well
as to render his location invisible to the game. The hunter wears
inconspicuous clothing and is careful not to make quick movements or
to allow, the sun to shine on his face when ducks are flying overhead.
Calling the ducks in by imitating their call-note is a method considered
"unprofessional" on some preserves, but is in common use on others.

26 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Wooden decoys are always employed. Sometimes they are placed
on the ponds previously to the day's shoot, at other times put out
by the hunter himself when he goes to his blind. The decoys are put
out in groups, each species by itself, and each individual decoy is
anchored by a leaded string. About half a dozen each of Green-
winged Teal, Sprig, and Widgeon are sufficient to attract ducks of
these species, but for Canvasbacks a larger number of decoys is used.

The storm of protest which arises from the unattached hunter tends
to place gun clubs in a position which our own investigations fail to
substantiate. It is true that the very best hunting grounds are pre-
empted by the gun clubs. And, in light of the fact that the game of
the state belongs to the people as a whole and not to any one individual
or group of individuals, this would seem radically opposed to the prin-
ciple of democracy. Yet there is something to be said even on this
score in defense of the gun club. One stock argument, and a valid one,
that is repeatedly propounded at the present time in connection with
other natural resources, is applicable here as well. It concerns a
fundamental economic relationship. The expenditure of large sums
of money for any sort of commodity (commercial or recreative) is
considered helpful to the whole social body. The establishment and
the upkeep of the preserves requires the employment of large sums
of money which would not otherwise be spent in the same field of
labor. Invested capital is increased thereby. For instance, on one
preserve of which we know, the cost of the bait used in a single year
was greater than would have been the cash value that could have been
realized if all the ducks shot had been sold at current prices on the
market ! There is a statement current on the Suisun marshes that the
ducks there shot cost their weight in silver. In other words, a duck
shot on a preserve is worth vastly more than one shot on open ground,
because of the expense incident to its killing. Surely this is a point
that must in all fairness be considered.

If we stop to think, it seems remarkable that tliis adverse point
of view should be entertained regarding the duck club, when the same
arguments are seldom applied to the roughly analogous case of the
automobile. We hear little complaint against the man who is able to
own an automobile and therefore able to get a disproportionate amount
of use out of the good roads which are supported by every taxpayer.
Nor do we find people criticising the national government for main-
taining Yosemite Valley as part of a national park in spite of the fact
that comparatively few persons can afford to visit it. We simply have
to admit the general truth that some men have superior advantages
in many things — access to game included.

The following are the factors which are detrimental to, and favor-
able for, the duck population, and which are concerned with the pre-

THE GUN CLVB IN CALIFORNIA 27

serve as it is being conducted today. If we look at the problem strictly
from the conservation standpoint the evidence is fairly in favor of
the preserve.

EFFECTS OF THE GUN CLU
Detrimental

Concentration. — The best natural lo-
cation is selected and conditions
made still more attractive for ducks.
As long as there are any ducks at
all, they will concentrate upon such
favorable grounds. In other words,
the preserve may be looked upon as
hastening the decrease of the duck
supply because it leads to a continual
concentration of population in a place
where regular and heavy toll is leWed.

Heavy toll. — On the preserve there
is systematic hunting every favor-
able shooting day during the season,
and under the best devisable condi-
tions. Hence very large annual bags
are appropriated.

Marksmanship. — The highest type
of marksmanship is always to be
found on the preserve and this
makes for limit bags.

Efftciency of firearms. — The best
grades and most expensive guns and
ammunition are used.

Personnel. — The highest grade of
intelligence is brought to bear on
ways and means of procuring the
ducks.

B OX OUR DUCK SUPPLY

Favorable

Increased and better feeding
f/ronnds. — These are secured by diking,
flooding, and thrf construction of arti-
ficial ponds. Increased breeding and
loafing grounds are also furnished.

Maintenance of favorable grounds.
Much land is appropriated and re-
tained in the preserve which other-
wise would be made unfit for ducks
through reclamation for agricultural
and pastoral purposes.

Additional food. — Additional food
supply is furnished in the form of
bait, and by the encouragement of
native food plants.

Bestricted hunting. — Hunting is
often limited to but two days a week
and to relatively few shooters.

Indiscriminate hunting prevented. —
By a system of posting and patrol of
lands undesirable hunting is elimin-
ated. Illegitimate shooting during
closed season is also prevented.

Picfuge for duels. — During the
closed season, on non-shooting days,
and during rough weather, the pre-
serve affords an ideal refuge for the
l)irds.

Cripples not tcasted. — The habitual
use of trained dogs assures the re-
covery of practically all cripples, and
thus lessens the total number of
birds killed.

Most deadly guns not used. — On
most preserves use of the pump gun
and automatic is prohibited.

In our minds, the most iiuportant count against the duck preserve
is not so much the preemption of the most desirable hunting grounds,
as the improved conditions offered to the ducks, which cause them to
congregate at points Avhere a severe toll is exacted. The unavoidable
concentration due to the reclamation of marsh land is undesirable

28 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOBNIA

enough ; intentional concentration is to be still more deplored when
advantage is taken of it, and excessive depletion results. The failure
of many persons to appreciate the diminution in duck population is
due chiefly to the fact of this concentration of all the ducks which
under former conditions wintered over a great extent of territory,
within a few localities made favorable to them by artificial means.
The other factors concerned, such as the efficiency of the firearms used
and the high degree of marksmanship, are really but supplementary to
this more fundamental factor.

On the other hand, many conditions are afforded by the preserve
which favor the persistence of our duck supply. Some of these serve
directly to offset the detrimental effects of concentration. Probably
the most important of these is the maintenance of favorable feeding-
grounds which otherwise would be much sooner appropriated for
agriculture. The provision of a refuge during the closed season and
on non-shooting days, and the restriction of hunting, also detract
greatly from the evil effects of concentration. In fact, if we study
the problem entirely from the standpoint of the effect on the duck
population, we are led to the conclusion that the duck preserve is an
institution which at the present time is to be fostered rather than dis-
couraged. "With plenty of available natural feeding grounds for ducks
this judgment would have to be reversed. But present conditions
certainly justify the conclusion.

• It would appear that the institution of the well regulated gun club,
occurring, as it has, at a critical stage in the adjustment of artificial
to natural conditions, is to be looked upon as a propitious rather than
as an adverse factor in the conservation of our duck supply. Whether
or not, as further changes result from increased human population,
this valuation of the preserve will persist, remains to be seen.

HISTORY OF ATTEMPTS TO INTRODUCE NON-NATIVE
GAIME BIRDS INTO CALIFORNIA

Even before our native game birds had become so far reduced
in numbers as to alarm greatly those most interested in their mainten-
ance, attempts Avere made to introduce species from other states and
countries. This was done for a variety of reasons. Some persons
believed that by increasing the number of kinds of game birds we
could increase the total number of individuals; others thought that
foreign species would prove more prolific than our native kinds ; and
some hoped that species "bigger and finer" than any of our native
ones could somehow become established here. But the proponents of
these several hypotheses were all doomed to disappointment. The
faulty reasoning which underlay these notions will be demonstrated
later. First let us review the history of the introduction of alien birds
into California.

The first attempts to introduce foreign birds into the United
States were made more than a hundred years ago. Since that time,
and for one reason and another, efforts to establish exotic species in
this country have been numerous. A brief review of some of these
attempts shows that there is great contrast in the results obtained
in different places. On the one hand stands Oregon's extraordinary
success with the Ring-necked Pheasant, a success which has stimulated
interest in acclimatization throughout the United States ; on the other
hand we find many failures. For example, Illinois has spent many
thousands of dollars in an almost wholly futile attempt to stock the
state with pheasants. Between these two extremes there have been
all degrees of success and failure.

Neither the large expenditure involved, the danger attendant upon
the introduction of a species which might later prove undesirable (as
did the English Sparrow), the possibility of replacement of a native
species by a foreign one, nor the possible introduction of diseases fatal
to our native game, seems in any way to have halted the mad rush
to introduce and attempt to establish foreign game birds. State after
state has carried on haphazard and poorly managed experiments, in
most instances without paying any attention to the experiences of
other states. Few seem to have codified the knowledge concerning
acclimatization as it applies to game birds, and those who have done
so have found the effort an exceedingly difficult one because of the
incompleteness and unsatisfactory nature of the records.

[29]

30 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA

The success of Oregon in introducing pheasants, and the similar
success which attended the introduction of exotic fishes into the waters
of California have both been incentives to experiment in acclimatiza-
tion with game birds in this state. Within eight years after shad had
been planted in the Sacramento River at Tehama they became so
abundant that thousands were caught and sold in the markets of San
Francisco. Carp became numerous soon after they were planted, and
the same was true with black bass. It is not to be wondered at that
the same sort of results was looked for by those who sought to restock
the depleted game covers of our state.

More than a quarter century has passed since the first private
attempts were made to introduce foreign game birds into California,
and more than two decades have gone by since the matter Avas given
serious consideration by the State Board of Fish Commissioners, the
predecessor of our present Fish and Game Commission. In view of
the length of the period which has elapsed since then, and the number
and extent of the trials which have been made, it seems that a time
has arrived for reviewing the work performed, for judging the results
obtained, and for attempting to find out what will be the best course
for the future in this direction. The present chapter aims to do this,
and also to place data and materials for studying the problem in more
detail than is here possible at the disposal of those who are most
interested.

Pheasants

California's most persistent attempt to bring in and establish a
foreign species appears in the case of the Ring-necked Pheasant
{Phasianus iorquatus) . The earliest efforts to this end were made
by private individuals, but unfortunately the accounts of these first
attempts are incomplete, and it is probable that we have record of
only a small proportion of the total number of importations that were
made. The first published statement we have been able to find which
pertains to this subject is that made by Belding in 1890 (pp. 8-9) in
which he saj^s :

Some years ago a flock of English pheasants was pnt out in the woods of
Santa Cruz County, but nothing has been seen nor heard of them since. Colonel
Haymond of San Mateo has a number of these birds, English and Japanese,
but he has had no success in raising them; when let out they suddenly disappear
and nothing is seen or heard of them. Mr. Howard, near by, has experimented
with the same bird. A few weeks since he informed me that his foreman
told him he had seen a flock of twenty-two birds. The birds mentioned are the
only ones experimented with. Certainly thus far the experiments are not a
success. In Oregon they have met with great success, with both quail and
pheasants.

NON-NATIVE GAME BIEDS 31

Tlu' ("oniitry ("luh of Marin County is known to have introduced
"English" Pheasants prior to 1889, but the birds soon disappeared.
W. E. Gerber, at one time a Fish and Game Commissioner, in 1904
began to propagate pheasants of several species on his country place,
the Del Paso Ranch, near Sacramento. Ring-necked Pheasants were
imported from China and Oregon and placed in charge of a game-
keeper. Hundreds were reared and most of them liberated on the
ranch, but all subsequently disappeared.

The following statement by Mrs. Denny, wife of Judge 0. N. Denny
who was instrumental in inti'oducing the Ring-necked Pheasant into
Oregon, indicates that an early semi-official effort was made to obtain
birds from China.

Before returning to the United States, my husband communicated with Mr.
Redding [one of the commissioners] of San Francisco, asking him if he would
like to have a shipment of game birds sent to California. Mr. Redding was
very enthusiastic and made all arrangements to take care of them on their
arrival. He arranged with the Spring Valley Water Company of California,
who were also in sympathy with the movement, and who arranged to have
the birds turned out upon their grounds. They sowed buckwheat seed in differ-
ent places and promised that every facility for the feeding and comfort of the
birds would be attended to. Between eighty and ninety birds were shipped,
extreme care being taken so that they would reach San Francisco in good
condition. The ship arrived at the wharf as the funeral procession of Mr.
Redding was taking place. He had died suddenly and no arrangements had been
made to receive the birds. In fact, no one knew anything about it. The birds,
of course, had to be taken from the boat, and, no one seeming to know any-
thing about them, the sailors finally gave them away along the waterfront and
some of them were sold to the city markets. California never knew of my
husband 's splendid gift, and the state received no benefit from it (Simpson,
1914, pp. 17-18).

The first consistent public effort was begun on March 16, 1889,
when an appropriation of $2000 was made by the Legislature to pur-
chase foreign game birds for planting within the state and for pro-
tecting birds so planted. W. H. Shebley was sent to Oregon to procure
Ring-necked Pheasants and obtained from farmers and others who
were breeding the birds about 140 at ten dollars a pair. The pheasants
w^ere liberated in Monterey, Sacramento, Marin, and Nevada counties,
and in some localities in the San Joaquin Valley. This constituted the
first plant made by the California Fish Commission.

Further distribution of Ring-necked Pheasants by the Fish Com-
mission took place in the spring of 1894, when sixty-seven of these
birds were obtained and distributed in various counties of the state
where it was thought they would thrive. The pheasants were placed
in charge of citizens who had met the commission's requirements and
built suitable aviaries. It was understood that all the birds produced

32 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA

from this parent stock were to be liberated on public lands. Owing
to the fact that the female pheasants would not incubate their own
eggs and that hatching had therefore to be done by domestic hens,
few birds were reared and liberated. A year or two later a number
of imported pheasants were liberated in Santa Clara, Kern, and
Tehama counties. In 1897, an agent was again sent to Oregon and
323 Ring-necked Pheasants were obtained. These were distributed
in five-pair lots to many different parts of the state. In 1898, 93
"Mongolian" (= Chinese Ring-necked) and 150 "English Ring-
necked" pheasants were purchased and liberated. Later, favorable
reports stating that young birds had been seen came from Humboldt,
Santa Clara, and Fresno counties. Most of the "Mongolian" Pheas-
ants were brought over from Hongkong, China, and were purchased
for seventy-five cents each.^

During the next few years the commission was unable to secure
pheasants from the Orient because of the fact that a demand had arisen
for pheasants for table use on steamers stopping at Asiatic ports, and
the resulting increase in cost was prohibitive. By 1906, interest had
centered in the Hungarian Partridge, and attention was for the time
withdrawn from pheasants..

When the State Game Farm was established, in 1908, a breeding
stock of Ring-necked Pheasants was secured, and during the next few
years hundreds of pheasants were reared and planted throughout the
state. The largest distribution took place in 1912, when 1398 Ring-
necked Pheasants were planted in twenty different counties in the
state." The total number of pheasants liberated by the Fish and Game
Commission up to 1916 was approximately five thousand. One or more
plants have been made in at least thirty-seven of the fifty-eight counties
of the state.

More than twenty-five years have passed since Ring-necked Pheas-
ants were first introduced into California by private enterprise and
more than tM-enty years since they were introduced by the Fish and
Game Commission. In this time the repeated efforts which have been
made seem to us to have sufficiently tested the pheasant's ability to
become acclimated to Californian conditions. The species should have
become w^ell established throughout the state ; but it has not done so.
The birds are now reported as established in about twenty localities,
but in scores of places where large plants were made not a single wild
pheasant is to be found at the present time. In certain localities where
at first they thrived, they eventually disappeared. Some have, of
course, been killed by uninformed or malicious gunners; but in com-

1 Calif. Fish Com., 1894, p. 29; ibid., 1896, p. 33; ibid., 1900a, p. 10; ibid..
1900b, p. 41; ibid, 1902, p. 44.

2 Calif. Fish and Game Comm., 1910, pp. 54-55; ibid., 1913, pp. 60-62.

NON-NATIVE GAME BIBDS 33

paratively few, if any, instances can the total disappearance of birds

be attributed to this cause.

Localities where Ring-necked Pheasants are now known to exist

in the wild, together with an estimate of the number of birds present

in 1916, according to figures furnished by deputies of the Fish and

Game Commission, are as follows :

Eureka, Humboldt County 700-800

Fortuna, Humboldt County 500

Fort Jones, Siskiyou County 75-100

Yreka, Siskiyou County 200

Greenvievv, Siskiyou County Several hundred

^Yilliams, Colusa County 200-300

Cloverdale, Lake County 500

Napa, Napa County 300-500

Susanville, Lassen County 100

Grass A^alley, Nevada County 100-200

Lodi, San Joaquin County 75-100

Snelling, Merced County 150

Porterville and Lindsey, Tulare County Several hundred

Milpitas and Coyote, Santa Clara County 2000

Watsonville, Santa Cruz County Several hundred

Pacific Grove, Monterey County 200

Big Pine, Inyo County 1000

Reviewing their present status in detail, we find that Ring-necked
Pheasants are now well scattered over the Santa Clara Valley, espe-
cially north of the city of San Jose. Deputies I. L. Koppel and J. H.
Hill saw about fifteen (not over four together) on or near the road
between Alviso and Milpitas on one day in the fall of 1915. During
the previous summer Mr. Koppel saw a flock of between thirty -five and
forty pheasants at the Katz place, between Berryessa and Milpitas.
In 1912, the same observer saw a flock of at least one hundred and
fifty pheasants south of Coyote. They ranged from one-fourth grown
to adult birds. In August, 1913, two nests were discovered in a hay
field near the same town. The eggs were sent to the Game Farm where
they were successfully hatched. In May, June, and July, 1916, no less
than a dozen nests of pheasants were discovered near Alviso and San
Jose. ]\Iany of these were broken up in the mowing of alfalfa and
hay fields. Sixty-three eggs in good condition were taken from these
nests and sent to the State Game Farm. Nests and broods of young
were also observed near Coyote. The above observations, coupled with
the breeding records, show that the Ring-necked Pheasant may be
considered fairly established in the Santa Clara Valley. It was from
this same section that the first encouraging reports were received more
than twelve years ago, after fifty birds had been liberated near Coyote
Lake. All of the localities mentioned in this paragraph are in Santa
Clara County.

34 GAME BIHDS OF CALIFORNIA

Mr. J. S. Hunter reports that he saw two broods of young and
several adult pheasants on the Forgeus Ranch near Williams, Colusa
County, in June, 1916. The birds in this locality appear to be
thriving.

Tlie increase in number of pheasants in Owens Valley, Inyo County,
has been such as even to lead to some complaint of depredations in
grain fields.

On April 22, 1914, Wall (1915, p. 59) found a wild pheasant's nest
with twelve eggs at the edge of a swamp near San Bernardino.

The Macomber Ranch, at Paicines, San Benito County, has been
stocked year by year with hundreds of propagated birds, and pheasants
are now reported as abundant throughout the neighborhood of the
ranch.

The present writers are frank to say that their own field experience
inclines them to the belief that most of the estimates above listed are
more or less padded ; and it seems to us probable that there are less
than 15,000 wild birds all told in the state at the present time. In
spite of the favorable nature of the reports, pheasants are nowhere
considered to be abundant enough to warrant an open season or even
to give promise of the possibility of an open season within the near
future.

Attempts to rear fancy breeds of pheasants, such as the Reeves,
Lady Amherst, Swinhoe, Bohemian, and Copper, in California, have
mostly met with failure. The Golden and Silver pheasants, alone,
have been successfully reared in captivity. A few of these, from the
State Game Farm, were liberated on Goat Island, San Francisco Bay,
in 1915.

The attempts to acclimatize pheasants in other states have met with
varied results. Oregon stands out as the one state which has been
really successful. From twenty-six Ring-necked Pheasants imported
from China in 1882, and planted in the Willamette Valley, the whole
state west of the Cascades has been stocked (Shaw, 1908, pp. 12-15).
By 1892, pheasants had become so abundant that an annual open
season of two and one-half months was declared, and 50,000 birds
were reported to have been killed on the opening day. In 1896,
10,000 pheasants were marketed within a single month. A short
open season on cock birds still prevails. In Washington and British
Columbia the Ring-necked Pheasant is also well established.

On the other hand, many eastern states have had little or no
success in establishing any species of pheasant. The ease witli which
the "English" Pheasant could be procured has led to the importation
of this bird for stocking purposes in the East, rather than the Cliinese
Ring-necked Pheasant. Illinois lias spent many thousands of dollars
in attempts to stock the state, but the results to date have been alto-

NON-NATIVE GAME BIRDS 35

gether disappointing-. Maine, New York, New Jersey, Ohio, Indiana,
and Minnesota have had similar experiences. Massachusetts imported
pheasants from Oregon as early as 1889. The birds established them-
selves rapidly, an open season being soon declared ; but they failed
to maintain their initial vigor. Oklahoma planted thousands of Eng-
lish Pheasants, and between 1910 and 1913 distributed 20,000 pheasant
eggs to persons who pledged themselves to hatch, rear, and liberate
the birds when mature. In spite of this endeavor few, if any, pheas-
ants are now to be found in Oklahoma. In practically all cases,
promising reports were received during the first year after planting ;
but with the second year reports were less encouraging, and by the
third year the birds had disappeared.

It is seen, therefore, that California's experiences with the Ring-
necked Pheasant have been somewhat intermediate between the utter
failures of eastern states and the marked successes of Oregon, "Wash-
ington, and British Columbia.

Hungarian Partridge

In 1905 attention began to focus on the Hungarian, or common
European, Partridge {Perdix perdix). For a time attempts to pro-
cure birds for planting here failed. Finally W. E. Gerber succeeded
through his personal efforts in purchasing in Hungary and shipping
to California, fifty-four of these partridges. Half of the birds died
in transit ; the remainder upon arrival were placed in an aviary on
his ranch near Sacramento (Calif. Fish Comm., 1907, pp. 64-65).
No success attended the effort to propagate the birds in captivity ; in
fact onl}' two eggs were laid. The birds were finally liberated, but
nothing further was heard of them.

In the spring of 1908 the Fish and Game Commission purchased,
from eastern game dealers, for stocking purposes, 395 Hungarian
Partridges, and in the following year 2,127 more. These birds were
planted in lots of 20 to 50 in more than ninety localities in the state,
from San Diego County to Siskiyou County and from sea level to
high in the mountains. During the same year 65 Hungarian Part-
ridges were received for propagation purposes at the State Game
Farm; in 1910, 993 were received there, and in February, 1912, 24
more. Notwithstanding this large breeding stock, not a single young
bird was reared at the Game Farm. The birds died off rapidly, and
by 1914 not one remained. During the first year after planting,
broods of young were reported to have been seen in many parts of
the state, but such favorable reports soon ceased. As an example
of the result of California's attempts to establish the Hungarian
Partridge we quote a report from George Neale : "About the year

36 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBNIA

1910 I received a small shipment of Hungarian Partridges from the
Fish and Game Commission. I liberated these birds on the Haggin
Grant about eight miles from Sacramento. About a month after the
liberation I saw one male bird. This Avas the last seen of any of
them." Indeed, in the attempt to establish the Hungarian Partridge,
California has sacrificed over 3,500 birds costing over $3.50 each.

A recent experiment under private auspices is that of King
Macomber who, in 1914, imported fifty pairs of Hungarian Partridges
and confined them on his ranch in San Benito County in a large out-
door aviary extending over about an acre of natural cover. Small
rodents Avere said to have destroyed the few eggs laid in 1915, but
several clutches of eggs are reported to have been deposited in 1916.

In contrast with the failure to acclimatize this species in Cali-
fornia and also in several eastern states is its apparently successful
establishment in British Columbia. In 1915 an open season of one
month was declared, and a large number of birds was killed. Despite
the toll which is expected to be taken each year, it is thought that
the birds will continue to increase.

Wild Turkey

As long ago as 1877 turkeys {Meleagris gallopavo, subspecies?)
were introduced on Santa Cruz Island. This was done at the instance
of Judge J. D. Caton. The two male and four female birds which
were placed there produced sixty-one young the first year and 120
the second. It was reported that the birds gradually decreased in
size until the males which normally weighed eighteen pounds weighed
no more than six pounds (Caton, 1887, pp. 350-354). No recent
visitor to Santa Cruz Island has reported the presence of wild turkeys
there.

In March, 1908, W. E. Van Slyke of San Bernardino was detailed
by the Fish and Game Commission to procure from Mexico as many
wild turkeys as could be obtained in four months. He delivered 22
turkeys and 11 ' ' chachalacas " at San Bernardino on June 15, 1908.
They were liberated in two places in the San Bernardino ]\Iountains
at an altitude of about 4,000 feet. Encouraging reports were received
from these plants, and a shipment of thirty young turkeys which
were raised at the State Game Farm was made to the same locality
in August, 1910 (Calif. Fish and Game Comm., 1910, p. 57). Never-
theless naturalists who visited these mountains in the summers of
1915 and 1916 failed to find any trace of turkeys.

Mr. Van Slyke was engaged again in October, 1908, to procure
additional stock for breeding at the Game Farm. He shipped 26
birds, which cost close to fifty dollars each. Their high cost prohibited

NON-NATIVE GAME BIBDS 37

further importations. From this stock there were raised at the Game
Farm in the spring of 1909 more than one hundred strong young
birds. Of these, 48 were sent to Wawona and liberated in the southern
part of the Yosemite National Park. Conditions seemed favorable
and the birds were subsequently seen on various occasions, but no
increase in their numbers was noted, and they all finally disappeared.

Thirty-four birds were seiit to Sequoia National Park, Tulare
County, in November, 1909. In February, 1910, Walter Fry, acting
superintendent of the park, reported finding a nest with five eggs ;
in ]March, two nests, one with 11, the other with 16 eggs. On March
21 he reported the wild turkeys to be doing finely. One hen had seven
young birds. On May 21, many tracks of young birds were noted.
Under date of July 14, 1910, referring to that season's shipment, he
said : ' ' Wild turkeys were this day liberated in the Sequoia National
Park at the mouth of the Marble Fork of the Kaweah River. They
were in good condition and no losses were sustained."

During the season of 1910 more than two hundred young wild
turkeys were reared at the Game Farm. Of these, eighty-five were
sent to the Sequoia National Park and ten to citizens of Porterville,
Tulare County, who liberated them in a particularly favorable section
near there. In 1911, five wild turkeys from Virginia were added to
the breeding stock at the Game Farm, but only a few birds of this
latter race were reared. Propagation of wild turkeys was finally
abandoned in 1913 after the larger part of the breeding stock had
died from blackhead.

There are reports to the effect that when liberated many of the
wild turkeys reared at the Game Farm sought some nearby farmyard
and there mingled with the domestic stock. Recent reports from the
Sequoia National Park indicate that some of the wild turkeys in the
park are semidomesticated ; they have become very tame and forage
near the camp of the Mount Whitney Power and Electric Company.
Another band, which appears to be firmly established near the junc-
tion of the Middle and Marble forks of the Kaweah River, is very wdld.

From the foregoing accounts of the introduction of turkeys into
California there is one outstanding inference to be drawn : the condi-
tions in the localities where the birds were liberated were not suited
to the stock used.

Bob-White

Some of the first attempts to introduce non-native game birds into
California w^ere made with the eastern quail, the Bob-white (CoUnus
virginianus) .

Mr. Eamon E. "Wilson, of the California Sportsman's Association, kindly
furnishes the following [information] concerning introduced game birds; date,

38 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA

October 12, 1885: "Our efforts in that (Urectiou have resulted in failures,
except as I will state. Mr. Estee, some years ago, placed two dozen bob-whites
on his farm in Napa County. Every precaution was taken to protect them
from hunters, and they were carefully looked after. They all soon disappeared,
the theory being that they were destroyed by vermin. I learn that last
February some of the same kind of birds were placed on the farms of Mr.
Miller, Mr. Samuel Eea, and Mr. J. P. Sargent, along Carnedero Creek, near
Gilroy. It is said they have bred the past season, and their numbers mate-
rially increased. The experiments, however, from the length of time can hardly
be called a success. . . . Some bob-whites were placed on General Bidwell's
place near Chieo, but I understand they have disappeared also. Bob-whites
roost on the ground and are therefore unable to protect themselves from the
vermin which is so plentiful everywhere in California" (Belding, 1890, p. 8).

Between 1904 and 1906 fifty dozen Bob- white were brought into
the state by the California Fish Commission. Two shipments came
from Michigan, one from Massachusetts, one from Alabama, and the
fourth from Texas. The birds were liberated in lots of a dozen each
in a number of widely separated localities. In only one section, the
Del Paso Rancho, near Sacramento, did the birds increase. Here two
dozen were liberated and a special effort was made to protect them by
killing off the vermin and establishing a close season of a number of
years (Calif. Fish Comm., 1907, pp. 65-66). George Neale reports
that during the first few seasons after they were introduced a number
of nests were found. The increase was but temporary, for after four
years not a single Bob-white remained in this locality. Attempts to
propagate the Bob-white at the State Game Farm likewise failed.

Chinese Quail

Beginning about 1900 large numbers of Chinese Quail {Coturnix
japonica) were imported for restaurant purposes. Between 1901 and
1903, 16,609 of these quail were brought into the United States.
Because the birds were used as a cloak for the sale of native game, the
importation of the birds into California was stopped by law. Before
this law went into effect, large numbers of the birds were purchased
by private breeders and were planted in various parts of the state.
None of the birds are known to have survived. In 1903, a number
of confiscated Chinese Quail were liberated by the Commission, and
these, too, were seen but a short time. In 1904, ten dozen were con-
fiscated from a Chinese restaurant and liberated in Mendocino County
on a large tract of land where every protection was accorded wild
game (Calif. Fish Comm., 1904, p. 67 ; ihid., 1907, p. 65). No encour-
aging reports were received, and there is no evidence that the birds
here or elsewhere survived the first year.

NON-NATIVE GAME BIBDS 39

Other Quail

Attempts to transi)lant our native species from place to place have
also been made. For instance, the Gambel or Desert Quail (Lopliortyx
gamhdi) found on our southeastern deserts, early proved incapable
of withstanding the cooler climate and widely different conditions of
the north, as is evidenced by the following statement by Belding (1890,
p. 8) : "Some years ago some Arizona [Desert] quail were put out
near Folsom, but they all soon disappeared, and nothing has been
heard of them since." This failure did not prevent further attempts.
An editorial in ^V ester n Field (Anonymous, 1907, p. 208) reports that
a large number of Gambel Quail obtained in Arizona were liberated
on the grounds of the Country Club in Marin County, but that in less
than two years not one could be seen.

In January, 1912, at the instance of the California Fish and Game
Commission, more than 700 Gambel Quail were trapped in Coachella
Valley, in southern Riverside County. Three hundred were liberated
in three different places in Los Angeles County, one hundred in
Orange County, and a similar number in Ventura and San Benito
counties, while another hundred was sent to the State Game Farm at
Hay ward.

All of the attempts to introduce the Gambel Quail into northern
California have met with failure. Nor did success attend the effort
to breed this quail at the Game Farm. All but three of the female
birds died, most of them when containing eggs ready to be laid.

Early in 1904, Deputy H. T. Payne, of the Fish and Game Com-
mission, was sent to Mexico to secure some of the quail of that country,
believing that they would be likely to find congenial conditions in our
interior valleys. About four dozen Elegant Quail {Lopkortyx elegans)
were brought from the State of Sonora, and were placed in seemingly
suitable localities in California (Calif. Fish Comm., 1904, p. 67). The
birds quickly disappeared and nothing was ever heard of them.

Acting on the current popular belief that ' ' new blood ' ' was neces-
sary in order to prevent in-breeding and thus to stimulate increase,
efforts were made in 1908-1909 to trap Valley Quail in sections where
they were abundant and distribute them to localities where their
numbers had been greatly reduced. In 1908 about 2,000 Valley Quail
were thus transferred. At the same time efforts to obtain quail from
Mexico resulted in the trapping of 1,500 birds (Valley Quail?) in
Lower California. These birds were retained for a time in a public
park in Los Angeles and subsequently liberated ( Calif. Fish and Game
Comm., 1910, p. 57). This practice has been abandoned of late years.
Present knowledge discloses no scientific basis for the belief that
in-breeding has any deleterious effect on rate of increase among wild
species.

40 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Ptarmigan

Tn 1903 and again in 1904 and 1905, attempts were made to seelire
ptarmigan from Alaska for planting on Mount Shasta and in the Lake
Tahoe region. Although fifty pairs at $10.00 per pair were contracted
for, not even one pair was forthcoming. From a scientific standpoint
the ptarmigan seems to be a species likely to thrive on the high Sierra
Nevada above timberline ; the conditions there closely resemble those
of the ptarmigan's native habitat and no other grouse or quail is
present there with which it would have to compete. The failure to
make the trial is therefore particularly regrettable.

Factors Concerned in Acclimatization op Game Birds

With the above review of attempts to acclimatize non-native game
birds in California before us, let us try to determine what has pre-
vented their success. Palmer and Oldys (1904, p. 27) name three
factors wliich seem to them of special importance as obstacles to the
introduction of foreign species.

Migratory habits, cost, and inadequate protection . . . tend to restrict suc-
cessful acclimatization of game birds. Little., if any, success, has resulted from
the introduction of migratory species and even in the case of resident birds
preference for certain kinds of food or cover enter largely into the question
of success. Present prices of pheasants . . . and of certain kinds of water-
fowl are so high that they practically prevent the importation of these birds
in large numbers. Most foreign birds require special protective legislation,
but many of the laws thus far enacted are unsatisfactory.

Tested by these three factors we must admit that the birds selected
for introduction into California show themselves to have been well
fitted for the enterprise. The pheasants, quails, and Avild turkeys
were all of non-migratory races, Avere not unreasonably expensive
(with the possible exception of the turkey), and were given special
legislative protection. What, then, was at fault?

The inherent ability of a bird to adapt itself to a new and different
wild environment is the principal matter for consideration in any
attempt to acclimatize it. This adaptability cannot be suddenly
altered by human effort. Man-controlled factors, such as cost and
protection, are of secondary importance. The only remaining factor
is that of external environment, and tliough we cannot directly control
it, we can do so indirectly by a ])roi)er selection of locality. Just as
the Caucasian race of man thrives best in a certain restricted climatic
belt the world around, so do animal species prosper most under cer-
tain limited conditions of temperature and humidity. The most
important single factor controlling the distribution of animal life in

NON-NATIVE GAME BIEBS 41

the Avorld is temperature ; and this applies fully to game birds. The
chief reason why the Gambel Quail of the southeastern deserts did
not thrive in central and northern California was that the temperature
conditions differed from those to which it had been accustomed in
Arizona. The same is true of the Elegant Quail from Mexico. Almost
as great a degree of control is to be observed in the case of humidity
as in that of temperature. For example, the Ring-necked Pheasant
thrives in western Oregon where the relative humidity is greater than
in most of California. But the places where these birds have thriven
here, namely swamps and tule thickets, afford conditions of high
humidity, which compensate for the lack of general atmospheric mois-
ture. The same factor was also probably associated with temperature
in killing off the Gambel Quail which were introduced into Marin
County. Thus climate must be taken seriously into account.

Finally there are certain factors which are inseparably bound up
with the habits of the birds. These pertain to the type of country
which the birds inhabit as it relates directly to their modes of life.
Grinnell (1914&, p. 96) has pointed out the following three factors in
the last named category :

1. Kind of food supply aflforded, with regard to the inherent structural
powers of each of the animals concerned to make it available.

2. Presence of safe breeding places, adapted to the varying needs of the
animals, in other words, depending upon the respective inherent powers of
construction, defense and concealment in each species concerned.

3. Presence of places of temporary refuge for individuals, during day
time or night time, or while foraging, when hard pressed by predatory enemies,
again correlated with the respective inherent powers of defense and conceal-
ment of each species involved.

An examination of the failures that have attended California's
experiments in introduction show that these "associational" factors
were probably of much less importance than were temperature and
humidity. Possibly the associational elements counted for most in the
cases of the Bob-white and turkey.

Criticism of the trials made in California leads us to two main
causes of failure : lack of preliminary investigation of the points just
discussed, and improper methods of introducing and liberating the
birds.

In the introduction of foreign species three methods have been
used : the immediate liberation of imported adult birds ; the retention
of adult birds for a time by responsible parties in aviaries, with sub-
sequent liberation of either the adults or young reared by them ; and
lastly, the planting of young birds which have been reared in captivity
on a game farm. Records show that the first named method, which
was that originally employed in Oregon, has given the best results.

42 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

A modification of this metliod, which consists in retaining the birds
under semi-wild conditions until they have been partially acclimated,
would probably produce still more satisfactory results; but this and
man}' other feasible experiments have not been systematically tried
out.

The liberation of birds which have been propagated in captivity
almost always results in failure. The successful maintenance of
foreign species in aviaries is no test of their ability to establish and
maintain themselves w^hen released in the wild. Unless birds reared
on a game farm can be brought up under semi- wild conditions nothing
but unfavorable results are to be expected when they are liberated.
The complete change that occurs, in the nature of their food and their
method of procuring it, and the presence of enemies which they have
not encountered in captivity, are circumstances which birds that have
been propagated under artificial conditions cannot be expected to
contend with successfully. Failure to recognize these principles has
made many attempts at acclimatization unsuccessful. A state game
farm can be of value to game breeders as an experiment station for
testing the practicability of methods of rearing game in captivity;
but its service as a means of rearing birds suitable for liberation in
the wild has yet to be demonstrated in this state or elsewhere.

Here, then, are the factors of climate, of food, of safe breeding
places, and of safe cover from enemies, conditions that must be con-
sidered when an attempt to introduce an exotic species is made. These
are precisely the same factors which prevent the spread of a species
beyond a certain normal boundary, and they aifect its persistence in
like degree when it is transplanted to a new locality. There are
doubtless many foreign species that possess an inherent ability to
adapt themselves to one of the changed conditions represented among
these factors ; but the possibility of finding a species which can adapt
itself to all of the changed conditions is extremely small. With the
increase in the number of limiting factors there is a decrease in the
number of species capable of successfully meeting all of them. Few
species can ever be considered as candidates for introduction into any
one new locality.

The possibility of failure is not the only objection to projects
of introducing foreign game birds. Three others are yet to be men-
tioned : the possibility that the species introduced may later become
undesirable ; that it may completely replace some native species ; and
that it may bring in some infectious disease such as will spread to
native species. No instance of the introduction of a wholly unde-
sirable species of game bird is known to us, but the conspicuous cases
of the English Sparrow and Starling among small birds should warn
us of grave consequences in this connection.

XON-XATIVE GAME BIBDS 43

As an example under the second point, it is well known that the
English Sparrow and our native Linnet do not get along well together.
The former is aggressively pugnacious in disposition, and drives the
Linnet otf the premises by individual combat. In any case it is certain
that, since at the season of minimum food supply, about February and
March, the struggle for existence is very keen, both because of food
shortage and because of persecution by carnivorous enemies, and since
the number of birds that can persist through this critical season
depends absolutely upon the amount of sustenance then available, the
introduction of foreign birds will inevitably bring injury to the native
species. Some peculiar advantage in food-getting power on the part
of the introduced birds may increase this peril still further.

Finally, there is the question of disease. Parasites and disease
organisms are very likely to be brought in by exotic birds, and the
conditions may prove favorable to their spread among our native game
species. Because of the abruptness of the exposure, our birds will
not have acquired immunity from those parasites and diseases, and
wholesale mortality is likely to result. It is undesirable that the exist-
ence of our native birds should be jeopardized in this manner for the
mere chance of a successful introduction of any sort of foreign game.
In 1916 quail from Mexico were prohibited entry into the United
States because of the prevalence of a "quail disease" in their native
country.

Summary

A review of the attempts to acclimatize foreign game birds in
California shows that the success attained has not been commensurate
with the money and energy expended, and that two of the underlying
causes of failure have been the lack of careful preliminary investiga-
tion of the factors controlling acclimatization, and the improper
method of liberation. Every introduced species must meet certain
requirements, the chief of which relate to the climatic conditions of
temperature and humidity, the food supply, the safety of breeding
places, and the availability of suitable cover for protection from
enemies. Not one, but many, limiting conditions must be satisfied;
hence the chances that a given species will succeed in a new environ-
ment are small, and, also, the number of species possessing the neces-
sary all-around adaptive ability is small. The possibility of establish-
ing a foreign game species has been demonstrated in the case of the
pheasant in Oregon, and more carefully planned undertakings here
might lead to success in the case of other game species. Even though
a foreign species proves to be desirable, there is always the attendant
danger that the introduced bird will wholly supplant some native one.

44 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA

an event the full consequence of which must be carefully weighed.
The chances of failure in acclimatizing the immigrant, of introducing
an undesirable bird, of wholly supplanting, some native species, and
of introducing some contagious disease fatal to native species, all
emphasize the great need of directing effort and money toward the
conservation of native game birds rather than toward the introduction
of foreign ones. Conserve our native species ! There are none whose
qualities are superior; they are part of the natural heritage of our
land, and have been serviceable to us in the past; we are responsible
for their preservation.

THE PROPAGATION OF GAME BIRDS

In several European countries the supply of game both for sport
and for the table is furnished almost wholly by propagation. In Great
Britain, for instance, game covers are systematically restocked with
pheasants by breeding these birds in large numbers and then liber-
ating them. Ducks are reared in large numbers and made to furnish
sport for the gunners. The consequence of this sort of game admin-
istration is that few persons are allowed the privilege of hunting,
and no public lands are open to the hunter at large. Even now,
in Scotland, the right to hunt is, theoretically at least, reserved to
persons who have inherited that unknown quantity, a "plowgate" of
land, and in Ireland (lualifications of estate are necessary for killing
game and keeping sporting dogs. In Great Britain the right to take
or kill wild animals is treated as incidental to the ownership or
occupancy of land on which they are found, and the general public
has not the right to take them on private land or even on a right of
way. (For further discussion of conditions abroad, see Westerfeld,
1916, pp. 1-10.)

In the United States, where all of the people have rights to game,
we have administered our game resources in an entirely different way.
Instead of increasing the breeding stock by artificial methods or by
large game preserves we have heretofore, where anything has been
done at all, simply encouraged the breeding of our game birds and
mammals under natural conditions. Little attention has been paid
to restocking depleted covers with birds reared in captivity, save as
concerned with the introduction of non-native species (p. 30). It may
be that as our supply diminishes we will be forced to turn seriously
toward artificial propagation as one means of replenishing game in
the wild. That an increasing number of individuals is becoming
interested in this phase of the subject and rearing game for profit or
pleasure is evidenced by the growing output of articles and books on
game breeding.

California has slowly been awakening to the fact that some meas-
ures must be taken to increase her supply of game. Breeding as a
means of bettering game conditions has not been altogether over-
looked, but as yet very few adequate experiments have been performed
to ascertain whether or not the breeding of game in captivity would
be feasible under the conditions obtaining here. The hitherto ade-
quate supply of game has doubtless been largely responsible for this
neglect of an important remedy, and most of the experiments thus far

[45]

46 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

tried have given discouraging results, as will be learned from the
following paragraphs.

The State Game Farm

Believing tliat the establishment of a state farm for the rearing of
game birds in caj)tivity, operated along the same lines as fish hatch-
eries, wonld be of help in restoring depleted game covers, the Cali-
fornia Fish and Game Commission founded such a farm in September,
1908, at Hayward, Alameda County, and has maintained it for some
eight years at a total expense of over il>50,000. The farm was imme-
diately stocked with Ring-necked Pheasants, Valley Quail, and a few
Hungarian Partridges. During the operation of the farm perhaps
3.000 Ring-necked Pheasants have been reared and distributed
throughout the state. In most instances, however, it has been found
that the birds become very tame in captivity and that when liberated
they seemed to be incapable of taking care of themselves. In spite
of the large numbers planted, there are at the present time but few
places in the state where the birds have gained a foothold.

The efforts to propagate quail in captivity have for the most part
been unsuccessful. In 1915, about 300 young birds were reared.
' ' Quail disease ' ' gave continual trouble and large numbers of the birds
died before reaching maturity. A few Mountain Quail have been
kept at the farm but they have not bred. The eggs of a few captive
Desert Quail have been hatched in incubators, but none of the chicks
survived. No Hungarian Partridges have been successfully reared
on the farm and those which were purchased and planted in different
parts of the state soon disappeared.

In response to requests and suggestions from a number of sports-
men, efforts were made to secure from Virginia and from Mexico some
Wild Turkeys, in the hope that propagated birds might establish
themselves if given reasonable protection. A few were reared at the
farm from the stock secured and were planted in different parts of
the state. No turkeys are believed to exist in a wholly wild state in
California at the present time, although favorable reports were at first
received from the Sequoia National Park, where some were placed
(see p. 37). The breeding stock at Hayward was constantly reduced
in numbers by blackhead, a disease very fatal to turkeys.

In all the above breeding experiments the birds with the exception
of the turkeys, were kept in small wire cages. Eggs have been col-
lected and hatched in a few instances under bantams but more fre-
quently in incubators. Most of the young birds have been reared in
brooders. Eastern game farms have abandoned the incubator in
favor of bantams, but there seems no good reason why equal success
could not be obtained through the use of incubators and brooders.

PROPAGATION 47

In 1914 a pond at the farm was stocked with wild ducks in order
to determine whether or not these birds could be easily propagated. It
was found that pinioned Mallards would breed readily and would
successfully rear their broods. But out of the twelve species of ducks
kept in captivity, the only ones which nested under the artificial con-
ditions provided were Mallards, Cinnamon Teal (one pair) and
Shovellers (one pair), and Mud-hens. No attempts have been made
to liberate any of the Mallards thus raised. Attempts to hatch, by
means of incubators, eggs collected in nearby marshes met with success,
but only a part of the ducklings so hatched survived.

In March, 1916, the Fish and Game Commission decided that the
game farm was not a paying proposition, and, desiring to retrench in
some direction, ordered the farm abolished. It had become evident
that the adobe soil on which the farm was situated was a constant
hindrance to success.

Though it seems reasonable to believe that with more experience
and better conditions a larger percentage of birds could be reared,
yet it has everywhere been growing more manifest that birds so reared
are not suitable for stocking purposes. The only apparent justification
for a state farm is that it may be a useful ground for experiments in
the breeding of captive game birds. In furnishing the knowledge thus
acquired to game breeders, a state game farm might prove of con-
siderable value.

Private Game Farms

Game propagation as carried on by private individuals still appears
to be in the experimental stage. Though a number of people have
established small game farms, they have usually done so for pleasure
rather than for profit. Many people rear a few pheasants each year
in their back yards, or in aviaries, but without any idea of making
money. Even the offer by hotels in San Francisco of $2.00 apiece for
Ring-necked Pheasants has not greatly increased the number of pheas-
ant breeders. A possible indication that the rearing of fancy breeds
is not fast increasing is evidenced by the fact that breeding birds of
certain races still bring the high price of $10.00 a pair.

The equipment needed in order to rear pheasants successfully
deters many from engaging in their propagation. Wire for pens is
expensive. The hen birds do not properly incubate the eggs, and it
is necessary to use either incubators for hatching purposes and
brooders for rearing the chicks, or else employ bantam hens. The
young need a great deal of insect food and this is difficult to supply.

48 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

The Bowman Law

An attempt to encourage the breeding of game in captivity was
made in 1913 when the Bowman Law (Stats. 1913, Penal Code, §631<i),
providing for game farming, was passed by the State Legislature.
This law, although not an ideal one, ])rovides for the selling under the
tag system of game reared in captivity. It had, when passed, the dis-
advantage of prescribing a large license fee — $25.00. This burden-
some condition has prevented most breeders in the state from availing
themselves of the provisions of the law, and unless the license fee be
reduced, it will continue to discourage rather than encourage game
farming.

Propagation of Upland Game Birds

Of all our native game birds, the Valley Quail has been most
widely reared in captivity. If the first eggs deposited be removed,
the female bird will lay as many as sixty or seventy eggs during a
season. The first eggs secured can be set under bantam hens, and the
quail may be allowed to hatch the last fifteen or twenty eggs. No one,
so far as we know, has been successful in rearing Mountain Quail. A
number of these birds have been kept in captivity by breeders, but in
the lower altitudes they show no tendency to breed. No similar trial
of grouse has been attempted. The latter birds are almost impossible
to obtain alive, and judging from experiments with Ruffed Grouse in
the East, efforts in this direction would promise only failure. A few
persons living in the Sage-hen country have attempted to rear Sage-
hens, but without success.

The Mourning Dove is kept as an aviary bird and proves prolific.
Mr. L. W. Hammond, of Fillmore, Ventura County, has informed us
that this dove breeds readily in captivity, rearing at least two broods
a year ; and Mrs. Elizabeth Grinnell, of Pasadena, has also been suc-
cessful in rearing these birds. Wounded birds captured in the shoot-
ing season and housed by Mrs. Grinnell in large open cages through
the winter bred the following spring. One such pair nested several
times from early spring to October and produced many young, but
there were never more than the usual two eggs laid for one setting.
The parent birds were successful in raising every squab that was
hatched. It was found possible to transfer young from nests found in
the wild to the care of the captive adults, always with favorable results.
Squabs found in deserted nests after the opening of the hunting season,
and whose parents had probably been shot, were reared on a diet of
"chewed-up" nuts and similar material.

PEOPAGATION 49

During the season of 1916 a few attempts have been made to breed
the Band-tailed Pigeon. Three men in the San Francisco Bay region
liave secured birds from Oregon and are experimenting with them.
All three men are experienced aviarists and will certainly meet with
success, if success be possible. In the first season a deserted egg was
hatched under a domestic pigeon, and one pair of Band-tails them-
selves successfully incubated a set of eggs.

Propagation of Waterfowl

Experiments by private individuals have demonstrated the fact
that of all the waterfowl the Mallard is the easiest to breed in captivity.
This might have been expected from the fact that all or most of
the breeds of tame ducks are descendants from wild Mallard stock.
Wild ^lallards have been bred in numbers even in city yards. For
example, Mr. Theodore Kytka has for several years reared wild Mal-
lards in his backyard in San Francisco. Better results are obtained
as the birds become tamer ; those which have been reared in captivity
nest more readily than captive wild birds. Hence there is a tendency
among breeders to direct their efforts toward the increase of breeding
stock rather than toward the rearing of birds for the purpose of
restocking wild land. We are not aware of any instance where Pin-
tails, Shovellers, Teal, or other ducks have been successfully reared in
any numbers under artificial conditions. The sea-ducks, which include
the Redhead, Canvasback, Scaups, Golden-eyes and Buffle-head, are
very difficult to handle in captivity, in that they require animal food
which they are accustomed to obtain only by diving. Pinioned Lesser
Scaup Ducks on Stow Lake, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, have
nested and brought off broods, but in every case the 3'ouug have failed
to survive.

Several attempts to rear Canada Geese in captivity have met with
success where the birds were kept at high altitudes. Mr. Henry Shook,
of Yreka, Siskiyou County, succeeded in rearing six young from a
pair of pinioned birds during the first season they were in his posses-
sion. Eggs taken from Lake Tahoe marshes have been hatched and
the young reared by residents of El Dorado County, and reports have
been received to the effect that eggs secured at Honey Lake, in Lassen
County, were successfully hatched by residents of the vicinity. On
the other hand, decoy geese which have been kept in captivity for
many years in the Sacramento Valley have shown no desire to breed.
Canada Geese hatched from eggs secured at Lake Tahoe have been
bred to a Chinese Horned Goose by Mr. Chase Littlejohn, of Redwood
City. The hybrids very closely resemble the Canada Goose.

50 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

The Future of Game Breeding

With increasing knowledge of the subject game breeding promises
to become a well established industry. Situations can be found in the
different parts of the state which offer ideal conditions for rearing the
various types of game birds. The market is continually improving
because of the diminishing supply of wild-killed game. Without doubt
a few more years will see the passage of a non-sale law, after which
any game offered for sale in the markets will necessarily have been
reared in captivity. Prices even now are high enough to encourage
any resourceful person in starting a game farm.

As more people become interested in the subject many of the
problems which now discourage the breeder will probably be solved
and the business of rearing game for the market be made easier and
more profitable in consequence.

Breeding Under Natural Conditions

It is difficult to improve on nature and hence game covers can, as a
rule, be restocked more easily by a stimulation of breeding under
natural conditions than by propagation in captivity. When an area
is set aside and the birds encouraged by being given the best of food
and cover, and by adequate protection from their enemies, a remark-
able increase in numbers follows. A knowledge of this fact has led
to the inauguration of the preserve system by wealthy land owners,
and later to the idea of game refuges. Under the private preserve
the birds are usually better cared for than under the game-refuge
system, since in the former case, all their needs are attended to by
expert caretakers, and in the latter the only assistance usually given
them is protection from hunting. But although in most instances the
preserve system is the better method of rearing game birds, it has
certain drawbacks. The most obvious of these is the difficulty of secur-
ing the large area required for the enterprise. Hundreds of acres are
needed to rear birds under natural conditions, whereas a lev: acres are
sufficient for a game farm. Moreover, if the birds are to be marketed
or distributed, it is difficult to trap them. In spite of these difficulties,
however, there is no doubt but that the restocking of depleted covers
can be realized more satisfactorily in this way than through the arti-
ficial propagation of the birds on game farms, where ease of living
makes them tame and incapable of properly caring for themselves
when turned loose in the wild.

There are few places in California Avhere game conditions are
better than on certain large ranches. Here the birds may be given
adequate protection without a radical change being made in their

PEOPAGATION 51

normal conditions of life. On the Maeomber ranch at Paicines, San
Benito County, quail have been carefully protected and regularly fed,
and as a result are very abundant, two or three hundred of them
gathering to feed in front of the ranch house each morning.

Game birds may be attracted to a locality by using appropriate
food as an enticement. Quail may be attracted with patches of buck-
wheat or other grain. Wild fowl may be brought to a pond by plant-
ing Egyptian corn around the edges or by scattering wheat or barley
on the banks and in the water. Still better for this purpose are such
natural forage plants as pond weed {Potamogcton sp.), ditch-grass
(Ruppia maritima), tule potato {Sagittaria latifolia), bulrush
(Scirpus sp.), sedge {Carcx sp.), water-cress (Nasturtium officinale),
or knotweed {Polygonum sp.). Seeds or plants of wild rice, wild
celery, and other water or bog plants suitable for attracting water-
fowl can be purchased from dealers whose addresses can be secured
through the University of California. Although many attempts have
been made to grow wild rice and wild celery in this state, the results
have so far been negative. Mr. R. W. Skinner of Eureka, Humboldt
County, writes us that he was successful in getting wild rice to grow
in a small fresh-water pond one foot deep, but that the drying up of
the pond the following year unfortunately ended the experiment. He
believes that this plant will grow in tlie Humboldt Bay section in fresh
water that has little current, and is not too deep, and where the soil
is rich. Mr. W. W. Richards of Oakland, who has experimented with
wild rice in the Suisun marshes, calls attention to the fact that fresh
running water such as is suitable for wild rice is seldom found in our
duck marshes.

How TO Start a Game Farm

Upland Game Birds. — Prerequisites. — A permit or license from
the State Fish and Game Commission. Five or more acres with sandy
or loamy soil ; movable pens for quail 4 by 8 feet or, better, 10 by 12
feet ; for pheasants, large stationary pens, for bantams and chicks,
coops about two feet square with removable tops, and each connected
with a small pen. Sun and shade, abundant insect life, and well
drained soil are necessities.

Breeding Stock. — Should be procured in late fall or early winter,
preferably from a locality of similar climate. Quail should be pro-
cured in pairs; with pheasants, which are polygamous (excepting the
Silver Pheasant), one male to six females is the rule. Purchase birds
rather than eggs.

Food. — Adults do well on almost any sort of grain if fed regularly
and moderately. Ordinary commercial "chick-feed" is good for quail.

52 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA

111 addition, green feed is important, and a certain amount of animal
matter, such as meat-scrap preparations, is essential. Newly hatched
chicks should be fed four times a day on hard-boiled eggs mixed with
finely powdered cracker-crumbs. A constant supply of grit is essential.
Water should also be furnished. After the fifth day, flies or fly larvae
should be added to the diet. A mash of prepared "pheasant meal,"
middlings, etc., may take the place of the insect food. After the
sixteenth day some "chick-feed" may be added to the diet.

Rearing. — Neither quail nor pheasants readily incubate their own
eggs ; hence it is advisable to use incubators and brooders, or else
bantam hens. The latter are now considered preferable. About
twenty quail's eggs can be covered by one hen. The nest should be
made from a square of sod, grass-side down, hollowed out, and lined
with soft hay. During the period of incubation the hens should be
removed regularly each morning for food, drink and exercise. When
the chicks are from 24 to 36 hours old they should be removed to a
fresh coop and pen. Later, the brood together with their foster parent
should be given a larger range.

Disease. — According to Job (1915, p. 37), the principal disease
of captive quail is an acute enteritis, which, once introduced, becomes
epidemic and will spread through an entire flock. Formerly this
disease was supposed to be due to a micro-organism found only in
certain regions, but it or a closely similar malady is now known to
occur in quail and other gallinaceous birds in widely separated locali-
ties. Errors in the feeding or housing of captive birds, such as that
of overfeeding them, or of confining them in dirty coops or in yards
fouled by poultry, usually result in an outbreak of this distemper.
Moderation in feeding and cleanliness about the yards and houses
are the best ways of preventing the disease from getting a start.

Waterfow^l. — Prerequisites. — A permit or license from the State
Fish and Game Commission. A small freshwater pond, or section of
a stream, well fenced to exclude "vermin" (weasels, skunks, rats,
etc.), and capable of being drained and cleaned at intervals. At least
two square yards of water should be allowed for each duck. The pro-
portion of land to water should be at least two to one. Both meadow
and brushy or grass-covered land should be included.

Breeding Stock. — Procure the progeny of pure wild birds from
dealers during late fall or early winter. Mallard ducks cost about
$5.00 to $6.00 a pair; Pintails, $7.00 to $20.00. On receipt, the birds
should be given a rest in a dry enclosure for several days before being
allowed on water. They should all be pinioned, unless the breeding
season is near, in which event they should be merely wing-clipped.

Food. — Grain either once or twice daily, preferably a mixture, in
equal parts, of wheat, barley, buckwheat, and Kaffir corn or cracked

PROPAGATION 53

corn. Drop the food in water six inches to a foot in depth. Chopped
raw meat or fish should be given occasionally, as also green vegetable
matter of almost any sort, such as grass cuttings and cabbage. Grit,
such as marble dust mixed with charcoal, and ground oyster shells,
are indispensable to good health. In early spring a richer food is
required to stimulate egg-laying. A mash meets this need; for
instance, Spratt's duck meal, or a mixture of cornmeal, bran, mid-
dlings, and crissel. Ducklings should be given food for the first time
when they are one day old. This food should consist of finely ground
hard-boiled egg mixed with cracker-crumbs or rolled oats, and a little
coarse grit or sand. At first, feeding should be frequent but in small
quantities. After the second day a ''duck-meal," either of the com-
mercial variety or mixed according to an accepted formula should be
provided. Vegetable food is important from the first, and insect food
of some form should not be omitted.

Rearing. — The eggs of some wild fowl can be hatched by the
parents themselves, but in the case of the wilder species better success
is attained by hatching them in incubators or under bantams. The
eggs of the Mallard should be collected systematically each day; but
those of the other species, after the clutch is completed. When the
eggs are removed regularly, the number produced by the Mallard is
increased from about ten, the average clutch, to about forty. Duck-
lings should be placed with bantam mothers in small pens on grass
and should not be allowed near large bodies of water until they are
well feathered, although pure water should be available for drinking
purposes.

Pinioning. — Wild birds may be rendered incapable of flight either
by wing-clipping or pinioning. The former operation consists in
merely snipping off the primary flight feathers near their bases, and
of course must be repeated after each molt. This method is preferable
for females of the less easily tamed species. In pinioning, the operator
should be provided with a pair of gardener's pruning shears and
some powdered tannic acid or boric acid. Two of the innermost
primary wdng quills should be pulled out, as also the nearby smaller
feathers. A cord should be tightly tied around the end joint of the
wing w^ell up under the little thumb or "bastard wing." With the
shears the bone can then be snipped off cleanly and evenly within a
quarter of an inch beyond the ligature. An application of the tannic
or boric acid will check the bleeding. After the operation the bird
may be liberated at once. The pinioning of ducklings is a simple
affair, almost bloodless, and may be done when they are four to seven
days old. A bird successfully pinioned is permanently flightless.

54 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Sources of Breeding Stock

Difficulty is likely to be experienced in procuring the proper breed-
ing stock with which to start a game farm. Breeding stock should
be secured in late fall or early winter. It can be obtained in one of
three ways : by capturing the birds in the wild under permit from tlie
Fish and Game Commission ; by purchase from some one of the large
game farms in the East; or by purchase from breeders in this state.
Addresses can be secured through enquiry from the Museum of
Vertebrate Zoology, University of California.

Information on Methods of Game Breeding

The following works should be consulted for detailed information
on game breeding :

Job, H. K.

1915a. Propagation of wild birds. (New York, Doubledaj-, Page & Co.),

xxvii+276 pp., illustrated.
1915&. Propagation of upland game-birds. (New York, National Association

of Audubon Societies), Bulletin 2, pp. 33-72, illustrated.
1915c. Propagation of wild water-fowl. (New York, National Association
of Audubon Societies), Bulletin 3, pp. 73-104, illustrated.
QUARLES, E. A.

1916a. American pheasant breeding and shooting. (New York, American
Game Protective Association), xii+128+8 pp., 50 figs, in text.
Free on application to publishers.
1916&. The mallard — its breeding, shooting and preserving. (New York,
American Game Protective Association), Bulletin 5, no. 1, pp.
4-7, 15-19, 7 figs, in text.
Simpson, G. M.

1914. Pheasant farming. (Salem, Oregon, State Printing Dept.), Oregon
Fish and Game Commission, 50 pp., many illustrations.
HoRNADAY, W. T., and Crandall, L. S.

1912. Breeding mallard ducks for profit. (Albany, New York State Con-

servation Dept.), 24 pp., 8 pis.
Crandall, L. S.

1913. Wild duck farming a new industry. Outdoor World and Recreation,

vol. 48 (new series), pp. 268-270, 279-280, 4 figs, in text.

LEGISLATION EELATING TO GAME BIRDS IN
CALIFORNIA

The history of game-bird legislation in California has been long
and varied. From the time when the first law on this subject was
passed at the third meeting of the State Legislature in 1852, up to
the present, hardly a session of that body has convened without some
changes in or additions to the game laws, so that they are now numer-
ous and detailed. No constant policy seems to have dictated these
amendments and alterations, and the majority of them have shown
but little regard for the results of scientific investigation. In earlier
years no appreciable attention was given to the conservation of game
birds ; in fact, very few people seem to have urged the economic bene-
fits to be obtained by appropriate protection. The more recent law^s,
as they finally appear on the statute books, represent compromises
between the efforts of the modern conservationists, who would use
only the natural surplus over and above a normal breeding stock, and
the efforts of the more selfish element among the hunters, who seek
only to gratify their own immediate desires, without any regard to
the needs or rights of posterity.

The earliest game-bird legislation was more or less local in its
application ; but in 1880 all counties in the state were brought under
uniform treatment. The County Government Act of 1897 provided
means whereby boards of supervisors could shorten, but not lengthen,
the seasons in their respective counties. Considerable use was made
of this act up to 1905 ; in that year a decision of the District Court
of Appeal rendered county legislation unconstitutional.

In 1901 an amendment to the State Constitution was proposed for
the purpose of enabling the Legislature to divide the state into fish
and game districts. This amendment, although soon after adopted,
was not made use of until 1911, when six districts were established.
In 1913 these districts were altered somewhat, and their total num-
ber increased to seven; and a further change was made in 1915,
when the state was divided into four major and twenty-five minor
districts. All of the above changes w^ere made in response to an
increasing recognition of the diverse natural conditions obtaining in
different portions of California, and were in the nature of attempts to
meet this diversity by providing open seasons appropriate to the sev-
eral climatic areas of the state. The difficulty has been, and always
will be, that the political boundaries made use of in connection with
the game laws, and the natural boundaries along w^hich districts

[.55]

56 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBNIA

should, ideally, be divided from one another, rarely coincide. The
ideal arrangement would be to give full recognition to the several
natural "life-zones" in which the different kinds of game exist.

There has been a gradual increase during the past sixty years in
the number of species of game birds protected under the laws of
California. At first (1852) only the most desirable ones, the quail
and Mallard and Wood Duck, received recognition. In 1861 several
other "broad-bill" ducks were included, as were also grouse, and in
1866 "prairie chickens" [=Sharp-tailed Grouse] and Sage-hens were
given protection in Siskiyou County. The Gadwall, Cinnamon Teal
and Redhead were recognized in 1878, and in 1880 the duck law was
made general to include all wild species. From 1883 to 1887 all
species of ducks were, for the time being, without protection of any
sort. Doves first received protection in 1878, in San Joaquin County,
and two years later a state-wide closed season of six months was
extended to these birds. Rails were first protected in the same year
(1880), snipe in 1893, robins (as game, but for two years only) in
1895, ibis, curlew and plover in 1901, and other shore-birds in 1905.
Not until 1909 did any geese receive mention, and then only the
Black Sea Brant ; and only in 1915 were the other species of these big
birds given any protection. The Band-tailed Pigeon first received
legislative recognition in 1915. The two groups of quails, Valley and
Desert, and Mountain, were not treated separately until 1895.

While the whole scheme of closed seasons was, and is, designed
directly to enable our game birds to maintain their numbers, other
restrictive measures, with a similar purpose, have been applied.
Among these the following may be mentioned : Protection of nests
and eggs (1878, 1893) ; prohibition of trapping (1880) ; restriction
in bore of gun used (1893) ; prohibition of sale (1895, 1901, 1913) ;
bag limits (1901) ; prohibition of extra-state shipment (1895) ; pro-
hibition of night hunting (1901) ; and closed terms (grouse, 1907-
1911; Mountain Quail, 1909-1911; Wood Duck and Band-tailed
Pigeon, 1915 to date) .

The Federal Migratory Bird Law, and the regulations promul-
gated under it since 1913, assisted materially on points where the
citizens and Legislature of California had been too lax. The protec-
tion afforded shore-birds, the Wood Duck and the Band-tailed Pigeon
by these regulations has probably prevented the extirpation of several
of the species concerned.

The chronology of legislation and the table of open seasons which
are presented herewith have been compiled chiefly from the Statutes
and Amendments to the Codes of California, 1850-1915. The annual
summaries of game legislation issued since 1901 by the United States
Bureau of Biological Survey have also been consulted.

LEGISLATION 57

CHRONOLOGY OF LEGISLATION RELATING TO GAME BIRDS IN
CALIFORNIA, 1852-1915

1852. Open season for quail or partridges, mallard duck and wood or summer

duck, September 20 to March 1 in counties of Contra Costa, Marin,
Monterey, Napa, Sacramento, San Francisco, San Joaquin, Santa
Clara, Santa Cruz, Solano, Sonoma, and Yolo; penalty upon conviction
of violating law, $50, one-half to be paid informer.

1853. Open season: quail or partridge, mallard and wood duck, September 1

to March 20.

1854. Open season: quail, mallard, and wood duck, September 15 to March 1;

penalty upon conviction $25 for each individual bird, fines to go to
county treasurer for school fund. Protection extended to birds named
above in Colusa and Tuolumne counties.

1855. Protection extended to birds named above in Shasta and Trinity counties.
1857. Act of 1854 amended: one-half of fine to be paid informer, oiLe-half to

school fund in county where conviction is had.

1860. Counties of Los Angeles, Mendocino, San Diego, San Luis Obispo, and

Santa Barbara, exempted from acts of 1854 and 1857.

1861. Open season: all counties except Los Angeles and San Bernardino, cjuail,

partridge or grouse, mallard, wood duck, teal, spoon-bill and all other
broad-bill ducks, September 15 to March 15; Los Angeles and San
Bernardino counties, August 1 to April 1. Act of 1860 repealed.

1866. Open season: Siskiyou County, grouse, sage-hen, prairie chicken [sharp-
tailed grouse], August 1 to April 1; quail, October 15 to March 15;
mallard, wood duck, teal, spoonbill and all other species of wild ducks,
September 15 to April 15.

1870. Open season: Lassen, Plumas and Sierra counties, mallard, wood duck,
teal, spoonbill and other broad-bill ducks, August 15 to March 15, Lake
Merritt, Oakland, and its shores declared a game preserve.

1872. Hunting in Butte County on private lands or within 500 yards of dwell-
ing of another person, prohibited. Hunting on enclosed lands in San
Francisco County, or in Napa County east of Napa River, prohibited.
Hunting in Yolo County, about houses, or in October on cultivated
lands, or anywhere in the countj^ during the months of June to Octo-
ber, inclusive, prohibited. Hunting on private lands without per-
mission prohibited in Alameda, Colusa, Contra Costa, Humboldt, Los
Angeles, Marin, Nevada, Sacramento, San Bernardino, San Diego, San
Luis Obispo, San Mateo, Santa Barbara, and Sonoma counties.

1874. Hunting on private lands without permission prohibited in Mendocino
County.

1876. Open season: Lassen, Plumas and Sierra counties, quail, partridge and
grouse, September 1 to March 15. Hunting on private lands unlawful
in certain counties.

1878. Gadwell or gray duck, redhead, and blue-winged [cinnamon] teal speci-
fically mentioned among species protected during closed season. Doves
first protected; open season: San Joaquin County only, July 1 to
January 1. State Board of Fish Commissioners required to provide
for distribution and protection of imported game birds. Gathering
or destroying eggs of wild ducks prohibited.

58 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

1880. Oj)en season: all couuties, quail, partridge, grouse, all kinds of wild

ducks, and rails or marsh hens, September 15 to March 16; doves, all
counties, July 1 to January 1. Trapping of quail, ])artridge, or grouse
prohibited.

1881. Giving away of trapped quail, jjartridge, or grouse, prohibited.

1883. Open season: quail, partridge, grouse, and rail, October 1 to March 1;
doves, June 1 to January 1. Gathering of quail, partridge or grouse
eggs prohibited. Trafficking in or possession of trapped quail, part-
ridge, or grouse prohibited. No close season on ducks.

1887. Open season: quail, partridge, grouse, and rail, September 10 to March 1.

1889. State Board of Fish Commissioners authorized to import game birds:
wild turkeys, prairie chickens, bob-white quail, pheasants, grouse and
skylarks mentioned; $2,000 appropriated for the work; closed season
for such species as might be introduced until January 1, 1895.

1891. Open season: ducks, October 1 to March 1; doves, July 1 to January 1.
County boards of supervisors given right to make game laws for
counties and these to supersede state laws.

1893. Open season: quail, bob-white, partridge, grouse, wild duck, snipe, rail,
September 1 to March 1; doves, August 1 to March 1. Gathering eggs
of bob-white, pheasant, or dove prohibited. Hunting pheasants or
their possession (except for purposes of propagation) prohibited until
1895. Hunting duck, rail, quail, partridge, grouse, or pheasant with
shotgun of larger bore than 10-gauge prohibited. Cold storage of
quail, partridge, bob-white, pheasant, grouse, dove or wild duck during
closed season prohibited. Hunting game birds on lands posted against
shooting prohibited.

1895. Open season: valley quail, bob-white, partridge, robin, wild duck and
rail, October 15 to February 15; mountain quail and grouse, August
15 to February 15; doves, July 1 to February 15. Possession of game
species for propagation under permit made legal. Gathering eggs of
robin prohibited. Hunting or possession of pheasants, except for
propagation, prohibited until March 27, 1898. Possession or sale of
game during closed season prohibited; sale of quail, bob-white, part-
ridge, pheasant, grouse, dove or wild duck prohibited except between
November 15 and January 15. Common carriers prohibited from trans-
porting any quail, partridge, pheasant, grouse, prairie chicken, doves,
or wild duck, out of the state except for purposes of propagation and
then only under permit.

1897. Oi:)en season: valley quail, bob-white, partridge, wild duck, and rail,
October 1 to March 1; mountain quail and grouse, September 1 to
February 15; doves, July 15 to February 15. Protection for pheas-
ants extended until March 1, 1899. Eobin removed from list of game
birds. Cold storage of rail prohibited. County boards of supervisors
given right to enact county laws for shortening seasons, etc.

1901. Open season: quail, partridge, grouse, sage-hen, wild ducks, rail, ibis,
curlew, and plover, October 1 to February 1; doves, August 1 to
February 1. Constitutional amendment proposed permitting division
of the state into fish and game districts. Complete protection for
introduced species: Mongolian or English pheasant, English part-
ridge, eastern or Chinese quail, bob-white. First daily bag limits
established: doves or ducks, 50; quail, partridge, snipe, ibis, or
curlew, 25; rails, 20. Sale of quail, partridge, pheasant, grouse, sage-

LEGISLATION 59

hen, ibis, or plover entirely prohibited. Hunting between one-half
hour after sunset and one-half hour before sunrise prohibited. Trap-
ping or netting game birds except under permit for scientific pur-
poses or for use in propagation prohibited. Bore of guns used in
hunting no longer restricted. Common carriers prohibited from
transporting more than one bag limit of game for one person on any
one day; game required to be exposed to view and labeled with name
and address of shipper. Taking specimens for scientific purposes
allowed under permit.

1903. Open season: valley quail, partridge, wild duck, rail, curlew, ibis, plover,
October 15 to February 15; mountain quail, grouse, or sage-hen,
September 1 to February 15; doves, July 1 to February 15.

1905. Shorebirds (Limicolae) other than plover and curlew first protected;
open season: October 15 to February 15; Wilson snipe, October 15
to April 1. Swan, pheasant, bob-white quail, or any variety of
imported quail or partridge protected at all times. Bag limit: doves
reduced to 25; for all shorebirds and rail, set at 25. Sale of doves and
all shorebirds (in addition to those mentioned in laws of 1901) pro-
hibited. Hunting on private lands without permission prohibited.

1907. Open season: ducks, October 1 to February 15; doves, July 15 to
October 15. Closed season on grouse and sage-hen until September
1, 1909. System of annual hunting licenses inaugurated: $1 for resi-
dents of California; $10 for citizens of the United States not residents
of California; $25 for aliens. Bag limit on ducks reduced to 35.
The following groups mentioned as game birds: Anatidae, Eallidae,
Limicolae, Gallinae, and Columbidae. Provision made for registering
private holdings as game preserves [refuges] under supervision of
Fish and Game Commission for periods of one to five years.

1909. Open season: wild duck, black sea brant, rail, ibis and all shorebirds
(except snipe), October 1 to February 15; desert and valley quail,
October 1 to February 1; Wilson snipe, October 1 to April 1. Closed
season on grouse and sage-hen extended until September 1, 1911, and
mountain quail protected until that time. Bag limit on ducks and
black sea brant reduced to 25; quail, snipe, ibis, rail, shorebirds, and
doves reduced to 20. Use of animal blinds, and hunting from power
boats in motion, prohibited. Pinnacles National Monument made a
game refuge. Hunting permitted on navigable waters within any
game refuge. Eesolution passed to appoint committee to consider
dividing state into fish and game districts.

1911. Dealers in wild game required to obtain licenses and to keep record of
game received, together with names and addresses of shippers. Use
of animal blinds permitted in hunting geese. Bearing of pheasants
in captivity permitted, and birds so reared allowed to be sold at any
time under permit. State divided into six fish and game districts, viz:
1. Del Norte, Siskiyou, Modoc, Lassen, Shasta, Trinity, Humboldt
and Tehama counties. 2. Mendocino, Glenn, Colusa, Lake, Sonoma,
Napa, Yolo, Solano and Marin counties. 3. Plumas, Butte, Sierra,
Yuba, Sutter, Nevada, Placer, El Dorado, Sacramento, Amador,
Alpine, Calaveras, Tuolumne, Mariposa and Mono counties. 4. San
Joaquin, Stanislaus, Merced, Madera, Fresno, Kings, Tulare and Kern
counties. 5. Contra Costa, Alameda, San Francisco, San Mateo,
Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, San Benito, Monterey and San Luis Obispo

60 . GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

counties. 6. Santa Barbara, Ventura, Los Angeles, Orange, San
Diego, Imperial, Eiverside, San Bernardino and Inyo counties. Open
season: wild duck, ibis, shore birds (except Wilson snipe, plover
and curlew). Districts 2 to 5, October 15 to March 1; Districts 1 and
6, October 1 to March 1. Black sea brant, District 1, October 1 to
April 1; Districts 2 to 6, November 1 to March 15. Wilson snipe,
plover, curlew, November 15 to April 30. Desert and valley quail,
Districts 1 to 5, October 15 to February 15; District 6, October 15
to November 15. Doves, Districts 1 and 3, July 15 to October 1;
Districts 2 and 5, August 1 to October 15; Districts 4 and 6, Sejitem-
ber 1 to November 1. Mountain quail, grouse, and sage-hen, Septem-
ber 1 to December 1. Closed season on rail until November 1, 1912;
open season after that date, November 1 to December 1. Bag limits:
wild ducks, black sea brant, daily 25; weekly (=sunrise one Sunday
to sunrise the following Sunday) 50; desert or valley quail, Wilson
snipe, curlew, ibis, plover, rail, doves, 20; mountain quail 10; grouse
and sage-hen 4.

1913. Sale of game prohibited, except of ducks (during November) and geese
at all times; later repealed by referendum. Hunting in certain
parts of Cleveland National Forest prohibited. Provision made for
converting private lands into game preserves (refuges) under control
of State Fish and Game Commission for period of not less than ten
years; hunting on navigable waters or on tide lands not interfered
with by this. Provision made for rearing game in captivity and
selling same (Bowman Act). Fish and game districts rearranged and
a new one added, viz: 1. Siskiyou, Modoc, Lassen, Shasta, Trinity,
and Tehama counties. 2. Del Norte, Humboldt, Mendocino, Sonoma,
Marin, Glenn, Lake, Colusa, Napa, Yolo and Solano counties. 3.
Plumas, Butte, Sierra, Yuba, Sutter, Nevada, Placer, Sacramento,
El Dorado, San Joaquin, Amador, Calaveras,. Tuolumne and Mari-
posa counties. 4. Eastern Stanislaus, eastern Merced, Madera, east-
ern Fresno, eastern Kings, Tulare, and eastern Kern counties. 5.
Contra Costa, San Francisco, San Mateo, Alameda, Santa Clara,
Santa Cruz, western Stanislaus, western Merced, San Benito, Monterey,
western Fresno, western Kings, San Luis Obispo, western Kern, and
Santa Barbara counties. 6. Ventura, Los Angeles, Orange, San Diego,
San Bernardino, Eiverside and Imperial counties. 7. Alpine, Mono
and Inyo counties.

1915. Open season: wild duck, geese, brant, mud-hen, gallinule, Wilson snipe,
black-breasted or golden plover, yellowlegs, October 15 to February
1; desert or valley quail, October 15 to January 1; mountain quail
and grouse, Districts 2, 3, 4, and all other districts south of the
northern boundary of Mendocino County, October 15 to January 1;
mountain quail, grouse, and sage-hen (except as above), September
1 to December 1; doves, September 1 to December 1. Bag limits:
honker geese and black sea brant, daily 12; weekly (between sun-
rise one Sunday and sunrise the following Sunday), 24. Other geese
and ducks, daily 25; weekly 50; desert or valley quail, black-breasted
or golden plover, jack snipe, yellowlegs, daily 15; weekly (^between
sunrise one Sunday and sunset the following Sunday), 30; mountain
quail, daily 10; weekly 20; grouse and sage-hen, daily 4; weekly 8.
Doves daily, 15; no weekly limit. Indefinite close season on rail,

1852=

Ducks

Mallard and
Wood Duck

Rail

QuaiP

Grouse

Sage-hen

Dove

Sept. 20-Mar. 1

1891
Oct. 1-Mar. 1

1883
No protection

Oct. l-Mar. 1
Oct. l-Mar. 1
Oct. l-Mar. 1

June 1-Jan. 1

1911«

2-5: Oct. 15-Mar. 1
1 and 6: Oct. 1-
Mar.l

Ducks

Wood Duck I

Geese j

Black Sea Brant |1: Oct. l-Apr. 1

2-6: Nov. l-Mar. 15
Swan Closed

Ibis

Cranes
Rail

Mud-hen, Gallinule .

Wilson Snipe

Yellow-legs

Curlew

Plover

Shorebirds"

Quail^

Mountain

Valley and Desert .
Grouse
Sage-hen

Band-tailed Pigeon .
Dove

Sept. 10-Mar. 1

July 1-Jan. 1

^ Including "partridges" and s<

* 1852-80, close season applied
^ Including all "broad-bill" duck

* 1866, close seasons mentioned
" Including "prairie-chickens"

* 1870, 1876, close seasons men!
^ 1878, close season on doves a]

* 1880-1911, close seasons on ai
' Including all "will" ducks.

^o Including "marsh-hens."

" Other than those specifically n

^'^ 1895-97, including robin.

" 1911-15, for districts see Chr

" Close season on certain specie

>° Others, Sept. 1-Dec. 1.

2-5 : Oct. 15-Mar. 1
1 and 6: Oct. 1-
Mar. 1

Closed until Nov. 1,
1912, then Nov.
1-Dec. 1

Nov. 15-Mar. 30

2-5 : Oct. 15-Mar. 1
1 and 6: Oct. 1-
Mar. 1

Sept. 1-Dec. 1

l-5:0ct. 15-Feb. 15
6 : Oct. 15-Nov. 15
Sept. 1-Dec. 1

Sept. 1-Dec. 1

1 and 3 : July 15-
Oct. 1

2 and 5 : Aug. 1—

Oct. 15
4 and 6 : Sept. 1-
Nov. 1.

1887
No protection

Sept. 10-Mar. 1
Sept. 10-Mar. 1
Sept. 10-Mar. 1

June 1-Jan. 1

1915"
Oct. 15-Feb. 1

Closed"

Oct. 15-Feb. 1

Closed

Closed"

Closed"
Closed"

Oct. 15-Feb. 1

Closed"

Oct. 15-Feb. 1

Closed"

2, 3, 4, etc.: Oct.

15-Jan. 1"
Oct. 15-Jan. 1

2, 3, 4, etc.; Oct.

15-Jan. 1"
Oct. 15-Jan. 1

Closed"

Sept. 1-Dec. 1

Table 7 — Showing Open Seasons foe Hunting Game Birds in California,

1852*

1658

Mollard and
Wood Dttck

BaU
OrouBO

Sept. 20-MBr. 1 Sept. 1-Mar. 20 Sept. IS-Mar. 1

Sept. 20-Mar. I Sept. 1-Mar. 20 Sept. IS-Mar. 1

.5-Mar. 15 Aug. 1-Apr. 1
Aug. 1-Apr. 1'

(Aug. 1-Apr. 1)

Ducka
Wood Duck

Black Sea Brnnt

Ibis

Roil

Hud-boD, QaUinule
WIlMon Snipe
Yollow-legi
Curlew

Quail'
MouQtain
Vallej and Deaert ..

1891
Oct. 1-Mar. 1

Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct, 1-Mar,

1901
Oct. I-Feb. 1

. lO-Mar. 1 Sept. 1-Mar. 1 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 1-Mar. :

SnKit'hen

Band-tailed Pigeon

Dove July 1-Jan. 1

Aug. 1-Mar. 1
etimes bob-whites.

Oct. 1-Feb. 1
Oct. 1-Feb. 1

Oct. 1-Feb. 1

Aug. 15~Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Feb. 15

Oct. 15-Feb. 15" Oct. 1-Mar. 1

Aug. 15-Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Peb. 15 Oct. 1-Feb. 1

Oct. 1-Feb. 1

July 1-Feb. 15 July 15-Feb. 15 Aug. 1-Feb.

' Including "partridges" and i
M862-80, cloBO season applied only in >

* Including all "broad-btU" ducks.

* 1600, close seasons mentioned in this year applied only in Siskiyou County.
•Including "prairie-cblckenB" [=:Shnrp-tailed Grouee],

* 1870, 1676, dose seasons mentioned in these years applied only in Lassen, Plumas, and '■
^ 1878, close season on doves applied only in San Joaquin County.

* 1880-1911. close seasons on all species mentioned applied in all counties.
'Including all "will" dock*.

" Including "marsh- hens."

" Other than those specifically mentioned above.

"1895-97, including robin.

"1911-15, for districta see Chronology of Legislation.

"Close season on certain apeciea established under Federal Migratory Bird Law in 1913.

** Others. Sept. 1-Dec. 1.

Sept. 1-Mar. 15
Sept. 1-Mar. 15

1905
Oct. 15-Feb. 15

Closed

Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15

Oct. 1-Feb. 1 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15

. 1-Mar. 1 Sept. 1-Mar. 1 Oct. 15-Apr. 1

Oct. 15-PGb. 15 Oct. IS-Feb. 15
Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15
Oct. 15-Feb. 15

Sept. 1-Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Peb. 15

Oct. 15-Peb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15

Sept. 1-Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Feb. 15

Sept. 1-Feb. 15 Sept. l-Feb. 15

July 1-Feb. 15 July 1-Peb. 15

1852-1915

1873 1880'
Sept. 15-Mar. 15»

Sept. 15-Mar. 15"

Sept. 15~Mar. 15 Sept. 15-Mar. 15

(Aug. 1-Apr. 1)

Sept. 15-Mar. 15 Sept. 15-Mar. 15

(Aug. 1-Apr. 1)

July 1-Jan. 1^ July 1-Jan. 1

1907 1909

Oct. 1-Feb. 15 Oct. 1-Feb. 15

Oct. 1-Feb. 15

Closed Closed

Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 1-Feb. 15

Oct. 15-Apr. 1 Oct. 1-Apr. 1

Oct. 15-Peb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15

Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15

Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 1-Feb. 15

Sept. 1-Feb. 15 Closed until

Sept. 1, 1911

Oct. 16-Feb. 15 Oct. l.-Feb. 1

Closed until Closed until
Sept. 1. 1909 Sept. 1, 1911

Closed until Closed until
Sept. 1, 1909 Sept. 1. 1911

July 15-Oct. 15 July 15-Oct. 15

1883 1887

No protection No protection

Oct. 1-Mar. 1 Sept. 10-Mar. 1

June 1-Jan. 1 June 1-Jan. 1

1911" 1915"

2-5: Oct. 15-Mar. 1 Oct. 15-Feb. 1
1 and 6: Oct. 1-

Mar.l „. ^,.
Closed'*

Oct, 15-Peb. 1

1: Oct. l-Apr. 1 Oct. 15-Feb. 1
2-6:NoT.I-Mar.l5

Closed Closed

2-5: Oct. 15-Mar. 1 Closed"
1 ond6: Oct. 1-

Mar. 1
Closed"

Closed until Nov. 1, Cloaed"
1912, then Nov.

~ . "; Oct. 15-Peb. 1

Nov. 15-Mar. 80 Oct. 15-P6b. 1

Oct. 15-Peb. 1

Nov. 15-Mar. 80 Closed"

Nov. 15-Mar. 80 Oct. 15-Peb. 1

2-5: Oct. 16-Mar. 1 Closed"
1 and 6: Oct. 1-
Mar. 1

Sept. 1-Dec. 1 2, 8. 4, etc.: 0'
15-j'an. 1»

l-5:0ct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Jan.l

6: Oct. 15-Nov. 15

Sept. 1-Dec. 1 2, 3. 4. etc.: d
15^an. 1*«

Sept. 1-Dec. 1 Oct. 15-Jan.l

Closed"

1 and 8 : July 15- gept. 1-Dec. 1

Oct. 1

2 and 5: Aug. 1-

Oct. 15
4 and 6: Sept. 1-
Nov. 1.

LEGISLATION 61

wood duck, wild [baud-tailed] pigeon, shorebirds other than those
mentioned above, and sandhill, whooping and little brown cranes.
(The above changes were chiefly for the purpose of making the
California law conform with the regulations issued under the Fed-
eral Migratory Bird Law.) Use of animal blinds entirely pro-
hibited. Fish and game districts rearranged and increased in num-
ber. Four priucipal districts: 1. Del Norte, Siskiyou, Modoc, Hum-
boldt, Trinity, Shasta, Lassen, Tehama, Butte, Sutter, Plumas, Yuba,
Sierra, Nevada, Placer, Sacramento, El Dorado, Amador, Calaveras,
Alpine, eastern Sau Joaquin, eastern Stanislaus, Tuolumne, eastern
Merced, Mariposa, Madera, Mono, eastern Fresno, Kings, Tulare,
eastern Kern, and Inyo counties. 2. Mendocino, Sonoma, Marin,
Glenn, Lake, Colusa, Yolo, Napa, and Solano counties. 3. Contra
Costa, Alameda, San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Cruz, Santa Clara,
western San Joaquin, western Stanislaus, western Merced, Monterey,
San Benito, western Fresno, San Luis Obispo, and extreme western
Kern counties. 4. Santa Barbara, Ventura, Los Angeles, Orange,
San Diego, San Bernardino, Eiverside, and Imperial counties. Also
twenty-five minor districts (numbers 5 to 29, inclusive), embracing
the coast line, the main interior waters, and certain forest areas. All
game protected in minor districts 24 to 29, inclusive, except that
waterfowl mav be hunted in District 28.

GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA

GLOSSARY OF SPECIAL TERMS USED L\ THIS BOOK

(See figs. 1-3)
Abdomen — See Belly.
AxiLLARS — A group of feathers situated beneath the wing in the "arm-pit,"

at the junction of the wing and side of body; they are usually narrow and

often much elongated.
Back (of body) — The area on the upper surface included between the neck,

wings and rump.

Fig. 1. General outline of a Mallard showing names of parts and areas
referred to in describing a game bird. One-fourth natural size. See
Glossary (pp. 62-65) for definitions of teims used.

Bar — A narrow transverse mark of color across an individual feather, or across

wing or tail.
Base of Bill — Where the bill is joined to the skull; in most birds, where the

feathers of the forehead end.
Belly — The hinder middle portion of the lower surface of the botly, included

between the breast, sides and flanks, and vent.
Breast — An area on the middle of the under surface of the body, between the

fore-neck and belly; not capable of exact definition.
Cere — The naked skin at the upper base of the bill, through which the nostrils

open.

GLOSSAET OF SPECIAL TEEMS

Cheek — The area on the lower side of the head between the eye and throat.

Chest — The upper part of the breast, just below the fore-neck.

Chin — The area on the under side of the head included between the branches

of the lower mandible or jaw.
Claw — The horny sheath on the terminal joint of any toe.
Crest — A more or less lengthened tuft or group of feathers on the top of the

head, which is either permanently erected (Hooded Merganser, male), or

capable of being elevated at will (Mountain Quail).
Crissum — See Lower Iail Coverts.
Cross-ridges (on bill) — The horny flutings on the sides of the bill in ducks,

geese and swans; these are not to be confused with the sharper "teeth" on

the opposed surfaces of the mandibles of mergansers.

Bcnd of

Fig. 2. Outer surface of spread wing of Green-wnnged
Teal showing names of regions and feathers employed in
descriptions. One-half natural size.

Culmen — The upper ridge or profile of the bill.

Ear Coverts — See Ear Kegion.

Ear Eegion — The area over which the feathers (ear-coverts) which cover the

external ear opening are distributed.
Flanks — ^The hindermost feathers on the side of the body, included between

the rump and belly, and overlapping the thigh.
Forehead — The area just above the base of the upper mandible of the bill;

situated in front of the "top of head."
Fore-neck — The lower throat, between the throat proper and the breast.
Forepart of Body — That part of the body nearest the head; in general, the

region forward of the bend of the wing.
Greater (wing) Coverts — The hindmost row of covering feathers on the outer

side of the wing, overl>ang the bases of the secondaries and tertials; the

outer margins of these feathers are exposed.
Hind-neck — The middle of the neck behind.

GAME BIRDS OF CALIF OMNIA

HiNDPART OF Body— That part of the body nearest the tail; in general, the
region behind the bend of the wing.

Lesser (wing) Coverts— The several rows of small covering feathers on the
outer surface of the wing, from the bend of the wing to the side of the
body and forward of the middle coverts; like the greater coverts, the outer
margins of the lesser coverts are exposed.

Lining of Wing— The feathers on the under surface of the wing covering the
inner bases of the flight feathers.

Lobes (on toes) — A series of thin, membrane-like flaps on the sides of the toes
(fig. 55).

Lower Tail Coverts— The feathers behind the vent and immediately under-
neath the tail.

Fig. 3. Under surface of spread wing of Black-
bellied Plover showing axillars and lining of wing.
One-half natural size.

Mandible — Either the upper or the lower half of the bill; the jaw.

Margin of Wing — The edge formed by the outermost primary feather and the
smaller feathers overlying it, from the bend of the wing backward.

Middle (wing) Coverts — The series of covering feathers lying immediately for-
ward of the greater wing coverts on the outer surface of the wing; the
middle coverts have their inner margins exposed while both the greater and
lesser coverts have their outer margins exposed.

Nail (of bill) — In ducks, the smooth, rounded and slightly raised portion on
the end of the upper mandible.

Nail (of toe) —See Claw.

Nape — See Hind-neck.

Outer Surface of Closed Wing — All of the several series of covering feathers
on the outer surface of the wing, collectively.

Plume (on head) — A slender tuft of elongated feathers on the top of the head.

Pointed Tail — One in which the central pair of feathers are the longest and the
outer ones shorter in regular order so that, when spread, the tail is wedge-
shaped as seen from above or below.

Primaries — The outermost and longest series of flight feathers of the wing;
the wing "quills" attached to the outermost (the "hand") of the three
"joints" of the wing.

GLOSSAEY OF SPECIAL TEEMS 65

Primary (wixg) Coverts — The series of rather stifif covering feathers overlying

the bases of the primary flight feathers.
EuFF — A bunch of elongated feathers on the sides of the neck, which by reason

of their length (and often color) stand out distinctly from the surrounding

feathers.
Rump — That portion of the upper surface of the body lying just forward of the

base of the tail between the back and upper tail coverts.
Rump Patch — Any contrasted area of color occurring on the rump, or upper

tail coverts, or both.
Scales — The small horny plates on the tarsus or "leg" of birds; in the duck

and shorebird families the shape of these plates is important in classification.
Scapulars — The group of feathers at either side of the back, on the "shoulder,"

just above the wing; they often overlie some of the tertial feathers.
Secondaries — The next to the outermost series of flight feathers on the wing;

they are attached to the middle section of the wing (the "forearm") and

form a series continuous with that formed by the primaries.
Shaft (of a feather) — The quill or midrib to which the two webs are attached.
Shaft Streak — A line or narrow stripe of contrasting color running lengthwise

along the middle of a feather.
Side (of body) — The area on either side, between the "arm-pit" and flank,

and back and belly.
Speculum — A brightly colored area on the terminal portions of the outermost

secondary wing feathers of most ducks.
Spur- — A horn-covered projection on the back of the tarsus of the male Ring-
neck Pheasant and of the male Wild Turkey.
Square-exded (tail) — Said of a tail in which the feathers are of such lengths

that when lying parallel they end evenly; not wedge-shaped or pointed.

Streak]

o„„,pp ( Mark of contrasted color running lengthwise of a feather.

Tarsus — The "leg" of a bird; that portion from the heel joint to the base of
the toes.

Teeth — The sharp horny projections on the opposed surfaces of the two mandi-
bles in mergansers.

Tertials — The innermost series of flight feathers on the wing, between the
secondaries and the body; they are attached to the innermost section of the
wing ("upper arm").

Throat — The area on the lower side of the head, between the chin and fore-
neck.

Under Surface (op body) — The whole of the body below lines drawn along
either side from the corner of the mouth to the side of the tail.

Under, op Inner, Surface of Plight Feathers — The surfaces of the flight
feathers which are next to the body when the wing is closed.

Upper Surface (of body) — The whole of the body above lines drawn along
either side from the corner of the mouth to the side of the tail, and, where
the tail is of the same color, including the upper surface of it as well.

Upper Tail Coverts — The feathers immediately behind the rump, and covering
the upper bases of the tail feathers.

Vent — The anus.

Web (of feather) — Either half of the vane of a feather, each side of the shaft.

Web (between toes) — A membrane-like extension of skin between the front
toes in all members of the duck family and in certain other birds.

GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

METHOD OF TAKING MEASUREMENTS

As a rule, only adult birds have been used in securing the measurements
given in this book; but in a few cases (which are designated) full-grown
immature birds have been included. In every instance the region of capture of
the specimens used is indicated. Occasional individuals are likely to be found
which do not come within the limits of the measurements here given, and of
course specimens with tail or wing feathers badly worn or in process of molt
will give total lengths and wing lengths below normal.

Wherever measurements were taken by us originally in millimeters, the
equivalents in inches and hundredths have been secured by mechanical eon-
version, double checked; and the converse is true of measurements taken orig-
inally in inches, as well as of all those quoted from published literature.

Total length-

Fig. 4. Side view of Hudsonian Curlew showing method of taking the
measurements used in this book. One-fourth natural size.

Total Length — With the bird laid flat on its back, the head straight out,
and the neck not unduly stretched, measure from the tip of the bill to the end
of the longest tail feather.

Folded Wing — With the wing folded naturally against the side of the bird,
measure in a straight line from the bend of the wing ("wrist joint") to the
tip of the longest primary flight feather.

Bill Along Culmen — Measure in a straight line from the last feathers on
the middle of the forehead to the tip of the bill. This is really the "chord of
the culmen," and does not take into account any irregularity or curve in the
profile of the bill.

Tarsus — Measure from the notch in the "hock" or "heel" at the upper
end of the tarsus to and over the rounded knob on the front of the lower end
of the tarsus at the base of the middle toe.

Middle Toe (without claw) — With the foot pressed against some flat surface
so that the toes are spread out, measure from the angle just below the lower
end of the tarsus to the base of the claw.

Eggs — Measured with calipers; specimens with holes in their end? are likely
to fall short of the measurements given for the longer dimension.

KEY TO THE GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

It is believed that the following key will prove sufficient for identi-
fying any game bird heretofore found in California. We would warn
our readers, however, not to depend upon it for the determination of
species outside of our own state, and to use it only for birds in hand,
either freshly killed or stuffed as specimens. The key is "artificial,"
in that it makes use of any serviceable character, whether or not that
character be important in a natural classification of birds. If informa-
tion be desired as to the technicalities of systematic ornithology, then
recourse must be had to other works than the present one.

The kind of key here employed, except in two places, is that which
is called "dichotomous," that is, it is two-branched, the members of
a larger group being separated into two lots according as they possess
or lack a certain character or group of characters. In determining
to which of two groups a specimen belongs, both headings should be
read — that is, read 1 and 1', and 2 and 2', even if from first inspec-
tion it is certain to w^hich group the bird belongs. Reference to the
figures cited will often assist in deciding doubtful points. If any
difficulty be found in identifying a specimen by means of the key,
appeal to the descriptions of species will soon settle the question.
Measurements have been used in the key only where there were no
convenient color or structural features. The methods of taking the
measurements used in this key are the same as those employed in the
descriptions of species (see page 66 and fig. 4).

A concrete example will best show the manner of using the key.
Suppose we have in hand a specimen of one of our commonest upland
game birds and wish to identify it. In the "Key to the Main Groups"
we read :

1. Feet fully webbed between front toes, etc.

1'. Feet without webs (or else only partly w^ebbed) ; bill without cross-ridges
or "teeth," and never "duck-like" in shape.

Our specimen has no webs and therefore belongs in group V.
Proceeding :

2. Legs and feet short, tarsus (leg) never more than one-tenth total length

of bird; ends of claws never reaching beyond ends of longest under
tail coverts; claw of hind toe reaching to base of claw on outer toe.
2'. Legs and feet longer, tarsus (leg) always more than one-tenth total length;
ends of claws reaching to or beyond ends of longest under tail coverts;
claw of hind toe never reaching to base of claw on outer toe.

Our bird belongs to group 2', as it has longer feet, etc. Continuing :

3. Area between bill and eye and space around eye naked.

3'. Area between bill and eye and space around eye always feathered.

[67]

68 GAME BIBDS OF CALIF OMNIA

The specimen in hand has the area between bill and eye fully
feathered and therefore belongs in 3'. Next:

4. "Wing more than 17.00 inches (430 mm.) long; bill move than 3.00 (76 mm).
4'. Wing less than 13.00 inches (328 mm.) long.

The short wing of our bird i^laces it in group 4'. Then :

0. Bill "chicken-like," never more than one-third as long as head (except

in Eing necked Pheasant) ; tip of upper mandible curved abruptly
downward, covering tip of lower mandible.

Pheasant, Quails, and Grouses.
5'. Bill never " chicken -like, " always more than one-third as long as head,
and tip of lower mandible never covered.

The short bill on the bird being identified, places it in group 5.
Turning to the key for the Pheasant, Quails and Grouses, we proceed,
beginning there with 1 and 1' again :

1. Wing more than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long.

1'. Wing less than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long; tarsus never feathered.

Our specimen has a wing less than 6.00 inches long and an un-
feathered tarsus and hence goes under 1'. Continuing:

7. Head with a straight, slender, tapering plume more than 2.00 inches (51

mm.) long; flanks rich chestnut brown broadly barred with black and

white; throat brown in males.
7'. Head with a short, curved, broad-ended plume, less than 1.50 inches (38

mm.) long; flanks without black and white barring; throat black in

males.

Our bird belongs under 1\ as it has a short plume and black
throat. Then :

9. No scale-like markings on belly, etc.

9'. Forepart of belly scaled with narrow blackish cross-bars, etc.

Evidently our bird comes under 9'. Then:

10. Ground color of n])per surface and flanks deep olive biown.

California Quail.
10'. Ground color of upper surface and flanks grayish brown.

11. Smaller: wing averaging less than 4.35 inches (110 mm.) long. Mainland

species. Valley Quail.

11'. Larger: wing averaging more than 4.35 inches (110 mm.) long. On

Santa Catalina Island only. Catalina Island Quail.

Our bird shows a grayish rather than olive tinge on the back, so
w^e have a Valley Quail. Such characters as the last (under 10 and
11) are often difficult of determination and in the absence of speci-
mens of both races for comparison dependence must be placed upon
the locality of capture of the bird. After finding a name for any
specimen by use of the key, reference should always be made to the
full description of the species so as to verify the determination.

EE¥S ()9

KEY TO THE MAIN GROUPS OF CALIFORNIA GAME BIRDS

PAGE

1. Feet fully webbed between front toes (fig. 1); bill usually broad and
flat (figs. 9 and 10), rarely slender (figs. 7 and 8), and always pro-
vided either with cross-ridges or "teeth."

Ducks, Geese, and Swans G9
1'. Feet without webs (or else only partly webbed [figs. 56 and 61]);
bill without cross-ridges or "teeth" and never "duck-like" in
shape.
2. Legs and feet short, tarsus (leg) never more than one-tenth total
length of bird; ends of claws never reaching beyond ends of
longest under tail coverts; claw of hind toe reaching to base
of claw on outer toe. Pigeons and Doves 78

2'. Legs and feet longer, tarsus (leg) always more than one-tenth total
length; ends of claws reaching to or beyond ends of longest
under tail coverts; claw of hind toe never reaching base of claw
on outer toe.
3. Area between bill and eye and space around eye naked (figs.

42-44). Ibises and Spoonbill 7-3

3'. Area between bill and eye and space around eye always feathered
(feathers sometimes bristle-like).
4. Wing more than 17.00 inches (430 mm.) long; bill more than

3.00 (76 mm.) (fig. 45). Cranes 74

4'. Wing less than 13.00 inches (328 mm.) long.

5. Bill "chicken -like," never more than one-third as long as
head (except in Ring-necked Pheasant) ; tip of upper
mandible curved abruptly downward, covering tip of lower
mandible (fig. 81). Pheasant, Quails, and Grouses 77

5'. Bill never "chicken-like," always more than one-third as
long as head, and tip of lower mandible never covered.
6. Wing less than four times as long as middle toe without

claw. Rails, Gallinule, and Mud-hen 74

6'. Wing more than four times as long as middle toe without

eiaw. Shore Birds 74

DUCKS, GEESE, AND SWANS

1. Plumage (including all flight feathers) entirely white; neck as long
or longer than body; area between bill and eye naked (fig. 40).
2. Larger; bill entirely black; hind margin of nostril more than 2.50

inches (63.5 mm.) from tip of bill. Trumpeter Swan 253

2'. Smaller; a yellow spot (in adult) on side of bill in front of eye;
hind margin of nostril less than 2.35 inches (59.7 mm.) from tip
of bill (fig. 40). Whistling Swan 256

r. Plumage never entirely white; neck shorter than body; area between
bill and eye always feathered.
3. Bill at least three times as long as height at base; no cross-ridges
on sides of lower mandible, but "teeth" present (fig. 5).
4. "Teeth" on bill conspicuous, sharp, and inclined backward at
tips; wing more than 8.00 inches (203 mm.) long; head crest
various, but never with white.

70 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Key to California Game Birds — (Continued)

PAGE
5. Larger; wing of male more than 10.00 inches (254 mm.) long,
of female more than 9.00 (228 mm.) ; no reddish brown
band on breast of male; nostril (both sexes) nearer middle
of bill than base of bill (figs. 5 and 6).

American Merganser 79
5'. Smaller; wing of male less than 10.00 inches (254 mm.) long,
of female less than 9.00 (228 mm.); breast of male crossed
by a broad reddish brown band; nostril (both sexes)
nearer base of bill than middle of bill (figs. 7 and 8).

Eed-breasted Merganser 84
4'. "Teeth" blunt and not inclined backward; wing less than 8.00
inches (203 mm.) long; head of male with a large erect,
compressed, black and white crest. Hooded Merganser 89

3'. Bill never as much as three times as long as height at base; the
sides of lower mandible cross-ridged or fluted (figs. 9 and 39).
6. Wing more than 12.00 inches (305 mm.) long; tarsus longer
than middle toe without claw (shorter in Canada Goose).
7. Plumage chiefly white (grayish in immatures), some-
times stained with rusty.
8. Larger; bill more than 1.75 inches (44 mm.) long; the
margins of the two mandibles widely separated
and a large black area showing between them (fig.
30). Lesser Snow Goose 210

8'. Smaller; bill less than 1.75 inches (44 mm.) long;
margins of the two mandibles almost meeting, no
large black area between them (fig. 31).

Ross Snow Goose 215
7'. Plumage various, never predominantly white.
9. Bill and feet never wholly black.

10. Top of head and hind neck never white though
area around base of bill usually white; breast
usually marked irregularly with black.

American White-fronted Goose 218
10'. Top of head and hind neck white; breast bluish

ash, with regular dark bars. Emperor Goose 243
9'. Bill and feet entirely black.

11. Broad band across cheeks and throat white
(sometimes interrupted on throat).
12. Large; bill 1.88-2.31 inches (47.7-58.6 mm.)
long; tarsus usually shorter than middle
toe and claw (figs. 32 and 35).

Canada Goose 222
12'. Medium; bill 1.37-1.80 inches (34.8-45.7 mm.) ;
tarsus about as long as middle toe and claw
(figs. 33 and 36). Hutchins Goose 230

12". Small; bill 1.04-1.44 inches (26.4-36.6 mm.);
tarsus much longer than middle toe and
claw (figs. 34 and 37). Cackling Goose 234

KEYS 71

Key to California Game Birds — (Continued)

PAGE
11'. Head entirely black; no white on cheeks or
throat.
13. A series of white streaks on each side of

neck. Eastern Sea Brant 241

13'. A broad white collar around middle of
neck, incomplete behind.

Black Sea Brant 237
6'. Wing less than 12.00 inches (305 mm.) long; tarsus shorter
than middle toe without claw.
14. No broad thin lobe on hind toe (compare figs. 11 and 22).
15. Tarsus 2.00 inches (51 mm.) long or more.

16. Belly black. Black-bellied Tree-duck 251

16'. Belly hazel brown like breast, not black (pi. 7).

Fulvous Tree-duck 246
15'. Tarsus less than 2.00 inches (51 mm.) long.
17. Head crested; speculum deep steel blue.

Wood Duck 140
17'. Head not crested; speculum variously colored.
18. Bill spoon-shaped (fig. 18), about twice as

broad near tip as at base. Shoveller 129

18'. Bill nearly straight-sided, never greatly ex-
panded at tip.
19. Speculum purple or violet.

20. Speculum Dordered with white (pi. 2).

MaUard 92
20'. Speculum without white border.

Black Duck 101
19'. Speculum not purple or violet.

21. Speculum white. Gadwall 103

21'. Speculum not white (though there may
be white elsewhere on wing).
22. Larger; folded wing 9.00 inches (228
mm.) long or more.
23. A large white patch on fore part of
wing; top of head white or cream-
color in males; bill less than 1.75
inches (44 mm.) long; middle tail
feathers never greatly elongated.
24. Head of male cinnamon (pi. 3), of
female ochre flecked with blackish.

European Widgeon 111

24'. Head not cinnamon, but white

flecked with black in both sexes ; a

streak of green behind eye in

male (pi. 3). Baldpate lOG

23'. No light patch on fore part of wing

or on top of head in male; bill

more than 1.75 inches (44 mm.)

long (fig. 19) ; middle tail feathers

of male in winter very long (pi.

3). Pintail 134

72 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

Key to California Game Birds — (Continued)

PAGE
22'. Smaller; folded wing less than 8.25
inches (210 mm.) long.
25. No blue patch on wing.

26. A white bar on side of breast of

male. Green-winged Teal 113

26'. No white bar on side of breast of

male. European Teal 119

25'. A large blue patch on forepart of
wing.

27. A crescent-shaped white patch on

cheek of male; under surface
never cinnamon brown; bill usu-
ally less' than 1.60 inches (40.5
mm.) long (fig. 16).

Blue-winged Teal 120
27'. No crescentic white patch on
cheek of male; under surface of
male chiefly cinnamon brown
(pi. 4) ; bill usually more than
1.60 inches (40.5 mm.) long (fig.
15). Cinnamon Teal 123

14'. A broad thin lobe on hind toe (fig. 22).
28. Speculum gray.

29. Larger; folded wing more than 8.50 inches (216
mm.) long.
30. Forehead high and prominent (fig. 20) ; bill bluish

gray, black at tip; iris yellow. Redhead 146

30'. Forehead sloping (fig. 21); bill uniformly colored

(pi. 5); iris red. Canvasback 150

29'. Smaller; folded wing less than 8.25 incdies (210

mm.) long. Ring-necked Duck 164

28'. Speculum various, but never gray.
31. Speculum white.

32. Wing more than 10.00 inches (254 mm.) long;
head of male dull black, never iridescent.

White- winged Scoter 197
32'. Wing less than 9.50 inches (242 mm.) long; head
of male more or less iridescent.
33. Bill (viewed from above) broader near tip than
towards base.
34. Larger; folded wing more than 8.25 inches
(210 mm.) long; head of male glossed with
green. Greater Scaup Duck 156

34'. Smaller; folded wing less than 8.25 inches
(210 mm.) long; head of. male glossed with
jmrple (pi. 5). Lesser Scaup Duck 159

33'. Bill (viewed from above) narrower toward tip
than at base.

KEYS 73

Key to California Game Birds — (Continued)

PAGE

35. No white behind eye; folded wing more than

8.00 inches (203 mm.) long; male with a

white patch between bill and eye, female

with whole head dull reddish brown.

36. Head of male glossed with green; white

spot between bill and eye, rounded.

American Golden-eye 1G7
36'. Head of male glossed witli purple; white
spot between bill and eye triangular,
higher than wide. Barrow Golden-eye 173
35'. A single patch or band of white behind eye
(fig. 23); folded wing less than 7.25 inches
(184 mm.) long; no white spot in front of
bill of male. Buffle-head 177

31'. Speculum never white (but white patches may be
present elsewhere on wing).
37, Wing less than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long.

Ruddy Duck 205
37'. Wing more than 6.50 inches (165 mm.) long.

38. Lower tail coverts white. Old-sciuaw 181

38'. Lower tail coverts not white.

39. Wing more than 10.50 inches (266 mm.) long.

King Eider 192
39'. Wing less than 10.00 inches (254 mm.) long.
40. Feathering at base of bill never extending
as far forward as within 0.25 inch (6.3
mm.) from nostril (fig. 27).

American Scoter 194
40'. Feathering at base of bill approaching to
within 0.25 inch (6.3 mm.) of nostril.
41. Wing more than 8.50 inches (216 mm.)
long; bill more than 1.25 inches (31.8
mm.) long (fig. 29). Surf Scoter 201

41'. Wing less than 8.50 inches (216 mm.)
long; bill less than 1.25 inches (31.8
mm.) long. Harlequin Duck 186

IBISES AND SPOONBILL

1. Bill not flattened, rather slender and curved downward toward tip.
2. Plumage chiefly white; larger; bill more than 8.00 inches (203 mm)
long; folded wing more than 16.00 inches (406 mm.) long.

Wood Ibis 266
2'. Plumage chiefly deep brown; smaller; bill less than 6.00 inches
(152 mm.) long (fig. 44) ; folded wing less than 12.00 inches (305
mm.) long. White-faced Glossy Ibis 269

1'. Bill straight, flat and broad, much expanded at tip (figs. 42 and 43);

plumage pinkish. Roseate Spoonbill 262

74 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

Key to California Game Birds — {Continued)

CRANES

PAGE

1. Larger; folded wing more tliau 21.00 inches (533 mm.) long; hill more

than 5.00 (127 mm.). Sandhill Crane 279

1'. Smaller; folded wing less than 20.50 inches (520 mm.) long; bill less

than 4.50 (114 mm.). Little Brown Crane 273

RAILS, GALLTNULE, AND MUD-HEN

1. No "shield" on middle of forehead.
2. Bill as long as, or longer than, tarsus.

3. Folded wing more than 5.00 inches (127 mm.) long.

4. Averaging slightly larger; upper surface grayish brown; under

surface dull cinnamon brown. California Clapper Rail 283

4'. Averaging slightly smaller; upper surface olive brown; under

surface bright cinnamon brown. Light-footed Rail 289

3'. Folded wing less than 4.50 inches (114 mm.) long. Virginia Rail 291
2'. Bill not more than three-fourths as long as tarsus.

5. Under surface with little or no black; folded wing more than

3.00 inches (76 mm.) long.
6. Breast gray; no white on wing feathers; folded wnng more

than 3.75 inches (95 mm.) long. Sora Rail 296

6'. Breast yellowish brown; patch on secondary wing feathers
white; wing less than 3.75 inches (95 mm.) long.

Yellow Rail 301
5'. Under surface of body chiefly blackish; folded wing less than

3.00 inches (76 mm.) long. California Black Rail 304

1'. Middle of forehead covered by a horny, shield-like extension of the
bill (fig. 54).
7. Toes slender, without any marginal lobes; bill of adult chiefly red.

Florida Gallinule 309
7'. Toes with thin, broad, marginal scallop-like lobes (fig. 55) ; bill

whitish. Mud-hen 313

SHORE BIRDS

1. Tarsus more than 3.25 inches (82.5 mm.) long; bill black, and more
than 2.25 inches (57 mm.) long, never curved downward; some
solid black in body plumage at all times of year.

2. Top of head, neck and back, black; bill almost straight (fig. 62) ; no

hind toe; webs between front toes very small (fig. 63) ; legs pink.

Black-necked Stilt 344
2'. No black on head or neck; bill decidedly curved upward (fig. 60);
hind toe present ; extensive webs between front toes at bases
(fig. 61); legs blue. Avocet 337

1'. Tarsus less than 3.25 inches (82.5 mm.) long (if more than 3.25 [82.5
mm.] then bill curved downward) ; bill various.

3. Front toes with lobes or webs on margins and webbed at bases;

tarsus conspicuously compressed; under surface of body never
streaked or barred.

4. Bill blunt (fig. 57); wider than high at base; marginal webs on

front toes scalloped (fig. 56); under surface of bo<ly cinnamon

red in spring. Red Fhalarope 320

KEYS 75

Key to California Game Birds — {Continued)

PAGE

4'. Bill slender and needle-like (figs. 58, 59).

5. Bill less than 1.00 inch (25.4 mm.) long, not longer than head; a
white stripe on wing; middle of rump not white.

Northern Phalarope 326
5'. Bill more than 1.00 inch (25.4 mm.) long, longer than head; no
white stripe on wing; upper tail coverts chiefly white.

Wilson Phalarope 332
3'. Front toes without lobes on margins (but sometimes with webs be-
tween bases); tarsus never conspicuously compressed; under
surface of body often streaked or barred.
6. Hind toe present (very small in Black-bellied Plover).
7. Axillar feathers solidly black.

8. Bill less than 1.50 inches (38 mm.) long; hind toe very small

(less than .10 inch [2.5 mm.] long). Black-bellied Plover 452
8'. Bill more than 2.00 inches (51 mm.) long; hind toe more than

0.25 inch (6.3 mm.) long. Western Willet 416

7'. Axillar feathers never solidly black.

9. Upper tail coverts solidly white, or black and white in solid

patches, never barred; bill less than 1.25 inches (31.8 mm.)
long.
10. A single patch of solid white on upper tail coverts.

Surf-bird 485
10'. Two solid patches of white, separated by black, on rump
and upper tail coverts.
11. Throat and breast entirely black. Black Turnstone 493

11'. Throat and breast of mixed pattern. Ruddy Turnstone 489
9'. Upper tail coverts never solidly black or white, often barred.
12. Bill curved decidedly downward toward end, and more
than 2.50 inches (63 mm.) long.

13. Larger; bill more than 4.50 inches (114 mm.) long; top

of head of mixed pattern like back.

Long-billed Curlew 438
13'. Smaller; bill less than 4.00 inches (102 mm.) long; top
of head blackish brown with middle stripe of lighter
color. Hudsonian Curlew 445

12'. Bill straight or slightly curved upward (if curved slightly
downward at tip then bill less than 2.00 inches [51 mm.]
long).

14. Bill more than 2.00 inches (51 mm.) long.

15. Bill stout, curved slightly upward, and more than

3.50 inches (89 mm.) long. Marbled Godwit 396

15'. Bill never curved upward, and neA'er more than 3.00
inches (76 mm.) long.
16. Bill tapered from base to tip and smooth; a whitish

area on upper tail coverts. Greater YeUow-legs 401
16'. Tip of bill slightly enlarged and pitted (fig. 64) ;
upper tail coverts completely barred.
17. Head and back with conspicuous longitudinal
streaks of buffy yellow; upper tail coverts
barred with buflfy yellow. Wilson Snipe 350

76 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Key to California Game Birds — (Continued)

PAGE
17'. Head aud back without longitudinal streaks;
upper tail coverts barred with white.

Long-billed Dowltcher 358
14'. Bill less than 1.75 inches (44 mm.) long.
18. Tail feathers barred.

19. Breast white, unstreaked, but marked in summer

with rounded black spots. Spotted Sandpiper 431

19'. Breast variously streaked, on buffy or gray ground.
20. Wing more than 5.70 inches (145 mm.) long.

21. No white in tail barring. Upland Plover 427

21'. Tail barring with considerable white.

Lesser Yellow-legs 408
20'. Wing less than 5.60 inches (142 mm.) long.

Western Solitary Sandpiper 411
18'. Tail feathers not barred.

22. Whole upper surface from head to tail, uniform
grayish brown, without trace of streaking.

Wandering Tattler 422
22'. Upper surface of body never colored uniformly.
23. Bill more than 1.30 inches (33 mm.) long.

24. Axillars and upper tail coverts both barred;

bill not bent downward near tip (fig. 66).

Knot 363
24'. Axillars white; upper tail coverts like back,
not barred; bill bent slightly downward near
tip (fig. 71). Red-backed Sandpiper 381

23'. Bill less than 1.30 inches (33 mm.) long.

25. Front toes webbed at bases (fig. 70).

Western Sandpiper 386
25'. Front toes not webbed at bases (fig. 69).
26. Wing less than 3.75 inches (95 mm.) long.

Least Sandpiper 376
26'. Wing more than 4.25 inches (108 mm.) long.
27. Feet greenish; tarsus and bill both more
than 0.95 inch (24 mm.) long.

Pectoral Sandpiper 368
27'. Feet black; tarsus and bill both less than
0.95 inch (24 mm.) long.

Baird Sandpiper 373
6'. Hind toe absent (see note under no. 6).

28. Bill less than 1.25 inches (31.8 mm.) long; never red.
29. Axillar feathers gray; belly black in spring.

American Golden Plover 458
29'. Axillar feathers white.

30. Breast crossed by two blackish bands; rump tawny.

Killdeer 463
30'. Breast with one or no black baud; rump never tawny.
31. Breast crossed by a single black band.
32. Bill orange at base; forehead black.

Semipalmated Plover 469

KEYS 77

Key to California Game Birds — (Continued)

PAGE

32'. Bill entiiel\- black; forehead white. Wilson Plover 479
31'. Breast never crossed by a complete black band.

33. Larger; folded wing more than 5.25 inches (133 mm.)

long. Mountain Plover 481

33'. Smaller; folded wing less than 5.25 inches (133 mm.)
long.
34. Neck encircled behind by a white collar; folded
wing less than 4.25 inches (108 mm.) long; bill
less than 0.75 (19 mm.). Snowy Plover 473

34'. No white collar around hind neck; folded wing
more than 4.25 inches (108 mm.) long; bill more
than 0.75 (19 mm.). Sanderling 391

28'. Bill red, more than 2.25 inches (57 mm.) long.

35. Whole belly and base of tail white. Frazar Oyster-catcher 502
35'. Whole plumage brown or blackish appearing; no white

markings anywhere. Black Oyster-catcher 498

PHEASANT, QUAILS, AND GROUSES

1. Wing more than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long.
2. Tarsus altogether unfeathered; toes never with horny fringes; male

with spur on tarsus. Ring-necked Pheasant 572

2'. Tarsus (at least the upper half) feathered; toes (in winter at least)
with horny fringes; no spur on tarsus of male.
3. Middle of belly solidly black; feathers of tail conspicuously
pointed; tail longer than wing; wing over 9.75 inches (248
mm.). Sage-hen 564

3'. Middle of belly not black, but of same color as most of under
surface; feathers of tail not pointed; tail shorter than wing;
folded wing less than 9.75 inches (248 mm.).
4. Tail not square-ended, middle pair of tail feathers longer than
the rest; middle of belly solidly white.

Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse 558
4'. Tail square-ended; belly not pure white.

5. Each side of neck with a "ruff" of black or copper-colored
feathers; lower third of tarsus naked; tail crossed by a
broad dark band near end; plumage mostly reddish brown
iu both sexes. Oregon Ruffed Grouse 552

5'. Sides of neck without ruffs; tarsus completely feathered; end
of tail crossed by a broad light band; body plumage (of
male) chiefly dark bluish gray.
6. Adult male darker colored; less white on chin and throat.

Sooty Grouse 552
6'. Adult male lighter; more white on chin and throat.

Sierra Grouse 544
1'. Wing less than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long; tarsus never feathered.
7. Head with a straight slender tapering plume more than 2.00 inches
(51 mm.) long; flanks rich chestnut brown, broadly barred with
black and white; throat brown in both sexes.
8. Darker; back and tail deep olive brown. Painted Quail 513

78 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

Key to California Game Birds — {Contimicd)

PAGE

8'. Lighter; back and tail grayish browu. Mountain Quail 504

7'. Head with a short, curved, broad-ended plume, less than 1.50 inches
(38 mm.) long (fig. 82); flanks without black and white barring;
throat black in males (pi. 1).

9. No scale-like markings on belly; flanks streaked with cinna-
mon and white; males with back of head cinnamon
colored, and with a black area on middle of belly.

Desert Quail 538

9'. Forepart of belly scaled with narrow blackish cross-bars; no

cinnamon streaks on flanks; males with back of head

grayish brown, and with a cinnamon colored area on

middle of belly.

10. Ground color of upper surface and flanks deep olive brown.

California Quail 537
10'. Ground color of upper surface and flanks grayish brown.
11. Smaller; wing averaging less than 4.35 inches (110 mm.)

long. Mainland species. Valley Quail 514

11'. Larger; wing averaging more than 4.35 inches (110 mm.)
long. On Santa Catalina Island only.

Catalina Island Quail 537

PIGEONS AND DOVES

1. Tail pointed (fig. 89). Western Mourning Dove 588

1'. Tail square-ended.

2. Tail crossed by a blackish band near middle but not white at end
(fig. 88); total length of bird over 13.00 inches (330 mm).

Band-tailed Pigeon 575
2'. Tail white-ended (fig. 90); wing with a large white patch; total

length of bird under 13.00 inches (330 mm.). White-winged Dove 603
2". Tail without either dark cross band or white, end; total length of

bird under 7.00 inches (178 mm.). Mexican Ground Dove 006

GENERAL ACCOUNTS OF THE GAME BIRDS OF
CALIFORNIA

American Merganser
Mergus americanus Cassin

Other names — Fish Duck, part ; Sawbill, part ; Goosander ; Sheldrake ; Mergus
merganser americanus ; Merganser americanus.

Description — Adult male: A single short crest on top and back of head;
head and crest metallic greenish black; chin and throat dull black; bill red, ridge
and tip black and provided with backward-projecting, sharp-pointed, tooth-like
serrations on opposed surfaces of the two mandibles; nostrils nearer middle of
bill than base (figs. 5 and 6); iris carmine; back black; rump, upper tail coverts
and tail ashy gray; outer surface of closed wing mostly white, crossed by a
single bar of black; flight feathers dull brownish black; speculum white;
axillars and lining of wing white; hind neck, and whole lower surface of body,
including sides, creamy white to salmon buff; feet deep red. Total length
"25.00-27.00" inches (635-685 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 88); folded wing 10.15-
10.75 (258-273); bill along culmen 2.06-2.28 (52.4-58.0); tarsus 1.86-2.09 (47.3-
53.2) (six specimens). Adult female: Slender feathers of head crest longer
than in male; whole head reddish brown except for chin and throat which are
white; upper surface of body ashy gray; outer surface of closed wing chiefly
gray like back; speculum white, outlined with sooty brown and crossed by a
single bar of dusky; flight feathers blackish brown; axillars and lining of
wing white; under surface of body creamy white to salmon buff; hind neck,
sides, and upper breast indistinctly barred with gray and white; iris and feet
red as in male, but paler. Total length "21.00-24.00" inches (533-609 mm.)
(Ridgway, 1900, p. 89) ; folded wing 9.22-10.12 (234-257) ; bill along culmen 1.74-
2.08 (44.3-53.0) ; tarsus 1.80-1.95 (45.7-49.5) (five specimens) ; all from Pacific
Coast, California to Alaska. Juvenile phimage of male: Similar to that of
adult female. Natal plumage: Whole top of head reddish brown; stripe from
base of bill to below eye, white; beneath this a deep brown stripe from angle
of mouth, joining head-color behind eye; this stripe contrasts markedly with the
white of chin and throat; the reddish brown of head and hind neck fades into
cinnamon where it meets white of throat; upper parts clove brown relieved by
four white spots, one at hind border of each wing and one on each side of rump;
whole lower surface white.

Marks for field identification — The slender, cylindrical, "toothed" bill,
with its sharp-edged and hooked tip, distinguishes mergansers from all other
ducks. At a distance male mergansers appear black and white and both sexes
show white on the wing when in flight. American Merganser is distinguished
from Red-breasted by somewhat larger size, a head crest with but one point,
by lack of reddish brown collar on breast (of male), and (in hand) by the
nostril being nearer middle than base of bill (see figs. 5 to 8).

Voice — Of female: a coarse masculine "quack" (Law, 1912&, p. 42).

Nest — Usually in hollow trees along wooded streams, less frequently on the
ground; made of twigs, grass, lichens, etc., lined with down.

[79]

GAME BIBDS.OF CALIFORNIA

Eggs — 10 to 16, ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.50 to 2.80 by 1.70 to
1.80 (in millimeters, 63.5 to 71 by 43.2 to 45.7); pale buff in color (Davie, 1900,
p. 76 and authors).

General distribution — North America. Breeds from southern Alaska,
southern Yukon, central Keewatin, southern Ungava and Newfoundland south
to central Oregon, southern South Dakota, northern New York and Maine, and
in the mountains to central California, central Arizona and northern New
Mexico. Winters from Aleutian Islands, British Columbia, northern Colorado,
southern Ontario and New Brunswick, south to northern Lower California,
northern Mexico and the Gulf states (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910,
p. 66).

American Merganser

21609

Fig. 6. Top of bill. Both drawings natural size.

Note slender outline (length more than three times height
at base), sharp "teeth", absence of cross-ridges on sides
(compare with figs. 9 and 17), and situation of nostrils rela-
tively far from base (compare with figs. 7 and 8).

Distribution in California — Fairly common winter visitant to interior
valleys and the entire coast region; partial to the vicinity of fresh water.
Occurs in summer and breeds about lakes and along streams of the Sierra
Nevada from the McCloud River, in Shasta County, south to the upper Kern
River in Tulare County; also in the Humboldt Bay district.

The American Merganser, sometimes referred to as the hand-
somest of swimming birds, is to be looked for during the winter in
pairs or small flocks along rivers, in lakes and with less certainty on
the ocean or on salt marshes. It is occasionally found summering
about lakes and along streams in the liigh mountains. At no time
or place in California can it be said to be actually common as com-
pared with other ducks, unless at Lake Tahoe, as described beyond.

AMERICAN MEBGANSEB 81

The narrow bill with its sharp horny "teeth" and hooked tip,
and the crest on the back of the head, help to distinguish the mer-
gansers from otlun- kinds of ducks. The American Merganser, about
the size of the ^Mallard, is the largest of the fish ducks or sawbills. It
can be distinguished from the Red-breasted Merganser, the only one
with which it is likely to be confused, by the position of the nostrils,
which are nearer the middle of the bill than the base (see figs. 5 to 8).
In the field the male American can be distinguished by the shorter,
single crest and the absence of a reddish brown band across the breast.
The females and young of the two species are difficult to tell apart
at any great distance.

The sawbills are excellent swimmers and divers, and are able not
only to pursue their prey under water but to remain beneath the
surface for considerable periods of time, even as much as one or two
minutes. When wounded, they have been known to dive to the bottom
and cling to the grass. Eaton (1910, p. 179) states: "On one occasion
[in New York] I fired into a flock of Sawbills at close range, bringing
down four of the bii'ds, but all of them plunged into the water like so
many stones, and only one of them ever so much as gave me a glimpse
of himself again." The small mark which the birds present when
swimming and their ability in diving makes them hard to shoot, and,
like the grebes, they are popularly said to be able to "see the shot
coming. ' ' When rising from the water they, like the mud-hens, patter
along the surface with their feet for some distance before gaining
sufficient impetus to rise in the air. Once well started they are swift
fliers.

Most of the migrant birds of this species found in California breed
in the far north, in British Columbia and Alaska, although some have
been found breeding along the larger streams and lakes of the Sierras.
C. H. Townsend (1887, p. 193) says. "This sheldrake breeds
regularly on the lower McCloud [Shasta County], where it is present
the year round. Young birds in the down were obtained on May 21,
and several flocks of young were seen on Eagle Lake [Lassen County],
late in June. Fish ducks were not observed elsewhere than on the
larger mountain streams and lakes." Sheldon (1907, p. 185) records
having seen two or three broods at Eagle Lake, Lassen County, and
a young one was collected in June, 1905. Law (19125, p. 42) reports
this bird as nesting commonly at Lake Tahoe. A female followed by
eighteen or twenty young was noted there on June 24, 1911, and
several pairs and a female with six young on June 28. A. K. Fisher
(1893a, p. 15) says: "A flock of a dozen or more sheldrakes was
seen at Soda Springs (locally known as Kern River Lakes), in the
Sierra Nevada the first week in September, and a specimen [was]
shot there by Mr. Bailey August 15. . . ." Evidence obtained by a

82 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

field party from the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology indi-
cates the breeding of this bird in small numbers in the same general
locality, namely, on the upper Kern River, in Tulare County. Ac-
cording to Wilder (1916, p. 127), this species is to be found at all
seasons on the rivers of Humboldt County. Young as yet unable to
fl}' have been observed there in summer.

The courtship of the American Merganser as observed in Massa-
chusetts has been carefully described by C. W. Townsend (1916, pp.
10-12). The essential features are as follows:

The courtsliip of the Merganser ... is fairly spectacular and differs widely
from that of its red-breasted cousin, M. serrator. ... A group of five or six
male Mergansers may be seen swimming energetically back and forth by three
or four passive females. Sometimes the drakes swim in a compact mass or in a
file for six or seven yards or even farther, and then each turns abruptly and
swims back. Again they swim in and out among each other, and every now
and then one with swelling breast and slightly raised wings spurts ahead at
great speed by himself or in the pursuit of a rival. . . . They frequently
strike at each other with their bills, and I have seen two splendid drakes rise
up in the water breast to breast, and, amid a great splashing, during which it
w^as impossible to see details, fight like game-cocks. The pursuit is varied by
sudden, momentary dives and much splashing of water.

The smooth iridescent green heads, the brilliant carmine bills tipped with
black nails, the snowy white of flanks and wing patches and the red feet, which
flash out in the dive, make a wonderful color effect, contrasting well with the
dark water and white ice. The smaller females with their shaggy brown heads,
their neat white throat-bibs, their quaker bhie-gray backs and modest wing
patches, which are generally hidden, are fitting foils to their mates. The male
frequently raises himself up almost on his tail and displays the beautiful salmon
yellow tint on the whole under surface of his body. Most of the time he keeps
his tail cocked up and spread, so that it shows from behind a white centre and
blue border. Every now and then he points his head and closed bill up at an
angle of forty-five degrees or to the zenith. Again he bows or bobs his head
nervously and often at the same time tilts up the front of his breast from
which flashes out the salmon tint. From time to time he emits a quickly
repeated purring note, dorr-dorr or krr-Tcrr.

The most surprising part of the performance is the spurt of water fully
three or four feet long which every now and then is sent backwards into the
air by the powerful kick of the drake's foot. . . .

During all this time the female swims about unconcernedly, merely keeping
out of the way of the ardent and belligerent males, although she sometimes
joins in the dance and bobs in a mild way. At last she succumbs to the captivat-
ing display and submerges herself so that only a small part of her body with a
bit of the crest appear above the water, and she swims slowly beside or after
her mate, sometimes even touching him with her bill. Later she remains
motionless, flattens herself still more, the crest disappears and she sinks so that
only a line ... is seen. . . . The drake slowly swims around her several
times, twitches his head and neck, picks at the water, at his own feathers and
at her before he mounts and completely submerges her, holding tightly with
his bill to her neck meanwhile. Then she bathes herself, washes the water
vigorously through her feathers and flaps her wings; the drake stretches himself
and flaps his wings likewise.

AMEBICAN MERGANSER 83

Judging from observations made elsewhere in North America, the
nest is usually placed in a lioUow tree or stub. Dawson (1909, p. 759)
records one as liaving been found at the top of a stub one hundred
feet high and suggests that the young in such cases are carried to
the water in their mother's bill. Other observers state that the young
tumble from the nests into the water ten or fifteen feet below without
injury to themselves. The ten to sixteen pale buff-colored eggs are
protected by a lining of down i)lucked by the female from her own
breast. The young are especially good swimmers and the oarsman
who succeeds in catching them must be an expert. Their speed in
eluding a pursuer is often greatly increased by flapping along the
surface, something which they are able to do Avhen but a few days
old. When pursued, the mother is said to allow the more fatigued
ones to ride on her back. An instance in point is recorded by Law
(19126, p. 42) as follows:

Several times the mother raised almost out of the water and dashed quickly
along for fifty feet or so, every chick rising and skipping after her, flapping
their little wings and paddling the surface of the water with their little feet.
After three of these spurts the youngsters seemed to tire, and one climbed on its
mother's back, and soon several had done so, and rode securely there as long
as they were in sight.

Swarth (1911, pp. 39-40) records an interesting method of obtain-
ing food as observed in Alaska, which has also been recorded for the
Red-breasted Merganser (C. W. Townsend, 1911, p. 343). The former
writes :

I was concealed in the shrubbery at the water's edge examining a large
flock of ducks for possible rarities, when a dozen or more mergansers (M. ameri-
canus and M. serrator) began swimming back and forth but a very short dis-
tance from my blind. They swam slowly, with neck outstretched, and with
the bill held just at the surface of the water, and at a slight angle, so that the
head was submerged about to the level of the eyes. The water was evidently
filtered through the bill, as a slight "gabbling" noise was quite audible, and
obviously something was being retained as food, though just what it was I
could not tell.

As one of its vernacular names (fish duck) signifies, the regular
diet of the American Merganser is made up chiefly of fish, which it
devours in great quantities. The gullet of an individual killed at
Los Bafios, Merced County, February 19, 1912, contained five carp
about four inches in length. If carp were the only kind of fish eaten
this would be considered a useful bird; but the merganser is also
known to eat salmon and trout fry. Mr. W. H. Shebley, superin-
tendent of hatcheries for the California State Fish and Game
Commission, (in letter) says: "The sawbill or fish duck is very
destructive to trout and other fish. I have killed individuals on our
trout ponds gorged with trout so that they were unable to swallow
another one. "We consider them one of the worst of the fish-eating
birds."

84 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBNIA

This bird is usuall}' considered poor i'ooil, as it is pronounced
tough, and at most seasons, has an unpleasant fishy taste. When
properly prepared, however, its "gamy" flavor can be appreciated
with the aid of a hearty appetite. But the skill needed to bring it to
bag, therefore forms its chief claim to being classed as a game bird.

American Mergansers have been occasionally seen on the market
in San Francisco and Sacramento along with other ducks, and hunters
are sometimes seen carrying them. No information regarding their
comparative numbers now and formerly has been obtainable. But
as the hunter often passes them by, and as they are wary and difficult
to shoot, it seems probable that there has been no marked decrease in
their numbers.

Red-breasted Merganser

Mergiis serrator (Linnaeus)

Other names — Fish Duck, part; Sawbill, part; Eed-breasted Sheldrake;
Merganser serrator.

Description — Adult male: Head with much elongated, double-pointed crest
of very slender feathers; whole head black, dully so on throat and crown, but
with strong metallic green wash on sides of head behind eye; a conspicuous
white collar completely encircling neck save for black stripe down hind neck,
connecting black of head with that of back; bill red, dusky along top, and
with tooth-like serrations, sharp pointed, backward projecting and claw-like;
iris red; whole back together with flight feathers black; rump, upper tail
coverts and tail feathers brownish gray; rump varied with finely broken narrow
black bars; outer surface of closed wing white, crossed diagonally by two black
bars, and with white feathers of hinder portion of speculum outwardly edged
with black; a tuft of broad feathers on sides of breast overhanging bend of
closed wing, these feathers being white with wide black borders; sides other-
wise finely and irregularly barred with black and white; under surface white
except for broad band across chest separated from black of head by white
collar; this band is reddish brown mottled with black; feet red; nostril
relatively small, located near base of bill (see figs 7 and 8). There is in the
adult male in midsummer a brief -lived ' ' eclipse ' ' plumage in which the head
becomes dull brown and the breast dull gray (Stone, 1900, pp. 15-16). The
total length (both sexes): "20.00-25.00" inches (507-635 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900,
p. 89). Males: folded wing 8.75-9.55 (222-242); bill along culmen 2.1.3-2.32
(54-59); tarsus 1.73-1.81 (44-46) (nine specimens from California). Adult
female: Sides of head and neck cinnamon brown, grading into whitish on chin
and throat, and into dark brown on top of head and crest; bill and iris red
(Eaton, 1910, p. 179); whole upper surface including rump and tail ashy brown,
the feathers having darker centers; flight feathers dull black; closed wing
gray like back; speculum white, crossed by one diagonal bar; lower surface
white, the brown of head fading gradually over the fore neck through a faintly
mottled area; sides and flanks dull grayish brown; feet dull red. Folded wing
8.25-8.80 inches (209-224 mm.); bill along culmen 1.9.3-2.13 (49-.54) ; tarsus
1.62-1.69 (41-43) (four specimens from California). Juvenile phimaqe of male:
Similar to that of adult female but tuft of black-and-white-marked plumes in

JRED-BEEASTED MERGANSER 85

eviilenee on side near bend of wing, and rump and sides showing traces of
fine irregular barring. Natal plumage: Top of head clove brown; a white stripe
below eye to base of bill; beneath this a cinnamon stripe from angle of mouth
to side of neck, where i-t broadens; chin, throat and breast, white; upper sur-
face clove brown relieved by four white spots, one at hind border of each wing,
and one on each side of rump. Downy young of the American and Eed-breasted
Mergansers are indistinguishable save for the position of the nostril.

Marks for field id.extipication — Smaller than American Merganser (for
general characters of mergansers see that species). Male: Reddish brown
band across breast, and two black bars across speculum. Female: Cinnamon
brown of neck not abruptly ended and back brown-tinged rather than blue-
gray. Both sexes have head crest of two points, one behind the other, and nostril
nearer base of bill than middle (see figs. 5 to 8).

Voice — Of female with young: A low, distinct, but husky Mid-kha-lhd
(Nelson, 1887, p. 67).

Nest — On marshy land in the vicinity of salt water, usually under the
shelter of a rock, bank, or branch of a tree. A simple structure of leaves and
grasses, lined with down from the breast of the female parent.

Eggs — 6 to 12, ovate in shape, measuring in inches 2.45 to 2.65 by 1.70 to 1.85
(in millimeters, 62.2 to 67.2 by 43.2 to 47.0) ; color cream, buff, or greenish buff
(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, pp. 118-120; and authors).

General distribution — Northern portion of Northern Hemisphere. In North
America breeds from Arctic coast of Alaska, northern Mackenzie, Cumberland
Sound, and Greenland (lat. 73° N.), south to southern British Columbia, and
extreme northern United States; winters from southern British Columbia anil
northern United States, south to southern Lower California, Louisiana and
Florida, and also in Greenland and the Commander Islands (modified from A.
O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 67).

Distribution in California — Common winter visitant along the entire sea-
coast, occurring both on the open ocean about rocky headlands and islands, and
on bays and salt lagoons; less numerous interiorly where it occurs at times on
the larger bodies of water, as on Lake Tahoe and Owens Lake.

In California the Red-breasted Merganser is a better known ' ' fish-
duck" than its larger relative, the American Merganser, for it is
found plentifully on hunting grounds adjacent to the sea coast and
occasionally on the larger bodies of water in the interior. To the
north, in southern Alaska, the species is very abundant. At the base
of the Alaska Peninsula, Osgood (1904, p. 55) states that this mer-
ganser is outnumbered among water birds only by the larger gulls.
In California the bird associates in flocks of from a dozen to a hundred
individuals.

At Monterey the first autumnal appearance of the species in 1896
was on October 9 (Cooke, 1906, p. 21) ; from about that time on, it is
common on the larger bays and lagoons and about rocky headlands
on the ocean shore. In 1911 birds of this species were present at
Monterey until April 10 (Mus. Vert. Zool), and at other points along
the coast individuals have been seen in May. At Saint Michaels,
Alaska, the species arrives about the middle of May and leaves by

GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

the first week in October (Nelson, 1887, pp. 66-67). Tlie birds winter-
ing in California probably nest in British Columbia and Alaska ; and
the instances recorded of nesting in Washington and Oregon (Dawson,
1909, p. 762; Cooke, 1906, p. 20) may also pertain to mergansers
which winter in our state.

In addition to a considerable difference in size, there are other
characters which enable one to distinguish the American and Red-
breasted mergansers. The most useful of these is the presence in the
male Red-breasted Merganser of a reddish brown breast band streaked
with black, and of a double rather than single head crest. Of less
utility for field identification is the color of the back and the presence

Eed-breasted Merganser /'
Fig. 7. Side of bill. ^^

18814-

18814

Fig. 8. Top of bill. Natural size.

of two dark bars in the speculum of the wing. In the baud the nostrils
lying closer to the base of the bill than the middle easily identifies
either sex of this species (figs. 5 to 8).

Although lacking the brighter colors of the American Merganser,
the Red-breasted also presents a beautiful appearance. Graceful as a
swimmer, it is strikingly adept as a diver. In diving it disappears
below the water instantly and almost without rippling the surface.
After returning to the surface some distance away the bird often
flaps its Avings as if to stretch itself, or more probably to shake its
plumage free from water and to readjust its feathers. Individuals
of this species have been seen to dive repeated^ through advancing
waves during rough weather. On land this merganser is said to
progress on its feet more rapidly than the diving ducks. On the

21ED-BEEASTED MEEGANSEB 87

wing it is swift and unusually silent. When closely pursued while
swinuuing it secures partial concealment by lying low in the water
with only its bill and head showing. A wounded bird nearly always
uses this ruse.

The courtship of the Red-breasted Merganser as observed on the
New England coast has been described by C. W. Townsend (1911,
pp. 341-343) as follows:

The nuptial performance is always at its best when several drakes are
displaying their eharms of movement, voice and plumage, before a single duck,
and each vies with the other in the ardor of the courtship. The drake begins
by stretching up his long neck so that the white ring is much broadened, and
the metallic green head, with its long crest and its narrow red bill, makes a
conspicuous object. At once the bill is opened wide and the whole bird stiffly
bobs or teters as if on a pivot, in such a way that the breast and the lower part
of the neck are immersed, while the tail and posterior part of the body swing
upward. . . . All of the motions are stiffly executed, and suggest a formal but
ungraceful courtesy.

The nuptial "song." which is emitted while the bill is open, is a
loud, rough and purring, slightly doubled note resembling the syllables
da-ah.

. . . The female merganser . . . sometimes responds by a bobbing which is
similar to that of the male, but of considerably less range. . . . She emits a
single note at this time, which is somewhat louder . . . and is of a different
quality as it is decidedly rasping. . . . When the female responds in this man-
ner she appears to be very excited, and the ardor of the drakes is correspond-
ingly increased. . . . Every now and then she darts out her neck and dashes
at the ring of suitors. . . . During the courtship actions the tail [of the male]
is elevated at an angle of forty-five degrees. . . . This bobbing courtship of
the males, although sometimes directed toward the female, is as often directed
towards another male or even the empty water. The males not infrequently
rush at one another with powerful leg-strokes making the water foam about
their elevated breasts. Sometimes they raise their wings slightly or splash
along violently using both wings and feet for propulsion. Now and then a
male pursues a female, and she, to avoid capture, may dive and is at once
followed by the male. In flight the female generally precedes by a short
interval the male.

The habit of lying flat in the water and of rising up and flapping
the wings is indulged in at all times of the year.

In Alaska the Red-breasted Merganser breeds from Sitka and
Kodiak Island north to Icy Cape and perhaps to Point Barrow (Nel-
son, 1887, p. 66). The nests are as a usual thing carefully concealed
under dead leaves or in grass, and sheltered by a log or bank. A nest
observed by G-rinnell (1900, p. 14) on Chamisso Island, Alaska, was
situated on an exposed sea wall about fifty feet above the surf and
hidden among clumps of tall grass. The nest often consists largely
of down, and the eggs are usually covered over by the female when

88 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOMNIA

she leaves the nest, provided she is not routed out too suddenly. The
eggs number from six to ten in a set and are laid early in June.
Downy young are most commonly seen during July. The incubation
period is 26 to 28 days (Strong, 1912, p. 482). The male takes no
part in the duties of incubation, and it is doubtful whether he assumes
any of the care of the j^oung.

Concerning the behavior of the females and young, Grinnell
(1900, p. 15) says:

At Cape Blossom on August 1, 1899, I encountered a brood of six downy
young with the female i)arent. They were out in the middle of a lake, and
the juveniles swam in a close bunch. The parent kept diving at short intervals,
and whenever she reappeared, which might be at a considerable distance from
where she dove, the band of young with one accord scrambled over the water
towards her, with flapping arms, and almost running on the surface. The fore-
most chick, probably always the hungriest of the lot, was apparently the one
to obtain the prey which in all cases observed was a small fish.

Dawson (1909, p. 762) states that a female when surprised with
her brood played dead as a ruse to deceive her pursuers.

The food of this duck consists almost entirely of fish. In Alaska,
according to Nelson (1887, p. 67), ". . . in the brackish ponds and
tide creeks of the marshes they find an abundance of food in the
myriads of sticklebacks which swarm in these waters." In the East
it is said that the birds also eat crustaceans and shellfish. Mr. F. A.
Shebley, of the Brookdale Hatchery, Monterey County, California,
says he has shot fish ducks along the stream so gorged with fish that
by holding them up by the feet, the fish would fall from their mouths.
He states further that birds of this species stay mostly in the lower
courses of the streams, and in the lagoons of his vicinity. Linton
(19086, p. 126) saw them frequently feeding in tide pools in the
vicinity of Northwest Harbor, Santa Cruz Island. The stomach of
a bird taken there December 2, 1907, contained nine "rock bass and
one spotted shark," each two to four inches long.

This duck cannot be considered an important game bird (a state-
ment which applies also to the American Merganser) as the fish taint
in its flesh caused by the fish diet makes it undesirable for food.
However, during the season of 1895-96, 217 "sheldrakes" were sold
in the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles (Calif. Fish Comm.,
1896, p. 40). Since then, birds of this species have rarely been seen
in the markets of San Francisco and Sacramento. As this merganser
is shy and hard to approach it is only obtained Avith difficulty. Con-
sequently there seems to be no immediate danger of its extermination.
And yet the very fact that it is difficult to shoot gives it a certain
value in the eyes of the hunter. The increasing efficiency of firearms,
will also have some effect on the numbers of this species.

HOODED MEEGANSEE 89

Hooded Merganser
Lophodytcs cucullatus (Linnaeus)

Other names — Hooded Sheldrake; Oyster Duck (Napa County); Mergus
iUcuUaiufi.

Description — Adult male : Head and neck chiefly black; conspicuous, vertical,
compressed crest of hair like feathers; this crest chiefly white but set in black,
giving the effect of a black-bordered white fan; feathers around base of bill
dark brown blended into black of rest of head; bill short, black, with nostrils
near base, and with "teeth" short, obliquely set, and not claw-like; iris yellow;
fore back, black, continuously so with hind neck; lower back, rump and tail dark
brown; forepart of closed wing dark grayish brown and gray; speculum white,
margined in front by black bar, and crossed centrally by a similar bar; primary
flight feathers dark brown ; secondary flight feathers black, each with a sharply
defined central white stripe; sides and flanks cinnamon brown finely barred
with black; breast and under surface white; sides in front of wing Avith two
black half -crescents originating from the black of the back and extending
diagonally downwards and forwards; legs and feet "yellowish-brown," webs
"dusky" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 406). Total length (both sexes) "17.25-19.25"
inches (438 to 489 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 89). Male: folded wing 7.80 (198);
bill along culmen 1.54 (39.1) ; tarsus 1.24 (31.5) (one specimen from California).
Adult female: Head, neck, chest and whole upper surface grayish brown; throat
paling to whitish on chin ; top of head clove brown shading to reddish hair brown
on crest; crest of looser texture than in male and less conspicuous; bill black with
base of lower mandible orange; iris hazel; wings and tail dark brownish;
speculum white, with two bars of black as in male; lower surface white, with
sides, flanks and under tail coverts clouded with brown; legs and feet dusky.
Folded wing 6.85-7.40 inches (174-188 jnm.) ; bill along culmen 1.48-1.64 (37.7-
41.6); tarsus 1.22-1.31 (31.0-33.2) (five specimens from California and British
Columbia). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult female but with crest
poorly developed and under tail coverts more distinctly brown (Ridgway,
loc. cit.). Natal plumage: Top and sides of head brown, paling to cinnamon
color on cheeks; chin and throat white; upper mandible blackish, its tip and the
whole lower mandible yellow; upper surface of body dark brown; five pairs of
small spots on back, rump, and wings, white; band across foreneck, pinkish
brown; rest of under surface white.

Marks for field identification — Small size (for a duck), slender short bill
(shorter than head), narrow, erect, black-bordered white-patched head crest
(in the male), and brown sides. Distinguished from other mergansers by much
smaller size, and from all other ducks by the size and shape of bill.

Voice — "A hoarse croak" (Forbush, 1912, p. 68); "a variety of guttural,
chattering notes" (Bowles, in Dawson, 1909, p. 763).

Nest — In hollows of trees high above ground and near or over water; built
of grasses and weeds and lined with down from the breast of the female.

Eggs — 5 to 12, nearly globular in shape, measuring in inches, 2.05 to 2.15 by
1.70 to 1.75 (in millimeters, 52.0 to 54.6 by 43.2 to 44.5) ; in color pure ivory
white (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 124; and authors).

General distribution — North America. Breeds on the north from central
British Columbia, Great Slave Lake, central Keewatin, central Ungava, and
Newfoundland, south to southern Oregon, northern New Mexico, southern
Louisiana, and central Florida; winters on the north from southern British

90 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA

Columbia, Utah, Colorado, Nebraska, Illinois, Indiana, Pennsylvania, and Massa-
chusetts, south to Lower California, Mexico and the Gulf States; rare in the
northeastern part of its range; casual in Alaska, Bermuda and Europe (A. O. U.
Cheek-list, 1910, p. 67).

Distribution in California — Eather rare fall, winter and spring visitant to
salt marshes along the seacoast, and on the lakes and slower streams of the
interior.

The Hooded Merganser is at the present time the rarest of the
three mergansers belonging to California. The other two are typically
northern species, whereas the Hooded is southern, breeding largely
south of the Canadian boundary. It is a notable circumstance that
the Hooded Merganser and the Wood Duck appear to frequent the
same type of locality. In California during the fall, winter and
spring the former species occurs sparsely in the salt marshes along
the coast and on the lakes and streams of the interior. In southern
California it has been stated to arrive in November and to leave by
February (Grinnell, 1898, p. 10). It is evident that museum collectors
have rarely encountered the species in the field as but few specimens
have been available for study.

The following are all the definite records for the state known
to the authors: Humboldt Bay, McCloud and Pit rivers (C. H.
Townsend, 1887, p. 193) ; Mark West Creek, Sonoma County (Mail-
liard, MS) ; Suisun Marsh and Putah Creek, Solano County (Mus.
Vert. Zool.) ; San Francisco (Newberry, 1857, p. 104) ; San Fran-
cisco Bay (Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; Marysville, Yuba County (Belding, 1879,
p. 447) ; Paieines, San Benito County (J. Mailliard, 1902&, p. 46) ;
Ventura County (Evermann, 1886, p. 89) ; Fillmore, Ventura County
(Willett, 1912a, p. 22) ; Del Rey, Los Angeles County (Chambers,
1914, p. 92) ; Alamitos Bay, Los Angeles County (Grinnell, 1898, p.
10) ; Westminster, Orange County (Grey, 1915, p. 59) ; vicinity of
Los Angeles (Willett, loc. cit.) ; San Diego (Belding, MS).

It is impossible to confuse the male of this duck with that of any
other species. Aside from the small size of the bird, its vertical, com-
pressed, black and white crest, composed of hair-like feathers, serves
to immediately distinguish it. This fan-like crest is frequently raised
and lowered as if to display the unusually conspicuous ornament.
The Hooded Merganser almost equals that handsomest of the ducks,
the Wood Duck, in its splendid coloration. It can always be separated
from the other mergansers by its bill which is chiefly black in color,
and shorter than the head. The female can be recognized by her
short bill and dark grayish brown chest.

Although no description of an eclipse plumage has been located
by us, and no birds in such a plumage are to be found in available
collections, yet the following quotation from Widmann (1895, p. 351)
suggests that there is such a plumage in this species as is the case

HOODED MEEGAXSEB 91

with most other diioks : "At this season [June, in southeastern Mis-
souri] the beauty of the male's dress and coiffure is entirely gone;
both parents resemble each other so much that they are generally mis-
taken for female Wood Ducks, which are also verj^ common breeders
in these swamps."

Little is known of the life history of the Hooded Merganser on the
PaciHc Coast. It is said to begin nesting in Washington in April
(Bowles, in Dawson, 1909, p. 763). The nests are located high in
hollow trees over or near water and are composed of weeds and
grasses, and lined with down. The eggs are variously reported as
numbering from 5 to 12 ; they are ivory white in color, and more
nearly globular in form tlian those of other ducks. The following
notes on the nesting habits of this bird are recorded by Spreadborough
{in Macoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 77) : "A pair has built in an elm
stub for four years, at about tliirty feet from the ground, at the mouth
of Sharp Creek, Bracebridge, Ontario. The stub is on the bank of a
stream. The old bird carries her young from the tree to the water
in her bill. At first the young are rather helpless and are very easy
to catch, but in a few days they are well able to take care of them-
selves." As is the case with the other mergansers, the male leaves
the duties of incubation and the rearing of the young entirely to the
female. Flocks of males are generally the first to be seen in the fall
migration.

Hooded Mergansers are swift fliers and make less noise with their
wings than almost any other duck. Bowles (loc. cit.) says: "Its
flight is very swift and eccentric, resembling greatly that of the Green-
winged Teal, for which the bird is easily mistaken in the faint light
of early morning or evening."

Instead of frequenting swiftly running streams as is the case with
the American Merganser, the Hooded prefers the quieter streams,
sloughs and small ponds. In such places it is said to feed upon tad-
poles, small fish and water insects, even taking some vegetable food.

The smaller size of the bill of this merganser, as well as its habitat,
would seem to indicate that it is not so destructive of valuable fish as
the other two mergansers. Its diet also makes it more palatable, and
in the middle west wherever it is plentiful, it is used for food.

All the evidence at hand points to a gi^eat reduction in the numbers
of this species during recent years. Henshaw (1876, p. 275) says
that at the time of his travels through California in the early seventies
the Hooded Merganser occurred "in fall in large numbers as a
migrant." No recent observer has offered a like statement. Informer
years (1870-1885) this merganser was occasionally seen along the
creeks of Marin County and along Mark West Creek, Sonoma County,
but it has long since been shot out of this region (J. and J. W. Mail-
liard, MS).

92 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Mallard
Anas platyrhynchos Linnaeus

Other names — Greenhead; Wild Duck; Gray Mallard (female) ; Anas hoselias.

Description — Adult male: Head and neck brilliant metallic green, with
purple reflections at certain angles; forehead and crown overlaid with black;
green of head succeeded by a narrow white ring around lower neck interrupted
behind; bill chiefly greenish yellow; iris brown; middle of back between
shoulders brownish gray with paler feather edgings; sides of back silvery
white minutely barred with dusky; back, rump and upper tail coverts black,
with steely blue reflections; tail feathers mostly white with the two middle
feathers black and slightly curled upwards, and the two longest upper tail
coverts conspicuously curled up; outer surface of closed wing in general
brownish gray; axillars and lining of wing white; speculum metallic violet
approaching purple, bordered in front and behind with black and white
feathers, a black and white bar being thus formed at both front and hind
margins; breast dark chestnut; sides and rest of under surface silvery gray
undulated Tvdth dusky; under tail coverts black; feet orange red, nails dusky.
Total length 23.50-25.25 inches (596-640 mm.) (four specimens) ; folded wing
10.85-11.55 (276-293); bill along culmen 2.13-2.44 (54-62); tarsus 1.62-1.83
(41-46.5) (seven specimens). Adult female: Head and whole upper surface
chiefly deep brown, but variegated with abruptly paler feather edgings; gen-
eral tone of head paler, with finer, more streaky pattern than on back; top
of head darkest, sides of head lighter with dusky streak through eye; throat
very light brownish white scantily or not at all streaked; wings much as in
male; ground color of under surface brownish white, deepest in tone on breast,
but black feather centers giving a streaked or mottled appearance; sides and
chest most heavily marked, belly lightest. Total length 22.25-23.25 inches
(565-590 mm.) (two specimens); folded wing 9.95-10.80 (252-274); bill along
culmen 1.89-2.27 (48.0-57.5); tarsus 1.63-1.77 (41.4-45.0) (ten specimens); all
from California. Eclipse plumage of male (assumed in July and August):
Closely resembles dress of female but darker; lacks green of head. In full
eclipse plumage male and female can be distinguished only with difficulty.
In partial eclipse or post eclipse enough old or new feathers are present on
wings to identify the male. Juvenile plumage (at least of female) : Similar to
that of adult female but dusky mottlings and streaks duller, less clearly
defined; those on breast simple shaft streaks instead of horseshoe-shaped
figures as in adult female; wing markings same as in adult. Natal plumage:
Whole back and top of head dark brownish green fading to lighter color on
forehead; side of head light yellowish brown, stripe through eye, and spot on
cheek dusky; brown of back relieved by two pairs of yellowish spots, one at
hind border of each wing and one on each side of rump; under surface yellow-
ish buff; sides shading to gray and invaded by two brown patches of same
color as back.

Marks for field identification — The large size (total length over 22 inches
[558 mm.]), metallic green head, white ring around neck, and violet-colored
speculum identify the male. The violet or purple speculum bordered along
both edges with black and white distinguishes both sexes in all plumages
(pi. 2), except, of course, the natal. In flight the white under wing coverts
show forth. The female can be distinguished from the Black Duck, a near
relative, by its much lighter color.

MALLARD

Voice — Of female: a loud, oft repeated "quack," like that of the domestic
duck. Of male: similar but much softer, more wheezy.

Nest — Generally on ground near water, hidden in clumps of willows, weeds,
tules, but more often in tall grass; crudely made of leaves and grasses but
warmly and copiously lined with down; about seven inches in inside diameter.

Eggs — 5 to 14, bluntly ovate, measuring in inches, 2.06 to 2.5.5 by 1.50 to 1.80
(in millimeters, 52.3 to 64.7 by 38.0 to 45.7); in color yellowish drab or pale
greenish white (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 499; and one set from
Alaska). Eggs of the Mallard resemble those of the Gadwall enough for the
two to be confused. Mallard eggs average slightly larger, and have a greenish
rather than buffv tone of coloration.

Mallard

Fig. 9. Side of bill.

Fig. 10. Top of bill. Natural size.

Note broad outline (height at base more than one-third
total length), and presence of cross-ridges on sides of lower
mandible as showing near base (compare with figs. 5-8).

General distribution — The Northern Hemisphere generally. In North
America breeds from western Alaska, east through Canada to Hudson Bay,
and in Greenland; thence south through the United States to Lower California,
southern Kansas, southern Indiana, and (rarely) Maryland; winters from
Alaska (sparingly), and the northern United States, south to Mexico and
Panama; casual in Bermuda and Hawaii. In the Old World also migratory,
wintering south to northern Africa and India (modified from A. O. U. Check-
list, 1910, p. 68).

Distribution in California — Common resident in suitable localities through-
out the state, but much more abundant in winter than in summer. A typical
fresh-water duck, occurring but sparingly on salt water. Most abundant
around fresh-water ponds and streams in the interior valleys. Breeding
stations numerous and widelv distributed.

GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA

The Mallard is the largest and most highly prized of the resident
ducks in California, and is widely distributed throughout the state.
A typical river duck, it is seldom found on salt water and only
sparingly on the marshes along the seacoast. It is most abundant on
the rivers, lakes and ponds of the interior, being partial to the freshest
water. A large number of Mallards breed within tlie state, but
their numbers are greatly augmented during the winter season by
migrants from the north. Tliis is a common breeding bird in Oregon,
Washington, British Columbia and southeastern Alaska ; in each of
these regions the species occurs in varying numbers in winter also,
but in northern and western Alaska it appears merely as a summer
resident and even then only in limited numbers. It is also one of
the commonest ducks of the middle west but is only a straggler in the

Fig. 11. Side of tarsus aud foot of
Mallard. Natural size.

Note that tarsus is shorter than middle
toe without claw (compare with fig. 37),
and that there is no large lobe on hind
toe (compare with fig. 22).

states of the Atlantic Coast where its place is taken by the Black
Duck {Anas ruhripes) .

For the majority of the people of the state the Greenhead or
Mallard is the duck most easily recognized, and it has been domes-
ticated to such an extent that it is familiar to many people who have
never seen it in the wild. The green head and white ring around
the neck easily identifies the male, while the large size together with
the violet wing-speculum bordered on both sides by black and white,
are sufficient to distinguish either sex of the Mallard from all other
ducks (pi. 2). In flight the white under surface of the wing often
helps in identification. When flushed at close range the white of the
spread tail in the male shows as a white band. Not only do tlie plainer
body colors of the female easily separate tliis sex from the male, but
its much louder call is by common testimony a noticeable trait. The
female Mallard when flushed in the open can be readily distinguished
from the female Pintail by its larger size, shorter neck and Avhite
under surface of Aving. At close range the conspicuous violet speculum

MALL A ED 95

of the IMallard contrasts markedly with the dull brownish speculum
of the Pintail. The ]Mallard 's nearest relative, the Black Duck, is of
very rare occurrence in California ; it is easily distinguishable from
the Mallard by its much darker general color in both sexes and by
the lack of the metallic green on the head in the male.

As a general rule this duck is monogamous in its native estate,
although some authorities contend that polygamy occurs where there
is a deai-th of males. The courting antics of the wild ^Mallard in Cali-
fornia have never been described ; but they are doubtless of the same
type as observed by C. W. Townsend in Massachusetts. According
to that author the drake swims restlessly about following or sidling
up to a duck. She may lead him a long chase before he is able to press
his attentions closely. He then begins a continual bowing to her,
bobbing his head up and down in nervous jerks so that the yellow
bill dips into the water for a quarter of its length and comes up
dripping. He also rears himself up in the water and from time to
time displays his breast. The female shows little concern at first,
but occasionally turns her head to one side and carelessly dabbles her
bill in the water. "... Sooner or later, if all goes well, she begins
to bow also, less vigorously at first — not touching the water at all —
and to the empty space in front of her. Suddenly she turns and the
pair bow to each other in the same energetic nervous jerks, and,
unless a rival appears to spoil the situation, the drake has won his
suit" (C. W. Townsend, 1916, p. 13).

The ]\Iallard is one of the earliest ducks to breed. "By February
nearly all have selected their partners for the nesting season. They
still travel in large companies ; but watch a flock of them after they
have settled down in the open water. At once they separate into
pairs, every handsome 'Greenhead' swimming in close attendance
w^herever his modestly garbed mate shall lead. Should one of the
pair be killed, the other will not mate again that season. . ." (Bowles,
in Dawson, 1909, p. 767).

In California Mallards breed wherever suitable conditions are
afforded. There does not seem to be in the lowland districts any
difference in the time of nesting which can be correlated with differ-
ences in latitude. The earliest record is that by Belding (MS) who
found eggs at Gridley, Butte County, March 25, 1890. In Los Angeles
County, Grinnell (1898, p. 10) gives the nesting season as extending
from the first of April to the end of June, and this probably would
apply to other portions of the state as well. The latest report, season-
ally, is that by A. K. Fisher (1893a, p. 15) who records downy young
at Walker Basin, Kern County, July 13, 1891.

The data brought together in the accompanying table (no. 8)
are all that have been found by the authors as applying to California.

GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOBNIA

Table 8. — Data relative to the nesting of the Mallard in California

Locality
Gridley, Butte Co.
Los Angeles Co.

Date Eggs or Young

Mar. 25, 1890 Eggs
First of April Breeding

Authority
Belding, MS.
Grinnell, 1898, p. 10

Lake Merced,

San Francisco Co.
San Diego

Believed to be breeding

to last of
June
Apr. 28, 1915 10 eggs (7 on Apr. 22) Squires, 1915, p. 234

Apr. 24, 1862 Female with egg nearly Cooper, 1880, p. 251
matured

Hueneme, Ventura Co. May 1, 1910 11 eggs, partly incubated Willett, 1912a, p. 22

Near San Jose, May 1, 1893 11 eggs

Santa Clara Co.
Olancha, Invo Co. Mav 6—11,

1891

Wheeler Island, May 8, 1914 ' Four broods about one

Solano Co. week old

Alvarado, Alameda Co. May 9, 1914 11 eggs

Alvarado, Alameda Co. May 9, 1914 14 eggs

Stockton, May 9, 1878 A brood of young

San Joaquin Co.

Hayward, Alameda Co. May 11, 1884 Half-grown young seen
Los Banos, Merced Co. May 12, 1914 Brood of half-grown

young
Los Banos, Merced Co. May 18, 1914 10 downy young

Barlow, 1893, p. 38

A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 15

Fair, MS.

Dirks, MS.
Dirks, MS.
Belding, 1879, p. 446

Emerson, in Belding, MS.
H. C. Bryant, 1914e,

p. 219
H. C. Bryant, 1914e,

p. 219
Belding, MS.
Reed, 1904, p. 70
Mailliard coll.
Mailliard, MS.

Gridley, Butte Co. May 19, Young a month old

San Diego May 19, 1897 Eggs

Merced Co. May 19, 1896 9 eggs, fresh

Merced Co. May 19, 1896 8 eggs

Gridley, Butte Co. Mav 25, 1914 Brood of voung 10 inches H. C. Bryant, 1914e

long p. 227

Gridley, Butte Co. May 26, 1914 Nest found from which H. C. Bryant, 1914e

young had hatched p. 227

Gridley, Butte Co. May 27, 1914 Brood of young 7 inches H. C. Bryant, 1914e

long p. 227

Lake Tahoe May — -, 1901 Nest; eggs hatched later Ray, 1901, p. 116

Lake Valley, Mav — , Bred in this month

Lake Tahoe 1901-02

Los Baiios, Merced Co. June 1, 1915 9 eggs, incubation

various

June 5, 1915 70 young seen with 66

adults
June 6, 1914 5 eggs, bird sitting

June 7, 1914 9 eggs, incubated

June 9, 1911 9 eggs, half incubated
June 14, 1886 8 eggs, fresh

Stow Lake,

San Francisco
Willow Creek, Lower

Klamath Lake
Willow Creek, Lower

Klamath Lake
Lake Tahoe
Bear Valley reservoir,

San Bernardino Co.
Rowlands Marsh,

Lake Tahoe
Tulare Lake, Kings Co. June 18-July Large young

12, 1907
Kern Valley, Kern Co. June 22, 1891 Present
Chowchilla, Merced Co. June 24, 1900 Young 3 da.vs old
Fresno district June 26, 1906 Female with brood

Eagle Lake, Lassen Co. June 26, 1905 Half-grown young

(or later)
Eagle Lake, Lassen Co. June 27, 1884 8 eggs

Walker Basin, Kern Co. July 13, 1891 Broods of downy young
Bakersfteld, Kern Co. July 19, 1891 Brood of young nearly

grown

Escondido, San Diego — , 1896 One nest found

Co.
Santa Barbara Breeds on estuary. 6

miles away
Santa Cruz Eggs found

Ray, 1903, pp. 48-49
Mailliard coll.
Squires, 1915, p. 234

H. C. Bryant, 1914e,

p. 231
H. C. Bryant, 1914e,

p. 231
Carriger coll.
Stephens, MS.

June 16, 1903 7 eggs, practically fresh Ray, 1905, p. 367

Goldman, 1908/). p. 201

A. K. Fisher, 1893a. p. 15
Mailliard coll.
Tyler, 19136, pp. 15-16
Sheldon, 1907, p. 186

C. H. Townsend, 1887,

p. 193
A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 15
A. K. Fisher, 1893a. p. 15

Sharp. 1907, p. 86

Streator, 1886, p. 90

Skirm, 1884, p. 150

MALL A ED 97

The table suggests that the height of the nesting season is in April,
perhaps the latter part of the month. Many of the nests which are
found after this time probably represent instances of second laying
where the first clutch was destroyed.

The ]\Iallard nests with equal freedom in the marsh lands sur-
rounding our bays, the rivers and ponds of the great interior valleys,
and the mountain lakes of the Sierra Nevada even as high as Lake
Tahoe, elevation 6,225 feet. A secluded spot, usually not far from
water, is most often selected for the nest site. Advantage is taken of
any shelter such as willows, tules, weeds or tall grass in which the
structure can be concealed. At Lake Tahoe, Ray (1903, pp. 48-49)
found ^Mallard nests in the wiry grass which grew on sandspits, and
about Lower Klamath Lake, Siskiyou County, H. C. Bryant (1914e,
p. 231 ) found the species nesting on dry flats covered with sage brush,
though not far from water. i\Iore rarely nests are located in grain
fields and may then be some distance from water. In many instances
marsh nests are on such damp ground that the eggs may be stained
by contact with the moist nest materials. About Stow Lake, in Golden
Gate Park, San Francisco, nests are hidden in the shrubbery which
lines the inner shore of the lake. The nest itself is constructed of
plant materials of various sorts such as fresh and dried grasses and
clover, and to these is added a warm lining of down feathers from
the breast of the female. The structure is large ; one found by Bar-
low (1893, p. 38) near San Jose, Santa Clara County, measured
eighteen inches in diameter.

The eggs in a complete set number from five to fourteen. The data
at hand do not permit of obtaining a satisfactory statistical average,
but our impression is that the average number in a set is about nine
or ten.

The female alone incubates the eggs. She guards them very
solicitously, seldom leaving the nest voluntarily except under cover
of darkness and then only after carefully covering the eggs with
down. "When on the nest she will even cover herself with leaves and
grasses to assure better concealment, though her own dull mottled
plumage would seem alone sufficient for this purpose. Occasionally
a female will sit so closely that she will allow herself to be taken on
the nest, or the eggs to be removed from beneath her. On being
flushed from the nest or when with young, the female nearly always
employs the ruse of lameness or of a broken wing to lead the intruder
away. The period of incubation is four weeks. During incubation
the male can usually be found in the near vicinity of the nest, but he
takes no part in the duties of incubation or of rearing the young. It
is during this period that he begins the molt into the eclipse plumage.
The Mallard returns to the same locality to nest year after vear.

98 GAME BIIiDS OF CALIFORNIA

Young ]\lallards are found in greatest abundance in May. They
are led to water by the mother soon after hatching. The mother care-
fully tends the young, and aids them in obtaining food so that they
soon learn to find their own provender. As far as known under
normal circumstances but one brood is raised each year. The broods
of 3^oung as a rule keep tliemselves well concealed among the tules and
grass. When surprised in open water the ducklings scurry to cover
and conceal themselves so artfully that they are very difficult to find.
After diving, a young bird either clings motionless to the weeds on
the bottom or swims for a long distance under water. When coming to
the surface the bill alone is exposed above the water. For this reason
a whole brood may disappear as if by magic and the closest search
result only in failure. Unlike the adult, the young Mallard is said
to obtain much of its food by diving. This habit would be of value
also as a means of escape from enemies during the considerable period
of time before flight becomes possible.

Mallards in California seldom gather in large flocks as do many
of the other ducks. As a rule, they are found in pairs or at best in
small flocks. Their ability to walk on land is far superior to that of
most other ducks. In flight they progress by continuous rapid strokes
of the wing, no sailing being evident. The wing beats are accom-
panied by a distinct whistling sound. A speed of nearly a hundred
miles an hour is said to be attained (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884,
I, p. 498).

Among most male ducks a remarkable change in plumage takes
place during the summer months. Because this plumage overshadows
the brighter plumage of the spring months it is known as the
"eclipse" plumage. In such a bright colored bird as is the drake
Mallard in spring, the change to the eclipse plumage is particularly
noticeable. The change is first to be noted in June ; a few birds seen
on Lower Klamath Lake, June 5, 1914, were already assuming the
eclipse plumage. The old feathers of the head and breast gradually
drop out and new ones take their places. By August first the green
of tlie head has been entirely replaced by brownish feathers and the
bird looks at a little distance very much like the female, except that
it is darker.

During August the regular annual molt takes place and the sombre
brown of the eclipse plumage in turn gives place to the brighter colors
of the plumage worn throughout winter and spring. There are thus
two molts during the year, and two plumages, one of which is worn
for only a few weeks in the late summer. During the late summer
molt, which involves the entire plumage, the Mallard hides away in
rank vegetation, concealing itself so well that it is seldom seen. The
flight feathers are among the last to be molted. Since the bird loses

MALLAED 99

the power of flight by the ahuost simultaneous molt of the wing
feathers, its only means of protection rests in its ability to hide or to
escape notice because of its dull coloration. Thus the dull eclipse
plumage is supposedly for protective purposes.

The following interesting note on the use of protective coloration
by the ^Mallard is recorded from Alaska by Osgood (1904, p. 56) :

Expecting the bird to rise at any moment, we paddled on but were begin
ning to feel baffled, when just before the canoe touched the bank, we found our
game gi\-ing a very pretty exhibition of its confidence in protective coloration.
It was a female Mallard, and lay on the brown mud bank, strewn with dead
grass and decaying matter, which blended perfectly with the markings of its
back. It was not merelj' crouching, but lay prostrated to the last degree, its
wings closely folded, its neck stretched straight out in front of it, with throat
and under mandible laid out straight, and even its short tail pressed flatly
into the mud. The only sign of life came from its bright little eyes, which
nervously looked at us in a half hopeful, half desperate manner. When a
paddle was lifted, with which it could almost be reached, the bird started
up and was allowed to escape with its well-earned life.

]\Iost of the food of the Mallard is obtained in shallow water, but
the bird often forages on shore and even at some distance inland
when desirable food is obtainable there. When feeding in shallow
water it not only skims the surface of the water but every now and
then turns tail up and searches the bottom. The latter mode of food
getting is sometimes called ''tilting," and the Mallard, like the
other river and pond ducks which often feed in this manner, is called
a ' ' tip-up ' ' ; the adult bird seldom dives, however. It discovers
its food by means of touch rather than sight, so that it can feed
equally as well at night as by day (Baird, Brewer and Kidgway,
1884, I, p. 497). The food consists largely of vegetable matter in
the form of grass, aquatic plants, weed seeds, and grain. So fond
is this bird of grain that in some localities the loss it occasions the
grain grower is no small one. Nevertheless, the Mallard can be said
to be fairly omnivorous, for it also feeds on larvae of aquatic insects,
worms, grasshoppers, small molluscs and crustaceans. A. K. Fisher
(1893a, p. 15) records that a juvenile Mallard taken at Walker Basin,
Kern County, July 13, 1891, and still in the down, had its stomach dis-
tended \vith grasshoppers, insects which were abundant at that time
in the neighborhood of the sloughs. W. E. Bryant (1893a, p. 55)
reports the following from the stomachs of four specimens secured in
the Suisun marshes : "a. Small univalve shells in gullet, h. Bearded
barley and barley heads, c. Small sprouted seeds, d. Half a teacup-
ful of barnacles in the gullet." McAtee (1911&, pp. 1, 2) states that
the Mallard eats a larger percentage (17.13%) of wild rice than any
other duck, the Black Duck and Wood Duck ranking next. Wild

100 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

celery was found to make up 2.48% and pond weeds 12.67% of the
food for the year, in the 209 stomachs examined from all over the
United States.

Its large size and delicious flavor make this the most valuable game
bird of its kind in the state. While feeding on grain it becomes
excessively fat, attaining a weight of over three pounds. Its palata-
bility also increases at this time and it then brings the highest price
in the market, even the famed Canvasback taking second rank. In
the season of 1895-96 there were 47,565 Mallards sold in the markets
of San Francisco at twenty-five cents apiece (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896,
p. 42). During the season 1911-12 the markets paid an average price
of fifty cents apiece for them, and at one time as high as eighty cents.

Owing to its habit of foraging far from water the Mallard affords
ideal "pass shooting." In addition it is easily decoyed. Thus it
has every requisite of a fine game bird and is consequently the favorite
of the sportsman.

The Mallard breeds readily in captivity and for that reason has
been widely domesticated. A pond, seclusion, and plenty of weeds
and grass are the chief needs. On the State Game Farm at Hayward,
Alameda County, Mallards rear broods each year. Several fanciers
have also been successful in raising the bird in this state. There is
every indication that this species can be propagated for the market
on a large scale. The increasing prices obtainable from year to year
point towards this as a profitable industry.

In England Mallards have been raised regularly in captivity and
made to fly in a straight line over guns to afford sport.

Both in the wild state and in captivity this bird readily hybridizes
with other near-related species. A highly esteemed variety of barn-
yard duck is a hybrid between the Mallard and Muscovy Duck.
Hybrids also occur between the Mallard, and the Pintail. Gadwall,
Shoveller, and Black Duck, respectively.

In 1889 A. M. Shields (Davie, 1889, p. 62) stated that, during
the summer, the^ Mallard was, "perhaps, the most common of the
ducks in the vicinity of Los Angeles.'' But of recent years accord-
ing to H. J. Lelande (in letter), very few if any breed in Los Angeles
County. A brood was known to have been reared in 1904 at Little
Elizabeth Lake. Filling-in of swamps and close settlement of the
territory has its inevitable effects on birds of this class. In the San
Joaquin Valley the Mallard is certainly outnumbered in summer by
the Cinnamon Teal. But whereas the latter may be found plentifully
about both alkaline and fresh water ponds and marshes, the I\Iallard
shows a decided preference for fresh water.

That the numbers of Mallards have been greatly reduced is evident.
Anyone conversant with game conditions will name this species as one

BLACK DUCK 101

of those which have been most noticeably reduced. As the supply of
Mallards in California is probably dependent to a large extent on the
birds raised within the state, it is only natural that the annual toll
taken by the hunter has caused a very noticeable decrease. Compared
with such ducks as the Redhead and Wood Duck, however, the decrease
in tlie number of Mallards has been slight.

Two things, at least, give hope that this duck will continue to
exist in large enough numbers to supply the demands of the sportsman,
if these demands are reasonable. One is the fact that this duck soon
learns to keep out of gunshot and the other the fact that the bird will
content itself with a small amount of water and will even nest where
the only water is an irrigation ditch some distance away. This latter
point suggests that the increase of agriculture, with the attendant
development of irrigation, may not have so deleterious an effect on the
Mallard as would at first be supposed, especially if the birds are not
molested during the breeding season. Although the Mallard is in no
immediate danger of extermination in this state, yet the present
annual toll taken is too great to be maintained very many years with-
out endangering the existence of the species. By reducing the bag
limit and shortening the season it should be possible as with other
game to adjust the annual toll to the rate of production.

Black Duck

Anas nthripes Brewster

Other names — Black Mallard; Dusky Duck; Anas obscura.

Description — Adults, both sexes: Whole head and upper surface dusky brown,
variegated with pale rusty brown feather edgings; top of head darker than
sides and throat, the latter narrowly streaked with dusky on a pale brownish
gray ground; a dusky stripe back from eye; iris brown; bill yellowish green;
outer surface of closed wing like back biit with a faint gray tinge; flight
feathers blackish; speculum changeably steel blue and violet, framed in black;
under surface of wing mostly white; under surface of body like back but
paler, due to wider edgings of dusky on feathers; feet orange red, webs darker.
Total length "21.00-24.50" inches (533-622 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 91.)
Female: folded wing 10.60 (269); bill along culmen 2.02 (51.3); tarsus 1.63
(41.4) (one specimen from California). Juvenile plumage: "Similar to adult,
with bill more of a greenish hue and streaked with dusky" (Sanford, Bishop
and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 79). Natal plumage: Whole top of head dark brown,
with a yellow cast on forehead; side of head, chin and throat, brownish white;
stripe from side of bill through eye to above ear region, brownish black; above
this a stripe of pale yellowish brown; rest of upper surface, brown; hind
margin of wing yellowish white, as also a pair of spots on back behind wings
and another pair on each side of rump; foreneck pale yellowish brown; rest
of under surface dull white.

102 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

Makks for field identification — Both sexes resemble female Mallard but
are darker in coloration; the general blackish coloration, the white wing
lining, and violet speculum framed in black are distinctive.

Voice — A loud resonant "quack" like that of the Mallard (Chapman,
1912, p. 193).

Nest — On the ground; constructed of weeds, grass, and feathers (authors).

Eggs — 8 to 12, ovate to elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.22 to
2.44 by 1.63 to 1.83 (in millimeters, 56.5 to 62 by 41.5 to 46.5), and averaging
2.36 by 1.69 (60 by 43) (28 eggs in U. S. National Museum); in color white
or creamy white; the shell having an oily texture.

General distribution — Eastern North America. Breeds from central Kee-
watin and northern Ungava south to northern Wisconsin, northern Indiana, and
southern Maryland; winters from Nova Scotia south to southern Louisiana
and Colorado; west in migration to Nebraska and central Kansas; casual in
Bermuda, Jamaica and California (modified from A. O. U. Cheek-list, 1910,
p. 68).

Distribution in California — One instance of occurrence: A single bird,
presumably a female, taken at Willows, Glenn County, February 1, 1911 (now
no. 17198 Mus. Vert. Zool.).

The Black Duck, a near relative of the Mallard, is a species of
the eastern and middle western United States, and eastern Canada.
In the North Atlantic States it entirely replaces the Mallard as a
breeding species. There is but one record of its occurrence in Cali-
fornia. A bird, evidently a female, although the sex was not deter-
mined by dissection, was taken by a hunter at "Willows, Glenn County,
February 1, 1911. This individual was mounted by Vernon Shepherd,
a San Francisco taxidermist, and later presented to the Museum of
Vertebrate Zoology. This bird was evidently a straggler ; and the
Black Duck cannot be considered of more than accidental occurrence
in California.

"The Black Duck breeds so early that young have been found at
Old Saybrook, Conn., May 5, and eggs at Rehoboth, Mass., April 30"
(Cooke, 1906, p. 25).

"It is more common in the Atlantic Coast States than inland, and
when molested will sometimes pass the day at sea returning at night
to feed in the ponds and marshes" (Chapman, 1912, p. 193).

"Like the Mallard, the Black, or Dusky Duck, feeds on wild rice,
buckwheat, weed seeds and nearly all manner of vegetable substances,
also devouring snails, frogs and other aquatic animals with a glut-
tonous greed, especially in the springtime" (Eaton, 1910, p. 186).

The Black Duck resembles the Mallard in general habits and it is
to be looked for in situations frequented by the latter bird. Loveland,
Colorado, is the nearest place where this typically eastern species has
been previously recorded and it is not probable that any great number
of individuals will ever wander so far west as California. Additional
instances of occurrence should be reported for their scientific value.

GADWALL 103

Gadwall
Chaulelasmus streperus (Linnaeus)

Other names — Gray Duck; Gadwell; Anas strepcra.

Description — Adult male: Whole head and neck pale brown finely mottled
with black, the brown being darkest on top of head with less distinct spotting;
throat very pale brownish gray minutely flecked with dusky; bill bluish black;
iris reddish hazel; back and sides with fine undulating, transverse bars of
brownish black and white; outer surface of closed wing ashy brown with a
chestnut patch on middle wing coverts followed behind by a black bar;
speculum pure white; rump dull slate color; upper and lower tail coverts
velvety black; tail drab gray faintly edged with whitish; whole breast
mottled in intricate pattern with crescentic bars of black and white, with a
suffusion of pale brown; rest of under surface pure white, save for faint dusky
barring in the region of the vent; sometimes a strong suffusion of rusty over
whole lower surface; feet dull orange yellow with dusky webs. Total length
"19.25-21.75" inches (489-553 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 95); folded wing
9.75-10.90 (248-277); bill along culmen 1.63-1.78 (41.4-45.3); tarsus 1.53-1.67
(38.8-42.4) (ten specimens). Adult female: Head and neck colored as in
male, but otherwise decidedly different; upper surface and sides coarsely and
irregularly barred and mottled with dark brown and dull white; wing as in
male but with markings less clean and chestnut entirely lacking; rump and
upper and under tail coverts brown, the latter mottled with dull white like
flanks; breast heavily mottled with black on a rusty brown ground; lower
breast and abdomen white often more or less obscured with rusty. Total
length "about 18" inches (457 mm.) (Ridgway, loe. cit) ; folded wing 9.62-
10.12 (244-257); bill along culmen 1.52-1.70 (38.6-43.2); tarsus 1.42-1..58 (36.1-
40.2) (nine specimens) ; all from California. Eclipse plumage of male: Top of head
brownish black with a greenish tinge; indistinct dark brown streak through eye;
rest of head and neck dull brownish white marked with blackish brown as in
regular plumage; back, rump and upper tail coverts, blackish brown, each
feather margined with rusty red; wings and tail as in regular plumage; breast
dull rusty red with central black spot on each feather; flanks dark brown
broadly marked and margined with dull rusty brown; rest of under surface
dull white with a blackish brown spot in center of each feather (see Sharpe and
Dresser, in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 506). Juvenile plumage
(both sexes): Closely resembles that of adult female. Natal plumage: Top
of head and line from bill through eye, dull brown; sides of heail and neck,
dull creamy buff; spot over ear, dusky; upper surface of body dark brown;
paired spots on hind margin of wing and sides of rump, light buff; throat
and foreneck pale buff; under surface of body buffy white; band across chest
buff.

Marks for field identification — Slender appearance, long pointed wings,
general gray coloration, and pure white speculum (the only river duck so
marked). Under tail coverts black in male.

Voice — In flight, an oft repeated "quack," resembling that of the Mallard,
though higher pitched and less in volume (Eaton, 1910, p. 189).

Nest — In grass on dry ground but usually close to water ; composed of grasses
and tules and lined with down; resembles that of Mallard.

Eggs — 7 to 13, bluntly ovate, or nearly oval, measuring in inches 2.02 to 2.18
by 1.48 to 1.57 (in millimeters, 51.5 to 55.5 by 37.5 to 40.0), and averaging

104 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

2.11 by 1.53 (53.5 by 39.0) (18 eggs in U. S. National Museuiii); color creamy
white.

General distribution— Almost throughout the Northern Hemisphere. In
North America breeds from southern British Columbia and central Keewatin
south to southern California and east to southern Wisconsin; winters from
southern British Columbia aiid the central-eastern United States south to
southern Lower California, central Mexico and Florida; rare in migration on
Atlantic Coast, and of casual occurrence in Bermuda, Cuba and Jamaica (A.
O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 69).

Distribution in California — Fairly common resident in fresh water tule
swamps particularly of the great interior valleys. More numerous in winter
when the numbers are augmented by migrants from the north. Kecorded as
breeding, west of the Sierras, from the Sacramento Valley south to San Jacinto
Lake, Eiverside County.

The Gadwall or Gray Duck is essentially a river or freshwater

duck and is to be found in many parts of the interior of California.

It exists in greatest numbers about

those ponds, lakes and rivers where

there are plenty of tules and weeds.

It is seldom, if ever, found on salt

water or on alkali ponds and lakes.

^. ,„ _, ^ n .,, -. ^ , Practically all of the Gadwalls sold
Fig. 12. Top of bill of female "^

Gadwall. Natural size. on the markets have been procured m

Note slender outline as com- ^he Sacramento and San Joaquin

pared with bill of female Pintail valleys.

(^g- 1^)- This duck, like the Mallard and

Cinnamon Teal, breeds regularly within the state. Although there are
not many records of its nesting, yet it is commonly understood among
hunters that the supply of Gadwalls is largely dependent upon the
birds raised in California. The fact that this duck is usually seen in
pairs or in small flocks even in winter also lends support to the belief
that it breeds in the immediate neighborhood. The species of ducks
which breed in the far north usually gather in large flocks during
migrations and in the winter. Nevertheless, the considerable increase
in the numbers of the Gadwall found here in winter is certainly the
result of an influx of birds which breed farther to the north. If the
number of these ducks sold in the markets of San Francisco is a
criterion, the Gadwall is only one-twentieth as numerous as the ]\Ial-
lard. But as the former is less sought after as a table bird, this is not
perhaps a fair basis of comparison.

In habits the Gadwall resembles the Mallard. But it is distin-
guished from the latter by its smaller size and gray coloration, and
by its more slender outline when on the wing. In the hand, the
Gadwall can be distinguished in all its plumages from all other ducks

GADWALL 105

by the i)ure white of its speculum. The feiuak'S of the Gadwall and
Baldpate resemble each other xqyj closely, but the former is darker
on the back and rump and does not show the conspicuous white
patches on the wings which mark the Baldpate in flight. The female
Gadwall and Pintail ai-e closely similar and may be confused, espe-
cially on the wing. The Pintail has a longer neck and is lighter colored
beneath ; in hand its green s})eculum and relatively broad bill (see figs.
12 and 19) make identification easy.

Chapman (1012, p. 194) describes the courtship flight of the
Gadwall in the East as follows: "The male pursues the female often
high in the air and for some time, on a course as erratic as that of a
Barn Swallow." Secluded places in fresh-water marshes are usually
selected as nesting sites. The nest is placed on the ground, some-
times in a depression, and usually in grass in relatively dry situations
though close to water. The structure is composed of any available
vegetable material such as grass and tules, finely shredded, and is
lined with very dark-colored down. The eggs, numbering seven to
thirteen in a set, and averaging about ten, are bluntly ovate or almost
oval in shai)e. They are of a j)ale creamy white tint. Eggs of the
Gadwall closely resemble those of the Baldpate. From the latter 's
eggs those of the Gadwall may usually be distinguished by their
shorter length and more oval shape and by their paler, less deeply
cream color ; but the identification cannot always be made with cer-
tainty. As compared with eggs of the Mallard those of the Gadwall
are smaller and less ovate in shape. The nest down of the Gadwall
is darker than that of the Baldpate. As with the Mallard the female
alone cares for the young. The downy young of the Gadwall are
stated to be among the palest colored of our river ducks. The accom-
panying table (no. 9) gives records of nests which have been reported
in California.

Table 9. — Data relative to the nesting of the Gadwall in California

Locality Date Coxtext.s of Nest Authority

Near Los Angeles April 16, 11 eggs, considerably Davie, 1900, p. 79

incubated

Los Bancs. Merced Co. Mav 12, 1914 9 eggs H. C. Bryant, 19 14*',

p. 222

Los Baiios. Merced Co. May 16, 1914 12 eggs, sliglitly in- H. C. Bryant, 1914*',

cubated p. 222

San Jacinto Lake, June 8, 1897 12 eggs, incubation com- Ingersoll coll.

Riverside Co. menced

Chowchilla, Merced Co. June 24, 1901 8 eggs, incubation begun Mailliard coll.

San Pedro, July 20 9 eggs Baird, Brewer and Ridg-

Los Angeles Co. way, 1884, I, p. 508

The Gadwall is a shy species, hiding away in the tules and weeds
during the daytime and even wdien foraging for food remaining close
to cover. Its long pointed wdngs give it rapid powers of flight ; and

106 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

a whistling sound, not so loud as that made by the Baldpate, is to
be heard under favorable conditions. When flushed it is said to rise
into the air almost perpendicularly.

Its food is made up largely of the seeds, leaves, buds and roots
of water plants. These it obtains along the shores of ponds, lakes
and rivers by "standing on its head," or "tilting," and searching
the bottom as does the Mallard. McAtee (19116, p. 1) states that
an examination of stomachs has shown that the food comprises a
lesser number of seeds but a larger per cent of pond weeds than that
of other ducks. W. E. Bryant (1893o, p. 55) found small seeds and
sand in a stomach which he examined.

Although usually considered an excellent bird for the table, Beld-
ing (MS) agrees with Bendire that its flesh is at times very inferior.
He says: "I have known it to be so oily and have such a fishy taste
that I could not eat it [even when] nicely roasted." If this be true
the small numbers sold in the market (671 in season 1895-1896)
(Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 42) might be attributed to this fact
rather than to actual numbers of the species obtainable. The Avell-
nigh exclusive vegetable diet of the GadM'all, on the other hand, would
appear to recommend it as a desirable bird for food.

Almost as many Gadwalls were sold in the season 1911-1912 by
one game transfer company in San Francisco as were sold in all of
the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles in the season 1895-
1896. If this be at all indicative, there can not have been a very
great diminution in their numbers during the last fifteeen years. The
greater decrease in more desirable ducks, however, will in time
increase the demand for the Gadwall and so increase the annual kill.

Baldpate

Mareca americmia (Graelin)

Other names — American Widgeon; Widgeon; Anas americnna ; Mareca pene-
lope, part.

Description — Adult male: Broad streak from foreheail over top of head,
white; rest of head and neck thiekly speckled with black on a white ground;
streak behind each eye metallic green, the two often joining on hind neck;
bill light bluish ash, the tip, extreme base, and lower mandible, black; iris
hazel; back pale pinkish brown, delicately undulated with black; rump ashy
brown, sometimes minutely undulated with white; middle upper tail coverts
pale ashy, the basal ones finely undulated with dusky; lateral ones velvety
black contrasting conspicuously with white patch at side of base of tail; tail
slaty black above, ashy beneath ; large area on forepart of wing pure white, edged
in front and above with ashy brown ; speculum metallic green, bordered in front by
a narrow black bar and shading behind into a broad area of velvety black; tertials
black, narrowly edged with white; rest of flight feathers slaty brown; axillars

B A LDP ATE 107

white; lining of wing pale ashy gray; breast, sides and flanks, pinkish brown,
the breast washed with ashy and the sides and flanks irregularly barred with
blackish; lower tail coverts velvety black; rest of under surface pure white,
sometimes suffused with rusty; legs and feet greenish slate, claws and joints
dusky. Males: Total length 19.30-20.44 inches (490-520 mm.) (two specimens);
folded wing 9.85-10.35 (250-263); bill along culmen 1..36-1.57 (34.7-40.0);
tarsus 1.41-1.58 (35.8-40.2) (ten specimens); weight 22.6.5-23.20 oz. (641-656
gm.) (two specimens). Adult female: Whole upper surface dull grayish brown;
barred with yellowish brown; head and neck thickly mottled with blackish
on a whitish ground; rump and upper and under tail coverts dark brown, with
whitish feather margins and the coverts pervaded with reddish brown; wing
as in male but white area chiefly replaced by white-edged ashy brown feathers;
speculum dull black, occasionally with a small patch of metallic green ; sides
and flanks deep reddish brown; breast dull brown, mottled with blackish and
tinged with ashy; rest of under surface white, sometimes tinged with rusty.
Folded wing 9.00-9.80 inches (228-249 mm.) bill along culmen 1.22-1.55 (31.1-
39.4); tarsus 1.37-1.55 (34.8-39.4) (ten specimens); all from California. Juvenile
plumage: Similar to that of adult female but colors more pronounced, and
the pattern better defined, especially on the wing (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway,
1884, I, p. 521). Natal plumage: Top of head and stripe down hind neck, dark
sepia brown; sides of head and neck cinnamon buff; back light brown; pair of
spots at base of tail, white; hind margin of wing pinkish buff; throat creamy
buff; rest of under surface dull creamy buff, suffused with cinnamon buff
on chest.

Marks for field idextificatiox — Medium size, white axillars, and more or
less white on forepart of wing. Males have top of head white, sides of head
mixed black and white, a green patch behind eye, green speculum, white
flank patch, and black under tail coverts. Both sexes distinguished from
European Widgeon by pure white rather than grayish axillars, and male by
lack of reddish brown on head (pi. 3). The wings make a whistling noise
when the birds are in flight.

Voice — Of male: a mewang whistle resembling the syllables icheiv whew;
of female: a loud laotv, kaow, or hue, hue, hue, with a strong accent on the
second note (Eaton, 1910, p. 191; Nordhoff, 1902, p. 213).

Xest — Usually on high dry ground, and often a considerable distance from
water; a slight depression well lined with dry grass and weed stems and abun-
dantly supplied with light gray down (Bent, 1901, p. 335).

Eggs — 6 to 12, elliptical ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.00 to 2.37
by 1.42 to 1.60 (in millimeters, 51.0 to 60.1 by 36.2 to 40.1), and averaging
2.17 by 1.53 (55.1 by 38.8); color deep cream to nearly white (Bent, 1901, pp.
335-336; and fifty-four eggs in U. S. National Museum).

General distribution — North America. Breeds from northwestern Alaska,
northern Mackenzie and central Keew^atin south to Oregon, Colorado, Kansas,
and northern Indiana; winters from southern British Columbia, southern
Illinois, and Maryland south to southern Lower California, the West Indies
and Costa Eica; rare in migration in maritime provinces of Canada, and
casual in Hawaii, Bermuda and Europe (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 70).

Distribution in California — Common winter visitant to suitable localities
throughout the state, chiefly on fresh water, but occurs occasionally along the
coast, especially in the shoal waters of Humboldt, Tomales and San Francisco
bays. Recorded as breeding on Davis Creek, Modoc County.

108 GAME BIJRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Tlie Haldpate, or Anicrieaii Widgeon, is one of the best known
and most nmnerous of the river dneks in California during the winter
season. It begins to arrive in munbers in October, and leaves again
for the north in the early part of March. From the numbers sold
on the market in (California, one might judge the species to be most
abundant in November. Although preferring the fresh water lakes,
ponds, rivers, and sloughs of the interior, the Baldpate is sometimes
found in considerable numbers on the shallow water of the bays.
Often the latter location is used as a loafing ground, at least during
the day. The species is "very connnon along the coast from Crescent
City southward during October. Widgeons usually [form] . . . the
largest part of every duck hunter's bag. They often spend the day
in the open ocean and return to the marshes to feed at night" (Ferry,
1908, pp. 38-39).

A large area of white on the top of the head of the male has given
this duck its common name of Baldpate (pi. 3). This white patch
together with a broad metallic green streak behind the eye helps to
distinguish this duck from others. The large amount of white on
the fore part of the wing, especially in the male, the white axillars,
and the conspicuous white under surface of the body also aid in identi-
fication. The speculum is peculiar, that of the male being green,
bordered in front and behind with velvety black, while that of the
female is usually altogether dull black. In most ducks it is the same
in both sexes. The lighter color of the lower surface and the white
axillars and dark speculum serve to distinguish the female Baldpate
from the female Gadwall, our only other duck of comparable size
and coloration. Were it not for the gray under surface of the w4ng
in the female Baldpate, visible in tlight, she might be mistaken for a
female Mallard ; but the latter bird has a pure white under wing
lining, and no patch of white on the outer surface of the Aving.

The Baldpate breeds later than most other ducks, as it apparently
does not begin laying until late May or early June in Alaska. Accord-
ing to Nelson (1887, p. 68) small ducklings are to be seen there at
various times in July, and young only half-grown as late as the middle
of August. There is only one record of this duck nesting in Cali-
fornia: Dawson (1916, p. 24) says that it was "breeding commonly
at Davis Creek in ]\Iodoc County," where he found a set of nine fresh
eggs on June 20, 1912, and another of eleven, advanced in incuba-
tion, June 24 of the same year. Birds seen by him at Eagleville,
Surprise Valley, in the same county, July 12, 1912, were thought to
be breeding. Belding (MS) saw a pair of Baldpates at Stockton,
San Joaquin County, as late as May 28 (1878), but found no definite
evidence that they were breeding there.

BALDPATE 109

For its nest the Baldpate usually selects a place on high, dry
ground often some distance from water. Sometimes the nest is placed
at the foot of a tree or shrub ; at other times it is situated in weeds,
grasses or bushes. In either event there is little or no attempt at
concealment. The nest is lined with dry grass and weed stems, and
is abundantly su])plied with light gray down by the female parent.
In Alaska the place selected for nesting is said to be exactly like that
chosen by the Pintail. '

No complete account of the courtship of the Baldpate has yet
been published. C. W. Townsend (1916, p. 15) saj's of the male bird
in Massachusetts:

In his courting he continually emits gentle but eager whistling notes, and
with neck extended and heail low, bill wide open and wings elevated behind
so that the tips are pointed up at an angle of forty-five degrees, he swims
rapidly over the water beside or behind the duck. Occasionally he pecks
playfully at the side of her head, and now and then in his excitement jumps
clear of the water and flies for two or three yards.

Evidently the female alone performs the duties of incubation.
The males remain in the vicinity for some time after their mates begin
to sit, but when the time of moulting arrives they retire to grassy
marshes and edges of lakes for concealment and there for the time
being lead solitary lives. If the female be surprised while on the nest
she usually rises silently into the air and flies to the nearest water,
although sometimes she will alight on the ground only a slioi't distance
from the nest.

The young, before they are able to fly, seek the shelter of grass-
bordered lakes. But as soon as they can fly they repair to river-
shores and other open feeding-places, where they obtain aquatic
insects, small shells, and seeds and roots of various plants. The
broods often separate before leaving for the south in September
(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 524).

Nelson (1887, p. 68) gives the following facts regarding the
behavior of a female Baldpate and her young in Alaska. He came
suddenly upon a bird, with her brood of ten or a dozen little duck-
lings, in a small pond. As he approached, the parent uttered several
low, guttural notes and suddenly fluttered across the water and fell
heavily at his feet. Meanwhile the young swam to the opposite side
of the pond and began to scramble out into the grass. Wishing to
observe the old bird's raanoeuvers, he poked at her with his gun as
she fluttered about at his feet, but she always managed to elude his
strokes and, just as the last of her brood climbed out of the water,
she slyly edged off, and suddenly took flight to another pond some
distance away. As quickly as possible he ran to the point where
the ducklings had left the water ; yet, though but a few moments had

110 GAME BIBDS OF CALIF OMNIA

elapsed, the youug had concealed themselves so effectually in the
grass which was only three or four inches high that a half hour's
search was unavailing.

Bowles {in Dawson, 1909, p. 772) says that "their principal call
is a lisping, throaty whistle, repeated three times in quick succession.
It is surprisingly light in character for the size of the bird and serves
to confirm the bird's position on the list next to the Teals. . . . The
only other note I have heard them utter is a low, short chattering,
somewhat resembling that of the Pintail, but greatly reduced in
volume. Their quacks, or squawks, of alarm also express the limit
of terror, but are still pathetically inadequate in comparison with
those, say, of a hen Mallard."

While the Canvasback and the Scaups dive and pull up by the
roots the vallisneria or eel grass, the Baldpate manages to obtain
a large share indirectly through theft, and at times succeeds in rob-
bing them of all they bring up. In Chesapeake Bay, Maryland, the
Baldpate is said to be the constant companion of the Canvasback, the
latter possessing great superiority in its diving powers (Baird, Brewer
and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 524). To what extent they are similarly
parasitic in California is not known to us. Here, Baldpates are
occasionally found in company with Pintails.

"Almost strictly a vegetarian as to diet, their food in fall and
winter consists of seeds, water-weeds, soft roots, and an occasional
insect, thus making them more desirable as table birds than the
average duck. In late January and February, however, they con-
fine their feeding largely to the water-soaked fields, digging up the
young grass with their bills and eating roots and all" (Bowles, in
Dawson, 1909, p. 771). Near Los Banos, Merced County, Beck (MS)
says the Baldpates were feeding in close companies upon green grass
near sloughs. Although the grass was less than an inch high, it was
pulled off close to the ground. Feeding is done chiefly at night.
Stomach examination by us has shown that the Baldpate eats a larger
percentage of grass than any other California duck.

"In wing shooting it [the Baldpate] is regarded by the hunters as
a great nuisance. It is not only so shy that it avoids the points of
land, but by its whistling and confused manner of flight it alarms
the other species" (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, loc. cit."). How-
ever, it may be decoyed within gunshot by imitating its notes or
with well-placed wooden decoys. Its curiosity as well as its sociability
cause it to return again and again to decoy ponds.

In California the Baldpate is considered as inferior game in spite
of the fact that large numbers have been annually sold on the market.
Nevertheless, when in good condition, its flesh is hard to distinguish
from that of the Canvasback. Over 52,000 Baldpates were sold in the

EUROPEAN WIDGEON 111

markets of !Saii Francisco and Los Angeles during the season 1895-
1896 (Calif. Fish Conini., 1896, p. 40). In San Francisco nearly
15,000 were sold by one game transfer company in 1909-1910, while
but 9,254 were reported as sold in 1911-1912. The decrease here
shown would seem to indicate that there has been a marked decrease
in the general abundance of this duck during the two years specified.
The species has held its own to a greater degree than some other
ducks in spite of the large number killed annually. Nevertheless it
needs adequate protection such as would be afforded by a no-sale
law, shorter season, and smaller bag limit, to assure its preservation
as a game bird.

European Widgeon

Mareca penelope (Linnaeus)

Other names — Red-headed Widgeon; Anas penelope.

Description — Adult male: Head and neck bright rufous red, except crown
and forehead which are creamy white; lower eyelid white, upper black; numerous
minute black or iridescent flecks on sides of head; chin and narrow line down
throat dull black; bill " 'light grayish blue, with the tip . . . black' "; iris
" 'hazel brown' " (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 518); back undu-
lated with fine zig-zag bars of black and white, resulting in a general gray
cast; base of rump grayish brown; middle upper tail coverts like back, but
lighter; lateral upper and whole under tail coverts black; tail feathers above
blackish, beneath ashy; outer surface of closed wing mostly white but edged
anteriorly with ashy brown, and the tertials black edged with white; flight
feathers plain ashy brown ; speculum metallic green bordered both in front and
behind with velvety black; under surface of wing shining ashy gray; lower
surface largely pure white; broad area on chest extending high on the shoulders
pinkish brown; legs and feet " 'light grayish blue' " (Baird, Brewer and
Ridgway, loc. cit.). Total length (both sexes): "18.00-20.00" inches (4,58-508
mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 96); male: folded wing 10.00 (254); bill along culnien
1.47 (37..3); tarsus 1.62 (41.2) (one specimen in Grinnell coll., in Mus. Vert.
Zool.). Adult female: Head and upper neck yellowish red with small greenish
black spots most numerous on the upper part of head; upper surface dusky
brown, each feather edged with brownish red or whitish, giving a barred
appearance; bill and iris as in male; outer surface of closed wing dusky gray,
the white feathers of male being replaced by dusky gray ones tipped with
white; only an indication of a dark terminal bar on secondary coverts, and
black of inner secondaries as found in male replaced by dark gray; tail
feathers brownish gray edged with lighter; under tail coverts white barred
with brown; sides and fore part of chest obscurely barred with reddish brown
and brownish gray; breast and belly white. Folded wing 10.00 inches (254
mm.); bill along culmen 1..50 (38.2); tarsus 1.50 (38.2) (Baird, Brewer and
Ridgway, 1884, 1, p. 518). Juvenile plumage: "Head, neck, jugulum [foreneck],
sides and flanks, umber brown, varying to a cinnamon shade, the head and
neck thickly streaked with black, and the feathers of the jugulum, sides, etc.,
centered with dusky. Back and scapulars dusky, the feathers broadly
bordered with dull fulvous; crissum [under tail coverts] irregularly streaked
and spotted with dusky; rump and upper tail coverts slaty brown, bordered

112 GAME BIIWS OF CALIFOFNIA

with dull whitish. Wing as in the ailult, except that the coverts are dull
cinereous broadly bordered with white. Lower parts except as described, pure
white" (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, loe. cit.). Natal plumage: Top of head
brownish black; forehead, sides of head, and hind neck, light cinnamon brown;
whole back brown, wnth a spot of straw yellow on each side near base of tail,
and one of light tawny on hind border of each wing; lower surface of body
dull straw yellow, with an obscure wash of light cinnamon brown across
foreneck.

Marks for field identification — Similar to those for Baldpate. In hand
the male European Widgeon can be identified by the bright rufous red instead
of white and black speckled head, by lack of a green patch behind eye, by
grayish rather than pinkish brown tone of back, and by entire absence of
brown on sides of body (pi. 3). Both sexes ])0ssess gray axillar feathers; in the
Baldpate these are white.

Voice — "The call note of the male is a shrill, whistling whee-you, whence
the local names 'Whew-Duck' and 'Whewer'; but the female utters a low
purr or croak" (Saunders, 1899, p. 438).

Nest — On ground near water; built of grasses and dead plants and well
concealed.

Eggs — 5 to 10, pointedly ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.13 to 2.30 by
1.50 to 1.53 (in millimeters, 54.3 to 58.4 by 38.2 to 38.8); in color buffy white
(authors).

General distribution. — Northern part of the Eastern Hemisphere. Occurs
occasionally in winter and in migration in North America, from Wisconsin,
Michigan, New York, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Greenland south to
Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana, Ohio, North Carolina and Florida, and in Alaska,
British Columbia and California (A. O. V. Check-list, 1910, pp. 69-70).

Distribution in California — A not infrequent winter visitant. Definite
records known to the writers, of its occurrence within the state are: Eio Vista,
Solano County, two specimens (Belding, MS) ; San Francisco market, several
specimens (Cooper, 1868, p. 9; W. E. Bryant, 1886, p. 426; Ridgway, 1880, p.
231); Eureka, Humboldt County (C. H. Townsend, 1886, p. 491); Humboldt
Bay, Humboldt County, two specimens (F. J. Smith, MS) ; Bixby, Los Angeles
County (Grinnell, 1904b, pp. 383-384).

The European Widgeon is one of the few species which really
belong to tlie Eastern Hemisphere but of which stragglers occasionally
reach America. There are no records of its breeding within the United
States or anywhere else in North America. Cooke (1906, p. 28)
points out that most of the California records are in February, those
in British Columbia from December 25 to February 9, and the two
Alaska dates October 12 and May 27. Our birds probably come from
eastern Siberia.

All the California records are from near, the coast. ]\Ir. F. J.
Smith of Eureka writes us that three Red-headed Widgeons have
been taken on Humboldt Bay. One is an adult male in the collection
of birds mounted by Mr. Chas. Fiebig and now in the public library
at Eureka. This is doubtless the specimen recorded by C. H. Town-
send (1886, p. 491). A second adult male in faded plumage was taken

GEEEN-WINGED TEAL 113

about 1905 and is in the collection of Dr. P. H. Ottnier. The third
specimen was taken by an expert hunter, Alden Trott, from a flock
of Baldpates on Areata Bay, October 20, 1911. Mr. Chase Littlejohn
has told us that when his brother was hunting for the market in the
eighties, Red-headed Widgeons were frequently secured on south San
Francisco Bay.

There is a considerable difference in coloration between the male
Euro])ean Widgeon and our Baldpate, so that there is no need of
confusing the two, at least when in hand. The male European
Widgeon can always be distinguished by the rich brown color of the
head and neck, and both sexes by the gray instead of white axillary
feathers. In the full plumaged male bird the head and neck are almost
uniform rufous red in color, there is no brown on the sides, and the
back lacks the pinkish brown tone to be observed in the Baldpate.
The top of the head is creamy white, slightly rusty on the forepart.
The throat is largely blackish, while minute flecks of black dot the
cheeks and loral region. Back of the eye the chestnut ground-color
is overlaid by numerous flecks of metallic green. A specimen pro-
cured in Los Angeles County was taken for a hybrid between a Red-
head and Baldpate by local sportsmen.

In all its habits the European Widgeon is said by competent
authorities to resemble closely the American Widgeon, or Baldpate.

It has been suggested that probably many instances of occurrence
of this species have been overlooked by sportsmen and market hunters,
Avho usually make no attempt to pick out unusual birds unless the
difference is very noticeable. Owing to the rarity of its occurrence
the European Widgeon can hardly be reckoned upon as one of Cali-
fornia's regular game ducks.

Green-winged Teal

Nrttion carolinense (Gmelin)

Other names — Green-wing; Common Teal; American Green-winged Teal;
Anas carolinensis; Querquedula caroJinensis.

Description — AduU male: Head and upper neck chiefly rich chestnut brown,
darkest on forehead; a broad patch of metallic green on each side of head
extending from eye to hind neck, shading into black under eye and bordered
below by a buffy white line; on back of head the two green patches are
separated by a black patch, the latter involving the hinder part of a short
crest which is otherwise chestnut brown in continuation with same color on
top of head; chin and upper throat dull black; bill black; iris dark brown;
upper surface of body, a narrow collar around foreneck, sides, and flanks,
finely and irregularly undulated (cross-barred) with black and white; rump
slate brown; upper tail coverts dull black with ashy edgings which have a
suggestion of fine black and white undulation; tail slaty brown; outer surface
of closed wing (including elongated tertials) slate brown; speculum bright

114 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

metallic green, appearing violet at certain angles, bordered in front by a
vertical bar of buffy brown and above and below by horizontal black bars; a
conspicuous transverse bar of white on each side of body near bend of wing;
breast pinkish brown, distinctly spotted with black; middle under tail coverts
and patches at sides of vent, black; lateral under tail coverts creamy white;
under surface of tail ashy; rest of under surface dull white often more or less
obscured by rusty; legs and feet olive gray, darker at joints; webs brownish
black. Total length 14.75-15.75 inches (375-400 mm.) (six specimens); folded
wing 6.90-7.50 (175-190); bill along culmen 1.40-1.48 (35.6-37.6); tarsus 1.11-

1.26 (28.2-32.0) (ten specimens); weight, 12.5 oz. (355.5 gm.) (one specimen).
Adult female: Top of head and upper surface dark brown, the feathers edged
with pale ashy brown giving a barred or mottled appearance; top of head
more nearly uniform brown, the narrow light feather edgings giving an effect
of fine streaking; sides of head buffy white closely flecked with dusky; stripe
through eye dusky; chin, throat and lower eyelid dull white, more or less
speckled with dusky; iris yellow; outer surface of closed wing nearly as
in male but slate brown feathers edged with ashy; sides, breast, and flanks
similar to back, but of lighter general tone; rest of under surface as in male
except that the indistinct spotting of the breast sometimes extends onto belly;
under tail coverts like sides and back but still lighter. Total length 14.50-
15.25 inches (368-387 mm.) (three specimens); folded wing 6.62-7.00 (168-
178); bill along culmen 1.35-1.49 (34.3-37.8); tarsus 1.07-1.18 (27.2-30.0) (ten
specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult
female, but lower surface lighter, and spotting on belly very faint or absent.
Natal plumage: Top of head and hind neck, line from bill through eye, and
spot on ear, dark brown; sides of head dull yellow; back brown, with four
spots of straw yellow, one on each side at base of tail and one on each side
near wing.

Marks fob field identification — Very small size (for a duck); male,
chestnut brown head with green patch back of eye, white bar across side of
breast and bright green speculum bordered above and below by black. Dis-
tinguished from the rare European Teal by presence of white bar across side
of breast, and from Cinnamon and Blue-winged teals by absence of blue on
wing. Flanks of female and young Green-wing more heavily marked than in
Blue-winged Teal.

Voice — Of male: a short mellow whistle; of female: a high pitched and oft
repeated "quack" of slight volume (Eaton, 1910, p. 193; Bowles, in Dawson,

1909, p. 774).

Nest — On the ground near water; constructed of grass and feathers placed
in a thick growth of grass.

Eggs — 5 to 12, bluntly ovate in shape, measuring in inches 1.60 to 1.83 by
1.22 to 1.34 (in millimeters, 40.7 to 46.5 by 31.0 to 34.0), and averaging 1.72 by

1.27 (43.7 to 32.2) (fourteen eggs from Arctic America and one set, seven
eggs, from California, all in U. S. National Museum) ; pale olive or greenish
buff in color.

General distribution — North America. Breeds from northwestern Alaska,
central Keewatin, and Newfoundland south to California, northern Nebraska
and New Brunswick; winters from the Aleutian Islands, British Columbia,
Nevada, northern Indiana and western New York south to southern Lower
California, Honduras and the West Indies (modified from A. O. U. Check-list,

1910, pp. 70-71).

GREEN -WIN GET) TEAL 115

Distribution in California — Abundant winter visitant throughout the
state, chiefly on fresh water. Summers in small numbers locally; has been
recorded as breeding only in Ventura County (Evermann, 1886, p. 89); at Tulare
Lake, Kings County (Goldman, 1908rt, p. 129); in Sierra Valley, Plumas County
(Belding, MS); and near Alvarado, Alameda County (Dirks, 1916, p. 46).

The Green-winged Teal is probably the commonest and most
widely distributed duck in western North America, and during the
winter season is one of the most abundant species in the southwestern
United States. Along the Atlantic Coast it is now exceeded in num-
bers by the Blue-winged Teal, but in former years Green-wings were
fairly abundant there. The general breeding range of the Green-
wing extends from the central United States to Alaska and New-
foundland, but it is not common in summer south of the Canadian
boundary. Most of the birds nest in west-central Canada, from Mani-
toba to Lake Athabasca. The winter range is very extensive, reaching
from British Columbia and New York to Mexico and even Central
America. As with certain other ducks it is probable that the indi-
viduals of this species wintering in California breed in British
Columbia and Alaska.

The Green-winged Teal is among the earliest migrant ducks to
arrive here in the fall and also one of the last to depart in the spring.
On August 12, 1905, a flock was flushed at Cushenbury Springs, San
Bernardino County (Grinnell, 1908, p. 53), and as early as September
15 it has been noted at Stockton (Belding, MS). On the Pacific slope
of southern California it arrives in late September or in October and
leaves in March (Willett, 1912a, p. 23). It occurs in greatest abun-
dance here during November and December, to judge from the
numbers to be seen in the city markets.

This teal prefers the smaller bodies of fresh water to the larger
lakes and rivers. The Green-wing is the species which so often drops
into temporary ponds, irrigation ditches, small evanescent desert
pools and the innumerable little lakes that form during wet weather
in the hill country, and is the duck most often shot on the small
meadow ponds of the interior. In the coastal lowlands, and marshes
adjacent to the lower reaches of the large rivers, it is also abundant.
As a rule it avoids salt water, but occasionally, during the daytime,
it is to be seen rafted with other species on the smooth Avater of the
ocean just outside the surf.

Among the smallest of our ducks, and considered by many to be
the fastest of them in flight, the Green-winged Teal is still an easy
bird to recognize. Its small size, and in the male the chestnut brown
head relieved by green patches behind the eyes, the white bar in front
of each wing and the bright green speculum together with the absence
of a large blue patch on the wing make identification easy. Both the

116 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOBNIA

Cinnamon and Bine-winged teals, in addition to their green speculums,
have large patches of light blue on the wing, while the rare European
Teal lacks the white bar across each side of the breast. The small
body size, close flock formation, and erratic flight serve as good field
marks in separating teal from other ducks.

Green-winged Teal are known to nest in small numbers within the
state. Goldman (1908a, p. 129) found a nest with seven eggs at
Tulare Lake, Kings County, July 7, 1907, and several other birds of
this species were also present in the vicinity. There is also a report of
two sets of Green-winged Teal eggs secured at Tulare Lake in June,
1910, which were sent to Judge F. W. Henshaw and hatched out on
his place at Redwood City. This additional instance strengthens a
surmise which Goldman makes that there is a breeding colonj^ in the
vicinity of Tulare Lake. Evermann (1886, p. 89) states that a few
bred in Ventura County in former years. Belding (MS) states that

Fig. 1.3. Side of bill of female Green-winged Teal.
Natural size. Compare with bill of Cinnamon Teal (fig. 14).

he found a few nesting in Sierra Valley, Plumas County, in June,
1885. This w^as after a dry winter. Residents told him that in
seasons following abundant rainfall many more representatives of
the species nested there.

In eastern Oregon during the breeding season this teal is said to
prefer the smaller mountain streams to the larger bodies of water
(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 4). The nests of this
duck resemble those of other species. One found by W. P. Taylor
(1912, p. 357) in northwestern Nevada at Quinn River Crossing,
Humboldt County, on June 4, 1909, "... was located in a depres-
sion on moist ground, and surrounded by the tall grasses of the marsh.
The' nest was composed of willow twigs and grass stems so loosely
felted together that the structure could not be picked up intact. The
cavity measured 127 mm, (5 inches) in diameter and 70 mm. (2%
inches) deep. Four eggs M'ere found in the nest, and one other on the
ground at a distance. . . Strangely enough, no down feathers were
noted anywhere in the vicinity." McGregor (1906, p. 119) describes
a nest from the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, as being ". . . on the
ground beneath the overhanging trunk of a twisted willow; it was

GREEN -WINGED TEAL 117

thinly furnished with clown about the top and the eggs rested on the
ground." The inside dimensions of this nest were about Si/o by 31/2
inches. Farther north, at tlie mouth of the Yukon River, Alaska,
Nelson (1887, p. 69) says the nests are placed on dry knolls near
small ponds, and are composed of grass stems and featliers. The
seven eggs referred to above as collected b}' Goldman at Tulare Lake
are bluntly ovate in shape, and decidedly smaller than those of the
Cinnamon Teal. In color they are pale olive buff. They measure in
inches 1.60 to 1.69 by 1.22 to 1.26 and average 1.65 by 1.24 (set now
in U. S. National Museum).

The only description we have of the behavior of the female when
with a brood is that by Bent (1902, p. 1) who came upon a parent
bird with eight ducklings in a rush-bordered pond in North Dakota.
The female made a considerable demonstration, flapping and drag-
ging herself about as long as the observer remained. The young
meanwhile sought safety in the adjacent rushes. In Alaska, accord-
ing to Nelson (loc. eit.), the old and young may be found feeding
together by the hist of August. They then forage in the mud at the
edge of snuiU secluded tide creeks or in the grass-covered margins
of pools in the marsh land. The downy young of the Green-winged
Teal, as compared with those of related species, exhibit one feature
by which they can be distinguished even if color characters cannot be
remembered. The bill is notably long and parallel-sided, giving an
effect of extreme slenderness.

The Green-winged Teal is distinctly a gregarious species and,
during the winter season, flocks have been observed, of as many as
several hundred individuals. In fact this has been referred to as
the most gregarious of ducks. Another striking feature of this bird 's
behavior is its extremely high rate of speed on the wing. Bowles {in
Dawson, 1909, p. 773) says:

Moviug at a rate of certainly not less than one hundred miles an hour,
the evolutions of a large flock of these birds are truly startling. They fly
in such close order that one would think their wings must interfere, even on a
straight course; yet of a sudden the whole flock will turn at a right angle,
or wheel and twist as if it were one bird. The looker-on can only wonder what
the signal may be which is given and obeyed to such perfection, for the least
hesitation or mistake on the part of a single bird would result in death or a
broken wing to a score.

When flushed from the ground or water these teal usually ascend
to a considerable elevation before flying off. When not disturbed
they like to spend a large share of their time on land and seem to
enjoy this "loafing" more than the great majority of wild ducks.
The Green-wing is a rapid swdmmer, but it seldom dives except when
wounded.

1]8 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Ordinarily Green-winged Teal feed during the daytime, but if
molested they forage chiefly at night. Their favorite feeding ground
is along the shore of a pond where they search about the mud (that
is, "puddle") for insects and seeds. Like the Mallard and other
pond and river ducks, the Green-winged Teal feeds in shallow water,
searching the bottom by "standing on its head" and sifting out the
seeds and other food materials from the mud and water. While
thus "tilting" a bird often kicks the water vigorously to help it in
maintaining the desired balance. Occasionally it may be seen wander-
ing about on the grass-grown banks searching for insects. In fact
the Green-wing is almost as omnivorous a feeder as the Mallard ;
for it will take aquatic plants, snails, crustaceans and all sorts of
insects along with the commonest element of its food — weed seeds.

Some persons consider the Green-winged Teal the most desirable
duck as far as flavor is concerned. Its tender juicy flesh is certainly
of a sort to be relished by anyone. This duck is also very attractive
from a sportsman's standpoint ; indeed many hunters consider it their
"best" duck. It is both fast flying and wary and this makes it
difficult to hit. A long lead and a quick shot are necessary to bring
it to bag. However, it is fond of company and in consequence is
easily attracted by the decoys. Even when it has been shot at several
times this desire for company will cause the birds to return repeatedly
to the same pond. The close formation is maintained both when in
the air and on the water, thus affording opportunity for "pot shots."

In this state, the numbers of Green-winged Teal shot each year
exceed those of any other single species of duck. This is because of
its greater abundance and also its desirability as a table bird. In
1909-1910 each of the game transfer companies of San Francisco
handled from 5,000 to 20,000 "teal," while in 1895-1896 more than
82,000 were sold in the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles
(Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 40). There were probably some Cinna-
mon Teal in these lots, but by far the greater number were Green- wings.
In 1886 several species of ducks on the San Francisco market sold for
the following prices per dozen : Canvasback, $3.50 per dozen ; Mall-
ards, $2.50 and $3.00; Sprigs, $1.50 and $2.00; Widgeon, $1.25; Teal,
$1.50 to $1.75; "small ducks," $1.00 (Belding, MS). Thus it will
be seen that, taking size into account, teal were greatly preferred.
As long as the breeding grounds in the far north are well protected,
and the toll taken each year is not too great, we can expect this duck
to continue to visit us in numbers. That the toll is now in fact too
great is the contention of many hunters in this state, who maintain
that the numbers of this bird are steadily decreasing from year to
year.

EV ROPE AN TEAL 119

European Teal

Nettion crecca (Linnaeus)

Other xame — Anas crecc<i.

Description — Adult male: "Similar to . . . [the Greeu-winged Teal] but
no white bar on side of breast, black and whitish undulations of sides, etc.,
much coarser, inner webs of outermost scapulars wholly, and outer webs
partly, white, the exposed portion of outer webs mostly black ..." (Ridgway,
1887, p. 94). Total length "about 14.00" inches (356 mm.); folded wing
"7.00-7.30" (178-186); bill along culmen "1.45-1.50" (36.8-38.2); tarsus
"1.10-1.25" (28.0-31.8) (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 7). Adult
female: "Not distinguishable with certainty from that of [Green-winged
Teal] N. carolinensis?" (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, loc. cit.). "Females
and young of this teal can scarcely be determined unless by careful com-
parison with authentic specimens, but seem to be browner and less finely
variegated than the American bird" (Eaton, 1910, p. 191). Natal plumage:
See Green-winged Teal.

Marks for field identification — Adult male: as for Green-winged Teal
but white bar on side of breast lacking, r'eniale cannot be distinguished from
that of Green-winged Teal (Chapman, 1912, p. 195).

Voice — Like that of Green-winged Teal.

Nest — In bogs and marshes in grassy fields; formed of grasses and reeds,
warmly lined with feathers (Davie, 1889, p. 64).

Eggs — 8 to 10, sometimes 15, oval in shape, measuring in inches 1.75 by 1.30
(in millimeters, 44.5 by 33.0); color yellowish white (Davie, loc. cit.).

General distribution — Northern part of Eastern Hemisphere. Occasional
in North America; recorded from the Aleutian Islands, California, Greenland,
Labrador, Nova Scotia, Maine, New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut and
A^irginia (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 70).

Distribution in California — Known chiefly from Cooper's statement (1886,
p. 125) that in his time it had been "found not rarely in California."

The European Teal is widely distributed over the Old World,
breeding throughout Europe and Asia. The records of its occurrence
in North America are very few. Specimens have been taken along
the Atlantic Coast from Labrador to the District of Columbia ; several
have been found in the markets of New York City. On the Pacific
Coast but two records are known, one for the Aleutian Islands, Alaska,
and the other for California. The latter record, as far as we are
aware, is unfortunately not substantiated by specimens in any collec-
tion. The dates of capture elseAvhere in America are for every month
of the year, except January, August, and October ; those from the
United States range from November to April (Cooke, 1906, p. 30).
This teal is known to be abundant on the eastern coast of Asia as far
north as Kamchatka and Bering Island.

Although Cooper (1886, p. 125) records the European Teal as
having been "found not rarely in California," no other record of
its occurrence within the state is known to us. Belding (MS) thought

120 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOENIA

that individuals of this species bred iu the marshes near Stockton.
But since this belief was based on sight determination, it can hardly
be given weight as conclusive evidence. This duck certainly cannot
be considered as more than an extremely rare straggler within the
borders of the state, if it now occurs here at all.

In habits the European Teal doubtless so nearly resembles the
Green-winged Teal that the account of the latter will serve to give a
fair idea of the former. One of the peculiar habits for which the
European Teal is especiall}^ noted in England may be mentioned
however. "When startled it flies up almost perpendicularly to a con-
siderable height, then starts off in a straight line, afterwards return-
ing at a great height. When about to alight the birds dive down
almost perpendicularly from overhead. Their speed in flight is said
to be remarkable, and has been estimated at over a hundred miles an
hour. Millais (1902, p. 82) says: "Whilst on the wing the male
occasionalh^ utters his low double whistle, but Teal are silent birds
at all times, and the female rarely calls unless frightened, such as
when the brood is threatened, when she emits a subdued little quack."

Blue-winged Teal

Querquedida discors (Linnaeus)

Other names — White-faced Teal; Anas discors.

Description — Adult male: Head and neck dull lead color, slightly glossed
with purplish on the sides; top of head from base of bill to hind neck, black;
conspicuous crescent on side of head extending from above eye around in
front of eye and downwards and backwards past chin, white, bordered with
blackish; chin black; bill "bluish-black"; iris "dark hazel" (Audubon, 1843,
VI, p. 291); upper surface dark brown, the feathers lighter-edged, and those
of back and scapulars variegated with horseshoe-shaped markings of light
rusty brown; rump and tail nearly uniform dark brown, but with pale feather
edgings; forepart of outer surface of closed wing pale blue; flight feathers
dark brown; tertials long and narrow and striped with light rusty brown and
black; speculum metallic green, bordered in front by a white bar, above by a
blackish stripe, and behind by a very narrow white border; most of lining of
wing, and axillars, pure white; under surface of body and sides, reddish brown,
spotted with black; under tail coverts brownish black; spot at base of tail on
each side, white; under surface of tail feathers, ashy; feet "dull yellow,"
webs "dusky," claws "brownish black" (Audubon, loc. cit.). Total length
(both sexes): "14.50-16.00" inches (368-407 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 92).
Males: folded wing 7.50 (190) (adult), 7.00 (178) (immature); bill along
culmen 1.55 (39.4) (adult), 1.52 (38.6) (immature) ; tarsus 1.22 (31.0) (adult),
1.17 (29.7) (immature); one specimen of each from California. Adult female:
Upper surface dark brown, with dull buff feather edgings; sides of head and
neck finely streaked with same color; stripe before and behind eye, dusky;
rest of head and neck pale brownish white; chin and throat almost pure
white; bill, iris, and outer surface of closed wing as in adult male, but green
of speculum much duller and tertials colored like back; under surface of body

BLUE-WINGED TEAL 121

dull wiiite, with grayisli brown feather centers, giving a spotted or mottled
appearance, coarsest on sides of body and least distinct on belly. Folded wing
6.83-6.88 inches (174-175 mm.) ; bill along culmen 1.48-1.51 (37.6-38.4) ; tarsus
1.16-1.24 (29.4-31.5) (two specimens from California). Juvenile plumage:
Similar to that of adult female but wing like that of adult male. Natal
plumage: "Top of head and upper parts, brown; buff spots in front of wing,
across wing, and at side of rump; forehead, line to eye and lower parts,
pale buff; sides of head and hind neck, ochraceous buff" (Sanford, Bishop and
Van Dyke, 1903, p. 99). Adult males at close of breeding season assume an
* ' eclipse ' ' plumage resembling plumage of female.

Marks for field identification — Small size. Male has large blue patch
on forepart of wing, green speculum, white crescent on cheek and no deep
cinnamon color on under surface. Female distinguished with difficulty from
fc'male Cinnamon Teal: chin and throat much lighter, no rusty on chest or
sides, and head and neck more heavily speckled.

Voice — Of male: a whistling "peep," repeated five or six times; of female:
similar to "quack" of Green-winged Teal (Eaton, 1910, p. 195).

Nest — Usually on dry ground near fresh water, and hidden in tall grass;
made of grass or reeds and lined with down.

Eggs — 6 to 12, bluntly ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 1.71 to 1.93 by
1.26 to 1.36 (in millimeters, 43.5 to 49.0 by 32.0 to 34.5), and averaging 1.81
by 1.30 (46.0 by 33.0) ; in color pale olive buff (forty-one eggs in U. S.
National Museum).

General distribution— Western Henusphere, but most numerous in the
eastern portion of North America. Breeds from central British Columbia and
Newfoundland south to northern Nevada, southern Indiana and Maine, but
most abundantly between the Eocky Mountains and Great Lakes. Winters
from southern British Columbia, Arizona, southern Illinois, and Delaware south
to central America and northern South America (modified from A. O. IT.
Check-list, 1910, p. 71).

Distribution in California — Bare transient and winter visitant, occurring
exclusively on fresh water. The following are the only records from Cali-
fornia known to the writers: Napa, Napa County (W. E. Bryant, 1891, p.
128); Stockton, San Joaquin Countj^ San Diego, and Agua Caliente [= Palm
Springs], Riverside County (Belding, 1891, p. 97); Weaverville, Trinity County
(Salvadori, 1895, p. 299); Vallejo, Solano County (Kobbe, in Bailey, 1902, p.
xlix) ; Little Owens Lake, Inyo County (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 16) ; Santa
Barbara (Torrey, 1909a, pp. 173-174; Dawson, 1916, p. 24); El Monte and
Los Angeles, Los Angeles County (Grinnell, 1898, p. 11; Swarth, 1910, p. 107) ;
Los Angeles County (Willett, 1911, p. 76) ; Bolsa Beach, Orange County
(Grinnell collection); National City, San Diego County (Willett, 1912a, p 23);
Colorado River, Riverside County, opposite Ehrenberg, Arizona (Stephens,
1903, p. 76).

The Blue-winged Teal, although a common cluck of the east and
still more common in the middle west, is a rare species on the Pacific
f'oast. Its breeding range includes the northern United States and
extends northward to central Canada. It is to be found breeding most
abundantly in south-central Canada and in the middle western states
between the Rocky Mountains and the Great Lakes. It is rare in
British Columbia and has been recorded but once from Alaska. Dur-

122 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOBNIA

ing the Avinter it is distributed from the south-central states to north-
ern South America. Consequently it must be classed along with the
Cinnamon Teal as a southern duck which comes north through the
United States for the summer.

The Blue-winged Teal has been taken but comparatively few times
in California and the majority of the records are from south of
Tehachapi. Of twenty individual specimens recorded, three are of
January date, one of February, eight are of "spring" dates (March
to May, inclusive), the other eight of "fall" dates (August to October,
inclusive). From these facts it would appear that the Blue-winged
Teal occurs in California as a transient, and casually as a midwinter
visitant.

The adult male is distinctive among American ducks by reason of
the crescent-shaped patches of white on the sides of its head, and this
feature gives it the name of White-faced Teal. The large area of
light blue on the wing will separate the Blue-winged Teal from all
other ducks of similar size except the Cinnamon Teal. The males of
these two species are readily distinguished because of the bright
cinnamon, almost chestnut color, of the Cinnamon Teal. The females
and young, however, are very similar. Those of the Blue-winged
Teal have a slenderer bill (compare figs. 15 and 16), constricted at
the base, and they lack the slight tinge of chestnut to be noted on the
sides of the breast in the Cinnamon Teal. The feathers of the breast
of the Cinnamon Teal are commonly marked with horseshoe-shaped
markings of pale rufous, whereas those of the Blue-winged Teal are
simply edged with ashy.

According to Davie (1889, p. 65) the nest is made on the ground,
in a thick patch or tussock of grass, usually in meadows, the borders
of ponds, or streams, and swampy places. It is composed of soft
pieces of grass and weeds and lined with down and feathers from
the breast of the bird. The eggs are six to tw^elve in number, bluntly
ovate in shape, and are lighter in tint than those of the Green-winged
Teal ; they are distinguishable from those of the Cinnamon only by
their slightly smaller size. In the middle west this duck is said to nest
in thickly settled localities and even on embankments beside railroad
tracks.

Like the Green-winged Teal, the Blue-wing flies with great speed
and in close flocks. On approaching a pond it drops quickly into
the water or into the reeds much as do some of the shorebirds.

The habits of the Blue-winged Teal are almost identical with those
of the Green-winged Teal. Individuals found in California have
nearly always been mixed in with flocks of Green-winged Teal and
have not been recognized until shot.

CINNAMON TEAL 123

Where abiuulant this duck affords the same sport as does the
Green-wing and maizes just as difficult a mark. Like the latter bird
the Blue-wing readily decoys, and it is just as desirable as the Green-
wing for the table.

It is not probable that the Blue-winged Teal will ever become
common in California. Certainly the records do not show that it
is becoming more abundant at the present time. An increase in the
number of records at some future time might result from an increase
in the number of people who are able to recognize the species, and
from a keener watch being kept for unusual occurrences among the
ducks killed in the state.

Cinnamon Teal
Qucrquedida cyanoptera (Vieillot)

Other names — Red-breasted Teal; Western Blue-winged Teal; Atmii cyanop-
tera ; Pteroci/anea coeruleata ; Pteroeyanea discors.

Descriptiox — Adult male: Head rich chestnut, washed with black on crown
and chin; iris orange; bill black, margin of upper mandible and whole of
lower mandible tinged with pink; back brownish black with U-shaped bars
and feather-edgings of chestnut; rump and middle upper tail coverts dark
brown edged with lighter brown; lateral upper tail coverts and upper surface
of tail brownish black; forepart of outer surface of closed wing and outer
webs of scapulars, clear light blue; flight feathers slate brown; speculum
metallic green, separated from blue area by a white bar and bordered above
by brownish black; tertials striped with buff; axillars white; lining of wing
white and dull brown; whole under surface of body rich chestnut, washed
with blackish on belly; under tail coverts black; under surface of tail feathers
ashy; feet greenish orange, joints, webs and claws dusky. Total length 15.95-
16.20 inches (405-412 mm.) (three specimens); folded wing 7.25-8.00 (184-
203); bill along culmen 1.67-1.88 (42.4-47.7); tarsus 1.21-1.32 (30.7-33.5)
(ten specimens); weight 10.3-11.3 ounces (290-320 gm.) (three specimens).
Adult female: Top of head blackish brown, each feather narrowly edged with
brown; rest of head ashy cinnamon, finely streaked with dark brown; chin
sometimes unstreaked ; whole upper surface blackish brown, with buffy or
ashy feather edgings; iris hazel; outer surface of closed wing as in male, but
speculum dull black, showing only a trace of green, and white bar reduced or
absent; scapulars dark brown streaked and edged with paler brown; lining of
wing and axillars as in male; breast buffy, heavily mottled with blackish and
more or less suffused with light cinnamon brown; rest of under surface like
breast, but less heavily mottled and ground color paler sometimes almost white
on middle of belly ; feet dull green, webs and claws dusky. Total length 15.75 inches
(400 mm.) (one specimen); folded wing 6.90-7.45 (175-189); bill along culmen
1.63-1.85 (41.4-47.0); tarsus 1.21-1.26 (30.7-32.0) (ten specimens); weight 10.8
oz. (305.7 gm.) (one specimen); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Similar
to that of adult female, but under surface of body less suffused with cinnamon
brown, and markings narrower, giving more of a streaked appearance. Juvenile
males can be distinguished from females by the green speculum and white wing
bar being as in adult males. Females have speculum dull black with faintest
trace of green and white bar but brokenly indicated. Natal plumage: Top of

124 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOBNIA

head dark olive; sides of liead, chin and throat, yellowish buff; stripe from
base of bill near nostril to eye and two streaks back of eye, dark brown; upper
surface of body dark olive; spot on each side of back and one on each side at
base of tail, yellow; whole under surface yellowish buflf.

Marks for field identification — Small size (but large for a teal), and
large -blue patch on wing in front of green or blackish speculum. Male dis-
tinguished from all other ducks by rich chestnut brown body color (pi. 4).
Female and young can only be separated from those of Blue-winged Teal in
hand and then only with difficulty; the Cinnamon has head and chin more
speckled, and distinct diffusion of light cinnamon brown and I^-sha])ed markings
on breast.

Voice — Similar to that of other teal; a miniature "quack," given bj- the
female.

Nest — Situated in grassy fields or among tules, sometimes above shallow
water but more often above damp ground, at times some little distance from
water; made of grasses or tules compactly woven together and deeply saucer-
shaped.

Eggs— 6 to 13, ovate or elongate ovate in shape; measuring in inches 1.70 to
2.09 by 1.18 to 1.38 (in millimeters, 44.0 to 53.0 by 30.0 to 35.0), and averaging
1.87 by 1.36 (47.5 by 34.5) (seventy eggs in U. S. National Museum) ; in color
creamy white or pale buflf.

General distribution — North and South America. Breeds in North America
from southern British Columbia, southwestern Alberta, southeastern Wyoming,
and western Kansas south to northern Lower California, northern Chihuahua,
'Southern New Mexico, and southwestern Texas; winters from southern Cali-
fornia, central New Mexico, and southern Texas south to southern Lower
California and central Mexico. Occurs in South America from Peru and Brazil
south to the Falkland Islands (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 71).

Distribution in California — Abundant spring, summer and fall visitant
throughout the state, breeding throughout its summer range; restricted to the
vicinity of fresh water. Scattered individuals winter in the central and
southern portions of the state, the following definite instances of occurrence
being known': Vallejo, Solano County (Kobbe in Bailey, 1902, p. xlix); Los
Banos, Merced County, November to February, inclusive, 1911-1912 (twelve
specimens in Mus. Vert. Zool.); Kiverdale, Fresno County, January 10, 1912,
a dozen (Tyler, 1913b, p. 16); Tulare Lake, Kings County (Cooke, 1906, p. 35);.
Newport Slough, Orange County^, December and January, 1884 (Belding, MS) ;
and near Salton Sea, Imperial County, December 16, 1910, one (A'an Eossem,
1911, p. 130). The spring migration begins about the first of March and the
southward movement commences in September, the breeding grounds being
almost deserted by mid-October (Cooke, loc. cit.).

The bright coloration of this duck has attracted much popular
attention and has been the basis for its several vernacular names.
The chestnut or cinnamon color of the under surface has given rise
to its accepted vernacular name, Cinnamon Teal, also a common
hunter's name. Red-breasted Teal; while the large patch of blue on
the wing is responsible for its being called Blue-winged Teal. Use of
the latter name, however, is confusing, as a related bird abundant in
eastern North America, and even reaching California, has proper
claim to this name (see preceding account).

CINNAMON TEAL

125

Vig. 14.

21739

Side of bill of female Cin.nanioii Teal.
Natural size.

The chestnut color of tlie lower surface serves to easily distinguish
the male Cinnamon Teal from all other ducks (pi. 4). The females
and young closely resemble those of the eastern Blue-winged Teal.
The heavier speckling on the head and chin, the strong suffusion of
rusty or cinnamon on the
breast, and the U-shaped
markings of pale rusty
brown are never present
in the Blue-winged Teal.
Close examination of the
bills will show that of
the Blue-wing to be smal-
ler, although relatively
broader at the base (figs.
15 and 16). From the Green-Avinged Teal the Cinnamon Teal may be
distinguished in hand by the larger size of the latter, longer bill and
neck, darker color, presence of blue on forepart of wing and, in flight,

by the last named character and
also by the less rapid beating of
the wings.

The Cinnamon Teal must be
considered the commonest breeding
duck as regards the whole of Cali-
fornia, although the Pintail or Mal-
lard may possibly outnumber it in
certain localities. In southern Cali-
fornia there is hardly a ranch of
any size offering suitable conditions
where a pair or more of these birds
is not to be observed at the proper
season. It is the Cinnamon Teal
which is the usual duck found nest-
ing in the marshes of the San Joa-
quin and Sacr-amento valleys. The
artificial ponds in the form of reservoirs, found so commonly through-
out the state, often furnish a home for it.

In California the nesting season of the Cinnamon Teal extends
from April into July. The bulk of the nesting occurs in May and
June, chiefly the former month. There is no difference in time of
nesting correlative with latitude, but nesting at high altitudes occurs
later than in the lowlands. The accompanying table (no. 10) gives all
the data known to the authors relative to the nesting of the species
in California.

While Cinnamon Teal have been found nesting in such widely

21735

Fig. 15. Cinnamon Teal.

1647 H.S.5.

Fig. 16. Blue-winged Teal.
Tops of bills. Both females, na-
tural size. The differences in
outline shown will serve to
separate the two species when
coloration fails.

126 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

Table 10. — Data relative to the nesting of the Cinnamon Teal in California

Nest Contexts and

Locality Date Condition Ai-thoritv

Stockton, San Joaquin Co. Apr. 13, 1878 Breeding (male taken) Belding. 1879, p. 446

Escondido, San Diego Co. Apr. 18 to Nests found Sharp, 1907, p. 86

May 13

Newport Bay, Orange Co. Apr. 20, 1897 7 eggs, fresh Grinnell, 1898, p. 11

Newport Bay, Orange Co. Apr. 20, 1897 9 eggs, fresh Grinnell, 1898, p. 11

Near College Park, Apr. 29, 1893 8 eggs, fresh Schneider, 1893, p. 21

Santa Clara Co.

Near College Park, Apr. 29, 1893 10 eggs Schneider, 1893, pp. 21-

Santa Clara Co. 22

Near College Park, Apr. 29, 1893 11 eggs Schneider, 1893, p. 21

Santa Clara Co.

Near College Park, Apr. 29, 1893 11 eggs Schneider, 1893, p. 21

Santa Clara Co.

Vicinity of Los Angeles First week in 9-13 eggs: nesting Davie, 1889, p. 66

May commonly

Compton, Los Angeles Co. May 7, 1895 12 eggs, fresh Grinnell, 1898, p. 11

Wheeler Island. May 8, 1914 Newly hatched brood Fair, MS

Solano Co.

Fort Crook (near Pitt- May 9, 1861 3 eggs (set incomplete?) Set in U. S. National

ville), Shasta Co. Museum

Sierra Valley, Plumas Co. May 9, 1891 3 eggs (set incomplete?) Set in U. S. National

Museum

Los Baiios, Merced Co. May 10-14, 1 egg (set incomplete) H. C. Bryant, 1915e,

1915 p. 193

Los Banos, Merced Co. May 11-24, 23 nests found and 4 H. C. Bryant, 1914c.

i914 broods of downy young pp. 222—223
seen

Near College Park, May 13, 1893 11 eggs, deserted Schneider, 1893, p. 21

Santa Clara Co.

Los Angeles Co. Mid-May Young birds seen by this Willett. 1912a, pp. 23-24

time

Merced Co. May 20, 1896 9 eggs, fresh Mailliard coll.

Buena Vista Lake, Mav 20-30, Fresh eggs and young Linton, 1908c, p. 196

Kern Co. 1907

Lathrop, San Joaquin Co. May 22, 1911 6 eggs H. C. Bryant, MS.

Dos Palos, Merced Co. May 22, 1912 11 eggs, nearly fresh Carriger coll.

Los Banos, Merced Co. May 22, 1914 11 eggs, fresh Mus. Vert. Zool.

Nigger Slough, May 25, 1911 5 eggs (set incomplete) Willett, 1912a, p. 24

Los Angeles Co.

Gridlev, Butte Co. May 25, 1914 9 eggs, fresh H. C. Bryant, 1914<',

p. 227

Sugar Hill, Modoc Co. May 28, 1910 10 eggs, incubated W. P. Taylor, MS, in

Mus. Vert. Zool.

Merced, Merced Co. May 30, 1898 8 eggs Mus. Vert. Zool.

Tule [zrRhett] Lake, June 1, 1914 9 eggs, female sitting H. C. Bryant, 1914e,

Siskiyou Co. p. 230

Lower Klamath Lake. June 6, 1914 Brood of 5 or 6 downy H. C. Bryant, 1914e,

Siskiyou Co. young p. 231

San Jacinto Lake, June 7, 1897 11 eggs, incubation com- IngersoU coll.

Riverside Co. menced

Lake Tahoe June 14, 1915 11 eggs, incubation com- Carriger coll.

menced

Tulare Lake. Kings Co. .June 18, 1907 Nesting completed; many Goldman, 1908?j. p. 202

broods : some nearly
full grown

Lake Valley, near .Tune 19, 1902 4 eggs (set incomplete ?) Ray, 1903, p. 49

Lake Tahoe

Chowchilla, Merced Co. June 21, 1901 9 eggs, fresh Mailliard coll.
Chowchilla, Merced Co. .Tune 21, 1901 10 eggs, incubation begun Mailliard coll.

San Luis Rev, June 22, 1861 Female with matured egg Cooper, 1880, p. 251

[San Diego Co.?]

Eagle Lake, Lassen Co. June 26, 1905 7 eggs, 8 eggs. 10 eggs Sheldon. 1907. pp.

or later 186-187

Rowlands Marsh, June 30, 1903 10 eggs, practically fresh Ray, 1905. p. 370

Lake Tahoe

Palo Verde, Imperial Co. .July 14, 1916 7 eggs, hatched on this Wiley, MS.

date

Bear Lake, July 30. 1905 Small young seen Grinnell, 1908, p. 53
San Bernardino Mts.

CINNAMON TEAL 127

separated and diverse localities as Lake Tahoe, the San Joaquin
Valley, and the coastal marshes of southern California, the site chosen
for the nest is always in the vicinity of fresh water. On salt marshes,
fresh water oases are sought out. The immediate site chosen differs
markedly in the numerous instances recorded. Sometimes the nest
is placed in grass land or a grain field a hundred yards or so from
water ; more conunonly, it is in a damp situation, as in tules or marsh
land, and at the edge of some small pond or stream. The nest itself
is usually a compact structure made of grass stems and weeds and,
less often, tules; but occasionally it is nothing more than a slight
hollow in the ground. After the full complement of six to thirteen
eggs is laid, the nest is always well lined with down of a dark gray
hue ; as a rule, until the set is complete, little or no down is to be
found in the nest. While sitting, the female is secretive, and only
flushes when an intruder is close to the nest. A nest found by H. C.
Bryant (MS) near Lathrop, San Joaquin County, May 22, 1911,
from which the female had departed before his approach, was found
to have the eggs covered and completely concealed by the down.
Speaking of the Cinnamon Teal in the nesting season at Los Banos,
Chapman (1908, p. 290) says that "the drake was always within a
few feet of the duck, when she was oft' the nest, and invariably sprang
into the air a foot or two behind her when she took wing. We made
this habit a subject of special observation without ever seeing the
male bird fly first."

At Los Banos, Merced County, in May, 1914, H. C. Bryant (1914e,
p. 222) found no less than twenty-three nests of this species. Of these,
eighteen showed evidence of destruction of the eggs by some pre-
dacious animal, and from three others the young had already hatched.
A nest which when first found contained but a single egg, four days
later held five eggs, showing that one egg was laid each day. Con-
cerning nests found at this locality the same author says :

The ineoiispicuousness of a nest when covered with its blanket of down
was significantly impressed upon us on returning to a nesting site we had
previously marked. Although we went directly to the small islet on which
the nest was situated and looked carefully for the nest it took several minutes
to descry it, and when found was in exactly the position we had pictured it
in our minds. The dusky-hued down of the Cinnamon Teal harmonizes wonder-
fully with the damp black earth on which the nest is most often directly placed
(H. C. Bryant, 1914e, pp. 222-223).

The method most frequently used in locating nests of this and
other species of ducks is for two persons to drag a long rope over
an area in which nests are to be expected. As the rope, passing over
the grass, approaches a sitting bird she will usually flush directly
and thus give a clue to the exact location of her nest.

128 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOFNIA

As is shown by the accompanying tabh' (no. 10) the number of
eggs in a complete set ranges from 6 to 13, the average being between
9 and 10. The eggs are ovate or elongate-ovate in shape, and measure
in inches 1.73 to 2.08 by 1.18 to 1.38, averaging 1.87 by 1.36. The
color is creamy white or pale buff. The eggs of the Green-winged
Teal are decidedly smaller, but similar in tone of color. Those of
the Pintail, Gadwall and Shoveller are much larger.

A. M. Shields {in Schneider, 1893, p. 22) has given the folloM'ing
notes as to the habits of the young :

After being hatched, the mother cluck (joined by her mate) escorts the
young brood to the nearest body of water and manifests the greatest solicitude
for the well-fare of the little fellows, giving a signal upon the slightest
approach of danger, which is followed by the almost instant disappearance of
the entire brood, as if by magic.

If on the shore, they disappear in the grass; if in the water, they dive, and
that is generally the last seen of them, for the time being at least, as they
swim under water for great distances until reaching the edge of the stream or
pond, when they imperceptibly secrete themselves among the water moss or
grass.

I once watched a little fellow as he made his way under the clear water.
He went straight for a little bunch of floating moss, and by gazing intently
I could just distinguish the least possible little swelling of the moss; a
small hump, as it were, about the size of a marble. He had come to the
surface (as intended) under the patch of moss, and his head and bill were
responsible for the little hump in the moss.

Possibly one thing more than anything else helps the little fellows to dis-
appear in such marvelously quick time and before you can realize it. The
old duck flutters and falls around you just out of your reach and most success-
fully imitates a fowl badly winged, hardly able to rise from the ground.

Her actions are bound to more or less avert your attention for a moment
at least, and it is just that moment that the little fellows disappear, as the
mother Duck undoubtedly intended.

After a short time, when the little ones are all securely hidden, the mother,
feeling no further anxiety, gracefully recovers from her crippled condition,
flies off' a few hundred yards, and there awaits your departure, when she
returns to her family, who soon gather around her one by one till they are
all assembled and everything goes on as though nothing had happened — until
the next intruder appears, when "presto! change!" and the samp actions
are repeated.

Writing of the Cinnamon Teal at Los Bafios, Merced County,
Chapman (1908, p. 290) says that the agility of the ''freshly hatched
ducklings was remarkable. Almost on emerging from tlie egg they
took to the water, swimming and diving freely."

The Cinnamon Teal is one of the tamest of the ducks and can
often be approached to within a few yards. The species often asso-
ciates with other ducks, especiall.v Math the Green-winged Teal, but
■without appearing to be as sociable as the latter and never gathering
in such large flocks. After nesting time, family parties are the rule,

SHOVELLER 129

but upon Urst arrival iii the spring and Avhcn leaving in the fall
larger flocks are common. It is, however, to be observed that even in
flocks the individuals consociate in pairs.

The food of the Cinnamon Teal, as well as its method of feeding,
is like that of otlier teals. In the shallow water along the borders of
ponds it may be seen "tilting" in its attempt to obtain insects and
seeds from the mud on the bottom. It is often seen searching for food
in the grass on shore.

The Cinnamon Teal is usually rated as inferior to other teal as
a table duck. However this may be, this bird was, in the early days,
killed in numbers for the market. Its flesh is said to be sweet and
full of blood (like a dove's), but its keeping qualities are poor. As
the Cinnamon Teal migrates south in September and October, being
almost altogether gone before the opening of the shooting season, it
receives a much greater degree of protection than in the case of resi-
dent or wintering ducks. So long as suitable breeding places are
furnished this duck, and so long as conditions in its winter home
remain favorable, it will, therefore, continue to be a common species.
The great amount of land reclamation which is now being carried
on would seemingly tend to reduce the appropriate nesting grounds
to a minimum, so that the breeding species of ducks might either be
driven elsewhere or might be correspondingly reduced in numbers.
On the other hand the construction of irrigation canals and reservoirs,
with their overflow seepages, must to a considerable extent counter-
balance the above tendenc3^ The Cinnamon Teal can be credited with
an esthetic value, because of its natural tameness and beautiful
plumage ; and it is to be hoped that its existence as a regular member
of our avifauna will never be endangered.

Shoveller
Spatula clypeata (Linnaeus)

Other xames — Spoonbill; Spoonie; Bynchaspis clypeata.

Description — Adult male: Whole head and neck metallic green with violet
reflections at certain angles; top of head, throat and area about base of bill
approaching dull black or brown and showing least of metallic lustre;
b^ll almost black, lower mandible paler; iris yellow; middle of back slate
brown, each feather edged with white or light brown; rump and upper tail
coverts black, with metallic green lustre; tail feathers brown, conspicuously
edged with white; front portion of outer surface of closed wing clear light
blue; primaries slate brown; speculum brilliant metallic green bordered in
front by white bar which separates speculum from blue area; innermost secon-
daries black, tinged with metallic green and each with a streak of white towards
tip; scapulars long, and streaked with white and black or brown; under
surface of wing and axillars mostly pure white; whole breast pure white,
sometimes obscured by a brownish stain and not infrequently showing black
spottings; this broad white area almost completely encircling the body as a

130 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

wide collar; rest of lower surface rich cinnamon; a white spot on each side
at base of tail; area behind vent finely barred with black and white, tinged
with brownish; under tail coverts black with metallic green lustre; under sur-
face of tail white; legs and feet orange red. Total length (both sexes): " 17.00-
21.00" inches (432-533 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 97). Males: folded wing
9.56-9.95 (243-252); bill along culmen 2.48-2.69 (63.0-68.4); tarsus 1.46-1.54
(37.2-39.2) (ten specimens). Adult female: Whole head and upper surface of
body brown, each feather edged with ashy, and those of back with irregular
light bars; bill olive gray, edges of lower mandible orange, its under surface
pale gray; tail feathers grayish brown edged with white, sides of head grayish,
finely streaked with dusky; chin nearly white; throat minutely streaked with
dark brown; outer surface of closed wing as in male but duller colored;
speculum with much less metallic green, and bounded behind by a white line;
breast, sides and area behind vent grayish brown, each feather with a lighter
edging, giving a spotted or mottled appearance; belly less prominently or
not at all marked, but usually obscured by a more or less deep suffusion of
rusty; under surface of tail ashy white. Folded wing 8.78-9.32 inches (223-
236 mm.) ; bill along culmen 2.30-2.51 (58.4-63.8) ; tarsus 1.38-1.47 (35.1-37.4)
(ten specimens) ; all from California. Eclipse plumage (of male) : Much like
plumage of adult female but enough of wing pattern and patch of white on
breast remain to make identification certain. Juvenile plumage — Male: Similar
to that of adult female but lighter in tone and breast usually tinged with
chestnut. Female: Wing dull slate color instead of blue; speculum dusky,
with very little metallic green, and bordered behind by a faint white line.
Natal plumage: Top and back of head dark brown; stripe from base of bill
over eye, and side of head below eye, pale buffy brown; stripe from bill
through eye, brownish black; chin and throat buffy white; rest of upper
surface brown; spot on side of back, stripe across hind border of wing, and
spot at side of rump, white; under surface of body grayish white; breast tinged
with brown.

Marks for field identification — Broad spoon-shaped bill (figs. 17 and 18),
much wider near tip than at base (whence the names "spoonie" and shoveller"),
chunky head, short neck and blue patch on wing. Male distinguished by dark
green head and cinnamon colored belly bounded in front by a white breast patch.

Voice — A feeble quack (Forbush, 1912, p. 100) ; in breeding season note
resembles the syllables tooTc, tooTc. Notes of any kind are seldom uttered.

Nest — Usually on dry ground, sometimes at a considerable distance from
water; constructed of grass and weed stems, and sometimes lined with down.

Eggs — 9 to 14, ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.00 to 2.28 by 1.38 to
1.50 (in millimeters, 51.0 to 58.0 by 35.0 to 38.0), and averaging 2.18 by 1.46
(55.5 by 37.0) (twenty eggs in U. S. National Museum); in color pale olive
buff or greenish gray. The shells are comparatively thin, with but a slight
surface gloss (authors).

Gener.\l distribution — Northern Hemisphere. In North America breeds
from northwestern Alaska, northwestern Mackenzie, and southern Keewatin
south to southern California, central New Mexico, northern Texas, northern
Missouri, and northern Indiana; winters from southern British Columbia,
Arizona, New Mexico, southern Missouri, southern Illinois, Maryland, and
Delaware south to the West Indies, Colombia, and Hawaii (A. O. IT. Check-
list, 1910, p. 72).

Distribution in California — Abundant winter visitant, chiefly on fresh
water, throughout the state. In some years the spring migration does not

SHOVELLER

131

begin until late May. Remains through the summer in small numbers locally,
and has been found breeding at the following localities: Gorman Station, Los
Angeles County (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 17); near Los Angeles (Willett, 1912a,
p. 24); Tulare Lake, Kings County (Goldman, 1908b. p. 202); near Jamison,
Fresno County (Ingersoll coll.) ; near Chowchilla, Merced County (Mailliard,
MS); near Hayward, Alameda Count}' (Emerson, 1901, p. 116); and Wheeler
Island, Solano County (Fair, MS).

The Shoveller, or Spoonbill Duck, the "Spoonie" of hunters, has
the widest distribution of any of the ducks so far treated, for it is
found tliroughout Europe and Asia and parts of Africa as well as

Shoveller

Fig. 18. Bill from below. Natural size.

Note broad, spoon-like end, whence the name ' ' Spoonbill, ' '
and the cross-ridges or ' ' strainers ' ' on sides of mandibles.

throughout North America and portions of Central America. In
North America the principal breeding home of the Shoveller is in the
prairie region of the interior from the northern United States to
Saskatchewan. Along the Pacific Coast this duck is an abundant
winter visitant from central British Columbia to Panama and parts
of Central America. Large numbers also winter in the Hawaiian
Islands. The spring migration into the Mackenzie region begins
about the second week in May, and October 16 to 18 are some dates
for the fall migration into Mexico (Cooke, 1906, p. 37). In Cali-
fornia it is common from the first of October till late in April, and
even until the first part of May, after other species of migratory ducks
have all gone north.

132 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

iShoveilers "are usually fouiul in pairs or small tlocks, sitting on
banks or puddling in shallow water close to shore, skimming flies
and larvae from the surface with their spoon-like bills, or with head
and neck under water, sifting seeds, mollusks and crustaceans from
the muddy bottom" (V. Bailey in Bailey, 1902, p. 54).

The male Shoveller, with its bright green head, pure white breast,
deep cinnamon belly and light blue patches on the wings, is, to say
the least, a strikingly marked bird. The additional character of a
broad, spoon-shaped bill (see figs. 17 and 18), makes it one of the
easiest of the ducks to recognize. The female and young, although
roughly similar in coloration to the Blue-winged and Cinnamon teals,
especially in the possession of blue patches on the wing, are easily
separated from the teals by larger size, and still better, by the shape
of the bill. On the wing the comparatively huge bill, thick head and
short neck, make good field marks. The flight of the Shoveller is
something like that of the teal but is less direct, more of a hesitating,
hovering sort.

In California the nesting season of the Shoveller commences in
April. Emerson (1901, p. 116) found two nests near Hayward,
Alameda Countj^, one on April 25, 1901, with fourteen eggs, and
another (number of eggs not stated) on March 28, 1886. On Wheeler
Island, Solano County, Fair (MS) found a nest with eleven eggs on
May 8, 1914. In the Ingersoll collection there are two sets, of nine
and ten eggs, respectively, with incubation begun in both cases ; both
were taken near Jamison, Fresno County, May 21, 1916. Farther
south, at Tulare Lake, Kings County, Goldman (19086, p. 202) found
small young between June 18 and 24 (1907), at Chowchilla, Merced
County, two downy young were found June 25, 1900 (Mailliard coll.),
and near Gorman Station, Los Angeles Countj', the species has been
reported as breeding during the "last of June" (A. K. Fisher, 1893a,
p. 17).

The nest, constructed of dried grasses and weeds, with an occa-
sional lining o'f down, is usually placed on dry ground, and often at
some distance from water. Emerson (loc. cit.) describes the nest
found near Hayward, Alameda County, April 25, 1901, as being on
the bare ground among salt weed. "It was not over four inches off
the ground and . . . was composed of dry stems of the salt-weed,
lined with down and a few feathers from the parent bird, and
measured fourteen inches across the top with a depth of five inches. ' '
Another nest discovered on March 28, 1886, by the same writer and
in the same general locality, was placed under a low bush, 150 yards
back from the bay shore and was of similar construction to the one
just described.

SHOVELLEB i:i3

The eggs of the Shoveller are smiilar in color to those of the
Mallard and Pintail, being usually pale olive buff or pale greenish
gray, and have thin shells with very little lustre. They are smaller
in size, however, and slightly different in shape. They are distin-
guishable from the eggs of the Mallard by their paler tint as Avell as
by their smaller size (Bent, 1902, p. 4).

The downy young cannot be readily distinguished from otlier
ducks in that stage, for the bill at first shows little indication of the
broad spoon-like form which it takes on gradually as the bird ap-
proaches full size.

The molt into the breeding plumage is slow. Beck (MS) states
that as late as January 2, 1911, Shovellers collected at Los Bafios,
]\Ierced County, were still molting on the head and that but few were
in perfect feather. Young males often show curious combinations of
the juvenile and adult patterns of coloration.

Shovellers are swift fliers and make a noticeable flapping noise
with their wings when rising from the water's surface. During
certain seasons they are restless and spend much of the time on the
wing.

Nordhoff (1902, p. 213) states that on Elsinore Lake, Riverside
County, Shovellers were nnich tamer than other species of ducks,
sometimes allowing approach to within twenty or- thirty yards. They
do not gather into large flocks consisting purely of their own kind,
but both forage and travel in pairs or small companies, often associat-
ing with other species of ducks.

As is evidenced by the character of the bill the Shoveller obtains
much of its food by skimming tlie water. The comb-like fringes along
the edges of the sensitive upper mandible, sometimes called lamellae,
are especially well developed and enable the bird by skimming the
surface to strain out plants and animals of very small size. The birds
can often be seen swimming with their heads partially submerged,
"gabbling'' or sifting the water as they go, and seldom raising the
head unless some large object is captured. In addition to the insect
food obtained on the surface of the water, the Shoveller feeds on
aquatic plants, grasses, and seeds which it procures in the mud near
shore. At Owens Lake, Inyo County, Nelson (in A. K. Fisher, 1893a,
p. 17) found the Shoveller feeding extensively on the larvae and pupae
of a small fly [Eplujdra hians) which abounded at the time in the lake.

As a general rule this duck does not acquire much fat. When it
does, however, it makes as fine a table bird as exists in the state, and
by some is even considered superior to the Mallard. Its food insures
a good flavor as a rule, and the birds are usually nice and juicy at
least at the beginning of the hunting season. As the season advances
it is said to become somewhat poorer in flesh and in flavor. Its small

134 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOBXIA

size is one of the things that rates it as a second-class duck on tlie
markets.

The ShoveHer falls an easy prey to the market hunter, for it comes
readily to decoys and is not so wary as most other species. In most
parts of the state, it is always to be seen in any good bag and very
often is the principal species represented. Two transfer companies in
San Francisco which recorded the number of Shovellers sold during
the season 1910-1911, disposed of 5,855 of these ducks. Although
considerably reduced during the past few years. Shovellers continue
to appear in large numbers during the winter season. The toll upon
this species taken b.y the hunter is determined by the supply of more
desirable ducks. As the more valuable table ducks become reduced
in numbers, the Shoveller tends to rise in popularity.

Pintail

DafJa ocitfa (Linnaeus)

Other names — Sprig; Sprigtail; Dafila caudacufo.

Description — Adult male: Head bister brown, darkest on top. each feather
black centrally with pale tip, the whole giving a faintly scaled appearance;
a similar but more finely scaled effect on cheeks and throat; feathers of hind
neck black, washed with metallic green and separated from brown of head
on either side by a conspicuous white stripe which extends upward and
forward from white of breast; feathers on sides of hind neck washed with
metallic pink; iris dark brow'n; bill blackish gray on culmen, nail ami lower
mandible, lead color at sides; upper surface and side of body with fine irregular^
wavy bars of black and white; longer scapulars velvety black edged with
ashy white; rump nearly uniform ashy brown; upper tail coverts blackish
l)rown, edged with white, lateral ones having outer webs deep black; tail
feathers blackish brown edged with white, the central elongated ones black;
outer surface of closed wing clear brownish gray; primary flight feathers
darker brownish gray; tertials long and black, broadly edged with ashy gray;
speculum iridescent, varying from green to bronzy ])urple at different angles;
speculum edged in front by a bar of pale rusty brown, behind by a bar of black
followed by a bar of white, and above by a broad band of black; under sur-
face of wnng grayish brown; axillars dull white, finely mottled with dusky;
under surface of body pure white save for belly which is faintly and <lully
barred with dusky; lower surface often discolored with rusty; a conspicuous
white patch at base of tail on each side; under tail coverts black, the outer-
most ones outwardly edged with white; feet olive gray, dusky at joints. Total
length "26.00-.30.00" inches (660-762 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 97); folded
wing 10.30-10.80 (262-274); bill along culmen 1.9.3-2.16 (49.0-.54.8) ; tarsus
1.59-1.74 (40.3-44.2) (ten specimens). Adult female: Top of head reddish
brown, narrowly streaked with black; sides of head and whole neck lighter
buffy brown and more finely streaked with black; chin and throat white;
rest of upper surface and sides, dark brown, each feather marked with
U-shaped bars of light reddish brown and with whitish marks on outer margin ;
upper tail coverts more broadly edged with white; tail feathers dark brown
irregularly barred with light rusty brown; wing as in male except that

PINTAIL 135

speculum is dull brown, showing but faint green or i)uri)le reflections, and with
bars of color a<ljoining speculum less contrasted; tertials and scapulars dull
brown, like flight feathers; under surface of wing and axillars as in male;
under surface of body dingy white, often stained with rusty; feathers of fore-
neck with U-shaped brown markings and those of rest of under surface with
grayish centers, giving a more or less mottled appearance; under tail coverts
white with brownish centers. Total length "21.00-23.50" inches (.533-597
mm.) (Ridgway, loc. cit.); folded wing 9.64-10.42 (244-265); bill along culmen
1.83-1.96 (46.5-49.8); tarsus 1.56-1.67 (39.6-42.4) (ten specimens); all from
California. Juvenile phimage: "Young male, similar to the female, but mark-
ings on upper parts more bar-like, and lower parts sometimes nearly wholly
streaked" (Baird, Brewer and Ridgwaj', 1884, T, p. 512). Natal plumage:
Top of head brown, palest on forehead; stripe over eye, lower part of cheek,
and chin, dull white; stripe behind eye running around back of head, and
patch on ear region, light brown; neck white save for narrow brown stripe
down hind neck; rest of upper surface light brown; streak down side of back,
and large patch across end of wing, white; under surface of body white, tinged
more or less with brownish.

Marks for field identification — Large size (at least as to length), narrow
head and long slender neck. The long central tail feathers, dark brown head
with white neck stripes, and white under surface easily identify the male.

Voice — Of male: a loud qua, qua, uttered in flight; also a mellow whistle.
Of female: a hoarse muffled quack; and several low notes (authors).

Nest — Usually in tall grass on dry ground but near water; a crude structure
of dry grasses lined with down.

Eggs — 5 to 12, ordinarily 6 to 8, elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches,
2.06 to 2.26 by 1.39 to 1.59 (in millimeters, 52.3 to 57.4 by 35.3 to 40.3), and
averaging 2.18 by 1.51 (55.4 by 38.3); in color dull grayish olive or pale olive
green, often discolored with clay-toned markings (Grinnell, 1900, p. 15; and
authors).

General distribution — Northern Hemisphere. In North America breeds
from Arctic Coast of Alaska to Keewatin, and south to southern California,
northern Nebraska and northern Illinois; winters from southern British
Columbia, Nevada, southern Wisconsin, southern Ohio and Delaware, south
to Porto Rico and Panama, and in Hawaii (modified from A. O. U. Check-list,
1910, p. 73).

Distribution in California — Common winter visitant throughout the state,
but more abundant in the southern portion. Migrants from the north begin
to arrive in September and usually leave in March. An inhabitant of fresh
water and found but rarely in salt water situations. Small numbers remain
throughout the summer and breed in suitable localities; the following are
the only definite records of nesting known to the writers: Pennington, Sutter County
(H. C. Bryant, 1914e, p. 223); Hayward, Alameda County (Mailliard coll.);
Los Banos, Merced County (H. C. Bryant, 1914e, p. 220; Carriger coll.); Tulare
Lake, Kings County (Goldman, 1908&, p. 202) ; Buena Vista Lake, Kern County
(Linton, 1908o, p. 50); Los Angeles (Davie, 1889, p. 66); Alamitos, Los Angeles
County (Cooke, 1906, p. 38); Bear Lake, San Bernardino County (Willett,
1912a, p. 24) ; and San Jacinto Lake, Riverside County (Willett and Jay, 1911,
p. 158).

The Pintail or Sprig is usually one of the commonest ducks in
the hunter's bag and it is always to be found on the market during

136 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA

the open season. Even (liii-ing the severest winter weather this duck
is found in numbers on any sizabU^ body of fresh water. Only rarely
is it found "rafted" on the bays along the coast. Bailey (1902, p.
55) states that at Point Reyes large flocks of Pintails were seen by
J. A. Loring lying out in the bay. As soon as the tide covered the
salt grass flats the Pintails would follow in and commence feeding.
Pintails in the north begin to move south in August, but they do not
appear in great numbers in California until well along in September,
and the full quota does not arrive until the latter part of October. By
the end of March most of the migrants have left for the north.

Whether resting on the water or in flight the Pintail may be
recognized by its considerable size and by its slender head and long,
graceful neck. If it is disturbed while feeding in the grass its long
neck stretched almost straight upward is an easy mark of identifica-
tion. The long middle tail feathers,

/^^~^~~~~^ ^ dark brown head, white stripe on

^ neck, pale rusty wing bar and pure
^ white under surface are excellent

\^ -•' •'''^^rX:,^ distinguishing characters in the

^^^^^-— — " = — ^■^ male (pi. 3). The female, although

^'^^^ much like the female Mallard, is

x>-^'l^\ ^\ ?''^^ ""^ ^'^^ ""^ ^'™''^'' readily distinguished by her slender
Pintail. Natural size. . & j

■^j . . -,,, 1 .,, form, dull brownish speculum.

Note breadth as compared with ^ '

bill of female Gadwall (fig. 12). more pointed tail, and long neck.

(See also figs. 19 and 10.) The
mellow whistle of the drake and the hoarse muffled ''quack" of the
duck are so rarely given that the voice is seldom useful for field identi-
fication. According to Brooks (1899a, p. 19) the note of the male, gen-
erally heard only in spring, is a soft rolling whistle, exactly like that
of the Green-winged Teal, but in a lower key. The same author says
that while feeding with Mallards, Widgeon or Teal, the Pintail does
not turn tail uppermost as these ducks do, its longer neck ordinarily
enabling it to reach the bottom when sitting flat on the water. The
eye of this duck is smaller in proportion than that of any other sur-
face-feeding duck except the Shoveller. The habit of "slanting in"
to a pond with wings set, is a field mark used by almost every hunter.
Although the favorite breeding grounds of the Pintail lie far to
the north of California, yet some individuals of this species remain
and breed within the state. It is one of the earliest of our ducks to
breed, for usually it lays its five to twelve eggs in late April or
early ]\Iay. A set of eight eggs, partly incubated, w'as collected by
W. 0. Emerson near Hayward, Alameda County, as early as April

PINTAIL 137

18 (1909) (Mailliard coll.), and from a sot of eight collected April
21, 1916, on the Alvarado marshes, seven were hatched on April 26
(Dirks, MS). Yfillett and Jay (1911, p. 358) record having seen a
female with young at San Jacinto Lake, Riverside County, on May
28, 1911, and Linton (1908c, p. 197) records a brood as hatching on
June 4, 1908, at Buena Vista Lake, Kei-n County. Goldman (19086,
p. 202) found the Pintail the commonest breeding duck in the vicinity
of Tulare Lake in 1907. A female shot there June 21 contained an
egg ready to be laid. On the same date several adults with young
large enough to make short flights were seen.

The following description of mating behavior as observed in Alaska
is given by Nelson (1887, p. 70) :

On May 17, while sitting overlooking a series of small ponds, a pair of
Pintails arose and started off, the male in full chase after the female. Back
and forth they passed at a marvelously swift rate of speed, with frequent
quick turns and evolutions. At one moment they were almost out of view
high overhead, and the next saw them skimming along the ground in an
involved course very difficult to follow with the eye. Ere long a second male
joined in the chase, then a third, and so on until six males vied with each
other in the pursuit. The original pursuer appeared to be the only one capable
of keeping close to the coy female, and owing to her dextrous turns and
curves he was able to draw near only at intervals. Whenever he did succeed
he always passed under the female, and kept so close to her that their wings
clattered together with a noise like a watchman 's rattle, and audible a long
distance. The chase lasted half an hour, and after five of the pursuers had
dropped off one by one the pair remaining (and I think the male was the same
that originated the pursuit) settled in one of the ponds.

The nest is nearly always placed on dry ground, more often near
the edge of a pond or lake, but occasionally at some distance from
water. The nest itself is seldom more than a hollow in the ground
scantily lined with a mixture of dry grass and down, and is ordi-
narily not so well concealed as the nests of other ducks. In Alaska
bodies of water with a broad margin of marsh grass are usually
selected as the rendezvous for the future brood. In the Kowak Delta,
Pintail's nests were found far out on the bare, mossy tundra, in two
cases fully 400 yards from the nearest pond (Grinnell, 1900, p. 14).
The first brood of downy young in this locality was noted June 23.

The eggs are pale olive green or dull grayish olive in color and
vary in shape from ovate to elongate ovate. They measure, in inches,
2.06 to 2.26 by 1.39 to 1.59, and average 2.18 by 1.51. They are
similar to the eggs of the Mallard in color but are smaller, more
elongated and a little more glossy. Davie (1889, p. 67) states that in
the far north as many as twelve eggs are to be found in a single nest,
but six or eight seems to be nearer the average number. It is also

138 GAME BISDS OF CALIFOFXIA

stated that if the eggs are taken, the bird will immediately deposit
a second set which is seldom more than five or six in number.

"As the yonng are hatched they are led to the small creeks and
rivulets, where the birds remain until the young take wing, after
which all pass to the great marshes, where they grow fat feeding upon
the roots of the horsetails (Equisetum)" (Nelson, 1887, p. 70). The
young take wing early in August, before those of any of the other
species. Grinnell (1900, p. 15) says of a female with a brood of
downy young which he found at the edge of a pond in northern
Alaska: ''The old bird tumbled away through the grass in frantic
efforts to distract my attention, [while] the brood of young with one
accord scurried across the water to a small islet, and in a moment
were scattered through the short gi^ass and completely hidden from
view."

Coues (1874, p. 562) found the males unable to fly during the molt
in July in the northern parts of Montana. Many were killed with
sticks or captured by hand at this time. Brooks (1899a, p. 19) says
that like the Shoveller, the male Pintails seldom get into really per-
fect plumage before January, the bulk of the males shot in the fall
being in "female" (eclipse) plumage or changing, with the long
central tail feathers not yet developed. Old females sometimes acquire
tails of considerable length. Their plumage then partakes a good
deal of the character of that of the males, the under parts being
spotless and the upper surface having a good deal of whitish flecking.

Coues (1874, p. 563) says that hybrids of this species with the
Mallard are of comparatively frequent occurrence and that in at
least one instance such hybrids have proved fertile inter se. There is
a stuffed specimen of a hybrid of this origin collected at Los Banos,
Merced County, and now in the Los Bafios Hotel.

Pintails fly very fast, at a great height, and usually in V-forma-
tion. When "slanting in" to a pond, the distinct noise made by
the wings can be heard at quite a distance. The habit of sailing long
distances with wings set and curved downwards is a notable character-
istic of the species. The birds gather in flocks of as many as fifty
individuals, and when flushed crowd close together thus offering good
"pot shots." They spend much time on shore preening their feathers.
On the water they sit high and are graceful swimmers. While the
Pintail does not resort to diving as a method of securing food, it will
when wounded in such a way that the wings are useless, submerge
itself readily and travel beneath the surface of the water for a long
distance.

The food of the Pintail is largely vegetable. Beck (MS) speaks
of this duck as feeding on snails and weed and grass seeds at Los

FIST AIL 139

Bafias, Mtn-eed ("ouiity, during the winter of 1911. Like the Mallard,
Pintails glean in the grain fields, and in the middle west they feed
largely on wild rice. In Alaska, Grinnell (1900, p. 14) records them
as feeding exclusively in the fall on the seeds of a kind of grass which
bordered the sloughs and ponds ; and Baird, Brewer and Ridgway
(1884, T, p. 514) state tliat they feed on the roots of tlie horsetail
rush.

As a table duck the Pintail ranks with the Mallard and Canvas-
back, l)oth as regards size and Havor. Consequently it is widely sought
after. A wary bird, flying high and with great speed, this species
makes an ideal game bird. It is a favorite not only with the hunter
who slioots over decoys l)ut with the pass shooter as well. In southern
California it is often considered the "best" bird, for very soon after
the opening of the season it is in prime condition. This is due to
the fact that immediately upon their arrival from the north the birds
resort at night to the stubble fields and soon become grain-fattened.
A grain and seed eater by choice, the Sprig is uniformly fat and
delicious. Certain s])ortsmen advocate allowing drawn birds to hang
for several days before cooking. The concensus of opinion among
epicures is that young drakes are superior to young ducks. The
former can be selected from the bag by the mottled color of their
plumage and because the pin-feathers are just bursting out into the
ragged patches of their winter color (Hedderly, 1912a, p. 490). Beld-
ing (]\IS^ alone, considers it an inferior table duck. He says that its
flesh often has an earthy taste acquired by feeding in muddy ponds.
This may be true locally.

The numbers of Pintails sold in the market (over 40,000 in San
Francisco alone in 1910-1911) suggests that this is one of the species
which cannot long exist in numbers if something is not done at once
to conserve the breeding stock. Sportsmen have noted a distinct
decrease in its numbers during the past ten years. In spite of the
fact that most of the Pintails killed breed outside of the state, yet
the fact that there is a constant diminution of its numbers from year
to year shows that the breeding stock of the north is being seriously
depleted. We believe that the report of relatively large numbers of
Pintails from some localities in late years is due to the disproportion-
ately greater rate of reduction of one or two other species more popu-
lar with the sportsman. Our three best table ducks, the Mallard,
Canvasbaek and Pintail, are all regularly diminishing in numbers and
their survival as game birds can only be assured by a more rigid pro-
tection than they now receive, to the end that the annual toll taken in
hunting and the normal rate of reproduction may strike a somewhat
closer balance.

140 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA

Wood Duck

Aix sponsa (Linnaeus)

Other name — Summer Duck.

Description- — Adult male: Top of head and front of crest metallic green;
tip of crest metallic violet; cheeks black tinged with violet; region around
eye and base of crest metallic reddish purple; chin, throat and foreneck, pure
white, from which area two crescentic bars of the same color extend upwards
on each side, one onto side of head just behind eye, the other onto hind neck;
a narrow white line on each side of forehead extends from base of bill back
over eye along each side of crown to tip of crest; a similar stripe begins a
short distance behind eye and extends along lower edge of crest to its tip;
iris "bright orange red"; eyelids "deep vermillion" (Baird, Brewer and
Eidgway, 1884, II, p. 12); bill pinkish white, lake red at base; ridge, tip and
lower mandible, black; upper surface of body sooty brown, lustrous with
bronzy green, most vivid on rump and tail; a vertical crescent of enlarged
black and white feathers in front of wing; outer surface of closed wing dark
brown with more or less steel blue iridescence particularly on greater and
middle coverts, these latter also narrowly tipped with black; flight feathers
slaty brown with exposed inner webs steel blue and outer webs becoming
silvery gray toward tips; feathers of speculum steel blue narrowly tipped
with white, bordered above by a broad black band which pertains to the much
expanded innermost secondaries and scapulars; lining of wing and axillars
irregularly barred with brown and white; sides and flanks pale buff, minutely
undulated (cross-barred) with black; terminal feathers of flank expanded at
tips, and marked with conspicuous bars of black and white; breast rich
purplish chestnut, the forepart with a purple gloss, and marked with arrow-
points of white; rest of under surface pure white; a patch of metallic pur-
ple on each side at base of tail; lateral upper tail coverts marked with narrow
central stripes of light brown; under surface of tail and lower tail coverts
dark brown, the latter with iridescent green toward tips; legs and feet orange
brown, webs olive black, nails black. Total length "19.00-20.50" inches
(482-520 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 99); folded wing 8.75-9.40 (222-238); bill
along culmen 1.28-1.50 (32.5-38.1); tarsus 1.34-1.44 (34.0-36.5) (three speci-
mens from California and Oregon). Folded wing 8.05 (204); culmen 1.27
(32.2); tarsus 1.38 (35.0) (immature male no. 3739 Mailliard coll.). Adult
female: Top of head and small crest dark gray, glossed with metallic violet;
sides of head and whole neck ashy gray; chin and throat white; a white ring
around eye, continuous with a white patch behind eye; eyelids yellow; bill
"dark lead color," nail "black" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p.
114) ; back, rump and upper tail coverts brown, slightly glossed with bronze
and reddish purple; tail brown, glossed with greenish bronze; outer surface
of closed wing as in male but secondaries more widely tipped with white, and
the four upper greater coverts rich metallic reddish purple, more bluish toward
the centers, bronzy toward edges, and narrowly tipped with velvety black;
fore breast dark brown, each feather with a shaft streak of brownish white;
sides and flanks brown; rest of under surface white, the feathers centered
coarsely with light brown or whitish; legs and feet "yellowish brown"
(Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, loc. cit.). Total length "17.00-19.50" inches
(432-495 mm.) (Eidgway, loc. cit.); folded wing 8.35-8.90 (212-226); bill
along culmen 1.15-1.30 (29.2-33.0) ; tarsus 1.2.5-1.52 (31.7-38.6) (three specimens

WOOD DUCK 141

from California). Juvenile plumage: Top of heail dark brown; stripe over eye,
eyelid, and area between bill and eye, dull white; side of head otherwise brown;
chin, throat and foreneck, white; upper surface of body brown; forepart of
breast mottled with yellowish brown and dark brown; rest of under surface
dull white, mottled with dusky feather centers. Natal plumage: Top of head
(from base of bill), hind neck and whole upper surface of body, brown, palest
on forehead and wings; bill (dried) blackish, nail horn-color, lower mandible
yellow^; stripe behind eye, side of head, spots at side of rump and below
wing, and whole lower surface of body, dull yellowish white; feet (dried)
blackish. i *^i

Marks for field identification — The most beautiful and brightly marked
American duck. Medium size, conspicuously crested head, mottled breast, and
pure white under surface of body. Plumage of male variegated, head and
crest green, chin and throat white, crescents in front of wing white and black,
speculum dark blue. Female duller colored, with conspicuous white eye-ring
and stripe behind eye.

Voice — Of male: a watch -note hoe-cck, rarely uttered. Of female with
brood: a low, soft, prolonged pe-ee, pe-ce. Of downy young: a mellow pee, pee,
pee-e, often and rapidly repeated (Audubon in Coues, 1874, pp. 572-573).

Nest — In a hollow in a tree usually over or near water, but occasionally
some distance from it; composed of twigs, grasses and leaves, and lined with
down.

Eggs — 8 to 12, or more, short elliptical in shape, measuring in inches 2.01
to 2.19 by 1.50 to 1.61 ( in millimeters, 51.0 to 55.5 by 38.0 to 41.0), and averag-
ing 2.05 by 1.58 (52.0 by 40.0) (twenty-nine eggs in U. S. National Museum) ;
in color creamy white, with a glossy surface; more globular than those of
most other ducks.

General distribution — Temperate North America. Breeds from southern
British Columbia, central Saskatchewan, northern Ontario, New Brunswick
and Nova Scotia south to central California, southern Texas, Florida and
Cuba; winters chiefly in the United States, from southern British Columbia,
Kansas, Indiana, and New Jersey, south to southern California and the Gulf
of Mexico (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 73).

Distribution in California — Eesident in suitable localities throughout the
state but chiefly in cential and northern portions. Formerly common and
widely distributed west of the Sierras, but now rare anywhere in its range.
A few additional migrants appear in the fall (October). Southernmost record
station at any season: Eamona, San Diego County (Sharp, 1906, p. 75). The
following are all the breeding records knowm to the writers: Ventura County
(Cooke, 1906, p. 40) ; near Lathrop, San Joaquin County (Wheeler, MS) ;
Forest Lake, San Joaquin County (Sampson, 1901, p. 95) ; Isleton, Sacramento
County (Wheeler in H. E. Taylor, 1897, p. 110) ; Gallinas Creek, Marin County
(Mailiiard, MS); Lake Tahoe (Eay, 1901, p. 116).

It is universally accepted that the Wood Duck is the handsomest
of all the American ducks. Its near relative, the Mandarin Duck of
Asia, is its only near competitor for honors, and so far as brilliancy
of coloration is concerned even that species must be given second
place. The "Wood Duck's habit of making special display of its
bright colors but adds to its ever evident beauty and grace when on
the water.

142 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA

This species is found only in temperate North America and indeed
is more nearly restricted to the United States than any other single
duck. There is but one instance of its occurrence in Mexico (at
Mazatlan). In California the Wood Duck was formerly well dis-
tributed throughout the low country west of the Sierras. Now it is a
rare local resident of the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys and
westward to the coast, frequenting the secluded, slow-flowing, timber
bordered streams and fresh water sloughs, especially in the oak belt.
Although permanently resident within the state the species appears
to be to a slight extent migratory, moving toward the north in April
and southward in October. It is rare in southern California where
conditions favoring its existence are now lacking. The southernmost
record station for any season is Ramona, San Diego County.

So conspicuously and distinctively colored is the male of this duck
that field marks are scarcely necessary, even for the novice. The
green crested head relieved by white stripes, the pure white under
surface and chin, the chestnut colored breast, and blue speculum,
easily identify the male. Although lacking the bright coloration of
her mate, the female displays more color than the females of most
other species ; in addition she can be recognized by the white eye-ring
and streak behind the eye.

"Wood Ducks seldom stray away from the secluded, wooded streams
and sloughs which constitute their habitat. "A mossy log in a pond
is a favorite resting place for the ducks, but as you walk through the
woods in spring a pair will often fly from a branch overhead, utter-
ing their shrill, plaintive cry as they dart through the trees" (Bailey,
1902, pp. 55-56).

Writing of his observations in Massachusetts, C. W. Townsend
(1916, pp. 15-16) says:

The courtship of the Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) is a pretty sight. The
gorgeously colored drake swims close to his modest little wife who is dressed
in quaker gray and wears large white spectacles. If she swims too fast for
him he is apt to touch her head with his bill, and when she stops he jerks his
head up and down in an abbreviated bow. At the same time he whistles in
a low sweet way as if he were drawing in rather than blowing out his breath.
The feathers of his crest and head are at the same time erected.

Most ducks nest on the ground, but this species selects hollows in
trees which may be either living or dead. Often the nest is situated
over water but sometimes is at a considerable distance from it. Occa-
sionally the entrance to the nesting cavity is forty or fifty feet above
the ground, and the nest itself may be several feet below the entrance
to the hollow. Twigs, gi'ass and leaves are used as building materials,
with down feathers for lining. The hollow end of a broken-off branch
is said to be frequently selected, and occasionally use is made of a

WOOD DUCK 143

ileserted wooclprcktn- 's uest enlarged through decay. Sampson (1901,
p. 95) found a Wood Duck's nest located in the deserted home of a
Red-shafted Flicker about twenty-five feet above the ground in a
valley oak tree at Forest Lake, San Joaquin County, April 29, 1900.
The nest contained twenty-one eggs. A difference in size and colora-
tion was noticeable in these eggs, so that it seems probable that the
set had been laid by two females.

Messrs. Wheeler and Sampson found a set of fifteen eggs of this
species in 1896 at a point on the San Joaquin River a short distance
above Lathrop, San Joaquin County. The nest was in a hollow tree
close to the overflow from the river, and the tree was infested with
ants, which, however, did not appear to have in any degree disturbed
the ducks. Wheeler {in H. R. Taylor, 1897, p. 110) has also reported
the nesting of a pair of Wood Ducks in a barn on the Sacramento
River, near Isleton, Sacramento County. The birds entered the barn
through a hole in the boards and built their nest in the hay. The
farmer who owned the hay guarded the nest and allowed the eggs to
hatch.

Mr. Joseph ]Mailliard tells us of having found in 1872 or 1873 a
nest of the Wood Duck in a hole in a dead tree on the bank of Gal-
linas Creek, Marin County. One of the parents was frightened from
the nesting cavity. The nest contained not less than eight eggs,
though no accurate record was kept of the circumstances.

This duck returns to the same nesting site year after year. Incu-
bation lasts for a period of four weeks. The female alone attends to
this duty, the male usually being found standing guard on a near-by
limb. Some observers say that the male deserts the female during this
period. The young either tumble out of the nest and are led to water,
or are carried to the water one by one in the bill of the mother
(Sandys, 1902, pp. 166-167; and others).

We have no good general account of the habits of the Wood Duck
since the days of the famous naturalist-artist, Audubon. Writing of
observations made in the southern states he says:

jSTo sooner has the female completed her set of eggs than she is abandoned
by her mate, who now joins others, which form themselves into considerable
flocks, and thus remain apart until the young are able to fly, when old and
young of both sexes come together, and so remain until the commencement of
the next breeding season. In all the nests I have examined, 1 have been
rather surprised to find a quantity of feathers belonging to birds of other
species, even those of the domestic fowl, and particularly the Wild Goose
and Wild Turkey. On coming upon a nest with eggs when the bird was
absent in search of food, I have always found the eggs covered over with
feathers and down, although quite out of sight, in the depth of a . . . hole.
... If the nest is placed immediately over the water, the young, the moment
they are hatched, scramble to the mouth of the hole, launch into the air with

144 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOBNIA

their little wings and feet spread out, and drop into their favourite element;
but whenever their birth-place is at some distance from it, the mother carries
them to it one by one in her bill . . . On several occasions, however, when
the hole was thirty ... or more yards from . . . water, I observed that the
mother suffered the young to fall on the grasses and dried leaves beneath the
tree, and afterwards led them directly to the nearest edge of the next pool
or creek (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 27.3).

"The Wood Duck is conspicnons for the swiftness, ease and
eh^gance of its fliglit. It can pass through woods, and among the
branches of trees, with as much facilit}' as the Wild Pigeon. While
flying it is rarely ever heard to utter any cry" (Baird, Brewer and
Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 14). This species is to be found in pairs or at
most in small flocks.

The Wood Duck does not limit itself to tlie aquatic insects and
plants found along the stream near its regular abode, but often forages
about the woods in search of other food. Belding (MS) says that on
the Feather River he found it feeding in corn and wheat fields after
harvest and also on wild grapes and acorns. J. Mailliard saw quite a
number feeding on acorns at Paicines, San Benito County, October
13, 1900. The stomach of a female taken near Laytonville, Mendocino
County, in November, 1913, contained a large number of acorns, as
also that of one taken near Santa Rosa, Sonoma County. Acorns
would appear therefore to form a very general article in its diet.
Stomachs of eastern Wood Ducks examined by the United States
Biological Survey (McAtee, 1911&, p. 1) showed that over fifteen
per cent of the food is made up of wild rice and celery and over six
per cent of pondweeds.

At the present time the Wood Duck exists in such small numbers
that it should not properly be considered a game bird of the state.
Yet, as its flesh is declared to be delicious, and since it has proven itself
readily domesticated, there seems no good reason why it cannot be
raised in captivity as a commercial proposition and sold on the market.
At present there is a brisk demand from breeders and pleasure parks
for this, the handsomest of the duck tribe.

Early writers report the Wood Duck as common in California.
C. H. Townsend (1887, p. 194) says that it was observed on the lower
McCloud River at various times from October 1 until March 1, often
in quite large companies, and was seen in April and May at Red
Bluff, where it frequented the sloughs in the timber belts along the
Sacramento River. Heermann (1859, p. 68) gives it as "abundant,
breeding in the hollow trees bordering the streams of California."
J. Mailliard (1911, p. 49) says that as late as twenty-five years ago
it was no uncommon thing to see Wood Ducks scattered in small
groups along such a stream as the Paper ]\Iill or Lagunitas Creek,

WOOD DUCK 145

Marin County, or anywhere along Lagiina de Santa Rosa, Sonoma
County, even where quite a number of people lived in the vicinity and
where there was a good deal of travel along the streams. Often the
ducks were found in small tributaries and diminutive ponds along
these waterways. The last one killed in this vicinity was taken on
October 23, 1898. Mr. A. Jackson reports that a limit of Wood Ducks
could often be obtained fifteen years ago along the Napa River, but
that now not a single Wood Duck is to be seen there.

George Neale reports (October 1, 1914) that he used to hunt
Wood Ducks on Elk Slough, Yolo County, where he has bagged thirty
or forty in an afternoon. A few are still to be found there. W. W.
Richards states (October 15, 1913) that Wood Ducks were formerly
common on Sherman Island, Sacramento River, where ''as many as
a hundred" were shot in a single day. The last one killed there was
shot about 1908. Streator (1886, p. 90) records the species as rare
near Santa Barbara but says that birds were occasionally met with
beyond the Santa Ynez Mountains about ten miles from that city.

Practically no Wood Ducks are to be found in these old haunts
at the present time. An individual is occasionally reported as being
seen in the locality above mentioned by Mailliard, and in the vicinity
of Gridley, Butte County ; but beyond these, and an occasional one
reported by a collector or market hunter, the species is now almost
unknown. Dr. W. F. Bade reports that he saw numbers of Wood
Ducks on the Sacramento River on a trip from Tehama to Chico in
1905. When the same trip was taken in 1911 not more than six were
seen. The more recent records of its occurrence are as follows
Ramona, San Diego County, November, 1905 (Sharp, 1906, p. 75)
Redlands, San Bernardino County, October 2, 1909 (Willett, 1912a
p. 24) ; Banning, Riverside County, April, 1907 (Willett, loc. cit.)
Oxnard, Ventura County, November 6, 1905 (Grinnell, 1906&, p. 29)
Reedley, Fresno County, April, 1910 (Tyler, 19136, p. 17) ; Stani-
slaus County, fall of 1910 (J. Mailliard, 1911, p. 49) ; Live Oak,
Sutter County, November 28, 1914 (specimen in Mus. Vert. Zool.) ;
near Castroville, Monterey County, October 20, 1908 (Silliman, 1915&,
p. 207) ; near Laytonville, Mendocino County, November, 1913 (F. C.
Clarke, MS). Mr. J. S. Hunter, Assistant, State Fish and Game
Commission, has stated to us that whereas this species came to the
market in considerable numbers several years ago, not more than
two or three have been seen during the past few years. Four hundred
and forty Wood Ducks were recorded as sold in the markets of San
Francisco and Los Angeles in the season 1895-1896 (Calif. Fish
Comm., 1896, p. 40). The records of sale in the markets of San Fran-
cisco during the season 1910-1911 show a total of six birds.

146 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOBXIA

From the foregoing evidence it can be seen that the Wood Duck,
although existing in California in considerable numbers in the early
days, is now nearly extinct. A number of the eastern states have
found it necessary to give it complete and permanent protection in
order to save it. California's only hope of saving this species is to
do likewise. Altliough the Wood Duck is migratory in most states, it
remains with us throughout the year and so gives us an added respon-
sibility. The federal regulations regarding migratory birds which
went into effect in the fall of 1913 placed a closed season of five years
on the Wood Duck. At the end of this period a renewal of total pro-
tection will be necessary.

Redhead

Marila americana (Eyton)

Other names — Eed-headed Duck; Pochard; Aythya americana; Aythya
erythrocephala ; Nyroca americana; Nyroca ferina; Nyroca erytlirocephala ;
Fuligula ferina americana.

Description — Adult male: Whole head and upper neck rich reddish chestnut,
glossed with reddish purple; bill bluish gray, nail black; iris lemon yellow;
lower neck and forepart of upper surface of body, black; rest of back anil
rump ashy brown; middle of back finely cross-barred with dull white; upper
tail coverts and tail dull black, fading into dull white at tip of tail; outer
surface of closed wing lead gray; scapulars vermiculated with irregular white
and black bars, those of black widest; flight feathers slate gray; speculum
pale bluish gray, bordered behind narrowly with white, the three upper
feathers edged with black on outer webs; axillars pure white; rest of under
surface of wing gray; lower neck and breast blackish, with ashy feather-
edgings giving a mottled appearance; forepart of belly pure white; sides, flanks
and hinder portion of belly, dusky, with white vermiculations as on scapulars;
under tail coverts blackish brown; legs and feet bluish gray, darker at joints;
M^ebs blackish. Total length 19.87-21.00 inches (506-533 mm.) (three speci-
mens); folded wing 8.50-9.33 (216-237); bill along culmen 1.89-2.05 (48.0-52.0);
tarsus 1.61-1.66 (40.8-42.2) (four specimens). Adult female: Top of head and
whole upper surface, brown, darkest on crown; sides of head and area at base
of bill, much lighter in tone; chin white; bill lead color, tij) black; upper tail
coverts dusky brown; terminal portion of tail dull white; wing as in male;
scapulars like back, lacking vermiculations, but each feather broadly tipped
with ashy; breast much as in male but of lighter tone, the feathers being
more extensively tipped with reddish brown and ashy. Total length (both
sexes): "17.00-21.00" inches (432-533 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 101); folded
wing 9.00 (228); bill along culmen 1.77 (44.9); tarsus 1.57 (39.8) (one speci-
men); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Not known to us. Natal plumage:
Whole upper surface olive brown; spot back of base of each wing, one on hind
border of each wing, and one on each side of rump, yellow; side of head and
whole lower surface deep buff yellow, paler and less yellow behind; no distinct
streaks on side of head although a buffy line above and below eye is to be
noted on close inspection; bill and feet (dried), light brown.

SEDHEAD ]47

;Marks for field identification — Large size, abruptly elevated forehead and,
in the male, reddish head. Distinguished from Canvasbaek by high instead of
sloping forehead (see figs. 20 and 21), darker coloration, smaller general size,
and yellow iris. Female Redhead can be separated from female Canvasbaek
by the high forehead, smaller bill (about one-third shorter), and absence of
barring on feathers of back; from female Scaup by gray on speculum and
smaller amount of white around bill; from female Ring-necked Duck by larger
size (wing 8.50 inches, 216 mm., or more in Redhead) ; from female Golden-eye
by absence of white patch on wing.

A^oiCE — Of male: in spring (and rarely in fall) a peculiar quii-quaa. Of
female a quack of distinctive tone and quality (Eaton, 1910, p. 203).

Xest — On ground among thick weeds or grass, or in rushes and over water;
constructed of weeds, grasses or rushes.

Eggs — 10 to 16, oval to elliptical in shape, measuring in inches, 2.30 to 2.58
by 1.67 to 1.73 (in millimeters, 58.5 to 65.5 by 42.5 to 44.0), and averaging 2.40
by 1.71 (61.0 by 43.5) (twenty-seven eggs in U. S. National Museum); color
greenish drab or light buff.

General distribution — North America. Breeds from southern British
Columbia, central Alberta, central Saskatchewan and southwestern Keewatin
south to southern California, southern South Dakota and southern Wisconsin;
winters from southern British Columbia, Utah, Kansas, Illinois, and Delaware
south to central Mexico and Florida (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 74).

Distribution in California — Fairly common resident in suitable localities
throughout the state; more numerous in winter than in summer and formerly
more abundant than at present. Inhabits both salt and fresh water. Breed-
ing stations known to the writers are as follows: Lower Klamath and Tule
lakes, on Oregon line (H. C. Bryant, 1914e, pp. 229, 231); Sacramento Valley
(Heermann, 1859, p. 70); Sacramento (Cooper and Ridgway, 1886, p. 403);
Alvarado, Alameda County (H. C. Bryant, MS); Buena Vista Lake, Kern
County (Linton, 1908c, p. 197); Ventura County (Evermann, 1886, p. 89); Los
Angeles (Davie, 1889, p. 68) ; Nigger Slough, Los Angeles County (Willett,
1912a, p. 24); San Jacinto Lake, Riverside County (Willet and Jay, 191 1, p.
158; Ingersoll coll.).

The Redhead, although classed as a typical sea duck, because of
the large lobe or flap on the hind toe (the presence of which dis-
tinguishes the sea ducks from the fresh water ducks), differs from the
others of its relatives in that it is chiefly an inhabitant of fresh water.
It is, however, found also in considerable numbers on salt water
along the sea coast. In early spring numerous Redheads can be seen
mixed in with the great numbers of Canvasbacks which dot the shallow-
waters of San Francisco and San Pablo bays. In the interior it
prefers the deeper bodies of fresh water. Although most abundant
here during the winter months, this is nevertheless a resident species,
for a certain proportion remain during the summer and breed in
suitable localities throughout the state.

Like the Cinnamon Teal, the Redhead is essentially southern in its
distribution. The only record of its occurrence on the Pacific Coast
north of Vancouver Island is of a stray taken in 1896 on Kodiak Island,

148

GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOENIA

Alaska. The greater number of Redheads summer in a restricted area
in west-central Canada. It is less common on the Pacific slope locally
from Lac la Hache, British Columbia, south to southern California
(Ventura and Los Angeles counties) and east to Ruby Lake, Nevada,
and Rush Lake, Utah. The principal winter home of the Redhead
extends from Texas, along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts to Chesapeake
Bay ; a few winter on Long Island, while in the west it winters north
to New Mexico, Arizona, Utah (rarely), Nevada, and southern British
Columbia, which is almost as far north as it breeds. The Redhead is
not uncommon in winter in the Valley of Mexico, but is quite rare on
the wTst coast of Mexico where it has been found south to Manzanillo
and southern Lower California (Cooke, 1906, p. 42).

Fig. 20. Side of bill and head of Eedhead. Natural size.

Note high forehead. Compare with sloping forehead of
Canvasback (fig. 21, p. 153).

The Redhead is very similar in structure and appearance to the
famed Canvasback. The most dependable method of distinguishing
the two species is by the profile of the forehead. The Canvasback 's
forehead is low and slopes backward in line with the top of its bill,
while the forehead of the Redhead is high and meets the bill at a
considerable angle (see figs. 20 and 21). Other characters of the
Redhead are the smaller size, yellow instead of red eye, darker color,
and higher extension of black on the neck. The female Redhead
and the Ring-necked Duck are rather easy to confuse, but may be dis-
tinguished by the ditference in wing length, the Redhead having a
folded wing more than 8.50 inches long while that of the Ring-neck
is 8.25 or less in length ; also by the former having a relatively broader
bill, darker throat, and lighter back. The only other sea ducks with
reddish heads are the male Canvasback and the female golden-eyes.

BEDHEAD 149

The female Redhead resembles a female Scaup Duck but has less white
on the face and about the bill.

The Redhead breeds in fresh-water marshes, often in company with
Mallards and Canvasbacks. In fact it is well known that elsewhere
than in California eggs of the latter have been taken in nests of
Redheads. The nest is built either on the ground in thick grass or
weeds, or in tules or grass above water, and is lined with white down
taken from the breast of the female bird. In the former case it is
composed of weeds and grasses, whereas in the latter case it is often
built of tules and looks something like a Mud-hen's nest. Bowles (in
Dawson, 1909, p. 791) describes the Redhead's nest as being a deep
basket of rushes, placed in the thickest sort of growth, either upon a
small muddy island left by the receding water, or built up among
the flags upon the matted dead stems which cover the surface of the
water in favorable places.

Ten to sixteen greenish drab or light buff eggs are laid. "The
eggs of the Redhead can generally be distinguished from those of
any other species, as they are usually quite different in color, size
and texture. The shell is extremely hard and flinty, with a smooth,
slightly glossy surface, and quite thick ; . . . In shape they vary
from a somewhat rounded to a considerably elongated elliptical ovate,
sometimes nearly oval. . . . The eggs are entirely different in color
from those of the Canvasback, which builds a somewhat similar nest
and in similar situations, but lines it with gray down" (Bent, 1902,
p. 9).

"Willett and Jay (1911, p. 158) found the Redhead breeding very
commonly at San Jacinto Lake, Riverside County, on May 28, 1911.
Four nests found contained respectively, fifteen, seventeen, eighteen
and twenty-seven eggs. The last set was undoubtedly the product of
two females, as there were seventeen eggs of one type and ten of
another. At the same place A. ]\I. Ingersoll took a set of twenty-one
eggs advanced in incubation on June 7, 1897. Shields (1899, p. 9)
found a nest in central California on June 25, 1898, containing twelve
Redhead eggs and three of the Fulvous Tree-duck. A Redhead's nest
was found by H. C. Bryant (MS) in some tules at the end of a pond
near Alvarado, Alameda County, April 23, 1915. Tall tules had
blown over a fence making a dark sheltered nook beneath, and here
the nest was placed. Twelve well-incubated eggs and a little whitish
down were contained in the nest. The eggs were hatched out at the
State Game Farm four days later, and the appearance of the downy
young made the identification complete.

The Redhead is so similar to the Canvasback both in coloration
and habits that it is often mistaken for it. "Its flight is hurried,
the bird rising from the water in a confused manner, but being able

150 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOEXIA

to contmue long on the wing" (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884,
II, p. 39). It travels in A^-shaped flocks like geese and flies with great
rapidity. A loud whistling or roaring noise is produced by the wings
in flight.

The Redhead is an expert at diving and gains most of its food in
this manner. It is naturally a deep water species, rarely found along
the margins of ponds or streams ; yet individuals may occasionally be
seen dabbling about in the mud of the shallower pools. This duck
is said to subsist largely on vegetable food such as the various kinds
of aquatic plants ; small mollusks, crustaceans, fish, frogs, and water
newts are also taken. Where available it feeds extensively on wild
celery, eating the blades of the plant when the roots are not obtainable.

As a game duck the Redhead ranks with the Canvasback. Since
it has similar food preferences, there is very little choice between
the birds for table use. On the markets Redheads when separately
specified, are listed as cheaper than "Cans"; but they are commonly
sold under the name of the more desirable bird and then, of course,
bring the same price.

Redheads have been greatly reduced in numbers during the past
ten years. li. J. Lelande (MS) says of this duck in southern Cali-
fornia: "The Redhead, once fairly common during the breeding
season, is now seldom seen at any time of the year." Judging from
the progressively smaller numbers sold on the market, as well as from
direct observation, we are justified in stating that this duck next to
the Wood Duck demands absolute protection to save it from the
fate of total extermination. The great decrease in its numbers can
be partly accounted for by the ease with which it is killed. It is
sometimes called "Fool Duck" by sportsmen because of its fearless-
ness or apparent indifference to their approach. As with the Mallard,
we have here a resident duck much hunted for the market. The num-
ber of migrants coming in during the winter is small and the annual
kill has depleted the local breeding stock. Hence the Redhead is
rapidly decreasing in numbers, and the critical point as regards its
survival has already been reached.

Canvasback
Marila vaUsineria (Wilson)

Other names — Can; Aythya vaJlisneria ; Nyroca valisneria ; FidignJa raUis-
neria.

Description — Adult male: Whole head and neck dark reddish chestnut,
shading to almost black around base of bill and on top of head; bill black,
tinged with green; iris bright carmine; base of neck completely encircled by
broad black collar; back and scapulars white, with fine, irregular, dusky bar-
rings; rump Vjlack; upper tail coverts and tail blackish slate; outer surface

CANVASBACK 151

of flosetl wing gray, with minute white dots or veimiculations; flight feathers
slaty brown; spei-ulum pale bluish gray bordered behind by a bar of white,
and uppermost two or three feathers narrowly edged with black; axillars
white; lining of wing pale gray; sides, flanks and belly like back but more
nearly white; under surface otherwise pure white or with faint suggestion of
dusky vermiculation; under tail coverts blackish; feet "greyish-blue" tinged
with "yellow" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 309). Total length (both sexes):
"20.00-23.50" inches (507-596 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 102). Males: Folded
wing 8.98-9.50 (228-241); bill along culmen 2.36-2.47 (59.9-62.7); tarsus 1.70-
1.81 (43.2-46.1) (four specimens from California). Adult female: Head, neck
and breast dull reddish brown, darker on top of head, and lighter, almost
white, on chin and throat; an indistinct whitish spot behind eye; back and
scapulars slaty brown, with traces of white vermiculations; rump blackish;
upper tail coverts and tail dusky brown; outer surface of closed wing uniform
slate gray without vermiculations; flight feathers, speculum and under surface
of w^ing as in male; whole under surface of body dull white, mottled with
grayish brown; sides with meagre white and dusky vermiculations. Folded
wing 8.50 (216); bill along culmen 2.36 (59.9); tarsus 1.64 (41.6) (one speci-
men from California). Juvenile plumage: Like that of adult female. Natal
plumage: Top of head, stripe down hind neck, and most of back, greenish
brown; side of head deep straw yellow, washed with dusky; paired spots on back
at base of tail, behind wing, and on hinder margin of wing, bright straw
yellow; whole lower surface deep yellow.

Marks for field identification — Large size, reddish brown head and neck,
canvas-colored back and low forehead sloping down to long slender bill (see
pi. 5 and figs. 20 and 21). Distinguished from Eedhead by larger size, espe-
cially of head, blackish coloration around base of bill, red iris, and sloping
forehead and bill (which meet without evident angle between the two).

Voice — Of male: "a peeping or growling note." Of females: a lou<l quack
and, when startled, a screaming curr-row (Eaton, 1910, p. 205).

Xest — In a clump of reeds or tules in a shallow pond or slough but gen-
erally near a larger body of water; a large structure of reeds or tules well
lined with gray down (Bent, 1902, pp. 11-12).

Eggs — 6 to 10, ovate to elliptical ovate in shape, measuring in inches 2.36 to
2.57 by 1.68 to 1.80 (in millimeters, 59.9 to 65.3 by 42.6 to 45.7), and averaging
2.48 by 1.75 (62.8 by 44.4) ; color rich grayish olive or greenish drab (Bent,
loe. cit.).

General distribution — North America. Breeds from central British Columbia,
Fort Yukon, Great Slave Lake and southwestern Keewatin south to Oregon,
northern Nevada, Colorado (rarely), Nebraska and southern Minnesota;
winters from southern British Columbia, Nevada, Colorado, Illinois, Pennsyl-
vania and western New York, south to central Mexico and the Gulf coast (A.
O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 74).

Distribution in California — Common winter visitant (October to March)
both interiorly and along the seacoast. Most numerous about salt water bays
and coastal sloughs and marshes, seeming to prefer the deeper waters to the
muddy margins. The marshes about San Francisco and San Pablo bays con-
stitute a feeding ground for great numbers of this species. No definite breed-
ing records are known for California.

The Canvasback, the far-famed "Can'' of the hunter, is probably
the best known of all American ducks, not excepting even the Mallard.

152 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

This reputation has largely been built up in eastern North America
where, by reason of its vegetable diet and the consequent fine flavor
of its flesh, it is very highly prized as a table bird. In California the
Canvasback is strictly a migrant, arriving during October and usually
departing by the end of March. The earliest fall record is from Stock-
ton, San Joaquin County, October 6, 1881 (Belding, MS) ; southern
California is usually reached about October 20 (Cooke, 1906, p. 44).
Observations made by E. W. Gifford (MS) over a term of years on the
arrival and departure of ducks about San Francisco Bay yielded the
following dates for Canvasbacks : 1903-1904, last seen April 4 ; 1904-
1905, first seen December 8, last seen May 6 ; 1906-1907, first seen
December 26, last seen April 14 ; 1907-1908, first seen January 18,
last seen April 22 ; 1908-1909, first seen November 11, last seen April
3 ; 1909-1910, first seen, October 27, last seen, February 28. Most of
the Canvasbacks to be found in California are on the bays and coastal
marshes, from which places the bulk of the market supply, which is at
a maximum during November and December, is secured.

The close similarity between the Canvasback and the Redhead
sometimes leads to confusion in distinguishing these two ducks. No
better worded diagnosis is known to us than that of Coues (1874, pp.
575-576) :

Some persons experience difficulty in discriminating between the Canvas-
back and Eed-head, but there is no occasion for this, at least in the case of
males. In the Eed-head, the whole head is clear chestnut red, with coppery
or bronzy reflections, and the bill is clear pale grayish blue, with a dark tip.
In the Canvas-back, nearly all the head is obscured with blackish-brown, and
the bill is dusky throughout. There is also a marked difference in the shape
of the head and bill; in the Eed-head, the head is puffy and globose, sloping
abruptly down to the base of the bill; in the Canvas-back, the head is longer
and narrower, and sloj^es gradually down to the bill, which rises high on the
forehead [pi. 5 and figs. 20 and 21]. These distinctions of form hold with the
females, though less evident in that sex. In the Canvas-back, moreover, the
back has much more light than dark color, instead of an equal amount, or
less, the fine black lines being very narrow and mostly broken up into minute dots.

Although reported as breeding rarely in Oregon and Nevada
(Cooke, 1906, p. 43), there is no record of the nesting of this duck
within our own state. Brooks (1903, p. 278) records it as breeding
commonly in British Columbia. He describes the nests as being bulky
l^latforms of reeds, similar to those of Coots, and to be found gen-
erally on small swampy ponds, away from the larger lakes where the
males associate in flocks. Bent (1902, pp. 11-12), in North Dakota,
found the nests of Canvasbacks almost invariably located in isolated
clumps of reeds surrounded by M^ater in large, deep sloughs. He
describes one nest as being built upon a bulky mass of wet dead reeds,
measuring eighteen by twenty inches in outside diameter, the rim

CANVASBACK

153

being built up six incbes above the water, and tbe inner cavity being
about eight inches across by four deep. It can be seen, therefore,
that the Canvasback is unlike the IVIallard, Teal, and other fresh water
ducks, in that it chooses growths of reeds rather than grass as locations
for nests. Grav down is used to line the nest.

10607

Fig. 21. Side of bill and head of Canvasback. Natural size.

Note low, sloping forehead. Compare with high forehead
of Eedhead (fig. 20).

Fig. 22. Side of foot and tarsus of Canvas-
back. Natural size.

Note presence of broad lobe on hind toe (com-
pare with figs. 11 and 38), and that tarsus is
shorter than middle toe without claw (compare
with fig. 37).

The finding of the eggs of other ducks in the nests of the Canvas-
back appears to be of common experience. Bent (loc. cit.) found one
or more eggs of the Ruddy Duck or of the Redhead in every Canvas-
back nest examined by him, but did not find the eggs of the Canvas-

154 GAME BIEDS OF CAJJFOENIA

back in the nest of any other species. The eggs number six to ten.
They are grayish olive or greenish drab in color, of a darker shade
than the eggs of other species of ducks, and measure in inches, 2.36
to 2.57 by 1.68 to 1.80 and average 2.48 by 1.75.

The Canvasback is an excellent diver, often descending to a depth
of twenty or thirty feet to obtain its food, and is said to use its wings
for propulsion when beneath the water. This species gathers in large
flocks on the bays where it sleeps during the day on open water, mov-
ing nearer the shore when wishing to feed. The Canvasback is a
strong, swift flier and makes a loud noise with its wings which is
clearly noticeable when a flock passes immediately overhead. The esti-
mated speed of the Canvasback is greater than that of any other
duck — 130 to 150 feet per second (Askins, 1911, pp. 556-560). When
coming to decoys in a pond the birds arrive with a rush of sound
like that made by the wind and they settle into the water with great
splashing.

Canvasbacks decoy very readily. On the open water tliey are
usually wary and hard to approach. On the decoy pond, however,
they are said to be more easily obtained than teal or Mallard. By
carefully choosing the last one to dive each time, a whole flock can
sometimes be brought to bag. This duck is often hunted not only from
blinds on the marshes but also from brush blinds built up over the
shallow waters of the bays, and from brush-covered boats sculled near
the birds when they are at rest on the open water.

In the east the Canvasback feeds almost exclusively on a plant
known as Vallisneria, often called wild celery or eel grass, hence the
specific name of the bird — valisinpria. Stomach examination has
shown that over twenty-three per cent of its food is made up of the
roots, leaves and seeds of this plant (McAtee, 1911&, p. I'). A much
larger per cent of pondweeds is also taken by this species than by any
other duck. It is also said to feed on fisli, tadpoles, leeches, mollusks,
and insects, when these are available. In California the Canvasback
partakes of more animal food, for wild celery does not grow in this
state. On the shallow waters of the tidelands and marshes, it feeds
extensively on crustaceans and shellfish, thereby acquiring a "'fishy"
taste and thus becoming undesirable as a table bird. The stomachs of
some Canvasbacks collected on San Pablo Bay contained clams (Mya
arenaria), and snails {Odostomia sp.) ; one stomach from Tia Juana
Slough, near San Diego, contained periwinkles (Cerithidea calif or-
nica), and another from the same place contained grass-blades, stems
and roots. A stomach from Guadalupe, San Luis Obispo County, was
filled with barley, there being twenty-two whole kernels and many
liulls; but there is a possibility tliat tliis was bait put out by lumters.

CANVASBACK 155

In the east the Canvasback is the most highly prized of all the
ducks ; for its habit of feeding on wild celery makes it of prime flavor.
Largely because of its eastern reputation it is also considered the best
of the game ducks almost everywhere in the west. Tlie hunter with
a bag of Canvasbacks is always the hero of the day. As a matter of
fact the west coast Canvasback does not ordinarily surpass the Mallard,
and is sometimes less desirable. A few days' diet on shellfish makes
an inferior table bird of either duck. When killed in the interior or
on mountain lakes, however, the Canvasback is invariably reported to
be of fine flavor. Its large size coupled with its aristocratic reputation
makes it bring the highest price on the market. In early days many
were netted by Italian fishermen and the drowned ducks were sold in
the markets for twenty-five cents a pair. In the season of 1910-1911
the price paid by market men of San Francisco for this duck ranged
from four to nine dollars a dozen, averaging about six dollars. The
Mallard brought about the same price. Heermann (1859, p. 70)
reports having seen a single Canvasback sold for twelve dollars in tlie
"boom" times of 1849.

The Canvasback is a much hunted duck throughout its winter
range. On Chesapeake Bay, Maryland, where it used to congregate in
vast numbers it has been decimated by excessive shooting. Now it
seldom appears in any quantity on this body of water. In California,
also, the numbers on our waters have conspicuously dwindled of late
years. In times past "Cans" were killed in very large numbers on
the Sonoma marshes. There is one record of two hundred and sixty-
eight drake Canvasbacks to a double-barreled gun in one day (Beitch,
1912, p. 13). Occasionally, at the present time, one will hear of a
limit (25) killed at the rate of a bird a minute, such being reported as
recently as 1912. This is the exception, however, though the rarity
of the occurrence gives the report such wide circulation that people are
led to believe it common.

The numbers appearing in the state vary greatly from year to
year, as this is a bird which shifts its movements according to the
abundance of food supply. A common saying among sportsmen is
to the effect that every fourth year is a good ' ' Can ' ' year. A typical
migrant, passing through two states before reaching California, and
hunted everywhere it goes, the Canvasback is subjected to a con-
siderable depletion in its ranks before returning to its northern breed-
ing grounds. The danger of great depletion in the numbers of this
species lies in its popularity as a table bird, and in its consequent high
market value. Where there is sale of game the rate of destruction
for any game species is largely determined by the market demand
for it.

156 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOENIA

Greater Scaup Duck

Marila marila (Linnaeus)

Other names — Scaup; Big Black-head; Greater Black-head; Big Blue-bill;
Broad-bill; Shuffler; Black-jack, part; Eaft Euck; Aythya marila; Aythya marila
nearctica; Fuligula marila; Fulix marila.

Description — Adult male: Whole of head, neck, breast, and fore part of
back black; sides of head and neck with metallic green reflections; iris lemon
yellow; bill pale bluish gray, nail black; back and scapular region white with
zig-zag barrings of black; rump, upper tail coverts and tail dull black; outer
surface of closed wing slate brown mottled sparsely with fine white dots;
flight feathers slate brown; speculum pure white; sides and long feathers of
flanks pure white, in some specimens showing faint dusky undulations; hind
part of belly, black; rest of under surface white, faintly undulated with
duaky behind; legs and feet "plumbeous" (lead gray) (Sanford, Bishop and
Van Dyke, 1903, p. 134). Total length 18.50-20.00 inches (470-508 mm.)
(Eaton, 1910, p. 206); folded wing 8.35-8.95 (212-227); bill along culmen
1.70-1.90 (43.2-48.3); tarsus 1.50-1.57 (38.1-39.8) (nine specimens from Alaska
and California). Adult female: Whole of head, neck, breast and fore portion
of back dusky reddish brown; a dull white area about base of bill; outer
scapulars show faint traces of whitish undulations; back, rump, upper tail
coverts, and tail, blackish brown; outer surface of closed wing plain slate
brown; flight feathers dusky brown; speculum pure white; sides, flanks, and
under tail coverts coarsely mottled with light and dark reddish brown; rest
of under surface pure white shading behind into color of under tail coverts.
Total length 17.00-18.12 inches (432-460 mm.) (Eaton, loc. eit., and two speci-
mens from California) ; folded wing 8.27-8.53 (210-217) ; bill along culmen
1.64-1.82 (41.6-46.2); tarsus 1.47-1.53 (37.3-38.8) (six specimens from Alaska
and California). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult female, but wing
of young male like that of adult male and with head darker than the female.
Natal plumage: " 'Crown, nape [^hind neck], and upper parts uniform dark
olive-brown; throat, sides of the head, and fore part of the neck, yellowish
white; a dull grayish band crosses the lower neck, rest of the under parts
dull yellowish, the flanks grayish yellow' (Dresser)." (Eidgway, 1900, p. 102).

Marks for field identification — Medium size, stout build, dark-colored
head and neck, broad "blue" bill, conspicuous white speculum, and white
under surface. Male Greater Scaup distinguished from male Lesser Scaup
in hand by larger size, greenish instead of purplish gloss on head, and by
tendency to white on outer webs of innermost primaries. Female Greater
Scaup separable from all other ducks (save Lesser Scaup and Eing-neck) by
conspicuous white area encircling base of bill. Female Greater Scaup distinguished
from female Lesser Scaup only in hand, by larger size and by tendency to white
on outer webs of innermost primaries; from Eing-neck by greater size and by
gray instead of white speculum.

Voice — A soft purring whistle; also, when excited, a loud discordant scaup
(Eaton, 1910, p. 206).

Nest — In tall grass on dry ground, usually not far from water; made of
grass and weeds, and well lined with down.

Eggs — 6 to 11, elongate ovate or elliptical in shape, measuring in inches, 2.26
to 2.70 by 1.69 to 1.73 (in millimeters, 57.5 to 68.5 by 43.0 to 44.0), and averag-
ing 2.46 by 1.72 (62.5 by 43.5) (twenty-seven eggs in U. S. National Museum) ;
in color olive buff (authors).

GSEATEE SCAUP DUCK 157

General distribution — Northern part of Northern Hemisphere. In North
America breeds from northwestern Alaska, Great Slave Lake, and central
Keewatin south to southern British Columbia and northern North Dakota;
winters from Maine to Florida and from the Aleutian Islands, Nevada and
Colorado south to southern California and southern Texas (modified from
A. O. IT. Check-list, 1910, p. 75).

Distribution in California — Fairly common winter visitant locally and
irregularly on salt and brackish water along the sea coast. Recorded south to
the vicinity of San Diego (Willett, 1912a, p. 25). Eare inland, as at Stockton,
San Joaquin County, and northward in central California (Beldiug, 1879, p.
446; and Belding, MS).

The Scaup Ducks, or Blue-bills, are among the commonest of the
sea ducks. The Greater Scaup, however, is not so plentiful in most
parts of the United States as is the Lesser Scaup Duck, for the former
has a more northerly winter range. This statement holds for Cali-
fornia, for whereas the Greater Scaup is but occasionally met with, the
Lesser Scaup is found abundantly in winter on all of the coastal bays
and marshes, and often in the interior. Doubtless the Greater Scaup
is a commoner bird than is indicated by the comparatively few records ;
its habit of congregating with the smaller species, from which it
differs very slightly except for size, makes it easy to confuse with the
latter species. Records of the Greater Scaup in California are limited
to the midwinter season save for a single bird taken at Stockton, San
Joaquin County, April 1, 1878 (Belding, 1879, p. 446), though there
are general statements to the effect that it occurs from October until
April.

The black head with a slaty blue bill, the white belly and mantle,
and pure white speculum, conspicuous in flight, enable one to dis-
tinguish the male Greater Scaup from all other ducks except the
Lesser Scaup. In addition to a considerable difference in size, the
Greater Scaup can be separated from the Lesser by the metallic green
reflections on the sides of the head instead of the purplish ones to be
found in the Lesser Scaup Duck. The white mask formed by patches
of Avhite about the base of the bill in the female separates her from
all other ducks except the female Lesser Scaup and Ring-necked.
Greater size alone is usually sufficient to separate her from either of
these two near-related species. In common with the male, her con-
trastedly dark head, and white belly and speculum, distinguish her
from most other ducks.

The following description of the nesting site and nest of the
Greater Scaup in Alaska is given by Nelson (1887, p. 71).

The nesting sites chosen are such as the Pintail and most other ducks
choose — a dry, grassy tussock or knoll close to some pond — the only difference
being that the present species appears to desire a position nearer water, . . .
and the nest is frequently at the point of some small jutting cape and so near
the water that the parent can swim to and from the nest. The nest is com-

158 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

posed of gTass stems, gathered close at hand, and a large fluffy bed of do^vn
plucked from the parent's breast.

Three nests found in the delta of the Kowak Kiver, Alaska, are
thus described by Grinnell (1900, p. 15) :

The nest was on a high dry hummock, about ten yards from the edge of
a lake. It was almost hidden from view by tall, dead grass of the previous
3'ear 's growth. The eggs rested on a bed of finely broken grass stems, while
the rim of the nest was indicated by a narrow margin of down. This nest
contained eleven fresh eggs. A second set of ten fresh eggs was taken on the
same day (June 14, 1899). The nest was similar in construction, but was
out on the tundra between two lakes, and fully a quarter of a mile from
either. A set of seven fresh eggs taken on the loth was quite differently
situated. The nest was almost without feathers or down, and consisted of a
neat saucer of matted dry grass-blades, supported among standing marsh grass
and about four inches above the water. It was in a broad marshy swale
about thirty feet from a small pond of open water.

The following paragraph provides facts as to the summer habits
of the Greater Scaup in the Norton Sound region of Alaska :

The first days of June is the time usually chosen for depositing the first
eggs, and some are not laid until nearly a month later. On August 16, 1878,
several broods of young, from one-half to two-thirds grown, were seen, and
on August 30, half-grown young were found in company with the female,
whose primaries and secondaries were just starting after her summer moult.
In the north as in the south these birds show a predilection for the larger
bodies of water, and at once after the young are hatched they are marshalled
off to the largest pond in the vicinity, so that it is a common occurrence to
find a pond with six or eight broods of these ducks united in a large flock,
whereas the other fresh water ducks keep in smaller pools and more than a
single brood in a pond is the exception (Nelson, 1887, p. 71).

The eggs of the Greater Scaup Duck, in common with those of its
lesser relative, can be easily identified in comparison with those of
other ducks, by their darker and richer color which may be described
as rich olive buff (Bent, 1902, p. 165). Sets taken in northern
Alaska by the senior author are uniform deep olive buff. Twenty-one
eggs average in size 2.46 by 1.73 inches.

In flying the Greater Scaup Duck rarely utters any note, but
when swimming leisurely about in calm weather it is said to give
utterance to a quick rattling or rolling sound (Baird, Brewer and
Eidgway, 1884, II, p. 21). Eaton (1910, p. 206) says that ducks of
this species utter a soft purring whistle when excited or when calling
to their mates, and rarely the discordant scaup, which when given is
screamed out in an exceptionally harsh, coarse voice. He adds: *'0n
two or three occasions I have heard a flock of scaups giving utterance
to these notes and the eft'ect M^as the loudest and most discordant
chorus of bird notes to which I ever listened, coming as it did from
scores of voices over the silent water."

LESSEE SCAUP DUCK 159

Due to its habit of "rafting," or resting on the water in close
flocks during the daytime, this duck has sometimes been termed "Raft
Duck." It is a good diver and obtains practically all of its food in
this way. When wounded it seeks safety in diving or skulking under
overhanging rocks or banks. When a flock is flushed the birds imme-
diately scatter so that a "pot-shot" is seldom possible.

Greater Scaup Ducks are said to feed almost exclusively at night.
Crustaceans, shellfish and the like form the principal part of their
food, but pondweeds are not altogether neglected. In the east these
ducks, like many of the other species which dive, feed to a large extent
on wild celery the roots of which can be torn loose only by the more
expert divers among the ducks. Three stomachs of Greater Scaup
Ducks shot by Sam Hubbard on San Pablo Bay, December 5, 3913,
contained many shells, mostly broken, of a small clam {Mya arenaria).
A stomach obtained by W. Toms on Tia Juana Slough, below San
Diego, December 7, 1913, contained over 450 seeds of ditch-grass
{Ruppia mariiima).

The Scaups are among the less desirable ducks for table use, as
their flesh is usually tainted by their sliell-fish diet. On the market
both the Greater and Lesser Scaup Ducks are known as "Blue-bills"
and are sometimes classified with certain other inferior species, as
"small ducks," and sold wholesale for $1.00 to $2.00 a dozen. The
Lesser, being abundant on the bays and marshes near San Francisco,
can always be found on the market, and the Greater has been at times
recognized among them. The rare appearance of the Greater Scaup
on the market, as compared with the Lesser, is probably due to the
fact that it affects more open and inaccessible waters. But it ranks
equally with the Lesser Scaup from the sportsman's point of view.

The Greater Scaup Duck is, with us, preeminently a maritime
species. It is a bird which evidently winters chiefly north of us.
Hence its preservation is not a particularly urgent problem to Cali-
fornians. It will probably never be an important game bird in this
state for two reasons : first, it appears in but small numbers, irregu-
larly and in inaccessible places ; and second, it is not in great demand
as a table duck, but is used merely as a makeshift when other more
desirable species are not procurable.

Lesser Scaup Duck

Marila affinis (Eyton)

Other names — Bluebill; Little Black-head; Black-jack, part; Broad-bill;
Aythya affinis; Fulix affinis; FuUgula affinis; Fuligula mariloides.

Description — Adult male: Whole of head, neck, breast and fore part of
back black (some specimens show a dull brownish ring around the lower neck,
but not of the chestnut color seen in the Ring-necked Duck); sides of head

160 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

and neck with purplish reflections predominating; iris yellow; bill clear
bluish gray, nail black; back and scapular region white with coarse zig-zag
barrings of black; rump, upper tail-coverts and tail dull black; outer surface
of closed wing slaty brown, mottled sparsely with fine white dots; flight
feathers slaty brown; speculum pure white; sides and long feathers of flanks
white, the latter finely vermiculated with dusky; hind part of belly blackish
brown, finely barred with whitish; under tail coverts black; rest of under
surface pure white, this sharply contrasting with the black on breast; legs
and feet (dried) slaty black. Total length 16.50-18.00 inches (418-457 mm.)
(Eaton, 1910, p. 207), and two specimens from California; folded wing 7.60-
8.20 (193-208); bill along culmen 1.55-1.73 (39.4-43.9); tarsus 1.35-1.40 (34.3-
35.6) (seven specimens). Adult female: Whole head, neck, breast, and fore
back, dusky reddish brown; a conspicuous area (sometimes called a mask)
around base of bill, white; lower back, rump and tail dark brown; scapulars
finely peppered with white dots, this taking the place of the zig-zag barrings
in the male; outer surface of closed wing and flight feathers plain slate brown;
speculum pure white; sides, flanks, lower belly and under tail coverts more or
less deeply brownish, with here and there traces of whitish vermiculation;
rest of under surface white, not so abruptly marked off from brown of breast
as in male. Total length "16.00-16.75" inches (406-425 mm.) (Eaton, loc.
cit.) ; folded wing 7.42-8.00 (188-203) ; bill along culmen 1.56-1.65 (39.6-41.8) ;
tarsus 1.27-1.40 (32.3-35.6) (nine specimens) ; all from Alaska and California.
Juvenile plumage: Not known to us. Natal plumage: "Upper parts, dark brown,
with buff spots on side of back and rump; lower parts, buff; forehead and side
of head, brownish buff; narrow brown ring across neck in front connecting with
brown of upper parts" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, pp. 137-138).

Marks for field identification — Not distinguishable from Greater Scaup
at gunshot range. In hand, or within a few yards, the smaller size, purplish
instead of greenish gloss on the head, somewhat coarser or more distinct black
undulations on back and flanks, and lack of whitish on outer webs of innermost
primaries identify the male Lesser Scaup (pi. 5). Females can be definitely dis-
tinguished only by size differences. The Lesser Scaup averages nearly two
inches shorter than the Greater Scaup and is proportionally smaller throughout.

Voice — Same as that of Greater Scaup Duck.

Nest — Concealed in grass near water; composed of dry grass stems and
lined with down.

Eggs — 6 to 11, elongate ovate or elliptical in shape, measuring in inches 1.97
to 2.38 by 1.40 to 1.62 (in millimeters, 50.0 to 60.5 by 35.5 to 41.0), and averag-
ing 2.22 by 1.56 (56.5 by 39.5) (fifty-two eggs in U. S. National Museum);
color plain olive buff.

General distribution — North America. Breeds, chiefly in the interior,
from the Yukon Valley, Alaska, and Fort Anderson, Mackenzie, south to central
British Columbia, southern Montana, and northern Indiana; winters from
southern British Columbia, Colorado, Lake Erie and New Jersey south to
Panama, but chiefly within the United States. Non-breeding birds summer
far south of the breeding range (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 75).

Distribution in California — Common transient and winter visitant prac-
tically throughout the state wherever favorable conditions obtain. The coastwise
records are largely in the fall and winter and the interior ones in sjiring. A
few non-breeders summer along the sea coast, as at Santa Barbara (Torrey,
19106, p. 204) ; has bred on lakes of San Francisco County (Squires, 1915, p.
234; J. Mailliard, 1915, p. 235).

LESSER SCA UP DUCK ] (5 1

The Lesser Scaup Duck or Little Blue-bill is the commonest duck
found on the salt water bays and marshes along the coast during the
winter season. Rafts of Lesser Scaups are always to be found on
San Francisco and San Pablo bays from October to April, and this
is the duck most commonly seen resting on the water near the ferry
moles or diving for mussels about the piling. Non-breeders are occa-
sionally seen in California during the summer. They have been noted
in June at Santa Barbara (Torrey, 19106. p. 204). Even as far
south as San Diego large flocks have been known to remain until the
first of May and individuals were seen there as late as May 7. 1885
(Belding, MS). In 1881 Lesser Scaups were seen in the markets of
Stockton as early as October 6. On San Francisco Say E. "W. Gifford
(MS) has record of "Blue-bills" as follows: 1904-1905: first seen,
November 23 ; last seen, May 13 ; 1906-1907 : first seen, November 29 ;
last seen, April 14 ; 1907-1908 : last seen, :\Iay 20 ; 1908-1909 : first seen,
December 25 ; last seen, March 21 ; 1909-1910 : first seen, November 7 ;
last seen, February 28. They apparently follow the coast more gen-
erally in their southward migration, and the interior in their northward
migration ; practically all of the records from the interior are in the
spring. Inland this duck is found chiefly on the larger bodies of water.

The breeding range of the Lesser Scaup is a little more southerly
than that of the Greater Scaup, as Nelson and others have not found
it in northern Alaska. The southern limit of its summer range is
certainly far south of that of the Greater Scaup. The great interior
plains region, from northern North Dakota and northern Montana
to the edge of the timber near the Arctic coast in the Anderson and
Mackenzie river regions, contains the principal breeding grounds.
The migration carries most of these breeders southeast to the south
Atlantic states and even to the Bahamas and Mexico. The birds found
along the Pacific coast are thought to breed mostly in the interior of
British Columbia, Alaska, and Yukon territory.

As has been noted in the discussion of the Greater Scaup Duck the
Lesser Scaup is practically indistinguishable from it at a distance of
more than a few yards in spite of the fact that some observers claim
to have noticed differences in habits. A Scaup is readily recognized
from other ducks by the combination of black head, blue bill, white
or light mantle and white speculum and belly (pi. 5). On close
examination the male Lesser Scaup can be identified and separated
from the Greater Scaup by the presence of a purplish instead of
greenish gloss on the head, by lack of whitish on outer webs of inner-
most primaries, and by heavier markings on the scapulars and flanks.
But size is the main distinguishing feature, and females can nearly
always be separated by this character if by no other. The Lesser
Scaup averages nearly two inches less in total length and the folded
wing is about an inch shorter.

162 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

On the Pacific slope, save for the instance noted below, this duck
has not been found breeding south of British Columbia. In the latter
place Brooks (1903, pp. 278-279) found it breeding much later than
the Canvasback or Ring-neck. The nests were usually placed in coarse
grass, with a path to water, generally a niuskrat 's runway, connecting
with the nearest open water. The first eggs were taken on June 21
and the clutches varied from seven to eleven in number. A nest with
ten eggs found by Chase Littlejohn at Glacier Bay, Alaska, July 16,
1907, was placed within a heavy growth of grass about a foot from
the water's edge and consisted of grass stems lined with a little down
from the parent's breast (Grinnell, 19096, p. 195). Nests found in
North Dakota by Bent (1902, p. 165) w^ere "all placed on dry ground
but never more than fifty yards from the water. They were gen-
erally rather i)oorly concealed in the prairie grass, but in some cases,
where the grass grew thick and high, they were fairly well hidden.
The nest consisted of a hollow scooped in the ground, profusely lined
with very dark colored, almost black, down, mingled with a little dry
grass and occasionally a white feather from the breast of the bird."
Evidence was obtained that the Lesser Scaup sometimes lays eggs in
the nests of other ducks.

On Lake Merced, San Francisco County, Squires (1915, p. 234")
observed a pair of Lesser Scaups in July, 1915, with three young not
yet able to fly, and J. Mailliard (1915, p. 235) reports that two or
three families of "scaups" with young only a few days old had been
seen on Stow Lake in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, in the same
month. So far as could be learned these broods were not reared to
maturity. There is likelihood that these breeding birds had been
crippled or pinioned and were thus prevented from undertaking the
usual migration.

Eggs taken in southeastern Alaska are plain olive buff and average
2.34 by 1.58. Twenty-six eggs from North Dakota averaged 2.26 by
1.59. "The lightest types approach somewhat the darkest types of
the Mallard's eggs, and the darkest types are rich dark buff or coffee-
colored" (Bent, 1902, p. 165). The male Blue-bills flock together
during the nesting season as is the habit in many other species of
ducks.

In habits the Lesser Scaup is almost identical with tlie Greater
Scaup except that the former appears to be a little less restricted to
salt water. It is nearly always found in large flocks and resorts to the
larger bodies of open water. "Rafts" (large dense flocks) of these
ducks can often be seen during the day on the surface of open water,
Avith their heads tucked under their wings, sleeping. In spite of their
seeming obliviousness to their surroundings they are difficult to ap-
proach, and only a boat well concealed by brush or tules will enable

LESSER SCAUP DUCK Ifi.'J

the hunter to approach within gunshot. On San Francisco Bay Blue-
bills are often seen feeding about tlie moles and wharves where they
obtain a fair living by diving for mussels which are attached to the
piles. On Stow Lake, Golden Gate Park, and on Lake Merritt, Oak-
land, Blue-bills become very tame and one can often approach to
within a few feet of them. When flying over the larger bodies of
water they usually move close to the surface. On San Pablo Bay
Scaups and Canvasbacks are commonly observed associating together
on their feeding grounds in February and March.

The food of the Lesser Scaup, like that of its larger cousin, is
made up almost entirely of shellfish, crustaceans, aquatic insects, and
pondweeds, obtained by diving. Blue-bills can stay under water for
some time and often remain above the surface for a few seconds only,
before diving again for some other delectable morsel which they
have previously sighted. Eight stomachs of this duck, from birds
taken by W. Toms on Tia Juana Slough, near San Diego, contained
(|uantities of the seeds of ditcli-grass {Ruppia maritima) ; two of
these stomachs also held parts of mollusk shells, and one contained
over two hundred small water bugs (Notoneetidae).

The shellfish diet obtained along the coast often makes tlii.s duck
undesirable for food. One man has described a scaup as tasting after
a few weeks of shellfish diet like a pint of crude oil ! When feeding
on the lakes of the interior where fresh-water food is available it is
said to make a more acceptable addition to the bill of fare.

In spite of its inferiority this is a common duck on the market,
where it is sold as '"small duck." The average wholesale price on
the markets of San Francisco during the season 1911-1912 was $1.00
to $2.00 per dozen. Because of its numbers it affords more sport than
any other bay duck. It comes readily to decoys and is shot in great
numbers from blinds built in the shoal waters of the bays along the
coast. When taking flight the flock immediately scatters so that "pot-
shots" are difficult.

A diminution in the numbers of this less-sought-for duck has not
been particularly noted on the west coast as has been the case on the
east coast. Nevertheless hunters Avith years of experience say that
the numbers now appearing in California do not compare with the
thousands which flocked to our shores formerly.

There is no better example of the results to be expected from pro-
tection than is afforded by a visit to Lake Merritt, Oakland, where
ducks, including great numbers of Blue-bills, congregate by the thou-
sands even though the lake is situated near the heart of a great city.
The species is also found in some numbers on Stow Lake, Golden Gate
Park, San Francisco, showing that by protection and the use of a
few" pinioned ducks a small reservoir can be made to teem with water-
fowl even though it be in the midst of civilization.

164 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Ring-necked Duck

Marila collaris (Donovan)

Other names — Eing-bill; Black-jack, part; Black-head; Aythya collaris; Fulix
collaris; Fuligula collaris.

Description — Adult male: Whole of head, iieck, breast and upper surface
black, except for a triangular patch of pure white on the chin and a more or
less distinct half -collar of chestnut brown around fore part of lower neck;
sides of head faintly glossed with violet; low crest on head shiny black with
faint greenish iridescence; iris yellow; bill lead color, with a narrow basal and
broad subterminal band of bluish white, the end black; outer surface of closed
wing and flight feathers slaty brown; speculum pearl gray, bordered above by
blackish feathers with slight greenish reflections, and behind by a narrow
margin of white; axillars and most of lining of wing pure white; tail slate
brown; sides and flanks white, delicately undulated with dusky; under surface,
including crescent-shaped extension upwards on each side in front of wing,
satiny white changing behind through an undulated area like the sides and flanks to
the black of the under tail coverts; legs and feet " greyish -blue, " webs
"brownish-black" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 323). Total length 17.20-17.37 inches
(437-441 mm.) (two specimens); folded wing 7.75-8.15 (197-207); bill along
culmen 1.75-1.86 (44.4-47.2); tarsus 1.36-1.42 (34.5-36.0) (six specimens).
Adult female: Top of head dark brown; sides of head lighter brown more or
less mottled with whitish; an area at base of bill, chin, and throat dull white;
bill usually showing evidence of a light cross-bar; hind neck and whole of
back dark reddish brown shading into the black of rump; outer surface of
closed wing exactly as in male; breast, sides and flanks reddish brown, each
feather edged with lighter brown giving a somewhat mottled appearance;
lower surface otherwise white, shading into brown on the lower belly and
under tail coverts; longest under tail coverts whitish. Total length 16.75 inches
(425 mm.) (two specimens); folded wing 7.26-7.62 (184-193); bill along
culmen 1.73-1.90 (43.8-48.2); tarsus 1.27-1.40 (32.3-35.6) (eight specimens);
all from California. Juvenile plumage: Male: Similar to that of adult female
(authors). Natal plumage: Forehead straw yellow; top and back of head and
most of upper surface of body, warm brown; sides of head and neck, and
throat, straw yellow, palest below; chin yellowish white; iris hazel; bill lead-
colored above, flesh-colored below; short narrow streak in middle of back
and large patches on sides of back and rump, pale straw yellow; under surface
of body, pale straw yellow, darkening on flanks and lower belly where some
grayish brown down shows through; feet lead colored, toes tinged with
yellowish.

Marks for field identification — -Eesembles Lesser Scaup but speculum
bluish gray instead of white. Back of male black instead of whitish, and white
of under surface extending upwards on each side to form a crescent-shaped mark
in front of wing. At close range the combination of narrower dark bill with
light cross-band near end, the light (chestnut) collar, and triangular white spot
on chin is diagnostic. Female has white around base of bill less sharply defined
than in Lesser Scaup, chin and throat continuously whitish, but lower surface
of body darker, and speculum bluish gray instead of white. Female Ring-neck
distinguished from female Redhead by smaller size, shorter wing, narrower bill,
whiter throat, and darker back.

Voice — Said to resemble that of Greater Scaup Duck.

FIXG-NECEED DUCK 165

Nest — In grass of marsh land, over or near water; niaile of grass stems and
sparingly lined with down.

Eggs — 6 to 12, elliptical in shape, measuring in inches 2.25 to 2.30 by 1.60 to
1.65 (in millimeters, 57.2 to 58.3 by 40.6 to 41.8) (Davie, 1889, p. 70); color
varying from greenish or grayish white to buff.

General distribution — North America. Breeds from North Dakota and
Minnesota north to Athabasca Lake, and less abun<lantly west of the Rockies
from Lassen County, California, to southern British Columbia. Winters from
southern British Columbia, northern Texas and New Jersey south to Porto
Rico and Guatemala (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 75).

Distribution in California — Rather rare winter visitant, mainly in the west-
central and southern parts of the state, and chiefly on fresh water. Southernmost
record station: San Diego (Belding, MS). One breeding record: Eagle Lake,
Lassen County (Sheldon, 1907, p. 187).

The Ring-necked or Ring-])ill Dnok is the rarest of the Redhead-
Canva-sbaek-Scaup group occurring in California. Because of this fact
ornithologists have taken especial interest in reporting instances of its
occurrence, with the result that there are now more than fifteen
definite records. It has been taken at least four times on San Fran-
cisco Bay and there are other records from west-central California.
It has been found at Eagle Lake, Lassen County, and at Lake Tahoe
and also at several places in southern California, even as far south
as San Diego. Belding (MS) states that in his experience the Ring-
necked Duck was a winter visitor "in unknown quantity" south to
San Diego and that it was a fairly common species in central Cali-
fornia where he shot specimens repeatedly and saw it in the markets.
As an instance of unusual occurrence, W. K. Fisher (1904, p. 25)
secured a specimen from the ridge back of Black Mountain, nine miles
west of Stanford University, on November 26, 1903. The species
seems to prefer the vicinity of fresh water, in this state at least. Its
principal winter home is the Gulf Coast from Texas to Florida where
it is said to be the most abundant duck present (Cooke, 1906, p. 48).

In general appearance the Ring-necked Duck resembles the Scaups.
However, the speculum is bluish gray rather than white, and in the
male the back is black and the white of the under surface extends
upAvards on each side to form a crescent-shaped bar in front of the
wing. At close range, or in hand, the male may be known by the
narrower bill, dark in color and with a light cross band near the end,
by the light chestnutcolored collar, and the triangular spot of white
on the chin. Females have white around the base of the bill as does
the same sex in the Scaups ; but the Ring-neck has this white less
sharply restricted, the chin and throat are continuously whitish, the
back is darker, the brown sides and flanks lack undulated markings,
and the lower surface of the body is less whitish. The female Ring-
neck can be distinguished from the female Redhead by smaller size,
darker body color, whiter throat and narrower bill.

166 GAME BIFDS OF CALIFOENIA

The siuniner liome of the Ring-necked Duck seems to comprise two
general areas on opposite sides of the Rocky Mountains. The majority
of the birds breed in the interior plains region from North Dakota
and Minnesota north to Athabasca Lake and the western side of Lake
Winnipeg. West of the Rockies the species nests from Eagle Lake,
Lassen County, California, north to the Cariboo district of British
Columbia (Cooke, loc. cit.).

At Eagle Lake, Lassen County, Sheldon records (1907, p. 187)
that he found many Ring-necked Ducks in pairs, or old with young.
This observation suggests that the species must nest locally about
other large lakes in the northeastern part of the state. It is known
to have nested in the vicinity of Fort Klamath, Oregon (Merrill, 1888,
p. 142), and Brooks (1903, p. 279) has found it breeding in British
Columbia. The latter author says: "I was able to take only one set
of eggs, evidently a second laying as there was no down. This was
on the 27th of June. The nest was in a tussock of grass, in eight inches
of water ; it was composed of coarse green grass and arched over with
the drooping blades of the tussock. The nine eggs contained small
embryos. Young broods of this species were observed before the
Lesser Scaup (A. afpnis) had started to lay. The young in down
are very light colored, resembling the young of the Canvasback and
Redhead, and quite different from the dusky, unspotted young of
the Lesser Scaup." Roberts (1880, p. 61) describes a nest of the
Ring-necked Duck found on June 1, 1876, in southeastern ^Minnesota,
as follows:

The situation chosen for the nest was a narrow strip of marsh bordering
a large shallow pond or slough. About half way between the shore and the
edge of the open water was a mass of sunken debris, probably the remnants
of an old muskrat house, which reached nearly or quite to the surface of the
water, here about eight inches deep. On this foundation was the nest, a
rather compact, bulky structure built mainly of fine grass with a little moss
intermingled. Outside the grass is long and circularly disposed, while the
bottom, inside, is composed of short broken pieces, and the inside rim of
fine grass bent and loosely tangled together with considerable down among
it. Measurements were not taken before removing the nest, but in its present
condition the walls and base are two and a half inches thick, the diameter
inside six inches, and the depth of the cavity three inches. The clutch was
nine eggs which contained small embryos. The eggs were ]ierfe(tly smooth,
and of a light greenish-white color, wholly unmarkeil.

Seven of the eggs out of the set just described measured 2.19 to
2.27 by 1.58 to 1.62 and averaged 2.23 by 1.60 inches. According to
Baird, Brewer and Ridgway (1884, TI, p. 28) the eggs of this species
are grayi.sli ivoi-y white. l)ut sometimes tlie gray tinge is replaced by
buff.

AMEEICAN GOLDEN-EYE 167

At Eagle Lake, Lassen County, California, Sheldon (loc. cit.)
found Ring-necked Ducks less shy than other ducks. They were
always close to shore, usually where dead trees lay in the water, and
often perched on limbs of dead pines which rose above water.

As a rule birds of tliis species are seen singly or in pairs, and they
do not resort to open water as much as their relatives, the Scaup
Ducks. Brooks (1 81)96 , p. 350) says: The Ring-neck ''generally fre-
quents smaller ponds and more rushy localities than the scaups, but
I have seen both species of Scaups, Ringbills, Redheads and Canvas-
backs (all five species of tiie genus Aythya found in America) in one
enormous flock. Like the [other] members of tliis genus the Ringbill
is a swift flyer. Li fact I should class it as tlie fastest flying duck in
America." The swift motion of the wings pi'oduces a whistling sound
as the birds pass overhead. In flight, too, the general behavior is
like that of Scaups, in that the nuMubers of a band of Ring-necks
spread out and do not afford opportunities for "pot-shots." The
.feeding habits of the Ring-neck are similar to those of its nearest of
kin. It dives easily and is able to stay under water for a considerable
period of time. It eats snails, aquatic insects, and seeds.

Belding (MS) s&ys that the Ring-neck takes low rank among food
ducks. It is too rare a duck to be of importance as a game bird. If
it could be readily distinguished in the field it would be Avell to afford
it special protection along with the Wood Duck and Redhead ; but its
similarity to the Scaup Duck precludes such a course. Better pro-
tection in the states lying to the north, where it is found more abun-
dantly, will favor its persistence withni our own state.

American Golden-eye
Clangula clangula americana Bonaparte

Other names — Whistler; Whistle-wing; Copperhead (female only); Btice-
phala americana; Clangula americana; Bucephala clangula; Clangula glaucion
americana ; Glaucionetta clangula americana ; Bucephala clangula var. americana.

Description — Adult male: Whole head, including moderately developed
crest, and upper part of neck, black, glossed (except on throat) with dark
metallic green changeable to violet at certain angles; a nearly circular spot
of white (measuring about five-eighths by one inch) at base of bill on each
side; iris "bright yellow" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 367); bill deep black; pure
white of breast and lower surface continuous clear around neck, contrasting
abruptly with black of head; inner scapulars black, outer ones white with
black edges; back, rump and tail, solidly black; outer surface of closed wing
black and white; bend and edge of wing blackish, secondaries, greater and
middle coverts (including speculum), pure white; primaries and tail blackish
slate; sides pure white; elongated flank feathers, white, edged sharply with
black; under tail coverts white; under side of tail ashy brown; feet "orange,"
webs "dusky,'' claws "black" ^Audubon, loc. cit.). Total length "18.50-

16S GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

23.00" inches (470-584 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 105); folded wing 9.12 (232);
bill along culmen 1.45 (36.8); tarsus 1.58 (40.2) (one specimen from Alaska).
Adult female: Whole head, including moderately developed crest, and hind
neck continuously light brown (no circular white spot at base of bill) ; bill
with parallel edges, symmetrically rounded at tip, and ' ' dusky, " " dull yellow-
ish orange" toward ends of both mandibles (Audubon, loc. cit.); broad collar
around fore neck, white, incomplete behind; upper surface of body ashy
brown, the feathers with blackish centers; rump black; tail ashy brown both
above and below; outer surface of closed wing including flight feathers slaty
black, many of the lesser and middle coverts with white tippings; secondaries
and broad ends of greater coverts (including speculum) pure white; under
surface of wing and axillars blackish brown; band across breast ashy gray,
conspicuously outlined above by a wdiite collar, and behind by the w^hite of
rest of under surface; sides and elongated flank feathers slate brown, nar-
rowly tipped with white. Total length "about 16.50" inches (418 mm.)
(Ridgway, loc. cit.); folded wing 8.12 (206); bill along culmen 1.28 (32.5);
tarsus 1.37 (34.8) (one specimen from California). Juvenile plumage: Male:
Like that of adult female but has white spot before eye more or less indicated,
while gray band across chest is less conspicuous (authors). Natal plumage:
Whole top of head to level of bill, and hind neck, very dark brown; throat
white; back and sides dark brown, with paired spots of grayish white as
follows: on hind margin of wing, behind wing, on flank, and at base of tail;
W'hole lower surface of body white; band across foreneck light brown; iris
brownish; bill blackish, tip of lower mandible flesh-color; feet olive ochre.

Marks for field identification — Medium size, stocky build, yellow eye,
fluffy head, and notable whistling sound produced by wings in flight. Male:
Black and white plumage, and conspicuous rounded white spot on side of
head at base of bill. Female: Combination of general characters given above
together with white speculum, abruptly and solidly brown head, and white
collar, separate her from other ducks except the Barrow Golden-eye. From
the female of the latter she differs slightly by paler head, shallower and
broader bill at tip, lack of yellowish band across bill near tip, light band
across chest, and lack of blackish bar across white of wing.

Voice — Of male: In courting, a short flat vibrant paaap (Brewster, 1911,
p. 25). Of female: When startled or lost a sharp cur-r-rcir ; in nesting season
(at least) a low pitched quack (Eaton, 1910, pp. 209-210; and authors).

Nest — In cavities in trees over water; a lining of down on the residual
rotten wood or other debris.

Eggs — 5 to 15, or more, rounded-oval in shape, measuring in inches 2.30 to
2.55 by 1.70 to 1.78 (in millimeters, 58.4 to 64.7 by 43.2 to 45.2); color ashy
green; thin-shelled with a glossy surface (measurements from Da\'ie, 1889,
p. 71).

General distribution — North America. Breeds from southern British
Columbia, southern Montana, northern North Dakota and northern New
England north to central Alaska, central Keewatin and Newfoundland; winters
chiefly in the United States from Utah, Nebraska, Minnesota and Maine
south to southern California, central Mexico and Florida (modified from A.
O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 76).

Distribution in California — Fairly common winter visitant, chiefly in the
northern half of the state; most numerous on coastal bays and salt marshes,
occasionally straggling to the interior. Several instances of occurrence in
southern California (Willett, 1912a, p. 25), the southernmost being at San

AMERICAN GOLDEN-EYE 169

Diego (Belding, MS). Some iulaml record stations are: near Daggett, San
Bernardino County (Lamb, 1912, p. 34); Lone Pine, Inyo County (A. K.
Fisher, 1893a, p. 18); and lower McCloud Eiver, Shasta County (C. H. Town-
send, 1887, p. 195). Other inland records nearer the coast.

The American Golden-eye or Whistler is to be numbered among
the less common ducks in California. Several early writers give it
as a common winter visitant, but recent records especially in southern
California have been few. Littlejohn (1912, p. 41) says that it is
often plentiful during the fall migration on the salt marshes of San
Francisco Bay near Redwood City. From Oregon northward this
duck is reported as regularly common in winter. It is with us found
almost exclnsively on salt water along the coast, but there have been
several records of its occurrence interiorly, for example, "central
Califoi'nia in winter, but rare" (Belding, ]\rS). The numbers decrease
rapidly south of ]\Ionterey Bay.

The medium size, stocky build, strongly contrasted black and white
coloration, and large-appearing head of the male Golden-eye make
him easily distinguishable from other drakes in the field, either when
flying or at rest on the water. At close range or in the hand, the
roundish white spot at the base of the bill on each side and the bright
yellow eyes make identification certain. The extraordinary whistling
sound made by the wings marks this bird in flight. Our other black
and white ducks with which it is sometimes confused by the inex-
perienced observer are the sawbills and the Bufflehead ; but the longer
body and slender beak of the mergansers give them an entirely dif-
ferent appearance, while the Bufflehead is a much smaller bird and the
head, though fluffy, has a large white patch behind the eye. The
female Golden-eyes are more difficult to recognize than the males, as
the head is brown instead of black, the upper surface is gray in color
and there is no white spot at the base of the bill on each side. The
stocky build, bright yellow eye, and whistling noise in flight still
remain. hoM'ever, and together with the white speculum, abruptly and
solidly brown head, and white collar, combine to distinguish them from
other female ducks.

Males of the American Golden-eye can be separated from those of
the Barrow Golden-eye by the roundish white spot at the base of the
bill instead of the narrowly triangular patch found in the same place
in the latter species. Females and young of these two species are
so similar in appearance that they are difficult to distinguish even
in the hand. The decided reduction in the width of the bill near its
tip in the Barrow Golden-eye is the most dependable character avail-
able for discrimination. Other diagnostic characters of the American
are the paler head, paler band across chest, lack of yellowish band
across bill near tip, and lack of blackish bar across the white area on
the wing.

170 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

The Golden-eve has not been found breeding in California. Being
a distinctly cold-loving species, in summer as well as in winter, it
nests almost entirely in the far north. As it requires hollow trees for
nesting sites, its breeding range is of course limited to those areas
where trees are found. It breeds commonly in the interior of Alaska,
but is very rarely seen along the coast. The Golden-eye has been
found breeding in southern British Columbia so close to the American
line that it probably will be found to breed in northern Washington
(Cooke, ]906, p. 49). Brooks (1903, p. 279) states that in the Cariboo
district, British Columbia, it is seen during migrations but has not
been found to nest there. The principal breeding grounds are in
central Canada, but it has also been found nesting in the extreme
north-central and northeastern United States, as far south as northern
New York.

]\Iore has been written on the life-history of the Golden-eye than
on that of many of the commoner ducks. Unfortunately, however,
little or none of this information pertains to the Pacific Coast. "We
can only infer a general similarity in behavior on the part of our
birds.

The Whistler is noted for its extraordinary mating antics. C. W.
Townsend (1910, pp. 177-178) describes the typical courtship of
this duck, as seen in Massachusetts, as follows :

One or more males swim restlessly back and forth and aroinul a female.
The feathers of the cheeks and crest of the male are so erected that the
head looks large and round, the neck correspondingly small. As he swims
along the head is thrust out in front close to the water, occasionally dabbing
at it. Suddenly he springs forward, elevating his breast, and at the same
time he enters on the most typical and essential part of the performance. The
neck is stretched straight up, and the bill, pointing to the zenith, is opened
to emit a harsh, rasping double-note, zzee-at, vibratory and searching in
character. The head is then quickly snapped back until the occiput touches
the rump, whence it is brought forward again with a jerk to the normal
position. As the head is returned to its place the bird often springs forward
kicking the water in a spurt out behind, and displaying like a flash of flame
the orange-colored legs.

Brewster (1911, pp. 22-30) has noted no less than six typical
poses which are successively assumed while the males are displaying
themselves before the females. The love note is described as a short,
flat, vibrant pa-oap, accompanied by an upward kick of the feet which
sends up a slender shower of water behind. There were often as
many as nine males courting one female and yet the usual jealousy
to be noted among males of other species of ducks appeared to be
wholly lacking.

Brewster has made an extensive study of the nesting liabits of
the Golden-eye at Lake Umbagog, j\laine. In the course of his. admir-
able account, he states (1900, pp. 208-209) :

AMERICAN GOLDEN-EYE 171

All the Whistlers' nests which I have examined [in Maine] have been
placed over water at heights varying from six or eight to fifty or sixty feet
and in cavities in the trunks of large hardwood trees such as elms, maples,
and yellow or canoe birches. As the supply of such cavities is limited, even
where dead or decaying trees abound, and as the birds have no means of enlarging
or otherwise improving them they are not fastidious in their choice, but readily
make use of any opening which can be made to serve their purpose. Thus
it happens that the nest is sometimes placed at the bottom of a hollow trunk,
six, ten, or even fifteen feet below the hole at which the bird enters, at
others on a level with and scarce a foot back from the entrance, which is
usually rounded, and from six to fifteen inches in diameter, but occasionally
is so small and irregular that the Whistler must have difficulty in forcing its
bulky boily through. . . .

The eggs are laid on the rotten wood or whatever other debris there may
be at the bottom of the cavity. When the set is complete (never before, so
far as I have observed) the bird places under, around, and even over the eggs,
down plucked from her breast. The quantity of down varies greatly in
different nests. The down is very light gray, each down feather having a
slightly paler center.

The number of eggs in a completed set varies greatly. Occasionally there
are but five or six, oftener from eight to ten, not infrequently as many as
twelve or fifteen, while I once found nineteen, all of which almost certainly
belonged to one bird. . . . The whole bottom of the nesting cavity, be it
large or small, is usually covered with eggs, and they are often piled in two
layers or set on end, and packed so closely that it is as difl&cult to remove the
first as to take a book from a tightly filled shelf.

An occupied nesting cavity can usually be located by the presence
of white down on the edges of the aperture or on near-by limbs.

Bent (1902, p. 170) describes the eggs as different from other
ducks' eggs in that they vary from a clear pale malachite green in
the lighter specimens to a more olivaceous or pale chromium green
in the darker specimens. Seventeen eggs from North Dakota measure
in inches 2.37 to 2.58 by 1.66 to 1.77, and average 2.46 by 1.71.

The ducklings are easily separated from those of other species.
"The downy young have the upper parts, as well as a band across
the breast and the sides and thighs, dark sooty brown, marked with
several ^vhite spots ; chin, throat, and cheeks pure white ; belly grayish
white" (Eaton, 1910, p. 210). Unlike the Wood Duck, the young
apparently often tumble from the nest instead of being carried to
water in the bill of the parent, for Brewster ( loc. cit.) tells of seeing
the young tumble out of a nest into the water after being called by
their mother. All used their tiny wings freely, beating them con-
tinuously as they descended so that they struck the water with very
little force. On the other hand George A. Boardman (in Forbush,
1912, p. 131 ) states that in Maine he saw a female "Whistler pick up
two of her ducklings and carry them, one at a time, across a lake, and
he was told by his companion that the mother birds often took their

172 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOEXIA

young from one lake to another when they thought the little ones were
in danger. Boardman's companion also told him that the yonng were
usually carried from the nest to the water in the bill of the parent,
but to go any distance the feet were used in carrying them. Bailey
(1916fl, p. 55) says that at Stump Lake, North Dakota, parent ducks
have been seen to fly down from nest holes with young birds on their
backs, the ducklings steadying themselves by holding onto the mother's
feathers by their bills.

Golden-eyes are generally found in small flocks on large bays,
lakes or rivers. In flight this duck makes more of a noise with its
wings than does any other duck. This peculiarity has given it the
common name of "Whistler." It seems to be otherwise perfectly
silent in California during the winter, making no noise, except that
produced by the whistling of the wings in flight. In a scattered
company mixed with other species this duck is usually one of the first
to give the alarm, for it is nearly always shy and difficult to approach ;
but on occasion, apparently trusting to its dexterity in diving, it
will allow a. near approach. Both when swimming and in flight it
is a very active bird.

The male Whistler floats lightly on the water. The female, how-
ever, sits much lower in the water. Brewster (1911, p. 29) states that
in diving the wings of this species are kept tightly closed whereas the
tail is usually spread to the utmost width possible. As a rule the
downward plunge is made without much apparent effort, the bird
simply immersing its head and then vanishing with surprising if not
mysterious quickness. Occasionally it springs upward and forward
in the manner of a grebe or merganser, sometimes showing not only
the entire outline of the lower parts of the body above the surface but
also the whole of the legs and feet. This species dives so very quickly
(at the flash of the powder) that, according to testimony, it could
not be shot with the old-fashioned flintlock gun. The flight of the
Whistler is powerful, rapid, and protracted. On rising from the
water it proceeds at first very low, and does not ascend to its usual
height until it has gone a considerable distance.

Lamb (1912, p. 34) has recorded the following notes on a pair
seen November 17, 1910, feeding in a small pond on the Mohave
Desert. "At this place the water was about four feet deep. They
would dive and stay under the water possibly forty-five seconds, and
when coming up I could hear them breathe so plainly, it sounded to
me as loud as a full grown man after a hard run. The birds remained
on the surface, apparently to recover their breath, about half again
as long as they stayed under water." Bailey (191 60., p. 55") observed
a female diving and feeding in Stump Lake, North Dakota. As the
bird rose above the surface with a morsel of food she would throw
her head up as she swallowed it.

BABBOW GOLDEN-EYE 173

The food is iiiaile up largely of mussels and other shellfish obtained
by diving. The stomach of a bird taken on San Pablo Bay, December
5, 1913, by Samuel Hubbard, Jr., contained only broken clam shells
(Mya arenana). Some autliors state that the Golden-eye also feeds
on small fish. In the interior it is said to feed on aquatic insects and
even sucli vegetable matter as grasses and roots.

Like otliers of the rarer ducks the Golden-eye cannot be considered
an important game bird. From the sportsman's point of view it is
almost negligible, for it seldom comes well to decoys. It has rarely
been seen on the markets of San Francisco. As a table bird it is
inferior, taking rank below even the Blue-bill. The young, however,
are said to be fairly tender and well flavored.

This lover of the far north will probably always be more or less of
a rare duck in California. The size of tlie contingent reaching us will
always be dependent on conditions obtaining farther to the north.
Thus the numbers to be expected each year are variable. During mild
winters in the north, the continued presence of open water nuikes it
unnecessarv for tlie birds to travel farther south.

Barrow Golden-eye

('J(i)i(j}ila isJdxclica (Gmelin)

Other names — Rocky Mountain GoMen-eye; Rocky Mountain Garrot;
Whistler; Bucephala islnndica ; Glaucionetia isJandico.

Description — Adult male: Head, including well developed crest extending
to hind neck, and upper half of neck, black, strongly glossed, except on fore-
head and throat, with steely blue showing violet reflections at certain angles;
extreme point of chin flecked with white; an approximately wedge-shaped patch of
white on each side of head between eye and bill, bordering whole lateral base
of bill; upper part of this white patch forms an acute angle on each side of
the forehead, the lower part broadest and rounded; bill goose-like, color
"black"; iris "yellow" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 147); upper
surface of body velvety black, with a faint steely gloss on scapulars; outer
row of scapulars on each side white, with outer edge of outer web of each
feather black and produced into an abruptly elongated spike; the mass effect
of this scapular white is of a longitudinal series of roundish or oblong spots;
outer surface of closed wing chiefly black; middle wing coverts white, together
producing a broad white bar; exposed terminal half of greater coverts, and
whole of exposed portion of five or six inner secondaries, white, forming a
large patch, which includes speculum; black bases of greater coverts form a
diagonal black bar separating the two above designated patches of white on
wing; axillars and under surface of wing blackish brown; sides and flanks
chiefly white, continuous with same color on lower surface, but upper feather
edges widely bordered with deep black, and flank feathers also broadly termin-
ated with black; thighs and marginal under tail coverts blackish brown;
lower half of neck all around, and entire lower surface of body, except as
above, pure satiny white; legs and feet "pale orange" (Sanford, Bishop and
A^an Dyke, loc. cit.). Total length "21.00-23.00" inches (533-584 mm.) (Ridg-

174 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

way, 1900, p. 105); folded wing 8.95 (227); bill along culmen 1.37 (34.8);
tarsus 1.62 (41.2) (one specimen, in Mailliard collection, from California).
Adult female: Whole of head, including moderately developed crest, and upper
neck, continuously dark brown; collar around neck white, interrupted behind
by light brown, continuous with color of back; bill conspicuously high at base,
narrow at tip, with large black nail, and mostly black with usually a yellow
patch across each mandible near tip; upper surface of body ashy brown, with
blackish feather centers; scapulars darker; rump dull black; tail ashy brown
both above and below; outer surface of closed wing including flight feathers,
slaty black; speculum pure white, bordered in front by a blackish bar formed
by the tips of the greater coverts which are otherwise white on their exposed
portions; many of lesser coverts also mottled with white; lining of wing and
axillars, blackish brown; broad band across breast ashy brown, conspicuously
outlined by the white collar above, and behind by the white on rest of lower
surface; sides and elongated flank feathers slaty brown, tipped with ashy;
under tail coverts pure white. Folded wing 8.25-8.65 inches (210-220 mm.) ;
bill along culmen 1.27-1.50 (32.2-38.1); tarsus 1.43-1.60 (36.3-40.6) (two
specimens from California and Alaska). Juvenile plumage: Not known to us.
Natal plumage: "Whole top of head, sides of head to level of bill, and hind
neck, uniform very dark brown; throat white; iris brownish; bill blackish,
tip of lower mandible flesh color; upper surface of body and sides, dark brown,
with paired white spots as follows: on hind margin of wing, on flanks, behind
wing, and at base of tail; whole lower surface white, with band across fore-
neck light brown; feet olive ochre.

Marks for field identification — Similar to those for American Golden-eye
from which not readily distinguishable except at close range or in hand. Male
Barrow Golden-eye has white patch on cheek sharply triangular instead of
rounded, head glossed with steel-blue instead of green, scapulars spotted instead
of striped, black band across white wing patch, and bill deeper and narrower.
Female Barrow Golden-eye, as compared with the American, has head darker
brown, bill more goose-like and with yellowish band near tip, chest band darker,
white collar narrower, and white wing patch usually crossed by a dusky bar.

Voice — No description found by us.

Nest — In hollows in trees; built of grass, sticks and other debris, and
usually lined with white down.

Eggs — 6 to 10, rounded oval in shape, measuring in inches, 2.40 to 2.60 by 1.60
to 1.85 (in millimeters, 61.0 to 66.0 by 40.6 to 47.0), and averaging 2.48 by 1.71
(63.0 by 43.4) (fifteen eggs); in color "grayish pea-green" or "bright sea-
green" (Brewer, 1879, pp. 151, 152).

General distribution — Northern North America. Breeds from south-central
Alaska and northwestern Mackenzie south to southern Oregon and southern
Colorado; also from northern Ungava to central Quebec. Winters from south-
eastern Alaska, central Montana, the Great Lakes and Gulf of St. Lawrence
south to central California, southern Colorado, Nebraska and New England
(A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 76).

Distribution in California — Eare winter visitant to northern half of the
state. The following definite instances of occurrence are known: Gridley,
Butte County (Belding, MS); at or near (?) Nicasio, Marin County (Belding,
MS); Eoss Landing and Point San Pedro, Marin County shore of San Fran-
cisco Bay (J. Mailliard, 1904, p. 15); Stege, Contra Costa County (Mus. Vert.
Zool.); San Francisco markets (Henshaw, 1876, p. 274); San Francisco Bay
(Kobbe, in Bailey, 1902, p. xlix); San Francisco Bay near Eedwood City, San
Mateo County (Littlejohn, 1912, p. 41).

BAKEOW GOLDEN-EYE 175

Previous to 1876 tlie Harrow Golden-eye was supposed to have
a general far northern distribution. In that year the nest and eggs
of this species were first found in the mountains of Colorado. Since
that time it has been found breeding on a number of the sequestered
mountain lakes of the Rockies from southern Colorado almost to the
Arctic Coast although breeding records north of the United States
are rare. On the northwest the breeding range extends to the base
of the Alaska Peninsula and to Iceland on the east. The species also
breeds about the mountain lakes of Oregon, Washington, and British
Columbia. The cold of the winter season forces it but little south of
its summer range. By frequenting water that is too deep or too
rapid to freeze it is able to remain all the j'ear as far north as
Minnesota and the Great Lakes.

Along the Pacific Coast the Barrow Golden-eye is to be found
during the winter season from Alaska south to central California.
In California it has never been taken south of San Francisco Bay
and even to the north of this place it is a relatively rare bird. In all,
less than a dozen specimens have been recorded from the state, all
but one being from the vicinity of San Francisco Bay. This one,
recorded by Belding (MS), Avas captured far from the seacoast — at
Gridley, Butte County, February 26, 1895, where it accompanied
two or three others in a flock of American Golden-eyes. This species
apparently frequents salt water during its migrations and is to be
found, at least sometimes, in company with the more common Ameri-
can Golden-eye. In Washington it is said to keep to the open lakes
and rivers.

The most recent specimens taken within the state were secured
by Littlejohn (1912, p. 41) under the following circumstances: '* After
examining hundreds of specimens of Golden-eyes for many years
past, I at last succeeded in securing a young male in immature
plumage on November 19, 1908, and a female on November 28, 1910 ;
all others were of the common, or American Golden-eye, which are
quite plentiful during the fall migration on the Redwood City
salt marshes."

The white patch in front of the eye is sufficient for telling the
males of either species of Golden-eye from other ducks ; but to sepa-
rate the Barrow from the American Golden-eye is somewhat more
difficult, especially in the open. In flight the two are practically indis-
tinguishable and when on the water a close view must be afforded in
order that the shape of the white patch in front of the eye be made
of use as a distinguishing character. By examination of specimens
in the hand the male Barrow Golden-eye can be recognized by the
following points : the vertical, upward pointing, wedge-shaped patch
in front of the eye ; the color of the head, on which the reflections are
chiefly steely blue, the better developed crest, the more goose-like bill.

176 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

the spotted instead of striped scapulars, and the black wing bar.
Females are even more difficult to distinguish, as the general color-
ation of the two species is the same. The Barrow Golden-eye, how-
ever, has the white wing patch crossed by a blackish band formed
by the dark tips of the greater wing coverts, the head is darker brown,
the white collar narrower, the gray band across breast darker, and
the bill usually shows a yellowish bar near the tip. The bill is rela-
tively shorter and higher at the base and distinctly narrower towards
the tip; the "nail" is larger and more hooked at tip.

Although never found nesting in California, the Barrow Golden-
eye has been found to breed at Pauline and Diamond lakes, Crook
and Douglas counties, Oregon (Cooke, 1906, p. 51). It is possible,
therefore, that this species may breed about the higher mountain
lakes of northern California. Carter {in Brewer, ]879, p. 150), who
first discovered a nest of this species in Colorado, states that this, like
the American Golden-eye, nests in hollow trees and that it is surpris-
ing to see to what small cavities, in some instances, they can accom-
modate themselves.

Brewer (1879, pp. 151-152) states that in Iceland the nest of the
Barrow Golden-eye cannot be mistaken for that of any other duck,
because of the pure white down with which the nest is lined. The
female sits so closely that she can usually be captured upon the nest.
The eggs, from nine to twelve in number, resemble those of the
American Golden-eye but are slightly larger.

Brooks (1903, p. 279) has found this a rather scarce breeding duck
in British Columbia in the neighborhood of 158-Mile House, but more
common in La Hache Valley. "One set of eggs was taken from a
hole in a dead Douglas fir, fifty feet from the ground, probably the
deserted nest of a flying squirrel. The tree stood about four hundred
yards from the nearest water. The eggs (seven) at this date (17th
June) contained large embryos." From another nesting hole which
Brooks was unable to reach, a female brought out fourteen young.

Holboll {in Brewer, 1879, p. 151) says that the Barrow Golden-
eye is the most wary of all water-fowl and that it is with the greatest
difficulty that one can approach even within gunshot of it. Collectors
have had to station themselves in places where this bird feeds on
moonlight nights in order to obtain specimens. In general habits it
resembles the American Golden-eye but is said to be a less expert
diver.

As a game duck the Barrow Golden-eye must be considered along
with the American Golden-eye ; its extreme rarity in California makes
it of even less importance. The one or two records of its occurrence
in the markets of San Francisco are so exceptional as to have merited
particular comment. In fact, its classification in California as a game
species is hardly more than technical.

BIFFLE-EEAD 177

Buffle-head

<'li(iri((/)i(tta iilbcola (Linnaeus)

Other names — Butterball; Kin^ Butterhall (male); Spirit Duck; CkinguJa
aJbeola ; Bucephala alheola.

Description — Adult male: Plumage of head copious and fluffy foniiing a
distinct crest of even outline; head and upper neck, black, glossed vividly with
metallic green, violet-purple, and an intermediate greenish bronze, the green
being most a])parent about face and on hind neck, the violet-purple on crown
and sides of head and neck; a large patch of white extends backward from
immediately beneath eye and meets its fellow on back of head; iris "dark
brown"; bill "slate," nail "black" (Sauford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903,
p. 150) ; back and rump black, separated from dark color of head and upper
neck by a broad white collar; upper tail coverts and tail light gray; forepart
of outer surface of closed wing chiefly white; flight feathers and inner
scapulars black; outer scapulars white edged narrowly on outer margins with
black; axillars and lining of wing mottled dusky and white; breast, sides,
under tail coverts and expanded flank feathers pure white, the last narrowly
bordered along upper edges with black; belly plain pale ashy gray, blending
into white of breast; white of breast runs up on foreneck into an A-shaped
invasion upon the dark head; legs and feet "flesh color" (Sanford, Bishop and
Van Dyke, loc. cit.). Total length "14.25-15.25" inches (362-387 mm.) (Ridg-
way, 1900, p. 106); folded wing 6.50-6.97 (165-177); bill along culmen 1.06-
1.17 (26.9-29.7); tarsus 1.27-1.36 (32.2-34.5) (nine specimens from California
and Alaska). Adult female: Head (less puffy than in male), neck, and whole
upper surface of body, dark grayish brown, approaching black on crown,
middle of back, and rump; throat and whole neck lightest in tone; a white
patch on each side of head behind and below level of eye (these patches much
smaller and less sharply defined than in male, and not meeting on hind neck) ;
iris dark brown; bill bluish gray; tail above and below grayish brown; outer
surface of closed wing and flight feathers, slaty black; small, sharply con-
trasted area on wing, including speculum, pure white, crossed by a black bar;
breast, sides, flanks, under tail coverts and hinder part of belly, grayish,
blending with the dull white of rest of under surface; legs and feet "slate";
webs "dusky" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, loc. cit.). Total length
"12.25-13.50" inches (311-343 mm.) (Ridgway, loc. cit.); folded wing 5.95-
6.50 (151-165); bill along culmen 0.96-1.08 (24.4-27.4); tarsus 1.11-1.27 (28.2-
32.2) (seven specimens from California and Alaska). Juvenile and natal
plumages: Not known to us.

Marks for field identification — Small size, chunky build, relatively
large head, short bill, black (or dark) and white coloration, white patch on
side of head, and white speculum, separate either sex from other ducks. Female
slightly smaller than male, with much of black replaced by blackish brown;
distinguished by white patch on side of head behind eye, and white wing
patch crossed by a black bar.

Voice — Resembles quack of Golden-eye but feebler; on the wing a deep
guttural note (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, TI, pp. 50, 51).

Nest — In hollow stump or tree, near water; lined with down.

Eggs — 2 to 9, averaging 8, nearly elliptical in shape, measuring in inches 1.75
to 2.11 by 1.32 to 1.50 (in millimeters, 44.5 to 53.5 by 33.5 to 38.0), and averag-
ing 1.99 by 1.44 (50.5 by 36.5) ; color creamy white or old ivory (measurements

178 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

from eighteen eggs in U. S. National Museum, description from various
authors).

General distribution — North America. Breeds from Upper Yukon Valley,
Alaska, Great Slave Lake and central Keewatin south to British Columbia,
northern Montana, and central Ontario. Winters from Aleutian Islands,
British Columbia, Colorado, Missouri, southern Michigan, western New York
and New Brunswick, south to northern Lower California, central Mexico and
Florida (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 77).

Distribution in California — Common winter visitant along entire seacoast;
less numerous away from salt or brackish water. Interior records pertain
chiefly to lakes and sloughs at low altitudes. Some record stations away
from the seacoast are: Salton Sea, Imperial County (Van Eossem, 1911, p.
134) ; near Daggett, San Bernardino County (Lamb, 1912, p. 34) ; Lone Pine,
Inyo County (A. K. Fisher, 1893o, p. 18); Los Banos, Merced County (Mus.
Vert. Zool.); Stockton, San Joaquin County, and Marysville, Yuba County
(Belding, 1879, p. 447) ; and Fort Crook, Shasta County (C. H. Townsend, 1887,
p. 195). Arrives in October and remains as late as April 20 (San Diego:
Cooper in Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, II, p. 49). Not known to nest
within the state.

The Buffle-head, or Butterball as it is usually called, is one of the
handsomest of the ducks to be found in California. It is commonly
to be seen in pairs or small flocks on salt water bays and brackish
sloughs, less frequently on fresh water in the interior valleys. Its
stay in California is limited to the winter months from October to
April. During the nesting season the Buffle-head is confined almost
entirely to Canada and the extreme northern United States. It is a
common breeder from Manitoba westward to British Columbia, thence
north to the limit of trees. Most of the California birds probably
breed in the western portion of this region, although some may breed
farther south as for instance about the mountain lakes of Oregon and
Washington.

The small size, big head, conspicuous black and white plumage,
with white patches on the sides of the head and body make the male
Buffle-head easy to distinguish from all other ducks. The long brightly
glossed feathers of the head form a sort of enveloping hood and con-
trast strongly with the short white feathering of the lower neck. The
female is slightly smaller and browner than the male, and lacks
entirely the glossy sheen on the head ; the white patch on her wing is
smaller and is crossed by a black bar. The Hooded INIerganser is the
only duck with which the Buffle-head is likely to be confused. The
male Hooded Merganser has a somewhat similar white patch on the
head when the crest is raised, but the Buffle-head can be distinguished
by the short, stubby bill and by the lower neck which is conspicuously
pure white all the way around. The female Buffle-head can be dis-
tinguished from the female Ruddy Duck, the only species which it
at all closely resembles, by the white spot on the side of the head
behind the eye, the white speculum, and the very much smaller bill.

BUFFLE-HEAD

179

The courting bfhavior of the Buflfle-head in California has been
only iniperfeetly described, but C. W. Townsend (1916, pp. 16-17)
from observations in ^Massachusetts, writes of it in detail as follows:

A group of thirty-five or forty of these birds with sexes about equally
divided may have been actively feeding, swimming together in a compact
flock all pointing the same way. They dive within a few seconds of each
other and stay under water 14 to 20 seconds and repeat the diving at frequent
intervals. Suddenly a male swims vigorously at another with flapping wings,
making the water boil, and soon each male is ardently courting. He spreads
and cocks his tail, i)ufifs out the feathers of his head and cheeks, extends his
bill straight out in front close to the water and every now and then throws it
back with a bob in a sort of reversed bow. All the time he swims rapidly,
and, whereas in feeding the group were all swimming the same way in an
orderly manner, the drakes are now nervously swimming back and forth and
in and out through the crowd. Every now and then there is a commotion in
the water as one or more drakes
dive with a splashing of
water only to come up again
in pursuit or retreat. As the
excitement grows a drake flaps
his wings frequently and then
jumps from the water and flies
low with outstretched neck to-
wards a duck who has listlessly
strayed from the group. He
alights beside her precipitately,
sliding along on his tail, his
breast and head elevated to
their utmost extent and held
erect. He bobs nervously. And
so it goes.

^-^

^fc

Fig. 23. Head of female Buflle-head.
One-half natural size.

Note single white patch below and be-
hind eye (compare with figs. 24 and 26).

Swarth (1911, p. 43) says that in southeastern Alaska during
April and May tlie preponderance of males was very noticeable. He
further states: "The drakes were constantly exhibiting their plumage
and competing for the favor of the females ; sometimes when several
were fighting together furiously the single female of the flock would
quietly fly away and leave them, to be presently followed by the whole
gathering as soon as her defection was discovered."

Brooks (1903, p. 279), who had excellent opportunity to study
the nesting habits of this species in British Columbia, says that :

Almost every lake has one or more pairs of these charming little ducks.
The nests, unlike those of Barrow's Golden-eye, were always in trees close
to or but a short distance away from w^ater. These nests were invariably the
deserted nesting sites of flickers, and in most instances had been used several
years in succession by the ducks. The holes were in asjaen trees from five to
twenty feet from the ground, and the entrance [in each case] was not more
than three and a quarter inches in diameter. The number of eggs ranged

180 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

from two to nine, eight l)oiiig tlie average; in color they resemble ohl ivory,
without any tinge of green. 1 liave several times seen the eggs of this iluck
described as "dusky green," but these have evidently been the eggs of some
species of teal. The female Buffle-head is a very close sitter, never leaving
the nest until the hole was sawed out, and in most cases 1 had to lift the bird
and throw her uj) in the air, when she would make a bee-line for the nearest
lake, where her mate would be slowly swimming up and down unconscious of
the violation of his home. In many cases the eggs had fine cracks, evidently
made by the compression of the bird's body when entering the small aperture.

It is said that some nests liave no otlier lining than down feathers
from the female parent.

The Buffle-head flies with notable speed, vibrating its wings with
great rapidity, and usually travels close to the water. When alighting
on the water it does so with a big splash, considering the size of the
bird, and ploughs through the water for some little distance before
its momentum is completely arrested. It associates in pairs or flocks
of small size. Flocks do not fly in regular formation as is the habit
with some ducks, but the individual members bunch closely together
each disregarding the position of its companion. A deep guttural
note is sometimes given when on the wing, but more often the birds
fly without uttering any sound whatsoever.

Next to its fatness, whence the name Butterball, the Buffle-head
is famed for its expertness in diving. It is said to dive at the flash of
the gun and consequently is difficult to hit when resting on the water.
Although usually shy and not easily aproached it sometimes depends
for its safety entirely upon its agility in diving and will then permit
close approach. When wounded or pursued it swims great distances
under water and upon rising to the surface will immediately dive
again if danger is still near.

So expert a diver is the Buffle-head that it can catch small fish
easily, and this sort of food is said to be taken regularly. Like many
other sea ducks, the Buffle-head varies its food with locality. Along
the seacoast, it feeds upon small fish, shrimps and other crustaceans,
and shellfish ; in fresh M-ater, crawfish, leeches and snails, and grasses
and other water plants, are taken (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884,
II, p. 51).

Despite its fatness the Buffle-head is not considered a very desirable
table bird because its flesh is usually ill-flavored. Birds taken in the
interior have been reported as palatable, and young birds taken along
the coast are relished by people who know how to cook them. But as
a general rule Buffle-heads taken along the sea coast have been sub-
sisting on a shellfish diet so long that it has made their flesh taste
' ' fishy. ' ' This species is only incidentally sought for by the gunner, its
small size, poor flavor, and its usual inaccessibility giving it low rank

OLD-SQUAW 181

as a game bird. But for the bird student or camera hunter, no more
interesting or handsome duck can be found.

Little need here be said as to the probable future status of this
duck in California. It must simply be numbered with other migratory
salt-water species which have shown some decrease in numbers. On
the Atlantic coast, according to Forbush (1912, p. 138), the diminu-
tion has been deplorably rapid. That there has not been a greater
decrease here is due to its slight demand for table use, and also to its
elusive habits. Nevertheless, the ' market hunter has sent regular
quotas of these birds to the market each year. During the season
1895-96, 328 Buffle-heads were sold on the markets of San Francisco
and Los Angeles (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 42). In more recent
seasons this species has been classified along M'ith other species as
"small ducks," so that the exact number sold on the markets is not
known.

Old-squaw
Harelda iiyemalis (Linnaeus)

Other names — Loug-tailed Duck; South Southerly; Clangula hyemalis;
Harelda (jJacialis.

Description — Adult male in winter: Head and neck mostly white; cheeks
ashy; a blackish brown patch on side of head and neck, and a blackish stripe
from ridge of bill up over crown of head; eyelids white; iris "bright car-
mine"; bill relatively small, narrowed towards tip, with well-developed nail,
basal half "black," "orange yellow" near end, nail "bluish-grey" (Audubon,
1843, VI, p. 383); upper part of breast and back, white, continuous with white
of head; rest of upper surface sooty brown; outer surface of closed wing
blackish brown, the speculum a little more warmly brown; lining of wing
and axillars dusky; elongated and pointed scapulars pearl gray, some with
dusky centers; breast and forepart of belly solidly blackish brown; sides,
flanks, rest of belly and under tail coverts, white; middle tail feathers greatly
narrowed and elongated (8.50 to 10.00 inches, 216 to 254 mm., long) and
blackish brown in color, others white with dusky centers; legs and feet "pale
slate," webs "dusky" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 153). Adult
male in summer: Patch on side of head from bill to behind ear, encircling eye,
ashy; area immediately around and behind eye more purely white; bill as in
winter; rest of head and neck blackish brown except for patches of white on
back of head (made up of long feathers probably remnants of winter plumage) ;
back blackish brown, save for transverse area of reddish brown dark-centered
feathers across shoulders, and for elongated scapulars which are reddish brown
with blackish centers; outer surface of closed wing sooty brown; speculum
more brownish and not well defined; lining of wing and axillars dusky; breast
and forepart of belly solidly sooty brown continuous with same color on head;
sides, flanks, lower part of belly and under tail coverts, white; elongated
tail feathers as in adult winter plumage. Total length "20.75-23.00" inches
(527-584 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 106); folded wing 8.53-9.40 (217-238);
bill along culmen 1.04-1.14 (26.4-28.9); tarsus 1.35-1.48 (34.3-37.6) (seven
specimens from Alaska). Adult female in ivinter : Most of head and neck

]82 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

white, but crown and sides of head and neck usually sooty brown; iris
"yellow"; bill "dusky-green" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 384); entire upper sur-
face of body dusky brown, many of the feathers with broad pale edgings;
outer surface of closed wing dusky brown; some of wing coverts and scapulars
with broad ashy endings, these wearing off towards summer; lining of wing and
axillars, dusky; tail ashy brown; tail feathers pointed but not elongated; fore
breast dull grayish brown; entire under surface white, tinged on forepart with
gray; feet "dusky-green" (Audubon, loc. cit.)- Adult female in summer:
Head and neck dark grayish brown; large area containing eye, and another
on side of neck, grayish white, the latter with extensions forward to each
side of chin; upper surface as in winter plumage, but forepart of back and
scapulars variegated with light brown. Total length "15.00-16.00" inches
(381-406 mm.) (Eidgway, loc. cit.); folded wing 7.90-8.35 (200-212); bill
along culmen 0.92-1.04 (23.4-26.4); tarsus 1.22-1.38 (31.0-35.0) (four specimens
from Alaska). Juvenile plumage (both sexes): Somewhat similar to that of
summer female, but nearly uniform above; head and neck light brownish
gray, darkest on crown, and more or less indistinctly whitish between bill
and eye, behind eye, and on side of neck; bill wholly dusky; back and outer
surface of closed wing, blackish brown; scapulars and speculum slightly more
brownish; tail, lining of wing and axillars dusky; tail blunt-ended; lower sur-
face including under tail coverts, white; fore breast and sides light grayish
brown. Natal plumage: Top and sides of head, hind neck and whole back,
blackish brown, with many lighter hair-like yellowish brown lines; band around
foreneck light brown; small spots above and below eye, lower cheek, chin,
throat and rest of lower surface (except band on foreneck), white, clearest
on chin and dullest on belly.

Marks for field identification — Stocky build (about size of Shoveller, but
with small bill), no white or bright markings on wing, and in winter much
white on head, neck, and under surface. Adult male with two middle tail
feathers greatly elongated (8.50-9.50 inches, 216-241 mm.) and with scapulars
conspicuously pearly white, strongly contrasting with blackish brown of back.
Adult female and all immatures in winter strikingly similar to female Harle-
quin Duck but with under surface including flanks and under tail coverts
extensively white instead of deep brown, and white patches on side of head
less conspicuous (see figs. 23 and 26).

Voice — Eesembles the syllables south south southerly or old south southerly
(Elliot in Forbush, 1912, p. 140) ; or a-leedle-a, a-le'edle-d, frequently repeated in
deep reed-like tones (Nelson, 1887, p. 73). Mellow call-note of male is aptly
imitated by the native name Ar-hl'-look (Grinnell, 1900, p. 16).

Nest — On ground near w^ater, built of grass and lined with dark-colored
down.

Eggs — 6 to 10, nearly elliptical in shape, measuring in inches, 1.93 to 2.36 by
1.42 to 1.54 (in millimeters, 49.0 to 60.0 by 36.0 to 39.0), and averaging 2.09
by 1.46 (53.0 by 37.0) (139 eggs in U. S. National Museum); color dull grayish
pea-green to dull light olive buff (Davie, 1889, p. 72),

General distribution — Northern Hemisphere. In North America breeds
from islands of Bering Sea and Arctic coast of Alaska to northern Greenland,
south to Aleutian Islands, east-central Mackenzie, northern Hudson Bay and
southeastern Ungava. Winters from the Aleutian Islands south regularly to
Washington, rarely to southern California, and from Gulf of St. Lawrence
south to Great Lakes and North Carolina; rarely farther south (modified from
A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 77).

OLD- SQUAW 183

Distribution in California — Rare midwinter visitant on bays along the
coast as far south as San Diego. The known record stations are: Humboldt Bay,
Humboldt County (T. S. Palmer, 1889, p. 88); Suisun Marshes, Solano County
(J. W. Mailliard, 1916, p. 85); Point Reyes, Marin County (W. E. Bryant,
1893b, p. 363); Marin County (J. Mailliard, 1902b, p. 46); San Francisco (New-
berry, 1857, p. 104; Loomis, 1901, p. 105); San Francisco Bay near Redwood
City, San Mateo County (Littlejohn, 1912, p. 41); Monterey Bay, Monterey
County (Beck,. 1907, p. 58); Santa Barbara (Henshaw, 1876, p. 274); Los
Angeles County (Willett, 1912rt, p. 26); Newport, Orange Count}' (Daggett,
1901, p. 15); San Diego Bay (Belding, MS; Anthony, 1896, p. 172).

The Old-squaw has an exceptionally wide general distribution. It
is found throughout tlie Arctic regions of the Old World as well as
the new. In North America it breeds most commonly along the
Arctic coast from Hudson Bay to extreme western Alaska and the

Fig. 24. Head of female Old-squaw. One-half natural size.

Note white area behind eve and another on side of neck (compare with
figs. 23 and 26).

nearby islands. Along the coast of Alaska from the Aleutian Islands
to Point Barrow this is one of the commonest ducks in summer. The
Old-squaw is a hardy species, wintering from the Aleutian Islands
southeast along the coast of southern Alaska to British Columbia and
Washington. It is less frequent farther south on the Pacific coast,
and the southernmost record station is San Diego Bay. Of the dozen
or so records from California all except one (probably of a disabled
bird) are of late fall and midwinter dates and all are from along or
near the sea-coast. Newberry (1857, p. 104) offers the suggestion that
the Old-squaws appearing on our coast are driven this far south by
bad weather, for he says that they are only found on San Francisco
Bay during the "severest weather." Certain it is that they are not
regularly observed within the state, some years furnishing no record
whatever. It is possible that they occur more regularly on the open
sea and reach the inner bays only during severe storms.

184 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

The male Old-squaw may be known from all other ducks by its
stocky build, white and blackish coloration, extremely long and nar-
row middle tail feathers, and the orange-colored band across its bill.
In both sexes the bill is small and narrowed towards the tip, there are
no white or bright color markings on the wings, and, during the
winter, the head is more or less white. The female is quite similar to
the female Harlequin Duck, but has a much more extensively white
under surface, though less conspicuously contrasted white patches on
the sides of its head (figs. 24 and 26). Its peculiar, organ-like call-
notes are specially good field characters, for the Old-squaw even in
winter is a noisy duck.

The plumage changes of this duck seem to be different from those
of many other species, for no eclipse plumage is acquired during the
late summer molt of the flight feathers (Stone, 1900, p. 20). On the
other hand there is every imaginable gradation between the winter
and summer plumage, with frequent so-called "arrested" stages.

The courting antics of this species in southern Alaska are thus
commented upon by Dixon {in Grinnell, 1909?>^ p. 196) :

They [the males] were all iutoiiating "auek-quan-dee" to their utmost
capacity and the one that holloed the loudest seemed to stand the best chance,
so there was considerable competition. There seemed always to be about
three males to one female.

Nelson (1887, p. 73) gives the following description:

The male is often seen swimming rapidly about the female, his long tail-
feathers raised to an angle of about 75 degrees and vibrating rapidly from
side to side as he passes before the female, uttering the love note at short
intervals. If he becomes too pressing in his suit, the female suddenly dives
and is instantly followed by her partner, and then a moment later they appear
and take wing, and a playful chase ensues, the two diving at full speed and
flying above or below in rapid succession until they are tired. It is common
for two or three males to join in this follow-the-leader kind of game after
the female, and in the end the latter usually flies to some secluded pool with
her choice, while the discomfited suitors move off in search of some easier prize.

In western Alaska nesting begins early in June and young are to
be seen b}' the end of the same month. W. Palmer (1899, p. 378)
found nests on the Pribilof Islands placed almost anywhere on the
flat ground near ponds, but usually on some small rise. They were
built of grass and lined with l^laekish down.

From the Yukon delta along the coast in each direction their nests are
almost invariably placed in close proximity to a jiond or tide creek — the slop-
ing grassy bank of the ponds being a favorable location. The parents always
keep in the immediate neighborhood and swim an.xiously about in the nearest
pond when the nest is approached. An unusual amount of dry grass stems
and down plucked from the parent's breast composes the nest, and if the eggs
are left they are carefully hidden in the loose material.

OLD- SQUAW 185

The young are fouml the middle of Augiist about the ponds ami marshy
lakes, some only a week or so from the shell and others already trying their
wings. As fall approaches young and old are most common along the shores
of the inner bays and among the tide-ereeks (Nelson, 1S87, p. 73).

The 01(l-s(|uaw stn-ms well adapted to its northern home, in which,
winter and suiuinei-, it is exposed to extremes of rigorous weather. In
its main winter habitat far to the north of ns, it is most often found
in good-sized flocks and sometimes bands together in very large flocks,
especially when there is little open water. Flocks may often be seen
resting on cakes of ice. It is an extremely noisy duck, for besides the
musical notes it keeps up a constant "gabbling," especially at night.
Arctic explorers welcome the Old-sqnaw, for, with the approach of
sunnnei". its notes are among the first to break the monotony of the
northern solitudes.

In flight the Old-scpiaw moves its wings with short, rapid strokes.
Individuals of this species often circle high in the air, apparently in
play, a habit which is called "towering." So erratic is their flight on
such occasions that l)inls have been shot in the back wdien flying
overhead I "As si)ring approaches, whole flocks of Old-squaws may
be seen to leave the water and 'tower' to the regions of the upper air,
swinging in wide circles, sui-mounting height after height, until
ahnost lost to view, Avhen they turn and plunge downward, hurtling
through the air in arrowy flight, sometimes straight downward, some-
times zig-zagging wildly, until they rest again on the surface of the
sea" (Foi'bush, 1912, p. 143). The manner of alighting on the water
by suddenly dropping in with a great splash is very characteristic
of the species. Not only is the Old-squaw noted for its swift flight,
but also for its diving ability. So quickly does it dive at the flash of
the gun that it is considered one of the most difficult of ducks to kill
on the water. Its diving propensities are further evidenced by the
fact that it has been taken in gill nets set in deep water eighteen and
twenty fathoms below the surface. At Erie, Pennsylvania, eight hun-
dred of these ducks are said to have been netted in a single haul
(Bacon, 1892, p. 45).

As is the case with other ducks, the food of the Old-squaw varies
with the feeding grounds. ' ' In shallow water near the coast it collects
niollusca, Crustacea, fish, and marine insects. In a few instances the
remains of the common mussel and shrimp are found. In the sum-
mer its stomach is usually filled with fresh- water insects" (Baird,
Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 61). In the interior (Akron, Ohio),
angleworms and insect larvae have been found in stomachs (Haynes,
1900, pp. 12-13). Certain marine plants are also taken as food.

The flesh of the Old-squaw is tough and of very poor flavor. Yet
in the eastern states, because of its abundance and the sport afforded

186 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

in bagging the bird, it is locally considered a good game species. Its
flesh is so dark and rank that shooters sometimes do not trouble them-
selves to pick up the dead birds. Its down is said to be of excellent
quality, but little inferior to that of the eider.

Even if the Old-squaw were more numerous in California it would
not be considered a desirable game bird because of its almost total
unfitness for table use. This is especially true in this state, where
many more desirable species yet remain. As it is, the status of this
duck within the state has probably remained unaffected, for, as far
as we know, it has never occurred in large enough numbers to attract
the particular attention of the hunter.

Harlequin Duck

Histrionicus histrio7iicus (Linnaeus)

Other names — Histrionicus torquatus; Histrionicus minatus; Cosmonetta
histrionica.

Description — Adult male: Head and neck, dark slate blue, relieved by
various conspicuous markings; stripe from base of bill over middle of crown
to back of head, black, forming a low ridge on top of head; stripe on each
side from above eye to back of head, reddish brown, the two almost meeting to
form a V-shaped border about hinder portion of central black stripe; large
triangular patch at side of bill in front of eye, straight-bordered behind, and
narrow stripe from upper corner of triangular patch to above eye, both white;
rounded spot below and behind eye, and oblique stripe on side of neck, white;
all white markings black-bordered; throat sooty black; iris "hazel"; bill
"bluish-black," tip "bluish horn-color" (Nelson, 1887, p. 74); collar around
lower neck, divided on breast and hind neck, white, bordered above by broad
band of black with steel blue sheen and below by narrow band of dull black;
rump black with steel blue sheen; tail rather long, conspicuously pointed and
blackish slate in color; outer surface of closed wing deep slate; flight feathers
blackish brown; two small roundish white spots on wing in front of speculum,
one on greater and one on middle coverts, the latter often concealed; speculum
dark metallic blue with violet reflections, bordered above by feathers having
their expanded outer webs white, outwardly edged with black; axillars and
under surface of wing dusky brown; feathers of scapular area centrally white,
together forming a white stripe on either side of back; conspicuous transverse
white bar on each side just in front of bend of wing, bordered in front and
behind with paralleling black bands; sides behind bend of wing, and flanks,
rich reddish brown; whole lower surface slaty brown, becoming dusky on
belly, and clearer slaty blue on breast; under tail coverts black with steely
reflections and with a small roundish white spot on each side near base of tail;
legs and feet "dark olivaceous brown," webs "black" (Nelson, loc. cit.).
Eclipse plumage: Conspicuous head markings absent or replaced by duller
colors. Similar to adult female, but general color of head darker; cheeks and
crown approaching slaty black; whole back, rump and scapulars, dark brownish
slate; wing, however, as in summer plumage, but ragged from wear and molt;
new flight feathers almost black; whole lower surface slaty brown; white
transverse bar across side of chest in front of wing and chestnut-colored area

HAELEQUIN DUCK 187

ou side each represented by few feathers. Total length 17.75 inches (451 mm.')
(one specimen from Alaska); folded wing 7.62-8.27 (193.5-210.0); bill along
culmen 1.04-1.18 (26.4-30.0); tarsus 1.45-1.52 (36.8-38.6) (ten specimens from
Alaska). Adult female: Extremely somber-hued: Head and neck chiefly olive
brown, darkest on crown, lightest on chin and throat; spot above and in front
of eye, another below and behind eye, and broad area on cheek between base
of bill and eye, dull white, more or less flecked with brown; whole of upper
surface, wings, tail, sides, chest, and under tail coverts almost uniform olive
brown; lower surface grayish brown, whitish towards mid-line, and usually
with a mottled pattern due to broad white feather ends. Total length 15.50
inches (394 mm.) (two specimens from Alaska); folded wing 7.00-7.55 (178-
192); bill along culmen 0.95-1.04 (24.1-26.4); tarsus 1..34-1.38 (34.0-35.0) (five
specimens from Alaska). Juvenile plumage: Male: Similar to that of adult
male but with markings less distinct, white not well defined and blue-black
absent; speculum dull gray without gloss; under surface grayish white, each
feather marked with a transverse spot of grayish brown; sides and flanks
grayish brown, without chestnut color; collar around lower neck imperfect.
Female: Similar to that of adult female but upper surface darker and lower
surface more brown-tinged (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 157).
Natal plumage: "Top of head and upper parts, blackish brown; face and neck,
white; under parts and a spot on each wing and thigh, white" (Sanford,
Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 158).

Marks for field identification — Size medium (about that of a Scaup),
bill very small, tail short and pointed, general coloration very dark, below as
well as above. Male has several conspicuous white patches on sides of head
(fig. 25) and body, as also a white collar around hind neck, a white bar across
side of chest, and a white patch on wing. Female dull brown with dull white
spots on head, the most conspicuous one below and behind eye; no white on
wing. Females of both Buffle-head and Old-squaw have white streak directly
behind eye (compare figs. 23, 24 and 26).

Voice — Seldom heard; in flocks: "a confusion of low gabbling and chatter-
ing notes" (Nelson, 1887, p. 74).

Nest — On ground under logs, driftwood or rocks, sometimes in stump near
water, and lined with down.

Eggs — 5 to 10, rounded oval in shape, and averaging in inches 2.30 by 1.62
(in millimeters, 58.5 by 41.1); color yellowish buff or greenish yellow (Davie,
1889, p. 73; and authors).

General distribution — Northern North America and eastern Asia. In
North America breeds from the Kowak and Yukon rivers, Alaska, the Arctic
coast, and Greenland, south to southwestern Britisli Columbia, central
Mackenzie, northern Uugava and Newfoundland, and, in the mountains, south
to central California and southwestern Colorado. Summers in flocks near
Aleutian Islands and along coast of Washington. Winters on Pacific coast
from Aleutian Islands to central California, in the interior to Colorado, and
on Atlantic coast from Gulf of St. Lawrence to Maine, rarely farther south
(modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, pp. 77-78).

Distribution in California — Irregular winter visitant coastwise in northern
and central portions of the state. Known instances of occurrence are: Hum-
boldt Bay (F. J. Smith, MS); Bodega Bay (Belding, 1891, p. 98); Tomales Bay,
abundant in fall (Mailliard, MS); Point Reyes, Marin County, flocks in June
(J. Mailliard, 1904, p. 15); Monterey (Loomis, 1895, p. 222; 1900, p. 362);
Point Carmel, Monterey County (Beck, 1910, p. 69). Breeds sparingly along

188

GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

secluded streams of tlie Sierra Nevada in central California: on Stanislaus
and Tuolumne rivers (Belding, 1891, p. 97); Griswold Creek, tributary to
Stanislaus Elver, Tuolumne County (Belding, MS) ; South Fork of Tuolumne
Eiver, near Crockers, 20 miles northwest of Yosemite Valley (Belding, 1891,
p. 97). Eeported to have bred in Yosemite A'alley (C. C. Bull, MS).

No other duck has such an odd dress and few have such an extra-
ordinary mode of life as the Harlequin Duck. Its rarity emphasizes
its uniqueness to such an extent that it is a bird much sought after
by the collector of game trophies.

The breeding range of tlie Harlequin Duck is usually given in
general terms as northern North America and eastern Asia; yet it is
notably discontinuous. Records of breeding are known from such
widely separated points as the Kowak and Yukon rivers, Alaska,

Greenland and Iceland, south-
Avestern British Columbia, cen-
tral Mackenzie, northern Un-
gava, and Newfoundland, and
the mountains of central Califor-
nia and southwestern Colorado.
Birds believed to be non-breeders
have been reported during the
summer season from the Pribilof
and Aleutian islands, the Sitkan
district of Alaska, and the coasts
of Washington and California.
This duck winters along the
Atlantic coast chiefly from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Maine, and in
the interior in Colorado and Missouri, and on Lake Michigan. On the
Pacific coast it winters from the Aleutian Islands to ]\Ionterey Bay,
California. Along the Asiatic coast it is to be found as far south as
Japan, but it is of only accidental occurrence in Europe.

The Harlequin is apparently a resident species in California. Dur-
ing the winter season it occurs only along the seacoast, about rocky
headlands as far south as Monterey Bay, and a few birds, probably
non-breeders, are seen in these same haunts in summer. ]\Iany of our
winter contingent of Harlequins probably migrate nortli of the
Canadian boundary to breed, but a certain number repair for the
summer to the swift-flowing mountain streams in the Sierra Nevada
in the vicinity of which they nest.

So distinctive is the male Harlequin in its coloration that after
once being identified it is one of the easiest of our ducks to recognize,
even at a distance. The general dark coloration, wholly blackish
slate above and slaty brown beneath, with irregular and conspicuous
lines and patches of white on the head, wings, and side of body, imme-

'""■ixTOwmw^JiHil

Fig. 25. Head of male Harlequin
Duck. One-half natural size.

HARLEQUIN BUCK 189

diately separate this from all other ducks. The small bill, sharply
pointed tail, and bright hazel brown sides, are also characteristic.
The female and young are inconspicuous birds of plain coloration.
The very small and short bill, pointed tail, lack of any sort of white
markings on wing, and the two whitish spots on each side of head,
are the only definite markings which distinguish the female. As com-
pared with the Scoters the Harlequin when swimming is much more
buoyant, its body appearing to sit higher out of the water.

The seeker of rare birds eggs might well bend his endeavors to the
discovery of a nest of the Harlequin Duck ; up to the present time
no one has found the eggs within this state, and indeed, sets taken
anywhere are rare in collections. Belding (MS) says of the Harle-
quin in California :

I have noticed many of
these ducks on the principal
streams of Calaveras and
Stanislaus counties in sum-
mer in each of the past six
or seven years and sent a
juvenile to the Smithsonian
[Institution] which I shot
here in 1879 or 1880. I
find young broods from about
4,000 feet upward, the earli- ^ ^^g- ^6. Head of female Harlequin Duck.

^, , ^ , , , ^ One-half natural size,
est apparently hatched about

the first of June or earlier, Note white between bill and eye and white

and have often surprised P^tch in region of ear.
the mother ducks with their

broods when hidden in Saxifrage {S. peltata) which grows profusely in parts
of the mountain streams, sometimes approaching within a few feet of the brood
ere I alarmed it, when all would hurriedly swim from me, vigorously using
both feet and wings to propel themselves against or with the rapid currents,
not hesitating to tumble over a moderate sized cataract when anxious to
escape from danger, or, even, when following the streams without such
impetus.

Dr. Huse saw a female Harlequin with a brood of ducklings on Griswold
Creek [Tuolumne County] in 1881 or 1882, and J. Clarence Sperry and Horace
Pillsbury caught a juvenile from a flock of the same, which could not fly. on
the same creek, in the summer of 1889. The most southern point where it
has been captured in California is the south fork of the Tuolomne River,
where I got ... a male and female— May 15, 1891 (Belding, 1891, p. 98).

Belding (MS) thinks the California birds breed among the rocks.
Kaedina; states that he knew of two pairs of Harlequin ducks nesting
in 1896 in Tuolumne County at an altitude of 4,600 feet. The nest
site for the previous year was found but he was unable to locate the
site of the 1896 nest. Later he found that at least one of these pairs
had brought off a brood. On a mountain journey of a hundred miles

190 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

the same year only three pairs were seen and these at widely separated
localities. They frequent the icy, turbulent mountain streams, seem-
ing to share with the Ouzels a love for the noisiest parts of the rivers.
During the breeding season they are very shy and retiring, being
seldom seen in pairs, the male and female remaining separated and
frequenting different parts of the stream (Kaeding, 18986, p. 77).

Raine {in Macoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 106) describes a nest
found on the Mackenzie River as being "... built on a high bank
near some ice-fioes, under sticks piled up by the overflow water in
the spring." The eggs are described as being similar to those of the
Gadwall and Baldpate, but are of a deeper buff tint and average
larger. All accounts seem to agree that this duck nests as a rule on the
ground near swiftly-running streams; yet in Newfoundland nests
have been found in hollow trees.

The Harlequin Duck is rare enough in the United States to excite keen
interest, especially when found on its breeding grounds. A little flock of the
richly barred and spotted beauties fishing in a foaming mountain stream, diving,
bobbing on the rough surface, drifting or darting down over the rapids, and
then gathering in a bunch below to fly back up stream for another descent,
suggests a lot of schoolboys on a coasting party rather than a flock of birds
engaged in the serious business of getting breakfast. They seem to enjoy the
icy water and their power to dare and buffet its torrents (V. Bailey in Bailey,
1902, p. 62).

Belding (1891, p. 98) describes his first sight of this rare duck
in California, discovered while hunting with a companion in the
Sierras in 1879, as follows: "While we were separated, a strange
duck which he had probably frightened, but did not see, flew down
the canyon and alighted within twenty yards of me, bent its neck
forward close to the water, lifted its wings and uttered a scream I
had never heard." Belding states further that he has often seen
this duck since that time on the Stanislaus River, and has occasionally
seen it on other neighboring streams but that of late years it has
become rare owing to its destruction by fishermen, who shoot the birds
on sight.

Mailliard (MS) states that in the fall of 1913 hundreds of young
Harlequin Ducks were to be seen in scattered flocks on Tomales Bay,
Marin County. At the same time adult males were noted on the open
ocean off Tomales Point. In June, 1880, many were seen on the water
just outside the surf at Point Reyes.

A further idea of their habits when found along the seacoast can
be had from the following quotations, which ai)ply to Alaska: "At
Coronation Island many were seen feeding among the rocks at the
water's edge, and were very tame and easily approached. ... At

HABLEQUIN DUCK J91

this time, June 9 to l-i, they were all in pairs, but usually two or
three pairs seemed to stay together" (Swarth, 1931, p. 44). "They
spend much time out on the open water with other species of ducks,
but frequently leave their company to visit the mouths of small
streams or to ascend them for considerable distances. When slightly
startled on a stream they do not fly, but keep at a safe distance from
danger by allowing the current to carry them down stream, uncon-
cernedly passing through riffles and rapids and deftly avoiding, with-
out apparent eifort, the rocks and whirlpools" (Osgood, 1904, p. 58).
"Mr. Elliott found them common on and around the shores of the
Fur Seal Islands. There they were in the habit of 'idly floating amid
the surf in flocks of fifty or sixty, or basking and preening on the
beaches and outlying rocks' " (Nelson, 1887, pp. 74-75).

The Harlequin Duck is an expert swimmer and diver. It is even
said to dive from the wing into the water and to emerge flying. Most
observers testify to its being a playful duck, its every action betoken-
ing the greatest enjoyment. Harlequins are more buoyant than many
of the other ducks and consequently sit higher in the water.

Belding (MS) states that when inland the. food consists chiefly of
aquatic insects, to judge from the few stomachs he examined. He does
not believe Harlequins eat many trout, if they consume these fish at
all. Along the coast this duck feeds largely on mussels and other
shellfish obtained by diving. But other marine animals are appar-
ently obtained in the surf. Grinnell (1909&, p. 196) says that at
Chichagof Island, Alaska, this species was found to feed extensively
on isopod crustaceans which were gathered at high tide from under
stones on the beach.

Young Harlequin Ducks taken in the high mountains are said to
be very palatable. Adults are rarely so because of their marine fare
through the winter months. Neither is the species considered seriously
as game — but this is because of its rarity here. The bird 's chief claim
for interest lies in its striking coloration, and, with nature lovers and
naturalists, in the peculiarities of its distribution in the state.

The testimony of Belding, who knows most about this duck as a
breeding bird of California, is to the effect that it has been greatly
reduced in numbers. Present conditions favor still greater reduction
so that the early extinction of the native contingent within the state
seems almost a certainty. It is probable that a part, at least, of the
coastwise representatives are migrants from the north, and these are
more likely to hold their own. An absolute close season for a term
of years might aid the Harlequin in recouping its numbers. Certainly
no huntsman would have his sport greatly restricted by the establish-
ment of such a season for this species.

192 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOENIA

King Eider

Somateria spectahilis (Linnaeus)

Description — Adult male: Top of head uniform pearl gray, slightly deeper
toued on hind neck; border along swollen base of upper mandible glossy black;
iris "bright yellow"; bill "flesh-coloured," sides of upper mandible and swell-
ings on each side of forehead "bright yellow" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 348);
cheeks pale sea-green; eyelid, small spot under eye, and V-shaped forward-
pointing mark on throat, black; rest of head, neck, upper back and fore breast
creamy white, the last named area tinged with buff; lower back, scapulars, and
sides and under surface of body black; large patch on each side of rump
white; wings and tail blackish brown; large patch on forepart of outer sur-
face of closed wing white; feet "dull orange," webs "dusky," claws "browTi-
ish -black" (Audubon, loc. cit.). Total length 22.25-24.00 inches (565-609 mm.)
(ten specimens in Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia); folded wing 11.15 (283);
bill along culmen 1.40 (35.6); tarsus 1.77 (44.9) (one specimen from Alaska).
Adult female: Whole head and neck, cinnamon buff, finely streaked with black,
most thickly on top of head; iris "dull yellow"; bill "pale greenish-grey"
(Audubon, loc. cit.); back brownish black, with conspicuous feather edgings
and tippings of ochraceous tawny and cinnamon buff; rump, cinnamon buff
with U-shaped markings of black; outer surface of closed wing brownish black,
with conspicuous feather edgings and tippings of ochraceous tawny and cinna-
mon buff; flight feathers and speculum blackish brown, the latter outlined in
front and behind with bars of white; tertials broadly edged on outer margins
with cinnamon; axillars and part of lining of wing, white; rest of under sur-
face of wing, brown; breast and sides and under tail coverts, cinnamon buff,
with U-shaped markings of black; belly, sepia brown; feet "dull ochre"
(Audubon, loc. cit.). Total length 20.75-22.25 inches (527-565 mm.) (six
specimens); wing 10.75 (273); culmen 1.25 (31.7); tarsus 1.75 (44.4) (one
specimen); all in Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, from Alaska. Juvenile plumage:
Somewhat like that of adult female, but with head and neck pale gray dully
streaked, axillars and area on lining of wing grayish white, and rump and
whole lower surface obscurely barred with blackish brown and dull buff, the
pattern finest on belly. Natal plumage: Whole upper surface, leaden brown;
lower surface, a paler tone of same color, lightest (almost white) on lower
breast and belly.

Marks for field identification — Large stout body (resembling Scoters);
male with chiefly whitish foreparts, the rest of body black, with white areas on
wing and side of rump. Female with no white whatever, brown -toned, finely
streaked on head and barred elsewhere.

Voice— (?)

Nest — On ground among rocks or shrubs, iisually close to salt water; com-
posed wholly of down.

Eggs — 6 to 10, elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches 2.77 to 3.08 by
1.88 to 2.07 (in millimeters, 70.3 to 78. 3 by 47.7 to 52.5), and averaging 2.94
by 1.95 (74.6 by 49.6); color light olive gray to grayish green (one set, six
eggs, in Mus. Vert. Zool.).

General distribution — Northern part of Northern Hemisphere. In North
America, breeds along Arctic coast from Icy Cape east to Melville Islan<l,
Wellington Channel, northern Greenland, northwestern Hudson Bay, and north-
ern Ungava. Winters on Pacific coast from Aleutian Islands to Kodiak Island,

KIXG EIDEE 193

in the iuteiior rarely to the Great Lakes; and on Atlantic coast from southern
Greenland and Gulf of St. .Lawrence south regularly to Long Island, rarely
to Georgia. Accidental in California and Iowa (nioilified from A. O. U. Check-
list, 1910, p. 80).

Distribution in California — Very rare winter visitant coastwise. Two
definite records: One taken ofif Black Point, San Francisco, in winter of 1879-80
(Henshaw, 1880a, p. 189); and female taken on Suisun Marshes, Solano County,
between October 15, 1902, and February 1, 1903 (Loomis, MS).

The King Eider is of but extremely rare ocenrrence in California,
appearing here onl.y as a straggler from the far north. Its breeding
grounds are in the Arctic regions and south into Bering Sea. It
winters abundantly among the Aleutian Islands south to the Shumagin
Islands and Kodiak Island, and in smaller numbers to southeastern
Alaska.

There are but two definite recoi-ds of the King Eider for Cali-
fornia, the first of a specimen taken by D. S. Bryant, off Black Point,
San Francisco, in the winter of 1879-80 (Henshaw, 1880a. p. 189).
The second and more recent instance, is of a female said to have been
brought in from the Suisun marshes, Solano County, in the winter of
1902-03. The bird was mounted and was on exhibition in Golcher
Brothers' store, San Francisco, until the fire of 1906 (Loomis, MS).
A further rumor is at hand of an Eider of some species having been
secured in January or February, 1910, off the heads west of Sausalito,
Marin County. This was a male, and was mounted and reported to
have been deposited in the Golden Gate Park ^Museum.

Eiders are large, heavily built ducks, recalling the Scoters. The
male King Eider has the fore part of the body (head, neck, upper back
and breast) wholl}^ white appearing, and there is a large white area on
each wing and on each side of the rump. The rest of the plumage is
black. The female and young are Avithout conspicuous markings, and
have a finely streaked pattern on the head and a barred pattern else-
where. In hand, the King Eider in any plumage "may be distinguished
from other eiders by the extension of feathers on the culmen as far
forward as the nostrils, while on the sides of the bill the feathering
goes only about half way to the nostrils.

The following description of the peculiar head of the male is given
by Forbush (1912, p. 152) : "The raised frontal processes at the
base of the bill, which adorn the head,- develop immensely in the
breeding season, bulging high above the rest of the bill. These pro-
cesses are soft, and are supported upon a mass of fatty substance.
They shrink and become more depressed in winter, when the general
formation of the beak is not much different from that of other eiders."

MacFarlane (Baird, Brew^er and Ridgway, 1884, II, pp. 87-88)
found the King Eider nesting near the beach in the neighborhood of

194 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Franklin Bay on the Arctic coast. The nest was a mere depression in
the ground fifty yards from the beach and composed entirely of down.

It [the King Eider] is a deep water duck and feeds mostly on mussels
which it is able to procure, it is said, in water upward of 150 feet in depth,
and occasionally is caught like the Old-squaw in the deep water gill nets of
the lake fishermen. In the breeding season the males go into the ' ' eclipse ' '
plumage and flock together on the open sea. The female lines her nest with
down as do the other species of eider, thus furnishing the famous eider down
of commerce, which is gathered by the natives of Iceland, Greenland and
Norway. This is taken chiefly from the Greenland and European eiders, each
nest yielding about five ounces of down in a season (Eaton, 1910, p. 220).

The King Eider even in the far north is of little value as a game
bird, so its extreme rarity within our state is of small consequence to
hunters. Occurrences as far south as California are of interest chiefly
because they are out of the ordinary. No economic importance can
be ascribed to a bird of such rarity.

American Scoter

Oidemia americana Swainson

Other xame — Black Scoter.

Description — Adult male: Entire plumage glossy black; wing and tail
feathers becoming sooty brown with wear; swollen base of upper mandible to
front of nostrils "bright orange," rest of bill black; iris "brown" (Audubon,
1843, VI, p. 345); legs and feet dull black. Total length (both sexes) "17.00-
21.50" inches (432-545 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. Ill); folded wing 9.20 (233);
bill along culmen 1.65 (41.8); tarsus 1.77 (44.9) (one specimen from Alaska).
Adult female: Top and back of head, hind neck, and upper surface of body,
dark browii, darkest on top of head and on tips of primary wing feathers;
bill black; sides of head and neck and whole lower surface of body, mottled
light brown and grayish white, lightest on head and neck and darkest on
chest and under tail coverts, this pattern produced by feathers being brown
at base with tips broadly dull white. Total length 18.75 inches (476 mm.)
(one specimen); folded wing 8.30-8.87 (211-225); bill along culmen 1.60-1.62
(40.6-41.2); tarsus 1.64-1.68 (41.7-42.7) (two specimens, one from California).
Juvenile plumage: "Upper parts, jugulum [=:foreneck], sides, and flanks,
uniform dark grayish brown; sides of head and neck, chin and throat, dirty
whitish, tinged with brownish gray, quite abruptly defined against the dark
brown of the pileum and nape [^rtop of head and back of neck]; abdomen
whitish, each feather marked with a dusky grayish brown bar just beneath
the surface, some of these bars exposed; anal region and crissum [=under
tail coverts] grayish brown, the feathers tipped with white. Bill and feet
black" (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 89). Natal plumaf/e: "Upper
parts and breast dark brown; lower parts, lighter brown; throat, white"
(Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 175).

Marks for field identification — For Scoters in general: Large size and
black or very dark coloration. For American Scoter: Male wholly black, and
bill black with orange-colored base; female very dark brown above, without

AMERICAN SCOTER 195

white on wing or side of head, and under surface of body (including cheeks
and chin) continuously pale colored, not broken into patches.

Voice — "A musical whistle of one prolonged note" (Mackay, 1891b, p. 284).

Nest — On ground, sometimes hidden in cliffs or in hollows of steep banks;
made of dry leaves, grass, feathers and down.

Eggs — 6 to 10, ovate to elliptical ovate, measuring in inches 2.42 to 2.68 by
1.79 to 1.81 (in millimeters, 61.5 to 68.0 by 45.5 to 46.0), and averaging 2.55
by 1.80 (64.9 by 45.7) (five eggs in U. S. National Museum); color pale ivory
yellow; surface smooth but not glossy.

General distribution — Northern North America and eastern Asia. In
North America breeds from Kotzebue Sound, Alaska, south to the Aleutian
Islands and also on west shore of Hudson Bay, in Ungava and Newfoundland,
but unknown in the district from Yukon Territory to Hudson Bay. Winters
on the Pacific coast from Bering Sea south to southern California; in the
interior sparingly on the Great Lakes and casually south to Louisiana; and
on the Atlantic coast from New^foundland to Florida. Non-breeding birds may
remain during the summer as far south as Rhode Island and central California
(modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 81; Cooke, 1906, pp. 59-60).

Distribution in California — Rare winter visitant coastwise. Restricted to
salt water. The following instances of occurrence are knovra: Areata Bay,
Humboldt County, February, 1914 (F. J. Smith, MS) and December 24, 1915
(Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; San Francisco (Newberry, 1857, p. 104); San Francisco
Bay near Redwood City, San Mateo County, January 17, 1909 (Littlejohn,
1912, p. 41); off Point Pinos, Monterey County, November 1 and 4, 1909 (Beck,

1910, p. 69) and October 27, 1910 (Beck, MS); Morro Bay, San Luis Obispo
County ( A. K. Fisher, 189.3a, p. 18) ; San Luis Obispo, spring, 1866 (Richmond,
1916, p. 83) ; Santa Barbara (Cooper, 1887, p. 87) ; coast of Los Angeles County
and Santa Catalina Island (Grinnell, 1898, p. 12).

The American Scoter is a bird of the subarctic sea coasts and even
in those regions is abundant only locally. On the Pacific coast it
breeds from the Aleutian Islands north to Kotzebue Sound and north-
eastern Alaska. The American Scoter is the least common of the
three species found in early spring in southeastern Alaska (Swarth,

1911, p. 44). During, the winter it migrates southward in small num-
bers as far as California. Non-breeding birds are occasionally recorded
from the winter range during the summer. First spring arrivals have
been noted at St. Michael, Alaska, on May 16, and at Kotzebue Sound
on June 3. On the coast of California records are too infrequent to
warrant statements as to times of migration. There are no interior
records for this state.

Scoters really deserve the name of "black ducks" for they are cer-
tainly the blackest of their tribe. From their habits they are often
called "Scooters." Typical sea ducks, they are to be found almost
entirely on salt water. All three species associate together more or
less, and are of about the same size and general behavior, so that they
would be difficult to distinguish were it not for certain prominent field
marks that make identification of the males fairly easy. The male

196 GAME BISDS OF CALIFORNIA

American Scoter is the only one which lacks any sort of white patch on
its uniformly black plumage. The female and young of this species
can be separated from those of the White-winged Scoter by the lack
of white on the wing, and from the Surf Scoter by their dingy cheeks
and throat instead of tlie whitish-patched ones found in the latter
species. With specimens in hand, of any age, tlie squarely restricted
feathering at the base of the bill is a good distinguishing feature of
this species.

In western Alaska ... a nesting site [is] chosen on the border of some
pond. The spot is artfully hidden in the standing grass, and the eggs, if left
by the parent, are carefully covered with grass and moss. As the set of eggs
is completed, the male gradually loses interest in the female, and soon deserts
her to join great flocks of his kind along the seashore, usually keeping in the
vicinity of a bay, inlet, or the mouth of some large stream. These flocks are

■^617

Fig. 27. Side of bill of male American Scoter. Natural size.

formed early in June and continue to grow larger until the fall migration
occurs. ... At the Yukon mouth Dall found a nest of this species on
June 17. The nest contained two white and rather large eggs, and was in a
bunch of willows on a small island, and was well lined with dry grass, leaves,
moss and feathers (Nelson, 1887, p. 80).

At St. Michael, Alaska, a set of fresh eggs was taken on August 3,
and a brood of downy young was obtained on September 9.

Until the young are about half grown the female usually keeps them in
some large pond near the nesting place, but as August passes they gradually
work their way to the coast and are found, like the eiders of the same age,
along the reefs and about the shores of the inner bays until able to fly (Nelson,
1887, p. 81).

Scoters feed almost entirely on mussels, and fishermen are said
sometimes to locate beds of slidlfish by searching out places where
Scoters congregate. The l)irds are excellent divers and can forage
in water forty feet in depth. "When wouiuIcmI and closely pursued,

WHITE-WINGED SCOTER 197

tliey will freqiu'iitly divo to the bottom (always using their wings
as well as feet at such times in swimming under water) and retain
hold of the rock-weed with the bill until drowned. ... I have also
seen all throe species [of Scoters] when wounded dive from the air,
entering the water without any splash" (Mackay, 1891&, pp. 282-
283).

Scoters may be readily decoyed, and were it not for their oily,
strongly flavored flesh, they might be considered desirable game.
But their unfitness for use as a table bird makes them of ordinary
interest only in so far as they afl'ord a mark for the gunner. As the
American Scoter does not appear in any numbers on the California
coast, it is negligible here from an economic standpoint.

White-winged Scoter

Oidrmia deglandi Bonaparte

Other names — White-winged Coot; Black Surf Duck; Velvet Duck; Klon-
dike Mallard; Oidemia fusca; Melanetta velvetina.

Descriptiox — Adult male: Uniformly black, tinged with brown on sides and
belly; wings black, speculum abruptly pure white; crescentic spot immediately
below and behind eye, pure white; iris "bright yellow"; sides of upper man-
dible feathered almost to nostrils; prominent knob at base of culmen, and
margins of both mandibles, black; sides of upper mandible red, shading to
orange on culmen and base; nail "flesh-colour"; lower mandible black; feet
"orange-red," webs "greyish-black" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 336). Total
length (both sexes) "19.75-23.00" inches (501-583 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p.
112). Males: folded wing 10.75-11.10 (273-282); bill from tip to limit of
feathers on culmen 1.54-1.66 (39.1-42.2); tarsus 1.96-2.05 (49.8-52.2) (five
specimens). Adult female: Head brownish black without any conspicuous
white spots; rest of plumage dusky brown, lighter on lower surface; speculum
pure white; bill dull black; iris "dark"; legs and feet "brownish red"; webs
"dusky" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 178). Folded wing 10.40-
10.75 inches (264-273 mm.) ; bill from tip to limit of feathers on culmen 1.41-
1.58 (35.8-40.2); tarsus 1.78-1.81 (45.2-45.9) (three specimens); all from Cali-
fornia. Juvenile plumage: Dark sooty brown, becoming black on top of head
and back, and lightest on central part of lower surface due to narrow feather-
edgings of dull white there; iris brown; speculum white as in adults; legs and
feet (dried) dull black. Natal plumage: Black, chin white (Baird, Brewer and
Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 96). Note. — By wear, juveniles become ashy white on
lower surface of body and also locally on sides of head. At post-juvenal molt
males assume only a partially black plumage, some of the old, worn, pale-
colored, plumage persisting in irregular patches on lower surface of body.
The bill gradually acquires adult form during the first year. Year-old birds
in incomplete adult plumage are the ones most often found in California during
the summer season.

Marks for field identification — Large size, thick body, short stout head
and neck, black or black-appearing coloration, white patches on wnngs, and
absence of white on back of head. Sits very low when resting on water.

198 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOENIA

Voice — None, so far as definitely known; said to utter a low quack (Mackay,
1891b, p. 284).

Nest — On ground concealed by shrubs, and usually near fresh water; con-
structed of "rubbish" and down (Bent, 1902, p. 171).

Eggs — 6 to 14, ovate in shape, measuring in inches 2.60 to 2.86 by 1.69 to
1.85 (in millimeters, 66.0 to 72.5 by 43.0 to 47.0), and averaging 2.72 by 1.81
(69.0 by 46.0) (twenty-one eggs in U. S. National Museum); color pale salmon
buff or flesh -color (Bent, loc. cit.).

General distribution — North America and eastern Asia. Breeds from
northeastern Siberia along Arctic coast of America to northern Ungava, and
south to central British Columbia, northern North Dakota and southern Quebec;
winters on shores of Pacific Ocean from Aleutian Islands south to China and
to southern Lower California, in the interior on Great Lakes, and on Atlantic
coast from Gulf of St. Lawrence south to Florida (rarely). Non-breeding
birds summer as far south as Rhode Island and southern California (modified
from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 81).

Distribution in California — Common winter visitant along entire seacoast.
Restricted to salt water. Arrives in September and October and leaves in
latter part of April. Non-breeders often remain here throughout the summer
months, and have been recorded as far south as San Miguel Island (Willett,
1910, p. 173) and Santa Barbara (Torrey, 1910b, p. 204).

The White-winged Scoter or Velvet Duck is an abundant winter
visitant along the whole coast of California. It has a wide general
winter range on the Pacific coast as it is found from the Aleutian
Islands south to Lower California. In California it occurs in greatest
numbers on San Francisco and Monterey bays and on the waters
about the Santa Barbara Islands, but small numbers are to be found
in almost every little coastal bay. While called winter visitants these
birds arrive here as early as the last of August and remain until the
end of April, and some individuals even remain throughout the sum-
mer. These latter are non-breeders and most of them are thought to
be immatures, less than two years old.

The birds which winter in California probably come from two
breeding centers, in Alaska and in central Canada. In the latter case
the migration, Avhich is thought to take place at night, must have a
decidedly westward trend and extend over land for a considerable
distance.

Among the big sea ducks the White-winged Scoter is the only one
exhibiting a white speculum. This distinctive character sliows well
in flight or when the birds are at rest on the water and is possessed by
all ages and both sexes. In the adult male the otherwise wholly black
plumage, relieved only by a small white patch below the eye, is an
additional character. At close range the bill is seen to be swollen
at the upper base and the feathers extend forward on the sides of
the upper mandible almost to the nostrils.

While the White-winged Scoter is a salt water species during the

fl II ITE-WINGED SCOTER

199

winter months, it seeks fresh water situations for nesting. Near Fort
Anderson and on the Barren Grounds of Arctic Canada, MacFarlane
found this Scoter breeding in numbers, in both open and wooded
situations. The nests were always near fresli water. They were
placed in depressions in the ground at the bases of small trees and
contained no other lining than feathers and down. Five to eight eggs
constituted a set in the nests examined. Nests with eggs were found
on various dates between June 14 and July 3 (Baird, Brewer and
Ridgway, 1884, II, pp. 96-97).

Bent (1902, p. 171) and Job (1890, pp. 163-164) have both found
White-winged Scotei-s nesting in North Dakota. The nests were
placed on small islands and were admirably concealed, usually under

Fig. 28. Side of bill and head of male White-winged Sfotei.
Natural size. Location of white spot behind eye is indicated.

small bushes. The nests were lined with dry leaves, sticks, soil, and
other available material, but on the whole were the poorest in con-
struction of any duck nests which they examined. No down seemed
to be added until the sets were complete. Eight nests found by Job
{loc. cit.) on June 27 (1898) contained 14, 13, 10, 10, 7, 6, 1, and 0
eggs, respectively, and all the eggs were fresh, which shows that the
breeding season of this species is about the latest of all the ducks.
There is an earlier record of downy young found near Fort Yukon,
Alaska, on June 23 (1866) (Cooke, 1906, p. 61).

In California the White-winged Scoter is exclusively a salt water
duck. It frequents the open bays and waters adjacent to the outer
beaches, but we know of no instance of its appearing on fresh water
here, even on ponds but a short distance from the beach. All species
of scoters are probably most active at night, for during the day they
often lie floating out in the center of a bay and remain asleep there
for hours. At such times they may be closely approached, but usually

200 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA

they are vigilant, soon putting themselves out of gunshot range by
flight or b}^ diving repeatedly and swimming rapidly away under
water. Even by this second method they can easily outdistance a
row-boat. The White-winged Scoter appears to be a perfectly silent
bird, save for the flapping or whizzing sound produced by its wings
as it rises heavily from the water.

This species usually flies low over the water, but during migrations
it attains considerable heights. It often exhibits curiosity and may
be attracted within gunshot by the hunter waving some object in the
air or even by firing off his gun. Baird, Brewer and Kidgway (1884,
II, p. 94) say that "Hunters often resort to the expedient of shooting,
in order to alarm the flock. This often has the desired effect ; the
foolish birds, alarmed at the unusual noise, make a sudden plunge in
the direction of the w^ater, as if that element alone could give them
safety, and in their descent present the opportunity desired by the
hunter." This habit is peculiar to the White-winged Scoter. On
Monterey Bay, August 29, 1910, Beck (MS) saw a number of White-
winged Scoters in molt. The birds had lost their wing quills and were
unable to fly.

The food of the White-winged Scoter consists of small fish, mol-
lusks, crabs, and the like (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p.
96). On San Francisco Bay the birds are often to be seen around
the wharves diving for the mussels which cling to the piles. Many
of the people who daily cross the bay note these flocks of worthless
scoters near the ferry moles, and some of them make covetous remarks
about the availability of "roast duck." A little close observation
would show these people that the scoters are foraging for a diet which
is not conducive to a delicate flavor. A stomach from IMonterey con-
tained only the shells of univalve mollusks ; one of the shells contained
a hermit crab. The mollusks represented were 1 Olivclla hiplicata, 4
Olivella intorta, 1 Nassa perpinguis and 1 Mangilia variegata. An-
other stomach contained several small "sand-dollars" (Echinoidea).
Stomachs of this duck from Massachusetts examined by the United
States Biological Survey contained 44 per cent mussels, 22 per cent
quahogs (a kind of clam), 19 per cent periwinkles, 9 per cent hermit
crabs, and smaller percentages of algae and other vegetable matter
(Forbush, 1912, p. 162).

The Indians of the far north relish this scoter as an article of
food, along with practically all other kinds of sea fowl. But to the
w^hite man it has the strongest and most disagreeable taste of any of
the ducks. Some hunters have told us that by skinning the birds
before they are cooked nuich of this disagreeable flavor can be elim-
inated. Even a poor shot can hit this clumsy duck and as the birds
decoy easily the ' ' sport ' ' afforded in shooting the White-winged Scoter

SUBF SCOTER 201

attracts a few amateur gunners in places where the species is abundant,
or wliere more desirable birds are lacking.

The comparative present and past status of the White-winged
Scoter in California is not known. Apparently it is maintaining its
numbers. As it usually remains on open water and is there difficult
to approach, and as it is a very poor offering for the table, this scoter
is not greatly sought after by the hunter, and so at the present time
its persistence seems assured. Also, its food-supply is not being
reduced by encroaching civilization as in the case witli tlie fresh-water
ducks.

Surf Scoter
Oidemia perspicillata (Linnaeus)

Other names — Surf Duck; Sea Coot; OEdemia pcrspiciUata var. troirbridgci ;
Pelionetta perspicillata; Pelionetta troivbridgei.

Description — Adult male: Whole plumage deep black above and brownish
black beneath, except for two triangular white patches, one across forehead
in front of eyes, the other on back of head; top of bill feathered forward to
nostrils; large squarish or rounded spot on swollen side of upper mandible near
base, black, bounded behind by ' ' orange, ' ' top of bill to above nostrils ' ' deep
reddish-orange," nail "dingy greyish-yellow," bill otherwise "bluish-white,
yellow" or "flesh-coloured"; iris "yellowish-white"; legs and feet "orange-
red," webs and joints "dusky," claws "blaf*k" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 341).
Total length "about 20.00-22.00" inches (508-558 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p.
112); folded wing 9.2.5-9.60 (235-244); bill from tip to limit of feathers on
culmen 1.32-1.55 (33.5-39.3); tarsus 1.66-1.81 (42.2-45.9) (eight specimens
from Alaska and California). Adult female: Top of head black; rest of
plumage blackish brown, except for indistinct light areas on chin and between
bill and eye, and two small white patches below and behind eye and on back of
head; iris "brown"; bill "black, with greenish or brownish tinge"; legs and
feet "brown," webs "black" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 182).
Total length "about 18.00-19.00" inches (457-483 mm.) (Ridgway, loc. cit.);
folded wing 9.00-9.08 (^228-231); bill from tip to limit of feathers on culmen
1.49-1.63 (37.8-41.3); tarsus 1.61-1.71 (40.8-43.4) (three specimens from Cali-
fornia). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult female, but lighter in tone,
approaching dull white on middle of lower surface of body; whole plumage of
softer texture. Natal plumage: Not known to us.

Marks for field identification — Large size, stout build, short head and neck,
black or black appearing coloration, presence of white patch on back of head
in male (whence the name "skunk-head"), and absence of white patch on wing.
In hand the presence of feathers on top of bill (culmen) extending forward to
nostrils easily identifies all ages of both sexes.

Voice — "A low guttural croak like the clucking of a hen" (Mackay, 1891Z),
p. 284); in mating season a clear whistle (Nelson, 1887, p. 82).

Nest — On ground near water, well concealed, usually built of grasses and
lined with dark-colored down.

Eggs — 5 to 8, ovate to elliptical ovate, measuring in inches, 2.25 to 2.30 by
1.60 (in millimeters, 57.0 to 58.4 by 40.6) ; color ivory white to pale buff
(authors).

202

GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Geneeal distribution — North America. Breeds from Sitka to Kotzebue
Sound, Alaska, and from Great Slave Lake and northern Quebec north to the
Arctic coast; winters on Pacific coast from Aleutian Islands south to Lower
California, interiorly on the Great Lakes, and on Atlantic coast from Nova
Scotia to North Carolina, rarely to Florida. Non-breeders occur in summer
far south of the breeding range (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 82).

Distribution in California — Abundant winter visitant along entire sea-
coast, exclusively on salt water. Migrants arrive in numbers during October
and November and leave in March and April. Some non-breeders remain here
during the summer months.

The Svirf Scoter is the most abundant of the three species of black
sea ducks which visit California during the winter season. From
October until April it is found in considerable numbers on all of our

Fig. 29. Side of bill of male Surf Scoter. Natural size.

bays and also on the adjacent ocean either inside or outside the surf.
In the summer most of the birds of this species repair to their breed-
ing ground in the far north in the northern portions of Alaska and
Canada ; but some non-breeding individuals, wliich are believed to be
birds less than two years old, remain here throughout the season.
During its sojourn here the Surf Scoter is restricted to salt water and
has not been reported from any fresh water situation within the state.
The general black plumage relieved by patches of pure Avhite on
the forehead and back of the head easily identify the male even at a
distance. The white iris and the swollen black-and-orange-marked
bill, which can be seen at moderate range, both add to its striking
appearance. The female is less conspicuously marked and to her
general brownish black coloration there are added only a few whitish
patches on the head and chin. Her feet and bill are both black, and
lack the brilliant colors displayed in her mate. In any plumage the
absence of a white patch on the wing easily separates this species

SUEF SCOTEB 203

from the White-winged Scoter. In hand the presence of feathers on
top of the bill extending nearly to the nostrils is the best character
for positive identifieation. "The neck patch of the male makes a
striking field character, as do the two white spots at the side of the
head in the young; while the female, lacking the ear patch, can be
told by elimination" (Bailey, 19166, p. 108).

For the nesting season this scoter seeks the vicinity of fresh water
as does its Avhite-winged relative. A nest of this species found by Mac-
Farlane in the neighborhood of Fort Anderson, Canada, was situated
on a ridge of ground at the foot of a dry stunted pine, where it was
entirely hidden by the lower branches of the tree. It was constructed
of dark-colored down. The nest is said to be indistinguishable from
that of the White-winged Scoter (Baird, Brew^er and Ridgway, 1884,
II, p. 102).

The Surf Scoter is appropriately named as it appears to be
thoroughly at home in the roughest surf of our ocean shore. For rest
or sleep the birds resort to the smoother water outside the surf , and
sometimes they come inside onto the beach, where they stand and
preen their feathers. During the day time these birds are often to
be seen sleeping on the quiet waters of San Francisco Bay in company
with White-winged Scoters. When taking flight they rise heavily
from the water, with apparent difficulty, running or kicking along
the surface for some distance before gaining sufficient impetus to
enable them to rise clear of the water. Once in flight they are able
to travel with considerable speed.

During an extended visit to the beaches of southern California
Florence Merriam Bailey studied the habits of the Surf Scoter in
some detail. The following paragraphs are excerpted from her
account.

One of the big sea birds . . . did actually go through the breaking surf
prow oil, but . . . none of his fellows ever did. ... It was a pretty sight when,
under a gray sky, the beautiful long green rolls of surf rose and combed over
and the Surf Scoters came in from the green swells behind to feed in front
of the surf and do skillful diving stunts to escape being pounded by the white
water-falls. As the green wall ridged up over their heads they would sit
unmoved, but just as the white line of foam began to appear along the crest
they would dive, staying under till the surf had broken and the water was
level again. . . .

A flock of about twenty-five Surf Scoters . . . swimming Indian file, on
reaching a certain point disappeared one after the other, doubtless going down
to a streamer of kelp under the surface. They were past masters in timing
the breaking of the rollers, again and again riding over one the instant before
the crest broke into foam. When feeding far out from the shore a few of the
sea birds would sometimes get widely separated from the rest of the flock and
after rising up to look over the water would swim or, if too far, fly across
to rejoin their companions.

204 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

One drizzly morning . . . the Scoters were in near shore. . . . The surf was
rolling in, sea after sea, and the great birds rode the green rollers. . . . When
a squad were down in front of the surf line and the foaming water-fall came,
it was laughable to see the row of tails disappear below. . . . When diving
through the green rollers near shore the black bodies of the Scoters, paddling
feet and all, showed as plainly as beetles in yellow amber (Bailey, 1916b, pp.
109-110).

According to Cooper {in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, loe. cit.)
this species is but little hunted, and has but few natural enemies.
Many individuals escape the usual dangers that beset birds, and,
lingering along our southern coast finally die solely from old age.
The long rainy seasons are said to be fatal to some decrepit individuals,
as at such times the birds seem to be peculiarly subject to unfavorable
influences. At the time of assuming their spring plumage, many
become very thin, and even blind, and swim, unconscious of danger,
near the wharves and shores, or after storms are found weak and dying
along the beaches.

"When feeding. Surf Scoters dive so constantly that but few of
the members of a flock are to be seen at the surface at any one time.
They keep popping up and disappearing so that the observer some-
times finds it impossible to count them. Swarth (1911, p. 45) found
this species at Kuiu Island, southeastern Alaska, feeding close to the
shore, in the shallow water. The drakes were constantly on the move,
flying for a few yards and then sliding for eight or ten feet upon
the surface of the water, wdth the wings held stiffly extended above
the body.

The food of the Surf Scoter is made up almost entirely of shell-
fish obtained by diving. Stomachs examined by the United States
Biological Survey contained 79.6 per cent of mussels, 13.8 per cent
of periwinkles, and 6.6 per cent of algae and eel-grass (Forbush. 1912,
p. 165). This species is also said to eat fish. The gullet of one shot
near the edge of a California marsh, was so filled with small crabs
that they fell from its mouth when the bird was picked up. In this
state, small crabs and mussels form a considerable portion of the food
of this species (W. E. Bryant, 1893«, p. 55).

The Surf Scoter is seldom shot for food as its flesh has a strong,
fishy flavor that to most people is very disagreeable. It is said to be
readily decoyed within gunshot by imitating its call-note from a blind,
so that it is sometimes killed for sport. The surf-riding propensities
of this duck, which ordinarily keep it out of reach, and its poor food
value render it of slight importance as a game bird, and in conse-
quence its munbers are likely to remain unchanged by human influence.

BUDDY DUCK 205

Ruddy Duck
Efismatiira jamaicensis (Gmelin)

Other names— Wiretail; Sprig-tail; Pin-tail, part; Dipper Duck; Spatterer;
Spatter; Erismatura rubida ; Erismatura clominicensis.

Description — Adult nude in spring and early summer: Top and side of head
to below eye, and hind neck, glossy black, abruptly outlined; large conspicuous
patch on each side of head from base of bill to behind ear, pure white, the
two patches joined by narrow band of white across chin; iris "hazel" (Audubon,
1843, VI, p. 327); bill slaty blue; whole neck, sides of breast, back and upper
tail coverts rich reddir.h chestnut; rump dusky brown; upper tail coverts very
short, leaving the narrow tail feathers exposed nearly to their bases; tail
blackish brown; outer surface of closed wing dull dark brown, the coverts
finely "peppered" with light brown; flight feathers blackish brown; lining
of wing and axillars white, marked with grayish brown; under surface of flight
feathers pale brown; sides of body (beneath wings), and flanks, deep chestnut;
under surface of body grayish brown with broad feather tippings of silvery
white, the whole giving an effect of light silvery gray; breast often tinged
with pale rusty brown; under tail coverts pure white; feet "dull greyish-blue,"
webs "dusky" (Audubon, loc. cit.). Adult male in vinter: Top and side of
head to below eye, and hind neck, blackish brown, minutely flecked with ashy
brown; patch on side of head white, as in summer; whole upper surface of
body dark brown, minutely peppered with ashy gray and chestnut: tail and
wings and lower surface as in summer; throat and broad collar around neck,
ashy brown. In any plumage wings and tail may be pale ashy due to wear
and fading. Total length (both sexes) "about 13.50-16.00" inches (343-406
mm.) (Ridgwa.y, 1900, p. 113); folded wing 5.65-5.92 (143.5-150.0); bill along
culmen 1.48-1.68 (37.6-42.7); tarsus 1.27-1.36 (32.2-34.5) (ten specimens).
Adult female at all seasons: Top and side of head to below eye, blackish brown,
narrowly barred with reddish brown; rest of head grayish white except for
dusky stripe from corner of mouth to hind neck, paralleling margin of dark
area on top of head; bill slaty black; chin white; upper surface of body
brownish black, finely variegated with ashy or buffy brown; tail brownish
black; outer surface of closed wing dark brown; lining of wing and axillars
as in male; foreneck grayish brown; breast indistinctly barred with dull black
and yellowish brown, sometimes appearing rusty; feathers of lower surface
ashy brown at bases, tipped with silvery white, the former color sometimes
showing through and giving a barred effect; middle of belly lightest; under tail
coverts white. Folded wing 5.50-5.75 inches (139.5-146 mm.) ; bill along culmen
1.57-1.68 (39.8-42.7); tarsus 1.20-1.31 (30.4-33.2) (ten specimens) ; all from
California. Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult female. Natal plumage:
Top and sides of head, whole upper surface of body, sides, flanks, foreneck,
and upper breast blackish brown, darkest on top of head and lightest on fore-
neck; stripe from side of bill below eye to ear region, lower part of cheeks,
and chin, dull white; patch on side of back behind wing dull white; belly
grayish white; bill and feet (dried) black.

Marks for field identification — Small size (slightly larger than a teal),
stout chunky build, flat head, short neck, broad flat bill, conspicuously white
cheek patches, short, exposed, "wire-like" tail, carried almost perpendicularly
to back, and absence of contrasted patch of white or color on wing.

Voice — None (?)

206 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

Nest — Always close to water, above or sometimes floating upon it, and
usually concealed in tules; constructed of dry tules and lined with dull whitish
down.

Eggs — 5 to 11, more in exceptional eases, short or elongate ovate in shape,
measuring in inches, 2.44 to 2.62 by 1.75 to 1.89 (in millimeters, 62.0 to 66.5
by 44.4 to 48.0), and averaging 2.52 by 1.82 (64.0 by 46.2); color grayish white,
surface rough (twenty eggs from California).

General distribution — North America. Breeds from central British Columbia,
southern Keewatin and northern Ungava, south to northern Lower California,
northern New Mexico, southern Minnesota and Maine, rarely south to Guate-
mala and Cuba. Winters from southern British Columbia, Arizona, southern
Illinois and Maine south to Lesser Antilles and Central America (modified
from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 82).

Distribution in California — Common resident throughout the state, chiefly
on fresh water. Occurs on San Francisco and Tomales bays in winter. Breeds
from San Francisco (Squires, 1915, pp. 234-235), south to Mission Valley, San
Diego County (Belding, MS), but most abundantly in southern California and
in the San Joaquin Valley; breeds also about Tule [=:Ehett] Lake, Modoc
County (H. C. Bryant, 1914^', p. 230).

The Ruddy Duck is strictly a North American species and has
not been taken, even as a straggler, in the Old World. East of the
Alleghany Mountains it is a comparatively rare bird, but in the west
and southwest it is locally abundant. The main breeding range is in
the north-central United States and central Canada, but there are
many isolated colonies far south of this area. In the western part
of the Mississippi Valley it is found breeding in southern Minnesota
and northwestern Nebraska. From here the southern boundary of
the nesting range extends southwestwardly through the mountains of
Colorado and northern New Mexico, to central Arizona and northern
Lower California. Indeed there are records of nesting birds from
localities as far south as the Valley of Mexico, Guatemala and Cuba.
As a species, this duck does not perform any very extensive migration,
the center of the breeding range lying but slightly north of the center
of abundance in winter.

The Ruddy Duck, the "Wire-tail" or "Spatterer" of the hunter,
is one of the most widely distributed of our California ducks. In any
one place it is never found in large numbers, as are some other species,
but each little body of fresh water is apt to have from one to a dozen
pairs of the birds. In general the Ruddy Duck is an inhabitant of
fresh Avater. It may in winter occasionally be found on salt water
in company with such species as the Canvasback and Scaups, but this
is not a common thing.

When resting on the water the Ruddy Duck may be recognized by
its moderate size, "squat" appearance, short thick head and neck, erect
tail, and in the male, by the white area on each cheek. The wings
lack contrasted markings of any sort. On close examination a num-

BUDDY DUCK

207

ber of other distinctive characters can be seen. The upper tail coverts
are extremely short and leave the eighteen stiff, narrow-webbed and
pointed tail feathers almost without covering. The bill is broad and
slightly turned upward toward tip and bears a conspicuous "nail."
It is not longer than the head. In spring and early summer the males
have the whole neck and back a uniform chestnut or reddish brown,
a distinctive feature., The brightly plumaged males in spring carry
on various complex courting antics, in which the spread tail figures
conspicuously. Brooks (1903, p. 280) records that while watching
the curious antics of the male, through a binocular at very close
range, he was struck with the peculiar formation of the head, there
being distinct elevations over each eye resembling those on a frog's
head. These were evidently caused by inflation from inside the skin.
The breeding season of the Ruddy Duck extends from the first of
May to the end of July or even later (see table 11).

Table 11.— Data
Locality

Nigger Slough,

Los Angeles, Co.
Niles, Alameda Co.
Mission Valley,

San Diego Co.
Los Bancs, Merced Co.
Orange, Orange Co.

San Jacinto Lake,

Riverside Co.
Near Los Angeles

Bear A^alley lakes,

San Bernardino Co.
Santa Cruz

Tule r=Rliett] Lake.

Modoc Co.
Nigger Slough.

Los Angeles Co.
Santa Cruz
San Pasqual,

San Diego Co.
San Jacinto Lake,

Riverside Co.
Wilmington,

Los Angeles Co.
Tulare Lake, Kings Co.

Near Los Angeles

Santa Cruz

Tulare Lake, Kings Co.

Santa Cruz

Point Finos.

Monterey Co.
Seaside, Monterey Co.

relative to the

Datk

May 1, 1910

May 8, 1904
May 20,

May 22, 1914
May 28.

May 28, 1911

Last of May,

June, 1886

About June 1,

1883
June 1-3, 1914

June 2, 1910

June 3. 1896
June 5, 1906

June 7, 1897

June 10, 1900

June 18-24,
1907

June 25,

June 26, 1883
June 26, 1883
July 7, 1907
July 24, 1883

Aug. 9, 1914
Aug. 19, 1914

nesting of the Kuildy Duc-k in California

Authority
7 eggs, half-incubated

Xkst Coxtknts and

COXDiTIO.V

8 eggs, fresh
Brood of young

4 eggs

12 eggs, considerably in-
cubated
Many nests

5-11 eggs

Breeding

5 eggs
Nesting

Willett, 1912a, p. 26

Mailliard coll.
Belding, MS.

Bryant, 1914e. p. 224
Grinnell, 1898, p. 12

Willett and Jav, 1911.

p. 158
Davie, 1889, p. 77

Morcom, 1887, p. 38

Ingersoll, 1884, p. 15

Bryant, 1914e, p. 230

17 eggs, slightly incubated Willett, 1912a, p. 26

14 eggs, incubated
6 eggs, nearly hatched
(in Coot's nest)

18 eggs, incubation
commenced

3 eggs (incomplete set)

Several broods

Fresh eggs

19 eggs
19 eggs
Several broods

10 eggs (second laying:
incubation well ad-
vanced)

3 young unable to fly

3 young a tew days old

Mailliard coll.
Sharp, 1907, p. 86

Ingersoll coll.

Willett, 1912a. p. 26

Goldman, 19086, p. 202

Davie, 1889, p. 77
Ingersoll, 1884, p. 15
Ingersoll, 1884, p. 15
Goldman, 19086, p. 202
Ingersoll, 1884, p. 15

Squires, MS.
Squires, MS.

208 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

The nest, wliich in California is nsually coniposetl of tules, is
placed near the water's edge or, more often, directly above the water
of some deep, sluggish stream, lake or pond. Shields {in Davie, 1889,
pp. 77-78) says there is evidence that this dnck prefers the abandoned
nests of Coots for nesting purposes, to those constructed by itself. In
several instances he took eggs of this species from what appeared to
be rehabilitated Coots' nests. In one case seven eggs of the Ruddy
Duck were found in a Coot's nest from whieh, a few weeks pre-
viously, a set of eggs of the Coot had been obtained. Sharp (1907,
p. 86) found six nearly hatched eggs of the Ruddy Duck in a Coot's
nest near Escondido, San Diego County, June 5, 1906.

Ingersoll (1884, p. 15) tells of a number of nests which he found
near Santa Cruz :

The nests were usually built uear the center of the tules, and just above
the water, which was two or three feet deep, and were inaccessible except
by wading, as the tules were too thick to allow a boat to pass through them.
The nests were all constructed of dry tules; those forming the lining were
picked into fine shreds and slightly mixed with down of the parents. Nests
were from eight to fifteen inches high, and ten to twelve in diameter. The
cavity varied in size as much as the nests, but not in proportion to them, as
the highest and most firmly built of any T saw had a cavity that was only
large enough to hold two eggs in the first layer, and so shallow that the three
other eggs it contained were above the level of the nest. This nest also
varied from the others in having a slight covering of tules over the eggs.

Two other nests found by Ingersoll on June 26 contained nineteen
eggs each. The eggs in these nests were arranged in three layers.
Nests of the Ruddy Duck are but sparingly lined with down and
sometimes it is lacking entirely. The eggs of the Ruddy Duck are
always recognizable. They are extremely large for the size of the
bird, more rounded than most other duck's eggs, and of a uniform
dull white color. The thick, rough-surfaced shell is peculiar to the
eggs of this duck. The shape varies somewhat from short ovate to
elongate ovate. Twenty specimens from California average 2.52 by
1.82 inches.

According to Brooks (1903, p. 280) tlie young are very precocious
and dive for their food soon after hatching, a habit not found in the
young of other ducks, which take their food from the surface of the
water for several weeks. Ingersoll (loc. cit.) surprised several families
away from the tules, in which the parents invariably sought shelter,
leaving the young to look out for themselves. The young were unable
to fly but could dive and swim well.

During the winter Ruddy Ducks are sometimes seen in small
flocks numbering up to ten or twelve individuals, these forming a
compact company. But more often they are to be seen singly or in

EUDD¥ DUCK 209

pairs. They can often be closely approached, for they depend upon
diving rather than flight for safety. If plenty of tiiles are at hand
in which to hide, gunshots will not frighten them away from their
favorite haunts. Their ability to dive and hide under water or
beneath some floating object with only the head above water is unex-
celled by any other duck; in this respect they resemble the grebes.
When wounded, they invariably try to escape in this way, and very
often succeed. During the breeding season the female is said to be
the shyest of all the ducks and it is almost impossible to surprise her
on the nest.

On the water at a distance the Ruddy looks like a floating block of
wood, so stockily is it built and so low does it sit in the water. It
rises with considerable difficulty, paddling along on the surface for
some distance before getting clear of the water. It flies close to the
surface of the Avater and its rapidly beating wings make a whirring
sound. When well started the speed of this duck is great, but as it
is slow getting under way this speed is not often evident.

The food of the Ruddy, as reported by various observers, consists
of seeds, roots, plant stems and shellfish. The stomach of a bird
from Guadalupe, Santa Barbara County, California, was found by
us to contain twenty-five seeds of ditch-grass (Ruppia maritima) and
some green algae. Three other stomachs contained finely ground
vegetable materials.

The Ruddy Duck is so small and has such strange habits that it
is not always considered a game bird by the sportsman. On many
of the gun club grounds these birds are not counted in the limits, or
else are killed only as a makeshift to complete the bag. Nevertheless
the Ruddy is very good eating unless it has subsisted on shellfish for
a long time. Many people do not use it for food simply because they
do not know how to remove the feathers, an operation which is very
difficult for the uninitiated. Experts dip the bird in boiling water,
and withdraw it almost immediately, before the grease starts ; then it
is wrapped in newspaper soaked in hot water. The steam loosens the
feathers and the bird is then easily picked (Hedderly, 1912&, pp.
50-51). When properly dressed the Ruddy makes an excellent table
bird. It is fat and has a mild flavor. "Roasted Indian fashion in
the fire with feathers on, its meat is juicy, tender and of delicious
flavor . . ." (V. Bailey, in Bailey, 1902, p. 65).

As a mark for the gunner this species takes second rank, for it
is not regularly on the Mdng and is very difficult to kill on the water
because of its thick plumage and its expertness in diving. But as
the more desirable ducks become reduced in numbers there is no doubt
that the Ruddy will be one of the first to take a respected place in
the hunter's bag.

210 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

When unmolested this duck is likely to nest in any suitable locality,
be it even a pond in a city park. Consequently the maintenance of a
breeding stock and the regulation of the annual supply by this means
would probably prove a simple matter. The Ruddy still exists in
goodly numbers especially in southern California and can be expected
to continue to hold its own until considerably greater numbers are
taken by the hunter, or until the available breeding grounds are
greatly reduced through reclamation or other causes.

Lesser Snow Goose

Chen hyperhorcus hyperhoreus (Pallas)

Other names — White Brant; White Goose; Anser hyperhoreus; Chen albatus:
Anser albatus; Chen hyperhoreus nivalis.

Description — Adults, hoth sexes: Whole plumage (except as mentioned
below) snowy white; primaries black, becoming ashy at bases; primary coverts
gray, with dusky shafts; lower surface of body often tinged with light yellowish
brown; iris dark brown; bill lake red, nails whitish; edges of mandibles (forming
"grinning patch") black; feet dusky lake red; claws brownish black. Total
length (both sexes) "about 23.00-28.00" inches (583-711 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900,
p. 115). Males: folded wing 16.65-17.12 (423-435); bill along culmen 2.19-2.40
(55.5-60.9); tarsus 3.07-3.38 (77.9-85.8) (six specimens). Females: folded
wing 15.20-16.65 (386-423); bill along culmen 2.00-2.26 (50.8-57.3); tarsus
8.01-3.32 (76.5-84.3) (eight specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage:
Head, neck, back and scapulars, pale gray with brownish feather edgings; top
of head darkest; primary flight feathers black; outer surface of closed wing pale
ashy brown with broad white feather edgings; secondaries mottled darkly
with drab, and margined with white; rump, upper tail coverts, tail and lower
surface, white, the tail and breast faintly tinged with ashy; head and lower
surface usually more or less strongly tinged with bright yellowish brown.
Winter birds from California are mostly in more or less mixed transitional
plumage from juvenile to adult. Natal plumage: No specimen or description
available.

Marks for field identification — Large size, pure white body plumage,
black flight feathers, and reddish bill and feet (pi. 6). Distinguished from Boss
Goose by larger size, longer, smoother bill, and large black area ("grinning
patch") exposed between edges of mandibles (compare figs. 30 and 31). Im-
mature birds also appear white at a distance.

Voice — In flight, a shrill hoiclc (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 441).

Nest — On wet ground; made of grasses, mosses and down (Eifrig, 1905,
p. 237).

Eggs — 5 to 8, ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 3.00 to 3.47 by 2.09 to 2.19
(in millimeters, 76.0 to 88.0 by 53.0 to 55.5), and averaging 3.17 by 2.13 (80.5
by 54.0) (nine eggs in U. S. National Museum) ; color creamy white (Eifrig,
loe. eit.; Davie, 1889, p. 79).

General distribution — North America. Breeds only along Arctic coast
from mouth of Mackenzie River to Hudson Bay. Winters from southern
British Columbia, southern Colorado, and southern Illinois south to northern
Lower California, central Mexico and the Gulf States; rare on Atlantic coast
(modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 83).

LESSER SNOW GOOSE 211

Distribution in California — Abundant winter visitant to the interior valleys;
less frequent near the seacoast. Eecorded south to San Diego (Belding, MS),
and southeast to the Colorado River below Needles (Grinnell, 1914b, p. 116).
Arrives soon after the first of October and leaves in March and early April.

California probably surpasses any other state in the Union in the
number and variety of geese which winter within its borders. The
Avinter ranges of at least three species center within its confines, and
as many as five different species have been taken in a single day, in
1913, at Los Bailos, Merced Count5^ To many people the geese are the
most conspicuous examples of birds which migrate regularly with
the changes of the seasons.

The Lesser Snow Goose, often called White Brant, and occasionally
by the Eskimo name, White "Wavy," is among the commonest of geese
to be seen in the Pacific region. For instance, on December 9, 1911,
in the vicinity of Los Baiios, Beck (MS) observed approximately
5,000 White-fronted Geese, 300 Canada Geese, and 50,000 white
(Lesser Snow and Ross) geese. On December 29 of the same year he
estimated that he saw 1,000 White-fronted, 100 Canada, and 50,000
white geese.

In migration the Lesser Snow Goose occurs more or less abundantly
along the whole Pacific coast from Alaska to Lower California, but
during the winter months almost the entire population concentrates
in central and western California. These geese are most often seen
passing overhead in long diagonal lines or V-shaped flocks ; but on
open level country, such as the plains of the Sacramento-San Joaquin
Valley, it is not an uncommon thing, during the winter season, to see
the ground fairly whitened with them as they rest or feed.

So far as we know only two species of white geese occur in Cali-
fornia. The Greater Snow Goose of the Atlantic coast has never been
recorded from this state, and specimens which were first reported as
instancing the occurrence of the Blue Goose here have since been
shown to be young of the Lesser Snow Goose (Swarth, 1913a, p. 43).

The Lesser Snow Goose differs from the Ross Goose, the other
white species occurring in California, by its much larger size, longer
and smoother bill, and by the presence of a large black area ("grin-
ning patch") exposed between the two closed mandibles of the bill
(compare figs. 30 and 31). The voice of the Lesser Snow Goose is more
sonorous than that of the Ross Goose.

Although the Lesser Snow Goose has been found breeding along
the Arctic coast east of the Mackenzie River, yet great numbers of
the birds have been seen to pass still farther north, to breeding
grounds as yet unknown. Nelson (1887, p. 83) states that this species
finds a nesting ground along the course of the lower Anderson River
and the neighboring region along the Arctic coast; and Raine (in

212

GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Macouii and Macoiui, 1909, p. 120) records several sets of eggs col-
lected in Mackenzie Bay, in the middle of June, 1905, and says that
this goose scrapes a hole in the sand and lines it with down and
feathers. Eifrig (1905, p. 237) states that on Southampton Island,
Hudson Bay, Lesser Snow Geese were found breeding in 1904. On
June 22 a set of seven eggs was taken there. The nests which are six
to eight inches high, are on wet ground and constructed of grass and
moss and lined with down. The young are said to be able to fly by
the middle of August and to keep in separate flocks. Many indi-
viduals retain the grayish tinted (juvenile) plumage nearly through-
out the winter, thus giving rise to the belief that this species does not
attain its full snowy white plumage until at least the second year.

Fig. 30. Side of bill of Lesser Snow Goose. Natural size.

Note ''grinning patch" exposed between the bowed rims of the two
mandibles (compare with fig. .31).

The Lesser Snow Goose is not averse to associating with other kinds
and it is not an unusual sight to see some of them mixed in with a
flock of "gray" geese. C. H. Townsend (1887, p. 195) records having
seen at Red Bluff, Tehama County, a triangle of Canada Geese headed
by a single Lesser Snow Goose, the two waving lines of dark forms
converging to a snow-white point.

Between California and their breeding grounds Lesser Snow Geese
appear to take the most direct route ; they are seldom found in num-
bers along the coast of Alaska, but are abundant during, migration in
the vicinity of Fort Simpson on the Mackenzie River. Although some
of these geese may migrate across the northern border of the state
from or into Oregon, yet a great many are known to cross eastward

LESSER SNOW GOOSE 213

or -westward over the Sierra Nevada. Belding (MS) noted flocks of
this species at Summit, Placer County, on October 5 and 10, 1885.
They were flying above the highest peaks westward from Nevada
toward California. They were again noted at the same place on
October 6, 1896, flying high and going toward the Sacramento Valley.
On April 8 and 16, 1886, tliousands of Avhitc geese were noted by the
same observer, at IMurphy's, Calaveras County, flying eastward over
the Sierras in the direction of Nevada. The earliest arrivals of this
species in west-central California, as noted by Belding, are: Stockton,
San Joaquin County, September 28, 1886, September 29, 1881, and
October 9, 1883; Gridley, Butte County, September 30, 1884. The
first flock seen at San Diego in the winter of 1883-84 was on February
17. The latest records are : Stockton, April 30, 1880 ; Gridley, April
28, 1884; Chico, Butte County, April 27, 1884; Gridley, May 1, 1896.

Writing from the vicinity of Fresno, Tyler (1913&, p. 18) makes
the following statements: "White geese swarm by thousands on the
westside plains. No record has been obtained of their date of arrival
in the fall, but as late as April 7 (1906) they were congregated in
large numbers on several hundred acres of grassy pasture near the
Artesian Lake. Just before sundown, as I drove past, the ground
was white almost as far as one could see and the noise was deafening.
I have not had an opportunity of measuring any of these geese, but
there appears to be a great variation in size. During January large
flocks of Snow Geese move restlessly about, flying at a great height,
and generally traveling toward the north."

The Lesser Snow' Goose feeds largely in grain fields and pastures
at night, spending the middle of the day on the sea or on some open
body of water. Beck (MS) says that in the vicinity of Los Baiios
this goose leaves for the grain fields early in the morning, returning
between ten and eleven o'clock, and spends the rest of the day in M^et
marshy places. One bird shot after returning from feeding in the
fields contained 1,581 grains of barley. On March 25, 1912, in the
same locality. Lesser Snow Geese w^ere seen feeding on the stalks of
"filaree." They bit off the tops and ate the roots as ^vell. One killed
had 500 of the stalks in its gullet (Beck, MS).

Various kinds of ordinary grass form a large part of tliis bird 's food, at
least during their winter residence in the United States. . . . They alight
upon a meadow or plain, and pass over the ground in broken array, cropping
on either side as they go, with the peculiar tweak of the bill and quick jerk
of the neck familiar to all who have watched the barnyard birds when similarly
engaged (Coues, 1874, p. 552).

While in California, this goose appears to feed largely on grass.
Coues (loc. cit.) says that the short turfy grasses are highly relished

214 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA

and that the bulbous roots and soft succulent culms of aquatic plants
are also eaten. The depredations of this and other geese in grain fields
in California until very recently has prevented the placing of a closed
season on these birds. In the north, their food in the summer consists
of rushes and insects, and in the autumn, of berries particularly
those of Empetrum nigrum (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I,
p. 441).

In former years in the far north this species during the fall
migration was killed and salted in great numbers for winter consump-
tion, it being almost universally regarded as good eating. It has
always been the commonest goose on the markets in California.
Whether this is because it is more abundant, more easily decoyed, or
because it is most desirable for the table is not known. During the
season 1895-96, 10,251 "white" geese were sold in the markets of
San Francisco and Los Angeles (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 41). A
total of 3,649 were handled by one transfer company alone in San
Francisco, in the season of 1906-07, and 3,800 similarly in 1910-11.
In the season of 1910-11 the markets in San Francisco paid one to
three dollars a dozen for them. During the season of 1913-14, they
could be purchased regularly for seventy-five cents a pair retail. The
young of this species are considered very good eating in spite of the
fact that their meat is comparatively dry and dark and of a rather
strong flavor. But our impression is that the other species of geese
are held in somewhat greater esteem for table use.

There has been a more conspicuous decrease in the numbers of
geese than in any other game birds in the state. Many observers
testify that there is only one goose now for each hundred that visited
the state twenty years ago, and some persons aver that in certain
localities there is not more than one to every thousand which formerly
occurred here. Not only have these birds been slaughtered for the
market, but gangs of men have been paid to destroy them where they
were feeding in grain fields. Until 1915 they were afforded no pro-
tection whatever and as a natural result their ranks have been so
often decimated that, comparatively speaking, only a remnant now
remains (see pp. 7-12).

In former years, when passing through the Sacramento or San
Joaquin valleys by train, great flocks of white geese in company with
other, dark-colored species were often to be seen settling on the grain
fields or pasture lands almost within gunshot of the cars.

The days are past and gone when a man has to drive geese from
his grain field. In many places where formerly the ground was so
covered with white geese as to look snow clad, not a single goose is
now to be observed feeding and but few flying overhead. In spite
of the extreme shyness and watchfulness of these geese, the ingenuity

5 H

EOSS SNOW GOOSE 215

of the hunter aiul the increased efficiency of firearms has so far over-
balanced the natural protection thus afforded that the birds are now
actually threatened with extinction. Unless the protection now
furnished proves adequate in the very near future, this state, which
at one time appeared to have an inexhaustible supply of geese, will
have entirely lost this valuable game resource.

There is no reason why, with proper regard for the natural rate
of increase, a certain toll might not be levied annually on the influx
of geese from the far north. In their summei" home they are doubtless
largely free from human interference, so that the winter resort, which
•with snow geese lies chiefly within our own. state, constitutes the
critical area. It is in such cases as this that we are most favorably
situated for putting into effect a system of regulation upon a sound
economic and biological basis, so that we will secure the maximum
returns.

Ross Snow Goose

Chen rossi (Cassin)

Other names — China Goose; Anser rossi.

Description — Adults, both sexes: Entire plumage snowy white except for
primary flight feathers and their coverts; primaries black, becoming ashy
basally; primary coverts gray, with dusky shafts; bill "dull reddish," nail
"white" (Baird, Brewer and Kidgway, 1884, I, p. 444), basal portion of upper
mandible often wrinkled and warty; feet "dull reddish" (Baird, Brewer and
Ridgway, loc. cit.). Total length (both sexes) "20.00-26.00" inches (580-660
mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 115). Males: folded wing 13.60-15.00 (345-381);
bill along culmen 1.43-1.66 (36.3-42.2); tarsus 2.57-2.87 (65.2-72.8) (seven
specimens). Females: folded wing 13.35-14.45 (339-367); bill along culmen
1.42-1.55 (36.1-39.3); tarsus 2.38-2.68 (60.4-68.0) (nine specimens); all from
California. Juvenile plumape: White, tinged with grayish on head and fore-
back; wing as in adult but secondaries with blackish centers; bill and feet
"<lusky" (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, loc. cit.). Natal plumage: Not known.

Marks for field identification — Small size for a goose (but little larger
than a Mallard), white plumage relieved by black primaries, and reddish bill
and feet. Distinguished from Lesser Snow Goose by smaller size (about half
the bulk of that species), and by much shorter bill, which is also more cor-
rugated on surface and lacks broad black area between edges of closed mandibles
(compare figs. 30 and 31).

Voice — Resembles that of the Cackling Goose (Belding, MS).

Nest and eggs — Unknown.

General distribution — Western North America. Breeding range unknown
but probably north of Mackenzie, Canada; winters in California. In migration
occurs from Kent Peninsula, and Anderson River, on Arctic coast of Canada,
south to Manitoba and Oregon (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 84).

Distribution in California — Abundant winter visitant; most numerous in
Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley and about Los Angeles. Southernmost record
station: Newport, Orange County (Daggett, 1901a, p. 15).

216

GAME BIFDS OF CALIFORNIA

The Boss or China Goose is the smallest, and one of the least known
of our North American geese. Its winter range, so far as known, is
restricted to central and western California, in which area it often
associates with its larger relative the Lesser Snow Goose. The species
arrives in mid-fall, as shown by the following dates for Stockton :
October 6, 1880; October 6, 1881; October 26, 1896 (Belding, MS).
At Grayson, Stanislaus County, one was taken October 29, 1908 (Mus.
Vert. Zool.). In the winter of 1911-12 specimens were secured at Los
Baiios, Merced County, from November 30 to March 16, and the
species was present there until April 2. During November and
December, 1913, this goose was often seen by us in the markets of
San Francisco. Belding (MS) states that in the winter of 1880-81
Koss Geese were found in equal numbers with Lesser Snow Geese in
the Stockton markets, and in 1896 exceeded the numbers of the latter

21905

Fig. 31. Side of bill of Eoss Snow Goose. Natural size.

Note rouuded corrugations on side of upper mandible
at its base (compare with fig. 30).

species. Most of the birds secured at Los Banos in 1911-12 were
birds of the year, while in 1908 hunters reported that the birds then
killed were mostly adults.

The much smaller size of the Ross Goose readily separates it from
the Lesser Snow Goose. When drawn, the Ross Goose seldom weighs
more than two and one-half pounds. The comparatively short bill,
only an inch and a half in length, with a warty appearance at the
base in the adult, is a good character for identification when the bird
is in the hand (see fig. 31). Young birds are distinguishable from
adults by lack of the warty protuberances and by the presence of gray
feathers on the head, neck and foreback. In flight the small size and
the peculiar note, which is much like that of the Cackling Goose, are
characters wliich help in identification. Belding (MS) says that the
rusty color so generally found on the Snow Goose is nearly always
lacking on the Ross Goose, but the specimens in the Museum of Verte-

BOSS SNOW GOOSE 217

brati* Zoology do not coiitii-ni this statement, as many of them are
suffused witii I'usty.

The breeding grounds of this goose have not been definitely deter-
mined, but apparently lie near the Arctic coast north of the region
bounded by Fort Anderson on the west and Hudson Bay on the east.
"The path of migration of this goose seems to be different from that
of any other species. It is a fair presumption that the principal route
coincides with the districts in which the species is most common. The
greater numlx'r pass fi'om the breeding grounds to Great Slave Lake
and Lake Athabasca, continue south to central and western ^lontana,
and then turn southwest, cross the Rocky Mountains, and i)ass to
central and soul hern t'alifornia. . . . The average date at which the
last one was seen in central ^lontana is April 24," and "the average
date of arrival at Columbia Falls, Montana, is October 15" (Cooke,
1906, pp. 69-70). Thus, instead of turning to the southeast, to winter
on the Gulf coast with the other eastern geese and ducks which have
been its traveling companions, the Ross Goose parts company with
them at the national boundary line, and goes southwest across the
Rocky ^lountains to California.

The food and feeding habits of the Ross Goose are believed to be
very much like those of the Lesser Snow Goose, but no detailed acounts
are available to us.

Belding (MS") says that the Ross Goose has comparatively light-
colored flesh and makes very delicate, palatable footl. During the
proper season it has been found commonly in the markets of San
Francisco, Sacramento, Stockton, and Los Angeles.

A species Avith a restricted breeding range like that of the Ross
Goose, and one which concentrates in a comparatively small area dur-
ing the winter, is in an unusual position for total extermination at
the hands of man. The one saving circumstance in the case of this
bird appears to be its choice of breeding grounds, so remote as to have
thus far escaped discovery by civilized man. In summer the species
probably enjoys total iramunit}^ from human interference. But in
winter it is fully exposed to the destructive agencies directed against
it by man. The numbers sold in the markets of California are alone
enough to arouse the fear that the depletion of the species will, if much
longer continued, shortly reach the danger point. As has been the
case so often before, the realization of the danger of extermination may
come too late. Some people hold to the view that as long as there are
some birds left, the species will persist, forgetting the principle that
when the breeding stock is depleted below a certain point further
reduction ensues at an increasing rate, so that total disappearance
comes rather abruptly. The citizens of California are almost wholly
responsible for the preservation of this species.

218 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

American White-fronted Goose

A user alhifrons gamheli Hartlaub

Other names — Speckle-breast; Speckle-belly; Checker-breast; Checker-belly;
Laughing Goose; Gray Goose, pai-t; Yellow-legs; Anser erythropus ; Anser
alhifrons; Anser gamheli; Bernicla gamheli.

Description — Adults, hoth sexes: Head, neck and chest grayish brown;
blackish-bordered area at base of bill, extending one-half to one inch up the
forehead, and chin, white (in other words, a white border of varying width
completely surrounds base of bill); iris and eyelid brown; bill yellow or orange,
nail whitish; back dark brown, each feather tipped with ashy; rump slaty
brown; upper tail coverts white; tail slate brown tipped with white; outer
surface of closed wing slate gray; greater wing coverts tipped with white;
secondaries blackish; primaries dark slate; under surface of wing and axillars
slate gray; feathers of sides and flanks like back but with narrow white line
along upper margin; breast and belly grayish white with irregular patches
of dark brown or blackish, these varying greatly in extent from mere traces
to a condition where lower surface is almost wholly black; under tail coverts
white; under surface of tail feathers light slate color, tipped with white;
feet reddish yellow. Females average less in extent of black markings on
under surface. Total length (both sexes) 27.00-29.00 inches (685-786 mm.)
(five specimens). Males: folded wing 15.80-17.00 (402-432); bill along culmen
1.76-2.04 (44.6-51.7); tarsus 2.67-3.12 (67.8-79.3) (ten specimens). Females:
folded wing 15.20-16.40 (386-416); bill along culmen 1.73-1.97 (43.8-50.0);
tarsus 2.55-2.88 (64.7-73.0) (ten specimens); all from California. Juvenile
plumage: Similar to that of adults, but region around bill whollj' dark brown
like rest of head, instead of white; wing coverts more brownish; no black
blotches on under surface; nail of bill dusky. Natal plumage: Top of head and
back olive brown; forehead, sides of head, .hind-neck, chin, throat and whole
under surface greenish yellow, yellowest on belly; stripe from base of bill
through eye dusky; two yellowish spots on each side of back, one at hinder
border of wing and one at side of rump.

Marks for field identification — Large size, Avhite forehead, black speckled
belly, reddish feet, light colored bill and general gray body color (pi. 6).

Voice — -A loud, harsh wah, wall, wah, somewhat like the laugh of a man.

Nest — On the ground, near water, often in wooded districts; made of grass
and feathers and lined with down.

Eggs — 6 to 7, ovate to elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.93 to
3.41 by 1.99 to 2.23 (in millimeters, 74.5 to 86.5 by 50.5 to 56.5), and averaging
3.21 by 2.13 (81.5 by 54.0) (thirty-two eggs in U. S. National Museum) ; color
dull white, with yellowish discolorations.

General distribution — North America and eastern Asia. In North America
breeds on Bering Sea and Arctic coasts from mouth of the Yukon River, Alaska,
north and east to northeastern Mackenzie. Winters chiefly from southern
British Columbia to southern Lower California and Jalisco, Mexico; and less
commonly east of the Rocky Mountains from southern Illinois and New Jersey
south to northeastern Mexico, southern Texas, and Cuba (modified from A. O.
U. Check-list, 1910, p. 85).

Distribution in California — Common winter visitant to suitable localities
throughout the state, on both the plains and swampy lowlan<ls; most abundant

AMEBICAN WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE 219

in the San Joaquin-Sacramento Valley. Arrives in early September and leaves
in April.*

The Anu'riean White-fronted Goose is a comnion winter visitant
in California, and is much prized here as a game bird. While it
occurs ahnost everywhere in the lowland portions of the state the
center of abundance is on the plains and marshes of the Sacramento-
San Joa(juin Valley. This species is the first of its tribe to arrive in
the fall and the last to leave in the spring. Belding (MS) noted its
arrival at Stockton, San Joaquin County, on September 7, 1878, and
September 8, 1881. At the same place they were last seen by him
April 27, 1879, May 2, 1880, and April 29, 1896. His latest date of
spring occurrence is May 3. At Los Banos, Merced County, Beck
(MS) found this goose still present on April 22, 1912. The early
arrival of this species from the north has doubtless been the basis for
many of the predictions of an early winter which are sent to news-
papers by local "weather prophets."

The irregular black nmrkings on the breast and belly of this bird
have given rise to such names as Speckle-belly and Checker-breast,
while its general gray tone of coloration has suggested the name Gray
Goose in contradistinction to the white Snow Geese and black-headed
Canada Geese and Brant. The white area about the bill is the basis
of the accepted common name. White-fronted Goose. The black
blotched breast, gray back, and white ring on the face, together with
the large size, and light colored bill and feet, make this goose very
easy to identify (pi. 6). The Snow and Ross geese are chiefly white,
the Canada geese and Brant have black heads, necks and feet, and
the rather rare Emperor Goose has the whole top of the head white.
The loud harsh call-note of the White-fronted is said by hunters to
be distinctive.

The American White-fronted Goose nests in northern and western
Alaska and eastward along the Arctic coast of British America to

* Since the above chapter on the White-fronted Goose was set in type, the discovery has
been made that two subspecies of Anser albifrons occur in winter in California (see Swarth
and Bryant. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., vol. 17, October 19, 1917, pp. 209-222, pi. 1.3). The
most abundant of the two is exactly as described above but its name should be Anser albifrons
albifrons. The newly distinguished and relatively rare bird, the "Tule Goose," properly bears
the name Anser albifrons yambeli.

The differences existing between the two subspecies may be summarized as follows:
Anser albifrons albifrons

Size small: wing 15.12-16.62 inches (384-422 mm.): bill small: culmen 1.73-2.05
(44-52) ; weight 3 lbs. 14 oz. to 5 lbs. 8 oz. (five specimens) ; tail feathers, sixteen:
coloration in general paler, head and neck grayish; naked skin at edge of eyelid,
grayish brown.
Anser albifrons gambeli

Size large: wing 16.54-18.73 inches (420-475 mm.); bill large; culmen 2.08-2.45
(53-62) ; weight 5 lbs. 5 oz. to 7 lbs. 8 oz. (ten specimens) ; coloration in gen-
eral darker, neck dark brown, head blackirh ; tail feathers, male eighteen, female
sixteen ; naked skin at edge of eyelid, yellow or orange.
The Tule Goose has been reported only from the upper Sacramento Valley where, in the
vicinity of Butte Creek, it frequents ponds and sloughs surrounded by tules and willows.
It flocks separately from its smaller relative, and is often seen only singly or in pairs. Its
notes are said to be peculiar. The summer home of the Tule Goose is unknown but is con-
jectured to lie in Arctic America somewh?re east of Alaska.

220 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

Mackenzie ; also to some extent on the Asiatic coast bordering Bering
Sea. Nelson (1887, p. 83) found eggs near the mouth of the Yukon
River as early as May 27 (1879). From this time on until the middle
of June, fresh eggs were to be found ; but very soon after the latter
date, downy young began to appear. These geese choose for a nest-
ing site the grassy border of a lakelet, a knoll grown over with moss
and grass, or even a flat, sparingly covered with grass. Along the
Yukon, Dall found them breeding in colonies, the eggs being deposited
in hollows scooped out in the sand. At the Yukon mouth and around
St. Michaels they were found breeding in scattered pairs over the
flat country.

Every one of the nests examined by me in these places had a slight lining
of grass or moss, gathered by the parent, and upon this the first egg was laid;
as the complement of eggs is approached the female always plucks down and
feathers from her breast until the eggs rest in a soft warm bed, when incuba-
tion commences. The eggs vary considerably in shape and size. ... In color
they are of a dull white, but ordinarily present a dirty brown appearance from
being stained in the nest (Nelson, loc. cit.).

The maximum number of eggs in a set appears to be seven. Seven
eggs at hand from western Alaska are dull white, discolored somewhat
to a yellowish tone, and measure in inches from 2.83 to 3.06 by 1.86 to
1.98, averaging 2.94 by 1.93.

Grinnell (1900, pp. 17-18) says that in northern Alaska flocks
of from six to twenty are found in the fall up to September 12 on the
grassy margins of lakes and on wind swept sand-bars along rivers.
When they first arrive, about May 10, they are very quiet but later
they become noisy.

The following also concerns the habits of the White-fronted Goose
in Alaska, whence probably come our winter visitants :

All through September, old and young, which have been on the wing since
August, gather in larger flocks, and as the sharp frosts toward the end of
September warn them of approaching winter, commence moving south. The
marshes [in the vicinity of St. Michaels] resound with their cries, and after
some days of chattering, flying back and forth, and a general bustle, thej-
suddenly start off in considerable flocks, and the few laggards which remain
get away by the 7th or 8tli of October (Nelson, 1887, p. 84).

Indians imitate the call of this goose by patting the mouth with
the hand while pronouncing the syllable vah (Baird, Brewer and
Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 452). The notes of this goose are said to resemble
the laugh of a man, and the species has been called, locally, the
"laughing goose" on this account.

Van Dyke (1904, p. 670) describes the manner in which the differ-
ent species of geese come into a pond as follows:

JMhh'ICAX UHITK-FEONTED GOOSE l221

Coming from afar in a big white cloud, the snow geese before reaching
the e<lge of the pond mass suddenly up in a long column inclined some forty
degrees from the vertical. Every black-tipped wung is thrown outward and
downward and rigidly set, with the axis of the body about corresponding to
the axis of the whole column. Anything like sailing is thus impossible and
the whole descent is a slow settling or drifting downward, almost as gently
as the fall of a gossamer skein on the still air of Indian summer. . . . The
White-fronted Goose swings over it high in air as if he enjoyed the play. He
is reasonably silent about it as he floats a thousand feet or more above the
water, where he lines up for the great plunge. Then the edge of the line
breaks, and as if struck suddenly by the thunderbolt, yet with every throat
tuned to concert pitch, the birds dive, tumble, and gyrate sidewise, upside
down, rolling over in the air in every imaginable way, a cataract of whirling
life, down to within a few feet of the water. There the grand go-as-you-please
march suddenly ends, the wild clamor of every throat is stilled, each goose
rights itself in a twinkling, drifts into an orderly line, and floats a few yards
along the surface of the water, then drops its feet, raises its neck and head,
and throwing back its wings slides into the water as gently as the reflection of
the fleecy clouds above it. Canada geese descend in long curling lines, as if
the birds were descending an invisible flight of winding stairs with every
wing stiffly set and every white-collared throat silent as the grave.

This species of goose is .said to be more exclusive than other species,
staying more hirgely in separate or unmixed flocks. They usually
frequent low marshy ground when loafing, but during hours of feed-
ing may be seen in stubble fields or on the open plains far from water.

White-fronted Geese usually loaf on or near some body of water
during the middle of the day, doing their feeding early in the morn-
ing, in the evening, or dui-ing the night. Nordhoff (1902, p. 213)
found that, at Elsinore Lake, Riverside County, they made four
regular flights daily to the grain fields, ten miles away, never varying
the time of arrival and departure more than fifteen minutes. "Dur-
ing periods of stormy weather they often fly over in large flocks,
apparently with no definite object in view other than a change of
feeding grounds. Their cry is often heard at night, especially during
moonlight evenings" (Tyler, 1913&, p. 18).

The food of the White-fronted Goose consists almost entirely of
grass. Heermann (1859, p. 68) says that this goose is considered the
most delicate for the table, as it feeds almost exclusively on the young
herbage growing on the highlands and about the fresh water ponds.
In years past this species, along with other geese, has been responsible
for considerable damage to grain.

The White-fronted Goose is one of the commonest geese on the
market. "Gray geese" (under which term this species and perhaps
also the Hutchins Goose is included) to the number of 19,419 were sold
in the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles in the season of
1895-96. The total amount paid hunters for these birds was $4,042.30,

222 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

or about twenty cents apiece (Calif. Fish. Comm., 1896, pp. 41, 42). In
1909-10 (October 2 to March 5) one company handled 8,053 of the
birds. In 1910-11 the prices paid ranged from $1.50 to $7.00 per dozen.
In 1912-13 these geese sold for 65 cents to $1.00 per pair on the Los
Angeles markets (E. J. Fischer in letter). In 1850 these geese sold
at $1.00 to $1.50 per pair (Newberry, 1857, p. 102) which, considering
the high prices prevailing during the gold rush, suggests that these
birds were then very easily obtained.

This species is said to be easily approached by the gunner, and
so is readily procured. Nevertheless some ruse, such as hiding behind
a grazing steer, has usually been resorted to in order to make a big
killing. This method of approach, known as "bull-hunting," was
formerly widely employed by market hunters in procuring geese. It
is now prohibited by law. Pits dug in the ground in localities over
which the birds are known to fly regularly, are most often used as
blinds in hunting geese.

A brisk market demand as well as ease of capture has been instru-
mental in greatly reducing the numbers of this goose visiting Califor-
nia. There is probably not now more than one bird to a hundred that
used to be found in the state. With no protection whatever until 1915,
it is no wonder that we have lost the greater proportion of thescj
valuable game birds. It remains to be seen whether our present laws
will be sufficient to enable the species to maintain itself or increase
toward its former abundance.

Canada Goose

Branta canadensis canadensis (Linnaeus)

Other names — Honker; Hunter; Mexican Goose; Big Mexican Goose; White-
cheeked Goose; Bernicla canadensis ; Branta canadensis occidentaVis.

Description — Adults, both sexes: Whole head and neck shiny black, except
for large white patch on each cheek which usually meets its fellow across the
throat; chin usually blackish; iris brown; bill black; general color of upper
surface brownish gray, each feather narrowly tipped with gray or whitish;
rump black; upper tail coverts white; tail black; outer surface of closed wing
"brownish gray, with pale feather edgings like back; primary flight feathers
and inner webs of secondaries blackish; under surface of wing and axillars
light grayish brown; under surface of body pale ashy gray, with whitish
feather tippings giving an effect of obscure barring; flanks darkest colored,
more brownish; lower belly and under tail coverts white; feet black. Total
length (both sexes) "about 35.00-43.00" inches (888-1093 mm.) (Eidgway,
1900, p. 117). Males: folded wing 16.50-20.75 (418-527); bill along culmen
1.88-2.31 (47.7-58.6); tarsus 3.00-3.88 (76.2-98.5) (ten specimens). Females:
folded wing 17.60-19.65 (447-499); bill along culmen 1.89-2.06 (47.9-52.4);
tarsus 3.26-3.58 (82.7-90.8) (ten specimens); all from California. Juvenile
plumage: Similar to that of adult but with colors duller and white cheek

CANADA GOOSE 22.3

patches speoklcl witli Mack. Natal plumage: Top of head ohl goM; forehead,
sides of head, throat, and whole neck, deep straw yellow: back old gold, with
patch of straw yellow behind each wing; wings and tail, light brownish olive;
lower surface of body dull cream color.

M.\RKS FOR FIELD IDEXTIPICATION — Very large size (largest of all our geese),
black head, neck, bill and feet, white cheek patches, and uniform appearing
gray body. Distinguished from Hutchins and Cackling geese by larger size, and
from Sea Brant by presence of white patches on cheeks (see figs. 32-37).
Recognizable in flight by abruptly black head and neck, gray body plumage,
loud trumpet like "honks," and slow wing strokes.

Voice — A hoarse, sonorous honk.

Nest — Usually in swampy situation, but on dry ground, more rarely on a
stump or in a tree in an old nest of some other bird; constructed of twigs,
wee<ls, grasses or reeds, with abundant lining of dow^n.

EoGS — 5 to 7, ovate to elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches 3.06 to
3.71 by 2.15 to 2.34 (in millimeters, 77.5 to 94.2 by 54.6 to 59.4), and averaging
3.37 by 2.25 (85.6 by 57.2) (Ray, 1912«, pp. 68-69); color dull yellowish white.

Gener.\l DiSTRiBi'TiON — Interior North America. Breeds from limit of trees
in lower Yukon Valley, Alaska, east to northwestern Mackenzie and central
Keewatin, and thence south to Indiana, northern Colorado, and north-central
California. Winters from southern British Columbia, southern Colorado, south-
ern Wisconsin and New Jersey south to southern California, Texas and Florida
(modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 86).

DisTRiBUTiox IN' Californi.\ — Common winter visitant throughout the low-
lands l)ut chiefly to interior valleys; southernmost record station, San Diego
(Belding, 1892a, p 100). Fairly common in summer in lake region north and
east of the Sierra Nevada. Has been recorded as breeding at the following
localities: Lower Klamath Lake (Newberry, 1857, p. 100; H. C. Bryant, 1914e,
p. 232); Eagle Lake (Sheldon, 1907, p. 187); Honey Lake (Cady, MS); and
Lake Tahoe (Belding, loc. cit.; Ray, 1912a, p. 72).

The migrating V-shaped flocks of the Canada Goose, or Honker,
together with the sonorous call-notes while on the wing, are familiar
to almost everyone, so that it is safe to say that this is the best known
of American geese. It is the most widely distributed species in North
America and is the one which is here most often brought into domesti-
cation. Of the geese occurring in California it is the largest, bvit at the
present time is least common of all, save for the rare Emperor Goose.
In winter it is found in suitable localities almost throughout the state,
but those birds which remain for the summer to nest within our bound-
aries betake themselves to the vicinity of the large lakes in northeastern
California east of the Sierra-Cascade divide.

The Canada Goose is about the last of the wintering geese to arrive
in California. It seldom puts in an appearance before the middle of
November, or at least until unfavorable conditions drive it south from
its breeding home. Belding (1892a, p. 100) noted the first birds of
this species in the Stockton market on November 11 (1880), and
November 23 (1881). In 1896 the first flock seen by him at Stockton
was observed on November 27. At Gridley, Butte County, this goose

224

GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

Avas first seen on December 2, 1885, November 24, 1890, and November
5, 1892 (Belding, MS). It is also among the first to leave for the
north. As early as February 22, 1887, Belding (MS) saw flocks of
Canada Geese going east over the snow-clad Sierras of Calaveras
County, and at Stockton he saw them going north on February 12,
1896. Beck (MS) reports seeing two flocks February 23, 1911, at
Los Baiios, Merced County, but says that hunters maintained that

Fig. 32. Canada Goose.

Fig.

Hutehins Goose.

most of the Canada Geese had already left. The latest spring record
is April 11, 1893, when five individuals were seen in a grain field at
Gridley, Butte County (Belding, MS).

The Canada Goose is easily separated from geese belonging to other
groups by its abruptly black head and neck, white cheek patches, and
black bill and feet. The three subspecies or varieties of "white-
cheeked" geese (Canada, Hutchins and Cackling) intergrade with one
another, and individuals are occasionally found which cannot be satis-
factorily referred to one or the other of these races. As a rule, how-
ever, they can be separated on the basis of the length of the bill, which,

CANADA GOOSE 225

of eom-se, is an index of the general size. The Canada Goose has a
hill 1.88-2.31 inches long; that of the Hutchins Goose is 1.37-1.80
inches, and that of the Cackling Goose, 1.04-1.44 inches. In flight the
Canada Goose can be recognized by its large size, its pecnliar pattern
of coloration, its slow, measured wing beats, and its sonorous liouk,
honk.

Swarth (19136, pp. 8-9) has recently shown that, contrary to
the statements found in practically all ornithological books dealing
in any way with the subject, the true White-cheeked Goose {Branta
canadensis occidi ntalis) does not occur in California. The many
references in literature to this goose really apply to the Canada Goose
(Brania canadensis canadensis). The White-cheeked Goose is a large
dark-colored northwestern race which occupies the inunediate vicinity

Fig. M. Cackling Goose.

Figs. 32 to 34 are natural size and serve to show the
differences in the size and proportions of the bill which char-
acterize average specimens of each race.

of the seacoast, from Washington at least to Prince William Sound,
Alaska, and which in summer probably does not occur farther south
than the southern boundary of British Columbia.

The Canada Goose is definitely kno^\Ti- to breed in at least three
localities in northeastern California — Lake Tahoe, Eagle Lake, and
Lower Klamath Lake. The first record of nesting in California is that
by Newberry (1857, p. 100) and pertains to Lower Klamath Lake.
Belding (1892^, p. 100) states that, previously to 1892, this goose
bred sparingly in a large marsh at Tallac Point, at the south end of
Lake Tahoe. Numerous nests were found in the same neighborhood
in 1909, 1910 and 1911 by Ray (1912a, pp. 67-71), and an old-time
settler in Lake Valley told the last named author that this species had
nested there almost every spring for the past thirty years. In all
but one of the instances observed by Ray, the nest was composed
entirely of dry marsh grass and down. In the exceptional case tules
were used. One nest measured twenty-two inches over all, but the

226

GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

cavity in it was only eleven
inches across and three inches
deep. Five nests were found
on May 15, 1911, while snow
was still on the ground. The
number of eggs in the nests
observed at Lake Tahoe,
ranged from five to seven. In
a number of instances eggs of
the Canada Goose gathered
at Lake Tahoe have been
sent elsewhere and success-
fully hatched. Judge F. W.
Henshaw has several adult
Canada Geese on his place
near Redwood City, San
Mateo County, which were
hatched from eggs collected at
Lake Tahoe. Many half-
grown broods of Canada Geese
were seen by Sheldon (1907,
p. 187) at Eagle Lake in
June, 1905. Farther north
this goose does not lay until
June (Cooke, 1906, p. 76).

H. C. Bryant (1914e, p.
232), during a visit to Lower
Klamath Lake in 1914, found
on June 6 a band of at least
ten half -grown young Canada
Geese accompanied by one
adult. Probably two broods
were represented. On June 7
two other broods were seen
near the mouth of Willow
Creek, one containing four
young and the other five or
six. Ranchers of the vicinity
reported that every spring
Honkers nest in the tules bordering the lake, and that they are the
first of the w^ater birds to nest.

Ray (1912a, p. 68) recounts that while rowing up a slough on
Rowlands Marsh, Lake Tahoe, May 23, 1910, a goose "rose from her
nest, took a short run, and rising with heavy flight and loud cries, flew

Fig. 35. Canada Goose.

CANADA GOOSE

227

Fig. 36. Hutchins Goose

Fig. 37. Cackling Goose.

Figs. 35 to 37 are natural size and serve to show the
relative length of tarsus to middle toe which characterizes
average specimens of each race.

out to open water, where she was joined by her mate. The cries of
the pair echoed so loudly over the marsh that it seemed the whole
region must be awakened." The nest of this pair was situated on

228 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOHNIA

the ground at tlie base of a willow growing on a small island in the
marsh.

In the north the Canada Goose does not always build its nest on
the ground. Several instances have been recorded where it has
utilized stumps of trees and even deserted nests of birds of prey
(Macoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 126).

In California during the mid-winter months these geese inhabit
the interior valleys rather than the neigliborhood of the seashore.
Their favorite resorts are the large open grain fields near some big
river or other large body of water. Here they feed evening and morn-
ing, spending the middle of the day and the night on the water itself.
At Los Banos, Merced County, they leave the marshes for the even-
ing flight to the grain fields about two, three or four o'clock in the
afternoon, and return about dark (Beck, MS).

The flight of this species is firm, rapid, and protracted, the bird moving
with great steadiness and regularity. Before rising it usually runs a few feet
with outspread wings, but when surprised can rise with a sudden spring. In
its migrations it is liable to be thrown into confusion by passing into a fog-
bank, or over a city or place where there is much shipping. . . . Both keen-
ness of sight and quickness of hearing are remarkable in this bird, and it is
always vigilant and suspicious; so that it is with great difficulty taken by
surprise (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 463).

"Few wild bird notes are more inspiring than the honl\ honk,
ha ivank, honk, of a long line of Canada Geese flying with apparent
deliberation but with really terrific speed overhead, calling as they
go in notes that carry for a mile over marsh, lake, and prairie. The
big strong wings whish loudly overhead far out of shotgun range,
and often a low conversational gabble can be heard under the loud
honking" (Y. Bailey, in Bailey, 1902, pp. 67-68). It is believed to be
always an old gander that forms the apex of the V-shaped flocks.
Before alighting a flock circles several times to investigate. "While
feeding there appear to be several individuals who keep watch, thus
making close approach in an open field almost impossible. In fact
this goose has earned a well-deserved reputation for wariness.

Much of the food of the Canada Goose is made up of grain gleaned
from stubble fields or sprouting grain fields. Grass, especially the
roots, also forms a staple article of diet, and a clean-cropped swath,
like that made by sheep, is left where these geese have been feeding.
During the summer they vary their vegetable diet with small animals
to be found in tlieir favorite marshes, such as snails, tadpoles and
minnows.

Both as an object of si)ort and as a eoiitribution to the table the
Canada Goose, as a rule, surpasses all other geese. The young of
this species are a real luxury, the flesh being very tender and sweet.

CANADA GOOSE 229

Tilt' wt'iglit of a Canada Goose is said to vary from eight to twelve
l)ouiids. A lean female, taken in late spring at Lake Tahoe, weighed
eight and tlii-ee-(|narter pounds.

The amateur liunter is likely to shoot behind his first geese, for
the birds appear to be moving slowly. In reality they move very fast,
and a long lead is reijuired. Their habit of resorting to fields to feed
morning and evening makes it feasible to use a blind beneath a regular
line of flight known to have been established by the birds. On the open
plains a pit dug in the ground is used as a blind, and the birds are
decoyed by live domesticatetl geese or by decoys. As soon as some
birds are killed they are "stooled," that is, propped up with wires so
as to appear life-like. In early days these geese were hunted from
wagons which were driven along on the windward side of feeding
birds until (juite near when a dash would be made for them and
the hunter would fire into the flock, the members of which had of
necessity to rise into the wind. The call is imitated by giving a nasal
pronunciation to the syllable "wonk."

At the present time the Canada Goose must be considered the least
common of the "gray geese" found in California. In many places
where it was formerly abundant it has not been seen for years.

Dui-ing the season of 1895-96, 2,411 Honker Geese were sold on
the markets of San P^rancisco and Los Angeles (Calif. Fish Comm.,
1896, p. 41). Eleven years later (season 1906-07) there were sold on
the markets of San Francisco by one transfer company 154 Honkers,
and in the season of 1909-10 the same company handled 416. Probably
not more than this last number were sold in all the markets of the
state during the season of 1912-13. Even taking into account the
shorter season which came into effect in 1913, the decrease has been
serious. With the incentive of a high price offered (75 cents each in
many cases) the market hunter does his utmost to procure this species
of goose. Consequently the numbers sold on the market each year
do not accurately indicate the comparative numbers of Honkers
remaining from year to year.

Among all the geese this is the one which most needs protection if
it is to continue to exist as a game bird. It is the most southern breed-
ing species, and in fact does not retire at any season altogether beyond
the outposts of human habitation. The wariness of the Honker will
help it to persist longer than some other species; but the demand
for it as a game bird coupled with the ingenuity of man and the
increased efficiency of firearms more than counterbalances the natural
instincts which make for the preservation of the species. If people
could only be brought to a realization of the true status of this species,
more rigid protection would be forthcoming voluntarily, on economic
grounds alone.

230 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOBNIA

Hutchins Goose

Branta canadensis hutchinsi (Richardson)

Other names — Gray Goose, part; Brant; Lesser Canada Goose; Medium-
sized Honker; Little Honker; Anser hutchinsi; Bernicla hutchinsi.

Description — Adults, both sexes: Practically the same as Canada Goose but
size smaller. Under surface usually darker, varying from pale gray to dark
brown; a black line down throat separating white cheek patches, and a narrow
white collar at base of black neck may or may not be present. Total length
(both sexes) "about 25.00-34.00" inches (635-863 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p.
117). Males: folded wing 15.36-17.93 (390-455); bill along culmen 1.37-1.80
(34.8-45.7); tarsus 2.68-3.40 (68.0-86.3) (ten specimens). Females: folded
wing 15.25-16.60 (387-422); bill along culmen 1.46-1.58 (37.1-40.2); tarsus
2.78-3.00 (70.5-76.2) (six specimens); all from California. Juvenile and natal
plumages : Not known to differ from those of Canada Goose.

Marks for field identification — Similar to those for Canada Goose but
size slightly smaller: total length 25 to 34 inches (635-863 mm.), weight 3 to 4
pounds (1360 to 1812 gni.). On close examination the coloration is seen to be
darker, the middle toe with claw about equals the tarsus in length, and the bill
measures 1.37-1.80 inches (34.8-45.7 mm.) (compare figs. 32-37).

Voice — Closely resembles that of Canada Goose but not so deep and
sonorous; said to be distinguishable by experienced persons.

Nest — On ground near water; composed of weeds, grasses or reeds, and
profusely lined with down.

Eggs — 4 to 6, in shape ovate to elongate ovate, measuring in inches, 2.84-3.27
by 2.05 to 2.21 (in millimeters, 72.0 to 83.0 by 52.0 to 56.0), and averaging 3.12 by
2.10 (79.0 by 53.5) (fifty-six eggs in U. S. National Museum); color white
(Davie, 1889, p. 81).

General distribution — Western North America. Breeds in far north, west
in Alaska to Kowak Valley, and east along Arctic shores and islands to Hudson
Bay. Winters from British Columbia, Nevada, Colorado, and Missouri south
to Lower California, Texas and Louisiana; in migration rare east of Mississippi
Valley, although recorded on Atlantic coast from Maine to Virginia (A. O. U.
Check-list, 1910, p. 86).

Distribution in California — Common winter visitant to suitable localities
throughout the state. Most plentiful in the Sacramento and San Joaquin
valleys. Eecorded east to Owens and Death valleys (A. K. Fisher, 1893rt, p. 19)
and south to San Diego (Heermann, 1859, p. 67).

Three varieties of Canada or "white-cheeked" geese are found
in California during the winter months and of these the Hutchins
or Medium-sized Honker is the most abundant. It arrives from the
north about the second w^eek in October and departs about the third
week in April. The earliest fall record is for Gridley, Butte County,
where the species was seen on October 9, 1884, and the latest spring
occurrence, April 26, 1896, is for the same locality (Belding, MS).
In Alaska, in the Kowak Valley, the first Hutchins Goose in the spring
was seen on May 14, 1899, while the last in the fall of 1898, was
observed on September 14 (Grinnell, 1900, p. 18). The species is

HUTCHINS GOOSE 231

found in very largo numbers in the marshes of the great central valley
of California, as for example at Los Banos, Merced County ; and it
also occurs abundantly about certain of the lakes of high elevation
such as Lower Klamath Lake (Ferry, 1908, p. 39).

The Hutchins Goose is simply a slightly smaller "edition" of the
Canada Goose, and the field marks of the latter species, except for
size and weight, will apply equally well to the subject of the present
account. A Hutchins Goose measures about six inches less in total
length than a Canada Goose and weighs only about half as much. In
hand the bill is found to measure 1.37 to 1.80 inches, and the almost
equal lengths of tarsus and middle toe with claw also characterize the
present race. The Cackling Goose is still smaller than the Hutchins,
but has the same general color pattern. Occasional individual birds
are found which cannot be satisfactorily classified with any of these
three races (see figs. 32-37).

Despite the fact tliat the Hutchins Goose nests over a wide extent
of territory, from northwestern Alaska east to Hudson Bay, little has
been published concerning its breeding habits. Nests are usually
placed on the ground, in slight liollows lined with leaves, grasses and
down. Of fifty nests found by MacFarlane (1891, p. 424) on the Lower
Anderson River, Arctic Canada, all but one were on the ground and
were composed of "hay, feathers, and down." The exception was
where a female had deposited her four eggs and was incubating them
in an old crow or hawk's nest nine feet above the ground in a pine tree.
In the other nests six was the usual complement of eggs. In Alaska
these geese sometimes choose hill tops for nest sites, but most generally
sandj^ beaches and grassy situations near fresh-water lakes are chosen.
Eggs were taken by Dall on June 15 and downy young on July 10
(Nelson, 1887, p. 85). MacFarlane secured eggs on June 10 and June
14, 1864-65 (Cooke, 1906, p. 78).

Grinnell (1900, p. 18) found this a common goose in the Kowak
Valley, Alaska, but did not see it along the seacoast. In the fall,
flocks were to be found on the same feeding grounds as the White-
fronted Goose, but companies of the two species did not intermingle.
In the spring they had become very numerous by the latter part of May
and had spread out in pairs among the tundra lakes. The natives of
the Kowak Valley have a method of trapping geese, which is surer than
shooting. Inconspicuous fences of willow saplings are built across a
mud-flat known to be a favorite resort of the birds. Gaps are left in
these fences and in these openings ordinary steel traps are set.
Heermann (1859, p. 67) sa^'s of this species in California :

Whilst hunting during a space of two months in Suisun Valley, I observed
them, with other species of geese, at dawn, high in the air, winging their way

232 GAME BIMDS OF CALIFORNIA

towards the prairies and hilly slopes, where the tender young wild oats and
grapes offered a tempting pasturage. This early flight lasted about two hours,
and as far as the eye could reach the sky was spotted with flock after flock,
closely following in each other's wake, until it seemed as though all the geese
of California had given rendezvous at this particular point. Between ten and
eleven o 'clock they would leave the prairies, first in small squads, then in
large masses, settling in the marshes and collecting around the i5on<ls and
sloughs thickly edged with heavy reeds. Here, swimming on the water, bath-
ing and pluming themselves, they keep up a continued but not unmusical
clatter. This jiroves the most propitious time of the day for the hunter, who,
under cover of the tall reeds, and guided by their continual cackling, approaches
closely enough to deal havoc among them. Discharging one load as they sit
on the water and the other as they rise, I have thus seen twenty-three geese
gathered from two shots, while many more, wounded and maimed, fluttered away
and were lost. At about one o 'clock they leave the marshes and return to feed
on the jirairies, flying low and affording the sj^ortsman again an opportunity
to stop their career. In the afternoon, about five o 'clock, they finally leave
the prairies, and rising high in the air wend their way to the roosting places
whence they came in the morning. These were often at a great distance, as
I have followed them in their evening flight until they were lost to view.
Many, however, roost in the marshes. Our boat, sailing one night down the
sloughs leading to Suisun Bay, having, come among them, the noise made as
they arose in advance of us, emitting their cry of alarm (their disordered
masses being so serried that we could hear their pinions strike each other as
they flew), impressed us with the idea that we must have disturbed thousands.
Such are the habits of the geese during the winter. Towards spring they
separate into smaller flocks and gradually disappear from the country, some
few only remaining, probably crippled and unable to follow the more vigorous
in their northern migration.

"During the rainy season in California the plains and valleys,
before brown and dry, become clothed in rich verdure, and the
nourishing grasses afford sustenance to incredible numbers of these
and other geese. Three kinds, the Snow, White-fronted and the pre-
sent species, have almost precisely the same habits and the same food
during their stay with us, and associate so intimately together that
many, if not most, of the flocks contain representatives of all three"
(Coues, 1874, pp. 555-556). Although the different species may
feed together, other observers have noted that on being disturbed
they immediately divide into flocks of their own kind.

Specimens of this species collected at Los Bafios, Merced County, in
November, 1911, had been feeding entirely on grain. The gullet and
gizzard of one shot from a flock returning from foraging at 10:30
A.M. contained 1,147 grains of barley by actual count; another 1,076
grains of barley (Beck, MS). Thus it can be seen that where geese
collect by thousands on newly planted grain fields the depredations
are serious. Near Windfall Harbor, Alaska, the natives say that this
species of goose stops in large numbers, for a short time, to feed on

HUTCHINS GOOSE 233

the herring spawn which is found adhering to rocks along tlie beaches
which become exposed at low tide (Grinnell, ]90!)fe, p. 198).

The Hutchins Goose, although not quite so desirable a bird for
the table as are some other species, is the goose which has affoi-ded
the greatest amount of sport for the hunter because of its abundance.
It has usually been a common goose on the market, where it is known
as the "Brant." In 1909-10 one transfer company in San Francisco
sold the following numbers of Brant : October, 1,442 ; November,
2,196; December, 1,592; January, 1,479; February, 1,226; March,
251. Cackling as well as Hutchins Geese are probably included in
these numbers. This makes a total of over 8,000 geese of only two
varieties sold by the one transfer company. That season the same
company sold more than 20,000 geese of all kinds. In 1906-07 it
sold only 7,431. In 1895-96 there were sold on the markets of San
Francisco and Los Angeles 48,400 geese of wliich 16,319 were
Brant (Calif. Fish Connn., 1896, p. 42). There is little wonder that
geese have decreased in numbers more than most otlier game birds.
The markets of San Francisco during 1910-11 i)aid from $2.50 to $8.00
a dozen for geese other than the Snow Geese. On the Los Angeles
markets dui'ing 1!)12-13 the same geese sold at from sixty-tive cents
to one dollar a pair.

Two things nuike geese less desirable than ducks for the table.
One is the relatively strong flavor and the other is the dryness of the
meat. Certain people in the state have discovered a way of making
a goose palatable no nuitter how tough it may be or how strong its
tlavor. The bird is prepared by skinning, as much of the strong
taste comes from the skin. The flesh is then ground up with fresh
pork, and a game sausage is made. A few pieces of bacon laid over a
goose while roasting also serves to remove some of the strong taste and
add flavor to the meat.

The following extract from one of the many letters which we have
received gives a good idea of the immense decrease of this and other
geese in different parts of the state.

Where years ago there would be ' ' settings ' ' of geese covering as much as
200 acres, and where the farmers around would furnish a man with horse, board,
ammunition, and $20 a month to keep geese off of his grain, it is now rare to
see more than 10 to 15 per cent of the former numbers (H. F. Duprey, Dixon,
California, March 11, 1913).

Tyler (19136, p. 19) says:

Ten years ago when much of the country northeast of Fresno was given
over to grain ranches these geese were seen very often and were sometimes
noted in large numbers during late March when the spring migrations began;
but during the last four or five years I have not seen half a dozen flocks any-
where east of the city.

234 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

In December, 1912, fourteen men worked continuously for two
weeks in the Sacramento Valley to obtain 1,500 geese for a famous
"goose-stew" served at Sacramento. Twenty years previously,
according to local statements, the same number of geese could have
been procured in less than a day and by an even smaller number of
men.

Such, then, has been the history of this and other geese. At the
present rate of decrease it will only be a few years before the occur-
rence of the Hutchins Goose, once one of the most numerous of all
the geese, will be noted with as much interest as is the occurrence of
the Emperor Goose at the present time. The only hope of saving our
geese lies in rigorous protection for a term of years.

Cackling Goose
Branta canadensis minima Ridgway

Other names — Cackler; Yelper; Little Squeaking Goose; Brown Brant;
Bernicla Jeucoparia ; Branta hutchinsi var. leucoparia; Branta minima

Description— ^(ittZis, both sexes: Similar to Canada and Hutchins geese
but tone of coloration usually much darker and size much smaller. Pattern of
head and neck markings extremely variable; cheek patches often wholly
separated by black on throat; white collar at base of black neck often con-
spicuous, though sometimes wanting. Total length (both sexes) ' ' 2.3.00-25.00 ' '
inches (583-635 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 117). Males: folded wing 13.27-
16.60 (337-422) ; bill along culmen 1.04-1.44 (26.4-36.6) ; tarsus 2.38-3.18 (60.4-
80.7) (ten specimens). Females: folded wing 14.50-15.65 (368-398); bill along
culmen 1.18-1.36 (30.0-34.6); tarsus 2.57-2.98 (65.2-75.6) (ten specimens);
all from California. Juvenile plumage : "... Dull grayish umber-brown; the
head and neck almost uniform with the rest of the body and without any
trace of the white cheek-patches. . . . Feathers of head, neck, and much of
the rest of the body are bordered with a lighter shade than the main part of
the feathers" (Nelson, 1887, p. 87). Natal plumage: Not known to us; probably
similar to that of Canada Goose.

Marks for field identification — Similar to those for Canada Goose but
size considerably smaller (total length 23 to 25 inches [583 to 635 mm.]), and
coloration darker. In hand the tarsus is seen to be much longer than the middle
toe with claw, while the bill is less than 1.44 inches long (36.6 mm.) (figs.
32-37). The high-pitched call-note (whence the name Cackling Goose) is easily
distinguished from the notes of the Canada and Hutchins geese.

Voice — An oft-repeated lulc-lulc (Belding, 1892o, p. 101).

Nest — On grassy border of a pond; a slight depression, sparsely lined with
grass and down (Nelson, 1887, p. 86).

Eggs — 4 to 9, ovate in shape, measuring in inches, .2.86 to 3.35 by 1.89 to 2.17
(in millimeters, 72.5 to 85.0 by 48.0 to 55.0), and averaging 2.99 by 2.01 (76.0
by 51.0) (twenty-nine eggs in U. S. National Museum) ; color buffy white.

General distribution — Western North America. Breeds only in Alaska, on
Aleutian Islands and along coast of Bering Sea. Winters along Pacific coast
from British Columbia south to southern California (modified from A. O. U.
Check-list, 1910, p. 86).

CACKLING GOOSE 235

Distribution ix California — Common winter visitant to interior localities,
especially in the Sacramento anil San Joaquin valleys; occurs also as far south
as San Diego County (A. O. U. Check-list, loc. cit.). Arrives about mid-
Octoher and leaves about the middle of April.

The Cackling Goose is believed to be about as abundant a winter
visitant to California as the Hutchins Goose. Belding (MS) states
that, on Butte Creek, Butte and Sutter counties, a favorite resort for
these geese especially when they first arrive from the north, he has
seen a half million of them in a single day. But this was over twenty-
five years ago. At the present time, although reduced at least ninety
per cent, this is to be still considered a common species of goose in
favorable parts of California. The Cackling Goose appears to arrive
before the Hutchins Goose; for Belding (MS) states that at Gridley,
Butte County, October 12, 1892, the former was abundant though the
Hutchins Goose had not arrived, and at Stockton, San Joaquin
County, November 25, 1881, the Cackling was common whereas the
Hutchins Goose had not yet appeared. The earliest records of arrival
for the Cackling Goose are Gridley, October 1, 1884; Gridley, October
12, 1892; Stockton, October 10, 1894 (heard at night); Stockton,
October 12 (year not specified). For spring a late record is April 25,
at Stockton (Belding, ]\IS). A specimen was taken at Los Baiios,
Merced County, on ^March 21, 1911 (Mus. Vert. Zool.).

The Cackling Goose is the smallest of the geese belonging to the
Canada group, and it is but slightly larger than even the Ross Goose.
The high pitch of its call-note, which resembles the syllables Ink-luk,
is about the best character to use in the field after recognizing the
bird to be of the Canada type. In the hand, measurements, particu-
larly of bill and of tarsus, the latter being generally longer than the
middle toe and claw, are the only satisfactory characters to use in
separating this from the Hutchins Goose (compare figs. 32-37). As a
rule, the Cackling is decidedly darker-colored than either the Canada
or Hutchins.

During the breeding season the Cackling Goose is confined to
western Alaska. It breeds abundantly on the Bering Sea coast, from
the Seward Peninsula to the north side of the Alaska Peninsula, and
has also been reported from the Aleutian Islands. Nelson (1887, p.
86) says that many of these geese are already mated when they return
north to the Yukon mouth in the spring. Others appear to be still
unmated and such males fight hard and long for the possession of the
unmated females. Of these combats he says:

The females kept to one side and dozed, or dabbled their bills in the mud;
the males were scattered about, and kej^t moving uneasily from side to side,
making a great outcry. This would last but a few minutes, when two of the
warriors would cross each other 's path, and then began the battle. They would

236 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

seize one another by the bill, and then turn and twist each other about, their
wings hanging loosely by their sides meanwhile. Suddenly they wowhl close
up and each would belabor his rival with the bend of the wing, until the sound
could be heard two or three hundred yards. The wing-strokes were always
warded off by the other bird's wing, so but little damage was done, but it
usually ended in the weaker bird breaking loose and running away. Just
before the males seize each other they usually utter a series of peculiar low
growling or grunting notes.

From the seashore its breeding ground extends along the courses of the
great rivers far into the interior. . . . While descending the Yukon, Dall
found their eggs laid upon the bare sand-banks, as were those of the White-
fronted species.

The last of May finds many of these birds already depositing their eggs.
Upon the grassy borders of ponds, in the midst of a bunch of grass, or on a
small knoll, these birds find a spot where they make a slight depression and
perhaps line it with a scanty layer of grasses, after which the eggs are laid,
numbering from five to eight. These eggs, like the birds, average smaller
than those of the other geese. ... As the eggs are deposited the female
gradually lines the nest with feathers plucked from her breast until they rest
in a bed of down. When first laid the eggs are white, but by the time incuba-
tion begins all are soiled and dingy. The female usually crouches low on her
nest until an intruder comes within a hundred yards or so, when she skulks off
through the grass or flies silently away, close to the ground, and only raises a
note of alarm when well away from the nest. When the eggs are about hatch-
ing, or the young are out, both parents frequently become perfectly reckless
in the face of danger. The young are hatched from the middle of June until
the middle of July (Nelson, 1887, pp. 86-87).

In habits the Cackling Goose so nearly resembles the Hutchins
Goose, that no one has been able to point out differences. As with the
latter species, the Cackling Goose feeds largely on grass and grain
during its stay in California. Along with other geese this species
used to do much damage to young wheat in Colusa, Butte, Sutter and
Yuba counties. But the ranks of the birds are so thinned at the
present time, that the injury they inflict now is negligible.

On the market this species is usually classified along with the
Hutchins Goose as "Brant." Very large numbers of Cackling Geese
are to be found at times in the markets of our larger cities.

The Cackling Goose, once just as numerous, if not more so, than the
Hutchins Goose, is like the Hutchins, rapidly decreasing in numbers
from year to year. Old residents in some parts of the Sacramento
Valley say that now there is "not more than one of these Geese present
where formerly there were hundreds." To the work of the market
hunter can be attributed much of this decrease, for this goose is one
which is easily procured, and which finds a ready sale on the market.
Whik^ still rated as common in restricted portions of the state, this
goose is in a fair way to disappear completely unless enough of the
birds are left each winter to guarantee the return of an adequate stock
in the spring to the breeding grounds in tlie north.

BLACK SEA BEANT 2.S7

Black Sea Brant
Brant a nigricans (Lawrence)

Other names — Sea Braut; Black Brant; Eskimo Goose; Bernicla nigncaiis;
Bernicla brenta.

Description — Adults, both sexes: Whole forepart of body including head,
neck, breast and forepart of back, solidly black, except for incomplete white
collar at base of neck; small narrow streaks of white run forward from this
collar onto front and sides of neck; iris dark brown; bill black; back brown,
abruptly defined against black in front, and each feather narrowly edged with
lighter brown; middle of rump blackish brown; sides of rump and longer
upper tail coverts pure white; tail black; outer surface of closed wing like
back; flight feathers dull black; under surface of wing and axillars, brown;
under surface of body slaty brown, feathers of sides and flanks broadly tipped
with dull white; area in front of and behind vent, and under tail coverts, pure
white; legs and feet black. Males: total length 23.75-25.50 inches (604-647
mm.) (ten specimens); folded wing 12.40-13.40 (315-340); bill along culmen
1.25-1.41 (31.8-35.7) ; tarsus 2.14-2.48 (54.4-63.0) (nine specimens from Cali-
fornia and Alaska). Females: total length 22.50-24.00 (572-610) (nine speci-
mens from California and Alaska) ; folded wing 11.90-12.65 (302-321); bill along
culmen 1.20-1.33 (30.4-33.9) ; tarsus 2.16-2.46 (54.7-62.4) (eight specimens from
California). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adults but with white collar
entirely lacking; general tone of coloration more grayish, especially on darker
parts; secondaries, scapulars, and wing coverts tipped with dull white; feathers
of lower surface faintly tipped with lighter color. Natal plumage: General
tone of color light leaden brown, darkest on top of head and back and lightest
(nearly white) on throat and middle of belly; a dark band across breast and
light collar around hind neck at level of throat; entirely lacks any of the
greenish or yellowish tinge found in other American species of geese.

Marks for field identification — Moderately small size (for a goose), with
very dark coloration. Head and neck black, with white collar about front of
neck; sides of rump white, bill and feet black. Flies in undulating course,
close to water.

Voice — A low guttural gr-r-r-r-r, uttered when at rest or in flight (Nelson,
1887, p. 88); a mellow cronk, cronk, cronk (Dawson, 1909, p. 836).

Nest — On marshy ground; a simple depression, abundantly lined with down.

Eggs — 4 to 8, elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.64 to 3.09 by 1.75
to 1.97 (in millimeters, 67.0 to 78.5 by 44.5 to 50.0), and averaging 2.82 by 1.85
(71.5 by 47.0) (fifty eggs in U. S. National Museum); color grayish white
(Reed, 1904, p. 86).

General distribution — Western North America and eastern Asia. In North
America breeds on Arctic coast and islands from Point Barrow east to near
mouth of Anderson River, north probably to Melville Island; winters on Pacific
coast from British Columbia south to San Quintiu Bay, Lower California
(modified from A. O. U. Checkdist, 1910, p. 87).

Distribution in California — Abundant winter visitant in former years to
Humboldt, Bodega, Tomales, San Francisco, Morro, and San Diego bays. Now
occurs in numbers only on Humboldt and Tomales bays. Occasionally reported
at other places along the coast such as: Point Pinos, Monterey County (Beck,
1910, p. 69); and San Pedro, Los Angeles County, and near Newport, Orange

238 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBNIA

County (Willett, 1912a, p. 28). Has been found in the interior on Klamath
Elver near Beswick, Siskiyou County (Ferry, 1908, p. 39) ; and near Los Bafios,
Merced County (specimen taken January 3, 1912, now in Mus. Vert. Zool.).

The Black Sea Brant is notable for being the most maritime of all
the species of geese which visit California. It does not occur along
our whole seacoast, as do so many sea-faring birds, but restricts itself
to certain coastal bays, especially those north of San Francisco. It is
a wary species, difficult to shoot, it has peculiar habits, and in the
opinion of many persons its succulent flesh renders it the most desir-
able of all the geese for table use ; hence it has been extensively sought
after in past years, with the usual result that its numbers have been
greatly reduced.

In earlier years the Black Sea Brant visited all of our large coastal
bays from the Oregon line south to San Diego, but more recently it has
been found in numbers only on Humboldt and Tomales bays. Its
close adherence to bay waters suggests that only in such situations
can it find the food materials which it likes best. This Brant is strictly
a winter visitant arriving in October and leaving in April. At San
Diego, Cooper {in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 473) saw
it first, in 1861, during October, and it left there by April 20 of the
following year. The same writer saw the species on the water outside
San Francisco Bay on April 24, 1863. Belding (MS) states that it
was last seen at San Diego, in 1884, on April 15, and in 1885, on
April 7. A few years ago a flock of about twenty-five of these birds
was seen on San Francisco Bay near Redwood City — but this is the
only recent instance of occurrence on this bay of which we have
knowledge. A few straggling individuals are found rarely on interior
bodies of water, as on Klamath River near Beswick, Siskiyou County,
and at Los Bailos, Merced County.

The Black Sea Brant is a small goose, resembling the Ross Snow
Goose in bulk. When at rest on the water it has a general blackish
appearance. The solidly black coloration of the fore part of the
body as well as of the bill and feet, and the white neck collar, are
noticeable features. From all the several varieties of "Canada" Geese
the Black Brant is best distinguished by the absence of white cheek
patches, and from the Canada and Hutchins geese by its size. Its
call-note, which has been described as a guttural croak, wak-ook or
gr-r-r-r, and its habit of flying in flocks abreast close to the water in
undulating lines, are both useful field characters.

This Brant breeds along the extreme Arctic coast west of Hudson
Bay. The following meager nesting notes are the only ones available :
"It was seen breeding abundantly by Mr. MacFarlane near the
Arctic Ocean. Some of the nests were found on small islets in fresh-

BLACK SEA BBANT 239

water ponds ; others on islands in the Anderson, near its mouth ; and
many others either on the shore or on islands in Franklin Bay, or
other parts of the Arctic Sea. In some cases the nest was nothing
more than a mere depression lined with down; but in some the
quantity of down was quite large. The number of eggs in a nest was
generally five ; but in one case as many as seven were seen, and in
six or seven instances six" (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I,
p. 474).

Writing from western Alaska, Nelson (1881, pp. 134-136) says:

The flight of this species is peculiar among North American geese and
bears a close resemblance to that of the Eider and other species of heavy-
bodied short-winged Sea Ducks. It has a parallel in the flight of the Emperor
Goose except that the latter is a far heavier bird and, in consequence, the wing
strokes are less rapid. In B. nigricans the strokes are short, energetic, and
repeated with great rapidity, carrying the bird with a velocity far greater than
that attained by any other [American] Goose. . . .

The flocks . . . have a protean ability to change their form without ever
breaking the array or causing confusion. They are very gregarious and two flocks
almost invariably coalesce when they draw near each other. This frequently
occurs, until ... it results in a single flock numbering between four hundred
and five hundred birds. The usual size is considerably less, generally compris-
ing from twenty to fifty or more, and it is rare to see less than ten or fifteen
in a party. At times four or five indiviiluals become detached and until they
can unite with a stronger party they fly irregularly about as though bewildered,
continually uttering their harsh notes, and hurry eagerly away to join the first
flock that comes in view. The order of flight is invariably a single rank, the
birds moving side by side in a line at right angles to their course so that the
entire strength of a flock is to be seen at a glance along its front, which, at
times, covers several hundred yards. There is barely room enough between
the individuals to allow a free wing-stroke. Thus ranged the flock seems gov-
erned by a single impulse, which sends it gliding along parallel and close to
the ground, then, apparently without reason, careering thirty or forty yards
overhead only to descend to its former level as suddenly as it was left; now
it sways to one side and then to the other, while at short intervals swift
undulations seem to run from one end of the line tcy the other. These move-
ments are repeatedly taking place. . . .

The entire flock, consisting of perhaps over a hundred birds arranged in
single line, is hurrying on, straight as an arrow, towards its destination when,
wdthout warning, it suddenly makes a wide curving detour of several hundred
yards, then resumes its original course only to frequently repeat the manoeuvre,
but always with such unison that the closest scrutiny fails to reveal the least
break or irregularity in the line; nor does the front of the flock swerve, except-
ing an occasional slight obliquity which is corrected in a few seconds.

In addition to this horizontal movement is a still more interesting vertical
one which often occurs at the same time as the other but generally by itself.
A bird at either end of the flock rises or descends a few inches or several feet,
as the case may be, and the movement is instantly followed in succession by
every one of its companions till the extreme bird is reached and the entire
flock is on the new level; or, it may be that a bird near the middle of the line

240 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA

changes its position when the motion extends in two directions at once. These
latter changes are made so regularly and with such rapidity that the distance
between the birds does not appear altered in the least, while a motion exactly
like a graceful undulation runs the length of the flock lifting or depressing it to
the level of the originator of the movement. These changes present to one 's
eye as the flocks approach, keeping close to the ground, the appearance of a
series of regular and swift waving motions such as pass along a pennant in a
slight breeze.

The Black Brant never wings its way far up in the sky, as many other geese
have the habit of doing, but keeps, as a rule, between ten and thirty yards
above the ground, with more flocks below these limits than above them.

The Black Brant ' ' rafts ' ' far out on the sea during much of the day.
Here the nienibers of a flock keep up a constant gabble which is said
to resemble somewhat the croaking of frogs. At certain changes of
the tide the birds fly to the kelp-beds to feed.

During the winter residence of this Brant upon the shore of California it
is noted for its pertinacity in following the outline of the coast as it passes from
place to place. In the north this habit still clings to them, and although they
frequently pass over broad, marshy flats, yet a low ridge, but a few yards
high above the general level, is sufficient to turn their course and send them
skimming along its base and around the obstacle rather than over it (Nelson,
1887, p. 88).

The food of the Black Brant is made up largely of marine plants
for which it often dives as well as dips. The kelp beds off-shore offer
the most attractive feeding grounds. In addition to the vegetable
food, marine Crustacea are probably eaten when available. Cooper
{in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 473) says that in San
Diego Bay the Brant fed almost exclusively on the leaves and roots
of eel grass (Zosfcra marina). In Tomales Bay the birds also feed
largely on this grass. A number of specimens from Humboldt Bay
examined by W. E. Bryant (1893rt, p. 55) had been feeding entirely
on eel grass.

According to Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke (1903, p. 544) this
is the most ''gamy" of all our waterfowl and generally the finest
flavored. The slight marine flavor, is far from being unpleasantly
fishy, and resembles -that of the oyster.

The Black Brant evades the devices of the hunter better than any
other duck or goose. In very early days on San Diego Bay it was
never seen to alight on the shore or near it. By 1875 it was almost
impossible to obtain a shot at the bird from a boat, and even with a
box sunk in the mud and concealed by sea-weed a good bag was secured
with difficulty. In 1883 a floating battery with plenty of decoys alone
would enable a hunter to obtain this much prized bird. A few years
later many of the birds failed to put in an appearance at all off San
Diego, probably going farther south, along the Mexican coast.

EASTEFN SEA BEANT 241

Because of its litihit of occasionally cutting across low sandspits
to avoid a long detour in its flight, most of the hunting has been done
from blinds situated beneath such a line of flight. On Tomales Bay
huntei-s have sailed down on flocks with "blind-boats," when the
birds were at rest during a fog, their wliereabouts being disclosed by
their "gabbling" noises.

The Black Sea Brant has not been sold on the nuirkets to any
extent for a good many years. About twenty years ago consignments
were shipped to San P'rancisco from Humlioldt Bay and the birds sold
for as little as 25 cents each. Even the high price that the bird would
bring at the present time does not attract it to tlu' market because of
the ditificulty now attaclied to obtaining it.

There has been a marked decrease in the number of Black lirant
visiting the coast of California in the last twenty-five years. They
have apparently been driven away entirely from San Diego Bay and
most of the other bays soutli of San Francisco. California is unicpie
in tlie possession of this bird dui-iiig llie winter season so that the
survival of the species depends almost entirely on the amount of
destruction accorded it while it is within the state. Its extreme wari-
ness together with its attachment to tlie open ocean has always been,
and will continu(^ to be, its chit'f protection, l)ut we should supplement
this witli ad('(|uate legislation properly enforced.

Eastern Sea Brant
Branta hernicla gluucogasira (Brehm)

Description — Adults, both sexes: Head, neck, whole breast and forepart of
body entirely circled by solid black except for restricted areas of white
oblique lines on each side of neck in a collar-like arrangement which, however,
is broadly interrupted both in front and behind; bill black; iris "brown"
(Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 190.3, p. 244) ; back brown, abruptly defined
in front, each feather tipped with lighter brown; sides of rump and upper
tail coverts pure white; tail black; outer surface of closed wing like back;
flight feathers black; under surface of wing and axillars brown; under surface
of body ashy brown, sharply contrasted with black of fore-breast, and paling
gradually behind into pure white of belly and under tail coverts; feathers of
sides and flanks broadly tipped with white; legs and feet black. Male:
total length 26.31 inches (667 mm.); folded wing 13.37 (339); bill along
culmen 1.36 (34.6); tarsus 2.37 (60.2) (one specimen from California). Juvenile
plumage: Like adults but with "... wing-coverts and secondaries broadly
tipped with pure white, forming very conspicuous bars. Lower parts paler
and more uniform; white on middle of the neck reduced to small specks"
(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 468). Natal plumacie: Not known to us.

Marks for field idextification — Similar to those for the Black Sea Brant
(which see). Distinguished from Black Sea Brant by much lighter color of
under surface, more abrupt line of contrast between black of chest and light

242 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

gray of under surface, and smaller amount of white on neck collar which
consists merely of a restricted patch at each side.

Voice — A guttural car-r-rup, or r-r-r-ronh ; ruJc-ruh (Forbush, 1912, p. 183).

Nest and eggs — Like those of Black Sea Brant.

General distribution — Northern Hemisphere. Breeds on Arctic islands
north of latitude 74 degrees and west to aboxit longitude 100 degrees, and on
the whole west coast of Greenland; winters on the Atlantic coast from Massa-
chusetts south to North Carolina, rarely to Florida; has been recorded in the
interior from Manitoba, Ontario, Colorado, Nebraska, Wisconsin, Michigan,
Indiana, and Louisiana; accidental in British Columbia, California and Bar-
badoes (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 87).

Distribution in California — One known instance of occurrence: A specimen
taken on Areata Bay, Humboldt County, January 30, 1914 (H. C. Bryant,
19Ud, p. 183).

The Eastern Sea Brant is a common bird along the Atlantic Coast
of North America but it has been recorded only once from California.
Mr. "West Dean of Eureka, while hunting near Bird Island, Humboldt
County, on January 30, 1914, shot an adult male of this species from
a flock of Black Sea Brant {Branta nigricans). It was prepared as
a study skin by Mr. Franklin J. Smith, a taxidermist of Eureka, and
then presented by the owner, Mr. Otto Feudner of Oakland, to the
California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology.

The Eastern Sea Brant closely resembles its western relative, the
Black Sea Brant, but can be distinguished from the latter by its
lighter-colored under surface which contrasts strongly with the black
breast, and by the white neck collar which is incomplete both in front
and behind. The lower surface of the body of the Black Sea Brant is
much darker and the collar is continuous across the front of the neck.

The habits of this eastern bird are similar to those of its western
congener.

The Eastern Sea Brant is of no importance here other than for
the general interest which attaches to a rare straggler. It is possible
that individuals of this species have found their way to California
previously and even that they have been shot by hunters, but, not
being recognized, no record of their occurrence has been kept. Hunters
will do well to keep a lookout for the species, especially when hunting
Black Sea Brant, as instances of the occurrence of the eastern bird are
of interest to science. We believe that there is no likelihood of the
Eastern Sea Brant ever becoming numerous enough here to be classed
as more than a rare visitant.

EMPEEOE GOOSE 243

Emperor Goose

Philacte canagica (Sevastianoff)

Other names — White-hea<le(l Goose; Beach Goose.

Description — Adults, both sexes: Whole head (except throat) ami hind neck,
white, forming an extensive hood, often stained with rusty; chin, throat and
foreneck blackish brown, abruptly outlined; iris "hazel"; membrane about
nostrils "livid blue," rest of upper mandible "pale purplish or fleshy white,"
nail "white," its edges "dark horn color"; lower mandible "dark horn-
color," spot on each side "white" (Nelson, 1887, p. 91); back, sides and breast
bluish ash, each feather with a subterminal bar of black or blackish brown
followed by a narrower tipping of white, the whole giving a conspicuously
scaled effect; rump, belly and under tail coverts barred with very pale brown;
tail slate color at base, with terminal third white; outer surface of closed
wnng similar to back; terminal portions of primary and secondary flight
feathers slaty black; legs and feet bright "orange-yellow" (Nelson, loc. cit.).
Males: Total length 26.00-28.00 inches (660-710 mm.) (Nelson, loc. cit.); folded
wing 13.50-15.50 (343-394); bill along culmen 1.42-1.60 (36.1-40.6); tarsus
2.50-2.98 (63.5-75.7) (four specimens from Alaska and California). Females:
total length 25.60-27.50 (650-698) (Nelson, loc. cit.); folded wing 14.75-
15.45 (375-392); bill along culmen 1.45 (36.8); tarsus 2.71-2.87 (68.7-72.8) (two
specimens from Alaska). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult but white
hood sprinkled with spots of dusky or black, barring on back and breast
dull brown rather than black, bill duller colored, and legs and feet lighter
colored. Natal plumage: No description available.

Marks for field identification — Medium size (for a goose) and short neck.
Head and neck (except throat) white, plumage ashy blue barred with black,
tail white tipped, bill and feet light colored.

Nest — On the ground, usually in salt marshes and often among fragments
of driftwood; made of grass, leaves and feathers (Nelson, 1887, p. 90).

Eggs — 3 to 8, ovate to elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.72 to 3.14
by 1.91 to 2.09 (in millimeters, 69.0 to 79.7 by 48.5 to 53.0), and averaging
2.93 by 2.00 (74.3 by 50.8) ; color white, but usually more or less stained with
yellow (twenty eggs from Yukon Delta, Alaska).

General distribution — Northwestern North America and extreme eastern
Siberia. In North America breeds in Alaska from north of Cape Prince of
Wales south to mouth of Kuskokwin Eiver and on St. Lawrence Island.
Winters in southern Alaska from Bristol Bay to Sitka, but chiefly in the
Aleutian Islands; casual or rare in British Columbia, California, and Hawaii
(modified from A. O. TJ. Check-list, 1910, p. 88).

Distribution in California — Eather rare winter visitant to fresh-water
situations in northwestern half of the state. Eecorded instances of occur-
rence are: Humboldt Bay, winter of 1884 (C. H. Townsend, 1886, p. 491);
Colusa, November, 1912; Dixon, Solano County, three specimens; Ingomar,
Merced County, December, 1912; and near Modesto, Stanislaus County, Novem-
ber 15, 1913 (H. C. Bryant, 1914&, p. 92) ; Gridley, Butte County, fall of 1895
(Loomis, 1901, p. 105) and November 1, 1915 (C. S. Muller, 1916, p. 32);
Eio Vista, Solano County, November 3, 1910 (Littlejohn, 1912, p. 41); near
Davis, Yolo County, December, 1906 (H. C. Bryant, 1915a, pp. 58-59); and
San Francisco markets, October 8, 1900 (Loomis, loc. cit.). Each record is
of a single specimen except as noted.

244 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA

The principal winter home of the Enii)eror Goose is on the sea-
coast of southwestern Alaska, and only stragglers reach California.
But it is probable tliat if all of the Emperor Geese ever observed in
California had been recorded, it would be found that almost every
year one or two of the birds had made their way within our borders.
At least ten definite instances of the occurrence of the Emperor Goose
in this state are known. In spite of the fact that this is a marine
species most of the records are from the interior valleys. ]\Ir. Vernon
Shepherd, a taxidermist of San Francisco, informs us that he has
known of the capture of at least a dozen specimens of this goose since
1906. There is also an unconfirmed statement current to the effect
that two Emperor Geese were taken from a small flock in the Alamitos
marshes of Los Angeles County about twenty years ago (Payne, 1908,
p. 770).

Nelson (1887, p. 90) says that Emperor Geese may be distinguished
at long distances by their heavy bodies, short necks, and by their
short, quick wing-strokes, which very much resemble those of the Black
Sea Brant. Although not as agile on the wing as the latter birds,
or, in fact, as any of the other geese, they are swift fliers when under
way. The bluish ash color of the plumage with scaling of black, the
extensively white hood abruptly contrasted with black on the throat
and foreneck, the white-ended tail, and the bright-colored bill and
feet, easily distinguish this goose from all others. Its note is said to
be shriller and clearer than that of other geese.

Regarding the nesting of the Emperor Goose in Alaska Nelson
(1887, p. 90) writes:

Soon after their arrival they began to pair, and were seen flying about
in couples, keeping close to the ground, rarely flying over 20 or 30 yards high,
and often barely keeping clear of the surface. The males are extremely
jealous and piignacious, never allowing one of their kind to approach within
a number of yards without making an onslaught upon the intruder. The same
belligerent spirit is shown to the other species of geese should one of them
chance to draw too near.

While a pair is feeding the male keeps moving restlessly about, with eyes
constantly on the alert, and at the first alarm they draw near together and
just before they take wing both utter a deep, ringing u-lugli, u-lngh. As in
the case of the call-note, this has a peculiar, deep hoarseness, impossible to
describe.

The first of June they began depositing their eggs on the flat, marshy
islands bordering the sea. At low tide the broad mud-flats on the shore were
thronged with them, and after feeding until satisfied they congregated on
bars "until the incoming water forced them to disperse. They nested most
abundantly on the salt marshes adjacent to these feeding grounds, and the
eggs were often placed among fragments of drift-wood below the mark of
the highest tides. Stray pairs were found nesting further inland on the
marshy meadows, also frequented by the other species of geese, but on the
salt flats, near tide water, the Emperor Geese held undisputed possession.

EMPEBOK GOOSE 245

On June 5 a female was found setting upon her eggs on a little knoll,
with a small fragment of bleached drift-wood w^ithin a few yards of her, and
as she lay with extended neck, although the ground was almost bare, my
Eskimo and I passed within a few feet of her on either side, without seeing
her. We were about 20 steps beyond when she left the nest with a startled
cry, thus drawing our notice. The three eggs were in full view when we
turned. They rested in a depression with no sign of a lining. The same
ruse causeil us to pass other nests, but the birds betrayed them each time
by flying off with a loud outcry almost as soon as our backs w'ere presented.

The majority of the nests found b.y Nelson contained from three
to five eggs, but the full eompknnent usually ranges from five to eight.
A series of eggs in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology taken in the
Yukon Delta are closely similar to those of the White-fronted Goose,
and vary widely in size and shape. Some are much elongated, while
others are obtusely pyriform. In color they are white, but all are
more or less nest-stained with brownish. Twenty eggs measured by
the writers showed length in inches from 2.72 to 3.14 and short
diameters from 1.91 to 2.09, the averages being 2.93 by 2.01. Nelson
(1887, pp. 90-91) further states that "as the complement of eggs
approached completion, the parent made a soft bed of fine grass,
leaves, and feathers plucked from her own breast. As a rule, when
driven from her eggs, the female flew straight away and alighted at
some distance, sometimes half a mile from the nest, showing very little
concern. The male was rarely seen in the vicinity of the nest. The
young are hatched the last of June or first of July, and the adult
birds undergo the summer moult from the last of July to the middle
of August."

The Emperor Goose flies in pairs or in small flocks of four or
five. A juvenile killed at Gridley, Butte County, was alone, being the
second in a flock of White-fronted Geese. One taken near Modesto,
Stanislaus County, came to the blind alone. Another taken near
Davis, Yolo County, had been noted alone in the same pond for three
weeks previous to capture. This species is said to be shyer than any
other goose except the Black Sea Brant.

In Alaska the Emperor Goose remains on its breeding grounds
longer in the fall than any other species, lingering until the whole
seacoast is fringed with ice before going to the slightly less rigorous
Aleutian shores but a few hundred miles to the southward. In the
north it feeds chiefl}' on shellfish, though at times it resorts to heath-
berries which are available on the tundras closely adjacent to the
seashore.

As a game bird this goose is not highly prized, for its flesh has
a disagreeably strong taste. It is said, however, that much of this
taste is due to the skin and that the flesh proves palatable if the skin
is carefully removed first and the bird well cooked.

246 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOBNIA

To our knowledge there has been no marked diminution in the
numbers of Emperor Geese either in their northern home or in Cali-
fornia. Those taken in this state in the past are in the category of
mere stragglers, and it is reasonable to expect that such wanderers
will continue to make their appearance from year to year within our
boundaries.

Fulvous Tree-duck

Dcndrocygna hicolor (Vieillot)

Other names — Mexican Duck; Squealer; Fulvous-bellied Tree-duck; Brown
Tree-duck; Spanish Cavalier; Dendrocygna fulva.

Description — Adults, both sexes : Top of head reddish brown, running into
a black stripe down hind neck; sides of head yellowish brown, paling to
yellowish white on throat; iris dark reddish brown; bill bluish slate; broad
collar around base of neck, incomplete behind, dull white streaked with
brownish black; general color of rest of upper surface including tail, brown-
ish black, feathers of back and scapular region broadly tipped with reddish
brown; rump black; upper tail coverts creamy white; both outer and under
surface of wing deep blackish brown, except for lesser (upper) coverts which
are deep chestnut brown; under surface of body bright hazel brown becom-
ing paler on breast and belly; elongated feathers of sides and flanks cinna-
mon brown, each with central stripe of creamy white bordered by narrow
dusky lines; under tail coverts creamy white; legs and feet heavy and long,
extending far beyond end of tail, in color deep bluish gray. Total length
(both sexes): "about 20.00-21.00" inches (508-533 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900,
p. 119). Males: folded wing 8.00-8.60 (203-218); bill along culmen 1.71-1.84
(43.4-46.7); tarsus 2.03-2.21 (51.6-56.2) (five specimens). Females: folded
wing 8.00-8.30 (203-211); bill along culmen 1.82-1.86 (46.2-47.2); tarsus 2.05-
2.16 (52.0-54.8) (two specimens); all from California. Juvenile phirnage:
"Similar to adult, but with little or no chestnut color on wing-coverts; under
parts paler; the upper tail-coverts tipped wdth brown" (Sanford, Bishop and
Van Dyke, 1903, p. 256). Natal plumage: Top of head clove brown; chin,
throat and sides of head dull white, a streak of the same color extending around
back of head on each side and meeting its fellow on hind head; a short, dull
white streak on each side of head from side of bill to above eye; bill (dried)
dusky brown with prominent yellowish nail; hind neck clove brown, a streak of
same color invading side of head below streak of white which encircles head;
rest of upper surface of body uniform bister brown; whole under surface of
body dull white; feet (dried) grayish yellow.

Marks for field identification — Medium size (about that of Pintail), long,
slim neck, extremely long legs (see fig. 38) reaching far beyond end of tail,
cinnamon colored under surface, black-appearing back, and absence of any
light markings on wings (pi. 7). Distinguished from Black-bellied Tree-duck
by absence of black on belly and of white on wings. The squealing whistle,
and down-curved pose of head and neck in flight, are characteristic.

Voice — A long-drawn, squealing whistle (Chapman, 1908, p. 292).

Nest — Usually on ground in marsh or near water, well built and often well
concealed; reported as occasionally situated in hollow trees; built of grass
and sparsely lined with down and feathers.

Eggs — Normally 12 to 17, elliptical ovate in shape, and measuring in inches,

UNIV. CALIF. PUBL.

[GRINNELL, BRYANT, STORER] PL. 7

y^'^

'"^^

FULVOUS TREE-DUCK

FULVOUS TREE-BUCK 247

1.35 to 1.65 by 1.98 to 2.20 (in millimeters, 34.3 to 41.8 by 50.3 to 55.8); color
ivory white, surface texture rather rough (Shields, 1899, i)p. 10-11).

Gener.\l distribution — Mexico and southwestern United States; also south-
ern Uruguay and Argentina, South Africa and India. In North America breeds
from central California and central Texas south to Valley of Mexico; winters
from central California (rarely) and central Texas to southern Mexico
(modified from A. O. U. Check -list, 1910, p. 88).

Distribution in California — Common summer visitant to interior tule
marshes in the southern coastal district and central portion of the state;
breeds in San Joaquin Valley north to Los Bafios, Merced County (Barnhart,
1901, p. 67; and authors),, and in a few suitable places in Los Angeles County
(Willett, 1912n, p. 28). Northernmost records at any season: Marin County
(J. Mailliard, 1904, p. 15); Marysville, Yuba County (Belding, 1879, p. 445);
and Owens A^alley (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 19). Several instances of occurrence
on or near central seacoast: Carmel Kiver, Monterey County (Beck, 1910, p. 69) ;
Elkhorn, Monterey County (H. C. Bryant, MS) ; Salinas, Monterey County
(Silliman, 1915&, p. 207); and Santa Barbara (Dawson, 1916, p. 25). A few
occur in various parts of the summer range during the winter months.

The term tree-diiek, as applied to the Fulvous Tree-duck, seems
to be an almost complete misnomer for the bird. As regards structure
this species seems to be more closely related to the geese than to the
ducks, and, at least in California, it seldom nests in trees but chooses
the extensive tule marshes of our interior valleys. Birds apparently
belonging to the same species of Tree-duck that occurs in this state
are found in South America, in southern Uruguay and Argentina,
and also in South Africa and in India — a very striking case of what
is known as interrupted or discontinuous distribution. In North
America the chief breeding ground of the species is in Mexico, but
a considerable number of birds breed in the southwestern United
States. The latter contingent is migratory, moving south for the
winter season.

In California, Fulvous Tree-ducks are most widely distributed in
spring and fall, but are always found in fresh water situations. Some
records of spring migrants are: Mecca, Kiverside County, April 5,
1908 (Mus. Yert. Zool) ; Los Angeles, April 18, 1898 (Swarth, 1900,
p. 14) ; Los Banos, Merced County, April 24, 1912 (Beck, MS) ; and
Stockton, San Joaquin County, April 1 (Belding, MS). On May 5,
6 and 7, 1879, Belding (1905, p. 112) witnessed a remarkable flight
of these birds over a slough near Stockton. They were moving north
and all followed the same general "fly-line."

Most of these ducks have finished nesting and have gone south
before the opening of the duck season on October 15. A late record,
which may possibly be for wintering birds, is November 1, on which
date two immature birds of this species were found in the markets
of Stockton. Thus it will be seen that the Fulvous Tree-duck is a
rather late arrival in the spring and that it departs south compara-
tively early in the fall.

248

GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

While the bulk of the species
is migratory, a few individuals
may remain throughout the year
in parts of the summer range.
Thus there is a record from
Marysville, Yuba County (Beld-
ing, 1879, p. 445) of a bird
taken in winter and this is,
curiouslj^ enough, the northern-
most record for the state at any
season. East of the Sierras a
pair was taken at Little Owens
Lake, Inyo County, May 8, 1891
(A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 19)
and one was seen over the Colo-
rado River near Potholes on
January 17. 1913 (Howell and
Van Rossem, 1915, p. 232). The
species is a common transient in
the Imperial Valley.

The Fulvous Tree-duck is so
very un-ducklike in many re-
spects that it has been variously
classified, usually as a member
of the goose tribe. Its long bill,
with the large, sharply down-
curved nail (fig. 39), the long
slim neck, the very long legs
(fig. 38), reaching far beyond
the tail, and the reddish brown
color (pi. 7), without white
markings ou head or wings,
make identification easj". The
erect pose when on the ground
is goose-like, and in flight the
head and neck are bent down-
ward in a manner characteristic
of geese.

The following notes quoted
from W. Otto Emerson would seem to show that the Fulvous Tree-
duck occasionally, at least, nests in trees in California, and so rightly
deserves its current name: "On May 23, 1882, while collecting with
Wm. C. Flint at Lillie's ranch near Tulare Lake I noticed a Fulvous
Tree-duck sitting in the entrance hole of a large white oak near one

Fig. 38. Side of tarsus and foot of
Fulvous Tree-duck. Natural size.

Note large size of tarsus and foot,
and long hind toe without lobe (com-
pare with figs. 11 and 22).

FULVOUS T BEE -DUCK

249

of the ditches, but it was out of the question to reach it. Again on
May 26 another was located sitting on the edge of a hok^ high up in a
white oak. Lillie's ranch is nine miles from Wildflower, Tulare
County, and four or five miles southeast of the lake" {in Shields,
1899. p. 11).

However, the prevalent habit of this bird in California is to nest
much as other ducks do, on marsh lands. Shields found a number
of nests of the Fulvous Tree-duck in central California during June,
1898. He states (1899, pp. 10-11):

The nests were in main constructed of wire grass and sparsely lined with
down and feathers; the eggs were invariably deposited in two layers and are
of a pure white color, and as compared with the eggs of other ducks, possess
a rather rough shell, sometimes even approaching a chalky appearance and
being frequently slightly pyriform in shape. The measurements vary from
1.35 X 1.98 to 1.65 x 2.20 inches, the majority of eggs being a mean average

21573

Fig. 39. Side of bill of Fulvous Tree-duck. Natural size.

of these extremes. The eggs partake of the characteristics of both those
of the goose and duck. . . .

Shields also found that this species often laid its eggs in the nests
of other ducks, for of six or eight nests of Redhead and Ruddy Duck
which he discovered, more than half contained one or more eggs of
the Fulvous Tree-duck.

In all, Shields found about a dozen nests of the Fulvous Tree-
duck, all similarly situated and most of them containing from 17 to
28, and some even 30, 31 and 32 eggs. The smallest sets found were
of 9 and ]1 eggs respectively, both of which were apparently incom-
plete. Such large sets are certainly unusual among ducks and as yet
have not been satisfactorily explained. Either this particular species
possesses a greater fecundity than others, or more than one female lays
in the same nest. The latter is the more probable explanation ; for in
one case (Dawson, MS) a daily addition of three eggs was noted in
a single nest.

250 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOHNIA

According to common report the Fulvous Tree-duck formerly
nested in colonies, and from 30 to 100 eggs arranged in layers were
found in a single nest (Barnhart, 1901, p. 67). There is no recent
instance or verification of such an extraordinary occurrence. Such
reports are doubtless exaggerations, though they must have had some
basis in fact.

Sets of eggs have been collected at Los Bailos as early as April 28
and May 5 (Barnhart, 1901, p. 68). A nest found in the same locality
by W. L. Dawson June 4, 1914, contained nineteen eggs.

"Antonin Jay found a nest containing fourteen fresh eggs at
Nigger Slough, Los Angeles County, May 30, 1903, and found another
nest June 7, the same year, which contained thirteen eggs, incubation
commenced" (Willett, 1912a, p. 28). A downy young specimen was
collected at this same locality, July 8, 1903 (Morcom coll.). P. J. Fair
found the species breeding plentifully at Los Bafios, Merced County,
during the summer of 1912. In 1914 the same locality showed a slight
apparent decrease in breeding birds.

The downy j^oung of this Tree-duck is readily distinguished from
the same stage in other California breeding ducks by the uniformly
colored upper surface, without any light spots, by the very large
nail on the bill, and by the long legs and large feet.

The Fulvous Tree-duck forages chiefly at night, and is equally
at home in an alfalfa patch or on a body of water. It will even seek an
oak grove if not far from the breeding ground, where individuals
are said to assemble in numbers to feed on acorns (Shields, 1899, p.

11).

The Fulvous Tree-duck is more easily approached than many other
waterfowl, but nevertheless is often difficult to tind as it congregates
among the dense tules or far out on the marshy ponds. On occasion
a flock has been easily approached and a number killed at one shot.
Sometimes, when Tree-ducks are surprised on grassy ground, they
simply stand rigidly with their heads and long necks held straight up
in the air, and at a distance, look more like stakes than birds. When
wounded they are said to escape not only by diving but also by run-
ning at great speed and hiding in the grass, and thus often baffle
entirely the hunter's efforts to recover them.

The Fulvous Tree-duck feeds largely on the seeds of grasses and
weeds. In Mexico and Texas it is said to visit the corn fields at night
where it finds palatable provender. When feeding in muddy or
marshy situations the birds thrust their bills deep in the soft mud
on both sides and in front of them as they walk along (Brown, 1906,
p. 218). The stomach of an individual obtained at Los Baiios, Merced
County, in May, 1914, and examined by us, contained finely cut up
grass and other vegetable matter.

BLACK-BELLIED TREE-DUCK 251

The desk of tlic Fulvous Tree-duck is light-colored and juicy, and
also free from the rank flavor possessed by sea-faring ducks and geese.
On their arrival in California the birds are fat and eminently fit
for the table ; but since they are here in greatest numbers during the
close season, they largely escape the slaughter levied on other wild
fowl. The numbers of this species are, at best, small in comparison with
many other ducks and geese. They could ill afford a heavy toll by the
hunter during the period of their stay here. Any levy upon them dur-
ing the actual breeding season would be contrary to all recognized
principles of game conservation and humanity. As it is, but a few
Tree-ducks are to be shot each year at the opening of the season,
October 15. Those who are anxious to hunt the Fulvous Tree-duck
in numbers must go to Mexico where the birds are to be found regu-
larly in winter and where a certain toll may be levied with safety.

There is a possibility that, instead of having to point to a decrease
in the numbers of Fulvous Tree-ducks in California, we shall actually
be able to record an increase. Barnhart (1901, p. 67) has pointed out
that it is only of recent years that young Tree-ducks have been noted
in the vicinity of Los Baiios, Merced County; in other words, since
the extensive system of irrigation has been established there. Since
that time they have continually increased in numbers in that vicinity.
Mr. H. Wanzer, chief engineer for the Miller and Lux Company, first
noted this duck thei-e in June, 1895. It did not appear to increase
notably in numbers until 1898, but since that time it has increased
with rapidity, so that the birds are now common summer residents
in the irrigated districts around Los Bailos.

Black-bellied Tree-duck

Dcndrocijgna autuninalis (Linnaeus)

Other xame — Long-legged Duck.

Description — Adults, both sexes: Structurally like Fulvous Tree-duck; top
of head, neck, back, scapulars, and breast, bright cinnamon brown; forehead
paler, and top of head darker, passing behind into black, which is continued
as a narrow stripe down hind neck; narrow eye-ring ashy white; head and
neck otherwise, pale ashy brown; iris "brown"; bill "coral-red, orange
above," nail "bluish" (Merrill, 1878, p. 170); rump, upper tail coverts and
tail black; outer surface of closed wing pale brown on lesser coverts paling
to ashy white on greater coverts and secondaries; ends of primaries and
secondaries deep black; basal parts of primaries and secondaries white, con-
tinuous with the white on greater coverts; an additional whitish patch on
outer webs of primaries near ends; axillars and under surface of wing black;
belly and flanks, black, abruptly and squarely defined against cinnamon of
breast; .under tail coverts white, spotted toward bases wdth black; legs and
feet "pinkish-white" (Merrill, loc. cit.). Total length (both sexes): "19.75-
24.00" inches (502-609 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 119); folded wing "9.20-

252 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

9.70" (233-246); culmen "1.90-2.15" (48.3-54.5); tarsus "2.25-2.60" (57.2-
66.0) (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 482). Juvenile plumage: Much
like that of adults, but with pattern less distinct and colors duller; cinnamon
replaced by dingy gray, more or less tinged with rusty ochraceous; belly, flanks,
and under tail coverts grayish white, tinged with deeper gray; bill dusky;
feet dark reddish (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, loc. cit.). Natal plumage:
' ' Upper parts, blackish brown, with patches of buff on side of back and on
each side of rump; a bright buff stripe over the cheeks and one from cheeks
. . . [running backwards], blackish brown; under parts, pale buff; belly,
white" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 253).

Marks for field identification — Similar to those for Fulvous Tree-duck
(which see), but lower half of belly black, and patches on wings white.

Voice — A peculiar whistle: pe-che-cJie-ne (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884,
I, p. 483).

Nest — Usually in hollow trees, often at a considerable distance from water;
lining, if any, scant, consisting of feathers and down (Eeed, 1904, p. 87).

Eggs — 10 to 16, bluntly elliptical in shape, measuring in inches, 2.05 to 2.24
by 1.50 to 1.63 (in millimeters, 52.0 to 57.0 by 38.0 to 41.5), and averaging
2.15 by 1.53 (54.5 by 39.0) (twenty-one eggs in U. S. National Museum);
color white (authors).

General distribution — Southern Texas, Mexico, and Central America.
Breeds from Corpus Christi, Texas, to Mazatlan, Mexico, and Panama; winters
from central Mexico to Panama; accidental in southern California, Arizona and
Jamaica (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 88).

Distribution in California — Eare and sporadic visitant to extreme south-
eastern portion of the state. One definite instance of occurrence: a bird
obtained from bag of ducks sent from Imperial County to San Francisco
market; now mounted and in collection of Vernon Shepherd, San Francisco
(H. C. Bryant, 1914c, p. 94). The alleged record by Xantus for Fort Tejon is
of doubtful authenticity.

The Black-bellied Tree-duck is a resident of Mexico and Central
America, and in only one state of the Union is it to be found in num-
bers, namely in Texas. The fact tliat wanderers have been taken in
Arizona (Brown, 1906, p. 218) and in extreme northern Mexico
makes it seem quite possible that stragglers may occasionally reach
California. A very doubtful record by Xantus of the occurrence of
this species at Fort Tejon has often been quoted to substantiate the
placing of this bird on the California list. A more dependable record
has recently come to light. In the collection of Mr. Vernon Shepherd,
a taxidermist of San Francisco, there is a mounted male specimen
of the Black-bellied Tree-duck which was obtained from a sack of
ducks sent to L. Scatena and Company from Imperial Valley in the
early part of the season of 1912. This is just the region in which we
would expect this species to occur as a straggler from beyond our
southern limits.

Both of the Tree-ducks are of moderately small size, have long
necks, short tails, and very long legs, and so are easily distinguished
from ordinary ducks and geese. From the Fulvous Tree-duck the

TEUM PETER SWAN 25;<

l>lac'k-b('lli('(l is easily separated by its black belly, which contrasts
abruptly with the eiiiiianion-brown of the breast, and by the presence
of conspicuous wliite patches on the wings.

The following habit notes are quoted from Baird, Brewer and
Ridgway (1884, I, p. 483) :

This tliu'k i)erfhes with facility on the branches of trees, and when in
the corn-fields, upon the stalks, in order to reach the ears of corn. Large
flocks spend the day on the bank of some secluded lagoon, densely bordered
with woods or water-flags, also sitting amongst the branches of trees, not often
feeding or stirring about during the day. When upon the wing this bird
constantly utters its peculiar whistle of pe-che-che-ne, from which its native
name is derived. Colonel Grayson noticed that it seldom alights in deep
water, always preferring the shallow edges or the ground; the cause of this
may be the fear of the numerous alligators that usually infest the lagoons.

It nests in the hollows of large trees, laying from twelve to fifteen
eggs and is said to carry the young to the ground in the bill.

Nothing need be said as to the status of the Black-bellied Tree-
duck in California further than that stragglers may be expected to
appear occasionally in the extreme southern part of the state. It
will probably never be of importance except as a curiosity.

Trumpeter Swan
Olor huccinator (Richardson)

Other name — Cygmis buccinator.

Description — Adults, both sexes: Pure white; head and sometimes also the
neck, or even the entire lower surface, tinged with rusty. Bill, legs and feet,
deep "black"; iris "brown" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 265).
Young: "In winter the young has the bill black, with the middle portion of
the ridge, to the length of an inch and a half [38 mm.], light flesh-colour, and
a large elongated i)atch of light dull purple on each side; the edge of the
low'er mandible and the tongue dull yellowish flesh-colour. The eye is dark
brow'n. The feet dull yellowish brown, tinged with olive; the claws brownish-
black, the webs blackish-brown. The upper part of the head and the cheeks
are light reddish-brown, each feather having toward its extremity a small
oblong whitish spot, narrowly margined with dusky; the throat nearly white,
as well as the edge of the lower eyelid. The general colour of the other parts
is greyish-white, slightly tinged with yellow; the upper part of the neck
marked with spots similar to those on the head" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 225).
Total length "68.00" inches (1,725 mm.) (Audubon, loc. cit.) ; height, stand-
ing 44.00 (1,117); folded wing 22.00-26.00 (559-660); bill along culmen (cal-
culated) 4.26 (108.0); tarsus 4.00-4.50 (101.7-114.3); weight 20-31 pounds
(about 9-14 kilograms) (Coale, 1915, p. 87).

Marks for field identification — Similar to the white swans common in
parks, but never with any knob on bill. Extremely large size, long neck (as
long as body) and pure white plumage. Distinguishable from Whistling Swan
by larger size, and upon close examination, by wholly black bill, longer and
narrower-tipped bill and situation of nostrils farther back (hind margin more
than 2.50 inches [63.5 mm.] from the tip of bill).

254 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

Voice — Very sonorous, resembling notes of a French horn (Baird, Brewer
and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 431).

Nest — Placed near water; large, composed of hay, down and feathers
intermixed, or of sod, grass and rushes lined with feathers and down (Macoun
and Macoun, 1909, p. 135).

Eggs — 2 to 6, elliptical in shape, measuring in inches, 4.03 to 4.50 by 2.50
to 2.76 (in millimeters, 102.5 to 114.3 by 63.5 to 70.0); color chalky white, and
with a rough surface (Davie, 1889, p. 85).

General distribution — Interior and western North America. Breeding
range formerly extended from Eocky Mountains to western shore of Hudson
Bay and from about latitude 60° N., to the Arctic Ocean; south in northern
United States to Indiana and Idaho; winter range extended from southern
Indiana and southern Illinois south to Texas, and from southern British
Columbia south to southern California; now very rare anywhere within its
former range or else extinct (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, pp. 89-90; Cooke, 1906,
pp. 86-87).

Distribution in California — Of regular occurrence, formerly, south through
the interior valleys and southern coastal district. Some more or less definite
records are: California (Newberry, 1857, p. 100); northern California (C. H.
Townsend, 1887, p. 196) ; Suisun and Sacramento valleys (Heermann, 1859, p.
68); general interior (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 431); Stockton,
San Joaquin County (Belding, MS) ; Ventura County (Evermann, 1886, p. 91) ;
Los Angeles County (Grinnell, 1898, p. 13). No records of occurrence within
the state since 1898.

The Trumpeter Swan is the largest of the water birds known to
have existed in California. It claims additional interest in that it
must be numbered with those birds which have been exterminated
within the lifetime of most of the citizens of the state.

The breeding range of this swan was limited to the interior of the
British possessions, in the district between the Rocky Mountains and
Hudson Bay and chiefly north of the sixtieth parallel. During the
winter season it was distributed south from the limit of open water
through the w^estern United States to Texas and southern California.
On the Pacific coast it was formerly considered common from central
British Columbia to southern California though less abundant than
the Whistling Swan. Cooper {in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884,
I, p. 431) states that in California it was found in his day only dur-
ing the winter, and in small numbers, and that it frequented the
inland fresh-water lakes and ponds. C. H. Townsend (1887, p. 196)
records it as "rare," though possibly only on the authority of New-
l)erry. Heermann (1859, p. 68) states that he saAv the species in the
Suisun and Sacramento valleys, as well as frequently in the San
Francisco markets ; but since the Whistling Swan is not listed by him
at all, this record may be open to query. Newberry (1857, p. 100)
gives both swans, designating the Trumpeter as the least common,
■and as rare compared with the myriads of the other waterfowl which
Tisited this state and Oregon in his time. Salvadori (1895, p. 35)
lists a Juvenal specimen from "California" as contained in the British

TRUMPETER SWAN 255

Museum ; this specimen came by presentation from J. Richards, Esq.
Evermaun (1886, p. 91) records the Trumpeter Swan as a winter
visitant in Ventura County, "more common" than the Whistling.
Grinnell (1898, p. 13) records two specimens as having been taken
in Los Angeles County by A. M. Shields ; but these were subsequently
destroyed by fire and the identification has been questioned (Willett,
1912a, p. 110). Belding (MS) identified three individuals "by
description" in the markets of Stockton sometime previous to 1890.
Lansing Kellogg has reported to us that a flock of Trumpeter Swang
was noted by him on Buena Vista Lake, December 22, 1893. Dawson
(1909, p. 841) says that there has been no definite record for the
state of Washington for a number of years.

Li addition to the citations above given, there are a good many
merely nominal ascriptions of the species to California. Actual speci-
mens from California do not appear to exist in any American museum.
It is quite possible that some of the records nuiy really refer to the
Whistling Swan which is still to be found in small mnnbers witliin the
state; but that all of tlie records for California should liave been at
fault is scarcely {possible. The Trumpeter was once a member of our
avifauna, but is now gone.

In flight the Trumpeter Swan was recognized by its sonorous note,
saitl to have been like a French horn in fullness of tone, as compared
with the more whistle-like note of the Whistling Swan. In the hand
this species may be identified by its large size (20 to 30 pounds, accord-
ing to Huntington, 1911, p. 14-5), and by the entirely black color of the
long and proportionally narrow bill.

The Trumpeter Swan is recorded as breeding largely inside the
Arctic Circle although it formerly bred much farther south. Mac-
farlane {in !Macoun and ]\Iacoun, 1909, p. 135) found several nests
of this species "in the Barren Grounds, on islands in Franklin bay,
and on the beach one was taken which contained six eggs." Raine
{in Macoun and Macoun, loc. cit.) describes a nest found on Buffalo
Lake, Alberta, April 7, 1891, as being a large structure, three feet in
diameter, composed of sods, grass and rushes and lined with feathers
and down. During the molting season in August adult birds are
unable to fly.

In habits the Trumpeter Swan is said to be similar to the Whistling
Swan. However, it appears to frequent the fresh waters of the
interior to a larger extent than does the latter species, which may
indicate a dislike for salt water similar to that shown by certain ducks
which breed in the interior. The food consists of the roots, leaves,
and seeds of various water plants, and the bird is said to occasionally
take aquatic insects, snails and small reptiles, when this type of food
is available.

256 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBNIA

Young birds are said to be decidedly palatable. Adults are also
reported to have made excellent food when they had "hung" the
proper length of time, this depending on the weather. The Indians in
the far north formerly used the eggs for food.

As above indicated, definite instances of the occurrence of the
Trumpeter Swan in California are rare, although the concensus of
evidence indicates that it was a more or less common bird in the 50 's.
There is no record of the occurrence of this species within the state
during the past seventeen years. Hence we must point to it as one
which, like the Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse, has been obliterated
simultaneously with the settlement of the state by white men.

Nor can we say that this species has simply been driven somewhere
else. Coale (1915, pp. 82-90) has summarized the records of occur-
rence of this swan down to date throughout its entire range. He
finds that "of the great multitudes of Trumpeter Swans which
traversed the central and western portion of North America sixty
years ago, there are [but] sixteen specimens preserved in museums
which have authentic data. These were collected between the years
1856 and 1909." It would appear that the species is now nearly if
not quite extinct. It is probable that destruction of the birds on their
breeding grounds had as much or more to do with their disappearance
as had the hunter in the winter home of the species. For, according
to MacFarlane (1905, p. 754), between 1853 and 1877, the Hudson's
Bay Company sold a total of 17,671 swan skins. The number sold
annually ranged from 1,312 in 1854 to 122 in 1877. The bulk of
these are believed to have been Trumpeter Swans.

Here, then, is a species the disappearance of which must be
charged to commercialization. At any rate, the Trumpeter Swan is a
vanished member of our original endowment of game species, though
the circumstances indicate that citizens of California have not been
largely responsible. This irreparable loss should teach us to avoid
such a calamity with other game species in the future. Apparently
the loss of entire species is necessary to wake us uj) to our duty toward
the wild life, just as the lives of many people liad to be sacrificed
before we could realize our duty with regard to the social order.

Whistling Swan
Olor columhimius (Ord)

Other xames — American Swan; Cygnus americnnua.

Description — Aditlts, both sexes: Entire plumage pure white often discolored
at tips of feathers with rusty; iris "brown" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 232);
bill black; an oblong spot of yellow or orange on each side of upper mandible
near base; legs and feet black. Males: Total length 51.00-53.40 inches (1,295-

I\ niSTLING SWAN

257

1,360 mm.) ; sin-ead of \Yings 85.8-1-
88.00 (2,180-2,235); weight 14-16
lbs. (6.34-7.25 kg.) (three speci-
mens) ; folded wing 20.7.5-22.50
inches (527-572 mm.); bill along
culmen 3.80-4.06 (96.5-103.0);
tarsus 4.18-4.54 (106.3-115.3) (five
specimens). Females: Total length
48.25-51.50 inches (1,225-1,308
mm.); spread of wings 78.17-
83.00 (1,985-2,108); weight 12^^
lbs. (5.67 kg.) (two specimens);
folded wing 20.35-21.60 inches
(517-5.48 mm.); bill along culmen
3.60-4.49 (91.4-114.0) ; tarsus 3.S0-
4.52 (96.5-114.7) (five specimens) ;
all from California. JuvenUe plum-
age: Pale dull gray, nearly white
beneath; head, neck and thighs
<larkest, approaching lead-color;
head tinged with reiMish brown;
lower surface with more or less
rusty feather-tipping; bill "red-
dish flesh-colour," tip "dusky";
feet "dull yellowish flesh-colour"
(Audubon, loc. cit.). Natal plum-
age: Not known to us.

Marks for field idextifica-
Tiox — Similar to domesticated white
swans. Very large size, long neck
(as long as body), and pure white
plumage. Distinguished from adult
Trumpeter Swan at close range
by smaller size, shorter, broader
tipped bill, presence of yellowish
spots on each side of base of bill
in front of eye, and position of
nostril (hind border less than 2.35
inches, 59.7 mm., from tip of bill;
fig.* 40). When on water neck
meets body at distinct angle so
that profile of bird resembles the
figure B (reversed) rather than
the letter S. The latter profile is
characteristic of certain foreign
swans commonly domesticated.

Voice — A high flageolet-like
note ; varied murmurings from high
to low (Forbush, 1912, p. 194).

Nest — Situated near water; a heap of rubbish gathered from the immediate
vicinity, comprising grass, inoss, and dead leaves (Nelson, 1887, p. 92) ; some-
times lined with down.

Fig. 40. Side of bill and head of
adult male Whistling Swan. Natural size.

Note area between bill and eye, where
feathers are wanting, and that hind mar-
gin of nostril is less than 2.35 inches
from tip of bill.

258 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Eggs — 2 to 7, elongate ovate to elliptical in shape, iiieasuiing in inches,
4.08 to 4.48 by 2.58 to 2.83 (in millimeters, 103.7 to 113.9 by 65.5 to 71.8), and
averaging 4.26 by 2.68 (108.2 by 68.0); color dull white, usually stained with
clay color, and surface of shell pitted (twenty eggs from Alaska).

General distribution — North America. Breeds from northern Alaska south
to Alaska Peninsula, and on Arctic islands from about latitude 74° south to
northern Mackenzie and northwestern Hudson Bay. In migration occurs west
to Bering Island. Winters regularly on Pacific coast from southern British
Columbia to southern California, and occasionally in Lower California and
Mexico; also on Atlantic coast from Delaware to South Carolina, rarely to
Massachusetts and Florida; rare in interior of United States. Non-breeding
birds have been known to remain through the summer on Lake Malheur,
Oregon (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 89; Cooke, 1906, pp. 84-85).

Distribution in California — Fairly common winter visitant to suitable
localities (usually large fresh-water lakes and brackish headwaters of bays)
south through the state at least to Orange County (Grinnell coll.). Numerous
recent records and specimens from west-central California (Mus. Vert. Zool.),
and southern California in vicinity of Los Angeles (Willett, 1912a, p. 28).

The swans are the largest of all our waterfowl, and by some
persons are thought to be also the most beautiful and graceful. Two
species of wild swans have been known to occur within the State of
California, both during the winter season. The smaller of these, and
that which has probably always been the more abundant of the two,
is the Whistling Swan.

This species is still fairly plentiful as a wanter visitant, arriving in
late fall or early winter, usually in November or December, and leav-
ing by the first of April or earlier. The larger lakes and ponds are
chosen for feeding and loafing grounds. Some of the more recent
and conspicuous California records are as follows: A fiock of fifteen
to tw^enty Whistling Swans wintered on the Alameda Gun Club
grounds in Sonoma County in 1905 (Bolander, 1906, p. 75). A num-
ber were regularly to be seen near Los Baiios, Merced County, from
February 15 to March 11, 1912, but by the latter date most of them
had left for the north (Beck, MS). A flock numbering on one occa-
sion thirty-one individuals, remained on Laguna Blanca, Santa Bar-
bara, from December 22, 1908, to January 29, 1909 (Torrey, 1913,
pp. 80-91). And in 1909 a flock of about forty birds wintered on
Humboldt Bay (C. I. Clay, MS). In December, 1914, Foster (1915,
p. 132) saw several flocks on Cache Slough and "Grizzly Bay." One
of these flocks numbered fifty birds and another between twenty
and thirty.

The resemblance of wild swans to the domesticated varieties found
on ponds and lakes in our public parks makes general identification of
the wild birds easy. Swans may be recognized in flight by their pure
white plumage (no black on wing-tips), their large size, and their long
necks. The formation of a flock in flight is in V-shaped lines as is the
case with most geese.

WHISTLING SWAN

259

T^"

Fig. 41. Side of tarsus and foot of
Whistling Swan. Natural size.

Note that tarsus is shorter than middle
toe without cdaw.

Three characters are serviceable in dis-
tinguishing the adult Whistling Swan
from the Trumpeter Swan, the other
species which was once found within the
state, but is now thought to be extinct.
The Whistling Swan is smaller, it has a
yellowish spot at the base of the upper
mandible on each side, just in front of the
eye, and the bill is
shorter, and broader,
particularly towards
the end (fig. 40).
Birds of the year may
be readily distinguish-
ed from adults even
in flight and at con-
siderable distance by
the leaden cast of
their coloration which con-
trasts strongly with the snowy
white plumage of the adults.
In all the specimens at hand,
of all ages, however, there is
more or less rusty over-wash
on the feathers, probably ac-
quired from something in the water in which the
birds almost completely immerse themselves when
feeding.

In Alaska the Whistling Swan frequents
forest-bordered lakes in the interior as well as the open lakes which
dot the lowdands of the delta country. The nest is a bulky affair con-
structed of grass and moss, about three feet in diameter at the base and
about 18 inches high (Macoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 134). Nelson

260 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

(1887, p. 92) says that in Alaska the nest is usually built upon some
small island in some secluded lakelet, or on a rounded bank close to
the border of a pond. The eggs are deposited in a depression made in
a heap of rubbish gathered by the birds from the immediate vicinity.
The young are hatched the last of June or the first of July, and soon
afterwards the parents lead them to some large lake or stream. There
also the old birds molt and while growing their new quill feathers are
unable to fly.

In moving from their arctic homes in autumn the Swans seemingly divide
their forces; part going toward the Pacific coast, part southeastward toward
the south Atlantic states and part south through the region of the Mississippi
valley. They seem to fly undeviatingly across the country, crossing river valleys
or mountain ranges, steering a course straight for their distant goal. When
they arrive at their destination they pay little attention to decoys, but busy
themselves by plunging their heads to the bottom in shallow water and
digging up the bottom grass with their beaks. When they find the favorite
morsels they often dig large holes in the bottom. The Swan does not dive,
but can readily reach bottom in about three feet of water by standing on its
head on the bottom and paddling with its feet to keep its balance. When
undisturbed it is a noisy bird, though silent when alarmed. When a flock
is at ease, their wierd, high-keyed calls and deeper tones may be heard in
chorus (Forbush, 1912, p. 200).

The first comers are in small flocks, composed of a few old birds with their
cygnets [young] ; these are augmented by others, and soon large numbers
congregate. Their destination is often reached at night; discordant cries
announce the arrival and tell the satisfaction of a long, tiresome journey
ended. Few sights are more imposing than the lines of white, and the swan
drifting majestically along the surface of quiet water is deservedly the emblem
of beauty and grace. From afar the appearance is of a snowbank. If dis-
turbed, and not hard-pressed, they swim off rather than take to wing. The
flight is started with considerable effort; the bird rising heavily against the
wind quickly mounts to an altitude far out of range, when the wings seem
almost motionless and the white line sails through the air in striking distinc-
tion to the flapping flight of geese (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903,
pp. 262-263).

Torrey (1913, i^p. 86-87) describes as follows the habits of some
Whistling Swans which were present on Laguna Blanca near Santa
Barbara during the winter of 1908:

As they fed, holding their heads under water for a surprisingly long time,
a number of ducks collected in the vicinity, diving directly beside them, almost
or quite under them, in fact, as if — what I doubted not was true — the long-
necked creatures were stirring up the muddy bottom with a thoroughness

which the ducks found highly to their advantage The swans made not

the least objection to the ducks' persistent and rather meddlesome looking
activities, . . . but now and then they indulged in what seemed like slight
fallings-out among themselves.

When they had fed thus for some time, they proceeded to bathe: after
dinner the finger-bowl. And a lively performance it was, witli a deal of

WHISTLING SWAN 261

noisy splashing as they threw themselves heavily and rather cliinisily first on
one side and then on the other. . . . One of the adults (known for such by his
clear white head) made a particularly brave show in drying himself, stretching
up to his full height, and shaking his wings and tail in a most vigorous manner.
In calling . . . they hold the head straight up, and then at the moment
of utterance raise it a little higher still with a sudden jerk. Their loud calls
sound human.

The Whistling Swan always feeds in comparatively shallow water,
using its long neck to tear loose the various aquatic grasses and roots
of which it is fond. Along the Columbia River swans are said to feed
on the wapato or swamp potato {Sagittaria latifolia and S. arifolia)
(McAtee, 1914, p. 5). Bendire {in Belding, MS) found the Whistling
Swan feeding on bulbous roots on the shores of Malheur Lake, Oregon.
The stomach of one killed at the same place contained twenty small
shells. Belding (MS) says that in the winter of 1894-95 flocks of
forty or fift}'^ fed in grain fields near Gridley, Butte County, where
they proved very destructive. One shot had a rank taste, not very
different from geese which have been living on growing wheat or grass.

Old birds are tough and not particularly attractive for the table,
but the young are considered a delicacy. In spite of the fact that
they are difficult to shoot, heavy loads and large shot being required
to kill them, numbers of swans were sold on the markets, before they
were protected by law. During the season of 1895-96 there were sold
on the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles 518 swans, most of
them probably of this species (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 42). Five
individuals received at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology in 1912
were carefully weighed and gave the following results: Two females
each, 121/2 pounds; three males, 14, 15, and 3 6 pounds, respectively.
A full-grown juvenile bird received in 1916 weighed 8I/5 pounds.

It is the height of the ambition of most hunters to kill a wild swan.
Increased desirability seems to accompany the bigness of the quarry
no matter what the actual worth of the game as food may be. Even
admitting that the swan comes under the strict definition of a game
bird, yet its increasing rarity and its beauty rightly places it among
those species which are now protected throughout the year. Its main
enemy is the man who must shoot at something, law or no law^ and who
takes chances on making an extraordinary bag about which he can
brag.

The hea\y drain on the swan population is due to the high estimate
in which swans are held as game, and because of their value for feathers
and down. This has brought one species, the Trumpeter Swan, near
or quite to extermination; while the other, the Whistling Swan, is
alarmingly scarce as compared with its former numbers. In many
favorable places where swans regularly wintered in years past there
are none at all to be seen at the present time.

262 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

As an example of the persecution to which these birds have been
subjected, we may cite the following: "Swans were common winter
visitors on Humboldt Bay up to three years ago when a flock of about
forty birds lingered here until all but about six or eight were shot by
market hunters. I saw eighteen of these birds in the hands of a local
taxidermist, all of which were shot within a period of less than two
weeks. He had bought them cheaply, expecting to mount them, and
sell them at a fancy price, but they were poorly mounted and most of
them went to ruin right in his shop" (C. I. Clay, in letter of March
16, 1912). It is to be observed that all of these birds were killed
illegally.

The Whistling Swan is now far from common in most parts of
California, and it will certainly suffer the same fate as the now prac-
tically extinct Trumpeter Swan, if the rigid protection now accorded
it is not enforced both here and in the other states and regions through
which it migrates. Data accumulated since 1913 indicate that the
Whistling Swan is holding its own and is appearing in even increasing
numbers in west-central California. Such a gratifying situation is
doubtless a result of the total protection given to swans in California
beginning in 1905, and also of the aid extended them under the
Federal Migratory Bird Law, and goes to show the effectiveness of
such laws, especially when they are supported by popular sentiment.

Roseate Spoonbill

Ajaia ajaja (Linnaeus)

Other names — Pink Curlew; Ajaja rosea; Platea mexicana; PJataJea ajaja.

Description — Achilts, hoth sexes: Head yellowish green; space around eye
and throat sac yellowish orange; band from lower mandible to back of head,
black; bill yellowish gray at base, mottled with brownish black, otherwise
pale greenish blue, light on margins; base of margin of lower mandible
greenish yellow; iris bright carmine; neck white; back and wings rose color,
deeper on under surface, wing, and hinder portion of body; shafts of scapulars
and flight feathers light carmine; patch on each side of lower part of neck
pale ochre; tail roseate at base, otherwise ochre-yellow, shafts carmine; feet
pale lake, claws brownish black. Male: Total length 30.75 inches (780 mm.);
folded wing 15.25 (387); bill 7.00 (177.5); tarsus 4.00 (101.5); weight 4 pounds
2 ounces (1.87 kg.). Female: Total length 28.00 (711 mm.); weight 3 jiounds
(1.36 kg.) (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 77). Juvenile plumage: Head feathered
except around base of bill; general color white, more or less tinged with pink
on wing, tail, and belly; outer margin of wing narrowly dark brown; more
white and rosy the second year; full plumage acquired in third year (authors).
Natal plumage: Not known to us.

Marks for field identification — Heron-like build, pink color, evident even
at a distance, and conspicuously flat paddle-shaped bill (figs. 42 and 43).
Much like ibises in general habits. In flight the neck and feet are fully
extended, and the wing-strokes are regular.

BOSEATE SPOONBILL 26:5

Voice— (?)

Nest — In colonies in tropit'al swamps; a platform of sticks placed in a
tree or shrub.

Eggs — Usually 3, nearly elliptical in shape, measuring in inches, 2.44 to
2.82 by 1.63 to 1.71 (in niillimeters, 62.0 to 71.5 by 41.5 to 43.5), and averag-
ing 2.56 by 1.67 (65.0 by 42.5) (twenty eggs in U. S. National Museum) ; color
dull white or pale greenish blue with various brown markings (Reed, 1904,
p. 90).

General DiSTRiBrxiox — North ami South America, from Texas, Louisiana,
Florida, and Georgia south to Patagonia and the Falkland Islands; formerly
casual north to Pennsylvania and the lower Ohio Valley (Indiana and Illinois);
more rarely to California, Colorado, Kansas, and Wisconsin (A. O. U. Cheek-
list, 1910, p. 91).

Distribution in California — Very rare summer visitant from the south.
Has been definitely reported as follows: Several times as far north as San
Francisco (Gambel, 1849, p. 222); one seen near San Bernardino, June 20, 1903,
and one seen flying overhead at Riverside, in 1902 (Stephens, 1904, p. 139);
along Colorado River near Palo Verde, Imperial County, during summer months
of 1913 (Leo "Wiley, in letter); but no California-taken specimens are known.
Rumors are current of its presence in the Imperial Valley in the summer of 1909.

The Roseate Spoonbill is typically a far southern bird, breeding in
abundance in portions of Mexico, Central and South America. In the
United States it is to be found as a resident in the Gulf region only.
In summer, stragglers have occurred as far north as Pennsylvania,
"Wisconsin, Kansas, Colorado, and California.

For some time the Roseate Spoonbill in California was known only
from the statement of Gambel (1849, p. 222), that ''small flocks of
this beautiful bird have several times extended up the coast even as
far as San Francisco." Although Cooper (1877, p. 95) has expressed
misgivings as to Gambel's identification, more recent confirmatory
evidence to a degree tends to substantiate it.

The following notes by Stephens (1904, p. 139) are to our knowl-
edge the only published records of the Roseate Spoonbill in California
within late years:

Mr. R. B. Herron tells me that he saw a Roseate Spoonbill standing in a
pond about four miles south of San Bernardino on June 20, 1903. It was
feeding in the pond near the road and paid no attention as he drove past
within gunshot. At first he thought it was a Wood Ibis (Tantalus loculator)
but on coming near he saw the pink tinge of the plumage and the spatulate
bill. On his return the next morning he brought a gun, but the bird was gone.
On mentioning the matter to Mr. H. E. Wilder he told me that about a year
jireviously (1902), when in Riverside, he saw a bird fly over that he felt sure
was a Roseate Spoonbill.

Roseate Spoonbills were reported to us informally from the Im-
perial Valley in 1909 ; and Leo Wiley has written us that he finds this
species appearing along the banks of the lower Colorado River in the
vicinity of Palo Verde during the hot months of the summer season.

264 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

It evidently comes north along with various herons and the Wood
Ibis after the close of its breeding season in the south.

In the field as well as in the hand the Roseate Spoonbill is easily
recognized. The pink color of its plumage may be seen at a con-
siderable distance, and the thin, flat, broad-ended bill (figs. 42 and 43)
is totally different from that of any other bird found in the state. The
flight is stated to be somewhat ibis-like, the neck being fully extended.
I'he wing-strokes are, however, continuous, and not interrupted by
short intervals of gliding. Spoonbills frequent the shores of ponds
and streams, and in Mexico are also found along the seacoast.

The breeding season appears to be exceedingly variable and greatly
extended. There are records of eggs in Florida and Cuba from Jan-
uary to August and young have been seen in the nest in December
(Cooke, 1913, pp. 13-14). The following account of the breeding
habits of this bird is given by Davie (1889, p. 86) :

Marshy or muddy borders of estuaries, the mouths of rivers, shrubby
islands of tropical seas, or some dense marsh, are the favorite breeding
resorts.

Mr. E. E. Rachford visited a small eolony of these birds in Southwestern
Louisiana, June 2, 1886. The birds were found nesting in a clump of cypress
trees in a low marshy place fully twenty miles from habitation. Here also
nested the Snowy, Louisiana and Little Blue Herons and the Snake Bird.

The nests of the Spoonbills were placed from eight to eighteen feet from
the ground, and the usual number of eggs found in the nests was three or
four; although from one nest seven eggs were taken, and five or six from
several others. The nests were platforms of sticks, and for the most part were
built close to the trunks of the trees; they were usually more massive than
the Herons nests.

The general shape of the eggs is ovate; and their color is white, or buflfy-
white, blotched, spotted and stained with various shades of brown; sometimes
a pure white egg is found in a nest with spotted or marked examples.

The general habits of the Roseate Spoonbill are evidently much
like those of the ibises. Its manner of feeding, however, is different,
for the bird immerses the bill and swings it from side to side to sift
the food out of the mud (Chapman, 1912, p. 217). It is said to feed
on insects and shellfish, and to forage almost entirely at night.

Like the several species of ibises this bird is said sometimes to take
wing without apparent provocation, and then ascend gradually, in a
spiral manner, to a great height. It is often found in the company of
herons, and it often happens that these, by their own natural vigilance,
are able to warn it of the approach of danger. The Roseate Spoonbill
can alight on a tree and walk on the branches wnth all the facility of a
heron (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, pp. 105-106).

The Roseate Spoonbill is not a true game bird, for it is a near
relative of the herons. It chances to be included among the game

EOSEATE SPOONBILL

265

o
m

C>]
CD
O

266 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA

birds of our state because it belongs to tbe same order of birds as the
White-faced Glossy Ibis which has in California been ranked as a
game species. The extraordinary appearance of this bird naturally
attracts attention, but does not warrant the destruction of the species
by the hunter.

In many parts of its general range the Roseate Spoonbill has been
almost exterminated by plume hunters. But in California it never
occurred in conspicuous numbers, and the probability is that it will
always remain one of the rarest birds accredited to the state — a
natural curiosity that should be conserved as such.

Wood Ibis

Mycteria americana Linnaeus

Other names — Water Turkey; Tantalus loculator.

Description — Adults, both sexes: Whole head and upper neck devoid of
feathers (save for a few small scattering ones on fore and hind neck), and
covered with a hard, scurfy skin of a dusky bluish color; top of head covered
with a horny shield about one and three-quarters inches square; iris "deep
brown ' ' (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 70) ; bill stout, tapering, and curved down-
wards at end, dull yellowish brown in color, edges and tip greenish yellow;
whole of plumage white except for flight feathers, primary wing coverts, and
tail feathers, which are black with metallic green and purple iridescence; legs
bluish black; toes yellowish; claws black. Total length (both sexes) "35.00-
45.00" inches (888-1,143 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 125); folded wing 19.00-
19.35 (483-492); bill along culmen 9.00-9.12 (228-231.5); tarsus 8.25-8.50
(209-216) (two specimens from Imperial County, California). Juvenile
plumage: Head and neck feathered, save for region about base of bill in front
of eyes, and top of head between eyes, which are continuously naked; feathers
of head and neck grayish brown, approaching brownish black on hind neck
and sides of neck; otherwise as in adult, but with black portions of plumage
showing less of metallic sheen. Natal plumage: Not known to us.

Marks for field identification — Large size (over three feet tall when
standing), white plumage, black tail and wing tips, bare forehead, heavy bill
down-curved towards tip, and long stout legs.

Voice — Usually silent; call-note: croaTc, croah, croak (Coues, 1874, p. 515).
Utters a "rough guttural croaking note" when frightened (Baird, Brewer and
Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 84).

Nest — In tall trees in dense cypress swamps; a platform of sticks loosely
arranged and lined with moss.

Eggs — 3, elongate or elliptical ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.57 to
3.12 by 1.77 to 1.92 (in millimeters, 65.2 to 79.3 by 45.0 to 48.7), and averag-
ing 2.75 by 1.84 (69.9 by 46.7); color white, without surface gloss (nine eggs
in U. S. National Museum from Florida).

General distribution — Temperate and tropical America from southern
California, Arizona, Texas, Ohio Valley, and South Carolina south to Argentina;
casual north to Montana, Wisconsin, New York, and Vermont (A. O. U. Check-
list, 1910, p. 93).

WOOD IBIS 267

Distribution ix California — Regular and common summer visitant along
lower Colorado River; irregular and less common visitant in midsummer
through southern California. Recorded by Cooper (1887, p. 90) as having been
seen north to San Francisco Bay and the San Joaquin Valley. No authentic
instance of breeding on the Pacific slope north of the Mexican line.

Tlie Wood Ibis is a tropical species of wide distribution in Central
and South America. In the United States it is common only in
Florida and along the Gulf Coast to southern Texas. After the breed-
ing season, and when the young are fully grown, both old and young
are in the habit of moving northward to the swamps along the Missis-
sippi River, particularly in southeastern Missouri and southern Illinois,
Avhich at this season of the year swarm with their favorite food. In
similar fashion the breeding birds of the coast of western Mexico
work northward in summer after the nesting season. They are espe-
cially common in the valley of the lower Colorado River, and also
appear, though irregularly, throughout southern California (Cooke,
1913, pp. 22-24).

The "Wood Ibis is the only member of the family of true storks
to be found in California. Along the lower course of the Colorado
River it is regularly found during the summer season, but in other
southern parts of the state it is more or less of a straggler. The most
recent records of its occurrence within the state are : Daggett, San
Bernardino County (Lamb, 1912, p. 34) ; near Long Beach, Los
Angeles County (Law, 1912a, p. 41) ; and near Los Angeles (Willett,
1912&, pp. 194-195h The earliest seasonal record within the state
is for May 18, and the latest August 5. The northernmost record
stations are on San Francisco Bay (Cooper, 1887, p. 90).

The Wood Ibis cannot be confused with any other bird found in
California; for no other large crane-like bird has a bald head, white
plumage, and black-tipped wings and tail. The extremely long bill,
stout at base and slightly curved downwards toward the tip, is like-
wise diagnostic. This bird stands over three feet in height and thus
presents a conspicuous figure about the open margins of shallow ponds
and on marshy land and the shores of streams, where it forages.

Nests of the Wood Ibis have never been found in California, the
species apparently requiring a warmer and moister climate than ours
during the breeding season. In the Gulf states the Wood Ibis like
the herons selects dense cypress swamps for its breeding grounds, and
nests in colonies. The nest is built of sticks and is placed in th^
tallest of trees. The cavity is deep and usually lined with moss. Eggs
have been found in Florida as early as December 8 and January 5.
Consequently this species must be considered one of the earliest of
birds to breed (Cooke, 1913, p. 24). According to Audubon (1843,
VI, pp. 68-69, 70) the young are entirely dusky gray, with brownish

268 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

black wings and bill. The head is at first covered, but becomes
partially bare after the first moult. Four years are said to be required
for the bird to attain its full plumage.

Wood Ibises seen by Stephens (1903, p. 76) along the Colorado
Kiver near Needles, in June, were not shy and were feeding in the
shallower parts of the lagoons, wading about where the water was a
few inches deep. Eight birds under observation by Feudge (1903,
p. 79) in San Bernardino County midway between San Bernardino
and Highlands, in the summer of 1901, and three seen in the same
locality on June 5, 1902, were foraging in damp fields and in the creek
bottoms, but were occasionally seen circling high in the air. Law
(1912a, p. 41) describes the manner in which a "Wood Ibis was feeding
at Dominguez Station, near Long Beach, on July 2, 1911, in the follow-
ing words: "It was standing almost knee deep in the muddy water,
and would insert its bill almost up to the eyes and then, standing on
one foot, would seem to be stirring up the water with the other foot."
The farmers in this vicinity stated that half a dozen of the birds had
visited the slough almost every day for a month. "One was shot
some years since at San Leandro . . . [Alameda County] having
incautiously alighted on a shade tree by the roadside" (Cooper, 1887,
p. 90).

The carriage of the Wood Ibis is firm and sedate, almost stately; each
leg is slowly lifted and planted with deliberate precision, before the other is
moved, when the birds walk unsuspicious of danger. I never saw one run
rapidly, since on all the occasions when I have been the cause of alarm, the
bird took wing directly. It springs powerfully from the ground, bending
low to gather strength, and for a little distance flaps hurriedly with dangling
legs, as if it was much exertion to lift so heavy a body. But fairly on wing,
clear of all obstacles, the flight is firm, strong, and direct, performed with
continuous moderately rapid beats of the wing, except when the birds are
sailing in circles as above noted. When proceeding in a straight line the
feet are stretched horizontally backward, but the head is not drawn closely
in upon the breast, as is the case with Herons, so that the bird presents what
may be called a top-heavy appearance, increased by the thick, large bill (Coues,
1874, p. 516).

The Wood Ibis . . . feeds entirely on fish and aquatic reptiles, of which it
destroys an enormous quantity, in fact more than it eats; for if they have been
killing fish for a half an hour and have gorged themselves, they suffer the rest to
lie on the water untouched, when it becomes food for Alligators, Crows and
Vultures. ... To procure its food, the Wood Ibis walks through shallow
muddy lakes or bayous in numbers. As soon as they have discovered a place
abounding in fish, they dance as it were all through it, until the water becomes
thick with the mud stirred from the bottom by their feet. The fishes, on
rising to the surface, are instantly struck by the beaks of the Ibises, and on
being deprived of life, they turn over and so remain. In the course of ten or
fifteen minutes, hundreds of fishes, frogs, young alligators, and water-snakes
cover the surface, and the birds greedily swallow them until they are completely

JIIIITE-FACED GLOSSY IBIS 269

gorged, after which they walk to the nearest margins, place themselves in
long rows, with their breasts all turned toward the sun, in the manner of
Pelicans and Vultures, and thus remain for an hour or so (Audubon, 1843, VI,
p. 65).

The crop of a Wood Ibis taken at Bixby, Los Angeles County,
August 23. 1901, and examined by Daggett (1903, p. 19) was filled
with aquatie insects. Leo Wiley (in letter of February 19, 1915)
states that three Wood Ibises which were examined by him at Palo
Verde, Imperial County, showed stomach contents as follows: (1)
three tadpoles, four "pumpkin-seed" beetles (water beetles), two
paddle bugs, and moss and slime; (2) nine tadpoles, one pumpkin-
seed beetle, nine dragon-fly larvae, and one fish (a carp) ; (3) one
water-cricket, ten carp, one catfish, and two bony-tails (a kind of
fish).

There seems to be a difference of opinion as to tlu> value of the
Wood Ibis as a bird for the table. Along the Colorado River, where
it is known as the "Water Turkey," it has been eaten with relish;
but as a rule, north of ^Mexico it is classified along with the herons
as being beneath the dignity of a game species. As far as California
is concerned the Wood Ibis should be protected as a bird whose rarity
makes it a subject of interest rather than an object of sport.

White-faced Glossy Ibis
Plegadis guarauna (Linnaeus)

Other xajies — Bronze Curlew; Black Curlew; FalcineUus cayanensis ; Ibis
ordi ; Ibis mexicanus ; Ibis thalassinus.

Descrfptiox — Adults, both sexes: Head, neck, and body in general, deep
cinnamon brown; a narrow area about base of bill and extending back around
each eye, white; bare naked skin about base of bill and including area about
eye, reddish purple; iris blood red; bill slate-colored, slender, curved down-
ward like that of a curlew; top of head, lower back, wings and tail giving
metallic reflections of purple, pinkish bronze, and green; longer scapulars and
outer surface of closed wing with purplish and greenish reflections predominat-
ing; shorter scapulars and lesser wing coverts rich chestnut; primaries irides-
cent green; secondaries mostly bronze; sides of body, axillars, and under
surface of wing, bronze, purple and green according to angle of view; rump
and tail mixed green and purple; lower tail coverts with steel blue and purple
reflections; legs and feet varying from grayish brown to dark reddish purple.
Males: Total length 23.75-24.00 inches (603-610 mm.) (two specimens); folded
wing 10.40-10.75 (264-273); bill along culmen 5.25-5.67 (133-144); tarsus 3.90-
4.15 (99-105.5) (six specimens). Females: Folded wing 9.45-9.75 (240-248); bill
along culmen 4.30-4.55 (109-115.5); tarsus 3.35-3.40 (8.5-86.4) (two specimens);
weight 13.6 oz. (386 gm.) (one specimen); all from California. Juvenile plumage:
Cinnamon and chestnut hues wholly lacking; head, neck and lower surface, dull
grayish brown, the head and upper part of neck streaked narrowly with
white; back grayish brown, with green and steel blue reflections; outer sur-

270 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

face of closed wing, and flight feathers, dusky, with green and steel blue
reflections, but bronze and purple iridescence of adults lacking. Second-year
(or winter?) 'plumage: Like juvenal in body plumage (that is, with grayish
brown body and white-streaked head), but with lower back, wings and tail,
more as in adult, differing only in lesser amount of rich chestnut, and purplish
pink reflections. Natal plumage: "Uniform blackish . . . bill whitish, with
dusky base" (Eidgway, 1900, p. 124).

Marks for field identification — Curlew-like profile, bright iridescent chest-
nut-colored plumage appearing black at a distance (whence the name Black
Curlew), down-curved curlew-like bill about five inches in length (fig. 44),
and long legs. Fly in orderly diagonal lines, each bird with legs and neck
extended (pi. 8).

Voice — A hoarse ha-onk, several times repeated (Grinnell, MS); a jerky,
squawking cry of three syllables, rapidly repeated when disturbed (Shields,
1894, p. 108); a nasal ooh-idc-ooh-ick (Chapman, 1908, p. 292).

Nest — In colonies in marshes, compactly built of dry tules, placed on a
foundation of bent-over growing tules a foot or more above the water.

Eggs— 3 to 4, rarely 5, elongate ovate and rather pointed, measuring in
inches, 1.81 to 2.16 by 1.40 to 1.46 (in millimeters, 46.0 to 55.0 by 35.5 to 37.0),
and averaging 2.03 by 1.42 (51.5 by 36.0) (forty-six eggs in U. S. National
Museum) ; color dark blue fading to lighter blue during incubation.

General distribution — Temperate and tropical America from southern
Oregon, Arizona, Texas, and Florida south through Mexico; also in southern
South America; migratory in the northern portion of its range; casual north
to British Columbia, Wyoming, and Nebraska (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 92).

Distribution in CALiFORNiA^Common summer visitant interiorly to south-
ern and central portions of the state. Breeds in suitable swampy areas. Some
northern record stations are: Lower Klamath Lake, Siskiyou County (H. C.
Bryant, 1914e, p. 232); Sutter County (Belding, 1879, p. 443); Owens Valley
(A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 19) ; casual on Farallon Islands (W. E. Bryant, 1888,
p. 42). Some breeding stations are: Escondido, San Diego County (Sharp,
1907, p. 91); San Jacinto Lake, Eiverside County (Willett and Jay, 1911, p.
159); Los Baiios, Merced County (Mailliard coll.; H. C. Bryant, MS). Winters
occasionally in the southern coastal district, and in vicinity of Los Banos
(Mus. Vert. Zool.) and Stockton (Belding, MS).

Like the Cinnamon Teal, the White-faced Glossy Ibis furnishes a
good example of discontinuous or interrupted distribution. Although
found in both North and South America there is a great extent of
country in Central and northern South America where it is not found.
The two ranges are separated by 22° of longitude and 30° of latitude
and there is but one record of the occurrence of even a straggler in
this intervening territory (Cooke, 1913, pp. 19-21).

In North America the White-faced Glossy Ibis is to be found
from central Mexico north to Louisiana, Utah and Oregon, and occa-
sionally as far north as Minnesota, Wyoming, Idaho and southern
British Columbia. Its winter and summer ranges overlaj) to some
extent, but most birds of the species winter south of the United
States. There are i-ecords of its occurrence in winter at Tombstone,
Arizona, and in San Diego, Los Angeles, Merced and San Joaquin
counties, California.

WHITE-FACED GLOSSY IBIS

271

In California this is a common summer
visitant and breeder in the San Joaquin Val-
ley. One or two colonies have been found in
southern California. Elsewhere in the state
the records pertain as far as known to birds
in migration or on foraging expeditions. Thus
the northernmost records of occurrence in
California are probably of birds in transit to
or from the known breeding colonies in eastern
Oregon.

Beck (MS) noted the first of these Ibises
at Los Baiios, Merced County, in 1912, on
April 22, when he saw two bands of about
twenty each flying north. Lamb (1912, p. 34)
noted the species as late as September 10 and
24 at an oasis on the ]\Iohave desert. A re-
markable flight of White-faced Glossy Ibises
was noted by Belding (1905, p. 112) at
"Stockton on May 5, 6, 7, 1879, during a gale
from the northwest which lasted for three
days. During this time from 4,000 to 5,000
of these birds flew north. They followed the
eastern edge of the tule marsh as nearly as the
strong wind Avould allow them to, going by
sinuous flight up and down, to the right and
left, with few wing strokes."

J. S. Hunter (MS) saw about 200 Ibises in
one flock near Los Bafios on October 30. 1914.
This is an exceptionally late date in this lati-
tude for more than occasional stragglers.
There are in the Museum of Vertebrate
Zoology three specimens taken in the same
locality on November 25 and December 4 and
23, 1911. One of these was plainly a cripple,
and all were immature. But Belding CMS)
saw a flock of more than a hundred feeding
in a pasture near Stockton on February 9,
1886, and several dozen were seen by him in ^^^^ down-curved tip
the markets of Stockton during the winter of and naked area between
1885. Small flocks were observed in the ^i^^ fi'gl yFairyT''
winter of 1885 (January 1, etc.) near San

Diego (Holterhoff, 1885, p. 312), and there are other reports of occa-
sional winter occurrences in the southern coastal district ; but the
species cannot be considered as regularly present in winter north of
the Mexican line.

Fig. 44. Side of bill
of White-faced Glossy-
Ibis. Natural size.

272 GAME BIEUS OF CALIFOENIA

The White-faced Glossy Ibis chooses dense tiile thickets for its
breeding grounds. The nests are built in colonies and are composed
of dry tules and often lined with marsh grass. They are placed on
broken-down growing tules one to six feet above the water. In
"northern San Diego County," Shields (1894, pp. 108-109) found
new nests and completed sets slightly incubated on May 29, 1893.
The Mailliard collection contains a number of sets of two to four
eggs taken in Merced County on July 4 and 12, 1913. These eggs
varied from fresh to slightly incubated. The nests varied in height
above the water from one foot to eighteen inches.

Willett and Jay (1911, p. 159) give the following account of the
nesting of the White-faced Glossy Ibis at San Jacinto Lake, River-
side County, as observed there May 28, 1911 :

lu nearly every patch of tules was a nest or two of this species, and in
the patch farthest west which covered about a half acre, there must have been
at least two hundred nests. They were built on bent-down tules, and were
composed of tule stalks and lined with marsh grass. They were situated from
two to six feet above the water, the average height being about four feet.
About half the nests examined contained young and most of the others held
badly incubated eggs. A very few fresh sets were found but the height of
the nesting season was past. The sets almost invariably consisted of three or
four eggs. In one or two instances sets of two incubated eggs were noted,
and three nests contained five eggs each, two nests six eggs each, and one
nest had seven. It is probable that sets numbering more than five eggs were
deposited by more than one bird. In fact they invariably showed two differ-
ent types of eggs. The color of the eggs evidently fades with incubation, as
the heavily incubated eggs are much lighter blue than the freshly laid ones.
This is probably the largest breeding colony of these birds in southern Cali-
fornia west of the mountains.

The White-faced Glossy Ibis is usually to be found in or near
marshes. It is ordinarily seen in small flocks wading in shalloAV
water, probing into the soft muddy ground with its long sickle-shaped
bill, or circling overhead with slow wing-beats and an occasional soar-
ing flight. While on the ground. Ibises have the dignified pose of
herons, but while on the wdng more nearly resemble cranes.

The White-faced Glossy Ibis performs interesting aerial evolu-
tions. Chapman (1908, p. 292) describes this habit as witnessed near
Los Barios, Merced County, in the following words :

In close formation, they soared skyward in a broad spiral, mounting higher
and higher until, in this leisurely and graceful manner, they had reached an
elevation of at least 500 feet. Then, without a moment's pause and with
thrilling speed, they dived earthward. Sometimes they went together as one
bird, at others each bird steered its own course, when the air seemed full of
plunging, darting, crazy Ibises. When about fifty feet from the ground, their
reckless dash was checked, and, on bowed wings, they turned abruptly and
shot upward. Shortly after, like the rush of a gust of wind, we heard the

LITTLE BROWN CRANE 27.'!

liuiiiiiiing souud caused by the swift passage through the air of their stiffened
pinions.

The food of this Ibis is composed of insects, worms, snails,
Crustacea, small fish, and frogs. Most of its food is apparently
obtained by probing in the mud. Belding (MS) states that the
stomach of a bird shot in some tules near Stockton March 18, 1886,
was full of fragments of an aquatic plant among which were the legs
of a beetle.

The resemblance of this bird to a curlew has doubtless led people
to suppose it related to the shore-birds, and hence of desirable table
qualities. But judging from the food of the White-faced Glossy Ibis,
which appears to be of similar nature to that of the herons, one
would not expect to find the Ibis particularly palatable as an article
of food. Belding (MS) states that he never knew of anyone eating
Ibis in California excepting Chinese. Yet this species has been
marketed in the larger cities with apparent regularity for many years,
as witness Heermann's report of its being sold here during the fifties
(1859, p. 63).

California is the only state in the Union that has ever ranked the
White-faced Glossy Ibis as a game bird, and provided an open season
for it. In three states, Nevada, Kansas, and New Mexico, the bird is
unprotected, but in all other states where it is found it is protected
by law the year round. The open season in California was from
October 15 to March 1 in the northern part of the state, and from
October 1 to March 1 in southern California. The bag limit was twenty
birds. Even with this open season there was little drain on the num-
bers, for, as a matter of fact, because of the marked migratory habit
of this species, but few are to be found as a rule within the state during
the open season. In 1915 ibis were removed from the list of game birds
and thereby came under the laws protecting non-game birds. Large
numbers of White-faced Glossy Ibis continue to nest in the larger
fresh-water marshes, and the greatest danger to the species lies in the
possible reclamation of these breeding grounds.

Little Brown Crane
Grus canadensis (Linnaeus)

Other names — Sandhill Crane, part; Grus mexicana part.

Description — Adults, both sexes: Large area on top of head to level of eyes,
and including space between bill and eye, bald, with but scattering black
"hairs" (hair-like feathers); the granulated skin of this area is "dull livid
red" in life (Nelson, 1887, p. 96), and the feathers on hind head extend
forward into it in the form of a wedge; bill black; iris "orange yellow-"
(Nelson, loc. cit.); whole of plumage light leaden, gray, except for primary
wing feathers which are brownish black with dull w^hite shafts; gray clearest

274 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

on neck and chest, while cheeks and throat are usually lighter, sometimes
almost white; a rusty brown wash often covers parts of plumage; legs and feet
black. Males: Total length 35.50-39.50 inches (901-1,003 mm.) (three speci-
mens from Alaska); folded wing 17.40-20.20 (442-513); bill along culmen 3.22-
3.98 (81.8-101.0); tarsus 6.58-8.35 (167-212) (nine specimens from California
and Alaska). Females: Total length 33.70 (856) (one specimen from Califor-
nia); folded wing 17.90-19.12 (455-486); bill along culmen 3.66-3.78 (92.8-
96.0); tarsus 7.20-8.45 (183-215) (three specimens from California). Juvenile
plumage: Similar to that of adult, but head entirely gray-feathered; back of
head and neck with a rusty brown patch, and same tone conspicuous on feather
margins of back and wing coverts. Natal plumage: Not known to us.

Marks for field identification — Large size, standing about three feet,
long neck and black legs, and general bluish gray coloration, without any
contrasted markings; forehead unfeathered in adults (fig. 45) ; neck straight out in
flight, not drawn in or "crooked" as with Herons. With us in winter usually
in flocks, rather than singly. The only distinguishing mark between the Little
Brown and Sandhill cranes is size; see measurements of latter beyond.

Voice — "A loud, hard, rolling Jc-r-roo Tfr-r-r-roo, Mc-lcr-r-roo" (Nelson, 1887,
p. 94).

Nest — A slight hollow in ground sprinkled with grass or twigs.

Eggs — 2, elongately ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 3.29 to 3.88 by
2.10 to 2.34 (in millimeters, 83.6 to 98.4 by 53.3 to 59.4), and averaging 3.62
by 2.25 (91.9 by 57.2) (nineteen eggs from Alaska); color light buffy or olive
brown, spotted and blotched, most thickly at large end, with reddish brown,
grayish brown, and lavender; these markings have a distinctly longitudinal
trend.

General distribution — North America. Breeds from northern and western
Alaska east to Baffin Land and central Keewatin; migrates south along the
Pacific coast and through the interior of the United States, wintering from
California and Texas south to Jalisco, Mexico. Has been recorded in summer
from eastern Siberia (Cooke, 1914, pjj. 7-9).

Distribution in California — Common migrant through interior portions of
the state. Remains throughout winter in varying numbers north at least
through San Joaquin Valley. Does not as a rule visit seacoast or affect
vicinity of alkali lakes, preferring open plains or vicinity of fresh water.

The cranes are among the largest of the long-legged game birds
occurring in California. Their well-known rolling cries as they pass
to and fro in migration most often bring them to popular notice.
Because of their extreme shyness and habit of foraging far out on
open plains they are usually successful in eluding the hunter, and, in
spite of the good quality of their flesh, have come nearer maintaining
their numbers than many smaller species. Among the near relatives
of the Little Brown Crane only the closely similar Sandhill Crane can
lay proper claim to a place among California birds. It is true that
the Whooping Crane (Grus americana) , of much larger size and chiefly
white plumage, was thought by Belding (1891, p. 99 ; also MS) to have
been seen by him on two or more occasions, in flight, in Butte and
Sutter counties. But no specimens of this species from anywhere west
of the Rocky Mountains are preserved in any museum.

LITTLE BEOWN CEANE 275

Tilt' Little Brown and Sandhill cranes are identical in proportions
and coloration, differing only in the decidedly greater size of the
latter (see measurements). Neither of them should be confused with
any of the herons, to which, especially the Great Blue Heron, they bear
some general resemblance. The cranes have no sharply contrasted
w^hite or black markings, in the adult their heads are bald (down to the
level of the eyes), their necks are held out straight in flight (not drawn
in or "crooked"), and their sonorous rolling cries are totally different
from the guttural squawks of the herons.

Writing from ^Montana, Cameron (1907, p. 251) says: ''If un-
disturbed the cranes fed in the morning and evening, strongly recall-
ing turkeys in general behavior ; their stately manner of walking and

Fig. 45. Side of bill aud head of Little Brown Crane. One-half natural size.

Note hair-like feathers on forehead and smaller size as
compared with Sandhill Crane (fig. 46).

drooping tertiary plumes causing them to present a striking appear-
ance. ' '

During the breeding season the Little Brown Crane is confined to
northern North America from the vicinity of Hudson Bay to Alaska,
where it inhabits the great treeless tundras. It migrates through
Canada and the western United States, wintering from California
and Texas southward into Alexieo. In California this crane is most
abundant during the season of migration, but considerable numbers
remain through the winter in the San Joaquin Valley and on suitable
parts of the coastal slope of southern California. As judged from the
size of migrating flocks each year, there has been some diminution
in numbers, though estimates are difficult to make. Formerly the
term "thousands" w^as often applied to the migrating hosts.

James A. MacDonald, Jr., of Lathrop, San Joaquin County, states
(MS) that five flocks of cranes were seen feeding in that vicinity on
February 4, 1914. In one flock which flew overhead 149 birds were

276 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

counted, and it was estimated that at least 800 birds were seen inside
of forty-five minutes. Persons in the neighborhood reported that
flocks of cranes had been feeding in that vicinity for the two or three
months previous to this observation. Six specimens now in the
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology were collected at Los Baiios, Merced
County, February 6, 1912. The following migration data gathered
by Belding (MS), although attributed to the Sandhill Crane, prob-
ably, in the light of our present knowledge, refer chiefly or altogether
to the Little Brown Crane. The earliest fall records for Stockton,
San Joaquin County, are: September 18, 1880, and September 23,
1881, when cranes were seen flying south. At Campo, San Diego
County, many flocks have been seen passing high overhead in a south-
easterly direction which would have led them to the head of the Gulf
of California where the species is known to winter abundantly. In
early spring flocks have been noted traversing the same course in re-
verse direction. In the vicinity of Volcan Mountain, San Diego
County, cranes were seen going north or northwest in flocks March 16
and 20. At Tehachapi Pass, Kern County, April 4, 1889, many flocks
were seen by Belding going w^est to the San Joaquin Valley, the flight
continuing interruptedly for several days. They were first seen at
Marysville, Yuba County, in 1884, on March 6, but the bulk did not
arrive until May 1. The same year large numbers were seen going
north at Chico, Butte County, on May 2 ; the last were seen on May 20.
At Gridley, Butte County, large flocks were seen going north on
May 10, 1884.

The Little Brown Crane resorts to a far northern summer home
where it can raise its young in safety from most of its enemies and
where suitable food is to be found in abundance. The vast open
tundras of western and northern Alaska and extreme northern British
America afford these conditions. Because of the prolonged winters,
the cranes do not arrive on their breeding grounds until some time
in May, and this may account for the lateness of their departure
from California. The earliest arrivals at Saint Michael, Alaska, have
been noted on May 7 (Nelson, 1887, p. 94) ; farther north, on the
Kowak Kiver, Alaska, the first birds in 1899 appeared on May 14
(Grinnell, 1900, p. 19).

Recording his experiences with the Little Brown Crane at St.
Michael, Nelson (loc. cit.) says: "They come from the south toward
the Lower Yukon, and on mild, pleasant days it i& a common sight to
see the cranes advancing high overhead in wdde circuits, poised on
motionless wings, and moving with a grace unexpected in such
awkwardly formed birds. . . . The air is filled with the loud, hard,
rolling k-r-roo, kr-r-r-roo, ku-kr-r-roo, and either flying by, with trail-
ing legs, or moving gravely from place to place, they do much to
render the monotonous landscape animate."

LITTLE BEOWN CEASE 277

Iinnietliately upon their arrival coiirtsliip begins. The mating
antics of this species are thus described by Nelson (1887, p. 95). On
^lay 18, while lying in a hunting blind, he witnessed the performances
of two cranes wliich aliglited near by:

The first comer remained alone but a short time, wlien a secoml bird
came along, uttering his loud note at short intervals, until he espied the bird
on the ground, when he made a slight circuit, and dropped close by. Both
birds then joined in a series of loud rolling cries in quick succession. Suddenly
the new-comer, which appeared to be a male, wheeled his back toward the
female and made a low bow, his head nearly touching the ground, and ending
by a quick leap into the air; another pirouette brings him facing his charmer,
whom he greets with a still deeper bow, his wings meanwhile hanging loosely
by his sides. She replies by an answering bow and hop, and then each tries
to outdo the other in a series of spasmodic hops and starts, mixed with a set
of comically grave and ceremonious bows. The pair stood for some moments
bowing right and left, when their legs appeared to become envious of the
large share taken in the performance by the neck, and then would ensue a
series of stilted hops and skips. . . . Frequently others join and the dance
keeps up until all are exhausted.

The site for the nest is usually on the grassy flats, where the drier portions
or the slight knolls afford them suitable places. The spot usually has an
unobstructed view on all sides, and it is common to see the female's long neck
raised suspiciously at the appearance in the distance of anything unusual.
If one approaches, the head sinks lower and lower to avoid being seen, but if
the person, even though 150 or 200 yards away, should stop and look toward
the bird, she will generally rise and skulk away, her neck close to the ground,
wings hanging loosely by the sides, and legs bent, so as to avoid being seen.
When she is 100 yards or more from the nest she straightens up and stalks
anxiously about, uttering her loud call-note incessantly, and is generally joined
by the male; but it is rarely that either can, even then, be approacheil within
gunshot. . . . The nest is frequently a mere hollow in the ground, and is
commonly lined with more or less coarse grass-stems and straws. In one
instance a nest was found on a bare flat, and was lined with a layer of straws
an inch deep, all of which must have been brought for some yards; this is
unusual, however.

The breeding season is necessarily of brief duration. Eggs, partly
incubated, have been found at Saint Michael as early as May 27
(1879), and in the Kowak Delta, well-incubated eggs were found on
June 14 and 15, 1899 (Grinnell, 1900, p. 20). The number laid is
always two. They are elongate ovate in shape, and average in inches,
3.62 by 2.25. In color the eggs are buffy or olive brown spotted and
blotched with reddish brown, grayish brown and lavender. These
markings are thickest at the large ends and have a decidedly longi-
tudinal trend, reminding one in this respect of the pattern of markings
on the eggs of the Ash-throated Fly-catcher.

In the north the Little Brown Crane feeds on berries and grasses,
with some insects. On this diet the birds become fat and are esteemed
excellent eating, surpassing every other game bird there except
ptarmigan.

278 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA

The stomach of a crane taken at Ash Meadows, on the Nevada-
California line, March 10, 1891, contained small bulbons roots, foliage
of young plants, and a quantity of barley, which latter had been
picked up from a place where horses had been fed (A. K. Fisher,
1893a, pp. 20-21). The gullet of one killed at Los Banos, Merced
County, was found to be filled with large barley grains probably
obtained from sowed ground (Beck, MS). When feeding on the plains
or in stubble fields these birds dig up the ground with their bills in
such a way that it looks as though a pick had been used. In the tule
country near Stockton Belding (MS) states that they used to feed
extensively on sagittaria bulbs. In the Imperial Valley Van Rossem
(1911, p. 129) observed cranes visiting the grain fields to forage,
going and coming from Salton Sea morning and evening as regularly
as though timed by a clock. In 1901 it was reported that cranes were
so numerous in the wheat fields west of Tulare that they had to be
scared away. The birds were seeking the newly sprouted grain, but no
detailed account of the kind or amount of damage done has been
obtained.

' ' In the early settlement of California by Americans, when turkeys
were yet scarce, I have known a Sandhill Crane to command from
sixteen to twenty dollars in the San Francisco market for the purpose
of replacing, on the Christmas dinner table, that almost indispensable
feature of this particular festival" (Heermann, 1859, p. 62). More
recently cranes were of regular appearance in the markets of San
Francisco and Los Angeles. In the season of 1895-96, 385 cranes
were sold, bringing to the hunter about 50 cents each, considerably
more than any of the geese (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 42). All
testimony agrees as to the edible quality of the flesh of the crane,
and this is to be expected from its chiefly vegetable diet.

As illustrating the craftiness of the Little Brown Crane, by which
it insures its safety from even long-range molestation, there may be
cited the experience of one of the present writers (Grinnell, MS).
On March 10, 1910, camp was pitched on the California bank of the
Colorado River about twenty-five miles below Needles. A large flock
of cranes arrived at early dusk and took possession of a sand bar
directly opposite camp. This bar was about midway from one wooded
shore to the other, and fully three hundred yards from either. It was
thus impossible to approach the birds under cover from any direction.
They were evidently on their guard all night ; every now and then
something would disturb them, and a chorus of sonorous calls and
wing-flappings would ensue for some minutes before quiet again
reigned. At dawn they were up and off.

There are a few of our game birds which, because of their extreme
wariness, may be expected to survive in spite of the increased effi-

SANDHILL CBANE 279

cieiicy of fii-earnis and thf increasing number of hunters. The Litth^
Brown and Sandhill cranes are to be included in this category. It is
nowadays only by mere chance that the shotgun can bring one of
these birds to bag. To get within range with a rifle, even, takes con-
siderable ingenuity. This, with the protection afforded them by our
closed seasons, should suffice to maintain the cranes indefinitely, as far
as California is concerned.

Sandhill Crane
drufi nifxicana (Miiller)

Other nwmes — Grus canadensis, part; Grus canadensis mexicana.

Description — Identical in coloration, as far as known, with the Little
Brown Crane (which see). Size larger; bulk probably close to twice that of
Little Brown Crane. Adults (both sexes): Total length "40.00-48.00" inches
(1,015-1,220 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 135); folded wing 21.30-22.00 (540-558);
bill along culmen 5.33-6.46 (135.4-164); tarsus 9.14-9.58 (232-243) (four
specimens from California in Mailliard coll.).

M.^RKS FOR FIELD iDEXTiFiCATiox — Scc Little Brown Crane.

Voice — Probably not much different from Little Brown Crane; a raucous,
resounding note (Forbush, 1912, p. 485); a prolonged bugle like cry (Bailey,
1902, p. 79).

Nest — On ground in marshy places, usually surrounded by open water;
made of grasses, weeds, moss or rushes (authors).

Eggs — 2, elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 3.56 to 3.70 by 2.35
to 2.41 (in millimeters, 90.3 to 93.8 by 59.7 to 61.2); ground color pale buff,
spotted irregularly with light brown, most numerously about the larger end;
deeper markings of pale lavender (two eggs from Iowa in Mailliard coll.).

Gexer.\l distribution — Middle latitudes in North America, ranging from
southern Canada south to Florida, Cuba and Mexico. Breeds from southern
British Columbia, southern Saskatchewan and southern Alberta, south to Cali-
fornia, northern Arizona, Colorado, Iowa, and northern Indiana; also in a
detached area including Cuba, Florida, and the Gulf coast of Louisiana.
Winters in California, the Gulf states, Cuba, and Mexico to the latitude of
Yucatan. Most of intervening area covered during migration (modified from
Cooke, 1914, pp. 10-13).

Distribution in California — At one time doubtless common in summer in
northern and interior parts of the state, more particularly about elevated
meadows east of the Sierran crest; now rare. A few are thought to winter
in the San Joaquin Valley and southern California coastal district. Definite
knowledge is wanting, because of confusion of this species with Little Brown
Crane.

The Sandhill Crane is the southern representative of the Little
Brown Crane, supplanting the latter as a breeding bird in the United
States and extreme southern Canada. For a long time the Little
Brown and Sandhill cranes have been confused in western literature ;
much of the published information attributed to the Sandhill Crane,
we now believe refers to the Little Brown Crane. In coloration the

280

GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

two species are identical ; and there remain only dimensions to furnish
constant characters (see measurements of both). The Sandhill seems
to bulk about twice as large as the Little Brown. While the breeding
ranges of the two species are distinct, both occur during migrations
and probably also in winter on the same ground. The Sandhill Crane,
in its general range, formerly existed much more widely than it does
today ; in a number of the middle-western states where it was formerly
found in numbers it is now extirpated. The Sandhill, with a southern
breeding ground, has suffered largely through human occupancy of
the country.

In southeastern Oregon in the middle seventies, Bendire (1878, p.
143) found this a connnon summer resident, breeding abundantly on

Fig. 46. Side of bill and head of Sandhill
Crane. One-half natural size.

Note much larger size as compared with Little
Brown Crane (fig. 45).

X2067J&JWM.

the lowlands as well as in the highest mountain valleys. Its hoarse cries
could be heard almost everywhere in the vicinity of water so long
as the locality remained undisturbed. Each pair appeared to own a
certain district during the breeding season, and two pairs were never
found nesting within half a mile of each other. In 1887, Merrill
(1888, p. 144) found this crane breeding in the vicinity of Fort Kla-
math, Oregon.

In California the Sandhill Crane was formerly notably numerous
in summer on the elevated meadows lying chiefly northeast of the
Sierran crest. Henshaw (18806, p. 323), writing of his explorations
in 1877 and 1878 in northern California and adjacent states, con-
sidered Sandhill Cranes to have been so often met with as not to
require specific mention of locality. "They breed in many of the
sub-alpine valleys where are found meadows of sufficient extent."
Two partly grown young taken by Henshaw at Camp [Port] Bidwell,
Modoc County, July 29, 1878, are contained in the National Museum
collection in Washington. C. H. Townsend (1887, p. 197) reports
seeing a crane on a mountain meadow east of Mount Lassen in June.

SANDHILL CEANE 281

Cones (1874, p. 534) records eggn from Fort Crook, in northeastern
Shasta County. In the San Joaquin Valley cranes have been observed
during the summer months, and there is a chance that they may breed
there, or at least have once done so. Goldman (1908?), p. 202) saw
three at Tulare Lake, July 8, 1907. L. Tevis (Grinnell. MS) reports
their presence in the neighborhood of Buttonwillow, Kern County, all
through the summer season ; a i>air watched on April 30, 1912, behaved
as if nesting.

In winter the Sandhills breeding in California may or may not
move south out of the state. In either ease it is probable that some
birds come into California from the Pacific Coast district to the north-
ward, as far as the limit of the summer range in southern British
Columbia. Again we liave to point to the confusion which has pre-
vailed in separating the SaiuUiill and Little Brown cranes. Tyler
(1913&, p. 22) says that the birds he has examined in the Fresno dis-
trict have all been Sandhill Cranes, and he believes that the majority
of the cranes visiting tluit locality are Sandhills. Four specimens
purchased in a San Francisco market, January 20, 1898, and thought
to have been shot in the vicinity of Los Bauos, Pierced County, are
in the Mailliard collection (J. :\Iailliard, 1911, p. 50). There is a
skin of the Sandliill Crane in the Ignited States National Museum
(no. 11927) taken by Lt. J. C. Ives, probably in 1857 or 1858, on the
Colorado River, though whether or not in California is not clearly
stated. The measurements of this bird are: wing 21.75 inches; tarsus
10.60; culmen 5.40.

In flight the Sandliill Crane flaps along heavily, as though the
wings were hardly able to lift the large body. Except when launched
for a long-distance journey these birds fly close to the ground. In
migration they tl.y very high, and in lines somewhat like those of ducks
and geese. The legs and neck are held stretched out to full extent.

On the big unfeneed prairies and the treeless expanse of marsh where
there is nothing to hide a lurking foe, you find the Sandhill Cranes, sometimes
in small migrating flocks but usually in pairs, stalking about in dignified but
ever watchful manner, stretching up to nearly a man's height to survey the
surrounding country, then stooping to probe the earth for worms, catch a
distant grasshopper, or spear a luckless frog or minnow. Let an enemy appear
in the distance, and the long necks are up, and one of the most powerful, far-
reaching of bird-notes rings out with its alarm challenge, a prolonged bugle-
like cry, deeper and heavier than the loon 's, and often heard a mile away.
With a quick run the splendid birds mount on the wing, the bugle-notes
resounding rhythmically with only the space of an inspiration between as they
fly; and though their calls mellow in the distance, the cranes vanish as specks
in the air before the sound of their magnificent voices is entirely lost (V.
Bailey, in Bailey, 1902, p. 79).

282 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA

Like the Little Brown Crane, this larger cousin is noted for its
strange antics during the mating season which resemble a "war
dance" of some sort. The ground selected for nesting is usually some
extensive meadow, with small lakes here and there. The birds demand
a broad outlook on all sides, and a slight elevation is often chosen
for the nest, usually nearly or quite surrounded by water. The nest
proper is a simple affair, of grass and other vegetation gathered
together on the ground to form a shallow mat. The time of egg-laying
in the west is indicated by the following data : Camp Harney, Harney
County, Oregon, April 14 (1878) to May 2 (1875) ; Gunnison County,
Colorado, June 5 (1903) (Cooke, 1914, p. 12). The two young birds
in the United States National Museum, with down still adhering to
the plumage, taken by Henshaw near Fort Bidwell, Modoc County,
July 29, 1878, would indicate a nesting date comparable with the
instances just cited.

Judging from descriptions, the eggs of the Sandhill Crane closely
resemble those of the Little Brown, differing only in somewhat larger
average size. Chapman (1912, p. 230) gives 3.90 by 2.40 inches for
the Sandhill, while Davie (1900, p. 122) gives the averages as 3.98
by 2.44. Compare these figures with our average for the Little Brown
Crane, of 3.52 by 2.24.

The food of the Sandhill Crane is doubtless in all respects similar
to that of the Little Brown. Both prefer vegetable substances, par-
ticularly certain bulbous roots. In the lowlands of Kern County a
kind of "little tule," or "tulito," is selected.

The bill is an efficient tool in obtaining food, and also a powerful
weapon of defense. A quick thrust of this long sharp beak will make
a serious wound, and the hunter should take care in approaching a
wounded bird.

There is reason to believe that the Sandhill Crane exists today in
but a small fraction of the numbers once present in the interior valleys
and plains. Its breeding grounds have been almost altogether taken
up for farms and stock-ranching, and in consequence the species as a
breeding bird in California is nearly or quite gone. It is likely that
some still come to us regularly in the fall either as transients or to
pass the winter within our boundaries. So seldom are specimens of
cranes secured, that uncertainty obtains as to the actual numbers,
relatively, of our two species.

CALIFOENIA CLAPPER BAIL 283

California Clapper Rail

Rallus ohsoletus Ridgway

Other names — San Mateo Rail; Water-hen; Marsh-hen; Salt-water Marsh-
hen; Mud-hen, part; King Rail; EaUii.s elegans; RaUus elegans var. obsoletns.

Description — Adult.i, both sexes: Top and sides of head blackish brown;
top of head with black, bristle-like feather tips; streak of cinnamon from base
of bill directly backwards over eye; chin and throat white, bordered along
sides and behind with light cinnamon, the latter blending with the duller
tones of color elsewhere; iris dark brown or orange brown; bill reddish orange
at base of lower mandible and along edge of upper, otherwise dusky olive
brown ; rest of upper surface including rump and tail grayish olive brown,
streaked broadly with blackish as formed by darker centers of feathers; outer
surface of closed wing chiefly cinnamon brown; inner secondaries like back,
and rest of flight feathers dark brown; axillars and lining of wing brown,
barred narrowly and irregularly with white; foreneck and breast clear light
cinnamon, fading to pale buffy on belly; sides and flanks dark grayish brown
barred sharply with white; lower tail coverts like flanks, except for outer-
most feathers which are white; legs and feet dull orange brown, darkest at
joints. Measurements: — Males: Total length 15.87-16.62 inches (403-422 mm.)
(three specimens); foldeil wing 6.04-6.90 (153-175); bill along culmen 2.22-
2.54 (56.4-64.4); tarsus 2.17-2.42 (55.0-61.5) (ten specimens). Females: Total
length 15.12-15.62 (384-397) (three specimens); folded wing 5.75-6.08 (146-
154); bill along culmen 2.17-2.32 (55.0-58.9); tarsus 2.10-2.24 (53.3-56.8)
(eight specimens). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult, but with streak-
ing on back duller, less strikingly contrasted, lower surface very much lighter,
more bufify in tone, and barring on sides and flanks scarcely or not at all in
evidence. Natal plumage: Black with a slight greenish iridescence except on
belly; bill yellow; feet (dried) reddish brown.

Marks for field identification — Of rails in general: Narrow (compressed)
body, small head, slender bill, long neck and legs, short rounded wings, and
extremely short tail. Of California Clapper Rail: Large size (largest rail in
California), light cinnamon breast, and dark-toned, "brown and black streaked
back (pi. 9 and figs. 47 and 48). Skulks through marsh vegetation and when
flushed rises nearly vertically several feet before flying off. Distinguished
from Virginia Rail by much larger size; from Light-footed Rail of southern
California by slightly larger size and lighter color.

Voice — Often spoken of as a harsh cackle; a clattering, chuck, chuck, chuck,
chuck, or a cheek-a-cheek-a-cheek, etc., rapidly uttered.

Nest — In salt marshes; usually of pickle-weed {Salicornia ambigua), loosely
laid together, and concealed in the same sort of vegetation or beneath some
small shrub.

Eggs — 6 to 12, usually 8 to 9, ovate to elongate ovate in shape, measuring in
inches, 1.61 to 1.82 by 1.17 to 1.30 (in millimeters, 40.8 to 46.5 by 29.7 to 33.0),
and averaging 1.72 by 1.23 (43.7 by 31.2) (Emerson, 1885, p. 143); color light
creamy buff, spotted or blotched rather scatteringly with reddish brown and
lavender.

General distribution — Resident on salt marshes adjacent to San Francisco
and Monterey bays, California; casual elsewhere along the Pacific coast north
to Humboldt Bay, and even, possibly, to Gray's Harbor, Washington.

Distribution in California — Common resident on salt marshes bordering

284 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

southern arm of San Francisco Bay (Alameda, San Mateo and Santa Clara
counties). Formerly occurred also on bay shores of Marin and Sonoma coun-
ties, but no records from there within past 25 years (Mailliard, MS). Kesident
in small numbers in marshes bordering Monterey Bay near Elkhorn, Monterey
County (Silliman, 1915a, p. 201). Kecorded once from Tomales Bay (Storer,
1915, p. 98) and twice from Humboldt Bay (Suckley, in Cooper and Suekley,
1859, p 246; Storer, loe. cit.). Casual on Farallon Islands (W. E. Bryant, 1888,
p. 42).

No other game bird in California has so limited a distribution as
has the California Clapper Rail. The salt marshes bordering the
southern arm of San Francisco Bay and a few smaller nearby areas
of the same character alone seem to afford the proper kinds of food
and shelter necessary for its existence. It is found in small numbers

6995

Fig. 47. Side of foot and
tarsus of California Clapper Eail.
Natural size.

Note slender form of all toes
and entire absence of Avebs or
lobes.

on the marshes of Monterey Bay
near Elkhorn, Monterey County,
and individuals have been re-
corded from Tomales Bay and
Humboldt Bay. A single strag-
gler was taken on the Farallon Islands, November 18, 1886 (W. E.
Bryant, 1888, p. 42). Newberry (1857, p. 96) states that this species
was common in his day around San Pablo Bay, and was particularly
numerous at Petaluma. Also Messrs. J. and J. W. Mailliard have
told us that Clapper Rails occurred on the bay marshes of Marin and
Sonoma counties up to about twenty-five years ago. But there have
been no recent records from these places.

Rails in general are to be recognized by their narrow, compressed
bodies, rather long bills, small heads, long necks and legs, large feet,
slender toes, and small rounded wings. The present species is the
largest of its kind occurring in California. In flight it may be recog-
nized by its long bill (nearly two inches in length) (fig. 48), its long
legs (fig. 47) (which dangle when the bird first starts in flight), its
cinnamon-colored under surface and streaked back (pi. 9). In colora-
tion the California Clapper Rail is practically identical with the
Virginia Rail but is much larger in size (see measurements of both).

CALIFOBNIA CLAPPEE HAIL

285

The California Clapper Rail makes its permanent home on the salt
marshes where the vegetation consists chiefly of pickle-weed {Sali-
cornia amhigua) and an evergreen shrub {Gnndclia cuncifolia). Here
it may easily be found at any time of the year skulking along the banks
of the small muddy sloughs which penetrate the marsh in every
direction.

Its very long ami unwebbed toes make large chicken-like tracks
spaced about ten inches apart in the soft mud of the slough banks
and these are very easy to recognize. The voice, too, is characteristic.
It is a harsh, mechanical cackling — chuck, chuck, chuck, chuck, or
cheek-a-check-a-cheek — uttered rapidly for several seconds and sound-

6995

Fig. 48. California Clapper Eail.

Fig. 49. Light-footed Kail.

Both drawings are natural size and the two serve to show the
differences in size of bill between these two closely similar species.

ing as if two or more birds rather than a single one were participating
in its production. When flushed this Rail jumps almost straight up
into the air for six or eight feet and then flies off in a clumsy manner,
its short narrow wings moving at the rate of two or three beats per
second. These flights are usually short, the bird soon dropping down
again into the protection of the marsh vegetation.

Rails in general begin to nest rather early in the year. The breed-
ing season of the California Clapper Rail commences about the middle
of INIarch, and by the first of April full sets of eggs are to be found.
On March 31, 1912, H. W. Carriger (MS) found three sets of nine
eggs each, all fresh, on the marshes near Redwood City, San Mateo
County. On April 3, 1915, the writers found two fresh sets of nine
eggs each on Bay Farm Island, Alameda County. April 18, 1885,
Emerson discovered five nests near Hayward, Alameda County, two

286 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

of which contained eight and nine eggs respectively. On May 11,
1884, Emerson (1885, p. 142) found nine nests from which the young
had hatched and departed, while on May 4, 1885, three nests. of eight
eggs each were found by him. On June 3, 1883, he found a nest of
seven eggs on the point of hatching. The latest date of which we have
record is June 29, 1894, when a set of six eggs with incubation com-
menced was found by H. R. Taylor in the Alameda County marshes
(Mailliard coll.) . Thus it will be seen that the breeding season extends
from the middle of March to the end of June, but that the bulk of the
birds nest between the middle of April and the middle of May.

A high piece of marsh ground, usually on the bank of a slough, is
selected for a nesting site. The nest may be concealed in salt grass
or pickle-weed, or under a small bush. It is a platform built up three
to six inches above the ground, and measures about ten inches across
with a cavity in the center one and one-half inches deep. Grasses or
dead and living stems of pickle-weed are used for building material.
A well-marked trail leading off through the adjacent vegetation is
usually discernible. A nest examined by the authors on May 7, 1914,
was composed of closely matted Salicornia stems, some of the stems
being bent over from the growing plants surrounding it. The struc-
ture was well-saucered, the cavity containing the eggs being five and
one-half inches across and one and one-half inches deep. The rim was
two and one-half inches above the ground which Avas still wet from a
recent high tide. The nearest slough was twenty feet away.

Eight or nine eggs constitute a full set ; these are of a light creamy
buff color, spotted, often blotched, with reddish brown and lavender
markings, the latter appearing as if beneath the shell. These mark-
ings are rather evenly distributed over the egg surface, perhaps a
trifle more numerous on the larger end. The eggs are shaped like
hen 's eggs, possibly slightly more pointed on the average ; forty-one
measured by Emerson (1885, p. 143) ranged in inches from 1.61 to
1.82 by 1.17 to 1.30 and averaged 1.72 by 1.23.

Like some other rails this one sometimes builds nests which it never
uses. Three or four new nests, often uncompleted, apparently possess-
ing all the advantages of the one used, are occasionally to be found in
the near vicinity of an occupied nest. Nor is this bird averse to adopt-
ing places out of the ordinary for building its nest. Nests have been
found in old barrels, and one was found on a pile of hay near a salt
marsh (H. R. Taylor, 1894, p. 154). Adams (1900, p. 32) states that
both parents are often seen about the nest and that it is certain that
the male assists in incubation. The female is a very close sitter and
will sometimes remain on the nest until the intruder is within two
feet of her. She will then jump from the nest and either fly away,
or glide swiftly through the grass or along the edge of a slough.

CALIFOBNIA CLAPPER SAIL 287

H. R. Taylor (1894, p. 153) states that one he flushed from her nest
fluttered and limped along, as if to lead him away.

The following description of the downy young is given by Emerson
(1885, p. 142):

One nest of seven glossy jet black chicks was found, seemingly just out of
the shell, one not quite dry. All but this one would hold their long necks
out, moving them from side to side, and calling in a low plaintive tone pe-ee-ep,
pe-ee-ep, very much like a weak young chicken. . . . On skinning one I
noticed a small claw sticking out from the second joint of each wing, not more
than a sixteenth part of an inch long, claw part turning down, of a light horn
color and comparing only to a little kitten's claw; it was found on all the
chicks.

Writing in 1880, W. E. Bryant (p. 124) said of the California
Clapper Rail:

I have found these birds abundant, at all seasons of the year, on the salt
marshes of Oakland, San Mateo, and other marshes that are partially covered
by the highest tides. At such times they may be shot by the dozen, as they
sit upon floating drift-wood, the dead body of an animal, a fence, or, in one
instance, a railroad bridge, from which they would not fly until nearly run
into by an approaching train. Their tameness at all times, especially during
the high tides, is remarkable. If obliged to fly, they start from either land
or water as readily as a Duck. They swim well; but when wounded and
closely pursued, the}' dive, and hold on to the marsh grass beneath the water
to keep from rising.

The birds are close sitters, and not easily flushed; but when once started,
they seem to fly as long as they have the power, sometimes alighting in the
middle of a slough, as though unable to reach the opposite bank. The only
note that I have known them to utter is a harsh cackle, frequently heard at
night.

Like all rails the Clapper Rail is, when need be, very skillful at
keeping out of sight. Sometimes individuals appear shy, flushing at a
distance, or running toward the denser vegetation at great speed, with
lowered head and elusive mien ; at other times they walk out into the
open in bottoms of sloughs at close range and view the intruder seem-
ingly with perfect equanimity. They have a long running stride, and
the body is held close to the ground. The narrowly compressed body
enables them to slip easily between the rigid upright stems of a sort
of rush which grows in thick beds along the larger salt sloughs. If
not thoroughly alarmed rails will sometimes stop or hesitate on open
ground, when the peculiar twitching movement of the tail may be
clearly seen. This member is held vertically and the twitching of it
is rendered conspicuous because of the white color flashed from the
under tail coverts. When walking, the head and tail twitch forward
in unison with each stride. When thoroughly alarmed this Rail will
take to water and swim considerable distances, as, in one observed
instance, across a thirty-foot slough.

288 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

"In Avalking along the slough banks at low tide quietly, they can
be seen wading through the soft mud, probing liere and there for
worms and insects, which mostly compose their food. I have also seen
them come out of the long salt grass along the shore, feeding here and
there at the edge of tide drifts" (Emerson, 1885, p. 142). The food
is made up almost entirely of animal matter — worms, crustaceans,
and the like, as afforded on the salt marshes. In the gullet of a bird
shot on a salt marsh, near an artesian well, W. E. Bryant (1893a, p.
55) found a good-sized frog. Several stomachs from birds taken at
Bay Farm Island, Alameda County, were found by us to contain only
parts of crabs {Hemigrapsus (yregonensis) .

The California Clapper Rail has long been considered an excellent
bird for the table, and formerly great numbers were sold on the
markets of San Francisco. Kennerly (1859, p. 34) says that in his
day it was one of the most numerous of the water birds found in those
markets. So also says Suckley {in Cooper and Suckley, 1859, p. 246).
The weight of an adult bird, freshly taken by the authors, M'as three-
fourths of a pound (340 grams) ; so that the food value of a Clapper
Rail as regards size is not inconsiderable.

The sport furnished in hunting Clapper Rails is of a rather tame
sort ; for the birds are ordinarily not wild, and, owing to their slow,
or sluggish, straight-away flight, are easy to hit on the wing. Unlike
many other game birds this one seems to be but slightly endowed with
effective means of self-preservation. When pursued, a Clapper Rail
is said to sometimes hide its head, ostrich-like, in a tuft of grass ; and
it is not an uncommon thing for dogs to catch the birds alive. For
these reasons, as well as for the fact that they are considered by many
to be excellent eating, these rails have been slaughtered in great
numbers.

Few game birds in this state were more surely on the road to total
extinction than was this species just previous to the passage of the
Federal Migratory Bird Law. The reclaiming of much of their former
breeding grounds was concentrating them into smaller and smaller
areas, where they were still more easily sought out and killed. Ray
(1902, p. 24), speaking of the abundance of this bird in San Mateo
County, says: "As late as 1889, I remember sportsmen returning
with as many as 200 Clapper Rails while now one would find it exceed-
ingly hard to bag a dozen . . .". H. R. Taylor in 1894 (p. 153)
reported that an old market hunter of Alameda told him that rails
were becoming very scarce at that time in the Alameda marshes.
Where they had formerly nested in numbers it was difficult to flush
a single bird. This was believed to be due to persistent hunting
throughout the year. (Since then a summer closed season was estab-
lished.) Mr. Samuel Hubbard, Jr., of Oakland, has stated to us

LIGHT-FOOTED RAIL 289

that formerly diu-iiig liigli tides as many as forty Clapper Rail could
easily be killed along Oakland Creek. None of these birds are to be
found in that locality at the present time. Accounts generally agree
that the California Clapper Rail is much less abundant now than it
once was. Even the extended annual close season, in force for a few
years and now replaced by total protection, was not sufficient to pro-
tect this bird ; for its haunts are so readily accessible to the Bay
cities that hunting remained excessive. In 1913, the Federal Migratory
Bird Law was passed, and within two years a nuirked increase was
observal)le locally on the Alameda County marshes : proof tliat ade-
quate protection long enough continued will restore the species. The
worst enemy of the rail now remaining is the Norway rat which
infests many parts of the salt marshes, and whose depredations during
the nesting season have come to our personal notice.

The California Clapi)er Rail is truly a native of the Golden State,
being found nowhere else in the world. It deserves protection on
esthetic grounds^ if not on economic ones. It is entirely within possi-
bility that at the expii-ation of the present closed term of years, hunt-
ing can again be safely allowed — witli of course, a small bag limit
and short season.

Light-footed Rail

Rallus Icvipes Bangs

Other names — Southern California Clapper Kail; Clapper Rail, part; Bangs
Bail; Bcilhis obsoletus, part.

Description — Adults, both sexes: Similar to California Clapper Rail, but
with back darker and more olive in tone, breast a richer tone of cinnamon, and
size slightly smaller. Top and sides of head blackish brown ; top of head
with black, bristle-like feather-tips; streak of light cinnamon or dull white
from base of bill backwards over eye; chin and throat white, bordered along
sides and behind with cinnamon, the latter blending with the darker tones of
sides of head and neck; iris dark brown; bill brownish orange at base, dusky
along ridge and at tip; rest of upper surface including rump and tail, olive
brown broadly striped with blackish; outer surface of closed wing chiefly
cinnamon brown; inner secondaries like back, and rest of flight feathers dark
brown; axillars and under surface of wing brown barred narrowly with white;
foreneck and breast deep cinnamon, fading to buffy white on belly; sides and
flanks dark grayish brown barred sharply with white; lower tail coverts like
flanks, except for outermost feathers which are white; legs and feet dull orange
brown, darkest at joints. Males: Total length 15.00-16.44 inches (.381-417
mm.); folded wing 6.08-6.27 (155-160); bill along culmen 2.22-2.37 (56.4-60.2);
tarsus 2.24-2..35 (57.0-59.7) (six specimens). Females: Total length 14.75-
15.19 (375-386) (four specimens); folded wing 5.48-5.87 (139-149); bill along
culmen 2.05-2.14 (52.2-54.3); tarsus 1.98-2.14 (50..3-54.3) (six specimens).
Juvenile plumage: Probably similar to that of California Clapper Rail (which
see). Natal plumage: Wholly uniform glossy black; bill dusky, with yellowish
white band near end, and yellow spot about nostril; feet (dried) blackish.

290 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

Marks fok field identification — Same as for California Clapper Rail. In
hand may be distinguished from that species by olive brown rather than
grayish brown tone on upper surface, deeper cinnamon color of breast, and
whitish instead of rusty stripe from bill over eye; also by smaller size, espe-
cially of foot and bill (compare figs. 48 and 49).

Voice — Like that of California Clapper Rail.

Nest — In salt marshes (usually) along the seacoast; constructed of stems
of marsh vegetation.

Eggs — 6 to 9, ovate to elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 1.69
to 1.77 by 1.21 to 1.26 (in millimeters, 42.8 to 45.0 by 30.8 to 32.0), and averag-
ing 1.72 by 1.23 (43.7 by 31.3); color creamy white, evenly and rather sparsely
spotted and blotched with umber brown and lavender (one set, seven eggs, in
Mus. Vert. Zool.).

General DISTRIBUTION — Coastal region of southern California, and of Lower
California south to San Quintin Bay. Casual at Yuma, Arizona.

Distribution in California — Common resident on salt marshes of southern
seacoast, from Santa Barbara to and including San Diego Bay.

The Light-footed Rail, which inhabits the coastal marshes of south-
ern California and Lower California, is so closely similar to the Cali-
fornia Clapper Rail that it might be considered merely a southern
race of the latter. Neither of them is migratory, and there is a strip
of coast nearly two hundred miles in extent between the southern limit
of the California Clapper Rail and the northernmost station for the
Light-footed Rail. Practically all of the coastal marshes from the
vicinity of Santa Barbara south to and including the vicinity of San
Diego Bay are inhabited by the present species, and it is also found
along the coast of northern Lower California.

The Light-footed Rail is slightly smaller than the California
Clapper Rail, is somewhat darker colored on the back and breast, and
the light stripe from the bill over the eye is whitish instead of rusty.
Since the ranges are so distinctly separated, these two species are most
easily identified by locality, after they have once been determined as
Clapper Rails.

There are no essential differences in the general habits of the two
species. The Light-footed Rail, however, has been found breeding in
an inland brackish marsh, though, to be sure, this was not far from
the seacoast. Willett (1906, p. 151) found a nest in some reeds at the
edge of Nigger Slough, Los Angeles County, on May 29, 1906. The
nest was a very loose affair, the foundation being composed of decayed
tules and reeds, and the upper part, containing the cavity, of broken
bits of tule stalks. When first found, the nest contained three fresh
eggs, and when reexamined on June 14 it held nine eggs partially
incubated. The eggs were creamy white, spotted and blotched with
umber and lavender, principally around the large end, the lavender
markings having the appearance of being beneath the surface of the
shell. The eggs measured 1.56 to 1.61 inches long by 1.12 to 1.16 broad.

riEGINIA BAIL 291

A set of seven lialf-ineubated eggs in the ^luseuni of ^\'l•tebl•ate
Zoology was taken by F. Stephens on False Bay, near San Diego,
April 10, 1908. The nest was eomposed of rotting stems of pickle-weed,
and was situated on the ground in a thick growth of the same plant
at the edge of the salt marsh. The male bird was flushed from the
nest. These eggs measure 1.69 to 1.78 inches by 1.22 to 1.26, and
average 1.24 by 1.73, being thus decidedly larger than the set described
above. Two other sets of seven eggs each were found on the same
day (Stephens, MS). Eggs have also been reported as follows: Bal-
lona, Los Angeles County, i\Iay 16, 1894, set of six slightly incubated
eggs (Grinnell, 1898, p. 15) ; Bay City, Orange County, March 19,
1910, set of nine fresh eggs (Willett, 1912<^^ p. 32) ; San Diego, April
16, 1895, and April 8 to 10, 1900, sets in Thayer collection (Cooke,
1914, p. 18). Three small young (in Mus. Vert. Zool.), in the curious
black natal dress, were taken near National City. San Diego County,
June 11, 1908; these were part of a brood seen swinnning just outside
the marsh vegetation at the edge of the bay (Stephens, MS).

Henshaw (1876, p. 273) states that, in 1875, in the vicinity of
Santa Barbara, this rail was common, and that by the first of July
the young were out and able to accompany their parents in search of
food. They began to be active about sunset.

Willett (1912f/, p. 32) says that at extreme higli tides the Clapper
Kail swims on the water after the fashion of Coots, and, as the Rails
are at such times easily approached, they are killed in large numbers
by the hunters. This pertained, of course, to the time before the
enactment of the Federal law providing a five-year close season. In
many of the marshes in southern California where this rail was
formerly common, as for instance around Santa Barbara, it has been
practically exterminated. Like the California Clapper Rail this south-
ern race should be accorded absolute protection until such time as its
numbers return to normal, after which shooting might be allowed
under conditions of moderation insuring the safety of the species.

Virginia Rail
Rallus virginianiis Linnaeus

Other name — Sweetwater Rail.

Description — Adults, both sexes: Top of head aiid hind neck blackish, nar-
rowly streaked with olive brown; sides of head uniform lead color; patch
between base of bill and eye blackish; above this patch a streak of brownish
white; chin white, blending into cinnamon of throat and breast; iris "bright
red" (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 178); bill dark brown, the lower mandible and
edges of upper mandible more yellowish brown; back, scapulars, rump, upper
tail coverts, and tail, olive brown, broadly striped with black; outer surface
of closed wing chestnut brown; flight feathers dusky brown; axillars dusky

292 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

brown barred with white; under surface of winjj plain dusky brown; breast
and under surface cinnamon brown fading to lighter on belly; flanks blackishj
barred narrowly with white; lower tail coverts mixed blackish, white, and
cinnamon; legs and feet yellowish brown. Males: Total length 10.00-10.50
inches (254-267 mm.) (two specimens from California); folded wing 4.14-
4.33 (105-110); bill along culmen 1.53-1.71 (39.0-43.4); tarsus 1.40-1.49 (35.6-
37.6) (nine specimens from California and Vancouver Island). Females: Total
length 9.31-10.00 (236-254) (three specimens from California); folded
wing 3.76-4.17 (95.3-106.0); bill along culmen 1.38-1.59 (35.0-40.3); tarsus
1.30-1.45 (33.1-36.8) (ten specimens from California). Juveiiile plumage: Top
of head, hind neck, fore-back, and rump, dull black with traces of buffy
feather-edgings; chin and throat extensively white; head otherwise as in
adult; wings and tail as in adult; lower surface mixed black and white, the
latter predominating down middle of breast and on belly; lower tail coverts
dull cinnamon. Natal plumage: Entirely black, with greenish and steel blue
reflections; bill scarlet or orange-red except for black band across upper
mandible and black basal part of lower mandible.

Marks for field identification — Medium size (about that of a Killdeer),
long, slender, brownish bill (fig. 50), cinnamon-colored breast, and olive brown
back broadly streaked with black. Closely resembles Clapper Rail in pro-
portions and coloration, but of less than one-third the bulk of that bird.
Distinguished from Sora by much longer and slenderer bill (compare fig. 51),
lack of black on face, and presence of bright cinnamon on lower surface; dis-
tinguished from Yellow Rail by much larger size, longer bill, and absence of
narrow white bars on back and wing coverts.

Voice — Cut, cut, cutta-cutta-cutta ; during the breeding season a rapid suc-
cession of low, yet penetrating grunts not unlike those of a hungry pig
(Brewster, 1902&, p. 47).

Nest — Of dead grasses, sedges, or tules gathered in a heap, with a shallow
depression on top; usually well concealed in dense vegetation.

Eggs — 5 to 12, rounded oval in shape, measuring in inches, 1.18 to 1.36 by
0.83 to 1.00 (in millimeters, 30.1 to 34.5 by 21.2 to 25.3), and averaging 1.28
by 0.93 (32.5 by 23.7) (eighteen eggs from Utah); ground color pale buffy
gray, with superficial spots and dots of reddish brown, chiefly around larger
end, and deeper ones of lavender.

General distribution — North America. Breeds from British Columbia, south-
ern Saskatchewan, southern Keewatin, Ontario, southern Quebec, and New
Brunswick south to southern California, Utah, Kansas, Missouri, Illinois, New
Jersey, and eastern North Carolina, and in the Toluca Valley, near the City of
Mexico; winters from British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, Utah, and Colo-
rado, to Lower California and Guatemala, also in the lower Mississippi states,,
and from North Carolina (casually Massachusetts) to Florida (A. O. U. Check-
list, 1910, p. 103; Cooke, 1914, pp. 23-24).

Distribution in California — Common in summer throughout the state,
chiefly in fresh-water marshes. Breeds south to Escondido, San Diego County
(Sharp, 1907, p. 86). Also fairly common in winter, on both fresh water and
salt marshes, west of the Sierras, north at least to Suisun Marshes. Solano
County (Mus. Vert. Zool.), and Tomales Bay, Marin County (Mailliard, MS).

Rails are so reclusive in their habits and frequent such dense
marsliy growths that most people know very little about them. In
fact, people often live within a stone's throw of the habitat of these

FIBGINIA RAIL 293

birds without being aware of their presence. Of the six species of
rails occurring in this state the Virginia has the widest general range ;
it is found almost everywhere throughout California and in most other
parts of North America as well. Even though it is a seemingly poor
flyer it migrates south during the winter months and spends the cold
season south of its breeding grounds. During the nesting season it
is found as far north on the Pacific coast as British Columbia, but in
winter it does not usually remain north of the latitude of central
California. During the summer months it may be found nesting in
almost any portion of the state where proper conditions offer. It
frequents both fresh and salt water marshes although chiefly the
former.

As regards proportions of body and pattern of coloration the \'ir-
ginia Rail is almost a duplicate of the California Clapper Rail, but
it is much smaller, being of about the bulk of a Killdeer. From marsh-
inhabiting birds other than
rails it may be distin-
guished by its long, slender,
brownish bill (fig. 50),

bright red eye, short tail "^^"'"- ^071

(which is usuallv held in a
vertical position), cinna- n,^S,,\°,,^""= »' ''"' "' ^"^^ "'•'■

mon-colored under surface,

J ,. , I, 1 mi Note slender form (compare with fig. 51)

and olive brown back. Ihe and small size (compare with figs. 48 and 49).

flanks are blackish, barred

with white. From the Sora Rail, a bird of about the same size as the
Virginia and to be found in the same situations, the latter species may
be known by its much longer and slenderer bill, by the lack of black
on its face, and by the presence of cinnamon rather than gray on
the under surface of its body. The Yellow Rail is much smaller than
the Virginia, and has a shorter bill and narrow white bars on the
upper surface of its body.

The breeding range of the Virginia Rail in California extends
almost the entire length of the state. Eggs were taken at Fort Crook,
Shasta County, May 13, 1861 (Cooke, 1914, p. 24) ; and the species
is known to have nested at San Pasqual, San Diego County (Sharp,
1907, p. 86). As to altitude, it has nested from sea level, as at New-
port, Orange County (Willett, 1912a, p. 32), up to at least 4,000 feet
in Papoose Valley, Lassen County (Sheldon, 1907, p. 187). The
nesting season extends from early April — April 13 in one instance
(Willett, loc. cit.) — to late June (Sheldon, loc. cit.). The records at
hand as shown in the accompanying table (no. 12) indicate that the
height of the nesting season is between the middle of May and the
first week in June.

294

GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

Table 12 — Data relative to the nesting of the Virginia Eail in California

Locality

Date

Nest Contexts and Authority

Ballona, Los Angeles Co. Apr. 13, 1902
Alvarado, Alameda Co. Apr. 23, 1915

Condition
Eggs, 2 sets, fresh
1 egg : fresh-water
marsh

Fort Crook, Shasta Co.
Newport, Orange Co.
Los Baiios, Merced Co.
Los Bafios, Merced Co.
Ramona, San Diego Co.
Near Coulterville,

Mariposa Co.
Sespe, Ventura Co.
Papoose A'alley,

Lassen Co.
Olema, Marin Co.

Woodland, Yolo Co.
San Pasqual,
San Diego Co.

May 13, 1861

May 13, 1906

May 20, 1916

June 2, 1888

June 5, 1916

June .., 1907
Late June,

1905
Spring of 1884

Spring of 1886
1900 and 1902

6 eggs

10 eggs, fresh
8 eggs, fresh
Young seen
10 eggs, fresh

2 young and 1 egg
Nesting

About a dozen nests,

5 to 9 eggs
A nest
Nested

Willett, 1912a, p. 32
H. C. Bryant, 1915c,

p. 194
Cooke, 1914, p. 24
Willett, 1912a, p. 32
Fair, MS.
Fair, MS.

Willett, 1912a, p. 33
Mcl^ean, MS'.

Willett, 1912a, p. 32
Sheldon, 1907, p. 187

IngersoU, in Belding, MS.

Belding, MS.
Sharp, 1907, p. 86

Ordinarily the Virginia Rail chooses drier ground on which to build
its nest than does the Sora. Usually a pile of broken-down tules is
used as a foundation, and on this the nest itself, which is often con-
structed of the same material, or of dry grasses, is placed. Usually
the nest is well concealed, even though its foundation may raise it a
foot or more from the ground. A typical nest found by Sheldon (1907,
p. 187) in Papoose Valley, Lassen County, was made of the dry husks
of tule stems and placed among low tules.

As reported by different observers the eggs number from five to
twelve in a complete set. In shape they are roundedly oval, while in
size they average 1.28 by 0.93 inches. The ground-color is pale buffy
gray, with superficial spots of reddish brown and deeper ones of
lavender. The markings are rather sparsely distributed except at the
larger end of the egg. The eggs of the Virginia differ from those
of the Sora in having a lighter ground color and more reddish mark-
ings. Sets of eggs of the Virginia Rail usually number less than those
of the Sora.

Concerning the voice of the Virginia Rail, Brewster (1902&, pp.
47-48), writing from Massachusetts, says:

About the middle of April we begin to hear in our marshes, usually in the
early morning, late afternoon or during cloudy weather, and coming from some
briary thicket or bed of matted reeds, a guttural I'ut, cut, cutta-cutta-cutta
repeated at brief intervals, often for hours in succession. This is occasionally
interrupted or closely followed by a rapid succession of low yet penetrating
grunts not unlike those of a hungry pig. The Virginia Eail is the author
of both these sounds, the former appearing to be peculiar to the male and, no
doubt, his love song. When heard very near at hand it has a peculiar vibrant
quality and seems to issue from the ground directly beneath one's feet. The
grunting notes are given by both sexes, but, with rare exceptions, only during
the breeding season. The female when anxious about her eggs or young also
calls li-hi-Jci and sometimes kiu like a Flicker.

VIEGINIA BAIL 295

In a small fresh-water marsh near Coulterville, ^Mariposa County,
Donald JMcLean (MS) discovered and watched a nest of the Virginia
Rail during the season of 1916. It was a tower-like structure about
eight inches in height and the same in diameter, and was composed
of flat marsh grasses. On June 5 the nest held ten eggs which were
just beginning to be incubated. Whenever anyone approached the
vicinity of the nest the incubating bird (female?) would utter low
clucking sounds. Sometimes she \vould slip quietly off and stand
nearby in the marsh grass ; again she splashed through the water as
she departed. Nothing was heard or seen of the male until June 18
when he made his presence known by an ear-piercing w'histle which
the female answered in a lower tone. He was more Avary than she
and did not come near the nest. On June 19 there were six coal black
young in the nest. They had black-ringed pink bills and very large
feet. With the hatching of the young, the demeanor of the female
changed. Now she became quite fearless and Avould walk out to
within three feet of an observer, fluffing out her feathers after the
manner of a domestic hen. and uttering many clucks and whistles.
The male answered these calls but would not show himself except
momentarily. By the afternoon of the twentieth the last egg had
hatched and the next morning the whole family had departed.

Bowles (1893, p. 115) states that in Massachusetts he has found
a Virginia Rail destroying her eggs after they were disturbed in her
absence. In one instance when he returned to a nest which he had
discovered a few minutes previously he found one of the parents
driving her bill through the eggs in quick succession, and later he
found another nest which gave evidence of the same sort of treatment.
That this is a general trait seems doubtful.

The Virginia Rail keeps well to cover, and like its allies is more
often heard than seen. But if the observer wall remain quiet for a
short time the bird will sometimes become inquisitive and approach
within a few feet. When frightened it seldom takes wing, but prefers
to slip away through the close-growing marsh vegetation. Small
stretches of ojjen water form no serious barrier, for the bird is able
to swim easily. It flies close to the ground, even in migration, and
is consequently one of the birds which commonly meets death by
flying against wire fences and telegraph lines.

Rails are, partially at least, nocturnal in habits, and feed at night
as well as in the daytime. Their food is made up almost entirely of
small animals such as earthworms, snails, caterpillars, and insects,
mostly beetles. Some vegetable matter, principally weed seeds, is
probably taken when the supply of insects runs low (Forbush, 1912,
p. 209). The stomach of a Virginia Rail taken at Los Baiios, Merced
County, May 22, 1914, and examined by us, contained nothing but
beetles (3 Carabids, 2 Sphenophorus sp., 1 Hydrophyllid).

296 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

By some, the Virginia Rail is adjudged a delicious bird for the
table, but it is of small size, not nearly as big as a Valley Quail. "Where
this species is abundant no skill whatever is required to kill a large
number. For both these reasons it cannot be considered as important
a game bird from the sportsman's point of view as its larger relative,
the Clapper Rail. Snipe shooters often get a chance to shoot Virginia
Rails, but seldom do so, and there are few men in this state who pur-
posely pursue these birds either for food or for sport.

This Rail has seldom been seen in the markets of California cities,
and the small amount of shooting it has received has permitted it
pretty well to hold its own. Even if hunted to a greater extent in
the future than at present, the species would have a good chance to
survive in numbers because of its generally seclusive habits.

Sera Rail

Porzana Carolina (Linnaeus)

Other names — Common Rail; Carolina Eail.

Description — Adults, both sexes: Top of head olive brown, with median
stripe of black; sides of head and neck, with extension above eye to forehead,
lead color; whole face (that is, area between eye and bill, continuous across
forehead) and a longitudinal stripe down chin, throat, and foreneck, black;
iris "brown"; bill "greenish yellow (more orange, especially at base in
summer adults)" (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 370); upper surface
olive brown, continuous up hind neck to top of head; back streaked broadly
with black, and narrowly lined with* white; outer upper tail coverts narrowly
barred, black and white; tail feathers black, broadly margined with olive
brown; outer surface of closed wing and flight feathers, nearly uniform olive
brown, but wdth innermost secondaries and tertials showing white lines like
back; breast lead color; sides, flanks, axillars, and under surface of wing
conspicuously barred with brownish slate and white; belly and central under
tail coverts creamy white; under tail coverts otherwise pale buff; legs and
feet greenish. Males: Total length 8.50-9.37 inches (216-237 mm.) (seven
specimens from California and eastern states); folded wing 3.97-4.42 (101.0-
112.4); bill along culmen 0.75-0.89 (19.0-22.7); tarsus 1.24-1.44 (31.6-36.7)
(ten specimens from California). Females: Total length 8.00-8.97 (203-228)
(four specimens from eastern states); folded wing 3.90-4.10 (99.0-104.2); bill
along culmen 0.71-0.73 (18.0-18.7); tarsus 1.18-1.29 (30.0-32.8) (three speci-
mens from California); weight 1.7 oz. (48 gm.) (one specimen from California)..
Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult, but with black and slaty areas on
head and throat nearly or quite wanting; sides of head and forehead dull
lauffy brown; top of head duller olive brown, with narrow or interrupted black
stripe; chin and throat whitish; rest of neck, and breast, light buffy brown.
Natal plumage: "Bill short, . . . high at base, rapidly tapering, the tip
deflected. The whole body densely covered with dull black down, beyond
-which are produced abundant long, glossy, black hair-like filaments. Upon the
throat is a tuft of stiff, coarse, bristle-like feathers of a bright orange-color.
These are directed forward, and give the bird a most singular appearance"
(Brewster, 1879, p. 46).

SOB A BAIL 297

Makks for field IDENTIFICATION' — Moderately small size (less than that of
Killdeer), of usual rail aspect and habits; short, chicken-like greenish yellow
bill (fig. 51), black throat, and slaty tone of under surface. Distinguished
from Virginia Eail by somewhat smaller size, and much shorter bill (compare
fig. 50). Both the Yellow and Black rails are much smaller.

Voice — A clear whistled ker-ivee, now and then interrupted by a high-
pitched rolling whinny which, like a call of alarm, is taken up and repeated
by different birds all over the marsh (Chapman, 1912, p. 234).

Nest — Made of dry grass, weeds, or rushes, placed on wet ground, or often
supported upon vegetation above water, and usually well concealed in growing
vegetation.

Eggs — 4 to 15, ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 1.14 to 1.29 by 0.86 to
0.92 (in millimeters, 29.0 to 32.7 by 21.9 to- 23.3), and averaging 1.24 by 0.89
(30.6 by 22.5); ground color buffy drab marked scatteringly with spots of
reddish brown and dull purplish gray (two sets, twenty-four eggs, from
California and Nevada).

General distribution — North America. Breeds from central British
Columbia, southern Mackenzie, central Keewatin, and Gulf of St. Lawrence
south to southern California, Utah, Colorado, Kansas, Illinois, and Pennsylvania;
winters from northern California, Illinois and South Carolina through the West
Indies and Central America to Venezuela and Peru (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910,
p. 104).

Distribution in California — Common in summer in appropriate localities
throughout the state; southernmost breeding station, Escondido, San Diego
County (Sharp, 1907, p. 86). Fairly common in winter in interior valleys west
of the Sierras, north at least to Butte County; northernmost winter record,
mouth of Mad Eiver, Humboldt County (C. H. Townsend, 1887, p. 197). Once
reported from Farallon Islands (Keeler, 1892, p. 164).

Throughout California the Sora is one of the commonest of the
rails. It is most abundant in fresh-water marshes but it also occurs at
times on the salt marshes. In summer it is apparently more abundant
and widespread than in winter, and this fact has given rise to the belief
that most of the birds of this species move southward out of the state
during the winter months. During the spring and fall migrations
Soras appear in many isolated localities where they are not known
to breed and this but strengthens the idea that they pass out of the
state for the winter. The species is common in Mexico and Central
America during the winter months and at the same season is found in
small numbers as far north as the Sacramento Valley and Humboldt
County, California. Belding (MS) found it at Stockton as late as
October, 1880, and said that it wintered in fair numbers on suitable
ground near San Diego. Winter specimens are in the Museum of
Vertebrate Zoology from the following localities : Los Baiios, Merced
County ; Modesto, Stanislaus County ; Martinez, Contra Costa County ;
and the Suisun Marshes, Solano County.

This rail is hardly as large as a robin and this fact alone will serve
to distinguish it from either of our Clapper Rails. The short, chicken-

298 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

like bill (fig. 51), the slaty tone of the under surface and the presence
of black on the face and throat are enough to distinguish the Sora
from the slightly larger Virginia Rail. From both the Yellow and
Black rails the Sora is separable by its larger size, as well as different
coloration. In habits this species closely resembles the Virginia
Rail.

From records at hand, April and May seem to be the months when
most birds of this species nest. In California the earliest date for
eggs is April 18, and the latest June 10. These extremes are, in part,
however, accounted for by differences in altitude, the early date being
for Whittier, in the lowlands of Los Angeles County, and the late
one for Lake Tahoe.

The nest of the Sora is usually built on the ground and well con-
cealed in tules or tall grass. One found by H. C. Bryant (1915c, p.
194:, and IMS) in a small fresh-water marsh near Alvarado, Alameda
County, on April 23, 1915, was situated in a clump of pickle-weed

{Salicoruki) , and consisted of a large
"^ mass of dry sedge stems and grass
l)lades, the latter chiefly composing the
lining. The nest proper rested on a mass
5486 of vegetation which raised it fully six

inches above the ground. Externally it
Side of bill of • ^ i • i • t

Natural size. was approxuuately seven inches m di-

,. , 1 ,• 1 4. i ^ ameter and three and one-half inches

Note relatively stout torm

(compare with "fig. 50). liigh. The saucer-shaped depression

holding the eggs was about four inches
across and two and one-half deep. The fourteen eggs which this nest
contained were arranged in a single layer except for one egg which
topped the rest. The incubation of these eggs ranged from quite
fresh to far advanced, showing either that some of the eggs had failed
of sufficient warmth to carry on incubation, or that the birds had com-
menced to sit as soon as the first few eggs had been deposited. The
latter surmise is more probably the correct one.

Ray (1913, pp. 112-114) records the discovery of a nest among
tall grass in Bijou meadow at Lake Tahoe, June 4, 1909. It held the
unusually small complement of four eggs, and strange to say two of
these were pipped while two were infertile. A second nest found at
Al-Tahoe marsh, June 10, consisted of dry tules "laced to tules above
water three feet deep." This contained thirteen eggs in varying
stages of incubation. The same author (Ray, 19126, p. 145) found a
nest at Rowland's, Lake Tahoe, May 31, 1910, also with thirteen eggs.
Six sets of from seven to fourteen eggs, were taken by A. M. Shields
in a marsh near Los Angeles in 1886 (Davie, 1889, p. 102). A set of
six slightly incubated eggs was found near Whittier, April 18, 1896,

SOMA BAIL 299

and another set of six eggs was found at Nigger Slough, also in Los
Angeles County, May 13, 1911 (Willett, 1912a, p. 33).

JMerrill (1888, p. 144) writing from Fort Klamath, Oregon, in
1887, says: "A nest found May 27 was among water grass near the
edge of a shallow pool, and m' as supported by the stalks of the grass ;
the eggs wi»r(» raised about six inches above the water, but the founda-
tion of the nest was wet ; it was composed entirely of the dead stalks
and blades of the grass, and was rudely arched over with growing
blades of the same. It contained twelve eggs from which the young
would liave soon appeared . . . ." Another nest similarly located
and containing nine nearly fresh eggs was found in the same locality,
June 15.

W. P. Taylor (1912, p. 358) describes the nest of a Sora Rail
found on Quinn River, Humboldt County, Nevada, May 22, 1909,
as being built in an ojien bunch of marsh grass, with the bottom of
the nest so near the water that it was damp. Marsh grass was its
principal structural constituent, some of the stems being still green.
The fragments incorporated into the lining were smaller than those
in the main body of the nest. The whole structure was securely inter-
woven among the grass-stalks which partly supported it. It was over-
shadowed and effectively concealed by a frail canopy of broken-down
stems. Ten eggs constituted the set.

As indicated by the instances cited above, full sets of eggs number
from four to fourteen ; but ten or twelve would seem to be the average
number per set. The eggs are of ordinary ovate shape, and measure,
in inches, 1.14 to 1.29 by 0.86 to 0.92, averaging 1.20 by 0.88 (twenty-
four eggs in Mus. Vert. Zool., from California and Nevada). The
ground-color is notably dark, being deep cream or drab decidedly
darker than that on the eggs of the Virginia Rail, and the sparsely
distributed markings are of reddish brown and dull purplish gray.

The young, like those of other rails, are of a general black color,
and are capable of taking care of themselves soon after leaving the
shell.

The Sora contributes importantly to the medley of sounds which
issues from the average marsh. The following two quoted paragraphs
pertaining to Massachusetts afford the best description available to
us, of the notes of this rail :

111 the more opeii, grassy stretches of meadow, as well as amoiig the beds
of cattail flags, but seldom, if ever, in thickets of bushes, we also hear, after
the middle of April, mingling with the notes of Virginia Eails and the din
of countless frogs, the love song of the Carolina Eail, a sweet, plaintive er'-e
given with a rising inflection and suggesting one of the ' ' scatter calls ' ' of the
Quail. Such, at least, is its general effect at distances of from fifty to two
or three hundred yards, but very near at hand it develops a somewhat harsh

300 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA

or strident quality and sounds more like kci-c, while at the extreme limits of
ear range one of the syllables is lost and ths other might be easily mistaken
for the peep of a Pickering's hyla [a species of tree-toad]. This note, repeated
at short, regular intervals, many times in succession, is one of the most fre-
quent as well as pleasing voices of the marsh in the early morning and just
after sunset. It is also given intermittently at all hours of the day, especially
in cloudy weather, while it is often continued, practically without cessation,
through the entire night.

Equally characteristic of this season and even more attractive in quality
is what has been termed the "whinny" of the Carolina Eail. It consists of
a dozen or fifteen short whistles as sweet and clear in tone as a silver bell.
The first eight or ten are uttered very rapidly iu an evenly descending scale,
the remaining ones more deliberately and in a uniform key. The whole series
is often followed by a varying number of harsher, more drawling notes given
at rather wide intervals. Although it is probable that the ' ' whinny ' ' is made
by both sexes I have actually traced it only to the female. She uses it
apparently, chiefly as a call to her mate, but I have also repeatedly heard her
give it just after I had left the immediate neighborhood of her nest, seemingly
as an expression- of triumph or rejoicing at the discovery that her eggs had
not been molested. When especially anxious for their safety and circling close
about the human intruder she often utters a low whining murmur closely
resembling that which the Muskrat makes while pursuing his mate and some-
times a cut-cut-cutta not unlike the song of the Virginia Rail, but decidedly
less loud and vibrant. In addition to all these notes both sexes have a variety
of short, sharp cries which they give when startled by any sudden noise
(Brewster, 1902&, p. 48).

The flight of the Sora Rail among the reeds is usually low, and, shelter
being abundant, is rarely extended to more than fifty or a hundred yards.
"When winged, and uninjured in its legs, it dives and swims with great rapidity,
and is seldom seen again. On such occasions it has been found clinging with
its feet to the reeds, under the water, or skulking under the floating vegetation
with its bill just above the surface. This bird is apparently weak and delicate
in everything except its legs; but these possess great vigor; and its body being
remarkably thin, it is able to pass readily between the reeds. Though its
flight seems feeble, yet it occasionally rises to a considerable height, stretches
its legs out behind it, and flies rapidly across the Delaware where it is more
than a mile wide (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 373).

"To avoid flying, when their field is being mowed they will often
stay in the fast narrowing strip of green until they must go or meet
the sharp teeth of the sickle, when perhaps a dozen will rise one after
another and fly to fresh cover'' (V. Bailey in Bailey, 1902, p. 81).
Ranchers have stated to us that these birds are often driven in like
manner from California alfalfa fields. Soras are said to answer a clap-
ping of the hands with a mocking, cackling laugh. In the marshes
they are noisy birds especially towards sunset. "They seem so
absorbed by their musical devotions that even when calling con-
tinuously it requires endless patience and keen eyes to see the dull-
colored, motionless forms in places where one would not suppose there
was sufficient growth to conceal them" (Chapman, 1912, pp. 234-235).

YELLOW FAIL 301

The flight of the Sora is so slow aud labored and the bird seems so reluctant
to use its wings that some writers have supposed that it was unable to fly
long distances and that its migration was therefore a series of short flights
or even performed on foot. As a matter of fact the Sora is among the long-
distance migrants, the most northern breeders traveling not less than 2,500
miles to the nearest wnnter home; and those wintering south of the equator
being at least 3,000 miles from the nearest breeding grounds. Thousands
make the hundred-mile flight between Florida and Cuba, and there is reason
to believe that many individuals easily achieve the 500-mile passage from
Florida to Yucatan, and the equally long journey from the West Indies across
the Caribbean Sea to South America (Cooke, 1914, p. 4).

The food of the Sora consists mainly of insects, but snails and
other aqnatic animals are taken. In the eastern states it is known to
be fond of wild rice, and doubtless here, too, vegetable matter forms
a good part of its food at certain times of the year.

In the east thousands of Soi-a Rails were formerly killed by sports-
men and market hunters during the fall migration, when the birds
concentrated in the coastal marshes. Although easy to shoot, this
bird has been highly prized by eastern sportsmen on account of its
attractiveness for the table. In California this rail is so scattered
in its distribution as not to have attracted concentrated attention from
hunters, and its numbers here do not seem to have been much affected
except as a result of the reclamation of marsh land.

This species like the Virginia Rail seems to be pretty well able
to take care of itself, and unless more aggressive means are taken for
its destruction it may well be expected to persist in fair numbers
within our state. There is no data at hand which will allow of a
statement as to the exact status of the Sora Rail in California at the
present time. The rapid rate of reproduction, as indicated by the
large average complement of eggs laid, would seem to guarantee a
large annual crop of Soras, if breeding conditions Avere favorable
over extensive areas.

Yellow Rail

Coturnicops noveboracensis (Gmelin)

Other name — Ortygops noveboracensis.

Description — Adults, both sexes: Top of head and whole of upper surface
including tail, blackish, broadly streaked with yellowish brown (as feather
margins), and barred narrowly with pure white; the bars are sparsest, or
even wanting, on top of head, and most distinct and widest separated on
lower back; sides of head and neck, continuous with breast, yellowish brown,
with regions immediately below eye and between eye and bill, dusky; chin
white or buflfy white; iris brown; bill "greenish-black, with the base dull
yellowish-orange" (Audubon, 1842, V, p. IS*?); outer surface of closed wing
like back; flight feathers slaty brown except for white patch formed by white

302 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA

ends of secondaries; axillars and lining of wing, white or mixed white and
dusky; breast yellowish brown; belly white; sides and flanks blackish or
dusky brown, narrowly barred with white; under tail coverts chestnut brown;
legs and feet light brown. Some specimens have white bars on top of head
broken into spots and occasionally extending down onto sides of head and
even around onto breast. Whether this condition is a mark of old age or of
immaturity is not apparent. Males: Total length 7.50 inches (190 mm.) (one
specimen); folded wing 3.34-3.53 (84.8-89.5); bill along culmen 0.63-0.66 (16.0-
16.8); tarsus 0.91-1.02 (23.1-25.9) (five specimens). Females: Total length
6.50 (165) (one specimen); folded wing 3.20-3.36 (81.3-85.3); bill along culmen
0.58-0.64 (14.7-16.3); tarsus 0.91-0.92 (23.0-23.4) (three specimens); all from
California. Juvenile and natal plumages: Not known to us.

Marks for field identification — Eail characters of form, small size, yellow-
ish brown cast of coloration, and presence of narrow white cross-bars which
contrast conspieuously with the otherwise streaked upper surface, and white
patch on wing shown in flight. In all our other rails, except the dark-colored
Black Eail, the back markings run lengthwise.

Voice — Not definitely known; thought to be similar to that of the Black
Eail (Eaton, 1910, pp. 281, 282).

Nest — Seems to be not yet described, but probably situated on the ground
and similar to the nests of other rails.

Eggs — 5 (?), ovate in shape, measuring in inches, about 1.06 to 1.16 by
0.81 to 0.85 (in millimeters, 27.0 to 29.5 by 20.5 to 21.5), and averaging 1.11
by 0.83 (28.2-21.0); ground color pinkish buff; a small dense cap of fine dots
of orange cinnamon, mikado brown and vinaceous drab on large end; dots more
sparingly distributed elsewhere on surface (5 eggs, a set?, in U. S. National
Museum, taken in Illinois).

General distribution — North America from central Canada to the Gulf
Coast. Occurs in summer from southern Mackenzie, central Keewatin, and
Quebec south to North Dakota, Minnesota, Illinois, and Maine; winters in the
Gulf states and California, visiting more rarely New York, North Carolina,
Bermuda, Oregon, and Arizona (Cooke, 1914, p. 32).

Distribution in California — Bather rare winter visitant to marshes of west-
central California: Martinez, Contra Costa County (Cooper, 1868, p. 8);
Alvarado, Alameda County (W. E. Bryant, 1886, p. 426) ; Alameda County
(Kaeding, 1898a, p. 70); Sonoma County (Carriger, 1899, p. 72); Eincon Valley,
Sonoma County (Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; Suisun Marshes, Solano County (Mus. Vert.
Zool.) ; Los Bafios, Merced County (Mus. Vert. Zool.); Marin County (J. Mail-
liard, 1901, p. 16); San Mateo County and Berryessa, Santa Clara County
(Cooke, 1914, p. 32). Also recorded from Humboldt Bay (C. H. Townsend,
1886, p. 491); Newport Bay, Orange County (Osburn, 1911b, p. 108); and
Corona, Eiverside (Pierce, 1914, p. 182).

The Yellow Rail in California must be classed purely as a winter
visitant. Like certain geese and the Mountain Plover it seems to have
a diagonal route of migration from the north-central portion of the
continent. Its breeding grounds appear to lie mostly north of the
United States in central and eastern Canada. Not all of the birds of
this species winter on the Pacific coast, however, for a large contingent
moves directly southward and spends the colder months in the Gulf
states. West of the Rockies the species has been found only in Cali-

YELLOW BAIL 303

foniia, Oregon, and Nevada, and in but one instance in each of the
latter two states. Even in California, the Yellow Rail is of extremely
local occurrence, and at best cannot be considered common. The center
of abundance here appears to be in the San Francisco Bay region,
for it has been recorded but once north of this region and but twice
from southern California. Not more tlum twenty specimens taken in
California are known to be in collections, and as far as we know all
of these were secured on fresh-water marshes.

The Yellow Rail is of small size, being considerably snmller than
a Virginia or Sora, and but slightly larger than the California Black
Rail. Its general yellowish- color, sharp, narrow, white transverse bars
on the back, and white patcli on the secondary wing feathers, showing
during flight, are cliaracters which not only distinguish the Yellow
Rail from the Black, but from all our other rails.

Tliis bird has proven more difficult to find and flush than almost
any other bird of the marsh. Most of those captured have been found
luiintentionally ; only a trained dog and pro-
loutied search at the proper season will be
likely to reveal this will-o-the-wisp.

Eggs of the Yellow Rail have been taken ^~^\ mso

at Winnebago, Illinois, ^lay 17, 1863, and

near Devils Lake. North Dakota, June 4, 1901, ,J,'^. ^^- , ^'% ?/

' ' ' bill of Yellow Rail.

June 8, 1903, and June 9, 1910 (Cooke, 1914, Natural size,
p. 32). The first of the latter three finds is

referred to by Reed (1904, p. 105) as follows: "Their eggs are of
a rich buff color, speckled in the form of a wreath about the large end,
with reddish brown. They are rleatively narrower than those of
other rails. Size 1.10 x 0.80 [inches]." The set consisted of ten eggs.
The eggs of the set taken in Illinois and now in the United States
National Museum have a pinkish buff ground color. At the large
end of each egg there is a small dense crown of minute dots of orange-
cinnamon, mikado brow^n, and vinaceous-drab ; elsewhere on the sur-
face there are scattering dots of similar color.

Audubon (in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, pp. 376-377)
observed the habits of this rail along the margins of lakes and swampy
bayous in eastern Florida. He noticed that the birds were accus-
tomed to follow the margins of the muddy shores with measured steps,
until attracted by some object. The tail would then be suddenly
jerked upward, followed by the disappearance of the bird for the
moment. Each bird proved as a rule so unsuspicious that at times it
could be approached wdthin a few yards, when it would only rise more
erectly, gaze at the observer for a moment, and then resume its occu-
pation. The best way to obtain a shot at this bird w^as to lie concealed
near an opening, and call it out of cover by imitating its notes, when,

304 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA

being very pugnacious, it would eonie to the open space and be easily
shot. Its flight is said to be swift and more protracted than that of
most rails, but it can seldom be driven to take refuge in flight.

On December 28, 1883, W. E. Bryant secured a specimen of the
Yellow Rail at Alvarado, Alameda County. Of this bird it was stated
that it was pointed by a dog and picked up in the hand, whereupon
it made a noise something like a young chicken (Belding, MS). One
of the specimens in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology from the Suisun
marshes was captured by a house cat.

The stomach of a Yellow Rail collected by A. C. Shelton in Rincon
Valley, Sonoma County, November 17, 1912, contained eighteen clover
seeds (Trifolium sp.) and a quantity of grass (H. C. Bryant, 1913,
p. 92). This is of course insufficient evidence to show that this rail
subsists entirely or chiefly upon a vegetable diet. The scarcity of
insects at this time of year was probably responsible for the lack of
animal matter in this particular stomach.

The only reason why the Yellow Rail is classed by law as a game
bird is because it belongs in the same family with the larger rails
which are legitimate objects of pursuit for food and sport. It is
altogether too rare and too small properly to take rank as a game bird
in this state. As the reader has doubtless already inferred, this bird
is so seclusive in its habits that, as yet, very little is known of its life
history.

California Black Rail

Crcciscus coturmculus (Ridgway)

Other names — Farallon Eail; Porzana jamaicensis ; Creciscus jamaicensis;
Porzana jamaicensis coturnicuhis ; Porzana coturnicnlus.

Description — Adult male: Whole head, foi-eneck, and most of under surface,
blackish slate, darkest on top of head; iris red; bill blackish; hind neck and
back dark chestnut, brightest on hind neck and deepening to black on rump
and tail; middle of back, rump, tail and outer surface of closed wing with
small sharp dots and short irregular cross-bars of white; scapulars and outer
surface of closed wing blackish brown; flight feathers dusky brown sparsely
dotted with white; axillars, under surface of wing, and flanks, slaty brown,
barred narrowly with white; belly pale slate barred with whitish; under tail
coverts slate gray barred with white and more or less tinged with light cinna-
mon brown; legs and feet "bright yellowish green" (Audubon, 1842, V, p.
158). Total length 5.37 inches (136 mm.) (one specimen); folded wing 2.56-
2.81 (65.0-71.3); bill along culmen 0.55-0.60 (14.0-15.3); tarsus 0.76-0.85 (19.3-
21.6) (ten specimens). Adult female: Similar to male, but duller colored on
back, and lower surface somewhat lighter in tone, particularly on throat and
belly. Folded wing 2.56-2.68 (65.0-68.1); bill along culmen 0.52-0.55 (13.2-
14.0); tarsus 0.76-0.83 (19.3-21.1) (ten specimens); all from California. Juvenile
YiJumage: Somewhat lighter in general tone of coloration than that of adults.
Natal plumage: Probably as in the Eastern Black Rail which is "entirely
bluish black" according to Baird, Cassin and Lawrence (1858, p. 750).

CALIFOSXIA BLACK BAIL 305

Marks for field identificatiox — Very small size (our smallest rail, about
the bulk of a Least Sandpiper), black bill, and black-appearing plumage with
small white dots. Young rails of all species are, as far as known to us, solidly
black, without any white spots.

Voice — CJee-cJe, cJee-ee (accent falling on first syllable of last word) uttered
chiefly during early mating season, and also in protest against intruders (Huey,
1916, pp. 58-59).

Xest — On salt marsh, composed of stems of pickle-weed (Salicornia) loosely
laid together and situated on ground, or more often on a platform of matted
pickle-weed a few inches above the ground, and usually concealed by arching
stems of the same and other plants (Ingersoll, 1909, p. 124).

Eggs — 4 to 8, bluntly ovate to almost elliptical in shape, measuring in
inches, 0.87 to 1.06 by 0.69 to 0.75 (in millimeters, 22.1 to 27.0 by 17.5 to 19.0),
and averaging 0.96 by 0.72 (24.4 by 18.3) (three sets, and one single, fourteen
eggs, from San Diego County, California) ; ground color white with a scarcely
perceptible tinge of pink, with surface spots of reddish brown and deeper
ones of lavender.

General distribution — Pacific Coast of the United States from Puget Sound
to northern Lower California. Only known breeding ground on salt marshes
in vicinity of San Diego Bay, California (Cooke, 1914, pp. 35-36).

Distribution in California — Fairly common fall and winter visitant to the
salt marshes on the San Francisco Bay shores of San Mateo and Alameda
counties, and at head of Tomales Bay, Marin County (many specimens). Also
in smaller numbers interiorly: Martinez, Contra Costa County (Cooper, 1868,
p. 8); Stockton, San Joaquin County (Belding, 1879, p. 443), and Suisun
marshes, Solano County (Mus. Vert. Zool.); and southerly: Santa Cruz (Emer-
son, 1904, p. 38); Hueneme, Ventura County (Willett, 1912a, p. 33); Orange,
Orange County, and Ballona, Los Angeles County (Grinnell, 1898, p. 15); and
Riverside (L. Miller, 1893, p. 104). Twice taken on the Farallon Islands
(Brewster, 1907, p. 205; Mus. Vert. Zool.). Fairly common throughout the
year and breeds regularly on the salt marshes adjacent to San Diego Bay
"(Stephens, 1909, pp. 47-48; Ingersoll, 1909, p. 123; Cooke, 1914, p. 36; Huey,
1916, p. 59).

The California Black Rail is the smallest species of the rail family
found in the United States, and differs but slightly from the Black
Rail of the eastern states. Neither of these small species appears to
be abundant, but as their habits are very seclusive their actual num-
bers are probably greater than is generally believed. The range of
the California Black Rail is limited to the Pacific coast and is separated
from that of its eastern relative by a broad interval comprising the
Rocky Mountain region. The present species has been recorded as a
winter visitant from various points within this state. At San Diego it
is evidently present throughout the year.

The small size, dark coloration, white-dotted back, and black bill
constitute a sufficient number of field marks to identify this rail under
favorable circumstances of observation. But it keeps so to cover and
is so seldom flushed, that a full view of it is rarely obtained, even
when a person is making a special search for the bird. It frequents

306 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

low-growing vegetation and at first glance is likely to be taken for a
mouse.

The only known breeding ground of the California Black Rail
is a limited area on the salt marshes of San Diego Bay between
National City and Chula Vista. There, A. M. Ingersoll succeeded
in finding three occupied nests of this species. But this much success
was attained only by twenty-five trips to the locality. There are few
birds the nests of which are so hard to locate. In regard to his finds,
Ingersoll (1909, pp. 124-126) says:

The salt weeds of this marsh are of an evergreen character and perennial,
varying little from season to season. Old clumps of Salicornia [pickle-weed]
become more or less matted down, forming an ideal retreat for this secretive
little bird. A favorite nesting site is one formed by an old top-heavy weed
falling over a growth of previous years in such a way as to leave a shelf -like
space between the layers of stems and foliage. Away from the glaring sun
on such a platform, is concealed a flimsy nest of fine dry weed stems. These

weeds are too brittle to admit of weaving, and
— fall apart on being lifted from the sustaining

platform. . . .

The whitish eggs have a scarcely perceptible

.gyQi tinge of pink. They are finely speckled with bright

reddish-broAvn and obscure lilac dots. The average

Fig. 53 Side of bill of measurement of the eggs is .95 x .71 inches. The

California Black Rail. Nat- eggs exhibit great variations in size and shape

ural size. Y)^^^ ^j.q rather uniformly marked. I believe the

eggs of this species could not be mistaken for
those of any other bird. The shells are of close-grained hard texture. They
possess greater durability than any eggs of similar size that I know of. One
year's exposure to the elements is not enough to destroy the shell. In 1908, there
were many eggs of the California Black Eail floated out of the nests by the high
tides, probably by those of March 30 and 31. I examined upwards of thirty
"floaters" during May of that year. They were then rotten and partially dried
up. Fourteen " floaters " that were whole and perfectly dry were picked up dur-
ing the present season; most of them were bleacht entirely free of markings. A
few that had lodged beneath the vegetation were still speckled. These dry eggs
were at least ten months old; possibly the salt water acted as a preservative.
Sixteen old nests were found in the immediate vicinity of ' ' floaters. ' ' On
several occasions, eggs were found lodged in weeds at a higher elevation than
the nest from which they had floated. About one-third of the nests were built
on or within two inches of the ground. I am informed of one nest being
placed at a height of eighteen inches.

An accurate estimate of the number of birds in this colony is of course
impossible; but judging from the number of floaters and old nests, I should
say that in 1908, thirty pairs of birds resided there at that time.

Huey (1916, p. 59) who has had considerable experience with this
species on the marshes bordering San Diego Bay gives March 24
(1912) for the earliest nesting date, a complete set of five eggs having
been then secured. His latest record is for May 25 (1909) when a

CALIFOENIA BLACK HAIL 307

set ol" foiii- i)artly incubated "I'unt" eggs was secured. This set meas-
ured in inches. 0.87 to 0.95 by 0.69 to 0.74, and averaged 0.i)2 by 0.72.
lie says tluit normal eggs average 1.02 by 0.90. Tlie smaller size and
late date on which these eggs were found suggests that the set may
have been of a second laying, the first having been destroyed or the
nesting otherwise interrupted. Our averages for egg measurements
are 0.96 by 0.72, as based on Huey's set, one in the Carriger collection,
a set taken by A. M. Ingersoll and presented by him to the INIuseum
of Vertebrate Zoology, and a "single" in the same nuiseum, fourteen
eggs in all.

Cooke (1914, !>. 36) gives A]>ril 7 (1910) as the earliest nesting
date known to him; while Willett (1912fl.. p. 33) says that the egg-
laying period falls between April 1 and 10. Downy young of the
Black Rail have not yet been reported from California, but they are
pi-obably entirely black like the young of the eastern Black Rail.

The call according to Huey (1916, pp. 58-59) sounds like the
syllables clee-clc, clec-ee, and in an earlier account (Stephens, 1909,
p. 48) it is said to be a sort of clicking sound. This accords with the
nature of the voice of the eastern Black Rail as reported by Brewster
(19026, p. 54).

A bird which Ingersoll (loc. cit.) flushed from near a nest rose and
flew off feebly for thirty or forty feet, hovered, and then returned to
within sixteen feet of the nest. Until it hovered the legs were left
dangling in the air, and as it alighted in the vegetation they were again
dro])ped below the body. This species is exceedingly secretive in its
habits, although it dot's not display any great amount of fear in the
presence of human beings. It will crouch and almost allow itself to
be stepped on before it will flush. A dog can easily capture one of
the birds and individuals have even been picked up in the hand.

The shyness of this rail is reflected in the regularity with which it
abandons- nests Avhich have been discovered, even in the most casual
manner, by a human observer. Huey (1916, p. 60) says he has never
yet found a nest of this species that did not on a later visit prove to
have been abandoned, even when the nest and surrounding vegetation
had been left entirely undisturbed.

A Black Rail which Huey (1916, pp. 61-62) captured was confined
on a screened porch with a Sora Rail. ''. . . The two birds proved
quite companionable. They ate freely of the food offered them. . . .
The Black Rail . . . seemed rather vicious at all times, pecking angrily
at anything offered her — sticks, fingers and all." In attempting to
photograph these birds, "a small, round clump of salicornia, perhaps
three feet in diameter, was selected for the background. . . . The
little rail proved the more elusive of the two. She would dive into the
dense mass, exactly as a duck dives in water, and would then crouch

308 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

motionless, as if hiding. The walking positions of the two species were
noticeably different. The little Black was always proud, with head
erect and no jerky movements while walking, but the Carolina [Sora]
was a typical rail, head down, tail erect, and forever sneaking off
sideways as though he were ashamed of himself."

H. R. Taylor (1898, p. 79) says that in San Mateo County

The Black Eail we saw would fly up . . . with others and several alighted
for refuge, after circling in irregular flight, in bunches of bushy weeds, being
still within range. They are seldom if ever shot at by hunters and are very
unsuspecting little creatures, allowing the boat to approach within a half an
oar's length from where they are hiding. In this way I struck the one I
captured with the blade of the oar, and stunning it but for a moment, took it
alive. This bird was kept in captivity where it was observed to be alert to see
things and active with its bill. However, all its movements were notably
deliberate. It made no attempt to escape and acted as though it had always
known a prison.

When the Black Eail is asleep he is no longer a rail. He has become simply
a ball of feathers as big and almost as round as an orange, and coming upon
one in such a position you would more readily believe it were some strange
animal [mammal] than a bird. There is a gradual ruffling of the feathers until
they are fluffed out all over the body and the rail is more than twice his
usual proportions. Now the short wings are not noticeable and the little tail
shows but slightly. The head is twisted about by slow degrees until like a
flash it disappears. It has gone into that ball of feathers, but where? Of
course, it is under the wing, but looking at the transformation you would never
know. Where the neck was lost in the ball there is a circle which reminds
you of the end of a lady's muff, only the brown has harmonized beautifully
with the black of the body and its dainty flecking of white. We touched the
little fellow once while he was thus fluffed up. Out came his head but it was
quickly popped into place again (H. E. Taylor, 1898, pp. 79-80).

The bird held captive by H. R. Taylor was fed eight earthworms
for one meal. Several stomachs of Black Rails taken by Huey (1916,
p. 60) in San Diego County contained remains of Isopod crustaceans
belonging to the species called Alloniscus mira'bilis. A captive indi-
vidual Avas fed upon bread crumbs, some of these crustaceans, and
some "garden bugs."

This is another of the marsh birds which meets death to some
extent by accident. There are two instances of the sort on record.
A bird was found on the main street of Santa Cruz in September,
1903, which had been killed by flying against a wire (Emerson, 1904,
p. 38) ; and one was picked up August 4, 1876, beneath where it had
been killed by flying against the Point Loma Light, near San Diego
(Belding, MS). "

The California Black Rail, like many another of the rarer birds
really merits but a casual place on any list of game birds. Probably
not more than ten sportsmen in a thousand have ever seen this bird.

FLOEIDA GALLINULE 309

and of these ten surely not one would raise his gun against such a
mite of a bird, unless needed for a scientific specimen. To ornith-
ologists the species is of interest because of its restricted range and
elusiveness. It seems probable that the reclamation of the marshes
where it makes its home will be the only factor having to do with any
change in its status in the future.

Florida Gallinule

GalUnula galeata (Lichtenstein)

Other name.s — Red-billed Mud-hen; GalUnula chloropus galeata.
Description — Adults, ioth sexes: Head and neck dull black, darkest above;
iris "bright red" (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 136); large frontal shield above
base of bill bright scarlet; bill bright red except for tip which is greenish
yellow; whole of upper surface dark sepia brown, darkest on rump and upper
tail coverts; edge of wing white; outer surface of closed wing sepia brown at base,
otherwise slaty; flight fleathers blackish brown; axillars and under surface
of wing ashy browm, with mottlings of white on former; under surface of body
blackish slate; feathers of flanks elongated and with white shaft streaks;
belly chiefly dull white; lower tail coverts white, the middle and basal feathers
black; legs and feet greenish yellow, joints ashy blue; naked part of legs above
heel joint, red; toes slender and without lobes. Males: Total length 14.75
inches (375 mm.); folded wing 7.28 (185); bill along eulmen (to top of shield)
1.53 (38.9); tarsus 2.25 (57.1) (one specimen from California). Females: Total
length 14.00-14.50 (356-368) (three specimens); folded wing 6.91 (176); bill
along eulmen (to top of shield) 1.32 (33.6) ; tarsus 2.16 (55.0) (one specimen
from California). Juvenile plumage: Top and sides of head sooty black, paler
on sides where also sparingly flecked with white; chin and throat white, flecked
with slate gray; whole neck dull black; rest of upper surface brown, red-toned
on back, mor^ blackish from rump backward; breast and sides of body pale
slate gray, many of the feathers extensively tipped with white; middle of belly
white; flanks and rest of under surface pale brown; feet proportionately large,
as in adults. Natal plumage: Black, the upper surface with a greenish cast,
under surface with a brownish tinge; a few slender feathers on cheeks and
chin, white^tipped; bill straw yellow, dark-banded across middle; legs and
feet (dried) reddish.

Marks for field identification — Dark coloration, white under tail coverts,
and flaming red frontal shield. Distinguished from the Mud-hen, which is of
similar size, general coloration and habits, by red instead of white bill, white
stripes on flanks, greenish legs (red above "heel"), absence of white on
"wings, and entire absence of lobes on sides of toes.

Voice — A loud, discordant, hoarse, hen-like cuck, repeated slowly but in a
connected series (Brewster, 1902&, p. 51).

Nest — In dense tule thickets in marshes, usually placed over water; con-
structed of tules on a platform of the same material.

Eggs — 6 to 13, elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 1.54 to 1.95
by 1.10 to 1.30 (in millimeters, 39.0 to 49.5 by 28.0 to 33.0), and averaging
1.73 by 1.22 (44.0 by 31.0) (105 eggs in U. S. National Museum) ; ground color
deep pinkish buff, with surface spots of chocolate and reddish brown, and
■deeper ones of grayish lavender.

310 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

General distribution — Tropical aud temperate America. Breeds from
central California, Arizona, Nebraska, Minnesota, Ontario, New York, and
Vermont south through the West Indies and Mexico to Chile and Argentina,
and in the Galapagos and Bermuda islands; winters from southern California,
Arizona, Texas and Georgia southward; casual in Colorado, Quebec, Nova
Scotia, New Brunswick and Maine (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, pp. 105-106).

Distribution in California — Fairly common summer visitant to fresh-water
marshes in southern portion of the state west of the desert divides from Santa
Barbara southeastward; also in the San Joaquin-Sacramento Valley north to
Sutter County (Belding, MS). Several recorded breeding stations within
these areas. Winters sparingly in southern coastal district, as at Los Angeles
(Swarth, 1900, p. 15) ; possibly also in the vicinity of Fresno (Tyler, 1913b, p. 23).

Although the Florida Galliniile is a bird of wide distribution in
both North and South America, it does not exist in great numbers
anywhere in the western United States. Along the Atlantic coast
it has been found breeding as far north as Pennsylvania and New
York, but on the Pacific coast the northernmost station of record is
Sutter County, California. South of the latter place, in the great
interior valleys, and on the marshes of southern California from Santa
Barbara southeastward, the species breeds regularly, and in the
extreme south some individuals remain throughout the winter season.
There is but one coastal record for the species north of Santa Barbara.
This is for San Francisco (Newberry, 1857, p. 96), and might have
been of a bird brought from some interior locality to the markets.
The favorite haunts of this bird are the dense tule thickets to be found
in fresh-water marshes. From these shelters it seldom ventures out
into the open as does its relative, the Mud-hen.

There is no definite midwinter record for the Gallinule nortli of
Tehachapi, but Tyler (19136, p. 23) saw two individuals near Fresno
on November 26, 1907, and a single one near Clovis, Fresno County,
]\Iarch 7, 1908, which led him to suggest that the species may be a
permanent resident in that district. At Los Bafios, Merced County,
the first spring arrivals in 1912 were seen on April 22 (Beck, MS).
At Los Angeles, Swarth (1900, p. 15) says that ''the young remain
until late in the fall, when they nearly all disappear. Usually one or
two remain througli the winter."

No other California bird has a flaming red shield on the forehead
such as is possessed by the Florida Gallinule. This shield is so con-
spicuous, even at a distance, that there is usually no difficulty in
recognizing the bird by this feature alone. The Gallinule resembles
the Mud-hen in general build, color of plumage and habits, but can
be readily distinguished from the latter bird by the lack of white on
the wings, hy the absence of lobes on the toes, by the red on the legs
above the "heel" joint, by the presence of white streaks on the flanks,
and bv the red instead of white bill. The Gallinule has a rail-like

FLOEIDA GALLINULE 311

niannerisni of spasmodically jerking its tail upwards. This results in
the white under tail coverts being intermittently flashed forth in a
conspicuous manner. No account of the courting antics of the Florida
Gallinule has been published from California, but Brewster has
recorded the behavior of a pair of these birds seen near Cambridge,
^Massachusetts. After they had been under observation for some
time a great outcry was suddenly heard one afternoon,

. . . and soon our pair of Gallinules appeared; the female, wlio was much
the plainer-colored in every respect, swimming swiftly, her tail lowered and
about in line with the back; the male fla^jping his wings on the water in his
eagerness to overtake her. This he soon succeeded in doing, but just as he
clutched at her with open bill . . . she eluded him by a sudden clever turn.
He then swam round her in a narrow circle, carrying his tail wide-spread and
erect, his neck arched, his scarlet front fairly blazing and apparently much
enlarged and inflated.

During the chase one of the birds, presumably the male, uttered
a series of cries which sounded like ficket, ticket, repeated six or eight
times in succession. This cry was evidently a wooing note as it was
heard on no other occasion (Brewster, 1891, p. 4).

Information concerning the nesting of the Florida Gallinule in
California is rather meager. "Wicks (1893, p. 363) records the find-
ing of a nest with nine eggs near Los Angeles, April 27, 1890. The
nest was situated in a clump of tules and composed of the same mate-
rial. At Nigger Slough, Los Angeles County, Antonin Jay collected
a set of eight fresh eggs on May 5, 1901, and a set of five with incu-
bation commenced, June 30, 1895 (Willett, 1912a,, p. 33). A. M.
Ingersoll took a set of six partly incubated eggs at Lakeside, San Diego
County, on May 15, 1895, and another of nine eggs heavily incubated
at San Jacinto Lake, Riverside County, June 7, 1897 (Ingersoll coll.).
There is but one instance of nesting in the Central Valley of Cali-
fornia of which we know. At Dos Palos, Merced County, a set of
ten slightly incubated eggs was taken May 22, 1912 (Carriger coll.).

The nest of the Florida Gallinule is always placed in a fresh-water
marsh, sometimes on small islands but usually on a mass of dead
tules and over standing water two or three feet deep. As elsewhere
described (Brewster, 1891, p. 6), it is a bulky affair for the size of the
bird, measuring 13 to 20 inches in diameter, and eight inches high.
The central cavity which contains the eggs w^as found to be 2% inches
deep by seven in diameter. As with the Mud-hen an approach or
"gang-way" of tules leads from the surface of the water to the nest.
In the east, incubation is said to commence with the deposition of the
first eggs, so that completed sets comprise eggs in all stages of incuba-
tion from fresh to nearly hatching (Brewster, loc. cit.).

312 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

Brewster (1891, p. 4) says that the calls of these Galliniiles were
varied and complex. Sometiines they gave four or five loud harsh
screams, again a series of sounds resembling those made by a brooding
hen when disturbed, then a number of querulous complaining cries
intermingled with subdued clucking.

Again . . . something which sounded like this: Ir-r-r-r-r, Icruc-lruc, krar-r,
kh-kh-Jch-lh-lca-kea, delivered rapidly and falling in pitch toward the end.
Shorter notes were a single, abrupt, explosive Icup, very like the cry given by
a startled frog just as he jumps into the water, and a low Tcloc-hloc or kloc-
kloc-kloc. Speaking generally, the notes were all loud, harsh, and discordant,
and nearly all curiously hen-like. ... Jn the early morning and late after-
noon their calls were frequent and at times nearly incessant. They ceased
almost entirely after nightfall, for the Florida Gallinule is apparently much
less nocturnal than any of the Bails. . . .

Of the general habits of the Florida Gallinule in Massachusetts.
Brewster (1891, pp. 3-4) says:

His manner of swimming and of feeding from the surface of the water
%vas very like that of a Coot. He sat high and accompanied the strokes of the
feet with a forAvard-and-backward nodding motion of the head and neck, accent-
uated at times as he reached out to sieze some tempting morsel. On land he
walked like a Eail, treading his way deftly among the stems of the bushes and
tall rushes, stepping daintily, lifting and putting down his feet slowly, and
almost incessantly jerking up his tail with a quick, nervous motion which caused
the under coverts to flash like the sudden flirt of a handkerchief. As he picked
his food from the vegetation at his feet, the head and neck were shot forward
and downward at intervals of about a second, with a peculiarly vivid, eager
motion. His manner of walking and feeding also suggested that of the Guinea-
hen, the body being carried low and in a crouching attitude, while the movements
of the head partook of that furtive swiftness which is so characteristic of this
barnyard fowl.

Our Gallinule at most times, whether in action or repose, was a bird of
slender shape and graceful outline, his carriage light yet firm, the play of the
body lithe and strong. While preening his feathers, however, his attitude was
often stiff and awkward, and the ruffling of his plumage made him appear
nearly as portly as a duck. Again, the motion of flight was ludicrously awk-
ward and uncouth. When, frightened by a glimpse of . . . [the observers],
he rose and flew with legs hanging down, wing-beats feeble and labored, the
whole bearing was indicative of strain and exhaustion, which received an
added emphasis from the abrupt reckless drop into the bushes which ended
the flight.

Almost every time the birds which Brewster was observing came
to a small ditch in the marsh they would stop to bathe. The male
would stand at the water '« edge where

With a quick plunge and upward fling of the head he scattered the drops
over his back in a shining shower, opening and trembling his wings as the
water fell. After repeating this performance five or six times in rapid succes-
sion, he rested a moment, and then went through it once more. After his

MUD-HEN 313

plumage became thoroughly soaked, he proceeded to dress it, running each
feather separately through his bill. This elaborate toilet occupied a consider-
able time, often lasting as long as fifteen minutes. When it was completed to
his satisfaction, he would start oflf to feed again.

This Galliiiiile frequents tule-bordered ponds and streams and may
occasionally be seen feeding along with Mud-hens. Although the
Gallinule is partially gregarious, it and the Mud-hen are never seen
together in any numbers, usually not more than a few pairs of the
former frequenting any one marsh in this state.

Aquatic and other insects form the larger part of the food of the
Florida Gallinule ; but certain water plants and seeds are also taken.
The stomach of a specimen taken in Nebraska contained seven grass-
hoppers, twenty-nine other insects, some seeds and other vegetable
matter (Barrows, 1912, p. 162). The birds forage more largely on
the shores of ponds and among the vegetation, and less on the open
water, than does the Mud-hen.

Where known to sportsmen Gallinules are considered fine birds for
the table, and were they more numerous here more would doubtless
find places in hunters' bags. But in California they are present in
such small numbers as to be considered curiosities, and it is this fact
which most often leads to their being shot.

Near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Florida Gallinules have increased
during recent years, and there is a possibility that by careful pro-
tection their numbers might be made to increase in our own state.
We have not been able to find a basis for any judgment as to com-
parative abundance here, now and formerly, though it seems evident
that they have never been notably numerous in California since
natural liistory records began to accumulate.

Mud-hen

Fulica americana Gmelin

Other xames — Coot; Chinese Mallard.

Description — Adults, both sexes: Whole head and neck, black; iris bright
red; frontal shield chocolate brown; bill whitish, with a brownish or blackish
spot on both mandibles near tip; rest of upper and under surface of body
including wings and tail, dark slate, blending into black on neck; edge of
wing narrowly white; secondaries tipped broadly with white; lower back tinged
with olive brown; feathers of belly tipped more or less with white; longer
under tail coverts white, forming a V enclosing the shorter black feathers;
front toes broadly lobed (see fig. .5.5); legs and feet greenish yellow. Males:
Total length 15.00 inches (381 mm.) (one specimen); folded wing 7.40-7.90
(188-200); bill along culmen (to top of shield) 1.62-1.84 (41.1-46.7); tarsus
2.21-2.36 (56.2-60.0) (ten specimens). Females: Total length 14.00-14.62 (3.56-
372) (two specimens); folded wing 6.70-7.45 (170-189); bill along culmen

.314 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

(to top of shield) 1.53-1.85 (38.9-47.0); tarsus 1.86-2.19 (47.3-55.7) (ten
specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adults
but lower surface generally more suffused with whitish, frontal shield less
developed, bill lighter in color and lacking blackish spots, and iris brown
instead of bright red. Natal plumage: General color blackish slate; throat,
cheeks, neck, wings and back covered with elongated, crinkled, bristly feather-
tips of orange; top of head almost bald, but with a few black hair-like feathers;
bill orange red, black at tip; legs and feet blackish.

Marks for field identification — Of small duck size and actions. Dark
slate-colored plumage with whitish bill and white V under tail (pi. 10). Dis-
tinguished in flight by labored efforts in leaving water, large feet extending
bulkily beyond tail, and white patch on hind margin of wing. Walks and
swims with distinct fore and aft movement of head at stroke of each foot.
In hand the broad thin lobes on the front toes are diagnostic (fig. 55). Sepa-
rable from Florida Gallinule by whitish instead of red bill (fig. 54), presence
of lobes on toes, presence of white on secondaries, and absence of streaking
on flanks.

Voice — An explosive, cackling, pulque, pulque, pulque, oi plop, with a hollow
intonation.

Nest — Of tules, reeds, or sedges, most often floating on the water, or built
np in tules; seldom well concealed in thick growth. Often several nests are
found close together.

Eggs — 6 to 15, pointedly ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 1.76 to 2.05
by 1.25 to 1.36 (in millimeters, 44.8 to 52.0 by 31.7 to 34.7), and averaging 1.96
by 1.30 (49.8 by 33.1) (thirty eggs from California) ; ground color creamy
white, spotted and speckled in fine pattern with dark brown or blackish.

General distribution — North America. Breeds from central British Columbia,
southern Mackenzie, Manitoba, Quebec, and New Brunswick south to northern
Lower California, Texas, Tennessee, and New Jersey, and also in southern
Mexico, southern West Indies, and Guatemala; winters from southern British
Columbia, Nevada, Utah, the Ohio Valley, and Virginia, south to Panama;
casual at Fort Yukon and Sitka, Alaska, and in Greenland, Labrador and
Bermuda (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 106; Cooke, 1914, p. 43).

Distribution in California- — Abundant resident of suitable localities
throughout the state, breeding at very many pioints, both east and west of
the Sierras. Distinct local migrations, which may be altitudinal rather than
latitudinal, are often in evidence; at the higher stations there are local
increases in numbers in spring and corresponding decreases in fall.

The Miid"hen, coninionly known in booklore as the Coot, ranges
over much of the North American continent. It breeds as far north
as British Columbia and southern Mackenzie and has been taken twice
in Alaska. It is perhaps more common in the west than in the east,
but there is hardly a favorable marsh in the whole country that does
not support a few birds of this species at least during the summer
season. In Lower California it has been found breeding as far south
as Purisima (Cooke, 1914, p. 43).

In most places in California the Mud-hen nests in far greater
numbers than does any native species of duck. Although remaining
within the state during the whole year, a ])artial migratory movement

MUD-HEN

315

is to be noted. It may be that this migration is more largely alti-
tudiiial than latitudinal; in other words that bodies of water above
the winter snow line are largely deserted in the fall. Along with
the fall migrants of the duek tribe, Mud-hens appear in the lowlands
in very great numbers. In certain places in southern California they
are mueh more abundant in winter than in sununer. Belding (MS)
says tliat in the tule districts of central California the Coot does not
migrate, in the accepted significance of this term, but that in winter
when deep and often nuiddy water covers their feeding grounds they

miiiitm

Fig. 54. Head of Mud-hen showing ' ' shield ' ' on forehead.
Natural size (no. 22149).

spread out into the cultivated fields and cause some damage by eating
sprouted grain. Tyler (1913?), p. 24) found a stray or migrant in
a peach orchard two or three miles from the nearest water. It was
so confused that it was easily captured, but when released flew away.
To the average boy in California tlie Mud-hen is more familiar
than any species of duck. And any person with even the slightest
possible knowledge of waterfowl can distinguish the bird, aside from
its general duck-like appearance, by a single character — the short
whitish bill. The plumage is of a dark slate color shading into black
on the head and neck (pi. 10). In flight a white patch on the hind
margin of each wing shows conspicuously, and the large feet protrude
clumsily beyond the end of the tail. In the hand the flat lobes of skin

316

GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

along the joints of the toes make identification certain (fig. 55). At a
distance the bird may be distinguished from ducks by the fore-and-aft
bobbing motion of the head, in unison with that of the feet.' This is
observable when walking on land or when swimming in the water.
Almost any large or small marsh, or a pond with more or less of
a border of tall grass or tules, may be selected by the Mud-hen as a

Fig. 55. Top of foot of Mud-hen. Natural size.
Note broad lobes on sides of toes (compare with figs. 11 and 47).

nesting site. The Mud-hen is a gregarious species and frequently
nests in colonies, the nests being placed even as close as ten feet from
each other. Davie (1889, p. 105) says that five hundred Coot eggs
were taken from a single marsh near Los Angeles. At Los Baiios,
Merced County, nests are so common that it would be a comparatively
easy matter to obtain even a larger number of eggs in a single season.
Courtship is evidenced by persistent pursuit of the female by the male,

MUD-HEN 317

and this is as often carried on under water as above it. The female
appears to be able to elude the pursuer just as long as she wishes to
do so.

The nest nearly always consists of a platform of vegetation, "float-
ing" in the sense that the mass of broken-down reeds upon which it
rests lies in the water; but it is occasionally situated high and dry
on a sedge-covered island, though always near the water. Perhaps
the most common nesting site in California is in the edge of a tule
thicket. Often the nest is in such an exposed situation that the sitting
bird may be seen at a considerable distance. The usual material enter-
ing into the composition of the nest proper, is the green stems of
tules or sedges, the smaller stems often forming the semblance of a
lining. These are sometimes woven into a firm, deeply-cupped or
basket-shaped structure. The drying out of the fresh stems during
incubation has led to the popular idea that the birds use dry stalks
in constructing their nests. There is usually a sort of gangway, com-
posed of bent-over tules, leading to the nest, and the parent bird
enters and leaves the nest by this one route.

Six to fifteen eggs are laid. Morcom (1887, p. 39) records a nest
found in Bear Valley, San Bernardino County, which contained
twenty-two eggs; but doubtless this was the product of more than
one female. The eggs are creamy white in color, finely and uniformly
speckled with dark brown or blackish. In shape they are much like
hens' eggs but usually more pointed at the small end. As compared
with eggs of the Florida Gallinule those of the Mud-hen are slightly
larger and have a less reddish tone of coloration. The eggs of the
]\Iud-hen are occasionally used for food, but they are less palatable
than those of domestic fowls.

Incubation often begins as soon as the first few eggs are laid and
consequently the last egg hatches several days after the first one.
Broods have been seen as early as the first week in April. In the
lower country the birds usually nest from April 15 to June 15; at
high altitudes the season is later. Eggs were found at Lake Merced,
San Francisco County, July 23, 1911 (Carriger coll.), and at Bear
Lake, San Bernardino County, altitude 6,750 feet, as late as July 27
(Grinnell, 1908, p. 54).

The young take to the water within a few minutes after hatching.
Here they seem to be perfectly at ease as they swim and dive with
agility and are expert in hiding in the vegetation. Their ability to
remain beneath the surface of the water for a long period of time is
remarkable. In two instances youngsters not more than a day old
were observed to remain under water nearly three minutes, as timed
by a watch. They could be seen clinging to vegetation beneath the

318 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

surface until apparently forced to come up for air (H. C. Bryant,
MS).

In contrast to the sombre hue of the adult the downy young is a
most brightly colored bird. The general color is shiny black, but on
the throat, neck, Avings and back there are patches of crinkled fuzzy
feathers with hair-like terminations which are of a Chinese orange
shade, brightening to orange vermillion on the head. The bill is a
bright vermillion except for the tip, which is black. The top of the
head is at first bare except for a few short black bristles.

A quite significant and interesting fact was noted in that the feet of the
young grew far more rapidly in proportion than the rest of their body. A
half-grown Mud-hen has astonishingly large feet, and after observing the
ease wath which the youngsters swam and dived (apparently just as well as the
adults), the relative importance of those members to the early success of
the individual seemed plain. The young of a family near camp returned with
both parents to the old nest each evening at dusk, but much squabbling and
jostling, accompanied by various toots, grunts, and cries, took place before
they were all finally settled for the night (Grinnell, 1908, pp. 54-55).

Rich (1907, p. 247) writes concerning the Mud-hen in the East:
"In summer the separate families keep by themselves, but when in the
fall the young are fully fledged and ready for business flocks of con-
siderable size are formed preparatory to migrating." The same is
true of California birds.

Coots are noisy birds and their explosive cackling notes are the
commonest sounds emanating from our tule swamps. The usual call-
note is a pulque, pulque, pulque, often with a peculiar resonant quality.
When alarmed a flock breaks out into a great chorus of these cackling
notes, and this seems to act as a warning, as most of the birds in the
vicinity at once scurry for cover.

The Coot is an excellent swimmer and spends much of its time
on the water. It prefers the margins of shallow lakes and ponds,
however, and often wanders about on the shore. Safety is more often
sought by swimming than by flight. When forced to fly a bird
"runs" along on top of the water for some distance before gaining
headway enough to rise from the surface. Both wings and feet make
the water fly in every direction, producing a characteristic sound
and wake. Even when well started, the flight is labored, and as soon
as fairly out of danger's way, the bird usually drops back into the
water with an appearance of complete exhausion. Yet it must be
remembered that in parts of its range the Coot undertakes extensive
annual migrations. Rich (1907, p. 247) states that it swims well
under water, "using its wings in conjunction with its long, lobed feet,
which are a most serviceable pair of paddles." Coues (1874, p. 543)
says of a flock on open water: "They swam with ease and gracefully;

MUDHEN 319

the head now drawn back and hekl upright over their plump bodies,
that floated lightly antl changed their course at a movement of their
broad paddles, now stretched out to full length as the birds hurried
about, throwing off the ripples from their half-submerged breasts,
crossing and recrossing each other's path, in wanton sport, or attracted
by some delicacy floating at a little distance. ' '

The barbed-wire fence has introduced a new element of danger
into the lives of these low-flying birds, and it is not an uncommon
thing to see one or more individuals hung on the barbs (Chapman,
1908, p. 292).

The Coot is a splendid diver and obtains much of its food from
under the surface. The bird is almost omnivorous and although it
feeds most extensively on seeds and aquatic plants, it is not averse to
taking insects, tadpoles,' or even, on occasion, to eating dead ducks.
Pondweed {Potamogrfon) is a favorite food in most localities. Ander-
son and Jenkins (1903, p. 154) found Coots feeding on green grass
near shore on a lagoon in San Mateo County. Grain is relished when
obtainable.

]\Iany gun-clubs consider the Mud-hen an enemy, because it
destroys both the natural and artificially supplied food on the pre-
serves. In some localities clul)s hold a "^Mud-hen shoot" at the begin-
ning of the season so as to rid their grounds of these so-called pests
and as many as 5,000 Coots have been killed in a day on one preserve
in ]\Iereed County (Tyler, 191 8&. p. 23). Some far-seeing sportsmen,
however, are averse to these harsh measures, for they are inclined to
think that at some not far distant day, when the supply of ducks is
exhausted, our sportsmen will of necessity turn to this less desirable
game bird as has been done in certain eastern localities.

Many people think as little of the Mud-hen as an article of food
as they do of a crow. On the other hand we have heard it asserted
that young Coots, skinned and fried, or even old ones parboiled, are
quite as delicious as most ducks. The story is current that this bird
has for many years been sold by the hotels of San Francisco and other
large cities as ''duck."

At present the Mud-hen is very tame and is an easy mark for
the gunner. Whether increased attention would make it a wary bird
is problematical.

As far as we can find out there has been little or no diminution, in
the numbers of Mud-hens. Through the decrease of more desirable
birds it is possible that it will be more largely shot as a game bird,
and in that event we may expect this species to decrease just as the
ducks have done, unless the shooting be judiciously regulated.

320 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA

Red Phalarope

PJialaropus fulicarius (Linnaeus)

Other names — Gray Phalarope; Sea Goose; Whale-bird; Bow-fin Bird;
Crymophihis fulicarius.

Description — Adult male in spring and early, summer: Top of head, hind
neck and back, sooty black with broad feather marginings of buffy brown,
giving a streaked appearance; region around eye dull or buffy white, most
extensive below and behind eye; area about base of bill, and chin, mixed
reddish white and black, white predominating on chin; bill dull yellow at
base, brownish black at tip and about nostrils; iris "brown" (Audubon, 1842,
V, p. 293); rump slate-colored; upper tail coverts tawny, with some dark shaft
streaks; tail above sooty brown, the feathers with narrow tawny or whitish
margins; outer surface of closed wing brownish slate; edges of coverts white,
those of greater coverts extensively so, forming a conspicuous white band,
this being continued along tips of secondaries; flight feathers sooty brown,
shafts of primaries and bases and shafts of secondaries, white; tertials
margined with dull tawny; under surface of wing and axillars white; margin
of wing at and below bend, mottled white and dusky; under surface of flight
feathers dusky, becoming brownish toward tips; sides of neck and under sur-
face dull cinnamon red with more or less white scattered along middle of
belly; feathers of sides and flanks with dusky shaft streaks; under tail coverts
like under surface, but with some of the feathers white; feet dark brown,
darker at joints, webs lighter. Total length 7.90 inches (200 mm.) (two speci-
mens from California); folded wing 4.77-5.18 (121.7-131.8); bill along culmen
0.82-0.95 (20.8-24.3); tarsus 0.83-0.90 (21.1-22.9) (ten specimens from Cali-
fornia and Alaska). Adult female in spring and early summer: Top of head,
chin, and area about bill, deep brownish black, darker above than below;
area around eye, white, more extensive below and behind eye; hind neck and
back dull black; feathers of back extensively margined with light buffy or
pale tawny; rump slate colored; middle upper tail coverts pale buffy with
brownish black shaft streaks; outer tail coverts clear cinnamon red; inner tail
feathers brownish black with narrow light brown edgings, outer ones lighter
with whiter edgings; wing as in male; side of neck, and whole under sur-
face including sides, flanks and under tail coverts, uniform deep cinnamon
red, approaching chestnut, with a very few white feathers on belly. Total
length 7.96-9.00 inches (202-228 mm.) (seven specimens from California and
Alaska); folded wing 5.06-5.48 (128.4-138.6); bill along culmen 0.82-0.96
(20.8-24.5); tarsus 0.79-0.89 (20.0-22.6) (ten specimens from California).
Adults, both sexes, in late fall and winter: Head white, except for blackish
area almost encircling eye and extending backwards over ear region; back
of head and hind neck blackish; back and scapulars pearl gray with narrow
white feather tippings; rump dusky brown; middle upper tail coverts blackish,
with buffy edges, lateral ones white with gray shaft-streaks; tail and wing as
in summer except that lighter margins are lost or reduced by wear; sides of
chest, sides of body, and flanks, grayish; whole lower surface otherwise white.
Juvenile plumage: Top of head mixed black and tawny; cheek and stripe from
side of bill running over eye, buffy white; chin white; back and tail, black with
broad feather margins of tawny; rump gray; outer surface of closed wing
largely dull grayish brown; greater coverts and secondaries broadly tipped
with white, forming a broad bar across wing; breast pale brown; rest of under

BED PHALAEOPE 321

surface white, washed with brownish on flanks. Natal plumage: Ground color
of head buff, darkest and most reddish on forehead and crown; narrow stripe
from bill to eye, and broad stripe on each side of crown black; eye region
whitish; bill yellowish, dark at tip; back a mixed pattern of black, reddish
buff and white; chin, throat and breast buff; belly whitish; flanks washed with
buff; legs and feet (dried) yellowish brown.

Marks for field identification — Small size, chunky form, absence of spot-
ting, streaking or barring on under surface, white bar across wing, under sur-
face chiefly reddish brown in spring, with white cheek-patch, mixed white and
dull red in fall, and pure white in winter; neck short and thick (thicker than
in Northern Phalarope) ; wings not markedly different in color from back;
spends much of time swimming on water, and, within our borders, is rarely if
at all, found feeding on shore; "spins" about rapidly from time to time
while feeding on surface of water.

Voice — A low and musical cUnk, clink (Nelson, 1887, p. 97).

Nest — Close to or in near vicinity of small fresh or brackish pools; com-
monly only a moderate depression in damp ground, without lining, or else a
rather deep depression sunk in the top of mossy hummock, with a thin lining
of dry grasses (Nelson, loc. cit., and Grinnell, 1900, p. 20).

Eggs — 3 to 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.07 to 1.33 by 0.85 to 0.90
(in millimeters, 27.2 to 33.8 by 21.6 to 22.8); ground-color greenish olive, light
or dark buff, or even a grayish olive w'ith large or small markings of dark
brown, sometimes aggregated about the larger end forming a zone of dark
color, or else rather evenly distributed over the whole egg; differ from eggs
of Northern Phalarope only by slightly larger average size (authors).

General distribution — Almost world-wide. Breeding range circumpolar;
in North America extends north to Ellesmere Land, Melville Island, and
Point Barrow, and south to St. Michael, Alaska, central Mackenzie, central
Keewatin, Hudson Strait, and southern Greenland. Winters in Eastern Hemi-
sphere south to Morocco, India, China and New Zealand. In Western Hemi-
sphere probably winters in large part on southern oceans. Common offshore
in both migrations on Atlantic coast from Newfoundland to vicinity of Massa-
chusetts, but not known between that region and coast of Argentina. Common
at times, chiefly during migration, on Pacific coast from Alaska to southern
end of Lower California, and again off coast of Chile (Cooke, 1910, pp. 14-16).

Distbibutiox in California — Abundant transient along the seacoast during
both migrations. Northward spring migration lasts from late April to early
June. Southward migration lasts from first of August to late November or
early December. A few stragglers have been taken near Monterey in Decem-
ber and January (Beck, 1910, p. 70), and some probably winter around the
Santa Barbara Islands and off the coast near San Diego. Eecorded inland
only at Stockton, one specimen, October 10, 1890 (Belding, MS), Pasadena
(Grinnell, 1898, p. 16), and Los Angeles (Willett, 1912a, p. 34).

The Red, or Gray, Phalarope is the most maritime of the three
species of phalaropes and for that reason comes under observation
of fewer persons. The migrating flocks begin to pass northward
about the last of April, and from that time to the first of June (in
two eases June 3), the species is abundant in the bays along our
coast and on the adjacent ocean. The return migration sets in early
in August (earliest instance August 2) and lasts at least through

322

GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

Fig. 56. Side of
tarsus and top of
foot of Eed Phala-
rope. Natural size.

Note webs between
bases of toes and
lobes on margins of
toes.

October. The November and December records of this species prob-
ably indicate that some individuals winter on the ocean off the south-
ern California coast and even as far north as Tomales Bay. The

collection of the California Academy of
Sciences contains fifteen specimens taken at
Monterej^ during December and January
(Beck, 1910, p. 70). In this respect the Red
Phalarope differs markedly from the North-
ern. At the height of the migrating season
the former species is exceedingly abundant
offshore, sometimes occurring in flocks be-
lieved to number thousands of individuals.

In breeding plumage the Red Phalarope
can be easily identified by the uniform dull
cinnamon red of its under surface, and the
conspicuous white patclies on the sides of its
head ; but in the fall identification is not so
easy. From the Northern Phalarope the Red
may then be distinguished at a distance only
with some difficulty, by its thicker neck,
heavier l)ill (fig. 57), and chunkier appear-
ance. P'rom many of the shore birds it may
be told by its small size and dense duck-like plumage, and from
others by its rather thick head and neck, tawny upper tail coverts,
and b}' lack of streaks, bars or spots on the under surface. Often,

especially early in the fall migration, the
plumage of the under surface is mixed
red and white, but never with a definite
pattern.

The note is described as a low and
musical clink, clink, sounding very much
like the noise made by lightly tapping to-
gether two small bars of steel. When the
birds are disturbed the note is repeated
oftener and becomes harder and louder
(Nelson, 1887, p. 97).
In our latitude this species is noted most commonly on the surface
of the water, usually on the ocean, either resting quietly or else
actively whirling about and dabbing the bill rapidly into the water
from side to side after the small forms of animal life on which the
birds feed. On rough water the birds often take wing to avoid curl-
ing waves, alighting immediately on smoother water. Streator (1888,
p. 54) saw numbers of these Phalaropes standing on floating kelp
near San Nicolas Island ; and individuals are not infrequently seen

4804

Fig. 57. Side of bill of
Eed Phalarope. Natural size.

Note somewhat stouter
form as compared with bills
of other Phalaropes (com-
pare with figs. 58 and 59).

BED PHALAROPE 323

staiuling or walking on niiul flats or the seabeacli close to the surf.
Dawson says (1911, p. 178) that when feeding, they work at the rate
of 300 (labs i)er minute and that the excrement is voided at two or
three minute intervals when so feeding.

McGregor (1898, pp. 87, 88) says concerning the habits of the
species as a visitant along the coast of California :

... I have repeatedly seen them in deep water feeding and swimming.
. . . Near San Diego the Eed Phalarope remains all winter at times and
swims about on the "tide slicks" feeding . . . [and] swimming nervously
here and there with a peculiar jerky movement [of the head] .... [At Santa
Cruz it was] busily feeding, gathering as I afterwards found, small Crustacea
from the surface of the water. As I attempted to approach them the whole
flock arose and circling rapidly for a few seconds lit again a long way off.
Another time, api)arently forgetting my presence, they would light only a few
feet from their starting place. . . . The head moved as if on a spiral spring
and food was secured by quick dabs at the surface of the water. I found
their time was spent either at the edge of the salt water, or, as likely in
swimming on small brackish lagoons, just back of the sand beaches. ... In
the Bay of San Diego they are often seen, and a flock of eight or nine Eed
Phalaropes was seen in Lower California on a fresh water lagoon some twelve
miles from the coast. This was the middle of April and several showed red
blotches on the white plumage. . . .

The Phalaropes usually feed near the water's edge when they are not
actually in the water. Not a moment is lost as they run hurriedly back and
forth, now following a receding wave to catch a belated Ifippa and again
industriously turning over decaying algae in order to capture the small crus-
taceans (Orchestia) which are . . . lurking there. . . . They feed on minute
particles of animal matter. . . . [One] may approach to within a few feet of
a feeding flock, perhaps, but Crymophilus [=Pha1aroi)Us] is notional and if
you get too near, away goes the whole flock as a single bird, with no warning
that we can detect. A killed or crippled Phalarope is almost sure to decoy the
remainder of the flock. . . . Whether on the wing or running along stretches
of white sand beach or whether rapidly paddling over the water, the Phalarope
is always neat and careful of its snowy feathers.

In northeastern Greenland, Manniche (1910, pp. 152-159) im-
proved an excellent opportunity to learn something of the habits
of this Phalarope. Of a pair seen June 19, 1907, he says :

At first they were entirely occupied in searching for food. Swimming on
the water and going amongst the tufts they eagerly hunted for gnats and
larvae. . . . They caught the larvae by swimming swiftly with the neck
stretched out towards the selected prey. They would often keep the bill
vertically and — reconnoitring the water just in front of them — pick up the
prey . . . with the greatest dexterity. Between the tufts the Phalaropes would
especially hunt flying insects. [They were evidently afraid of the larger shore
birds such as, for instance. Knots.] Several times I saw them rush together in
terror and lie motionless on the water with their heads pressed down to their
backs until the supposed danger — a passing Knot — was past. . . .

324 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

When the Red Phalarope first arrives on its breeding grounds in
the far north, during the latter part of May or the first few days of
June, flocks of fifty or more individuals are the rule. A little later
the birds pair off, but are still to be found associated together and
feeding in scattering companies on the slightly flooded grassy flats.
A vivid description of their behavior at this season was secured by
Nelson (1887. p. 97) in western Alaska, and is as follows:

A little later in the day, as their hunger became satisfied, they began to
unite into parties until fifteen or twenty birds would rise and pursue an erratic
course over the flat. As they passed swiftly along stray individuals and pairs
might be seen to spring up and join the flock. Other flocks would rise and
the smaller coalesce with the larger until from two to three or even four
hundred birds were gathered in a single flock. As the size of the flock
increased, its movements became more and more irregular. At one moment
they would glide straight along the ground, then change to a wayward flight,
back and forth, twisting about with such rapidity that it was diflicult to follow
them with the eye. Suddenly their course would change, and the compact flock,
as if animated by a single impulse, would rise high overhead, and, after a
series of graceful and swift evolutions, come sweeping down with a loud,
rushing sound to resume their playful course near the ground. During all
their motions the entire flock moves in such unison that the alternate flashing
of the under sides of their wings and the dark color of the back, like the play
of light and shade, makes a beautiful spectacle. When wearied of their
sport the flock disbands and the birds again resume their feeding.

The nesting habits of all the Phalaropes are peculiar in that the
male performs most of the duties in other birds alloted to the female.
In complementary fashion it is the female that does the courting.
From his observation of the Red Phalarope in northeastern Greenland,
Manniche (1910, pp. 153-154) writes:

When the male had been eagerly searching food for some twenty minutes,
often standing on his head in the water like a duck to fish or pick up some-
thing from the bottom, he would lie down on a tuft stretching out his one
leg and his one wing as if he would fully enjoy the rest after his exertions.
The female for some moments was lying quietly and mutely in the middle of
the pool; suddenly she began with increasing rapidity to whirl around on the
surface of the water always in the same little circle, the diameter of which
was some 10 cm. [2i^ inches]. As the male seemed to pay no attention to her
alluring movements she flew rapidly up to him — producing as she left the
water a peculiar whirling sound with her wings and uttering short angry
cries — pushed him with her bill, and then she returned to the water and took
up her swimming dance. Now the male came out to her and the two birds
whirled around for some moments equally eager and with increasing rapidity.
Uttering a short call the female again flew to a tuft suTrounded by water and
waited some seconds in vain for the male; again she flew to the water to induce
him with eager pushes and thumps to accompany her. They again whirled
violently around, whereafter she, uttering a strong alluring sound flew back to
the tuft this time accompanied by the male — and the pairing immediately took,
place.

SEB PHALAEOPE 325

While the Red Phalarope remains in northern latitudes for a
longer period than does the Northern, usually from late May to the
middle of October, the nesting period is quite restricted. Nelson
(loc. cit) found that the bulk of the species nested at St. Michael
during the first two weeks of June, while Grinnell (1900, p. 20), just
north of Cape Prince of Wales, found slightly incubated eggs on June
27 and 28.

The species varies somewhat in its nesting habits, according to
Nelson and Grinnell, the nests sometimes being situated close to bodies
of water and at other times at considerable distances from water. The
nest itself is a slight depression in the top of a grassy hummock or
on tlie surface of the bare ground, usually with a sparse lining of
dry grasses or leaves. In some cases the nest is rather well concealed
behind drooping grasses or willows.

Manniche (1910, pp. 154-155) says that in northeastern Green-
land

. . . the nest luiildiiifr was exe('ute<l V>y the male. He was busy iu build-
ing the nest on a low bank covered with short grass, while . . . [his mate]
paid no attention to his labour, but swam around the beach searching food.

The male shaped a nest-hollow by turning round his body against the
ground on the place selected, having first by aid of the feet scraped away and
trampled down the longest and most troublesome straws. He diligently used
feet and bill at the same time to arrange the shorter fine straws, which are
carefully bent into the nest hollow and form the lining of this. The nest was
much smaller than that of Triiiga aJpi)ia and contained one egg the next day.

A brooding "Phalarope will lie motionless with liis head pressed
deep down against his back. He is almost fully covered by straws,
which surround the nest, as he with the bill bends these over himself ;
besides he is so similar to the surroundings, that no human eye is
able to distinguish him from these, if the spot is not known before-
hand" (Manniche, loc. cit.). If disturbed, the male will perform the
broken-wing ruse used by females of other species in decoying an
intruder from the vicinity of the nest.

Three or four pear-shaped eggs comprise a full set in the Red
Phalarope. They measure in inches from 1.07 to 1.33 by 0.85 to 0.90.
The ground-color is a greenish olive, light or dark buff, or even a
grayish olive. The markings consist of large or small spots of dark
brown, sometimes equally crowded over the entire surface. They are
to be distinguished from those of the Northern Phalarope only by
slightly larger average size.

The period of incubation is not known but probably is about three
weeks, as Nelson (1887, p. 98) states that "... toward the end of
June most of the young are hatched and, by the middle of July, are
on the wing." The young, when they are able to tly, form flocks in

326 GAME BISDS OF CALIFORNIA

company with the adults. Whether these mixed flocks break up dur-
ing migration is not known ; but the extensive series of this species
obtained by Mr. R. H. Beck for the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology
at Monterey in August, 1910, does not contain a single immature
bird. So far as we can determine all are adults, and the males and
females are about evenly divided as to numbers.

Some of the food of this species has been indicated in the fore-
going account, as quoted from McGregor. Beck found the birds at
Monterey in 1910 feeding, as he supposed, upon small jellyfish which
were numerous along "slicks." This is unusual as most of the food
of the species is probably made up of small Crustacea. The forage
grounds include brackish ponds, as well as the kelp beds and tide
slicks ("whale grease") of the open ocean.

This phalarope, as in the case of some of the other smaller shore
birds, has been killed in considerable numbers by flying against tele-
graph wires where strung out across a marsh. For instance, near
Alameda, May 15, 1896, fourteen individuals were found dead, having
been killed in this manner (Cohen, 1896, p. 15).

The Ked Phalarope, being a more maritime species than either of
the other two, and than most of the shore birds, has probablj' suffered
but little diminution in its numbers. The fact that its breeding range
is in the extreme north, farther toward the pole than either of the
other two species, has probably also contributed to its protection. It
is a small species, not worth the shot of the hunter, important neither
as a game bird nor economically.

Northern Phalarope

Lohipes lobatus (Linnaeus)

Other names — Mono Lake Pigeon; Lobefoot; Sea-goose; PhaJaropus Inhntus;
Phalaropus hyperboreus ; Lobipes hyperboreuft.

Description — Adult male in spring and parly summer: Top of head and
hind neck, dull sooty brown, the feathers with or without whitish or brownish
tips; spot in front of eye, whitish; upper ami lower eyelids white; sometimes
a dull whitish spot behind eye; chin and upper throat pure white; bill black;
iris "dark-brown" (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 298); patch on each side of neck
bright rusty brown; back sooty brown, feathers widely margined with light
buffj^ brown, and extreme edges white until lost by wear; upper tail coverts
dull dark brown or blackish with narrow light brown edgings; tail feathers
blackish, lateral ones lighter and margined with white; outer surface of
closed wing sooty brown, except for tips of greater coverts and bases of
secondaries, which are white; in unworn condition there are slight white
tippings on rest of coverts; shafts of outer primaries light buff to white;
elongated tertials more brown in tone than rest of wing; axillars and most
of lining of wing white; bend of wing beneath mottled with dusky; under
surface of flight feathers dusky, shafts white; lower throat and breast grayish

NOETHEEN PHALAEOPE 327

brown -with feathers more or less white tipped and central portion of the
area more or less suffused with rusty brown; rest of under surface white;
feathers of sides and flanks with dusky shaft streaks; feet dusky with pale
webs. Total length 6.40-7.75 inches (163-197 mm.) (ten specimens from Cali-
fornia); folded wing 4.04-4.35 (102.8-110.5); bill along eulmen 0.79-0.93 (20.0-
23.7); tarsus 0.78-0.84 (19.7-21.5) (ten specimens from California and Alaska).
Adult female in spring and early summer: Like adult male in corresponding
plumage but with bright rusty brown on sides of throat deeper in tone and
more extensive, reaching farther around toward middle of chest, and running
down outer edge of scapulars as a duller streak; top of head, hind neck and
back, nearly uniform slate, with a longitudinal buffy brown stripe on scapulars
of each side; rump and upper tail coverts nearly black; general color of wing
blackish. Total length 7.37-8.00 inches (187-203 mm.) (ten specimens from
California); folded wing 3.91-4.29 (99.2-109.0); bill along eulmen 0.84-0.96
(21.4-24.4); tarsus 0.76-0.86 (19.2-21.8) (ten specimens from California and
Alaska). Adults, both sexes, in fall and xcinter: Head and whole lower surface
white, except for spot of dusky just below and behind eye; back and scapulars
pearl gray with broad white feather margins; wings as in summer, save as
modified by wear. Most late summer birds observed in California are in
mixed, transitional plumage, from summer to winter. Juvenile plumage:
Similar to summer plumage of adult male but with brown of neck and throat
wanting, grayish brown of chest and sides replaced by pale drab, and edgings
of scapulars and tertials bright rusty browm. Natal plumage: Ground color
of upper surface, sides and chin, tawny, paler on lower back and chin; white
spot over eye; stripe from side of bill to eye, dusky; top of head striped with
black and tawny; ear region, middle of hind neck and side of neck, black; a
median stripe, and two lateral ones on each side of back, black; throat suffused
with tawny, fading to dull white on under surface, which is in turn replaced by
drab in the region of the vent; feet (dried) yellowish.

Marks for field identification — Small size, needle-like bill (fig. 58),
slender head and neck, white under surface, and, in summer plumage, absence
of conspicuous streaking or barring on back of head and back, and reddish
sides of neck. Frequents open water, either salt or fresh; swims gracefully
and with quick movements. Among Phalaropes, distinguished by smaller size,
short, slender bill, dark rump, and in summer plumage by blackish head and
back. The phalarope most commonly met with on inland waters.

Voice — A plaintive "pe-et, pe-et, " or "pleep, pleep," or "wit, wit." As
the birds take wing from the water, these notes may be uttered at intervals
of one or two seconds.

Nest — On banks of sloughs or near shores of small lakes; a depression
molded in grassy sod and situated on top of a small hummock; sometimes a
small collection of marsh grass, but arranged with little care.

Eggs — 3 to 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.10 to 1.30 by 0.75 to 0.85
(in millimeters, 28.0 to 33.0 by 19.1 to 21.6), and averaging 1.20 by 0.82 (30.5
by 20.8) ; ground color greenish-olive, light or dark buffy, or even grayish olive,
with either large or small markings of dark brown, sometimes aggregated
around larger end to form a dark zone, or else rather evenly distributed over
the whole egg (authors). Slightly smaller and less coarsely or deeply marked
than those of the Eed Phalarojie.

General distribution — Both hemispheres. In North America breeds from
northern Alaska, Melville Island and central Greenland, south to the Aleutian
Islands, valley of the upper Yukon, northern Mackenzie, central Keewatin,

328 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA

and northern TTngava; iu the OM World from the limit of tree growth north to
the Arctic coast. Winter range in Western Hemisphere unknown, but prob-
ably on ocean south of equator; in Eastern Hemisphere winters in northern
tropics. During migration occurs iu almost all localities between breeding
and winter ranges (Cooke, 1910, pp. 16-18; A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, pp. 107-
108).

Distribution in California — Spring and fall migrant coastwise, less com-
mon in the interior. Occurs abundantly both in northward migration in May
(extreme dates May 1 and June 19), and in southward migration from late
July (earliest, the 11th, at Monterey) to late October (November 16, latest
at Santa Barbara). Stragglers may winter within the state, as suggested by
the records from Humboldt Bay (C. H. Townsend, 1887, p. 198); Stockton, in
January (Belding, MS); and San Diego (McGregor, 1898, p. 88). Interiorly,
in spring migration seems to keep to west side of San Joaquin Valley (east
to Fresno), but in fall migrates down Sierras (Lake Tahoe) to southern San
Joaquin Valley and western side of Mohave Desert.

Among the sliore birds there are none more dainty, more imsus-
picious and more entertaining than the Phalaropes, of which the
Northern is the smallest and most widely known. With its nesting
range centering almost on the Arctic Circle and its winter home
somewhere in the vast expanse of the Southern Hemisphere, the
Northern Phalarope presents one of the most interesting problems
in migration. Among the fishermen of the North Pacific Ocean these
birds together with the Red Phalaropes are known as "Bow-head
Birds" by reason of their feeding on the same small marine animals
as the bow-head or right whale. They are also known in these regions
as "Sea Geese" because of the erect posture of their head and neck
while they are on the water. East of the Sierras in the region of Mono
Lake they have been called "Mono Lake Pigeons." Writers have
also referred to them as "Lobe-foots," a name which they might
appropriately share with the other two phalaropes.

Northern Phalaropes begin to appear off our coast by the first day
of May, becoming abundant by late May or early June from which
time on they rapidly decrease in numbers until about the middle of
the month when they disappear. Dawson (1916, p. 25) records seeing
five on Goose Lake, Modoc Countj^ June 24, 1912. As with many
other shore birds the breeding season of the Northern Phalarope is
exceedingly short, the great bulk of the individuals beginning to nest
within a few days of one another. This accounts for the fact that
barely five or six weeks elapse between the time that the last of the
north-bound migrants disappear in June, and the time when the
advance guard of the south-bound host reaches our latitude in the
latter part of July. From this time on, the species increases in abun-
dance ; its numbers are maintained during August and September,
after which time it again becomes rare. The last of the birds disappear
by late October or early November. The few records of birds having

NOBTHEEN PHALAEOFE 329

been seen within our boundaries during the winter season are prob-
ably cases of stragglers that have been detached from the migrating
flocks. The Avinter home of the species is not definitely known but
it is believed to be the open ocean south of the equator and the birds
are thought to feed and sleep on the water during the winter months
(Cooke, 1910, p. 16).

The Phalaropes as a group may be distinguislied as the only w^ad-
ing birds which habitually swim or rest on the surface of the water.
This, coupled with the peculiar whirling motion, characteristic at
least of the Red and Northern, M'ill serve to identify them on the
water. In flight their small size, direct course, and color markings
must be depended upon. The Northern Phalai-ope nuiy be dis-
tinguished from the Wilson by its smaller size, and, in the breeding
season, by the relatively larger amount of
reddish on the neck and throat. From the
Red it may be distinguished in the breed-
ing season, of course, by the restriction of
reddish to the neck and throat, but in the '^^^ '^^^^

fall and winter plumage chieflv bv its ^. _„ ^

,, , 1 T 1 , ■-, ' , Fig. 58. Side of l)ill

smaller head and extremely slender neck of Northern Phalarope.

(Torrey, 1913, pp. 52, 53). Natural size.

The Northern Phalarope is at nearly all Note slender form, and

times of the vear a gregarious species espe- ^^^^^^ xxmler l.OO inch
'^ "^ *^ ^ (compare with figs. o7

cially in feeding and migrating. Even and 59).

when nesting, pairs remain in the near

neighborhood of one another. While it resorts to the shores of inland
ponds or streams to nest and ma}' sometimes be found in such locali-
ties at other seasons of the year, it spends the greater part of the
year in the vicinity of or on salt water. At times this bird associates
with the Red Phalarope, occasionally in large numbers, especially
while out on the ocean, as for example near Monterey. It may also
join with some of the sandpipers in feeding, but the species is more
commonly found in flocks containing only those of its own kind. The
call-note of the adult Northern Phalarope may be described as a
plaintive pleet, plcet, or peet, peet. It is also credited with a note
resembling ivit, wit, wit (Saunders, 1899, p. 568).

During the breeding season and to a less extent during migration
the Northern Phalarope feeds along beaches or in muddy creeks at
low tide, but it spends most of its time on the water, either while
resting or feeding. When on the water the birds have a habit of
whirling about rapidly. On this account they have been given the
name of "whirligig birds." This movement is evidently for the pur-
pose of bringing to the surface some of the minute animal life which
serves as food, and the movement is used most effectively in shallow

330 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

Avater where the rotating motion produced by alternate movement of
the lobed feet creates a little whirlpool. This whirling is maintained
at a rapid rate, and from three to forty revolutions may be made with-
out stopping. As a bird rotates, the bill is rapidly dabbed down into
the water, at a rate in some cases of 150 dabs per minute. Evidently
the success of this method depends upon the light conditions because
little or no "whirling" is noted on cloudy days (Bowles and Howell,
1912, p. 67). On their breeding grounds these birds have been ob-
served to dart in zigzag fashion along the margins of the pools in their
search for food (Nelson, 1887, p. 99).

The nesting season of the Northern Phalarope is exceedingly short,
a point which was mentioned in connection with their reappearance
in June and July along the California coast. Extreme nesting dates
available are June 11, 1908 (Dixon. MS), and June 30, 1899 (Grinnell,
1900, p. 21). Nelson (1887, p. 99) states that fresh eggs are rarely
found after June 20.

In North America this species nests throughout most of the
northern half of Canada and Alaska on the banks of ponds or streams
near either fresh or salt water, seeming however to prefer the former.
The nest itself may consist of a small collection of marsh grass, some-
times arranged on the top of a tussock of moss, or more commonly
on the level surface. Little or no care is shown by the birds in con-
structing the nest. Grinnell (loc. cit.) describes neMs in the Kotzebue
Sound region as being "... neatly moulded depressions in the
grassy sod, usually on a hummock at the side of a pool of water.
There was no lining except that formed by the broken-down grasses
underlying the nesting cavity."

The eggs of the Northern Phalarope usually number three or four,
sets of the latter number being much the more common. Turner {in
Macoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 159) is authority for the statement that
five eggs sometimes comprise a set. "The ground [color] varies from
dark greenish-olive or brownish-olive, through various lighter drab-
tints, nearly to a buffy-brown, and in one instance to a light grayish-
drab. The markings are usually very bold and heavy, consisting of
large spots and the still larger splashes produced by their confluence,
mingled with dots and scratches in interminable confusion. The
markings are, in general, pretty evenly distributed, sometimes aggre-
gated about the butt, and in rarer instances forming a complete,
definite circle. In a few instances all the markings are mere dots. In
general, the heaviness and size of the mai'kings bear some proportion
to the intensity of the ground-color. The color of the markings is
dark bistre, chocolate, and sometimes still lighter brown" (Coues,
1874, p. 471). The eggs measure in inches 1.10 to 1.30 by 0.75 to 0.85,
and average 1.20 by 0.82. The eggs of the Northern are said to be

NORTHERN PHALAROPE 331

indistinguishable from those of the Red Phalarope, save that the latter
average slightly the larger.

"When a person approaches the nest of a Northern Phalarope, the
sitting bird slips quietly from the nest while the intruder is twenty
yards or more away, and flies to the surface of a nearby pond wliere
it commences feeding unconcernedly, giving the impression that there
is no nest in the vicinity. At other times the bird will employ the
broken-wing ruse and other tactics common to nesting birds. During
the nesting period the adults remain close around the nest site ; when
foraging they follow one another about attentively. According to
different authors the male of this species does half or all of the work
of incubation. Indeed, except for the primary function of laying
eggs, the male performs all or most of the duties assumed by the
female in other species of birds. As a result of the low swampy
nature of the ground chosen for the nesting site many of the nests
are at times inundated by high tides and the eggs destroyed (Grinnell,
loc. cit.). By the latter part of July (20th to 27th) the young are
fully fledged and on the wing, feeding with the adults.

The fall molt seems to extend through a considerable portion of
the period from July to September. At least among the many speci-
mens taken in the fall along our coast varying conditions of the
plumage are shown, though not one is in full winter plumage.

While often appearing in great numbers on the ocean during
migration, the flocks are smaller on fresh water inland, perhaps thirty
individuals being the average number found in a flock. The flight is
usually quite direct, without the zig-zag movements of the sandpipers,
but at times it is erratic.

Heavy winds on the ocean sometimes prove disastrous to the
migrating hosts of Northern Phalaropes. Chapman (1905, p. 273)
records finding many bodies of this species in the tide pools of the
Farallon Islands. A heavy northwest wind had been blowing along
the coast for the previous two weeks and many of the birds had
resorted to inland pools of water. The emaciated condition of the
birds at the Farallones was probably due to their inability to procure
food while on the open ocean in migration. Forbush (1912, p. 228)
records numbers of these birds as being killed on the Atlantic coast
by dashing against lighthouses at night. In the Cape Region of
Lower California, Brewster (1902a, p. 59) found that "most of the
birds examined had lost one or more toes, and two or three an entire
foot, and part of the tarsus, also, while others showed gaping wounds
on the breast. These mutilations were probably caused by the bites of
fishes." Emerson (1904, pp. 37, 38) records finding several of these
birds killed by flying against the telephone wires strung across the
salt ponds on the marshes west of Hayward, and says that very many
of this and other species of birds are killed in this manner.

3.32 GAME BIHDS OF CALIFOBNIA

The Northern Phalarope feeds chiefly, although not exclusively,
on aquatic forms of animal life : Aquatic worms (including Nereis, the
oyster-worm), Crustacea, such as small shrimps, larvae of aquatic in-
sects, flies, especially those species M'hicli inhabit the surface of M'ater,
salt-marsh mosquitoes, crane flies, grasshoppers, clover-root curculios,
wireworms, click beetles, and water beetles (Dytiscidae) (McAtee,
1911a).

It is a mistake to refer to the Northern Phalarope as a "game
bird." Its small size, if nothing else, should remove it from the list
of species reckoned as objects of pursuit for food or sport. This,
coupled with the fact that its food habits, when it resorts to non-
aquatic forms of life, make it beneficial to our agricultural interests,
should be sufficient ground for placing it in the category of perman-
ently protected shore birds.

Wilson Phalarope

Steganopus tricolor Vieillot

Other names — Needle-billed Snipe; Plialaropus tricolor; PlmJaropus u-ilsoni.

Description — Adult male in spring and sunimer: Top of head and stripe
from base of bill through eye to ear region, dull blackish brown; forehead
sometimes suffused with grayish white; stripe over eye, lower eyelid, spot on
hind neck, chin, upper throat and lower portion of cheek, white; area behind
ear region black, sometimes suffused with reddish; bill black; iris brown; upper
surface except rump and upper tail coverts dull dark brown, many of the
feathers with lighter margins, and some marked with rusty; feathers of hind
neck slightly washed with white; rump feathers drab, tipped with white;
upper tail coverts with light drab shaft streaks and white shafts and margins;
outer surface of closed wing uniform dull dark brown; primaries blackish,
shaft of outermost one white; bend of wing mottled white and light brown;
inner surfaces of flight feathers light grayish brown, shafts white ; lining of wing
and axillars, white ; sides of hind neck dull reddish ; throat and fore-chest abruptly
light buffy, more whitish near mid-line and fading to light drab on lower
chest; sides and flanks pale di-ab, many of the feathers with dusky shaft
streaks and dull whitish tips; rest of lower surface white; legs and feet black.
Total length "8.25-9.00" inches (210-228 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 145); folded
wing 4.60-4.92 (117-125); bill along culmen 1.08-1.22 (27.5-31.1); tarsus 1.17-
1.29 (29.7-32.8) (seven specimens from California and Nevada). Adult female
in spring and early summer: Top of head forward to upper base of bill pearl
gray; conspicuous stripe through eye and continuing more broadly down side
of hind neck, black; short, black-bordered stripe above and in front of eye
white; lower eyelid, chin, upper throat and lower portion of cheek, white;
bill black; iris brown; middle of hind neck light grayish or white; side of
hind neck behind black stripe, and outer margins of scapulars, deep cinnamon
red; back otherwise shading from light gray on hind neck through deeper
slate gray to dull brown on lower back and rump; upper tail coverts white, the
longer feathers irregularly marked with dusky; middle tail feathers light drab
with white tippings, lateral ones light drab with increasing amounts of white

WILSON PEAL A HOPE 333

irregularly distributed ; outer surface of closed wing uniform dull dark brown;
primaries blackish; shaft of outermost primary white, of the rest light brown;
some of secondaries narrowly margined with white; axillars and lining of
wing white; bend of wing mottled white and light brown; under surfaces of
flight feathers light grayish brown with white shafts; lower throat and upper
part of chest abruptly tawnj-, darkest toned at sides, paling on breast, sides
and flanks; rest of under surface white; feet and legs black. Total length
"9.40-10.00" inches (239-254 mm.) (Eidgway, loc. cit.); folded wing 4.97-'
5.29 (126.6-134.3); bill along culmen 1.25-1.39 (31.8-35.2); tarsus 1.19-1.32
(30.1-33.6) (ten specimens from California and Nevada). Adults and birds of
the year, both sexes, in late shimmer, fall and winter: Forehead, side of head,
stripe above eye, and whole under surface, white; top of head, stripe through
eye, hind neck, and whole back, brownish gray with minute white feather
tippings; upper tail coverts chiefly white; wings and tail as in adult in spring;
sides of throat, chest and body, faintly washed with light gray. Juvenile
plumage: Upper parts blackish, the feathers extensively margined with light
rusty, giving a streaked effect; chin and area around eye, whitish; bill black,
yellowish at base of lower mandible; iris light brown; throat and sides of chest
washed with dull buffy; sides buffy, obscurelj"- streaked with blackish; rest
of under surface dull white; legs flesh-color; feet yellow; nails black. Natal
plumage: "Prevailing color bright tawny fulvous, paler beneath, the abdomen
nearly white; occiput and nape wdth a distinct median streak of black, on the
former branching laterally into two narrower, somewhat zig-zag lines; lower
back and rump with three broad black stripes; flanks with a black spot, and
caudal region crossed by a wide subterminal bar of same" (Baird, Brewer and
Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 336).

Marks for field identification — Moderate size, slender neck, long needle-
like bill (fig. 59), and white upper tail coverts; no spotting, streaking or
barring on under surface, no white on back, and no white bar or patch on
wing. The other two Phalaropes have white on back, and w-hite bar or patch
on wing. An inland species rareh' if ever found along the seacoast.

Voice — A nasal oit, oit, oit (W. P. Taylor, 1912, p. 359), or soft trumpeting
yna, yiia (Chapman, in Forbush, 1912, p. 229).

Xest — In marshy or grassy land at varying distances from water; a small
aggregation of grass or sedge with a slight depression in the center, or else
merely a slight depression in the surface of the ground with a sparse lining
of grass blades.

Eggs — 3 to 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.25 to 1.33 by 0.92 to
0.94 (in millimeters, 31.7 to 33.7 by 23.4 to 23.8), and averaging 1.28 by 0.93
(32.6 by 23.6) (two sets, seven eggs, from Nevada and Colorado) ; ground-
color light buff to very light drab; superficial markings dark brown or brownish
black, deep ones pale olive or light brown; markings chiefly spots, the larger
ones aggregated about larger end of egg, smaller ones profusely sprinkled
over whole surface.

General distribution — North and South America. Breeds from northern
Washington (and probably southern British Columbia), central Alberta, central
Saskatchewan and northern Manitoba, east to northwestern Indiana (and
probably eastern Wisconsin), and south to central Iowa, southern Kansas,
southern Colorado, and northeastern California. In fall migration reaches the
Atlantic coast casually from Maine to New Jersey, and Pacific coast from
southern British Columbia to Lower California. Winters in South America
from central Chile and central Argentina south to the Falkland Islands (A. O.
U. Check-list, 1910, p. 108).

334 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOBNIA

Distribution in California — Fairly coinnion summer visitant and breeder
in suitable localities in the northeastern section of the state, east of the
Sierran divide, from Lake Tahoe northward, and westward to Lower Klamath
Lake on the Oregon line. In spring migration has been observed at various
inland points north to vicinity of Los Banos, Merced County; also on the
coast at Santa Barbara. In fall migration occurs sparingly on coast from
San Francisco southward, but more commonly inland.

The Wilson Phalarope, or Needle-billed Snipe as it has been called
in parts of the east, is the non-maritime representative of the phala-
ropes, and is the only strictly American member of its family. It is
a distinctly fresh water species in its habits and is seen but rarely
even near the seacoast. In the spring migration it has been observed
inland at Salton Sea (April 21), Los Banos (May 11 and June 19),

Death and Owens valleys (June 19

y--^^^~ ^ and 27), and, on the coast, at Santa

y^ Q, Barbara (April 30 to May 20). In

c- — "^r^'"- ^^ '^^ ^^ ^^^ been taken at Ceme-

^-^ i'^^' teries, San Mateo County (September

^. .„ „. -, ^ , .„ ^ ^,,., 9), and has been noted at Santa Bar-
Fig. o9. Side of bill of Wilson
Phalarope. Natural size. »ara (July 22 to September 8), and,

Note extremely slender form "^ the Southern mountain ranges, at
(whence the name "Needle-billed Bear Lake, San Bernardino Moun-
Snipe"), and length over 1.00 , ■ i x ^ ooj. a j-r»\ i

inch (compare with figs. 57 and ^^^"^^ (^^^^ ^8 to August 2), and
58). Hemet Lake, San Jacinto Mountains

(August 11). One specimen is re-
ported as having been taken at Riverside in the "winter of 1891"
(Heller, lf)01, p. 100). It is possible that the species breeds in the
San Joaquin Valley, as at Los Baiios (Chapman, MS; Mailliard, MS),
and at Tulare Lake (Goldman, 19086, p. 203).

After the breeding season this bird wanders about extensively,
and the records on the Atlantic coast ar-e doubtless due to this pro-
pensity to wander. It is certainly nowhere such an abundant species
as the two maritime members of the group. Unlike the other two
species of phalaropes the Wilson rarely associates in large flocks, and
when nesting only a few pairs are ordinarily to be found in a given
locality.

From the other two phalaropes the Wilson may be distinguished
by its large size, long neck, long needle-like bill (fig. 59), white upper
tail coverts, and by the absence of white on its back and wings in all
plumages. From other shore birds it may be distinguished by the
combination of its swimming propensity and moderate size, with
straight and extremely slender bill, slender head and neck, unmarked
under surface, and absence of a white bar or patch on its wing.

The call-note of the Wilson Phalarope has been variously described
by different authors. Forbush (1912, p. 229, citing Chapman)

WILSON PHALABOPE 335

describes it as a soft, trumpeting yna, yna, and Chapman (1912, p.
241) gives it as a soft qua or quoh. W. P. Taylor (1912, p. 359), who
observed the species in northwestern Nevada, describes the note as a
nasal oit, oit, oit, somewhat resembling the croak of a toad during
the breeding season. "At the instant of utterance of the note the
bird which is calling raises its head somewhat, pauses momentarily
in its flight and its throat bulges slightly. The females . . . evi-
dently uttered most of the call-notes" (W. P. Taylor, loc. cit.).

This phalarope differs from the other two species in spending less
time swimming upon the surface and more of its time wading along
the shores or banks of pools and streams where it gleans its food in
much the same manner as the non-swimming shore birds. Because of
this, individuals of the species have been mistaken for Western Soli-
tary Sandpipers. Wilson Phalaropes are usually quite tame and will
allow themselves to be closely approached. At times they swim buoy-
antly upon the surface of the water, but seldom for a long time or very
far from the shore. They rarely if ever dive, and when frightened
escape by flight. Their flight is strong and takes a zig-zag course when
they are alarmed, but in the absence of danger it is slower and more
direct (Goss, 1891, p. 151). When feeding on the surface of the water
they have been occasionally observed to whirl and bob up and down
much as do the other phalaropes. They have also been seen to stalk
and capture insects on a muddy flat (W. E. Bryant, 1893o., p. 55).

In California the Wilson Phalarope breeds during the month of
June, and as far as is now known, only in the plateau region east
of the crest of the Sierra Nevada and northward from the vicinity of
Lake Tahoe. Its reported breeding in the San Joaquin Valley (Los
Banos) has not been substantiated by the discovery of either eggs or
downy young there. It has been found (Ray, 1912&, p. 145) nesting
at Lake Tahoe as early as June 4 (set of four, one-third incubated).
H. C. Bryant (1914^, p. 232) found a nest on June 8 at Lower Kla-
math Lake, containing egg-shells from which the young had already
hatched. Ray (1913, p. 113) found a nest at Lake Tahoe on June 6
containing a single fresh e^g. By June 19 this nest held four eggs
in which incubation was well advanced. Bliss (1893, p. 226) found
a nest in the same locality on June 16, 1889, with eggs on the point of
hatching, while H. W. Carriger has a set taken there June 17, 1911,
which consists of four fresh eggs. Sheldon (1907, p. 187) took a
chick in down near Eagle Lake, Lassen County, on July 1 ; this would
indicate hatching during the last week of June. It is thus probably
safe to say that the nesting period extends from late May to the end
of June.

The nesting site is usually in grassy meadows or marshes, where
the nest will be well concealed, and may be either in the near vicinity

336 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

of a body of water or removed a considerable distance from it. W. P.
Taylor and Ray have found the nests only in damp situations. The
first nests and sets of eggs are sometimes destroyed through inunda-
tion. This has the effect of extending the breeding season. The nest
itself is a simple affair consisting of dried grasses or sedges loosely
put together into a small circular and flattened mass Avith a slight
depression in the center. Again there may be no foundation but
merely a slight depression in the ground with a sparse lining of grass.
W. P. Taylor (1912, loc. cit) describes a typical nest as measuring
in surface dimensions about 2.25 by 3 inches and being about 0.75
inches in depth of material at the center where the eggs rested.

The eggs of the Wilson Phalarope average 1.28 by 0.93 inches and
are of the usual pear-shape. The ground-color is light buff to very
light drab, often varying considerably within a single set. The super-
ficial markings are dark brown or brownish black and consist of
spots of various sizes, the largest rarely over a fourth of an inch in
diameter. The larger spots are more abundant about the larger end
of the egg while the smaller ones are sprinkled abundantly over the
whole surface. The deep markings are pale olive or light brown. The
excessive sprinkling of small spots results in a conspicuously dark
general tone of color, and this, in conjunction with size, is usually
sufficient to distinguish the eggs of this species from those of any
other wader nesting in California.

The following account of breeding habits as observed in northern
Illinois (where the species is now rare or altogether gone) is con-
densed from Nelson (1877, pp. 38-43). The approach of the breeding
season is indicated by the breaking up of the flocks into small groups
of two or three pairs. Mating commences about the middle of May and
is evidenced by the increasing solicitude which the members of the two
sexes show for each other's welfare. During the mating period a
solemn bowing of the head is indulged in by both sexes at times, and
again one of the birds [female?] will sometimes run back and forth
in front of the other [male ?] . Mating accomplished, the male proceeds
to the construction of the nest. The eggs having been deposited by the
female, the male then begins the work of incubation. That the male
does all of the work of incubation is indicated by the fact that it is
only the breast and abdomen of this sex which shows the worn feathers
and wrinkled skin indicative of an incubating bird.

Generally a number of pairs nest in the same vicinity, and as
many as fifty have been counted within the radius of a mile. During
the incubating period the females form small flocks of six or eight,
remaining in the vicinity of the nesting grounds. If the breeding
ground is approached at this time the birds fly to meet the intruder
and hover over his head uttering a weak nasal note. After the first

AVOCET 337

alarm tlio birds nesting at a distance leave the flock while those having
nests in the immediate vicinity remain and fly about in long ellipses,
with the object of concern at the center. If the intruder still remains
and approaches closer to the nest the males join with the females. If
the intruder persists in his approach to the nest the length of the
elliptic flight is gradually lessened until the birds are flying about
almost within reach. A ruse of the species is for a nesting bird to
hover at some point apart from its nest. If successful, it is repeated
at a still greater distance from the nest. At times the males employ
the well known broken-wing ruse to lead intruders from the immediate
vicinity of the nest.

The young birds have a fine wiry ''peep," inaudible beyond a few
feet (Nelson, 1877, p. 43). They are escorted to the edge of the water
and feed there, sometimes drifting out on the surface (Sanford,
Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 329). Until they are fully fledged
their time is spent in marshy land. About three weeks after hatching
they are able to fly (Nelson, 1877, p. 42).

The molt is evidently accomplished early in the season in Cali-
fornia, as an apparently adult female taken at Bear Lake, San Ber-
nardino ^Mountains, on July 28, 1905, is in the full gray winter
plumage. The spring molt into the bright nuptial plumage is entirely
completed by the time the birds arrive within our territory.

The food of the Wilson Phalarope differs markedly from that of
the other two species, because of the inland habitat which the bird
frequents. It does not confine itself to aquatic forms, such as snails,
but eats a great variety of insects, including many terrestrial forms
(Barrows, 1912, p. 168). Mosquitoes, crane-fly larvae, leaf beetles,
water beetles (Dytiscidae), and bill-bugs (Calandridae) have been
found in stomachs of this species (]McAtee, 1911fl).

The Wilson Phalarope, although widely distributed, is, with us,
by no means a common species. Its limited area of summer distribu-
tion in California affects a region but sparsely settled, and there is
no evidence to show that its numbers have been reduced. The small
size of the bird and the fact that it is a forager upon insects, in many
cases frequenting cultivated fields, would seem to justify its permanent
exclusion from the category of true game birds.

Avocet

Recurvirostra americana Graelin

Other names— American Avoset; California Avocet; Yellow Snipe; Irish
Snipe; Blue-stocking; "White Curlew; Becurxirostra occidentalis.

Description — Ad^ilts, both sexes, in late spring and summer: Area around
base of bill and around eye, whitish, not sharply defined; rest of head, neck,

338 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

upper part of back, throat and breast, dull rusty, darker on top and sides of
head and hind neck, paler below and behind, gradually giving way to white on
back and under surface; bill black; often pale at base below; iris "bright
carmine" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 29); middle of back white, becoming very
pale gray on rump, upper tail coverts and tail; inner scapulars brownish black,
outer ones white, forming on back a dark V set in white; outer surface of
closed wing brownish black; primaries black; secondaries extensively white
at tips; tertials pale drab; margin and most of under lining of wing,
and axillars, white; hindmost under wing coverts, dusky; under surface of
primaries black; whole lower surface of body backwards from breast, includ-
ing sides, flanks, and lower tail coverts, white; hind toe small, feet extensively
webbed; legs and feet clear, pale blue, "edges of webs flesh-coloured"
(Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 29), drying blackish. Males: Total length 17.61-19.10
inches (447-486 mm.) (five specimens from California and Lower California) ;
folded wing 8.75-9.17 (222-233); bill along culmen 3.46-4.00 (88.0-101.8);
tarsus 3.79-4.00 (96.3-101.7) (ten specimens from California). Females: Total
length 16.75-17.90 (426-454) (ten specimens from California and Lower Cali-
fornia); folded wing 8.66-9.30 (220-236); bill along culmen 3.22-3.71 (81.6-
94.1); tarsus 3.27-3.92 (83.0-99.5) (ten specimens from California). Adults
and immatures, both sexes, in fall (?) and winter: As in summer, except that
rusty coloration is wholly wanting, being replaced on upper surface of head,
neck and back by pale gray, and below by dull white. The spring molt takes
place in March. Juvenile plumage: "Primaries slightly tipped with whitish;
scapulars and feathers of back tipped or transversely mottled with pale
fulvous or buff. Crown dull grayish; nape tinged with light rufous" (Baird,
Brewer and Kidgway, 1884, I, p. 341). Natal plumage: Top and side of head,
mixed black, white and dull rusty; side of neck, hind neck and upper part of
back similar but with more rusty; area above base of upper mandible, and
middle of chin, whitish; bill black; rest of upper surface dull blackish, with
much white-tipped down and some rusty color; lower back and outer surface
of closed wing grayish; under surface dull white; legs pale blue.

Marks for field identification — Large size, slender build, long, slender, up-
curved black bill (fig. 60), rusty or white head, white, unstreaked under surface, and
long bluish legs (pi. 11). Differs from Black-necked Stilt in having white on
scapulars and in entire lack of black on head or neck at all seasons.

Voice — A loud sharp "plee-eek, plee-eek."

Nest — Either on bare ground or in grass near alkaline ponds; varies greatly
in construction, being sometimes a well-made platform of grasses as much
as two inches in height; again only a rim of grasses, though fairly well put
together, the eggs being deposited on the surface of the ground within the rim.

Eggs — Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.82 to 2.07 by 1.34 to
1.40 (in millimeters, 46.2 to 52.6 by 34.1 to 35.5), and averaging 1.93 by 1.38
(48.9 by 34.9) (two sets, eight eggs, from California and Utah) ; ground-color
dull buff or clay; markings of dark brown or black and lavender or light gray.

General distribution — North America, chiefly the western part. Breeds
from eastern Oregon, central Alberta, and southern Manitoba (rarely north
to Great Slave Lake), south to southern California, southern New Mexico,
northwestern Texas, northern Iowa and central Wisconsin; winters from
southern California and southern Texas south to southern Guatemala; of rare
or casual occurrence east of Mississippi River (and now only in migration),
but formerly bred there in small numbers (modified from A. O. U. Check-list,
1910, p. 108; Cooke, 1910, pp. 19-20).

AVOCET 339

Distribution in California — Common summer visitant in the Modoc (plateau)
region northeast of the Sierras, in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley, and in
the coastal district of southern California from Santa Barbara southeastward.
Breeds from Lower Klamath Lake, Siskiyou County, on Oregon line (H. C.
Bryant, 1914e, p. 233) south to Santa Ana, Orange County (Grinnell, 1898, p.
16). In migration occurs west to coast at San Francisco and from that lati-
tude southward throughout the state both east and west of the Sierras. Winters
in fair numbers in coastal district from Santa Barbara southeastward, and
casually as far north as Novato, Marin County, near the coast (Mailliard coll.),
and at Stockton, San Joaquin County, in the interior (Belding, MS).

The Avocet is a typical inland species and shows marked prefer-
ence for the more arid parts of the country. It seems to have a strong
liking, at least in the western part of its range, for alkaline depres-
sions, and chooses such places for both forage and nesting grounds,
even when fresh Avater is also available. Pools on which a surface
scum has collected are often chosen, probably because of the par-
ticular kind of insect life there afforded. During the early summer
the species is present and breeds locally in restricted localities, chiefly
in the San Joaquin-Sacramento Valley and in tlie Modoc region. A
few breed also in the vicinity of Los Angeles. Ijater in the year it is
more widespread, occurring west to the coast from San Francisco
soutliward, as Avell as elsewhere inland. During August it has been
seen at Webber Lake, Sierra County (Belding, 1890, p. 267), and at
Heraet Lake in the San Jacinto Mountains (Grinnell and Swartli,
1913, p. 226). In the San Joaquin Valley the species arrives in force
at Los Baiios in March, and continues to be numerous in the valley
until October. Stragglers have been taken in December at Los Baiios,
Merced County (one specimen, Mus. Vert. Zool.), at Stockton, San
Joaquin County (three specimens, Belding, MS^, and, east of the
Sierras, at Lone Pine, Inyo County, in the same month (A. K. Fisher,
1893a, p. 22) ; while near the coast it has been observed at Novato,
Marin County, in January (specimen in Mailliard coll.), and
Berkeley, December 26, 1884 (Belding, MS). A flock of several hun-
dred individuals was noted by Emerson (1900, p. 34) on the salt
ponds near Hayward, Alameda County, November 17 to 24, 1899.
In certain years the species winters in considerable numbers in the
coastal district of southern California. In the spring and fall migra-
tions it has been seen on the coast at Santa Barbara, March 18 and
May 20, and September 20 to November 1 (Bowles and Howell,
1912, p. 7), and at Santa Cruz, June 10 (Sharpe, 1896, p. 333). As
indicated in the preceding paragraph the species may be found in
numbers ranging from solitary birds to flocks of several hundred
individuals, but flocks of a dozen to thirty birds are by far the com-
monest.

340

GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

The Avocet is one of the easiest birds to recognize. The long,
more or less up-curved, black bill (fig. 60) (whence the name Recurvi-
rostra), and the still longer bluish legs, the rust}^ red head and neck,
the contrasted black and white wings, and the black, white-margined
V on the middle of the back are all diagnostic features (pi. 11). In
flight the rather small wings, and long bill, neck and legs, are also
useful as recognition marks. The only species with which the Avocet
could be confused is the Black-necked Stilt ; but the latter has a
shorter, nearly straight bill, and pinkish legs, and the top of its head,
hind neck and Mdngs are pure black without any white interruptions.
Also the Stilt entirely lacks any decided reddish in its coloration at
any season. In fall and winter the reddish coloration on the head
and neck of the Avocet is rej^laced by gray or whitish, but the other
distinctive markings remain as in summer.

22169

Fig. 60. Side of bill of Avocet. Natural size.
The up-turned end is characteristic (compare with fig. 62).

Together with the Black-necked Stilt, this biid is sometimes known
as the "lawyer bird" because of its long bill and its oft repeated
vociferations! The call-note is a loud, not unmusical plee-eek, plee-
eek. When not molested by man and when not caring for nests or
young, the Avocet becomes quite tame and will permit a close
approach ; but when it has been persistently hunted or when rearing
young, it grows much more wary, and at the same time more noisy and
demonstrative.

Avocets spend most of their time on open ground where they can
see and be seen for long distances. Their foraging is carried on along
muddy shores, often in the water. "When on shore they walk with
a swinging motion of the body, much like that of a person who is
mowing with a scythe, and the head is bobbed up and down at almost
every change in posture. They sometimes run after and capture the
larger insects, and while so engaged hold their wings partly expanded.
In the water they wade about and sweep their bills from side to side,
searching for insects or other forms of aquatic life. While thus
engaged they sometimes keep their wings partly expanded and held
vertically above the body. If they liappen to wade in beyond their

AVOCET

341

depth they can swim off easily. Chapman (1912, p. 242) thus describes
their feeding when in the water : " . . . Their peculiar recurved bill is
used in a most interesting manner. Dropping it beneath the surface
of the water until its convexity touches the bottom, they move rapidly
forward, and with every step swing their bill from side to side, as
a mower doi^s his scythe. In this way they secure food which the
muddy water would prevent them from seeing." When the water
is deep they immerse the whole head and neck under the surface.
Coues (1874, p. 461) describes the actions of the birds as follows:

When approached too close-
ly, they rose lightly from the
water, uttering their peculiar
cries, flapped leisurely to a lit-
tle distance, and again alighted
to pursue their peaceful search
for food, forgetting, or at
least not heeding, their recent
alarm. As they rose from the
water, their singular, long legs
were suffered to dangle for a
few moments, but were after-
wards stretched stiffly back-
wards, as a counterpoise to
their long necks. . . . When
about to re-alight, they sailed
without flapping for a little dis-
tance, just clearing the water,
their legs again hanging loose-
ly; as they touched the ground,
their long wings were held al-
most upright for an instant,
then deliberately folded and
settled in place Avith a few
slight 'motions.

Fig. 61. Top of foot of Avocet. Natural
size.

Note extensive webs between bases of front
toes and presence of small hind toe (compare
with fig. 63).

H. C. Bryant (MS) states that he has seen the Avocet alight from
the wing in deep water.

During the breeding season, if the vicinity of a nesting colony is
approached, the birds often fly to meet the intruder at a considerable
distance from the nests. Chapman (1908, pp. 288, 289) says of the
birds at Los Banos: "The Avocets were scarcely less demonstrative
[than the Stilts], but their method of defending their eggs or young
was less by the strategy of actions to make themselves the center of
attraction, than by the most reckless attempts to drive the intruder
from the field. Rapidly uttering their loud plee-eek, they charged one
with a directness and apparent determination which threatened to
drive their needle-pointed bill in to the base, swerving to right or left
when only a few feet away, and repeating the performance almost im-

342 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA

mediately. They claimed dominion over so wide a territory, and ap-
peared so anxious to guard it all equally, that it was difficult to locate
their nests from their actions. ' '

In southwestern Saskatchewan, Bent (1907&, p. 425) says that
''While conducting their courtships, in May, the Avocets were always
amusing and often grotesque in their movements, as they danced
along the shore or waded in the shallow water holding their wings
fully extended, tipping from side to side, as if balancing themselves.
Sometimes they would run rapidly along, crouching close to the
ground, frequently*' nodding or bowdng and sometimes they would lie
flat on the water or ground, with wings outstretched as if in agony.
At such times they were very tame, apparently oblivious of all else,
and could be easily approached."

In California, the Avocet nests chiefly during the months of May
and June. The earliest seasonal record of nesting known to us is
that by Tyler (MS) who found an adult and four young about one-
fourth grown at Helm, Fresno County, April 20, 1914. In southern
California the species lias been recorded as nesting from May 3 to
July 6, at Santa Ana, Orange County (Grinnell, 1898, p. 16). In the
San Joaquin Valley it was nesting at Mendota, Fresno County, May
27, 1911, and near Firebaugh, Fresno County, May 30, 1912 (Tyler,
1913&, pp. 24, 25), at Los Banos, Merced County, April 26, 1912
(Beck, MS), and May 23, 1914 (H. C. Bryant, 1914^, p. 226). At
Lower Klamath Lake, Avocets were nesting at the time of a visit
June 2 to 9, 1914 (H. C. Bryant, 19Ue, p. 233).

Nests are usually placed on the bare ground in the vicinity of the
alkaline ponds where the birds feed, or upon muddy islands in such
ponds or lakes; they have also been noted in tall grass at a consider-
able distance from water. The nest is at best a crude affair, composed
of a small aggregation of grasses or weed stems which constitutes a
platform containing a slight depression in which the eggs rest. Tyler
(1913??, p. 25) describes the nests in the Fresno district as follows:

The typical nest is little more than a shallow depression in the earth with
no lining whatever under the eggs but with quite a substantial rim around
them so that it may be said to resemble a large, loosely built, and much
flattened blackbird's nest with the bottom removed. One is given the impres-
sion that this nest might have been hastily woven together, carried for some
distance and set down over the four large pointed eggs with the idea of
fencing them in rather than of affording a comfortable nest for the young.

An exceptional condition of affairs was observed by Lamb and
Howell (1913, p. 117) at Buena Vista Lake, Kern County, where
Avocets and Stilts were nesting on common ground. Nests of the
Avocets were noted containing from five to eight eggs, probably the
result of tAvo or more females laying in the same nest; indeed, some
nests contained eggs of both species.

AVOCET 343

The eggs of the Avocet are usually four in number, sometimes but
three, and are pear-shaped. They measare in inches 1.82 to 1.97 by
1.34 to 1.40. and average 1.93 by 1.37. The ground-color is a dull buff
or clay with superficial markings of reddish brown, brownish black
or black, and deeper markings of lavender or gray. The superficial
markings are more numerous than the deeper ones, are rather evenly
distributed over the surface, and rarely exceed 0.08 inches in diameter.
The eggs of the Avocet differ from those of the Black-necked Stilt in
larger transverse diameter, slightly greater length, slightly duller
surface, and smaller and less numerous spots.

"The little chicks take readily to the water and are as much at
home as ducklings, swimming and diving if occasion require" (San-
ford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 333). A downy youngster sev-
eral days old observed by H. C. Bryant (1914e, p. 226) at Gadwall,
May 21, 1914, was swimming in a shallow pond and turning tail up
as it tried to reach something on the bottom. The young are fully
fledged and on the wing by the first of August ; for Belding (1890, p.
267) records birds of the year at Webber Lake in the north central
Sierras on August 3, 1889.

The stomach of the downy young specimen mentioned by H. C.
Bryant (loc. cit.) contained eight or more small water beetles (Dytis-
cidae), 1 Jerusalem cricket {Stenopelmatus), 1 dragon-fly larva, 1
small bug (Pentatomidae), and one centipede [Scolopendra) . At
Mono Lake, W. K. Fisher (1902fl, p. 10) found this species feeding
on a small Phyllopod crustacean which abounded along the shore;
and Tyler (1913fl, p. 16) thinks that the flies occurring on the scum
covering stagnant pools form an attraction for the Avocet. McAfee
(1911a) reports the species as feeding on grasshoppers, bill-bugs and
water beetles. In Florida a single individual was found to have eaten
sixteen fish under an inch in length (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway,
1884, I, p. 342). On the shores of Santa Cruz Island, Henshaw (1876,
p. 271) found the species eating the sea;-slugs and small crustaceans
which were to be found on the sea beach.

The Avocet was formerly an important game bird in California.
There are records of considerable numbers having been offered for
sale as food in the markets of Stockton and San Francisco. Authori-
ties, however, differ as to the value of the flesh of the Avocet as an
article of food. Huntington (1911, pp. 317, 318) declares that "the
flesh is fairly good, about equal to that of the other shore birds of
the second class, such as the tattlers"; while Sanford, Bishop and
Van Dyke (1903, p. 333) say that "the flesh is of a bluish color and
hardly palatable."

Apparently the species was more abundant in past years than at
present, but it has not suffered the great diminution in numbers that

344 GAME BISDS OF CALIFOBNIA

has obtained in the ease of more desirable game species, snch as the
curlew. As the Avocet affects a type of habitat not encroached upon
by agricultural development, its breeding and feeding ranges have not
been measurably restricted. The large size of this wader combined
with its striking coloration and its open habitat render it a conspicuous
object for pursuit, though this is offset to some degree by its rapidly
acquired wariness when repeatedly molested. It would appear that
a brief open season early in the fall and limited bag, for the benefit of
those hunters who care for this bird, might be safely allowed as long
as present conditions remain unchanged.

Black-necked Stilt

Himantopus mexicanus (Miiller)

Other names — Lawyer; Tilt; Jack Suipe (in San Joaquin Valley); Long-
shanks; Himantopus nigricoUis.

Description — Adult male: Front of head, lower eyelid, spot behind eye,
and all of under surface of body, white, save that, in breeding season, fore-
neck and breast are pervaded with pale pink; vertical line in front of eye,
cheek, top and back of head, hind neck, upper back, and outer surface of
closed wing, continuously black, showing a greenish sheen in certain lights;
lower back, rump and upper tail coverts, white; inner tail feathers drab, darker
toward tips, outer ones lighter; shafts of all tail feathers white; whole under
surface of closed wing dull black; axillars white; iris carmine red; bill black;
feet dull old rose color, nails black; hind toe wanting. Total length 13.75-15.00
inches (349-381 ram.) (four specimens); folded wing 8.63-9.05 (219-230);
bill along culmen 2.49-2.71 (63.2-68.6); tarsus 4.37-4.83 (111.0-122.5) (nine
specimens). Adult female: Similar to adult male but never acquiring pinkish
tinge on breast, and back, scapulars and tertials dull brownish black instead
of metallic greenish black. Total length 13.12-17.12 inches (333-434 mm.)
(ten specimens); folded wing 8.30-9.17 (211-233); bill along culmen 2.36-2.64
(60.0-67.0); tarsus 3.81-4.38 (96.8-111.2) (ten specimens); all from California.
Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult female, but feathers of the dark
upper surface and lining of wing narrowly bordered with buff or dull whitish,
giving a faintly scaled effect. Natal plumage: Upper surface mixed tawny
and blackish in fine pattern; elongated spot on middle of back, and stripe
along side of back, black; under surface pale tawny paling to whitish on
throat and belly; bill deep mouse gray; legs and feet grayish blue.

Marks for field identification — In flight: long neck, long legs stretched
out behind, and long slender white body, strongly contrasted with the black
wings; when on ground or wading: the same contrasted color areas, moderately,
large size, red legs, and straight black bill (pi. 11 and fig. 62).

Voice — A sharp ip-ip-ip (Chapman, 1912, p. 242); when courting: a nasal
qudnlc.

Nest — Variously located on dry bare ground, on small niuildy islands, or
even in water a few inches deep; structure varies with location, from mere
depressions with sparse lining of grass to relatively elaborate platforms of
weed, or grass stems, or tules.

BLACK-NECKED STILT 345

Eggs — 3 to 4, large, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.59 to 1.84 by I.IG
to 1.26 (in millimeters, 40.3 to 46.6 by 29.6 to 32.1), and averaging 1.70 by
1.24 (43.1 by 31.4) (six sets, 22 eggs, from Los Banos, Merced County) ; ground-
color medium buff or clay; superficial markings deep reddish brown, or brown-
ish black, deeper ones gray or lavender; surface with slight sheen.

General distribution — Temperate North America and northern South
America. Breeds from central Oregon, northern Utah, and southern Colorado,
south to the southern boundary of the United States; also breeds locally in
Mexico, in the Bahama Islands and West Indies, and in South America to
northern Brazil and Peru. Winters in extreme southern United States and
south through Mexico and northern half of South America.

Distribution in California — Common summer visitant and breeder in the
Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley, and in the southern coastal district west of
the desert divides, from the latitude of Santa Barbara southeastward.
Eeported also sparingly from northern California east of the Sierran divide at
Goose Lake (Dawson, MS). Arrives from late March to early April and
departs by mid-October. Stragglers have been taken as late as November 19,
1891. One winter record: Bixby, Los Angeles County, January 5, 1910
(Willett, 1912rt. p. 35).

The Black-necked Stilt, Lawyer, or Long-shanks, as it is variously
called, is one of the commonest summer birds along inland bodies of
water. Often in company with its nearest relative, the Avocet, it is to
be found wading or stalking about the edges of shallow bodies of
water. The Stilt, however, seems to have a less decided preference
for brackish water or alkaline sinks than does the Avocet.

The Stilt is a regular summer visitant in the interior of Cali-
fornia, usually arriving in numbers by the last of March or in early
April and leaving by the middle of October. It is somewhat more
southern in its general distribution than the Avocet. In northeastern
California it is scarce, having been found only at Goose Lake (Daw-
son, MS) and at Rhett, or Tule, Lake (Newberry, 1857, p. 99). In
the Sacramento Valley it is common locally and occurs north at least
to Gridley, Butte County, and it is abundant in suitable localities in
the San Joaquin Valley. On the coastal slope of southern California
it occurs at Santa Barbara in spring migrations during April and
May and is a common summer visitant from the vicinity of Los
Angeles south at least to the vicinity of Santa Ana (Willett, 1912a,
p. 35). During migrations it appears sparingly west to the coast at
San Francisco Bay, and on the deserts of southeastern California. The
date of earliest arrival within the state in 1912 was March 22, at Los
Bailos (Beck, MS), but in 1914 Tyler (MS) saw five near Fresno,
February 11. The second week in April seems to mark the time when
the species usually arrives ; for the majority of the spring records fall
during that period. By late July or early August the southward
migration has set in, a flock having been seen at Bear Lake, San
Bernardino Mountains, July 30, 1905 (Grinnell, 1908, p. 55), and

346

GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

a flock and scattered individuals at Heinet Lake, San Jacinto Moun-
tains, on August 6 and 21, respectively, 1908 (Grinnell and Swarth,
1913, p. 227). Clarke (1913, p. 218) records the birds as common
about Tulare Lake when he arrived on September 19, 1913, but says
that they gradually decreased in numbers uj) to October 7, when he
left. One was seen in the market at Stockton, October 18, 1890 (Beld-
ing, MS). It has been recorded as a "fall and winter migrant" at
Miller, Marin County (Kobbe, in Bailey, 1902, p. 1). Willett (1912a,
p. 35) states that the species leaves the coast of southern California
in October. A juvenile was taken at Mt. Eden, Alameda County,
November 17, 1895 (Mailliard coll.) ; others of the species were noted
at Riverdale (San Diego County?), as late as November 19, in 1891
(Cooke, 1910, p. 21 ) ; and a specimen was taken at Bixby, Los Angeles
County, January 5, 1910 (Willett, 1912a,, p. 35). These three records
are probably all of stragglers left behind by the migrating flocks.

22183

Fig. 62. Side of bill of Blaek-necked Stilt.
Natural size.

The almost straight outline is characteristic
(compare with fig. 60).

While Black-necked Stilts and Avocets commonly occur together,
the first named species is usually much more abundant than the
second. H. C. Bryant (1914e, p. 226) found this the case at Los
Baiios, where the Stilt was the most abundant species of water bird
breeding in the vicinity; and Goldman (1908&, p. 203) and Linton
(1908c, p. 197) indicate that the Stilt was the more abundant of the
two species on Tulare and Buena Vista lakes, respectively. Tyler (MS)
says that in Fresno County Stilts outnumber Avocets 100 to 1, and
as the Avocets are decreasing the disparity is increasing.

The Black-necked Stilt is one of the easiest of birds to identify,
whether in flight or on the ground, by reason of its sharply contrasted
white body and black wings, long neck and long straight black bill
(fig. 62) and excessively long reddish legs (pi. 11). The Stilt may
always be distinguished from the Avocet by its lesser bulk, by the
black on the top of its head and hind neck, the absence of white on
its shoulders, its shorter and straighter bill and its longer and dull red,
instead of bluish, legs. In the breeding season the Stilt shows no rusty

BLACK-NECKED STILT

347

red on the head and neck region as does the Avocet, save that males
of the former species have a pinkish blush on the throat and breast.

The Black-necked Stilt forages along the grassy or muddy shores
of shallow inland ponds and lakes, fresh, brackish and stagnant. It
walks about in a sedate fashion, with a deliberate but jerky movement,
the long legs being sharply bent at the "heel" and raised far up behind
at each step. When standing, the feet are not spread apart as in the
ease of some waders, the legs being held vertically parallel. A notable
mannerism is that of abruptly jerking the head upwards at frequent
intervals, with immediate recovery. When chasing insects on land a
Stilt will sometimes run about swiftly with wings upstretched, perhaps
to aid it in quickly turning and
tacking in its cliase. When
working in soft mud and prob-
ing for food it drives its bill
into mud "up to the hilt."
When wading about and feeding
in mud beneath the surface of
the water its body is tilted for-
ward and downward, the legs
being used as fulcra. The birds
while wading are careful not to
get beyond their depth, as they
are said to be poor swimmers,
not comparing at all in this with
Avocets. A fact to be noted here
is that the foot of the Avocet is
almost completely webbed, while
that of the Stilt is practically
without webbing, the toes being

free (compare figs. 63 and 61). A Stilt, when wounded, however,
and hard pressed, will sometimes resort to swimming. Mortimer
(1890, p. 338) tells of a wounded bird that was yet able to use its legs
and ran some distance along the shore ; but being pressed it took to
the river and swam for the opposite bank. In swimming, the Stilt pro-
ceeded in a sort of sidling manner, and rose in the water with each
stroke of the feet, continually turning its head from side to side.
Tyler (MS) Records an instance of the same sort.

The flight of this species is straight and steady, with slow-flapping
wings, the individuals in a flock keeping fairly close together and
wheeling so that the black and white of the upper and lower surfaces
appear alternately (Coues, 1874, p. 465). Their astonishingly long
legs stretched out behind give them a peculiarly attenuated outline.

Fig. 63. Top of foot of Black-
necked Stilt. Natural size.

Note practical absence of webbing
between front toes, and total absence
of a hind toe (compare with fig. 61).

348 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOFNIA

The voice of the Stilt is described as a shrill ip-ip-ip and may be
heard both during the day and at night. On the nesting grounds at
the beginning of the breeding season one of a pair is sometimes heard
to utter a nasal qudnk as it flies up with its mate ; on alighting one of
the birds continually "squats," as if the legs were too weak to sustain
its body.

The nesting period of the Stilt extends from the first of April to
the end of July. The height of the season occurs from the middle of
May to the middle of June. At Calexico, Imperial County, Murphy
(MS) saw three newly hatched Stilts and many adults on April 14,
1915. Sets of eggs have been taken near Santa Ana, Orange County,
from the first of May until August (Grinnell, 1898, p. 16). Willett
(1912cf, p. 35) says that in the coastal district of southern California
the Stilt breeds most abundantly from May 15 to June 15. The species
was nesting in colonies at Buena Vista Lake between May 20 and
June 16, 1907 (Linton, 1908c, p. 197), and at Tulare Lake between
June 23 and July 7 the same year (Goldman, 1908&, p. 203). In the
Fresno district the Stilt has been found nesting from April 26 to
July 1 (Tyler, 19136. p. 26, and MS), and farther north, at Los Bauos,
Merced County, from May 5, 1896, until May 25, 1899 (sets in Mus.
Vert. Zool.). It is known to have bred at Woodland, Yolo County
(set in Mailliard coll., taken May 23, 1886), but no farther north in
the Sacramento Valley. Emerson (Mailliard coll.) has found eggs
May 3, 1908, and young June 4, 1911, near Niles, Alameda County.
Dawson (MS) thinks the species may nest at Goose Lake, Modoc
County, but no eggs were taken there.

Several different types of surroundings are selected by Stilts when
nesting. The nest may be placed on a dry or grass-covered flat one
hundred yards or more from water, on a muddy island in the middle
of a pond or lake, or actually in shallow water. The structure of the
nest varies with location. Frequently, if the nest be placed on a dry
flat, it is a mere depression slightly hollowed out to approximately fit
the body of the bird and lined with a sparse layer of grasses or weed
stems a fourth of an inch in thickness, or even less ; sometimes only
a few pieces of vegetation are found at the nest site. Again, upon a
muddy island, it may be composed of a layer of weed or grass stems,
or tules, two or more inches in depth. When so constructed the indi-
vidual pieces of vegetation composing the nest measure about two
inches in length. The most elaborate nests constructed by the Stilt
are those situated in water several inches in depth. H. C. Bryant,
Tyler and some other observers believe that the Stilt is capable of
meeting the emergency of rising water by adding to the height of the
nest sufficiently to keep the eggs above the level of the water. Such
nests are begun on open ground and added to only when the rising

BLACK-NECKED STILT 349

water demands it. It is probable that only incubated sets are so eared
for (Tyler, MS). A nest of this type found at Los Bafios, May 12,
1914, was seven inches in height and composed of pieces of tules about
two inches in length, the eggs being just at the surface of the water. A
tj'^pical nest measures about seven inches in diameter.

Stilts commonly nest in colonies of five to twenty pairs, and their
aggregate numbers in any general area consequently do not seem so
great as would be the case if they all nested in one large colony. On
a small island in Buena Vista Lake, Lamb and Howell (1913, p. 117)
found Stilts and Avocets nesting together, and curiously enough cer-
tain of the birds seemed to consider themselves members of one large
family, as nests were found containing five to eight eggs and some
nests held eggs of both species. H. C. Bryant (MS) found a set at
Los Baiios which contained five eggs, and Tyler (MS) found a similar
set near Fresno.

The eggs of the Stilt number four in a eom})lete set, but in
exceptional cases more, as above. The eggs average 1.70 by 1.24
inches, the extremes being 1.59 to 1.84 by 1.16 to 1.26. The ground-
color is a. medium buff or clay with superficial spots of deep reddish
brown or brownish black and deeper ones of gray or lavender. The
spots are commonly over 0.08 inches in diameter, and are usually a
little more numerous about the larger end where they are sometimes
so thick as to fuse. The eggs of the Stilt differ from those of the Avo-
cet by their smaller transverse diameter, slightly shorter average
length, and somewhat darker general tone of coloration.

Both male and female are said to incubate (Coues, 1874, p. 466).
The period of incubation is not known, but is probably about three
weeks or slightly longer. The young are able to run about at birth,
but are carefully attended by the parents for some time. Murphy
(MS) says that the downy young Stilts seen by him at Calexico,
Imperial County, were swimming. Chapman (1908, p. 288) thus
describes the behavior of the Stilts at Los Baiios:

. . . The Stilts, because of their abundance, vociferousness, and remarkable
actions were the most conspicuous and interesting [of all the water birds].
They nested on the little islands formed by slightly elevated bits of ground,
often selecting a site which, under irrigation, subsequently became submerged —
a misfortune [which] artificial conditions had not prepared the birds to
anticipate.

On May 2.3, their eggs were hatching, and in June the Snipe like young
were widely distributed over the marsh. They invariably attempted to escape
observation by squatting with neck outstretched, but the parents, whether
one approached their eggs or young, expressed their solicitude by a surpris-
ing extravagance of motion, all apparently designed to draw attention to them-,
selves. I was at times surrounded by hopping, fluttering Stilts, all calling
loudly, waving their wings, bounding into the air to hang there with dangling
legs and beating pinions. . . .

350 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

The food of the Stilt comprises among other things grasshoppers,
bill-bugs, water beetles and other insects, many of which are destruc-
tive to crops (McAtee, 1911a). As an element of the inland avifauna
the Black-necked Stilt is thus likely to serve in beneficial capacity
whenever it frequents agricultural lands, and it should accordingly
receive protection. Its flesh is comparable to that of the Avocet, in
other Avords, it is of second class. In former years Stilts were sold
in the markets to some extent, but so far as known this practice has
not obtained within recent years. Sportsmen in general pay little
or no attention to them. The birds have probably not decreased to
any great extent, if at all, since the state was first settled, and the
present condition of agriculture in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Val-
ley, where farming is dependent upon irrigation, will doubtless pro-
vide them for many years to come with the proper kind of surround-
ings for nesting and feeding.

Wilson Snipe

Gallinago delicata (Ord)

Other names — Jack Snipe; English Snipe; American Snipe; Gallinago
wilsoni; Scolopax vnlsoni ; Gallinago media; Gallinago media wilsoni.

Description — Adults, hoth sexes, at all seaso7is: Top of head velvety black,
with a median creamy or whitish longitudinal stripe running back from base
of upper mandible, and a similar one running along each side of head above eye;
a dark brownish stripe from side of bill (beneath light stripe last mentioned)
running to lower eyelid; side of head generally, mixed buffy and whitish,
flecked with dusky; a diagonal dark streak on lower cheek beneath ear; chin
white or cream-colored; bill "brown," terminal third "black"; iris "hazel"
(Audubon, 1842, V, p. 345) ; hind neck and side of neck streaked blackish and
buffy in fine pattern; back and scapulars velvety black, with extensive feather-
marginings of pale buffy or whitish, many feathers with irregular spots or
bars of tawny; the light markings tend to give the back a lengthwise striped
pattern; rump brownish gray, narrowly barred with white; upper tail coverts
barred with brownish black and pale buffy brown; tail velvety black with
subterminal bar of tawny followed by narrow bars of black, buffy and white,
the latter terminal; outer tail feathers lighter, the tawny being replaced by
pale drab; outer surface of closed wing slaty brown, many feathers margined
or tipped with white or buffy; outer web of outermost primary white; some of
tertials irregularly banded with brownish and pale drab; under surface of wing
and axillars barred with blackish brown and white; under surface of flight
feathers dusky; throat and chest buffy drab, the feathers with irregular
dusky brown shaft streaks, giving a distinctly mottled effect; abdomen white;
under tail coverts tawny, narrowly barred with dusky; sides and flanks barred
with dusky brown and white; feet olive green. Males: Total length 10.50-
11.94 inches (266-303 mm.) (three specimens from California and Alaska) ;
folded wang 4.75-5.06 (120.4-128.5); bill along culmen 2.44-2.61 (61.9-66.3):
tarsus 1.15-1.30 (29.1-33.1) (ten specimens from California). Females: Total
length 10.00-10.94 (2i34-278) (two specimens from California); folded wing

WILSON SNIPE 351

4.83-5.25 (122.4-133.3); bill aloug culmen 2.48-2.84 (63.0-72.0); tarsus 1.21-
1.33 (30.8-33.9) (ten specimens from California). Weight 3 ounces (85 grams)
or more (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 344). Juvenile plumage: Top of head black;
stripe over middle of crown, pinkish white; stripe from side of bill to eye,
black; cheek and chin, mixed white, black and cinnamon; rest of upper sur-
face of body brownish black, with broad feather-margins and markings of
cinnamon, buflfy brown and dull white; outer surface of closed wing dull brown
with broad feather tippings of pinkish buff and white; flight feathers dusky;
margin of wing white; throat and breast streaked with pinkish cinnamon and
dusky; middle of belly white; sides and flanks barred with white and dark
brown. Natal plumage: Bright hazel brown, darkest on upper surface of body
where marked irregularly with black and white; forehead at base of bill,
black, followed by white; spot on cheek, white; narrow streak from bill to
eye, and spot below angle of mouth, black; chin light buft".

Marks for field identification — Medium-small size, long bill( 2.50 inches,
63.5 mm.) (fig. 64), longitudinally striped head and back (at all seasons),
mottled breast, white belly, dusky rump, erratic flight, sharp grating note,
crouching attitude and solitary rather than flocking habits; frequents grassy
meadows rather than open mud-flats or shores.

Voice — A rasping scaipe, scaipe, not loud, and a yak-yak-yak-yak or ka-ka-
ka-ka-ka of far-reaching quality, the latter two calls being uttered chiefly or
exclusively during the breeding season.

Nest — In semi-moist part of a meadow, usually placed in or at the side of
a tuft of grass; a mere depression lined with a few grasses.

Eggs — 3 to 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.50 to 1.60 by 1.05 to 1.10
(in millimeters, 38.1 to 40.6 by 26.6 to 28.0) (Davie, 1889, p. 110). One set
(four eggs) from California measures 1.48 to 1.60 by 1.12 to 1.17 (37.5 to 40.6
by 28.4 to 29.7), averaging 1..54 by 1.13 inches (39.0 by 28.8 mm.). Color varies
"from a grayish-olive to greenish-brown and yellowish-ash, spotted and
blotched wuth reddish-brown, umber, and sometimes with lines of black; the
markings are bold and numerous, particularly on the larger end, usually also
sharp scratchy lines of blackish and shell-spots, hardly noticeable ' ' (Davie,
loc. cit.).

General distribution — North America and northern South America. Breeds
at the north from Newfoundland and northern Ungava to northern Mackenzie,
northern Yukon and northwestern Alaska, apparently following closely the
limits of tree growth; thence south to New Jersey, northern Indiana, northern
Illinois, northern Iowa, southern Colorado, northern Nevada, and south-central
California. Winters most abundantly in southern United States and Mexico,
although winter range extends to Colombia and southern Brazil in South
America. Normal northern limit of winter range extends from North Carolina,
through Arkansas and New Mexico to northern California, but individuals
sometimes winter about springs or streams as far north almost as the Canadian
boundary (Cooke, 1910, pp. 23-24; et al.).

Distribution in California — Abundant fall, winter and spring visitant
throughout lowlands and to a less extent in suitable places in mountainous
districts. Occurs in summer and breeds in region east of Sierran crest, from
latitude of Lake Tahoe northward to the Oregon line and west to Lower
Klamath Lake; also recorded as breeding near Tejon Pass, northern Los
Angeles County (J. Mailliard, 1914, p. 261), and may be expected to nest in
appropriate places northeast of this station. Occurs in migration over practically
the entire state.

352 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOENIA

The Wilson Snipe, or Jack Snipe of the hunter, is the game bird
supreme wherever it is found. Its elusive habit of lying close and
flushing suddenly with swift erratic zig-zag flight and its delicacy of
flesh, make this at once the most difficult of pursuit and most highly
prized of all our shore birds. Snipe begin to appear in the lowlands
west of the Sierras rather late in the fall as compared with other
waders. Dates of first fall appearance in several localities are as
follows: Stockton, September 7, 1878 (Belding, MS); Hayward,
September 25, 1875 (Belding, MS) ; Santa Barbara, October 27, 1911
(Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 7) ; Los Angeles, August 25, 1897 (speci-
mens in Swarth collection) ; and Hemet Lake, San Jacinto Mountains,
August 14, 1908 (Grinnell and Swarth, 1913, p. 227). In the spring
it departs rather early, the latest records being: Mecca, Kiverside
County, April 26, 1908 (C. H. Richardson, MS) ; Los Angeles, April
10, 1899 (Swarth collection) ; Santa Barbara, April 27, 1911 (Bowles

Fig. 64. Side of bill of female Wilson Snipe. Natural size.
Note sense pits near tip of bill.

and Howell, 1912, p. 7) ; Daggett, San Bernardino County, "through
April," 1911 (Lamb, 1912, p. 35) ; Los Banos, Merced County, April
26, 1912 (specimen in Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; and Gridley, Butte County,
April 30, 1893 (Belding, MS). As the species has nested at Tejon
Pass, Kern County, birds seen at Weldon, Kern County, July 5, 1911
(specimens in Mus. Vert. Zool.), and to the east at Little Owens Lake,
May 6-11, 1891 (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 22). cannot safely be con-
sidered as migrants.

In winter the species occurs in suitable localities throughout the
state below the level of heavy snow. Some northern winter records
are: Bodega Bay, December, 1854 (Baird, Cassin and Lawrence, 1858,
p. 711), Shasta River, Siskiyou County, December, 1912 (specimen
in Mus. Hist., Sci. and Art), Nevada City, Nevada County, November
2, 1872 (Nelson, 1875, p. 365) ; Owens Valley, "late December," 1890
(A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 22) ; Yermo, Mohave Desert, from October
22, 1910, through April, 1911 (Lamb, 1912, p. 35).

From other waders the Wilson Snipe may be distinguished by
its combination of moderately small size, long bill (fig. 64), longi-
tudinally streaked upper surface at all seasons and its conspicuously

WILSON SNIPE 333

white bL41y set ott' from the mottled breast. The only species with
which it might be confused is the Long-billed Dowitcher in summer
jilumage. From the latter species the Snipe differs in the possession
of a longitudinally striped rather than irregularly mottled back and
by the absence of reddish coloration on its breast. Then, too, the
Wilson Snipe is rarely if ever found on the open flats or about salt
water, while the Long-billed Dowitcher is found regularly in both
of these situations. The sudden and erratic zig-zag flight and the rasp-
ing call-note, uttered as the bird takes wing, are perhaps the best field
marks for the sportsman. The harsh, rasping "scaipe, scaipe" is
essentially a note of alarm, uttered at the moment the bird flushes
and never so far as known while it is on the ground. This note often
suffices to start some or all of the other Snipe in the near vicinity.
Close view of a bird at rest brings out an additional character — the
large apparent size of the eyes. This is probably correlated with its
twilight activity.

Although the Wilson Snipe has a wide range within the state and
elsewhere, it is sporadic in its local occurrence, outside of the breeding
season, appearing in a given locality in considerable numbers one day
and being totally absent on the next, perhaps to reappear on the suc-
ceeding day. Again, territory which seems eminently suited for the
support of numerous Snipe may never be visited at all by the birds.
Wide reaches along the edges of slow-moving streams, level open
marshes, and even upland meadows, Avhen the winter has been very
wet, are the preferred haunts of these birds ; but at times they occur
in distinctly dry, though grassy, situations. They are rarely if ever
found feeding or resting on bare open flats save under cover of dark-
ness. In irrigated sections Snipe are often flushed from the margins
of the ditches, where the growths of w^eeds conceal them completely
until they take flight.

Much of the food of the snipe is secured by probing in soft mud,
a practice to which its bill is particularly adapted. The tip of the
upper mandible is flexible and can be moved independently of the
lower one, and the exposed surface tow^ard the tips of both mandibles
is provided with numerous sensitive nerve-endings, each in a little pit.
The birds are thus enabled to feel about wdth the tip of the bill below
the surface, a practice not possible for any other wader except the
Woodcock of the east and probably the Dowitchers. The bill is thrust
perpendicularly into the soft mud and worked about for earthworms
and other burrowdng forms of animal life without the incessantly
repeated probing necessary for w-aders provided with shorter, more
inflexible, and less sensitive bills; but so numerous are the probings
of the Snipe in some places that the whole surface of the ground is
literally "drilled with holes." Hunters say that it is useless to look
for Snipe in a locality which does not show some of these probings.

354 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

The Snipe's manner of feeding has been described by Galloway
(1895, p. 86) essentially as follows: On April 18, 1894, a bird was
located at the edge of a pond near Montgomery, Ohio. For a time
the bird stood motionless, but before long it relaxed and began dabbing
in the mud and water with its long bill. It posed in all sorts of posi-
tions, at times standing knee-deep in water and fishing up prey from
beneath the surface, again facing the observer with its bill straight
down or turned rakishly to one side, an attitude which gave it an
air of shrewdness. Presently the bird flew across the pond and
alighted among some low clumps of sedge, where it stood at full height
in a recess in the bank, eyeing the observer suspiciously. It then
climbed up on a clod, stuck its bill over its back and down inside the
wing, and went to sleep for two minutes. Awakening, it dressed the
feathers of the breast with the bill, and again relapsed into repose.
Returning to the water's edge, and seemingly impressed with some-
thing, the bird stood with loosened wings, oscillated for a moment,
bent the legs so as to bring its body close to the ground, and walked
very carefully, bowing at every step as though wishing to tread lightly
and avoid being seen, till suddenly the head was thrust forward and
the bird began pulling an angleworm out from a hole. It would pull
and pull until the limit of its height was reached, then take a fresh
hold and pull again. The worm must have gone back into its hole
each time, else it is inconceivable how so much continuous pulling
could have been exerted on one ordinary worm.

In their habits Snipe seem to be affected by climatic conditions
more than other species of shore birds. On warm sunny days when
little or no breeze is stirring the birds will remain quiet and can be
flushed only with difficulty. But cold windy, cloudy, or rainy days
seem to excite them, for they then flush wildly, at long range, and
zig-zag away at a rapid rate. On such days the hunter is apt to start
more birds, but they are much more difficult to shoot. The usual
practice is to hunt against the wind, as the birds when flushed usually
labor against the breeze or fly across it, in either case giving the hunter
a better chance than if he Avere pursuing the birds down-wind. Occa-
sionally they start off down the wind, and then are so quickly out of
range as to prevent an effective shot. When flushed on cloudy or rainy
days the birds may move out of the region to a distant meadow or
marsh too far to be pursued, or they may circle about and return to
cover within a few feet of the place from which they were flushed.
They also sliow marked irregularities in behavior as regards flushing.
Sometimes the rasping alarm note of the first bird put up will raise
the whole population in the vicinity, while at other times the birds will
flush one at a time. When they drop into the protecting grass it is
usually to remain in the same spot for a considerable time, so that

WILSON SNIPE 355

in hunting it is possible to "mark down" the birds which alight and
follow tliem up systematically one after the other. In this manner it
is sometimes possible to secure a dozen birds in a relatively small area.
"In taking flight and especially if alarmed the Snipe spreads its
tail like a fan and with spasmodic semicircular sweeps . . . swings it
from side to side with a peculiar jerky motion. When [the bird is]
suddenly frightened into flight, as by a dog or gunner, these sweeps
are repeated with amazing rapidity and the result is a series of gyra-
tions ..." (Betten, 1904, p. 265). Eaton's epitome of the habits of
the Wilson Snipe is as follows:

When no enemy is near he walks nimbly, carrying the head and body
erect with the bill pointing well downward, but often assumes more the atti-
tude of a Sandpiper and gleans from the surface especially when foraging
along the shore of a lake or stream as he often does in the dusk of evening.
When his foes appear he crouches so motionless that it is impossible to dis-
tinguish him among the grasses, and when too closely pressed springs suddenly
into the air with a sharp grating call and makes rapidly off in a "rail-fence"
course not far above the ground until well out of danger, when he mounts
high in the air and circles about for a few minutes finally to pitch headlong
into the swamp again, perhaps into the same position from which he was
driven (Eaton, 1910, p. 302).

When flushed the Snipe rises about six feet above the ground
before the zig-zag flight is commenced and this is then kept up for
about twenty j-ards, after which a straight course is pursued. After
straightening out its course it flies on a dead level. In high and
scattered brush the birds persist in dodging through it, and when
among scattered trees they rise without the characteristic short zig-
zags and fly in wide curves between the trees.

Nesting records of the Wilson Snipe in California are exceedingly
rare. The set taken near Tejon Pass, in extreme northern Los
Angeles County (J. Mailliard, 1914, p. 261) is the only one as yet
definitely recorded from the state. Belding (MS) states that the
species breeds at Webber Lake in the northern Sierra Nevada, and
Cooper (in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 190) was informed
that it bred at Lake Tahoe. George Neale reports two small young
as found at the north end of Lake Tahoe early in August, 1912 ; and,
according to the same person, three young were found in Sierra Valley,
Plumas County, September 1, 1899 (H. C. Bryant, 1915&, pp. 76, 77).
At Lower Klamath Lake in the first week of June, 1914, H. C. Bryant
(1914e, p. 232) saw Snipe in nuptial flight, but did not find other
evidences of nesting.

The egg-laying season would appear, from numerous eastern and
northern records, to extend from late April through May. The set
recorded by Mailliard, in which incubation was nearly complete, and

356 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

two sets from the eastern United States recorded by Cooke (1910,
p. 25), were all taken on April 24 of different years, this being the
earliest date. Belding's record (1890, p. 267) of young barely able
to fly by the first of August, and the above eases recorded by Bryant,
would indicate that nesting in the Sierras proceeds until August.
However, the contention of game conservationists that the Wilson
Snipe is an early nester is borne out by the majority of the recorded
nesting dates, taking the whole of the United States into account.

The nest is usually placed in a moist meadow in or at the side of
a tuft of grass, and is a mere depression lined with a few grass blades.
The nest at Tejon Pass was situated in a swampy area and was placed
on a tussock of grass about one foot in diameter and two in height.
It was " . . . ' simply a few fine grasses, probably pulled from the stems
directly beside the nest, as several bare stalks were noticed' " (J.
Mailliard, loc. cit.). This set consisted of four eggs. The ground
color was clayey-olive with a faint greenish tinge ; the superficial
markings were of deep sepia, the deepest ones of varying tints of
gray; the markings consist of spots, roundish, sometimes elongate, in
the aggregate showing a distinctly spiral trend, and the largest being
0.20 inch in diameter, but usually smaller, 0.08-0.12 inch.

During the breeding season the Wilson Snipe behaves quite differ-
ently than at other times of the year. Adults, probably males, are
to be seen perched on fences, stumps or even in the more open parts
of trees, a habit prevalent among certain other shore birds. Grinnell
(1900, p. 22) thus describes the nuptial flight, as observed in the
Kowak Valley. Alaska :

I was in a broad, grassy swale studiled here and there with scrub spruces
and bordered by taller timber, when my attention was attracted by a curious
far-off song which puzzled me for some time. Finally I descried the pro-
ducer, a Wilson 's Snipe, so far overhead as to be scarcely discernible against
the clear sky. It was flying slowly in a broad circle with a diameter of
perhaps 600 yards, so that the direction of the sound was ever shifting, thus
confusing me until I caught sight of its author. This lofty flight was not
continuously on the same level, but consisted of a series of lengthy undulations
or swoops. At the end of each swoop the bird would mount up to its former
level. The drop at the beginning of the downward dive was with partly
closed, quivering wings, but the succeeding rise was accomplished by a suc-
cession of rapid wing-beats. The peculiar resonant song was a rolling series
of syllables uttered during the downward swoop; and just before this drop
merged into the following rise, a rumbling or whirring sound became audible,
accompanying the latter part of the song and finishing it. This curious song-
flight was kept up for fifteen minutes, ending with a downward dash. But
before the bird reached the ground, and was yet some twenty yards above it,
there was apparently a complete collapse. The bird dropped, as if shot, for
several feet, but abruptly recovered itself to fly a short distance further and
repeat this new manoeuvre. By a succession of these collapses, falls, recoveries
and short flights, the acrobatically-inclined bird finally reached the ground.

WILSON SNIPE 357

alighting in the grass near me. During the last part of this performance
another Snipe, probably the female, made its appearance, flying low over the
ground and alighting with a weak "chirp." A little later one of the birds
was seen perched on the top of a sjiruce, uttering a prolonged series of abrupt,
resonant notes, "ka-ka-ka-ka-ka, " like the monotonous spring song of the
Eed-shafted Flicker.

Concerning flights of the sort described above Henshaw says
(1S80&. pp. 321-322): "During the mating, and in fact through
most of the breeding period, and continuing even after the young are
hatched, the birds l^egin these evolutions as soon as dusk comes on, and
continue them at irregular intervals until about nine o'clock. The
notes are not heard again until about day-break, and they cease before
sun-up. But should the day be cloudy the Snipe may be seen flying
in the manner described till late in the morning, often indeed till
nearly noon."

"In courtship, the male struts with drooping wings and wide-
spread tail around his mate, in a most captivating manner, often at
such times rising spiral-like with quickly beating wings high in air,
dropping back in a wavy, graceful circle, uttering at the same time his
jarring, cackling love note, which, with the vibration of the wings
upon the air, makes a rather pleasing sound" (Goss, 1891, p. 161).

The young run about soon after hatching. At first they feed on
larvae, small insects and snails, but at the end of a few weeks their
bills have hardened sufficiently to enable them to probe in the mud
and secure worms as do the adults (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway,
1884, I, p. 192).

Snipe are essentially non-flocking birds, but at times as many as
fifteen individuals have been seen in flight in one company. This
habit is chiefly shown during the period of migration. One observer
noted a flock of birds coming into some duck grounds at nightfall.
The flight was not in unison, as in the case of many shore birds, but
the individuality of each member of the flock was apparent. Migration
and local movements occur chiefly at night, and the flights are at
lower levels than in the case of most birds.

As indicated in the preceding portions of this account a large pro-
portion of the food of the Wilson Snipe consists of earthworms secured
by probing in soft meadow or marsh land. The bird is also reported
to take crane-fly larvae, mosquitoes, grasshoppers, wireworms and the
adult click beetles, and water beetles (McAtee, 1911o). In addition,
Forbush (1912, p. 252) reports that cutworms and leeches, seeds of
smart weed and other plants, together with roots and other vegetable
matter have been found in the stomachs of these birds.

Economically the Wilson Snipe is a very important species ; in
fact it may, by reason of the interest taken in it by hunters, be con-

358 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

sidered onr most important species of shore bird. Its flesh is of excel-
lent flavor, due, perhaps, to the fact that it lives exclusively about
clean fresh water. To the hunter it is the game bird par excellence.
To the farmer it is beneficial by reason of its food habits.

All available accounts go to show that the Wilson Snipe has
decreased decidedly in numbers. This is due to several causes : re-
striction of feeding grounds, encroachments of civilization in other
ways, and excessive shooting without bag limit for a long period. In
the east, in former years. Snipe were not protected at all; shooting
continued through the spring and even well into the nesting season.
Spring shooting in this state has probably been responsible for mucli
of their decrease on the whole Pacific Coast. Statistics from a gun-
club in Monterey County show the following number of Snipe to have
been taken during the seasons specified: In 1905-06, 117; 1910-11,
189 ; 1911-12, 95 ; and in 1912-13, 24. These figures show an average
decrease not to be accounted for even by irregularity of occurrence
from year to year.

The five-year closed season established by the Federal government
in 1913 for many of our shore birds should have been extended to the
Wilson Snipe. Such action is necessary if this admirable bird is to
continue as a game species. After the end of a closed season of a few
years, adequate restrictions could be provided so that it would con-
tinue to exist in fair numbers throughout the state and be a staple
feature of the game bag.

Long-billed Dow^itcher

Ma^rorhamphus griseus scolopacfiis (Say)

Other names — Eed-breasted Snipe (in summer); Jaek Snipe; Gray Snipe
(in winter); Scolopax grisea; Scolopax novehoracensis ; Macrorhamplnifi scoJo-
paceus; Macrorhamphus griseus.

Description — Adults, both sexes, in late spring and summer: Top of head and
hind neck streaked brownish black and light cinnamon; stripe from upper
mandible to above eye, dull whitish; sides of head, mixed white and tawny,
flecked with brownish black; chin dull white often finely flecked with dusky;
iris "reddish-hazel"; bill "dark olive" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 13); feathers
of back and scapulars black, narrowly margined with pale cinnamon and
narrowly tipped with pale gray or white, some with irregular or broken bars
of tawny; rump white becoming posteriorly like upper tail coverts, the latter
being marked with spots and bars of white and blackish brown; tail feathers
ashy brown, irregularly barred with white, and sometimes with pale tawny;
outer surface of closed wing brownish gray, lightest on middle coverts; coverts
and secondaries narrowly margined with white, secondaries more broadly tipped
with white; primaries dark brown, quill of outermost one white; under lining
of wing, and axillars, barred white and blackish brown; under surface of flight
feathers dusky, more or less finely marbled with whitish on inner webs; under

LONG-BILLED DOWITCHEE 359

surface ta\Yuy, the feathers tipped obscurely with white, and some with small
terminal spots or streaks of brownish black; under tail coverts pale tawny
or whitish, spotted and barred with brownish black; feathers of sides and
flanks tawny, barred with brownish black; feet with small webs between
bases of toes, "light yellowish olive," claws "dusky" (Audubon, loc. cit.).
Males: Total length 10.81-11.75 inches (274-298 mm.) (two specimens); folded
wing 5.57-5.89 (141.2-149.6); bill along culmen 2.13-2.32 (54.2-58.9); tarsus
1.36-1.47 (34.6-37.4) (ten specimens). Females: Total length 12.00-12.12 (305-
308) (two specimens); folded wing 5.65-6.10 (143.5-154.7); bill along culmen
2.24-2.80 (56.9-71.2); tarsus 1.40-1.65 (35.5-41.9) (ten specimens); all from
California. Adults, both sexes, in fall and winter: Top of head, hind neck, and
back, quite uniform grayish brown, most of the feathers with obscurely darker
shafts; eyelids and stripe from upper mandible to eye, white; area between
side of upper mandible and eye, grayish brown; lower side of head and chin,
mixed drab and white in fine pattern; rump white; upper tail coverts and
tail, barred with white and brownish black as in summer; wing and coverts
as in summer; throat, chest and sides, pale grayish brown, some of the feathers
with narrow dark brown shaft streaks; belly white; flanks and lower tail
coverts barred with brown and white. Juvenile plumage: Top of head and
back chiefly blackish, with much feather-edging of clay-color; scapulars and
tertials the same; rump and tail as in adults; wing coverts broadly outlined
with white or dull clay; chin whitish finely flecked with dusky; throat, chest
and sides, dull buffy brown with obscure dusky spotting; belly dull whitish;
flanks dull buffy, barred obscurely with dusky; lower tail coverts buffy white
speckled with duskj^ Natal plumage: Top of head deep chestnut brown,
bordered on each side by a line of white, the two lines meeting on hind neck;
streak down middle of forehead and another from bill to eye, black; sides of
head and neck tawny, much obscured with dusky on ear region; back deep
chestnut brown, marbled with black and scatteringly marked with white
especially on hind neck and wings; throat buffy white; breast dull orange,
paling to buff on belly; flanks like back.

Marks for field identification — Moderate size (near Wilson Snipe), white
rump, narrow light bars on wing, long bill (fig. 65) held downward at an angle
to body, swift erratic flight, open flock formation when feeding; in spring and
summer, conspicuously tawny breast, in winter uniform grayish brown upper
surface.

Voice — In fall, a deep guttural chirp; a whistled note (several authors).
In breeding season a strident peet-u-weet ; wee-too, wee-too; also peet-peet ;
pee-ter-wee-too, etc. (Nelson, 1887, p. 101).

Nest — Placed on mossy or bare ground usually in a marshy area; a slight
depression in the ground or in a grassy hummock, often without lining of any
sort save that formed by dead grasses naturally underlying the spot.

Eggs — 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.69 to 1.87 by 1.20 to 1.25 (in
millimeters, 42.9 to 47.5 by 30.5 to 31.7), and averaging 1.75 by 1.22 (44.4 by
31.0); ground color clay or grayish, sometimes with a greenish cast; large
well defined dark umber brown spots, sparse except about large end where they
are crowded (Nelson, 1887, p. 101).

General distribution — Western North America and Middle America.
Breeds from Point Barrow to mouth of the Yukon Eiver, Alaska, and east
to northwestern Mackenzie; winters from Louisiana and Florida south into
Mexico and the Gulf region. In migration occurs over whole United States,
but most abundantly in the West, and but sparingly, on eastern coast from

360 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Massachusetts southward; occurs also on eastern coast of Siberia (modified
from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 111).

Distribution in California — Common spring and fall migrant coastwise
and in valleys west of the Sierras. Has occurred as a winter visitant, though
irregularly, at San Diego (Belding, MS); at "Santa Ana, Orange County (Grin-
nell, MS); "Wilmington, Los Angeles County (Stephens coll.); and as far north
as Los Banos, Merced County, November to March (specimens in Mus. Vert.
Zool., and Beck, MS). In migration becomes abundant about second week
in April and continues so until about mid-May. In fall first appears about
last of July, and is found in varying numbers up to first week in November.

The Long-billed Dowitcher is the "Jack Snipe" of the seashore.
It is a breeding species along the northern coast of Alaska and winters
in the Gnlf region and Mexico. It occurs within our confines chiefly
as a migrant, rarely remaining as a winter visitant. Belding (MS)
states that it is a rare irregular winter visitant at San Diego, and Grin-
nell (MS) has record of its presence in numbers at Santa Ana, Orange
County, January 25, 1893. F. Stephens has one taken at Wilming-
ton, Los Angeles County, December 4, 1879. In the San Joaquin
Valley in the vicinity of Los Banos, Merced County, the species was
found in varying numbers by Beck throughout the winter of 1911-12,
being taken December 9, 1911, January 2 and March 6 and 22, 1912
(specimens in Mus. Vert. Zool.). Lamb (1912, p. 35) took a specimen
9 miles east of Daggett, San Bernardino County, February 24, 1911.
Two males were taken at Olema, Marin County, March 9, 1882 (coll.
J. and J. W. Mailliard). The earliest coastal record is for Santa
Barbara, March 10, 1910 (Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 8\ It
becomes abundant during the second week in April and continues so
until about the first week in May, the last birds being seen about the
middle of the month. The latest spring record is for May 13 (1914),
at Los Banos (H. C. Bryant, MS). Goldman (1908&, p. 203) noted
a flock at Tulare Lake, July 8, 1907 ; but the birds examined were
not in breeding condition, and probably represented early fall mi-
grants. Ilenshaw (1876, p. 271) noted the species at Kern Lake,
Kern County, in August. The breeding birds and young from the
north appear along the coast in numbers about the first of September
and continue to be seen from the latitude of San Francisco soutli-
Avard until the first or second week of November. The numbers of
Dowitchers present is probably never very large, although a flock of
as many as 200 has been seen at one time. The species is more often
noted in flocks of six to two dozen individuals.

The Long-billed Dowitcher may be distinguished from other waders
by its medium size, long bill (fig. 65), by the absence of distinct stripes
on its back, by its white rump and wing bars, open flock formation
when feeding, and erratic flight. In late spring and summer it may
be easily distinguished by the reddish coloration of its under surface ;

LONG-BILLED DOWITCHEE

361

in fall aiul winter by the almost uniform grayish upper surface and
unstriped lower parts. The Dowitcher resembh^s the Wilson Snipe
in general size and in its very long bill, but differs notably in the
absence of conspicuous streaking on the upper surface of its body and
in having a white nunp and distinct, though narrow, w'hite wing bars.
In spring plumage the Dowitcher may also be distinguished from
the Snipe by its reddish breast. In this plumage the Knot might be
confused with it, but the latter has a much shorter bill and a dusky
rump, and feeds in compact tlocks. In autumn the Dowitcher and
Wandering Tattler are somewhat similar in plumage, but the
Dowitcher may then be distinguished by its much longer bill, white
rump, barred upper tail coverts, and white wing bars.

The Long-billed Dowitcher feeds out on the open flats, a habit
strongly in contrast with that of the Wilson Snipe, the latter bird
showing exclusive preference for grassy ground. The Dowitcher fre-

22232

Fig. 63. Side of bill of female Long-billed
Dowitcher. Natural size.

Note similarity to bill of Wilson Snipe (com-
pare with fig. 64).

quents the borders of marshes, sand and tide flats, and the edges of
inland pools of water, showing but little preference for salt over
fresh water. When along salt w^ater the birds retire to higher boggy
land during high tide and probe there for worms. The feeding flock
usually scatters out over the flat, which is in marked contrast to the
method of feeding employed by Knots. The Dowitchers probe indus-
triously, sinking the bill in vertically up to the very base. Often
when feeding the birds thrust the bill into the mud, withdraw it,
advance a step, again thrust it into the mud and so on, repeating the
process rapidly, so that the}^ remind one of a walking beam. While
feeding they keep up a continuous run of soft notes (Coues, 1874, p.
479). When alarmed the birds "freeze," with the head down and
close in to the body, the long bill pointing downward at an angle of
45 degrees. They frequently wade about in water as deep as the
length of their legs will permit, thrusting their long bills through the
water into the underlying mud. If they wander beyond their depth
they are able to swim with a fair degree of ease, and the same is true

362 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOENIA

when they are wounded. The possession of a slight webbing at the
bases of the toes is probably correlated with this ability in swimming.
Dowitehers swim with a bobbing motion of the head and this is accom-
panied by a corresponding jerking of the tail (Cones, loc. cit.), in
much the manner of a Rail. When frightened and forced to take
wing, or when moving to a new location, they fly in a small compact
flock with quick turning much like the small Sandpipers. In flight
they are usually silent, and the head and long bill are held at an angle
(about 30°) to the rest of the body. These characters serve to dis-
tinguish the species when only the outline is observable. Dowitehers
frequently associate with other waders and when doing so often lead
the flock of which they happen to be members.

The Long-billed Dowitcher nests during the latter part of May
and probably throughout the month of June, as eggs have been taken
at St. Michael, Alaska, on May 23, 1880, and at Fort Anderson,
Mackenzie, June 21, 1864, and June 15, 1865; while incubating birds
were secured at Point Barrow, Alaska, on June 28, 1883 (Cooke, 1910,
p. 29). The nest is a simple structure composed at most of a few
decayed leaves in a depression in the mossy ground (Macfarlane, in
Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 199), or may be only " . . . a
shallow depression formed by the bird's body in the soft moss and
without a trace of lining." That is to say, there is "no nest, except
the dead grass naturally found in the place occupied ..." (Nelson,
1887, p. 101).

The best account of the nesting habits of the Long-billed Dowitcher
is that supplied by Nelson (loc. cit.), Avho found the birds in the
vicinity of Norton Sound, Alaska.

Two or three males start in pursuit of a female aud away they go twisting
and turning, here and there, over marsh and stream, with marvelous swiftness
and dexterity. At short intervals a male checks his flight for a moment to
utter a strident peet-u-iveet ; wee-too, wee-too; then on he goes full tilt again.
After they have mated, or when a solitary male pays his devotions, they rise
15 or 20 yards from the ground, where, hovering upon quivering wings, the
bird pours forth a lisping but energetic and frequently musical song, which
can be very imperfectly expressed by the syllables peet-peet; pee-ter-wee-too ;
wee-too; pee-ter-wee-too ; pee-ter-wee-too ; wee-too; wee-too. This is the complete
song, but frequently only fragments are sung, as when the bird is in ]iursnit
of the female.

June 16, while crossing a tussock-covered hill-top, over a mile from any
water, I was surprised to see a female of this species flutter from her nest
about 6 feet in front of me, and skulk off through the grass with trailing wings
and depressed head for some 10 or 15 yards, then stand nearly concealed by a
tuft of grass and watch me. . . .

. . . The young are full grown and on the wing with their parents [by]
the last of July, and the first of August finds the adults rapidly changing their
breeding-dress for that of winter, and gathering into flocks. By the first
of September they are in perfect winter dress, and frequent muddy flats, the

KNOT 3G3

edges of tide creeks, and other places, exactly as they do in their passage
south or north in middle latitudes. They have the same unsuspicious ways
here as there . . . (Nelson, 1887, p. 101).

According to McAtee (1911a) the following items have been found
in tlie food of the Dowitcher : Adult and larval horseflies, grass-
hoppers, and oyster- worms (Nereis). Leeches, worms of various sorts,
various water bugs, and soft mollusks comprise the chief elements of
the food inland (Coues, 1874, p. 479).

The Long-billed Dowitcher was probably somewhat more abundant
formerly in California than it is at present. This is indicated by the
fact that Cooper (in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 200)
records their being sold in the markets of Los Angeles in 1865 in
bunches as "jack snipe." Nowadays it is usual to see only a small
flock of at most two dozen individuals. The Dowitcher, along with
most of the other shore birds, needs total protection for a considerable
period, and should, thereafter, if again placed on the open list, be
further guarded by a small bag limit.

Knot
Tringa canutus Linnaeus

Other names — Robin Snipe; Red-breasted Snipe.

Description — Adult male in spring and summer: Upper surface of head,
hind neck, and region between base of bill and eye, streaked with pale smoke
gray and olive black; dull stripe from base of upper mandible over eye to
above ear, and cheek, chin, and middle throat, light cinnamon brown, with
some whitish feather-tippings; bill black; iris "dark hazel" (Audubon, 1842,
V, p. 257) : feathers of back with broad irregular centers of olive black,
margined with grayish white, some with side spots of pale tawny; feathers of
rump light brown, with shafts and margins of darker brown, the extreme tips
margined with white; upper tail coverts white with irregular crescentic bars of
dark brown; tail drab above, narrowly margined with white; outer surface of
closed wing dull drab near bend, lighter behind; median and lesser coverts
margined with light drab; greater coverts margined with white, forming a
narrow wing bar,; primaries brownish black, quills of all, and outer margins and
tips of inner ones, white; secondaries and tertials dark brownish near shaft,
lighter toward margin, some edged with white; margin of wing mottled white
and dusky; under surface of wing mixed white and light dusky; under surface
of primaries drab becoming brownish black at tip; axillars white with irregular
narrow bars of light brown; under surface of body (except belly and under
tail coverts), bright cinnamon brown, with sparse flecking of white; sides
and flanks inconspicuously and irregularly barred with light brown; belly
and under tail coverts white, some of the feathers with darker shaft streaks
or spots near tip and pale cinnamon wash; feet greenish black. Total length
10.00-10.90 inches (254-277 mm) (two specimens); folded wing 6.53 (165.6);
bill along culmen 1.38 (35.2); tarsus 1.27 (32.3) (one specimen). Adult female
in spring and early summer: Like adult male in corresponding plumage but

864 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOBMA

generally darker above, shaft streaks on top of head wider, white margins
of feathers of back less extensive, cross bars on feathers of rump, sides and
flanks broader and darker; cinnamon color beneath, deeper. Folded wing 6.53
inches (165.S mm.); bill along oiilmen 1.4."? (36.4); tarsus 1.26 (32.1) (one
specimen); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Whole head and neck dully
streaked with blackish or drab, on a grayish white ground; chin and stripe
over eye, nearly unmarked, whitish; back grayish brown with blackish shaft-
streaks and narrow feather-margins of brownish black bordered by white,
giving a distinctly scaled appearance; rump, upper tail coverts, tail, and wings,
as in summer adults; breast and sides light drab with narrow shaft streaks
and spots of light brown; rest of under surface white. Natal plumage: "Buff
to cream color, marked above with black and rufous, the black markings
exceeding the ground color on crown, back, and rump'' (Sanford, Bishop and
YavL Dyke, 1903, p. 358). Iris black; bill dark olive, tip dark brown; back
of legs and soles of feet, greenish yellow; toes black (Feilden in Nelson. 1SS7,
p. 102).

Marks for field identification — ^Medium size (slightly larger than Wilson
Suipe), chunky appearance, short bill (fig. 66) (not much longer than head),
and short legs; feeds along shore in close flocks; in spring distinguished from
all other shore birds of similar size except Dowitcher, by its bright reddish
breast, but the Dowitcher has a very much longer bill. In fall the structural
characters and method of feeding must be depended upon.

Voice — A soft xcah-quoit or whil whit, and a little honi- (MacKay, 1S93. p. 27;
Forbush, 1912, p. 262).

Xest — A shallow depression on grassy tun, Ira, lined with a few dry grasses.

Eggs — 3 (possibly 4), slightly pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.64 to
1.97 by 1.14 to 1.33 (in millimeters. 41.7 to 49.8 by 29.1 to 33. 8\ and averaging
(6 eggs) 1.74 by 1.21 (44.1 by 30.6); ground-color pale greenish or clay, with
superficial spots of yellowish to blackish brown, and deeper ones of pale
violet-gray: markings more numerous about larger end (Dresser. 1904, pp.
232-233).

General dlstribition — Almost world-wide. Breeding range circumpolar,
northern Ellesmere Land south to Melville Peninsula and possibly Iceland;
also on Taimyr Peninsula, Siberia. Winters south in America to southern
Patagonia, and from the Mediterranean to South Africa, India, Australia and
New Zealand. Casual on eastern coast of United States in winter. Occurs in
migration over most of the Eastern Hemisphere, on Atlantic coast of North
America, and, more rarely in the interior and on the Pacific coast (A. O. V.
Check-list, 1910, p. 112).

Distribution in California — Rather uncommon spring and fall migrant.
Recorded in spring only on Alameda County shore of San Francisco Bay,
April 27 and 30, 1914 (adult male and female in breeding plumage in Mus.
A'ert. Zool.), and May 10, 1896 (Grinnell, 1902a, p. 251. Fall records: Monterey,
August 7 and 17, 1910 (three males in Mus. Yert. Zool.; Beck, MS); Santa
Barbara, August 21 to September 7, 1911 (Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 8);
Alamitos Bay, Los Angeles County, September 18, 1907, three taken from flock
of 30, and October 10, 1907, one taken (Willett, 1912a. p. 36) ; Anaheim Land-
ing, Orange County, October 3, 1909, one specimen (Lamb, 1909, p. 208);
Pacific "Beach, San Diego County, September 10 and 16. 1904, two taken from
several (Bishop, 1905, p. 141); and San Diego, October 7 and 9. 1903. three
specimens (Dwight, 1904, pp. 78, 79).

KNOT 365

The Knot, Red -breasted Snipe, or Robin Snipe, as this species has
been variously called, is not abundant when compared with most other
shore birds found in California. Indeed the infrequent records of
its capture might be interpreted as showing it to be a rather rare
species. During the finst half of the last century the species was
present during the migi-ations in enormous numbers on the Atlantic
coast where it was, and still is, much prized as an article of food.
Excessive slaughter and spring shooting have reduced the species to
a small fraction of the numbers once present there. No such num-
bers were ever recorded on this coast, and it is probable that the birds
were never more abundant here than they are at present. In fact,
the keen eyes of the collectors visiting California in the days of the
Pacific Railroad surveys failed altogether to detect the Knot within
our confines. Even with the increase of observers of late years, a few
compact flocks and some single
birds are all that have been seen.
But continued observation along
the coast in suitable localities dur-
ing the very few days in spring

when the species is passing along ^^- 24578

our coast will probably show it
to be somewhat more abundant J^l^^^; ^''^' "^ ^'" '^ ^"'*- ^^^'
than is commonly believed.

All occurrences of tiie Knot so far recorded for California are for
the seacoast. In spring it has been reported only from the shores of
San Francisco Bay, where specimens have been taken April 27 and
May 10, as noted in the small-type paragraph above. Fall records are
more numerous, the earliest being August 7, and the latest, October 10.
The fall migration may thus extend over a period of two months, which
indicates a tendency to loiter on the southward journey.

From other shore birds occurring in California the Knot may be
distinguished by its medium size (compared with such diverse species
as the Godwit and Snowy Plover), chunky proportions, short bill
(fig. 66), and short legs. In spring its bright reddish under surface
is an important mark of distinction. Only two other species of waders
of about the same size occurring in California show this type of
spring coloration, the Red Phalarope and the Long-billed Dowitcher.
From the first of these the Knot may be distinguished by its larger
general size and by the absence of white on the sides of its head. The
Red Phalarope is somewhat smaller and is usually found swimming
and feeding on the surface of water. The Knot is a typical shore
bird, and swims only under exceptional circumstances. From the
Long-billed Dowitcher it may be distinguished by the possession of
a bill which is little longer than the head. That of the Dowitcher

366 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

is at least twice as long as the head. There are also conspicuous habit
differences. Knots feed in compact flocks, while Dowitchers spread
out when foraging, and in flight the head and bill of the Dowitcher
are conspicuously bent downward, while the Knot holds its head
and bill in line with the body as do othor species of sandpipers. In
the fall the Knot is more difficult of recognition. Its "chunky"
appearance, the absence of sharply contrasted streaks on its back
and under surface, its short legs and bill (but slightly longer than
the head), and its habit of feeding in close flocks, must then be
depended upon.

The call-note of the Knot is a soft wdh-quoit, uttered commonly
when the bird is coming to decoys, and is said to resemble the rolling
note of the American Golden Plover. In addition it has a soft honk
(Mackay, 1893, p. 27). Hoffman {in Forbush, 1912, p. 262) renders
the note as a soft u'hit-whit, like the whistle one employs in calling a
dog. The birds are said to decoy to such calls and to a whistle
resembling the call of the Black-bellied Plover (Mackay, loc. cit.).

The Knot . . . frequents the ocean beach, the tidal flat and more rarely the salt
marsh. On the beach it plays back and forth, following the receding waves
and retreating before their advance. When the surf pounds upon the sandy
shore it is the Eed-breast 's harvest time. Then the surge constantly washes up
the sand, bringing small shell-fish to the surface of the beach, as a placer
miner washes out gold in his pan, and the birds, nimbly following the reces-
sion of the wave, rapidly pick up the exposed shells ere the return of the
surge. . . . With the flow of the tide, which drives them from the flats or the
tide-washed beach, the Knots seek either the beach ridge, some shoal above high-
water mark or the salt marsh. They are prone to alight on outer half -tide
ledges, where they find small crustaceans and other forms of marine life among
the seaweed. They are so attracted to such places and to beaches where sea-
worms are plentiful that they will return to them again and again in the face
of the gunners' fire and this habit accounts in part for their diminution
(Forbush, 1912, pp. 266-267).

When the incoming tide drives the Knots from the flats they seek the
marshes, or some shoal which is sufficiently elevated to remain uncovered dur-
ing high water; they also frequent the crest of the beaches. Here they gen-
erally remain quiet until the tide has fallen sufficiently to permit them to
return again to the flats to feed. When on the marshes during high water they
occupy some of the time in feeding, showing they are by no means dependent
on the flats for all their food. They associate and mingle as freely with the
Turnstone (Arenaria interpres), Black-bellied Plover (Charadrius sqnatarola) ,
and Ked-backed Sandpiper {Tringa alpma pacifica) as with their own kind. . . .
They also frequent the flats at night as well as in the daytime. ... On the
ground they are sluggish, and not given to moving about much; unless very
much harassed they are not nearly so vigilant as their companions, the Black-
bellied Plover. ... In the spring . . . they sometimes frequent the upland
on the island in company with the Turnstone, never doing so, however, in
August or September. . . . Knots as a rule are not in the habit of frequenting
uplands as they do the marshes. . . . Tliey are induced ... to follow the

KNOT 367

Turnstones where they lead, this bird showing more determination of purpose
than the Knots which frequently yield and follow them [the Turnstones].
This is not the case with the Turnstones; they often leave the combined flock
rather than be led where they do not care to go. . . . (Mackay, 1893, pp. 27-28).

The flocks are much more compact than are those of the Long-
billed Dowitcher and this company mannerism is usually retained
when they take wing on alarm. Because of the feeding habits of the
bird the daily period when good shooting can be enjoyed is rather
short — only lasting while the wash of the waves is uncovering new
surfaces. Nelson (1887, p. 102) says that when searching for food the
birds sometimes run into the water breast high.

"When shy, and coming to decoys to alight, they barely touch
their feet to the sand before they discover their mistake and are off
in an instant. They fly quickly and closely together and, when com-
ing to decoys, usually pass by them down wind, most of the flock
whistling, then suddenly wheeling with heads to the wind, and up
to the decoys. At such times many arc killed at one discharge"
(Mackay, 1893, p. 27).

Information concerning the nesting habits of the Knot has been
very slow in accumulating due to the extreme northern location of
the summer home of the bird. Nests and downy young were reported
as early as 1824, but no good description of the nests and eggs was
published until 1904 (Dresser) and this pertained to the Taimyr
Peninsula, in extreme northern Siberia. In 1906-1908, Manniche
(1910, pp. 130-136) visited the eastern coast of Greenland north of
latitude 76°, and while there had excellent opportunities to observe
these birds in the nesting season even though he was unable to dis-
cover occupied nests or downy young.

The Knots arrived about the first of June and immediately took up
their residence on and about the snow and ice bordered pools of fresh
water. Evidently the birds were mated when they arrived on the
breeding grounds as they always traveled in pairs even when making
long excursions overland. As is the case with so many other shore
birds the male Knot performs a song flight during the breeding season.

The male suddenly gets up from the snowelad ground, and producing the
most beautiful flute-like notes, following an oblique line with rapid wing
strokes, mounts to an enormous height often so high, that he can not be
followed with the naked eye. Up here in the clear frosty air he flies around
in large circles on quivering wings and his melodious far sounding notes are
heard far and wnde over the country bringing joy to other birds of his own
kin. The song sounds now more distant now nearer when 3 or 4 males are
singing at the same time. Now and then the bird slides slowly downwards
on stiff w'ings with the tail feathers spread; then again he makes himself
invisible in the higher regions of the air mounting on wings quivering even
faster than before. . . .

368 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

Gradually, as in increasing excitement he executes the convulsive vibra-
tions of his wings, his song changes to single deeper notes — following quickly
after each other — at last to die out while the bird at the same time drops to
the earth on stiff wings strongly bent upward. This fine pairing song may be
heard for more than a month everywhere at the breeding places, and it wonder-
fully enlivens this generally so desolate and silent nature (Manniche, 1910, p.
132).

In the breeding season the male is pugnacious and quarrelsome
towards birds of his own and of other species, and will often drive
them far from his domain. Both sexes share in the work of incubat-
ing the eggs as both show the bare spots on the breast and belly which
characterize incubating birds. But the female does the larger share
of this work, the male being much oftener seen off the nest than is
his mate. The birds are extremely wary and give absolutely no indi-
cation of the location of their nests. Manniche was able to find the
nests of many of the other species of birds summering in this region,
but was absolutely baffled in his attempts to discover a nest of the
Knot. Once, after the young were hatched, he followed a female
bird for over four hours and covered more than two miles of country
in a vain endeavor to discover the location of her brood. So far as
determinable, the male does not assist in caring for the brood.

The food of the Knot consists of numerous small mollusks, small
crustaceans, marine worms, cutworms (from the marshes), grass-
hoppers, diving beetles, caterpillars, and, rarely, parts of plants
(McAtee, 1911ft; Mackay, 1893, p. 27; Saunders, 1899, p. 596).

The chief interest in the Knot lies in its value as a game bird.
Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke (1903, p. 360) declare that the flesh
of this species is of fine flavor, to be compared with that of the Golden
Plover. The Knot should therefore be carefully conserved. In Cali-
fornia its small numbers make it of particular interest from the
standpoint of the naturalist.

Pectoral Sandpiper

Pisohia maculata (Vieillot)

Other names — Triiiga maculata; Actodromas marulafa.

Description — Adults, hotli sexes, in spring and summer: Top of head black,
the feathers broadly margined with rusty; lower part of forehead and stripe
to and over eye, whitish, many of the feathers with narrow dark broM'n shaft
streaks; below this a dull reddish brown stripe from bill to eye; chin white;
cheeks and throat bufify, finely streaked with blackish brown; bill greenish,
yellowish at base of lower mandible; iris dark brown; hind neck like top of
head but colors paler; upper back and scapulars brownish black, broadly
margined with tawny and tipped with ashy white (as the season proceeds the
tawny pales by fading, and the white is worn off) ; rump and central upper
tail coverts, dull brownish black, some of the feathers narrowly tipped with

PECTOEAL SAN DPI PEE 369

j>ale tawnv; outeiniost upper tail coverts white, streaked with brown; inner
tail feathers dull dark brown, lateral ones drab; outer surface of closed wing
dull dark brown, most of the feathers dark n?ar shaft and lighter at margins,
even bordered with whitish; primaries brownish black, shaft of outermost one
white; margin and under coverts of wing rnottled white and brown; hindmost
under coverts and under surface of flight feathers dusky; axillars white;
feathers of throat and breast thickly marked with brownish black shaft streaks
on whitish or bufify ground; rest of under surface abruptly white; sides with
a buffy tinge and dark shafts; flanks white, with narrow shaft stripes; feet
greenish. Total length 8.00-9.62 inches (20.3-242 mm.) (two specimens, from
Alaska and Florida). Males: folded wing 5.37-5.61 (136.5-142.5); bill along
culmen 1.15-1.20 (29.1-30.5); tarsus 1.09-1.14 (27.8-29.0) (five specimens from
California, Alaska and British Columbia). Females: folded wing 4.79-5.05
(121.9-128.0); bill along culmen 0.98-1.14 (25.0-29.0); tarsus 1.0.3-1.11 (26.1-
28.1) (nine specimens from California, Alaska and British Columbia). Adults,
both sexes, in fall aiid uinfer: "Similar to summer plumage, but the rusty tint
above almost or wholly absent, and the black markings less sharply defined"
(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 233). Juvenile plnmage: Similar to
that of adults in summer but longer scapulars and other feathers of back
margined extensively wnth bright tawny and white; general buffy tone on
breast more intense. Natal plumage: Forehead and sides of head, buffy yellow;
chin and throat, w^hite; stripes up middle of forehead, from bill to eye, from
bill to below eye, and from above eye to ear region, black; bill dusky, slightly
paler at base; top of head, back and wings, of mixed pattern, the down
feathers reddish brown at bases and black near ends and some with huffy
white tips; breast buff; belly chiefly white; legs and feet (dried) pale straw
yellow; nails blackish.

Marks for field identification — Medium small size (slightly smaller than
a Killdeer), short bill about as long as head, white chin, buffy foreneck and
breast finely streaked with dark brownish (this area constituting a broad, rather
abruptly outlined, pectoral band), and blackish rump and upper tail coverts.
More common on meadowland and less so on open flats than other sandpipers.

Voice — A single, rather rasping tireet or Tcreelc ; in the breeding season a
deep, hollow, resonant, yet musical, too'-u, too'-u, too'-u, too'-ii (Nelson, 1887,
p. 108).

Nest — Tn grass in dry situations though often in the vicinity of water; a
depression lined with a little grass.

Eggs — Usually 4, pointedly pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.42 to 1.58
by 1.02 to 1.11 (in millimeters, 36.1 to 40.2 by 25.9 to 28.2) ; ground-color drab,
with a greenish tinge in some specimens, spotted and blotched with umber
brown, variously distributed; deeper markings pale purplish gray (Murdoch,
1885, pp. Ill, 112).

General distribution — North and South America. Breeds commonly on
the Arctic coast of Alaska from the mouth of the Yukon to Point Barrow,
rarely in Mackenzie, and probably on the Arctic coast northwest of Hudson
Bay. In migration occurs abundantly south to southern Alaska, and throughout
the United States east of the Rocky Mountains; in limited numbers on the
Pacific coast from British Columbia southward. Winters in central South
America in Chile, Bolivia and Argentina, up to 12,000 feet altitude (Cooke, 1910,
p. 35; et al.).

Distribution in California — Rather rare migrant coastwise; has been
recorded from: San Francisco Bay (Cooper, 1868, p. 8); Mill Valley Junction,

370 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA

Marin County, a pair, September 14, 1896 (J. Mailliard, 1904, p. 15); San
Francisco Bay, October 8 (1883) (Kobbe in Bailey, 1902, p. 1); Farallon
Islands, September 4, 1884 (Cooke, 1910, p. 36); Santa Barbara, September 9,
1910, one seen April 14, 1910, also seen on seven dates between August 18 and
September 20, and one daily from August 20 to September 20, 1911 (Bowles
and Howell, 1912, p. 8), three individuals at most, September 17 to 23, 1909
(Torrey, 1910a, pp. 44-45), August 20, 1913; La Patera (near Santa Barbara),
August 25, 1915, and Elkhorn, Monterey County, October 11, 1913 (Dawson,
1916, p. 25).

The Pectoral Sandpiper is a rather rare migrant in California.
The main migration route of the species lies east of the Rocky Moun-
tains and it seems that only a few stragglers, probably birds of the
year, occur along the Pacific coast. Bowles (1911, pp. 171, 172) states
that during a residence of fourteen years in Washington he saw in
all onlj^ about one hundred birds of this species, although he cites
the observation of J. M. Edson at Bellingham who saw thirty or
forty individuals on one day. This Sandpiper is evidently even less
common in California, else the assiduous collecting which has been car-
ried on along our shores, especially in southern California, would have
yielded more instances of occurrence.

Cooper (1868, p. 8) thought that the Pectoral Sandpiper occurred
not rarely in his day about San Francisco Bay in winter, though no
corroborative evidence has been subsequently obtained. Kobbe (in
Bailey, 1902, p. 1) lists the species from San Francisco Bay, on the
basis of a specimen taken by "W. E. Bryant, October 8 (1883). This
we believe to be the same example which was reported by Bryant
(1887a., p. 78) under the name Tringa fuscicollis. A pair of birds
was taken September 14, 1896, at Mill Valley Junction near Sausalito,
Marin County (J. Mailliard, 1904, p. 15). A specimen was taken on
the Farallon Islands, September 4, 1884 (Cooke, 1910, p. 36). Other-
wise the species has been recorded only at Santa Barbara where a
number of observers have noted it. The only spring occurrence was
one individual on April 14, 1910, but in the fall it has been seen on
different dates from August 20 to September 23, never more than
three at one time (Torrey, 1910a, pp. 44-45; Bowles and Howell,
1912, p. 8).

For field identification a combination of characters must be
depended upon. The moderately small size (somewhat less than that
of a Killdeer), the short bill about as long as head, the strongly con-
trasted dark area on fore-neck and breast, with its finely streaked pat-
tern on close view, and the blackish rump and upper tail coverts, are
the chief characteristics. The preference of the species for meadow
land, and its snipe-like behavior, are two additional criteria. From the
nearly related Baird Sandpiper it may be distinguished, though with
some difficulty, by its larger size, longer and lighter-colored bill, paler

PECTOBAL SANDPIPER 371

feet, and darker and more conspicuous breast band and streakings.
Juveniles of this species as compared with Baird Sandpipers of the
same age show a streaked rather than scaled appearance on the back.
From the Least and Western sandpipers it may be distinguished
chiefly on the basis of size, as it is twice or three times as large as
those species. The male Pectoral Sandpiper is distinctly larger than
the female, a reversal of size relation obtaining between the male
and female of many shore birds.

The Pectoral Sandpiper is ordinarily a rather quiet species. Its
call-note is a harsh tweet or krcck. The latter note has in parts of
the East won it the name of "Kreeker." This note is ordinarily
uttered only once, but may be replaced by repeated shrill cries when
the bird is flushed suddenly.

Torrey (1910o, pp. 44-45) records his brief experience with the
Pectoral Sandpiper at Santa Barbara as follows :

On the morning of September 17, 1909, I found and watched at my leisure
a single bird of this species . . ., feeding in and about some small muddy
pools. . . . The next day it was still there, and after some time another one
walked into sight from behind a bunch of reeds. . . . [Thoy] allowed me
the closest kind of approach, in a perfect light, so that all details were
abundantly seen: the greenish legs, the parti-colored bill, the black rump, and
the immaculate chin. . . . They neither bobbed nor teetered, but had a
plover-like trick of half squatting, or crouching, when startled. In running,
and now and then when standing still, they assumed a peculiarly erect attitude,
which gave them the appearance of being, for sandpipers, uncommonly long
necked.

Forbush (1912, p. 272) says of this species in Massachusetts:

The Grass-bird usually comes in the night, in flocks of twenty-five to fifty
birds, and scatters in small parties in the salt marshes, particularly those on
which the grass has been cut and where little pools of water stand. It seems
to prefer the higher portions of the salt marsh, where the "black grass" grows,
and it is sometimes common in the fresh-water meadows near ponds in the
interior. . . . The grass pattern and shading of its back furnish such com-
plete protection from the eye of man that it can conceal itself absolutely by
merely squatting in the short grass. Where it has not been shot at or dis-
turbed it becomes exceedingly tame and confiding, but old experienced birds
are wild, and fly so swiftly and erratically that some of the hunters call them
"Jack Snipe" because of a fancied resemblance in their flight to that of
Wilson 's Snipe. Sometimes they are found in fresh meadows near the salt
marsh, and more rarely on the ocean beach, where they follow the retreating
wave like the Sanderling or any other beach bird.

Stearns and Coues (1883, pp. 220, 221) state that "When they
arise from the grass to alight again at a little distance, they fly in
silence or with a single tweet, holding the wings deeply incurved;
but when suddenly startled and much alarmed, they spring quickly,

372 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOEXIA

with loud, repeated cries, and make otf in an irregular manner, much
like the common Snipe. Sometimes, gaining a considerable elevation,
they circle for several minutes in sih'nce overhead, flying with great
velocity, perhaps to pitch down again nearly perpendicularly upon
the same spot they sprang from.''

The Pectoral Sandpiper decoys readily as do many other shore
birds. When on the ground it walks deliberately, with the bill held
downward. Upon alighting, which all the birds in a flock are said
to do at the same moment, the wings are raised above the body for an
instant and then neatly folded. In flight the birds mass into com-
pact flocks (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 372).

These birds arrive on the shores of Bering Sea and the Arctic
Ocean from the middle to the last of May (Cooke, 1910, p. 36). They
linger about the wet spots where green herbage is just beginning to
show through the tundra, and then pair and seek nesting places.

Nesting probably begins about the first of June and continues
throughout the month and even into the early part of July, as Nelson
(1887, p. 108) observed a male in nuptial flight on May 24, and
Murdoch (1885, p. 112) states that the last eggs which were brought
in, on July 12, contained only small embryos. Probably the bulk of
the species nests about the middle or latter part of June.

The mating antics of this species have been very fully described
by Nelson. The male inflates his throat until it is as large as his
body and then utters a deep, hollow, resonant yet liquid and musical
note, which may be represented by the repetition of the syllables too'-u,
too'-u. ido'-u, tdcYii. The air sac gives the resonant quality to the
note. The note is uttered under a variety of conditions and at various
times during the day or light Arctic night. Apparently the birds
fill the esophagus with air only just previous to making the notes.

The skin of the throat and breast becomes very flabby and loose at this
season, and its inner surface is covered with small globular masses of fat.
When not inflated, the skin loaded with this extra weight and with a slight
serous suffusion which is present hangs down in a pendulous flap or fold
exactly like a dewlap, about an inch and a half wide. The oesophagus is
very loose and becomes remarkably soft and distensible, but is easily ruptureil
in this state. . . . The [male] bird may frequently be seen running along
the ground close to the female, its enormous sac inflated, and its head drawn
back and the bill pointing directly forward, or, filled with spring-time vigor,
the bird flits with slow but energetic wing-strokes close along the ground,
its head raised high over the shoulders and the tail hanging almost directly
down. As it thus flies it utters a succession of the hollow booming notes,
which have a strange ventriloquial quality. At times the male rises 20 or 30
yards in the air and inflating its throat glides down to the ground with its sac
hanging below. . . . Again he crosses back and forth in front of the female,
puffing his breast out and bowing from side to side, running here and there,
as if intoxicated with passion. "Whenever he pursues his love-making, his

BAIBD SANDPIPER 373

rather low but pervading note swells and dies in musical cadences, which form
a striking part of the great bird chorus heard at this season in the north
(Nelson, 1887, pp. 108, 109).

The nest is always built in the grass, wuth a decided preference for high
and dry localities like the banks of gullies and streams. It was sometimes
placed at the edge of a small pool, but always in grass and in a dry place,
never in the black clay and moss. . . . The nest . . . [is] a depression in the
ground lined with a little dry grass. . . .

In color and markings . . . the eggs closely resemble those of the other
small waders. The ground color is drab, sometimes with a greenish tinge,
though never so green as in the egg of P. alpina americana and sometimes a
pale bistre-brown. The markings are blotchings of clear umber brown, varying
in intensity, thickest and sometimes confluent around the larger end, smaller
and more scattered at the smaller end. Some of the eggs with brown ground
are thickly blotched all over. . . . All the eggs have the usual shell markings
of pale purplish gray and light neutral tint (Murdoch, 1885, pp. HI, 112).

The food of the Pectoral Saud piper is quite varied. Taking the
eastern range of the bird into account, it includes billbugs, water
beetles, cutworms, corn-leaf beetles, wireworins and click beetles,
clover-root curculios, mosquitoes, larvae and adult horseflies, and
crane-fly larvae (McAtee, 1911a) ; worms, minute shellfish, and occa-
sionally rootlets and buds (Goss. 1891, p. 170) ; and sea lettuce (Baird,
Brewer and Ridgwaj^ 1884, I, p. 235). The flesh of this species is
highly prized as an article of food. In fact it is stated (Baird, Brewer
and Ridgway, loc. cit.) that "in the autumn its flesh becomes very
juicy and finely flavored, and when procured late in the season it is
said to be superior to that of any of our shore-birds, and fully equal
to any upland game." This is the smallest of the shore birds that
can be legitimately called a game species. Though the species is
obviously highly desirable, the small numbers occurring in California
debar it from a prominent place among the game birds of the state.

Baird Sandpiper

Pisohia hairdi (Coues)

Other names — Tringa tairdi; Actodromas hairdi; Heteropygia hairdi.

Description — Adults hoth sexes, in spring and early summer: Top of head
and hind neck broadly mottled with blackish brown on pale buflfy or creamy
white ground; indistinct stripe from base of upper mandible to and behind
eye, whitish; below this a dark mottled stripe; eyelids white; chin and throat
white, minutely and sparingly flecked with dark brown; sides of head and
neck, creamy white, flecked with narrow brownish shaft streaks, darkest and
most numerous on ear region; bill black; iris dark brown; feathers of upper
back extensively blackish brown, tipped with pale buffy; tertials brownish
black, broadly tipped with pale drab and many of the feathers with irregular
tawny spots on webs; lower back, rump, central upper tail coverts and middle
tail feathers, brown; outermost tail coverts mottled with whitish; outer tail
feathers drab; outer surface of closed wing brown, all of the feathers with

374 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOBNIA

dark brown shafts and some with lighter margins; shaft of outermost primary-
white; margin of wing mottled with white and light brown; lining of wing
white, except hindmost coverts which, like inner surface of flight feathers, are
pale dusky; axillars pure white; breast and sides pale buffy, with narrow
brown shaft streaks; rest of under surface and flanks, white; legs and feet
"dark slate" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 376). Total length
(both sexes) " 7.00-7.60" inches (178-193 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 157). Males:
folded wing 4.43-4.77 (112.6-121.0); bill along culmen 0.74-0.89 (18.9-22.7);
tarsus 0.86-0.91 (21.8-23.0) (nine specimens). Females: folded wing 4.65-
5.00 (118.0-126.8); bill along culmen 0.84-0.92 (21.3-23.4); tarsus 0.86-0.91
(21.9-23.2) (six specimens); all adults and full grown immatures, from Alaska,
British Columbia and California. Juvenile plumage (in late summer and fall) :
Similar to that of adults in spring, but feathers of back and tertials and wing
coverts narrowly tipped with white, giving a scaled appearance; tawuy spots
on webs of tertials lacking, and upper tail coverts narrowly tipped with pale
buffy. Natal plumage: Forehead whitish, with a median black line; side of
head whitish, with two black lines extending from base of bill towards eye;
top of head, to level of eyes, and whole back, mixed tawny and black in coarse
pattern, overlaid with a ' ' frosting, ' ' the latter consisting of numerous little
down-tippings of white; lower surface of body wholly white.

Marks for field identification — Small size (not, however, our smallest
species), very slender bill (not longer than head), light buffy breast band,
dark brown rump, and, in juvenile plumage, scaled pattern on back. Almost
impossible to identify positively without specimen in hand.

Voice — A shrill trilling whistle, peet-peet (Forbush, 1912, p. 277).
Nest — On tundra, always well hidden in grass; a slight depression thinly
lined with dried grass (Murdoch, 1885, p. 112).

Eggs — Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.18 to 1.38 by 0.87 to
0.95 (in millimeters, 30.0 to 35.0 by 22.0 to 24.0), and averaging 1.28 by 0.93
(32.5 by 23.5) (36 eggs in U. S. National Museum); ground color buff or clay,
with markings of chestnut-brown, usually fine and innumerable, sometimes
confluent about larger end (Davie, 1889, p. 114).

General distribution — North and South America. Breeds along Arctic
coast from Point Barrow to northern Keewatin. Migrates through Great Basin,
Rocky Mountains and Mississippi Valley west of Mississippi River. Occurs
sparingly east to Atlantic coast from Nova Scotia to New Jersey and west
to Pacific coast from Alaska to Lower California. Winters chiefly in Chile,
but also in Argentina south to latitude of Buenos Ayres (A. O. U. Check -list,
1910, pp. 114-115; Cooke, 1910, pp. 39-41).

Distribution in California — Rather rare fall migrant. The following
recorded occurrences are all that are known within the state: Point Pinos,
Monterey County, August 25, 1897, one specimen (J. Mailliard, 1898, p. 51) ;
Santa Barbara, July 25 (1914) (and several other dates) (Dawson, 1912, p.
224; 1916, p. 25) to September 7 (1911) (Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 8);
White's Landing, Santa Catalina Island, September 1, 1907, one specimen taken
by H. Wright (Grinnell, 1909rt, p. 139); and Pacific Beach, San Diego County,
September 8, 1904, one specimen (Bishop, 1905, p. .141). Seen at Santa
Barbara, April 27 (1912) to May 7 (1915), four records (Dawson, 1916, p. 25).
Three specimens are listed from "California" by Sharpe (1896, p. 573).

The Baird Sandpiper is a rather rare fall migrant through Cali-
fornia, althonarh observations at Santa Barbara seem to show that

BAIED SANDPIPEB 375

it is of fairly regular occurrence. Bowles and Howell (1912, p. 8)
state that at Santa Barbara they found it a regular fall migrant.
During 1910 but seven individuals were seen, while in 1911 the
birds were considered "common." ''Three or four could be found
at any time between August 11 and September 4, while at least twelve,
of which nine were in one flock, were on the flats September 2."
Again, in 1912, Dawson (1912, p. 224) found the species in the same
vicinity from August 8 to 22, when the individuals observed were
mingling freely with Western Sandpipers. In 1934 it was observed
on July 25 (Dawson, 1916, p. 25). The same author has seen the
species at Santa Barbara in the spring on four dates between April
27 and May 7 (Dawson, loc. cit.). Other localities of record are:
Point Pinos, near Monterey, August 25, 1897, one individual shot
from flock of Least Sandpipers (J. Mailliard, 3898, p. 51) ; White's
Landing, Santa Catalina Island, one specimen, September 1, 1907
(Grinnell, 1909a, p. 139) ; Pacific Beach, near San Diego, one speci-
men, September 8, 1904 (Bishop, 1905, p. 141). Dates of observation
have thus covered at least six separate years, and show the species to
be of rather regular yet limited presence along the coast.

Compared with the species most closely related to it, the Baird
Sandpiper seems to be slightly more numerous than the Pectoral
Sandpiper, but in nowise as abundant as the Least Sandpiper. From
the Pectoral Sandpiper the Baird may be distinguished by its decid-
edly smaller size, its blackish feet, by the creamy or grayish rather
than tawny cast of its upper surface, as well as by the much less
extensive and less sharply streaked breast band. From the Least and
Western sandpipers the Baird Sandpiper may be distinguished by its
somewhat larger size, the distinctly buffy tone of its breast and back,
and the less distinct streaking on its breast.

The Baird Sandpiper, taking its entire range into account, is
seldom found singly, but usually in pairs or small flocks of its own
kind numbering six to a dozen individuals. It frequently flocks with
other species, such as the Least Sandpiper, and at times even with
the Turnstone or the Killdeer. When on the beach the birds feed
near the upper edge, in the vicinity of tide pools, but this is not their
accustomed habitat. They are found more commonly inland, even
up to very high altitudes in the mountains. Goss (1891, p. 176) says
that he has flushed them on high dry prairie land as much as a mile
from the nearest water. Brewster (1881, pp. 60, 61) saw this species
with the Ring-necked Plover on the beach in Maine. At that place
"their motions were slow and sedate and their attitudes crouching.
They kept up a low conversational twitter while feeding, and when
flushed, flew in that swift, erratic way characteristic of most of the
small Waders. ' '

376 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

The Baird Sandpiper is said not to indulge in the nuptial flights
and performances common among other shore birds. The nest and
sitting female are both so inconspicuous that it is almost impossible
to find them. The only practical way to do so is to withdraw after
having flushed the bird, "mark" the location when she returns, and
then proceed directly to the nest (Murdoch, 1885, p. 112).

Murdock (loc. cit.) states that in the vicinity of Point Barrow,
Alaska, eggs were obtained only during the last week in June and
the first week in July, a trifle later than is the case with other shore
birds. ' ' The nest was always well hidden in the grass, and never
placed in marshy ground or on the bare black parts of tundra, and
consists merely of a slight depression in the ground thinly lined with
dried grass." "The eggs are usually four in number; buff or clay-
colored, spotted and blotched with varying shades of chestnut-brown ;
in most instances the markings are fine and innumerable, of indefinite
size, irregular in shape and thickness at the greater end, where they
are occasionally massed in blotches" (Davie, 1889, p. 114).

The food of the Baird Sandpiper comprises among other things
mosquitoes, crane-fly larvae, grasshoppers, cutworms and clover-root
curculios (McAtee, 1911a) all of which, with the possible exception
of the mosquitoes, are to be found in dry inland locations.

The Baird Sandpiper is too small properly to be classed as a game
species. Moreover, its numbers migrating through California are
too limited to merit it the attention of any persons save nature lovers
and ornithologists.

Least Sandpiper
Pisohia niinutilla (Vieillot)

Other names — Peeps, part; Little Sandpiper; Pigmies, part; Jack Snipe
(Fresno district); Tringa minutiJIa; Limonites minutiUa; Actodromas minutilla;
Tringa wilsonii.

Description — Adults, both sexes, in spring and shimmer: Top of head, hind
neck, back and scapulars, black, with extensive feather marginings of rusty
brown or tawny and dark buffy, some of the feathers narrowly tipped with
white (these tippings subject to disappearance through wear) ; stripe from
base of upper mandible to above eye, recurring behind eye, whitish, flecked
with dark brown; stripe beneath this, dark brown flecked with black; cheek
buffy, with brownish shaft streaks; chin white, lightly flecked with dark brown;
bill black, yellowish at lower base; iris brown; rump and central upper tail
coverts, brownish or velvety black; outermost upper tail coverts brown widely
margined with white; innermost tail feathers black, outer ones drab; outer
surface of closed wing ashy brown, sometimes with scattering feathers in
coverts black with broad tawny margins; narrow white bar across wing formed
by white tips of greater coverts and innermost secondaries; shaft of outer-
most primary white; margin of wing mottled Inowu and white; axillars and

LEAST SANDPIPEE 377

lining of wing white; broad baud across throat and chest, and sides, pinkish
buff, with shaft streaks of blackish brown; belly white; flanks and under
tail coverts white w^th narrow streaks of brown; feet pale olive green. Adults
and immalures, both sexes, in fall, winter, and early spring: Distinguishable from
adults in summer chiefly by lack of tawny and buffy markings; top of head
and most of upper surface ashy brown with darker centers to feathers; sides of
head pale ashy brown; chin white; rump, upper tail coverts, tail, and wing
as in summer; broad band across throat, and sides, light ashy gray, narrowly
streaked with brown; rest of under surface white. Males: Total length 5.50-
5.87 inches (139.5-149.0 mm.) (seven specimens); folded wing 3.25-3.45 (82.4-
87.5); bill along culmen 0.65-0.73 (16.5-18.5); tarsus 0.68-0.78 (17.3-19.7)
(ten specimens). Females: Total length 5.50-6.30 (139.5-160) (nine specimens);
folded wing 3.34-3.46 (84.6-88.0); bill along culmen 0.68-0.78 (17.2-19.8);
tarsus 0.72-0.78 (18.3-19.8) (ten specimens); all from California and Alaska.
Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult in spring and summer but markings
more blended; wing coverts throughout margined with pale tawny; chin,
flanks and lower tail coverts, white, unmarked; breast band obscurely streaked.
Natal plumage: Forehead and side of head buffy white; chin and throat white;
stripes up middle of forehead and between bill and eye, black; bill black; top
and back of head, and rest of upper surface and flanks, of mixed reddish
brown and black, with many feather tippings of buffy white, the whole pro-
ducing a pepper-and-salt effect; under surface white; breast faintly washed
with buff; legs and feet (dried) brown.

Mark.s for field identification — Very small size (our smallest shore bird) ;
slender bill (fig. 67), not longer than head; ashy, drab or buffy band on breast,
narrowly streaked with brown; slender toes, cleft to bases (fig. 69).

Voice — A plaintive pe-et, pe-et, or wheet, sometimes quavering, when uttered
by isolated individuals; faint peeps among members of a foraging flock.

Nest — On marshy ground or damp upland, usually a short distance from
water; a slight depression in the vegetation lined with a few leaves and grass
blades (Moore, 1912, p. 211).

Eggs — 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.04 to 1.18 by 0.79 to 0.87 (in
millimeters, 26.5 to 30.0 by 20.0 to 22.0), and averaging 1.14 by 0.83 (29.0 to
21.0) (65 eggs in IT. S. National Museum); ground color light drab, thinly
spotted with sepia brown, grayish brown or ashy; markings more numerous
and bigger about larger end (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 240).

General distribution — North and South America. Breeds northward to the
Arctic coast from a line through Kotzebue Sound, southern Yukon, southern
Mackenzie, central Keewatin, northern Ungava, and Labrador, to northeastern
Quebec; also on the Magdelen Islands and Sable Island. Winters from central
California, southern Arizona, southern Texas and Georgia south to (northern?)
Chile, Peru, and Brazil (south to latitude 7° S). Occurs in migration through-
out area between breeding and winter ranges (Cooke, 1910, pp. 41-42).

Distribution in California — Abundant fall and spring migrant throughout
the state; remains through the winter in fair numbers in lowlands from lati-
tude of San Francisco southward. Migrants arrive from the north mostly
during August and September and depart for the north again during April
and early May. A few non-breeding birds sometimes occur here during June
and July.

The Least Sandpiper, or Peep, is, perhaps, the most abundant
species of shore bird in North America. During migration it is widely

378 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

distributed, every seabeach and salt marsh, every inland pond and
wet meadow being populated by these birds. It is the smallest, the
most confiding, and the most unobtrusive of all our wading birds.

While individuals are to be found within our borders at all times
of the year, this species is chiefly a fall and spring migrant ; to a less
extent it is a winter visitant. The birds occasionally found here dur-
ing June and July are probably non-breeding individuals. Birds
which are undoubtedly migrants arrive from the north late in July
or early in August. Two were taken at Berkeley, August 13, 1892
(specimens in Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; large flocks were seen and a specimen
taken at Bay Farm Island, August 29, 1914 (Storer, MS) ; at Santa
Barbara, Bowles and Howell (1912, p. 9) record the earliest migrants
July 18, and state that the species had become abundant by the last

of July ; flocks were seen daily at

\ Hemet Lake, San Jacinto Mountains,

from August 6 to 16, 1908 (Grinnell

and Swarth, 1913, p. 227) ; a flock was

Fig. 67. Least Sandpiper. seen at Lake Tahoe in August, 1906

(Ray, 1911, p. 108) ; one bird was

'% taken at Yermo, San Bernardino

\ County, August 28, 1910 (Lamb

155 coll.). Scattered records through the

^. „„ winter proclaim the species a winter

Fig. 68. Western Sandpiper. ■ -^ /■ n ■ in .., i ^•

Visitant m lair numbers irom the lati-
Both figures are natural size. * o+ w m m- i Qrrn

Note difference in size of bill, tude of Stockton (Beldmg, 1879, p.
and that in the Western the bill 441 ) ^ and the shores of San Francisco
IS slightly down-turned at end. „ ,1 n -r ,i • -^ t

Bay, southward. In the spring it has

been recorded at San Diego as late as April 15, 1885 (Belding, MS) ;
Mecca, Riverside County, April 19, 1908 (specimen in Mus. Vert.
Zool.) ; Los Angeles, April 27, 1900 (specimen in Swarth coll.) ; El
Monte, Los Angeles County, May 2, 1896 (specimen in Daggett coll.) ;
southern Madera County, April 28, 1900 (J. Mailliard, 1900, p. 122) ;
and Los Bailos, Merced County, April 22, 1912 (specimen in Mus.
Vert. Zool.).

The Least Sandpiper may be distinguished by its extremely small
size, slender, short bill (not longer than head), and drab, ashy or
buffy breast band, with narrow dark streaks. From the Western
Sandpiper (which is nearest in size) it may be distinguished by its
shorter and slenderer bill (figs. 67 and 68), and. the absence of webs
between the bases of the toes (fig. 69). From the Snowj- Plover it
may be distinguished by its less chunk^y build, slender bill and toes, by
the presence of a buffy breast band, and by the absence of black or
drab patches on sides of neck and lack of white on the outer tail
feathers.

LEAST SANDPIPER

379

Fig. fi9. Tarsus
and top of foot of
Least Sandpiper.
Natural size.

Note absence of
any webbing between
bases of front toes
(compare witli fig.
70).

When foraging in companies Least Sandpipers utter faint peeps
in conversational undertone ; in flight the note is more emphatic and-
varied: ivheet, ivheet, or wheel, wheet, wheet-whrr-terr-wheet, of plain-
tive quality. Lone individuals are more given to calling than members
in a flock.

L( ast Sandpipers often occur as single indi-
viduals, but more generall}^ in flocks of varying
sizes sometimes numbering several hundred indi-
viduals. They frequent with apparent impar-
tiality the sea-beach, tide flat, marshland and
river bar. Throughout most of the day, and
probably well into the night, they are active, at-
tentively gleaning food from the sand or mud
at the water's edge. When not persistently
hunted they are quite tame and will allow close
approach. If the observer takes his position on
the shore and remains quiet for a time, the birds
will usually feed along almost at his feet. When
at work probing for food the bill is rapidly
thrust in and out of the sand or mud at tlie rate
of three or four dabs per second for as many
seconds ; then it is raised entireh" free of the
surface, and the bird straightens up and moves
a fi w steps to a new location, to continue its
search in similar fashion. As the bill goes down
the tail goes up, so that the bird appears to
teeter up and down, the legs acting as fulcra.
When on the ground the birds move with a rapid,
direct run, never trotting as do some of the
plovers. Occasionally an individual will be seen
to raise its wings vertically above the body and
hold tliem there for a few seconds before fold-
ing them into place again. Once, a bird was
seen to do this as it made a deep probe in the
mud and at the same time one leg was raised
from the ground and stretched backwards ; in
this case it seemed as though the wings were
raised for the purpose of balancing the body.
Wlien frightened the birds take to flight suddenly, and look to be
traveling at their topmost speed almost immediately. Individuals
show more erratic movement in flight than do flocks. The latter pur-
sue a zigzag course, so that one sees first the brown backs and then a
flash of white from the under surfaces, and this often, depending upon
the background against which they are seen, causes the birds to

Fig. 70. Tarsus
and top of foot of
Western Sandpiper.
Natural size.

Note partial webs
between bases of
front toes (compare
with fig. 69).

380 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOBNIA

appear and then disappear at intervals of a few seconds. So per-
feetl}' and in accord do the individuals comprising a flock perform
these evolutions, that one is tempted to believe that they are in some
way mechanically connected. That this habit may prove disastrous
to individuals is shown by the fact that dead birds have been found
beneath telephone wires strung across marshes.

Single individuals seem on the whole to be more wary and apt to
take wing at longer distances than birds in flocks. Individuals or
small groups of this species sometimes flock with other waders, notably
"Western and Red-backed sandpipers ; and various observers have
noted them flocking with, and "running about beneath," some of
the shore birds of still greater size.

The nesting season of the Least Sandpiper seems to begin later
and to occupy a longer period than that of many of its kindred, this
in spite of the fact that the Least often arrives in its breeding area,
in the far north, in advance of many of the other species. Some-
times it appears before the ground is anywhere nearly free from
snow. The following nesting records given by Macoun and Macoun
(1909, pp. 176, 177) indicate the extent of the nesting season: Mag-
dalen Islands, June 13, female flushed from nest ; Lake Marsh, Yukon,
July 2, downy young ; Labrador, July 20, nest and eggs ; Cypress Hills,
Saskatchewan, August 2, very young birds.

The nest, as found on the Magdalen Islands, Quebec, is usually
placed on grass-covered, water-soaked, hummocky ground, and con-
sists of a depression lined with dead leaves or grasses so that the eggs
are well separated from the damp ground beneath. The eggs are de-
posited on consecutive days, and incubation does not commence until
the set is complete. All the eggs, in one observed case, hatched witlnn
a period of twenty-four hours or less (Moore, 1912, pp. 210, 211).

The eggs are usually four in number, pear-shaped, and measure
in inches. 1.04 to 1.18 by 0.79 to 0.87 and average 1.14 by 0.83. The
ground color is a light drab, tliinly marked with superficial spots of
sepia brown and deeper markings of grayish brown or ashy. The
markings are more numerous about the larger end of the egg (Baird,
Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 240).

During the nesting season birds of this species are to be seen
perched on various prominent objects in the near vicinity of the nest,
such as rocks, trees, stumps, and even fences. There is a song-flight
similar to that of other small sandpipers. After incubation begins,
the sitting bird will often crouch down and attempt to escape observa-
tion by remaining quiet on the nest. If this does not avail, the bird
Avill run fifteen feet or more from the nest, then, if necessary, fly off
close to the surface of the ground, with a wliirring flight, resembl-
ing that of a quail ; but the flight sometimes recalls that of a Wilson

EEDBACEED SANDPIPEE 381

Snipe in being quite erratic. The broken-wing ruse is on occasion
attempted, when the nesting Sandpiper is endeavoring to lead an
intruder away from the nest ; but none of the intimidating tactics
employed by larger waders are used by this species.

' ' The young are certainly- precocious, leaving the' nest at least by
the first day after birth, and, thereafter, being able to find their food
and take care of themselves. ..." "To protect, to Avarn, to guide
in the search for food, these seem to be the chief parental functions
at this stage" (Moore, 1912, pp. 212, 213).

Tlie food of the Least Sandpiper consists of insects and minute
marine animals found along the shore and on the mud flats. Among
the insects consumed are mosquitoes and grasshoppers (McAtee,
1911a), and, at Mono Lake, W. K. Fisher (1902a, p. 9) found these
birds feeding in company with other waders upon the flies which
swarm in early autumn along the shores of that lake.

The Least Sandpiper never has been considered a legitimate
object of pursuit by the better class of sportsmen, and never should
be. Its small size and unsuspecting habits plead for its exclusion
from the category of game birds. Along the eastern coast of the
United States, Forbush (1912, pp. 278-280) says that in former years
it was not hunted to any extent, but that with the decrease of larger
game the Peeps have come to be a serious object of sport ; many are
slaughtered annually, and as a result a marked decrease in their
numbers has of late been noticed. Happily other game species in
California are yet so numerous that the "Peeps" have not so far
suffered materially from the onslaughts of the hunter. Let us in
California conserve the larger species to such a degree that the day
will never come when "peep-pies" will be countenanced as legitimate
food on our tables.

Red-backed Sandpiper
Pelidna alpina sakhalina (Vieillot)

Other- NAMES — Dunlin; American Dunlin; Black-bellied Sandpiper; Pelidna
americana; Pelidna alpina americana; Tringa alpina; Tringa alpina pacifica ;
Tringa pacifica; Tringa alpina var. americana.

Description — Adults, both sexes, in late spring and summer: Top of head
streaked with black and rusty; broad stripe from base of upper mandible to
eye, and recurring behind eye, white, flecked with dusky; spot at side of bill
dull buffy; side of head otherwise whitish, narrowly streaked with blackish
brown; chin white; bill "black"; iris "dark brown" (Audubon, 1842, V, p.
268); hind neck whitish or buffy streaked with dusky; feathers of back and
scapulars black centrally, with broad margins of deep tawny red, and narrowly
tipped with ashy; rump dull brown; central upper tail coverts black, irregularly
marked with tawny red; outermost upper tail coverts white; innermost tail

382 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

feathers blackish brown, outer ones successively lighter, paling to light drab;
outer surface of closed wing dull brown, some of the coverts with pale margins;
tips of greater coverts and outer margins of inner secondaries, white, forming
a transverse white band on spread wing; flight feathers chiefly blackish brown,
with shafts whitish or partially so; innermost secondaries with much white at
bases; margin of wing mottled with light brown and white; lining of wing
and axillars, white; hindmost under coverts and under surface of flight
feathers, dusky; throat, sides of neck, breast and sides, white, narrowly but
sharply streaked with black; fore part of belly with a conspicuous squarish
black area, some of the feathers narrowly tipped with white; rest of under
surface white, with sparse black lines on flanks and lower tail coverts; feet
"black" (Audubon, loc. cit.). Adults and immatures both sexes, in fall, winter,
and early spring: Whole upper surface dull brown, with narrow inconspicuous
darker shaft streaks; hind neck somewhat lighter, central upper tail coverts
and tail slightly darker; eyelids, and stripe to and behind eye, dull whitish;
sides of head and neck, and whole chest, brownish drab, faintly streaked with
dark brown; chin distinctly white; upper tail coverts, tail, and wing as in
summer save that wing coverts of immatures are margined with pale buffy;
under surface behind chest band, pure white. Males: Total length 8.12-9.25
inches (206-235 mm.) (eleven specimens from California) ; folded wing 4.31—
4.67 (109.4-118.8); bill along culmen 1.38-1.50 (35.0-38.0); tarsus 0.96-1.07
(24.3-27.3) (ten specimens from California and Alaska). Females: Total
length 8.62-9.25 (219-235) (eight specimens from California); folded wing
4.57-4.85 (116.4-123.1); bill along culmen 1.48-1.68 (37.7-42.5); tarsus 1.05-
1.13 (26.6-28.7) (ten specimens from California). Juvenile plumafje : Similar
to that of adults in summer, but tawny markings on back paler and less
sharply contrasted, head and chest suffused with buffy and streaking less dis-
tinct, and breast and belly marked with large irregular spots of blackish browni;
no continuous black area across lower surface. Natal plumage: Forehead buffy
white, with median 'black line; line from bill to eye dusky; top of head to
level of eyes, mixed amber brown, black and w^hite in fine pattern; side of
head pervaded with buff; whole back amber brown, mixed with black in
coarse pattern, with many white dots on tips of down-feathers; under surface
white, with a distinct band of pale buff across fore neck.

Marks for field identification — Moderately small size (smaller than
Killdeer), bill distinctly longer than head with slightly down-curved tip (fig.
71), and white band across hinder part of wing. In spring and summer: reddish
back, and black patch across belly; in fall and winter: brownish back, broad
drab colored breast band, clear white chin and hinder lower surface. Usually
moves about in compact flocks.

Voice — Che-ezp-esp-ezp-ezp, run together in a rather rasping cheep.

Nest — On slightly elevated ground a short distance from water; a mere
depression formed by flattening down the grasses on the surface of the ground.

Eggs — 3 to 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.36 to 1.56 by 0.93 to 1.06
(in millimeters, 34.5 to 39.5 by 23.7 to 26.8), and averaging 1.44 by 1.02 (36.6
by 25.8) (21 eggs from Alaska); ground-color clay, buffy or drab, with spots
of yellowish brown and varying tints of lavender or pale gray; markings
arranged with a spiral trend and usually most numerous about larger end of
egg.

General distribution — North America and eastern Asia. Breeds on northern
coast of Siberia west to mouth of Yenisei River, and in North America from
Point Barrow to mouth of Yukon River and in Boothia and Melville peninsulas,
and northern Ungava; winters on Pacific coast from Washington south to

BED-BACKED SANDPIPER 383

southern Lower Calif oruia; and on Atlantic coast from New Jersej' (rarely
Massachusetts) south to Louisiana and southern Texas, and in Asia from
China and Japan south to the Malay Archipelago; rare in migration in interior
of United States except near southern end of Lake Michigan (A. O. U. Check-
list, 1910, p. 116).

Distribution in California — Common fall and spring migrant and winter
visitant, coastwise; occurs sparingly inland. Appears most commonly in
middle September, and remains in some numbers throughout the winter,
departing for the north by late April or early May. Observed far inland only
at Los Baiios, Merced County, December 9, 1911, to April 26, 1912 (specimens in
Mus. Vert. Zool.), in the Sacramento Valley in winter (Belding, MS), and at
Salton Sea, Imperial County (Dawson, 1916, p. 25).

The Red-backed Sandpiper is more or less plentiful during the
migrations along the seaeoast, and remains in considerable numbers
through the winter. It is thus one of the better known shore birds.
In some parts of its range this species is known as the Black-bellied
Sandpiper or Black-breasted Snipe, because of the conspicuous black
band across the belly in the breeding plumage ; while the dull appear-
ance of the back in the fall and winter has given it the name locally
of Lead-back. It is also called the Dunlin or American Dunlin, a
name borrowed or derived from its European relative.

This species is among the late fall arrivals along our coast, as it
usually does not api)ear until about the middle of September. Grinnell
and Bryant (MS), however, saw a flock of one hundred at Alvarado,
Alameda County, July 28, 1913. In 1914, the species was not observed
along the Alameda County shore until the last week in September
(Storer, MS). Curiously enough, it seems to appear much later in
the northern part of the state, as about San Francisco Bay, than
farther south, this perhaps because the first migrants proceed along
the outer seaeoast. The earliest fall record for San Francisco Bay
other than those just given, is October 15 (specimens in Mailliard
col], and Mus. Vert. Zool.). Bowles and Howell (1912, p. 9) state
that the species first appeared at Santa Barbara in 1910 on September
9, and "Willett (1912a, p. 37) says that it is most abundant along the
coast of southern California from September 15 to November ].
Inland it has been taken at Los Baiios, Merced County, December 9,
1911 (specimen in Mus. Vert. Zool.), and individuals were seen there
on several dates during the winter of 1911-12 (Beck, MS). Belding
(MS) says that it occurs about ponds in the Sacramento Valley in
winter. In the spring it is most abundant along the coast of southern
California from April 10 to May 7. although a specimen was taken
and several seen as late as May 19, 1906, at Nigger Slough, Los
Angeles County (Willett, loc. cit.). At Santa Barbara it has been
noted from March 10 to April 20, and on May 2 and 3 (Bowles and
Howell, 1912, p. 7; Howell, MS). It was noted at Bay Farm Island,

384 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

Alameda County, April 30, 1914, by the authors; and Emerson (1904,
p. 38) recorded birds of this species at Hayward, May 11, 1903. At
Los Banos, Merced County, it was present in the spring of 1912 up to
April 26 (specimens in Mus. Vert. Zool.). It would seem as though
the migrants which are seen along the southern coast in the fall and
spring and in the interior at Los Baiios spend the winter but little
farther south, in the vicinity of San Diego (Belding, MS), at Salton
Sea, Imperial County (Dawson, 1916, p. 25), and on the coast of
Lower California (Brewster, 1902a, p. 63). On the Pacific coast the
species is not known to occur south of La Paz, Lower California, save
in the case of a single straggler taken in Nicaragua (Cooke, 1910,
p. 44).

In the springtime the Red-backed Sandpiper is easy to distinguish,
with its reddish back and conspicuous black belly ; but in the fall less

conspicuous features must be de-
pended upon : its long bill (fig. 71)
which is decidedly longer than its
head and curved slightly downward
9335 at the terminal third, its moder-
ately small size (yet conspicuously
Fig. 71. Side of bill of Red- larger than the Least, Western, and
backed Sandpiper. Natural size. t-. • t -, ■ \ -, • -, • -,

Baird sandpipers), and its plainly

tiJir.h'rb°a"e""' "" """ "'"' '"'"■k-'d brown back entirely free

from any scaled or prominently
streaked appearance such as is possessed by so many species of shore
birds. The incessant bobbing up and down of the members of a flock
as they probe for food, and the resulting flashes of white and brown
as the breasts and backs appear alternately, are additional aids to
recognition.

The call-note is a rasping cheep, or chee-ezp-ezp-ezp-ezp, uttered
almost as a single syllable. It is much hoarser than that of the Least
Sandpiper, a species with which this one sometimes associates.

The Red-backed Sandpiper is a typical beach bird, gleaning its
provender by probing along the beaches and adjacent mud flats. In
the East it is reported to be something of an upland bird, so that
hunters class it with the Snipe rather than with tlie Sandpipers ; but
such does not seem to be the rule in California. When feeding the
birds probe industriously, but not very long in any one spot. The bill
is thrust perpendicularly into the mud ; and often when they are
feeding on a flat which is partly under water the whole head may be
immersed for a second or two. Flocks spread out immediately upon
alighting and each individual pursues a separate course. This, com-
bined with their rapidity of action, results in the peculiar bobbing
appearance referred to above.

JRED-BACKED SANDPIPER 385

Ordinarily this species is rather tame and will allow close approach,
but if flocks are shot at even a lew times they become wary. When
frightened, or when taking wing in changing to a new location, the
birds bunch together into a compact flock and fly rapidly, sometimes
in a direct line at low elevation, sometimes erratically, up and down
and zigzag. In the lattei- instance they partake somewhat of the
nature of Snipe. As many as 500 have, by estimate, been noted in a
single flock. The close-flocking habit of this and most other shore birds
is probably of advantage to them in detecting and escaping from
enemies under primitive conditions ; but the modern hunter with his
seatter-gun is able to make large "pot-shots," and there are records
of over fifty Red-backs being killed by the discharge of the two barrels
of one double-barreled gun into a single flock (Porbusli, 1912. p. 283).

The breeding area of the Red-backed Sandpipers visiting Cali-
fornia lies probably along the western coast of Alaska, where the
species is known to summer in abundance. The species thus presents
an interesting peculiarity as regards its breeding range. There are
two distinct areas, corresponding with the divided winter distribution.
One is along the coast of Alaska from the mouth of the Yukon to
Point Barrow and along the Arctic coast of Siberia, where our Cali-
fornian birds are thought to nest. The birds found along the eastern
coast of North America probably breed in northern Ungava and in
the region of Melville Island. Between Melville Island and Point
Barrow the species is exceedingly scarce or altogether absent.

The nesting season in Alaska extends through the month of June,
eggs having been taken at the mouth of the Yukon as early as the
6th of that month (Cooke, 1910, p. 44), and as late as the 3rd of July
(Nelson, 1887, p. 110), while fresh eggs have been taken near Cape
Prince of Wales on June 27 and 28 (Grinnell, 1900, p. 24).

The nest is usually located on a slight elevation of the tundra,
although as a rule not far from water. It consists of a depression in
the top of a grassy or mossy hummock, lined with a few grass blades ;
in some cases the surrounding vegetation practically hides the nest.

The eggs number three or four, are notably pear-shaped, and
measure in inches, 1.36 to 1.60 by 0.93 to 1.10, and average 1.46 by 1.01
(21 eggs from Alaska). The ground color is pale olive, buffy, or drab,
with light and dark yellowish brow^n, superficial spots and a few
lavender or pale gray deep-lying ones. The spots are usually
elongated, measuring on the average, perhaps 0.06 by 0.12 inches,
and have a distinctly spiral trend, especially about the larger end.
Here they are often so numerous as to form a dark cap. These eggs,
by their combination of pale olive ground color with light brown
sr)irally placed markings, together with their size, can readily be dis-
tinguished from those of any other species of shore bird occurring in
western America.

386 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA

When the birds reach their breeding grounds in the north some
are already paired, but the great majority do not pair until soon after
they arrive. The males pursue the females with a quivering flight
and often hover over them at a height of 15 or 20 yards, uttering a
mellow tinkling song resembling the dropping of water into a partly
filled pail. After the eggs are laid this song is no longer heard ; the
males then assist the females in the duties of incubation, and appar-
ently spend a good share of their time on the nest (Murdoch, 1885, p.
113; Nelson, 1887, p. 111).

The young, which are hatched some time around the first of July
(specimens were taken on July 6 in one case [Cooke, 1910, p. 44]),
are on the wing and flocking along the shore by the first of August.
From this time until about the last of September the young birds
wear the juvenile plumage, but by the first of October the winter
plumage, which is similar to that of the adults at the same season, has
been assumed. Some of the birds have left before this time, as they
appear along our southern coasts by the middle of September ; but the
rest linger in the north until about the first of October when a cold
snap usually drives all but a few of the most hardy individuals south-
ward (Nelson, 1887, pp. 110-111).

Emerson (1904, p. 38) found birds of this species dead on the
marshes near Hayward, Alameda County, where they had been killed
by flying against telegraph wires strung across the marsh, thus meeting
a fate common to many of the smaller species of shore birds in that
vicinity.

Red-backed Sandpipers feed on the various forms of animal life
found along the seashore. Oyster-worms (Nereis) and water beetles
have been found in their stomachs (McAtee, 1911a), as well as
Crustacea and small shellfish. The destruction of the two former
kinds of animals is a distinct benefit, and in return for this the birds
should, perhaps, receive some consideration. The.v are barely large
enough to be classed as legitimate game. If so considered, the bag-
limit should be carefully regulated so as to prevent the wholesale
slaughter to which the habits of the species subject it. In the fall
they are fat and considered excellent eating. As with all other species,
spring shooting of these Sandpipers should never be countenanced.

Western Sandpiper

Erctinetes mauri Cabanis

Other names — Peeps, part; Pigmies, part; Pups; Ereunetes occidentdlis ;
Ereunetes pusillus occidentaUs ; Ereunetes pnsillm: Ereunetes petrifieatm ; Tringii
semipalmata.

Description — Adults, both sexes, in late spring and summer: Feathers of
top of head, hind neck, and back, black centered, conspicuously margined with

WESTEEN SANDPIPEK 387

tawny, the latter color often predominating, and all faintly tipped with whitish
or pale drab; spot or stripe on each side of forehead, and one behind eye,
white, usually flecked with dark brown; stripe from side of upper mandible
running below eye to ear region, reddish brown; lower side of head and neck, white,
flecked with dark brown, most sparingly on chin; iris "brown"; bill "black"
(Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 391); rump dull dark brown, many
of the feathers lighter at tips; inner upper tail coverts blackish brown, the
shorter ones sometimes tipped with tawny; outermost upper tail coverts white,
sometimes marked with brown ; inner webs of innermost pair of tail feathers
blackish brown, outer webs of these, and rest of tail feathers, drab; outer
surface of closed wing dull brown, all of the coverts with blackish shaft streaks,
and usually with lighter margins; greater coverts tipped with white, forming
a white bar across wing when expanded: primaries blackish, shaft of outermost
one white, others brown toward base becoming white at tip; bend of wing scaled
with white and light brown; axillars and lining of wing, white; under surface
of flight feathers, dusky; lower surface chiefly white; throat, chest, sides, and,
to a less extent, flanks and outer lower tail coverts, sharply streaked with dark
brown, these markings largest on chest and sides, where they are somewhat tri-
angular; feet and legs "black" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, loc. cit.). AduJIs
and immatures, hoih sexes, in fall, tvinter and early spring: Whole upper surface
ashy brown with blackish shaft streaks and, in fresh plumage, narrow whitish
feather tippings giving a faintly scaled effect; spot in front of eye whitish,
often continuing over eye; stripe from side of bill, running below eye and
broadening on ear region, brownish; chin white; rump, tail and wing as in
summer; band of narrow brown shaft streaks across upper breast; rest of
under surface white. Males: Total length 5.78-6.92 inches (147-176 mm.) (ten
specimens from California); folded wing 3.52-3.79 (89.4-96.3); bill along
culmen 0.83-0.93 (21.2-23.5); tarsus 0.82-0.93 (20.8-23.5) (ten specimens from
California and Alaska). Females: Total length 6.00-7.00 (152-178) (ten speci-
mens from California); folded wung 3.67-3.89 (93.4-98.7); bill along culmen
0.88-1.16 (22.5-29.4); tarsus 0.85-0.98 (21.6-25.0) (ten specimens from Cali-
fornia and Alaska). Juvenile plumage: Resembles that of adults in summer
save that colors on upper surface are duller and feathers of back are broadly
margined with deep taw-ny, the wing coverts are tipped with buffy, and the
breast is merely washed with buffy, not streaked except faintly at sides.
Natal plumage: Crown chestnut; rest of upper surface mixed black and rusty,
speckled with white; forehead pale buffy; black line on center of forehead and
two black lines between bill and eye; breast buffy; throat and rest of lower
surface, white.

Marks for field identification — Small size (next to the Least Sandpiper,
which is the smallest of our shore birds), bill slightly longer than head (fig. 68),
and breast band without buffy ground color. Distinguished from Least Sand-
piper only with difiiculty by its longer bill. In hand can be separated from
that species much more easily by presence (in the Western Sandpiper) of webs
between bases of front toes (fig. 70).

Voice — A soft weet-weet, or to-wheet; in summer: a series of soft trills.

Nest — On drier parts of tundra, often on a slight rise or hummock, but
usually in near vicinity of water; a thin layer of grasses or willow leaves,
loosely arranged, or more often merely the trampled down or matted vegeta-
tion at nest site.

Eggs — Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches from 1.11 by 0.82 to 1.30
by 0.92 (in millimeters from 28.2 by 20.8 to 33.0 by 23.4) ; ground tint pale

388 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

clay color, in many instances (especially on larger eggs), almost concealed by
fine superficial spots and streaks of light reddish brown; other specimens
have the sjiots in larger masses and ground color more apparent (Nelson, 1887,
p. 114).

General distribution — North America and northern South America. Breeds
on Alaskan coast from mouth of Yukon Eiver to a little north of Cape Prince
of Wales. Winters on Atlantic coast from North Carolina to Florida and on
Pacific coast from southern California to southern Mexico and Venezuela, and
probably in Lesser Antilles. In migration occurs along Atlantic coast north
to Massachusetts, and in the West Indies, but is extremely rare in central
United States. Abundant along Pacific coast and to some extent inland
(A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 117; Cooke, 1910, p. 47).

Distribution in California — Abundant spring and fall migrant both coast-
wise and in the interior; also sparing winter visitant from San Francisco
southward, but more numerous in southern part of the state. Fall migration
begins in late July and lasts through October. Spring migration occurs from
early April until first of June, the species being most abundant from about
April 10 until middle or last of May. Non-breeding individuals may remain
within the state throughout the summer months.

The Western Sandpiper, a close relative of the Semipalmated
Sandpiper of eastern North America, is an abundant species along our
coast and in the interior during the fall and spring migrations, and
is present also during the winter, but then only in limited numbers.
This species is one of a number among the shore birds in Avhieh cer-
tain apparently barren individuals fail to follow the northbound
migrants in the spring and are thus to be found within the state
throughout the summer season.

The first undoubted migrants from the nortli appear along our
coast during the latter part of July or first week in August. Two
adult females in worn breeding plumage were taken at Markham's,
Sonoma County, July 13, 1895 (Mailliard coll.). Emerson (in Beld-
ing, MS) records the species at Hayward, as "common at once"
August 2, 1895, and one was taken in "Alameda County," August
10, 1897 (Mailliard coll.). From this time on, tlie species becomes
increasingly abundant and is found within the state in large numbers
during August, September and October. The numbers decrease dur-
ing November, and during the period from December to February
there are only a few records of occurrence ; but these are sufficient
to indicate that stragglers remain in winter at least as far north as
San Francisco, and that the species winters in fair numbers in the
southern portion of the state. Some of these records are as follows:
San Francisco Bay, December 29, 1897 (four specimens in Mailliard
coll.) ; Monterey, December 13, 1910 (Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; Santa
Barbara, up to December 5, 1909 (Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 9),
and winter of 1885 (Streator, 1886, p. 89) ; Alamitos Bay, Los Angeles
County, December 2 to 26, 1905 (specimens in Richardson coll.) ;

WESTEBN SANDPIPER 389

Newport Sloughs, Orange County, December, 1884 (Belding, MS) ;
San Diego Bay, November, 1906, to January, 1907 (Willett, 1912a,
p. 37) ; San Clemente Island, December, 1908 (Linton, 1909, p. 194) ;
and Salton Sea, December 10, 1910, to January 14, 1911, quite com-
mon (Van Rossem, 1911, p. 131). The northward migration begins
as early as February or March, as birds appeared at Santa Barbara,
February 28, 1910 (Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 9), and at Moss,
Monterey County, March 23, 1911 (Mus. Vert. Zool.). At Los Bafios,
Merced County, Beck (MS) saw the first in 1912 on April 10. The
general migration through the state is at its height from about the first
of April until the middle or latter part of May. Several birds were
seen about Owens Lake, Inyo County, June 1, 1891, in company with
Snowy Plover (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 23). There are several July
records for the state which probably pertain to barren birds.

The Western Sandpiper is next to the smallest of our shore birds,
being but slightly larger than the Least Sandpiper. From the great
majoi'ity of oui" waders it is to be distinguished at once on tlie basis
of size. From the Least Sit nd piper it can be told at a distance only
witli difficulty by its longer bill (compare figs. 67 and 68) ; but in the
hand, it is unmistakably recognizable by the presence of rather exten-
sive webbing between the bases of the front toes (fig. 70). In habits
these two species resemble one another closely.

The Western Sandpip(r occurs most commonly, if not almost
exclusively, in flocks, this being doubtless, as with many other shore
birds, for the common protection thereby afforded. They feed with
impartiality on open seashores, tide flats, boggy inland meadows, and
the margins of rain-pools, usually keeping in the open. In feeding,
the parties scatter out in open formation, but congregate promptly
into massed bodies when frightened, and take flight in close flocks.

These birds begin to arrive on their breeding grounds in the
Norton Sound region of Alaska about the middle of May. The nest-
ing season extends from the latter part of May until the end of June.
Nelson (1887. p. 113) states that eggs were found by the first of
June or earlier, and young were found in one ease on June 7, while
Grinnell (1900, p. 25) at Cape Prince of Wales north of Bering
Strait, Alaska, found fresh eggs June 28, 1898.

The nests are usually placed on the drier parts of the tundra, gen-
erally on a mossy hummock or slight swell, although Grinnell (loc.
eit.) found a nest on a hummock in marshy ground. Sometimes the
nest is a thin layer of grass stems or willow leaves loosely arranged,
but more often it consists merely of a mat of crushed-down and
flattened vegetation such as is to be found at the spot chosen. The
eggs, usually four, are pear-shaped, and measure in inches from 1.11
by 0.82 to 1.30 by 0.92. "The ground is ordinarily pale clay color,

390 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOBNIA

shading toward pale brownish clay. In many instances, usually
among the larger eggs, the ground color is nearly or quite concealed
by fine, light reddish brown spots or specks. The other extreme lias
the spots gathered mainly about the larger end in large irregular spots
and blotches, and the intermediate ones have the shell about half
hidden by markings of chocolate and umber-brown in small spots, a
little more dense at the large end. In some eggs the spots are rich
chocolate and the light or slightly reddish-brown cast in the markings
even of the darkest colored eggs usually serves to readily separate
these eggs from ..." those of any other western shore bird (Nelson,
1887, p. 114).

While the birds are j^et scattered over the tundra, before the actual
work of nesting is begun, they are wont to utter a series of low twitter-
ing notes. The male runs back and forth in front of the female trail-
ing his wings and elevating and partly spreading his tail. At other
times he flies up ten or fifteen yards above the ground, hovers with
rapidly beating wings, and pours forth a trilling song. These notes
may be represented by the syllables tzr-e-e-e, zr-e-e-e, zr-e-e-e, with a
high pitched tone and a fresh impetus at each ''z." Then the male
arches his wings above his back in the form of a V and glides slowly
to earth uttering a deeper more throaty tzur-r-r-r, tzur-r-r-r. The
birds also utter a variety of low twitterings when feeding or when the
male and female of a pair are together. Females when approached
sometimes give a low cheep. The song period ends as soon as the eggs
are laid, or shortly after. Different females vary in their actions when
their nests are approached. Some move away, apparently with per-
fect indifference, while others use the broken-wing ruse and other
devices to distract the attention of the intruder (Nelson, 1887, pp.
113-114).

We have at present no definite information concerning the food of
the Western Sandpiper, but it probably does not differ markedly from
that of other species of similar habits, such as the Least Sandpiper.
Baird, Brewer and Ridgway (1884, I, pp. 208, 209) state that, when
inland (this species or the Semipalmated?) and feeding on fresh
water worms and insects, the birds become very fat and afford excellent
eating. Cooper is reported as saying that this species is "much hunted
for the San Francisco market."

If the time ever existed when it was necessary to hunt these
' ' Peeps ' ' as food to be sold in the San Francisco or any other market,
it has passed ; and it is to be hoped that we shall never be reduced to
the necessity of preying upon such diminutive creatures as these for
food. They should be kept peririanently off the list of game species in
California as well as elsewhere.

SANDEELING 391

Sanderling
Calidris leucophaea (Pallas)

Other names — Beach Bird; Euddy Plover; Surf Snipe; Sanderling Sand-
piper; Calidris arenaria; Tringa arenaria.

Description — Adults, both sexes, in late spring and summer: Top of head,
hind neck, back, scapulars, some wing coverts, and tertials, black, with broad
feather-maiginings of bright cinnamon brown, and more or less extensive
white tippings; head and neck otherwise cinnamon, flecked sharply with black;
ear region lighter due to minute white feather tippings; bill black; iris
"brown" (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 289); rump and middle upper tail coverts
black, with feather-margins of pale cinnamon; outer upper tail coverts white;
innermost pair of tail feathers longer than rest, their inner webs blackish
and outer webs blackish brown, marked irregularly with pale cinnamon; rest
of tail feathers grading from brown to very pale drab on outermost ones, and
all narrowly margined with white; shafts of innermost ones brown, of the
others, white; outer surface of closed wing: most of coverts like back, others
(left-over winter feathers) dull brown with blackish shafts; greater coverts
broadly tipped with white; primaries and their coverts blackish brown, paler
on inner webs, shafts chiefly white; secondaries chiefly white; margin of wing
scaled with pale brown and white; lining of wing and axillars, white; iinder
surface of flight feathers pale drab; chest and sides like lower surface of head,
bright cinnamon, marked sharply with blackish, these markings narrowest near
mid-line; rest of under surface white; feet black; toes only three, no hind toe
being present. Adults and immatures, both sexes, in late fall, winter and early
spring: Whole face region pure white; narrow area around eye flecked with
brownish; top of head, hind neck, back and scapulars, pale smoky gray, with
dark brown shafts and narrow feather-tippings of ashy or whitish; rump and
central upper tail coverts like back, but darker, more brownish in tone; outer
upper tail coverts, white; tail, outer surface of closed wing and flight feathers,
as in summer, but lacking any cinnamon; under surface entirely silky white.
Males: Total length 7.40-8.62 inches (188-219 mm.) (ten specimens); folded
wing 4.50-4.77 (114.2-121.0); bill along culmen 0.88-1.06 (22.-3-26.8); tarsus
0.94-1.04 (23.8-26.3) (ten specimens). Females: Total length 7.73-8.60 (196-
218) (ten specimens); folded wing 4.62-5.10 (117.3-129.3); bill along culmen
0.91-1.09 (23.0-27.6); tarsus 0.99-1.06 (25.1-27.0) (ten specimens); all from
California. Juvenile plumage: Crown, back and tertials, chiefly black, but with
feather-edgings of white and pale clay color, giving a spotted effect; forehead,
sides of head; hind neck, and sides of chest, buffy white, finely mottled with
dusky or brownish; indistinct streak from base of bill to and beneath eye,
dusky; feathers of rump and central upper tail coverts, brownish black with
broad edgings of cream and narrow blackish tips; outer upper tail coverts and
tail as in winter; wdng as in winter adults, but coverts coarsely edged with
pale clay color; under surface white, faintly tinged with buff across breast.
Natal plumage: Not known to us.

Marks for field identification — Moderately small size (close to that of
Red-backed Sandpiper), conspicuous white bar across wing contrasting strongly
with blackish primaries; in late spring and summer: mixed black and cinnamon
back, and chiefly bright cinnamon throat, neck and breast; in winter: extremely
pale tone of coloration, glistening white under surface, and pale grayish back;
in the hand, lack of hind toe and sandpiper-like bill. Frequents sandy sea-

392 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

beaches, feeding most foinnionlv in dense flocks at edge of water, advancing
and retreating with each wave.

Voice — ". . . A shrill but not unpleasant iviek" (Dresser, 190:5, p. 779); a
short chii, a rasping note, a peeping note, or sometimes a sharp grasshopper-
like sound (Forbush, 1912, p. 290).

Nest — Either in marshes or on high open ground; a mere depression lined
with leaves of the Arctic willow, or with catkins and grasses (Feilden, 1877,
p. 406; and other authors).

Eggs — Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, l..'}0 to 1.50 by 0.95
to 1.03 (in millimeters, 33.1 to 38.2 by 24.2 to 26.1), and averaging about 1.41
by 0. 98 (35.9 by 24.9); ground color brownish olive or pale yellowish white,
green-tinged, and marked sparsely with faint blotches and spots of varying
shades of brown, most numerous at larger end; also deeper markings of light
violet-gray (Dresser, 1904, pp. 230-231; and others).

General distribution — Almost world-wide. Breeds along the Arctic coast
of both North America and Eurasia, in the former hemisphere south as far as
latitude 55°N., on shores of Hudson Bay, but chiefly along Arctic coast and
islands farther north, including Melville Island and Grinnell Land; also on
both coasts of Greenland. Winters from central Argentina and central Chile
north regularly on Atlantic coast to North Carolina and on Pacific coast to
central California, and casually to Massachusetts and Washington. In Old
World, winters from Japan and the Mediterranean south to southern Africa.
Malay Archipelago and Oceania. Occurs in migr3,tion on the sea-coasts of the
world, and locally on shores of inland bodies of water (Cooke, 1910, pp. 48-49).

Distribution in California — Common fall and spring migrant and winter
visitant; recorded most commonly on beaches of southern California from
Santa Barbara southeastward. Usually absent from June 1 to August 15.
Earliest fall record: Santa Barbara, July 29, 1910 (Bowies and Howell, 1912,
p. 9); latest spring record: near Santa Barbara, June 5, 1915 (Dawson, 1915, p.
207). Eecorded inland only at Salton Sea, April 20 and 30, 1909 (specimens
in Mus. Vert. Zool.).

The Sanderling, or Beach Bird as it has been appropriately called,
is, in California, almost exclusively an inhabitant of sandy beaches,
being rarely encountered amid any other surroundings. It is a
breeding bird of the far north, and comes to us as a transient and
winter visitant. It has been found along our coasts during every
month in the year, although in summer nearly eight weeks elapse
between the disappearance of the last northbound migrants and the
arrival of the first fall birds. As barren or non-breeding individuals
of this species are thought sometimes to remain over in southern lati-
tudes, the period in which breeding birds are absent from the state
may be still longer. On the coast of southern California the birds
have been seen as early as July 29, 1910 (Bowles and Howell, 1912,
p. 9) and as late as June 5, 1915 (Dawson, 1915, p. 207). Willett
(1912a. p. 37) states that they are most common as migrants, in spring
and fall. There is only one instance of occurrence of this species from
other than a seacoast locality. Frank Stephens found it at the south-
east end of Salton Sea, April 20 and 30, 1909 (specimens in Mus.
Vert. Zool.).

SANDEBLING 393

The Sanderling is distinguished by its moderately small size, and
conspicuous white bar across the wing contrasting strongly with the
blackish primaries. In late spring and summer the mixed black and
cinnamon back and the cliiefiy bright cinnamon throat, neck and
breast, and in fall, winter and early spring the pure, even glistening,
white under surface and pale grayish back, combined with the blackish
primaries and white wing bar, are distinctive. Structurally, the
sandpiper-like bill and absence of a hind toe, together with the pres-
ence of square transverse scales on the front of the tarsus, serve to
distinguish this species from all other shore birds. From the Least
and "Western sandpipers the Sanderling is distinguished by its larger
size, and from these and the Red-backed and Baird sandpipers (which
latter two are of about the same size as the Sanderling) by the pres-
ence, in spring and summer plumage, of a cinnamon-colored breast ;
in the fall by continuously pure white undersurface. All of the other
species mentioned have a pronounced dull-'-olored band across the
breast at least in the fall.

The voice of the Sanderling is ". . . a shrill but not unpleasant
wiek" (Dresser, 1903, p. 779); or "a short chit (Hoffmann). A
rasping note and a peeping note, sometimes also a sharp grasshopper-
like sound. The flight song in spring is a quavering trill" (Forbush,
1912, p. 290). Dresser (1904, p. 230) describes the flight song as a
harsh trry-irrr-trrr.

Sanderlings are preeminently gregarious birds of the sandy sea-
beach, and show marked preference there for the edge of the surf.
They run swiftly back and forth, advancing and retreating before the
waves in order to secure the crustaceans and marine worms which
happen to be uncovered by the wash of the water. If while so engaged
a comber threatens to overwhelm them they take wing and rise above
it, alighting again as soon as it subsides and continuing to forage.
If frightened they flush quickly and form into a compact swift-mov-
ing flock, which flies in steady course close over the surface of the
water, with pleasing harmony of action. They perform none of the
zigzag evolutions that characterize the flight of other sandpipers.
Torrey (1913, pp. 25, 26) says that at Santa Barbara, he often saw
Sanderlings hopping on one leg, a habit which he did not notice in
any other species of shore bird. The Sanderlings seemed to progress
as well on the one leg as on two. It has been suggested that this habit
may be for the purpose of keeping the other foot warm, but why the
Sanderling alone among shore birds should be put to the necessity of
such a practice, it is difficult to conceive. After bathing, an operation
carried on either in shallow surf or in tide-pools on the beach, Sander-
lings have been seen to spring repeatedly into the air "to a height of
six or eight inches, shaking themselves vigorously while so doing.

394 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

evidently for the purpose of drying their feathers" (Torrey, 1913,
p. 24). When wounded, or otherwise forced to the water for safety,
Sanderlings are said to be able to swim ({uite well.

Isolated individuals or small groups of this species, as in the
case of many other small shore birds, have been seen (Torrey, 1913,
pp. 27, 28) to band together with individuals or flocks of other small
species. The Sanderling is sometimes found about larger inland
bodies of water in the East, but as yet in California has been noted
inland only at Salton Sea. The extensive collecting carried on by
R. H. Beck at Los IJanos, Merced County, for the Museum of Verte-
brate Zoology, failed to indicate the presence of this species at that
paradise for water birds.

The nesting season of the Sanderling extends from late June to
the middle of July. A nest found by MacFarlane (1891, p. 427)
June 29, 1863, on the Barren Grounds about ten miles west of Frank-
lin Bay, Arctic America, consisted of a small depression in the
ground lined with "withered hay and leaves" and contained four
fresh eggs. Feilden (1877, p. 406) records a nest found by him in
Grinnell Land, June 24, 1876, which was located on a gravel ridge
several hundred feet above the sea. "... The [two] eggs were
deposited in a slight depression in the centre of a recumbent plant of
arctic willow, the lining of the nest consisting of a few withered
leaves and some of the last year's catkins." The eggs are usually
four in number, pear-shaped, and measure in inches 1.30 to 1.50 by
0.95 to 1.03, averaging 1.41 by 0.98 (fifteen eggs from Arctic coast
of Siberia) (Dresser, 1904, p. 230-231). The set of eggs taken by
MacFarlane has been described as follows: "Their ground-color is
a brownish olive, marked with faint spots and small blotches of bistre.
These markings are very generally diffused, but are a little more
numerous about the larger end" (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, 1884,
1, p. 253).

The nesting habits of the Sanderling have been reported in an
interesting manner by Manniche (1910, pp. 139-151) who observed
the species in northeastern Greenland during the summer seasons of
1907 and 1908. The bird arrives in this region about the first of
June, and by the middle of the month pairing has commenced. In
fine weather, especially toward evening, the male would mount to a
height of about two yards above the surface of the ground, and, utter-
ing a "snarling or slightly neighing sound," fly a short distance or
in small circles for several seconds. When excited he would fre-
quently sit on the top of a large solitary boulder, with tlie feathers
of his back blown out, his tail spread and his wings half let down.
Soon, however, he would return to the female and try to pair with
her. Sometimes the male goes through the pairing flight when there
is no female in the vicinity.

SANDERLING 395

The nests of tlie Sanderling are usually placed ou the small
"islands" of stones and clay which are scattered over the tundras
and moors. The nest itself is a small depression sparsely lined on
the bottom with leaves of the arctic willow and other plants growing
in the vicinity. Egg-laying begins about June 20, and extends at
least until July 15. In eleven nests with eggs and fifty broods of
downy young observed by Manniche the complement was always four.
Until laying is completed the males accompany their mates, but when
incubation commences they join in small flocks of their own kind or
with other shore birds, and have usually left the country by mid-July.

The female is exceedingly wary and will often fly to meet the
intruder more than a hundred yards from the nest and then try
various deceptions in order to toll him away. At night, or in very
cold weather, or when the incubation of the eggs is approaching com-
pletion, the female is more reluctant to leave, and her anxiety to
return often results in discovery of the nest. Sometimes, if surprised
on the nest, the female endeavors to escape detection by keeping per-
fectly still. Incubation lasts for twenty-three or twenty-four days,
and the egg shells are pipped as much as three days before the young
finally emerge. When the chicks ai'e finally out the female carries
the remnants of the shells away from the nest. All the young emerge
within a few hours of one another, and as soon as the down on all of
them is sufficiently dry they quit the nest in company with the mother
bird and sometimes go as much as six hundred yards away within a
very short time. After the brood is out the female becomes even
more solicitous for her charges, and she increases her efforts at dis-
tracting the attention of any intruder when he approaches the vicinity
of the brood. Now she will go two or three hundred yards to meet
him and attempt to lead him off to one side. JMeanwhile the brood
lies flat on the ground, and the coloration of their backs is such as
to make them very inconspicuous. When the old bird returns and
utters a peculiar chirping sound the youngsters become active once
more. The young are full grown and able to fly within twelve or four-
teen days after they are hatched. Toward the end of July the females
desert their broods and begin to migrate south, but the former linger
and assemble into larger and larger flocks, then to follow their parents
(Manniche, loc. cit.).

The food of the Sanderling consists of marine worms, minute shell-
fish, crustaceans of various sorts, and insects; and gravel has been
found in some of the stomachs examined. In its summer home it is
reported to feed upon the buds of the saxifrage (Baird, Brewer and
Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 250). When the birds have become fattened in
the fall they are said to be excellent eating. It is not known that
they have been shot by sportsmen or market hunters to any extent in

396 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOENIA

California. The relatively small numbers which occur along our
coasts, and the extreme northern location of their breeding grounds,
make any great future diminution in the number of Sanderlings
visiting California improbable.

Marbled Godwit

Limosa fcdoa (Linnaeus)

Other names — Godwit; Great Marbled Godwit; American Bar-tailed God-
wit; Straight-billed Curlew; Common Marlin; Eed Marlin; Spike-bill.

Description — Adults, hoth sexes, at all seasons: Top of head and hind neck
streaked with brownish black and pale buffy; stripe from upper mandible to
above eye, dull white, flecked with blackish brown ; area between base of bill
and eye densely mottled with brown; sides of head and w^hole neck buffy white,
narrowly streaked with brown; chin white; bill pale yellowish, reddish at
base, brownish black at end; iris brown; feathers of back blackish brown,
extensively marked with manj'^ irregular spots or incomplete bar? of pale tawny
or buffy white, the whole producing a marbled appearance; rump, upper tail
coverts and tail, irregularly barred with brownish black on a cinnamon or
buffy ground, the light color predominating; outer surface of closed wing
chiefly cinnamon, with irregular markings and flecks of dull brown; primary
coverts brownish black; primaries brownish black along outer webs, and
cinnamon sprinkled with brownish black on inner w^ebs; margin of wing scaled
with cinnamon and brownish black; axillars and lining of wing, pale cinnamon,
faintly marked with brownish black; quills of primaries whitish below, that
of outermost one white above; under surface of body pale cinnamon, lightest
in region of vent; throat narrowly streaked with blackish brown; breast, sides,
flanks and lower tail coverts, marked across each feather with several narrow
wavy bars of blackish brown; feet lead color or black. Males: Total length
16.56-18.00 inches (423-457 mm.) (seven specimens) ; folded wing 8.46-8.85
(215-225); bill along eulmen 3.69-4.42 (93.7-112.2); tarsus 2.78-3.04 (70.7-77.1)
(seven specimens). Females: Total length 16.95-19.10 (430-485) (seven speci-
mens); folded wing 8.75-9.56 (222-243); bill along eulmen 4.85-5.03 (123.0-
127.8); tarsus 2.87-3.07 (72.8-78.0) (three specimens); all adults and full
grown immatures from California. Juveinle plumage: Similar to that of adult,
but markings above less sharply defined, and entire lower surface cinnamon,
becoming buffy on throat, sparingly streaked with dusky on lower neck, and
faintly and narrowly barred with dull brown on flanks. Natal plumage:
"... Pinkish buff in color, more pronounced on the sides and neck, })aler
ventrally, and almost white on the throat, chin, and sides of the head. The
occiput, cervix [=hind neck], back, rump and wings were heavily blotched
wuth seal brown, or clouded with hair brown, the latter color shading off
gradually into the buff on the sides. ... A narrow loral stripe [between bill
and eye] . . . and a median crown stripe of seal brown, the latter running
from the base of the bill to the occiput" (Bent, 1907«, p. 166).

Marks for field identification — Large size (among the largest of our
shore birds), long straight or slightly up-curved bill, and reddish or cinnamon
colored plumage; distinguished from Hudsonian Curlew by straight or slightly
up-turned rather than down-curved bill, .by distinctly reddish coloration, and
by less clear call-notes; from Long-billed Curlew by smaller size and straightish
bill.

MABBLED GOBWIT 397

A^OICE — Teru-hit' teruhit', or godivit' godicit' ; when disturbed, sounds more
like kericecl', kencee-eck', or even ker-kor'-koit (Bent, 1907a, pp. 164, 165).

Nest — In grassy meadows or marshes usually in the vicinity of water; a
depression formed by treading down the grass, without the use of any addi-
tional material; measures about six by seven inches in diameter by two in
.lepth (152 to 177 by 51 mm.) (Bent, 1907a, pp. 162-164).

Eggs — 3 to 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 2.14 to 2.37 by 1.50 to 1.61
(in millimeters, 54.3 to 60.2 by 38.1 to 40.8), and averaging 2.26 by 1.56 (57.4
by 39.6) (eleven eggs, three sets, from southwestern Saskatchewan); ground-
color of varying tones of buff, with superficial spots of deep brown and under-
lying ones of drab or lilac (Bent, loc. cit.).

General distribution — North America. Breeds chiefly from northern North
Dakota to the valley of the Saskatchewan, formerly south to northern Nebraska,
northern Iowa, and Wisconsin. Winters from Georgia, Florida, Louisiana and
southern California south to Guatemala and central British Honduras. Formerly
occurred in migration on Atlantic coast north to maritime provinces of Canada,
but now rare or unknown north of Florida. On Pacific coast occurs in migra-
tion from Alaska to Lower California (Cooke, 1910, pp. 50-51).

Distribution in California — Common fall and spring migrant along the sea-
coast, and about the larger bodies of water in the Sacramento-San Joaquin
Valley; less abundant now than formerly. In fall and early winter occurs
from late July to December (Willett, 1912a, p. 37), and in the spring from
late March to the last of April. A few have been found up to December, even
as far north as Humboldt Bay (Cooke, 1910, p. 51), and stragglers have been
observed in June, as at Santa Barbara (Torrey, 1910b, p. 204; Dawson, 1915,
p. 207).

The Marbled Godwit. ^larlin, or Straight-billed Curlew, is a rather
common fall and spring migrant along the coast of California and also
occnrs sparingly in the interior. While in more northern latitudes
during the breeding season the species is found on meadow land, it
here seems to prefer the seacoast and, interiorly, the vicinity of large
bodies of water.

Marbled Godwits appear on our coast early in July and remain
until December, but the birds are present in numbers chiefly during
September and October. The earliest record of arrivals from the
north is for Hyperion Beach, Los Angeles County, July 13, 1910
(Willett coll.). The latest fall or early winter records known to the
authors are: Humboldt Bay, December 7, 1885 (Cooke, 1910, p. 51),
Los Baiios, Merced County, December 4, 1911 (Beck, MS), and San
Diego Bay, December 12, 1861 (Mus. Vert. Zool.). Judging from
the paucity of records and from the accounts of various observers
this species is not so abundant in the spring migration as in the fall.
Nordhoff (1902, p. 214) records finding the remains of a bird of this
species at Lake Elsinore, Riverside County, in February, 1902. The
earliest bona fide spring record is for Los Banos, Merced County,
]\[arch 30, 1912 (Beck, MS), and a late spring one is Alamitos Bay,
Los Angeles County, May 20, 1905 (specimen in Richardson coll.).

398 GAME BIEVS OF CALIFORNIA

A bird taken at Los Angeles, June 16, 1875 (Henshaw, 1876, p. 272)
is stated to have been a female in worn breeding plumage, and since
Cooke (1910, p. 51) records eggs taken as early as April 20, it is not
altogether impossible that this was an early southbound migrant.
Birds which are probably non-breeders sometimes summer along our
coast ; records probably of this nature have been made for Santa
Barbara, June 4, 1910 (Torrey, 1910&, p. 204) and June 15, 1911
(Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 9).

From most of the shore birds the Marbled Godwit can be dis-
tinguished by its large size and brownish red or cinnamon coloration ;
from the Hudsonian Curlew by its slightly larger size, straight or
slightly up-curved bill, and reddish rather than brownish coloration ;
and from the Long-billed Curlew by its decidedly smaller size and
much shorter and straight or slightly up-curved bill. The call note
is also distinctive, ditTering markedly from any of the notes of the
Curlews, the latter being much louder and clearer. In mixed flocks
the female Godwits can sometimes be distinguished from the males by
their larger average size.

The ordinary call-note of the Godwit, heard while the bird is in
California, is a single, or repeated, loud squawking ku-uck, scarcely
separated into two syllables ; but on the breeding grounds there is a
more varied repertoire of notes. Bent (1907a, pp. 16-1—165) says:

Its ordinary call-note, when only slightly disturbed, sounds like terwhit,
terwhit, terwhit, or pert-wurrit, peri-wurrit, or godwit, godwit, godwit, from which
its name is probably derived; these notes are all strongly accented on the last
syllable, and are uttered almost constantly while the birds are flying over
their breeding grounds. When considerably alarmed these notes are intensified,
more rapidly given, and with even more emphasis, kerweck, kerivee-eck, or
keerreck, kreck, kreck, kerreck ; sometimes they are prolonged into a loud, long-
drawn out scream quack, qua-a-ack, or quoick, quoi-i-ick, somewhat between the
loudest quacking of an excited duck and the scream of a Ked-shouldered Hawk.
There is also a more musical, whistling note, less often heard, sounding like
the syllables kor-koit, ker-kor-koit, korkoit, the accent being on the kor in each
case; this note seems to indicate a more satisfied frame of mind and is much
more subdued in tone.

Within our borders Marbled Godwits are birds of the open shore,
and are rarely if ever found away from the larger bodies of water.
At all times they are exceedingly wary and difficult of approach.
They frequently associate with other species such as the Western
Willet and Long-billed Curlew, the feeding habits of these three species
being similar. Torrey (1913, pp. 45-46) records seeing Marbled God-
wits and Western Willets in large numbers "in winter" on San
Diego Bay. He says:

... I have seen godwits and willets together lining the grassy edge of
the flats for a long distance, and so densely massed that I mistook them at

MAEBLED GODWIT 399

first for a bonier of some kind of herbage. Thousands there must have been;
and when they rose at my approach, they made something like a cdoud; gray
birds and brown birds so contrasted in color as to be discriminated beyond
risk of error, even when too far away for the staring white wing-patches of
the willets to be longer discernible.

As a flock there was no getting near them; I proved the fact to my dis-
satisfaction more than once; but sitting quietly on the same bay shore I have
repeatedly known a single godwit or willet to feed carelessly past me within
the distance of a rod or two.

Usually taking the precaution to forage at some distance from
human bc;_iiig.s and their habitations the Godwits probe in the mud
exposed by a receding tide. Often they will thus probe in the mud
when it is still covered by a few inches of water, their long bills
and legs making this easily possible. If frightened they take wing and
fly with rather slow and short wing beats, the long bill, neck and legs
giving the body an extremely attenuated appearance, and thus dis-
tinguishing the Godwit fi-om the Curlews both of which appear
chunkier. In flight, as when feeding, they are often seen in the com-
pany of other large shore birds such as the Willet and Curlews, and
are at times accompanied by such smaller species as the Long-billed
Dowitcher. Beck (MS) mentions seeing a Godwit at Los Banos in
company with some Black-necked Stilts.

Mrs. Bailey (lf)16&, pp. 101-102) says of the Marbled Godwits
seen on the beaches of southern California :

Tt was amusing to watch the birds feed. As a wave rolled up, combed
over and broke, the white foam would chase them in, and ... if it came on
too fast, they w'ould pick themselves up, . . . and scoot in. . . . But the
instant the water began to recede they would right about face and trot back
with it. . . . As they went their long bills — in the low afternoon sun strikingly
coral re<l except for the black tip — were shoved ahead of them, feeling along
through the wet sand . . .; and if anything good was discovered deeper [they]
. . . would stop to really probe, sometimes plunging the bill in up to the
hilt, on rare occasions when the tidbit proved out of reach, actually crowding
their heads down into the sand. . . .

One of the long-legged birds would sometimes stop its work and lift up a
foot to scratch its ear, and one that I saw feeding on the edge of a wave
suddenly dropped and went through the motions of sousing itself. . . . While
the Godwits were hunting absorbedly, sometimes the white foam of the next
wave wouhl flow in over their feet and encircle them, and at other times they
would wait until the spray of a breaker was almost on them and have to
scurry for it with open wings. When the tide was so low that the waves broke
far out on the gently sloping shore, the birds hunted in a more leisurely
manner. They often brought up round balls, presumably small crabs or
crustaceans, so big that they had to gulp them down, and when tempting
morsels were seen in their bills neighborly Gulls often gave chase. . . .

When the big brown birds flew they suggested round-shouldered Ibises
except that their bills were not curved. In flight they often made a close
flock calling, queep, queep, queep, queep, queep. . . . They soared down hand-

400 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

soinely . . . and as they alighted held their wings straight over their backs
for a moment, the black shoulder straps showing in strong i-ontrast to the
warm cinnamon [of the wing which makes such a good recognition mark].

The nesting season of the Marbled Godwit begins earlier than
with most shore birds. This is in part probably due to the relatively
low latitudes of its breeding range. Eggs have been taken as early
as April 20, 1878, in Iowa, and young by June 8, 1820, in Nebraska
(Cooke, 1910, p. 51); while Bent (1907o, pp. 162-166), in south-
Avestern Saskatchewan, found nests on May 29, 1905, and downy
young, thought to have been not over a week old, on June 27, 1906.
The nesting season thus extends at least from the middle of April or
early May to the latter part of June.

Tlie region chosen by the Godwits for nesting is one of rolling
or level prairie covered wath short dense grasses and liberally supplied
with small lakes and streams. Here the birds make their nests in the
open, without any attempt at concealment, usually in the near vicinity
of water. The nest is formed by treading down the grasses on the
selected site, and little or no material is carried in from the outside.
A typical nest measures six by seven inches in surface area and about
two inches in depth. The eggs have a ground color of deep or pale
olive, or creamy buff, and are either sparingly marked about the
larger end with superficial spots and small blotches of pale drab or
dark browns and deeper markings of lilac, or else they are heavily
spotted with dark brown and lilac gray (Bent, 1907a, pp. 162-164).

While on the nest the demeanor of the birds is in marked contrast
to their behavior at other times of the year. The}^ sometimes appear
to be quite indifferent to human approach, and one bird studied by
Mr. Bent actually allowed him to raise her from the nest in order
that he might photograph the eggs. When off the nest their behavior
is less peculiar.

Like all of the shore birds, the Marbled Godwit is exceedingly demonstra-
tive on its breeding grounds, flying out to meet the intruder as soon as he
appears, making fully as much fuss at a distance from its nest as near it, and
giving no clue to its exact location. The cries of one pair of birds often attract
others, and I have seen as many as eighteen birds flying about at one time in
an especially favorable locality. It shows no signs of fear at such times, often
alighting on the ground within ten or fifteen yards [of the observer], standing
for an instant with its beautifully marbled wings poised above it. . . . Even
while feeding on the shores of the lakes we could frequently walk up to
within a few yards of them . . . (Bent, 1907«. p. 165).

The downy young Godwits are adepts in tlie art of hiding in the
scantiest kind of cover, and by reason of their streaked and mottled
coloration it is extremely difficult to find them. They develop rapidly
and soon gather into companies. The flocks of adults form as early
as June 27, and shortlj^ afterwards begin to depart southward, even

GEE ATE R YELLOW -LEGS 401

while some of the young birds on the breeding ground are not yet
fully fledged (Bent, 1907a, pp. 166-167).

The food of the Marbled Godwit consists of Crustacea, insects and
their larvae, worms (Goss, 1891, p. 187), leeches (Baird, Brewer and
Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 256), and snails (Beck, MS). Belding states
(MS) "I find its flesh . . . excellent food, much preferable to the
Curlews. " " Other authors agree that the flesh of the Godwit is tender,
juicy, and toothsome. The weight of a specimen was found by the
authors to be one pound, so that the quantity of nourishment in a
single bird is not inconsiderable.

This species was formerly sold in the markets of San Francisco
and Stockton. The limited numbers which occur here during migra-
tion at the present time is probably due in part to market hunting in
previous years, and in part to the appropriation by man, of its breed-
ing range for agriculture. In Canada the Godwit appears now to be
adequately protected, and with such protection as has been afforded
by the close season established under the Federal Migratory Bird
Law in the United States, there is ground for the hope that they
may soon return toward former numbers. When the season is again
opened, the species should be afforded adequate protection by a short
season and small bag-limit in order to retain it among the game assets
of California.

Greater Yellov^-legs

Toianus melanoleucus (Gmelin)

Other names — Tattler; Tell-tale; Tell-tale Tattler; Stone Suipe; Greater
Yellow-shanks; Gambetta melaiiolettca.

Description — Adults, both sexes, in spring and summer: Top and sides of
head and whole neck streaked with black and white, the black in excess above;
a whitish stripe from upper mandible to above eye; eyelids white; chin white,
narrowly flecked with black; bill slaty black, lower mandible slightly brownish
at base; iris dark brown; back and scapulars mixed sooty and ashy brown
with extensive ashy white feather spottings and tippings, giving a conspicu-
ously mottled appearance; rump feathers dull dark brown, each crossed near
end by a narrow blackish band and tipped with white; upper tail coverts
w^hite, most of them barred narrowly with dark brown; tail feathers white or
ashy white, barred with brownish black; outer surface of closed wing like
back; primaries brownish black; shaft of outer primary almost white; margin
and lining of wing, and axillars, white, with irregular brown bars on the
feathers; under surface of flight feathers, dusky, marked in fine pattern with
a paler tint on inner margins; ground color of whole lower surface white;
foreneck and breast streaked with black; lower breast, sides, flanks, and under
tail coverts, with broad irregular bars of brown or brownish black; legs and
feet straw yellow with a greenish tinge; nails black. Adults and immatures,
both sexes, in fall and winter: Top and sides of head and whole neck, dully
streaked with ashy brown and white; stripe from bill to above eye, and eyelids,

402 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA

white; chin white; whole I)a('k ashy brown with dark shafts and whitish feather
ti])pings; rump, upper tail coverts and tail as in summer; outer surface of
closed wing, ashy brown, the feathers having dark shafts and white marginal
spots; under surface white, the throat and upper chest pale ashy, narrowly
streaked with dull brown; a few indistinct cross bars of ashy brown on flank
feathers and outer under tail coverts. Males: Total length 13.65-14.60 inches
(346-371 mm.) (four specimens from California and Georgia) ; folded wing
6.97-7.64 (177-194); bill along culmen 2.00-2.21 (50.8-56.0); tarsus 2.19-2.58
(55.7-65.5) (ten specimens from California). Females: Total length 13.25-
14.50 (336-368) (four specimens from California and Georgia); folded wing
7.37-7.84 (187-199); bill along culmen 2.03-2.28 (51.6-57.8); tarsus 2.32-2.56
(59.0-65.1) (ten specimens from California). JuvenUe plumage: Similar to that
of adults in summer, but upper surface dark brown, with a faint greenish
iridescence, and with much less extensive light markings, thes6 being marginal
only and tinged with buffy; markings on throat, sides, and lower tail coverts,
dull brown. Natal plumage: Not known to us.

Marks for field identification — Medium large size, slender body (espe-
cially noticeable in flight), long slender bill, mottled back (in summer plumage),
white upper tail coverts, and extremely long and slender yellow legs. Dis-
tinguished from Lesser Yellow-legs at a distance only by its large size; in
hand minor plumage differences can be discerned, such as presence of fine pale
marblings on inner surface of flight feathers, and less extensive barring on
under surface of body. Voice unmistakable after once learned.

Voice — A rather penetrating, insistent, yet mellow, whistled series of notes,
all on one pitch, set off in three's and two's: ivJieu-u'heu-ivheu, wheu-iclieu.

Nest — On ground, near a marsh or on the bank of a stream (Eeed, 1904, p.
120); "a slight depression in the ground . . . lined sparsely with grass"
(Elliot, 1895, p. 117).

Eggs — 3 to 4, pear-shape<l, measuring in inches, 1.66 to 1.97 by 1.16 to 1.36
(in millimeters, 42.0 to 50.0 by 29.5 to 34.5), and averaging 1.84 by 1.28 (46.7
by 32.6) (nine eggs, three sets', in U. S. National Museum); color grayish white,
boldly splashed with several shades of brown, and with lilac (Reed, 1904,
p. 120).

General distribution — North and South America. Breeds in northern North
America probably between latitudes 50° and 60°; the only authentic breeding
refeords are said to be from British Columbia as far south as Clinton, and from
Ungava; winters from central California, Texas, Louisiana and Georgia south
to southern end of South America; in migration occurs throughout the inter-
vening area (Cooke, 1910, pp. 54-55).

Distribution in California — Fairly common spring and fall migrant through-
out the state; winter visitant in limited numbers in the San Joaquin and
Imperial valleys, and near the seacoast from the vicinity of Monterey Baj'
southward. Recorded from Lone Pine, east of the Sierras, in December. Late
northward migrants and early southbound birds almost span the summer, but
no breeding records are known.

The Greater Yellow-legs bears an unusually apt name ; for it is the
larger one of two species of shore birds which are both easily recog-
nizable by the yellowish color as well as great length of their legs. On
a marsh or elsewhere in the vicinity of water where other birds are
present, the Yellow-legs, by their shrill notes, appear to give warning

GREATER YELLOW-LEGS 403

when a hunter is espied approaching, and the cries so persistently
uttered are usually sufficient to put the more desirable game on its
guard or even to cause it to take flight. On account of this habit
these two birds are often called Tell-tales or Tattlers, the present
species being known as the Greater Tell-tale. Many a Yellow-legs has
forfeited its life before the barrel of an angry hunter for having given
untimely warning to ducks or other game.

The Greater Yellow-legs is a fairly connnon spring and fall migrant
throughout the state, and also occurs during the winter months in
limited numbers in the San Joaquin and Imperial valleys, and near
the coast from the vicinity of Monterey Bay southward. Individuals,
possibly barren or injured, have been observed in the vicinity of
Los Angeles in June and July, so that the species may be found
within the state during every month of the year. Birds which were
probably migrants from the north were seen near Alvarado, Alameda
County, July 28, 1913 (Grinnell and Bryant, MS) ; Bowles and
Howell (1912, p. 9) state that the species was observed at Santa
Barbara on July 18, 1910, while in 1911 a single bird was noted on
August 29 and the species was not again seen until October 14.
Belding (MS) records the birds at Stockton on February 25, 1879,
and February 24 and 25, 1880. Beck (MS) observed limited num-
bers at Los Baiios, Merced County, almost daily throughout the entire
winter of 1911-1912. E. W. Nelson saw a few small flocks about
ponds near Lone Pine, Inyo County, in December, 1890 (A. K. Fisher,
1893a, p. 23), and Van Rossem (1911, p. 131) states that the species
was common in the grain fields of Imperial Valley, near Salton Sea,
December 1 to 25, 1910. Willett (1912a, pp. 37, 38) states that dur-
ing the winter it is present along the coast of southern California as
far north as Santa Barbara. Beck (MS) observed two individuals
along a slough near Moss Landing, Monterey County, January 27,
1911.

The northward migration probably begins about the second week
in March, as Beck (MS) records their numbers as increasing at Los
Baiios about this time, and Belding (MS) states that it was first
seen in the spring at Gridley, Butte County, on March 14, 1893.
April probabl}^ marks the height of the migration season, as the bulk
of the spring records occur during that month. By the middle or
latter part of May most of the birds have left for the north ; for
instance, Belding (MS) states that the species was observed at Stock-
ton up to May 23, 1878, while at Santa Barbara, Bowles and Howell
(1912, p. 9) saw birds up to May 16, 1910. The species was seen at
Nigger Slough, Los Angeles County, June 19, 1897, by G. F. Morcom,
and it has been observed during July in the same vicinity by H. S.
Swarth (Grinnell, 1898, p. 17).

404

GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

The case of the Greater Yellow-legs at Los Bafios, Merced County,
may be cited as an example of the value of continuous, recorded obser-
vations in one locality. R. H. Beck collected for the California
JMuseum of Vertebrate Zoology at this locality during the winter of
1911-1912, and to judge the status of this species from the specimens
secured would give a quite different idea from that obtained by an
examination of his field notes. The following table, compiled from
Beck's notebook has added to it memoranda of specimens taken and
now in the Museum :

1912
several
several

about two dozen; one taken
three or four seen
several; five taken
several; one taken
not rare
one taken
not rare
one taken

four or five; one taken
one flock of 22;' others seen;

seven taken
common; one flock of two
dozen; usually one or two
at a time along some
water; five taken
one taken

eight and several single birds
two or three; one taken
two dozen or so; one taken
six taken
few seen; one taken

1911

Nov.

several

Mar.

Nov.

heard and seen

Mar.

Nov.

four seen

Mar.

Dec.

four seen

Mar.

Dec.

seen; two taken

Mar,

,30

Dec.

several; one taken

Apr.

Dec.

several; one taken

Apr.

Dec.

several

Apr.

Dec.

three or four

Apr.

Dec.

several

Apr.

Dec.

a few singly or in threes

and

Apr.

fours; one taken

Apr.

1912
Jan. 2 two dozen or so; one taken
Jan. 3 few
Jan. 15 several
Jan. 24 three or four
Feb. 15 several
Feb. 23 two or three taken
Mar. 4 six or eight; one taken
Mar. 6 a half dozen seen
Mar. 11 twelve or more

Apr. 15

Apr.

Probably more dates would have been recorded in the above table
had Mr. Beck spent a part of every day in the field ; but a goodly
portion of liis time was spent in the preparation of specimens so that
sometimes several days would elapse without any extensive observa-
tions in the field. The value of such observations as the above, becomes
evident when it is recalled that the information previously on record
in published literature was inadequate to establish this bird as a
regular winter visitant within the state.

The Greater Yellow-legs is to be distinguished from other waders
by its moderately large size, general appearance of slenderness, espe-
cially in flight, slender straight bill, mottled upper surface, white
upper tail coverts which give the effect of a white rump patch, and
especially by its long, slender, yellow legs. From its nearest relative,
the Lesser Yellow-legs, it is to be distinguished on the basis of size,

GBEATER YELLOW-LEGS 405

but in many cases sight identification is not to be depended upon at
a distance. In hand, size is absolutely diagnostic, and in addition
the fine pattern of paler color on inner surface of flight feathers,
more extensive area of markings below, and lighter, mixed pattern on
top of head, are noticeable. From the Black-necked Stilt it is dis-
tinguishable by the mottled pattern of the back, by the presence of
streaking on the throat, and the absence of areas of unmixed black and
white; from the Hudsonian Curlew by its smaller size, shorter and
slenderer, straight bill, and less brown coloration; from the Western
Willet by its smaller size and by the absence of contrasted patches of
black and white on the wing ; and from the Wandering Tattler by its
slightly larger size, conspicuous pattern of markings on the upper
surface, and white upper tail coverts.

The voice of the Greater Yellow-legs has been variously described ;
when heard at a distance, a soft musical " ivlieu, ivheu-wlieu-wheu-
wheu, when, tvkcu-wheu" (Chapman, 1912, p. 256) ; nearer by, a
sharper whistle of the same syllables uttered three at a time, and
again "a clear, musical tu-weep, very different from the alarm cry"
(Reed, 1912, p. 37). To our ears the ordinary notes possess a rather
penetrating, insistent, yet mellow (luality, and they are given in
separated series, as just indicated.

The Greater Yellow-legs inhabits the shores of inland ponds and
fresh or salt marshes, rarely the open seabeach ; in any of these habitats
it is to be found wading about in the water often to the full length
of its long legs in search of food. At times it will immerse its head
in order to reach the bottom of the pond in which it is feeding. When
moving about, the carriage of its body is graceful, yet there is a
certain jerkiness or halting element in the gait, this perhaps being
due to its excessively^ long legs.

Greater Yellow-legs are found singly, in pairs, or, less commonly,
in flocks of half a dozen or so; larger groups sometimes occur. In
the latter case we have not noted the harmony of movement among the
constituent individuals so conspicuous in many waders. At times
solitary individuals attach themselves to flocks of other waders, such
as of the Long-billed Dowitcher. Sometimes these birds will permit
close approach, but not often, a long continued persecution having
taught the lucky survivors of their kind that man is to be avoided.
Dawson (1909, pp. 668-669) relates his experience with one of these
birds, which was so confiding as to wade about in a pool at his very
feet ; but this is to be considered exceptional. Usually the birds take
wing when one is yet a long distance off, and give voice to their shrill
notes of alarm which serve as effective warning to all other inhabitants
of the locality.

In ordinary flight the wing beats are rather slow, but steady, and

406 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

the bird usually moves in a direct line, although in one case it was
seen to dip and dart erratically when flushed from the banks of a salt
water pond. Often, as the hunter is standing on the marsh or seated
in a blind, the call-notes of a company of this species high in the air
will reach his ear long before the birds themselves become visible. They
sweep down with set wings, usually circling one or more times about
the spot on which they have chosen to alight, as if to make sure that
no danger lurks there. Then they settle down, and as soon as their
long legs have touched the ground their wings are extended full-
length above their backs and then deliberately folded. If the flock
which thus alights is of any size the individuals composing it spread
out over the marsh upon alighting and often mingle with the other
shore birds found there. Also when alighting over decoys they spread
out, and this trait saves them from slaughter such as is dealt to
species that bunch together. When on the ground and not feeding,
they stand motionless save for a rather impressive "upward bow"
at long intervals. This species is easily decoyed by imitating its
whistle, and the birds may be called from a considerable distance in
this way. Even after a flock has been fired at as it flies by, or as it
starts to settle among decoys, it will return in response to the cries
of its wounded companions or to another whistle by the hunter, and
it seemingly does not learn to avoid the danger until it has been fired
upon several times. Thus does community interest or sympathy over-
come the native wariness of individuals.

Authentic instances of the nesting of the Greater Yellow-legs are
still few in number although it is surmised that the breeding range
covers a large territory, approximating that portion of North America
between latitudes 50° and 60°, and from British Columbia or even
southeastern Alaska to Ungava. This is not an Arctic species; it
does not range north as far as the limit of timber. Several breeding
instances have been established for British Columbia, notably at Fort
George, May 20, 1890, and Fort St. James, May 31, 1889 (Cooke, 1910,
p. 55) ; and Rhoads (1893, p. 36) found young at Clinton, in the same
territory; while Brooks (1903, p. 281) records finding young in the
Cariboo district by June 15. Reed (1904, p. 120) records eggs from
Whale River, Ungava, taken June 10, 1902; "the eggs are generally
laid on the ground, near a marsh or on the bank of a stream. Avith little
or no lining to the nest. They are grayish wliite, lioldly splashed
with several shades of brown, and with lilac."

During the breeding season "... both sexes stand sentinel on
the tops of trees in the vicinity of the nest, rarely alighting on the
ground during the presence of an intruder. The neAvly fledged young
often follow the exain})le of their parents in this respect. From this
elevated position the male keeps up an incessant clamor throughout

GREATEE YELLOW-LEGS 407

the day. One series of notes, uttered only during periods of fancied
security, is peculiar and unquestionably a love song" (Rhoads, 1893,
p. 36). The habit of the male of watching from the top of a tall tree,
and the disinclination of the other bird to alight in the presence of an
intruder, make it extremely difficult and in many instances impossible
to find the nest.

Swarth (1911, p. 53) states that on a wooded island in southeastern
Alaska in late April he saw males of this species "going through
various courting antics, posing with upraised quivering wings, or
running in circles on the sand bars, around the objects of their atten-
tion, and incessantly uttering the shrill whistle peculiar to the
species."

The food of the Greater Yellow-legs so far as known consists of
insects and their larvae, snails, crustaceans, worms and small fish.
Beck (MS) at Los Baiios, found beetles and crickets, respectively,
in two stomachs examined, and noted further that in that locality the
birds fed principally on ground where the water was fresh. A bird
taken on a marsh near Santa Barbara, August 29, 1911, was "cram-
med to the bill with minnows about one inch long" (Howell, MS).

In the fall Yellow-legs become quite fat and are esteemed a delicacy
by some persons, while others rate them at all times as second class
and much inferior to such birds as the Wilson Snipe. Undoubtedly,
as Eaton (1910, p. 324) points out, the flavor of the flesh of any
particular individual is probably determined by the nature of its food
for some time previous ; birds which have been feeding inland on
insects and worms are likely to be of better flavor than those which
have been living along the seacoast and enjoying a diet of salt water
animal life.

There is no direct evidence to show that the numbers of Greater
Yellow-legs occurring in California have been noticeably reduced of
recent years ; but considering that elsewhere they have helped fill the
bag of the market hunter along with other shore birds, and that in
previous years, and indeed even until within comparatively recent
times, shore birds were sold in the markets of our California cities, it
is reasonable to suppose that some diminution in numbers has occur-
red. Its rather solitary habits, as contrasted with close-flocking
species, prevent wholesale destruction. The noisy nature of this
species may also have proven an important factor in its conservation
and also in saving the other wading birds which frequent our shores
at the same seasons. Because of this last fact, and also because it
is esteemed a table delicacy by some, the Greater Yellow-legs should
be so treated that its numbers may be maintained from year to year
and possibly augmented, thus serving good economic purpose.

408 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA

Lesser Yellow-legs

Totanus fiavipes (Gmelin)

Other names — Yellow-legs; Sunimei- Yellow-legs; Little Yellow-legs; Yellow-
shanks Tattler; Gambetta fiavipes.

Description — Adults, both sexes, m spring and summer: Top and sides of
head and whole neck streaked with black and white, the black in excess on top
of head; stripe from upper mandible to above eye whitish; eyelids white; chin
and throat white, or but narrowly flecked with black; bill black, lower mandible
slightly brownish at base; iris dark brown; back and scapulars mixed sooty
and ashy brown, with extensive ashy white feather spottings and tippings,
giving a mottled appearance; rump feathers dull dark brown, each crossed
by a narrow blackish band near the end and tipped with white; upper tail
coverts white, mostly barred with dark brown; tail feathers white or ashy
white, barred with brownish black; outer surface of closed wing like back;
primaries brownish black; shaft of outer primary nearly white; margin and
lining of wing, and axillars, white, with irregular brown bars on the feathers;
under surface of flight feathers, dusky, unmarked; ground color of whole
lower surface white; foreneck and breast streaked with dark brown or black-
ish; lower breast, sides, flanks, and under tail coverts with sparse irregular
bars of brown or brownish black; legs and feet yellow, nails black. Adults,
both sexes, in fall and winter: Top and sides of head, and whole neck, dully
streaked with ashy brown and white; stripe from bill to above eye, and eye-
lids, white; chin white; whole back ashy brown, with dark shafts and whitish
feather tippings; rump, upper tail coverts and tail as in summer; outer sur-
face of closed wing, ashy brown, the feathers with dark shafts and white
marginal spots; under surface white, the throat and upper chest pale ashy,
faintly streaked with dull brown; a few indistinct bars of ashy brown on
flank feathers and outer under tail coverts (modified from various authors;
specimens in winter plumage not seen). Males: Total length 10.50 inches (266
mm.) (one specimen); folded wing 5.80-6.18 (147-157); bill along culmen 1.34-
1.49 (34.0-37.8); tarsus 1.94-2.12 (49.3-53.8) (six specimens). Females: Total
length 10.75 (273) (one specimen); folded wing 5.95-6.50 (151-165); bill along
culmen 1.30-1.51 (33.0-38.3); tarsus 2.00-2.13 (50.8-54.0) (five specimens);
all from Alaska. Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adults in summer, but
upper surface lighter in tone, the feathers with buff marginal spots; streaking
on the throat and upper breast, duller, and on a pale drab ground; rest of
lower surface pure white. Natal plumage: "Upper parts and thighs, seal-
brown; many of the feathers tipped with cream-buff; forehead, sides of head
and streaks on rump, buffy white; lines on forehead, and from bill through
eye to nape, seal -brown; throat and abdomen white; rest of lower parts, buffy
white" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, pp. 412-413).

Marks for field identification — Moderate size, slenderness of body especially
noticeable in flight, long slender bill, mottled back (in summer plumage),
white upper tail coverts, and extremely long and slender yellow legs. Dis-
tinguished from Greater Yellow-legs under favorable circumstances on the
basis of size, being about one-half the biilk of that species. In the hand,
dimensions are diagnostic; also the Lesser lacks the fine pattern of markings
on inner surface of flight feathers, aiul tlic markings on lower surface of body
are less extensive.

Voice — Eesembles that of the Greater Yellow-legs, but clearer and not so

LESSEE YELLOW -LEGS 409

loud; "coninionly following the formula, when, u-heu-icheu-u-heii-wlicu, icheu-
when, ivheu" (Eaton, 1910, p. 326).

Nest — Usually located on dry ground, but at times in the vicinity of a
marsh; a depression in the surface, sometimes at the base of a clump of grass
or under a bush, and, if lined at all, merely with a few withered leaves or
grasses (authors).

Eggs — Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.58 to 1.77 by 1.10 to
1.18 (in millimeters, 40.0 to 45.0 by 28.0 to 30.0), and averaging 1.65 by 1.14
(42.0 by 29.0) (twenty-seven eggs in U. S. National Museum); groundcolor
light drab, clay or light brown; superficial markings of chocolate, umber-brown,
and blackish, and deeper ones of gray; markings most numerous about the
larger end (Davie, 1889, p. 121).

General distribution — North and South America. Breeds chiefly in British
America: north to southern Ungava, central Keewatin and nearly to the Arctic
coast of Mackenzie, and to the Kotzebue Sound district of Alaska, and south
probably to southern Alberta, southern Saskatchewan and northern Quebec.
Winters in southern half of South America and sparingly northward as far as
coast of southeastern United States. Occurs over the intervening area dur-
ing migration (Cooke, 1910, pp. 56, 57).

DiSTRiBT'TiON IN CALIFORNIA — Rare Spring and fall migrant. The only pub-
lished records known to the authors are specified in the general account following.

The Lesser, or Summer Yellow-legs, as the species is commonly
known in the eastern United States, appears to be a rare migrant
within our borders; there are but nine recorded occurrences of the
bird in California. These are as follows: Gridley, Butte County,
April 20, 1896, one shot and another seen (Beldihg, MS) ; Stockton,
San Joaquin County, September 13, 1878, one specimen (Belding,
1879, p. 441); Agua Caliente [=Palm Springs], Riverside County,
March 25, 1884, one seen by F. Stephens (Belding, MS) ; San Diego,
specimen taken about 1880 "in possession of J. C. Parker" (Belding,
MS) ; Shasta Valley, Siskiyou County, one "heard" September 19,
1898 (C. H. Merriam, 1899, p. 110); Rhett [=Tule] Lake, Modoc
County, "abundant" (Newberry, 1857, p. 98) ; Humboldt Bay "fre-
quent" (C. H. Townsend, 1887, p. 198) ; and Santa Barbara, August
30, to about September 12, 1912, five individuals seen repeatedly on
Estero (Dawson, 1912, p. 224), and August 16 to 30, 1913, eleven
individuals seen on Estero (Dawson, 19136, pp. 204-205). Heller
(1901, p. 100) reported the species as having been observed twice
at River.^ide during the fall migration, but some doubt has been cast
upon the correctness of the identification in this last case (Willett,
1912a, p. 111).

So much does the Lesser Yellow-legs resemble its closest relative,
the Greater Yellow-legs, that save for size an account of the one
might suffice for the other. Practically the same criteria are to be
used in field identification, namely, general appearance of slenderness,
slender bill, the mottled back (in spring), white upper tail coverts,

410 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBXIA

aud extremely long and slender yellow legs. The present species is
about one-half the bulk of the Greater Yellow-legs. Close examination
discloses slight plumage differences : Absence of paler markings on
under surface of flight feathers, greater extent of unmarked white
areas beneath, and darker top of head. From the Pectoral and Soli-
tary sandpipers, the Lesser Yellow-legs may be distinguished by the
slightly longer bill, by the much longer bright yellow legs, and by
the white upper tail coverts. From the smaller plovers, sandpipers,
and the phalaropes, it may be distinguished by the extremely long
and slender yellow legs, and, in many cases, by the absence of a white
band on the wing.

The call-notes of the Lesser Yellow-legs are said to be similar
to those of the Greater but clearer and not so loud, though longer con-
tinued. Eaton (1910, p. 326) represents the usual call as follows:
" ivheu, wheu-wheu-ivheu-wheu, ivheu-wheu, wheu."

This species is an inhabitant of mud flats, sand bars and marshes,
in both fresh and salt water situations, where it wades about and
probes for, or gleans from the surface, the materials which comprise
its food. It is extremely wary and flies up at the distant approach of
any intruder, giving voice to its alarm in a tone that all inhabitants
of the marsh can hear and heed. This habit, which is shared with its
larger relative, has earned for it the name of Lesser Tell-tale or Lesser
Tattler, as applied by hunters when they are desirous of securing
finer game such as ducks or snipe. If wounded in the wing so that
flight is impossible the birds are able to run very fast and can make
their escape by running and hiding in grass or other marsh growths
(Baird, Brewer and Kidgway, 1884, I, p. 276).

Dawson (1913&;, pp. 204-205) records his experience in photo-
graphing some Lesser Yellow-legs near Santa Barbara in August,
1913, in part as follows: On August 16, ". . . there were eleven of
the Lesser Yellow-legs present on our Estero, and they were to be
found in varying numbers for about two weeks thereafter. They
proved to be rather timorous on all occasions but especially so when
incited to flight by the Killdeers, which were always bossing them
about. In moving to and fro across tlie Estero they usually paid little
attention to their own kind and were as ready to join a bevy of
Long-billed Dowitchers or Northern Phalaropes or the solitary Greater
Yellow-legs ... as to hunt up their proper fellows."

The breeding season, in the northern summer home of the species,
extends throughout the month of June according to Cooke (1910, p.
58), eggs having been taken in Yukon and Mackenzie on June 1, 15,
16 and 20, and downy young on July 1.

The nest is a simple affair, usually a mere depression in the sur-
face of the ground, sometimes lined with dried leaves or grasses and

WESTEBN SOLITARY SANDPIPER 411

occasionally placed where it will receive the protection of a small
bush or clump of grass. It is placed either in a rather dry situation
or near or in a marsh in the vicinity of water (Baird, Brewer and
Ridgwfiv, 1884, I, p. 277).

The eggs are usually four, j^ear-shaped, and measure in inches,
1.65 by 1.14. The ground-color ranges from clay, buff or cream color
through light drab to light brown. The superficial markings are bold
and heavy, consisting of chocolate, umber-brown and blackish and are
distributed chiefly about the larger end of the egg. The grayish
deeper markings are also numerous and noticeable (Davie, 1889, pp.
120-121).

In the Kowak Valley of northern Alaska, Grinnell (1900, p. 26)
observed the arrival of this species May 19, 1899. ". . . As one
approached their domains the Yellow-legs would fly to meet him,
uttering prolonged, monotonous cries. Besides these notes of alarm
the males had a full, melodious warble, sung for minutes at a time
as they flew slowly about overhead. Their favorite haunts appeared
to be the meadows lying between strips of timber, especially if there
was a shallow lake or pond in the vicinity."

Males often perch in trees during the nesting season, as do "Wilson
Snipe and Greater Yellow-legs. After the young are hatched both
parents wall pass from tree to tree until they are several hundred
yards from the nest, in their efforts to lead away an intruder. "The
young, even when just hatched, run and hide in the short grass, so as
to make it difficult to find them, the parents, in the meanwhile, flying
and screaming in the air above" (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, loc.
cit.).

The food of the Lesser Yellow-legs consists of insects, Crustacea,
small mollusks, worms, and small fish. Its flesh is considered to be of
second class among the shore birds, not ranking with that of the Wil-
son Snipe or Knot as regards flavor. From the limited numbers
occurring in California during the many years in which ornithological
work has been carried on, it may be inferred that the species never
has been and never will be an important game bird within the state.

Western Solitary Sandpiper
Helodromas solitarius cinnamomeus (Brewster)

Other names — Solitary Tattler; Totanus solitarius; Totanus solitarius cinna-
momeus; BhyacopMlus solitarius.

Description — Adults, both sexes, at all seasons: Top of head and hind ner-k
dark brown, with sparse streaking of white; sides of head and neck, white,
thickly but narrowly streaked with dark brown; eyelids white; chin white;
bill "greenish black"; iris "brown" (Audubon, 1842, V, p. .312, for the east-

412 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOBNIA

ern subspecies) ; back, rump and central upper tail coverts, dark olive brown,
with small spots of buffy or white on margins of feathers; outer upper tail
coverts sharply barred with brownish black and white; middle pair of tail
feathers, olive brown, outer ones strikingly barred with blackish brown and
white; outer surface of closed wing like back; primaries brownish black;
lining of wing and axillars barred blackish brown and white; under surface of
flight feathers dusky brown, that of first primary towards basal and inner
edge finely marbled with white; throat and breast, white, narrowly streaked
with dark brown; sides brownish, irregularly flecked with white; flanks and
under tail coverts sparsely barred with brown on a white ground; rest of
under surface white; feet "greenish-gray," claws "brownish-black" (Audu-
bon, loc. cit.). Males: Total length 8.50-9.06 inches (216-230 mm.) (three
specimens from California); folded wing 5.06-5.48 (128.3-139.0); bill along
culmen 1.15-1.26 (29.2-32.0); tarsus 1.23-1.35 (31.3-34.3) (ten specimens from
California and Alaska). Females: Total length 8.48-8.87 (215.5-225) (three
specimens from California); folded wing 5.17-5.50 (131.3-139.5); bill along
culmen 1.11-1.34 (28.3-33.9); tarsus 1.23-1.37 (31.2-34.8) (ten specimens from
California and Alaska). Juvenile plumage: Like that of adults but with upper
surface warmer brown, sj^otting pale buffy or cinnamon, and streaked pattern
on lower surface more diffuse. Natal plumage: Stripes from bill over top of
head, from bill to eye, over eye to above ear and patch on ear region, black;
ground color of top of head pinkish brown; cheeks and chin whitish; line below
eye pinkish brown; bill dusky, pale at base of lower mandible; back of head,
whole back and wings mixed pinkish brown and black in large pattern; under
surface white; legs and feet (dried) brown.

Marks for field identification — Moderately small size, very slender bill,
conspicuously barred outer tail feathers, general brownish coloration above, and
absence of any light bar on wing. Distinguished from Spotted Sandpiper by
larger size, heavily barred outer tail feathers, absence of white bar on wing,
absence of rounded dark spots on clear white under surface, presence of brown
streaked or washed area on throat and breast, and habit of frequently raising
wings vertically above back.

Voice — A few sharp peeps; on breeding grounds a weak flight song, some-
what resembling the call of the Sparrow Hawk (Grinnell, 1900, p. 26).

Nest — In trees, the birds using the abandoned nests of other birds.

Eggs — 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.37 to 1.44 by 1.01 to 1.06 (in
millimeters, 34.7 to 36.5 by 25.7 to 26.8), and averaging 1.41 by 1.04 (35.8 by
26.3) ; ground-color almost white, but with an extremely light yellowish glaucous
tinge; superficial markings of warm sepia and verona brown, deeper ones light
mouse gray and quaker drab; the spots have a spiral trend and are most
numerous about larger ends of eggs (one set, four eggs, in U. S. National
Museum).

General distribution — Western North America and probably South America.
Breeding range not definitely known; occurs in summer from Kotzebue Sound
east to Great Slave Lake and south to Washington and Colorado, but probably
breeds wholly north of the United States. Winter home of the eastern and
western subspecies supposed to be on common ground in South America (Cooke,
1910, pp. 58, 59).

Distribution in California — Fairly common spring and fall migrant through-
out that portion of the state which is south of the latitude of Tehachapi;
much rarer in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley. Seacoast records appear
to be exceptional. Not recorded from the coast region north of Santa Barbara.

WESTS EN SOLITAEY SAXDPIPEE 413

The Western Solitary Sandpiper, or Solitary Tattler as it is
sometimes called, is not as abundant in California as are most of the
gregarious species of shore birds nor does it seem to be as numerous
here as in some other places in North America. The two subspecies
of the Solitary Sandpiper, the Eastern and Western, are extremely
similar in appearance, and as a consequence the ranges of the two are
not yet clearly defined. Only the Western is supposed to occur west
of the longitude of Colorado.

One marked feature of the occurrence of this species in California
is the great number of records from southern California south of the
latitude of Tehachapi Pass, there being more than twice as many from
that region as from all the rest of the state. The earliest spring
record for California is from Santa Cruz Island, ]\Iarch 17 or 18,
1886 (Streator, 1888, p. 53). Tlie bulk of the migration occurs dur-
ing April, especially in the latter part, and by the third week in May
the birds have all pa.ssed north, the latest sjn'ing record being from
Los Angeles. :\ray U, 1898 (Willett, 19V2a. p. 38). The southbound
migration sets in during late July, as birds were ob.served at Santa
Barbara on July 22, 1910 (Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 9). August
seems to mark the height of the fall migration, over half of the records
within the state having been made during that month. The species
disappears from the state during the latter part of September, the
latest record being for Los Angeles, September 22, 1898 (Willett,
loc. cit.). Thus it will be seen that the Solitary Sandpiper is in Cali-
fornia strictly a through migrant, tarrying but briefly. There are
no definite records of its occurrence here during the winter months
or during early summer.

While not strictly solitary, as its name would indicate, this species
is never found in large flocks. It usually occurs singly or in pairs,
but in the fall after the young are on the wing, as many as half a
dozen- may be found together, probably all members of the same
family. The species also differs from many of the other shore birds
in frequenting inland habitats almost exclusively, rarely if ever being
found about salt water. From observation at Santa Barbara, Bowles
and Howell (1912, p. 9) concluded that "the Solitary Sandpiper,
more than any other shore bird, is inclined to restrict itself to the
grassy mud flats and wet meadows"; none were ever seen on the sea-
beach or open flats. As reported by other observers, the birds prefer
the shores of inland lakes, or sand bars along streams especially where
there is good cover in the form of dense brush along the banks. Only
when the water about their favorite secluded retreats is low, as dur-
ing the late summer and early fall, do they seek more open forage
grounds.

414 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

From the Spotted Sandpiper, which the Solitary Sandpiper most
closely resembles in choice of surroundings, the latter species may
be distinguished by the fact that it is about one-third larger in size,
that it possesses more sharply barred outer tail feathers and a brown
streaked area on the throat, and that it has no rounded dark spots
on its white under surface, and no white wing bar. Its very slender
bill, the brown, unstreaked back, the lack of a white bar on the wing,
and the distinct barring on the outer tail feathers, in combination will
serve to distinguish this species from such birds as the Pectoral, Baird
and Red-backed sandpipers. From all the plovers the Solitary Sand-
piper may be distinguished at once by the slender bill.

The following three paragraphs relating to certain mannerisms of
the Solitary Sandpiper show some differences of interpretation on the
part of the observers, but in the main supplement one another so as to
give the reader a correct general conception of the bird.

These birds . . . wade about in the mud and water, chasing with open
wings, or probing for, and feeding upon the minute mollusks, worms and
various forms of aquatic insect life that abound in such places. They have a
peculiar way of balancing the body, by bending the knees, jerking the tail,
and bowing the head, much like the Spotted Sandpiper, but in a slower and
more dignified manner. . . . Notwithstanding they are tattlers by name, [they]
differ from the family by being usually silent, seldom uttering their low,
whistling notes except when startled or about to take wing. ... As a rule
the birds are not shy, and, when followed, run in an unconcerned manner along
the shore, or by short flights keep a little ahead, or return to the starting
point by circling back close to or over the water (Goss, 1891, p. 193, referring
probably to the eastern subspecies).

When flushed it usually flies with unexpected swiftness, rises at a sharp
angle to a height of several hundred feet, and then flies wildly for a moment
or two, and often returns and alights near the place from which it started.
Almost invariably it utters a sharp whistle of three or four notes as it rises,
not particularly loud, but high-pitched, penetrating, and very characteristic.
While feeding it runs about and bobs its head and tail somewhat like a
[Spotted Sandpiper] . . . , but the movements are much more abrupt and
jerky, and there is far less of the graceful swinging motion so prettily shown
by that bird. Often when standing quietly otherwise it will jerk its head
and body stiffly upward and back again, precisely as if moved by a hic-cough
(Barrows, 1912, pp. 194-195, writing of the eastern subspecies).

In the fall, on its return from the north, it has a habit of wading into
the water in stagnant ditches or ponds, where it advances one foot at a time,
and by rapidly moving the forward foot stirs up the vegetation at the bottom
ever so slightly. This motion is so swift and delicate that the leg seems to
be merely trembling, as if the bird were chilled by contact with the water,
but it is done with intent to disturb insects among the algae at the bottom
without roiling the water, and the eager bird, leaning forward, plunges in its
bill and head, sometimes to the eyes, and catches the alarmed water insects
as they dart away. I have watched this carefully with a glass while lying
in the grass only ten or twelve feet from the bird. It is easy by stirring
the bottom slightly with a stick to cause a similar movement of the water

WESTEEX SOLITARY SANDPIPER 415

inserts, but I never couM agitate it so delicately as to avoi<l clouding the water
with sediment from the bottom (Forbush, 1912, p. 308, relating to the eastern
subspecies).

OftfH when oiw of these birds alights it will raise its wings to
their fullest extent above its back, displaying the beautifully barred
pattern of the lining of the wing and axillars. ' ' This species, and the
Spotted Sandpiper also, will sometimes dive and swim under water
when wounded, using the wings as propellers in the same manner as
do the ducks" (Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 9) ; and in the East the
species has been seen to swim for some distance on the surface when
it had waded beyond its depth.

The western raee of the Solitary Sandpiper is believed to breed
chiefly in Alaska. In the Kowak Valley, in the northern part of this
Territory, Grinnell (1900, p. 26) noted the arrival of the species on
the 18th of May, 1899. It soon after became common, haunting in
pairs the margins of secluded ponds surrounded by dense spruce
woods. In such places one of a pair would usually be seen perched
quietly at the top of a small tree or fallen branch near the pond,
while the other bird foraged through the grass at the edge of the
water. If alarmed, the birds would take short flights, giving utter-
ance to a few sharp preps. The song-flight usually occurred during
the early morning hours. Tliis consisted of a slow, circuitous flight
on rapidly beating wings, high over the tree-tops, accompanied by
frequent repetition of a weak song somewhat resembling the call of a
Sparrow Hawk. At the close of this song-flight the performer, pre-
sumably the male, would alight as if exhausted, and perch silently for
some time at the top of the tallest spruce in the vicinity. Meanwhile
the other bird would continue feeding as before, to all appearances
entirely unmindful of the ecstatic efforts of its mate. Examination
of various old nests in trees, such as those of the Varied Thrush, in the
attempt to locate eggs or young proved fruitless, though the actions
of the sandpipers indicated beyond doubt that nesting was in progress.

We know of but one authentic set of eggs of the Western Solitary
Sandpiper. In the United States National Museum there is a set
(no. 33209) of four eggs from northern Alberta, Canada, taken May
30, 1911, by "E. T. for E. Arnold." The four eggs, which w^ere fresh,
were taken from a nest "placed in the crotch of a small spruce tree
in a large swamp." They are pear-shaped and measure in inches,
1.37 to 1.44 by 1.01 to 1.06 and average 1.41 by 1.04. In color they
appear to be unique among the eggs of North American shore birds.
The ground-color is almost white but has an extremely light yellowish
glaucous tinge. The superficial spots are warm sepia and verona
brown and the deeper ones light mouse gray and quaker drab. The

416 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

markings all have a spiral trend and are more numerous about the
larger ends of the eggs.

The Solitary Sandpiper (one or the other or both subspecies) feeds
on worms, aquatic insects and their larvae, beetles, grasshoppers, cater-
pillars, spiders, and small mollusks (Forbush, 1912, p. 308; and au-
thors). Its general diet of fresh-water insect life commends the species
to man's favor. Its small numbers, in California at least, bar it from
serious pursuit as a game species. Furthermore, it migrates through
the state chiefl}^, if not entirely, during the closed season. Interest in
it lies rightly with the naturalist rather than with the sportsman.

Western Willet

Catoptrophonts semipalmatus inoynatus (Brewster)

Other names — Willet; Candlestick Plover; Catoptrophorus semipaJmatus ;
Symphemia semipalinata i)wrnata; Symphemia semipahnata ; Totanus semipal-
matufi ; Symphemia semipahnata speculifcra.

Descrfption — Adults, hotli sexes, in spring and early summer: Top aud sides
of head blackish brown, streaked with whitish; cheeks and spot in front of eye
lightest in effect; eyelids white; chin white, sparingly flecked with dark
brown; iris dark brown; bill slaty black, changing to gray at base; hind neck
narrowly streaked with dark brown and ashy; back chiefly black with a faint
bronzy sheen, and mottled with pale buffy or dull white (many worn ashy
brown feathers of the winter plumage usually remain); rump grayish brown;
upper tail coverts and bases of tail feathers whitish, with narrow bars or flecks
of brownish black; tail feathers pale drab brown, outer ones palest; outer
surface of closed wing (coverts only) drab brown or gray; terminal third of
primaries and all of primary coverts, black; basal two-thirds of primaries and
most of secondaries, white; tertials like back; margin of wing mottled brownish
black and white; lining of wing and axillars deep blackish brown, many of
the feathers narrowly tipped with whitish; under surfaces of primaries and
secondaries like outer surfaces of same; lower surface, except belly, suffused
with buflfy; throat streaked, and breast, sides and lower tail coverts irregularly
barred, with brown; belly white; legs and feet light olive gray. Adults and
immatures, both sexes, in winter: Upper surface uniform grayish brown; a light
spot in front of eye; eyelids and chin white; tail coverts, tail, aud wing, as
in summer adults; side of head grayish brown streaked with dark brown;
whole neck, breast and sides grayish brown and continuous in tone with color
of upper surface, but gradually fading to white on belly; flanks and under
tail coverts, sparingly flecked with pale grayish brown. Males: Total length
14.90-15.75 inches (378-400 mm.) (two specimens) ; folded wing 8.0.3-8.35 (204-
212); bill along culmen 2.23-2.54 (56.6-64.4); tarsus 2.52-2.84 (64.2-72.1) (four
specimens). Females: Total length 15.00-16.25 (381-413) (five specimens);
folded wing 8.15-8.55 (207-217); bill along culmen 2.27-2.50 (57.7-63.4); tarsus
2.29-2.80 (58.2-71.1) (five specimens); all adults and full-grown immatures
from California. Juvenile plumage: Like that of adults in winter, but upper
surface lacking ashy tinge, it being brownish with buflfy and blackish feather-
edgings and blackish shaft streaks; under surface of body white, slightly

WESTEEN WILLET

417

suffused with buff on neck, breast and sides, where also finely spotted with
pale brown. Notal plumage: Top of head and whole back mixed buffy white
and clove brown in fine pattern, the latter color predominating; forehead and
sides of head buffy white; stripe down middle of forehead dusky; bold stripe
from bill to eye, and a narrower one behind eye, clove brown; lower surface
of body dull white, with a faint band of dusky across upper chest.

Marks for field identification — Large size, straight bill, and gray general
appearance; strikingly contrasted white band set in black, displayed on wing
when spread (fig. 72); white "rump patch" (tipper tail coverts and bases of
tail feathers). The shrill cry is distinctive.

Voice — A shrill, high-pitched ke-lee-er ; or piU-will-wiUet, or piU-wUl-tcilly.

Fig. 72. Outer surface of spread wing of Western
Willet, showing color patches.

About two-fifths natural size.

Nest — On ground, usually in grass and in the vicinitj-^ of water; a slight
depression in the surface sparingly lined with grasses, or a well constructed
affair of grasses and other available material, even several inches in height
(various authors).

Eggs — 3 to 4, bluntly pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 2.02 to 2.17 by
1.47 to 1.58 (in millimeters, 51.3 to 55.2 by 37.4 to 40.2) ; "ground-color, grayish
white, buff or olive, with superficial spots of various shades of brown, and
deeper ones of purple gray; spots more numerous about larger ends (Goss,
1891, p. 195).

General distribution — Western North America. Breeds from northern
Iowa, southern South Dakota, and northeastern California north to eastern
Oregon, Alberta, Saskatehew^an, and southern Manitoba; also on coasts of
Texas and Louisiana. Winters on coast of California from Humboldt Bay
southward, and on coasts of Texas and Louisiana and Gulf coast of Florida,
ranging south into Mexico. In spring migration occurs from Mississippi Eiver
west to Pacific coast (in California), and in fall ranges eastward to Atlantic
coast (modified from Cooke, 1910, p. 62).

418 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Distribution in California — Eather abundant spring and fall migrant,
chiefly coastwise; remains through the winter in small numbers along the
coast. A few summer regularly in the northeastern corner of the state: breeds
at Beckwith, Plumas County (Cooke, 1910, p. 62), and in vicinity of Goose
Lake, Modoc County (Mus. Vert. Zool.). Eecorded in winter from Humboldt
Bay, San Francisco Bay region, and from several localities on coast of southern
California from Santa Barbara southward; spring migration, when but few
birds are observed, occurs chiefly during April and May, and fall migration,
which is conspicuous, from latter part of July until late October or early
November. Non-breeders are often seen on or near southern seacoast during
summer months.

Of the shore birds inhabiting California the Western "Willet is
one of the largest and most conspicnous. Its shrill call and the flashes
of its contrasted black, white, and gray plumage, either in flight or
at rest, are among the familiar sights granted persons who frequent
the seashore or salt marsh.

Willets are present in California throughout the year although not
continuously in the same localities. The species has been recorded as
breeding at Beckwith, Plumas County (Cooke, 1910, p. 62) ; and birds
seen about Goose Lake, Modoc County, early in June, 1910, showed
evidence of having nests in the vicinity (W. P. Taylor, MS). It has
been recorded at Humboldt Bay in November and December (C. H.
Townsend, 1887, p. 199) ; about San Francisco Bay on November 4,
1898, and November 17, 1895 (specimens in Mailliard collection), and
in December, 1855 (Cassin, 1862, p. 321) ; at Carpinteria, Santa Bar-
bara County, December 23, 1911 (Willett, 1912a., p. 38) ; at Newport,
Orange County, December 8, 1898 (specimen in Swarth collection) ;
and at and about San Diego, common through the winter (Belding,
MS). The spring migration occurs during April and May, during
which months a few pass through the San Joaquin-Sacramento Valley
(Belding, MS) as well as along the seacoast. A few individuals linger
behind the northbound migrants, as single birds were seen at Santa
Barbara, June 24 and July 8, 1910 (Torrey, 1910?), p. 204), and at
Nigger Slougli, Los Angeles County, May 17 and 28, June 2 and July
10, 1910 (Willett, 1912a, p. 38). The southward migration is the
more conspicuous and commences the latter part of July and con-
tinues until the latter part of October or first of November. The early
nesting season makes it possible for young birds to appear on the coast
as migrants by the latter part of July. Birds-of-the-year which were
evidently migrants were observed and collected at Bear Lake, 6,700
feet altitude, San Bernardino Mountains, July 28 to August 2, 1905
(Grinnell, 1908, p. 55).

Among the shore birds the Western Willet is exceeded in size only
by the Long-billed Curlew, from which it also differs in having a
general coloration of gray rather than pinkish brown. From the

WESTEEN WJLLET 41!)

Hiulsoiiiaii CurK'W and Marbled Godwit. birds of about its own size,
the AVillet is distinguished by its shorter and straight bill, its gray
ratiier tlian brownish coloi-ation. the cons]>ieuous black and white
l)attern on both inner and outer surfaces of its wings (fig. 72) and
by the white "rump patch." The striking black and white of the
wings, as shown in flight, serves to distinguish the Willet from any of
the somewhat smaller waders such as the Black-bellied Plover and
Greater Yellow-legs. The shrill, yet not unpleasant, call, pill-wilJ-
icillct, is also a very good field character.

Unless hidden by marsh vegetation, as along winding sloughs, the
Willet is usually a wary bird and Avill not allow close approach. Tor-
rey (1913, p. 46) says of a flock that "... there was no getting near
them ; I proved the fact to my dissatisfaction more than once ; but
sitting quietly on the same bay-shore I have repeatedly known a
single Godwit or Willet to feed carelessly past me within the distance
of a rod or two." Tliese birds commonly flock with individuals of
other species. They may be seen in company with Godwits, as men-
tioned above, also with our two species of Curlew, Greater Yellow-
legs, Turnstones, and Long-billed Dowitchers. and a Willet has even
been noted attempting to fly in unison witli a flock of Least Sand-
pipers !

The Willet during migrations and in winter inhabits seabeaches
and salt marshes, seeming to prefer sandy or muddy locations to rocky
or pebble-strewn shores. Isolated individuals may be met with at
times, but usually there are several in one locality and w'hen restless
or not feeding these often gather into fair-sized flocks, numbering up
to twenty-five or more individuals. Torrey (1913, pp. 45, 46) men-
tions seeing Western Willets and Marbled Godwits near San Diego in
such large numbers and so densely massed that he " . . . mistook them
at first for a border of some kind of herbage. Thousands there must
have been ; and when they rose at my approach, they made something
like a cloud ; gray birds and brown birds so contrasted in color as to
be discriminated beyond risk of error, even when too far away for
the staring white wing-patches of the Willets to be longer discernible."

In its chosen haunts the Willet stalks about in search of the aquatic
animals w^hich constitute its food, sometimes wading breast deep in
the water. Its half-webbed feet allow it to swim easily and this the
bird often does wiien lifted beyond its depth by a wave, or when pur-
sued. On the Atlantic Ocean, Eastern Willets have been seen resting
on the w^ater in mid-ocean during their long migration flight from the
Canadian maritime provinces to the West Indies (Forbush, 1912, pp.
311, 312) . As suggested in Torrey 's account these birds are often more
suspicious than most other large shore birds. The Willets do not
decoy so readily, and even when passing over decoys the least move-

420 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENJA

ment will frighten them, after which no amount of skillful whistling
will induce them to return.

A flock of six observed on the Alameda marsh, upon rising flew in
the zigzag manner of sandpipers, but with longer straight flights pre-
ceding the changes in direction. When the birds alighted on a sand-
bar they stood very erect, and now and then spasmodically raised the
head still higher for an instant in a haughty manner — a backward
bow ! During high tide the birds retired inland along the sloughs
where they stood heel deep, preening, and at short intervals they
seemingly rinsed their bills (Grinnell and Storer, MS).

The flight of the Willet when well under way is quite direct, with
a flat wing beat. The wings rarely rise above the level of the back,
and consequently the upper surface of the body is almost continually
in view. The bird sails with set wings only when descending from a
higher to a lower level, or when about to alight. A change in the
direction of flight is seemingly accomplished by a difference in the
intensity of the two wing beats and a rolling of the body. The feet,
which extend considerably beyond the tail, probably assist somewhat
in steering. During high tide when the feeding grounds of the Willet
are covered with water the birds choose some higher situation which
will not be inundated, and there they rest, many of the flock tucking
their heads under their wings as they sleep. There is, however, one or
more constantly on watch, and on tlie approach of danger a shrill cry
of alarm is sounded, the flock at once taking wing and rapidly making
off to some safer place (Elliot, 1895, p. 130).

On the beaches of southern California, Mrs. Bailey (1916&,
p. 102) records that

In the flocks of brown Godwits, the few gray Willets looked small. They
fed in the same way as the Godwits though their bills were shorter and they
could not i^robe so deep, but they ran their bills ahead of them through the
wet sand, probed as far as they could reach, and then trotted back before
the oncoming waves. A thoughtless one sat down just at the edge of the water
line one day, its back toning in with the sand, its long legs stretched out before
it; but soon after it was comfortabty settled up came the foam and it had to
bend forward on its tarsus, raise itself and flee up the beach. I often saw one
resting, standing on one leg, or sitting at ease with white rump showing. When
stretching, the black of the wings showed effectively as it does both when
the birds fly up and when they alight with wings raised over the back. Willet,
icillet, they often called as they went.

The Willet may be credited with quite a variety of loud calls and
alarm notes. The ordinary calls consist of full, rounded whistles,
uttered either singly or in rapid succession. A notably descending
inflection is apparent, though on the whole the effect is a staccato one.
In addition there is ". . . an interesting flight song; particularly
towards evening. ..." During the breeding season one of these

WESTEBN WILLET 421

birds may be seen "... flying in large circles high in tiie air, pouring
out a rapid stream of whistling notes, sounding like pill-will-willet,
repeated over and over again for a period of several minutes" (Bent,
19076, p. 427).

Although the Westei-n Willet is associated in our minds with the
sea-coast, its nesting grounds lie, for the most part, far in the interior.
In California it has been found breeding at Beckwith, Plumas County,
at an elevation of about 5.000 feet (Cooke, 1910, p. 62), and birds
taken on June 3 and 10, 1910, in the vicinity of Davis Creek at the
southern end of Goose Lake, Modoc County, elevation 4,500 feet,
showed by their actions that they had nests in the vicinity (W. P.
Taylor, ]MS). The species breeds in the noi-th-central United States
west through tlie northern Great Basin, and in southern Canada ; also
locally in a small coastal area in Texas and Louisiana. Eggs have
been taken from ^Ia.y 2 (partly incubated) until June 14 (fresh),
these dates probably indicating the extent of the breeding season.

The nests may be placed either on marshland in close proximity
to water or on dry prairies a considerable distance from it. The nest
is constructed of grasses and such other suitable plant materials as
may be at hand. It is sometimes a mvn' depression in the grass, with
sparse lining, again a quite bulky affair. Tlie eggs usually number
four and measure in inches, 2.02 to 2.17 by 1.47 to 1.58. The ground
color varies fi'om grayisli white to buff and even olive, while the
superficial markings, usually more numerous about the larger end, are
of various shades of brown, the deeper ones of purplish gray (Goss,
1891, p. 195). They are more bluntly pear-shaped tlian the eggs of
many other shore birds.

The .set whieli forms the basis for Cooke's record from Beckwith,
Plumas County, was collected May 28, 1891, and consisted of three
eggs. The eggs measure in inches, 2.08 to 2.16 by 1.43 to 1.48, and
average 2.12 by 1.46. In coloration they agree with the description
given by Goss (supra cit.). These eggs, which now form set no.
24582 in the United States National Museum, were collected by N. R.
Christie, for W. F. "Webb of Geneva, New York. The data accompany-
ing this set state that Mr. Christie took three sets of this species all
alike in color, etc., "some of four eggs and some of three," all on the
same day. The eggs were fresh. The nest was constructed simply of
grass and Avas situated on swampy ground on a large stock ranch.

During the nesting season Western Willets often perch in low
trees as do many of the other larger shore birds (Goss, 1891, p. 195).
In Modoc County "W. P. Taylor (MS) observed them perching on
fence posts along roads. If the vicinity of the nest be approached by
an intruder the birds fly some distance toward him and attempt to
divert his attention by circling about and uttering their shrill calls

422 GAME BIEBS OF CALIFORNIA

(Bent, 19076, p. 427). Often several pairs other than those whose
nest is threatened will join in the demonstration. At times they hover
with qnivering wings and at all times while so circling keep up such
a clamor that it is impossible to determine when they are near the nest
and when away from it.

Forbush states (1912, p. 312) that when inland the Eastern Willet
eats grasses and roots and small fish and fish fry, but when along salt
water its diet consists of many small mollusks and crabs. Paul J. Fair
reports that specimens of the Western Willet taken by him on the
marshes near Newark, Alameda County, in April, 1914, contained
clams fully one and one-half inches in length (H. C. Bryant, MS).

In early days the Western Willet was commonly offered for sale
in the markets of San Francisco during the autumn, winter, and
spring (Suckley in Cooper and Suckley, 1859, p. 242). Undoubtedly
extensive hunting for the market has had its effect upon the numbers
of Willets that nowadays occur within our borders, but to what extent,
it is impossible to determine. Despite the rank or fishy flavor of its
flesh, the Willet has always been hunted rather extensively, doubtless
because of its large size. But it is still abundant enough so that
moderate protection will enable it to maintain its numbers and possibly
increase them toward the complement of earlier days. The most impor-
tant factor in the decrease of the species is the gradual restriction of
its breeding range by the advance of agriculture. It does not enjoy
the protection afforded the birds which nest in the far north, and
should therefore merit more consideration during the winter season.

Wandering Tattler

llctcractifis incana (Gmelin)

Other names — Heteroscelus ineauits; Totanus incamis.

Description — Adults, both sexes, in late spring and summer: Entire upper
surface including top of head, rump, tail, and outer surface of wing, uniform
slaty or dark grayish brown; eyelids white; stripe from bill to eye and spot
behind eye, dark grayish brown; stripe from top of bill over eye and sides of
head and neck, white, finely streaked with dark grayish brown; chin and throat
white, sparsely spotted with dark grayish brown; iris brown; bill black, brown-
ish at lower base; margin and lining of wing dusky, with feather-tippings of
white; under surface of flight feathers and axillars, uniform slaty brown like
upper surface of body; whole lower surface including sides and under tail
coverts, white, barred closely with dark grayish brown ; feet pale ' ' brownish
ocher"; nails "black" (Bishop, 1900, p. 69). Adults, and immatures. both sexes,
in fall and winter: Entire upper surface, tail and wing, as in summer adults;
eyelids, spot in front of eye and chin, white; sides of head and neck, foreneck,
breast and sides of body, light grayish brown, entirely devoid of streaks or
bars; belly and flanks pure white; under tail coverts white barred with grayish
brown. Males: Total length 10.87-11.00 inches (276-279 mm.) (three specimens

WANDEEING TATTLER 423

from California); folded wing 6.45-6.82 (164-173); bill along culnien 1.40-1.51
(35.4-38.4); tarsus 1.23-1.38 (31.2-35.0) (nine specimens from California and
Alaska). Females: Total length 11.05-11.40 (281-290) (three specimens from
California); folded wing 6.81-7.13 (173-181); bill along culmen 1.52-1.58 (38.6-
40.2); tarsus 1.28-1.39 (32.6-35.2) (five specimens from California and Alaska).
Juvenile plumage: Like that of adults and immatures in winter but with
feathers of back and outer surface of wing marked with inconspicuous feather-
tippings of white and faint subterminal dark bars, with grayish brown of
breast and sides faintly barred with dull white, and with under tail coverts,
like belly, pure white, unbarred. Natal plumage: In its entirety unknown, but
as shown by vestiges remaining on a half -grown bird taken July 28, 1908, on
Montague Island, Prince William Sound, Alaska (no. 1194 Mus. Vert. Zool.),
the down on top and sides of head is leaden gray tipped with white; on the
chin, throat and flanks, grayish white; on hind neck leaden gray; a dusky
streak extending from bill to eye.

Marks for field idextification — Moderate size (slightly larger than Kill-
deer), non-contrasted plumage, and uniform slaty color of upper surface at all
times of year; no white patches on rump or wing; frequents rocky ocean shores;
rarely if ever found on sandy beaches.

Voice — A loud ringing I'h'i, kid, kid (Nelson, 1880, p. 33).

Nest and eggs — Unknown.

General distribution — Seacoasts and islands of the Pacific Ocean, interior
Alaska, and Yukon Territory. Breeding range thought to be from south-
central Alaska south to Prince William Sound, east to east-central Yukon;
occurs west in migration to Norton Sound, Alaska, and to northern Siberia;
winters from southern California to the Galapagos Islands, and in Hawaii and
Oceania (modified from A. O. U. Cheek-list, 1910, pp. 122-123).

Distribution in California — Common spring and fall migrant along the
seacoast; small numbers occur also at various times during the summer, and
a few winter on the coast and islands of southern California. The spring
movement occurs chiefly in April and the fall migration in August.

Among our shore birds the Wandering Tattler well merits the
term wandering. Its distribution covers a large portion of the Pacific
Ocean as well as west-central Alaska, and many of the most remote
islets are favored by its visits. In spite of its wide range, less is
known of the life history of this species than of that of many rarer or
less widely distributed species. An element of extreme interest attach-
ing to the bird is the fact that its nest and eggs are as yet undis-
covered, it being one of only two or three out of all our shore birds
which bear this distinction today. However, the area in which the
Tattler nests has been fairly well determined, so that it will probably
be a matter of but a few years before full knowledge of its nesting
habits is obtained.

Along the coast of California the Wandering Tattler may be con-
sidered essentially a migrant, although it has been reported on our
southern shores during almost every month of the year. The north-
ward migration occurs in April (Willett, 1912cr, p. 39) ; some early
dates are : Kedondo, Los Angeles County, March 1, 1908 (specimen in

424 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

Richardson collection) ; Anacapa Island, March 14, 1911 (Burt, 1911,
p. 164) ; San Clemente Island, March 29, 1897 (specimen in Grinnell
collection) ; and Monterey, April 13, 1913 (Howell, MS), and April
20 (Beck, 1910, p. 71). Small numbers of apparently non-breeding
birds are often to be seen during the summer ; it is possible that these
are late tarriers among the northbound migrants, or early arrivals
from the north. The species has been recorded from Santa Barbara,
San Nicolas, and San Clemente islands as late as June 12 (Willett,
loc. cit.) ; San Miguel Island, June 18, 1910 (Willett, 1910, p. 173) ;
Farallon Islands, June 1, 1911 (Dawson, 1911, p. 180) ; and Point
Reyes, Marin County, June 26, 1880 (Allen, 1881, p. 18). At Monterey,
the return migration sets in about the middle of July (Loomis, 1895,
p. 223), and b}' the last of that month the birds are common there.
The species was seen on Santa Cruz Island, July 4 to 24, 1887 (Blake,
1887, p. 329), and on Santa Barbara Island, July 3, 1909 (Willett,
1912a;, p. 39). The fall migration continues through August. Some
birds then remain well along into early winter, late dates being:
Santa Monica, Los Angeles County, December 11, 1905 (Willett, loc.
cit.) ; and Santa Cruz Island, December 17, 1907 (Linton, 19086, p.
126). Willett (loc. cit.) states that he has "... frequently seen the
species on rocky shores of the mainland during the winter months."

The Wandering Tattler is notably an inhabitant of rocky shores
and headlands where the surf beats heavily, and is rarely, if ever,
found on sandy or muddy beaches. It is therefore much more
restricted, as to the localities in which it may be found within our
boundaries, than many other shore birds. The word "common" used
above was not intended in the same sense as applied, for example,
to the Western or Least sandpipers. Even where conditions are most
favorable seldom more than two Tattlers are in sight at one time, and
ten or a dozen individuals are as many as would be met with in a
day's observation.

The Wandering Tattler is to be distinguished by its moderate size,
which is little greater than that of a Killdeer, its uniform slaty brown
upper surface, and its total lack of contrasted white patches at all
seasons on either the rump or wings. In hand, the unmottled axillars,
and, in spring and summer, the almost completely barred under sur-
face, are distinctive. From the two Yellow-legs, the "tattlers" of
inland waters and sandy or muddy flats coastwise, the Wandering
Tattler may be distinguished by the uniform color of its whole upper
surface and its much shorter and darker colored legs ; from the Turn-
stones and Surf -bird, with which it is most likely to be associated in
life, this species may be distinguished by its slenderer bill, and by the
absence of white patches on its rump and wings ; from the Plovers it
may be told by its more slender build, and proportionally longer and

WANDERING TATTLES 423

slenderer bill; and from the Sandpipers by its dark, uniform-colored
upper surface and the absence of white on its rump or wing.

From the more or less extensive notes on the habits of this species
made by various observers we select the following. Nelson (1887,
p. 119) says that wliile he was walking along the rugged beach on
Sanak, one of the eastern Aleutian Islands, Alaska, on May 17, 1877,

. . . One of these Tattlers was started from its feeding ground on the
wave-washed rocks, where, amid the seaweed, it found an abundance of small
crustaceans and mollusks. As I approached it started off, uttering a loud clear,
flute-like tu-tu-tu-tu. This is the common note they utter when startled,
although they change it at times to a sharper sound. . . . During their pres-
ence on the coast of Norton Sound they show a decided preference for the
most rugged and rock-bound parts of the shore, rarely or never occurring else-
where. They are unsuspicious and gentle, moving gracefully from rock to rock
and running to the edge of the water, searching for their food. They are
usually solitary, but three or four may be started sometimes from a small
islet on which there is a good feeding ground. A gunshot echoing among the
huge bowlders and cliffs about their haunts starts up those near at hand with
mellow cries of alarm, but they either fly a short distance and renew their
pursuits, or alight on some jutting point or top of a rock, anil stand motionless,
like gracefully-poised statuettes. . . .

Hensliaw found the Wandering Tattler on Santa Cruz Island,
California, on June 4, 1875, and writes (1876, p. 272) of it as follows:

They appear not to be a bird of the sandy shores at all, but resort exclu-
sively to the rocks covered with sea-weed, where they follow the tide as it
ebbs and flows, running back and forth and picking up the minute worms and
marine animals, of which they find a great abundance. In motions, they
simulate exactly the little Spotted Sandpiper, and have the same curious "tip-
up" motion of the body, which they indulge in at moments of rest from feed-
ing or when attentively looking about them. They fly, too, with the same
deliberate wing-beats, the pinions being slightly decurved, the tips pointed
downward. Their voices are, however, wholly different, and the notes are
very loud and harsh when compared with the smooth whistle of the other
species. I found them usually solitary and quite watchful and full of dis-
trust, though I found myself once or twice within a few feet of them, and
was allowed a most excellent chance to watcn their motions.

W. E. Bryant (1888, p. 43) observed the species on the Farallon
Islands in late July, 1886. Here

At high tide they sat motionless upon the rocks, which they resemble in
color, making it difficult to detect them unless flushed. When the tide was out
they fed at the water's edge; following a receding wave they searched hurriedly
amongst the kelp for food, running or making short flights to escape an incom-
ing breaker. Seveial times a laggard was overtaken and covered by a breaker;
when it receded he flew to the rocks and after shaking the water from his
plumage, returned to feed.

Dawson (1911, p. 180) spent a fortnight, from May 20 to June 3,
1911, on the same islands. He writes:

426 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

During the first week of our stay there were not less than ten birds of
this species, well distributed, which quavered and teetered, or fled, as often
as we approached the surf line. But their numbers had dwindled to two by
June 1st.

Contrary to earlier statements these Tattlers do spend a considerable por-
tion of their time upon the higher ground. The tiny boulder-strewn meadow
surrounding my earlier camp (just cast of Franconia beach) was a favorite
resting place for them, and I am inclined to think the birds spent the night
there, for some were invariably startled upon my first appearance mornings.

Having a common affection for the tide reefs. Wandering Tattlers are not
infrequently found in loose association with Black Turnstones; but when put
to flight they pay no attention whatever to the fortunes of their chance ship-
mates, nor to others of their own kind.

Torrey (1913, pp. 132, 133), after observations on Wandering
Tattlers near Monterey, wrote :

. . . One of them stood directly before me on the top of a rock, preening
its feathers, ... a sandpiper, with something of the look and action of both
the spotted and the solitary. . . . Sometimes it nodded in the manner of a
plover; oftener it teetered like a spotted sandpiper; while its legs were of a
color almost lively enough — but shading too much to olive — for the bird that
we know as ' ' yellowlegs. ' '

A long while it posed there, much of the time on one leg. . . . Then it
flew a short distance . . . [and] went down close to the surf, where the rocks
were thickly matted with seaweeds, and began feeding, jumping into the air
at short intervals, as a higher wave than common threatened to carry it away.
Once it caught a fish, or other creature, of considerable size, and seemed not
a little excited, beating its prize violently against the rock again and again,
and finally swallowing it with difficulty, holding its bill open for some time
in the operation.

The evidence which is available concerning the nesting of the
Wandering Tattler consists solely of yonng birds which have been
found with the natal down still clinging to them, and of observations of
the behavior of adult birds on their presumed breeding grounds. A
notable thing is that this preeminently maritime bird forsakes the
seashore at nesting time and repairs to remote mountainous localities
inland. Adults observed by Charles Sheldon in the vicinity of Mount
McKinley, Alaska, flew about solicitously on the approach of the
hunters, and at intervals lit in nearby willow trees just as do Yellow-
legs or Willets when intruders approach their nests (O.sgood, 1907,
p. 340). In the high mountains of east-central Yukon Territory,
Canada, September 5, 1904, Osgood (1909, p. 86) found a partly
grown Tattler, with down still attached to the feathers of its neck.
"It seemed strangely out of place, busily engaged as it was, running
hither and thither over the small patches of gravel and stones along
the rushing mountain stream." Other individuals were seen. Joseph
Dixon (in Grinnell, 1910, p. 377) secured an adult Tattler July 23,

UPLAND PLOVES 427

1908, on ^Montague Island, Prince William Sound, Alagka, under the
following circumstances :

I found the bird iu a park on the mountain side at an altitude of 400
feet. As soon as I appeared on a ridge several hundred yards from him, he
flew into a tree and began to ' ' tattle. " As I came nearer he flew out to
meet me, scolding as he came. He flew around above me and then went back
and lit on the very tip of a tree where he bobbed up and down.

A half-grown young bird was obtained on this same island five
days later. The breeding range has been defined upon the basis of
such finds as the ones just cited ; nests or eggs, if known to white men,
have not yet been recorded in current scientific literature.

The food of the Wandering Tattler consists of small animals found
along the tide line or in kelp, chiefly crustaceans and small mollusks.
It is probable that marine worms and other forms found in such
localities are also taken.

In California the Wandering Tattler is relatively safe from the
hunter, and its numbers will probably remain unchanged longer than
those of most of our other shore birds. This is due to the solitary
habits of the species and its tendency to inhabit rocky, more or less
inaccessible shores, and especially, the coastal islands. Its breeding
grounds, moreover, are far removed from human influences, and are
not likely to be encroached upon by settlement in the near future.

Upland Plover

Bartramia longicauda (Bechstein)

Other names — Field Plover; Bartramian Sandpiper.

Descriptiox — Adults, hoth sexes: Whole upper surface except rump, with
mixed pattern of dark, almost blackish, brown, and yellowish brown; this
pattern inclines to streaking on head and neck and to barring on back, wings
and tail; sides of head and neck light buff, streaked with blackish; chin white;
iris "dark hazel"; bill "yellowish-green," tip "dusky," edges at base
"yellow" (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 252); rump uniform blackish brown, save that
outermost feathers are marked with white; tail feathers (except middle pair)
dull buflf, broadly tipped with white, and crossed by irregular bars of black;
primaries blackish brown, the outermost ones barred with white on inner
webs; secondaries variegated like back, and with white margins; lining of
wing and axillars white, sharply barred with dark brown; edge of wing white;
throat and foreneek buff narrowly streaked with dark brown; breast, sides and
flanks light buff sharply barred with dark brown; rest of lower surface white;
feet and legs "light yellowish-grey," toes "darker," claws "brownish-black"
(Audubon, loc. cit.). Total length (both sexes) "11.00-12.75" inches (279-
324 mm); folded wing "6.50-7.00" (165-178); bill along culmen "1.10-1.15"
(27.9-29.2); tarsus "1.90-2.05" (48.3-52.1) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 169). Juvenile
plumage: Top and back of head brownish black with a median stripe of pinkish
cinnamon; stripe across forehead running over eye, patch behind eye, and chin

428 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

and throat, dull white; cheek and sides of neck, pale einnamou; back brownish
black with feather margins of pinkish buff or white, producing a sealed
appearance; rump brownish black, white at sides; tail as in adult; feathers
of outer surface of closed wing chiefly pinkish cinnamon, but with brownish
black centers and white tips; primaries and lining of wing as in adult; fore-
neck and upper breast pinkish cinnamon, narrowly streaked with black; rest
of breast and belly white; sides pinkish cinnamon barred with brownish black.
Natal plumage: Ui)per surface black, white and reddish brown in fine mixed
pattern; distinct stripe from base of bill over top of head, black; side of head
and chin, white; bill (dried) yellowish brown, dusky along top of upper
mandible; band across chest, yellowish brown; rest of under surface white;
legs and feet (dried) dull yellow.

Marks for field identification — Moderately large size (decidedly larger
than Killdeer), long neck and slender bill, general mixed buffy and brown
color above, blackish rump, and absence of contrasting white areas; found
mainly in pastures and old fields away from water, even when near seashore
(Forbush, 1912, p. 315).

Voice — "Alarm, quip-ip-ip-ip, quip-ip-ip-ip (Langille). Quitty-quit-it-it
(Knight). A soft bubbling whistle; song, a prolonged, weird, mournful,
mellow whistle, clir-r-r-r-r-ee-e-e-e-e-e-oo-o-o-o-oo (Langille). Wh-o-e-e-et-et-e-e-e
e-e-e-o-o-o-ooo (Eichard) " (Forbush, loc. cit.).

Nest — In dry pasture lands or in wet, even boggy, meadows (Barrows,
1912, p. 196) ; usually a mere depression, sometimes sparingly lined with grasses
and usually hidden by surrounding herbage (several authors).

Eggs — 4, bluntly pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.65 to 1.97 by 1.22 to
1.34 (in millimeters, 42.0 to 50.0 by 31.0 to 34.0), and averaging 1.77 by 1.28
(45.0 by 32.5) (sixty-six eggs in U. S. National Museum) ; ground-color pale
olive-buff to cinnamon-buff, superficial spots, rounded, snuff brown and choco-
late, deeper ones of violet gray and lilac gray; spots more numerous or con-
fluent at larger end.

General distribution — North and South America. Breeds from north-
western Alaska, southern Mackenzie, central Keewatin, central Wisconsin,
southern Michigan, southern Ontario, and southern Maine, south to southern
Oregon, northern Utah, central Oklahoma, southern Missouri, southern Indiana
and northern Virginia; winters on the pampas of South America to Argentina.
In migration has occurred north to Newfoundland; casual in California (A. O. U.
Check-list, 1910, p. 123).

Distribution in California — One instance of occurrence: A single bird
taken at Tule [=Ehett] Lake, Modoc County, August 8, 1896 (Cooke, 1910,
p. 65).

The Upland Plover has been recorded but once from California,
a single bird having been taken by Vernon Bailey of the United States
Bureau of Biological Survey at Tule [=Rhett] Lake, Modoc County,
August 8, 1896 (Cooke, 1910, p. 65). The species is here included in
order to complete the list of game birds which have been found within
the state, and also to enable persons capturing additional specimens to
recognize the bird and so to be apprized of its status. It is not
unlikely that close observation in the northeastei-n corner of the state
would show the regular presence there of this species at certain seasons.

UPLAND PLOVER 429

Tlie Upland Plover, Field Plover, or Bartraniiaii Sandpiper, as
this bird is variously called in the East, is as its common names
indicate, an inhabitant chiefly of the upland fields and meadows
ratiier than of the seashore, as are so many others of its kin. In
various portions of its range it is well known to prefer the drier
ground of meadows and prairies. Eaton (1910, p. 333) says of these
birds in New York state : ' ' Their carriage is light and graceful, they
run with great swiftness through the rows of stubble to escape from
intrusion, or ciouch motionless in the grass until the enemy is
dangerously near, when they spring into the air and fl}' swiftly away,
often passing entirely out of sight before alighting, but uttering a
mellow whistle as they go. . . ." That the birds are extremely wary
as indicated in the account just quoted, is the concensus of opinion
among recent writers generally. It would seem that this weariness has
been acquired by the species since man first began to hunt it, for its
range lies almost altogether in territory that has come under close
settlement and cultivation by man. In earlier days it was not difficult
to get within gun-shot range of them. On the more open prairie land
of the middle West a favorite method of hunting nowadays is from
a Avagon or on horseback; the birds are accustomed to farm vehicles
and do not apprehend any danger when the huntsman approaches in
this manner.

Florence Merriam Bailey (1915, p. 177) writes of her experiences
in North Dakota as follows :

Another characteristic bird of the prairies of which I saw all too little
was the Upland Plover. One parent whom we passed when driving stood
high in the prairie grass looking at us while just the head of its young one
showed above the grass. Another plover surprised me, standing not on the
ground but on top of a telephone pole, its round head and trim body mounted
high on its long legs — true wader of meadows! On another day a guarding
parent appeared in the blue sky ahead of us as we drove slowly up a long
slope. Down it came toward us, its long wings on the down stroke giving it a
curious wishbone figure. Down it came, though not concerned with us as it
proved, for, passing by, it took a wide sky circle on fluttering wings — while
a Marsh Hawk heedless of its secret went serenely on its way looking for
meadow mice. When the plover's liquid note is heard, or the big birds come
out of the sky to drop to earth, they give a rare thrill of pleasure. . . . Lovely
birds! They go well with the big clean prairie — dividing their time between
earth and skj^

The Bartramian Sandpiper in its eastern range, conceals its nest
in the thick grass of a meadow, or under a tussock in a pasture or
waste field. The bird is rarely or never seen on the ground in the
vicinity of the nest, and will not leave it until almost trodden upon
(Eaton, 1910, p. 333). Barrows (1912, p. 196) states that in Michi-
gan it often nests in the drier parts of wet, boggy, snipe-inhabited

430 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

meadows. The nest is a mere depression in the grass, more or less
concealed, and lined with grasses. The four eggs, which are blunth'
pear-shaped, are, relative to the size of the bird, quite large, their
size averaging in inches, 1.78 by 1.28. The ground-color varies from
a prale olive buff to cinnamon buff ; the superficial spots, which are
more numerous and often confluent about the larger end, are snuff
brown or chocolate, and the deeper ones are violet gray and lilac
gray.

This beautiful bird like most members of the Snipe family executes a
peculiar performance in the mating season. The bird mounts high in the air,
or alights on a knoll, ' ' a fence, or even a tree, and utters a prolonged mournful
mellow whistle, more like the wind than like a bird's voice, which may be
heard even in the night, and is one of the most weird and never to be forgotten
sounds in nature "... the notes rapidly rising and swelling, then slowly
falling and dying away into a hollow windlike whistle. . , . The young follow
their parents as soon as hatched, and the old birds evince considerable distress
when the young are molested, often fluttering along the ground, feigning lame-
ness, or a broken wing, after the manner of a Killdeer, to draw the intruder
away from the site (Eaton, 1910, pp. 332-333).

This bird is a valuable ally of the farmer. It feeds on locusts, grass-
hoppers, cutworms, and other enemies of grass and other crops. During the
Locust invasions in Nebraska Professor Aughey found this species among
the most useful in destroying the insects and saving the crops, for at that
time it was abundant and correspondingly useful. It came in large flocks
in spring and did great service on locust-infested farms (Forbush, 1912,
p. 319).

McAtee (1911a) states that the Upland Plover feeds on crane-fly
larvae, the cotton worm and cotton cutworm, boll-weevil, clover-leaf
weevil, cowpea weevil, clover-root curculio, bill-bugs, wireworms, corn-
leaf beetle, and grapevine colaspis.

While this species is at present of no importance in California,
either agriculturally or from a game standpoint, its capture within
our borders has considerable scientific interest. Hunters securing
specimens in the future should communicate their finds to some
scientific institution or journal, after having made very sure of the
identification. As previously intimated, there is some likelihood that
the Upland Plover really reaches with some regularity the elevated
northeastern section of the state, where the one example was found.
Conditions there may even be growing more favorable for the bird
as a result of irrigation and the extension of meadow country.

SPOTTED SANDPIPER 431

Spotted Sandpiper

Act it is macularia (Linnaeus)

Other names — Tip-up; Teeter; Teeter-tail; Tringoides macularius ; Totanus
mandarins.

Description — Adults, both sexes, in late spring and summer: Whole upper
surface, including rump, tail, and outer surface of closed wing, olive brown,
with faint greenish iridescence; head indistinctly streaked, and whole back
barred and streaked with sooty brown; stripe from upper mandible through
eye, and whole lower side of head, white, flecked with blackish brown, most
sparingly on chin; eyelids white; bill dull yellow, dusky at tip; iris "hazel"
(Audubon, 1842, V, p. 308) ; outer tail feathers barred with light brown and
white; flight feathers dull dark brown, the primaries with white patches ou
inner webs near base and the secondaries tipped narrowly with white; edge
of wing mottled with olive brown and white; forward lining of wing, and
axillars, pure white; hindmost under wing coverts and flight feathers, dusky;
whole under surface of body white, everywhere marked with rounded spots
of brownish black; legs greenish gray; feet and "heel" yellow; nails black.
Adults a7id immatures, both sexes, in late fall, winter and early spring: Upper
surface of same general color as in summer, but without markings save for
blackish shaft lines; under surface dull white, sides of neck and chest suflFused
with drab and with darker shaft lines; flanks and lower tail coverts sometimes
faintly spotted. Males: Total length 6.74-7.75 inches (171-197 mm.) (ten
specimens); folded wing 3.66-3.96 (93.0-100.3); bill along culmen 0.79-1.01
(20.2-25.6); tarsus 0.86-0.98 (21.8-24.9) (ten specimens). Females: Total
length 7.12-8.40 (181-213) (six specimens); folded wing 4.00-4.20 (101.5-
106.7); bill along culmen 0.89-0.98 (22.5-24.8); tarsus 0.93-0.98 (23.7-25.0)
(ten specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Whole upper surface
olive brown with faint greenish iridescence, the feathers tipped narrowly with
buff followed by black, giving a scaled appearance, and with dark brown shaft
lines; eyelids and stripe from upper mandible to eye, white; outer surface of
closed wing narrowly but sharply barred with blackish brown and light buflfy;
rest of wing, and tail, as in adult; sides of neck and chest, washed with drab,
and faintly barred with dusky; rest of under surface, white. By wear this
plumage becomes nearly indistinguishable from that of adults during mid-
winter. Natal plumage: Stripe from top of upper mandible over top of head
and down along middle of back to tail, black; top of head at side of black
stripe, mixed buflfy white and black, in fine pattern; narrow but distinct stripe
from side of bill through eye to ear region, black; lower side of head and
chin, silky white; rest of upper surface including tail and wing, mixed buflfy
white and black; whole under surface white; bill greenish yellow.

Marks for field identification — Small size (but larger than Least or
Western Sandpiper), uniform brown upper surface, white streak on wing, and
(in spring and summer) sharp rounded blackish spots on white under surface;
flies with narrow down-curved wings, rarely raising them above level of back;
when on ground teeters almost incessantly. From the Solitary Sandpiper, often
found in similar situations, it differs in slightly smaller size, yellowish rather
than greenish legs, white bar on wing (shown in flight), white sides and axillars,
and (in adults in spring and summer) in the sharp spotting of whole under
surface.

432 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOHNIA

Voice — A clear high-pitched wheel, xrlieet, ivheet, uttered six or seven times
at half -second intervals, often with descending inflection; also pr-r-r-r-ret, or
ter-r-r-r-ret.

Nest — On gravelly ground usually in close vicinity of water, or else in
wet meadow; a slight depression sparsely lined with grasses and plant stems;
or altogether lacking any special lining.

Eggs — 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.24 to 1.37 by 0.87 to 0.97 (in
millimeters, 31.5 to 34.7 by 22.2 to 24.8), and averaging 1.28 by 0.93 (32.6 by
23.6) (six sets, 24 eggs, from California and Alaska) ; ground-color pale cream
or varying shades of buff; superficial spots reddish or blackish brown, varying
in size from that of a pin-point to 0.12 inch (3 mm.) or more in diameter,
usually larger and more numerous about larger end where they are often
aggregated into blotches; deeper markings lavender or pale gray and usually
small.

General distribution — North and South America. Breeds on the north to
Newfoundland, northern Ungava, northern Mackenzie and the Kowak Valley,
Alaska, and on the south to northern South Carolina, central Alabama, southern
Louisiana, central Texas, southern New Mexico, central Arizona, and south-
central California; winters from southern California, Louisiana and South
Carolina south to central Peru and southern Brazil (modified from A. O. U.
Check-list, 1910, p. 124).

Distribution in California — Abundant migrant in suitable localities through-
out the state; also winters in moderate numbers along rocky portions of the
seacoast and adjacent island shores from Santa Barbara southward. Remains
through the summer and breeds locally in the Sierras as far south at least as
Cottonwood Lakes (11,000 feet altitude), Inyo County (Mus. Vert. Zool.), and
in the lake region east of the Sierran divide from Alpine County northward
to the Oregon line. Breeds also, but more sparingly and locally, along larger
streams of the coast region south as far as Santa Paula, Ventura County
(Willett, 1912a, p. 39). Spring migration apparently occurs in late April, May
and June, and fall migration from mid-July into September. A few scattered
individuals winter in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys.

The Spotted Sandpiper is one of the most widely distributed of
North American shore birds. Indeed it has a more extensive breed-
ing range than has any other American shore bird, in this respect
rivaling the Killdeer. To many people, the Tip-up or Teeter-tail as
this well-known bird is often called, is one of the most familiar of water
birds. The sandy shores of inland or even mountain streams and
lakes, and the rocky seacoast, seem equally to attract it at various times
of the year. At times, especially during the summer, it may be
observed in distinctly dry situations such as a meadow, or on freshly
plowed ground, but this is exceptional. From many of its relatives
the Spotted Sandpiper differs markedly in being quite solitary. It
is found singly or in pairs rather than in flocks, though in the late
summer and fall while the young are yet dependent, family flocks
of at most five or six birds are to be noted.

Throughout most of the lowland areas of California this bird is
but a migrant, but in the coastal district from Santa Barbara south-
eastward it occurs in limited numbers during the winter months.

SPOTTED SANDPIPEE 433

Occasional individuals winter in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley,
as at Marysville, Butte County, December 25, 1911 (C. and J. Muller,
1912, p. 43) ; in Amador County, February 2, 1896; at Modesto, Stani-
slaus County, February 12, 1910 (specimens in Mailliard coll.) ; and
at Stockton, November 25 (Belding, MS). The spring migration
probably occurs during late April, May, and possibly the early part
of June, although definite information in this regard is almost entirely
lacking. Some dates of first appearance are: Pasadena, April 21,
1897 (Grinnell, 1898, p. 18) ; Monterey, April 16, 1913 (Howell, MS) ;
Mendota, Fresno County, April 4, 1914 (Tyler, MS) ; and Ukiah,
between April 24 and :\Iay 1, 1889 (McGregor, 1896, p. 129). Beld-
ing (ilS) states that it arrives at Stockton about the first of I\Iay
(April 27, in one instance), while nests with eggs have been found in
the Sierras during the last week in May. The fall migration probably
begins about the middle of July, as Grinnell (1908, p. 56) secured a
bird of the year, evidently a migrant, at Dry Lake, San Bernardino
Mountains, July 15, 1905; but the bulk of the birds do not leave the
breeding grounds until decidedly later, judging by the available nest-
ting data. Belding (MS) states that the species usually disappears
from the vicinity of Stockton about the first of October. The same
observer noted a pair of birds which were possibly summering in the
lowlands at Oroville, Butte County, Julj^ 1, 1885, and another pair
on a sand bar of the Feather River in the pame vicinity, July 3, 1885
(Belding, MS). Along the coast north of Santa Barbara it must be
considered a rather rare species, having been observed only three
times at Monterey, once at Berkeley, May 9, 1885 (T. S. Palmer, in
Belding, MS), and at Eureka, August 3, 1910 (Dixon, MS). About
water-holes far out on the desert the Spotted Sandpiper appears as a
migrant during both fall and spring. Lamb (1912. p. 35) reports
it from near Daggett, San Bernardino County, August 5 and October
11, 1910, and again in numbers for several days after April 16, 1911.

The Spotted Sandpiper can be distinguished from other shore birds
by its small size, almost uniformly colored brown upper surface (in-
cluding rump), the white streak on its spread wing, and the exten-
sively white under surface with (in spring and summer) sharp
rounded blackish spots. In flight the wings are distinctly curved down
toward the tips and rarely raised above the level of the back ; while
the course pursued is usually semicircular, and there is no undulating
or zigzagging as with many sandpipers. The few characters just
given will be sufficient to distinguish this species from all other shore
birds occurring in California.

The call-note of the Spotted Sandpiper is a clear musical wheet,
uttered six or seven times at half-second intervals, often with a
descending inflection ; also, as when excited, a pr-r-r-r-rei, or ter-r-r-r-

434 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA

ret. The notes are usually uttered when one bird meets another of
its kind, as when flying along a stream. The first note may be heard
for a distance of half a mile or more and reminds one of the short
repeated whistle which a person often uses to call a dog.

When in its most usual habitat, which is on open sand flats or
gravel bars adjacent to streams or lakes, the Spotted Sandpiper
employs its time searching for the various small insects, other animals,
and plants which comprise its food. While gleaning its food or other-
wise occupied it stops for a moment every now and then to "teeter."
This movement is described by Stearns and Coues (1883, p. 242) as
follows :

As often as the . . . [bird] stops in its pursuit of insects, the fore part
of the body is lowered a little, the head drawn in, the legs slightly bent,
whilst the hinder parts and tail are alternately hoisted with a peculiar jerk,
and drawn down again, with the regularity of clock-work. The movement is
more conspicuous in the upward than in the downward part of the performance;
as if the tail were spring-hinged, in constant danger of flying up, and needed
constant presence of mind to keep it down. It is amusing to see an old male
in the breeding season busy with this operation. Upon some rock jutting out
of the water he stands, swelling with amorous pi'ide and self-sufficiency, puffing
out his plumage till he looks twice as big as natural, facing about on his
narrow pedestal, and bowing with his hinder parts to all points of the compass.

Another marked peculiarity of the Spotted Sandpiper is its man-
ner of flight. If disturbed from a location on the bank it does not
fly directly up or down stream away from the source of danger but
indulges in a semicircular flight, skimming out over the water and
back to the same bank some distance farther on. If, after the danger
is gone, the bird desires to return to its original location it does so
over the same circling course and not by the shortest direct route.
Individuals have a tendency to remain in the same locality and even
if frightened away will repeatedly return to it.

While it is often seen feeding or running about the shore during
the day the Spotted Sandpiper would seem to be also somewhat
nocturnal. Barrows (1912, p. 203) says: "The Spotted Sandpiper
feeds until late in the evening, and possibly is more or less nocturnal,
since its notes are frequently heard at night when it cannot be migrat-
ing." Belding (1879, p. 441) says: "A bird of this species nightly
visited a pond in the rear of the hotel at Murphy's [Calaveras County]
in September, 1878. It came about dusk, after the Swallows and
Fly-catchers had retired and Bats had taken their places, and circled
over the water as if catching flies, although it never made an abrupt
curve or checked its rapid flight. It kept usually about three feet
from the water, but went as high as six or eight feet occasionally. ' '

SPOTTED SANDPIPER 435

Several observers record the ability of this bird to swim when
forced to do so, as is the case with many other shore birds. Indi-
viduals of this species have also been seen diving under water. For-
bush (1912, p. 323) gives the following account of such a performance:
"In September, 1876, I saw a wounded bird of this species when pur-
sued, dive into deep water from the shore of the Charles River [Massa-
chusetts] and fly off under water, using its wings somewhat as a bird
would use them in the air. All its plumage was covered with bubbles
of air, Avhich caught the light until the bird appeared as if studded
with sparkling gems as it si)ed away into the depth of the dark river."

Three Spotted Sandpipers were closely observed by Grinnell (MS)
along the Merced River in Yosemite Valley earty in June, 1915. They
moved about in the shallow water at the edge of the river or on the
gravel never farther than a foot or two from the water, walking
rapidly a few steps, and then stopping suddenly to secui-e some bits of
food sighted among the pebbles. While a bird was thus occupied the
hinder portion of the body was continually bobbed up and down at
regular intervals of a second or two, and while it was walking the
head underwent a rapid fore-and-aft movement in unison with the
tread of the feet. Two of the birds seemed by their actions to be
males, and as this was just at the beginning of the mating season
there was considerable rivalry between them. After much maneuver-
ing, one of these birds pitched in and drove the other away. Mean-
while the third individual, presumably a female, fed about uncon-
cernedly in the vicinity. After routing his rival the successful suitor
approached the female and strutted about her, holding his body in a
peculiarly erect posture and partially spreading his wings and tail.
The object of his attentions held shyly aloof, with the feathers of her
body closely appressed giving her a smart, trim appearance. She
gave no other indication that his presence or actions were in any way
noticed, except that now and then the barred outer feathers of her
tail were slightly spread apart.

On their nesting grounds Spotted Sandpipers not infrequently
perch on objects well above the ground, such as clods of earth,
boulders, and fence posts. Such stations, however, are not long held,
as the birds are of a nervous temperament, and must keep moving,
especially at this critical period of the year.

Nesting records of the Spotted Sandpiper in California are fairly
numerous. The breeding range extends southward at least to Santa
Paula, A'entura County, where sets of eggs have been taken in May,
1892 and 1900 (Willett, 1912a, p. 39). Although this species usually
nests at considerable altitudes in California there are, in addition
to the Santa Paula records, at least two records for altitudes of 2,000
feet or less. Belding (MS) records nesting at Murray Creek, near

433 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOBNIA

San Andreas, Calaveras County, at 1,000 feet, and Bolander (1907,
p. 26) took sets of eggs at Lime Kiln, a little east of Speneeville,
Nevada County. From these foothill localities the species ranges up
in the Sierras almost to timber line, downy young having been taken
at Cottonwood Lakes, Inyo County, August 25, 1911 (specimens in
Mus. Vert. Zool.). Most of the recorded nestings have been from the
vicinity of Lake Tahoe and northward in the elevated lake region
northeast of the Sierran divide. The nesting season extends from
May (Willett, loc. cit.) through July, as Belding (MS) found fresh
eggs at Summit, Placer County, Julj^ 20, 1889 ; and the young birds
(in Mus. Vert. Zool.) taken at Cottonwood Lakes, Inyo County, on
August 25, 1911, were but half grown. June, chiefly the latter half
of the month, marks the height of the nesting season, as the bulk
of the records fall during that period.

Nests of the Spotted Sandpiper occupy a variety of situations.
Rocky or gravelly shores of some mountain or foothill stream, sandy
river bars inland, fresh water marshes, or the drier fields adjacent,
may be chosen. Often the eggs are placed in the shelter of a small
bunch of grass, or a tree ; again they may lie fully exposed among
pebbles on the shore. When the latter type of situation is chosen
there may be no lining whatever to the nest, but if the nest is in a
field or marsh considerable lining material in the form of grasses and
weed stems is the rule. LTsually a slight surface depression is selected
for the site.

The eggs are, so far as known, always four in a complete set, and
measure 1.24 to 1.36 inches in length by 0. 87 to 0.97 along the shorter
axis, the average being 1.28 by 0.93. The ground-color varies from
a pale cream to a rather deep buff, with superficial spots of reddish
or blackish brown and deeper ones of pale gray. The superficial spots
are usually more numerous and larger about the larger end of the
egg, and may sometimes be fused into large blotches. Deeper pur-
plish gray markings are also noticeable. From the eggs of other shore
birds of approximately the same size, and which nest in California,
those of the Spotted Sandpiper may be distinguished as follows:
from eggs of the Killdeer by their distinctly smaller size, from those
of the Wilson Phalarope by less profuse markings and the brownish
rather than blackish cast of the superficial spots. Eggs of the Snowy
Plover are decidedly smaller in size, much paler in color effect, and
less pointedly pear-shaped, than those of the Spotted Sandpiper.

The two sexes participate in the duty of incubation. When flushed
from the nest, the bird flutters away as if wounded, uttering feeble
peeping notes (L. Kellogg, MS). Instances are related of old birds
carrying downy young to places of safety by grasping them between
their thighs, or in their bills (Bartsch, 1901, pp. 143ff.).

SPOTTED SANDPIPER 437

The young run about with remarkable ease and swiftness ahnost
as soon as they are out of their shells. When danger approaches
they immediately, upon an alarm signal from their parents, run and
hide themselves, squatting close to the ground, and there remain per-
fectly immovable, resembling small drab-colored stones, each with a
single streak of black down the middle. If a young bird finds itself
discovered, and an attempt is made to take it, it runs with great
celerity, uttering the most plaintive cries.

At the same time the parents exhibit symptoms of distress and
counterfeit lameness with great skill (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway,
1884, I, p. 304;).

A brood of three downy young of this species was observed in the
edge of the pine woods at Tenaya Lake, Yosemite National Park, on
July 29, 1915. Even at this early age they displayed the bobbing
movement of the hinder parts which is so characteristic of the adults,
and performed it every few seconds as they ran through the grass ; at
longer intervals the whole head and fore parts were bobbed abruptly
upwards in the manner of a Willet (Storer, MS).

At Redondo, Los Angeles County, December 7, 1913, Law (1914,
p. 93) took three Spotted Sandpipers all of which had parts of the
feet or legs amputated. This observer suggests that the mutilation
may be due to the birds having been seized by crabs and that the feet
were twisted off in their efforts to escape. Of course mussels may
equally well have been the cause of the trouble.

Insects constitute the chief element of the food of the Spotted
Sandpiper when inland. These include beetles, green flies, Ma}' flies,
grasshoppers, cutworms, army worms, cabbage worms, and ants. The
stomach of a downy young examined b}^ Beal contained a small spider,
a small caterpillar, 2 tiny wasps, 2 bugs, several aquatic beetles, 7
weevils, and several larval and 10 adult carabid beetles (Judd, 1901,
p. 433).

While the fact that the Spotted Saadpiper in California rarely
visits cultivated ground prevents giving the bird positive credit as a
pest-destroyer, it is at least harmless. Neither can it be argued that
the species is in danger of extinction ; its range is broad, and even
in many well settled regions it holds its own. Yet its small size pre-
cludes it being considered proper game, either for sport or for the
table. Rather should it be given complete protection along with the
other diminutive members of its family. Its presence adds a livelj^
touch to the landscape.

438 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

Long-billed Curlew

Numenius amcnciDius Bechstein

Other names — Brown Curlew; Sickle-bill; Sickle-billed Curlew; Curve-bill;
Daddy-long-legs; Wheu-bird; Numenius americanus americanus; Numenius longi-
rostris.

Description — Adults, both sexes : Top and sides of head and neck, pale cinna-
mon brown, streaked with blackish brown, most heavily on crown; stripe from
base of upper mandible over eye and eyelids, light cinnamon, nearly or quite
unstreaked; chin and throat clear pinkish white; bill dusky brown paling to
dull flesh color on basal half of lower mandible; iris deep hazel brown; whole
back, upper tail coverts, tail, and outer surface of closed wing, coarsely and
irregularly barred or spotted with blackish brown on a light pinkish cinnamon
ground; outer webs of outer primaries and their coverts, blackish brown; shaft
of outermost primary ivory white; inner flight feathers like back but with
more cinnamon; under wing coverts and axillars, pinkish cinnamon sparsely flecked
with dusky; under surfaces of flight feathers, pale cinnamon, narrowly barred
with dusky; ground color of whole under surface of body pinkish cinnamon,
lightest on belly; foreneck and chest streaked, and sides and flanks barred,
with blackish brown, these markings few and narrow; feet and legs, light olive
gray, slightly darker at joints; nails blackish. Males: Total length 20.60-22.50
inches (523-572 mm.) (five specimens from Arizona and California); folded
wing 9.85-10.48 (250-266); bill along culmen 5.30-5.55 (134.5-140.9); tarsus
3.18-3.21 (80.8-81.5) (two specimens from California). Females: Total length
23.60-25.75 (600-653) (five specimens from New Mexico and California); folded
wing 10.71-11.41 (272-290); bill along culmen 5.00-7.12 (127.0-180.5); tarsus
3.11-3.63 (79.0-92.2) (six specimens from California). Juvenile plumage: Similar
to that of adults. Natal plumage: Ground-color of upper surface pale ochre
yellow, with irregular scattered markings of brownish black; bill about as long
as head, dusky; ground color of under surface pale orange yellow, lightest on
chin and side of neck; legs and feet (dried) pale greenish brown. Bill notably
down-curved in adults, but straight in downy young.

Marks for field identification — Large size (largest shore bird occurring
in California), long, down-curved, or sickle-shaped bill (fig. 73), and distinctly
pinkish brown coloration without contrasting white or black areas. Distinguished
from Hudsonian Curlew by larger size, proportionately longer bill, pinkish tone
of coloration, and unbarred under wing coverts and axillars; from Marbled
Godwit by larger size and longer, down-curved instead of up-curved bill; from
White-faced Glossy Ibis ("Black Curlew") by pinkish brown rather than deep
reddish brown plumage (so dark as to appear black at a distance).

Voice — A startling loud cur-lew', cur-lew', cur-lew' with a harsh quality.

Nest — Usually in dry situations, on open, usually grassy meadow or prairie
land; a slight depression lined with dried grasses and weeds.

Eggs — Normally 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, from 2.42 to 2.70 by
1.82 to 2.00 (in millimeters, 61.5 to 68.5 by 46.3 to 50.8) (averages of two sets,
eight eggs, from Montana) ; ground-color varying shades of light greenish
olive; superficial markings of dark umber, chocolate and blackish (Silloway,
1900, pp. 80, 82), with deeper-lying markings.

General distribution — North and Middle America. Breeds north to central
British Columbia, southern Alberta, southern Saskatchewan and southern Mani-
toba, south to Oklalioma, northwestern Texas, central New Mexico, southern

LONG-BILLED CURLEW 439

Arizona, and northeastern California; winters from South Carolina, Florida,
southern Louisiana and Texas, southern Arizona, and central California south
to Guatemala (modified from Cooke, 1910, p. 70).

Distribution in California — Common spring and fall migrant over the
whole state, except in the northwestern coast district and higher southern
Sierras. Winters west of the Sierras from the Mexican line north at least as
far as the latitude of San Francisco and occasionally to the head of the Sacra-
mento Valley; also east of the Sierras in the vicinity of Owens Lake; breeds
in the elevated northeastern portion of the state, west at least to Butte Valley,
Siskiyou County; observed in the San Joaquin Valley during June, though such
birds have not been shown to be breeding.

The Long-billed Curlew is the largest shore bird found in North
America, and this, together with the fact that its flesh is highly prized
by many as an article of food, has made it one of the most sought after
species of American game birds. Its large size makes it a conspicuous
mark for gunners, so that its numbers have been greatly reduced
within the past fifty years. In addition, the species does not have
the protection of a far northern breeding ground as is the case with
so many of its kind, its nesting grounds being almost entirely within
the area which lias been taken up for agricultural purposes in the
northern United States and southern Canada. Because it is a promi-
nent species in any region where it occurs, the Long-billed Curlew
has received many colloquial names. The long curved bill has given
rise to such names as Sickle-bill, Sickle-billed Curlew and Curve-bill,
while its long legs merit the name Daddy-long-legs, and its prolonged
call-note has given the appellation of Wheu-bird.

Long-billed Curlews are present in California throughout the year,
but not continually in any one locality. During the winter the species
is present in the San Joaquin Valley north to Stockton and occasion-
ally to the head of the Sacramento Valley (Belding, MS), while
along the seacoast it occurs at the same season at least as far north
as the latitude of San Francisco, and east of the Sierras has been
recorded in December at Owens Lake (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 24).
It has not yet been reported in winter from the deserts of south-
eastern California, although during the same season, it does occur
in fair numbers in the coastal district of southern California west of
the mountains.

In southern California northward migration occurs chiefly during
April (Willett, 1912a, p. 39). Fall migration sets in during July,
as birds of this species were observed off Monterey, July 17, 1894
(Loomis, 1895, p. 189) and during the same month at San Pedro
(Cooper in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 312) ; but they
do not seem to reach inland spots such as the shores of San Francisco
Bay until August or September (W. E. Bryant in Belding, MS; Grin-
nell and Storer, MS). Summering individuals have been found in the

440

GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

San Joaquin Valley during June (Gold-
man, 1908&, p. 203; Lamb and Howell,
1913, p. 116; J. Mailliard, 1904, p. 16) ;
there is but one definite nesting record for the
species in California: Butte Valley, Siskiyou
County (Feilner, 1865, p. 423), although birds
seen at Goose Lake, Modoc County, June 3,
1910, were probably nesting (W. P. Taylor,
MS).

Size is in itself usually sufficient to dis-
tinguish the Long-billed Curlew from other
shore birds occurring in California. In addi-
tion the very long, sickle-shaped bill (fig. 73)
and distinctly pinkish cinnamon coloration,
without conspicuous barring on under wing
coverts, the total lack of contrasting black and
white, and the startlingly shrill cur-lew', cur-
lew call-note are useful in field identification.
The only species of waders occurring in Cali-
fornia witli which the Long-billed Curlew
might be confused are the Hudsonian Curlew,
Marbled Godwit, and "Black Curlew"
(White-faced Glossy Ibis), all birds of fairly
large size. From the first it is distinguished
by larger size, much longer bill (compare
fig. 74), pinkish rather than grayish colora-
tion, and unbarred under wing coverts. From
the Godwit it is separable by larger size, and
a distinctly down-curved instead of slightly
up-curved bill. From the Ibis it may be
known by its pinkish brown rather than black-
appearing coloration.

Although in structure a typical shore bird,
the Long-billed Curlew seems to be equally
at home on the sandy ocean beach, the salt
or fresh water marsh, the inland meadow, or
the dry prairie of the interior. In any of
these habitats at the right season it is to be
met with in small flocks of from four or five
to a dozen or twenty individuals. Formerly,
before it had been extensively hunted for the
market, larger flocks were commonly met with
in the winter time, but these are of infrequent
occurrence nowadavs. Beck (MS) records

LONG-BILLED CURLEW 441

seeing about 500 birds of this species at Los Banos, Merced County,
on January 3, 1912, but does not state whether they were all in one
flock ; this is the only record known to the writers of large numbers
being seen at one locality in this state during recent years. On August
5, 1910, near Cedarville, Modoc County, W. P. Taylor (MS) noted
about twenty of these birds scattered about over the fields which
were covered in part with shallow water. The birds flushed at very
long range, flying slowly, and continually uttered their insistent call-
notes.

Newberry (1857, p. 99) relates of this curlew that in his march
through the Sacramento Valley and northward he did not meet with
it until lie had crossed the main Sierras and had come down into the
plains bordering the Pit River above the upper canon. He says:
"Here [tlie first week of August, 1855] we found them in immense
numbers, and they formed a valuable addition to our bill of fare. This
prairie is entirely covered with water during the wet season, as is
proven by the myriads of aquatic shells . . . scattered over the ground
in the grass : and as it does not dry up so completely as the other
valleys, the curlews apparently pass the summer there."

On the marsh or tide flats the Long-billed Curlew as it probes for
food, mingles freely with other shore birds of large and small size.
The long bill and legs enable it to work for its food in places covered
by several inches of water and give it a larger feeding area along the
shore than is available to many of the smaller waders. Birds observed
by the authors September 26, 1914, on the Alameda County shores
of San Francisco Bay were mingling with Marbled Godwits, Western
Willets, and Long-billed Dowitchers. The Long-bills stood viewing
us with one eye, and with their bodies always turned sideways, as
though keeping in position to fly away should danger threaten. On
this date a mixed flock of Grodwits, Willets and Long-bills aggregating
forty individuals came flying along the beach. One of the curlews
being shot the flock swung about and returned, repeating this
maneuver twice and keeping up a deafening chorus of calls. The
wounded bird attracted the attention of several of the curlews which
flew down and hovered close above it. This suggests how pot-hunters
may have readily decimated the flocks of earlier days. The flight of
the Long-bill is easy and graceful, with slow regular wing-beats.

Heermann who observed this species here during the middle of
the last century says (1859, p. 66) :

These birds arrive in flocks in California [in the central valleys] during
September, resorting to the fields and open prairies, where they find an
abundant supply of insects. Wild in their nature, always on the alert, and
the prairie offering no undulations behind which the hunter can approach
unseen, they are one of the most difficult game birds to secure. Their first

442 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

whistle of alarm startles at once the whole flock, which, taking to wing,
speeds away a long distance before again settling down. Abundant in fall
and winter, they migrate to the northern regions in spring for the purposes
of incubation.

The following account of the habits of the Long-billed Curlew
is condensed from that by Wickershara (3902, pp. 353-356) who
observed the species on the southeastern coast of the United States
and in the southern Mississippi Valley. Along the seacoast these
birds spend the day on sandy flats left bare by the receding tides and
here probe for the worms and other forms of animal life which con-
stitute their food. In the interior their habits are quite different.
Here they live on open prairie land, often far from w-ater. While
feeding the birds bob up and down at intervals. As evening ap-
proaches they become more restless, bobbing up and down more fre-
quently and more rapidly, feeding is suspended, the birds jump from
the ground with a loud whistle and fly to join others, and together
they go to some distant marsh or pond. When the resting place is
approached the leader whistles and is answered by the members of
the flock ; then they all drop, sweeping forward and upward, and
with wings almost touching above and legs outstretched, they alight
quietly. For perhaps five minutes there is no movement, and then
the flock breaks and its members run about the shore or wade into
the water to drink, after which they preen themselves. Then they
quiet down, draw one leg up under the body, tuck the head under
one wing, neatly fold the other, and thus settle themselves for the
night. The return to the feeding grounds is made in the early morn-
ing before daylight, except that when the land is covered with fog
they depart at a later hour.

In the fall the birds are, or were, seen in large flocks, sometimes
numbering hundreds of individuals ; they then seem to be more erratic
in their movements and behavior than at any other time of the year,
save perhaps just before the nesting season. In winter these flocks
are broken up, two to twenty being most commonly found together.
It is rare that a solitary bird is seen.

The nesting season of the Long-billed Curlew begins quite early.
Eggs were taken on April 30, 1876, at Camp Harney, Harney County,
Oregon, and from this date the season extends until well into June,
young just hatched having been recorded on June 23, 1895, at Cody,
Nebraska (Cooke, 1910, p. 72). Feilner (1865, pp. 423, 428) records
finding numerous nests in Butte Valley, in northeastern Siskiyou
County, California, May 21, 1860. This is, to date, the sole published
breeding record for the species in California, although it is almost
certain that it nests also in portions of Modoc County. Feilner (1865,
p. 428) says: ". . . In Butte Valley, particularly the western por-

LONG-BILLED CURLEW 443

tion of it, which is swampy, they appeared to be numerous, eggs and
nests being abundant. The nests are built of dry grass, placed in a
hollow previously made in the dry ground. The nests usually con-
tain four eggs, nicely arranged, with the pointed end toward the
center." One nest, with three eggs, was preserved; but it is stated
that all the nests when found, contained four eggs. This set of three
eggs (now no. 3382 U. S. National Museum) measures 2.59 to 2.66
by 1.71 to 1.77, and averages 2.62 by 1.74, being thus slightly shorter
than the eggs described below. The ground color of this set is olive
buff, with rather small and well scattered spots and scrawls of dark
olive brown and deeper-lying ones of pale mouse gray.

The eggs, which in completed sets are almost invariably four in
number, are pear-shaped and measure in inches, 2.42 to 2.70 by 1.82 to
2.00 (average of two sets, eight eggs, from Montana). The ground-
color is light greenish olive of various shades, and the superficial spots
are of dark umber, chocolate and blackish (Silloway, 1900, pp. 80,
82) ; there are also deeper and duller markings. From the eggs of
the Willet, which those of the Long-bill most closely resemble, the
latter may be distinguished by larger size, being one-third of an inch
longer, and by their being more pear-shaped, that is, more tapered
toward the small end (Davie, 1900, p. 151).

Silloway (1900, pp. 79-82) says of the Long-billed Curlew on its
breeding grounds in central Montana:

After their arrival, the curlews inhabit the high, dry prairies, flying
restlessh' from one portion to another, showing a tendency to associate in
I-airs, though as couples, these birds are not inseparable. In the mating season,
one of the pair is likely to follow the other in a few moments, when the first
bird has flown far over the prairie to a more distant station. At any time the
loud, prolonged whistling of these birds, either when on the ground or a-wing,
will call attention to their movements, warning the disturber of their domain
that his presence is known and that his actions will be watched with the
closest interest.

At times a pair will sail

. . . upward in company a-breast of the wind, moving in perfect accord
on wide-spread, motionless pinions curved gently downward, within several
feet of each other, then fluttering downward side by side or one in advance
of the other, again to sail upward, uttering the characteristic whistles.

This whistle has been compared to the squeaking of brakes on a
freight train. At times these birds will attack certain of the hawks
and are themselves molested by attacks from some of the smaller
perching birds.

When an intruder approaches the vicinity of the nest the male
will fly directly toward him and swerve upward only in time to prevent
a collision. This habit of the male can be used to advantage in

444 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

searching for nests as he will almost invariably "point" away from
the nest. The female, squatted close to the ground, will remain on
the nest until the observer is quite near (and in exceptional instances
can be stroked while on the nest), but thereupon she will flutter away,
performing the broken-wing ruse, or run along the ground with
lowered head and bill almost touching the surface (Silloway, loc. cit.).
In Siskiyou County, California, Feilner (1865, p. 428) relates
that "When driven from the nest by the hunting of the dog it dis-
plays great sagacity by leading the dog a circuitous path from the
nest for some distance and then suddenly flying off. At first it hops
or flutters along like a young bird, and just when the dog is about
to pounce upon it, off it flies, uttering its note, cooi, cooi, sounding
like a contraction of go away." Bent (1907&, p. 427) records find-
ing downy young on the prairies of Saskatchewan, June 1, 1905, and
June n, and 18, 1906:

When large enough to run the downy young are adepts in the art of hiding;
they seem to disappear entirely even in the short grass; after hunting care-
fully, for fully half an hour, over a limited area where we had seen one vanish,
we gave it up and walked away, when we were surprised to see the youngster
get up and run away from the very spot [where] we had been hunting hardest.
Both parents always showed remarkable devotion and solicitude in utter disregard
of their own safety. We saw an interesting exhibition of this one day which
probably succeeded in saving the lives of the young from a prowling coyote.
The curlew was decoying the coyote away by feigning lameness, flopping along
on the ground a few yards ahead of him, but always managing to barely escape
him. We watched them for some time until they finally disappeared over a
hill, fully half a mile from where we first saw them.

In Montana, Cameron (1907, pp. 254-255) says that if the female
flutters along the ground it indicates that she has eggs close by, but
if she flies about the intruder the young are hatched and in the
vicinity. After the young can fly, at the end of July, old and young
begin to gather together, and flocks of as many as one hundred are
formed prior to migration. Their characteristic wariness then becomes
evident again.

Wickersham (1902, p. 355) states that the food of the Long-billed
Curlew in the East consists of crawfish, small crabs, snails, peri-
winkles, toads, worms, larvae, grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, cater-
pillars, and at times spiders, flies and butterflies. Worms and larvae
are pulled out of the ground by means of the long bill, the tip of
which is thought by some writers to be sensitive and to be used like
that of the snipe in grasping things beneath the surface. Berries of
various sorts are picked from low bushes, and fl.ying insects are pur-
sued and captured on the wing. E. R. Kalmbach (in letter) states
that a few seeds of plants of the mallow family have been found in
stomachs of this bird. He doubts that butterflies are an item of
importance in the food of the Long-billed Curlew.

HUDSONIAN CUELEJV 445

When the Curlew first arrive in the fall in their winter home,
or when they have been feeding along the seashore, their tlesh is not
considered to be ver}^ palatable ; but inland, where they feed on worms,
insects and the like, it takes on a very fine flavor and the birds fatten
considerably. It was when in this condition that they were much
sought after in earlier years. The fact that the flesh is dark dis-
counts their value in the estimate of some epicures, but the taste of
it leaves nothing to be desired. Two female birds taken on the
Alameda marsh weighed 28 and 29 ounces, respectively, so that in
quantity of flesh this shore bird compares Avell with the smaller duckg.

All available accounts place the Long-billed Curlew among the
species of shore birds which have suffered great diminution in their
numbers. This is due to two causes : First, persistent .shooting through
too long an open season for a great many years, and with a large or
uncontrolled bag limit, and second, restriction of its relatively south-
ern breeding range by the advances of agriculture and stock raising.
Among the more desirable waders the Long-bill is distinctive in being
the only one nesting exclusively in the temperate latitudes where man
has taken extensive possession of the ground. Its large body, of a
size comparable with that of a teal, and the excellence of its flesh,
which is stated to compare favorably with that of any other shore
bird, make it an ideal game bird and entitle it to the most careful
consideration. After the present sorely needed closed season pre-
scribed by the federal government has expired, this Curlew should
be adequately protected by a short season and small bag limit, so that
it may continue in its role of benefactor, to hunter, epicure, and
nature-lover, in all the years to come.

Hudsonian Curlew

Numenius hudsonicus Latliam

Other names — Jack; Jack Curlew; Short-billed Curlew; Curve-billed Snipe.

Description — Adults and immatures, both sexes : Top and back of head
abruptly dark brown, divided along mid-line by narrow stripe of white or buflfy;
stripe from side of bill running over eye, whitish, with or without narrow
dark brown streaking; another stripe, running from bill through eye to ear
region, below the one just described, dark brown; eyelids white; side of head
below and behind eye, and whole neck, buff streaked with dark brown; chin
and fore part of throat, pure white; bill blackish, shading to light brownish
on basal third of lower mandible; iris brown; back, scapulars, rump, tertials
and outer surface of closed wing, mixed light and dark brown, the lighter
color appearing as marginal spots on the feathers, and many of the feathers
having dark shaft streaks; upper tail coverts and tail, barred light and dark
brown, in effect not much different from back; outer primaries, blackish brown,
outermost one with ivory white shaft; inner ones and secondaries, barred with
lighter shades of brown and buff; under coverts of wing, and axillars, irre-

446 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

gularly barred with dark brown and pinkish buff; under surface of flight
feathers dusky, with triangular cross markings of dull buff; foreneck, breast
and sides, streaked rather narrowly with brown on a pale buff, or pinkish
buff, ground; middle of under surface pale buff or whitish; flanks and under
tail coverts, pinkish buff, coarsely and irregularly barred with brown; feet
dark lead color. Males: Total length 16.60-18.50 inches (422-470 mm.) (seven
specimens); folded wing 9.22-9.81 (234-249); bill along culmen 2.75-3.38; (69.8-
85.8); tarsus 2.18-2.45 (55.5-62.1) (ten specimens). Females: Total length
17.75-18.75 (452-477) (four specimens); folded wing 9.45-10.30 (240-262);
bill along culmen 3.22-3.87 (81.7-98.3); tarsus 2.24-2.35 (56.8-59.6) (six speci-
mens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Like that of adults, but the
light spots on upper surface are larger and these spots and the whole lower
surface are more pervaded with pinkish buff. The immature winter plumage
results from fading and wearing of the juvenile plumage; the annual molt
appears to occur in early spring. Natal flumage : Not known to us.

Marks for field identification — Large size, long, down-curved bill (fig. 74),
grayish brown rather than reddish-appearing general coloration, distinctly
barred axillars and under surface of wing, and lack of contrasting white and
black areas.

Voice — Usual call a series of clear penetrating staccato whistles; a low
whistled two-note, Tcur-leiv ; a rolling note, lasting six or seven seconds (For-
bush, 1912, p. 330; Mackay, 1892&, p. 347).

Nest — On tundra, in a low swale, often with water at bases of the grass
clumps; a saucer-shaped depression in the top of a small hummock of grass or
moss (Grinnell, 1900, p. 28).

Eggs — 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 2.22 to 2.54 by 1.61 to 1.70 (in
millimeters, 56.3 to 64.5 by 40.8 to 43.2), and averaging 2.36 by 1.64 (60.0 by
41.6); ground color bluish pea-green, olive buff or light olive green, with super-
ficial dots, spots and blotches of light to dark brown, and deeper ones of
drab or lavender; markings most numerous about larger end (Grinnell, loc. cit.).

General distribution — North and South America. Breeds on coast of
Alaska from mouth of Yukon Eiver to Kotzebue Sound and on coast of northern
Mackenzie; winters chiefly on Pacific coast from Lower California to southern
Honduras, and from Ecuador to southern Chile ; also on Atlantic coast of South
America from British Guiana to mouth of Amazon Eiver; migrates mainly along
the Pacific and Atlantic coasts; rare in the interior (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910,
p. 125; Cooke, 1910, pp. 72-73).

Distribution in California — Abundant spring and fall migrant along the
seacoast and through Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. Spring migration
occurs from late February to early May, and fall migration from first week
in July until well into September or October. One record for November, at
Morro Bay, San Luis Obispo County (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 24), and one for
December on Santa Cruz Island (Linton, 1908b, p. 126). Not known to winter
within our latitudes. Non-breeding birds are occasionally seen here in summer.

The Hudsonian, or Jack Curlew as this species is popularly known,
is, today, by far the most plentiful of the three species of Curlew
which formerly abounded in many parts of North America. The
Hudsonian 's present superiority in numbers is, however, due to the
other two forms having been proportionately much more reduced ;
the Long-billed has been decimated, while the Eskimo is now almost,

HUDSONIAN CUELEW

447

if not totally, extinct. With a breeding ground on the Arctic shores
of our continent, and a migration route which is chiefly coastal, and a
habit of moving about in small flocks, combined with a wary disposi-
tion, the Hudsonian has been able to cope more successfully than
either of the other two with altering conditions and new dangers.

In California the Hudsonian Curlew is an abundant spring and
fall migrant along the coast and through the Sacramento-San Joaqviin
Valley. The northward movement begins in late February, as Tyler
(19136, p. 30) has noted the species in the vicinity of Fresno about
this time; but the bulk of the birds does not appear until a month or
so later. The last birds in the spring usually pass northward along
the coast of southern California in early May ; a flock of twenty-five
was seen at Nigger Slough, Los Angeles County, as late as May 25,
1907 (Willett, 1912a, p. 39). During June small flocks have been

3997 0.0.

Fig. 74. Side of bill of female Hudsonian Curlew. Natural size.
Note much smaller size as compared with female Long-billed Curlew (fig. 7.3).

noted near Santa Barbara on June 2, 4, 9 and 25 (Bowles and Howell,
1912, p. 10; Dawson, 1915, p. 207). It is a question whether or not
such birds are really enroute to their breeding ground; more likely
they are non-breeders lingering here throughout the nesting season,
to go back south with the return stream of their fellows.

Migrants, unquestionably southbound, appear early in July, num-
bers of birds having been observed along the southern California
coast by the tenth of that month (Willett, loc. cit.) ; they become com-
mon by the middle or latter part of the month. This movement lasts
until well along in September by which time the bulk of the species
seems to have passed, although some linger until the middle of October,
and a flock w^as seen at Morro Bay, San Luis Obispo County, in
November, 1891 (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 24). There is no evidence
of the wintering of the species north of the Mexican line, unless the
capture of a single bird on Santa Cruz Island, December 8, 1907
(Linton, 1908&, p. 126) is of significance in this regard.

The Eskimo Curlew {Numenius horealis) has been reported from
California three times (Heermann, 1859, p. 66; Holterhoff, 1884, p.
393; Swenk, 1915, p. 31) ; but the first and second records are cer-

448 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOBNIA

tainly, and tlie third very probably, referable to the Hudsonian Cur-
lew. The specimen which was the basis of the second record was ex-
amined by Belding (1892C; p. 257) and pronounced by him to be the
Hudsonian, while the third record is based upon sight identification by
an eastern hunter.

From most of the other shore birds occurring in California the
Hudsonian Curlew may be distinguished by its large size, down-
curved bill (fig. 74), grayish brown coloration and by the absence
of any striking black or white patches. From the Long-billed Cur-
lew it may be told by its slightly smaller size, shorter, less curved
bill, grayish rather than pinkish appearing coloration, and barred
axillars and wing lining, and from the Marbled God wit, a bird of the
same size as the Hudsonian Curlew, the latter may be known by its
down-curved rather than up-curved bill, grayish rather than cinna-
mon coloration, and barred under wing lining and axillars. From
the Avocet and Stilt the Hudsonian Curlew may be known by its
down-curved bill, and by the absence of striking patches of black
and white. The closely related Eskimo Curlew, a species once abun-
dant in migration on the Atlantic coast and Great Plains, and often
confused with the Hudsonian Curlew, is distinguished by its much
smaller size (folded wing only 8.00-8.50 inches), and shorter bill
(culmen only 2.25-2.50) and tarsus (1.70-1.80), and by the wholly
unbarred inner webs of its primary wing feathers. The latter char-
acter is unfailing. As previously stated, there has never been an
authenticated instance of the occurrence of the Eskimo Curlew in
California.

The voice of the Hudsonian Curlew is, like that of its relatives, loud
and insistent. Mackay (1892&, p. 347) says of these birds on the
Atlantic coast :

They make two notes, one a very clear, penetrating, staccato whistle,
repeated four or five times in quick succession, and which is very far-reaching.
It is given when flying, also when alarmed, and on taking flight. The other
consists of two, low, straight whistles or notes, when a flock is alighting.
Flocks also make a rolling note lasting as long as it would take to count six or
seven. The sound is similar to that produced by a boy's lead bird whistle
filled with water. It is uttered when the birds approach, and are over a marsh
or feeding ground, at an altitude of sixty or seventy yards. I have never heard
of its being made by single birds.

The Hudsonian Curlew is a bird of the marsli and seashore and
is not so often found in dry situations as its larger relative, the Long-
billed. Like the latter, the Hudsonian is notably wary and at the
slightest hint of danger is off on the wing with a loud cry to warn
the others of its kind in the vicinity. Along the seacoast the birds
resort to the adjacent salt marshes when driven from the open beach
or mud flats by a rising tide.

HUDSON IAN CUELEW 449

When a floek of these birds is on the ground where they have been feeding,
they become scattered, twenty-five or thirty birds covering fifteen or twenty
yards' space. At such times they do not appear to be particularly active,
moving about in a rather slow, stately manner, although 1 have once in a
while seen them run. During such times I have occasionally noticed one or
more birds fly away from the flock, although undisturbed. At other times
I have seen a single one or a pair pass over the flock which was resting on
the ground and neither pay the slightest attention to the other. . . .

When passing to and from their feeding grounds they usually fly at an
altitude of about thirty yards, unless it is quite windy, when they keep within
a few feet of the ground, or water, if they are passing over it. I have seen
them flying only a few feet above the water during their migration south
in July. As the season advances the birds frequent the beach grass near the
shore, and at such times the j'oung birds can be driven up to with horse and
wagon; but rarely, if ever, can the adult birds be so approached. . . . When
on migration they fly similarly to Geese and Ducks at such times. ... I have
never seen . . . young birds in flocks on Nantucket Island [Massachusetts],
nor associated with the adults, there usually being not over five or six birds,
or even less, together.

. . . When noted in the spring it is generally on very fine, warm, and
clear mornings. They are seldom seen in stormy weather, but usually before
it. That these birds are powerful and enduring fliers is evidenced by their long,
pointed wings (Mackay, 1892b, pp. 348, 349, writing from Massachusetts).

In througli flight, the flocks pass high overhead in regular forma-
tion, often in the form of a V. The individuals show a slow steady
beat of the wings. If they wish to drop lower they glide for some
distance on set wings.

Tyler (1913&, p. 30) says that in their migration through the
Fresno district they arrive in small numbers late in February and
become numerous a month later.

Their favorite resorts are large open fields where shallow ponds occur,
and in such places they often gather in large numbers. I have no definite
record of this species remaining in spring later than May 7 (1912). . . .

On the last day of one April I encountered a large flock of curlews in a
grain field, part of which was being flooded at the time with irrigation water.
. . . Approaching to within sixty yards of the big fellows as they stood bunched
at the water's edge, I concealed myself as best I could. . . . The nervous lisp-
ing that at my approach threatened to break into the clamorous, screaming
flight calls finally subsided and the birds fed and waded about in the water
or preened their feathers while standing stork-like on one leg. Suddenly T
was thrilled with a medley of subdued pipings. ... A strange nervous unrest
seemed to affect the entire group on the ground. The whistlings became
louder and . . . [presently] a curlew call from over head drew my attention
to a flock of new arrivals, nine in number, that were circling preparatory to
joining the company at the pond. . . . Mere specks they appeared, and yet
their melodious call rang clear and distinct.

Of the Hudsonian Curlew as observed at Santa Barbara, Cali-
fornia, in recent years, Torrey (1913, pp. 33-35) says:

450 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA

They go about the business as our numerous fishermen do when in search
of bait, not looking for it on the surface (though I have seen them doing
that also), but probing for it. Down goes their long, sickle-shaped bill into the
wet sand, frequently for only a fraction of its length; and often as not you
may see it bring up a squirming something that looks like a shrimp or a
prawn.

This the bird does not at once swallow, as you might have expected it to
do. Instead, it drops its prey upon the sand, picks it up and shakes it, drops
it again, and so on, the unfortunate victim all the while struggling to get free,
till suddenly a final jerk and a gulp, and it disappears down the long bill.
Of the precise reason for all these preliminaries I am ignorant. Possibly the
crustacean must be held in a certain position before it can be comfortably
swallowed. Certainly it is not killed in the process, for it wriggles to the last
moment.

I have known a flock of fifteen curlews to take possession of a certain
short stretch of the beach, with nothing but a few rods of low sand-hills
between them and the noisy asphalt boulevard, and hold it for the greater
part of a day, flying out to sea for a little distance when driven to it by too
close a passer-by, and immediately returning. That was a day, no doubt, when
the fishing was exceptionally good. . . .

On the other hand, I have seen within the same week a flock of eighty
curlews on a lonesome stretch of beach beyond the city limits — and the city's
protection — that would not allow me to approach within two or three gunshots.

A flock of curlews, for example, feeding, heads down, upon the sand, will
discover you instantly on the edge of a cliff overlooking the beach, say at an
elevation of fifty feet, and be off on the wing almost before you know it, no
matter how slow and noiseless your approach may have been; whereas, had
you been walking on the beach itself, in full sight, the chances are that they
would have suffered you to come moderately close upon them without betraying
any marked uneasiness. It has become a habit with them, apparently, to keep
a sharp lookout upward, perhaps because their more usual enemies come from
that quarter (Torrey, 1913, p. 85).

The breeding grounds of the Hudsonian Curlew lie far to the
northward, on the tundras which border the Arctic seas. The nest-
ing season extends from about the first of June to the first week
in July, as Grinnell (1900, p. 28) found a heavily incubated set in
the Kowak River delta, Kotzebue Sound, Alaska, June 14, 1899, and
Chapman (1912, p. 262) reports eggs taken east of the Anderson
River, Mackenzie, July 4. The nests are, according to Grinnell (loc.
cit.), always situated in ". . . a wet swale or low place in the tundra,
in which the clumps of grass or moss were often surrounded at their
bases with water. . . . The nest is simply a saucer-shaped depression
in the top of a low hummock of moss or grass." The eggs are fully
exposed to view but their coloration is usually such that they are
exceedingly difficult to discover. Twenty eggs measured, in inches,
2.22 to 2.54 by 1.61 to 1.70, and averaged 2.36 by 1.64. The ground-
color is very variable, ranging from a bluish pea-green through olive-
buff to light olive-green. The superficial markings consist of dots,

HUDSONIAN CUBLEW 451

spots and blotches of brown with deeper markings of pale lavender
and drab (Grinnell, 1900, p. 28).

Of their nesting habits in the Kotzebue Sound region of Alaska,
Grinnell (1900, pp. 27-28) says:

They were ordinarily met with on the open stretches of tundra, often where
these alternate with strips of timber and lakes. Where such perches are
afforded, solitary birds on watch would be seen sitting on the tips of isolated
dwarfed spruces or even willow bushes. As soon as an intruder entered the
domains of a pair of curlew, the bird on watch would give the alarm by a
loud, ringing call-note, and soon both birds would fly to meet him. As long
as the intruder remains in the vicinity, the pair of birds keep flying restlessly
to and ^ro, now and then alighting on the ground and walking about, but most
of the time keeping up their monotonous, rolling whistle. This was the only
note I heard, except earlier in the season a long, faint whistle like that of a
ilistant locomotive, uttered by the male bird while sailing slowly, on set,
motionless wings over the nesting grounds. This is probably their song-flight,
though it is certainly very simple.

Only by remaining qniet for a considerable period of time at some
distance from the supposed nest site and observing the movements of
the parent birds after their fear had subsided, was the collector able
definitely to locate any nest. When the birds had quieted down for
a time, it was usually possible by rushing toward the spot to flush
one of them directly from the nest and thus locate its position. As
long as a person is at the nest, the parents fly close about, almost
deafening him with their loud, penetrating cries. If anything, the
male is the more demonstrative bird of the two.

Mackay states (1892&. pp. 347, 348) that young birds in the fall
are not so wary as adults and are more easily decoyed. The cries of
a wing-wounded bird are usually sufficient to recall the other members
of a flock and they are then less mindful of danger. Hunters take
advantage of this habit and thereby increase their levy on each
passing flock.

Along the seashore the Hudsonian Curlew^ feeds upon fiddler crabs
and sand spiders and probably many other marine animals. Inland
its diet includes insect larvae, grasshoppers and beetles. Being a
more maritime species it is not so important agriculturally as is the
Long-billed Curlew. However, Belding (MS) states that in April,
1884, flocks foraged on the mesas back from San Diego Bay, where
insects were abundant. In the north, during the late summer and
early fall months, they feed extensively on various berries which
grow^ on the tundras, and their plumage sometimes shows stains from
the berry juice.

The flesh of the Hudsonian Curlew is not so highly prized as is
that of the Long-billed, probably because its more maritime habitat
results in its taking for food more of the salt-water forms of animal

452 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

life. Nevertheless when fat the Hudsonian is by many people con-
sidered a delicacy. But from a sporting standpoint its chief claim
comes from its wariness and the resulting difficulty of securing a
sizable bag. Many of the hunters along the southern California
coast use a .22 rifle when after this game, finding that this affords
better sport than if a shotgun were used. With either gun, the bag
is not liable to be very large, as the birds are well schooled in the
art of self-preservation, quickly learning to avoid dangerous stretches
of the beach. This habit, and the restricted, seacoast paths of migra-
tion, and the remoteness of the breeding grounds, have all doubtless
been factors in its preservation. The Hudsonian Curlew will prob-
ably remain with us longer than any other of our large shore birds,
and, with adequate provisions for protection, may even constitute a
permanent game asset.

. Black-bellied Plover

Squatarola squatarola (Linnaeus)

Other names — Black-breasted Plover; Beetle-head; Bull-head, part; Whistl-
ing Field Plover; Swiss Plover; Charadrius squatarola; Charadrius helveticus ;
Squatarola helvetica.

Description — Adult male in late spring and summer: Forehead, broad stripe
over eye, and eyefids, pure white; top of head and hind neck grayish white,
with some mottling of blackish on back of head; sides of head, chin and throat,
continuously deep black; bill slate black; iris dark hazel brown; feathers of
back, rump and tertials, brownish black broadly tipped with drab or white,
giving a conspicuously mottled effect; upper tail coverts and bases of tail
feathers, chiefly white; terminal portions of tail feathers barred with varying
shades of brown, the latter color lightest on outermost ones; outer surface of
closed wing brownish drab, the feathers irregularly margined with white;
primaries and primary coverts brownish black, the former with much white
on inner webs toward bases; shafts of primaries white toward tip; edge of
wing mottled light brown and white; lining of wing white, except hindmost
under coverts which together with much of under surfaces of flight feathers
are dusky; axillars solidly black; shoulder region conspicuously white in con-
tinuation with stripe over eye and behind ear; breast, sides, and forepart of
belly, solidly black, continuous with that of throat and chin (this black may
be interrupted by scattered white feathers which remain over from the winter
plumage) ; rest of under surface white, save that outermost under tail coverts
have black spots on their outer edges; feet and legs black. Adult female in
late spring and summer: Similar to adult male at same season, but white mark-
ings on head and back dingy or replaced by drab, and black of lower surface
duller, with brown tinge. Adults and immatures, both sexes, in late fall, winter
and early spring: Top of head, hind neck, back and rump, drab brown, the
feathers more or less narrowly tipped with white; forehead, stripe to and over
eye, and eyelids, dull white, more or less flecked with ashy brown; sides of
head and foreneck whitish narrowly streaked with ashy brown; chin white;
rump, upper and under tail coverts, and tail, as in summer; outer surface of

BLACK-BELLIED PLQVEB 453

closeil wing, drab biowu, with rather extensive white feather-tippings aud
edgings; rest of wing including black axillars, as in summer adult; under
surface white, with dull and narrow streaking or mottling of ashy brown on
breast and sides. Males: Total length 12.00-13.15 inches (305-334 mm.) (eight
specimens); folded wing 7.52-8.00 (191-203); bill along culmen 1.17-1.26 (29.7-
32.1); tarsus 1.80-2.00 (45.6-50.7) (ten specimens). Females: Total length
11.87-13.65 (302-347) (seven specimens); folded wing 7.28-7.95 (185-202);
bill along culmen 1.14-1.25 (28.9-31.8); tarsus 1.85-2.04 (47.0-51.7) (ten speci-
mens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Top of head, hind neck, "back,
rump and outer surface of closed wing, dark drab brown, the feathers margin-
ally spotted at tips with white or pale bufiPy yellow; side of head and fore-
neck dingy white, narrowly streaked with ashj' brown; chin white; upper tail
coverts white tipped with buffy yellow; tail as in summer adults save for
slight buffy tinge on white portions; wing and axillars as in summer adult;
breast and sides dingy or buflfj'^ white, indistinctly streaked and mottled with
light brown; rest of under surface white; legs and feet lead-colored. Natal
plumage: "Upper parts, olive-yellow, spotted with black; hind neck and lower
parts, white; black lines on side of crown, from bill to eye, and below eye"
(Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 457).

M.\RK.s FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION — Moderately large size (fully twice bulk
of Killdeer), big head, short stout black bill, strikingly black axillars (fig. 3),
almost white upper tail coverts, and short white band on spread wing; in addi-
tion, in spring, black under parts, except for abruptly white lower belly and
under tail coverts, together with absence of any golden color on upper surface.

Voice — A loud, ringing irher-rell, of a distinctly mellow quality (Grinnell,
MS).

Nest — On bare ground or in short grass of tundra; a mere depression spar-
ingly lined with dried grasses (MacFarlane, 1891, p. 429; and authors).

Eggs — 3 to 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.90 to 2.30 by 1.40 to 1.47
(in millimeters, 48.3 to 58.5 by 35.6 to 37.3); ground color light greenish or
rufous drab; markings dark umber or bister (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway,
1884, I, p. 137).

General distribution — Almost cosmopolitan. Breeds on Arctic coast of
America from Point Barrow to Melville Peniusula north of Hudson Bay, and
on Arctic coast of Eurasia. Winters from California, Louisiana and North
Carolina south to Brazil and Peru, and from the Mediterranean to South
Africa and in India and Australia. In migration occurs throughout most of
the intervening areas, although ordinarily less abundant inland than along
the seacoast (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 127).

Distribution in California — Fairly abundant spring and fall migrant along
the coast and in limited numbers in the San Joaquin Valley; winter visitant
in fair numbers at least as far north as Los Banos, Merced County, and San
Francisco Bay, and once reported in winter from the moath of the Eel River,
Humboldt County (C. H. Townsend, 1887, p. 199). Spring migration occurs
chiefly during April and May, fall migration from July to October (Willett,
1912o, p. 40; and authors).

To hunters and naturalists who frequent the seashore no shore
bird is better known than the Black-bellied Plover. This is due to
its widespread distribution, striking coloration, frequent occurrence
in large flocks, and other distinctive features. This extensive recogni-

454 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

tion has given the bird many vernacular names. In California and
elsewhere it is known as Bull-head or Beetle-head by reason of the
large size of its head ; and its clear, far-reaching note has given it
the name of Whistling Field Plover. Elsewhere than in California,
it is known as Black-breast, while the young in the fall are often
called Pale-bellies because of the lighter coloration of the under
parts.

In California the Black-bellied Plover is a spring and fall migrant,
abundant along the coast, and in fair numbers, at least in spring,
in the San Joaquin Valley. A few remain through the winter, occur-
ring inland at least as far north as Los Bafios, Merced County (Beck,
MS; specimens in Mus. Vert. Zool.), and along the coast from the
vicinity of San Francisco Bay southward. C. H. Townsend (1887,

p. 199) records the species in
December, 1885, from the mouth
of the Eel River, Humboldt
County. There are no records
at any season for the interior
of California north of Stockton.
The spring migration probably
22342 begins in March, as Beck (MS)

_. at Los Baiios, Merced County,

Fig. 75. Side of bill of Black- , -,.•-, n • i •

bellied Plover. Natural size. -neard bn^ds which were evi-

AT^f^ +„ <■ ^ 11 11 denth' in migration on March 6,

Note stout form and enlarged end .

(compare with figs. 64 and 71). 1912; but the main body passes

through during April and May.
The last depart from southern California about the middle of May
(Willett, 1912a, p. 40) ; later stragglers have twice been noted: San
Nicolas Island, June 1, 1910 (Willett, loc. cit.) ; near Santa Barbara,
June 5, 1915 (Dawson, 1915, p. 207). Observations covering five
separate years between 1904 and 1910 showed the dates of last observ-
ance of this species in the vicinity of San Francisco Bay to vary
from April 14 to May 23 (Gifford, MS).

In California the fall migration commences in July, birds having
been seen on San Francisco Bay, July 9, 1909, and July 13, 1910
(Gifford, MS). South of San Francisco the earliest fall dates are:
Monterey, July 24 and 30, 1907 (Beck, 1910, p. 71), and August 10,

1910 (specimen in Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; Santa Barbara, August 29,

1911 (Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 10) ; and Long Beach, Los Angeles
County, August 17, 1900 (specimen in Grinnell coll.). Willett (loc.
cit.) says the fall migration in southern California continues until
October 20.

From other shore birds occurring in California the Black-bellied
Plover in any plumage is easily distinguished by its moderately large

BLACK-BELLIED PLOVER 455

size (about twice the bulk of the Killdeer) big head, short stout black
bill, whitish upper tail coverts, short, white band on spread wing,
and black axillars (fig. 3). From the somewhat similar American
Golden Plover it is distinguished by its larger size, stouter bill, black
axillars, whitish upper tail coverts, ashy rather than golden cast to
upper surface, and by the presence of a white band on the spread wing.
In spring plumage, when both are extensively black on lower surface,
these two plovers may be distinguished by the presence
in the Black-bellied of extensive white markings on top
of the head, back, and upper tail coverts, and by the
clear white on lower belly and under tail coverts. In the
fall the Black-bellied Plover is most readily recognizable
by the conspicuously contrasting black rather than drab-
colored axillars. From the Wandering Tattler it is dis-
tinguishable by its short, stout bill and by the presence
of white on its wings and rump, and from the Surf-bird
by its white forehead, by the smaller amount of white on
its wing and upper tail coverts, by the broken pattern of
the upper surface, and by the tarsus being much longer
than the bill. This is the only one of our true plovers
which has a hind toe, though this digit is quite small.

The note of the Black-bellied
Plover is a loud, ringing wher-
rell, far-reaching and, at a dis-
tance, clear and mellow in qual-
ity. It has also been described as
resembling the syllables klee-er,
sometimes voiced with a quaver-
ing effect. These notes may oc-

casionallv be heard as the birds ^ig. 76. Side of tarsus and foot of

Black-bellied Plover. Natural size.
are passnig overhead at too great

an altitude for discernment by fig^Jy^/""" ^""^ *°' (compare with

the human eye.

While all the larger shore birds exhibit wariness, this trait is

developed in the Black-bellied Plover to such a degree that the species

may be called the sentinel among its kind, as it seems to warn the less

suspicious ones of approaching danger. This extreme wariness is an

important reason for the popularity of the Black-bellied as a game

bird, hunters prizing it in consequence of the difficulty in securing a

good bag. If the hunter imitates the whistle of the birds they will

come to decoys, but with extreme care, usually circling about one or

more times before alighting, and making off with great rapidity if

they see any suspicious movement. In this respect they resemble

curlew but differ from those birds in that the members of a flock do

456 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

not decoy to the cries of a wounded individual. The species is essen-
tially gregarious, being found in flocks ranging in number from a
half dozen birds to several hundred; but sometimes lone individuals
are seen in company with other shore birds.

"The clear, plaintive note of the blackbreast is the most musical
sound of the shore. . . . Early August sees the first small flocks, and
from Cape Cod to North Carolina they are found" M^herever the fall-
ing tide leaves exposed extensive sand-flats, and where marshes and
wild ocean beaches afford a resting-place at high water. Their whistle,
often heard before the flock is seen, warns the gunner to lie low ; soon
the dark line of birds comes into view, moving close to the water with
grace and speed, heading straight for the decoys. One or two on
set wings circle within range ; but, quick to notice the slightest motion,
they are up and off while the hunter may have hesitated a second
for a closer shot. With low water the birds avoid the promontories
and follow the receding tide until the farthermost bars are exposed ;
there they feed with the throngs of other shore birds. If this mixed
company of foragers is disturbed, the Black-bellied Plover are the
first to take alarm and leave. "A little shooting quickly teaches them
danger, and few birds become more wary: flying high between stop-
ping places, they keep to the open and avoid everything in the nature
of a blind. ..." The young upon arrival in the fall are much more
easily shot than the adults, as they come readily to decoys and answer
if whistled to (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, pp. 457-459).

Of the general habits of the Black-bellied Plover as observed for
many years on the Massachusetts coast, Mackay (1892a, pp. 146-151)
gives the description which follows : This

. . . is in a great degree a tide bird, seeking a large portion of its food on
those extensive sand flats left by the receding waters, which may bo adjacent
to marshes where the grass is short, and which are interspersed with barren
places where there is no grass, also to uplands and fields where the grass is
scanty or closely fed down by sheep or cattle. It is to such places that they
like to resort when driven from their feeding grounds on the sand flats by
the incoming tide. . . .

When on the ground they usually run very fast for four or five yards, then
stop, elevate the head, and look around. They strike at the object they are
going to pick up and eat with a very quick motion. . . .

There is something aristocratic in the bearing of the adult birds as you
watch them standing on the marsh with their heads erect, their black and
white plumage strikingly defined, and their large, dark, liquid eyes ever on
the alert for danger. ...

The Black-bellied Plover fly lower on migration, I think, than do the
American Golden Plover, and the flocks string out more, a customary mode of
flight being in lines; they also fly like Ducks and Geese at such times. They
are apt to fly in lines also when coming from the sand flats to and over the
marshes. . . .

BLACK-BELLIED PLOVER 457

[In migration] when tired at sea they will alight on masses of floating sea-
weed, and also on the ocean where they sit buoyantly, swimming with ease,
experiencing no difficulty in taking wing.

When feeding on the mud flats the Black-bellied Plover walk
slowly and usually stand with their weight on one foot, the other being
held disengaged. Probing is carried on in a more sedate fashion
than with the smaller waders, the bill being thrust into the mud but
once in a particular spot and usually at an angle of about 45 degrees.
Occasionally they bow profoundly, the head almost touching the
ground. All the movements are dignified. The flight is swift and
direct, with steady wing-beats which seem to cover an arc of almost
180 degrees so that the black axillars are prominently displayed at
each up-stroke (Grinnell and Storer, MS).

A flock of about 150 Black-bellied Plover was seen repeatedly on
the beach near Santa Barbara in the fall of 1911. When first noted,
on September 5, they were extremely wild, and the most careful stalk-
ing would permit of no closer approach than 200 yards. During the
succeeding two weeks the flock dwindled considerably in numbers
but became much tamer. By October 1, the birds on the beach were so
tame that they would allow a person to approach within thirty yards.
The diminution in numbers was not due to hunting, but probably to
individuals or small groui)s witlid rawing from the locality (Bowles
and Howell, 1912, p. 11; Howell, MS).

Flocks of migrants which Beck (MS) encountered at Los Bailos,
Merced County, during April, 1912, were wont to alight for rest at
the margins of large ponds. Occasionally they would be found forag-
ing on high ground in the vicinity.

The breeding range of the Black-bellied Plover extends over a
considerable portion of the Arctic coasts of America and Eurasia, but
published accounts of the nesting of the species are few in number.
Reed (190-4, p. 127) states that eggs were taken at Point Barrow,
Alaska, in June. 1900; and MacFarlane (1891, p. 429) says that he
secured sets on July 4 and 5, 1864, at Island Point, Franklin Bay,
Canada. These, together with the migration data available, indicate
that the nesting season occupies the latter part of June and early part
of July.

MacFarlane (1891, p. 429) says of the set secured on July 4, 1864:
"The nest contained four eggs and was composed of a small quantity
of withered grasses placed in a depression on the side or face of a
very gentle eminence." The eggs taken by MacFarlane measure, in
inches, 1.90 to 2.30 by 1.40 to 1.47. The ground-color is light greenish
drab or rufous drab, with quite uniformly colored spots of dark umber
or bister and deeper spots of a lighter color. These eggs differ from
those of the Golden Plover in being longer and proportionately broader

458 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 137). "It is probable
that . . . [the] parents relieve each other during the process of incu-
bation, as a male bird was snared on one of the nests" (MacFarlane,
loe. eit.).

The food of the Black-bellied Plover comprises small moUusks,
earthworms, beetles, grasshoppers, locusts, cutworms and grubs (For-
bush, 1912, p. 339; and authors). On the northern tundras in late
summer berries are eaten. The stomach of a bird taken on Bay Farm
Island, Alameda County, September 26, 1914, contained fourteen
small snails, one small bivalve mollusk, and parts of two or more small
crabs {Hcmigrapsus oregonensis) .

When inland and feeding on earthworms and terrestrial or fresh-
water insects the flesh of the Black-bellied Plover is fairly palatable,
but along the seaeoast it partakes of the strong taste common to sea-
faring birds. The weight of a female taken in Alameda County on
September 26, 1914, was eight ounces. Tlie species is prized for the
difficulty connected with obtaining a fair-sized bag rather than for
the quality of its flesh, which is of distinctly second class. In conse-
quence of its extreme wariness and failure to decoy to the calls of
wounded companions as do many other species, the Black-bellied
Plover has suffered a smaller diminution in numbers than have many
other shore birds. Its extreme northern breeding range, undisturbed
by man, is an added factor in its favor. We can therefore reasonably
expect that it will long remain a prominent member of our avifauna.
But we should be prepared to afford it appropriate protection in case
it begins to lose markedly in its contention against adverse conditions.

American Golden Plover
Charadrius dominicus dominicus Miiller

Other names — Bull-head, part; Charadrius virginiacus ; PhiviaJis virf/iniara.

Description — Adult male, in late spring and summer: Top and back of head
and hind neck, black, with a sprinkling of golden yellow and white spots;
band across forehead, continuing back over eye and down side of neck to
expand on side of body near bend of wing, conspicuously white; extreme fore-
head, sides of head, chin, and throat, continuously black; bill black; iris dark
brown (Sennett, MS) ; feathers of back, rump, upper tail coverts, and most of
wing coverts, black, with marginal spots of golden yellow and white; tail
barred with dark and light brown or whitish ; outer surface of closed wing,
mixed dull brown and white, except for scattering new feathers like back;
flight feathers blackish brown, outer ones with shafts white toward tips;
whole under surface of wing and axillars, light ashy brown, unbarred; whole
under surface of body from chin to lower tail coverts continuously black, often
with more or less mixture of white; sides of breast just behind white area,
mixed black, white and golden yellow; feet "bluish-grey" (Audubon. 1842, V,
p. 206). Adult female, in spring and summer: Like adult male at same seasons

AMEEICAN GOLDEN PLOVER 459

but with uuder surface distinctly brownish, rather than black, and wuth greater
admixture of white. Adults and immatures, both sexes, in (fall.''), winter and
early spring: Forehead, stripe over eye, sides of head, chin and throat, dull
white, more or less flecked with light brown; ear region light brown; entire
upper surface, wings and tail much as in summer adults but duller and less
mottled, apparently as a result of fading and wear; breast and sides, light
drab, faintly streaked with darker drab; rest of under surface dull white.
Males: Total length 10.12-10.75 inches (257-273 mm.) (three specimens);
folded wing 6.58-7.29 (167-185); bill along culmen 0.81-0.92 (20.6-23.4); tarsus
1.62-1.77 (41.0-44.8) (five specimens). Females: Total length 10.25-10.37 (260-
263.5) (two specimens); folded wing 6.93-7.17 (176-182); bill along culmen
0.83-0.93 (21.0-23.5); tarsus 1.58-1.76 (40.2-44.7) (four specimens); all from
interior Alaska and Yukon Territory. Juvenile plumage: Upper surface much
as in summer adults but ground color brownish black and yellow spotting more
extensive, to the exclusion of white; light areas on side of head suffused with
yellowish; wings and tail as in adults, except that lighter markings of tail are
strongly yellowish; throat and breast, iluU white, with fleckings of pale drab;
rest of under surface ashy white with obscure brownish bars. Natal plumage:
Top and sides of head, and whole back, marbled in fine pattern with black
upon a pale lemon yellow ground; lower surface and collar around hind neck,
white.

Marks for field identification — Moderate size (somewhat larger than Kill-
deer), short black bill, thick appearing head, plain ashy brown under surface
of wing and axillars, and absence of white areas on rump and wings. In spring:
black on entire under surface, sharply set off against white band around head,
combined with sprinkling of bright golden yellow on upper surface.

Voice — A clear melodious whistle of three notes: Coodle, coodle, coodle
(Mackay, 1891a, p. 19).

Nest — A mere depression in the ground, generally lined with a few dry
leaves (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p, 143).

Eggs — Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.84 to 2.00 by 1.25 to
1.35 (in millimeters, 46.7 to 50.8 by 31.7 to 34.3), and averaging 1.91 by 1.31
(48.3 by 33.2); ground color various shades of drab; superficial markings deep
umber brown almost black, in well defined spots and scattered about profusely,
slightly the more numerous about larger end (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway,
1884, I, p. 144) ; deeper-lying markings are also present.

General distribution — North and South America. Breeds on Arctic coast
from Kotzebue Sound, Alaska, to Melville Peninsula, north of Hudson Bay,
and from Melville Island, south to Whale Point at northwestern corner of
Hudson Bay; winters chiefly on pampas of Argentina; fall migration route is
from breeding grounds to Labrador, thence to Nova Scotia, thence over the
Atlantic Ocean to the Lesser Antilles and northeastern coast of South America
and thence to the winter home; in spring the migration route is northward
from South America through the Mississippi Valley; some pass southward
through the Mississippi Valley in the fall; a few move south along the Pacific
coast (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 127; Cooke, 1910, pp. 80-85).

Distribution in California — Rare migrant. The following specific instances
of occurrence are on record: Vallejo, Solano County; Santa Cruz, October 22,
1888; and San Diego near Coronado, January 12, 15, and 20, 1908.

The American Golden Plover is a very rare species in California
to judge from the fewness of the records. The main migration route

460 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

in both spring and fall lies so far to the east that the birds which
reach California are evidently only infrequent stragglers. The fol-
lowing definite records of occurrence within the state are known :
Vallejo, Solano County (Kobbe in Bailey, 1902, p. 1) ; Santa Cruz,
October 22, 1888 (Cooke, 1910, p. 84); and San Diego Bay near
Coronado, one bird seen January 12, 15, and 20, 1908 (Torrey, 1909c,
p. 207). Newberry (1857, p. 97) thought that it occurred in the
northern part of the state in autumn, and Suckley {in Cooper and
Suckley, 1859, p. 230) states that in the San Francisco collections
he saw specimens which he supposed had been obtained in the public
markets of that city. Cooper {in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884,
I, p. 143) saw one specimen taken near San Francisco. The record
for Menlo Park on the authority of Hornung (Kobbe, loc. cit.) is
likely to refer to the Black-bellied Plover ; for a skull of the latter
species is contained in the collection of the Museum of Vertebrate
Zoology, with attached label in Hornung 's handwriting bearing the
name "Charadrius dominicus \ Menlo."

From other shore birds the Golden Plover may be distinguished by
its moderate size (somewhat larger than that of Killdeer), short,
black bill, thick head, ashy brown axillars and wing lining, and by
the absence of white areas on its rump and wings. In spring the
combination of entire black under surface, sharply set off against the
white band around its head, and the yellow-spotted upper surface,
render identification easy. From the Black-bellied Plover, the Golden
may be distinguished by its somewhat smaller size, slenderer bill, and
light ashy brown instead of black axillars. Its note is said to be
softer than that of the Black-bellied Plover. The other plovers occur-
ring in California are distinguished from the Golden Plover by the
presence of black collars or other transverse bars on head or neck,
or of white axillars, or both.

The habits of the American Golden Plover have been well described
by Mackay (1891f/, pp. 18-23), who observed the species in Massa-
chusetts and elsewhere on the Atlantic coast. He says :

. . . they frequent the extensive marshes, . . . the long reach of sandy
hills, old fields where the grass is short and the vegetation scanty, sand flats
left by the receding tide, ploughed fields, and any burnt tracts which are clear
of trees and bushes. . . . When on the ground they run rapidly and gracefully,
and soon scatter on alighting. After running a few yards they suddenly stop,
hold the head erect, and look around, all the movements being very quick. In
feeding they seem to strike at the object with a motion that reminds one of a
Loon or Grebe commencing to dive. . . . When scattered over considerable
ground, as is usual after they have been any length of time on their feeding
ground, every bird apparently on its own hook, if alarmed, a note is sounded;
they then rise so as to meet as soon as possible at a common centre, which
gained, away they go in a compact body. When high up in the air, flying on

AMEBIC AN GOLDEN PLOVER 461

their migration, I have often noticed the flocks assume shapes that reminded
me of the flight of Geese; they also fly in the form of a cluster, with one or
more single lines out behind; also broadside in long straight lines, with an
apparent velocity of about one and a half miles a minute, measured by the eye
as they pass along the headlands. When flying near the ground they course
over it at a high rate of speed, in every variety of form, the shape of the flock
constantly changing, and frequently following every undulation of the sur-
face, stopping suddenly and alighting when a favorable spot is noticed. They
are extremely gregarious, and I have had the same flock return to my decoys
as many as four times, after some of their number had been shot each time.
"When approaching the decoys every bird seems to be whistling, or, as I have
often expressed it, uttering a note like coodle, coodle, coodle. During the middle
of the day they are fond of seeking the margins of ponds where they sit
quietly for a long time, if undisturbed. When disturbed they are almost certain to
return, in a short time, to the same spot from which they have been started,
that is, if they have been resting or feeding there any length of time. When
suspicious, it is very difficult to approach, decoy, or call them; if not harassed,
they are as a rule quite tame, and gentle, and can be easily driven up to
with a horse and wagon. . . .

Young birds invariably appear wild and wary, much more so than the old
ones. They are also very erratic in their movements and flight when with us.
They usually will not pay so much attention to the decoys or call-whistle as
do the old birds; and I have seen them when very shy and after being disturbed,
mount up into the air and nearly turn over on their backs while flying with
great velocity. It is a noteworthy fact that when a flock of these young birds
is approaching, no dependence can be placed on their movements. They may
sometimes sweep down within a few yards of the sportsman, passing with great
rapidity over his head, all scattered; or down close to the stand and then up into
the air; or they may turn suddenly. . . . The older birds rarely indulge in any
similar antics. . . .

As far as my observation shows on the Island of Nantucket, the Golden
Plover usually seeks land about dusk and during the first half of the night.

These birds are often heard passing overhead in migration, but
they do not always stop.
Goss says (1891, p. 210) :

In flight they are swift and strong, sweeping over the prairies in a com-
pact, wavy form, at times, skimming close to the ground, then high in air,
an ever-changing, circling course, whistling as they go; and on alighting raise
their wings until the tips nearly touch, then slowly fold them back, a habit
which is quite common with them as they move about on the ground.

According to Cooke (1910, p. 83) the American Golden Plover
nests during the latter part of June, eggs having been taken on the
lower Anderson Eiver, Mackenzie, and at Point Barrow, Alaska, on
five dates from June 16 to 24. Reed (1904, p. 127) records a set
taken June 1, and some of the sets taken in the Anderson River region
by MacFarlane were fresh even as late as July (Baird, Brewer and
Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 144). Very little has been written in regard
to the nesting habits of this American race of the Golden Plover.

462 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA

According to the observations of MacFarlane in the Anderson River
region, near the Arctic coast of Canada, the nests were "... mere
depressions in the soil, generally lined with a few dry leaves, and
were difficult to find, as there was nothing to distinguish them from
the soil — which the eggs very closely resemble in color. ..." The
eggs are usually four in number, pear-shaped, and measure in inches,
1.84 to 2.00 by 1.25 to 1.35, averaging 1.91 by 1.31. Their ground-
color is of various shades of drab, while the superficial markings are
of deep umber brown, almost black. These markings are chiefly in
the nature of sharply defined spots, and are well scattered over the
surface, being perhaps somewhat more numerous about the larger
end. These eggs differ from those of the Black-bellied Plover in being
slightly smaller and relatively narrower.

When driven from the nest the, female "... runs a certain dis-
tance, and if she succeeds in enticing the party away, will then take
to flight. In a few instances, when the bird was surprised by a near
approach before she left, she pretended lameness, and fluttered at
their feet" (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, pp. 143-144).

The American Golden Plover performs an annual migration some
18,000 miles in extent from the time it leaves the breeding ground
in the fall to the time when it returns in the following spring. In
August the birds leave the breeding grounds on the northwestern
shores of America and pass to Labrador where they feed on the crow-
berries and become exceedingly fat. From this place they pass to
and across Nova Scotia whence they take wing and, if the weather
is good, pass directly over the ocean to the Lesser Antilles, and to
the northeastern coast of South America. Only stormy weather at
sea will cause the species to touch on the Atlantic coast of the United
States and then only in the vicinity of New England. Reaching South
America, they pass southward into the pampas region of Argentina
where they spend the winter. In the spring the flocks move north-
ward and after reaching the United States traverse the entire length
of the Mississippi Valley. Thence they move on through Canada to
their breeding grounds in the extreme north. Cooke (1910, p. 81),
who has worked out the above described route of migration, advances
the following theory to account for it :

The plover is a bird of treeless regions; it summers on the tundras and
winters on the pampas; an enormous food supply especially palatable tempts
it in the fall to Labrador and furnishes power for the long flight to South
America. To attempt to return in spring by the same course would be suicidal,
for at that season Labrador would furnish scant provender. The plover seeks
the shortest treeless route overland, and alighting on the coast of Texas travels
leisurely over the Mississippi Valley prairies, which are abundantly supplied
with food, to the plains of the Saskatchewan and thence to the Arctic coast.

EILLDEEE -103

According to this interpretation, the extraordinary wanderings
of this bird are determined by the factor of food supply.

The Golden Plover feeds upon insects of various sorts such as
beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, cutworms, and some vegetable matter
(Forbush. ]!)12, p. 347). In Labrador as before stated, it feeds
extensively on crowberries. To the sportsman it is an ideal game
species, decoying rather readily, but becoming wary after its suspi-
cions have been aroused. Its flesh is exceedingly palatable and highly
prized for the table. The result is that the species has been hunted
persistently by both sportsman and market hunter, wherever it is
found, and consequently has greatly decreased in numbers during
recent years. Forbush (1912, pp. 344—347) estimated a 90 per cent
decrease on the New England coast in fifteen years.

Unfortunately the Golden Plover is, and probably always has
been, a rare species in California ; and there is no reason to hope that
its numbers here will increase in the future. It is of immediate
interest here only to the scientist and nature-lover. Reports of strag-
gling visitors among our lesser known birds are always of value and
should be sent in promptly with full particulars to some scientific
institution.

Killdeer
Oxyechus vociferus vociferus (Linnaeus)

Other names — Killileer Plover; Killdee; AegiaUtis vocifera; Charadrius voci-
ferus.

Descriptiox — Adults, both sexes, at all seasons: Top of head and upper siir
face (including sides of breast between two black neck bands) dull brown,
with more or less rusty feather-tipping; lower forehead ("brow"), and stripe
above and behind eye, white; stripe from side of bill along each side of head
to below eye, including ear region, blackish brown; upper part of forehead
black, forming a bar from eye to eye just above the white "brow"; bill black;
iris dark brown, edges of eyelids orange-red; rump and upper tail coverts light
rusty brown, or tawny; tail feathers white at extreme bases, the middle ones
shading through dull brown to black and ending in light brown; rest of tail
feathers beyond white bases pale rusty with black subterminal bars and conspicuous
tips of white on outermost feathers, and rusty on inner ones; outer surface
of closed wing chiefly like back; flight feathers blackish brown, marked with
white on inner webs and near tips; tips of greater coverts and portions of
secondaries white, forming a conspicuous bar on expanded wing; axillars and
lining of wing white, under surface of flight feathers chiefly dusky; foreneck
and breast crossed by two black bands, separated in front by white (which is
usually tinged with pale brown); the lower black band and the white area
between both blend on sides into the dull brown of the back; the upper and
broader black band completely encircles the neck; chin and throat and collar
around hind neck above broad black band continuously pure white; rest of
under surface of body white; longer under tail coverts white, spotted with light

464 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOSNIA

brown; feet and legs dull greenish yellow, dusky at joints. Males: Total length
9.50-10.50 inches (241-267 mm.) (eight specimens); folded wing 6.00-6.50 (152-
165); bill along culmen 0.68-0.84 (17.3-21.3); tarsus 1.32-1.43 (33.5-36.3) (ten
specimens); weight 3 oz. (85. S gm.) (one specimen). Females: Total length
10.25-10.50 (260-267) (five specimens); folded wing 5.97-6.40 (151-162); bill
along culmen 0.75-0.83 (19.0-21.1); tarsus 1.34-1.43 (34.0-36.3) (seven speci-
mens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult, but
with black markings on head and neck duller or replaced by dark brown, and
feathers of upper surface more extensively tipped with light rusty brown;
wisps of natal down often remain adhering to tips of tail feathers. Natal
plumage: Lower forehead, chin and throat, and lower surface of body, white;
top of head and upper surface (excepting neck band) mixed light brownish and
blackish, sharply outlined all around by black borders; stripes before and behind
eye, single band across throat (complete around neck), and stripe down middle
of back, black; white on chin and throat continuous with white collar around
hind neck, the latter separating black outlines of crown and back; flanks and
area about vent pale rusty; bill blackish; iris brownish; feet more yellowish
than in adult.

Marks for field identification — Moderate size, two black bands across
chest, white collar around hind neck, white bar across wing, tawny rump patch,
and white tipped, black banded tail. The shrill call. Mil-dee, is distinctive.
This is our only shore bird with two black bands across breast.

Voice — Usually a loud, high-pitched, two-syllabled Mil-deer, or Mil-dee,
rapidly enunciated; occasionally, as when flushed excitedly from ground, it
becomes Mil-dee, dee, dee, dee-ey ; also when running along ground in advance of
an observer, a softer de-e-e-e-e-et is sometimes uttered.

Nest — On ground, usually near water, in grass or on bare, sandy or pebbly
area; a shallow depression with or without a sparse lining of short, dry grass
blades, weed stalks, pebbles, or bits of hardened earth.

Eggs — Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.46 to 1.56 by 1.02 to
1.10 (in millimeters, 37.0 to 39.5 by 26.0 to 28.0), and averaging 1.51 by 1.06
(38.2 by 26.8); ground color light clay or dull cream with bold markings of
dark brown, black and dull lavender (four sets, 15 eggs, from California).

General distribution — North and South America. Breeds from central
British Columbia, southern Mackenzie, central Keewatin, and central Quebec,
south throughout the whole United States, and in Mexico to latitude of south-
ern Lower California. Winters from New Jersey, Indiana, Texas, Arizona and
central California south to Venezuela and Peru in South America (modified
from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 128).

Distribution in California — Abundant sunnner visitant to suitable localities
throughout the state, chiefly in the lowlands, but ranging locally up high in
the mountains, even to 8,600 feet altitude (as on Tuolumne Meadows, Yosemite
National Park). Winters in the valleys west of the Sierras from about the
latitude of San Francisco southward, and, more rarely, east of the Sierras from
Owens Valley southward.

The Killdeer is one of the commonest, most widely distributed, and
perhaps the best known of all our shore birds. In the East it has been
considerably reduced in numbers, but in the West it has held its
place and numbers despite the encroachments of civilization. In the
northern half of California the species is cliicfly a summer sojourner,

KILLDEER 465

as there are very few winter records, but it arrives there early in the
spring. From the latitude of San Francisco southward it is a perman-
ent resident in most localities. In summer it ranges up in the Sierras
to as high as Tuolumne Meadows, Yosemite National Park, altitude
8,600 feet, on the west slope, and to Lake Tahoe, 6,000 feet, and to
the head of Owens River. 8,000 feet, on the east slope. In southern
California it has been found at Bear Lake, San Bernardino Moun-
tains, at an altitude of nearly 7,000 feet. East of the Sierras it is
chiefly a summer visitant. Numerous records establish it as a breed-
ing species througliout its summer range.

The Killdeer is a bird of fresh and brackish water rather than of
the salt marsh or seaeoast ; yet occasionally it resorts to both of the
latter types of country. No hard and fast rule for its occurrence can
be laid down, save that it much prefers fresh water, especially such
as is provided along the shores of inland ponds or streams. Even the
scanty seepage water in the
bed of an otherwise dry
arroyo v.ill satisfy the needs
of one or more pairs of
these birds. While not of
solitary habit, the Killdeer
is not a typical flocking Fig. 77. Side of tarsus and foot of Kill-
bird. When flocks do OC- *1<^^^- Natural size.

cur, they rarely number Note absence of hind toe, as with all our

,/ , " , ,1 • , Plovers except the Black-bellied (compare

more than about thirty with figs. 69 and 76).

members, and their actions

are individual rather than aggregate. In this respect they differ
from some sandpipers, because each member pursues a separate course
when foraging, in flight, or when danger threatens. Small groups
of half a dozen individuals are of most common occurrence. Of
course, the breeding season finds the birds in pairs, and more or less
sequestered. In the East, and to some extent in California, the Kill-
deer scatters out over cultivated fields and searches for insects or
worms. The alfalfa raising districts, of increasing extent in Cali-
fornia, evidently offer to this bird the best of forage facilities.

Of all the shore birds the Killdeer is the easiest to identify. A
front view while it is at rest on the ground reveals four transverse
black bands, two on the head and two on the breast ; a side view shows
a distinct wdiite collar set off by adjacent black. In flight the chief color
markings are the white streak across each wing, the black-banded,
white-tipped tail, the tawny rump patch, and the pure white under
surface. The oft-repeated call, which is uttered in an insistent, com-
plaining tone, is by far the best distinguishing character, and when
once learned obviates the necessity of using other clues. When the

466 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

birds are not frightened the call sounds like til-dec, or kill-dee; but
when startled, as by the approach of a human being, the call becomes
til-de-o, or til-de-de-o, and has a quavering character especially in the
initial syllable. After the birds have flov»^n about for some time they
resume the call first represented. The call is usually uttered while
the bird is on the wing, but may also be given from the ground. The
Spanish rendering of the ordinary call is tildeo. Another call,
although high-pitched, is not so loud and is sometimes given as the
bird runs along the ground in front of a person. It may be written
de-e-e-e-e-et.

The Killdeer passes much of its time on the ground, and is able to
run with rapidity. It does not, however, maintain a continuous ad-
vance, but stops every few feet, for a moment of rigid pose. The
body is then tilted slightly forward, the head being held erect. In
running the head is drawn in and held low, as if to avoid display
of the contrasted collar markings. Sometimes individuals will run
about with wings upstretched, dodging among their companions and
uttering a rapid torrent of high-pitched notes. On the extensive
lawns at Stanford University as many as sixty Killdeer have been
counted at one time scattered about foraging silently on the grass or
basking beneath the spray of the many sprinklers.

Hunters complain that the Killdeer is a great nuisance, as it often
flies to meet them, circling about and uttering its high-pitched com-
plaining cries which serve as an effective warning to other birds. At
all seasons Killdeer act as if they had nests, and run before the
intruder, apparently trying to excite pity by their melancholy notes
and to lure him away from an imaginary object of solicitude. They
visit some river bar or lake shore at night and morning to drink and
feed and play. Thus there may be a regular flight of Killdeer two
or more times a day between the fields and the water. They are greatly
given to traveling at night, and their unmistakable notes often reach
the traveler's ear on dark or foggy nights from far overhead, some-
times in the most unexpected localities far from Avater.

The Killdeer nests in a variety of locations ranging from marsh
land to cultivated meadows and dry creek beds. One case is on record
of eggs being deposited in the middle of a railroad track (Chambers,
1901, p. 105). There are numerous records of Killdeer nesting in
meadows and gardens, or in furrows in newly plowed ground, the
latter practice in many cases resulting in the eggs being destroyed.

Normally the species nests from the latter part of March to late
June. Although the breeding season thus appears to be extensive, it
is doubtful whether more than one brood is reared in a season by
any one pair of birds. There is little or no correlation between nest-
ing dates and latitude, as those from San Diego and Lake Tahoe are

KILLDEER 467

practically the same, the iutervening area being noted for early
records. Beck (MS) found a nest with two eggs near Los Bafios,
Merced County, March 11, 1912. Tyler (1913&, p. 32) records nest-
ing in the Fresno district from March 15 to June 28, and gives one
case of early nesting which would indicate the commencement of
incubation in late February or very early March. The set of two here
recorded is quite unusual, and suggests by its rarity that it may not
have been complete. "A typical nest throughout the cultivated sec-
tions [in the vicinity of Fresno] is composed of a handful of white
pebbles about the size of peas and very uniform in size, mixed with
an almost equal number of dry shells of melon seeds of the previous
year. Frequently a few dry, broken-up pieces of melon stems are
used also, the whole being spread out over a space the size of a saucer,
with the eggs resting in the center. As the result of coming in con-
tact with a sharp rock that sometimes finds it way into the nest in
place of the usual smooth ones the eggs occasionally show small gravel
punctures. On the summer-fallow fields only a few dry grass blades
line the place where the eggs rest, while around the ponds of the west
side the eggs generally lie half covered in the powdered alkali dust
without a scrap of nest lining" (Tyler, loc. cit.).

The eggs usually number four, and never more, so far as is known.
Sets of smaller number may result from accidents of various kinds.
The ground-color is a light clay or pale dull cream; the superficial
markings are numerous and dull dark brown or even black, while
the deeper ones are dull lavender and less abundant than the super-
ficial ones. The markings consist both of irregular spots and narrow
streaks, and in general are more numerous at the larger end, some-
times resulting in the formation of a dark zone about that end. The
eggs average in size 1.51 by 1.05 inches. On the basis of size alone,
the eggs of the Killdeer can be confounded with the eggs of no other
shore bird breeding in California, except those of the Wilson Snipe.
The much lighter ground-color would be sufficient in this case, however,
to distinguish the eggs of the Killdeer. Tyler (loc. cit.) intimates that
the period of incubation is a little over two weeks.

The newly hatched Killdeer are able to run and hide almost on
leaving the shell. The color pattern of the back is of excellent service
in concealing the young birds whether in motion or squatting motion-
less on the ground. Few little chicks have more devoted parents.
The old birds exhaust every resource to lead an enemy far away
from the nesting site. The two sexes are equally solicitous concerning
the welfare of the eggs or young, and it is probable that they share
alike the duties of incubation. There is no means known to us of
distinguishing the sexes in the field either by color-marks or behavior.
The incubating bird leaves the nest far in advance of .the human

468 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

intruder, instead of flushing close at hand, as in the case of less
strikingly colored species. It would appear as though the Killdeer
in its combination of conspicuous pattern of coloration and blatant
behavior shows a peculiar specialization for distracting attention from
its eggs and young.

The first plumage, of down, is gradually replaced by a juvenile
plumage closely similar to that of adults ; but shreds of down often
remain adhering to the tips of the tail feathers until late fall. The
juvenile plumage is retained by the Killdeer through the first winter
and on into the spring of the year following that in which it was
born. In the fall the young can be distinguished from the adults by
the frequent adherence of down to the tips of the juvenile feathers,
as just described, by a slightly more rusty tipping of the feathers of
the back, and by the white of the neck collar in front being suffused
with light brown.

The flight of the Killdeer is quite erratic ; the bird frequently dips
and dives in a most bewildering manner, sometimes descending head-
long nearly to the ground in almost vertical flight. As already stated,
flocks of Killdeer do not show the same compact formation nor do
the birds move together in unison as in the case of many other shore
birds.

The Killdeer is, without a doubt, from an agricultural standpoint
the most beneficial of our shore birds. This valuation rests upon
the nature of its food and upon the commonness of its occurrence on
cultivated lands. According to McAtee and Beal (1912, pp. 16-18),
beetles form 37.06 per cent of its food, other insects 39.54 per cent,
and other invertebrates such as centipedes, spiders, ticks, oyster
worms (Nereis), earthworms, snails, and crabs and other crustaceans,
21.12 per cent. Some of this food is obtained by probing in muddy
places as with other plovers, but the greater portion of the food is
secured by surface-gleaning. Vegetable matter constitutes only 2.28
per cent of the food and is made up chiefly of weed seeds. Very
many of the species of insects forming the diet of the Killdeer such
as grasshoppers, weevils, wireworms, and army worms, are classed
as important enemies of various crops. During a plague of grass-
hoppers in the summer of 1912 at Los Bafios, Merced County, H. C.
Bryant (1914a., p. 170) found a single Killdeer 's stomach to contain
eleven grasshoppers and nothing else.

While it is possible that the Killdeer was a more abundant species
in past years than at present, it is obvious that it has not shared with
other shore birds the decided diminution in numbers which they have
suffered. The species is abundant in a great many localities in the
state, and, witli the present favorable attitude on the part of most
farmers, will probal)ly continue so indefinitely. Its wide breeding

SEMIPALMATED PLOVER 4G9

range is also a favorable element in its maintenance, and we may even
look to an increase in aggregate numbers. It was formerly recognized
to a small extent as a game species, and even sometimes shot as a nui-
sance by the hunter when stalking game. However, we see no reason
why the Killdeer should for a moment be considered a game bird. Its
small size and the fact that its flesh is not of the best, being described
as fishy or musky in flavor, argue that it had far better be classed
among those species which are of marked value to the agriculturalist.

Semipalmated Plover
Aegialifis semipalmata (Bonaparte)

Other names — Semipalniateil Ring Plover; Ring Plover; AegiaJeus semi-
palmatus.

Description — Adult male: Stripe across forehead at base of bill, continuing
backwards below eye to expand somewhat on ear region, black; band across
middle of forehead, white, surmounted by a broader transverse band of black
across forepart of crown between eyes; spot on lower eyelid, white; back of
head, brown; chin and whole throat broadly pure white; hind neck crossed
by a white collar connected with white of throat, and below this by a black
one continuous with black chest band; iris brown; bill orange at base, black on
terminal half; upper surface of body, nearly uniform brown; outermost upper
tail coverts chiefly white; tail feathers brown with tips of inner ones blackish,
tips of next outer ones blackish subterminally with increasing amounts of
■white, and the outermost pair pure white; outer surface of closed wing brown
like back; greater coverts tipped with white, this, together with small white
areas on inner flight feathers, forming a narrow bar on expanded wing; flight
feathers and primary coverts blackish brown; quills of primaries white on
their middle portions; margin of vv^ing mottled white and light brown; lining
of wing, chiefly white; axillars, pure white; under surface of flight feathers
light drab; whole under surface of body white, save for conspicuous single
black band across upper chest which joins the narrower one on hind neck
forming a complete collar; legs and feet orange. Adult female: Like adult male,
but with black bands narrower and brown tinged. Males: Total length 6.87-
8.05 inches (174-204 mm.) (six specimens from California); folded wing 4.51-
4.90 (114.5-124.3); bill along culmen 0.46-0.50 (11.6-12.7); tarsus 0.89-0.97
(22.5-24.7) (ten specimens from California and Alaska). Females: Total length
6.94-7.87 (176-200) (seven specimens from California); folded wing 4.43-4.92
(112.7-124.7); bill along culmen 0.43-0.50 (11.0-12.6); tarsus 0.87-0.96 (22.2-
24.3) (ten specimens from California and Alaska). Juvenile plumage: Like
that of adults but with black bands all replaced by dark brown ones, chest
band narrowed near mid-line, and feathers of entire upper surface narrowly
tipped with pale buffy, giving a faintly scaled appearance. Natal plumage:
Top and sides of head and whole upper surface of body (except hind neck)
mixed black, yellowish and whitish buff, in fine pattern; broad collar on neck,
white, preceded by a narrow black band at edge of mottled pattern on head;
spot between bill and eye, black; whole under surface white; bill black; legs
and feet (dried) yellowish brown; nails dusky.

470 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA.

Marks for field identification — Small size (much smaller than that of
Killdeer), single black or dark brown band across chest, and a white one
(black- or brown-bordered) across brow, extremely short bill (much shorter
than head), and uniform brown upper surface. Distinguished from Killdeer
by much smaller size, single black or brown breast band, and absence of tawny
on rump; from Snowy Plover by larger size, complete band across breast, and
absence of dark band from bill to eye; and from Wilson Plover (which is
extremely rare in California) by much shorter bill, orange-colored at base instead
of wholly black, and by presence of black on forehead at base of bill.

Voice — A simple sweet plaintive chee-ivee (Forbush, 1912, p. 352).

Nest — On pebbly or sandy shores or in short grass, usually but a slight
distance from water; a mere depression lined sparingly with leaves and grasses
(Macoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 207; and authors).

Eggs — Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.20 to 1.40 by 0.90 to
1.00 (30.5 to 35.5 by 22.8 to 25.4) ; ground color drab or buff, superficial mark-
ings blackish brown, rather few in number and scattered; deeper ones of
purplish slate (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 157; Davie, 1900, p. 155).

General distribution — North and South America. Breeds from Melville
Island, Wellington Channel, and Cumberland Sound to valley of the Upper
Yukon, southern Mackenzie, southern Keewatin, and Gulf of St. Lawrence;
winters from southern California, Louisiana, and South Carolina, to Patagonia,
Chile and the Galapagos Islands; common in migration along Pacific coast and
from Nebraska and eastern Texas to the Atlantic coast (modified from A. O.
U. Check-list, 1910, p. 128; Cooke, 1910, pp. 88-90).

Distribution in California — Fairly common spring and fall migrant coast-
wise, occurring rarely inland. Spring migration chiefly during the latter half
of April and first half of May. Fall migration from late August to middle of
October. There are two old records of winter occurrence in southern California.

The Semipalmated Plover is a common migrant along the coast
of California. Differing from its nearest relatives, the Killdeer and
Snowy Plover, in choosing a more northern nesting ground and a more
southern winter home, it spends but limited parts of the year in Cali-
fornia and is consequently less known to bird students or hunters in
this state. The northward migration commences about April 10 in
southern California and lasts until about the middle of May (Willett,
1912a, p. 40). The earliest spring record other than that just given is
April 15, 1908 (specimen in Willett coll.), and the latest normal
occurrence May 16, 1910, at Santa Barbara (Bowles and Howell, 1912,
p. 11). Willett (loc. cit.) saw five birds and secured one at Alamitos
Bay, Los Angeles County, June 29, 1907. The disposition of this
record as concerning spring or fall transients is not now possible.

Southbound birds were first noted at Santa Barbara, July 12,
1910 (Bowles and Howell, loc. cit.), but the species does not become
abundant until almost two months later. Along the southern coast
the migration occurs from the middle of September until about
October 10 (Willett, loc. cit.). A specimen was taken at San Pedro,
Los Angeles County, October 17, 1894 (Grinnell, 1898, p. 18), and

SEMIPALMATED PLOVER 471

it has been reported from Santa Barbara as late as November 1, 1911
(Bowles and Howell, loc. cit.). Belding (MS) states that it was
tolerably common at San Diego in winter (year not stated, but prob-
ably 1884 or 1885), and Cooper (1887, p. 91) found it on the coast
of Ventura County "in winter"; but no recent observer has reported
the species from any California locality during the midwinter months.
Four instances of occurrence away from the seacoast are known, all
in the seasons of migration : Webber Lake, Sierra County, August 5,
1889 (Belding, ]\IS) ; near Caruthers, Fresno County, April 21, 1914
(Tyler, MS) ; Salton Sea, Imperial County, April 22, 1909 (specimens
in Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; and Julian, San Diego County, April 16, 1884
(Belding, MS). The northernmost coastwise record is Bodega Bay,
Sonoma County (Belding, MS).

From other shore birds occurring in California the Semipalmated
Plover is easy to distinguish. Its small size, uniform brown-colored
upper surface at all times of the year, the single conspicuous black
or dark broAvn breast band, black or brown bordered white band across
brow, and extremely short bill, combine to make identification easy.
The Killdeer differs in its much larger size, two black breast bands,
tawny rump, and longer bill ; and the Snowy Plover in its slightly
smaller size, lighter upper surface, and in the lack of a complete black
collar. The Semii)almated Plover differs from the Wilson Plover in
having a shorter bill, orange at the base instead of wholly black, in
having the white brow separated from the bill by black or dark brown,
and in the possession of a complete black collar around its hind neck.
Its very short bill and the presence of a black or brown collar, as
Avell as its small size, distinguish the Semipalmated Plover from the
]\Iountain Plover. The name Ring Plover has been often used for the
Semipalmated, with evident propriety ; but there is a decidedly differ-
ent species belonging to Europe and eastern North America to which
this name has been affixed by common usage. The term "semi-
palmated ' ' refers to the half webbing of the toes, a feature to be noted
with a fresh bird in hand, and distinguishing this species from any
other of our plovers.

In California the Semipalmated Plover is most common along the
shores of the ocean and larger bays. It seems to be equally at home
on sandy beaches and on the mud flats of estuaries. Unless too greatly
harassed the birds are exceedingly tame and will allow one to approach
very closely. They may be found singly, in pairs, in small groups
of five or ten, or in flocks of forty to fifty ; the companies may either
consist entirely of their own kind, or include other small shore birds.
When a flock alights on the feeding ground the individuals compris-
ing it scatter out at considerable distances from one another and
thenceforth act with perfect independence. Each runs for a short

472 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

distance with such rapid foot inovenient and even carriage of the body-
that it seems to fairly glide over the surface of the sand ; then it
stops abruptly to dab slantingly into the wet sand for morsels of food.
Ground worked over in this manner shows a multitude of bill marks.
The movements of the birds are, as compared with those of sandpipers,
more deliberate,; now and then an individual momentarily dips its
fore parts, a mannerism shared among several of the plovers. Ordi-
narily when the birds are scattered out over a feeding ground they
are oblivious to one another 's presence ; but, should danger threaten,
the signal of one sets all on guard. As they take wing the members
of a flock bunch quickly together and fly off, rapidly, in close forma-
tion, with numerous utterances of their clear, two-syllabled call-note.
The Semipalmated Plover differs from the Killdeer in being much
quieter, more gregarious, and in showing a decided preference for
maritime forage grounds.

Unlike its near relatives, the Killdeer and Snowy Plover, the Semi-
palmated Plover has selected the far north for its breeding ground.
Authentic instances of nesting involve the region lying from the Gulf
of St. Lawrence northwest to Fort Yukon, Alaska, and north to Mel-
ville Island. In this territory, eggs have been taken from June 2
(1862) to June 21 (1875) (Cooke, 1910, p. 90), while eggs just
hatched were secured July 6, 1899 (Bishop, 1900, p. 70). The nest
seems to be usually located on sandy or pebbly shores, or in short
grass, and in any instance but a short distance from water. It is often
a mere shallow depression in the surface without lining of any sort ;
at other times a sparse layer of grasses or leaves is provided for the
eggs to rest upon. The eggs are usually four in number and measure
in inches, 1.20 to 1.40 by 0.90 to 1.00. The ground color is light drab
or buff, with rather sparse and scattered superficial markings of black-
ish brown, and deeper ones of purplish slate (Baird, Brewer and
Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 157 ; Macoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 207 ; Davie,
1900, p. 155). The Semipalmated Plover seems to be less demonstra-
tive than many others of its kind, although some attention may be
paid to an intruder when he first approaches the nest. MacFarlane
(1891, p. 430) says of the birds seen in Arctic America: "When
closely approached, the female usually glided from her nest and ran
a short distance before flying, occasionally drooping her wings and
pretending lameness."

Bishop (1900, p. 70) records the finding of a pipped egg at Lake
Marsh, in southern Yukon Territory, July 2, 1899. He says: "I
removed the young bird from the shell, and within half an hour the
down was almost dry, the eyes were open, and it could hop about on
its 'knees'." Bare areas on the skin of the under side of the body in
both parent birds showed tliat llic duties of incubation are shared
by the two sexes.

SNOWT PLOFEB 473

' ' Its food ou the coast consists largely of small Crustacea, mollusks,
eggs of marine animals, and insects, which it sometimes gleans from
ploughed fields. In the interior it feeds on locusts, other Orthoptera,
and many other terrestrial insects" (Forbush, 1912, p. 353).

The Semipalmated Plover is an unobtrusive member of the great
group of shore birds. It occurs in but limited numbers in California
and only or chiefly during the migrations, even then rarely away from
the ocean. In consequence, it is of indifferent value agriculturally.
Being of small size and not too good flavor, it seems hardly proper to
class it as a game species either. As it is of little import economically,
we have left only its esthetic value : the scurrying crowds of plover,
advancing and retreating with the surf, constitute an agreeable
feature of the seashore scene.

Snowy Plover

Aegialitis nivosa Cassin

Other xames — Kentish Plover; Aegialitis alexandrina nivosa; Aegialitis
cantiana ; Aegialites cantianus nivosus ; Charadrivs cantianus ; Charadrius cantianus
nivosus.

Descripton — AduJt male, in spring and summer: Forehead, stripe over eye,
collar around hind neck, and whole chin, throat and foreneck, pure white;
narrow area from side of bill to eye, flecked with blackish; band across forepart
of crown between eyes, and ear region, abruptly black; top and back of head
clay color; bill blackish; iris dark brown; whole back, rump, middle upper
tail coverts, and outer surface of closed wing, drab, with faint feather tippings
of pale ashy; outermost upper tail coverts, white; tail blackish brown toward
tips of middle feathers, lighter, or drab, toward bases and on terminal por-
tions of next outer feathers, the outermost ones pure white; tips of inner
primary coverts, of greater coverts (more broadly), and middle portions of
secondaries, white, forming a bar on expanded wing; primaries blackish brown,
shafts chiefly white; margin and lining of wing, and axillars, white; under sur-
face of flight feathers silvery drab; whole under surface of body white, con-
tinuous with that of lower side of head; patch on each side of breast near bend
of folded wing, abruptly black; feet dusky. Adult female, in spring arid
summer: Similar to adult male, but top and back of head drab like back, with little
or no clay color, and dark markings on head and sides of breast more restricted, less
intensely black, even brownish in color. Adults and immatures, both sexes, in fall
and icinter: Like adults in summer, save that black or dark brown markings on
head and sides of breast are ashy brown, or drab, of same tone as upper sur-
face or but slightly darker; top of head in both sexes like back. Males: Total
length 6.00-7.40 inches (152-188 mm.) (ten specimens); folded wing 3.95-4.18
(100.3-106.0); bill along culmen 0.52-0.60 (13.2-15.3); tarsus 0.92-0.98 (23.4-
25.0) (ten specimens). Females: Total length 6.10-7.00 (155-178) (ten speci-
mens); folded wing 3.76-4.14 (95.5-105.3); bill along culmen 0.52-0.58 (13.3-
14.8); tarsus 0.92-1.00 (23.5-25.5) (ten specimens); all from California. Juvenile
plumage: Like that of summer adult, save that black or brown markings are
replaced by drab, like whole upper surface; feathers of upper surface, including

474 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

outer surface of closed wing, with tippings of asliy white or pale huffy. Natal
plumage: Top of head and upper surface of body coarsely mottled with black
on a buffy white ground; stripe behind eye black; forehead, cheeks, chin and
whole under surface of body, dull white; bill dusky, pale at tip; legs and feet
(dried) dull yellow, claws dusky.

Marks por field identification — Very small size (smallest of the Plovers
and but slightly larger than our smallest shore bird, the Least Sandpiper),
chunky appearance, short, rather thick bill, white collar around neck, pure
white under surface, and dark patches on sides of breast (pi. 12). In flight
shows white on side of rump and inconspicuous streak on wing.

Voice — A low guttural trilling or quavering cr-r-r-r or pe-e-e-et ; in the nest-
ing season relatively loud remonstrative cries are uttered as the nest is
approached by an intruder.

Nest — On sandy beaches of the seacoast and occasionally on shores of inland
bodies of water; a slight surface depression about two and one-half inches
(63.5 mm.) in diameter and one inch (25.4 mm.) deep, sometimes lined with a
few bits of drift material, occasionally with pieces of bright shell.

Eggs — 2 to 3, ovate, measuring in inches, 1.15 to 1.22 by 0.87 to 0.91 (in
millimeters, 29.2 to 31.0 by 22.1 to 23.2), and averaging 1.19 by 0.89 (30.2 by
22.7) (three sets, seven eggs, from California) ; ground color pale buff or
cream; superficial markings brownish black, deeper ones pale gray; markings
consist of small spots, elongated streaks, or short scrawls, rarely over 0.10
inches in length; but slightly more numerous about larger end.

General distribution — Southwestern United States to South America.
Breeds from northern California, northern Utah, and southern Kansas south
to northern Lower California and southern Texas; winters from southern Cali-
fornia and Texas, south along both coasts of Mexico and Central America,
and on west coast of South America to Chile (modified from A. O. U. Cheek-
list, 1910, p. 129).

Distribution in California — Common resident coastwise, sparingly so in
the interior; most numerous in coastal district of southern portion of the state
and on adjacent islands; breeds locally along the coast from San Diego at
least as far north as Eureka, Humboldt County, and inland at Bueua Vista
Lake, Kern County. Winters coastwdse at least as far north as San Francisco,
but most abundantly from Santa Barbara southeastward; has occurred during
the same season at Owens Lake.

The Snowy Plover is, as regards general distribution, a notably
southern species and also the most restricted in range of the several
plovers occurring regularity in California. Indeed, as regards its
nesting grounds, it is essentially a bird of the southwestern United
States. In California it breeds almost exclusively on the seacoast,
tliough in some other western states it nests on inland bodies of water.
In this respect it is complementary to the Killdeer, as the latter bird
rarely if ever nests along salt water and usually away from the shores
of large lakes or rivers.

Snowy Plover are present in many localities in California through-
out the year, but there may be a certain amount of north and south
migration ; so that as regards certain localities the birds seen in winter
and summer may be difiFerent individuals. At Santa Barbara, accord-

SNOWY PLOVER 475

ing to Bowles and Howell (1912, p. 11) the Snowy Plover, although
resident, augments in numbers about the middle of December, when
flocks of fifty or more may be seen. In the vicinity of San Francisco
the latest known occurrence is November 8, 1889 (specimen in Mus.
Vert. Zool.), and as there are no records from the San Joaquin-Sacra-
mento Valley in winter it may be that the species leaves the northern
half of the state altogether during that season. Numerous instances of
occurrence in winter, from the vicinity of Monterey southward, pro-
claim the species as present throughout the year on the coast from
that point to San Diego. Inland it has been recorded about the shores
of Salton Sea, Riverside and Imperial counties, during the spring
(March 29, 1908, to May 1, 1909) (Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; at Owens Lake,
December 27, 1890, and May 30 to June 4, 1891 (A. K. Fisher, 1893a,
pp. 25-26) ; at Buena Vista Lake, Kern County, June 2, 1907 (Lin-
ton, 1908c, p. 197) ; at Los Banos, Merced County, April 22, 1912,
to :\ray 17. 1914 (Mus. Vert. Zool.), and at Goose Lake, Modoc County,
in June, 1912 (Dawson, 1916, p. 26). On beaches where the species
nests, pairs of Snowy Plover are found to frequent during the spring
or summer comparatively restricted areas and not very many wall
be found together at any one time ; but when foraging on shores where
they are not known to nest, as in the early fall when the young of the
year are wandering about in search of food, they occur in flocks num-
bering up to fifty individuals.

The Snowy Plover is readily distinguished from most otlier shore
birds occurring in California, by its very small size (total length
6.00-7.00 inches). It is but slightly larger than our smallest shore
bird, the Least Sandpiper. The chunky appearance, short, thick bill
(which is shorter than the head), white collar around hind neck,
uniform pale drab upper surface, pure white under surface, and
conspicuous dark brown or black patches at the sides of the breast,
are all useful as aids to recognition (pi. 12). From the Killdeer,
and the Semipalmated and Wilson plovers, the Snowy is distinguished
by its lack of complete black or dark brown breast band and by its
smaller size, and from the Least and Western sandpipers, and from
the Sanderling, by its white collar around liind neck, and by the dark
patches at the sides of its chest ; and, in spring, from the last three
named birds, by the absence of mixed coloration on its upper surface.

Snowy Plover are exceptionally quiet birds ; but at times a low
guttural trilling note, cr-r-r-r or pe-e-e-et, may be given, and when
the vicinity of the nest is invaded the birds give utterance to rela-
tively loud cries.

Sandy seabeaches constitute the preferred habitat of this species,
and it is rarely found elsewhere. It frequents as a rule the higher
portions of the beach, but may also forage on the wet sand, sometimes

476 GAME BIHDS OF CALIFORNIA

even at the edge of the waves. Often areas of considerable extent are
''plowed up" by these birds in their active probing for the sand-
inhabiting Crustacea and worms which constitute their food. When
searching for food they move about a great deal, with a distinct trot,
and on occasion have been seen to hop along on one leg as Torrey has
observed Sanderlings to do at Santa Barbara. Their movements are
rapid and their strides exceedingly long. At Netarts Bay, Oregon,
Jewett (1914, pp. 114-115) says that when running fast the strides
of one of these birds proved to measure six inches. One of the birds
will start, run three or four feet, and stop suddenly, the whole per-
formance occupying but a second or two. There is an abrupt upward
tilt of the body at intervals, and with the return movement the
quavering note is often uttered. In flight the birds may travel in
open formation, or closely massed, and the flight may be either direct,
or in zigzag course as with the small sandpipers. Both in flight, and
on the ground, their chunky appearance helps to distinguish them
from the small sandpipers. They are quite tame and will usually
permit a close approach, preferring apparently to trot along in front
of the observer, or off to one side, rather than to take wing.

Torrey (1913, pp. 10-11) says of the Snow}^ Plover at Santa
Barbara :

Every day they are here, and every day it is a pleasure to watch them;
now running about or standing at rest on the gray, dry sand — too close a
match in color for even a hawk's eyes, one would think; now squatting singly,
here, there, and yonder, in the footprints of horses, hardly more than a head
showing, one of their prettiest tricks — you may sometimes see fifty at once
cradled in this cozy fashion, for shelter against the wind, or by way of a
more comfortable siesta, or, possibly, as affording a measure of concealment;
and now scattered in loose order along the edge of the surf, picking up the day's
rations. An extraordinarily light repast this would seem to be, or, . . . one
very easily gathered, seeing how small a share of the day they spend upon it.
Nin.e times in ten you will find them doing nothing, in what looks like a
reposeful after-dinner mood, strikingly unlike the behavior of the common run
of birds. . . .

As is true of plovers in general, the snowy ... is amazingly sudden and
spry in its motions, a sprinter of the first rank, starting at full speed, and
scampering before you, head down, till its legs fairly twinkle, they move so
almost invisibly fast. . . .

As a result, perhaps, of the temperate climate of its breeding
range the nesting season of the Snowy Plover is very long as com-
pared with those of our other shore birds. Chambers took a set of
three eggs well advanced in incubation at Ballona, Los Angeles
County, April 15, 1907 (Willett, 1912a, p. 40), and Robertson (1899,
p. 94) records a set far advanced in incubation at Redondo, Los
Angeles County, April 25, 1899. Thompson (1901?). p. 17) reports
three sets at Morro, San Luis Obispo County, August 1 (1900?), all

SXOWY PLOVER 477

of which woiikl liave hatched iu a day or two; while Chambers
(WiUett, loc. cit.) found a single fresh egg at Ballona, August 2, 1903.
Extra high tides doubtless destroy many eggs, and this may account in
part for the prolongation of the nesting season, through repeated egg-
laying. Willett (loc. cit.) states that in southern California the eggs
are usually deposited between May 1 and June 15. From Monterey
northward to Humboldt Bay dates of nesting range from April 16
(Cooke, 1910, p. 93) to June 21 (Mailliard coll.).

The Snowy Plover has been reported nesting at various points
along the California seacoast from Eureka, Humboldt County (sets
in Mailliard coll.), on the north, to Pacific Beach, San Diego County
(IngersoU, 1895, p. 87) on the south; and it may be expected to
nest in suitable localities, namely sandy beaches sufficiently broad
and high to have dry upper portions, along our Avhole ocean shore.
It has nested in large numbers on San Francisco Bay at Alvarado,
Alameda County (Reynolds, MS), and once at Buena Vista Lake,
Kern County (Linton, 1908c, p. 197); Avhile A. K. Fisher (1893a,
pp. 25-26) thiiiks that the species breeds at Owens Lake, and Daw:son
(1916, p. 26) surmised the same for Goose Lake, ]\Todoc County.

In coastal localities the nests are almost invariably situated on
the sand, a slight distance above the high tide level, and among debris
cast up at high water. The nest is a mere depression in the sand,
about two and one-half inches in diameter and an inch in depth.
Sometimes the cavity is lined with bits of drift wood, fish bones or
small pebbles ; at other times it is bare of extraneous materials. In
an exceptional case, as reported by Henshaw (1876, p. 269), ". . .
the owners must have been of an artistic turn of mind, for they had
selected from along the shore little bits of pearly nacre, the remnants
of broken sea-shells, and upon a smooth lining of this material were
placed their treasures. The effect of the richly-colored eggs as they
lay on the cushion of shining nacre was very pleasing."

In the vicinity of the salt works near Alvarado, on the Alameda
County shore of San Francisco Bay, L. R. Reynolds (MS) found
that a great many pairs had in the summer of 1914 selected nesting
sites on the dikes separating the salt ponds. The workmen, in tra-
versing the dikes with wheelbarrows, reported having broken many
eggs. The birds were doing most of their foraging at the edges of
the salt ponds, hardly at all on the mud flats of the undisturbed
salt marshes nearby. It would appear that artificial conditions such
as were provided at this place are of a kind to fulfill all the require-
ments of this Plover.

The eggs in a complete set are two or three, the latter number
predominating in the proportion of about three to one. The propor-
tion of two-egg sets is greater towards the end of the nesting season

478 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

(Chambers, 1904, pp. 139-140). They measure in inches, 1.15 to
1.22 by 0.87 to 0.92, and average 1.20 by 0.89 (three sets, seven eggs,
in ]\Iiis. Vert. Zool.). Henshaw (1876, p. 269) gives the measurements
of three sets as somewhat larger, ranging from 1.22 to 1.30 by 0.89
to 0.95. The ground color is pale buff or cream with small super-
ficial spots and lines of brownish black, and deeper ones of pale gray.
The markings rarely exceed 0.10 inches in length, and are but slightly
more numerous about the larger end of the egg than elsewhere.
Chambers (loc. cit.) states that the eggs are usually laid at three-
day intervals.

Henshaw (1876, p. 269) gives the following account of the nesting
habits of the Snowy Plover at Santa Barbara:

So slight is the contrast between the eggs and the drifted sand about them
that they would be difficult enough to find were it not for the tracks about the
nest. As the mates came to relieve each other from setting or to bring each
other food, they alighted near the nest, and thus for a little distance about
each one [there] was a series of tracks converging to a common center, which
too surely betrayed their secret. Great was the alarm of the colony as soon as
my presence was known, and, gathering into little knots, they nervously
attended my steps, following at a distance with low sorrowful cries. The
female, when she found her nest was really discovered, hesitated not to fly
close by, and used all the arts which birds of this kind know so well how to
employ on like occasions. With wings drooping and trailing on the sand, she
would move in front till my attention was secured, when she would fall help-
lessly down, and burying her breast in the soft sand, present the very picture
of utter helplessness, while the male with the neighboring pairs expressed his
sympathy with loud cries.

After the young are fully fledged in the fall, flocks begin to
appear in localities where the species is not known to breed. This is
probably due to crowding and competition for food in the vicinity
of the nest, and may be expected to continue until the pressure of
over-population has been relieved by reduction in numbers.

The food of the Snowy Plover consists of various insects and prob-
ably Crustacea and other marine organisms. A. K. Fisher (1893a.,
pp. 25-26) recorded it as feeding on a fly [Ephydra hians) which
is present in enormous numbers on the shores of Owens Lake. H. C.
Bryant (1914e, p. 226) found more than ten water beetles in the
stomach of a bird of this species taken at Los Banos, Merced County.
The stomach of another bird taken at Los Banos, also contained beetles
(Beck, MS).

The Snowy Plover is classed as a game species merely because of
its near relationships with the larger shore birds, which properly are
hunted for food or sport. Its insignificant size from a food stand-
point and its confiding habits, ought to justify its release from
destruction before the gun of the hunter. The species should be
accorded complete and continuous protection along with all the other
diminutive shore birds which occur within our boundaries.

WILSON PLOVER 479

Wilson Plover
Ochthodromus wilsonius wilsonius (Orel)

Other name — Aegialitis wilsonia.

Description' — Adult male: Forehead and line over eye, chin and upper throat,
white; forepart of crown and sometimes stripe from bill to eye, black; iris
reddish brown; bill black; ear region, top and back of head, whole back, rump,
middle upper tail coverts and outer surface of closed wing, ashy brown; back
of head tinged with buff; outer upper tail coverts and outer tail feathers, white;
middle tail feathers dark brown; tips of greater w-ing coverts white, forming
a narrow bar across wing; primaries dark brown, their shafts chiefly white,
outer one entirely so; margin of wing mottled light brown and white; lining
of wing and axillars, white; under surface of flight feathers pale dusky; broad
band across lower throat and upper breast, black; rest of under surface white;
feet light flesh color, claws dusky. Adult female: Similar to adult male but
with black replaced by brownish; breast band suffused with light buff. Total
length (both sexes): "7.50-7.90" inches (190-200 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p.
175). Male: folded wing 4.25 (108); bill along culmen 0.S5 (21.6); tarsus 1.16
(29.4) (one specimen from California). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of
adult male but with black replaced by brown and feathers of upi)er surface
edged with paler brown. Natal plumage: Forehead, sides of head, and band
around neck, white; stripe through eye black; upper surface grayish buff,
mottled with black; last joint of wing and whole lower surface white (descrip-
tions adapted from: Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 477; Ridgway,
1900, p. 175; Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 169; and one specimen
from California).

Marks for field identification — Small size (much smaller than Killdeer),
chunky appearance, stout, wholly black bill (about as long as head), single
broad black or dark brown band across upper breast, brow white to base of
bill, and uniformly grayish brown upper surface of body.

Voice — A "slightly rolling" cry; "half a whistle and half a chirp" (Baird,
Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 170).

Xest — Usually on dry open sandy beaches some distance back from the
water; at times in short grass; a mere depression in the bare sand (Coues,
1869, p. 345); occasionally it is lined with a few bits of drift material.

Eggs — Usually 3, but at times 2, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.22 to
1.45 by 1.00 to 1.05 (in millimeters, 31.0 to 36.8 by 25.4 to 26.6) ; ground color
pale olive-drab of either .a greenish or brownish cast; superficial markings of
blackish brown consisting of spots and lines in fine pattern, most numerous
about the larger end; deeper markings are also present (Coues, 1869, pp. 348-
349).

General distribution — Middle America and southern North America. Breeds
on Atlantic coast from southeastern Virginia (formerly from New Jersey) south
to the northern Bahamas, and along Gulf Coast west to Texas, and probably
on Pacific coast from southern Lower California to Guatemala; probably resi-
dent on Pacific side; casual (?) at San Diego, California (modified from Cooke,
1910, pp. 93-94).

Distribution in California— One record: Adult male in worn breeding
plumage taken at Pacific Beach, San Diego County, June 29, 1894 (Ingersoll,
1895, p. 87; Grinnell, 1902&, p. 197).

480 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

The Wilson Plover is typically a bird of southern North America.
Its admission to a place in the list of California birds is based upon
the capture of a single individual in worn breeding plumage at Pacific
Beach, San Diego County, June 29, 1894 (Ingersoll, 1895, p. 87;
Grinnell, 19025, p. 197). This individual was first seen, by Mr. A. M.
Ingersoll, five days previously at the same place, in company with
a female Snowy Plover and in the vicinity of the latter 's nest. Atten-
tion was first attracted to the bird b}' hearing its ". . . peculiar alarm
cry, quite unlike any note of the usually silent Snowy Plover." It
followed the Snowy about, assisting her in remonstrating against
invasion of her nesting precincts. "He was the most talkative Plover
I ever met and could not have shown more solicitude had he been
the rightful owner of the eggs. . . . After I left . . . [he] ran
ahead eighty or a hundred feet and kept at about that distance until
we had gone up the beach nearl.y a quarter of a mile. Then he took
wing and disappeared in opposite direction."

On the date of capture, June 29, the Wilson Plover was with three
Snowies and within a hundred feet of where seen previously. "He
ran ahead of me as on former occasion, but only uttered a few notes
and did not seem as much disturbed by my presence." After more
than three hours continuous observation, Mr. Ingersoll concluded that
the bird was unmated and shot it. The specimen is now in the Grin-
nell collection, in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. As the species
may breed along tlie coast of Lower California not far to the south-
ward, it is not unreasonable to expect that other individuals will
stray over our southern border from time to time, especially in
summer.

The Wilson Plover resembles other plovers of its size in general
habits. On the sandy beaches and muddy flats of the Carolinas it is
to be found in flocks of six to twenty or more. Sometimes the birds
stray into the adjacent salt grass meadows in searcli for food. They do
not run so fast as other small plovers, and are more given to remaining
with their own kind. In fliglit they pass close to the ground or M-ater.

The nesting season extends from early April (earliest eggs April 8)
(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 171) well into June (fresh
eggs June 12) (Philipp, 1910, p. 316), but the inajority of the eggs
are laid during the latter part of ]\Iay. The nest is a shallow de-
pression in the bare dry sand some distance back from the water ;
sometimes in a slight grassy growth. Usually it is without lining
of an}' sort, or it may be supplied with a few bits of drift material.
A typical nest measures about four inches across (Coues, 1869, p. 345) .

The eggs number three, less commonly two. In siz(> they range
from 1.22 to 1.45 by 1.00 to 1.05 inches. The ground color is pale
olive drab of either a greenish or brownish tone, with blackish brown

MOUNTAIN PLOVER 481

superficial markings and lighter-colored deeper ones. The markings
are more numerous about the larger end of the egg and consist of
small spots and lines (Coues, 1869, pp. 348-349). If one intrudes
his presence on these birds at their nesting season, the male voices his
concern with loud cries. The female, if surprised on the nest, usually
slips quietly away for some distance, close to the ground, and then
practices various subterfuges to lead the intruder away. Occasionally
the members of another pair will join in demonstration with those
whose domains have been entered (Coues, 1869, p. 344). Often the
birds will squat on the ground at places away from the nest, making
discovery of the latter quite difficult (Philipp, 1910, p. 316). The
downy young "... can run quite cleverly over the sand as soon as
fairly dry from the egg . . . and are rather difficult to find, from
their knack of hiding, like their parents, by squatting close on the
sand. Their legs seem disproportionately long, like a young colt's"
(Coues, 1869, p. 347).

Since this species is known in California from but a single instance,
in spite of extensive observations along our southern seacoast, it is
improbable that it will ever be found here in numbers. As with
several other rare birds of the game category-, it is likely to remain of
interest only to the scientist and nature-lover.

Mountain Plover

Podasocys m&ntaniis (Townsend)

Other names — Rocky Mountain Plover; Bull-head Snipe; Aegialitis asiaticus
var. montaniis ; Charadrius montanus; Eudromias montanus ; Aegialitis montana.

Description — Adults, hoth sexes, in late spring and summer: Band across
forehead at base of bill, and extending back as stripe over ej^e, white; fore-
part of crown above white band, broadly black; stripe from side of bill to eye,
black; side of head immediately below eye whitish, below this and on ear
region, buffy; chin and throat, white; bill black; iris dark brown; top of head,
hind neck, whole back, rump, central upper tail coverts, and wing coverts, ashy
brown, with feather tippings of rusty brown giving a scaled appearance; outer
margins of outermost upper tail coverts, white; tail feathers pale drab at
base, blackish brown subterminally, and with tips of all and outer web of
outermost, white; flight feathers and primary coverts chiefly blackish brown;
shafts of primaries, and tips of greater coverts, white; lining of wing and
axillars, white; under surface of flight feathers pale gray; sides of neck, broad
area across chest, and sides of body pale brown, lightest toward mid-line;
rest of under surface, white; legs pale brown; feet black. Adults and immatures,
both sexes, in fall, winter and early spring: Like adults in summer save that
black markings on head are absent, and feathers of whole upper surface are
more or less prominently tipped with light rusty brown; sides of head, chefet.
and sides of body, strongly sufPused with same color. Males: Total length 8.7.5-
9.50 inches (222-241 mm.) (four specimens) ; folded wing 5.55-5.95 (141.0-
151.2); bill along eulmen 0.83-0.89 (21.1-22.5); tarsus 1.54-1.81 (.39.0-46.0)

482 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

(ten specimens). Females: Total length 9.00-9.50 (228-241) (six specimens);
folded wing 5.44-5.85 (138.2-148.7); bill along eulmen 0.78-0.89 (19.8-22.6);
tarsus 1.52-1.6.3 (38.5-41.4) (ten specimens); adults and full-grown immatures,
all from California. Juvenile plumage: Like winter plumage of adults but all
of lighter feather edgings broader, and brighter in tone, and lower surface
more extensively tinged with pale tawny brown. By fading and wear this
becomes the winter plumage. Natal plumage: Forehead and cheeks pale buff;
bill pale brown, lighter at tip; top and back of head and upper surface of
body coarsely mottled with black on a pale buff ground; entire under surface
of body dull yellowish white; legs and feet (dried) yellowish brown.

Marks for field identification — Moderate size (about that of Killdeer, but
chunkier), short bill, uniformity of coloration, white axillars and lining of
wing, total lack of black bands or streaking on breast or sides, and lack of
conspicuous white on rump and wing. These features pertain to the winter
plumage and hence to the birds throughout their stay in California; in summer
there is black on the forepart of the crown and between the bill and eye.

Voice — A rather low pleasing whistle (Goss, 1891, p. 218); on breeding
grounds, a short shrill whistle, dropping at intervals to a harsh note (Cameron,
1907, p. 256).

Nest — On open prairie or plains of the interior; a mere depression in the
surface, sometimes sparingly lined with a few dried grasses (authors).

Eggs — 3 to 4, bluntly jjear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.40 to 1.60 by 1.05 to
1.15 (in millimeters, 35.6 to 40.6 by 26.7 to 29.2); ground color deep brownish
drab, with small rounded spots of blackish brown, a little more numerous about
the larger end; deeper-lying markings of grayish are also present (Baird,
Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 175; Coues, 1874, p. 458; Goss, 1891, p. 218).

General distribution — Western North America. Breeds in the United
States north nearly to the Canadian boundary in Montana, south through west-
ern Wyoming and south-central Colorado to northeastern New Mexico, and
east to northwestern Texas, western Kansas and western Nebraska; winters
from north-central California, southern Arizona, and south-central Texas, south
to central Mexico and southern Lower California (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p.
130; Cooke, 1910, p. 94).

Distribution in California — Common fall, winter and spring visitant locally
to open plains in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley, and in the coa«tal dis-
trict of southern California from Ventura County to the Mexican line. Has
occurred also in the San Francisco Bay region and at Monterey. Fall migrants
arrive from September to November, and the last spring birds are seen in
March.

The Mountain Plover, or Prairie Plover as this species has more
aptly been called elsewhere, is typically an inland bird. It is rarely,
if ever, seen along the seacoast, or indeed anywhere in the vicinity of
any water, and in this respect differs markedly from all others of
our plovers. It is an exclusively American species and is restricted to
the southwestern portion of the continent, nesting in the Rocky Moun-
tain region, and wintering from the southern United States to central
Mexico. Much of the winter range lies west of its breeding range, so
that an east-and-west course of migration must be the rule.

In California the Mountain Plover is purely a winter visitant.
The earliest fall record for numbers is for INIontebello, Los Angeles

MOUNTAIN PLOVER 483

County, September 15, 1896 (Willett, 1912ff. p. 41), when the species
was recorded as already plentiful. But Dawson (1916, p. 26) saw
a single bird on the Santa Barbara beach, August 25, 1915. Belding
(MS) states that a flock of about a dozen was seen at Stockton, Sep-
tember 26, 1883, but that this was earlier than usual for its appear-
ance in the central valleys; judging from his and other accounts the
average date of arrival is probably some time in October. Through-
out the winter months the ^lountain Plover is present in varying
numbers. According to a few reports it has at times been extremely
abundant locally. The latest known spring occurrence for southern
California is February 22, 1888, at Riverside (specimen in Mus.
Vert. Zool.). At Mendota, Fresno County, three specimens were
secured on March 12, 1912 (Mus. Vert. Zool.). On the coast of central
California, it has been recorded only from Monterey, January 24,
1911 (Beck, MS), and in the vicinity of San Francisco Bay, January
26, 1898 (specimen in Mailliard coll.). W. E. Bryant {in Belding, MS)
reports that the species was a rare winter visitant in his day in the
vicinity of Oakland. A specimen was taken at Concord, Contra Costa
County, January 10, 1894 (Mus. Vert. Zool.). The northernmost
locality from Avhich the species has been recorded within the state is
Marysville, Butte County (Belding, 1879, p. 440).

The Mountain Plover is to be distinguished by its moderate size
(near that of the Killdeer), chunky appearance, short bill, uniformity
of coloration throughout, its white axillars and lining of wing, and
the total absence of black bands, patches or streaks on its breast and
sides. The dry upland habitat of the bird is also distinctive. From
all others of our small or moderate sized plovers the Mountain may
be known by the absence of any black band or side-patches on the
breast, and from the larger species (Black-bellied and Golden) by
the uniformly colored upper surface, white axillars, and, in spring,
by the absence of black on the under surface.

The Mountain Plover is typically a bird of dry open plains, being
rarely if ever found about bodies of water as are most other shore
birds. Belding (1879, p. 440) says of this bird in central California:
"It frequents the dry plains, but is oftener found in fields that have
been prepared for or sown with wheat than any other localities. It
sometimes visits the low, rolling gravelly hills to the east of the
[Sacramento-San Joaquin] valley, and is often abundant, especially
previous to the severe rains of winter." This plover is a flocking
species found in bands of from fifteen to several hundred individuals.
Occasionally, in years past, they have occurred in great numbers on
the level country lying within a few miles of Los Angeles.

This species differs from many of its relatives in being somewhat
difficult to flush from the ground. When pursued the birds will

484 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

run about, preferring to dodge between bits of vegetation, rather
than to take flight. When moving about in this vnanner the head is
lowered, but at intervals the birds stop suddenly, straighten up and
look around. "When disturbed they have a curious habit of collaps-
ing, or shrinking into themselves, and stretching their bodies to the
full height alternately" (Cameron, 1907, p. 255). Often upon
alighting, after they have been in flight, the birds will immediately
run to some distance so that it is not always possible to follow them
up easily as with other shore birds. The flocks fly low over the ground,
and are difficult to see, except when they wheel. As they do this the
under surfaces of their wings show momentarily as silvery white
flashes.

The nesting season is rather late, especially when considered in
relation to the latitude and to the time of departure of the birds in
the spring from their winter home. Young about one day out of the
shell have been found by May 29 (Warren, 1912, p. 90), and newly
hatched young on July 28 (Goues, 1874, p. 459), so that the nesting
season occupies a period of approximately two months.

The Mountain Plover nests on the same kind of dry, half -barren
plains which serve as its preferred habitat at other times of the year.
The nests are nothing more than slight depressions in the ground,
usually bare but sometimes sparingly lined with dry .grass. The
eggs number either three or four, are pear-shaped, but much more
rounded than those of most other waders, and measure 1.40 to 1.60
by 1.05 to 1.15 inches; the ground-color is deep brownish drab, with
small rounded spots of deep bister or black, a little more numerous
about the larger end ; deeper-lying grayish markings are also present
(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 175; Coues, 1874, p. 458;
Goss, 1891, p. 218).

But little seems to have been placed on record concerning the
habits of this species during the nesting season. Cameron (1907, p.
256) describes his experience with a nesting bird in Montana as
follows : A pair had been located in the center of a prairie-dog town
and one of them had shown extreme agitation at his approach.

Running with a trailing wing she wouhl fall over ami lie struggling on
the ground, which . . . convinced me that she had young close by. . . . The
distracted parent . . . sought by feints and struggles to engage my attention.
All the time she kept up a short, shrill whistle, dropping at intervals to a
harsh note and appearing to utter these sounds without opening her beak. . . .
By her manoeuvres she assisted me to find her nestlings and I soon saw two
little pale yellow birds, spotted with black, together with an egg, on the bare
ground, for there was no pretence at a nest.

Warren (1912, p. 90) records the rather common occurrence of
the Mountain Plover in the breeding season in portions of north-central

SVRF-BIED 485

Colorado. On June 11 many partly grown young were seen. One,
wliich was estimated to be a week or ten days old, was able to run
with great speed and did so with its wings outspread. An adult
squatting in the shade of a fence post, and a young one in a similar
position, were seen on the same date.

The food of the Mountain Plover, as might be surmised from its
choice of haunts, is almost entirely composed of insects ; of these,
the species which are found in open country, such as grasshoppers,
crickets and beetles, are most frequently taken. Flies are also eaten
(Beck, MS; McAtee, 1911a). Belding (MS) observes interestingly
that he often found this Plover in recently sown grain fields, but
was never able to discover a single kernel of wheat in the stomachs
of those shot.

As a possible feature of attractiveness to the hunter may be men-
tioned this bird's fair size and consequent food value. In earlier
years numbei-s were sold in the markets at least of Los Angeles. We
have, however, learned little that would evidence particular enthus-
iasm over this species on the part of the average sportsman. Beld-
ing (MS) says that "during their winter sojourn here the birds
become fat, and so tame as to afford the hunter but little sport."
Also "their flesh has an unpleasant taste not at first noticed."

It may well be said that the Mountain Plover is a unique type
among our shore birds. Its upland habitat marks it off sharply from
most of our other species. It therefore deserves special consideration
from the game standpoint, as it gives an object of pursuit to the plains
dweller to Avhom hunting along the seacoast or in the lowland marshes
is denied. Its habit of appearing in great numbers at irregular inter-
vals, as if concentrated into a small area, should be taken into account
and only moderate hunting permitted in order that its numbers may
not be too greatly reduced.

Surf-bird

Aphriza virgata (Gmelin)

Other names — Townsend's Surf Bird; Strepsilas virgaia.

Description — Adults, both sexes, in summer: Whole head and neck streaked
black and white, darkest on crown where also suffused with pale buff; chin
whitest, the markings reduced to flecks; eyelids white; iris dark brown; bill
(dried) brownish black, dull yellow on basal half of lower mandible; feathers
of back brownish black, with narrow edgings of ashy white, and extensive
markings of reddish buff; rump dull dark brown; upper tail coverts abruptly
and solidly white; tail pure white on basal half, dull dark brown on terminal
half, the outer feathers with narrow white tips; outer surface of closed wing
dull brown; bases of primaries, tips of primary coverts and ends of most of
secondaries, white, forming a conspicuous band across expanded wing; flight

486 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

feathers brownish black, shafts of outermost ones white; margin of wing
sealed white and brown; lining of wing and axillars white; inner surface of
flight feathers white toward bases, darkening to pale brown at ends; breast
with a mixture of ashy brown feathers, and pure white feathers with crescent-
shaped bars of blackish near ends; rest of under surface white, marked on
upper belly, sides, flanks and under tail coverts with bold crescents, triangles,
or streaks of brownish black; feet " 'olive green; claws black' " (Baird,
Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 127). Adults and immatures, both sexes in
winter: Top and sides of head, whole neck, and breast, back, rump and outer
surface of closed wing, continuously blackish brown, the feathers with dull
darker shafts or shaft streaks, which are broadest and most noticeable on
head; eyelids white; cheeks streaked with dull ashy; chin white, sparingly
flecked with brown; rump, upper tail coverts, tail and flight feathers as in
summer adults; under surface behind dark breast area, white, sparingly streaked
or spotted with dark brown, on upper belly, flanks and under tail coverts.
Males: Total length 9.87 inches (251 mm.) (two specimens from Alaska);
folded wing 6.22-6.62 (158-168); bill along culmen 0.87-0.95 (22.5-24.2);
tarsus 1.14-1.25 (29.0-31.8) (ten specimens from Alaska). Females: Total
length 10.25 (261) (one specimen from Alaska); folded wing 6.42-6.97 (163-
177); bill along culmen 0.95-1.02 (24.2-25.8); tarsus 1.22-1.32 (31.0-33.6) (ten
specimens from Alaska and California). Juvenile (?) plumage: Like that of
adults in winter save that feathers of back are narrowly edged with grayish
white, wing coverts are slightly lighter than l)ack and more broadly margined
with white, and each ashy brown feather on breast is crossed near end by
two narrow white bands; iris dark hazel; bill black at tip, grayish yellow at
base; feet and legs yellowish (modified from Nelson, 1887, p. 128). Natal
plumage: Not known to us.

Marks for field identification — Moderate size (much larger than that of
Killdeer), plump appearance, short bill (fig. 78) and legs, conspicuous white
"rump" patch (including upper tail coverts and bases of tail feathers), white
band across wing, and heavily marked under surface (pi. 13). Similar in
general appearance to the Turnstones, but distinguished from them by slightly
larger size, boldly marked instead of pure white hinder lower surface, and
single white patch at base of tail instead of two separated by black interval.

Voice — A low piping note (Heermann, 1859, p. 64) ; a wild key-we'-ah (Bailey,
1916&, p. 103).

Nest and eggs — Unknown.

General distribution — Pacific coast of North and South America. Breed-
ing range unknown but probably in interior of northwestern Alaska; winters
in Chile south to Straits of Magellan; in migration occurs from Kowak River,
northern Alaska, to southern South America (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 131;
Cooke, 1910, p. 95).

Distribution in California — Spring and fall migrant in moderate numbers
on rocky ocean shores; one instance of capture in winter. Recorded from
various localities from Bodega Bay, Sonoma County, south to Point Loma, San
Diego County.

There remain at the present time but very few birds of regular
occurrence in northern North America M'hose life histories are not
fairly well known. The Surf -bird is one of these elusive species. In
winter it is known to occur along the western coast of southern South

SUBFBIBD 487

America, and it migrates along the whole Pacific coast of the two
Americas. At the north, in Alaska, it has not been reported between
May 29 and July 21 ; during this interval it vanishes. It is believed
that the nesting grounds are in the interior of northwestern Alaska,
but this belief rests upon inference coupled Avith the assertions of
Alaskan natives.

In California tlie Surf -bird is a moderately common species in
the spring and fall migrations, and it has been observed here once in
winter. Definite instances of occurrence, with specific dates, are as
follows: Bodega Bay, March 25 or 26, 1885 (Belding, MS) ; Berkeley,
October 24, 1888 (Cooke, 1910, p. 95) ; Farallon Islands, June 3, 1903
(Cooke, loc. cit.) ; Santa Cruz, April 22, 1895 (specimen in Mailliard
coll.) ; Monterey, August 3, 1894, and other dates in same month
(Loomis, 1895, p. 224) ; January 12, 1911 (two specimens in Mus.
Vert. Zool.) ; and May 10 and August 5, 1907 (Beck, 1910, p. 71) ;
Santa Barbara, September 16, 1911, flock of five (Bowles and Howell,
1912, p. 11); May 3, 1912, flock of twenty-three (Dawson, 1912, p.
224) ; May 1, 1913 (Howell, MS) ; and June 4, 1915, two individuals
(Dawson, 1915, p. 207) ; San Miguel Island, between March 13 and
April 1, 1903 (Willett, 1912a., p. 41) ; San Nicolas Island, May 15,
1909 (Willett, loc. cit.) ; Pacific Beach, San Diego County, September
8, 1904 (Bishop, 1905, p. 141) ; and Point Loma, San Diego County,
March 19, 1898 (Stephens coll.). It has also been reported doubt-
fully from Santa Barbara Island ( Cooper in Baird, Brewer and Ridg-
way, 1884, I, p. 127), and it was obtained by Heermann (1859, p. 64)
in the markets of San Francisco in the winter of 1849. The latter
author also met with this species on the Farallon Islands in June,
1850.

Summarizing from the above, we find the earliest spring record
to be March 19 and the latest June 4; the earliest in the fall August
3, and the latest October 24, save for the single January occurrence.
Most of the records are for May and August. Being a species which
adheres closely to the rockiest portions of our coasts, it does not come
to the attention of the usual visitor to the seashore. Special efforts
to find this bird, if made at the proper season and in the proper
locality, are quite sure to prove successful.

Among the shore birds occurring in California the Surf -bird may
be knoA\Ti by its moderate size (considerably larger than that of the
Killdeer), its very plump appearance, short, plover-like bill (fig. 78),
very short legs, conspicuous white upper tail coverts and base of tail
("rump" patch), white band across wing, and the bold pattern of
markings on its under surface (pi. 13). From our two Turnstones,
which it most closely resembles, this bird may be told by its stouter
build, somewhat larger size, the boldly marked instead of pure white

488 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

hinder lower surface, and the single white patch instead of two
Avhite patches separated by black at the upper base of the tail.

The Surf -bird prefers rocky reefs and outcrops to sandy beaches ;
in this respect it almost duplicates the Wandering Tattler. Indeed
the two species are often found in the near vicinity of one another,
but the Tattler is solitary while the Surf-bird is of flocking habit.
Torrey (1913, pp. 136-137) who observed these two species and others
at Santa Barbara says that the Surf-birds "... kept persistently
close to the water, on what looked at . . . [a] distance like bare
rocks, not off-shore like those to which the oyster-catchers restricted
themselves, nor covered with seaweed like those resorted to by the
wandering tattlers. Once . . . they occupied themselves a long time
on the face of a rock that inclined seaward, running up into sight
as the higher waves chased them, and anon hastening down again as
the water receded."

The most interesting account of the
Surf-bird within the state is that fur-
nished by Dawson (1913a, pp. 5-8)
who, on May 3, 1912, observed a flock
of twenty-three of these birds at La
Patera, near Santa Barbara. They

were first sighted from a bluff above
Fig. 78. Side of bill of Surf- , , , ^ , ^, „ ^.

bird. Natural size. the beach, and were then feeding m

mixed company with some cormorants.

A detour and careful approach finally allowed the observer to get

within eighteen feet of the waders, from which the cormorants had

meanwhile separated. They were feeding along a rocky reef in close

reach of the waves. "Now and again the flock shifted, but always they

came back, alighting at the extreme tip of the reef where the waves

frequently bandied them. For the most part they fed silently, but

as often as I made some unusual demonstration or as often as the

wave swept about them, a murmur of complaint arose. The flock came

to attention, or a few shifted position, . . . but the moment danger

was over, work was resumed upon the barnacles." When forced to

leave because of the water they took refuge on a near-by sandy area

and gleaned like sandpipers ; but they seemed to prefer the rocky

situation and returned to it at the first possible opportunity. At this

time their food consisted exclusively of sessile barnacles from the

shells of which, as they were fastened to the rocks, the birds were

dexterously extracting the soft parts. " . . . It was interesting to see

a bird get a good grip on a reluctant cirriped, then brace and haul

him out by main force. ' ' The food of the Surf-bird probably includes

other rock-inhabiting marine animals such as mussels, in addition

to the barnacles already mentioned.

BUDDY TUBNSTONE 489

Being restricted in its occurrence in California, both as to season
and locality, and with a breeding ground so sequestered as to have
completely eluded man's search, the Surf -bird seldom comes under
the surveillance of our sportsmen. It is safe to say that it will never
be a species of importance among the game birds of the state. It is,
nevertheless, a noteworthy member of our bird fauna. As Torrey
(1913, p. 138) has aptly said with reference to its unknown nesting
habits, "somehow it is impossible not to feel a certain heightened
respect for birds that have succeeded in keeping such a secret in
despite of man's insatiable curiosity."

Ruddy Turnstone

Afcnaria interpres morinclla (Linnaeus)

Other xames — Calico-back ; Checkered Suipe; Red-legged Plover; Arenaria
interpres; Arenaria morinclla; StrepsUas interpres.

Description — Adult male, in spring and summer: Stripe across forepart of
crown and continuing over eye, around back of head, and onto ear region, white;
chin and spot at side of bill, white; top of hea I, streaked with black and white;
narrow stripe from top of bill running to and below eye, and connecting with
stripe from lower mandible along side of chin, black; bill "black"; iris
"hazel" (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 234); neck collar (incomplete behind), black;
lower hind neck, mixed white and brownish; back mixed black and rusty brown
in coarse pattern; lower back and longer upper tail coverts, white; shorter
upper tail coverts brownish black forming a dark "rump patch" set in white;
tail white at base, blackish brown terminally; outer feathers of tail slightly
lighter, and outermost ones extensively marked, and all the feathers tipped,
with white; outer surface of closed wing chiefly rusty brown; tips of greater
coverts, bases of primaries, and most of secondaries white, forming a con-
spicuous band across expanded wing; primaries chiefly blackish brown, shafts
largely ivory white; lining of wing and axillars, wholly white; under surface
of flight feathers white, becoming pale drab toward tips; foreneck, sides of
chest, and shoulders, solidly black, abruptly outlined; rest of under surface
pure white; feet and legs "deep orange-red," claws "black" (Audubon, loc.
cit.). Adult female, in spring and summer: Similar to adult male at same season,
but with coloration more subdued, black areas brown toned, and white areas
invaded with dusky (W. Palmer, 1899, p. 413). Adults, hoth sexes, in •winter:
Similar to adults in summer, but black feathers edged with white, and rusty
brown markings on back less conspicuous (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke,
1903, p. 482). Males: Total length 7.75-9.62 inches (197-244 mm.) (four speci-
mens from California and Lower California); folded wing "5.45-5.95" (138.5-
151.0); bill along culmen "0.86-0.95" (21.8-24.1); tarsus "0.89-1.07" (22.6-
27.2) (twenty specimens from Virginia). Females: Total length 9.40-10.40
(238-264) (two specimens from California and Lower California) ; folded wing
"5.72-6.08" (145-154); bill along culmen "0.88-0.99" (22.4-25.2); tarsus
"0.99-1.07" (25.2-27.2) (eleven specimens from Virginia) (measurements,
except of total length, from W. Palmer, 1899, p. 417). Juvenile plumage: Top
and sides of head and neck, dull brown, mottled with pale buff; forehead and
areas below and behind eye, dull white, flecked with brownish; chin and throat

490 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

white; back dark brown, with feather margins and tippings of buflfy or white;
rump, upper tail coverts, and tail, as in adult, except that tail feathers are
narrowly tipped with buff; outer surface of closed wing dark brown, with
buffy feather tippings and edgings; rest of wing as in adult; band across
throat and large area on side of chest, continuous with neck and back, brownish
black, finely marked with buffy white; rest of under surface white. Natal
phimage: Whole upper surface light buff, profusely marbled with black in
fine pattern; sharp stripe between bill and eye, and branch down onto side
of jaw, black; center of forehead dark, blending into mottled pattern on top
of head; lower surface dull white, with a dusky band across chest.

Marks for field identification — Moderately small size (about that of
Killdeer), short orange-red legs, conspicuously mixed pattern on head and
back, double alternation of white and black from lower back to end of tail,
broad white band across wing, and black on foreneck and chest.

Voice — A rapidly repeated kuk, kuk, kiik ; a loud twittering note; a chuck-
ling whistle; a clear deep melodious whistle of two or three notes (Forbush,
1912, pp. 359, 361).

Nest — On lake, bay or river shores; a slight depression, sometimes lined
with a few grass blades or dead leaves (Eeed, 1904, p. 132; Baird, Brewer and
Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 124).

Eggs — Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.60 to 1.72 by 1.13 to
1.23 (in millimeters, 40.6 to 43.7 by 28.7 to 31.3), and averaging 1.66 by 1.18
(42.2 by 30.0) ; ground-color light olive-brown, cream color, light drab or deep
clay color; superficial spots light brown in large bold splashes and spots, most
numerous about larger end; deeper markings lilac (of interpres and morineUa
together?) (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, loc. cit.).

General distribution — North and South America. Breeds near Arctic coast
of Canada on lower Anderson Eiver and Franklin Bay, and probably at Mel-
ville Island, on Melville Peninsula, and at Bellot Strait, north of Boothia
Peninsula; winters from South Carolina, Louisiana, Texas and central Cali-
fornia south to central Chile and southern Brazil; occurs in migration over
most of the area between winter and summer ranges (Cooke, 1910, pp. 97-98).

Distribution in California — Eather uncommon spring and fall migrant
along the coast; has occurred on San Francisco Bay in winter, and once on
Santa Barbara Islands in summer. Spring migration evidently takes place
during April and early May, and the fall migration from late July to about
the first of October.

Among the shore birds occurring in California none are more
interesting by reason of specialized habits than the tAvo Turnstones,
of which the Ruddy Turnstone, the subject of the present account, is
the rarer species. Being strictly maritime in its preference, and
never, so far as known, even straying inland, this bird comes under
the observation of but few persons.

In California the Ruddy Turnstone is a sparing spring and fall
migrant, and is apparently more numerous in some years than in
others. Stragglers have occurred within our boundaries during both
winter and summer. Records of this species in the northern half of the
state are as follows: Eureka, Humboldt County, August 28, 1912
(specimen in F. J. Smith coll.) ; Farallon Islands, May 7, 1887, one

BUDDY TURNSTONE 491

specimen (W. E. Bryant, 1888, p. 44) ; San Francisco Bay, January
28, 1901 (two specimens in Mailliard coll.) ; Stege, near Berkeley,
August 13, 1892 (specimen in ]\Ius. Vert. Zool.) ; Bay Farm Island,
Alameda County, September 18, 1914, one individual seen (Grinnell,
MS) ; and vicinity of Monterey, July 18, 1892, and August 25, 1897,
one specimen in each instance (Loomis, 1895, p. 224; J. Mailliard,
1898, p. 51).

This species is most frequently met Avith in southern California.
Two were seen at Santa Barbara, July 26, 1909 (Torrey, 1909b, p.
174), but none was noted there in 1910. In 1911, however, birds of
this species were observed on five dates between August 22 and
September 12, in numbers ranging from one to six (Bowles and
Howell, 1912, p. 11; Howell, MS). The only record of occurrence
in spring in southern California is for San Nicolas Island, March 30
to May 11, 1910, during which period nineteen specimens were taken
(Willett. 1912a, pp. 41^2). There is one summer record for this
region: Santa Cruz Island, July 8, 1912, one individual (Wright and
Snyder. 1913, p. 91), and a number of fall ones, the latest being for
San Miguel Island, October 15, 1910, two seen (Willett, loc. cit.).
In all, there are twentj'-two records for the state known to the authors,
several of these being for more than one individual bird.

The Ruddy Turnstone is an easy bird to recognize, by the com-
bination of moderately small size, short bill, short, orange-red legs,
conspicuously mixed pattern on head and upper surface, white band
across wing, double alternation of white and black areas from lower
back to tip of tail, and black chest and foreneck. This' species differs
from the Black Turnstone in being slightly smaller, in having a varie-
gated pattern of coloration on the back and a white chin, and in
having less black on its chest. Its bright reddish legs, heavy black
chest area, and the extensive white on its lower back, will distinguish
it from the sandpipers and plovers of similar size. Forbush (1912,
pp. 360-361) says of the Ruddy Turnstone as observed along the
eastern coast of the United States :

The bright variegated plumage of the Turnstone, with its strong contrasts
of black, white and chestnut, places it among the most attractive birds of
the sea-shore. The flight is rather low and swift at times and then the white
of the plumage is very striking. In flight it often alternates scaling and flap-
ping, and sometimes gives a curious chattering or rattling note as it passes.
I have heard, too, the rapidly repeated MA-, Ml", 'kii'k, which a pair uttered as
they flew by overhead, but as a rule I have found them lather silent. . . .

[The Turnstone] . . . loves the foot of a rocky cliff or a beach with great
stones partly submerged by the tide, but is common also on sandy beaches
near the pounding surf, and on bars bared by the tide. Sometimes it is seen
in marshes or along the banks of tidal creeks. It prods the sand with its beak,
follows the retreating w'ave, raises pebbles from their beds, oftentimes squat-

492 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

ting, heaving and working hard to dislodge them. Sometimes it pushes with its
breast against a stone or shell in the effort to overturn it, or even digs beneath
to undermine it when it is too firmly imbedded to be moved otherwise. It
turns over bundles of seaweed, and 'roots' out weeds and sea mosses, as Dr.
Townsend says ' ' like a little pig. ' ' These labors are undertaken in the hope
of finding something eatable beneath such objects, and the little laborer often
is rewarded. Dawson states that near the shores of Lake Erie he has seen
it on the ploughed lands turning over clods bigger than itself with such force
as to roll them a foot or more. This habit of turning objects is not constant,
however, with this bird, and is sometimes the exception, as I have watched it
when it seemed to be occupied entirely in probing the sand, or searching for
food, like a sandpiper, along the strand.

The Turnstone can swim well at need, and like some other species loves to
bathe in the wash of the waves that roll up on the sands, where it shakes off
the w^ater like a little dog.

W. A. Bryan (1903, pp. 210-211) tells of an interesting experience
with an individual of the Common Turnstone, a bird closely related
to the Ruddy, which came aboard a vessel in the Pacific Ocean. The
bird was placed in a cage on shipboard and offered the canned flesh
of various animals such as oysters and clams, and also fresh fish.
These were all refused. Then some live cockroaches, the only live
insects available, were introduced. The bugs would scurry under
stones in the bottom of the cage, whereupon the Turnstone would roll
each stone to one side and snap up any bug which might be uncovered.
Then it would beat the insect vigorously on the floor several times and
finally swallow it.

According to Cooke (1910, p. 97) authentic records of the nesting
of the Ruddy Turnstone are still very rare. The breeding range of
the Turnstone of the Eastern Hemisphere extends east into Alaska,
and the line dividing the breeding range of this subspecies {interpres)
from that of the Ruddy, which nests in boreal America to the east-
ward, has not yet been clearly marked off. Reed (1904, p. 132)
records a set of eggs (of morinella) taken June 28, 1900, on the
Mackenzie River; while MacFarlane (1891, p. 430) speaks of finding
birds at Fort Anderson in June, 1864, and of taking eggs on the
Lower Anderson River, on a date not specified.

The nest is said to be usually placed along the shore of a body
of water, on a sandy or stony area, and like that of most other waders,
is a mere depression in the surface, sometimes lined with a few
grasses or dead leaves. The eggs are usually four in number, pear-
shaped, and measure in inches, 1.60 to 1.72 by 1.13 to 1.23, averaging
1.66 by 1.18. The ground-color is cream or light drab or deep clay,
with superficial markings of light brown, boldly splashed about the
larger end ; there are also deeper-lying lilac markings (Baird, Brewer
and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 124).

BLACK TUEXSrOXE 493

Speaking of tlie Common and Ruddy turnstones together, San-
ford, Bishop and Van Dyke (1903, pp. 485-486) say: "The nest
is placed on the ground, sometimes sheltered by a low-growing shrub.
In tlie l)i'(H'ding season the male gives its alarm note if the nest is
api)roaehed, and then both birds fly to high ground, perching on
rocks, if such are present, and watch silenth^, not moving while any'
one is near. The nests are hollows in the stonj^ beaches near high-
water mark."

Turnstones take, as food, insects, small Crustacea, small mollusks,
and worms. Along the Atlantic coast they feed on the spawn of the
horseshoe crab and in northern Florida, according to Audubon, they
feed on oysters which have been killed at low tide by the heat of the
sun and also on such thin-slielled mollusks as they are able to break
open (Forbush, 1912, p. 361).

Considering the small numbers in wliich Ruddy Turnstones visit
California, and also the limited area to which they restrict them-
selves, they will pi-obably never be well known to any persons save
those who frequent the seashore in special search for its bird life.

Black Turnstone

Arena ria melanocepliala (Vigors)

Other names — Strepsilas melanocephalus.

Description — AduHs, both sexes, in late spring and summer: Head and neck,
back, outer surface of closed wing, and whole breast, deep brownish black,
the back and wings with a faint bronzy iridescence; large spot at side of bill,
broken stripe over eye, sparse streaking on top and sides of head, neck and
chest, and margins of scapulars, white; iris "brown; bill, black" (Sanford,
Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 487); rump white; shorter upper tail coverts
solid brownish black, longer upper tail coverts and bases of tail feathers
white; terminal half of tail feathers blackish brown, outer ones tipped with
white; primaries chiefly brownish black, the shafts white except at tips;
tips and inner webs of greater coverts and much of secondaries, white, form-
ing a conspicuous band across expanded wing; under surface of wing and
axillars, pure white, continuous with white of sides, rump and hinder under
surface; under surface of flight feathers drab toward tips; under surface of
body behind breast, wholly white; legs and feet "yellowish" (Sanford, Bishop
and Van Dyke, loc. cit.); nails black. Adults and immatures, both sexes, in fall
and winter: Like adults in summer save that white spot at side of bill is absent,
and white streaking about head is less evident. Males: Total length 8..50-9.31
inches (216-236 mm.) (five specimens from California); folded wing 5.52-5.89
(140.0-149.7); bill along culmen 0.86-0.92 (21.8-23.3) ; tarsus 0.98-1.04 (25.0-
26.4) (ten specimens from California). Females: Total length 8.7.5-10.20 (22.2-
25.9) (three specimens from California); folded wing 5.62-6.07 (142.5-1.54.0);
bill along culmen 0.88-0.98 (22.4-24.8); tarsus 1.01-1.10 (25.7-27.8) (ten speci-
mens from California and Alaska). Juvenile plumage: Like that of adults in
summer, but white markings on head, neck and sides of chest, absent, feathers

494 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBNJA

of back and wings lacking iridescence, and feathers of outer surface of wing,
back, and breast, narrowly tipped with pale buflf. Naial plumage: Not known
to us.

Marks for field identification — Moderate size (near that of Killdeer),
uniformly blackish upper surface, head and breast, and conspicuous white bar
across wing; rump and upper tail coverts largely white, with a middle area
of black. Distinguished from Euddy Turnstone by slightly larger size, absence
of striking pattern of coloration on head and upper surface, and extension of
blackish farther back on lower surface; from all other shore birds of similar
size it may be known by the extensive area of blackish on forward portion
of body both above and below.

Voice — A fine clear, peeping cry, weet, weet, too-weet (Nelson, 1887, p. 129).

Nest — On low marshy ground in the vicinity of brackish pools or on sea-
beach; a mere depression in the surface (Nelson, loc. cit.; Eeed, 1904, p. 132).

Eggs — Usually 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.58 to 1.85 by 1.10 to
1.19 (in millimeters, 40.2 to 47.0 by 27.9 to 30.2); ground-color light gray or
drab with an olive cast, marked (finely?) with light brown and lilac (Eeed,
loc. cit.; Baird, Browser and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 126).

General distribtttion — Pacific coast of North America. Breeds in western
Alaska from Kotzebue Sound region to Nushagak, on Bristol Bay; winters
from British Columbia and even southeastern Alaska south to Magdalena Bay,
Lower California, but mostly in southern half of this area; has occurred
casually at Point Barrow, Alaska, on east Asiatic coast, and in India (modified
from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 132; Cooke, 1910, pp. 98-99).

Distribution in California — Present throughout the year on rocky shores
along the seaeoast. Most common as a winter visitant and spring and fall
migrant; least abundant during late June and early July when only a few
belated migrants or non-breeders are to be found. On coast of southern Cali-
fornia arrives in numbers chiefly in August, and leaves in April.

The Black Turnstone occurs in fair numbers along the whole
coast of California during most of the year, but because of its prefer-
ence for rocky situations along the ocean shore and about the larger
bays, it is met with by but few persons. While not present in such
numbers as certain otlier species of wider habitat preferences the
Black Turnstone is distinctly more numerous than the Wandering
Tattler, Surf-bird, and Oyster-catchers, which frequent the same
restricted sort of territory.

This Turnstone is present in numbers along our coast from August
to May, the population lessening only during the nesting season.
However, stragglers which are probably either barren or non-breeding
birds, remain through the summer months. Willett (1912rt, p. 42)
says the main body leaves the coast of southern California in April
and returns in August and this apparently holds true for the north-
ern part of the state as well. In winter the species remains at least as
far north as San Francisco Bay (J. Mailliard, 1004, p. 16;i while it is
particularly abundant about the islands off the coast of southern Cali-
fornia and occurs in fair numbers on the Farallons. Red Rock, on
San Francisco Bay, is the farthest point away from the open ocean
that the species has been recorded within the state.

BLACK TUENSTONE 495

The Black Turnstone is an easy bird to recognize. The combination
of its moderate size (about that of Killdeer), predominantly blackish
plumage, notably on the forward lower surface, the conspicuous white
wing bar, and the alternating brownish black and white from the back
to the tip of the tail, insure identification. From the Ruddy Turn-
stone the present species may be known by its slightly larger size, by
the lack of striking pattern on its head and upper surface, and by the
farther extension of black on its lower surface. The presence of con-
tinuous black on the forward half of the lower surface, sharply cut
off from the Avhite behind, is sufficient to distinguish the Black Turn-
stone from any of our other shore birds which approach it in size.

Black Turnstones are found singly, in small flocks, or in companies
numbering up to forty or more individuals; but they are most fre-
quently observed in flocks of moderate size. In Alaska, on the breed-
ing grounds, these birds frequent pools and marshy land a few miles
inland, as well as the seashore, but in
California they restrict themselves with
notable constancy to the vicinity of the
open ocean. Rocky beaches are their
preferred habitat, but they also forage
considerably on sandy shores, in either
case usually at the edge of the water. Fig. 79. Side of bill of

Thev are quite tame and will often Bla*'^ Turnstone. Natural

size.
permit a rather close approach, espe-

.,,.„,, , . (. 1 , Note slight upward curve

cially 11 the observer is carerul to move and tapering end.

slowly.

Torrey (1913, pp. 37-39) records in a vivid style the feeding

habits of the Black Turnstone at Santa Barbara :

They were feeding in three ways. Sometimes they followed the receding
breaker, gleaning from the surface, as it seemed, such edibles as it had washed
in. Mostly, however, they busied themselves upon the wet sand just above the
last reach of the falling tide.

Once they found a place where the shrimps or prawms were evidently more
plentiful than elsewhere, and it was amusing to see how eagerly they worked,
each determined to get its full share of the plunder. . . . Thrusting their short,
stout bills into the sand, they drew out their squirming prey, dropped it on
the sand, picked it up and shook it, and dropped it again, till finally they
had it in condition for swallowing. These manoeuvres they repeated, all in
desiderate competitive haste, till the beach within a circle a few feet in cir-
cumference was thickly dotted with minute hillocks of sand, such as I should
never have attributed to the work of any bird, had it not been done before
my eyes. Then the supplj^ seemed to be exhausted, and . . . they moved on
in search of another bonanza.

At other times they resorted to patches of seaweed lying here and there a
little higher on the beach, turning them bottom side up, or brushing them aside,
to feast on such small game as had taken shelter underneath. Their action

496 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

here was like that of a dog when he buries a bone by pushing the earth over
it with his nose. They lowered their heads, and with more or less effort
according to circumstances accomplished their purpose.

If the obstacle proved too heavy to be moved in this manner, they drew
back a little and made a run at it as men do . . . in using a battering-ram.
More than once I saw them gaining the needed momentum by this means. . . .

They quarreled now and then over the business, and once two of them
faced each other, bill to bill, like game-cocks, a most unusual proceeding
among waders, firing off little fusillades of exclamations meanwhile. . . . The
turnstones' disagreements were of the briefest, however, slight ebullitions of
temper rather than any actual belligerency.

"When they take to wing, as they do by a common fioek impulse,
the transformation in appearance is a delight to the eye. Instead of
a row of dull-colored clods, there appears a constant cyclorama of
flashing white, set off by variegating blacks" (Dawson, 1909, p. 694).

Torrey states that one of the birds observed by him rested by
dropping its body down on the sand, rather than by standing on one
leg as is the habit of so many other species. This mannerism is said
by Kells (1895, p. 64) also to be evinced if the birds are startled
when above the edge of the water.

In an account of the birds of the 1906 cruise of the "Albatross,"
A. H. Clark (1910, p. 51) says:

On the first day out of San Francisco, May 4, we saw several small flocks
of these birds on their way north; each succeeding day they became more
abundant until on the afternoon of May 8 we saw them by thousands, in
flocks of from ten or twenty to several hundred. At one time, about 2 o'clock
in the afternoon, the whole sea appeared dotted with white, so abundant were
they. All the birds noticed were headed up the coast, goliig the same direction
as we.

In the mornings these birds were comparatively rare; they began to appear
about 11, and increased in numbers until about 2, when they were very abun-
dant; shortly after 3 there was a falling off until by half past 4 few, if any,
were to be seen. . . . Whether they spent the night and early morning on the
neighboring shores or resting on the water I am vinable to say; but all we saw
were on the wing; possibly there were other shore birds in these multitudes,
but all which came near the ship were of this species.

The Black Turnstone breeds rather commonly along a limited
stretch of the western coast of Alaska, from the vicinity of Kotzebue
Sound south to Nushagak, on Bristol Bay, and a short distance inland
along the lower course of the Yukon River. Strangely, there are but
few records of its nesting; descriptions of its eggs are scanty and
records of downy young are apparently wanting altogether. The
nest, which is simply a depression in the surface of the ground, is
situated on the seabeach or among near-by brackish pools. The eggs,
which are pear-shaped, are said to number three or four, and measure

BLACK TUBNSTONE 497

in inches l.fjS to 1.85 by 1.10 to 1.19. The ground-color is light
gray or drab, witli an olive tinge, marked (finely?) with spots of
liglit brown and lilac (Reed, 1904, p. 132; Baird, Brewer and Ridg-
way, 1884, I, p. 126).

■ Nelson (1887, pp. 129-130) says of the Black Turnstone:

It breeds among the brackish pools on Saint Michaels Island, and is found
scattered over the wet flats everywhere. It is one of the commonest birds of
this locality, its sharp, clear note breaking the silence wherever one turns his
steps among the pools and marshy places. It has a habit of circling around
the intruder, during the nesting season, with a fine, clear, peeping cry like
the syllables weet, weet, too-weet, as it moves restlessly about; now stopping a
moment on a slight knoll, then running hastily along the edge of a neighbor-
ing pool, perhaps picking up a scrap of food as it runs, and then it mounts
on wing again and comes careening about, evincing the liveliest distress at the
invasion of its haunts. When disturbed in the vicinity of its nest it has also a
sharp peet, ireet, weet, very similar to the well-known note of the Spotted Sand-
piper. Let the hunter go where he will on the marshy ground and his ear is
greeted by the same remonstrance.

They are found along the course of the Lower Yukon during the summer
season and breed wherever found. When the j'oung are able to take wing in
July they leave the flats, to a great extent, and frequent the sea-coast, where
they keep in small straggling parties searching for food along the tide line.

The food of the Black Turnstone probably consists of small marine
animals such as are taken by other waders frequenting similar forage
grounds ; but we have very little definite information on the subject.
A specimen taken May 22, 1896, by C. L. Hall at Saint Michaels,
Alaska, and now in the collection of the Museum of Vertebrate
Zoology, was feeding on heath berries when secured. This must be
considered out of the ordinary — an emergency item of fare. Torrey
(1913, p. 37) mentions certain marine Crustacea as included in its
diet, and Kells (1895, p. 64) says the Black Turnstone takes small
"slugs," while according to Cooper (in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway,
1884, I, p. 125) it feeds on barnacles, as does the Surf-bird.

Locally restricted in its range, and not occurring anywhere in
the numbers exhibited by most shore birds, this species will never
take an important rank among the game species of California. On
the coast of Washington, Suckley (in Cooper and Suckley, 1859, p.
234) says that in October he "... . found them usually fat, and
comparing favorably with the tattlers and sandpipers as articles of
food." But there is no evidence that they have ever been made a
special object of pursuit by sportsmen in California. No change in
their relative abundance has been noted. Like their littoral associates
we can but look upon Black Turnstones as essential and attractive
figures in the avian life of our seashores.

498 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Black Oyster-catcher
Haematopus hachmani Audubon

Other namks — Bachman Oyster-catcher; Townsend's Oyster-catcher; Hae-
matopus niger; Haematopus ater; Haematopus townsendi.

Description — Adults, both sexes, at all seasons: Whole head, neck and breast,
black; rest of plumage dark brown, very slightly paler on under surface,
darker on tips of wing and tail; feathers of belly often tipped narrowly with
white; edges of eyelids bright red; bill "ver million"; iris "yellow"; legs
and feet "pale flesh color" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 494).
Males: Total length 16.75-18.40 inches (425-467 mm.) (four specimens from
California and Lower California); folded wing 9.34-10.05 (237-255); bill
along culmen 2.42-2.87 (61.5-72.9); tarsus 1.94-2.15 (49.3-54.6) (ten specimens
from California and Alaska). Females: Folded wing 9.56-10.35 (243-263);
bill along culmen 2.73-3.01 (69.4-76.5); tarsus 1.97-2.18 (50.1-55.5) (nine speci-
mens from California and Alaska). Juvenile plumage: Like that of adult, but
with feathers of back and outer surface of wing sparingly tipped with pale
tawny brown; white tippings on feathers of lower abdomen lacking; bill
blackish toward tip. Natal plumage: Upper surface mixed light drab and black-
ish in fine pattern; indistinct streak through eye, two lines down middle of
back meeting on rump, and tail, black; under surface dull grayish, darkest
on throat and lightest on middle of belly; whole plumage presenting a pepper-
and-salt effect.

Marks for field identification — Large size (near that of Hudsonian Cur-
lew), long, stout and straight, red bill (fig. 80), wholly blackish-appearing
plumage, light colored legs, and entire lack of distinct white markings.

Voice — A peculiar low whistle (Nelson, 1887, p. 130); harsh, vociferous cries
(Henshaw, 1876, p. 270).

Nest — On small rocky islets, usually but a short distance from a larger
island or the mainland; often but a few feet above the high water mark; a
shallow depression in the rock surface or thin soil, with the addition of a few
pebbles, bits of shell, or even sharp fragments of rock; no lining of grasses
or other vegetable matter.

Eggs — 2 to 3, rarely 4, ovate in shape, and measuring in inches, 2.08 to 2.38
by 1.45 to 1.58 (in millimeters, 52.8 to 60.4 by 36.8 to 40.2); ground-color
grayish olive to greenish, superficial spots of black and dark brown; deeper-
lying markings lavender (Willett, 1909, p. 187).

General distribution — Pacific coast of North America. Breeds from Prince
William Sound, Alaska, west throughout the Aleutian Islands, and south to
central Lower California (Abreojos Point). There are no winter records north
of southern British Columbia, and there is one winter occurrence reported from
La Paz, extreme southern Lower California, so that a partial migration may
possibly take place (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 133; W. E.
Bryant, 1889, p. 276).

Distribution in California — Common resident locally coastwise, chiefly
on rocky off-shore islets. Eecorded north to Trinidad, Humboldt County, but
most common on the central part of our coast and around the Santa Barbara
Islands. Eecorded as breeding on the latter south to Santa Barbara Island,
and to the northward to Seal Eocks near Cypress Point, Monterey County;
may be expected to breed in suitable localities farther to the northward.

BLACK OYSTEB-CATCHEE 499

The Black Oyster-catcher is the representative species of its genus
along the coast of California, where it is found locally in limited num-
bers throughout the year. In the northern part of its general range,
that is, from the Aleutian Islands to British Columbia, this species
is said to be migratory, but within our borders it is quite certainly
resident. It differs from other shore birds which occur in California
throughout the year in restricting itself to rocky islets and island
shores along the outer seacoast. In consequence of this it is less
often met with than most of our other shore birds.

Definite records of the Black Oyster-catcher in California have
been established as far north as Trinidad, Humboldt County (speci-
men in Mus. Vert. Zool.), and as far south as San Clemente Island
(Cooper, 1870&. pp. 79, 81), but it is likely to occur in all suitable

IS0I6

Fig. 80. Side of bill of Black Oyster-catcher. Natural size.
Note stout form and length over 2.50 inches (compare with figs. 64 and 75).

locations along our coast. Present records indicate that it is most
abundant on the Santa Barbara group of islands. This species is
never found in large numbers in any one locality, each small islet
usually harboring but one or a few pairs, according to its size. This
limitation in numbers is probably due to the fact that the birds are
permanent residents of the territory they occupy and that their full
complement is strictly limited by the supply of food obtainable there
throughout the year.

From our other shore birds the Black Oyster- catcher is easy to dis-
tinguish. Its large size (approaching that of the Hudsonian Curlew),
its long, straight, stout, red bill (fig. 80), dark-colored plumage
(appearing quite black but a short distance away), lack of any dis-
tinct white markings, and pale-colored legs, render recognition cer-
tain. From the more southern Frazar Oyster-catcher it may be easily
distinguished by the absence of white on its rump, wings and under
surface.

The preferred habitat of the Black Oyster-catcher is a rocky shore,
but sometimes the birds forage on a sandy stretch of beach. Their gait

500 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA

in walking is said to be clumsy, perhaps because of the disproportion
between their large bodies and their short legs. But at times they
are quite nimble. When foraging on a beach, they advance and
retreat with agility before the wash of the waves. The strong bill,
wedge-shaped towards the tip, seems admirably adapted to their
peculiar method of gaining a livelihood ; and it is put to good use in
prying loose from the rocks the various kinds of mollusks which form
their staple diet. They seem to enjoy standing on a partially sub-
merged ledge of rock with their feet now and then awash, and are
wont on such occasions to call back and forth to one another with
loud curlew-like cries of a quality which carries well above the noise
of the surf.

The nesting season of the Black Oyster-catcher in California
extends from the middle of May to the latter part of June (Willett,
1912a, p. 42 h The earliest nesting is that recorded by Willett (1909,
p. 187) who took a set of half-incubated eggs near Port Harford,
San Luis Obispo County, May 14, 1909, and also three other sets on
May 15, 16, and 17, and the latest date is for a set of two fresh eggs
found at Seal Rocks, near Cypress Point, Monterey County, June 21,
1902 (Grinnell, MS). The recorded instances of nesting range geo-
graphically from San Clemente Island (Cooper, 1870&, p. 79), to
Seal Rocks, Monterey County (Grinnell, MS), but the species may be
expected to nest in suitable localities at many other points farther to
the northward.

Black Oyster-catchers nest on the same rocky islets that they
inhabit at other times of the year. Sometimes they nest in the near
neighborhood of such birds as Gulls and Cormorants; again they are
the sole inhabitants of these wave-swept spots. The birds seem to
prefer the smallest detached rocks to the larger islands, probably
because of the greater measure of protection afforded by the former.
The nests are placed on the bare rocks, sometimes but a short dis-
tance above the high-water mark, or again at a considerable distance
above the reach of the waves. The nest itself is merely a slight
natural depression in the rock surface, or in whatever thin covering
of soil there may be. The only lining provided is a number of small
pebbles or bits of rock or shell which may be either smooth and
rounded, or angular and sharp ; no vegetation whatever is included as
lining material.

A set of eggs number either two or three, although Cooper {in
Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 117) states that he found
a nest containing four on Santa Barbara Island, June 3, 1863. The
eggs are ovate, and measure 2.08 to 2.38 by 1.45 to 1.58. The ground-
color varies from grayish olive to greenish, with superficial spots and
blotches of black and dark brown, and deeper-lying ones of lavender
(Willett, 1909, p. 187).

BLACK OYSTEE-CATCHEE 501

111 San Luis Obispo Couiity, Willett (1909, pp. 186-187) judged
that there were in 1909 twelve pairs breeding along fifteen miles of
coast. He says:

The nests are tliflicult to locate, and even more difficult to reach after they
are located. This bird, like the Killdeer, makes the greatest outcry at a point
considerably distant from the nest, and the brooding bird will quietly slip
from the nest at the first intimation of danger and will appear on a point of
rock some distance away, where she will be joined by her mate. . . . The
nests are placed on the lea side of a rock or projection sheltered from the
prevailing wind, sometimes only a few feet above high water and at other
times far above the reach of the flying spray. They are shallow cavities in
the rock or thin soil, thickly lined with sharp chips of rock evidently carried
by the birds. Numerous scratches on the shells of the eggs show that they are
frequently turned over by the birds who rely to some extent on the heat of the
sun as an assistance in incubation.

Heath (1915, p. 40) says that on Forrester Island, Alaska:

The precocial fledglings very early accompanied their parents on short
journeys about the cliffs, and within a week after hatching were observed peck-
ing at limpets, although it is highly probable that for several days thereafter
they depended on the old birds for the greater part of their food supply. Dur-
ing this time the young resemble diminutive ostriches with thick-set legs, big
feet and fluffy plumage, which, it may be added, harmonizes to a high degree
with the surroundings. Furthermore they have the same habit of hiding the
head when it is not possible to conceal the entire body beneath a stone. From
the stomach contents of adults, and judging by the shells scattered about the
nests, the food of the black oystercatcher consists wholly of limpets.

The name Oyster-catcher, as applied to these birds is somewhat
of a misnomer. They rarely feed upon oysters, as, especially on this
coast, they frequent localities where these bivalves are rare or absent,
and if they feed elsewhere upon oysters it is only upon the smaller
species and not upon the ones of commerce, which live in too deep
water to be secured by these birds. Other mollusks including such
forms as mussels, chitons, limpets, and young abalones seem to form
the principal item of their diet (Beck, MS; Willett, 1909, p. 187).
It is probable that the birds also use other sorts of marine animals for
food.

The question of what constitutes a game bird comes up again in
the case of the Oyster-catcher. Shall we define as game only the
species generally pursued for the excellence of their flesh or the excite-
ment afforded in hunting them, or shall we set off certain natural
groups in their entirety (as we do at present), and allow all of their
members to be legally pursued ? It would seem better to alter the
present system somewhat and exclude certain members of our native
avifauna from the category of game birds. As the Black Oyster-
catcher is of peculiarly interesting structure and habits, limited in

502 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA

numbers and restricted in distribution, and of little or no value as
food, it should certainly be so treated and removed from ;he game
category. This would entail no hardship to the sportsman, for his
quests rarely lead him to the remote haunts of these birds, and even
if he captures one he will find it very unpalatable food, if the
testimony at hand can be relied upon.

Frazar Oyster-catcher
Haematopus frazari Brewster

Other names — American Oyster-catcher; Pied Oyster-catcher; Haematopus
palliatus.

Description — Adults, both sexes, at all seasons: Whole head, neck and breast,
black; bill vermilion; iris orange; back, rump, and outer surface of closed
wing, brown; upper tail coverts chiefly white; tail feathers white at bases,
brown on middle portions, becoming blackish toward tips, lateral ones lighter;
ends of greater coverts and much of secondaries, white, forming a conspicuous
band across expanded wing; flight feathers blackish brown; portion of wing
lining near edge of wing, mixed white and brown; rest of lining, white in part,
in part dusky; axillars solidly white; under surface of flight feathers dusky
brown; under surface of body behind breast white, the line of separation not
sharp, there being a few feathers of mixed black and white; feet white or
whitish. Male: Folded wing 10.10 inches (256 mm.); bill along culmen 2.96
(75.0); tarsus 2.27 (57.6) (one specimen from Los Coronados Islands, Lower
California). Females: Total length 18.00-18.50 (457-470); folded wing 9.60-
10.24 (244-260) ; bill along culmen 2.83-3.18 (71.8-80.7) ; tarsus 2.21-2.29 (56.1-
58.2) (two specimens from California). Juvenile and natal plumages: Not known
to us.

Marks for field identification — Large size (about that of Hudsouian Cur-
lew but of stouter build), long, straight and thick reddish bill, dark-colored
head and back, conspicuous white markings on wing and "rump", and pure
white hinder lower surface. Differs from Black Oyster-catcher in the possession
of conspicuous white areas.

Voice — Loud, clear, whistling notes (W. E. Bryant, 1889, p. 276).

Nest — On rocky islands; probably as with the Black Oyster-catcher a slight
depression in the rock surface, lined with a few pebbles.

Eggs — Not known to us.

General distribution — Eesident on both coasts of Lower California; form-
erly ranged north to Ventura County, California; and has been reported once
from coast of Sinaloa, Mexico (Cooke, 1910, pp. 99-100).

Distribution in California — Of former occurrence on the coast and islands
south from Santa Barbara Island to the Mexican line. No thoroughly authentic
instance since the eighties.

The Frazar Oyster-catcher is to be considered at best but a rare
straggler in California; it is properly a member of the fauna of
Lower California. As it ranges (or did so formerly) north to Ven-
tura County, and south along the whole Avestern coast of Lower Cali-

FEAZAB OYSTER-CATCHER 503

foniia, its range is overlapped by that of the Black Oyster-catcher
for several hundred miles. There are but three records of this species
being found within our borders. These are as follows: Ventura
County, "seen occasionally along the seacoast in summer" (Ever-
mann, 1886, p. 92) ; Santa Barbara Island, June 2, 1863. adult female
containing an egg ready for extrusion, and San Diego, May 16, 1862,
adult female (Cooper in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, pp.
113-114; specimens now in Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; White's Landing, Santa
Catalina Island, one seen February 12, 1910 (Osburn, 1911o, p. 76).
The last cited instance is subject to some doubt.

From other sliore birds occurring in California the Frazar Oyster-
catcher is distinguished by its large size (about that of Hudsonian
Curlew but stouter), large, straight and thick, reddish bill, and dark-
colored head and back with conspicuous white markings on wing
and "rump", and pure white hinder part of under surface. From
the Black Oyster-catcher this species may be known by the presence
of the conspicuous white markings just mentioned.

But little has been placed on record concerning the Frazar Oyster-
catcher, probably because it was for a long time considered identical
with the Oyster-catcher of eastern North America, which was already
well known, and again because the Frazar occupies a region not often
visited by naturalists. It inhabits by preference offshore islets, of
which there are many along the coast of Lower California. There
it feeds on the various marine animals found on rocks, such as
barnacles, other Crustacea, and mollusks. Its stout bill is admirably
adapted for the Avork of dislodging such creatures.

The Frazar Oyster-catcher nests on the same rocky islands that
form its forage grounds at all times of the year. Kaeding (1905, p.
Ill) states that on several islands off the coast of central Lower Cali-
fornia eggs of this species were taken in various stages of incubation
about June 25, 1897, which would indicate that the nesting season
is fully as late or even later than that of the Black Oyster-catcher
(which see). W. E. Bryant (1889, p. 276) records finding this species
common on Santa Margarita Island and vicinity. Lower California,
where the birds "... were mated [that is, in pairs] in January. They
were rather shy, running rapidly on the beach, and if approached,
taking wing with loud, clear, whistling notes, and after flying some
distance, alighting again at the water's edge."

As it has been but seldom observed within our limits, and is not
likely to extend its range beyond its present southern habitat, the
Frazar Oyster-catcher cannot be looked upon as more than a rarity
in California, and the interest which we take in it is almost exclusively
scientific.

504 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBNIA

Mountain Quail

Oreortyx picta pliimifera (Gould)

Other names — Plumed Quail; Plumed Partridge; San Pedro Quail; Calli-
pepla picta, part; Ortyx picta, part; Ortyx plumifcra; Oreortyx picta, part;
Oreortyx picta confinis.

Description — Adults, both sexes: Head, breast and forepart of back clear
bluish slaty gray; plume or topknot of two straight narrow black feathei:s
2.75 to 4.00 inches (70-102 mm.) long when complete; extreme forehead and
area between eye and bill whitish; large patch on throat, extending to bill and
eyes, bright chestnut brown, bordered above on each side by a narrow line of
black and then by a wider white line; bill black; iris brown; back, outer sur-
face of wing, rump, upper tail coverts, and tail, light olive brown; primary
flight feathers outwardly edged with ashy; an abrupt white edging along
margins of inner webs of secondaries; under surface of wing and axillars plain
ashy brown; elongated feathers of sides shiny chestnut brown broadly and
strikingly marked with black and white bands; a series of white marks high
on each side of the body forming a longitudinal line; flanks light chestnut
brown; belly whitish; under tail coverts blackish, more or less streaked nar-
rowly with dark chestnut; legs and feet dusky. The male differs slightly from
the female in the greater length of the plume, the clearer gray of hind neck,
and the brighter tone of colors on lower surface. Males: Total length 10.60-
11.75 inches (269-298 mm.) (ten specimens); folded wing 5.10-5.46 (129.5-
138.5); bill along culmen 0.53-0.57 (13.4-14.5); tarsus 1.38-1.48 (35.1-37.6)
(ten specimens); weight 7.0-10.3 oz. (200.0-292.0 gms.) (ten specimens).
Females: Total length 10.40-12.12 (264-308) (nine specimens); folded wing
5.00-5.58 (127-142); bill along culmen 0.52-0.56 (13.2-14.2); tarsus 1.32-1.46
(33.5-37.0) (ten specimens). Juvenile plumage: General tone of coloration pale
ashy brown; feathers of upper surface, wings and tail minutely flecked with
whitish and dusky or blackish, the pattern coarsest on scapulars, and more in
the nature of bars on crown of head, wings and tail; two short blackish
feathers with narrow light brown bars at tip, form a plume; inner scapulars
most strongly tinged with brown; loM^er surface clearer ashy, the feathers tip-
ped with white; chin, stripe over eye, and cheeks, mostly white; broad patch
of blackish varying in extent in different individuals, on lower throat, usually reach-
ing to eyes ; feathers of sides blackish, broadly bordered with dingy whitish and
showing traces of chestnut brown ; flanks and lower tail coverts pale cinnamon
brown. Natal plumage: Broad stripe of chestnut brown over top of head and down
back to tip of tail, bordered on either side by narrower stripes of black and then of
whitish; sides of head and body, and wing, minutely marked with dusky and
buffy brown; a dark line behind eye; a patch of chestnut brown on shoulder;
below yellowish white, palest on chin and belly; flanks and shanks tinged with
cinnamon; legs and bill of a pale dull brown.

Marks for field identification — Large size (as compared with other quail),
long slender black plume (fig. 81), and bands of black, white and chestnut on
sides of body (pi. 14). In hand, distinguished from closely similar Painted
Quail {Oreortyx picta picta), which inhabits the northern coast region only,
by whitish forehead, greater amount of ashy on top of head and back, and
lesser amount of grayish olive on upper surface of body generalh^ Call-note
easily distinguishable from that of Valley Quail.

Voice — Resonant, often turkey-like in quality; of male: a single loud queerk

MOUNTAIN QUAIL 505

uttered at intervals; note of alarm: ca-ca-ca-ca-cree-a or (lup, gup, gup, quee-ar,
quee-ar.

Nest — A depression on the j^round lined with leaves, pine needles or grass
and usually concealed beneath an overhangino; rock, log or bush.

Eggs — 5 to 15, in exceptional eases more; in shape pointedly ovate, occasionally
almost pear-shaped, measuring in inches 1.27 to 1.46 by 0.97 to 1.05 (in milli-
meters 32.2 to 37.0 by 24.6 to 26.7), and averaging 1.33 by 1.00 (33.7 by 25.3)
(nineteen eggs from California) ; color plain pale reddish buff.

Gener.\l distribution — Mountainous portions of the Pacific coast states
from west side of Cascade Kange in northwestern Oregon south through the
Sierra Nevada and southern coast ranges of California to northern Lower Cali-
fornia; east only to extreme western Nevada.

DiSTRiBUTiox IX California — Abundant resident at middle altitudes along
the major mountain ranges almost throughout the state. In detail: Modoc
region of northeastern California from Mount Shasta to the Warner Mountains;
west along the Oregon line to the Siskiyou Mountains; south along both slopes
of Sierra Nevada to Tehachapi Mountains; desert ranges of the Inyo region;
southern coast ranges from the Santa Ynez of Santa Barbara County southeast
tiirough the San Gabriel, San Bernardino and San .lacinto ranges to the vicinity
of the Mexican line; down onto tiie desert locally at east base of these ranges.
Not in tlie northern coast ranges nearest the ocean from Humboldt County
south to Monterey County, where replaced by a near-related subspecies. A
slight vertical migration for the winter down the slopes of the Sierra Nevada.

The ^Mountain Quail, sometimes known as Mountain Partridge or
Plumed Quail, is generally admitted to be the most beautiful of all
members of the quail family found in North America. It is also the
largest of the species that may be properly termed quail. This bird is
found throughout the mountainous districts of California with the ex-
ception of the northwestern coast region, where a darker subspecies
( Orcortijx picta picta) is found. No representative of the species, how-
ever, now occupies the near vicinity of San Francisco Bay. From the
Shasta and Modoc regions the range of the Mountain Quail extends
southward along both slopes of the Sierra Nevada to the Tehachapi
mountains, thence eastward through the higher desert mountains to-
wards Death Valley, and southward through the southern coast ranges
from the Santa Ynez Mountains of Santa Barbara County to the Mexi-
can line in San Diego County. On the eastern bases of the southern
California ranges this quail occurs about springs well out onto the
desert. There are a few places where Mountain Quail and Valley
Quail nest on common ground, as for example, in San Gorgonio Pass,
Kiverside County, and near Walker Pass, Kern County. As a rule
the Mountain Quail is to be found on brushy hillsides and in wooded
cailons between the altitudes of 2,500 and 9,500 feet. In the fall along
the Sierra Nevada there is a general downward movement, to a belt
usually below the snow-line, so that the winter range may be well
below the summer range. Thus, in midwinter, the Mountain and
Valley quails maj" be found not infrequently on common ground,
where in summer only the latter occurs.

506

GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

From other quails found in California, the Mountain Quail may-
be distinguished at once by its large size, rich chestnut throat and
sides, the latter broadlj' banded with black and white, and by the
long slender topknot or plume made up of two jet black
feathers (pi. 14 and fig. 81). This species also is pecul-
iar in that the males and females are almost indis-
tinguishable both as to size and coloration. The only-
points of difference we can make out are the usually
shorter plume, the extension of the brown of back for-
ward to hind neck, and the slightly duller tones of color
on the under surface of the female. The call of the
Mountain Quail, as described farther on, is so strikingly
unlike that of the Valley Quail that the two species can
be easily recognized as far as they can be heard.

The mating season of the Mountain Quail begins in
the latter part of March or the first part of
April, according to altitude, when the flocks
lireak up, and the pairs sequester themselves,
selecting favorable nesting
■^ grounds. Three or four

;:5^- weeks later a nest is con-

'^^-'-T^-^ structed of leaves, pine

needles, or grass, and from
five to fifteen eggs of a uni-
form pale reddish buff
color are laid therein. The
nest is invariably
placed on the
ground under the
protection of an
overhanging rock,
log, bush, or clump
of grass. An indi-
cation that an in-
complete set of
eggs is in the near
vicinity is said to
be the presence of
a pair of Mountain Quail walking sedately aloiig a road or across
a forest opening, the male leading with plume erect and the female
walking close behind (Keyes, 1905, p. 14). The earliest nesting date
on record is April 7 for the southern part of the state, when Mr.
Frank Stephens found a ''full set" ; the latest date given is August 15,
for Shasta County (Bendire, 1892, p. 16). Complete sets are most

Fig. 81. Head of Mountain Quail showing long
sti-aight slender plume. Natural size.

MOUNTAIN QUAIL

507

commonly found during the first two weeks of June. The above
statements are summarized from the accompanying table (no. 13)
which gives details of nesting as far as we have been able to obtain
definite data.

Table l.'^— Data

LOCALITV

"Southei-n California"
Baird, Shasta Co.
Volcan Mt.. San Diego Co.
Linda Vista Hills.

near Pasadena
San Antonio Canon

Los Angeles Co.
Fyffe, Eldorado Co.
Redding. Shasta Co.
Fyflfe, Eldorado Co.

FyfTe, Eldorado Co.

Downiovillp. Sierra Co.
Bear Valley, Alpine Co.
Fyffe, Eldorado Co.

Mt. Lassen

Parker Creek,

Modoc Co.
Fyffe. Eldorado Co.

Cisco, Placer Co.
Palomar Mt..

San Diego Co.
Near Bloods,

Alpine Co.
Near Bloods,

Alpine Co.
Near Bloods.

Alpine Co.
Baird, Shasta Co.

Southern Sierra Nevada
Mt. Tallac. 8,000 ft. alt.
Tuohimne Co.,

9,500 ft. alt.
Big Trees,

Calaveras Co.
Baird. Sha.sta Co.
Big Trees.

Calaveras Co.
Big Trees.

Calaveras Co.
"Union Pacific Railroad"

(Placer Co.?)
Redding, Shasta Co.

Alpine Valley.

Sonoma Co.
Alpine Valley,

Sonoma Co.
Mill Creek,

near Ukiah
Monterev

Eelative to the Nesting of the Mountai
Quails in California

MOUNTAIN QUAIL

Nest Contents and
Date Condition

Apr. 7, "Full set"

Apr. 15, "Earliest eggs"

May .5, 188.T 8 eggs, incubation slight

May 7, 1897 10 eggs, fresh

May 11. 1907 10 eggs, fresh

May 13, 1913 4 eggs, fresh.

May 24, 1886 12 eggs, fresh

June 7, 1899 10 eggs, incubated about

one-half
June 7, 1899 11 eggs, incubated about

one-half
June 7, 1866 10 eggs
June 10, 1880 6 eggs, nest abandoned
,Tune 10, 1899 10 eggs, incubation well

along
June 12, 1884 10 eggs

June 12. 1910 11 eggs, partly incubated

June 16. 1899 6 eggs, fresh

June 17, 1914 19 eggs (two females?)

June 19, 1897 5 eggs, well incubated

June 19, 1903 9 eggs, fresh

June 20. 1903 22 eggs, fresh (probably

laid by two females)
June 21. 1903 11 eggs, fresh

June 24 8 eggs

June 25, 1906 9 eggs

July 2 1903 10 eggs, fresh

July 6, 1893 10 eggs, incubated one-half

July, 1878 13 eggs, nearly hatched

Aug. 15 Latest eggs

1879 6 eggs

1880 6 eggs

10 eggs

1886 7 eggs

PAINTED QUAIL

May 15,1914 8 eggs, incubation well

begun
May 24, 1913 6 eggs, incubation begun

Last of Mav, 9 eggs, fresh

1883

5 eggs

n and Painted

Authority
Bendire, 1892, p. 16
Bendire, 1892, p. 16
Bendire, 1892, p. 16
Grinnell, 1898, p. 19

Willett, 1912a. p. 43

Ray, 1914, p. 59
Bendire, 1892, p. 16
Barlow and Price, 1901,

p. 158
Barlow and Price, 1901,

p. 158
Bendire, 1892, p. 16
Bendire. 1892, p. 16
Barlow and Price, 1901,

p. 158
C. H. Townsend, 1887,

p. 199
H. C. Br>'ant, MS.

Barlow and Price, 1901,

p. 158
Carriger coll.
McGregor, 1899, p. 67

Keyes, 1905, p. 15

Keyes. 1905, p. 15

Keyes, 1905, p. 15

C. H. Townsend, 1887,

p. 199
Childs coll.
Keyes, 1905, p. 16
Mailliard coll.

Balding, 1879,
pp. 438-439
Bendire, 1892, p. 16
U. S. National Museum

U. S. National Museum

Bendire, 1892, p. 16

U. S. National Museum

Carriger coll.
Carriger coll.
Mailliard coll.
U. S. National Museum

508 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

Keyes (1905, pp. 15-16) found several nests of the Mountain
Quail in the Sierras while making a trip through the mountains from
Sonora to Lake Tahoe. One found on June 15 was composed of
pine needles and measured eight inches in diameter and three inches
in depth at the center. It contained seven eggs. An additional egg
was found in this nest on the morning of the 17th, and on the 19th
still another. At eleven o'clock a.m. on the 20th the nest still con-
tained nine eggs, but by one o'clock p.m. of the same day a tenth had
been added.

Another nest found June 15 contained seven eggs. Eight eggs
M^ere in the nest when it was visited on the 16th, nine were found on
the 18th, ten on the 20th, and eleven on the 21st. These instances
would seem to show that the frequent statements that an egg is laid
each day until the set is complete are not literally true.

Still another nest found by the same observer on June 20 was well
constructed of coarse dry grass, a few small twigs, and many breast
feathers from the bird, and was well concealed in thick brush. The
remarkable complement of twenty-two eggs was found in it, these
being arranged in two layers, the upper of which contained but three
eggs. It was not possible to determine whether so many eggs were
the product of two females or of just one, but the former is more
likely.

"Where the Mountain and Valley quails nest in close proximity it
sometimes happens that eggs may be laid by one species in the nest
of the other. H. J. Lelande flushed a Mountain Quail from a nest in
the Linda Vista Hills west of Pasadena, May 7, 1897, which contained
ten eggs of this quail and four of the Valley Quail. All were fresh
(Grinnell, 1898, p. 19). A nest found jn Alpine Valley, Sonoma
County, held eight eggs of the coast race (picta) of Mountain Quail
and two eggs of the California Quail (Carriger, MS).

The eggs of the Valley Quail and Mountain Quail are totally
different, the latter bird laying plain, unmarked, buff-tinted eggs,
the former conspicuously brown-spotted eggs with whitish ground-
color. Nineteen eggs of the Mountain Quail from Cisco, Placer
County, measure in inches, 1.27 to 1.46 by 0.97 to 1.05, and average
1.33 by 1.00. In shape they vary from elongate ovate with a rela-
tively sharp point at small end to almost pear-shape. Two sets from
Sonoma County (and hence probably of the race Oreortyx picta
picta), aggregating fourteen eggs, are similar in shape and color.
They measure 1.28 to 1.43 by 1.01 to 1.11, and average 1.37 by 1.08.

While general statements ascribe as many as fifteen as the usual
complement of eggs for the Mountain Quail (for instance, see Beld-
ing, 1879, p. 439), exact data as far as available show an average of
only eleven eggs per set. This is decidedly below the average for the

MOUNTAIN QUAIL 509

Valley Quail, so that we may properly infer the reproductive rate in
the Mountain Quail to be the lower. Because of the shorter summer
season at the higher altitudes it is less likely that two broods are
regularly reared each season. Evidence in this regard is lacking,
save for a single statement by a correspondent of Bendire (1892,
p. 16) that in Shasta County two broods per season are raised. As
against tlie claim of two broods, we may offer the following data:
Extreme dates for ten just-hatched, downy chicks (specimens in
Mus. Vert. Zool. and Grinnell coll.), representing as many broods, are
June 6 and July 5; the latest date for eggs as shown by our table is
August 15, but the next latest is July 6, for incubated eggs. On
October 7, near the IMerced River above El Portal, Mariposa County,
a covey of two-thirds grown young was flushed from the roadside.
But we have no definite knowledge of the rate of growth of this
species of quail, so that the date af egg-laying in tliis case may have
been much earlier than some would infer.

During July and August the young are very mucli in evidence
around mountain springs at the heads of ravines. Eight broods were
seen by H. C. Bryant (MS) during a ten days' stay in the first half
of August, 1914, near Cisco, Placer County. The young birds varied
from three inches in length to half the size of adults. The broods
were accompanied by one and often both of the parents. When dis-
turbed the adult bird would take some commanding position on a
log or rock, well sheltered by brush, and while watching the intruder,
would give voice to the following call of alarm : Ca-ca-ca-ca, ca-cr-
r-r-re-a, ca-ca-ca-ca, ca-cr-r-r-ree-a. The young are adepts at hiding
and a person is likely almost to step upon them before they flush.
The half-grown young less often resort to running to escape pursuit
than in the case of adults, but instead take to trees like grouse where
they sit motionless (Grinnell and Swarth, 1913, p. 229). Although,
as the summer advances, broods of young unite, the resulting aggre-
gations never reach the size of the big autumn flocks of the Valley
Quail.

Williams (1902, pp. 65-66) gives the warning note of the Moun-
tain Quail as: cree-auk-cree-auh-cree-auk-a, and the call-note used in
keeping the flock together as kow, kow, kow, kow. The alarm notes
may be otherwise described as low and turkey-like : gup-gup-gup,
que-ar, que-ar. When feeding undisturbed one can hear the birds
uttering many faint mellow conversational peeps. When first alarmed
perfect quiet may prevail, or only the sound of footfalls as the birds
scurry over the carpet of dead leaves, to be followed presently by the
startling burr of wings (J. Grinnell, MS). The male bird gives a
solitary far-reaching quee-ark or queerk from some fixed position as
on a log. One bird that was timed uttered this note at the following
intervals (in seconds): 7-6-8-5-8-6-7-5-7-9-9 (T. I. Storer, MS).

510 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

J. E. McClellan says {in Judd, 1905, p. 60): ''Their feeding
hours are early in the morning and just before sundown in the
evening, when they go to roost in the thick tops of the scrub live oaks.
Their feeding habits are similar to those of the domestic hen. They
are vigorous scratchers, and will jump a foot or more from the ground
to nip off leaves."

When alarmed the Mountain Quail carries its crest feathers erect,
bowing backwards towards the tip but not tilted forward as in the
case of the Valley Quail. This action gives the bird an alert attitude —
consistent with its evident anxiety in case there are young about.

Although habitually occupying brushy and forested areas, this
quail but seldom perches in trees, and as far as we know the adults
never roost in one at night. They stick close to the ground and
usually seek safety by running beneath cover rather than by flight.
For this reason the Mountain Quail is considered an unsatisfactory
bird to hunt. When hunted in the brush they generally run some
distance before flying, scattering and finally taking wing like as not
behind a bush so as to preclude the probability of a successful shot.

Lyman Belding (1892?), p. 233), after intimate acquaintance with
the Mountain Quail in the central Sierra Nevada wrote of its habits
as f olloAvs :

The . . . Quail . . . which are so plentiful in the high mountains in summer,
are only summer residents there. They usually spend the winter below the
snow line, but as it is not possible to tell just where that is, or rather where
it is going to be, they are sometimes caught iu snow storms, but I have been
astonished at the correctness of their apparent forecast of different winters.
A few birds winter high in the mountains, but I think they are parts of flocks
which were nearly annihilated, or young birds wliich got scattered and lost,
and a few that were wounded and survived.

They begin their journey on foot from the summit and east slope to the
[western] foothills, a little after the first of September, and by the first of
October, when the game law allows them to be shot, they have nearly all
escaped from the mountain hunters to run the gauntlet of those lower down, on
the west slope. In some respects they are very stupid birds, in others, quite
the reverse. When they are going from their summer to their winter resorts,
birds of a flock can all, or nearly all, be shot if the flock can be turned from
its course and scattered. They soon begin to call together and will nearly
always respond to a hunter's imitation of their call. The loud, pleasing call of
the male in breeding season is not easily imitated nor described, though appar-
ently consisting of a single note, which is sometimes varied a little.

Barlow and Price (1901, pp. 158-160) say that:

By the first of September the quail are restless and are beginning their
peculiar vertical migration to the west slope of the mountains. Sometimes four
to six adults with their young will form a covey of ten to thirty individuals
and pursue their way, almost wholly "on foot," along the ridges to a more
congenial winter climate. By Oct. 1 the quail have almost abandoned the

UNIV. CALIF. PUBL.

[GRINNELL, BRYANT, STORER ] PL. 14-

/^<"S {^6S*tz mief^s^

MOUNTAIN QUAIL

MOUNTAIN QUAIL 511

elevations above •'iOOO feet. In the fall the woodland is full of the disconsolate
"peeps" and whistlin-,' call notes of the young who have strayed from their
coveys. In the early spring and summer the quail begin their upward journey,
not in flocks, but usually in pairs or singly, ascending as fast as the snow melts
from the ground. At this mating season their rich, clear whistle is continually
heard, though at no time during the year are they quiet.

Belding (1903, p. 18) has more to say with regard to the migra-
tion of Mountain (^uail :

The fall migration . . . appears to be influenced but little by the food sup-
ply or temperature in its summer habitat in the Sierras, which it appears to
leave because the proper time has arrived for its annual tramp down the west
slope. The first flocks start about the first of September, or sometimes two or
three days sooner. At Webber Lake after three cold, cloudy days, they began
to move westward August 28, 1900. When they are migrating their whistle is
frequently heard, and they do not seek cover for i)rotection, but follow a
wagon road, railroatl. travel in snow sheds, pass near dwellings, and seem to
care but little for self-]>reservation.

A few ^lountain Quail occur along the east wall of the Sierras in
Mono County, and these winter on that side. In severe seasons they
come to the ranches ai'ound Mono Lake and are said then to mingle
freely with the chickens in the stock yards and around the hay-
stacks. At such times the quail are welcomed hy the people of the
region, even the Indians, and are unmolested

The food of the ^Mountain Quail has heen studied in the laboratoiy
of the United States Biological Survey (see Judd, 1905, pp. 59-60).
The stomachs examined, 23 in number, were all collected in California.
Five were secured in January, 2 in May, 6 in June, 3 in July, 3 in
August, and 6 in November.

The food consisted of animal matter, 3 per cent, and vegetable matter, 97
per cent. The animal food was made up of grasshoppers, 0.05 per cent; beetles,
0.23 per cent; miscellaneous insects, including ants and lepidopterous pupae,
1.90 per cent; and centipedes and harvest spiders (Phalangidae) , 0.82 per
cent. Among the beetles was a species of the fireflj^ family {Lampyridae) ,
a ground beetle (Carabidae), and a leaf beetle ( Haltica sp.). Vernon Bailey
informs the writer that the young eat many ants. The vegetable food
consisted of grain, 18.20 per cent; seeds, practically all of weeds or other
worthless plants, 46.61 per cent; fruit, 8.11 per cent; and miscellaneous vege-
table matter, 24.08 per cent. The grain included wheat, corn, barley, and oats.
Of the seed element the seeds of grasses formed 7.78 per cent; of legumes,
10.41 per cent; of weeds of the family EitpJiorbiaceae, 3.16 per cent; of alfilaria
(Erodium cicutarium) , 2.76 per cent; and of miscellaneous weeds, 22.50 per cent.
The legume seeds include seeds of alfalfa, cassia, bush clover, vetch, and lupine.
The miscellaneous seeds come from wild carrot (Daucus carota), tar weed
(Madia sativa), CoJlomia sp., AmsincMa sp., labiate plants, dwarf oak, snowbush
(Ceanothus corduJatus), and thistle.

. . . This bird is especially fond of the leaves of clover and other legumi-
nous plants. It feeds also on flowers, being known to select those of Com-

512 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOENIA

positae and blue-eyed grass (Sisyrinchium). Flowers, leaves, buds, and other
kinds of vegetable matter form the 24.08 per cent marked miscellaneous. The
birds probably eat more fruit than these stomach examinations indicate.

Crops of Mountain Quail secured during field explorations of the
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology and examined by the present writers
showed contents as indicated in the following table (no. 14) :

Table 14 — Crop Contents of Mountain Quail

Locality Date Contents or Crop

El Portal, Mariposa Co. Nov. 21. 1915 2 seeds of wild oats (Avena fatua) ; 30 seeds of

yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) ; more than
400 seeds and many leaves of clover (Tri-
folium ohtusiflorum) ; 2 ladybird beetles
(Hippodamia convergens)

Near Coulterville, Mariposa Co. June 6. 1915 2 + seed pods (Leguminosae) ; flowers of man-

zanita (Arrtostaphylos mariposa) ; pieces
of fern leaves ; green berries of ceanothus
(Ceanothus etineatus) : unidentified seeds;
2 nymphs and 2 adult hemiptera (Mem-
bracidae) ; many ants (Camponotus sp.);
several wingless grasshoppers (Locusti-
dae) ; 1 centipede; 2 beetles (Chrysomeli-
dae) ; 2 beetles (Carabidae) ; several small
pieces of bone

Feliciana Mt., Mariposa Co. Oct. 30, 1915 2 capsules and 148 seeds of croton (Croton

sp.)

El Portal, Mariposa Co. Dec. 1, 1914 Parts of nianzanita berries {A rctostaphylos

mariposa)

Guerneville, Sonoma Co.* .July 4, 1913 More than 575 seeds of turkey mullein (Ere-

mocarpus setigerus)

* Pertains to the subspecies Oreortyx picta picta.

It must be borne in mind that the above analyses are based upon
relatively few stomachs, and give but incomplete evidence as to the
food habits of the species taking its entire range into account as
well as the entire year. The following field observations supply
additional data. Belding says (1892&, pp. 233-234) that:

The service berry is the staple article of their food in fall, but they eat
more or less of the different kinds of berries which the grouse eat. I sup-
pose they, as well as the grouse, eat berries of the wild coffee {Ehamnus
Calif ornica), but I have no data for a positive opinion. They also eat the
acorn of the dwarf oak and seeds of the snow bush {Ceanothus cordulatus),
and seeds of many small plants. I do not know that they eat any of the
foliage mentioned as the food of the grouse, but they probably eat leaves of
clover early in summer, just as valley quail do in winter. The juveniles eat
a great many ants.

Some seasons, when there are no berries and very few seeds, they live
almost entirely upon the bulb of a species of grass, apparently Melica hidhosa,
which grows at the head of springs and rivulets. The birds get the bulb by
scratching. Such seasons they start for the foothills sooner than when food
is abundant.

In the San IJernardino Mountains, the last of August, Grinnell
(1908, p. 56) found the Mountain Quail feeding on service berries
wherever these were obtainable.

The large size and exquisite coloring of the Mountain Quail com-
bine to make it an attractive game bird. Its flesh is excellent, being

PAINTED QUAIL 513

tleclarod jiiicitn- and more finely flavored than that of the Valley
(^uail. But its comparatively small numbers, even under normal con-
ditions, the difficulty attendant upon reaching its habitat, and the fact
that it does not lie well to dogs, deter many sportsmen from hunting
the species. Except when the birds may be out of their natural habitat,
as during their fall migration, it takes stiff hard climbing and a deal
of patience to get a limit of ten.

In former years ^lountain Quail were commonly sold on the
markets of San Francisco. In some instances they were trapped along
the western flanks of the Sierras and sent to the markets alive. Mr,
A. E. Skelton, of El Portal, has reported to us that while shooting
for the market near Raymond, ]Madera County, many years ago he
averaged about a dozen and a half ^Mountain Quail a day. The birds
then brought from $2.50 to $4.00 per dozen. At the present time it
is illegal to sell quail of any sort, except for propagation and then
under permit only. The rapid diminution of Mountain Quail has
already given hunters and others considerable concern.

As this quail is a species which inhabits the uncultivated moun-
tainous districts of the state it ought to be possible to treat it so that
it can persist in maximum numbers. It would seem that a complete
close period for a number gf years, so as to allow the species to
recuperate, is a measure which could be put in force every time serious
diminution becomes apparent. In practice such a close period, recur-
rent every few years, as necessitated, would probably solve the problem
to the greatest advantage of the hunter.

We may cite as an instance of what could be expected, the close
season of only two years (1909 to 1911) which was followed by a
notable increase of the birds. The fact that the Mountain Quail
breeds more slowly than the Valley Quail necessitates different treat-
ment of the two species in our laws. In one way this is already met
in the difference in bag limit, ten in the case of the Mountain as
against fifteen in the Valley Quail.

The recent establishment (1915) of game refuges in National
Forests in several sections of the state is also a wise provision even
from the sportsman's viewpoint; for adjacent areas may thus become
stocked up with minimum discouragement to the hunter.

Painted Quail

Oreortijx picta picta (Douglas)

Other names — Mountain Quail, part; Mountain Partridge; Callipepla picta,
part; Oreortyx picta pJumifera, part; Ortyx picta, part.

Description — Essentially the same as for the Mountain Quail (0. p. pJumi-
fera). In adult plumage, a slightly greater depth of coloration; brown of back

514 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

darker, and, in both sexes, extending farther forward onto hind neck. In
juvenile plumage, the differences are more clearly apparent, and consist in a
greater amount of brown in the mixed pattern on the upper surface.

Marks for field identification — See under Mountain Quail.

General distribution — Humid coast belt of Washington and Oregon (west
of the Cascades), and of northern California south, more restrictedly, as far as
Monterey County.

Distribution in California — Common resident in parts of the narrow
humid coast belt, from Humboldt County south to Sonoma County; also spar-
ingly south of San Francisco Bay in the Santa Cruz Mountains (McGregor,
1901, p. 5), and in the coast ranges of Monterey County south to Big Creek (Jen-
kins, 1906, p. 125) ; ranges east at the north as far as Helena, Trinity County
(Kellogg, 1911, p. 119). Specimens from the inner coast ranges we^t of the
Sacramento Valley and from Monterey County are apparently intermediate
towards the interior race, 0. p. pJumifera.

General information concerning the Painted Quail has been
included under the account of the Mountain Quail.

Valley Quail

LopJwrtyx calif ornica vallicola (Ridgway)

Other names — Valley Partridge; California Partridge, part; Helmet Quail;
Topknot Quail; Crested Quail; Tufted Qua^l; Brown-backed Valley Quail;
CaUipepIa calif ornica, part ; Ortyx calif ornica, part ; LopJwrtyx caJifornica, part ;
Perdix calif ornica; CaUipepIa calif ornica vallicola.

Description — Adult male: Head with black, forward-drooping topknot of
six overlapping, broad-ended feathers; feathers of forehead buffy yellow with black
shafts, this area bounded behind by a double band, of white and of black, the
ends of which band continue back on each side of head over eye to a position
behind ear; back of head dull brown; chin and throat velvety black, bordered
by a U-shaped band of white which ends on each side just back of eye;
feathers of a broad area around hind neck bluish gray, each one margined
with a double scallop of black, and many of them with subterminal white
spots, the whole giving a scaled appearance; iris dark brown; bill black;
back, scapulars and outer surface of closed wing, grayish brown in fall, paling
to bluish gray in spring; rump and tail clear bluish gray; buffy white stripe
along inner margin of each wing formed by broad edgings on overlapping
series of innermost flight feathers; secondaries and coverts narrowly edged
with buffy white; under surface of wing and axillars grayish brown; a broad
area across breast clear bluish gray; behind this a buffy area, and then one of
reddish brown, centrally, white towards sides, the feathers in both these areas
being sharply scaled with black; feathers of sides brownish gray, each with
a shaft stripe of white; lower belly, flanks and under tail coverts, light buff,
the latter two areas broadly streaked with brown; legs and feet blackish.
Total length 10.25-11.00 inches (260-270 mm.) (ten specimens); folded wing
4.24-4.44 (107.8-112.7); bill (tip to cere) 0.37-0.4.3 (9.5-10.9); tarsus 1.17-1.28
(29.7-32.4) (ten specimens). Adult female: Somewhat similar to male but
lighter in general tone, lacking the conspicuous black and white markings
of head, as also the buffy and reddish brown ground-color of under surface;
topknot much shorter, and dark brown in color; general color of head light

VALLEY QUAIL 515

brown; throat whitish, with narrow brown streaks. Total length 9.50-10.50
inches (241-266 mm.) (ten specimens); folded wing 4.05-4.30 (102.8-109.0);
bill (tip to cere) 0.38-0.44 (9.6-11.2); tarsus 1.13-1.25 (28.6-31.8) (ten speci-
mens); all from California. Juvenile plumage, both sexes: Similar to adult
female but with topknot still shorter and lighter brown; throat ashy brown,
not streaked; feathers of upper surface grayish brown, with white shaft
streaks and mottlings of pale brown and black; tail gray, barred interruptedly
with blackish and dull white; flight feathers brownish gray, extensively marked
with light brown and tipped with whitish; lower surface pale ashy brown, the
breast with wedge-shaped markings of dull white, and remainder with dull
whitish bars; belly almost plain grajdsh white. Natal plumage: General color
above buflfy white tinged with rusty, and below dull white; an indistinct
dark brown spot over ear; a broad patch on back of head, dark brown,
bordered with pale buff; two stripes down back and one on each side beneath
wing, black; wing irregularly mottled with dark brown and buffy white;
breast and sides suffused with buff.

Marks for field idextificatiox — The short, blunt-ended black topknot
(fig. 82), in association with the scaled pattern of markings across lower breast,
is distinctive. The closely related California Quail (Lophortyx californica caU-
fornica) is distinguisheil from the Valley Quail only by slightly darker general
coloration, especially on the back and sides, the latter being a warm brown
(pi. 1) instead of grayish brown. The Catalina Island Quail {Lophortyx cali-
forniea catalinensis) is also darker, and in addition is slightly larger especiallj'
as regards feet. From the Mountain Quail the valley species is known by
smaller size, shorter, .blunt-ended topknot, and presence of scaling on the
belly; and from the Desert (Gambel) Quail, by absence of rich chestnut on sides,
and presence of scaled pattern across lower breast.

Voice — When disturbed: a sputtering pit-pit-pit, or tchit-whit-whit ; an
assembly call variously interpreted: ca-loi'-o, o-hi'-o, and tuck-a-hoe', most often
come-right'-here, emphasized on the middle syllable. When on guard during
the breeding season the male bird utters a single loud kayrJc at intervals.

Nest — Usually a mere depression in the ground, lined sparingly with grass
and weed stems; occasionally a more substantially built affair, though still
relatively crude, of the same materials, and placed on a log, stump, or in a
brush pile; rarely in trees or other situations above ground.

Egg.s — 6 to 28, usually 13 to 17, pointedly oval, measuring in inches, 1.10 to
1.40 by 0.84 to 1.02 (in millimeters, 27.9 to 35.6 by 21.3 to 26.0), and averaging
1.24 by 0.95 (31.6 by 24.1) (three sets, 45 eggs, from Nevada Count}'); creamy
white in color, spotted and blotched with light golden brown.

General distribution^ — Interior valleys and foothills of the Pacific district,
from the vicinity of Klamath Lake, southern Oregon, south throughout Cali-
fornia (except the northern coast strip and southeastern desert region) and
throughout Lower California to Cape San Lucas; east to extreme western
Nevada. Introduced into many other parts of the West, where now well
established.

Distribution in California — Abundant resident of the semi-arid valley
and foothill regions, in other words, throughout the state, except in the narrow
northwest coast strip (fog belt) from northern San Luis Obispo County to the
Oregon line, and the eastern portions of the Mohave and Colorado deserts.
Common in the Modoc region of northeastern California and thence south
along the east slope of the Sierra Nevada to Owens Valley and the desert
ranges to the eastward towards Death Valley; occurs also out onto the deserts

516

GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

east of the southern coast ranges, as in Antelope Valley, Los Angeles County,
along the Mohave Eiver at least to Vietorville, San Bernardino County,
and at Palm Springs, Eiverside County. Has been planted in places where
it did not exist formerly, as on San Clemente Island, and thriven to
a greater or less degree. The Valley Quail reaches the seacoast from San
Luis Obispo County southward; north of that county its range meets that of
the closely similar California Quail back from the seacoast not more than
forty miles, except in the San Francisco Bay region where the line of meeting
bends east around Mt. Diablo. The ranges of the Valley and Desert quails
overlap in San Gorgonio Pass, Eiverside County, and doubtless also in other
places along the western edge of the desert.

The Valley Quail is usually conceded to be
California's finest game bird, and as its range
extends but slightly beyond the limits of this
state we may properly claim it as our own. It
bears but slight resemblance to either the
well-known Bobwhite Quail of the eastern
United States or to any of the quails and part-
ridges of other countries. Be-
cause of its great popularity as
a game bird it has been referred
to under a variety of names, as
listed at the head of this chapter ;
but to the great majority of the
residents of California this and
the closely similar California and
Catalina Island quails are
known simply as "quail." The
habits of these three races seem
to be identical, so that we have
deemed it best to combine the
general accounts of all three here
under one heading.
Under original conditions the Valley Quail ranges north only a
short distance into Oregon, and east scarcely beyond the Nevada line ;
but to the southward it occurs regularly to the southern end of Lower
California. In the state of California it is distributed throughout
the lower valleys and foothills from the Oregon boundary (east of
the Siskiyou Mountains) to the Mexican line (west of the Colorado
Desert). Along the narrow northwestern coast strip (fog belt), from
southern Monterey County northward, its place is taken by the closely
allied form, the California Quail, but south of San Luis Obispo
County the range of the A^alley Quail reaches quite to the seacoast.
East of the southern California coast ranges it occurs but a little
way out onto the desert ; beyond, its place is taken on suitable ground

Fig. 82. Head of male Valley Quail
showing short, club-shaped plume. Nat-
ural size.

VALLEY QUAIL

517

by the somewhat different Desert or Gainbel Quail. In mountainous
districts it is regularly resident up to 3,500 or 4.000 feet altitude.
Less frequently it has been found up to an altitude of 6,000 feet, as
near Fort Tejon, Kern County, where young even have been observed
(Henshaw, 1876, p. 266). There are records of occurrence at 6,800
feet on Thomas Mountain in the San Jacinto Range, and at ahnost
8,500 feet altitude on IMount Pinos, Ventura County (Grinnell and
Swarth, 1913, p. 230; Grinnell, 1905, p. 382). Belding (1879, p.
439) states that in Calaveras County, Valley Quail spend the sum-
mer in the i)ine forests as high as the Big Trees (5,000 feet), but
that they return for the winter to the chaparral belt below. Above the
normal altitudinal range of the Valley Quail, the Mountain Quail
(Plumed Pai'tridge) holds sway,
though the ranges of the two
often overlap over a narrow belt.
However, the two species are not
known to flock together. In the
San Jacinto ^Mountains of south-
ern California the Valley, ^Moun-
tain and Desert quails may be
found closely associated, the first
and last being sometimes seen
in the same flock, and all have
been taken in the course of a
morning's shooting. G i 1 m a n
(1907, p. 149) reports having found all three in certain caiions near
Palm Springs, Riverside County; and on Piiion Flats, 4,000 feet alti-
tude, fifteen miles south, he saw representatives of all three species
drink from the same spring in the course of half an hour.

The Valley Quail has been introduced on certain of the islands of
the Santa Barbara group, notably on San Clemente Island (Grinnell,
1897, pp. 12-13), and on Santa Cruz Island (Henshaw, 1876, p. 266).
On Catalina Island, however, there was originally present a closely
similar form, Lophortyx calif arnica catalinensis (Grinnell, 1906cf.
pp. 264-265).

Except during the nesting season Valley Quail are to be found in
flocks. These range from family assemblages of ten birds or less, up
to (in former years) enormous flocks of a thousand or even more;
nowadays an average covey is estimated to number from fifteen to
forty birds. The tales which are told concerning the abundance of
quail in early days are almost unbelievable. A. K. Fisher (1893a, p. 28)
records that thousands visited a certain spring in the Temploa
[Temblor] Mountains; "... the ground all about the water was
covered by a compact body of quails. ..." But such a condition as

Fig. 83. Side of tarsus and foot of
Valley Quail. Natural size.

Note stout toes and claws, and ab-
sence of feathers on tarsus (compare
with figs. 77 and 85).

5 IS GAME BIRDS OF CALIF OMNI A

this is entirely passed. The advent of agriculture has had both a
beneficial and a deleterious effect on the quail. The removal of
brush has reduced the extent of the natural shelter, but on the other
hand the planting of vineyards has provided additional refuge. About
Fresno, Tyler (1913&, p. 33) states that with the establishment of
vineyards quail came down from their natural foothill haunts and,
being protected by most vineyardists, have notably increased in their
new haunts ; during the same time their numbers in the adjacent hill
country have measurably lessened.

Quail have established themselves successfully in the parks and
suburbs of several of our cities. In Golden Gate Park, San Francisco,
the California Quail is especially abundant, and coveys may be seen
feeding in the open places among the shrubbery or scurrying across
the paths. On the campus of the University of California, at Berkeley,
flocks are seen down among the buildings at times in winter, and young
have been hatched out within a few yards of much traveled paths.
In southern California, Willett (1912a, p. 43) says Valley Quail are
often seen, and that they nest in parks and gardens in the cities.

The Valley Quail has a variety of notes which are used under
different conditions and to express various meanings. When anxious
or disturbed the members of a flock utter a soft pit, pit, pit, or ivhit.
ivhit, whit, in rapid succession, as they run about under the brush or
when about to take wing. Then there is a loud call used by the males
to assemble the flock when scattered. This has been variously inter-
preted as ca-loi'-o, o-lii'-o, tuck-a-hoe' , k-ivoik'-uk, ki-ka-kepJ , ca-ra'-ho,
tuck-ke-teu' , or more simply as wko-are'-you-ak (Van Dyke, 1908,
p. 377; Crosby, 1912, p. 311; Bailey, 1902, p. 120). However, the
easiest and by far the most usual interpretation is come-right^ -here,
or come-right' -home , with the accent on the second syllable. Some-
times when excited a bird calls come-right', come-right' , come-right' -
here. In at least one instance a female bird has been observed to
utter this call (J. W. Mailliard, 1912, p. 73). The notes of the Valley
Quail are less elaborate than those of the Desert Quail, the "crow"
lacking the two additional notes which the latter gives at the end ;
also the Valley Quail lacks much of the conversational twitter of its
desert relative (J. Mailliard, in Grinnell, 1904fl, p. 41).

During the breeding season the male mounts a bush near his
brooding mate and utters a single, loud, far-carrying kayrk at irre-
gular intervals of from one to twelve seconds ; an occasional explosive
sound is given, like one note of a turkey gobbler. After the eggs are
hatched and the young are running with the adults, the pit, pit, pit
notes are used to call the chicks together. A feeding flock indulges
in some low conversational twitter.

VALLEY QUAIL 519

Valley Quail are notably active birds and are usually busy through-
out the daylight hours. They spend the night, not in a circle on the
ground as do the Bobwhite, but in a bush or thickly foliaged tree,
where they are less accessible to ground-dwelling predators. "With
the first streak of dawn they are awake, and, flying down to the
ground, usually gather together and go to drink at some near-by pool
or stream. This done, the work of gathering the day's rations is
commenced, and while performed in what may seem to be a leisurely
fashion, it occupies them during most of the day. They interrupt
it only for the purpose of going again to water, a habit made necessary
by the great proportion of hard material in their food, or, in the
extreme heat of the day, to rest — in a sort of siesta. In the late after-
noon of rainless days they may often be seen in some sunny spot "dust-
bathing," or preening their feathers. As evening approaches they
again seek the shelter from which they departed in the morning.
Dixon (1906, p. 95) records that a flock which came to roost in a
small elder tree near his camp in the San Onofre ^Mountains, San
Diego County, arrived with surprising regularity. In eight days
they did not vary more than ten minutes either way from 6:15 p.m.
"On rainy or cloudy days they were seven or eight minutes early
and on bright clear afternoons they were a little late. ..."

When hunted, the members of a flock of quail will often wait until
the sportsman is almost upon them, whereupon they will spring from
the ground, and, with a whir of wings as rapid as it is startling, make
off in different directions and drop into the protecting cover of
shrubbery. Again on the ground, they make good use of their legs
and run rapidly off. Hunters state that only when thoroughly
frightened will quail crouch and attempt to escape by concealment.
If flushed in the vicinity of trees they will often take shelter in the
thick foliage of these, where they remain quiet and are not to be easily
discovered. "When excited they run with surprising rapidity, their
topknots down, necks craned forward and legs fairly stretching; but
when concerned only with their own business they are more sedate,
carrying their heads erect, with the plumes directed upward and
forward, in a dignified manner.

Feeding flocks of quail are believed to post sentinels in order that
all of the members may not be put to the necessity of dividing their
attention between the search for food and guarding against surprise
by an enemy. "Williams (1903, pp. 146-148) has described this habit
as observed by him, in detail, somewhat as follows:

A flock was heard calling and moving about on a brushy hillside
some distance from the observer, but before coming into view a single
individual preceded the rest and took his station in the branches of
an apple tree, whence he could survey the region round about. After

520 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOENIA

carefully scrutinizing his surroundings for several minutes the kayrk
note was uttered several times in a low guttural tone. Soon members
of the flock were seen coming down the hill in the same direction as
taken by the sentinel, but their manner of approach was entirely
different ; he had exercised great caution and carefully examined
the surroundings for possible danger, while they came with their
plumed heads held low, searching among the clover roots for seeds
and other articles of food. Some preened and fluffed out their
feathers ; others took dust baths. While so occupied they all kept up
a succession of low conversational notes. Meanwhile the sentinel
remained on his perch and continued on the alert even after the
flock had moved some distance beyond him. Then a second bird
mounted a vantage point and took up the sentinel duty and after a
few minutes the first relinquished his post. While the flock was still
in view, yet a third bird relieved the second. It would seem that by
this practice, of establishing sentinels on a basis of divided labor, the
flock had increased its individual efficiency in foraging. The same
observer also states that he had seen sentinels used when a flock was
crossing a road, or when "bathing" in the roadside dust, and that the
practice is made general use of in open areas; but he had never
observed the habit when the birds were in tree-covered localities.
During the breeding season it is known that the male mounts guard
while the female is searching for a nesting site, and again when she
is incubating the eggs. Sometimes he also performs this guard func-
tion after the chicks are out but not fully grown.

The large flocks in which the quail have associated during the
winter slowly break up during February and March and individual
pairs of birds are theit to be seen seeking nesting sites. ' ' In early
seasons they [Valley Quail] begin to pair in the last week of February,
but the time varies somewhat according to the season. During this
period there is considerable fighting among the males for the favor of
the coveted female. This is kept up until they are suitably mated
and the nesting season arrives" (Bendire, 1892, p. 28). Belding
(1879, p. 439) recites that he has seen males fighting fiercely, after
the manner of turkeys, the other members of the flock "appearing
to take great interest in the combat," and making much noise.

The Valley Quail seems far from particular in the choice of a
nesting site. The grass-lined depression in the ground which usually
constitutes the nest, is commonly hidden under bushes, hedges, brush-
heaps, and logs. Less common sites are haycocks in open fields, or
shrubs or vines in gardens, and occasionally nests of other birds are
used. H. R. Taylor (1885, p. 142) records the finding of ten fresh
California Quail's eggs in a Spurred Towhee's nest in a cypress hedge
about four feet from the ground, and also two eggs of this quail in

VALLEY QUAIL 521

a Spurred Towlieo's nest on the ground, both in Alameda. Near Los
Angeles, Wicks (1897, p. 404) found two eggs of the Valley Quail in
a Long-tailed Chat's nest. Several eases of tree-nesting of the Cali-
fornia Quail came to the attention of W. E. Bryant (1887, p. 451).
The sites which had been chosen were the upright ends of broken or
decayed limbs, or the intersections of two large branches. The same
observer found a nest in a vine-covered trellis over a much-used door-
way, from which the young later successfully reached the ground.
Howell (1915, p. 206) found a nest with three fresh eggs four feet
above the ground on top of a bale of hay in the shade of an orange
tree at Covina, Los Angeles County.

Several nests found along the bank of the San Joaquin River near
Lathrop, San Joaquin County, were hidden under weeds on the levee,
the depression in the ground being lined with leaves of the same
plants ; another nest found under a log was lined with decayed wood
(H. C. Bryant, MS). Grinnell and Swarth (1913, p. 230) found
Valley Quail nesting commonly in the shelter of the sage-bushes cover-
ing the floor of Hemet Valley, Riverside County.

Wliile nests of the Valley Quail have been found as early as the
middle of ]\Iarch and as late as the middle of September, the great
majority of these birds restrict their nesting to a much shorter period.
To judge from the accompanying record of more than one hundred
and fifty nests, most of the nesting occurs from the latter part of
April to the middle of June (see tables 15 and 16, and fig. 84). Nests
found during July and early August are likely to represent second
layings (that is, instances where the first set was disturbed or
destroyed), and not necessarily efforts to rear a second brood. Ben-
dire (1892, p. 28) records a nest in Butte County as early as March 15,
and young about two daj's old were seen there on April 15. At
Hay ward, Alameda County, Emerson (MS) gives extreme nesting
dates as April 21, 1883, and July 14, 1905, but Cooper (1880, p. 251)
records nesting at the same locality on April 10, 1875. At Selma,
Fresno County, Tyler (MS) flushed a female from a nest containing
seven apparently fresh eggs on September 15, 1915. In Los Angeles
County the extreme dates are: Claremont, April 4, 1901, thirteen
fresh eggs (Willett, 1912a., p. 43), and Oak Knoll, near Pasadena,
September 6, 1907. fifteen eggs part of which hatched on September 10
(Grinnell, MS). At Poway, San Diego County, the last date for
fresh eggs in 1884 was August 14 (Belding, 1890, p. 14). Sharp
(table 16) has found eggs at Escondido, San Diego County, as late as
October 29 (1908), but it is doubtful whether eggs laid so late would
have been set upon until hatched.

Our purpose in preparing the tables of nesting data given here-
with has been to provide a statistical basis upon which definite state-

522

GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

ments concerning the average and extreme times of nesting, and
numbers of eggs, can safely be made. Table 16, presenting Sharp's
observations (all but two of which pertain to Escondido, San Diego
County), includes almost if not all of the nests found by him during
the years specified. This table may therefore be taken as exhibiting
the numbers of eggs laid by Valley Quail in one locality under the
varying conditions encountered during a particular series of years.
The other table (15), presenting data derived from miscellaneous
sources, is of such a nature as to lead to averages different from those
actually occurring in a state of nature. Data cited from sets in collec-
tions pertain to selected, often maximum, sets, which are ordinarily
preferred by the egg collector. Small sets, of ten eggs or less, are often
passed over by collectors and no record kept of them, even though
they may be complete. Incubation does not commence until a set is
nearly, or quite complete, so that in the case of a small set, only by
examining the contents of one of the eggs and finding that incubation
had actually commenced, would it be safe to assert that the set was
complete. It is possible that certain of the small sets listed ''fresh" in
the tables were incomplete ; if this is true the tendency would be to
balance the effect of the extra large sets listed from oological col-
lections.

Sharp's observations give 13 as the average number in a set of
Valley Quail eggs at his locality, while for the whole range of this
race within the state the average is 14.6 ; for the California Quail the
average is 16.3, but this is based on a considerably smaller number
of sets, and is undoubtedly due to selection having been exercised
by the collectors, as particularly mentioned in some instances. For
both races of quail, taking into account both tables 15 and 16, the
average number of eggs laid is 14.2.

Table

15—

-Data Eelating to
Quails

Nesting of Valley au<:
in California

[ Califoi'iiia

VALLEY QUAIL

Locality

Date

Nest Contents and
Condition : Remarks

Ai-thority

Ventura Co.

Mar. and Apr.

Nests found

Evermann, 1886, p. 92

Chico, Butte Co.

Apr. 1, 1885

9 eggs, first nest

Belding. 1890. p. 13

'i'ia Juana Valley,
San Diego Co.

Apr. 3. 188.5

Two broods about a
week old; season un-
usually early

Belding, 1890, p. 12

Claremont,

Los Angeles Co.

Apr. 4. 1901

13 eggs, fresh

Willett. 1912fl. p. 43

Escondido, San Diego Co

Apr. 12 to
July 25

Nesting

Shaifp. 1907. p. 86

Chico, Butte Co.

Apr. 15.
[1885?!

First young about two
days old

Belding. 1890, p. 13

"Coahuill.T A'alley."
P.nim Springs. R;
side Co.

near
iver-

Apr. 17, 188fi

Female with egg ro.ndy
to lay

Morcom, 1887. p. 39

Fresno

Apr. 20. 1912

18 eggs, incubation })egun

Tyler, 1913(7, p. 17

VALLEY QUAIL

523

Table 15 — {Continued)

Datk

Nkst Contexts and
Condition; Remarks

San Dipgo

Powny, San Diego Co.

Santa Paula, Ventura Co.

Fresno

Poway, San Diego Co.

Santa Paula, Ventura Co.

Sespe, Ventura Co.

Fresno

Cabezon. River.side Co.

Near Upland.

San iSernnrdino Co.
Fresno
Fresno
Clareinont.

Los Angeles Co.
San Die-JTo

Apr. 22,
f 1862 3

First eggs

Apr.

27.

1884

First set of eggs

May

1905

18 eggs, incubation begun

May

1907

14 eggs, fresh

May

1884

First young seen

May

1910

10 eggs, fresh

May

1905

17 eggs, fresh

May

1906

5 eggs, fresh

May

1908

8 eggs

May 10, 1916

May 12, 1908

May 12, 1912

May 12, 1914

Mav 1.3.

[1884?!

Escondido. San Diego Co. May 13, 1903

Fresno
Fresno

Fresno
Claremont.

Los Angeles Co.
Santa Paula, Ventiira Co.

Toluca, IjOS Angole.<; Co.
Claremont.

Los Angeles Co.
Claremont.

Los Angeles Co.
Lapland,

San Bernardino Co.
Chieo. Butte Co.
Arroyo Seco, Los Angeles Co.
Santa Paula. Ventura Co.
Kenworthy. Riverside Co.

Kniglits Ferry. Yolo Co.

Claremont,

Los Angeles Co.
Fresno

Spenceville. Nevada Co.
Santa Paula, Ventura Co.
Spenceville. Xevada Co.
Santa Paula. Ventura Co.
Drytown. Amador Co.

San Clemente Island

San Dimas.

Los Angele.s Co.
San Dimas.

Los Angeles Co.
San Dimas, Los Angeles Co.

Tulare Co.

Santa Paula. Ventura Co.

Lathrop, San Joaquin Co.
Lathrop, San Joaquin Co.
Colton.

San Bernardino Co.
Fresno

May 16, 1902
May 16. 1902

May 16, 1912
May 16, 1916

May 17, 1909

May 19, 1907
May 20, 1916

May 20, 1916

May 21

May 21. 1893

May 22. 1914

May 23, 1908

May 26, 1898

May 26. 1916

May 27, 1901

May 27, 1906

May 27, 1915

May 29, 1906

May 29. 1914

May 31, 1895

May 31, 1897

May 31. 1916

May 31, 1916

Mav (latter

part). 1915
May (last week)
May 1908

.Tune 1, 1912
.Tune 1. 1912
•Tune 1. 1907

June, 2, 1906

16 eggs, all but two
hatched on this date

14 eggs, fresh

18 eggs.fresh; deserted
13 ecgs.incubation

two-thirds
First brood for the
season

15 eggs, incubation
begun

1 3 eggs, nearly fresh

22 eggs, incubation
one-half

10 eggs, fresh

19 eggs, all hatched on
this date

19 eggs, incubation
nearly complete

19 eggs, fresh

24 eggs, fresh

1 6 eggs, ready to hatch

11 eggs, incubation
advanced

22 eggs :' all hatched later

17 eggs
22 eggs

10 eggs, fresh

8 eggs, incubation
begun

20 eggs, incubation
begun

17 eggs, half-incubated

1 4 eggs

13 eggs, fresh

18 eggs

15 eggs, fresh

13 egt'S. incubation
begun

Two broods scarcely
a week old

14 eggs, fresh

14 eo-gs. incubation
advanced

13 esrgs, inculiation
begun

Nest with eggs

25 eggs, incubation
- nearly complete

17 eggs

11 eggs, fresh

15 eggs, incubation
advanced

14 eggs, fresh

Authority
Cooper, 1870o. p. 550

Belding, 1890, p. 12

Peyton, MS.

T>'ler, MS.

Belding, 1890, p. 14

Badger, MS.

Peyton, MS.

Tyler, MS.

Grinnell and Swarth,

1913, p. 231
Pierce, MS.

Tyler, MS.

Tyler, 1913a, p. 17

Pierce, MS.

Belding, 1890, p. 12

Law coll.

Tyler, MS.

Tyler, 1913b, p. 34

T.vler, 1913a. p. 17
Pierce, MS.

Badger, MS.

Law coll.
Pierce, MS.

Pierce, MS.

Pierce. MS.

Bendire. 1892, p. 28
Law coll.
Badger. MS.
Grinnell and Swarth,

1913, p. 230
Ray coll.

Pierce, MS.

Tyler. MS.
Mus. Vert. Zool.
Badger, MS.
Mus. Vert. Zool.
Badger, MS.
Mailliard coll.

Grinnell, 1897, p. 12

Pierce, MS.

Pierce. MS.

Judd, 1905. pp. 4 7-48
Badger, MS.

H. C. Bryant, MS.
H. C. Bryant, MS.
Hanna, 1907, p. 198

Tyler, MS.

524

GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Table 15 — {Co)iti)iued)

Locality

Fvesno
Pasadena,

Los Angeles Co.
Fresno

Lone Pine, Inyo Co.

Chico, Butte Co.
Calaveras Co.

Banning, Riverside Co.

Fresno

Lime Kiln (on Wolf Creek,
east of Spenceville),
Nevada Co.

Lime Kiln, Nevada Co.

Claremont,

Los Angeles Co.

Lime Kiln, Nevada Co.

Escondido, San Diego Co.

Chico, Butte Co.

Palomar Mts.,
San Diego Co.

Lime Kiln, Nevada Co.

Tuolumne River, between
Chinese Camp and Grove-
land

Kenworthy, Riverside Co.

Fresno

Six miles east Plaeerville,

in Eldorado Co.
Igo, Siskiyou Co.

Walker Pass, Kern Co.

Sespe, Ventura Co.

Fresno

Los Angeles

Poway, San Diego Co.

Fresno district

Near Oak Knoll, Pasa-
dena, Los Angeles Co.

Selma, Fresno Co.

Poway, San Diego Co.

Date

June 2, 1907
June 2, 1907

June 2, 1907

June 4 to 15,

1891
June 6, 1884
June 7, 1885

June 8, 1908

June 9, 1907

June 10, 1906

Xkst Contexts axd
Condition ; Remarks

16 eggs, hatching
18 eggs, incubation

advanced
21 eggs, incubation

one-third
Young just able to fly

First brood

Brood about the size of
downy chickens

12 eggs, incubation

well along
20 eggs

Authority

Tyler, MS.

Mus. Vert. Zool.

Tyler, 1913b. p. 34

A. K. Fi.sher, 1893a,

p. 28
Belding. 1890, p. 13
Belding, 1890, p. 14

Grinnell and Swarth,

1913, p. 231
Tyler, MS.

Mus. Vert. Zool.

June 10, 1906 13 eggs

June 14, 1903 15 eggs, incubation

begun
June 15, 1906 14 eggs
June 15, 1901 15 eggs, incubation

begun
June 15, 1884 Young coming out

plentifully
June 16, 1897 Female with egg in

oviduct
June 16, 1906 10 eggs
June 16, 1898 11 eggs, incubation begun Ray coll.

June 23, 1908 8 eggs

June 23, 1906 15 eggs, incubation

well begun
June 26, 1896 Young a few days old

July 1, 1884 First young, not large
enough to fly

Julv 1 to 2, Youne: just hatched to
1891 half grown

July 15, 1910 11 eggs, incubation
begun

1912 Nesting begun early but

first voung not seen until
July 15

July (latter 10 eggs, incubation

part), 1906 advanced

Aug. 9, 1897 9 eggs, fresh

Aug. 14, 1884 Last fresh eggs

Sept. (first Many half -grown young

week), 1912

Sept. 6, 1907 15 eggs, incubation ad-
vanced : part hatched
Sept. 10

Sept. 15, 1915 7 eggs, apnarently fresh ;
female flushed

About Nov. 1 Small quail seen

Mus. Vert. Zool.
Law coll.

Belding, 1890, p. 13

McGregor, 1899, p. 67

Mus. Vert. Zool.

Grinnell and Swarth,

1913, p. 230
Tyler, MS.

Barlow and Price,

1901, p. 160
Belding, 1890, p. 13

A. K. Fisher, 1893a,

p. 28
Peyton, MS.

Tyler, 1913a, p. 17

Tyler, MS.

Grinnell, 1898, p. 19
Belding, 1890. p. 14
Tj'ler, 1913(?.. p. 17

Grinnell, MS.

Tyler, MS.

Belding. 1890. p. 14

Hayward, Alameda Co.
Hayward, Alameda Co.

Palo Alto, Santa Clara Co.

Marin Co.

Hayward, Alameda Co.

Palo Alto, Santa Clara Co.

CALIFORNIA QUAIL

Apr. 10, 1875 Nesting

Apr. 21, 1883 21 eggs, incubation

slight
Apr. 24, 1899 8 eggs, incubation

advanced
Apr. 27, 1915 9 eggs, fresh, deserted
Apr. 29, 1877 Nesting
Apr. 29, 1899 10 eggs, incubation

just begun

Cooper, 1880. p. 251
Mailliard coll.

Law coll.

Ray coll.

Cooper, 1880, p. 251

Law coll.

VALLEY QUAIL

525

Table 15 — (Continued)

Locality
Alamedn, Alameda Co.

Santa Cruz
San Geronimo,

Marin Co.
Alameda Co.
Hayward, Alameda Co.
San Francisco

San Francisco

Upppi' Salinas Valley.

Monterey Co.
Alameda Co.
Santa Cruz

Berkeley hills,
Alameda Co.
Santa Clara Co.

Alameda Co.

Santa Rosa, Sonoma Co.

Petaluma, Sonoma Co.

Alameda Co.

Santa Rosa, Sonoma Co.

Hayward, Alameda Co.
Southern Monterey Co.

Idlewild, Sur,

Monterey Co.
Near Middleton,

Lake Co.
Xicasio, Marin Co.

Capitola, Santa Cruz Co.

San Mateo Co.

Santa Clara Co.

Berkeley, Alameda Co.
Oakland, Alameda Co.
Monterey

Date
May 4, 1896

May 15,

May 16, 1913

May 18, 1904
May 19, 1881
May 23, 1900

May 23, 1900

Mav 23 to
Jun. 3, 1908
May 24, 1901
May 25,

May 25. 1913

May 26. 1898

May 30, 1904

May 31, 1911

June o, 1886

June 5, 1904
June 10, 1911

June 13, 1882
June 14, 1905

June 15, 1900

June 15. 1911

June 18, 1894

June 22, 1908

June 24, 1899

June 26, 1889

July 6. 1912
July 18. 1874
July 20

Nest Contexts axd
Condition ; Remark.s

21 eggs: 3 fresh. 18
one-half incubated
Fresh eggs

14 eggs, fresh

16 eggs, fresh
18 eggs, fresh

21 eggs, incubation
begun

23 eggs, incubation

begun
Half-grown young

abundant

23 eggs, fresh
Young just hatched

15 eggs, incubation
about one-fourth

9 eggs, incubation

begun
27 eggs, fresh (laid by

two females ? )

24 eggs, incubation
slight

11 eggs, incubation

begun
14 eggs, fresh
14 eggs, incubation

advanced
18 eggs, fresh
Broods of very small

young

17 eggs, incubation
begun

22 eggs

14 eegs, incubation
slight

11 eges, incubation
advanced

12 eggs, incubation
one-sixth

Fresh eggs

9 eggs, hatched

Nesting

24 eggs

Atthority
Law coll.

McGregor, 1901, p. 5
Mailliard coll.

Mus. Vert. Zool.
Mailliard coll.
Ray, 1900, p. 126

Ray, 1900, p. 126

Willett, 1908, p. 137

Mus. Vert. Zool.
Cooper, 1870a. pp. 550-

551
Carriger coll.

Van Denburgh, 1899,

p. 158
Mus. Vert. Zool.

Carriger coll.

Law coll.

Mus. Vert. Zool.
Carriger coll.

Mailliard coll.
Jenkins, 1906, p. 126

Ray coll.

Wythe. MS.

Mailliard coll.

Ray coll.

Mus. Vert. Zool.

Van Denburgh, 1899,

p. 159
Grinnell, 1914a, p. 30
Cooper, 1880, p. 251
Gambel, 1849, p. 218

Table 16 — Sets of Eggs of Valley Quail Examined by C. S. Sharp in the
Vicinity of Escondido, San Diego County, California, 1896-1913

Set No.

Date

Number of Eggs, Condition and Eemarks

April 12, 1903

12, fresh

April 15, 1903

14, fresh

April 16, 1903

18, fresh

April 18, 1908

21, fresh

April 20, 1908

19, fresh

April 21, 1908

15, fresh

April 21, 1908

17, fresh

April 22, 1903

19, fresh

April 24, 1903

18, fresh

April 25, 1908

13, fresh

526

GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOBNIA

Table

Set No.

Dat

April 30

1904

15,

May o,

1908

21,

May 6,

1905

17,

May 9,

1903

18,

May 9,

1912

17,

May 13,

1898

11,

May 13,

1902

14,

May 13,

1904

14,

May 14,

1913

12,

May 18,

1907

May 20,

1907

12,

May 22,

1904

11,

May 25,

1907

11,

May 26,

1912

13,

May 30,

1904

May 30,

1904

19,

June 3,

1904

12,

June 3,

1904

June 6,

1896

June 7,

1904

11,

June 11,

1906

June 12,

1908

10,

June 13,

1908

June 14,

1902

June 16,

1903

11,

June 18,

1897

June 18,

1907

18,

June 18,

1905

12,

June 19,

1903

12,

June 20,

1906

11,

June 20,

1907

June 22,

1905

June 22,

1903

13,

June 22,

1906

16,

June 27,

1903

10,

June 30,

1905

11,

July 3,

1905

10,

July 3,

1905

20,

July 4,

1908

'7,

July 4,

1902

July 6,

1905

18,

July 8,

1906

18,

July 8,

1897

15,

July 10,

1907

10,

July 15,

1902

July 15,

1902

11,

July 21,

1906

11,

July 25,

1903

10,

Oct. 27,

1902

Oct. 29,

1902

16 — (Coniiitued)

Number of Eggs, Condition and Remarks
fresh in 3 ; incubation commenced in 11 ;

broken 1
fresh
fresh
fresh
fresh
fresh

fresh; 5 eggs May 9
fresh
fresh

incubation commenced
incubation commenced

incubation far advanced; 2 broken in nest
incubation advanced; 4 broken in nest
incubation commenced

incubation far advanced; 1 broken in nest
incubation commenced
incubation advanced
fresh
fresh

incubation commenced
fresh
fresh
fresh

fresh; deserted

fresh; 6 eggs on June 11; 14 on June 15
fresh
fresh

incubation commenced
incubation commenced
incubation commenced
incubation advanced
fresh
fresh

inculiation commenced
fresh
fresh

incubation advanced
incubation advanced
incubation advanced
incubation far advanced
incubation commenced
fresh
fresh

fresh; deserted
fresh; deserted
fresh; deserted
incubation advanced
incubation advanced
fresh ; deserted
fresh; deserted

VALLEY QUAIL 527

Some collectors' estimates as to the average numbers of eggs laid
by these birds may be of interest here. For the California Quail,
C. A. Allen {in Bendire, 1892, p. 24) gives 14, and Bendire (1892, p.
25) says 12 to 16; for the Valley Quail, at Fresno, Tyler (MS) says
that first sets, laid from April 20 to May 15, average 18; sets found
in June, and which may be second layings, contain 14 to 15 eggs,
while sets found from July to September contain but 10 to 12 eggs
each. Grinnell (1898, p. 19) gives 15 to 17 as the average about Los
Angeles, and Peyton (MS), for Sespe, Ventura County, says 10 to
15, and that sets of 17 are to be considered large. Speaking from
experience with both races of quail, Law (MS) thinks that normal
sets are not loss than 15 in number. It will thus be seen that our
averages from actual statistics (13 to 14) are below offhand estimates.
In any event the size of the set is considerably above that of any other
species of game bird occurring in California. As far as observation
goes there is good ground for believing that quails' eggs possess a
high percentage of fertility; practically all the eggs of a set hatch.
Mortality comes after the young are out of the nest.

The eggs are white, or faintly tinged with cream-color, and abun-
dantly speckled and often blotched irregularly with golden brown of
but slightly varying tone. The markings are distributed over the
egg with fair uniformity, there being little or no tendency toward
massing the color about the larger end as in the case of the eggs of
many shore birds. In shape the eggs are short ovate, with the small
end notably pointed. They measure, in inches, 1.10 to 1.40 by 0.84
to 1.01, and average 1.24 by 0.95 (three sets, of 13, 14 and 18 eggs,
respectively, from Nevada County).

The eggs of the Valley Quail number from 6 to 28 in a complete
set (Sharp, MS), Avith an average, as already demonstrated, of about
14. In some instances it is certain that more than one female lays in
one nest, and this circumstance might account for some of the larger
sets. Tyler (1913&, p. 34) recites an instance where a nest which
was observed in the late morning to contain four eggs, upon the after-
noon of the same day held six, although from that time on but one
egg was laid each day. The remarks accompanying Sharp 's set no. 17
(table 16 "i suggest double laying. It is generally believed that a quail
deposits one egg a day until the full complement is laid. One instance
out of several illustrating this point is provided by M. C. Badger
(MS), who discovered a nest with but four eggs, and thereafter
observed that one egg was added each day until there were fifteen ;
in other words eleven eggs were laid upon eleven successive days.
Two or more types of eggs, distinct as to shape, size, or coloration,
are not infrequently observable among the eggs contained in one nest.
The following table from Sharp (MS) lists the sets which came under

Set No.

Eggs

528 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

his observation containing more than one type of egg and therefore
believed to be laid by more than one female.

Table 17 — Sets of Valloy Quail Eggs Showing More than One Type of Coloration

(All Observed by C. S. Sharp at Escondido, San Diego County).
The Numbers Kefer to Sets in Table 16

Remarks
Two types: 10 and 5 eggs respectively.
Three types: 10, 4 and 2; and 1 which probably should go

with the 4-egg type.
Three types: 8, 3 and 2.
Three types: 8, 5 and 4.
Two types: 5 and 3.
Two types: 10 and 3.
Three types: 8, 5 and 4; and 1 which probabh"^ should be

added to the 4-egg type.
41 9 Two types: 5 and 4.

In the early spring, quail often drop eggs at various places any-
where on the ground. Tyler (19136, pp. 33-34) and Van Denburgh
(1899, p. 158) both record the finding of eggs dropped in this man-
ner ; and the latter author states that the same propensity was
noticed in captive quail. Van Denburgh states further that one of
the birds kept in captivity by him laid forty-one eggs during one
summer, and Cooper (1870cr.. p. 551) mentions a female kept in
captivity in San Francisco which laid seventy-nine eggs in one sum-
mer season. This bird was provided with an abundance of food and
was not allowed to sit.

The statement which is frequently made, that our quail do not
nest numerously or even at all in dry years, seems to be fairly well
substantiated. Anthony {in Bendire, 1892, p. 27) says that he was
told of this phenomenon by the Indians and Mexicans, and that in
1887 he verified it by personal observation. In that year the birds
remained in large flocks all summer, and only two or three broods
of young were noticed. Birds collected during April, May and June
showed little development of the sex organs. Cummins (1888, p. 51)
states that in 1887 a flock of about one hundred quail remained
together on the slopes of Mount Diablo and did not nest. Joseph
Dixon (MS) states that he has collected quail for specimens in San
Diego County during the summer season of dry years and that upon
dissection the sex organs were found to be in a non-functional con-
dition. As evidence from the opposite direction, W. M. Pierce (MS)
declares that sets in 1916 in Los Angeles County, following a winter
of heavy rainfall, have been exceptionally large, nine sets averaging
between 16 and 17 eggs each. Other persons have also referred to

VALLEY QUAIL

529

Mar.

April

May

June

July

ug:-

Sept.

■

iiV

s»i

-t'

this j)henomeiioii. A fact well known to poultry breeders is that
quantity and quality of food have a direct effect on egg production
and fertility. It is thus not to be wondered at that years of drouth
and hence of scanty food supply result in diminishment of the quail
crop — not that the quail are able to foresee a shortage of food, but
that their bodies have at the beginning of the season of nesting
already begun to respond to the unfavorable conditions.

Sportsmen have not infrequently stated that quail rear two broods
in a season, and of course there is plenty of time between April and
September for any one pair of birds to rear two, or even three

broods; but we have been
unable to find any proof
of this. In the accompany-
ing diagram (fig. 84) we
have made use of all the
pertinent facts contained
in tables 15 and 16, group-
ing the breeding dates by
half-monthly periods.
There will be seen to be
two times of maximum
egg-laying, one beginning
in the first half of May,
and the other in the first
half of June. However,
tliere are so many compli-
cating factors, such as the
destruction of first nests,
that but little significance can be attached to the double peak of
this diagram as indicating tw'o nestings in a season.

The time of incubation is from twenty-one to twenty-three days.
The male bird will assume the duties of incubation if the female is
made away wath, but otherwise seems only to perform the duty of
sentinel. The young quail are able to run about so soon after hatch-
ing that it has been said metaphorically that they "run away with
part of the shell clinging to their backs." At the State Game Farm
newly hatched young have been seen racing about and over eggs in
the incubator within fifteen minutes after emerging from the shell.
In the wild, when danger threatens the brood, a few notes of warning
from one of the parents suffice to cause the young to hide in any
available depression or shelter which is handy. Once so sheltered,
their habit of keeping quiet, or "freezing," together with their effec-
tively concealing coloration, makes it almost impossible to rediscover
them. About ten days is said to elapse after hatching before the

Fig. 84. Curve showing by half-month
periods the time when Valley Quail begin to
lay their eggs. Calculated from data in
tables 15 and 16 by taking account of the
number of eggs in the nests when found,
their condition as to incubation, and reckon-
ing back to find the dates on which the sets
were probably commenced. The numbers in
the columns indicate the number of calcu-
lations falling within each half monthly
interval.

530 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOBNIA

young quail are able to fly. John Muir (1901, pp. 223-224) thus
describes the nesting of some California Quail on his place at Mar-
tinez, Contra Costa County :

One year a pair nested in a straw pile within four or five feet of the stable
door, and did not leave the eggs when the men led the horses back and forth
within a foot or two. For many seasons a pair nested in a tuft of pampas grass
in the garden; another pair in an ivy vine on the cottage roof, and when the
young were hatched, it was interesting to see the parents getting the fluffy dots
down. They were greatly excited, and their anxious calls and directions to their
many babes attracted our attention. They had no great difficulty in persuading
the young birds to pitch themselves from the main roof to the porch roof among
the ivy, but to got them safely down from the latter to the ground, a distance of
ten feet, was most distressing. It seemed impossible the frail soft things could
avoid being killed. The anxious parents led them to a point above a spiraea bush,
that reached nearly to the eaves, which they seemed to know would break the fall.
Anyhow, they led their chicks to this point, and witli infinite coaxing and encour-
agement got them to tumble themselves off. Down they rolled and sifted through
the soft leaves and panicles to the pavement, and, strange to say, all got away
unhurt except one that lay as if dead for a few minutes. When it revived, the
joyful parents with their brood fairly lamiched on the journey of life, proudly
led them down the cottage hill. . . .

Even as early as the first of July the different family broods begin
to unite into larger assemblages. Sometimes the young composing such
a bevy are not all of the same age, but range from cliicks barely fledged
to half grown birds (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 28; and authors). Grin-
nell and Swarth (1913, p. 231) record broods of young at Banning,
Riverside County, in juvenile plumage as early as June 8 (1908),
and in the San Jacinto Valley the same writers found fully plumaged
young-of-the-year and half grown young birds together during the first
week in September. Both parents assist in rearing their offspring.
The male, while spending a considerable portion of his time in sentinel
duty, also forages with his brood.

The Valley and California quails are believed to be more exclu-
sively vegetarian than any other of our game birds, save those of the
pigeon family. The United States Bureau of Biological Survey, in
an examination of 619 stomachs (representing both subspecies),
found (Judd. 1905, pp. 47-56; Beal, 1910, pp. 9-14) that only about
3 per cent of the food consisted of animal matter. The remaining 97
per cent was vegetable material and consisted of 2.3 per cent fruit,
6.4 per cent grain, about 25 per cent grass and other foliage, and 62.5
per cent seeds. The animal food comprised chiefly insects, and of
these, ants were most frequently present. Some beetles, bugs, cater-
pillars, grasshoppers, flies, spiders, " thousand-leggers, " and snails
were also found in the stomachs examined. A ease is cited by Beal
(1910, p. 10) of a brood of young quail feeding extensively on black
scale.

VALLEY QV AIL 531

Fruit evidently does not form any important part of the food of
tile (|uail, as it was fonnd in only about one-sixth of the stomachs and
then only in very small quantities. Damage is sometimes done to
grapes, but this is not shown clearly by examination of stomach con-
tents. Beal (1910, p. 9) mentions two cases where 1,000 and 5,000
quail, respectively, had been seen feeding upon grapes in vineyards.
Under such circumstances severe loss was undoubtedly sustained;
but these are exceptional instances. Florence A. Merriam (1896, p.
116) states that on the ranch of IMajor ^Merriam at Twin Oaks, San
Diego County, quail were in 1889 so abundant as to be a severe pest.
For several years previously great flocks of them came down the
canons to the vineyard, "where they destroyed annually from twenty
to thirty tons of fruit." A report comes from the Fresno district to
the effect that grape growers are occasionally troubled by the birds
scattering the drying raisins from the trays.

To elicit further information on this subject the present writers
addressed letters to several grape growers in California who by reason
of their large holdings would be best able to give evidence on this
point. The four vinej-ardists replying agreed in charging very little
if any damage against the quail. The service of the birds in destroy-
ing insect life was recognized by all of them. One man reported
that he had found quail aggravating, sometimes, when they picked
out certain varieties of grapes which do not bear heavily and which
had been left on the vines for more sugar, "for they are great sticklers
for a high saccharine content." They eat only very ripe grapes and
mostly those which are near the ground, and the damage done amounts
to only "a fraction of one per cent" (R. Jordan, Jr., San Francisco).
F. T. Bioletti, Professor of Viticulture at the University of California,
summarizes his impressions of the Valley Quail as follows (in MS) :
Under certain conditions the birds may be very destructive. One
vineyard of fifteen acres in a little mountain valley contained three
acres of an early ripening white grape. From fifty to seventy-five
per cent of these are taken by the quail every year. The later grapes,
which are larger and have tougher skins, are left practically un-
touched. Damage has also been noted in the case of table grapes
in which a few pecked berries on each bunch diminished the value
of the whole through the increased cost of trimming and packing.
Otherwise, "I am inclined to believe that the quail, as a rule, do very
little damage."

It is evidently not the large vineyard that suffers the greatest
proportional damage. Rather is it the vineyard of moderate or small
size, especially where adjacent to wild lands upon which quail are
numerous. Under such circumstances quail have been known to
destroy almost the entire crop. But on the whole, the birds cannot

532 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

be considered as seriously affecting either the horticultural or viti-
cultural interests of the state.

The grain secured by quail is evidently picked up casually, no
special search being made for it. Only one instance of quail enter-
ing a field for grain has been reported (Beal, 1910, p. 11). In no
month of the year does grain constitute more than 12.4 per cent of
the food for the month. Forage, including under that term grass
blades, and leaves of numerous plants, is taken in varying amounts
during the year, but most abundantly during the spring months
when weed seed is scarcest. Leaves of bur clover, and other clovers
including alfalfa and "filaree," are found most commonly; grass
blades occur in quite a number of stomachs.

Weed seeds are the staple and most important item in the food
of the quail. Seeds of more than seventy species of plants have been
identified in the crops and stomachs of these birds. Among those of
great economic importance, and most frequently eaten by quail, are
seeds of tarweed, mayweed, bur thistle, lupine, bur clover, deerweed,
vetch, turkey mullein, sumac and poison oak, alfilaria (filaree),
geranium, black mustard, miner's lettuce, red maids, pigweed, chick-
weed, catchfly, wire grass, sorrel, sedge, and ray grass. The quanti-
ties of these seeds eaten by quail may be conjectured by noting the
analyses of material taken from individual birds. One stomach held
83 kernels of barley, 592 seeds of geranium, 560 of tarweed, 40 of
bur thistle, 48 of clover, 80 of alfilaria, 704 of timothy, 32 of catchfly,
and 5 of snowberry; 2,144 seeds in all. Another contained 1,696
geranium seeds, 14 of bur thistle, 24 of knotweed, 14 of tarweed, 38
of bur clover, 148 of alfilaria, 12 of ray grass, and two unknown pieces ;
total 1,944 seeds and one pod (Beal, 1910, pp. 12-13). More rarely
quail feed on acorns or on the seeds of the parasite, dodder. The
young quail are more insectivorous in diet and take many ants. After
they are about a week old their diet begins to be more like that of
the adults.

The enemies of quail are numerous. Wildcats are about the
worst enemies of these birds, although certain hawks, and also gray
foxes and coyotes figure in varying degrees. Dixon (MS) reports
finding the remains of a California Quail in the stomach of a wildcat
killed at Petaluma, Sonoma County, December 29, 1908. A Prairie
Falcon in the Swarth collection, taken December 13, 1901. tit San
Fernando, Los Angeles County, contained remains of dove in the
crop and of quail in the stomach, both organs being entirely filled.
J. Grinnell (MS) has shot a Cooper Hawk in the act of eating a
Valley Quail. While hunting or tramping about in quail-inhabited
country it is not an uncommon thing for a person to find here and there
heaps of (luail feathers, each heap indicating wliei'e one or another of

VALLEY QUAIL 533

these enemies had captured and devoured a quail. Being a ground-
nesting species, the eggs are doubtless frequently destroyed by preda-
tory mammals and snakes. Four instances are on record (Hoover,
1899, p. 75) of the western gopher snake eating quail's eggs. In one
case, at Stanford University, a female California Quail attracted
attention as it fluttered excitedly in some shrubbery, trying to drive
a snake away from the nest. "I carried the snake about fifty yards
down the path and put him down. He started off in the direction of
the nest, and when I returned an hour later he was gulping down an
egg/' and there was already a lump in tiie snake's body. In another
instance a gopher snake was found to have swallowed six quail's eggs.

Bendire (1892, p. 26) states that unusually cold weather has a
disastrous effect on the birds. Thousands were thought to have been
killed by cold in the vicinity of Fort Bidwell, Modoc County, in the
Avinter of 1887-88. This, however, is at the extreme northern edge
of the range of the species; over the greater part of its territory cold
probably never has any effect except as influencing food supply. Con-
siderable heat is borne without apparent inconvenience.

Our quail in the wild appear to be little subject to disease, and
there are no records of epidemics having occurred among the Cali-
fornia species. However, intestinal parasites are not uncommon.
Thompson (1901 a, p. 15) states that while hunting quail in Monterey
County about 1898, he found that the intestines of close to one-third
of the birds shot contained tapeworms from 21^ to 4 inches long.
J. ^lailliard states (1902rt, p. 19) that he found so many California
Quail similarly parasitized in Marin County that he was led to believe
that these birds were particularly subject to such affliction. He also
found smaller worms in birds collected in both Marin and San Benito
counties. However, neither author found any evidence to show that
the presence of these worms had any bearing on the health of the
birds. A possible danger to our wild quail comes from the custom
of rearing native birds in captivity where they may have been brought
in contact with foreign species harboring disease germs. In such
event, by liberation of captive birds an epidemic might be started
among our wild stock, with disastrous results.

Our quails have now been introduced into many localities where
they were not native. As early as 1857 shipments were taken to the
state of Washington ; and in the neighboring states of Oregon and
Nevada the introduced birds have done so well that unless an observer
were told of their introduction he would believe them to be native.
They have been established successfully in some of the Hawaiian
Islands and in other parts of the w^orld. In eastern North America,
however, attempts to introduce Valley Quail have been about as unsuc-
cessful as have been the efforts to establish the Bobwhite in California.

534 GAME BIHDS OF CALIFOENIA

The California Quail (including the races closely related to it) has
almost every feature that is desirable in a game bird. It displays
exceptional skill in bafifling the hunter, and its light-colored flesh is of
fine flavor: Easterners often criticise our bird because it does not lie
^^•ell to dogs ; but when they once become acquainted with the western
method of hunting the quail, they pronounce our bird superior to their
own Bobwhite. Sometimes a dog is used, but the experienced hunter
in California is able to pursue a flock successfully without such
assistance.

Van Dyke (1892, p. 486), one of the most experienced hunters
of upland game in the state, describes a quail hunt in terms some-
what as follows : At your first advance into the place where the quail
last settled in confusion, a dozen or more rise in front of you and
as many more on each side anj^where from five to fifty yards away.
They burst from the brush with rapid flight and whizzing wing,
most of them with a sharp, clear, pit, pit, pit, which apprizes their
comrades of the danger and the course of escape taken. Some dart
straight away in a dark blue line, making none too plain a mark
against the dull background of brush, and vanish in handsome style
unless you are very quick with the gun. Others wheel off on either
side, the scaling of their breasts showing in the sunlight as they turn,
and making an altogether beautiful mark as they mount above the
skyline. Some swing about and pass almost over your head, so that
you can plainly see the black and white around their heads and
throats, and the cinnamon shading of their under surfaces.

In the days when the Valley Quail was plentiful far beyond its
condition today, it was a common bird on the markets and could be
obtained at practically every hotel and restaurant. Records show
that during the season 1895-96 as many as 70,370 quail (mostly Valley
Quail) were sold on the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles;
while an earlier report states that full 100,000 were disposed of in
a single year in the markets of San Francisco. W. T. Martin of
Pomona states that in 1881-84 he and a partner hunted Valley Quail
in Los Angeles and San Bernardino counties for the San Francisco
markets. Eight to fourteen dozen were secured daily, and in the
fall of 1883 the two men secured 300 dozen in seventeen days. Martin
himself secured 114 birds in one day's hunt. In 1881 and 1882
over 32,000 dozen quail were shipped to San Francisco from Los
Angeles and San Bernardino counties, and brought to the hunters
engaged in the business one dollar a dozen. In those days restaurants
charged thirty cents for quail-on-toast. By 1885 hunting had become
unprofitable because of the reduction in the numbers of quail.

A. E. Skelton, of El Portal, Mariposa County, tells us (MS) that
years ago when he was hunting for the market in the vicinity of

VALLEY QUAIL 535

Raynioud, Madera County, he averaged about sixty birds per daj'.
By careful liandling lie was able to secure better prices thau other
market hunters. After killing a dozen or fifteen quail, they were
drawn, tied three in a bunch, and hung up to cool over night. All
the birds which he had thus prepared were on the following day
placed in wooden boxes with thin boards between each two layers.
They thus reached the cities in beautiful condition and brought him
from $1.50 to $2.25 per dozen, fifty cents more per dozen than quail
shipped loosely in sacks, as was the practice of other hunters.

T. S. Van Dyke (1890, p. 460) states that market hunters used
to ship 10,000 quail apiece during a single season ; daily bags of 200,
made by sporting men shooting the birds singly on the wing, were
not unusual. C. H. Shinn (1890, p. 464) says that in eighteen con-
secutive hunts two hunters at San Diego secured from 47 to 187
quail on each hunt, in addition to other game ; six bags of more than
one hundred each were made. Other individual daily bags of six,
twelve and twenty-two dozen, respectively, were known to this author.
In the hills between the southern San Joaquin Valley and Carrizo
Plains, E. W. Nelson (A. K. Fisher, 1893fl. pp. 28-29) found the
Valley Quail very numerous.

It Avas excessively abundant at some of the springs in the liills about the Tem-
ploa Mountains and Carrizo Plain. In the week following the expiration of the
closed season, two men, pot-hunting for the market, were reported to have killed
8,400 quail at a solitary spring in the Temploa [Temblor] Mountains. The men
built a brush blind near the spring, which was the only water within a distance of
20 miles, and as evening approached the quails came to it by thousands. One of
Mr. Nelson 's informants who saw the birds at this place stated that the gi'ound
all about the water was covered by a compact body of quails, so that the hunters
mowed them downi by the score at every discharge.

Not only were quail shot for the market, but previous to 1880,
they were regularly trapped in large numbers. In that year the prac-
tice M-as stopped by law. Cooper, writing in 1870 (1870a, p. 551),
states that they were constantly exposed for sale alive in San Fran-
cisco, where many escaped from their cages to fly from roof to roof,
occasionally descending into city gardens. Many trapped birds were
shipped east at that time.

Hedderly (1912c, p. 309) gives an account of the successful rear-
ing of Valley Quail in captivity by William Schneider of Whittier,
Los Angeles County. Starting with six birds in 1905, by 1912 he
was able to rear between 400 and 500 young birds, more in fact than
he needed for his own table. Some interesting facts, learned in the
course of his experience with the quail, were : that they are not polyga-
mous, each male selecting one female and remaining wnth her until the
young birds are hatched, and paying no attention to other females even

536 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

when kept in the same enclosure ; that two broods were reared by his
birds, in each season, one in February and another in April or May ;
and that bantam hens were found capable of hatching the quail's eggs
successfully, where the latter had been deserted during the early part
of the season. This and other instances suggest the possibility of semi-
domestication of quail, as on large ranches. In fact there are reports of
quail mingling freely with chickens ; and one case is on record ( Hen-
shaw, 1883, pp. 184-185) where a hen with an unusual propensity for
sitting, appropriated of her own accord a nest of quail's eggs some-
where in the neighborhood. In due time she came off leading in her
train a bevy of fifteen downy quail. These were successfully reared,
and remained about the ranch yard where their tameness distinguished
them from other quail in the vicinity.

Hunting in one form or another has been the most effective factor
in the decrease of the Valley Quail. As with so many of our other
game birds, too long an open season, too large bag limits, or none at
all, and hunting for the market, have together been instrumental in
reducing the numbers of quail; but the last-named factor is un-
doubtedly the most important one. Twenty years ago a quail hunt
for sport involved considerable time and inconvenience ; but todaj',
with the increased facilities for travel available in the form of rail-
roads, suburban electric lines and automobiles, and the more efficient
types of firearms, both of these factors have been greatly reduced.
A quail hunt may now occupy but a relatively short time, and the
destruction possible with a pump or automatic shotgun as compared
with a double-barrel gun has given the present-day hunter a greatly
increased advantage. The annual destruction of quail has exceeded
the yearly crop, and in consequence the breeding stock has been sadly
reduced. At present there are many places, notably in southern
California, where drastic action must be invoked at once if any birds
at all are to be left. Smaller bag limits and shortened seasons, or
even an entirely closed season for a few years in critical localities, are
believed to be the only means of affording the birds the protection
they need. But even where they have been reduced, the Valley and
California quails may. be expected, other conditions being equal, to
regain their former numbers more rapidly than any other game
species. This is another evidence of their fitness as game birds : They
can stand the greatest annual toll and yet, because of their high rate
of reproduction (providing the optimum breeding stock be not
reduced), safely and easily recoup their numbers from year to year.

It is erroneous to believe that a considerable number of quail can-
not be maintained under present conditions. The birds have demon-
strated their ability to exist under a wide variety of physical condi-
tions, and are not averse to the proximity of man, as abundantly

CALIFOENIA QUAIL—CATALINA ISLAND QUAIL 537

proved in many instances. Given the proper protection from excessive
hunting, through moderate open season and bag limit, and perhaps
furtlier assistance by the destruction of their worst natural enemies,
and they will remain with us as a joy forever. "We can then say, with
Florence Merriara Bailey (1902, p. 121), that they are still the game
birds of California; ''. . . the roads are still patterned Avith their foot-
prints, and througli the valleys they are closely associated with the
charm of the mellow California days, their melodious ivJio-are-you-ahF
coming from the hillsides in the cool mornings when the high fog is
dissolving into blue sky, coming from the chaparral in the warm noon-
day hours, and echoing softly from the vineyards through the quiet
golden sunsets."

California Quail

Lophortyx calif uniica calif oniica (Shaw)

Other names — California Partridge, part; Lophortyx calif ornica brunnescens;
Lophortyx calif ornica vcdlicola, part; Callipepla calif ornica,, part; Tetrao cali-
fomieits; Ortyx calif ornica, part.

Description — Advits: Similar to Valley Quail (Lophortyx calif ornica valli-
cola) but upper surface and sides of body olive brown (pi. 1) rather than
grayish brown, and inner margins of tertial feathers deep buffy or ochraceous
rather than pale buffy or whitish. Juvenile plunwge : Like that of Valley Quail,
but with tawny suffusion above, and ochraceous tinge below; dark markings
everywhere greater in extent.

Marks for field identification — See under Valley Quail. Probably not dis-
tinguishable except in hand.

General distribution — Humid coast region (fog belt) of the Pacific district
from southwestern Oregon south to southern Monterey County; introduced into
Vancouver Island and Washington.

Distribution in California — Abundant resident of the narrow humid coast
strip (fog belt) from the Oregon line south to southern Monterey County. (See
Valley Quail.)

For general account, see Valley Quail.

Catalina Island Quail

Lophortyx calif ornica catalinensis Grinnell

Other names — Lophortyx catalinensis ; Lophortyx californica valHcola, part.

Description — Adults: Similar to the Valley Quail {Lophortyx californica
vallicola) but averaging about 7% larger; scaling on lower breast slightly heavier,
and shaft streaks on flanks and lower tail coverts broader. Males: folded wing
4.46-4.71 inches (113.5-119.5 mm.) ; bill along culmen 0.40-0.42 (10.2-10.7) ; tarsus
1.18-1.26 (30.0-32.0) (three specimens). Females: folded wing 4.57-4.65 (116-
118); bill along culmen 0.41-0.43 (10.4-10.9); tarsus 1.18-1.24 (30.0-31.4) (three
specimens) .

538 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOL'XIA

Marks for field identification — S<'(' uikIit XmIIcv l^uail ; jirobably not dis-
tinguishable except in liand.

Distribution — Common resident on Santa Catalina Island, Los Angeles
County, to which island tliis race is restricted.

It has been I'uiuored that quail from tlie mainland of California
have been introduced on Santa Catalina Island. But ''Captain"
James C. Johnston found quail already on the island when he located
at "Johnston's Harbor" (of maps) in 1859 (Grinnell, 1906a, pp.
264-265) ; he and the other sheep men on the island always considered
the birds to be native. If mainland stock has since been introduced,
we have no means of knowing what its effect on the native contingent
may have been. It is urdikely that the strangers would survive in
competition with the better fit native birds. The eggs of the Catalina
Island Quail have been described (Childs, 1907) as diifering some-
what from those of other quail in having the ground-color almost pure
white, with "specks and dots of brown, and large conspicuous yellow-
ish-brown blotches." The eggs described, ten in number, were taken
at Avalon, July 12, 1907, from a nest on the "ground near eucalyptus
tree and by a fence."

The general natural history of the Catalina Island Quail is prob-
ably nearly identical with that of the Valley Quail.

Desert Quail

Lophortyx ganibeli Gambel

Other names — Gambel Quail; Gambel Partridge; Arizona Quail; Callipepla
gamheli; Callipepla gamheli deseriicola.

Description — Adult mole: Forehead finely streaked with black and buff, this
area bounded behind by a transverse white bar between eyes which turns back on
each side to continue over the ears to side of neck, this white bar bordered nar-
rowly with solid black; whole hind head solid reddish brown; crest with origin
just behind white bar on top of head, about one and one-half inches long, and
made up of six black club-shaped, recurved, closely over-lapping feathers; entire
throat jet black, outlined posteriorly by a well defined U-shaped border of white
running down each side of head from eye; ear region, between white bands, black-
ish brown, opening out onto gray of chest region; bill black; iris dark brown;
upper surface of body, including outer surface of closed wing, rump and entire
tail, pale ashy broAvn, becoming clear gray on hind neck and tail ; upper surface
also vdih fine shaft-lines of dusky ; lining and under surface of wing plain grayish
brown; inner webs of tertials and outer webs of secondaries edged mth bufty
white ; outer webs of primaries edged with gray ; elongated feathers of sides
bright chestnut, each with a medial streak of white; fore breast ashy gray con-
tinuous with hind neck; feathers of sides of neck and hind neck finely margined
with dusky and narrowly centered near tips with reddish broA\ni ; a black patch
or spot on fore part of belly, and between this and gray chest area, a broad,
clear, buffy band; hinder belly pale buffy white; flanks same color, Avith broad
shaft streaks of dull reddish brown; under tail coverts buff with grayish brown
shaft streaks; legs and feet dull gieenish gray; claws black. Total length 10.64-

DESEET -QUAIL 539

11. '>0 iiu-hes (270-292 mm.) (nine sijecimens) ; folded wing -4.34-4.52 (110.0-
114.7) ; bill along eulmeii 0.43-0.47 (10.8-12.0) ; tarsus 1.17-1.28 (29.7-32.4)
(ten specimens); weight o.7 oz. (161.8 gm.) (one specimen). Adult female: Head
Avithout the white, black and rufous found in the male, chiefly grayish brown,
streaked with dusky on forehead, sides and throat, more rusty brown on back of
head; crest about one inch in length, not so broad ended as in male; plumage other-
wise much as in male but black spot on belly lacking, and chestnut of sides paler
and less extensive. Total length 10.40-11.44 inches (264-290 mm.) ; folded wing
4.17-4.49 (105.8-114.0); bill along culmen 0.41-0.45 (10.3-11.5); tarsus, 1.14-
1.24 (29.0-31.5) (ten specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Whole
of upper surface dull bro■\^^^, minutely mottled transversely with dusky; scapulars
and outer surface of closed wing with broad Avhitish shaft-streaks; wing and tail
feathers mottled in fine pattern A\dth ashy brown and bufPy white; sides and
breast pale ashy brown with whitish bars. Natal plumage: General color dull
yellowish; four parallel blackish stripes doAvn back; a dark brown patch on back
of head ; breast and sides washed with buffy ; AA-ings and flanks marked with dusky.

Marks for field identification — Similar to Valley Quail, as regards size
and crest, but general coloration nnich lighter ; male Avith back of head bright red-
dish broAvn, and with a clear buffy AA'hite band across loA\-er breast, folloAved by
a conspicuous black spot on fore part of belly. Both sexes have the sides rich
chestnut, but no scale-like fcather-tippings on the under surface of the body as
in the Valley Quail.

Voice — A rapidly uttered series of syllables, each sounding like (jKott or oil ;
call of male: yulc-lxde-ja, repeated (Bendire, 1892, p. 31).

Nest — On ground beneath Aveeds or brush ; a slight depression, usually Avell
lined AAath grass, Aveed stems, and leaves.

Eggs — 10 to 17, ovate in shape, measuring in inches 1.12 to 1.34 by 0.95 to 1.02
(in millimeters, 28.5 to 34.0 by 24.0 to 26.0), and averaging 1.24 by 0.95 (31.5 by
24.0) (Bendire, 1892, p. 34; and authors); in color Avliite or creamy Avhite, Avith
dots and irregtilar spots of dark puiplish broAA-n.

General distribution — Arid desert regions of soutliern California, southern
Nevada, Arizona, and soutliAvestern Utah, east to the soutliAvestern corner of Col-
orado; also in southwestern Ncav Mexico to the Eio Grande Valley and the
El Paso region of extreme Avestern Texas; south into northeastern corner of
Lower California and to Guaymas, Sonora (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 137).

Distribution in California — Abundant resident locally, almost ahvays in the
near vicinity of streams or springs, on both the Colorado and Mohave deserts.
Recorded north to Amargosa and Death valleys (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 29) ;
Avest across the Mohave Desert to Heeperia (Thurber, 1896, p. 265), on the Col-
orado Desert to the north flank of the Santa Eosa Mountains (Grinnell and
SAvarth, 1913, p. 232), and through San Gorgonio Pass to Banning, Riverside
County (Oilman, 1907, p. 148). Recorded casually or as a result of escape from
captiAdty, from Los Angeles, San Bernardino, and other points on the Pacific
slope of southern California. Along the AATstern edge of its range, this quail
occurs at many points on common ground Avith the Valley Quail, and hybridization
is knoAvn to occur.

The distribution of the Desert or Gambel Quail is closely limited
to the deserts of the southwest. It is to be found from extreme south-
ern Colorado and the western extremity of Texas westward to south-
ern Nevada, southeastern California and northeastern Lower Cali-

540 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA

fornia. In California it is an abundant resident locally, always in
the near vicinity of streams, on the Mohave and Colorado deserts. It
has been taken as far north as the Amargosa Desert and Death
Valley, in southern Inyo County, and to the westward it extends to
Banning and the north slope of the Santa Rosa Mountains in River-
side County. Along the western border of its range it is often found
associated with the Valley Quail. This is especially the case in some
of the low passes, as, for instance, San Gorgonio Pass. Here hybrids
between the two species have been taken. Stragglers, possibly escaped
from captivity, have been recorded from Los Angeles (Grinnell, 1898,
p. 19) and San Bernardino (Wall, 1893, p. 204).

Efforts made to introduce the Desert Quail into northern Cali-
fornia have met with failure. Belding (1890, p. 8) records the fact
that although a number were once liberated near Folsoni, Sacramento
County, they all soon disappeared. A covey, numbering originally
more than a hundred, kept on the State Game Farm at Hayward,
slowly died off until not one was left. The bird seems unable to stand
any departure from the warmth and dryness of its native desert
territory.

Throughout its range the Desert Quail is a close associate of the
mesquite and "quail brush," the latter being a species of Atriplex.
Although individuals often forage up dry washes for a few miles,
they keep within reach either of a spring or a stream, since they
must go back to water at least twice a day, morning and evening.

In size and general appearance the Desert Quail is much like the
Valley Quail. The top of the head, however, is rich reddish brown,
there are no scale-like tippings to the feathers of the under surface,
and the flanks are chiefly chestnut in color. A conspicuous black patch
occupies the center of the lower surface of the body of the male. Being
a desert form, the general tone of color follows the rule among desert
animals and is pale, considerably lighter than it is in the Valley Quail.

Desert Quail usually remain in flocks until about the middle of
March when they begin to pair off. Although the height of the nest-
ing season occurs in April, young about two days old. have been seen
as late as September 24 (Leo Wiley, MS). The earliest date for eggs
is March 19, near Phoenix, Arizona; and near Tucson, April 4 (Ben-
dire, 1892, p. 34). In California, near Salton Sea, Koch (1893, p.
91) found fresh eggs on April 5. The nest is a simple structure,
often a mere lining, of grasses and weed stems, occupying a depres-
sion in the ground surface, and hidden in grass or clumps of weeds.
Some instances may here be cited in illustration of nesting habits,
exceptional or ordinary.

Near Tucson, Arizona, on May 25, 191 L Willard (1912. p. 60)
found a nest Avithout anj^ protecting cover in a slight depression at

DESEBT QUAIL 541

the foot of a raesquite. It contained twelve fresh eggs. According
to Swarth (MS) the Desert Quail not iineomiiionly lays its eggs in
places other than the usual ground site of quail in general, an aban-
doned nest of a thrasher or cactus wren in the eholla cactus being
sometimes flattened down and used. Bendire (1892, p. 32) found
a set of ten eggs near Tucson, Arizona, in an old Roadrunner's nest
about five feet above the ground in a mesquite tree. Apparently a
little additional lining had been contributed by the quail. Breninger
(1897, p. 122) records the finding of a nest near Phoenix, Arizona,
containing six eggs and situated in a hollow of a mesquite trunk
several feet from the ground and eighteen inches from the opening
of the cavit^y. Tlie cavity was much the same as would be chosen by
one of the larger owls.

The eggs of the Desert Quail resemble those of the Valley Quail
in shape, but are decidedly different in coloration. The ground-color
is white or creamy white, with dots and irregular spots of dark pur-
plish brown (not golden brown). Bendire (1892, p. 34) found the
extremes of size in a large number of the eggs of the Desert Quail to be
(millimeters changed here to inches) 1.12 by 0.95 and 1.34 by 1.02,
with an average of 1.24 by 0.95. The complete set contains from ten
to seventeen eggs, but the average comes nearer a dozen. Incubation
is said to last from about 21 to 24 days, and does not begin until all
the eggs are laid, these being deposited daily (Bendire, 1892, p. 32).
Two broods are thought by some to be reared in one season (Leo
Wiley, MS., and Bendire, loc. cit.) ; this, however, is not likely to be
the regular thing. Immediately after the breeding season young and
old collect into flocks of large size, said to number on occasion up to
100 or even 500.

The young are truly precocious. Coues (1874, pp. 436-437') says
of them :

They run about as soon as they are hatched, though probably not "witli lialf
shell on their backs, ' ' as some one has said. In a few days they become very
nimble, and so expert in hiding that it is difficult either to see or catch them.
When the mother bird is surprised Avith her young brood, she gives a sharp warn-
ing cry, that is well understood to mean danger, and then generally flies a little
distance to some concealed spot, where she crouches, anxiously watching. The
fledglings . . . instantly scatter in all directions, and squat . . . motionless until
the reassuring notes of the mother call them together again, -with an intimation
that the alarm is over. Then they huddle close aroimd her, and she carefully
leads them off to some other spot, where she looks for greater security ... in the
enjoyment of her hopes and pleasing cares. As long as they require the parent 's
attention they keep close together, and are averse to flying. Even after becoming
able to use their wings well, they prefer to run and hide, or squat where they
may be, when alarmed. If then forced up, the young covey flies off, without sep-
arating, to a little distance, often realighting on the lower limbs of trees or in
bushes, rather than on the ground. As they grow older and strong of wing, they

542 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBNIA

fly further, separate more readily, and more rarely take to trees; and sometimes,,
before they are fully grown, they are found to have already become wary and
difficult of approach. As one draws near where a covey is feeding, a quick, sharp
cry from tlie bird who first notices the approach alarms the whole, and is quickly
repeated by the rest, as they start to run, betraying their course by the rustling
of dried leaves. Let him step nearer, and they rise witli a whirr, scattering in
every direction.

' ' On being suddenly flushed these birds separate very widely, but
immediately upon alighting commence their call-note, resembling the
soft chirp of a young chicken, which is kept up for some time. The
alarm over, and the flock once more reunited, they relapse into
silence, only broken by an occasional cluck of the male bird. Once
scattered they cannot be readily started again, as they lie close in
their thick, bushy, and impenetrable coverts" (Baird, Brewer and
Ridgway, 1874, III, p. 484).

This (piail has three difllerent notes: a single clear mellow clink
with a metallic resonance which is used as a flock call or alarm note,
and may be repeated many times; a loud clear whistled killink-killink
uttered chiefly during the pairing season ; and an unmusical ' ' love-
song" uttered morning and evening by the male as he sits on some
conspicuous perch near his brooding mate. This last is described as
"odd, guttural and energetic," and the bird is said to stretch his
neck, dangle his plume and allow his wings to droop while the
"song" is being uttered (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1874, III,
p. 485).

As reported by an observer near Palm Springs, Riverside County :

The notes of the desert quail differ from those of the valley quail in variety,
and to a certain extent in character, thougli they have some notes in common.
The ' ' croW ' ' of the latter consists of three notes, varying in length and accent
according to the call given, in one case the last note being a falling one. Tlie
"crow" of the desei-t quail, while rather similar to the other, has two additional
notes at the end, rendered in a softer tone. Besides the alarm calls the valley
quail has a few t^^^tterillg or conversational notes, while the other species has a
lot of these, quite varied and often given in a way tliat seems remarkably loud
to one accustomed only to the notes of the former. Another peculiarity of the
'desert quail is the queer sound that it makes as it rises from the ground on being
surprised into flight — the sort of screeching cackle, on a small scale, that a hen
makes Avhen frightened from her nest (Mailliard, in Grinnell, 1904o, pp. 41-42).

Nelson gives the following account of the habits of the Desert
Quail as noted in the Pahrump Valley, Nevada, close to the California
line near Death Valley :

. . . "Wlien a flock of quail came to feed on grain left by the horses, an old
male usually mounted the top of a tall bush close by and remained on guard for
ten or fifteen minutes, then, if everything was quiet, he would fly down among
his companions. At the first alarm the flock would take to the bushes, running

DESERT QUAIL 543

swiftly, or flying when hard pressed. They roosted in the dense bunches of willows
and cottonwoods growing along the ditches. . . . When feeding they have a series
of low clucking and cooing notes which are kept up almost continually (Nelson, in
A. K. Fisher, 1893a, pp. 29-30).

The Desert Quail depends for safety very largely upon its legs.
It runs with astonishing rapidity and usually seeks to escape in this
manner rather than by flying. Impenetrable thickets of mesquite,
quail brush, catelaw and ironwood afford safe retreats as long as the
use of wings is unnecessary.

According to Judd (1905, p. 57) the food of the Gambel Quail
comprises the following elements : insects, 0.48 per cent ; grain, 3.89
per cent; miscellaneous seeds, 31.89 per cent; and leaves and plant
shoots, 63.74 per cent. Among the insects that have been found in
the stomachs of birds examined, are ants, beetles, grasshoppers, leaf-
hoppers and stink bugs. The grain taken includes corn, wheat, and
oats, the miscellaneous seeds largely those of leguminous plants such as
alfalfa, bur clover and mesquite, and also of alfilaria, mustard, chick-
weed, peppergrass and atriplex. Succulent foliage and shoots form
by far the larger percentage of the food. Of this, alfalfa, bur clover,
and tlie foliage of other legumes constitute the greater part. Both
the green leaves and pods of alfalfa are freely eaten. In spring this
quail shows a fondness for buds, and in some localities its flesh has
a distinctly bitter taste due to a diet of willow buds. Certain kinds
of fruit are also eaten. Baird, Brewer and Ridgway (1874, III,
p. 483) state that during the summer it feeds extensively on the
berries of nightshade. Evidence is also at hand that this quail, like
many other desert animals, feeds upon the fruit and seeds of certain
kinds of cactus. Stomachs of Gambel Quail collected along the Colo-
rado River in the spring of 1910 contained masses of mistletoe berries,
and, at the time the mesquites were first coming into leaf, quantities
of the tender green foliage of this plant (Grinnell, 19146, p. 122).

The Gambel Quail, like the Valley Quail, is not difficult to domes-
ticate. In its own habitat this quail may be readily reared in confine-
ment. In but slightly colder climates, however, breeders have met
with little or no success.

Gilman (1907, p. 148) gives the following description of the way
in which the Gambel Quail often baffles the hunter : "A big flock
is seen and pursued. They divide and Nimrod follows the larger por-
tion which again divides and this process of elimination by division
continues till the hunter finds he has been up against a vanishing
fraction. If near a range the flock immediately takes to the hills
and anyone who has once followed them up those sun-burned rocks
is ever afterward in the sour grapes class." Hence, it can be seen
that the Desert Quail does not make so attractive a game bird as the

544 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Valley Quail. Its habitat in the first place is, to many people, for-
bidding, and its habit of seeking shelter in impenetrable thickets
makes it one of the most difficult birds to put up. When once on the
wing the flight is exceedingly rapid and vigorous, but as it is nearly
always direct, a quick hand can ensure a successful wing shot.

The Desert Quail has always been numerous in favorable parts
of the desert region of southeastern California. • The increase of areas
under cultivation in the Coachella and Imperial valleys has resulted
in additional supplies of water and food, and in such localities this
quail appears to be increasing. In fact, there is some complaint from
ranchers that the bird has become so numerous as to do considerable
damage locally to newly sprouting grain. Until quite recently the
Desert Quail has been hunted but little ; but with the decrease of the
A'^alley Quail in the coast districts of southern California, and the
betterment of roads leading out over the desert, sportsmen are direct-
ing their attention more and more to the desert species. There is no
reason why the Desert Quail should not thrive in large numbers in
all suitable places on the southeastern deserts, and, because of its
prolific reproductivity and evident responsiveness to new conditions
imposed by cultivation of the land, why it may not stand a large
annual levy from the hunter.

Sierra Grouse

Dendragapus ohscurus sierrae Chapman

Other names — Blue Grouse; Dusky Grouse; Pine Grouse; Sooty Grouse, part;
Dendragapus obscurus ; Dendragapus ohscurus fuUginosus, part; Dendragapus
fuliginosus ; Tetrao ohscurus; Canace ohscura.

Description — Adult male: Head and neck chiefly dark slaty brown; area
between bill and eye, and ehin and throat, flecked with white; naked skin above
and below eye light orange ; iris hazel broAvn ; bill dusky ; back, rump, upper tail
coverts, and outer surface of closed wing, chiefly brownish black, more or less
finely patterned (vermiculated) with pale bluish gray or pale tawny, these ver-
miculations least conspicuous on middle of back, and most prominent on tertials
and outer webs of inner secondaries; tail chiefly black, brownish at liase, vn\\\ or
without fine light gray vermiculations, and tipped broadly with smoke gray ;
inner margins of flight feathers dark brown, outer margins paler, marked with
buffy or dull white ; lining and under surface of wing light slaty brown ; axillars
Avhite ; fore neck deep brownish black ; breast slaty brown changing to bluish gi'ay
on belly, where also mixed with white ; feathers of sides and flanks slaty brown
vermiculated with bluish gray, and with white shaft streaks; under tail coverts
dark slate, broadly tipped with white; feathers on tarsus, grayish brown; feet
light gray or olive di"ab, barred with brownish; nails dusky. Adult female: Top
of head, sides of neck, and hind neck, bro■^^^lish black, barred with pale clay
color ; side of head, chin and throat, dull white, mottled with brownish black ;
eyelids nearly as in male ; back, rump, upper tail coverts, middle tail feathers,
and outer surface of closed wing, blackish brown, barred or finely patterned

SI FEE A GEOUSE 545

(verniiculated) with pale clay color or tawny brown; some of scapulars, with
shaft streaks of white; tail chiefly brownish black, with more or less ashy ver-
iniculation toward base, and broadly tipped \nU\ ashy gray, this light band
sparingly flecked with broA\Tiish black ; flight feathers brown, marked with bufTy
white on outer webs ; margin and forward lining of wing mixed broAvn and buffy
white ; axillars white ; under surface of flight feathers dull brown ; breast dark
browni, with broad irregular barring of pale clay color or dull white ; fore part
of belly bluish gray, sparingly marked Avith white ; hinder part of belly mixed
pale bluish gray and dull white; sides of body and flanks like outer surface of
wing; loAver tail coverts blackish brown tipped broadly with dull white; feather-
ing of tarsus grayish brown. Males: Total length "about 20.00-23.00" inches
(508-584 mm.) (EidgAvay, 1900, p. 195) ; folded Aving 8.86-9.52 (225-242) ; bill
along culmen 0.72-0.88 (18.4-22..S) ; tarsus, 1.59-1.92 (40.4-48.8) (ten specimens
from California). Females: Total length "17.50-19.00" (444-482) (Ridgway,
loc. eit.); folded Aving 7.68-8.70 (195-221); bill along culmen 0.68-0.78 (17.4-
19.7); tarsus 1.54-1.85 (39.0-47.0) (six specimens from California). Weight of
a male 2% pounds (1.25 kilograms) (Mus. Vert. Zool.). Juvenile plumage: Much
like that of adult female, but feathers of upper surface, AA'ings and tail with
conspicuous shaft streaks of dull white; no gray bar at end of tail; gray patch
on belly lacking; chin extensiA'ely Avhitish; throat and breast pale l)uffy or
white, more spotted than barred, with dark brown. Xatal plumape: Upper
surface light yelloAvish broAvn, Avith considerable irregular admixture of black,
especially noticeable on top and sides of head and middle of back; under surface
buffy Avhite, palest on throat and belly.

Marks for fielp identification — Large size (next to largest of our grouse),
general dark bluish gray effect of coloration, and light band across tip of almost
square-ended tail (this often appearing whitish by contrast) (pi. 15).

Voice — Of male in breeding season: a deep, Avooden, far-carrying, ventrilo-
quial, unt, wiint, wunt', ivunt', Iv-wunV, wunf, wunt (Storer, MS) ; of female Avith
young: cackling and clucking notes; of both sexes: an alarm note luk, luk
(Belding, 1879, p. 438).

Nest — On dry ground, under shelter of brush, log or rock; a slight depression
sparingly lined AAith dry grasses, leaves, tAvigs, and, usually, a feAv feathers of
the female.

Eggs — (In California) 5 to 7, ordinarily OA^ate in shape, measuring in inches,
1.98 to 2.14 by 1.34 to 1.46 (in millimeters, 50.4 to 54.2 by 34.1 to 37.2), and
averaging 2.03 by 1.40 (51.6 by 35.5) (tAvo sets, tAvelve eggs, from California).
Ground-color pale creamy buff, with small round spots and dots of reddish
brown, usually distributed quite uniformly over the entire surface.

General distribution — Of the Dusky Grouse and its several subspecies:
Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast regions from southern Alaska and Yukon Ter-
ritory south to the mountains of California and central Arizona. Of the Sierra
Grouse (subspecies sierrae) : upper belt of coniferous trees (upper Transition and
Canadian life zones) of mountains from Fort Klamath, Oregon, south in the
Sierra Nevada of California, to Mount Pinos, Ventura County.

Distribution in California — Common resident of the upper coniferous belt
(upper Transition and Canadian life zones) from Moimt Shasta south along the
inner coast ranges at least as far as central Lake County, and along the Sierra
Nevada south through the Mount Wliitney region to Piute Mountain, Kern
County; also on the Warner Mountains, Modoc County, on the White Mountains,
Inyo County, and on Mount Pinos, Ventura County.

546

GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOENIA

Two slightly different geographic varieties of Sooty Grouse occur
ill California. One, the true Sooty, is restricted to the semi-humid
northwestern corner of the state east to central Trinity County and
south certainly not farther than Sonoma County near the mouth of
the Russian River. The other, and by far the better known race, is
the Sierra Grouse, which ranges from Mount Shasta on the north,
south along the inner coast ranges to Lake County and along the
whole of the Sierra Nevada to Mount Finos, Ventura County; east-
wardly, detached colonies are also found on the Warner Mountains,
Modoc County, and on the White Mountains, Inyo County. The
differences between these two forms are but slight, and are indicated
in the account of the Sooty Grouse (p. 552). Because of its wider
and more accessible range and also because practically all the inform-

14076 ^-^^*--«^««^<^

Fig. 85. Side of tarsus and foot of Sierra Grouse. Natural size.
Note stout toes and claws and presence of feathering on tarsus (com-
pare with fig. 83).

ation we have concerns it, the Sierra Grouse alone is the subject of
the following account.

The Sierra Grouse has been called by a variety of names. Blue
Grouse, Sooty Grouse, and Dusky Grouse all refer to the dark tone
of its coloration (pi. 15) as compared with our other species, while
the name Pine Grouse suggests the nature of its preferred habitat.
Since throughout much of the Sierra Nevada it is the only species
of grouse, hunters there designate it simply as Grouse. In the moun-
tainous districts of California such accepted place names as Grouse
Creek or Grouse Lake occur no less than eight times — a tribute to
the prominence of this game bird in the minds of the people.

The metropolis of the Sierra Grouse is to be found in the upper
part of the mountain coniferous belt (Canadian zone) among the
lodgepole and Jeffrey pines and red firs, but the species also occurs
rather sparingly, just after the breeding season, still higher up towards
timber line, among the mountain and foxtail pines and alpine hem-
locks (Iludsonian zone). In autumn it may range to the extreme

SIEKBA GROUSE 547

ui)poi' edge of the forest, and even beyond. This is especially true
of the old male birds after the close of the nesting season. On the
other hand it seems doubtful if this grouse occurs regularly at lower
elevations than first indicated above, even during the heaviest snows
of winter.

In the extreme southern part of its range the Sierra Grouse does
not occur much below 8,000 feet, as on Mount Pinos, Ventura County
(Grinnell, 1905, p. 382), and in the Mount Whitney region around
Monache Meadows (Mus. Vert. Zool.). Immediately south Avest of
the Sequoia National Park near Blue Ridge, Tulare County, the two
localities named Grouse Valley and Upper Grouse Valley, at 3,700
to 4,700 feet altitude suggest low stations for the species; but this
needs verification by actual observation. In the central Sierras in
the vicinity of Yosemite, Grouse do not range much below 7,000 feet
(Mus. Vert. Zool.), but on ]\Iount Shasta they occur regularly at
Wagon Camp, altitude 5,700 feet (C. H. Merriam, 1899, p. 110).
However, this decrease in their elevation towards the north is simul-
taneous with a diminution, in the higher altitudes, of the kinds of coni-
ferous trees which they habitually frequent. These grouse are
nowhere found in the same abundance as quail : as a rule not more
than four or five can be started in an hour's walk through the most
favorable country. Indeed several miles may be covered without
seeing or hearing one of the birds, even in the heart of their territory.

The Sierra Grouse is a forest bird, rarely if ever found away
from the shelter afforded by coniferous trees. A factor in determin-
ing its association with these trees is the dependence of the grouse
on pine and fir needles for food during a portion of the year. While
a certain amount of time is spent regularly on the ground at other
times than when nesting or with young, adults probably spend most
of their lives in the trees. Not infrequently one may come upon a
grouse feeding on the ground, but when alarmed there it will almost
invariably take refuge well up in a tree.

After a long field experience wdth this species John Muir writes
(1901, pp. 216-217) :

They like best the heaviest silver-fir woods near garden and meadow openings,
where there is but little underbrush to cover the approach of enemies. When a
flock . . . sees a man for the first time . . . they rise with hurried notes . . .
and alight on the lowest branches of the trees. . . . They allow you to approach
within a half dozen paces, then quietly hop a few branches higher or fly to the
next tree without a thought of concealment. . . . But in the neighborhood of
roads and trails they soon become shy, and when disturbed fly into the highest,
leafiest trees, so well do they know how to hide and keep still. . . . Nor can
they be easily dislodged ere they are ready to go. In vain the hunter goes
round and round some tall pine or fir into which he has perhaps seen a dozen
enter . . . ; not a feather can he see unless his eyes have been sharpened by long

548 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOENIA

experience and knowledge of the blue grouse's habits. Then [suddenly] . . .
they burst forth with a startling whir of wing-beats, and after gaining full speed
go skating s\\'iftly away through the forest arches in a long, silent, wavering
slide with wings held steady.

During the summer they are most of the time on the ground, feeding on insects,
seeds, berries, etc., around the margins of open spots and rocky moraines, playing
and sauntering, taking sun baths and sand baths, and drinking at little pools
and rills during the heat of the day. In winter they live mostly in the trees,
depending upon buds for food, sheltering beneath dense overlapping branches at
night and during storms on the lee side of the trunk, sunning themselves on the
southside limbs in fine weather, and sometimes diving into the mealy snow to
flutter and wallow, apparently for exercise and fun.

The flight of the Sierra Grouse is rapid and direct, with fast
beating wings. When flushed at short range, the swift movement,
and rapid whirring of the wings necessary to lift the bird's heavy-
body, produce a startling sound, and with a small flock the aggregate
noise is most bewildering to an intruder.

It is during the spring and early summer, the courting season,
that the voice of the Sierra Grouse is most frequently heard. Males
are in the habit of taking positions near the tops of pines or firs,
sixty or seventy feet above the ground, standing close to the trunk on
some horizontal limb. Such a station will be held continuously for
hours, and from it the reverberant hooting is heard at varying inter-
vals. The hooting may be described as a deep, wooden, far-carrying,
ventriloquial sound. The sequence of notes has been recorded as:
unt, wunt, wunV , wunf , tu-ivunV , wunt, want (Storer, MS) ; another
rendering is hoont, hoont, hoont' , hooriV, hoont, hoont, six of these
notes seeming to be the average in the case of two birds under obser-
vation. In different individuals the series consisted of five to seven
notes, in quality of sound likened to beating on a sodden wooden tub,
crescendo in volume, diminuendo towards the end of the series ( Grin-
nell, MS). As each note is uttered the tail of the bird is seen to be
depressed an inch or two — an index to the effort involved. The sepa-
rate series of notes in two cases under observation were uttered at
intervals of seconds as follows: 40-20-25-45-12-21-29; and again:
10-10-20-26-14-15-17-12-11-15-13-28-17-11 (Storer, MS). The
ventriloquial quality comes into evidence when one attempts to locate
the producer, a very difficult feat as a rule. The observer may circle
the tree many times with a painfully aching neck and still utterly
fail to locate the bird amid the foliage high overhead. The notes are
commonh^ supposed to be produced by inflating and exhausting the
glandular sacs on the sides of the neck, which are covered by un-
feathered yellow skin. We think it likely that, in fact, these sacs
serve only as resonators, being kept contiiuuilly inflated, while the
air producing the sound passes to and from the lungs along the

SIEERA GROUSE 549

regular air passages. Belding (1879, p. 438) says that when alarmed
in a tree the birds utter a note resembling the syllables kuk, kuk.
W. P. Taylor (MS), and other observers, report that females with
young are wont to cluck and cackle, showing anxiety by restless actions,
sometimes even flying repeatedly at the intruder.

The nesting season of this species extends from about the middle
of May to the latter part of June. The earliest instance of nesting
in California as far as known to the authors is May 14, 1902, at
Denison Springs, Lake County, six miles north of Clear Lake, where
a set of seven slightly incubated eggs was taken (Mus. Vert. Zool.),
A downy young taken July 8, 1911, on the North Fork of Coffee
Creek, Trinity County (Mus. Vert. Zool.), altitude 4,500 feet, was
not much over a week old, which would indicate that the brood of
which it was a member hatched about the first of July. Our present
information does not indicate that a great difference in the time of
nesting is caused by variations in elevation or latitude, although it
is possible that the southern birds nest slightly earlier.

The nest is usually situated in a protected situation on a well
drained dry hillside. The shelter of a small tree or slightly over-
hanging rock or log is often sought. The nest proper consists of a
slight depression in the ground, sparingly lined with dry grasses,
leaves, twigs, and often with feathers from the female. A nest found
by Swarth (Mus. Vert. Zool.) June 9. 1912, in Onion Valley, 8,500
feet altitude. Sierra Nevada, Inyo County, was situated about three
hundred feet above the canon stream, on a hillside covered with
manzanita and chinquapin but destitute of any large timber. It
was placed on the bare ground on the north side of a slightly over-
hanging rock where there was a narrow strip of bare ground between
the rock and the nearest brush. The nest cavity was a slight depres-
sion, scantily lined with dry twigs and feathers. The nest at Deni-
son Springs, Lake County (see above), was a slight hollow under a
young pine shoot and lined only with a few feathers.

The Sierra Grouse lays from five to seven eggs, rather less than
its northern relative, the Sooty Grouse, which as Dawson (1909, p.
571) says, usually lays from six to twelve eggs while as many as six-
teen have been recorded in a single nest. The eggs of the Sierra Grouse
measure, in inches, 1.96 to 2.14 by 1.34 to 1.45 and average 2.03 by
1.39 (two sets, twelve eggs, from California). The ground-color is
pale creamy buff, and the surface is marked with dots and round
spots of reddish brown, usually very small and uniformly distributed,
but at times larger and more unevenly grouped. The large size of the
eggs, their fine pattern of markings, and the type of country in
which they are found, make their identification easy. There is no
other species of bird nesting in similar situations 'in the Sierras whose

550 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOBNIA

eggs could be confused with those of the Grouse. Incubation prob-
ably lasts about three weeks, judging from the dates for fresh eggs
and newly hatched j^oung.

John Muir (1901, pp. 217-218) relates that he has seen broods of
young in the Sierras running beneath the firs in June.

On the approach of danger, the mother Avith a peculiar cry warns the lielpless
midgets to scatter and hide beneath leaves and twigs, and even in plain open
places it is almost impossible to discover them. In the meanwhile the mother
feigns lameness, throws herself at your feet, kicks and gasps and tiutters, to draw
your attention from the chicks. The young are generally able to fly about the
middle of July; but even after they can fly well they are usually advised to run
and hide and lie still, no matter how closely approached, while the mother goes on
mth her . . . acting. . . . Sometimes, however, . . . she tells them to take "wing;
and up and away in a blurry birr and whir they scatter to all points of the com-
pass . . . dropping cunningly out of sight three or four hundred yards off, and
keeping quiet until called. . . .

While there is no actual migration in the case of the Sierra Grouse,
a vertical movement is apparent just folloM'ing the breeding season,
with a complementary return upon the advent of winter. The males
work up the mountains toward the timber line rather early and are
followed by the females with their broods later on, say after the first
of August. Belding (1879, p. 438) says that in late September it
is difficult to find the grouse in locations where they are common
earlier in the year. He attributes this to a vertical migration or in
part, perhaps, to their taking to the denser conifers (such as the red
fir and alpine hemlock).

The vegetable food of the Sierra Grouse has been fairly well
determined by Belding (1892&, pp. 232-233) who dissected many
stomachs of specimens shot by him in the central Sierra Nevada,
more than twenty years ago. The following is a synopsis of his
findings with the scientific names of the plants revised to accord with
present nomenclature (Hall and Hall, 1912). The thimble berry
{Ruhus parviflorus) appears to be the favorite article of diet, and
next to this the service berry {Amelanchier alnifolia). Several kinds
of wild currants and gooseberries (Rihes) are taken, as well as red
elderberry (Samhvcus racemosa). green manzanita (Arcfostaphylos
patula), and dwarf manzanita {A. iicvadcnsis), dwarf twinberry
(Lonicera ronjugialis), Sierra bilberry {Vaccinium occidentale),
mountain ash (Pints occidentalis), lupine (Lupinus sp.), false sun-
flower (Wyethia mollis), "caraway {Glycosoma)^\ and mitrewort
(Mitella hreweri). Acorns of the huckleberry oak (Quercus vaccini-
folia) are sometimes eaten. "After the young grouse are hatched
the mother bird takes them to alder and willow thickets where they
find seclusion and whter. Here they also find some insect food (which

SIEEBA GEOUSE 551

seems to be very necessary to j^ouiig birds of most species), and a
species of native red clover, the green leaves and heads of which
supply them, for a time, with nearly all the food they require. . . .
About the middle of August the females, with their broods, begin
to change their haunts and range higher in the mountains, and then
feed partly on tlie foliage of fir trees {Abies concolor and magnifica) ",
and alpine hemlock {Tsuga mertensiana), "the latter being appar-
ently preferred. The old males feed upon the foliage of these coni-
fers nearly all the year and during the winter when everything is
covered with snow all grouse must subsist upon them. . . .

"Some years, late summer frosts destroy the berry and seed crops
and then the grouse are limited to a diet of a few kinds of vegetable
food, grasshoppers and other insects. One such year, during Sep-
tember," they were found "feeding almost exclusively on the fallen
dried male flowers of the yellow pine (Piuits ponderosa)."

Belding's last observation is fully substantiated by our own find-
ings in the Mount Whitney region, Avhere in September, 1911, the
grouse at 11,000 feet altitude were found to have fed extensively on
the pollen cones of the foxtail pine (Pinus halfouriana) . In another
instance the crop of an old male taken near timber line at the head
of Warren Fork of Leevining Creek, Mono County, September 26,
1915, was found by us to contain 1,520 needle-tips of the lodgepole
pine (Pinus murrayana) . The bitten-oft' ends varied from one-fourth
to one inch in length, and there were also a few fragments of very
young pistillate cones. The bill of the bird was smeared with pitch.
The crop of an adult female which had just been killed by some species
of hawk at Walker Lake, Mono County, September 10, 1915, was
found to contain eleven ripe rose hips, arid the gizzard was filled with
the hard seeds of the rose together with quartz grains. Some Sooty
Grouse killed near Kuntz, Trinity County, in late September, 1910,
contained madrone berries and fir needles (Dixon, MS).

Because of their high mountain habitat the grouse conflict but
little Avith any agricultural enterprise of man. Locally, in the moun-
tains of Trinity County, the birds occasionally^ prove destructive in
August when they come down and feed about the edges of clearings.
A farmer in that region complained that the grouse were so abundant
around his ranch as to injure the young grain (Kellogg, 1916, p. 380).
In general, however, it may be said that man's chief interest in the
grouse arises from the bird's value to him for sport and food.

The best grouse hunting is afforded when the birds come out on the
edges of clearings in the early morning. Then the hunter who can
shoot quickl}^ will drop the birds as they rise in their rapid yet
straightaway flight. AATien they take to the trees hunting is more
difficult. C. H. Merriam says (1899, p. Ill) that this species, unlike

552 GAME BIEDS OF CALIF OMNIA

other grouse when treed, walks about carefully on the tops of the
branches, keeping on the opposite side of the tree to the hunter and
making the securing of specimens rather difficult. Cooper (1870a,
pp. 526-528) agrees with other writers in stating that grouse as a
rule remain perfectly motionless and that it is only by careful search-
ing that tlieir post may be discovered. Often when started from trees
on ridges, the birds will dash precipitately down into the cafion far
below, gliding on set wings till lost to sight among the forest trees.

By the first of September the young are almost full grown and
are then tender of flesh, which is white, and are considered excellent
for the table. The flesh of old birds is coarser and liable to be strongly
flavored.

Writing in 1870 Cooper (loc. cit.) said that the grouse were often
brought to market (probably meaning San Francisco) from the
vicinity of Napa. Doubtless they were also supplied to the dealers
from other localities as well. Now they are, of course, pursued only
for the use of the hunter himself. Their limited and rather inacces-
sible range has probably been the greatest factor in enabling the
birds to maintain their numbers in California. Unless conditions
change in a way not now conceivable, the Sierra and Sooty grouse
will continue for all time to be interesting and important elements
in our game resources.

Sooty Grouse

Dendragapiis ohscunis fuliginosus (Ridgway)

Description — Essentially the same as the Sierra Grouse (Dendragapus oh-
scurus sierrae), but adult male slightly darker in general tone above and below,
and with less white on chin and throat; adult female, juvenile, and natal plu-
mages similar to those in sierrae, but prevalent tone of coloration more warmly
brown, approaching rusty.

Marks for field identification — See under Sierra Grouse.

General distribution — Northwest coast region of North America, from the
Sitkan district of southeastern Alaska south into northwestern California.

Distribution in California — Fairly common resident locally in the semi-
humid northwestern corner of the state (chiefly in the Douglas fir belt interiorly
from the redwoods), east and south at least as far as Hayfork and Kuntz,
Trinity County; probably also to Seaview, near mouth of Russian River, in
Sonoma County (Grinnell, 1915, p. 60).

Oregon Ruffed Grouse
Bonasa umbellus sabini (Douglas)

Other names — Oregon Grouse; Wood Plieasant (Del Norte County); Bonasa
umheUus ; Bonasa sahinii; Tetrao sahini.

Description — Adults, 'both sexes: Top and sides of head mixed black and
brown, with grayish feather tippings ; feathers of crown elongated and pointed,

OEEGON BUFFED GBOUSE 553

forming a crest; eyelids yellowish; a series of slender, elongated black and
brown f eatliers over ear region ; sides of chin scaled with black and buffy white ;
middle of chin, and throat, buff; bill horn yellow; rest of upper surface, including
wings (except primaries) and tail, richly variegated with reddish bro^v^l, gray,
black, and buffy white, the first named color predominating; the pattern includ-
ing bars, stripes, and spots of various shapes, the whole subdued in effect by an
extensive vermiculation; broad subtermiual band across tail, brownish black; pi"i-
mary wing feathers blackish brown, outer webs spotted with buff; lining and
under surface of wing chiefly gi-ayish brow^l; band across upper breast, deep
reddish brown becoming darker at sides; a shiny black (sometimes partly brown)
ruff of soft broad feathers on each side of lower neck, overlapping bend of Aving;
feathers of lower breast and rest of under surface, buff, marked with bauds of
brown and tipj>ed with white, the whole producing an interruptedly barred appear-
ance; feathering on lower part of leg (tarsus), ashy brown; feet (dried) yellow-
ish brown and dusky ; females differing from males only in somewhat lesser devel-
opment of ruff at sides of neck. Total length (both sexes) "15.50-19.00"
inches (394-482 mm.) (Kidg^vay, 1900, p. 197). Males: Folded vnng 6.73-7.52
(171-191); bill along culmen 0.58-0.68 (14.7-17.3); tarsus, 1.66-1.79 (42.0-45.4)
(nine specimens from California and Vancouver Island). Females: Folded wing
7.01-7.29 (178-185); bill along culmen 0.62-0.67 (15.8-17.1); tarsus 1.58-1.73
(40.1-44.0) (three specimens from California and Vancouver Island). Juvenile
plumage: Top of head chiefly broAvnish black with narrow light brown feather
edgings; chin and throat whitish; back, wing coverts and some of tertials, chiefly
blackish, with shaft streaks of buffy yellow, and finely variegated with dark cin-
namon brown; rump finely barred with dull cinnamon and blackish; tail barred
with black, light brown and gray ; primaries blackish brown edged with dull cin-
namon; feathers of breast light cinnamon brown with terminal black spots and
white shafts; sides and flanks coarsely marked Avith black, buff" and A\iiite ; belly
barred Avith blackish broAvn and dull AA'hite ; under tail coverts dull buff ; leg but
scantily clothed Avith dull Avhite feathers. Natal lAumage: Top and sides of head
bright cinnamon broAvn, darkest above ; eyelids narroAvly, and ear region broadly,
marked with black; back chiefly cinnamon brown, darkest along mid-line; under
Surface yelloAvish Avhite, AA-ith a buffy suffusion across chest.

Marks for field identification — Moderately large size (smaller than Sierra
or Dusky Grouse), general reddish broAvn coloration, dark band near end of tail,
and conspicuous ruff of black or deep broAATi feathers on either side of neck.

Voice- — (Of eastern subspecies) in adult, a series of vocal clucks and calls;
in female Avith young, squeals, much like those of a rabbit (Forbush, 1912, p. 377).
There is also a characteristic "drumming" by the male, caused by rapid
beating of the wings.

Nest — On ground, often under a spruce tree or similar shelter; a slight
depression in the surface, lined with grasses, leaA'es, needles, and feathers (authors).

Eggs- — 6 to 13, roundly ovate, measuring in inches, 1.50 to 1.73 by 1.14 to 1.24
(in millimeters, 38.0 to 44.0 by 29.0 to 31.5), and averaging 1.62 by 1.20 (41.0 by
30.5) ; ground-color A'arying from milky white to pinkish buff; some immaculate,
but usually marked rather sparingly though uniformly Avith small romided dots
ranging in color from reddish broAvn to pale drab (Bendire, 1892, pp. 63, 69, refer-
ring to the several races of Euffed Grouse).

General distribution — Of the Kuffed Grouse and its A-arious subspecies: The
wooded regions of Alaska and Canada south to California, Colorado, Kansas,
Tennessee, and, in the Alleghenies, to Georgia ; of the Oregon Euffed Grouse
(sabini) : Coast ranges from Vancouver Island to Humboldt County, California
(modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, pp. 139, 140).

554 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOHNIA

DiSTKiBUTiON IN CALIFORNIA — Fairly common locally in the denser humid
forests of the northwestern corner of the state, south to the vicinity of Humboldt
Bay, and cast to the Siskiyou Mountains.

The Oregon Ruffed Grouse, a close relative of the Ruffed Grouse
that occurs in other parts of North America, is, unfortunately for
sportsmen, not widely distributed in California. Naturalists and
hunters who know this fine game bird in other parts of the country
might well wish that its distribution here were more extensive. The
record of southernmost occurrence within the state is for Humboldt
Bay (C. H. Townsend, 1886, p. 491), while eastwardly on the Oregon
boundary it ranges only to the Siskiyou Mountains (Anderson and
Grinnell, 1903, pp. 6-7). So far as known it is non-migratory and
breeds throughout its range. In California this grouse is an inhabitant
of rather dense coniferous forests, such as often grow in caiion bottoms,
but is chiefly a ground dweller, rarelj^ found in the trees themselves.
But in the northern part of its range, namely, in Oregon and Wash-
ington, it often affects more open country.

In size the Oregon Ruft'ed Grouse most closely resembles the
Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse which formerly ranged into north-
eastern California. It is decidedly smaller than the Sierra or Dusky
Grouse, and the Sage-hen, yet much larger than any of our species
of quail. The complicated pattern of markings, with rich reddish
brown coloration predominating, the black-banded tail, and the black
or deep brown ruffs of broad feathers on the shoulders are, in com-
bination, conclusive field marks.

In the Siskiyou Mountains, near the Oregon line, the people of
the region claim that it is to be seen exclusively on the ground or on
logs, usually in groves of small Douglas spruce, such as gi-ow near
or in the caiion bottoms (Anderson and Grinnell, loc. cit.). When
frightened, it flushes with a rapid, direct flight, almost always taking
pains to place as soon as possible some obstacle such as a tree between
itself and the observer. In some instances, the birds alight in trees
and there, despite the advantage of their wonderfully protective
coloration, they make themselves conspicuous by moving about. The
fact that they so often haunt dense woods makes wing shooting almost
impossible, and one must shoot at them as they move about after
alighting in the trees, or else return with an empty bag.

These grouse are never seen in large bands. In the spring, ])airs
can be seen together, and later in the year the females Avith their
broods. After the young are full grown the family is sometimes
joined by the male, but the latter is rarely found witli his mate wlien
she has eggs or chicks. Neither do the males band together as is
sometimes the case with the Sierra Grouse ; they are usually found
singly.

OEEGON RUFFED GROUSE 555

The male Ruffed Grouse has no distinctive call-notes such as
charai'terize manj^ of our species of game birds. Instead it has a
mechanical method of communication, usually spoken of as "drum-
ming." This sound is most often heard during the late winter and
early spring months, though there is a notable resumption of the
performance in the autumn. Its primary use is probably to attract the
females, for it is most frequently repeated in the mating season.

Tlie cock Grouse usually selects a mossy log, near some open hedge, clearing,
or woods road, and partly screened by bushes, where he can see and not be seen.
When about to drum he erects his neck feathers, spreads his tail, and, with droop-
ing wings, steps ■with a jerking motion along the log for some distance each way
from his dnimming place, walking back and forth several times and looking
sharply in every direction ; then, standing crosswise, he stretches himself to his
fullest height and delivers the blows Avith his wings fully upon his sides, his wings
being several inches clear from the log. After drumming he settles quietly down,
into a sitting posture, and remains silently listening for five or ten minutes, when,
if no cause for alarm is discovered, he repeats the process.

The drumming place is resorted to by the male from year to year [and may
sometimes be worn smooth as a result]. It may be a log, a rock, an old stump,
or when such are not available, a small hillock is made to ansAver the purpose
equally as well. While this drumming can not be considered a love note, as it
may be heard almost every month in the year, and sometimes in the night as well
as in the daytime, yet it nmst undoubtedly have some attraction for the female,
and I think is performed as a sign of bodily vigor [and] to notify her of his
whereabouts. Occasionally it causes a jealous rival to put in an appearance also,
when a rough-and-tumble fight ensues. The female is seldom seen near the
drumming place (Bendire, 1892, p. 61, writing of the eastern umhellus).

Dawson (1909, p. 588) says the sound made by a drumming grouse
closely resembles the syllables hump-hump-hump, humpcrrvrrrr. The
wing-beats commence slowly and end in an exceedingly rapid whirr.
The quality of the sound is such that it carries far and yet gives
no notion of exact distance.

During most of the year the Ruffed Grouse roosts at night in trees,
but often during the winter months where there is considerable snow
on the ground the birds pass the nights under the snow. They
"dive'' into the snow from a tree, leaving no track on the surround-
ing surface. In extremely cold weather they are reluctant to leave
such a warm and comfortable shelter and are said sometimes to emerge
rather late in the morning, or in the event of severe storms to remain
under the surface for a day or more. If a crust forms on the snow
as a result of the temperature falling rapidly after a thaw the grouse
may be imprisoned and be unable to break through and thereafter
die from starvation. But this sort of an accident probably rarely
happens in California.

There is but one know^n record of the nesting of the Oregon Ruffed
Grouse in California, although special search in the proper localities

55 G GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

would doubtless bring adequate data. W. K. Fisher (19026, p. 132)
found a brood of downy chicks in heavy redwood forest north of
Mad River, Humboldt County, June 11, 1899. In the northern part
of its range this race begins to nest about the middle of April and
the season continues until some time in June. The earliest set
recorded was taken on April 14, and a set (probably a second lay-
ing) was secured June 28, 1876, on Vancouver Island (Bendire, 1892,
p. 69).

The nest is usually placed in a sheltered situation, as under a
spruce or maple, or at the side of a fallen log or slightly overhanging
rock. A slight depression is scratched out and lined with grasses,
leaves, needles, or twigs ; sometimes a few feathers from the female
are added. Dawson (1909, p. 589) says that an average clutch of
eggs numbers eight or ten. Bendire (1892, p. 69) states that the eggs
number anywhere from seven to thirteen but that the eggs of the set
Avliich he thought was of a second laying numbered only six. The
eggs are roundly ovate, thus proportionately shorter than the eggs
of the domestic fowl. They measure in inches. 1.50 to 1.73 by 1.14 to
1.24 and average 1.62 by 1.20 (twenty eggs). The ground color is
milky white to pinkish buff, and about half the eggs are rather spar-
ingly but uniformly marked with small rounded spots varying in color
from reddish brown to pale drab (Bendire, 1892, p. 63, referring to
the several races of the Ruffed Grouse). From the eggs of the Sierra
and Sooty grouse those of this species differ chiefly in size, being
decidedly smaller.

After mating, the female alone attends to incubation and to rear-
ing of the chicks. Some observers believe this species to be polyga-
mous, one male serving several females and a single mating being
sufficient for a clutch. While the set is being laid, any interference
Avith the nest will cause the female to desert, and the same is true
during the early part of the period of incubation. Later, however,
she is not so easily disturbed. Often, if she be flushed directly from
the nest, the surrounding leaves and other debris are swept over the
eggs, and, if slie has time, she will take pains to cover them herself
with material before quitting the vicinity. If a dog or a fox or other
predacious animal approaches the nest she will artfully lead away
the intruder a sufficient distance to save the eggs, using the lameness
and broken wing ruses most skillfully. When the chicks have hatched,
she will even go out to meet an intruder, to toll him away from the
brood. And in the case of a person she will often fly up toward his
body or face, presenting an altogether forbidding front. An obser-
vation of Swarth's (1912. p. 22) made on Vancouver Island, substan-
tiates the above general statements: "At Beaver Creek broods of
downy young began to appear during the second week in June, and

OF EG ox BUFFED GFOUSE 557

were seen daily thereafter. . . . The old birds were fearless in
defense of their broods, and often the first intimation of the proximity
of a grouse family was the sudden onslaught of the perturbed mother,
who did not hesitate to hurl herself at any intruder, while her brood
effaced themselves in the underbrush. Very young birds usually lay
perfectly still when alarmed, and, if visible, suffered themselves to
be picked up, but as soon as their wings could support them they flew
to some distance when startled."

The chicks, in observed cases, all hatch out at practically the
same time, and as their feathers dry very rapidly, they are able to
run about and forage independently almost from the start. If danger
seems imminent a single note of warning from the mother bird causes
the chicks to take to the best available shelter, as under leaves; they
remain perfectly quiet, and thereby become, by reason of their con-
cealing coloration, extremely difficult to find. For a time the mother
broods them at night under her body but the young gain their wing
quills rapidl.y and even when but a week old are able to fly short
distances ; thenceforth they always roost for tlie night and seek safety
in trees. The brood stays with the mother bird well into, if not
through, the first Avinter. In some instances the male parent has been
known to join his family (Forbush, 1913, pp. 268-271).

According to Judd (1905, pp. 29-38) the food of the Ruffed
Grouse ( the species as a whole) is quite varied. The vegetable mate-
rial comprises about 89 per cent of the total, and the animal content
11 per cent, the latter being chiefly insects. The vegetable material
includes about 12 per cent seeds, 28 per cent fruit, and 48 per cent
leaves and buds, while the animal food is chiefly grasshoppers, cater-
pillars and beetles, the latter being most abundantly represented. On
Vancouver Island, Swarth (1912, pp. 22-23) says that the stomachs
and crops examined contained some berries but were filled for the
most part wath fern leaves and clover. One young bird had fed
entirely on small snails, having swallowed them whole.

A specimen of the Oregon Ruffed Grouse taken near Requa, Del
Norte County, November 3, 1915, and now in the collection of the
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology held the following materials in its
crop and gizzard: Berries and seeds of the madroiia {Arhutus men-
ziesii), 5 per cent; stems and leaves of thimbleberry {Riibus parvi-
florus), 65 per cent; stems and leaves of dogwood {Cornus sp.), 20
per cent; unidentified leaf-stems and twigs, 10 per cent. Identification
of the leaves and stems was made for us by Miss Anna ]\I. Lute of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture.

The enemies of the Ruffed Grouse are many. Certain hawks and
owls, skunks, mink, wildcats and foxes are the chief offenders in this
respect, though man himself stands out prominently. A marked

558 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOENIA

decrease in the number of Kuffed Grouse occurring in the eastern
part of the United States in 1907 was attributed by Forbush (1912,
pp. 380-382) and other observers to an unusual flight of Goshawks,
a raptorial species notably destructive to game birds. Of forty-eight
Goshawks dissected by one firm of taxidermists, twenty-eight had
remains of Ruffed Grouse in their stomachs; in another case thirteen
grouse were known to have been destroyed by hawks in one locality.
Another important agent in the destruction of Ruffed Grouse is fire,
when it sweeps brushy and forested areas. Sitting birds will often
remain on the nest until injured or even killed by the flames.

C. F. Hodge (Anonymous, 1914) reports marked success in arti-
ficially rearing Ruffed Grouse. The young hatch readily and can be
raised with as much success as some domestic fowls. The adult birds
have to be kept in separate pens to prevent them from damaging one
another, especially at mating time ; and the species is, moreover, sub-
ject to one or two diseases whicli may give some trouble. On the
whole, artificial propagation in the case of this species would seem
unusually promising of satisfactory results.

Because of its forest habitat it is probable that the Oregon Ruffed
Grouse will not markedly decrease in numbers within its restricted
range in northern California, at least as long as the forests remain.
Nevertheless its condition as to numbers should receive careful con-
sideration and any marked reduction be compensated for by closing
the hunting season for a period, or by other appropriate means. The
matter of its artificial propagation should also be thoroughly investi-
gated and, if feasible under Californian conditions, encouraged. It
would seem much more desirable to increase the numbers and extent
of range of our native game birds such as the Ruffed Grouse than to
attempt to introduce and acclimatize eastern or foreign species.

Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse
Pedioecetes phasianellus columhianus (Ord)

Other names — Prairie Chicken; Columbia Sharp-tail; Southern Sharp-tailed
Grouse; Pedioecetes coJumhianus ; Tetrao pliasiancllus ; Tetrao columhianus.

Description — Adults, both sexes: Top of head and hind neck, mixed blackish
brown, pale clay-color and ashy -white; a pointed crest, rising from crown, brown-
ish black with buffy feather edgings; broad stripe at side of upper mandible,
running over eye and ear region, buffy white; naked comb over each eye, bright
yellow; narrow stripe from corner of mouth running below eye and through ear
region, brownish black; lower side of head and chin, pale cinnamon or buffy,
scatteringly streaked with brown ; bill dark olive, basal half of lower mandible
pearl gray; iris light brown; upper surface of body from hind neck to upper tail
coverts, mixed cinnamon, i)ale buff and brownish black, in an interruptedly barred
pattern and somewhat vormiculated, the general tone lightest on lower back and

COLUMBIAX SlIARP-TAILEB GBOVSE 559

upper tail coverts; scajmlars marked with Avhite wedges; tail sliarply pointed, the
middle tail feathers being about an inch longer than the rest and marked with
bro^\'nish black and buffy white; rest of tail feathers chiefly white; outer surface
of closed wing irregularly marked with clay color, or pale cinnamon, and bro"\vn,
many of the feathers Avith sharply contrasted white spots at ends; flight feathers
and primary coverts dull brown, spotted with wliite on outer Avebs; margin and
forward lining of wing mixed white and dull brown; rest of lining and axillars,
white ; under surfaces of flight feathers, pale brown ; under surface of body white,
with bold, V-shaped marks of broA^ii paralleling margins of feathers; markings
heaviest on lower breast; chest, sides and flanks, barred with dark brown,
clay color and white; belly and lower tail coverts almost or wholly immaculate;
feathering of legs and feet grayish brown ; toes and horny fringes gray ; nails
blackish. Total length "15.00-19.00" inches (381-482 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900,
p. 203); folded wing 7.68-8.47 (195-215); bill along culmen 0.57-0.68 (14.5-
17.4); tarsus 1.52-1.85 (38.7-47.0) (four specimens, from British Columbia,
Alberta and Colorado). Juvenile plumage: Top of head mixed black and light
rusty brown ; stripe from side of bill through eye, yellowish white ; another stripe
beloAV eye, mixed black and yellowish brown ; chin and fore-throat, white ; whole
upper surface largely yelloAvish brown, with irregular black patches on the feathers
and white shaft streaks; outer surface of closed wing grayish brown, spotted with
dull white ; feathers of breast, sides and flanks, pale yellowish broA\Ti, with small
black spots and white shaft streaks; belly white; feathers on tarsus pale buff.
Natal pJumar/e : Ground color of upper surface straw yellow becoming buffy
along middle line, the whole boldly spotted with black; whole lower surface
deep straw yellow, without markings; bill horn color; feet (dried) yellow.

Marks for field identification — Medium size (much smaller than Sierra
Grouse and Sage-hen), unhanded, pointed tail (whence the name Sharp-tail),
mixed color pattern, of pale effect, on upper surface, and pure white ground of
under surface.

A'oiCE — A loud lul-liil-tid-, Avhen startled (Cooper, 1870fl, p. 533) ; males in
the spring have a loud cackling note (A'ernon Bailey in Bailey, 1902, p. 132).

Xest — -On prairie land in tuft of grass or near a small hillock; a slight de-
pression with sparse lining of grass-stalks and root-fibres (Baird, Brewer and
Ridgway, 1874, III, p. 438).

Eggs — 10 to 15, short ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 1.54 to 1.83 by
1.22 to 1.36 (in millimeters, 39.0 to 46.5 by 31.0 to 34.5), and averaging 1.70 by
1.26 (43.0 by 32.0) ; creamy buff to pale olive bro^vn, unmarked, or else finely
dotted vrith reddish broAvn (Bendire, 1892, p. 101).

General distribution — Of all races of the Sharp-tailed Grouse: Central and
western Xorth America from central Alaska and Ungava south to Illinois and
northeastern California; of the Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse (subspecies
columbianus) : central British Columbia and central Alberta, south to northeastern
California, Utah, and central Colorado (A. O. U. Check -list, 1910, p. 144).

Distribution in CALiFORNiA^Formerly common in the Modoc region. Re-
corded from Canoe Creek [near Cassel, northeastern Shasta County] and upper
Pit River (Newberry, 1857, p. 94), and Camp Bidwell, Modoc County (Henshaw,
1880&, p. 317). No perfectly authenticated instances of occurrence mthin late
years; probably now nearly or quite extinct within the state.

The history of the Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse, as far as it
concerns California, is like that of a considerable number of North
American game and non-game birds, which were once extremely abun-

560 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOFXIA

dant and are now almost or entirely extirpated. When Newberry,
Cooper, Henshaw and other early naturalists were making observa-
tions upon the fanna of California, previous to 1880, they found this
species numerous in tlie plateau region northeast of the crest of the
Sierra-Cascade range. Since then, man's occupancy of that territory,
and uncontrolled levy upon its birds for food or sport, has resulted in
the apparently complete disappearance of this species.

"Writing of the Sharp-tailed Grouse in 1857 (p. 94) , Newberry said :

Coming north from San Francisco, we first found it on a beautiful prairie
near Canoe creek [near Cassel, Shasta County], about fifty miles northeast of
Fort Reading; subsequently, after passing the mountain cliain which forms the
upper canon of Pit River, we came into a level, grass-covered plain, through which
the Avillow-bordered river flows in a sinuous course like a brook through a meadow
[probably near Lookout, Modoc County]. On this plain were great numbers of
birds of various kinds, and so many of the sharp-tailed grouse, that, for two or
three days, they afforded us fine sport and an abundance of excellent food. We
found them again about the Klamath lakes. . . .

In 1879 Henshaw (1880&, p. 317) wrote: "About Camp Bidwell
[Modoc County], Cal., the 'sharp-tails' are sutSciently numerous to
afford excellent shooting, and good bags may be made there. ' ' Cooper
(1870cf, p. 533) believed that the species ranged as far south as lati-
tude 39° (Lake Tahoe), but was not certain of this; while Bendire
(1892, p. 99) had record of its occurrence on the "eastern slopes of
the Siskiyou Mountains." Nothing else has to our knowledge been
printed concerning this grouse in California. Correspondence was
undertaken by us with local residents of the northeastern section of
the state, and some information obtained as to its more recent status.

Mr. Chas. D. Meissner, Assistant Forest Ranger at Alturas, reports
(in letter dated January 18, 1916) that a pair of "Prairie Chickens"
was seen by him during April and Maj^, 1915, near Timbered Moun-
tain, central Modoc County. The behavior of the birds indicated that
they were nesting. They were always to be found in a certain locality,
open grassy country with but little sagebrush. The cock and the
hen were both "much smaller than the Sage Hen and when flushed
flew more rapidly and cackled more sharply but sailed the same."

Mr. Claude R. Brown, residing at Lookout. Modoc County. Avrites
us (under date February 25, 1916) that lie had not seen any "Prairie
Chickens" himself for several years, but that a friend had .seen two
during the fall of 1915 on the ranch of William Kramer about one
mile northeast of Lookout. "At one time ])le.ntiful, flocks of fifty
or more being often seen, the birds have gradually diminished until
almost extinct."

Mr. W. S. Criss, also of Lookout, writes us (under date February
25, 1916) that there were many "little brown Praii'ie Chickens" on

COLUMBIAN SHABP-TAILED GEOUSE 561

his ranch up to about fifteen years previously. They were at one
time "so thick one could not walk tli rough the fields without scaring
up several bunches." The boys killed them off until finally (about
1901) but one pair was left. Six young were raised that last year,
but the entire family was later wiped out.

Deputy Fisli and Game Commissioner Frank P. Cady, of Susan-
ville, writes us (under date February 2, 1916) that "about 15 years
ago there were forty or fifty Prairie Chickens" on the ranch of Mr.
^IcKensie "at the mouth of Juniper Creek, Lassen County." At that
time no shooting was allowed on the ranch ; but after the death of
Mr. ]\IcKensie. shooting was resumed. Tlie birds had all disappeared
by about 1906.

It will be noted from the above testimony that the disappearance
of this bird can be attributed to no other cause than to its incessant
pursuit by man. As long as a single bird remained hunting per-
sisted. ^Moreover the fact that this grouse prefers grassj' localities,
just such as are selected for ranch sites, indicates another of the
factors that led to its extermination.

From other grouse and quail this species is distinguishable by
medium size, its unhanded, pointed tail (whence the name Sharp-tailed
Grouse), its mixed color pattern, of pale effect, on the upper surface,
and the white under surface of the body with bold V-shaped brown
markings. The Oregon Ruffed, Sooty and Sierra grouses, all have
square or slightly rounded tails marked with broad bands near the
ends ; furthermore these species all inhabit forested country almost
exclusively, while the Sharp-tail is essentially a bird of the prairie.
The Sage-hen differs strikingly from the Sharp-tail in being of much
larger size and in having a large black area on the belly. The present
species is often called "Prairie Chicken," but that name properly
belongs to a bird {Tympanuchns aniericanus) which does not range
west of the eastern border of the Rocky Mountains and which differs
from the Sharp-tail in being conspicuously barred on the under sur-
face, and in bearing long blackish tufts of feathers on each side of
the neck.

The Sharp-tailed Grouse inhabits dry brushy or bunch-grass
prairie land, but it is sometimes found on hillsides and even occa-
sionally among small trees, though never in heavy timber. At Fort
Klamath, Oregon, the species was noted by Bendire in rather swampy
land, a departure from its usual preference. In winter the birds
usually band together wherever they are at all numerous. As many
as two hundred have occasionally in former years been observed in
a single flock. The spring, however, sees them broken into smaller
assemblages which then take part in the "dancing" that accompanies
mating.

562 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

Tliough tlic grouse usually keep well hidden in suninxer, in winter when their
plumage lias become dense and their feet and legs rabbit-like, they may be seen
crossing the fields on top of the snow or getting their breakfast of buds from the
tops of the trees and tall bushes. When the weather is cold and snow deep and
soft they often roost under the snow like the ruffed grouse, and come out in the
morning fifteen or twenty feet from where they entered the white surface at night
(V. Bailey, in Bailey, 1902, p. 132).

Cameron (1907, pp. 256-258) thus describes the "dancing" of
the Prairie Sharp-tailed Grouse (a subspecies closely related to the
Columbian). On April 18 the ball was opened by a single male mak-
ing a run across an open space as fast as he could move his legs, the
tail being held stiffly raised over the back, while the wings dragged
so that a large white area was exposed behind. The vivid yellow
fringe above each eye was erected and all of the feathers on the neck
stood on end so that the inflated, underlying pink-skinned sac was
disclosed. At the same time the head was carried so low as almost
to touch the ground, giving the impression (with the raised tail)
that the bird was running backwards. The bird returned at full
speed whereupon another male came forward to meet him. Both
advanced slowly with vibrating tails. "When they met they stood
with wing quills quivering, their eyes then being closed. After per-
haps a minute one bird would take a peep at the other, and seeing him
still quiescent would resume an upright and graceful carriage and
quietly steal away. The second bird would presently awake — then
also quietly depart. Meanwhile the remaining males took up the
running until all were participating. After an hour or so the females
commenced to make short runs, but they did not display air sacs as
did the males. Later on, birds were to be seen at the same moment
in all stages of the dance. The end of the dance was, however, the
same with each pair. For about twenty minutes two birds would
squat flat on the ground with their bills almost touching; after this
they would not again enter the dance during that day. "While some
members of the flock were dancing, others concealed in the sage-
brush acted the part of spectators, and kept up an incessant coo, coo,
coo, as if to applaud. The whole affair was quite friendly without
any tendency toward combat. The dance ended for the day when
some bird unable to find a partner for running, uttered a disgusted
cluck. After this, as their periods of squatting were completed, the
birds would fly scatteringly away.

By the end of April the play of the dance was more vigorous.
"Drumming" [scraping] with the tail was louder, and crouching
more in evidence and prolonged. Also, if squatting pairs were
approached by single birds, the latter would be driven away by a
typical run on the part of one of the squatting pair. If danger in

COLUMBIAN SHABP-TAILED GROUSE 563

the form of a luiiuan iiitnidcr or a hawk threatened, the concealed
spectators by warning clucks would cause the performing birds to
stop the dance and assume normal positions.

This species nests ijiore commonly on sheltered and sunny slopes
of the grass-covered foothills than in the lower valleys and creek
bottoms. The nest is usually placed under the shelter of a bush or
clump of grass, although the variegated pattern on the back of the
female is of a nature to conceal her very effectively even if the nest
were situated in the open. A slight depression is usually made in
the soil, and this lined with grass. Sometimes the female adds feathers
from her own bod}'. The eggs range in number from ten to fifteen,
are roundly ovate, and average, in inches, about 1.70 by 1.26; extremes
of 72 eggs: 1.54 to 1.83 by 1.22 to 1.36. The ground-color is creamy
buff to pale olive brown, and the eggs are either unmarked or else
finely dotted with reddish brown. Usually the eggs are in a single
layer in the nest. Incubation lasts about twenty-one days and is
attended to by the- female exclusively, neighboring males banding
together in groups of three to five while the hens are incubating.
Authorities differ on the question of whether or not this species is
polygamous. The young are able to run about soon after being
hatched, and for some time their diet is almost exclusively of insects.
Later when the chicks have learned to fly they feed with the female
parent along creek bottoms (Bendire, 1892, pp. 99-101).

The food of the adult Sharp-tailed Grouse (all races) is chiefly
vegetable, according to the findings of Judd (1905, pp. 21-22).
Animal matter (insects) forms only about 10 per cent of the total
for the year, and comprises chiefly grasshoppers and beetles, although
caterpillars have been found in some stomachs. The principal vege-
table constituents are weed seeds, 7 per cent ; grain, 20 per cent ; fruit,
28 per cent ; leaves, buds and flowers, 31 per cent. Especially during
the winter when other kinds of food are difficult to procure do these
birds feed rather extensively on buds and leaves. Their propensity
for eating flowers is out of the ordinary, the percentage taken being
greater than in the case of any other species of North American bird.
A half pint of blossoms has been found in a single individual. The
wild rose supplies the Sharp-tail with about 17 per cent of its fruit
food, the stony-seeded hips being taken in great quantity; in places
where gravel is lacking these seeds seem to serve for grinding other
materials in the stomach.

The flesh of this species is much like that of the ' ' prairie hen, ' ' and, though
not equal to that of the dusky or ruffed grouse, was always regarded as an accept-
able addition to our bill of fare.

The bird lies close, and when flushed flies off, uttering a constantly repeated
kuck, kuck, kuck, with a steady flight and considerable swiftness. It is, how-

564 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

ever, tender, and easily killed, No. 4, and even No. 6, shot Ijeing-, if properly
directed, sure to bring them down when Avithin moderate range. The young birds,
being fat and heavy, as they fall on the g-rassy prairie scatter their feathers about
as though torn quite in pieces, giving gratifying evidence of their fitness for the
table (Newberry, 1857, p. 94). .

It is to be hoped that in the history of the Columbian Sharp-tailed
Grouse, California has learned a lesson that will result in benefit to
every other wild species within the state. Here is a magnificent game
bird, completely eliminated from our confines as a result of unre-
strained hunting. A modicum of foresight and forbearance would
■doubtless have preserved the bird as a permanent game species. Now,
only yerj extensive importations, if possible at all, could be expected
to replace the species in the territory where once it reigned. This
would certainly incur a great deal of expense and probably years of
work before hunting could be allowed ; but it is worth consideration.

Sage-hen

Centrocercus urophasianus (Bonaparte)

Other names — Sage Grouse; Sage-cock; Cock-of-the-plains; Tetrao uropha-
sianus.

Desckiption — Adult male: Whole top of head and hind neck marked in fine
transverse pattern with black, pale buff and ashy gray, the latter tone prevalent ;
line from base of bill over eye, and one beneath eye and ear region, continuing
around fore neck to meet its fellow in a V, chiefly white; side of head, chin,
throat and fore neck, mixed white and black in broken pattern, but black pre-
dominating; lower neck and fore breast, broadly white, the latter with fine lines
of black, consisting of the bare shafts of the feathers; the feathers of the breast
are notably stiff and stubby; sides of neck ornamented mth long slender black
plumes; bill black; area around nostrils densely feathered; whole of back, rump,
tail and outer surface of closed vnng variegated with black, dull white, and light
and dark shades of bro-\\ai ; the pattern on each feather consists of wavy bars
and shaft streaks ; primary flight feathers uniform dull brown ; axillars and lining
of wing white; belly solid black bordered on either side with a white stripe;
sides and flanks like back; feathers of lower tail coverts blackish brown with
broad white ends; tail feathers long and tapering to sharp points, ashy brown
beneath, with fine whitish or buffy markings; legs, feathered to toes, grayish
finely barred with broAvn; toes blackish. Adult female: similar to male, but with
black and white areas on head and neck scarcely indicated; chin and throat chiefly
whitish ; whole upper surface, of fine pattern of markings giving a grayish effect ;
breast soft-feathered, and mottled with white, brownish black and grayish brown ;
black of belly less intense, brownish ; primaries mottled along outer edges with
dull white in fine pattern ; tail feathers shorter than in male, less slender at ends.
Males: Total length "24.00-33.00" inches (609-837 mm.) (authors); folded wing
11.50-12.50 (292-317) ; bill along culnien 1.34-1.55 (34.0-39.3) ; tarsus 2.06-
2.55 (52.3-64.7) (nine specimens from California, Nevada and Wyoming).
Females: Total length "21.00" (533) (authors); folded Aving 9.80-10.20 (249-
259); bill along culmen 1.18-1.26 (30.0-32.0); tarsus 1.77-2.06 (45.0-52.3) (four

SAGE -HEN 565

specimens from California and Nevada). Males weigh as much as seven pounds
(3.17 kOograms) ; females up to five pounds (2.26 kilograms) (Coues, 1874,
p. 403). Juvenile plumage: Like that of adult female, but buflfy and brown tones
prevalent on upper surface and breast; black feathers of belly narrowly tipped
with Avliite; lower tail coverts largely Avhitish. Natal plumage: Upper surface
mixed buffy wliite and pale rusty brown, boldly mottled with black; bill black;
under surface dull white, marked with pale rusty brown on throat and chest.

M.AJtKs FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION — Very large size (larger than any other
of our grouse), long tail of slender, pointed feathers, and solidly black belly.
The cackle and the loud whir of the wings are characteristic.

Voice — A rapidly repeated scolding cluck: tuk-a-tuk; a slowly repeated deep
guttural kiik, luk, kuk, uttered as a bird flushes from the ground. Males have a
mechanical "drumming" in the spring.

Xest — A mere shallow depression under a sheltering shrub and usually not
far from a spring or stream; sometimes lined with grasses and twigs.

Eggs^ — 7 to 9 (rarely up to 17), in shape rather elongate ovate, measuring in
inches, 2.04 to 2.35 by 1.41 to 1.60 (in millimeters, 52.7 to 59.7 by 35.8 to 40.6),
and averaging 2.15 by 1.50 (54.6 by 38.1) ; ground-color grayish or greenish drab,
thickly spotted and dotted with reddish brown (Coues, 1874, p. 406; and authors).

General distribution — Resident on the sage-brush plains from interior south-
ern British Columbia, southern SaskatchcAvan, and northwestern North Dakota
south to middle eastern California, northwestern New Mexico, and northwestern
Nebraska (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 145).

Distribution in California — Fairly common resident in the sage-brush coun-
try of eastern California from vicinity of Lower Klamath Lake, northeastern
Siskiyou County (H. C. Bryant, MS), and northern Modoc County (Newberry,
1857, p. 95), south along the east base of the Sierra Nevada through Lassen
County (C. H. Townsend, 1887, p. 200), Sierra and Alpine counties (Belding,
1890, p. 19), to head of Owens River and White Mountains, in Mono County
(A. K. Fisher, 1893fl, p. 31), and northern Inyo County (E. H. Ober, MS).

Next to the wild turkey, the Sage-hen, or Sage Grouse as it is
often called, is the largest of the upland game birds found in the
United States. Full-grown males are said frequently to attain a
weight of eight pounds and females a weight of five pounds. The
species is not widely distributed in North America, it being a resi-
dent only of the arid, sage-covered plains of the west, more par-
ticularly of the Great Basin. The range of this bird reaches its east-
ern limit in western North Dakota and Nebraska, and northwestern
New Mexico, its western limit in eastern Washington and middle
eastern California, and its northern limit in southern British
Columbia east of the Cascades, and southern Saskatchewan. Within
this range the species is to be found only in and near localities where
the prevalent vegetation is the true sage-brush (Artemisia triden-
tata). Thus the bird's name, Sage-hen, has been most aptly chosen.

Within the State of California the Sage-hen also has a distribu-
tion nearly coextensive with the arid sage-covered plateau lying east
of the Sierra Nevada. The species is, according to reports of local
observers, probably most abundant in northeastern Siskiyou County

566 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA

and in Modoc Count}-, where in certain areas the birds appear to
thrive exceptionally well. From this region southward, Sage-hens
are to be found, though less commonly, in similar situations all along
the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada, through Lassen, Sierra, and
Alpine (at least formerly) counties, to the White Mountains and the
liead of Owens River valley in Mono and Inyo counties. The single
record from the Mohave River, San Bernardino County (Cooper,
1868, p. 13, and 1869, p. 188), if authentic, indicates occurrence
formerly or casually, far out of the present range of the species. In
the southernmost part of its range the Sage-hen is found at from
6,000 to 11,500 feet altitude, but in more northerly regions from
4,000 to 8,000 feet. A slight vertical migration takes place, but
otherwise the birds remain in tlie same general locality throughout
the year.

The most striking feature of this grouse is its large size. Because
of this, the noise of its wings as it rises heavily from the ground is
startling even to persons already acquainted with the bird. With the
exception of the Sharp-tailed Grouse no other member of the family
is likely to be found in the same habitat. Confusion as to its identity
is in any case practically impossible. Besides numerous other char-
acters the conspicuously black belly will furnish a final clue in
making identification certain. The white patches over the air sacs
on each side of the chest in the male are also often conspicuous
enough to show at a long distance. The males, besides being much
larger and heavier than the females, can sometimes be distinguished
by the yellow color of the bare skin showing between the parted
feathers over the inflated air sacs.

The mating season is said to begin in March and April before the
snow is off the ground. Like other grouse the Sage-hen is noted for
its peculiar mating antics. The males congregate together in open
places, or "courts," and make a great display, obviously to attract
the females. The following accounts of such performances by several
author;;, although differing in detail, furnish vivid pictures of this
extraordinary courting behavior for which the Sage-hen has become
famous.

During a long residence in Wyoming and Colorado, Mr. L. E.
Burnett became familiar with the habits of the Sage-hen, and he has
described the courting of this species as follows:

I liave heard them drum as early as December. This i)orformanco is most
often observed where hundreds of males and females have congregated together,
a custom which they have in the fall of the year. By February the males are all
drumming, but this is not continued during bad weather which closes the session
until fair weather returns. By the latter part of the month the males are in full
dress. Their protracted meetings last until the first days of May. . . . By the

SAGE -HEN 567

balmy June days, thoy liavo lost most of their frills, and the breast is dirty and
worn from rolling in the dust and stretching on the ground in birding. They are
credited with soiling the breast while drumming, but I have never observed
this to be one of the causes during my entire fifteen years with them. When
drumming they stand very erect, holding the wings away from the sides and
nearly perpendicularly, while the large loose skin of the neck is worked up,
and the head drawn in and out until the white feathers are brought to the chin.
At the same time the galls [air-sacs] are filled with air until the birds look as If
they were carrying snowballs on their shoulders. Then the skin which lies between
the galls is drawn in with a sucking movement, thus bringing the galls together
or uearl}- so. With this action the air is expelled from the throat, producing the
noise, which is hard to mimic and which resembles that of an old pump just
within hearing distance. The first sound is that of a low "punk," the next "de,"
followed by the highest, "punk punk," and is made Avithout movement of the
A\-ings. After the bird has accomplished this feat he walks away a few paces
either in a straight line or a circle, with wings down, hanging loosely, but not
grating on the ground. At times they do drag the Avings as they strut along with
tail spread and erect, though not so perpendicular as that of a turkey. Again
they Avill dance about with all the pomp of a male pigeon.

Their courts are generally in very conspicuous places, being either on some
barren flat or moraine where they may be seen from a distance. The males, year-
lings, and old are social and congregate at these places in bunches comprising
from twenty-five to a hundred or more. These birds do not mate, so far as I have
been able to learn, but the females come to these courts from all quarters at
about sundowTi or early in the morning. ... At the drumming period the males
are very jealous and many fights, some of which are quite serious, take place.
The fight consists in one bird seizing another by the head, neck, or jacket and
pulling and beating with the wings. Its duration is very brief, one or the other
giving in (Burnett, 1905, p. 103).

Cameron (1907, p. 258) speaking of the Sage-hen in Montana,
thus describes the courtship :

During the first half of April the males repair to a regular "playground," but
it is a difficult matter to observe their love antics on account of the encompassing
sage. . . . They never fought nor threatened each other but strutted or paraded
before some hens concealed in the sage bushes, and were entirely occupied with a
most grotesque rivalry. By ruffling up all their feathers, spreading their tails, and
dragging their Avings along the ground they looked much larger than they really
Avere, Avhile they produced a rattling sound Avith their quills after the manner of
turkey-cocks and peafowl. At the same time they continuously uttered a kind
of whistling challenge, and distending their necks by means of their air sacs
erected an enormous white ruff. As the playground was small the eight or nine
cocks upon it Avere in imminent danger of a collision, but for the ten minutes that
Ave Avatched them, this did not take place, nor Avere there any moments of ecstatic
oblivion for which some game birds are famous. As Avill be seen from the above
their courtship is rather a display than a ' ' play, ' ' thus differing from the per-
formance of the Sharp-tailed Grouse. . . .

According to Bond (1900, p. 326) the strutting does not involve
dragging the wings on the ground. Instead, the air-sacs of the neck
are inflated until the whole neck and breast has a balloon-like appear-

568 - GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA

ance. Tlien stooping forward the whole weight of the body is thrown
upon the distended portion and the bird slides along on the bare
ground or short grass for some distance, the performance being con-
cluded by the expulsion of the air from the sacs with a variety of
chuckling, cackling or rumbling sounds. "This performance is con-
tinued probably dailj^ during the pairing and nesting season, and of
course the feathers are worn away by the constant friction."
Coues (1874, p. 406) gives credence to the following account:

Small eminences on the banks of streams are the places usually selected for
celebrating the weddings, the time generally about sunrise. The wings of the
male are lowered, buzzing on the gTOund; the tail, spread like a fan, somewhat
erect; the bare, yellow oesophagus [air-sacs] inflated to a prodigious size — fully
half as large as his body, and, from its soft, membranous substance, being well
contrasted witli the scale-like feathers below it on the breast, and the flexible,
silky feathers on the neck, which on these occasions stand erect. In this gi-otesque
form he displays, in the presence of his intended mate, a variety of attitudes.
His love-song is a confused, prating, but not offensively disagreeable, tone —
something that we can imitate, but have difficulty in expressing — Imrr-hurr-hurr-
r-r-r-hoo, ending in a deep, hollow tone, not unlike the sound produced by blowing
into a large reed.

In Harney County, Oregon, Bendire (1892, p. 109) found Sage-
hens beginning to nest about the middle of April. One set of nine
slightly incubated eggs was taken on April 7, 1877. Fresh eggs
were found as late as June 2. But one brood is raised in a season.
Tlie nest, as currently described, is always placed on the ground in
a slight depression and under the protection of some bush. The loca-
tion usually selected in California is near some spring or small stream.
The depression used, sometimes, at least, scratched out by the bird,
is only slightl}^ lined with leaves and twigs, such as might accumulate
naturally ; not infrequently the eggs rest on the ground itself. Seven
to nine eggs are laid, occasionally ten or more, even up to seventeen
(Bendire, 1892, p. 111). In color they are light greenish drab or
pale olive buff, thickly marked with sniall roundish spots and dots of
reddish brown. In shape they resemble a small egg of the domestic
hen. Coues (1874, p. 406) states that the eggs are narrower and
more pointed than those of other American grouse. The average size
of 109 specimens in the United States National INIuseum is 2.16 by
1.48 inches. The largest egg of the series measures 2.34 by 1.55, the
the smallest 2.04 by 1.41 inches (Bendire, loc. cit.). Other authors
give the maximum as 2.35 by 1.60. Bendire (1892, p. 110) states
that incubation lasts about twenty-two days and that the males
keep to themselves and take no part in this work.

The young are able to take care of themselves immediately after
hatching, and within a short time are able to fly. Like other members
of the family they are adepts at hiding. At night a covey roosts in

SAGE -HEN 569

a circle on the ground after the maimer of the Bob white Quail
(Judd, 1905, p. 24). A female when surprised with her brood
makes a great demonstration, attempting thereby to distract atten-
tion. The chicks \vhen feeding together are said to call constantly
to one another with low peeping cries which are audible only for a
short distance.

After the young birds have learned to fly, they descend from the
uplands down along the larger caiions, often invading the meadow
lands, where small, tender weeds are added to their diet. At such
places the young birds may gather into large flocks. When ap-
proached they crane their necks and make a weak attempt at cack-
ling. When closely pressed they run rather than fly. By 'the last
of August or early September the young birds are joined by the old
male birds, which come off the higher slopes and ridges where they
have stayed during the summer, and large flocks become the rule.
The rigor of winter causes a scarcity of food and by spring most of
the birds are poor in flesh as well as shabby in plumage. The young
attain the size of the adults by November (E. H. Ober, MS, writing
from Mono and Inyo counties).

The Sage-hen finds flight laborious, and resorts to it only when
in great peril. Its vigorous wing-beats on rising from the ground
cause a loud whir which has a startling effect upon the intruder.
When once the bird is under way its flight is very swift and is char-
acterized by alternate rapid beating of the wings and sailing on set,
down-curved wings. If it has been badly frightened it will fly a con-
siderable distance ; otherwise it will alight again within a few hundred
feet.

The call-note most frequently heard is usually described as a short
guttural cackle, given when the birds rise from the ground. The sound
is like the syllables kuk, kuk, kiik, slowly repeated (Grinnell, MS), or
tuk-a-ti(k repeated rapidly (Huntington, 1897, p. 17). The ''drum-
ming'" of the male, which has already been described, is to be heard
only during the breeding season.

Newberry (1857, pp. 95-96), the first of the early explorers to
record the Sage-hen definitely in this state, gives the following account
of its habits :

This bird . . . belongs to tlie fauna of the interior basin. . . . We first met
with it high up en Pit river, at the point where we left it and crossed over to
the lakes. . . . FolloAving up the little stream toward the spring on the hill-side,
a dry, treeless surface mth patches of ' ' sage bushes, "... I Avas suddenly
startled by a great flutter and rush, and a dark bird, that appeared to me as large
as a turkey, rose from the ground near me, and, uttering a hoarse hck, heJc, flew
off with an irregular, but remarkably well sustained flight. . . . But stop he
did not, so long as I could see him, now flapping, now sailing, he kept on his
course till he disappeared behind a hill a mile away. . . .

570 GAME BIEDS OF CJLIFOBKIA

A few days later, ini tlie shores of Wriijlit and Rhett lakes, we found them
veiy abundant, and killed all Ave cared to. A very fine male which I killed there
was passed by nearly the Avhole party within thirty feet in oj>eii ground. I noticed
him as soon, perhaps, as he saw us, and waited to watch his movements. As the
train approached he sank down on the ground, depressing his head, and lying as
motionless as a stick or root, which he greatly resembled. After the party had
passed, I moved toward liini, when he depressed his head till it rested on the
ground, and evidently made himself as small as possible. He did not move till I
h^d approached to within fifteen feet of him, when he arose and I shot him. He
was in fine plumage, and weighed over five pounds,

. . . Its flesh is dark and, particularly in old birds, highly flavored -with worm-
wood, which to most persons is no proof of excellence. The young bird, if par-
boiled and stewed, is very good; but, as a Avhole, this is inferior for the table to
an}" other species of American grouse.

During the winter season in the Mono country, according to E. H.
■Ober (MS), the Sage-hens find shelter in bad weather by scratching
down through the snow to the ground at the bases of the bushes.
Sustenance is secured from the tops of the bushes protruding through
the snow and also from the stray leaves and buds which the Avind
has blown over the surface of the snow. As late as 1896, literally
thousands made their homes along the southwestern borders of Long
Valley some few miles north of the northern boundary of Inyo
County. Now there are but a few hundreds in the most favorable
tracts.

As is evidenced by the accumulation of droppings to be found
in certain favorite localities, Sage-hens roost together on the ground.
They are said to return to the same roosting ground night after
night, even after foraging a considerable distance for food during
the day (Bendire, 1892, p. 110; and authors).

The stomach of a Sage-hen, unlike that of most other upland game
birds, is not a muscular organ, like a true gizzard, but is a thin-walled
receptacle. This indicates that the bird is largely herbivorous, feed-
ing upon leaves, buds, and berries, rather than regularly upon grain
or hard seeds. As the bird browses rather than scratches for a living
a grinding apparatus would be of small use. Its principal diet
throughout the year consists of the leaves of the sage-brush together
with leaves and buds of such other shrubs as the wild cherry and
deer-brush, together with a small amount of grass and seeds. During
the spring and summer, grasshoppers and other insects are added
to the diet. In a large number of specimens dissected nothing was
found but grasshoppers and leaves of the sage-brush (Baird. Brewer
and Ridgway, 1874, III, p. 433).

Stomach examination by the Ignited States Biological Survey, of
specimens from Idaho and Wyoming, shows that tlie Sago-hen, besides
eating sage-brush leaves, feeds upon the seeds, leaves and flowers of

SAGE HEX 571

nil us. the leaves of asters and yarrow, and the flowers and buds of
Phlox, as well as ujion ground beetles, ladybird beetles, fly larvae,
moths, ants and grasshoppers. Beudire states that Sage-hens will
■ go a long distance to get a morning feed of wheat, and that crickets
and grasshoppers are taken when available. Young birds are more
insectivorous than adults. The stomach of one young bird was found
to contain over 300 ants (Judd, 1905, pp. 24^25). Birds killed
by M. French Oilman at Pelican Lake, Modoc County, in December,
1915, were found to have eaten many leaves and a few young berries
of the juniper in addition to leaves of the sage-brush.

This seems to be the only one of our birds that will eat such strongly
flavored leaves as those of the sage-brush. Because of this peculiar
diet its flesh becomes tainted, and is usually too strong to be eaten
with relish. But at certain times of the year it makes excellent food.
In Modoc County the birds are said to feed in alfalfa fields and
thereby cause some damage during the months of July and August.
In winter, browse is obtained from the shrubs and bushes that pro-
trude from the snow. At that season tlie flesh becomes strongest.
Although the flesh is dark colored, and in winter and early spring is
often almost bitter, the young birds in tlic fall are well flavored and
are a delicious acquisition to the table.

The size of this grouse makes it a particularly desirable game bird.
In fact the bird is so attractive that neither its comparative inaccessi-
bility nor the ease with which it is bagged has ])i-evented its being
much sought after by hunters. In Mono County the birds have been
greatly reduced in num])ers because of their accessibility. "When
Sage-hens are flushed, tlie hunter marks the places where they alight
and usually has no trouble in walking up to within range of the
crouching birds. When flushed again the birds often make a turn
just after leaving the ground and circle back toward their original
location, thus offering a large and easy target. The crack of the
gun seldom starts them from cover, although their wariness varies
with circumstances. Sometimes Sage-hens seem to become confused
and it is said that in early days vaqueros delighted to ride among
the members of a flock and strike them down with a whip or lasso.
We have been told that in Modoc County, especially after a rain,
when their plumage was wet, Sage-hens have been killed with sticks or
knocked over wath stones, so difficult was it for them to take quickly to
flight. But at other times it has proven practically impossible to get
within range of them.

In most parts of its California range the Sage-hen has been so
reduced in numbers that something must be done to afford it better
protection, if it is to maintain its place as a game bird. The auto-
mobile has enabled the gunner to enter the heart of the Sage-hen

572 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

country, and little has been done to counteract this added factor in
the destruction of the species. As a result there is some danger that
the Sage-hen, like the Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse, may soon be
numbered among the Californian birds which have been nearly or
quite exterminated through the agency of man. Even the short season
and small bag limit accorded the bird within the last few years have
not been sufficient to enable it to hold its own. There is plentiful
testimony that its numbers are being reduced each year. A close
season for a term of years is one remedy that might be applied to
good advantage. Although such a plan might cause temporary hard-
ship to the hunter who considers the Sage-hen his favorite game bird,
he should be willing to make the sacrifice for the sake of perpetuating
the species. A close season to allow recuperation, followed by more
moderate annual shooting, should be agreed to by every hunter who
values this, the largest and one of the finest of the upland game birds
of our state.

Ring-necked Pheasant
Phasianus torquaius Gmelin

Other names — China Pheasant; Denny Pheasant.

Description — AdiiU male: Top and back of head, dull greenish gray; area
above base of bill, iridescent black; stripe from this black patch along side of
liead over and behind eye, white ; ear region brownish black ; above this, a tuft
of square-ended, iridescent black feathers; broad area on side of head surrounding
eye, extending forward to base of bill, and including most of cheek, almost naked,
sparingly flecked with small iridescent black feathers; rest of head and neck, iri-
descent, greenish blue on fore-neck and sides of neck, purplish below and behind
ear, and bluish green on hind neck; broad collar completely encircling base of
neck, abruptly white; feathers of upper back buffy yellow, with V-shaped irides-
cent black markings ; middle of back and scapulars, rich chestnut red, each feather
with a black line concentric Avith margin and enclosing a white area which is mot-
tled with drab and black; lower back and rump light grayish green, the marginal
feathers washed Avith blue and Avith long tips of rusty red, and the middle feathers
with crescontic black, buff and green markings ; some of upper tail cowrts reddish
broAvn and drab mixed in fine pattern ; tail very long and pointed, the feathers
centrally drab yelloAV with conspicuous narrow bars of black, their margins basally
pinkish broAvn barred with deep chestnut red; outer surface of closed Aving chiefly
bluish gray; flight feathers light broAvn mottled Avith dull AA'hite ; longer coverts
and tertials broadly edged AAath rich chestnut red; inner surface of Aving grayish
broAvn mottled Avith Avhite; A\'hole breast fiery bronze AA'ith a conspicuous metallic
sheen, each feather Avith a AV-shaped margin of purplish black, the Avhole giving
a scaled effect ; sides and flanks deep buffy yelloAV AA-ith largo sharply defined spots
of steely blue black ; middle of belly steely blue black ; area about A'ent dull yellow-
ish broAvn; imder tail coA^erts rich chestnut mottled AAith black; a spur on tarsus;
legs and feet (dried) dull dark ])roAvn. Adult femnle: Top and back of head drab
broAvn with extensive broAvnish black feather centers; area about eye Avhite, flecked
Avitli dusky ; ear region yelloA\-ish broAAni ; chin and throat uniform yclloAvish Avhite ;

EIXGNECKED PHEASANT 573

Avhole neck rose buff, with narrow feather tippings of black; feathers of upper
back with concentric marks of rusty red, black, and pinkish white; feathers of
lower back, rump and outer surface of closed wing, black-centered, dark yellowish
brown near ends, and margined with drab or white; tail long and pointed, barred
irregularly with black and pinkish brown or dull broAvn; flight feathers broadly
and irregularly barred with light or dark brown and dull white ; lining of wing
dull wliito and pale broAni ; under surface of body pale yellowish broA\ni, lightest
on middle of belly, the whole finely vermiculated \nth dusky, heaviest on breast ;
sides and flanks coarsely marked with broA\niish black. Male : Total length 33.00
inches (838 mm.); folded wing 9.00 (228); bill along culmen 1.25 (31.7); tarsus
2.75 (69.7). Female: Total length 20.50 (520); folded wing 7.56 (192); bill
along culmen 1.00 (25.4); tarsus 2.44 (61.9) (one specimen of each). Juvenile
plumage: Upper surface brownish black with yellowish brown shaft streaks
and feather marginings; feathers on sides of head and neck, and fore-neck,
yellowish white, margined with black; chin and fore-throat white; tail barred
with brownish black and reddish brown; wing as in adult female; breast
yellowish brown, tinged with rusty; feathers of sides and flanks marked con-
centrically with dull white, brownish black and buflfy brown; middle of belly
yellowish white; thighs and under tail coverts, pale buff. Natal plumage:
Upper surface dark yellowish brown with three longitudinal stripes along top
of head and back, the middle one brownish black, the outer ones black; a
conspicuous black streak on ear region; bar in front of wing and two others
on wing, black; under surface of body sulphurj' white, bufly on chest, sides and
flanks; spot on thigh black.

Marks for field identification — Size of body between that of a grouse and
quail, but Avith tail feathers greatly elongated. Male with black appearing head,
white collar, bronzy breast, black-spotted yellow sides, and vnih many narrow
sharp bars of black on tail. Female predominantly brown-colored, sliglitly scaled
on back, but uniformly pale brown on breast (pi. 16).

Voice — Of male: a sharp, but weak, metallic "crow."

Nest — On ground in sheltered situation in- a grain or alfalfa field or weed
patch ; constructed of leaves or grass.

Eggs — 7 to 15, ovate in shape, averaging in inches, 1.61 by 1.31 (in milli-
meters, 40.8 by 33.2) ; color plain buff or greenish buff (Davie, 1900, p. 180).

General distribution — Native in lower Amur, Manchuria, Korea, and east-
ern Mongolia, south through eastern China to Canton. Introduced and well estab-
lished in British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and, locally, in California (modi-
fied from Dresser, 1903, p. 666).

Distribution in California — Introduced and now established in various locali-
ties in the north coast counties from Mendocino to the Oregon line ; also : in the
Santa Clara Valley, near San Jose ; near PortervUle, Tulare County ; Bakersfield,
Kern County ; northern Owens Valley, Inyo County ; and possibly several other
•localities (see p. 33).

Since the Ring-necked Pheasant* has been introduced and become
established in a number of places in California, we deem it desirable

* The true identity of the "Ring-necked" Pheasants introduced into California is not
yet definitely settled. The name Phasianus torquatus. as the one most commonly used, has
been adopted by us tentatively, until such time as California-taken specimens can be com-
pared with Asiatic wild birds. There exist in the Old World several near-related species
with white neck rings, any one of which may have been imported. It is also not unlikely
that two or more of these races have been bred together in captivity, and mongrel stock,
of various origins, imported, at least in part, in the attempts to colonize the state. Our
stock may thus not be of any one pure breed.

574 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

to give a short account of the life-history and habits of the species.
In the chapter on "History of Attempts to Introduce Non-native
Game Birds into California" there is a fairly comprehensive history
of the various attempts to introduce the species into this state (p. 30) ;
and in the chapter on "The Propagation of Game Birds" directions
are given for rearing the species in captivity (p. 51). The present
account will deal with its habits in the wild, chiefly as reported from
California and Oregon.

This pheasant thrives best in and about tracts of rank vegetation
in the ' ' fog belt ' ' of the North Coast counties, rather than in the drier
areas inhabited by the Valley Quail. In these moist regions the Ring-
neck finds conditions as to temperature, humidity and rainfall which
closely approximate those of its original home in eastern Asia. An
examination of rainfall data shows that the Humboldt Bay district
of California has an average annual rainfall of 45.8 inches; Portland,
Oregon, where the pheasant thrives as an introduced species, has 45.6
inches ; while Shanghai and Hongkong, China, two localities in its
native home, have 43.6 and 84.3 inches, respectively. So, also, the
relative humidity at Eureka averages 86%, at Portland 75%, and at
Shanghai and Hongkong 80% and 77%. In such other parts of
California as are inhabited by the pheasant, as the Santa Clara Valley,
the birds seek shelter in moist thickets or swampy places, probably
finding there atmospheric conditions which parallel those in the north
coast district and in eastern China.

No native bird of California is to be confused with the Ring-necked
Pheasant. Its long tail and fowl-like habits easily distinguish it
from any of our upland game species with which it may be found.
The brilliant, variegated plumage of the male, with blue black head,
white neck collar, and fiery-colored breast, is quite distinctive, as is
also the long tail of the female together with her uniformly pale brown
toned breast. The male, unlike any of our native game birds wears a
spur on his leg.

The usual haunt of the Ring-necked Pheasant is thick cover, but
with open spaces nearby where it can forage. During the greater
portion of the year the birds go in flocks, males and females separately.
At night many of the birds roost on the ground, in a manner unlike
that of most of our native game birds, and thus they are more than
ordinarily subject to ground-dwelling predatory animals or "vermin."
In Oregon, in certain places at least, pheasants are reported to roost
in trees and on fences, sometimes more than a hundred together,
through the night.

The hen pheasant makes her nest of leaves or dry grass in a
sheltered situation in a cultivated field or on grassland. Sometimes
it is protected by a tussock of grass, or a shrub or tree. The eggs

^ -^

1JX

BAXDTAILED PIGEOX 575

number seven to fifteen in a set, are short ovate in shape and average,
in inches (different sets) 1.50 by 1.30 and 1.61 by 1.31. Their color
is plain buff or greenish buff without markings of any sort. In Oregon
it is said that tliree broods are reared in a season. Where nests are
sj'stematieally visited and the eggs regularly removed, hen pheasants
will lay from 50 to 80 eggs in a season, and in one recorded instance
a bird was known to have laid 108 eggs (Field, Graham and Adams,
1914, p. 3). The period of incubation is twenty-two days. In captiv-
ity when the members of a brood are four to eight weeks old they
can care for themselves. In autumn, the birds band together in flocks,
and remain together through the winter, until the next nesting season.

In this country the Ring-necked Pheasant is an omnivorous feeder,
taking almost anything which it can find in the way of food mate-
rials, but it seems to prefer insects, when these are available, to grain
and seeds. In certain districts of Oregon where the species is notably
numerous the birds have done damage to truck gardens and corn
patches. On the other hand, three captive pheasants, five weeks old,
have been seen to eat between 250 and 300 hou.se flies within one-half
hour. In Massachusetts where Ring-necked Pheasants were intro-
duced from Oregon in about 1894, the birds have been found to eat
practically all of the common insect pests of the garden. Stomachs
of pheasants shot while supposedly damaging gardens or farm crops
showed 22 per cent grain (all waste except in one instance), 21 per
cent tomatoes, 15 per cent insects, and 23 per cent weed seeds. The
balance was of no economic importance or was not determined (Field,
Graham and Adams, 1914, pp. 8, 9).

Here in California this pheasant feeds chiefly in grain fields and
grass lands although it also forages in willow thickets and, in some
interior counties, has been found in thick manzanita and scrub oak
brush. In Inyo County pheasants search the grain fields for "taboosi"
(Brodiaca seed?). They are said also to do some damage to grain
fields, vineyards and gardens.

In any event the pheasant is not yet to be reckoned as established
in more than a few localities, its spread will be slow if it continues
at all, and many years will elapse before the species will be of much
importance, from either the hunter's or the farmer's standpoint.

Band-tailed Pigeon

Columha fasciata fasciata Say

Other xames — Blue Pigeon; Wild Pigeon; Columha moniUs ; CMoroenas
fasciata fasciata.

De-scription — Adults, both sexes: Head pinkish brown or vinaceous (exact tint
varying greatly among different individuals), darkest and more purplish on top

576 GAME BISDS OF CALIFOENIA

and back of head, more ashy on chin and cheeks; base of bill stia'w yellow, end
black; naked eyelids, coral red; narrow collar around hind neck, white, averaginj^
more conspicuous in males; broad area on sides and back of neck (below white
collar), iridescent bronzy green; back dark olive brown; rump and bases of tail
feathers, dark bluish gray; ill-defined band across middle of tail, dull black;
terminal portions of tail feathers, drab, lightest on outer ones; outer surface of
closed wing, chiefly light gray, the coverts narrowly margined with .white ; flight
feathers brownish black; lining of wing and axillars, gray; under surface of
flight feathers dull brown ; under surface of body pinkish brown or vinaceous,
deepest on breast and sides, paling to almost white on belly; under tail coverts
white; under sui-faee of terminal portion of tail whitish, distinctly lighter than
upper surface of same ; feet straw yellow. In some females the tone of coloration
verges towards grayish rather than pinkish brown. Males: Total length 14.12-
15.81 inches (359-402 mm.) (ten specimens from California and Arizona) ; folded
Aving 8.20-8.67 (208-220); bill along culmen 0.65-0.71 (16..5-18.0) ; tarsus 1.05-
1.09 (26.6-27.6) (eight specimens from California). Females: Total length 13.75-
15.75 (349-400) (ten specimens from California and Arizona) ; folded wing
8.00-8.86 (203-225); bill along culmen 0.67-0.75 (17.0-19.0); tarsus 0.95-1.11
(24.0-28.2) (ten specimens from California). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that
of adult, but vinaceous tinge wholly lacking; neck without white collar or irides-
cent bronzing; under surface dark brownish, with feather tippings of lighter
color, giving a faintly scaled effect.

Marks for field identification — Largest of our wild pigeons (about the
bulk of a domestic pigeon) ;* general bluish coloration; distinct dark band
across middle of square-ended tail (fig. 88) ; wings without white patches.

A^oiCE — Much like that of the domestic pigeon ; a deep coo-coo, iucl'-o6, or
wlwo-hcG-lioo ; occasionally a more spirited Iwoii-ah-wlwo, or tvhoo-uffh (Grinnell,
1905, p. 382; Bailey, 1902, p. 139).

Nest — A crude platform of twigs, of very loose construction ; most often situ-
ated on a moderately large horizontal branch of an oak (less often in a pine),
and at heights ranging from eight to thirty feet above ground (authors).

Eggs- — Usually 1, rarely 2, elongately ovate, white in color, and measuring in
inches, 1.08 to 1.15 by 1.55 to 1.69 (in millimeters, 27.4 to 29.3 by 39.5 to 43.0),
and averaging 1.59 by 1.11 (40.4 by 28.2) (five eggs, four sets, from California:
Mus. Vert. Zool., and Sharp, 1903, p. 16).

General distribution — Western parts of United States and Mexico. Sum-
mers from southwestern British Columbia, Avestern Washington, Avestern Oregon,
northern Utah, and north-central Colorado, south through the southwestern United
States and Mexico to Nicaragua, and east to western Texas; winters from north-
ern middle California southward (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 147).

Distribution in California — Common but irregular winter visitant below the
level cf heavy snow, and west of the Sierran divide; occurs in summer in small
numbers, and breeds, in the belts of black oak and golden oak (Transition life
zone) in both the Sierras and Coast Eanges, south to Laguna Mountains, southern
San Diego County.

The Band-tailed Pigeon is the largest of the four members of the
pigeon family inhabiting California. Its wide distribution in winter
throughout the foothill belt, together with its size and exeellently
flavored flesh have combined to make it an object of pursuit by sports-
men for over half a centurv. The inevitable result has been that its

BAXD-TAILED PIGEON

577

numbers have been greatly diminished. Despite this reduction, espe-
cially evident during recent years, this pigeon had never received one
iota of legal protection from the people of California until the year
1915. But, happily, with the passage of the Federal Migratory Bird
Law in 1913, the national government prescribed a five-year closed
season for the species, and the outlook now is favorable for its per-
sistence.

The range of the Band-tailed Pigeon extends from the Rocky
Mountains to the Pacific Coast, and from British Columbia to Nic-
aragua. It is, in a way, complementary to that of the now entirely
extinct Passenger Pigeon. But while the latter occurred over most

^**^:-^i.

Fig. 86. Head of Band-tailed Pigeon. Natural size (no. 15619).

of the eastern half of the North American continent, the western
bird is not found uniformly over all parts of its general range, being
most common in the mountains of middle altitude, and absent from
the plains and deserts.

In a -general way it may be said that in the north and at high
altitudes the Band-tailed Pigeon is only a summer visitant. To be
more explicit, the species summers in the belts of black oak and golden
oak (Transition life zone), whether these be in the northern part ol
its range or at the south. In the latter case the higher altitudes of
the mountain ranges resorted to afford temperature conditions similar
to those found at lower levels to the northward. In winter the pigeon
migrates to more southerly latitudes, or to lower altitudes, which-
ever may be necessary in order to reach a suitable winter climate.
From the data at hand it seems probable that the pigeons of the
Rocky Mountain region winter on the Mexican plateau entirely south
of the United States boundary, whence there are many instances of

578

GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

occurrence during that season. Those pigeons wintering in the foot-
hills and valleys of California come from the adjacent mountains
and from the coast district to tlie north, in Oregon, Washington and
British Columbia.

- Places where eggs or squabs have
® been found.

O Other record stations for summer.
a Ket'ord stations for winter.

Fig. 87. Map showing distribution of the Band-tailed Pigeon in Cali-
fornia. The shaded area is that in whieh all the pigeon population of the
Pacific states is believed to concentrate for the winter season.

The following facts bear upon the (jucstion of the source of at
least part of the pigeons wintering in California. The species occui-s
at Blaine, Washington (near the British Columbia boundary), from
May 5 to September 15 (Dawson, 1909, p. 555) ; in southern Wash-
ington west of the Cascades from May 15 to the end of September
(Coues, 1874, p. 386) ; and at the mouth of the Columbia River from
May to October (Bendire, 1892, p. 122). In Washington County,

BAND-TAILED PIGEON 579

Oregon, it is eonniion in summer (Bendire, 1892, p. 123) ; at Daj^ton,
Yamhill County, Oregon, it arrives about April 20 and leaves by the
last of November (Woodcock, 1902, p. 28) ; and at Corvallis, Benton
('ounty, Oregon, it occurs from the first of April until the last of
September (Woodcock, 1902, pp. 28, 29).

From the above data it will be seen that north of the northern
boundary of California the Band-tailed Pigeon is wholly migratory.
It seems inevitable that this northern-bred contingent should move
south into California for the winter season, and there is, therefore,
little reason to doubt the inference that the birds which concentrate
in winter in west-central and southern California, represent the entire
pigeon population of the Pacific coast region. If this be true it is of
course apparent that as far as the whole Pacific coast region is con-
cerned, California alone is, in winter, responsible for the existence
of the species.

Band-tailed Pigeons occur in California throughout the year, but
not continuously in the same localities. In general, the species is
found in the mountainous districts in the sunnner season and in the
foothills and valleys during the winter months. In event of con-
tinued favorable weather, the birds will often continue in their sum-
mer haunts until October or even November, long after other migrant
species have departed, probably because the supply of acorns and
other favored foods is not exhausted until that time. When finally
forced to lower altitudes they repair to the foothills where acorns
and berries are still to be found. Only rarely, as when driven by
heavy storms in the mountains, or by scarcity of food in the foothills,
do the birds resort to open valleys. They may then forage on the
scattered grain of the stubble fields (Gaylord, 1899, p. 7). Their
spring time return from the lower country is also largely controlled
by food supply. For example, in 1895 a large flock remained until
mid-June at Oak Knoll, near Pasadena, Los Angeles County, feed-
ing on acorns (Grinnell, 1898, p. 20) ; and in earlier years, about
the southern end of San Francisco Bay (Palo Alto and Santa Clara
Valley) the birds often remained until well into May (Van Denburgh,
1899, p. 159).

The Band-tailed Pigeon may be easily recognized by its large size
(being of about the build and bulk of a domestic pigeon), its general
bluish coloration, and its light gray, square-ended tail, crossed by a
distinct dark band near the middle. This band is most readily seen
just as the bird alights, for then the tail is widely spread. The Mourn-
ing Dove, \vhich at times occurs in the same places as the Band-tailed
Pigeon, is at once distinguishable by its smaller size, brownish upper
surface, and long, pointed, white-margined tail. The little brownish
Mexican Ground Dove is less than one-tenth the bulk of the pigeon,

580 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

while the White-wiuged Dove of tlie lower Colorado Valley is also
decidedly smaller and has a conspicuous white wing patch.

The cooing of the Band-tailed Pigeon reminds one of that of the
domestic pigeon and is easily distinguishable from the notes of the
Mourning Dove. Grinnell (1905, p. 382) describes the notes heard
on Mount Pinos as a deep monotonous coo-coo, coo-coo, coo-coo, or
tuck-o6, tuck-ou. Elsewhere the notes are described (Bailey, 1902,
p. 139) as sometimes a calm whoo-hoo-Jioo, whoo-hoo-hoo, at other
times a spirited ho6p-ah-who6, and again a two-syllabled ivJioo-ugh,
made up of a short hard hoot and a long coo, as if the breath were
sharply expelled for the first note and drawn in for the second.

These pigeons are to be seen in flocks at all times of the year, but
the aggregations become larger in the winter months. When forag-
ing flocks visit the foothills and valleys a hundred or more may some-
times be seen together. In earlier years bands of upwards of a thou-
sand were occasionally observed. The usual assemblage now consists
of from one to three dozen birds. Often, even during the height of
the nesting season, flocks of a half dozen or more birds may be seen.
Apparently these birds, whose nests may be widely scattered througli
the forest, associate together for feeding.

A benefit which accrues from the flocking habit is the individual
safety attained through community watchfulness. This may be con-
sidered as in part counterbalancing the possibility of pot-shooting
numbers of the birds at one time because of their being massed in a
flock. The gregarious habit brings both benefit and danger to the
birds ; but with the increased deadliness of firearms, it would seem
that the flocking habit brings disproportionately greater danger as
time goes on. When foraging on the open ground, pigeons show
little trepidation, save when closely approached. In the foliage of
trees or bushes, upon the approach of man or beast, the birds usually
remain perfectly quiet and thus often elude observation altogether. If
routed out by a too close approach, they leave their perches abruptly,
with a disconcerting clapping of the wings ; and, acquiring great
velocity with surprising quickness, they are almost instantly far
beyond reaeli of the bobcat's spring or even of the hunter's shot. In
flight, tlie flock formation is relatively open, and distantly separated
individuals are often to be seen trailing behind the main body. In
passage down a mountain side, the flight is inconceivably swift, the
wings being held close in to the sides, beating only at long intervals,
and the body veering slightly from side to side in its arrow-like
course. This headlong flight produces a rushing noise as of escaping
steam.

Near Julian, San Diego County, early in July, 1910, Huey (1913,
p. 152) made observations upon a flock of wild pigeons foraging in

BAND-TAILED PIGEON 581

manzanita thickets on the mountain side. They would arrive daily a
little after sunrise and leave between eight and nine o'clock; in the
evening they would return about four and depart again at dusk. In
feeding in the bushes they often attempted to alight on clusters of
berries whose stems were far too weak to support the heavy birds.
Eventually, finding a firmer perch from which the berries could be
reached, a pigeon would gorge himself, accompanying his greedy
swallowing of the berries with gulping noises. In Arizona similar
actions were indulged in by pigeons which Willard (1916, p. Ill)
saw feeding in oaks. He says : ' ' The antics of these birds were more
like the acrobatic stunts of parrots than of pigeons. They would
walk out on the slender branches till they tipped down, then, hang-
ing by their feet, would secure an acorn, and drop off to alight on a
branch lower down. In spite of their large size, pigeons are surpris-
ingly inconspicuous when thus engaged in feeding among the leaves."

The Band-tailed Pigeon nests in isolated localities and never in
colonies as did its unfortunate eastern relative, the Passenger Pigeon.
To this habit it probably owes, in a large degree, its ability to with-
stand the heavy hunting to which it has been subjected. One au-
thentic report from Arizona states that about thirty-five pairs nested
in a "scattered rookery, probably not averaging a nest to every
three or four acres at the most thickly populated part" (Fowler, 1903,
p. 69) ; but such an occurrence has not been recorded from California.
The nests here are widely scattered and extremely diificult to locate.
The greatest number of occupied nests reported by any Californian
observer for a single day's search is two, and about three per season
seems to be the limit of one man's discovery. The accompanying
table (no. 18, from Grinnell, 1913, with additions and corrections)
gives all the definite nesting data for California known to the writers.

Nearly all authentic reports from California agree in stating that
the Band-tailed Pigeon nests in trees — almost invariably in black
or golden oaks — at heights ranging from eight to thirty feet above
the ground. As exceptions, Littlejohn (MS) found a nest in San
Mateo County in a Douglas spruce ; and in Marin County, J. Mailliard
(1912, p. 194) found a nest in a California lilac {Ceanothus thyrsi-
florus) overhanging a steep slope. Some early reports from this state
have mentioned ground nests, as have several more recent, but scarcely
trustworthy, accounts from Oregon and Washington ; but there is
no late evidence of the ground nesting habit in California. In a
general way the nest resembles that of the Mourning Dove, save
that it is considerably larger, and sometimes proportionately thicker.
It is a crude structure, a mere pile of oak and other twigs, so loosely
arranged that attempts to remove the mass often result in its falling
to pieces. The average diameter is six or eight inches, while the thick-

582

GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

Table 18 — Data Relative to tlio Nesting of the Band-tailed Pigeon
in California

I^OCALITV

Laguna Mts., "20 miles

north of Campo," San

Diego Co.
Pine Mt., 3,250 ft.,

San Diego Co.
Pine Mt.. 3,250 ft.,

San Diego Co.
San Jacinto Mts., at 6,500

ft.. Riverside Co.
San Jacinto Mts.. at 6,500

ft.. Riverside Co.
Mt. Wilson, 5,500 ft.,

Los Angeles Co.
Cuyamaca Mts., 4 miles

south of Julian, San

Diego Co.
Palomar Mts.,

San Diego Co.
Pine Mt., 3,250 ft.,

San Diego Co.

North Peak. Cuyamaca
Mts.. San Diego Co.

San Jacinto Mts.. at Ful-
ler's Mill. 5,900 ft.,
Riverside Co.

Xear Woodside,
San Mateo Co.

Mt. Wilson, 5.500 ft.,
Los Angeles Co.

Lagunitas, Marin Co.

Barley Flats, 5,600 ft..

Los Angeles Co.
Barley Flats, 5,600 ft.,

Los Angeles Co.
Big Bear Lake,

San Bernardino Mts.
Xear Redwood City,

San Mateo Co.

Datk Contk.nts of Nk.st Authoritv

Mar. 6, 1877 1 egg (near hatching) Stephens (1913, p. 129>

May 3, 1901 2 eggs (fresh)

Sharp (1903, p. 16)

May 11, 1902 1 egg (incubation well Sharp (1903. p. 16)

advanced)

May 14, 1897 1 squab (ju.st hatched) Oilman (1903, p. 134)

May 14, 1897 1 .squab (half-grown) Oilman (1903. p. 134)

May 23, 1897 1 egg (considerably Orinnell (1898, p. 20)

incubated)

June 4, 1896 Adult bird on ne.st, but Albert M. Ingersoll

not flushed (in letter)

June 21, 1910 1 egg

Huey (1913. p. 152)

June 24, 1902 1 egg (incub. far adv.: Sharp (1903. p. 16)

same nest as Mav 11,

1902)
Ju'v 1 (about) 2 squabs in one nest

1910
July 1, 1908 1 egg (incubation

slight)

Huey (1913. p. 152)

Orinnell and Swarth
(1913. p. 233)

.July 3, 1914 1 squab

(Sent to State Game

Farm. Hay ward)
Orinnell (1898. n. 20)

July 5, 1894 1 squab (about one

week old)
July 30, 1912 1 egg (incubation .T. Mailliard (1912,

far advanced) p. 194)

Last of July, 1 voung (able to flv) Antonin Jay (in letter)

1888
Last of July. 1 Aoung (able to tlv) Antonin Jay (in letter)

1888
Aug. 11, 1913 1 egg (nearly fresh) Pierce (1913, p. 227)

Aug. 23, 1914 1 es-g (half incubated) Chase Little.iohn

(in letter)

ness ill two recorded instances was one and four inches, respectively
(Sharp, 1903, p. 16; Grinnell, 1913, p. 31). Sometimes as few as 16
or 18 twigs are all that go to make up the nest (Huey, 1913, p. 152),
and again there may be more than a hundred (nest in Mus. Yert.
Zool.). The twigs range from a sixteenth to a quarter of an inch in
diameter and are of various lengths. Tliey are laid across one another,
with little or no weaving, forming a platform with numerous inter-
stitial spaces. A slight lining of pine needles was found in one nest
(Sharp, 1903, p. 16). As Gilman (1903, p. 134) well says, it is a
marvel how an egg can be kept warm enough to hatch while resting
on such an airy platform in the cool air of a high altitude. The nest
site, which is almost always on top of a large horizontal liml), seems
to be so selected that the incubating bird may flush directly and
rapidly from the nest when danger threatens.

Of the actual construction of the nest, Willard. writing of an
observation in Arizona (1916, pp. 110-111), says:

BAND-TAILED PIGEON 583

Nest building was carried on only in the early morning hours, from sunrise
till about 8 o 'clock. Both birds were present, but the female alone seemed to be
engaged in the actual construction of the nest, which she went about in a very
lackadaisical manner. The pair would sit together on the few sticks already in
place for many minutes ; at last the female seemed to remember that she was
nest building, and flew up the mountain side followed by the male. Considerable
time was spent on every trip after material, so very few sticks were added each
day, and it was not until six days had elapsed that the flimsy platform was com-
pleted and the egg laid.

The birds are close sitters, often flushing when the observer is
very near to the nest. However, when once alarmed, they usually
leave precipitately, and make off through the trees so swiftly as to
be quickly lost to sight. This abrupt flushing of the bird from the
nest often leads to discovery of the latter when its location would be
otherwise extremely difficult to determine, so closely do the twigs
composing the structure resemble the smaller branches of the tree in
which it is situated. Only in a few instances have birds been known
to linger in the vicinity of the nest, or to attempt to lead the intruder
away.

Two California reports of a definite nature give two eggs as the
nest complement; all others specify but a single egg each (see table).
Bendire (1892. p. 127) states that the period of incubation is eighteen
to twenty days, and that the young birds remain in the nest about
a month after hatching. Allowing a week for the construction of the
nest, and for laying, about two months time would be necessary for the
rearing of one brood. There is no reliable evidence that the pigeon
nests more than once each year in California, save when its first nest-
ing is disturbed. In one recorded instance (Sharp, 1903, p. 16) a
nest from which an incubated egg had been collected on May 11,
contained, on June 24 of the same year (1902), another egg also well
advanced in incubation. It is probable that the later nesting dates
given in our table refer to instances where the first egg was destroyed,
and not to instances of a second successful nesting.

In rate of increase, the Band-tailed Pigeon is. according to the
evidence herewdtli submitted, by far the slowest of all our game birds.
As a rule but one young is hatched each year. Contrast this with ten
among quail, eight among ducks, and four among wading birds.
The impressive fact that our wild pigeon does not exceed, in rate
of reproduction, the birthrate of deer, antelope and elk, suggests the
demand for treatment in game legislation corresponding with that
given these large mammals. It is very probable that under primitive
conditions the Band-tailed Pigeon was ten times more immune from the
fatalities due to predacious animals, and to causes other than old
age, than is the quail!

58-t (iAME BIKDS OF CALIFORNIA

As already intiumted, tlic aiuount of food available to the pigeon
appears to be the main controlling factor in its distribution, aside from
the zonal considerations which apply during the breeding season. This
is more particularly true in winter, though probably to some extent
in summer also. As will be observed from the following data, the
food consists chiefly of berries and nuts, and the plants which bear
these are of intermittent productiveness. A large crop one year in
a certain region is almost sure to be succeeded by a poor one the fol-
lowing year, so that the pigeons would fare scantily if dependent alto-
gether on any one locality. Their proclivity to circulate over large
areas makes available to them abundant crops recurring at different
places. The birds are thus able to find support in great numbers some-
where all the time.

Out of twenty-two records mentioning their food, ten give acorns
as the chief article of diet. Probably all the species of oaks are
patronized by the pigeons. Those specifically recorded are : in west-
central and southern California, the live oaks (Quercus agrifolia and
Q. u'isliscnii), in the foothill regions, the golden oak {Quercus chry-
solepis), and along the Sierra Nevada and on the San Bernardino and
San Jacinto mountains, the black oak (Quercus kelloggii). The acorn
season lasts well through the autumn months, and under favorable
circumstances even until February.

As M'ith all the other articles of food consumed by these birds, the
acorns are swallowed whole, and in such numbers that at feeding time
the crop becomes enormously distended. Here the food is acted iipon
by powerful digestive juices, and both shell and kernel rapidly dis-
integrate and pass on to the stomach and gizzard. There is no dis-
gorgement of hard parts of the food, as with some birds. Considering
the apparently small size of its mouth, the pigeon's ability to swallow
entire such relatively huge objects as tlie acorns of the golden oak
is amazing. One dropped by a bird in flight measured about one by
one and one-half inches (A. M. Ingersoll, in letter). It is reported
(Van Rossem. 1914, p. 146) that pigeons have been found in a dying
condition, their crops pierced by acorns which they had swallowed.

In the coast region of central California the berries of the madrone
{Arhntus mrmiesii) form an attractive food source in the fall of the
year. In certain instances bauds of {)igeons have been known to stay
around tracts of madrones until practically every berry had been
taken. Sometimes the birds feed so largely on these berries that
their flesh becomes discolored thereby (Jenkins, 1906, p. 126).

When the acorn crop is small or has become exhausted, the birds
resort to the apple-like fruits of certain species of manzanita (Arcto-
staplrylos) , eating them from the time they are first formed and green,
until late fall when they are fully ripe. In early October, 1915, large

BAXn-TAILED PIGEON 585

numbers of pigeons thronged the brush-covered slopes of Pinoche
Peak. Mariposa County, and literally stripped the manzanita bushes
of their berries. In winter the birds often feed on the abundant fruits
of the toyon oi- Christmas berry {Heteramelcs arhutifolia). Earlier
in the fall they resort to the fruit of the coffee berry {Rhamnus, sev-
eral species), and that of the elderberry (Samhucus glauca) and the
chokecherry (Prunus demissa).

Toward the end of wintei-, the fruit and nut crops become ex-
hausted and then the pigeons subsist on the flower and leaf buds of
the same plants that produced their sustenance earlier. Dean (1904,
p. Ill) says that in February the pigeons in tlie Sierran foothills at
Three Rivers, Tulare County, feed on manzanita buds ; and in south-
ern California ihey luive repeatedly been observed to feed on oak
buds. One observer described a bitter taste to the flesh which was
thought to have been developed by a diet of oak buds and acorns
(Belding, 1879, p. 437).

In southern California in early spring the sycamore balls are
frequently eaten. No less than thirty-five of these ball-like flower
clusters have been counted in the crop of a single pigeon (Evermann.
1886, p. 92). Fruits of the Nuttall dogwood, wild peas, and various
small seeds are known to have been taken. Finally, in two in.stances,
pine seeds have been found in the birds' crops: in Calaveras County
in July (Belding, 1890, p. 21) ; and on Mount Pinos, Ventura County.
June 29 (Grinnell, 1905, p. 382). It is, of course, probable in these
cases that either the cones were fully ripe and the scales spread so
that the seeds could be readily extracted, or that the seeds were picked
up from the ground beneath the trees where the}' had fallen.

The above-mentioned articles of diet include only wild fruits, such
as are of indifferent value to man. At times, however, pigeons have
been found to resort extensively to grain fields. In many cases the
birds have repaired to stubble fields where they gleaned the waste
grain, wholly worthless of course. Thu.s, near Three Rivers, Tulare
County, in July, 1891, pigeons were observed foraging in barley stub-
ble (A. K. Fisher, 1893a. p. 31). In a few instances, newly sown
grain has been resorted to, with the result that more or less damage
has been inflicted — the only way in which Band-tailed Pigeons are
known to affect man's interests unfavorably. At Palo Alto in Janu-
ary, 1901, good sized flocks were observed on newly sown barley fields,
and the crop of a bird taken then was crammed wdth seed barley
(Grinnell, MS). A pigeon taken at Crescent City, Del Norte County,
May 15, 1916, was found by us to have in its gullet 509 grains of
barley, 23 of oats, 6 of corn, and some fragments of acorns. At Santa
Monica, in February and March, 1901, flocks were feeding in grain
fields. Their depredations were complained of by a rancher who

o86 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

attempted to dispose of the birds by putting out poisoned grain, and
with some success ! Eight killed in this manner were examined by
H. S. Swarth (MS). In Marin County, J. Mailliard (1912, p. 194)
states that he knows of pigeons picking up stray kernels in fields just
planted with forage corn.

In Marcli, 1901, gi-eat flocks of the pigeons poured into San Gorgonio Pass
and fed in the barley fields. For about two weeks there wfne hundreds of them,
but they all left as suddenly as they had appeared. Their method of feeding was
peculiar. Instead of spreading out they kept together, alternately walking and
flying. Those behind would fly a few feet ahead of the advance line, alight, and
walk along picking up grain until other rear ones would fly ahead and it came
their turn again. In this way the flock advanced, some in the air all the time,
and ground was covered quite rapidly. The crop of a specimen secured contained
(515 grains of barley by actual count (Gilman, 1903, p. 134).

The relative paucity of records of definite damage to grain leads
to the conclusion that the amount of actual loss inflicted by pigeons is
very small. If it regularly reached appreciable proportions, we would
hear far more frequent complaints. The irregularity in distribution
from year to year serves to mitigate sucli an adverse bearing of the
pigeon. Only at long intervals are the bu'ds likely to visit a given
locality in just the appropriate season to have any effect on tlie grain
interests.

In Yosemite Valley attempts to destroy ground squirrels by dis-
tributing poisoned grain broadcast have resulted in the death of many
])igeons. This method of squirrel poisoning in any locality where
pigeons occur, particularly if other food is scarce, is to be discouraged.

The Band-tailed Pigeon seems to be extraordinarily free from
natural enemies. Of these we have good record of only two. Willard
(1916, p. Ill) says that in Arizona "the Prairie Falcon and Cooper
Hawk take considerable toll from the flocks. These two terrors of the
air will dash into a tree and grab a pigeon ofl' a branch, rarely making
an unsuccessful raid. The Prairie Falcon is the chief ofl;'ender. " "We
know of no similar report from California.

The value of the Band-tailed Pigeon as a true game bird is to be
conceded without argument. Its pursuit is of a difi'erent type from
that offered by any other game species. An anonymous writer in
southern California, who signs himself "Stillhunter" (1907, i)p. 200-
202), says that the best place for hunting pigeons there is near a
dead tree where the birds are known to alight. For such a situation
he advises using a .22 or 25-20 rifle ; then single birds may be secured
without frightening away others in the flock. For sneaking up on
birds a "duck gun" is recommended. Ten pigeons are considered
a good day's bag. If the flesh lias become "strong" by reason of the
birds' acorn diet, soaking in brine flavored with vinegar or lemon

BAND-TAILED PIGEON 587

will remove the disagreeable taste. After such treatment the birds
should be broiled, or baked in a pot pie.

The remarkably slow rate of increase in the Pigeon was doubtless
great enough to maintain its numbers easily under the conditions
obtaining before the appearance of the white man and his firearms.
We can but marvel at the ability the bird has shown to maintain itself
in fair numbers during the last fifty or sixty years, in spite of unre-
stricted hunting. Judging from recorded accounts, it is only at rare
intervals that such a slaughter has taken place as that noted in the
south-central coast counties of this state in the winter of 1911-12
(Chambers, 1912, p. 108). Indeed, as suggested by the writer cited,
such unmitigated destruction could not last long without causing a
complete extinction of the species. Chambers' account is as follows:

Band-tailed Pigeons . . . were abundant the past winter from Paso Eobles
south to Nordlioff all through the coast range of mountains. One hunter from
Los Olivos shipjied over 2,000 birds to the San Francisco and Los Angeles hotels.
The morning train from San Luis Obispo to Los Olivos on Sundays averaged 100
passengers who came to hunt pigeons. A prominent hunter [stated] . . . that
these passengers averaged about thirty birds apiece per day. This would make
this one day's excursion [account for] over 3,000 pigeons. Now! — this is [the
record for] only one train and one day's hunting. One can hardly calculate the
number of birds killed by hunters in automobiles and by those who started from
Los Angeles, San Francisco, Santa Barbara, Ventura, Santa Maria, Paso Eobles,
liompoc and other small towns. ... I honestly believe that the people will
never again see such a tlight of Band-tailed Pigeons. In Nordlioff it is the largest
they have ever seen, and the birds evidently hung around until they were simply
shot out.

An unusual concentration of the pigeons from the whole Pacific
coast region into a district easily reached by hunters gave exceptional
opportunity for the infliction of the slaughter above recounted. This
weak feature in the pigeon's mode of life becomes apparent when con-
ditions of restricted food suppl.v force it into localities where its
survival depends upon the sanit.y of hunting regulations.

The ability of the Band-tailed Pigeon to maintain itself even in
moderate numbers is due to many factors, among which the following
are important. The birds repair to mountainous forested regions for
the breeding season ; they nest in widely separated localities and rarely
if ever in colonies ; they are secretive and give few if any clues to the
location of their nests ; and during the winter months when they are
as a rule widely distributed in the foothills and valleys of the state,
they do not occur regularly in the same places in successive years.

The five-year closed season which began in 1913 was entirely satis-
factory in that it allowed the birds to begin to recuperate from the
disastrous effects of the 1912 slaughter. If, in 1918, after the termin-
ation of the close season, a shooting season is to be permitted, the

588 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOBNIA

daily, weekly, and possible seasonal bag limit should be closely
restricted and absolutely no sale of this bird permitted. With proper
care the Band-tailed Pigeon may be perpetuated as an important
item in the game resources of California ; it rests almost entirely with
the people of tliis state to decide whetlitM- or not this end will be
realized.

Western Mourning Dove

Ze)ui\dura macrouru margiiuIJa (Woodhouse)

Other names — Dove ; Commou Dove ; Wild Dove ; Cooing Dove ; Eain Dove ;
Carolina Dove; Carolina Turtle Dove; Turtle Dove; Zenaidura macroura caro-
liue7isis; Zenaidura caroUnensis; Columba carolincnsis ; Ectopistes caroUnensis ;
Zenaidura macroura.

Description — Adu't male: Front and sides of head liglit yellowisli brown;
top and back of head bluisli slate ; chin pale buffy or whitish ; small spot below
ear, iridescent dark blue; upper eyelid dusky, lower one yellow; bill black; iris
browni; hind neck grayish broAvn, Avith broad area at side showing pinkish purple
iridescence ; rest of upper surface chiefly olive brown, a feAv of the tertials
marked near ends with large black patches ; tail elongated and pointed ; long cen-
tral pair of tail feathers in color like back ; next outer pair bluish gi'ay crossed
near end by a black band; the rest dark bluish gray (black below) near base,
succeeded by black cross band, near end, and broadly tipped with white ; outer-
most tail feather showing white outer web; outer surface of closed wing (coverts)
like back, becoming bluish gray at edge of wing; flight feathers chiefly bluish
gray, but becoming brownish on tips and inner margins; lining of wing and
axillars, ashy blue; under surface of flight feathers dull brown; throat and whole
breast, pale pinkish brown ; rest of under surface liglit yellowish brown, palest
on under tail coverts ; sides pale ashy blue like lining of Aving ; feet lake red.
Adult f em-ale : Like male but Avith iridescent markings sonieAA-hat reduced ; bluish
slate on head replaced largely by l)roAA-n ; throat and breast chiefly pale buffy
broAvn. Males: Total length 12.00-12.75 inches (305-324 mm.) (ten specimens);
folded wing 5.78-6.13 (146.8-155.6); bill 0.49-0.57 (12.5-14.5); tarsus 0.77-0.87
(19.5-22.0) (ten specimens) ; A\-eight 4.28 oz. (121 gm.) (one specimen). Females:
Total length 11.25-12.00 (286-305) (three specimens) ; folded AA-ing 5.40-5.82
(137.0-147.9); bill 0.49-0.55 (12.5-14.0); tarsus 0.77-0.84 (19.6-21.4) (ten
specimens) ; Aveight 3.98 oz. (105.1 gm.) (one specimen) ; all from California.
Juvenile plumage: Similar to adult male, but A\dth colors much duller and irides-
cence Avanting; feathers of upper surface lightly tipjjed Avith AA'hite ; chin Avhite;
top of head and ear region flecked AA-ith dusky ; edge of AA'ing scaled AA-ith AA'hitish ;
breast drab, Avith lighter feather-tippings.

M.A.RKS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION — Moderate size (decidedly smaller than
domestic pigeon), conspicuously pointed and AA'hite margined tail (fig. 89), pale
yelloAvish or pinkish broAvn under surface, and lack of Avhite on Aving. The mourn-
ful cooing note, and the Avhistling produced as the bird takes flight, are also
distinctiA'e.

Voice — A series of four melloAV, yet far-rcacliiiig notes, nli-coo-rao-cno, repeated
at irregular intervals.

Xest — On the ground, or in 1)us1k's (»r trees, soiiietimes as high as forty feet
aboA-e the ground, but usually six to eight feet up; a loose, flat structure, of

WESTEBX MOUEXIXG DOVE

589

Fig. 88. Lower surface of tail of Band-tailed Pigeon. Natural size.

Note nearly square end and dark band across middle.

Fig. 89. Lower surface of tail of Western Mourning Dove. Natural size.

Note wedge-shaped outline and white margins.

Fig. 90. Lower surface of tail of White-winged Dove. Natural size.

Note nearly scjuare end and white band across end.

590 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

sticks, rootlets and grass steins, carelessly arranged j when above ground usually
situated on a horizontal branch or limb.

Eggs — Normally 2, elliptical in shape, measuring in inches, 0.98 to 1.23 by 0.77
to 0.87 (in millimeters, 25.0 to 31.2 by 19.5 to 22.0), and averaging 1.07 by 0.83
(27.2 by 21.2) (thirteen sets, twenty-six eggs, from California) ; color white, un-
marked, with a noticeable surface gloss.

General distribution — Of the Mourning Dove, including the two north
American subspecies: Breeds from British Columbia, Saskatchewan, Ontario,
and southern Nova Scotia, south throughout the United States and Mexico, and
locally in Lower California and Guatemala; winters from southern Oregon, south-
ern Colorado, the Ohio Valley, and North Carolina south to Panama; casual in
winter in the Middle States. Of the Western Mourning Dove {marginella) : West-
ern North America west of the Mississippi Valley, and in western Mexico (A. O. U.
Clieck-list, 1910, p. 149; A. O. U. Committee, 1912, p. 381).

Distribution in California — Abundant in summer, and breeds, throughout
the lowlands of the state, occurring also in small numbers in the mountains
through the lower portion of the yellow pine and Douglas fir belts (Transition
life zone). Common in winter in the coastal district of southern California from
the vicinity of Santa Barbara southward; also occurs at that season in smaU num-
bers in the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys to the head of the latter. Eesident
on all of the southern coastal islands.

The Western Mourning Dove, by one name or another, is probably
known to more people in California than any other single species of
game bird. It is found over very nearly tlie entire state, and usually
in considerable numbers. Although present at all times of the year
somewhere within our boundaries, it is much more abundant and
more widely distributed in summer than in winter. During the
nesting season tlie birds are found chiefly in pairs, but, after the
young are grown, old and young congregate in flocks and feed and
roost together. It is then that dove hunters find their best sport.
The birds have been hunted in California for many years, and still
are ; but in many of the eastern states they are now classed as non-
game birds and protected by law. In California the nesting period
of the dove has been found to include almost every month of the
year, and on the basis of the argument that no shooting should be
allowed when it is nesting, the arrangement of a proper hunting season
has presented considerable difficulty. Indeed, this and other considera-
tions, particularly its service as a destroyer of weed seeds, have quite
properly raised the question whether we should continue to allow the
dove to be shot as a game bird.*

* In the belief that the Mourning Dove merited more detailed consideration than the
data at hand made possible, a circular letter asking for local information on the species
was, at our request, sent out by the California Fish and Game Commission to its deputies.
Replies were received imm the following persons: San Diego, Webb Toms; Elsinore, J. H.
Ovger; Los Angeles, A. .J. Stout: Santa Maria, H. J. Abels; Salinas, Prank Shook; Watson-
ville, .1. H. Hill: San .Jose, I. L. Koppel : Pleasantoii. Earl Downing: Oaklnnd, J. L. Biindock :
Redwood Citv. T. F. Maloney : Vallejo. W. H. Armstrong; Napa. 'W. J. Moore; Santa Rosa,
Henry Lencioni: Big Pine, E. H. Ober; Fresno, S. L. N. Ellis; Dunlap, F. A. Bullard;
Newman. J. E. Newsome; Columbia, G. F. Grant; Sutter Creek. F. S. Parke; Shingle,
Kuell Gray: Loomis, C. A. Scroggs ; Taylorsville. L. .1. Warren: Sacramento. George Neale :
Live Oak, E. D. Ricketts; Maxwell. S. J. Carpenter; Red Bluff, T. W. Birmingham; Susan-

WESTERN MO CBN IN G DOVE

591

Over much of the state the jMourning Dove is found throughout
the year, but not at all times or in all localities in the same numbers.
During the summer months it is common over all of the lowland and
foothill country, and occurs in small numbers in the lower part of the
coniferous belt (Transition life zone), thus ranging up into the
mountains. It extends clear to the northwestern seacoast through the
redwood belt. East of the Sierran divide it ranges up the mountains to
fully 8,000 feet altitude (Mus. Vert. Zool.). It is found all over the
dry deserts of southeastern California, as well as on all of the coastal
islands. During the winter months it is well represented in the coast
district of southern California, and occurs also at that season in vary-
ing numbers in the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys. Nearer

the seacoast small numbers are
found in various localities north
as far as Redwood City. Every-
where the number of wintering
birds varies from year to year.
Our knowledge of the mi-
gration of the Mourning D.ove
in California is incomplete ;
this is due to a lack of ob-
servers, and also to the fact that
in many places small numbers
of the birds remain through
the winter which makes it diffi-
cult to determine the dates of
arrival and departure of actual migrants. Belding (1890, p. 22)
says that in 1886 it was first seen at Agua Caliente [Palm Springs],
Riverside County, on March 27, and became common there after
April 1. At Mecca, Riverside County, the first in 1908 was noted
March 18 (Richardson, MS). Stout (MS) says that about Los
Angeles it is rare from October to February, but becomes common
in ]\Iarch ; and at Santa Maria, Santa Barbara County, where few
are resident, the migrants arrive in April (Abels, MS). McGregor
(1901, p. 5) states that the dove arrives in the coastal part of Santa
Cruz County about April 1. In the vicinity of San Jose and Red-
wood City, and about San Francisco Bay m general, it does not appear
until late April or early May (Koppel, MS; Maloney, MS). The
first for the season was seen at Olema, Marin Covmty, on April 18
(1884), and at Nicasio on April 20 two years later ; Avhile at Hayward,

Fig. 91. Head of Western Mourning
Dove. Natural size.

ville. F. P. Cadv: Weaverville, G. O. Laws; Weed, L. A. Streuber; Greenview, J. W. Harris;
Crescent City. H. S. Prescott : Fort Bragg, C. R. Perkins: Eureka, E. P. Barnes.

In addition, copies of the letter were sent to, and replies received from the following
ornithologists: John G. Tyler, Fresno: Leo Wiley, Palo Verde: and .J. Eugene Law, Holly-
wood. To all of these persons the authors are grateful for their kindness in furnishing
the information requested. Material used from these replies in the following discussion has
been credited to the correspondents as MS {e. y.. Toms. MS).

592 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA

Alameda County, it fii-st appeared on April 23 (1885), and at
Berkeley in the same year on April 30 (Belding, loc. eit.)- In the
central part of the state the migrant doves arrive about the first of
April, for example in the western part of Calaveras County (Roberts,
MS), and at Loomis, Placer County (Scroggs, MS). At Sacramento,
Neale (MS) says May 10 is the average date of arrival, while the birds
are also late to arrive in the northern Sierras : Taylorsville, 3,500 feet
altitude, Plumas Count.y, about May 3 (Warren, MS), and at Susan-
ville, 4,200 feet altitude, Lassen County, late April to mid-May (Cady,
MS). On the northwest coast, at Crescent City, Del Norte County,
Prescott (MS) reports that they do not appear until about May 1.
East of the Sierran divide there are but two records of importance in
this connection. Lamb (1912, p. 35) says the dove becomes abundant
near Daggett, in eastern San Bernardino County, after ]\Iay 1, while
Ober (MS) states that it arrives in the vicinity of Big Pine, Inyo
County, about the middle of May.

Direct evidence concerning the fall migration is difficult to obtain
because of the local movement of the doves, from the valleys into
the hills. This being almost coincident with the opening of the hunt-
ing season, some persons believe it due to the frightening of the birds
in the lowlands where shooting has been concentrated. Some approxi-
mate dates of departure are as follows : Crescent City, September 20
(Prescott. MS) ; Eureka, about September 1 (Barnes, MS) ; Green-
view, Siskiyou County, mid-October (Harris, MS) ; Weaverville,
Trinity County, October (Laws, MS) ; Red Bluff, about September 1
(Birmingham, MS); Susanville, October (Cady. MS): Taylorsville,
Plumas County, October 15 to 30 (Warren, MS) ; Shingle, Eldorado
County, September 15 (Gray, MS) ; Sutter Creek, mid-October to
mid-November (Parke, MS) ; and Napa, October (Moore, MS). About
San Francisco Bay the birds depart from the vicinity of Oakland by
the middle of September (Bundock, M.S), and from Redwood City
by the first of November (Maloney, MS) ; but in 1884 they were fairly
common at Berkeley on December 4 (Belding, 1890, p. 22). At more
south erl.y stations, a marked diminution in their n^^mbers becomes
apparent in October.

The Mourning Dove is recognizable by its comparatively small
size, conspicuously pointed and Mhite-ma^'gined tail, pale brown lower
surface, and lack of white wing markings. From the Band-tailed
Pigeon, it may be easily told by its much smaller size, ]Oointed instead
of square tail, and absence of white collar on hind neck. From the
White-winged Dove it may be distinguished by its slightly smaller
size, pointed instead of square tail, and by tlie absence of white
markings on its wing. From the Mexican Ground Dove the Mourning
Dove may be easily distinguished by its very much larger size and
pointed tail.

WESTEFX MOUFNIXG DOVE 593

This bird is essentiall.y an inhabitant of open country, and is
rarely if ever found in tliickly forested regions. It does, however,
seek shelter in moderate growths of trees, such as willows and cotton-
woods along stream courses, or the oaks and digger pines of the foot-
hill country. Since it feeds to a large extent upon small plant seeds
it is not limited to fertile regions, but is scattered far and wide over
muph of the desert country in the southeastern part of the state. Here
the occasional rains are followed by profuse crops of annuals which
leave the ground strewn with their seeds. In settled regions the birds
are very often seen foraging along roadsides or in waste corners of
fields.

Water is a prime requisite for the dove and regular visits are made
to drinking places in the early morning and evening. Even in the
desert country where feeding and drinking places are often many
miles apart, the birds make the journey between the two with remark-
able regularity and directness. Sometimes the only accessible water
for miles is at a small isolated spring or seepage place, but the birds
find their way to it with apparent ease. Indeed, experienced travelers
on the desert have asserted that when in search of water they have
made use of this faculty of the birds and followed their direct lines
of flight with success. This essential habit, of visiting water holes,
was formerly turned to advantage by Indians and market hunters,
who secreted themselves in the vicinitj^ and killed the birds in great
numbers as they came to drink.

Doves roost for the night both on the ground and in trees. A
favorite perch for the night is some leafless tree in the vicinity of a
drinking place. In illustration of their behavior in this respect the
instance may be cited of a flock on San Clemente Island, where at the
time of observation "a clump of scraggy cherry trees in the ravine a
few rods north of the windmill seemed to be a regular roosting place.
Just at dusk, every evening, the doves would arrive in pairs and
settle in the trees until there were probably twenty or thirty. But
they would leave in the morning by daylight ..." (Grinnell, 1897,
p. 13).

Mourning Doves are rarely seen singly. Usually they are noted
in pairs and quite often in small flocks of a dozen or so. Sometimes
the birds band into larger flocks numbering fifty or more ; but this
is only after the nesting season, when the young are fully grown, and
the families have joined together. Throughout most of the year,
whether feeding in stubble fields or weed patches, whether coming to
drink or perching in trees to roost for the night, the birds are as a
rule observed in pairs. This association in couples is so general as to
give rise to the common belief that doves mate for life.

The call of this dove is a rather mournful cooing, mellow but far-

594

GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA

reaching iu tone. It may be represented by the syllables: ah-coo-
roo-coo. Under favorable conditions the cooing may be heard for as
much as half a mile. It is given most commonly in the spring and
early summer months, and then at almost any time of day, even until
late dusk. The notes are produced by the male, who is described as
appearing quite active and cheerful despite the mournful character
of his utterances (Bendire, 1892, p. 140).

As a result of the equable climate of the state as a whole, the
Mourning Dove here has an extremely long nesting season. Sixty-
six definite records of the nesting of the species within the state
are at hand (see table 19), the earliest being February 9 (1897) at
San Gabriel, Los Angeles County, when a nest with slightly incubated
eggs was found (Willett, 1912ft, p. 44), and the latest, December 5
(1911) at Covina, Los Angeles County, when a heavily incubated set
was discovered (Howell, 1912, pp. 73-74). Only the months of
October, November and January are lacking in the list, and it seems
quite as probable that nesting may occur during those months as
during some of the others.

Table 19 — Data

Relative

to the

?sting of the Western

Mourning Dove

California

LOCALITV

Datk

Nest Contents
AND Condition

AVTHORITA'

Near San Gabriel,
Los Angeles Co.

Feb.

1897

eggs, incubation slight

Willett, 1912a, p. 44

Three Rivers,
Tulare Co.

Feb.

27,

1902

eggs, slight

Dean, 1904, p. Ill

Los Angeles Co.

Mar.

14.

1896

eggs, fresh

Grinnell, 1898, p. 20

Escondido, San Diego Co.

Mar.

15.

Eggs, fresh

Shai-p, 1907, p. 86

Pasadena,

Los Angeles Co.

Mar.

27,

1896

egg, fresh

Grinnell, MS.

Near Los Banos.
Merced Co.

Mar.

28,

1912

eggs

Beck, MS., in
Mus. Vert. Zool.

Near Los Banos.
Merced Co.

Mar.

28,

1912

egg

Beck, MS., in
Mus. Vert. Zool.

Fresno District

Mar.

.■?o.

1907

half-grown squabs

Tyler, 1913b, p. 36

Pasadena,

Los Angeles Co.

Mar.

30,

1896

eggs, incubation
begun

Mus. Vert. Zool.

Near Pleasanton,
Alameda Co.

Mar.

31,

1915

eggs, about to hatch

Bolander, 1915, p. 131

Altamont, Alameda Co.

Apr.

1915

eggs, incubated

Bolander, 1915, p. 131

Pasadena,

Los Angeles Co.

Apr.

15,

1892

eggs, incubation
begun

Mus. Vert. Zool.

Pasadena,

Los Angeles Co.

Apr.

18,

189.5

eggs, fresh

Mus. Vert. Zool.

Pasadena,

Los Angeles Co.

Apr.

25,

1895

eggs

Mus. Vert. Zool.

Modesto, Stanislaus Co.

Apr.

29,

1913

eggs, in('ul)atioii (inc-half

Mailliard coll.

Near Stockton,

San Joaquin Co.
Saticoy, Ventura Co.

May
May

1882
1873

eggs, fresh
esting

Mailliard coll.
Cooper, 1880, p. 251

Hayward, Alameda Co.

May

12,

1877

Nesting

Cooper, 1880, p. 251

Piedmont Springs,
Alameda Co.

May

14,

1882

eggs

Mus. Vert. Zool.

Cabezon, Riverside Co.

May

15,

1908

eggs, incubation
under way

Mus. Vert. Zool.

Sugar Hill, Modoc Co.

May

20.

1910

eggs

Mus. Vert. Zool.

Hayward, Alameda Co.

May

20,

1878

Nesting

Cooper, 1880, p. 251

WESTEBX MOUENING DOVE

505

Table 19— (Continued)

Locality
Hayward, Alameda Co.
Calaveras Creek,

Alameda Co.
Santa Cruz
Snow Creek.

Riverside Co.
Lake Vallev,

near Lake Tahoe
Lathrop, San Joaquin Co.
Snow Creek.

Riverside Co.
\ear Lathrop,

San Joaquin Co.
Hayward, Alameda Co.
Colton.

San Bernardino Co.
Lathrop, San Joaquin Co.
Lathrop. San Joaquin Co.
Alameda Co.
Alameda Co.
Pasadena,

Los Angeles Co.
San Clemente Island
San Clemente Island
Pasadena,

Los Angeles Co.
Alameda Co.
3 miles east Coulterville,

Mariposa Co.. 3,200 ft.
3 miles east Coulterville,

Mariposa Co., 3,200 ft.
Alturas, Modoc Co.

Alturas, Modoc Co.

Sacramento
Eldorado Co.

Taylorville, Marin Co.
Palomar Mountain,

San Diego Co.
Sacramento

Hayward, Alameda Co.
Santa Cruz Island

Hayward. Alameda Co.

Tulare Lake, Kings Co.
Pasadena,

Los Angeles Co.
Hayward, Alameda Co.
Cushenberry Springs,

San Bernardino Co.
Murphys, Calaveras Co.
Murphys, Calaveras Co.
Vallevista, Riverside Co.

Vallevista, Riverside Co.

Escondido, San Diego Co.
Los Angeles Co.
Near Santa Monica,
Los Angeles Co.
Covina, Los Angeles Co.

Nest Coxtent.s

Date

AND Condition

May
May

23,
23,

1885
1881

eggs, fresh
eggs, fresh

May
May

25,
27,

1865
1908

esting
eggs

May

28,

1909

eggs, fresh

May
May

29,
29,

1911
1908

2
2

eggs

eggs, fresh

May

May
May

30,

30,
30,

1911

1887
1907

2
2

squabs, partly

fledged

eggs, fresh

eggs, probably fresh

June 1, 1911

June 3, 1899

June 3, 1892

2 eggs

2 eggs, fresh

2 eggs, incubation begun

2 eggs, fresh

Authority
Mailliard coll.
Mailliard coll.

Cooper, 1880, p. 251
Grinnell and Swarth,

1913, p. 234
Ray. 1910, p. 130

H. C. Bryant, MS.
Mus. Vert. Zool.

H. C. Bryant, MS.

Mailliard coll.
Hanna, 1907, p. 198

H. C. Bryant, MS.
H. C. Bryant, MS.
Mus. Vert. Zool.
Mus. Vert. Zool.
Mus. Vert. Zool.

June

1897

1 egg,

fresh

Grinnell, 1897, p. 13

June

1897

2 eggs.

fresh

Grinnell, 1897, p. 13

June

1892

2 eggs,

slightly

incubated

Mus. Vert. Zool.

.Tune

1899

2 eggs,

fresh

Mus. Vert. Zool.

June

'•

1915

1 egg

Storer, MS., in
Mus. Vert. Zool.

.Tune

1915

2 eggs

Storer, MS., in
Mus. Vert. Zool.

.Tune

1910

2 eggs.

fresh

W. P. Tavlor, MS., in
Mus. Vert. Zool.

.Tune

1910

2 eggs.

fresh

W. P. Tavlor, MS., in
Mus. Vert. Zool.

June

1910

2 eggs.

fresh

W. P. Taylor, MS., in
Mus. Vert. Zool.

June

11,

1867

2 eggs

Ridgway, 1877, p. 597

June

11,

1898

2 eggs.

fresh

Barlow and Price,
1901, p. 160

June

13,

1904

2 eggs

Mus. Vert. Zool.

June

15,

1897

1 squab

McGregor, 1899, p. 67

June

18,

1867

2 eggs

Ridgway, 1877, p. 597

.June

18,

1878

Nesting

Cooper, 1880, p. 251

July

1912

1 egg

Wright and Snvder,
1913, p. 91

July

12,

1881

3 eggs, incubat
two-thirds

ion

Mailliard coll.

July

30,

1907

Still

breeding

Goldman, 19086, p. 203

Aug.

1895

1 egg,

fresh

Grinnell, MS.

Aug.

11,

1881

2 eggs.

incubat:

ion

Mailliard coll.

Aug.

11,

1905

begun
2 squabs

Grinnell, 1908, p. 57

Aug.

29,

1878

Eggs, nearly hatched

Balding, 1879, p. 438

Aug.

29,

1878

Eggs

Belding, 1879, p. 438

Aug.

30,

1908

Small squabs

Grinnell and Swarth,
1913, p. 234

Aug.

30,

1908

Small squabs

Grinnell and Swarth,
1913, p. 234

Sept.
Sept.

2,
15,'

1897

Eggs, fresh

2 eggs, just hatching

Sharp, 1907, p. 86
Grinnell, 1898, p. 20

Sept.

22,

1894

2 eggs,

fresh

Willett, 1912a, p. 44

Dec.

1911

2 eggs, incubation
advanced

Howell, 1912, pp. 73-74

596

GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOEXIA

The sixty-six records at hand (tahk' 19) are distributed through
the year as follows: 2 in February, 8 in March, 5 in April, 17 in May,
20 in June, 3 in July, 7 in August, 3 in September, and 1 in December.
Thirty-two of the sixty-six nestings were observed between May 20 and
June 18, which period probably represents the height of the breeding
season. It is also probable that relatively more nestings occur in July
than is here indicated. The report received from the Fish and Game
Commission deputies would seem to show that the breeding season
extends from February through October, with the height of the season

in June and July ; thus, in 31 re-
ports, 18 record nesting in May, 26
in June, 28 in July, and 21 in
August, although in nine cases nest-
ing is not recorded as continuing
through the latter month. In 19 re-
ports, five (four from the northwest-
ern part of the state) record one
brood, eleven record two broods and
seven record three broods as obtain-
ing either regularly or infrequently.
Where stated, ground nests are re-
ported commonest in eleven locali-
ties, and tree nests commonest in ten,
but neither type seems to be alto-
gether restricted to any particular
part of the state. Probably the avail-
ability of sites and presence of enem-
ies exercise some control upon the
selection of any one kind of nest
.site.

The above data bear upon the
question as to when the hunting
season can be opened, so as not to
jeopardize eggs or squabs of nest-
ing pairs of doves. The opening of the season for many past years
has been either July 1 or July 15, but even the latter of these dates
is quite evidently too early. On the other hand, an occasional nesting
as late as September would not seem to iis a valid warrant for defer-
ring the beginning of the hunting season (if the dove is not to receive
total protection) until so late as October 1, especially in view of the
departure of many migrant birds a month or more before that time,
in the northern part of the state. If a uniform date of opening
throughout the state is to be adhered to, we believe that September 1
comes nearest to meeting the contingencies of the case.

—

/ \

- / \

- 1 \

- \

- 1 \

- j \

8
G

: / \

4
2

/ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 \

Fig. 92. Nesting season of the
Western Mourning Dove in Cali-
fornia, according to opinions of
deputies of the California Fish
and Game Commission.

fVESTEEN MVUBNING DOVE 597

At the beginning of the breeding season, which is announced by
the augmented cooing of the males, the flocks break up and the birds
scatter out, each pair ordinarily nesting by itself. At times, however,
several couples may nest in such close proximity to each other as to
suggest a colony (Tyler, 19136, pp. 35-37); but their behavior is
quite different from that of strictly colonial birds. Nests are to be
found in all sorts of locations, and it is difficult to infer any choice
of situation on the basis of seclusion, protection from enemies, or even
proximity to food or water. They are found on the bare open ground,
on the banks of gullies, in low bushes, and at varying elevations in
trees, some having been noted as much as forty feet above the ground.
Probabl.v six or eight feet would be an average height for nests that
are built above the surface of the ground. Whatever the location,
the structure is crude, a mere platform of small sticks and grasses
or roots, so loosely put together that in elevated nests the eggs may
often be seen through the structure from below. Sometimes the
deserted nests of other birds, as for example of the mockingbird
(Tjder, loc. cit.), may be used, and slightly added to; but this prac-
tice is not common.

Nests of the Mourning Dove rarely contain more or less than two
eggs. Tyler (loc. cit.) states that after "examining hundreds of nests"
he can onl.y recall two in which the complement deviated from that
number. One contained three eggs, one of them being so different
that he believed it to have been deposited by another female ; the
other held a single heavily incubated egg in a remodeled mocking-
bird's nest. The unusual depth of the latter nest made it unlikely
that a second egg had been present and had rolled out. A. K. Fisher
(1893a, p. 33) states that at Lone Pine, Inyo County, a nest was found
during the first part of June which contained three young.

According to Bendire (1892, p. 142), one day intervenes between
the deposition of the first and second eggs, and the process of incuba-
tion is said to last for about two weeks. Our impression is that
incubation is carried on by the female only. If a nest is approached
the sitting bird may slip quietly off and fly away some distance ; or,
again, the "broken-wing" ruse may be tried in its extremest mani-
festation. Probably, as with other birds, this ruse comes into use
chiefly towards the end of the period of incubation.

The eggs are elliptical ovate, that is, more nearly equal-ended than
those of the domestic hen, and are pure white in color, with a slight
gloss. They vary considerably in size; thirteen sets (twenty-six eggs)
in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology measure in inches, 0.98 to 1.23
by 0.77 to 0.87, and average 1.07 by 0.83. The eggs of the Mourning
Dove differ from those of the Band-tailed Pigeon in being decidedly
smaller, about two-thirds as long and one-third the bulk. It is com-

598 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

monly believed that two, and in some instances three, broods are raised
in a season. There is no conclusive evidence at hand to substantiate
either this, or the contention of some sportsmen that certain of the
birds nest successively at high and then lower altitudes.

While in the nest the squabs are fed on material regurgitated by
the parents, the so-called "pigeon's milk." Judd (1901, p. 431)
reports that examination of five squabs of this species showed that
their food comprised thirty per cent of entire seeds of plants and
the balance consisted of irregular endosperm fragments of the same
kinds of seeds. The plants represented are those species usually
included in the term ' ' weed ' ' ; namely, oxalis, spurge, ragweed, sun-
flower, and pigeon grass. Adults collected during the same season had
eaten all of the species of seeds identified in the food of the nestlings,
as well as some others. The adults brood their young sometimes even
after they are fully fledged. Although laying but two eggs the doves
are remarkably successful in hatcliing them and rearing both squabs,
and this together with the possibility that two broods are reared in
a season may in part account for the dove's ability to maintain itself
despite the heavy slaughter during the hunting season.

An examination of the food of the Mourning Dove shows that weed
seeds form the principal item of its diet throughout the year. Beal
(1904, pp. 6-7) in an examination of 237 stomachs of this bird from
all parts of the country found that weed seeds comprised 64 per cent
of the food for the year, and that the percentage did not vary greatly
in different months. The remaining 32 per cent of vegetable food
consisted of grains of various sorts (wheat, oats, barley, rye, buck-
wheat and corn), but of these the only grain taken in good condition,
that is, apparently fresh, was wheat, which seemed to be preferred.
By far the greater amount of this grain was waste, gleaned from
stubble fields. Such grain has little or no value, and the amount taken
by all the doves in California is negligible when the total amount
of grain lost in harvesting is considered. The animal food taken by
doves is chiefly insects, and constitutes less than one per cent of their
total diet. It is probably for the most part taken accidentally.

Enormous numbers of seeds are taken by doves. Three counts were
made by the Bureau of Biological Survey and showed 6,400, 7,500
and 9,200 seeds, respectively, in the stomaclis and crops of three
birds. A large percentage of the seeds taken are those of garden
and farm weed pests. "In certain parts of California the habit of
feeding on the seeds of turkey mullein {Eremocarpus sctigcnis) is
so well known that a botanist, on inquiring how he could collect some
seeds of this plant, was advised to shoot a few doves and open their
crops" (T. S. Palmer, 1900, p. 17). All food material is ground
into small fragments in the bird's musc\dar gizzard ; hence the dove is

WESTFFN MOUKXIXG DOVE

599

not insti'umeutal in transporting the seeds of noxious weeds and
other plants, as are many other birds that merely swallow the seeds
or berries, dissolve off an outer nutritious coating, and discharge them
without affecting the powers of germination.

Occasionally doyes have been killed by eating poisoned grain put
out for horned larks where the latter were destroying grain (McAtee,
1905, p. 13). Serious complaint has been made here in California
that poisoned grain put out for ground squirrels has killed numbers
of doyes (Bundock, MS). Some are probably killed each year by
poisonous gases in the orange groves when the trees are being fumi-
gated, as instanced by Howell (1914, p. 55). Doves have natural

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

April

May

1880
1883

1891

1893

1901
1903

1911
1915

Fig. 93. Changes in the open season for hunting doves in
California, from the time of the establishment of the first close
season in 1880 until 1915.

enemies, also. A. K. Fisher (1893&), as a result of the examina-
tion of 2,690 stomachs of hawks and owls taken all over the United
States, found remains of doves in nine stomachs. But this is not a
very large proportion as compared with 43 stomachs in which quail
or grouse were found. In this connection, the relative numbers of
doves to these other game birds ought to be taken into account, as
well as their relative powers of flight. On the whole, doves are prob-
ably much more immune from natural enemies than are quail or
grouse.

In a number of the eastern states, more particularly the northern
ones (lying in the Transition life zone), the Mourning Dove is not,
and has not, for many years, been considered a game bird ; but, in
the south, and here in the west, where a warmer climate favors the
existence of the species in greater numbers, it has always been con-
sidered fair game by sportsmen. In California, the first state-wide
law protecting doves was passed in 1880 when the open season was

coo GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBNIA

made to extend from July 1 until January 1, six months. Since
that time there seems to have been constant dissatisfaction on the
part of hunters in the different sections of the state, with resulting
readjustment of open and closed seasons. There have been no less
than eleven different legislative enactments on the subject during the
last thirty-five years. The changes in the law from time to time
are indicated in the accompanying chart (fig. 93).

The present (1915) law, which conforms to the season under the'
Federal Migratory Bird Law passed in 1913, will be seen to be the
most conservative of any yet enacted in California. Two opposing
conditions make the regulation of the dove season here extremely
difficult, namely, the late nesting, and the rather early migration in
the northern part of the state. Birds in the region surrounding
the head of the Sacramento Valley are nesting almost up to the time
that they begin to leave for the south, so that if the hunters of this
section are to be allowed to shoot the birds at all, the open season
will have to include the latter part of the nesting period and be
rather short at best. Opening the season on September 1 will not
prevent shooting while some nesting is still in progress, yet it will
allow the great majority of the young birds to be fully fledged before
hunters take the field. A second chart (fig. 94) shows that the hunting
season in California (1915) is a fair average as compared with the 21
other states that permit dove shooting.

The number of dove hunters in California is simply enormous,
and the wonder is that the birds have not been exterminated long
ago. Mr. A. D. Ferguson, in charge of the Fresno District of the
California Fish and Game Commission, says (i)) Calif. Fish and Game
Comm., 1914, p. 42) :

In the season of 1913, it is estimated tliat in Fresno County 4,000 giinners
Avere out for doves on the opening day . . . and . . . few if any of these people
were disappointed in the day 's ha^. After the opening date doves could not be
so readily secured. Apparently tlie surviving birds took refuge in the Sierra
hills and in isolated sections of the sparsely inhabited west side of the valley.
The spring of 1914, however, disclosed the presence of doves in their old breeding
grounds in most satisfactory numbers.

Excessive shooting does undoubtedly have its effect, for in Los
Angeles County Mr. George Willett states that the birds have been
greatly reduced, and the same report comes from Solano County.
Agricultural development in general may be said to favor the increase
of doves, and thus to some degree compensates for the reduction
caused by hunting. Waste grain and other seeds furnish considerable
food, while the inevitable growths of weeds in neglected corners and
fallow fields give further sustenance. The bii'ds are notably adapt-
able in the choice of nesting sites, so that the planting of orchards,

fTESTEBN MOURNING DOVE

601

or on the other liand, the clearing of brush lands, does not affect them
unfavorably.

In earlier years Mourning Doves furnished "a large amount of
food to the Indians during the spring and summer. Before migration
commences the Indians build rude huts of brush, grass, and weeds, in
whicli to secrete themselves, near the springs and streams. Loopholes

Alabama

Arizona

California

Colorado

Delaware

Florida

Georgia

Idaho

Illinois

Kentucky

Louisiana

Maryland

Mississippi

Missouri

Nebraska

Nevada

New Mexico

North
Carolina

Oregon
South
Carolina

Tennessee

Utah

Virginia
(part)

June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. April May

Fig. 94. Open season for hunting doves in states which
allow these birds to be shot (1915).

are made on the sides toward the water, through which arrows are
shot at the birds as they alight to drink" (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 33).

In 1895-96, when doves were yet permitted to be sold in the
markets, the records of the California Fish and Game Commission
(Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 40) show that 5,160 birds were received
in San Francisco and Los Angeles from October to February, inclus-
ive. Their value was quoted as slightly less than five cents apiece.

The dove population of California as a whole has decreased con-
siderably during recent years. Twenty-two of our correspondents
report decreases ranging from sliglit reductions to almost total extir-

(i02 GAME BIFDS OF CALIFORNIA

pation. five say that the dove population lias remained constant, and
four report that the birds have increased, although it is not stated
whether this inci'ease has reached former numbei's or exceeded them.
Nine of those reporting reduction in numbers attribute it to the
increase in the efficiency of shotguns, and better modes of travel
such as that afforded by the automobile ; two correspondents, in the
central coast district, state that doves have perished in large numbers
by eating poisoned grain put out for the destruction of ground squir-
rels; while two others, in the northwestern part of the state, attribute
the decrease to the work of predatory birds and mammals. Consider-
able diversity of opinion exists as to the means to be used in bringing
the dove population back to normal ; some of our correspondents
believe that a closed season of a few years would suffice.

The matter of a proper open season is also diversely reported upon,
ten persons deeming the three months beginning with September 1
satisfactory, while twelve recommend changes. Four recommend a
later season, while four others would open it earlier, two even sug-
gesting July 15 as an opening date I Happily this latter view of the
situation is not shared by many : the majority believe that the Mourn-
ing Dove merits more consideration during the time that it is rearing
its young than many hunters of the tj^pe of the two just mentioned are
willing to grant it. In fact seven deputies recommend that the dove
be entirely removed from the list of game species.

To sum up the situation, we find that the Mourning Dove is valued
by many sportsmen for its high qualities as an object of pursuit as
well as article of food.* On the other hand very many persons urge
that the Mourning Dove be once and for all removed from the list
of game birds and be placed on the list of fully protected species.
This dove is admired by many as an attractive feature in the wild
life of the state ; as an article of food it is of but small size ; its forage
habits are such that it is at least wholly harmless to agricultural
interests, and a majority of bird studentst claim for it a distinctly
beneficent role as a destroyer of weed seeds ; it is feared that decrease
will continue in spite of restricted hunting season ; and stress is laid
on file extreme difficulty of arranging an open season which will
permit hunting after the birds have finished nesting and yet before
they have commenced to migrate. It is difficult to make a recommen-
dation that is fair to all interests. If the dove shows no further

* Present information would seem to indicate that in most parts of the state under the
restricted open season from September 1 to November 30 the dove will be able to hold its
own, and thus continue to subserve the wishes of the hunter.

■f The three authors concerned in the preparjition of this account of the Mourning Dove
are disagreed as to the weight which should be given the evidence thus far available concern-
ing the value of the bird to agriculture. Mr. Grinnell is unable to grant that valid proof
has yet been presented establishing beyond scientific question any practical or considerable
service on the part of the dove to agriculture. On the other hand. Mr. Bryant and Mr.
Storer are convinced that the evidence thus far ndducod sufficiently proves that the dove is
highly beneficial to the fanner's interests.

WHITE-WINGED BOTE 603

decrease, we see no practical reason why it should not be kept on
the game list — witli adequate restriction of hunting. But if the next
few years show notable diminution, the only fair thing will be for
the sportsmen of the state entirely to relinquish their claims on the
species, and join heartily with bird-lovers in securing complete pro-
tection for it.

White-winged Dove
Melopelia asiatica trudeaui (Audubon)

Other n.\mes — Sonoia Dove; Wliite-wiiiged Wild I'igeon; Melopeliu cusiuiica ;
Melopelm leucoptera.

Description — AduliH, hoih sexrs: Top and back of head and hind neck, dull
grayish purple, most conspicuous in males ; side of head, ashy broMTi ; chin pearl
gray, blending into pale broAvn of throat ; streak below ear region black with
reflections of deep blue and purple ; side of neck ashy broAvn with bronzy green
iridescence; "iris dark hazel; bill black; . . . bare orbital ring blue" (Brewster,
1883, p. 32); upper back light brown; lower back and rump, dull bluish gray;
upper tail coverts brownish gray, washed with blue ; middle pair of tail feathers
broAvn, darkest toward base; rest of tail feathers dark bluish gray above (and
black beneath), becoming black subterminally (above), with broad white ends;
male distinguishable from female in having somewhat longer tail with broader
feathers and more white at ends; outer surface of closed wing (lesser and median
coverts and tertials) light brown, continuous with back in tone; greater coverts
bluish gray, with broad white outer margins and ends ; primaries and their
coverts black, the former narrowly margined with white ; secondaries black,
tipped narrowly with Avhite ; under surface of wing and axillars plain bluish gray ;
throat, fore-neck and breast, pale brown, changing gradually into light bluish gray
on rest of under surface, palest on under tail coverts; legs [and feet?] "dull red"
(BreAvster, loc. cit.). Males: Total length 11.90-12.54 inches (302-318 mm.)
(eight specimens from "Arizona) ; folded wing 6.27-6.65 (159-169); bill along
culmen 0.81-0.91 (20.6-23.1); tarsus 0.95-1.04 (24.0-26.3) (ten specimens from
Arizona and California). Females: Total length 11.24-11.90 (285-302) (seven
specimens from Arizona) ; folded AAdng 5.78-6.30 (147-160) ; bill along culmen
0.83-0.90 (21.0-22.8); tarsus 0.91-0.99 (23.0-25.1) (eight specimens from Ari-
zona and California). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult but generally
paler, top of head lacking purple tinge, streak below ear merely dusky, and chin
bare of feathers.

Marks for field identification- — Medium size, this dove being smaller than
either a Band-tailed or Domestic pigeon, but slightly larger than a Mourning
Dove ; a conspicuous Avhite area on wdng, forming a longitudinal streak when
wing is closed and a distinct crescent when the wing is spread; tail square-ended,
with a white band across end (fig. 90).

Voice — A frequently repeated hoarse co-c6-o-col'-co-cd-o (Gilman, 1911, p. 52;
Grinnell, 1914&, p. 123).

Nest — Placed most often in mesquite, but also in willows and other trees and
shrubs; at varying heights from four to twenty-five feet (1.22-7.60 meters)
though usually about ten feet (3.04 meters) above ground; a crude structure of
twigs resembling that of the Mourning Dove but larger (Gilman, 1911, pp. 53-54).

G04 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOJRNIA

Eggs — Usually 2, exceptionally 3, ovate in sliapc, incasuiiiig in inches, l.Oo to
1.30 by 0.78 to 0.95 (in millimeters, 26.6 to 33.0 by 19.8 to 24.1), and averaging
in two large series, 1.14 by 0.88 (28.9 by 22.4) and 1.17 by 0.88 (29.6 by 22.4)
respectively; the color ranges from white to cream (Davie, 1889, jjp. 158-159),
and tlie surface lacks the i^early luster seen in eggs of the Mourning Dove (Gil-
man, 1911, p. 54).

General distribution — Lower California, extreme southeastein California,
southern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, southern Texas, and south through
Mexico to Costa Eica; casual in Colorado and recorded once from Washington
(modified from A. O. U. Committee, 1912, p. 380).

Distribution in California — Summer visitant in moderate numbers along
the Colorado River from The Needles south to the Mexican boundary ; recorded
once as a straggler in w^estern San Diego County. Arrives in late April.

The White-winged Dove, with a Made range in the southern iiortion
of our continent, barely reaches the extreme southeastern portion of
California, in the valley of the Colorado River. Here it is a summer
visitant in moderate numbers, arriving in the latter part of April
(the 29th in 1910), and inhabiting almost exclusively the willoAV
thickets along the river (Grinnell, 1914&, p. 123), from the Mexican
boundary north at least to The Needles, San Bernardino County
(Stephens, 1903, p. 77). A single individual taken ten miles west of
Escondido, San Diego County, about September 25, 1911 (Dixon, 1912,
p. 196) was doubtless a vagrant, and constitutes the only record for
California outside the limited region above specified. It has been
reported from Twenty-nine Palms, on the Mohave Desert east of
Morongo Pass (Heller, 1901, p. 100), but not upon the best of evidence.
Cooper (1877, p. 95) saw birds of this species in the markets of San
Francisco; but, as suggested by him, there is a chance that they were
brought in caged from Mexico.

From other members of the pigeon family occurring in California
the White-winged Dove may be distinguished chiefly by the large
white patch on the wing. In addition it may be told from the Band-
tailed Pigeon by its smaller size and white-tipped tail, from the
Mourning Dove by its slightly larger size and squarish instead of
pointed tail, and from the Mexican Ground Dove by its decidedly
larger size, as well as by the presence of much bluish gray in its colora-
tion, and white tip on its tail.

Oilman, who has improved his excellent opportunities for observ-
ing this species near Sacaton, Pinal County, Arizona, has written a
very full account of it (1911, pp. 52-54), from which Ave exti-act the
following portions :

The White-winged Dove or Sonora Pigeon ... is migratory, arriving here
about the 20th of April. Their coming is coincident with the ripening of the
berries of the wild jujube . . . upon which they feed greedily as long as the
fruit lasts, consuming both ripe and green. . . . The white color pattern shown

WHITE-WINGED BOTE 605

when the bird is in flight is quite striking. "When perched, the white on the
wings is rather inconspicuous, but in motion it shows as two broad crescents,
and the white crescent-shaped bar across the tail, generally spread a little in
flying, adds greatly in producing the striking effect.

From the day of their arrival in spring they set up a continual call which
may be roughly described as Co-c6-o-co¥ -co-c6-o. This call is heard in all direc-
tions from morning till night and in such volume that it becomes a sort of
continuous bass hum, a background or sounding board for all the other bird
songs and calls. It lacks the plaintive tone of the Mourning Dove call, and to
most people becomes a dreary, monotonous droning. . . .

Nesting begins soon after arrival in the spring and as only a slight platform
is built for a nest, not much time is lost in construction. The nest is prac-
tically the same as that of the Mourning Dove though perhaps a little larger.
. . . They nest in a sort of scattered colony, and frequently two and three
nests are seen in a large mesquite tree. In some favored groves about every
third big tree has one or more nests. Much of the nesting is done in May and
June. . . . The earliest date . . . for eggs was May 10, and at that time a
great many new nests were seen. In 1908 and 1909 most of the nesting seemed
to be done in May and June, but in 1910 the season reached well into July,
as in that month I found twenty-one nests containing eggs or young birds. . . .

Xests are always, as far as my observation goes, placed in trees or shrubs
at varying distances from the ground. The average height was ten feet and
extremes ranged from four to twenty-five feet. The only nest as low as four
feet was built in a mesquite tree and placed on top of an old Thrasher's nest.
... I found several others using old Cactus Wren's nests as foundation, and
one had made use of a deserted Verdin 's home.

The eggs are a little larger than those of the Mourning Dove and lack the
pearly luster, the shell looking much like that of the tame pigeon's egg. Two
is the usual number in a nest, but July 30 I found a nest containing three
partly incubated eggs.

According to Davie (1889, pp. 158-159) the eggs are ovate in
shape and measure 1.05 to 1.30 by 0.78 to 0.95, averaging 1.14 by
0.88 and 1.17 by 0.88 in two large series, respectively. This author
also states that the shell color ranges from white to cream.

Continuing, Gilman (loc. cit.) says that:

In choice of nesting sites the bird shows a decided preference for mesquite,
as about 70 per cent of nests noted were in that plant. About 20 per cent
were in willows, and 3 per cent each in eottonwood, . . . tree cholla, and . . .
screw-bean. . . . The dove is usually very wild on the nest, flying off when-
ever approached as close as twenty-five feet. Earely is the broken-wing play
made, though I have seen a few mild attempts at it, and occasionally one will
allow an approach as close as fifteen feet to the nest before taking flight.

In addition to the wheat, these doves feed on other grains and much weed
seed. They are very fond of sorghum seed and large flocks gather on a field
of this plant. The giant cactus . . . furnishes them a large amount of food
also. They may be seen on top of the great columns as soon as the first
blossoms appear, thrusting their bills into the trumpet-shaped flowers, but
whether for insects, pollen, or nectar was not learned. As soon as the fruit
ripens, however, there is no doubt as to what thej^ are seeking. Their actions

606 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBNIA

are a suflicient index even without the tell-tale red stain around their mouths.
They frequent the cactus groves as long as any fruit is left, flying a long
distance to reach this delicacy.

The crop of a bird shot near Fort Yuma, California, May 5, 1910,
contained 33 watermelon seeds and one muskmelon seed (Grinnell,
19146, p. 123).

As soon as the young are grown both they and the parents congregate in
large flocks and fly from feeding ground to watering place, thus affording a
good chance at wing shooting. One evening in twenty minutes I counted over
700 fly past a bridge over a small irrigating canal. Along in August the big
flocks begin to grow less, the birds probably scattering out and seeking feed-
ing grounds more distant from the breeding grounds. Toward the first of Sep-
tember they begin to thin out in earnest and by the loth of the month very
few are seen. ...

Beside the danger from gunner, the Cooper Hawk is a menace, feeding often
on the fat pigeon. I have seen a Marsh Hawk after a [wounded] White-wing
. . . but do not think any but wounded birds are ever attacked by this species
(Gilman, loc. cit.).

In this bird, the gunner has a good test of his skill, as it flies
rapidly, and, all things considered, is a fine game bird.

As the White-winged Dove is an essentially Mexican species, it
will probably never take an important rank among the game birds
of California. Its restriction to the extreme southeastern portion
of the state and its apparently late spring arrival and early fall
departure limit its pursuit for sport to a very small number of
hunters. Protection during the breeding season, and moderate hunt-
ing just previous to its departure, should ensure the persistence of
this bird in its present numbers indefinitely.

r Mexican Ground Dove

Chaemepelia passerina pallescens Baird

Other names — ColumhigaUina passerina pallescens; ColumhigaUina passerina;
Chaemepeli-a passerina.

Description — Adult male: Forehead and sides of head, pale pinkish brown,
continuous with tone of lower surface; top and back of head, and hind neck,
chiefly bluish gray, with feather tippings of dusky, giving a decidedly scaled
effect; chin and throat, pinkish white; bill "yellow . . . tipped with broAvn "
(Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1874, III, p. 390) ; back, rump, upper tail coverts
and central pair of tail feathers, uniform brown; outer tail feathers, slate gi-ay
at upper bases, broadly tipped with black at ends, entirely blackish brown on
under surfaces; outermost pair of tail feathers narrowly edged with white at
ends; outer surface of closed wing pale pinkish brown; greater coverts grayish
pink; outer Avebs of primaries and outermost secondaries, blackish brown, their
inner webs extensively rich rusty bro-vvn, except for blackish tips; exposed tertials
bro-\\Ti, like back, several of the coverts and tertials bearing short, sharp streaks

MEXICAN GEOUND DOVE 607

and spots of deep brown with blue and purple iridescence; whole under surface
of wing and axillars, rich rusty brown ; throat and forepart of breast, pale pinkish
brown, with half-concealed dusky feather centers and faintly darker feather tip-
pings giving a scaled effect ; rest of breast and forepart of belly plain pale pinkish
brown, becoming nearly white on lower belly, and grading to gray on flanks and
lower tail coverts; lower tail coverts tipped with dull white; legs and feet
"yellow" (Baird, Brewer and Ridg^vay, loc. cit.)- Adult female: Similar to
adult male but paler, lacking bluish slate on top and back of head and neck (this
being replaced by brown like back), breast pale drab rather than pinkish, and
dark spots on outer surface of wdng more brownish, and but slightly iridescent.
Males: Total length 6.62-(5.87 inches (168-174.5 mm.) (nine specimens from Ari-
zona) ; folded wing 3.25-3.56 (82.5-90.4); bill along culmeii 0.43-0.46 (11.0-
11.7); tarsus 0.59-0.64 (15.0-16.2) (ten specimens from Arizona and California).
Females: Total length 6.56-6.87 (166.5-174.5) (three specimens from Arizona);
folded wing 3.24-3.42 (82.2-86.7); bill along culmen 0.43-0.47 (11.0-12.0);
tarsus 0.61-0.66 (15.6-16.8) (eight specimens from Arizona and California).
Juveihile plumage: Similar to adult female but duller, the feathers of upper sur-
face narroAvly tipped with wliite or rusty, and feathers of breast with nmch
paler centers.

Marks for field idextificatiox — Smallest of the pigeon tribe occurring in
California; only about one-quarter the size of the Mourning Dove and but a
trifle larger than an English Sparrow; general coloration giving an effect of
brownness, without any contrasting white areas; vivid rusty brown showing on
wings in flight.

Voice — A single long-drawn-out uu.o, uttered at short intervals (Gilman, 1911^,
p. 54).

Nest — In bushes or tiees, at heights from tAvo and one-half to twenty-five feet
(0.76 to 7.6 meters) above gi'omid; for a dove, fairly Avell constructed; of rootlets
and small tAvigs, sometimes Avith a decided depression in the center (Gilman,
1911, p. oo, Avriting from Arizona).

Eggs — 2, elliptical oval, measuring in inches, 0.79 to 0.91 by 0.63 to 0.69 (in
millimeters, 20.0 to 23.0 by 16.0 to 17.5), and averaging 0.85 by 0.65 (21.5 by
16.5) (fifty-four eggs in the United States National Museum) ; in color pure
white (Davie, 1900, p. 190).

General distribution — From Costa Rica north to middle southern Texas,
southern Arizona, LoAver California and extreme southeastern California; occa-
sional in AA'estern California north to San Francisco (modified from A. O. U.
Cheek-list, 1910, p. 150).

Distribution in California — Resident locally in small numbers in the extreme
southeastern corner of the state in the valley of the lower Colorado Ri\'er; has
occurred casually in the western part of the state at the following places: San
Diego, Escondido and San Pasqual, San Diego County; Banning, Riverside
County; San Gabriel, Los Angeles County; Monterey and Castroville, Monterey
(/ounty; Pescadero, San Mateo County; and San Francisco.

The Mexican Ground Dove is the smallest member of the pigeon
family known to occur in California and, in fact, is among the smallest
of its kind anywhere in the world. Its diminutive size would scarcely
lead one to place it among the pigeons and doves, but its voice, habits
and nesting, as well as its structure, all show it to be a member of
that large and M'idely distributed family.

608 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENJA

Heretofore this species has been considered to be of but casual
occurrence in California, but recent observations prove it to be
regularly present locally in the extreme southeastern portion of the
state along the low^er Colorado River. Stephens (1903, p. 77) secured
one of these birds on the California side of the river below Ehrenburg
in August, 1902, while Howell and Van Rosseni (1915, p. 233) saw
more than a dozen near Fort Yuma in January, 1913. More recently,
December 6 and 9, 1914, Leo Wiley (MS) saw birds of this species
near Palo Verde, Imperial County, and collected one on the first
named date (specimen in Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; and in the following
summer (1915) he found them breeding there in small numbers.
Elsewhere in the state it has occurred as follows : San Diego, Novem-
ber 10, 1915, one shot (Grey, 1916, p. 83) ; Escondido, San Diego
County, June 29, 1915, one taken (Dixon, 1916, p. 84) ; San Pasqual,
San Diego County, one shot about 1900, and Banning, Riverside
County, October, 1902, one taken (Willett, 1912a, p. 45) ; San
Gabriel, Los Angeles County, several shot a few years previous to
1870 (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1874, III, p. 522) ; Monterey
"taken" (ibid., p. 390) ; Castroville, Monterey County, one taken in
June, 1913 (Silliraan, 1915&, p. 207) ; Pescadero, San Mateo County,
one taken from flock of eleven, February 27, 1898 (Littlejohn, 1899,
p. 73) ; and San Francisco, May, 1870, one killed (Baird, Brewer and
Ridgway, 1874, III, p. 522). These are all irregular occurrences,
evidently of birds wandering beyond the bounds of their normal
habitat ; so far as is known, such fortuitous dispersal has not led to
the establishment of permanent colonies. Judging from the records
already made, we may expect this dove to occur from time to time at
almost any place in the coastal region, north at least to San Francisco.

The Mexican Ground Dove is an easy species to identify. Its very
small size — but slightly greater than that of an English Sparrow
or Least Sandpiper — its general brown-appearing coloration, its
square tail and the absence of any contrasted white markings easily
separate it from all others of its family in the southwest. The Inca
Dove, of Arizona and Mexico, which may at some future date be found
in California, is of somewhat greater size [total length 8.00 inches;
folded wing 3.70-3.75; tail 4.00-4.40, as compared with tail 2.60 to
2.80 in the Ground Dove (Ridgway, 1900, pp. 215, 216)] and has con-
spicuous white margins on the slightly rounded tail, and a definite
sealed pattern of markings on the body feathers.

Of the Ground Dove in southern Arizona, Gilman (1911, pp. 54-55)
writes :

He might properly be called the ' ' woo-woo bird, ' ' as his note is a single
"woo" long drawn out and uttered at short intervals. The sound is very mis-
leading, oven to a greater extent than that of the Mourning Dove. The first time

MEXICAN GEOUND DOVE 609

I heard it I started to cross a ten-acre field to search for the bird in some trees
on the far side. I had gone but a few yards when the dove flew from a fruit
tree about three rods away, where he had been the entire time.

These little doves are not very gregarious in this locality, but that may be
because they are present only during the breeding season. Three is the most I
have seen in a group and that not often. Usually two are together, probably
mates. They are rather quiet and the call is not heard often. . . . They do not
appear to go far from cultivated fields, in fact I have never seen them out on
the desert, as is the case with the two larger doves [Mourning and White-
winged]. They are most frequently seen near the river or along irrigating
canals, and nest in such locations. . . .

The nesting season is late, as the earliest nest found was on July 7 and con-
tained one half -grown young bird. This nest Avas in a })ear tree and placed only
two and a half feet from the ground.

Other nests were found as follows : July 16, two quarter-grown
young ; July 17, two half incubated eggs ; September 3, two half -grown
young ; September 25, two eggs advanced in incubation ; October 8,
two nearly fresh eggs. This latter set hatched on October 16, but the
young were dead two days later.

Nests ranged from two and a lialf to twenty-five feet from the ground, with
an average of ten feet. In regard to location, tAvo Avere in cottoiiAvoods, tAA-o in
pear trees, one in a avIHoaa' and tAvo in the shrub Baccharis.

The nests are fairly Avell made for doves and are composed mostly of rootlets
and small twigs. One nest rather more pretentious than usual was made of root-
lets, grass stems and blades, leaf stems Avith veins attached, small tAvigs, horse
hair and a feAv feathers. It Avas compact and fairly well made, Avith a decided
cup in the center measuring nearly an inch deep, and two inches across from rim
to rim. One Avas an old nest re-vamped, and another Avas merely a superstructure
over an old Abert ToAvhee 's nest. The very late date before mentioned probably
pertained to a second brood, as the nest Avas an old one re-lined, possibly a last
year 's nest, but more likely an earlier nest of the same year.

These doves are rather Avild Avhen on the nest and Avill not alloAv any familiarity.
They rarely show any tendency to use the broken-Aving tactics, though one did and
made a most realistic performance of it. She fell from the nest Avhen I Avas
about eight feet distant and lay with quivering and beating A\dngs. As I stepped
closer she made ineffectual attempts to fly and fluttered along the ground at my
feet just out of reach. She kept this up for about fifty yards before taking
to flight. I then went on about my business after ascertaining that the nest con-
tained tAvo neAvly hatched young. Coming back an hour later, I scared her off the
nest again and she repeated the performance but in a rather half-hearted way as
though she did it from a sense of duty and rather doubted the efficacy of it
(Gilman, loc. cit.).

Near Palo Verde, Imperial County, Leo Wiley (MS) found three
or four pairs of Ground Doves nesting during the summer of 1915.
One nest was situated five feet eight inches above the ground in a
clump of mistletoe in a mesquite. A nest found by Bendire (1892,
pp. 150-152) near Tucson, Arizona, May 30, 1873, measured four and
one-half inches in diameter and M^as "almost perfectly flat." Other

610 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA

nests examiiu'd by liiin were placed in both bushes and trees at heights
from three to twenty-one feet above ground. He believed that these
birds rear two and perhaps three broods in a season, despite the fact
that the nesting season does not begin until the end of ]\Iay. Incuba-
tion lasts about fourteen days and both sexes take part in the work.
The young are fed on small seeds and berries of different kinds, and
grain when procurable. Gravel is taken in considerable quantities to
assist in grinding up the seeds. Bendire believes these birds mate for
life.

Ground Doves are sometimes seen in the streets of towns and espe-
cially about corrals. Flocks of ten to twelve are commonest, but in the
fall months as many as fifty may join together to feed on the ripe
weed and grass seeds. During the winter months they are markedly
fewer in numbers, and are then to be seen only in pairs.

Within California the Mexican Ground Dove will probably never
be very abundant, although with the increase of agriculture in the
extreme southeastern portion of the state the birds may be expected
to appreciably increase in numbers. Their small size should, however,
gain them protection from the gun of the hunter, who can, for the
present at least, find ample opportunity for sport among the larger
game birds.

LITERATURE CITED

Adams, E.

1900. Notes on the California Clapper Eail. Condor, vol. 2, pp. 31-32, 1 fig.
in text.

Allen, C. A.

1881. Collecting on the Pacific Coast. Ornithologist and Oologist, vol. 6,
pp. 18-19.

American Ornithologists' Union Committee.

1910. Check-list of North American birds, 3rd edition. (New York, Ameri-

can Ornithologists' Union), 430 pp., 2 maps.
1912. Sixteenth supplement to the American Ornithologists' Union check-
list of North American birds. Auk, vol. 29, pp. 380-387.

Anderson, M. P., and Grinnell, J.

1903. Birds of the Siskivou Mountains, California : a problem in distribution.
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1903, pp. 4-lo.

Anderson, M. P., and Jenkins, H. O.

1903. A list of birds from the Santa Cruz Mountains, California. Condor,
vol. 5, pp. 153-155.

Anonymous.

1907. What wUl it be used for? Western Field, vol. 11, p. 208.

Anonymous [:=C. F. Hodge].

1914. The Eufifed Grouse. How to rear this shy bird in captivity and some

of its habits. Oregon Sportsman (Portland, Oregon), vol. 2, March,
1914, pp. 3-9, 4 figs, in text.

Anthony, A. W.

1896. Clangula hj'emalis at San Diego, California. Auk, vol. 13, p. 172.

ASKINS, C.

1911. Speed of game birds. Outing, vol. 57, pp. 556-560, 2 figs in text.

Audubon, J. J.

1840-1844. The birds of America, from drawings made in the United States
and their Territories. 7 vols. (Philadelphia, J. B. Chevalier), vol. V,

1842, pp. ^dii+9-346, pis. 281-350, several figs, in text; vol. VI,

1843, pp. viii + 9-457, pis. 351-420, several figs, in text.

Bacon, S. E., Jr.

1892. Old Squaw (Clangula hiemalis). Ornithologist and Oologist, vol. 17,
p. 45.

Bailey, F. M.

1902. Handbook of birds of the western United States. (Boston, Houghton
Miflain Co.), pp. xc+1+514, 36 pis., 601 figs, in text.

1915. Characteristic birds of the Dakota prairies. I. In the open grassland.

Condor, vol. 17, pp. 173-179.
1916a. Characteristic birds of the Dakota prairies. IV. On the lakes. Condor,

vol. 18, pp. 54-58.
1916b. A populous shore. Condor, vol. 18, pp. 100-110.

[611]

612

GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Baird, S. F., Brewer, T. M., and Eidgway, E.

1874. A history of North American birds. Land birds. 3 vols. (Boston,

Little, Brown, and Co.), vol. Ill, pp. 6 + 560 ■\- xxviii, pis. Ivii-lxiv,

many figs, in text.
1884. The water birds of North America. 2 vols. (Boston, Little, Brown,

and Co.), vol 1, pp. xi + 537; vol. 2, pp. 6 + 552, many figs, in

text. [^vols. 12 and 13, Memoirs Museum of Comparative Zoology,

Harvard College.]

Baird, S. F., Cassin, J., and Lawrence, G. N.

1858. Birds. Pacific Eailroad Eeports, vol. 9, part 2, pp. Ivi + 1 + 1005.

Barlow, C.

1893. Nesting of the Mallard Duck. Nidiologist, vol. 1, p. 38, 2 figs, in text.

Barlow, C, and Price, W. W.

1901. A list of the land birds of the Placerville-Lake Tahoe stage road,
Central Sierra Nevada Mountains, Cal. Condor, vol. 3, pp. 151-184,
11 figs, in text.

B-tRNHART, F. S.

1901. Evolution in the breeding habits of the Fulvous Tree Duck. Condor,
vol. 3, pp. 67-68.

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622 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

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1899. Some observations on the Anatidae of North Dakota. Aiik, vol. 16,
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1905. Some bird notes from the central Sierras. Condor, vol. 7, pp. 13-17,
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1913. Notes from Buena Vista Lake and Fort Tejon. Condor, vol. 15,

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1908a. Dafila acuta breeding at Buena Vista Lake, Kern Co., California.
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624 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

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1891a. The habits of the Golden Plover {Charadrius dominicus) in Massa-
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1891?>. The scoters (OidemM americana, 0. deglandi, and 0. perspioUlata) in
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1912. Call note of the female California Quail. Condor, vol. 14, p. 73.

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1878. Notes on the ornithology of southern Texas, being a list of birds

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1888. Notes on the birds of the Santa Barbara Islands. Ornithologist and

Oologist, vol. 13, pp. 52-54.

Strong, R. M.

1912. Some observations on the life history of tlie Red-breasted Merganser,
Mergus scrrator, Linn. Auk, vol. 29, pp. 479-488, pis. XXI-XXIII.

SWARTH, H. S.

1900. Avifaima of a 100-aere ranch. Condor, vol. 2, pp. 14-16, 37-41.

1910. Miscellaneous records from southern California and Arizona. Condor,

vol. 12, pp. 107-110.

1911. Birds and mammals of the 1909 Alexander Alaska expedition. Univ.

Calif. Publ. Zool., vol. 7, pp. 9-172, pis. 1-6, 3 figs, in text.

1912. Report on a collection of birds and mammals from Vancouver Island.

Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., vol. 10, pp. 1-124, pis. 1-4.
1913rt. The supposed occurrence of the Blue Goose in California. Condor,

vol. 15, p. 43.
1913fe. A study of a collection of geese of the Branta canadensis group from

the San Joaquin Valley, California. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., vol. 12,

pp. 1-24, pis. 1-2, 8 figs, in text.

SWENK, M. H.

1915. The Eskimo Curlew and its disappearance. Proc. Nebraska Ornith-
ologists' Union, vol. 6, part 2, pp. 25-44.

Taylor, H. R.

1885. California oologieal notes. Ornithologist and Oologist, vol. 10, pp.

141-142.
1894. Among the California Clapper Rail. Nidiologist, vol. 1, pp. 153-155,
1 fig. in text.

1897. Californian notes. Nidologist, vol. 4, p. 110.

1898. The Black Rail in captivity. Osprey, vol. 2, pp. 79-80.

630 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Taylor, W. P.

1912. Field notes on amphibians, reptiles and birds of northern Humboldt

County, Nevada. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., vol. 7, pp. 319-436,
pis. 7-12.

Thompson, C. S.

1901a. Further tape worm observations. Condor, vol. 3, p. 15.

1901b. Notes from San Luis Obispo Co., Cal. Condor, vol. 3, p. 17.
Thurber, E. C.

1896. Southern California bird notes. Auk, vol. 13, p. 265.
TORRET, B.

1909a. The Blue-winged Teal at Santa Barbara. Condor, vol. 11, pp. 173-174,

1909b. The Euddy Turnstone at Santa Barbara. Condor, vol. 11, p. 174.

1909c. The Golden Plover at Coronado. Condor, vol. 11, p. 207.

1910a. The Pectoral Sandpiper at Santa Barbara. Condor, vol. 12, pp. 44^5.

1910b. Unexpected birds at Santa Barbara in the summer of 1910. Condor,
vol. 12, p. 204.

1913. Field-days in California. (Boston, Houghton, Mifflin Co.), pp. 12 + 235,

frontisp. and 8 unnumbered pis.

TOWNSEND, C. H.

1886. Four rare birds in northern California: Yellow Eail, Emperor Goose,

European Widgeon, and Sabine's Euflfed Grouse. Auk, vol. 3,
pp. 490-491.

1887. Field-notes on the mammals, birds and reptiles of northern California.

Proe. U. S. National Museum, vol. 10, pp. 159-241, pi. V, 4 figs,
in text.

TOWNSEND, C. W.

1910. The courtships of Golden-eye and Eider ducks. Auk, vol. 27, pp.

177-181.

1911. The courtship and migration of the Eed-breasted Merganser {Mergus

serrator). Auk, vol. 28, pp. 341-345.
1916. The courtship of the Merganser, Mallard, Black Duck, Baldpate, Wood

Duck and Bufflehead. Auk, vol. 33, pp. 9-17.
Tyler, J. G.

1913a. Notes on some Fresno County birds. Condor, vol. 15, pp. 16-19.

1913b. Some birds of the Fresno district, California. Cooper Ornithological

Club, Pacific Coast Avifauna no. 9, 114 pp.

Van Denburgh, J.

1899. Notes on some birds of Santa Clara County, California. Proc. Amer.
Philos. Soc, vol. 38, pp. 157-180.

A^AN Dyke, T. S.

1890. The quails of California. Outing, vol. 15, pp. 460-464.

1892. The Valley Quail of California. Outing, vol. 19, pp. 485-488.

1904. When the Graywings come. Outing, vol. 43, pp. 667-672, 5 figs, in

text.
1908. Liveliest of the birds. The Valley Quail of California which challenges

keenest marksmanship and cleverest dogs. Outing, vol. 53, pp.

375-381.

Van Eossem, A.

1911. Winter birds of the Salton Sea region. Condor, vol. 13, pp. 129-137.

1914. Notes from the San Bernardino Mountains. Condor, vol. 16, pp.

145-146.

A^eitch, T. W.

1912. The season in the north. Western Field, vol. 20, pp. 11-14, 2 figs.

in text.

LITEBATUEE CITED 631

Wall, E.

1893. Gambol "s Partridge at San Bernardino, California. Auk, vol 10, p. 204.
1915. Notes from San Bernardino, California. Condor, vol. 17, p. u9.

Warren, E. E.

1912. Some north-central Colorado bird notes. Condor, vol. 14, pp. 81-104,
figs. 29-41.

Westerfeld, C.

191(5. Game conditions in Great Britain vs. conditions in California. Cali-
fornia Fish and Game (San Francisco, Cal.), vol. 2, pp. 1-10, tig. 1.

Wetmore, a.

1915. Mortality among waterfowl around Great Salt Lake, Utah. U. S. Dept.

Agric, Bull. no. 217, 10 pp., 3 pis.

WiCKERSHAM, C. W.

1902. Sickle-billed Curlew. Auk, vol. 19, pp. 353-356.

Wicks, M. L., Jr.

1893. Nesting of the Florida Gallinule (Gallinula galcala) near Los Angeles,

Cal. Zoe, vol. 3, p. 363.
1897. Partnership nesting of Valley Partridge and Long-tailed Chat. Auk,

vol. 14, p. 404.

WiDMANN, O.

1895. The Brown Creeper nesting in the cypress SAvamps of southeastern
Missouri. Auk, vol. 12, pp. 350-355.

Wilder, H. E.

1916. Some distributional notes on California birds. Condor, vol. 18, pp.

127-128.

WiLLARD, F. C.

1912. A week afield in southern Arizona. Condor, vol. 14, pp. 53-63, figs.

13-19.
1916. Nesting of the Band-tailed Pigeon in southern Arizona. Condor,

vol. 18, pp. 110-112, fig. 34.

Willett, G.

1906. The Southern California Clai)per Rail breeding on fresh water. Con-
dor, vol. 8, p. 151.

1908. Summer birds of the upper Salinas Valley and adjacent foothills.

Condor, vol. 10, pp. 137-139.

1909. Bird notes from the coast of .San Luis Obispo County. Condor, vol. 11,

pp. 185-187.

1910. A summer trip to the northern Santa Barbara Islands. Condor, vol. 12,

pp. 170-174.

1911. Blue-winged Teal in southern California. Condor, vol. 13, p. 76.
1912fl.. Birds of the Pacific slope of southern California. Cooper Orn. Club,

Pacific Coast Avifauna no. 7, 122 pp.
1912?>. Some 1912 spring notes from southern California. Condor, vol. 14,
pp. 194-195.

Willett, G., and Jay, A.

1911. May notes from San Jacinto Lake. Condor, vol. 13, pp. 156-160,
figs. 43-45.

632 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA

Williams, J. J.

1902. A study of bird song-s. II. Condor, vol. 4, pp. 65-68.

1903. On the use of sentinels by Valley Quail. Condor, vol. •"), pp. 146-148,

1 fig. in t^xt.

Woodcock, A. E.

1902. Annotated list of the birds of Oregon. Oregon Agricultural E.\perinient
Station, Bull. 68, pp. 117 + 1, 1 pi.
Wright, H., and Snyder, G. K.

1913. Birds observed in the summer of 1912 among the Santa Barbara
Islands. Condor, vol. 15, pp. 86-92, figs. 24-25.

INDEX

Acclimatization, 29, 34, 40, 43.
Actitis inacularia, 431-437.
Aclodromas bairdi, 373.

niaeulata, 368.

niinutilla, 376.
Aegialeus semipalmatus, 469.
Aegialites cantianus nivosus, 473.
Aegialitis alexandrina nivosa, 473.

asiaticus var. montaniis, 481.

lantiana, 473.

niontaiia, 481.

nivosa, 473-478.

semipalmata, 469-473.

vocifera, 463.

wilsonia, 479.
Aix sponsa. 140-146.
Ajaia ajaja, 262-266.
Ajaja rosea. 262.
Alexander, Annie M., iii, iv.
Allen, Albert H., iv.
Anas americana, 106.

boschas, 92.

carolinensis, 113.

crecca, 119.

eyanoptera, 123.

discors, 120.

obscura, 101.

])enelope, 111.

platyrhynchos, 92-101.

rubripes, 94, 101-102.

strepera, 103.
Anser albatus, 210.

albifrons, 218, 219.

albifrons albifrons, 219.

albifrons gambeli, 218-222.

erythropus, 218.

gambeli, 218.

hutchinsi, 230.

hyperboreus, 210.

rossi, 21.5.
Aphriza virgata, 485-489.
Arenaria interpres, 366, 489.

interpres morinella, 489-493.

melanoeephala, 493-497.

morinella, 489.
Avocet, 15, 74, 337-344, 345, 346, 347,
349. 350, 448.

American, 337.

California, 337.
Avoset, American, 337.
Aythya affinis, 159, 166.

americana, 146.

collaris, 164.

erythrocephala, 146.

marila, 156.

marila nearctioa, 156.

vallisneria, 150.

Bade, W. F., 145.

Badger, M. C, 523, 527.

Bailey, Florence M., 203, 429, 537.

Bailey, Vernon, 428.

Baldpate, 71, 105, 106-111, 112, 113,

190.
Bartramia longicauda, 427-430.
Bastian, W. H., 9.
Beck, Rollo H., 3, 110, 133, 138, 195,
200, 213, 219, 224, 228, 232, 247,
258, 271, 278, 310, 326, 342, 345,
360, 364, 383, 389, 394, 397, 399,
401, 403, 404, 407, 440, 454, 457,
467, 478, 483, 485, 501, 594.
Becker, M., 12
Beetle-head, 452, 454.
Belding, Lvnmn, 3, 90, 95, 96, 106,
108, 112, 115, 116, 118, 119, 139,
144, 152, 161, 165, 167, 169, 175,
183, 188, 189, 191, 206, 207, 211,
213, 215, 216, 217, 219. 224, 230,
235, 238, 247, 254, 255, 261, 270,
271, 273, 274, 276, 278, 294, 297,
304, 308, 310, 315, 321, 328, 339,
346, 352, 355, 360, 378, 383, 384,
388, 389, 401, 403, 409, 418, 433,
435, 436, 439, 451, 471. 48.3, 485,
487.
Bernicla brenta, 237.
canadensis, 222.
gambeli, 218.
hutchinsi, 230.
leucoparia, 234.
nigricans, 237.
Bioletti, F. T., 531.
Bird, Beach, 391, 392.
Bow-fin, 320.
Bow-head, 328.
Lawyer, 340.
Townsend 's Surf, 485.
Whirligig, 329.
Woo-woo, 608.
Black-breast, 454.
Black-head, 164.
Big, 156.
Greater. 156
Little, 159.
Black-jack, 10, 13, 14, 156, 159, 164.
Blinds, shooting, 25.
Blue-bill, 7, 10, 24, 157, 159, 161, 162,
163, 173.
Big. 156.
Little, 161.
Blue-stocking, 337.
Blue-wing, 122, 123, 125.
Bob-white, 37, 38, 41, 58, 533, 534.

[633 ]

INDEX

Bonai<a sabiiiii, ;j52.

unibellus, 552.

umbellus sabiiii, 552-558.
Bovd, Aubrey, iv.
Brant, 18, 219, 280, 288, 286, 288.

Black, 9, 287, 288, 240.

Black Sea, 56, 59, 60, 71, 2S7-S41,
242, 244, 245.

Brown, 234.

Eastern Sea, 71, 241-242.

Sea, 228, 287.

White, 210, 211.
Branta bernicla glaucogastra, 241-
242.

canadensis canadensis, 222-229.

canadensis hntchinsi, 230-234.

canadensis minima, 234-236.

canadensis oecidentalis, 222, 225.

hutchinsi var. leucoparia, 284.

minima, 234.

nigricans, 237-241, 242.
Breeding of game, 50-54.
Broad-bill, 156, 159.
Brooks, Allan, iv.
Brown, Claude E., 560.
Bryant. Harold C, iii, iv. 5, 15, 126,
127,' 147, 149, 247, 270, 298, 318,
341, 348, 349, 360, 383, 403, 422,
507, 509, 521, 523, 565, 595, 602.
Brvant, H. L., 9.
Bryant, Walter E., 804, 370.
Bucephala albeola, 177.

americana, 167.

clangula, 167.

elangula var. americana, 167.

islandica, 173.
Buffle-head, 49, 73, 169, 177-181, 187.
Bull, C. C, 188.
Bull-head, 452, 454, 458.
Bull hunting, 11, 12, 222.
Butterball, 177, 178, 180.

King, 177.

Cackler, 284.

Cady, Frank P., 228, 561, 592.
Calico-back, 489.
Calidris arenaria, 391.
leucophaea, 391-396.
Callipepla californica, 514, 587.
californica vallicola, 514.
gambeli, 538.
gambeli deserticola, 588.
picta, 504, 518.
Can, 9, 150, 151, 155.
Canace obscura, 544.
Canvasback, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14. 24, 26,
49, 72, 100, 110, 118, 139, 147,
148, 149, 150-155, 162, 165, 166,
167, 206.
Carriger, Henrv W., 285, 311, 817,

507, 508, 525.
Caton, J. p., 36.

Catoptrophorus seniipalmatus, 416.
semipalmatus inornatus, 416-422.

('a\a]ier, Sj»anish, 246.
Centrocercus urophasianus, 564-572.
Chachalaca, 86.
Chaemepelia passerina, 606.

passorina palleseens, 606-610.
Chapman, Frank M., 334.
Charadrius cantianus, 473.

cantianus nivosus, 473.

ilomiiiicus, 460.

ilominicus dominicus, 458—463.

lielvoticus, 452.

montanus, 481.

squatarola, 866. 452.

virginiacus, 458.

vociferus, 468.
Ciiaritonetta albeola, 177-181.
Chaulelasmus streperus, 103—106.
Checker-bellv, 218.
Checker-breast, 218, 219.
Chen albatus, 210.

hyperboreus hyperboreus, 210-215.

hy])erboreus nivalis, 210.

rossi, 215-217.
Chicken, Prairie, 56, 57, 58, 558, 560,

561.
(^hloroenas fasciata fasciata. 575.
Christie, N. R., 421..
Clangula albeola, 177.

americana, 167.

clangula americana, 167—173.

glaucion auKMicana, 167.

hyemalis, 181.

islandica, 173-176.
Clarke, Frank C, 145.
Clay, C. Irvin, 7, 9, 258, 262.
Climate, as bearing on introduction,

41.
Cock-of-the-iilains, 564.
Colinus virginianus, 37.
Columba carolinensis, 588.

fasciata fasciata, 575-588.

monilis, 575.
Columbigalliua passerina, 606.

l>asserina palleseens, 606.
Coo])er, James G., 6.
(Joot. 152, 207, 208, 291, 312. 818, 814,
815. 316, 318, 819.

Sea. 201.

White-winged, 197.
Copperhead, 167.
Cosmonetta histrionica, 186.
Coturuicoj)s noveboracensis, 301-304.
Coturnix ja])onica, 88.
Crane, Little Brown. 61, 74, 273-279,
280, 281. 282.

Sandhill. 61. 74, 278. 274. 275, 276,
278, 279-2S2.

Whooping, 61, 274.
Creciscus cotlirniculus, 304-309.

jamaicensis, 804.
Crvnio))hilus fulicarius, 820.
Curlew. 56, 58. 59. 60.

Black 269, 270, 438, 440.

Bronze, 269.

Brown. 438.

L 684 ]

INDEX

Eskimo, 446, 447, 448.
Hudsonian, 66, 75, 396, 398, 405,

419, 438, 440, 445-45S, 498, 499,

502, 503.
Jack, 445, 446.
Long-billed, 18, 75, 396, 398, 418,

438-445, 446, 448, 451.
Pink, 262.
Short-billed, 445.
Sickle-billed, 438, 439.
Straight-billed, 396, 397.
White, 337.
Curve-bill, 438, 439.
Cygnus aniericanus, 256.
buccinator, 253.

Daddv-loug-legs, 438, 439.
Dafihi acuta, 134-139.

caudacuta, 134.
Daggett, Frank S., 378.
Dawson, W. Leon, iv, 249, 250, 345,

348.
Decoys, 28.
Decrease of game and its causes, 6-

18.
DendragapU-s fuliginosus, 544.
obscurus, 544.

obscurus fuliginosus, 544, 552.
obscurus sierrae, 544-552.
Dendrocygna autumnalis, 251-253.
bicolor, 246-251.
fulva, 246.
Denny, Judge O. N., 31.
Disease, duck and quail, 17, 18, 43,

46, 52.
Dirks, W. N., 96, 137.
Dixon, Joseph, 21, 330, 426, 433, 528,

532, 551.
Dove, 56, 58, 59, 60, 588, 597.
Carolina, 588.
Carolina Turtle, 588.
Common, 588.
Cooing, 588.
Ground, 608, 609, 610.
Inca, 608.
Mexican Ground, 78, 579, 592, 604,

606-610.
Mourning, 3, 6, 15, 16, 48, 579, 580,
581, 590, 591, 592, .593, 594, 597,
598, 599, 601, 602, 603, 604, 605,
607, 609.
Rain, 588.
Sonora, 603.
Turtle, 588.

Western Mourning, 78, 588-603.
White-winged, 78, 580, 589, 592,

603-606, 609.
Wild, 588.
Dowitcher, Long-billed, 76, 353, 358-
363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 399, 405,
410, 419, 441. ■
Duck, Black, 71, 92, 94, 95, 99, 100,
101-102, 195.

Black Surf, 197.

Dipper, 205.

Dusky, 101, 102.

Fish, 79, 83, 84.

Fool, 150.

Gray, 13, 14, 57, 103, 104.

Greater Scaup, 72, 156-159, 160,

161, 164.
Harlequin, 73, 182, 184, 186-191.
Lesser Scaup, 49, 72, 157, 159-163.
Long-legged, 251.
Long-tailed, 181.
Mallard, 57.
Mandarin, 141.
Mexican, 246.
Muscovy, 100.
Ovster, 89.
Raft, 156, 159.
Red-headed, 146.
Ring-bill, 165.
Ring-necked, 18, 72, 147, 148, 157,

159, 164-167.
Ruddy, 73, 153, 178, 205-210, 249.
Scaup, 149, 157, 167.
Spirit, 177.
Spoonbill, 131.
Summer, 57, 140.
Surf, 201.
Velvet, 197, 198.
Wild, 92.
Wood, 7, 9, 14, 18, 56, 57, 61, 71,

90, 91, 99, 101, 140-746, 150,

167, 171.
Dunlin, 381, 383.

American, 381, 383.
Duprev, H. F., 233.

Lctopistes carolinensis, 588.
Eider, 239.

King, 73, 192-194.
Emerson, W. Otto, 248, 521.
Empire Gun Club, 10, 24.
Enemies of game birds, 19-22.
Ereunetes mauri, 386-390.

oecidentalis, 386.

petrificatus, 386.

jiusillus, 386.

pusillus oecidentalis, 386.
Erismatura dominicensis, 205.

jamaicensis, 205-210.

rubida. 205.
Eudromias montanus, 481.

Fair. Paul J., 96, 126, 131. 132, 250,

294.
Falcinellus cayanensis, 269.
Ferguson, Andrew D., 8.
Feudner, Otto, 242.
Fiebig, Charles, 112.
Fischer, Eugene J., 222.
Foods for ducks, 25, 51, 52, 53.

[635]

INDEX

Fry, Walter, 37.
Fuertes, Louis Agassiz, iv.
Fulica americana, 313-319.
Fiiligula affinis, 159.

collaris, 164.

ferina americana, 146.

inarila, 156.

mariloides, 159.

vallisneria, 150.
Fulix affinis, 159.

collaris, 164.

inarila, 156.

Gadwall, 10, 56, 71, 93, 100, 103-106,

108, 128, 190.
Gadwell, 57, 103.
Gallinago delicata, 350-358.
media, 350.
media wilsoni, 350.
wilsoni, 350.
Gallinula ehloropvis galeata, 309.

galeata, 309-313.
Galliimle, 60, 310, 311, 312, 313.
Florida, 74, 309-313, 314, 317.
Gambetta flavipes, 408.

melanoleuca, 401.
Game, breeding of, 50-54.
Game birds of California, key to, 67-

78.
Game districts, 55.
farms, 46-47.
laws, 55-61.
Garrot, Rockv Mountain. 173.
Gerber, W. E., 31, .':5.
Gifford, Edward W., 152, 161, 454.
Gilman, M. French, 571.
Glaucionetta clangiila americana,
167.
islandica, 173.
Glossary of special terms used,

63-65.
Godwit, 365, 396, 398.

American Bsr-tailed, 396.
Great Marbled, 396.
Marbled, 75, 396-401, 419, 438,
440, 441, 448.
Golden-eve, 49, 147, 148, 169, 170,
172, 'l73, 177.
American, 73, 167-173, 174, 175,

176.
Barrow, 73, 168, 169, 173-176, 179.
Rocky Mountain, 173.
Goosander, 79.

Goose, American White-fronted, 70,
21,S-SS2.
Beach, 243.
Blue, 211.
Big Mexican, 222.
Cackline. 70, 215, 216, 223, 224,

225, 227, 231, S34-236.
Canada, 7, 49, 70. 211, 212, 219,
222-229, 230, 231, 234, 235, 238.
China, 215, 216.

Emperor, 70, 219, 223, 234, 239,

243-246.
Eskimo, 237.

Gray, 9, 218, 219, 221, 229, 230.
Greater Snow, 211.
Honker, 60, 229.
Hutchins, 70, 221, 223, 224, 225,

227, 230-234, 235, 236, 238.
Laughing, 218, 220.
Lesser Canada, 230.
Lesser Snow, 70, 210-215, 216, 217.
Little Squeaking, 234.
Mexican, 222.

Ross, 210, 211, 217, 219, 235.
Ross Snow, 70, 215-217, 238.
Sea, 320, 328.
Snow, 219.
Tule, 219.
White, 8, 9, 12, 13, 210, 211, 213,

214.
White-cheeked, 222, 225, 230.
White-fronted, 211, 219, 221, 245.
White-headed, 243.
Grass-bird, 371.
Greenhead, 92, 94. 95.
Green-wing, 113, 114, 115. 117, 118,

123.
Grey, Henry, 7, 9.
Grinnell, Elizabeth, 48.
Grinnell, Joseyih. 2, 5, 258, 270, 278,
281, 360, 383, 403, 420, 424, 4.35,
439, 453, 454, 457, 491, 500, 509,
521, 524, 532, 548, 569, 585, 594,
595, 602.
Grouse, 57, 58, 60.
Blue, 544, 546.
Columbian Sharp-tailed, 2. 9, 18,

77, 256, 554, 558-564. 572.
Dusky, 544, 545, 546, 553, 554.
Oregon, 552.

Oregon Ruffed, 77, 552-558, 561.
Ruffed, 48, 553, 554, 5.55, .556, 557,

558.
Pine, .544. 546.
Prairie Sharp-tailed, 562.
Sage, 564, 565.
Sharp-tailed, 56, 57, .558, 560, 561,

563, 566, 567.
Sierra, 77, 544-552 553, 554, 556,

559, 561.
Sooty, 77, 544, 546, .549, 552, 556,

561.
Southern Sharp-tailed, 558.
Grus americana, 274.
canadensis. 273-279.
canadensis niexicana, 279.
mexicana, 273. 279-282.
Gun clubs in California, 2.3-28.

Haematoi)us ater, 498.
bachmani, 498-502.
frazari, 502-503.
niger, 498.

[636]

INDEX

palliatus, 502.

townsendi, 498.
Hall, Charles L., 497.
Hammond, L. W., 48.
Harelda glacialis, 181.

hyemalis, 181-186.
Hawks as enemies of game birds,

20-21.
Helodromas solitarius einiiamomeus,

411-416.
Hen, Marsh, 58.

Prairie, 563.
Henshaw, Judge F. W., 116, 226.
Heron, Great Blue, 275.
Herron, R. B., 263.
Heteractitis incana, 422-427.
Heteropygia bairdi, 373.
Heteroscelus incanus, 422.
Hill, J. H., 33.
Himantopus mexicanus, 344—350.

nigrieollis, 344.
History of attempts to introduce non-
native game birds into Califor-
nia, 29-44.
History of game-bird legislation in

California, 55-61.
Histrionicus histrionicus, 186-191.

minutus, 186.

torquatus, 186.
Honker, 13, 222, 223, 229.

Little, 230.

Medium-sized, 230.
HoAvell. A. Brazier, iv, 383, 407, 424,

433, 457, 487, 491.
Hubbard, Samuel, Jr., 7, 159, 173,

288.
Hunter, 222.
Hunter, Joseph S., 13, 34, 145, 271.

Ibis, 56, 58, 59, 60, 273.

White-faced Glossy, 73, 266, 269-

273, 438, 440.
Wood, 73, 263, 264, 266-269.
Ibis mexicanus, 269.
ordi, 269.
thalassinus, 269.
Tngersoll, Albert M., 105, 132, 149,
207, 208, 306, 307, 311, 480, 582,
584.
Introduction, 1-5.
Introduction of game birds, 29-44.

Jack, 445.
Jackson, A., 145.
Jay, Antonin, 582.
Jordan, E., Jr., 531.

Kalmbach. E. R., 444.
Kellogg, Louise, 436.

Key to game birds of California,
67-78.

Killdee, 463.

Killdeer, 16, 76, 292, 293, 297, 369,
370, 375, 382, 410, 423, 424, 428,
432, 436, 453, 455, 459, 460, 463-
469, 470, 471, 472, 474, 475, 479,
482, 483, 486, 487, 490, 494, 495,
501.

Knot, 76, 323, 361, 363-368, 411.

Koppel, I. L., 33, 591.

Kreeker, 371.

Kvtka, Theodore, 49.

Lane, T. M., 7.

Law, J. Eugene, 523, 524, 525, 527,

591.
Laws relating to game, 55-61.
Lawyer, 344, 345.
Lead-back, 383.
Legislation relating to game birds in

California, 55-61.
Lelande, Harry J., 100, 150, 508.
Linionites minutilla, 376.
Limosa fedoa, 396-401.
Literature cited, 611-632.
Littlejohn, Chase, 49, 113, 162, 581,

582.
Lobefoot, 326, 328.
Lobipes hyperboreus, 326.

lobatus," 326-332.
Long-bill, 441, 443, 445.
Long-shanks, 344, 345.
Loomis, Leverett M., 193.
Lophodytes cucullatus, 89-91.
Lophortyx californica, 514.

californica brunnescens, 537.

californica californica, 515, 537.

californica catalinensis, 515, 517,
537-538.

californica vallicola, 514-537

catalinensis, 537.

elegans, 39.

gambeli, 39, 538-544.
Lueddemann, Frieda, iv.
Lute, Anna M., 557.

Macomber, King, 36.

MacDonald, James, A., Jr., 275.

Macrorhamphus griseus, 358.
griseus scolopaceus, 358-363.
scolopaceus, 358.

Mailliard, Joseph, 90, 96. 131, 141,
143, 144, 145, 187, 190, 284, 292,
3.34, 355.

Mailliard, Joseph and John W., 2,
91, 96, 105, 132, 135, 137, 207,
272, 284, 286, 339, 346, 348, 360,
383, 388, 418, 433, 477. 491, 507,
523, 525, 594, 595.

Mallard, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 47, 49, 52,

[637]

INDEX

53, 56, 57, 62, 71, 81, 92-101, 102.
W^, 104, 105, 106, 108, 110, 118,
125, 13;?, 136, 138, 139, 149, 150,
151, 153, 154, 155, 162.

Blaek, 101.

Chinese, 313.

Gray, 92.

Klondike, 197.
]\[amnials as enemies of game birds,

21.
Mareca amerieana, 106-111.

penelope, 106, 111-llS.
Marila affinis, 159-16S.

amerioaua, 146-150.

collaris, 164-167.

marila, 156-159.

valisineria, 150-155.
Marlin,. Common, 396.

Red, 396.
Marsh-hen, 58, 283.

Salt-water, 283.
Martin, W. T., 534.
McLean, Donald D., 294, 295.
Measurements, method of taking, 66.
Meissner, Charles D., 560.
Melanetta velvetina, 197.
Meleagris gallopavo, 36.
Melopelia asiatica, 603.

asiatiea trudeaui, 603-606.

leucoptera, 603.
Merganser, American, 70, 79-84, 85,
86 88 91

Hooded, '63, 70, 89-91, 178.

Red-breasted, 70, 79, 81, 83, 84-88.
Merganser americanus, 79.

serrator, 84.
Mergus americanus, 79-84.

cucullatus, 89.

merganser americanus, 79.

serrator, 82, 83, 84-88.
Merritt, Ralph P., 12.
Moreom, G. Frean, 2, 403.
Mud-hen, 15, 47, 60, 74, 149, 283, 309.
310, 311, 313-319.

Red -billed, 309.
Murphy, Robert C, 348, 349.
Mycteria amerieana, 266-269.

Neale, George, 35, 38, 145, 355, 592.
Nettion carolinense, 113-118.

carolinensis, 119.

creeca, 119-120.
Non-native game birds in California.

29-44.
Numenius americanus, 438-445.

americanus americanus, 438.

borealis, 447.

hudsonicus, 445-452.

longirostris, 438.
Nyroca amerieana, 146.

erythrocephala, 146.

ferina, 146.

valisneria, 150.

Ober, E. H., 565, 569, 570, 592.
Ochthodromus wilsonius vvilsonius,

479-481.
Oidemia amerieana, 194-197.

deglandi, 197-201.

fusca, 197.

perspicillata, 201-204.

perspicillata var. trowbridgei, 201.
Old-squaw, 73, 181-186, 187.
Olor buccinator, 253-256.

columbianus, 256-262.
Oreortyx picta, 504.

picta confinis, 504.

picta picta, 504, 505, 508, 512, 51.3-
514.

picta plumifera, 504-513, 514.
Ortygops noveboracensis, 301.
Ortvx californica, 514, 537.

picta, 504, 513.

plumifera, 504.
Ottmer, F. H., 113.
Oxyechus vociferus vociferus, 463—

469.
Oyster-catcher, 494, 501.

American, 502.

Bachman, 498.

Black, 77, 498-502, 503.

Frazar, 77, 499, .502-503.

Pied, 502.

Townsend 's, 498.

Pale-belly, 454.
Partridge, 57, 58, 59.

California, 514, 537.

English, 58.

European, 35.

Gambel, 538.

Hungarian, 32, .35, 36, 46.

Mountain, 505, 513.

Plumed, 504, 517.

Vallev, 514.
Payne, H. T., 39.
Pedioecetes columbianus, 558.

phasianellus columbianus, 558-564.
Peep, 376, 377, 381, 386, 390.
Pelidna alpina amerieana, 381.

alpina sakhalina, 381-386.

amerieana, 381.
Pelionetta perspicillata, 201.

trowbridgei, 201.
Perdix californica, 514.

perdix, 35.
Peyton. Laurence G.. 523, 524, 527.
Phalarope, Gray. 320. 321.

Northern, 15, "75, 321, 322, 325, 326-
332, 410.

Red. 21, 74, 320-326, 327, 328, 329,
331, 365.

Wilson, 75. 329, 332-337, 436.
Phalaropus fuliearius, 320-326.

hyperboreus. 326.

[638]

INDEX

lobatus, 326.

tricolor, 332.

wilsoni, 332.
Phasianus torquatus, 30, 572-575.
Pheasant, Bohemian, 34.

China, 572.

Chinese Ring-necked, 32.

Copper, 34.

Dennv, 572.

English, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 58.

Golden, 34.

Ladv Amherst, 34.

Mongolian, 32, 58.

Reeves, 34.

Ring-necked, 22, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33,
34, 35, 41, 46, 47, 77, 572-575.

Silver, 34, 51.

Swinhoe, 34.

Wood, 552.
Philacte canagica, 243-246.
Pierce, Wright M., 523, 528.
Pigeon, Band-tailed, 9, 16, 49. 56. 61.
78, 57.5-588, 589, 592. 597, 60:!,
G04.

Blue, 575.

Domestic, 576, 579, 588, 60:;.

Mono Lake, 326, 328.

Passenger, 23, 577, 581.

Sonora, 604.

White-winged Wild, 603.

Wild, 61, 144, 575, 583.
Pigmies, 376, .?86.
Pinioning birds, 53.
Pintail, 49, 52, 71, 94, 95, 100, 105,
109, 110, 125, 128, 133, h1f-l,W,
157. 205, 246.
Pisobia bairdi, 373-376.

niaculata, 368-373.

minutilla, 376-381.
Platalea ajaja, 262.
Platea mexicana, 262
Plegadis guarauna, 269-273.
Plover, 58, 59, 60.

American Golden, 76, 366, 455, 456,
458-463.

Black-bellied, 64, 75, 366. 419, 452-
458, 460, 462, 483.

Black-breasted, 60, 452.

Candlestick, 416.

P'ield, 427, 429.

Golden, 60, 368, 457, 460, 461. 463.
483.

Kentish, 473.

Killdeer, 463.

Mountain, 18, 77, 302. 471, 481-485.

Prairie. 482.

Red-legged, 489.

Ring, 469, 471.

Ring-necked, 375.

Rocky Mountain. 481.

Ruddy, 391.

Semipalmated, 76, 469-473, 475.

Semipalmated Ring, 469.

Snowy, 77, 365, 378. 389. 436, 470,
471, 472, 473-478, 480.

Swiss, 452.

Upland, 76, 427-430.

Whistling Field, 452, 454.

Wilson, 77, 470, 471, 475, 479-481.
Pluvialis virginiaca, 458.
Pochard, 146.

Podasocys montanus, 481-485.
Poisoning, 16.
Porzana Carolina, 296-301.

coturniculus, 304.

janiaicensis, 304.

jamaicensis coturniculus, 304.
Preserves, game, 23, 24.
Propagation of game birds, 45-54.
Ptarmigan, 40.
Pterocyanea coeruleata, 123.

discors, 123.
Pups, 386.

Quail, 6, 10, 16, 51, 57, 58, .583.
Arizona, 538.

Bob-white, 58, .59, 516, 569.
Brown -backed Vallev, 514.
California, 5, 21, 78,' 508, 515, 516,

518, 520, 522, 524, 527, 530, .532,

533, 534, 536, 5,37.
Catalina Island, 5, 78, 515, 516,

537-538.
Chinese, 38, 58.
Crested, 514.
Desert, 39, 46, 56, 59, 60, 78, 515.

517, 518, 538-544.
Eastern, 58.
Elegant, 39. 41.
Gambel, 39, 41, 515, 517. 538, 5:^9,

543.
Helmet, 514.
Mountain, 46, 48, 56, 58, 59. 60, 63,

78, 504-513, 514. 515, 517.
Painted, 77, 504, 507, 513-514. .
Plumed, 504, 505.
San Pedro, 504.
Topknot, 514.
Tufted, 514.
Valley, 3, 5, 17, 20, 22, 39, 46, 48,

56, 58, 59, 60, 78, 296. 504, 505,

506, 508, 509, 510, 513, 514-537,

538, 539, .540, 541, 543. .544, 574.
Querquedula carolinensis, 113.
cyanoptera, 123-129.
d'iscors, 120-123.

Rail, 58, 59, 362.
Bangs. 289.

Black. 297, 298. 302. 305, 307, 308.
California Black, 74, 303, 304-309.
California Clapper, 74, 283-289,

290, 291, 293.
Carolina, 296, 299, 300. 308.
Clapper. 9, 288, 289. 290, 291, 292,

296, 297.
Common, 296.

[639]

INDEX

Eastern Black, 304, 307.

Farallon, 304.

King, 283.

Light-footed, 74, 283, 285, £89-291.

San Mateo, 283.

Sora, 15, 74, 293, 296-301, 303, 307,
308.

Southern California Clapper, 289.

Sweetwater, 291.

Virginia, 15, 74, 283, 284, 291-296,
297, 298, 299, 301, 303.

Yellow, 74, 292, 293, 297, 298, 301-
304.
Rallus, elegans, 283.

elegans var. obsoletus, 283.

levipes, 289-291.

obsoletus, 283-289.

virginianus, 291-296.
Ray, Milton S., 523, 524.
Rearing game birds, 52, 53.
Reclamation, its effect on game, 15.
Recurvirostra americana, 337-344.

occidentalis, 337.
Redhead, 9, 13, 14, 18, 49, 56, 57, 72,
101, 146-150, 151, 152. 153, 164,
165, 166, 167, 249.
Reynolds, L. R., 477.
Rhvacophilus solitarius, 411.
Richards, W. W., 25, 51, 145.
Richardson, Charles H., 352, 388, 397,

424, 591.
Ring-bill, 164, 167.
Ring-neck, 156, 162, 164, 165, 167.
Roadrunner as enemy of quail, 22.
Robin, as game, 56, 58.
Ruddy, 9, 209.
Rynchaspis clypeata, 129.

Sage-cock, 564.

Sage-hen, 48, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60

554, 559, 560, 561, 564-572.
Sale of game, 12, 13, 14.
Sanderling, 77, 391-396, 475.
Sandpiper, Baird, 76, 370, 371,

376, 384, 393.
Bartramian. 427, 429.
Black-bellied, 381. 383.
Least, 15, 76, 305, 371, 375,

381, 384, 387, 389, 390, 393,

424, 431, 474, 475, 608.
Little. 376.

Pectoral, 76, 368-373, 375, 410
Red-backed, 15, 76, 366, 380,

386, 391, 393.
Sanderling, 391.
Semipalmated, 388.
Solitary, 410, 413, 414, 415,

431.
Spotted, 76, 412, 414, 415, 431-
Western, 15, 76, 371, 375, 378,

380, 384, 386-390, 393, 424,

475.
Western Solitary, 76, 3S5, 411-

, 77,

373-

376-
419,

416,

■437.
379,
431,

-416.

Sawbill, 79, 81, 83, 84, 169.
Scaup, 110, 147, 149, 156.

Greater, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161,

162, 165, 167, 187, 206.
Lesser, 156, 157, 159, 160, 161, 162.

163, 164, 166.
Schaeffle, Ernest, 3.
Schneider, William, 535.
Scolopax grisea, 358.

uoveboracensis, 358.

wilsoni, 350.
Scoter, 192, 193, 195.

American, 73, 194-197.

Black, 194.

Surf, 73, 196, 201-204.

White-winged, 72, 196, 197-201,
203.
Scooter, 195.
Scott, J. Walter, 12.
Sea-goose, 326.
Sennett, George B., 458.
Settlement of the country, its effect

on game, 15.
Sharp, Clarence S., 522, 525, 527, 528.
Sharp-tail, 559, 560, 561, 563.

Columbia, 558.
Shebley, W. H., 31, 83.
Sheldrake, 79, 81, 88.

Hooded, 89.

Red-breasted, 84.
Shelton, Alfred C, 304.
Shepherd, Vernon, 102, 244, 252.
Shopk, Henry, 49.
Shoveller, 47, 49, 71, 100, 128, 129-

134, 136, 138, 182.
Shuffler, 156.
Sickle-bill, 438, 439.
Skelton, A. E., 513, 534.
Skinner, R. W., 51.
Skunk-head, 201.
Smith, Franklin J., 112, 187, 195, 242,

490.
Snakes as destroyers of quail's eggs,

22.
Snipe, 10, 56, 58, 59.

American, 350.

Black-breasted, 383.

Bull-head, 481.

Checkered, 489.

Curve-billed, 445.

English, 350.

Gray, 358.

Irish, 337.

Jack, 60, .344, 350, 352, 358," 360,
371, 376.

Needle-billed, 332, 334.

Red-breasted, 358, 363, 365.

Robin, 363, 365.

Stone, 401.

Surf, 391.

Wilson, 59, 60, 75, 350-358, 359,
361, 364, 371, 381, 407. 411, 467.

Yellow, 337.
Somateria spectabilis, 192-194.

[640]

INDEX

Sora, 292, 294, 297, 298, 299, 301.
South Southerly, 181.
Spatter, 205.
Spatterer, 205, 206.
Spatula clvpeata, 129-134.
Speckle-belly, 218, 219.
Speckle-breast, 218, 219.
Spike-bill, 396.

Spoonbill, 11, 13, 14, 24, 57, 129, 131,
264.
Roseate, 73, 262-266.
Spoonie, 10, 129, 131.
Sprig, 10, 13, 14, 24, 26, 118, 134, 135,

139.
Sprigtail, 134, 205.
Squatarola helvetica, 452.

squatarola, 452-458.
Squealer, 246.
Squires, Walter A., 207.
Steganopus tricolor, 332-337.
Stephens, Frank, 96, 291, 360, 392,

487, 506.
Stilt, 341, 345, 346, 347, 349, 350, 448.
Black-necked, 15, 74, 338, 340, 343,
344-350, 399, 405.
Strepsilas interpres, 489.
melanocephalus, 493.
virgata, 485.
Storer, Tracy I., iii, 5, 378, 383, 420,
436, 437, 439, 457, 509, 545, 548,
595, 602.
Surf -bird, 75, 424, 48.5-489, 494.
Swan, 59.

American, 256.

Trumpeter, 18, 69, 253-256, 257,

259, 261, 262.
Whistling, 69, 253, 254, 255, 256-
262
Swarth, Harry S., 2, 3, 378, 418, 532,

541, 549, 586.
Symphemia semipalmata, 416.
semipalmata inornata, 416.
semipalmata speeulifera, 416.

Tantalus loculator, 263, 266.
Tattler, 401, 403.
Lesser, 410.
Solitary, 411, 413.
Tell-tale, 401.
Wandering, 76, 405, 422-427, 455,

488, 494.
Yellow-shanks, 408.
Taylor, Walter P., 3, 126, 418, 421,

440, 441, 549, 595.
Teal, 10, 13, 14, 49, 57, 110, 118, 153.
American Green-winged, 113.
Blue-winged, 57, 72, 114, 115, 116,

120-123, 124, 125, 132.
Cinnamon, 47, 56, 57, 72, 100, 104,
113, 114, 116, 117, 118, 121, 122,
123-129, 132, 147, 270.
Common, 113.
European, 72, 114, 116, 119-120.

Green-winged, 26, 63, 72, 91, 113-
118, 119, 120, 121, 122. 12.5, 128,
136.

Red-breasted, 123, 124.

Western Blue-wing, 123.

White-faced, 120, 122.
Teeter, 431.
Teeter-tail, 431, 432.
Tell-tale, 401, 403.

Greater, 403.

Lesser, 410.
Tetrao californicus, 537.

columbianus, 558.

obscurus, 544.

phasianellus, 558.

sabini, 552.

urophasianus, 564.
Tevis, Lansing, 281.
Tilt, 344.

Tip-up, 99, 431, 432.
Toms, W., 159, 163.
Totanus flavipes, 408-411.

incanus, 422.

macularius, 431.

melanoleucus, 401-407.

semipalmatus, 416.

solitarius, 411.

solitarius cinnamomeus, 411.
Tree-duck, 247, 250, 251, 252.

Black-bellied, 71, 246, 251-253.

Brown, 246.

Fulvous, 7], 149, 246-251, 252.

Fulvous-bellied, 246.
Tringa alpina, 325, 381.

alpina var. americana, 381.

alpina pacifica, 366, 381.

arenaria, 391.

bairdi, 373.

canutus, 363-368.

fuscicollis, 370.

maculata, 368.

minutilla, 376.

pacifica, 381.

semipalmata, 386.

wilsonii, 376.
Tringoides macularius, 431.
Turkey, Water, 266, 269.

Wild, 36, 37, 40, 46, 58, 143.
Turnstone, 366, 375, 419, 486, 487,
491, 492.

Black, 21, 75, 491, 493-497.

Common, 492, 493.

Ruddy, 75, 489-493, 494, 495.
Tyler, John G., 342, 345, 346, 347,
348, 349, 433, 471, 521, 523, 524,
527, 591.
Tympanuchus americanus, 561.

Unglish, W. E., 7, 9.

Van Slyke, W. E., 36.

[641]

INDEX

Wanzer, H., 251.
Water-hen, 283.
Wavy, White, 211.
Whale-bird, 320.
•Wheu-bird, 438, 439.
Wheeler, Eoswell S., 141, 143.
Whistler, 167, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173.
Whistle-wing, 167.

Widgeon, 7, 10, 13, 14, 26, 106, 108,
118, 136.

American, 106, 108, 113.

European, 71, 107, 111-113.

Red-headed, 111, 112, 113.
Wildcat as enemy of game birds, 21.
Wilder, Harry E., 363.
Wilev, Leo, 126, 263, 269, 540, 541,

591, 608, 609.
Willet, 416.

Eastern, 419.

Western, 75, 398, 405, 416-422,
441, 443.
Willett, George, 397, 470, 600.
Wiretail, 205, 206.
Woodcock, 353.
Wythe, Margaret W., iv, 525.

Yellow-legs, 60, 218, 408, 424.

Greater, 75, 401-407, 408, 409, 410.
411, 419.

Lesser, 76, 402, 404, 408-411.

Little, 408.

Summer, 408, 409.
Yellow-shanks, Greater, 401.
Yelper, 234.
Zenaidura carolineusis, 588.

maeroura, 588.

macroura carolinensis, 588.

maeroura marginella, 5S8-60S,

[ 642

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