A geography of the Malay Peninsula, Indo-China, the Eastern Archipelago, the Philippines and New Guinea

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“OOVIAALHOUY NuGISva WELL

EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

A GEOGRAPHY

OF
THE MALAY PENINSULA, INDO-CHINA,
THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO, THE PHILIPPINES,
AND NEW GUINEA,

ny
Pror. A, H. KEANE, B.A,, F.B.GS5.,

ViICi-FPRISIDEST OF THK ANTHROPOLOGICAL IXSTITUTE ;
2
ACDTHOR oF
“ASIA,” IN ETAXFORD § COMPEXINUM SERIES,

WaiTd A MAP.

LONDON :
EDWARD STANFORD, 55, CHARING CROSS, 8.W.
1887.

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[fos

MRA
Ker

PREFACE.

Tus work, it is hoped, may be only the first of a seriea on
Eastern Geocrapny, the idea, and to some extent the plan, of
which are due to the enlightened public spirit of the Hon, A,
M. Skinner, President (1885) of the Straits Branch of the
Royal Asiatic Society. During his official connection with the
Administration of Singapore, that gentleman has practically
co-operated in supplying a want which the Governor, Sir F,
Weld, had long desired to supply. Under these auspices there
appeared in 1884 at Singapore a treatise on the Malay Peninsula
which has served as the groundwork of the first part of the
present volume. Some materials collected on the spot were also
kindly placed at my disposal, of which I have gladly availed
myself in the treatment of other sections,

For the general plan and composition of the volume in its
present form I must in other respects accept the entire responsi-
bility. My primary aim has been to produce a work which
may meet the requirements of teacher and pupil in the Straits
Settlements, and in the other colonies directly interested in
the regions here dealt with, At the same time, these regions,
notwithstanding their growing political and commercial import-
ance, continue to be handled in such a perfunctory manner in
popular works at home, that English students may also perhaps
be glad to welcome a work which can at least claim to be the
first exclusively devoted to those remote lands,

VL PREFACE.

A glance at the Contents, which by a process of double
pagination have been so disposed as to dispense with an index,
will at onea reveal the general arrangement of the subject
matter, Here clearness and uniformity have been the main
considerations, while in the treatment especially of the physical
and biological sections an attempt has been made to break away
from the crude methods still lingering in our scliwols, and to
bring the matter more into harmony with the views of the
Rittersa, Peschels, Reclus and the other illustrious exponents
of the true scientific method. Thus the present conditions are,
as far as possible, treated in the light of the past, so that a
relation between cause and effect takes the place of a bald
statement of facts. In this way the slow decay of the marvellous
Cambojan culture becomes intimately associated with the slow
subsidence of the waters, or the upheaval of the land, which
converted a former marine inlet into a mere fishing-pond
(p. 102-3). So also the local phenomenon of the ‘' Sumatras ”
is brought into direct connection with the climatic, and these
again with the geological conditions of North Sumatra (p. 141),
and so on,

Another feature is the reference to recent explorers (Forbes,
Chalmers, Guillemard, Gill, &c.), in those still litthe known
regions, and even occasional short quotations from their writ-
ings. This inspires the teacher with confidence in his guide,
and perhaps helps to awaken the interest of his pupil. All the
information is as recent and correct as possible, and for that
reason the book appeals to many besides pupils and teachers, for
whom it was originally intended.

The division of the Eastern Archipelago into three instead of
two natural regions {an Asiatic, Oceanic, and Australian) may
possibly challenge criticism. Dut if it teaches teacher and
student to think, its purpose will be served, even though the
theory itself be rejected.

The orthography was of course a troublesome question,
the solution of which has been sought in an eclectic system

PREFACE. Vil

leaning towards the suggestions lately published by the Royal
Geographical Society, The indefinite Malay vowel (¢) will be
found generally marked in important names (Kédah, Séng-
gora, &c.), but its consistent adoption throughout would have
needlessly overcrowded the pages of the Malay section with
unsightly diacritical marks. For some useful information on
this and other points I have to thank Mr. D. F. A. Hervey of
Malacea, though unable to adopt all his suggestions, The Rev.
James Chalmers has also kindly looked over the proof sheets of
the section on New Guinea.

A. H. KB.
University Cottrozr, Lonpox,
March 1887.

ERRATA.

Poge 2, fine 18 from top, for in Johor read in Moar.
» 3 » 44 4 (for Abubikar, E.O.8.1 read the Miharija (since
1885 called Sultan) Abubikar, G.C.M.G.,
E.CS.I.
» 40 , ® » for the restoration of Moar to Johor read the pro-
visional and temporary administration of

Moar by the ruler of Johor.
ee » for north-east read = south-east,
» S , 40 , 4 Hung-hao « Hung-hoa.
» 0 , @ a » 13° 18" N. lat. » 18° 45° N, lat.
+ 187 14 , y» west , east.

» 13 , 2 » o» Amuntal » <Amuntai,
+ 185 , 20 = , Kumanis » Kimilinis,
» 148 ,, 18 x. » FPalan » Pulau,
o Ifd , 6 of er ae By » 1285,

CONTENTS.

Preface Lea sa Pre 1 eee on

PART I. THE MALAY PENINSULA.

CHAPTER I.

General Survey—Physical Features—Mountain and
River Systems—Seaboard—Islands—The Isthmus of

Kra sa ays ue aes sic zu ies Ae
Position —Extent, p. 1; Mountain Systems, p. 1; agers Wealth,
pe 2s pes Systems, p. 3; Seaboard, Is nds, [. 4 ; Isthmus
of Km, p. 4

CHAPTER IT.
Climate—Flora—Fauna si ae “3 sek atk

CHAPTER III.
Inhabitants—The a ea eta and Malays—
Religion—Language .. ok as i ce Bae

The Negritoes, p. 7; the Siamese and Sam-Sama, p, 7; the
Malays, p. 8; the Malay Language, p. 11; the Chinese, p, 12 ;
the K.ings, ke, p 12.

CHAPTER IV.

Political Divisions—Siamese and Eritish Divisions—
Resources—Trade—Government ... ai baa ie

Norruees or Stamese Divistox, p. 14: Kra, Puket, Kédah,
Be 15; Ligor, Stnggrérn, p. 17; Patani, p. 18; Rémen,
<élantan, p. 19; Trengganu, p. 20; SouTnerx or Britis et
Divistox, p. 29 + the Thive Protected States, Pérak, p. 22;
Selingor, p. 27; Bia ag Ujong, p, 20; the Négri Sémbilan

PATE

15

x CONTENTS.

States, p. 30; Jélébu, p. 31; Johol, p. 32; Remban, p. 34;
Pahang, p. 85; Johor, r. 38: the’ Teds SETTLEMENTS,
p. 40; Singapore, p . 43; Penang, Malacca, p. 44.

Statistics of the Malay Peninsula ... sce

PART II. INDO-CHINA.
CHAPTER I.

General Survey—Physical Features—Mountain and
River Systems—Seaboard—Islands “An A ae

Position, Boundaries, Extent. . 49; Mountain Systema, p. 50;
Mineral Wealth, p.51; Eiver Systems, p. 52; Seaboard,
p. 55.

CHAPTER II.
Climate—Flora—Fauna ina aa a8 wee oom ioe

CHAPTER IIT.

Inhabitants —Burmese—Talaings—Siamese—Annamese
—Cambojans ... Sha ni aa

Mongolie Parte se 7+ Langcages, p. 58; Non-Mongolic Races,
» £0: Table o Mongolie and Non- -Mongolie Races, p. 60; the
jurmese and Talaings, p. 61; the Siamese, Shans and Laos,
p. 62; the Annamese, p. 64 ; ‘the Cambojans, p. 65,

CHAPTER Ivy.
Political Divisions—Burmah—Siam—Annam—Camboja

1. British Division: Borman, p. 67; Burman Prorrr,
yp. 68; Physical Features, y 63; Arts and Jmlustries, p. 70 ;
Gieegraphical and Political Divisions, p. 71; Topography,
p. 75; ARAKAS, p 76; Physical Features, p. 76; Natural
lesuurees, p. 77: Inhabitants, p. 77; Administration, p. 78 ;
a i , Pp. 79; TeNasseriu, p. 79; Physical Features,
p. 79; opography, p. $1.

2. Native Division: Stam, p. 82; Upper Siam, p. 82;
Physical neg at 83 ; Climate, p. 85 evades aind eeerad
serie ie ndustries, Trade, p. 86; Communications,

: Political Divisions, p. 88 ; Administration, p. 89;
PME se p. 89; Historical Notes, p. 91.

FAgE

tH
=]

CONTENTS. x1

PAGE

3. Fnexon Drviston: AXNAM ond Camposa, p. 91; General
Survey, p. 91; Position, Extent, Population, p. 92; Physical
Features, p. 93; Climate, p. 95; Natural Resources, p. 95 ;
Trade ani Industries, p. 96; Political Divisions, p. 98 ;
Tonkin, p. 98; Cocuin-CHina, p. 98; Lower CocHin-
Cuiva, p. 99; Camposa, p. 100; Administration, p. 100;
Topography, p. 101; Historical Notes, p. 103.

Statistics of Indo-China i. sae as a ww» 106

PART III. THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO.

CHAPTER I.

General Survey—Distribution of Land and Water—
Main Insular Groups—Volcanic Formations—
Geology—Extent—Population _... as ie .. 108

General Survey, p. 108 ; Volcanic Formations, p, 110; Geology,
p- 111; Extent, Population, p. 112.

CHAPTER II.
Climate—Flora—Fauna on aes fae aa aae eee 113

CHAPTER III.
Inhabitants — Malays — Indonesians — Negritoes—
Papuans ... ie Se one at Gs ae --- 116

The Malays, p. 117; Malayan Groups, p. 118 ; the Indonesians,
p. 119; Negritoes, p. 120; Papuans, p. 121.

CHAPTER IY.

Geographical and Political Divisions—Asiatic, Austra-
lian, and Oceanic Natural Divisions-—Dutch, Spanish,
English, German, and Portuguese Territories ... ww 134

1. Astatic Division: The large Sunda Group with Bali and
Islands adjacent to Sumatra—the Philippine and Sulu Archi-
pelagoes, p, 125; Honxro, p. 126; Rivers, p. 129; Lakes, p.
129; Climate, p, 130; Flora and Fauna, p. 130 ; Inhabitants,

131; Dutch Possessions, p. 152; Banjer-Masin, p. 183 ;
ciitei, p. 133; British Settlements in Borneo, p. 154 ; Sari-
wak, p. 134; British North Borneo, p, 135; Labuan, p. 196 ;

xu CONTENTS.

PAGE
Native Territory, Briinei, p. 187; Historical Notes, p. 137;
Sumarra, p. 139; Islands, p, 139; Physical Features, p.
140; Rivers, p. 141; Lakes, p. 142; Flora, Fauna, p. 143;

_ Minerals, Trade, Inhabitants, p. 144; Political Divisions,
p. 145; Chief Towns, p. 146; Historical Notes, fi 147;

Ava and Mapura, p. 148; Coastline, p. 148; Physical
Features, p. 149; Volcanoes, p. 149; Rivers, p. 150 ; Climate,
p. 150; Flora, Fauna, P. 151; Inhabitants, p. 152; Govern-
ment, Trade, p. 153 ; Topography, p. 154; Historical Notes,
p 155; Bau, p. 156; the PHILIPPINE ARCHIPELAGO, p. 154 ;
General, Survey, p. 159; Physical Features, p, 147; Rivera
and Lakes, p. 155; Climate, p. 159; Flora, p. 159; Fauna,
p- 160 ; Inhabitants, p. 160: Government, Trade, Topocraphy,
p. 162; Salu, Bashi, p. 163.

2. Oceanic Division : Celébes—the Molucea and Banda Groups,
p- 163; Centogs, p. 164; General Survey, p. 164; Rivers
and Lakes, p. 165; Climate, Minerals, Flora, Fauna, p, 165 ;
Inhabitants, p. 166 ; Political Divisions, p. 166; Agriculture,
Trade, Industries, p. 167; Monvcca and Baxpa Groves,

168 ; Floraand Fauna, p. 169; Jilolo (Halmahera), p, 169 ;

foluccas Proper, p. 170; Ceram, Ké, p. 170; Bird, p. 171;
Amboyna, p. 171; Banda, p. 172; Political Divisions, p, 172.

3. AvaTRALIAN Diviston: The Lesser Sundas—Timor, Timor

Laut—New Guinea, p. 173 ; General Survey, p. 173 ; Lombok,
. 174; Sumbawa, p. 175; Floris and Comodo, p. 176;
umba or Sandalwood, p. 176; ‘Timor, p. 176; Timor Laut or

Tenimber, p. 178; New Guinea, p. 179; General Survey,

T 179; Islands, p. 179; Physical Features, p. 180; Rivers,

I 181; Geographical Formations, p. 181; Climate, p. 182;
lora, p. 182; Fauna, p. 183; Inhabitants, p. 184; Politica

Divisions, p. 185; Historical Notes, p. 186.

Statistics of Eastern Archipelago .., +e aes wa. 187

PART I.

THE MALAY PENINSULA.

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL SC0RVEY—FPHYSICAL FEATCRES—MOUSTAIN AND RIVER
SYSTEMS—SEABOARD—ISLANDS—THE ISTHMUS OF ERA,

Position—Extent.—The Malay Peninsula, the Tanah Maldyu,
or“ Malay Land” of the natives, forms the southernmost extension
of the great peninsular region of Indo-China, with which it ia con-
nected by the Isthmus of Kra (Kraw). At the narrowest point of
this isthmus the river Pakshan marks the natural and political bound-
ary towards British Burma on the west side; but on the east the
frontier towards Siam is indicated by no physical or conventional line.
South of Kra the Peninsula projects for about 600 miles first south,
then south-east nearly parallel with Sumatra, terminating at Cape
Tanjong Bilus in 1° 16’ 12" N, latitude, Here is the southernmost
extremity of the Asiatic continent, which, however, is geologically
continued to the island of Billiton (Bilitong), and includes the
neighbouring archipelagoes of Bentan, Lingga, and Banka, all now
severed from the mainland, The Peninsula, which is washed by the
Bay of Bengal and Strait of Malacca on the west, by the Gulf of
Siam and China Sea on the east, gradually widens from about 40
niles at Kra to about 200 miles between the Dindings and Tring-
riinu, again contracting further south to a mean breadth of under
100 miles in Johor, The total area is somewhat over 75,000 square
miles, with an estimated population of at least 1,200,000, or about
15 inhabitants to the square mile,

Mountain Systems.—Malay land forms geologically a southern
extension of the mountain system, which separates the Salwin and
Menam river basins, It consists mainly of continuous ranges running

14

z EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

in a line with the continental axis and forming a distinct water-parting
between the streams flowing east and west to the surrounding seas,
The western range continues unbroken from the interior of Kedah
(6° N.) to the interior of Malacca (2° N.), reappearing at intervals
further south in Johor and even in the insular peaks beyond, The
central upland region is skirted on either side by low-lying coastlands
of varying breadth and of recent formation, which alone are cultivated
and inhabited by settled populations,

The height of the main central range increases towards the wider
parts of the Pensinula, culminating in Kedah and Perak, where
several peaks are known to range from 500) to 8000 feet and upwards.
The principal summits, some of which have been ascended in recent
years, are Mount Robinson or Riam (about 8000 feet) in south Perak ;
Titi Wangan (6810) between Kedah and Perak; Ulu Temeling
(6435) and Bubo (5650) near the right and left banks of the Perak
river respectively; the Slim range (6000 to 7000) in south-enst Pernk ;
Chimberas (5650) in Selangor; Berembun (about 4000) in Sungei
Ujong; Lédang, or Ophir (4200) in Johor, until recently supposed
to be the highest point in the Peninsula; Blimut (3200) in south
Johor, at the source of the river Jolior,

East of the central range, and many miles inland from Perak, on
the east side of the river Puhang, near the west frontier of Tringginu
and Kelantan, stretches the still unexplored Tahan chain, which was
described in 1875 by the traveller Miklukho-Maclay as the loftiest
crest in the whole Peninsula. Recent information tends to confirm
this view, and it now seems probable that the highest of the peaks
exceeds 10,000 feet.

Apart from the low-lying constlands, which vary in breadth from 10 to
25 miles, the whale ponineala is broken and hilly, and everywhere covered
with dense forests, ‘The formation is mainly granitic, traversed by veins of
stanniferous quart, and overlaid by sandstone, unfossilised clay slates,
laterite or ironstone, and in afew places, principally towards the north, by
limestone. Although no trace has been found of recent voleanic action,
there are several isolated and unstratified limestone masses from 500 to 2000
feet high of o highly crystallised character with no fossils of any kind.

Mineral Wealth.—The most remarkable geological feature is
the prevalence of tin, in some places associated with gold and galena.
The tin occurs throughout the Peninsula, reaching as far north as
Tavoi (14° N.) in British Burma, and os for south as the Carimons
(Kerimun) and Lingga on the equator, and after a break of about 140
miles reappearing in Banka and Billiton islands (3°8,), Where it has
been observed im situ, the bed of the ore, which occurs nowhere elsa
in the Eastern Archipelago, is the quartz, which is found penetrating

THE MALAY PENINSULA. 3

the granite atevery elevation, The whole country has been described
as “a vast magazine” of this metal, and is now admitted to be the
most extensive tin-producing region in the world, But mining
operations have hitherto been confined to the deposits near the foot
of the hills, in the alluvial ground formed by the decomposition of
the encasing rocks, Mines ore worked at present in about twenty
different localities on both sides, and throughout the length of the
Peninsula. The most productive are those of the Siamese provinces in
the north-west, Intan, Selama, Lirut, Kinta, KwilasLumpor, Sungei,
Ujong, Pahang, Kelantan, and Patini.

Gold occurs in several of these districts, but especially in Chendras,
Taong (near Mount Ophir), Kelantan, and Jelei in the interior of Pahang,
the produce of the last-mentioned place commanding a higher price
3 per cent. than the est Australian gold. Rich galena ore occurs in Patan
Silver also, the presence of which had been doubted, although the Perak
river is named from the Malay word perak, “silver,” has recently been
found in Liirnt associated with the tin ores of that district. Rich galena
ore occurs in Patini, while iron is more abundant even than tin, especiall
in the southern provinces, Coal is stated to have been recently foun
to the south of Kra, in Perak, and o few other places, But neither coal
nor iron has hitherto been worked in any part of the Peninsula, .

River Systems:—Owing to the formation of the land and the
somewhat central disposition of the main water-parting, the rivers
although numerous are necessarily of short length, and as their mouths
are generally obstructed by bars and coral reefs, they are on the
whole more useful for irrigation than as highways of communication.
Nevertheless some are navigable by light craft for considerable
distances, and small steamers have ascended the Bernam between
Perak and Selangor for a distance of about 80 miles from the coast.
But by far the largest river basins are the Perak on the west and the
Pahang on the east slope, each of which comprises an area of drain-
age over 5000 square miles in extent, The Perak with its chief
tributaries, the Plus, Kinta, and Batang Padang, presents a total
naviguble waterway of perhaps 2000 miles,

The other chief streams, following the coast from north to south,
are the Pakshan on the northern frontier ; the Maida, flowing between
Kedah and the province of Wellesley ; the Krian and Larutin Perak ;
the Selangor, Klang, Langat, Linggi, and Moar, all on the west coust ;
the Johor, whose estuary faces Singapore; the Patani, the Kelantan,
with its large tributary the Lebih, the Kermiman, Cherating, Rumpen,
and Endau, all on the east coast,

Most of these rivera hare their course, not east and west, but more or
less synclinal with the mountaim-ranges from north-east to south-west on
na

+ ._ EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

the west side, and from south-west to north-east on the opposite sido of
the Peninsula. A consequence of this disposition of the river basins is,
that at some of the principal points of the system the streams flowing from
the same baal anita north to the China Sea and south to the Bay of
Bengal have their upper waters almost contiguous. Such is the case, for
instance, with the rivers Pahang and Slim in 5° North, and the rivers
Serting and Moar in 3 North,

Seaboard—Ielands.—The const on both sides, but particularly
on the west, is almost invariably marshy and alluvial. The flat,
unbroken seaboard, scarcely raised above sea level, is generally over-
grown with mangroves for some four or five miles inland. In some
parts these low-lying plains expand to a breadth of 25 or 30 miles,
but they are usually much more contracted, On the east coast the
hills approach at several points close to the shore, a disposition
partly due perhaps to the influence of the north-east monsoon. Here
the chief headlands are Capes Carnom, Patdni, Tringano, and Romania,
to which correspond on the opposite side the promontories of Silang,
Kalang, Rachado, and Bolus (Bilus).

In the extreme North both sides of the Peninsula are fringed by
clusters of innumerable reefs and islets lying close to the shore.
Further seawards is a second barrier of larger islands in the Gulf of
Siam, of which the chief are Taw, Carnam (Samai), and Quin, In
the Bay of Bengal there also runs a second chain, forming a southern
extension of the Mergui Archipelago, But beyond this insular
revion the coast is generally free from islands, except at the southern
extremity of the Peninsula, where are clustered the Singapore,
Bintang (Bentan), Balang, and Carimony (Kerimon) groups, Else-
where the largest islands are Junk Ceylon (Ujong Silang), LengkAwi,
and Penang (Pinang) on the west side; Tantalam, the Great and
Little Redangs, Tioman, and Tinggi on the east side, Their
geological formation and general disposition parallel with the
seaboard show that all these groups are mere fragments of the
mainland, with which some of the largest, such as Salang, Singapore,
and Tantalam, are almost contiguous. The Strait of Singapore
presents the aspect rather of a river than of a marine channel, run-
ning for over 30 miles transversely with the main peninsular axis,
with a mean breadth of little over 1500 yards,

Isthmus of Kra,—These islands thus hear somewhat the same
relation to the whole Peninsula that this region will present to the
Asiatic mainland whenever the projected canalisation of the Isthmus
of Kra is effected, By a ship canal at this point the voyage from
Calcutta to China would be shortened by 660 miles, and that between
Burma and Bangkok by 1300 miles, The original scheme, proposed

THE MALAY PENINSULA. 5

by Tremenhere was to dredge the river Pakshan as for as the
village of Kra, and then tunnel the highest point, thus reaching the
Gulf of Siam by the alluvial plain of the Chumpong river, Others
suggested a point further south, where the Pakshan is everywhere
at least 30 feet deep; while the French engineers Deloncle and Dru
prefer an intermediate route from the Pakshan below the rapids to
Tasun on the Tayang, or Upper Chumpong. But none of the
schemes hitherto proposed have been found quite practicable, and
since the more definite surveys of 1882-3, the project has been
abandoned.

CHAPTER II,
CLIMATE—FLORA—FAUNA,

Climate.—The climate is everywhere moist and hot, though
seldom malarious, even along the low muddy banks near the coast.
Nor is the heat so intense as in South Arabia and other regions much
further removed from the equator, the mean annual temperature
even on the lowland plains not exceeding 80° F. There is, strictly
speaking, no winter, nor even any very distinctly marked rainy
season, the alternate north-east and south-west monsoons distributing
the moisture over the east and west slopes throughout most of the
year.

The average number of rainy days ia about 190, giving for the
whole Peninsula a mean rainfall of from 90 to 150 inches. The
west coast is generally well sheltered, although exposed to sudden
squalls of short duration, known as “ Sumatras,” from the direction
whence they blow, On the other hand, the east coast is entirely
closed to navigation for about five months, during the prevalence of
the north-enst monsoon sweeping over the Gulf of Siam and China
Sea,

Flora.—Except in some limestone tracts, especially in Perak and
Kedah, the soil is not very rich, But although not at present yield-
ing sufficient rice for the local demand, the Peninsula appears to be
capable of growing almost every tropical plant. The land is almost
everywhere clothed with a magnificent tropical vegetation, in which
the most characteristic and useful growths are several varieties of
gutta-percha (gefak, here first discovered), the camphor tree, ebony,
eaglewood, sapan, ratan, nibung, bamboo, nipa-palm, cocoa-nut,

6 .EASTERN GEOGRAPHY,

areca, and gomuti, The nutmeg, cinnamon, and clove have been
introduced, and thrive well, although the nutmeg is subject to a leaf
disease. Indigo, gambier, pepper, the sugar-cane, tea, coffee, and
tapioca have also been acclimatised, A species of climbing indigo
and the wild nutmeg are indigenous, as are also the characteristic
durian and mangosteen fruit trees. The most generally cultivated
plants are rice, sugar-cane, cotton, tobaceo, yams, batata, cocoa and
areca palms. With the spread of agriculture and mining operations
the primeval forests tend to disappear, and in many districts extensive
tracts have already been cleared by the Chinese miners, who reck-
lessly cut down the finest trees to serve as fuel for smelting the tin
Ores,

Fauna,—The Fauna of the Peninsula, which is unusually rich,
is allied, like the flora and the inhabitants, partly to that of the
Eastern Archipelago, partly to the Asiatic mainland. Here are the
one-horned rhinoceros, Malay tapir (teno’), elephant, and hog, all of
the same species as those of Sumatra, Here are algo a small bear
(briang), found elsewhere only in Borneo, and the Sunda ox of
Java, besides two kinds of bison, said to be peculiar to the Peninsula,
On the other hand, the Asiatic tiger has extended his range throughout
the whole region, even crossing over to Singapore and other adjacent
islands. Of quadrumana there are no less than nine species, in-
cluding the kukang (Lemur tardigradus), a so-called chimpanzee
(Simia troglodytes), the black and white ungka, but apparently not
the orang-hitan, although the term is in common use, and applied
by the Malays in ite natural sense of “ wild men” to the wild tribes
of the interior.

Of birds perhaps the most characteristic are the rhinoceros hornbill
(Bueeror), the bangan or Javanese stork, the argus sol achat pheasants,
some birds of paradise (Paradisea regia and P. giilaris), the myna or

rackle ((racula religiosa), the murei or dial bird (Gracula sawlaris),
Fosides kingfishers, fly-catchers, doves, and pigeons in endless variety,
The islands are frequented by the Mirwncdo esculenta, or swallow that builds
edib'e neats, and the forests swarm with coleoptera, lepidoptera, and other
insects, including the magnificent butterfly, Ornithoptera Hrookeana, till
recently supposed to be peculiar to Borneo, The surrounding waters are
inhabited by the halicore, or ‘* mermaid,” no sirenian, whose Malay name
of duyong haa been corrupted to dugong in English,

THE MALAY PENINSULA. 7

CHAPTER III.

INHADITANTS—THE NEGRITOES, SAM-SAMS, AND MALAYS—RELIGION—
LANGUAGE,

The Negritoes.—Apart from the Chinese, Klings (Indians), and
other recent settlers, the inhabitants of the Peninsula belong to three
distinct ethnical stocks—the Neaniro, Tat or SIAMESE, and MALay,
The Negritoes, now reduced to a few fragmentary groups scattered
over the more inaccessible parts of the interior,-represent the true
aboriginal element, and appear to belong to the same primitive type
as the so-called “Mincopies” of the Andaman Islands, and the
Actas of the Philippine Archipelago. Their presence in the penin-
sula, long doubted by ethnologists, has been fully confirmed by
the researches of Miklukho-Maclay, and other recent explorers.
North of the Pérak they are known by the name of Semang
(Samang), south of that river by that of S@hec, and south of Malacca
as Grany Bentia, or“ Men of the Soil.” At the same time, these and
other terms, such as the local Besist and the more comprehensive
Mentra, are applied by the civilised Malays somewhat vaguely to all
the wild tribes of the interior, whether of Negrito or Malay origin,
Nor is this surprising, secing that the two races themaclves, who
have been in contact for ages, have become largely intermingled and
assimilated in appearance, customs, and even in speech. “ Purely an-
thro pological observations,” remarks Miklukho-Maclay, “lead me to
accept the supposition of a Melanesian | Negrito] element, a remnant
of the original race, which through intermixture with the Malays
being more and more supplanted, In the mountains of Pahang and
Kelantan, as far as Senggdra and Ligor, I have discovered a Melanesian
population, This peuple undoubted|y belongs to the Melanesion
stock" (thnological Kecursion in Johor). All the Negrito tribes _
are in an extreme low state of culture, holding aloof from the settled
populations, living entirely on the chase, and pursuing the game
with poisoned arrows.

The Siamese and Sam-Sams.—Excluding the Negrito element,
insignificant numerically, and without social or political influence of
any kind, the whole of the Peninsula is occupied by the Siamese
and Malay races, ‘The former, intruders from Siam in comparatively
recent times, hold the northern division as far south as the bordera

5 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.
of Kedah and Patani, or about 7° N. Intitnde, The latter, also

doubtless intruders from the North in remote pre-historic times,
prevail throughout the southern and much larger division, to which
alone the term “ Malay Land” is strictly applicable, The transition
between the two races is effected by the Sam-Sams, a half-caste
Malayo-Siamese people, lying mainly between the 7th and &th
parallels, These Sam-Sams appear to be mostly Buddhists like the
Siamese, whom they also resemble in their customs, traditions, and
national aspirations. In speech also they are at least as much
Siamese as Malay, both languages being equally current amongst
them. The pure Siamese themselves differ in no material respect
from the rest of the inhabitants of Siam, and need not here be
further considered,

THe Matays,

The Malays (Orang MalAyu, “ Malay men”) are the dominant
people, not only in the southern section of the Peninsula, but
throughout the Eastern Archipelago, where they are diversely inter-
mingled with other races, and where they have represented the local
cultured element for over two thousand years. The Malays proper,
that is, those who call themselves by this name, who speak the
standard Malay language, and who possess a common sentiment of
national unity, are found in compact masses chiefly in the Malay
Peninsula, in the adjacent islands of Pinang, Bintang, Lingga,
Biliton, Bangka, and in Sumatra, of which they oceupy about one
half, mainly in the south, along the east coast, and on parts of the
west coast, In these lands alone they are really indigenous, and
regard themselves as the aboriginal population, Elsewhere they are
met in scattered communities, chiefly round the coast of Bornes, in
the Sulu Archipelngo, in Tidor, Ternate, and some other members of
the Molucca group, where they are held to be intruders, or immigrants
from Sumatra.

Long considered as an independent division of mankind, the
Malays are now more generally affiliated to the Mongol stock, of
which A, R. Wallace, De Quatrefages, and other eminent naturalists
regard them as a simple variety more or less modified by mixture
with other elements, In fnaet, the typical Malay can scarcely be
distinguished anthropologically from the typical Mongolian. He is
described by competent observers as of low stature, averaging little
over 5 fect, of olive-yellow complexion, inclining to light brown or
cinnamon, brachycephalous or round-headed, with somewhat flat
features, prominent cheek-bones, black and slightly oblique eyes,

THE MALAY PENINSULA. 9

emall but not flat nose, dilated nostrils, hands and feet small ond

delicate, legs thin and weak, coarse black hair always lank and
round in section, scant or no beard.

The departure from this description so frequently noticed in the
Archipelago must be attributed to intermixture with the black Papuan
stock in the east, and with a distinct pre-Malay Caucasic clement in the
west, The presence of this “Indonesian” clement, as it is called by
Logan and Hamy, may now be regarded as an aseertained fact, the recog-
nition of which will help to remove many of the difficulties counected with
the various relations of the Malays to the surrounding racea, Jt at once
explains, for instance, the 7A jelgee discrepancy between the foregoing
description of the ordinary Malay and that of the Battas, Orang Kibo,
and many other Sumatran and Bornean peoples described as tall and robust,
with regular features, symmetrical figure, light complexion, brown and.
wavy hair, and general European appearance,

These considerations also enable us to fix the true centre of
dispersion of the Malay race rather on the mainland than in
Sumatra, contrary to the generally received opinion. If they are
physically allied to the Mongol stock, it is obvious that the eurliest
migration must have been from high Asia southwards to the
peninsula, and thence to Suinatra, possibly at a time when the
island still formed part of the continent. The national traditions
of a dispersion from Menangkabau or Palembang in south Sumatra
must accordingly be understood to refer to late movements, and
more especially to the diffusion of the civilised Malay people, who
first acquired a really national development in Sumatra in com-
paratively recent times. From this point they spread to the
Peninsula, to Borneo, Sulu, and other parts of Malaysia apparently
since their conversion to Islam, although other waves of migration
must have reached Farther India, if not from the same region at all
events from Java, at much earlier dates. The impulse to these
earlier movements was due to the introduction of Indian culture
through the Brahman and Buddhist missionaries perhaps two or
three centuries before the Cliristian era.

During still more remote pre-historic times various sections of the
Ma'ay and Indonesian stocks were diffused westwards to Madagascar,
and eastwards to the Philippines, Formosa, Micronesia, and Polynesia.
This astonishing expansion of the Malaysian people throughout the
oceanic area is sufficiently attested by the diffusion of a common
oceanic (Malayo-Polynesian) speech from Madagascar to Easter
Island, and from Hawaii to New Zealand.

The Malays proper have long been divided into three distinet social
groups :-—The Orang Henda, or “ Men of the Suil," that is, the uncivilised
wild tribes of the peninsula ; the Orang-lawt, or ‘‘ Mon of the Sea," that

10 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

is, the semi-civilised flonting population; and the Orang Maldyu, or
Malays in a pre-eminent sense, that is, the civilised Malays with a culture,
a literature, and a religion, The Orang Benitia, called also Orang-Gunung,
or “ Highlanders," and even Orcag-Ctan, or “ Wild Men," constitute the
aboriginal Malay element, which has hitherto remained unaffected by
foreign influences, and whieh is still grouped in small tribes at a very low
stage of culture, living mainly by the chase, and almost destitute of social
organisation. They are found chiefly in the more inaccessible wooded
uplands of the poninsula and Sumatra, in the former region more or less
intimately associated for ages with the Negrito tribe, ond in the latter
island apparently the sole occupiers of the land from the first.

Intermediate between the Orang-Bentia and Orang-Maliyn are the
Orang-laut, or ‘Sea Gipsies " of former English writers, the * Cellates "
of the early Portuguese explorers, But they are no longer the “ vile
people dwelling more on the sea than on the land," and “living by fishing
and robbing ;" for piracy has been almost entirely suppressed in these
waters, and the Orang-laut have risen considerably in the social seale since
the spread of English power and influences throughout Malay land and
North Borneo.

This remark is equally applicable to the Orang-Maliyn, or civilised
Malays, who first under Hindn and afterwards under Arab influences
developed a national life and culture, and founded mare or less powerful
political states in various parta of the archipelago and throughout the
peninsuls. At one time there was an impression that they were losing
groaned, and becoming gradually displaced by the Chinese immigrants into

lalaysia. But statistics have shown that this view was groundless, and
during the present century the whole Malay race has everywhere displayod
an unexpected vigour and vitality, The native populations of Java,
Sumatra, and the Peninsula, far from showing any tendency to dwindle
away before the Chinese intruders, have multiplied considerably, and are
at present probably four times more numerous than at the beginning of
the century. In the British possessions of Pinang and Malacea the Malay
eloment has increased from 30,000 in 1800 to nearly six tintes as many ot
the census of 1881,

In their temperament no less than in their physical features the
Malays still betray their Asiatic origin, They are described ns of
a taciturn, undemonstrative disposition, little given to outward
manifestations of joy or sorrow, yet extremely courteous towards
each other, and as a rule kind to their women and children, Slow
anil deliberate of speech, neither elated by good nor depressed hy
bad fortune, normally impressive and indolent, they are nevertheless
capable of the greatest excesses when their passions are rovsed.
Under the influence of religions excitement, losses at gambling,
jealousy, or other domestic troubles, they are at times seized by the
so-called “amok” fever, when they will rush wildly through the
erowded bazaar armed with their sharp krisses, cutting down all
who cross their path with incredible fury and without the least
discrimination,

The Orang-Benda are still nature-worshippera ; but the civilised

THE MALAY PENINSULA. 11

Malays, together with some of the northern Sam-Sams, universally
profess the Mohammedan religion, Until about the year 1260 they
were pagans, or followed some corrupt form of Hindu idolatry,
But the powerful Sultan Mahmud Shah, having adopted Islam in the
13th century, spread the new doctrine throughout his dominions
during his long reign of 57 years. His rule extended over
the provinces of Malacca, Johor, Patini, Kedah, and Pérak on the
mainland, the neighbouring islands of Linggn and Bentan, and
apparently several districts in Sumatra. The Mussulman faith was
thus rapidly diffused throughout the Peninsula, and at the beginning
of the 16th century the Portuguese found all the Straits Malays
zealous followers of the Prophet, while a large portion of south-
east Malaysia was still pagan.

Apparently to the Malay stock must be affiliated the primitive
community of troglodytes, who occupy the ten small islands in the
inland sea of, 'Talé-eah, recently, for the first time, explored by Mr.
Davidson and MM. Deloncle and Macey. The archipelago every-
where abounds in caves, in which the natives are born, live, and die,
occupied exclusively in collecting and preparing for the Chinese
market the edible swallows’ nests covering the walls of their rocky
dwellings. In gathering the nests, from which o revenue of nearly
£50,000 is derived, they display extraordinary agility and hardihood,
At one time they seem to have been brought under Hindu influences,
for in one of the caves there is a shrine furnished with Braliman
religious emblems, and containing two rudely-carved wooden images
of great autiquity, representing the king and the queen of the
swallows,

The Malay Language.—The Malay Inngnage is the most
important of the many dialects composing the Malayan section
of the Malayo-Polynesian or oceanic family, The area over
which it is spoken comprises the peninsula with the odjacent
Rio-Lingga Archipelago and other islands, the greater part of the
coast districts of Sumatra and Borneo, the Moluccas, the seaports of
Java, and to a less extent those of Celebes, besides Tidor, Ternate,
and parts of Jilolo, It had already become the general medium of
communication throughout Malaysia from Sumatra to the Philippine
Islands when the Portuguese first appeared in that region nearly
400 years ago, But before that time there appears to have
been no written standard; nor have any monumental records
been found with inscriptions written in Malay before the adoption
of the Arabic character,

12 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

It is not a little remarkable that Malay should have remained unwritten,
while the Javanese, the Rejangs ond Battas of Sumatra, the Bugis of
Colabes, and even the Tawalas of the Philippines all possessed peculiar
characters, all dowhtlesa of Hindu origin. But with the Mohammedan
conversion the Perso-Arabie alphabet was introduced amongst all the
civilised Malays. Malay is essentially a dissyllabic language, harmonious,
and of simple structure. From the Hindus, who appear to have settled
in Sumatra, Java, and Bali about the 3rd century, if not earlier, the
native dialects adopted a large number of Sanskrit terms; and since the
18th century many Arabic words and expressions have, onder the
religions influence of Isliim, found their way especially into the literary
Malay language. No real distinction can be drawn, as is sometimes
done, between High Malay and Low Malay, as between Kawi and
modern Javanese. Low Malay is not a distinct dialect, but merely o
colloquial form serving as a medium of intercourse between the natives
and Huropeans,

Malay is suid to be spoken with the greatest elegance in the Iio-Lingea
Archipelago, and among the Malay States along the south-west coast of
the Peninsula.

The Chinese.—PBesides the indigenous ethnical groups of
Negritos, Malays, and Siamese, the Peninsula is inhabited by a
large number of immigrants from the surrounding regions and
from Europe, By far the most numerous of these foreign peoples
are the Chinese, who are already in an absolute majority in some
districts, and who form about one-third of the whole population.
Many of them have married Malay women, and their offspring
while remaining Chinese generally adopt the local speech and
usages. With the characteristic versatility of the race, they adapt
themselves to all conditions of life, and are specially noted for their
skill and enterprise as miners, artisans, tradera, and agricalturists.
If treated with justice and kindness, they are on the whole a peaceful
and Jaw-abiding people; but troubles have occasionally arisen,
especially through the influence of their secret societies, the
mnembers of which often bind themselves to recognise no civil
jurisdiction except the authority of these associations, Peace,
however, has hitherto been maintained, partly by the policy of
dividing these dangerous elements into hostile groups, partly
by securing the co-operation of the wealthy Chinese capitalists and
traders, who are admitted under various titles into the British
administration,

The Elings, &c,—Next in importance to the Chinese are the
Tlindng, or natives of British India, who are also divided into
distinct groups according to the countries whence they have
immigrated. The term Aving, a contracted form of Kelinga, or
Tefingea, that is, “'Teluga,” is commonly applied to all the Dravidian
communities of Telugu and Tamil speech, those speaking Hindustani

THE MALAY PENINSULA, 15

being called ‘* Benggali,” the Gujuritis “ Orang Bombei,” and the
Cingalese “ Orang Selon.” Amongst the Indians must be included
some Santhals, Kols, and other low caste tribes employed on the
plantations.

Other foreign elements are the Arabs, generally intermingled with their
Malay co-religionists ; the Jews and Armenians, mostly traders who keep
aloof from the surrounding populations ; the so-called “ Portuguese” of
the Straits Settlements, wis pa become darker and often far more
degraded than the Malays themselves, while claiming descent from the
Albuquerques, Castros, Souas, and other famous pioneers of European
culture in the far East; lastly the English, chiefly merchants, officials,
and planters, but nowhere forming permanent local communities,

CHAPTER IV.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS—SIAMESE AND DRITISH DIVISIONS—RESOURCES—
TRADE—GOVERS MEXT—HISTONY.

Pourrrcauy the Peninsula is partly held directly by Great Britain
and Siam, and partly divided amongst a number of petty Malay
States, either tributary to or in treaty with these paramount
powers,

The influence of Siam extends over the whole of the Northern
Division, although south of the 7th parallel, where the Siamese race
gives place to the Malayan ; this influence is little more than a
nominal and traditional ascendancy, such as a preat power must
necessarily exercise over a small neighbouring State, symbolised by
the old custom of presenting a triennial gold flower to the king of
Siam. But even this custom never extended south of a line drawn
from Kedah Peak on the west const (6° 40° N.) to the northern
frontier of Pahang (4° 35'N.), which defines approximately the
southern limits of all the land more or less tributary to Siam,

The rest of the Peninsula, which alone belongs to the British
political system, is occupied partly by the British possessions,
grouped under the collective name of the “Straits Settlements” ;
partly by Perak and some other protected States on the west const,
which are now in effect under British administration ; partly by some
more or less independent Malay States, which must also be regarded
as forming part of the general British protectorate over the whole of
the Southern Division of the Peninsula,

14 -. EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

The northern or Siamese section is nearly 40,000, the southern or
British nearly 35,000 square miles in extent. But although the
former has a larger area, it contains only about one-third of the whole
population, and a still smaller share of the'trade of the Peninsula.

NorTHern on StamMese Division.

The Siamese have for some centuries been connected with the
northern districts of the Peninsula, first apparently os settlers, and
subsequently, down to quite recent times, as conquerors. Since the
decline of the Pegu power they have claimed the suzerainty over
the littoral of the narrow portion of the Peninsula north of 7° N. lat. ,
which is approximately the southern limit of the race, They also
exercise o less defined ascendancy over Kedah on the weat, and the
Malay States onthe east side between Senggéra and Pahang (4°35 N.).

Some confusion prevails regarding the nomenclature and sub-
divisions of the various States and territories comprised in the
Northern Division of the Peninsula. But the subjoined table, which
is based on high Siamese authority, appears to contain all the adminis-
trative provinces, sub-divisions, and more or less independent states
forming part of the Siamese political system.

Provinces administered by Siam—

WEST COAST. EAST COAST.
Kra with Renong Pran
‘Takua-pah Kumnetne-pe-kun
Takua-tung | Prachuep-ke-re-kan
Pangna Chumpan
Puket (Junk Ceylon) Langsuan
Trang Chaiya
Satun (Setul) Kamchonedit (Bandon)
Perlis Plean with Pateling

Siamese and Malay Tributary States—
Ligor (Lakton)
Senggoira (Songkla)
Chana (Chenai)
Nong-chik (Nochi)
Tani (Paténi)

] = EAST LST,
Patani Jering ane cae

Jalap (Jalo)
Kedah WEST QOAST.

THE MALAY PENINSULA, 15

Guaranteed Malay States—
Kelantan

Tringganu with Kemaman Bast VARY «

Subjoined is a brief account of the more important of these pro-
vinces and States, many of which are under Siamese or Chinese rulers,
who bear the Siamese title of ‘‘ Phya.” The population, which is
estimated at about half a million, consists mainly of Siamese, Chinese,
and Sam-Samea in the northern, and Malays in the southern districts,

Era with Renong.—The isthmus, forming the Northern Division
of Lower Siam, lies between 12°—9° N, lat., with an average breadth
of about 60 miles. Near the centre on the north bank of the river
Pakshan is the town of Kra, whence it takes its name. In the neigh-
bourhood coal is said to have recently been discovered,

Renong, one of the chief places on the west coast, is a tin-pro-
ducing district, inhabited chiefly by Chinese. It is situated on the
south bank ofthe Kt. Pakshan. Jointly with Trang it forms a feudatory
State under a Penang-born Chinaman, who takes the title of Raja.

Puket or Junk Ceylon ((/jong Siilang), a large island occupy-
ing a conspicuous position in 8° N, lat. at the north-west elbow of
the Peningula, is separated from the mainland by the narrow Papra
Strait. It is 40 miles long by 15 broad, and comprises the two
sub-divisions of Talang and Tongka, which formerly belonged to
the Raja of Kedah, but are now administered by Siam, The chief
place is Puket, on the sheltered east side, where the Siamese com-
missioner usually resides. A large Chinese population ig here
engaged in tin-mining, the produce of which is brought chiefly to
Penang in return for opium and piece-goods. Other exports are
edible birds'-nests, beche-de-imer, and elephants’ teeth. The strait
and harbour of Papra are accessible at spring tides to ships drawing
20 feet of water.

Kedah, the Portuguese Quwedah and Siamese Sai, is the only
Malay State tributary to Siam on the west coast, It lics between
Trang and Perak, stretcling for 120 miles between 7°—5° 31’ N.
lat., and for 25 to 30 miles inland, with an estimated area of nearly
4000 square miles, or probably 5000, including the adjacent islands
of Lengkawi, Trutao, and a few smaller groups. It comprises three
provinces named after the rivera Setil to the north, Perlis in the
centre, and Kedah tothe south, The land is less mountainous than
most parts of the peninsula, the chief eminence being Jerei, or
Kedah Peak (4000 feet), and it is watered by 26 rivers, six of which
are considerable, but all of them obstructed by bars at their mouths,
Between the mainland and the Lengkawi islands there is olso on

16 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY,

extensive mud bank preventing vessela from approaching nearer
than four miles to the const,

The old town, called ‘* Quedah” by the Portuguese, was situated in
latitude 4° North upon one of the largest rivers, supposed to be the Merbu,
which was navigable fer vessels of 300 tons burden,

The geological formation of Kedah, generally speaking, is granite, and
in places tin is found and, it is believed, gold. But the more important
tin mines are just beyond the Kedah frontiers ; and this holds true both
to the north, the east, and the south. Limestone crops out in a remark.
able manner at Ginong Wang, on the river Giti, a tributary of the Muda,
and at Ginong Geriyang, or Elephant Mount, The vegetable products
are the usual ones of the Peninsula, the country being particularly well
adapted for growing rice. Fruit trees of all kinds, especially the man-
postin and durian, grow to great perfection. Among its wild animals, the
elephant is common, and is used as a beast of borden, Cattleand buffaloes
aru abundant in the domestic state.

The inhabitants consist of Malays; of a few Sam-Sams or mixed
Siamese in the north, who are usually Mahomedan here, and speak both
Malay and Siamese; of the Peninsula Negritos ; of half-custe Telingas
(Klings), speaking both Tamil and Malay ; and of a few Chinese,

The eapital is Kota Star, or Alor Star, on a river of no great size,
though one of the largest of the country, to the north of the conspicuous
Mount Jerei. It has for some years boen connected, by the rough road
already mentioned, with Senggora on the east, the nearest Siamese town
of importance. This is at present the only road across the poninsula,
The river Muda, the frontier of Province Wellesley, is navigable for small
boats to Baling, distant about 60 miles east. This place is of some
importance as the frontior station, near the point where Kedah, Perak, and
Patini meet ; and from Baling the Muda river is used to carry to market
at Penang the tin which ia found in unusual abondance at Klian Intan
aud Kroh, on the east or Patini side of the dividing range of Titi

ang

The country at the hack of Province Weer is also known to be rich
in tin at Serdang and Killim, but it has not yet been folly developed,

It follows from the position of Kedah that its trade is almost exclusively
with Penang, with which port communication by steamer is now easy and
frequent. The exports consist principally of tin, rice, bats’ manure (from
the lime-stone caves), and jungle produce,

The history of this State, a3 of all the others of the Peninsula to the
north of Malacca, is full of obscurity. Colonel Low discovered in the
forests some remains of what he supposed to be Buddhist temples, and
some inscriptions in the Pali character, indicating not Malay but Siamese
culture. It seems probable that even so late os the beginning of the
sixteenth century the Malays here had been but partially converted
to Mahomedanism, The earliest authentic information we have of
Kedah is from the Portuguese writer Barbosa, whose man uscript is dated
‘Lisbon, 1516," and he describes it as ‘‘a place of the kingdom of
Siam,” and makes mention of a “Seaport called Quedeh, to which an
infinite number of ships resort, trading in all kinds of merchanilise,"
Kedah, in common with all the other northern states of the peninsula,
has probably been always more or less tributary to Siam, and being,
with Patini, the most northern of all the Malay Statea, it hax been
most subject to its direct influence, But the policy of the Siamese

THE MALAY PENINSULA, 17

Government here, as elaewhere, has been to leave the extrancota racea,
comprised within the dominion it assumes, to the administration of their
own rulers ; the Malayan Rija of Kédah is thus an hereditary and quasi-
independent sovercign, In token of his dependence on Siam he has
always sent the King, once in three years, an offering consisting of an
artificial flower of gold, Nothwithstanding this, the Kija alienated to the
Indian Government in 1786 (Captain Light being the Agent) the island of
Pinang, and subsequently, in 1500, Provinee Wellesley on the mainland,
without reference to Siam, whose alleged suzerainty was neither well
understood nor much enforced at that time. By the cession of Pinang,
Kédah lost some of its trade, and thongh the Rija seems to have acted
within his rights, he evidently incurred Siam's displeasure. In 1821, the
Siamese from Ligor invaded the country, overran it, ani after an oocupa-
tion of several years, abandoned after ruining it. The prince fled to
Pinang for protection, and there received on asylum. His line was
restored after many years ; but the tendency of the Government at Bang-
kok to interfere in Kédah affairs has since been accentuated, the King of
Siam even claiming to nominate as well as confirm the Rija.

Ligor, the Siamese Lakuoy, is the chief Siamese province in the
north-east port of the isthmns, It was founded four centuries ago
by the King of Ayuthia, and nearly three-fourths of the inhabitants
are still Siamese. The capital is Ligor, on the north side of Lakhon
Bight, 8? 17’ N. lat., 100° 12" E, long, Here resides the Chow Phya,
or governor, who rules almost absolutely, with power of capital
punishment,

Sénggéra, the Siamese Soxckia, forms the most southerly
Siamese province on the cast coast. It borders on the Malayan
States of the Peninsula, and through its Chinese governor, the King
of Siam has hitherto exercised occasional imterference with his
Malayan tributaries, The capital lies under the shelter of Tentilam,
a large flat island stretching along the coast, from which it is separ-
ated bya deep and narrow channel of sweet water fed by the Telung
(Patelung) river, from the Kao Luang mountains,

Inland from this channel are the small and semi-independent
Sam-Sam States of Patehing and Plean, under o Chinese Raja,

The east coast being a completely lee shore, there is scarcely any
communication between these smaller provinces of Siam and the
capital, Nor is there any overland route from Sénggdéra to Bang-
kok ; but a road was opened in the opposite direction neross the
Peninsula to Kedah in 1871, ot the time of the King of Siam's visit
to the Straits,

This northern group of provinces and petty states, comprising
altogether some 15 separate divisions, mainly inhabited by Siamese
and Chinese, has a const line of about 200 iniles on the east, and a
little more on the west side, with a total area vf some 17,000 square
iniles, and a population vaguely estimated at from 150,000 to 500,000,

c

18 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

Paténi.—The country, still commonly known as Patani, lies
between Sénggéira and Kélantan (7°—6° 20° N.) with a const-
line of about 50 miles on the east side, and an estimated area of
6000 square miles. But, except os applied to the river of that
name, the term Patfini is merely a historical expression, under
which are now comprised as many a8 nine distinct petty Siamese-
Malayan States or provinces, ‘These administrative divisions,
together with some other districts, are under the general but ill-
defined control of Sénggéra, the seat of government for the south-
eastern section of the Siamese system, so far as any administrative
suzerainty exists.

Since its invasion and subjugation by Siam in 1832, Patini has been
broken up into the four sea-board States or divisions, lying from north
to south in the following order :—Nong-chik or Tijong, Patini, Jering,
Sai; and the five interior divisions—Tipah, Chenai, Jalo, Réman, Ligeti.
Of these, Kéman is, even excluding any part of the Pérnk watershed,
the most extensive, and Patini with its seaport, is probably still
the most populous, Jalo and Ligei are believed to be the richest in
minerals,

The principal physical features of the province are the two considerable
rivers—the Patini and the Télipin—which rise in the same hills and flow
nearly parallel to the sea, through a country for the most part flat, but
with isolated cliffs and hil's.

The Patini is a long but shallow river which retains the same name
throughout its whole length. Its source is said to be in the mountain
Jambul Mérak (peaeock's crest) about 5° 35’, from which also the northern
tributaries of the Pérak flow; thence it bas a northerly course and falls
into the Gulf of Siam in & 55’ N. The upper wuters of the rivers
Patini and Pérak are a labyrinth of streams forming the head-waters of
the river system of this part of the Peninsula; the river Kélantan is also
said to take its source in the same region.

The Patini has an extensive delta, intersected by numerous creeks.
Kwdla Téjong to the north ia the most important estuary, and is navi-
are ag far as Kwilla Nong-chik (Nochi) where it Wifurcates from the
Patiini.

The Bay of Patini is formed by the prcpecsient of a narrow strip of land
about seven or ¢ight miles in length, which, connected with the mainland
to the eastward, bends round to the north-west like a horn, and protects the
roaidstead, so that vessels can at most seasons ride in safety. The western
extremity of this projection is called Cape Patini. The town and port of
Patani is almost all that is left unchanged of the former imporiant State
of that name. It was and still is the chief town of the wholo of this
country. It is situated about two miles from the river's mouth, on the
south-past side; a fair amount of trade is carried on with Singapore anid
Bangkok, a8 also with the neighbouring Siamese and Malayan States.
The exports are tin, lead, gutta, salt-fish, tiles, earthenware, and timber,
The population of the town consists of Malays, Chinese, and Siamese, ane
is supposed to be from 3000 to 4000. The Malay race preponderates,
the [aja himself being a Malay. The active commercial and shipping
business is controlled by a *' Captain China.”

THE MALAY PENINSULA, 19

Réman.—Thie largest and perhaps the most important of the
provinces at present is Réman, lying to the south-east of the river
and bordering on Pérak, with which it is closely connected by ties
of intercourse and common interest. It is the most Malayan of all
these States; but its Malay Raja is, like the rest, responsible to the
Chow Kun, or Governor of Sénggéra, and must look to be confirmed
by the King of Siam. Kéta Bhiru, some miles on the east side of
the Patfni river, is his residence; and the population of the country
is to be found chiefly in this neighbourhood and near the upper
valley of the Pérak, which river the Réman people use for exporting
tin, &e, The boundary with Pérak, near which are the valuable tin
mines of Kroh and Intan, already mentioned in connection with
Kedah, has yet to be determined.

Jato, situated principally to the north-west of the river Patini, near
the head-waters of the Pirak, lies under the exstward cliffs of the bold
range of Bukit Bésar. Jalo is believed to be one of the richest mineral
countries in the whole Peninsula, having abundant galena, tin, and gold
already worked at wart goed by the Chinese, Like the other mineral
countries, it is intersected by remarkable limestone formations.

The galens mines of Patani, which a few years ago attracted much
attention in Singapore, lio near the small town of Fanisita, This is
situated in a peaciigg He amphitheatre of hills, through which the river
flows, about 45 miles distant from the town of Patini in a straight line,
but double that distance by river.

In 1786, the year of the first Siamese invasion, there were said to be
115,000 inhabitants in the State of Patani. In 1852, after the second
invasion, there were computed to be only 54,000 people in these provineecs,
ond the population has probably not increased since then, except in regard
to its Chinese miners, who now number several thousands.

The southernmost of all the nine provinces collectively termed ‘ Patiini”
s rane hevyoud whieh lies the large ond important Malayan State of
i. Clamtan,

Kélantan.—South of Patani on the east coast lie the Malayan
States of Kélantan and Trengginu, whose position is one of
independence guaranteed by treaty with the British Government,
though nominally under some sort of subordinate relation to
Siam.

Kélantan is situated to the sonth of the Patini States, the river
Banira being the boundary, between 6° 20° and 6° 40’, with 60
miles of coast on the east side, and an area of about 7000 square
miles; but so little is known of the interior that there is no great
certainty about either area or population. It is in a prosperous
condition, surpassing in population all the Native States on the
east coast, and in natural resources and mineral wealth vying
with Pahang.

C2

90 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

It is bounded to the south by Trenggiinn, the river Bésut separat-
ing them. It has the States of Réman, Pérak, and Pahang to the
west, the eastern ridge of the peninsular chain being considered
the boundary. The interior is believed to have a great extent of
open country, traversed by the long but shallow river Kélantan
and its tributaries, which, like the river Patiini, flow north. Here
there is grown an immense quantity of rice, some of which is
exported to Singapore ; cattle also are kept in large herds,

The town of Kélantan is situated near the river's mouth, and ia a large
and flourishing settlement with considerable trade, Its population is said
to be over 20,000 ; and that of the whole state is estimated by the natives
at 600,000, und on good authority as high as 200,000,

Its mineral resources comprise tin and gold. Even so far hack as 1887
it was stated that 3000 Sexe of tin were exported annually, and that
Kélantan gold, next to that of Pahang, was the most celebrated among
Malays. Lead is also supposed to exist. Much pepper and other articles
of export are also cultivated here by the Chinese, and a good deal of
jungle produce is collected. The principal trade is with Singapore, and is
mainly conducted by the Chinese during the south-west monsoon,

Kélantan is known to have existed as an integral State at the close of
the 15th century and before the arrival of the Portuguese; and in the
Malay Annals it is specially stated that during the time of Mahmud IL,
of Malacea, Ap. 1477, Kélantan was a kingdom ‘more powerful than
that of Patani.” Like Trengginu, Kédah, and Patani, it hes, from time
immemorial, been harassed by the demanda of Siam; anid, according to
the official statement of Mr. Anderson, Folitieal Agent in 1825, it
repeatedly solicited, in the early days of Pinang, the protection of the
British Government and the establishment of an English factory, offering
very considerable advantages. It has never submitted to Siam further
than that, although alias under its own Malay Kija, it liss made a
customary ackuowledgment of inferiority by periodically sending to
Bangkok a tributary token called “ the gold flower,”

In 1832, the chief of Patam, upon the invasion of his country by
Siam, fled to Kélantan, but was delivered up te the Siamese Pratlang,
who repeatedly summoned the Rija of Kélantan into his presence. With
these mandates the Malay chief did not deem it prudent to comply, but
was eventually compelled, it is said, to propitiate his foo, by a large
present of specie ond gold dust. Newbold pointed out at the time that
this was a violation of the 12th Article of Major Burney’a treaty of
1826, which stipulates that ‘Siam shall not go and oltruct or interrupt
commerce in the States of Trengginu aml Kélantan. English merchants
and subjects shall have trade aml intereourse in future, with the sme
facility and freedom a4 they have heretofore had; and the English shall
not go and molest, attack, and disturb those States upon any pretence
whatever.” What little trade and intercourse now oxist have passed
from the hands of English merchants to those of Chinese and native
traders.

Trengganu is situated at the widest part of the Peninsula,
between 6° 40° and 4° 35° N., and has an area of under 4000
miles, with a population of 20,000, Trenggfinu has, for some time

THE MALAY PENINSULA. 1

past, included Kémiman, which lies to the south along the coast of
the Gulf of Siam. Its coast-line extends along the Gulf of Siam
for 80 miles, and is bounded on the south and west by the
principality of Pahang, and on the north and north-east by that
of Kélantan, The river Bésut is its boundary with Kélantan, and
the river Chériting with Pahang, To the interior, the high ranges
forming the east boundary of Pahang form a natural frontier, but
the boundary is believed to be otherwise quite undefined. OF its
area nothing certain is known; nearly the whole country is one
continuous jungle, with leas development, either of its minerals or
its commerce, than perhaps any other of the Malay States. The
inhabitants consist almost entirely of Malays and some wild tribes,
with a very few Chinese, who carry on the little that is now done in
the way of trade or mining. The total population of the State was
computed at 37,600 in 1856, Of this number, the town of Trenggfinn,
Situated in the northern part of the State, near the mouth of a not
very large river, latitude 6° 25° N., longitude 103° E., was
then estimated to contain from 15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants, or
more than half of the population of the State. A most destructive
fire took place in August 1883, which is said to have destroyed
nearly 2000 liabitations, The place is but little visited, and the
small quantity of gold and tin produced come, it is eaid, from the
Pahang mountains, which are not so far removed from the coast at
this point. This State is claimed as one of the hereditary tributaries
of Siam, but has always resisted to the utmost the assumption of
any authority by the Siamese, the population being almost entirely
Mahomedan and Malayan, <A“ gold flower” is sent periodically to
Bungkok, through Séngedra, in token of its nominal dependence,
but it has a treaty right to independent and unrestricted trade with
the British.

Kemiman (river anil district) was, aecording to Malay tradition,
formerly a province of Pahang, and, on this ground, still considers itself
free from even nominal allegiance to Siam, This recognition is, however,
admitted by Trenggion, with which country Kémiman seems to be now

litically incorporated. It is a place of no importance, lying midway

tween Pohang and Trengginu. The town is only a mile or two from
the mouth of the river of the same name, in Int. 4° 15' N. It is a
settlement of modern origin, and probably owes ita existence to the tin
mines, discovered early in the century, i inthe neighbourhood, The district
is scarcely 1000 square miles in aren; and is, or until recently was, under
the direct control of a separate chief, under Trengginu. Its population
was estimate! in 1839 at 1000 Malays anil Chinese, It dia rodnces tin, a
little gold, camphor, ebony, Ac, According to a Mr, Medhurst, who
visited the place in 1825, Kémiman at first yielded a considerable revenue
to the Sultan of Trenggiinu, but afterwards the mines failed, and tho

99 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

Chinese dispersed. It is believed to be scarcely more prosperous at the
present time than it was in 1839,

Between the rivers Kémiman and Trengginn lic the smaller districts
of Paka, Dungun, and Merany, which, like Kémiman, are exch under a
chief, subordinate to Trenggiinu,

SouTHeERN on Bririsa Drvisrox,

The British, as distinguished from the Siamese section of the
Peninsula, is a purely political division, corresponding with no
physical, ethnical, or other natural boundary, The two divisions
are separated merely by an arbitrary or conventional line drawn
from Kédah Peak on the west coast to the north frontier of Pahang,
and running with the southern boundaries, whatever they may be,
of Kédah, Kéman and Trenggiinu. But the northern limits of the
Malay race lie considerably to the north of this line, south of which
the administrative interference of Siam is scarcely at all permitted.

The British division, which, excluding the Straits Settlements, is
even more thinly peopled than the Siamese, comprises five distinct
political groups, as under :—

1. The three protected States of Pérak, Sélingor, and Sungei
Ujong, oceupying the west coast from Kédah to Malacca.

2. The so-called “ Negri Sémbilan” group of petty inland States
behind Malacea,

3. Pahang, on the east const.

4. Johor, comprising the whole southern extremity.

5. The British colony of the Straits Settlements.

1. THE THREE PROTECTED STATES.

This group completes the British administration of the west coast
from Pinang to Malacca. It comprises the Malay States of Pérak,
Sélingor, and Sungei Ujong, ranking in importance in the order in
which they here stand.

Pérak.—This State stretches for nearly 100 miles north and
south between 6° 10—3S* 15’ N. lat., and 100° 22’—102° E. long., and
for probably a somewhat less distance inland, with an area approxi-
mately estimated by Mr. Deane at 7900 square miles, excluding the
disputed district beyond Bukit Nakea. It is bounded north by
Province Wellesley (‘Trans-Krian district) from Sungei Bakan on
the coast to Parit Buntar, the boundary thence running to the source
of the Krian river, which forms the frontier line towards Kedah.
Between the Tisek swamp or lake (the northernmost point at which

THE MALAY PENINSULA. 23

Pérak and Kédah touch), and the source of the Krian, the mountain
range forming the water-parting of the Pérak river constitutes the
western frontier. From Tasek eastwards Pérak is conterminous on
the north and east with the Patini States of Jolo and Réman; but
here the exact course of the boundary-line is at present the subject
of negotiations with Siam. On the east the inner range forming the
divide of the Plus, Kinta and Kampar, Bitang Padang and Bidor,
with the other tributaries of the Pérak, constitutes the frontier of
Pérak as for as the sources of the river Slim, On the south it is
bounded by the river Bérnam, and thence to Sungei Bakan by the
Ben,

For commercial purposes Pérak enjoys the advantage of proximity
to Pinang, which is at present ita chief outport, and with which
daily steam communication is maintained. The chief harboura are
the new Port Weld, Telok Kertiing at the mouth of the Lirut river,
and Telok Anson on the Pérak river.

The surface is almost.equally divided between hill and plain, an
extent of about 2000 square miles being occupied with uplands
ranging from 1500 to 8000 feet above sea-level. The chief mountains
are the Titi Wangsa and Ganong Hijau (Lfrut), the Ginong Bibo,
and the inland ranges, of which Ginong Besar, Mounts Robinson
and Tengah (Tangga) are respectively the central peaks. Here rise
the rivers Plas, Kinta, Kampar, Bidor, Songkei, Slim, and the
Sembilan, flowing to the Pahang.

The mountain ranges are generally of granitic formation, but, in strong
contrast to their usually round surfaces, sharp peaks and crags of limestone
formution crop up here and there throughout the country, The principal
of thease are Ginong Kénderong, Giinong Kernei, and Bukit hajang in
the north; Bato huran and Gineng Pondok; some unnamed tills in
the Plus ranges, and numerous penks in the Kinta valley. :

The caves in the limestone mountains furnish bats’ guano—an excellent
manure, Which, as well as lime, is available for both mountain and low
country cultivation.

The Resideney.—The seat of the Government of the British Resident
is the small village of Avila Aongear, on the upper waters of the Pérak,
about 23 miles from the port of Téluk Kértang, on the Liirnt river, with
which it is connected by a good road. It lies about 100 miles up the
“he river, the Lirut route thus giving the most direct occess to
LT gr,

The country can best be described as consisting physically of three
ei water-systems—that of the Krian to the north, that of the
‘trak in the centre, and that of the Bérnam to the south, Each will be
deseribed in turn. But the tin-mining district of LArat, which belongs
to neither of these plrysical divisions, has played and still plays so im-
portant a part in the development of the State, that it deserves first
mention,

o4 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

Larut is situnted about midway between the river Krian and
the river Pérak,

For about thirty years, Chinese minera have worked the exten-
sive tin deposits of great richness at the base of the high mountain
range called Ginong Hijau, and on each side of a small river called
Sungei Larut. This place was found by the early pioneers to be
not only rich in tin, but most advantageously situated in respect of
commercial intercourse with the British port of Pinang, some sixty
miles distant. ‘Tin-deposits are rarely found so near the sea as in
Larut, which is under the immediate charge of on Assistant
Resident.

Thaipeng, the principal town, and the largest place on the west canst,
Malacca not excepted, is the contre of the mining industry, and is about
eight miles from the sea-coast. It is the head-quarters of the chief
departments of the State, and is connected with Kwala Kangsar by a
carriage-road, and by a line of telegraph. The main road to the sea his
hitherto been from Thaipeng to Téluk Kértang, but a short line of rail-
way, intended to connect Thaipeng with Port Weld (eight miles), is now
completed, as well as a road from Léirut to the Krian river, which will
open up communication by land with Province Wellesley. Thore is also
telegraphic communication with Pinang.

Owing to the proximity of the mountains to the sea in this part of the
Peninsula, the rainfall in Lirut is heavier than elsewhere along the Straits,
amounting in 1854 to 146 inches,

The Erian Basin.—Krian is an agricultural district adjoining
Province Wellesley, the seat of extensive sugar and rice cultivation.
It has a large Malay population, consisting principally of settlers
from Pinang, Province Wellesley, and Kédah, A good many
Chinese and Tamil plantera have also recently settled there.

Sélima, 70 miles up the Krian river, on a large tributary of that
name, forms a tin-mining settlement, which a few years ago was
more flourishing than at present, It is situated near the principal
bifurcation of the Krian. There is a colony of Sumatran Malays
at Stlima, besides Chinese miners,

The Pérak Basin,.—The Pérak, perhaps the largest, and cer-
tainly the most important, river on the west slope, drains not only
the extensive valley of the State to which it gives its name, but also
receives the drainage of the considerable Kinta district, compris-
ing together at least half the area of the State. It is navigable
for small steamers as far as Téluk Anson, the capital of Lower
Pérak. Its source is said to be in the frontier mountain Jambul
Mérak, from which the Télipin and Patani also take their rise. Its
whole length is about 250 miles. At first it flows in a south.
westerly direction towards the sea, receiving, from the west, the

THE MALAY PENINSULA. 25

Rui, the Kénderong, and the Kénéring; and from the enst, the
Sengo and the Témangan, From Kwala Kénéring to Bandar its
course is due south, and all its main affluents flow into it from the
east, Such-are the Plus, the Kinta at Kéta Limut, the Baitang
Padang, and Bidor at Dirian SabAtang, and near its estuary the
small river Sungei Jandarita, which almost connects the streams
of the Pérak and Bérnam rivers, here flowing parallel at no great
distance from each other, The Pérak empties itself into the Straits,
a few miles to the south of the Dindings. It has a wide estuary,
but here, os in other rivers in the Peninsula, shallow water on the
bar at the mouth impedes navigation. The principal places on this
river are :—Kita Setia, Téluk Anson, Diirian Subitang, Bandar, Kita
Limut, Bandar Bhiiru (the former Residency near the junction of
the Kinta), Palau Tiga, Lamboh, Béta, Blanja Mied/a Kangsar (the
present Residency), Sayong (the residence of H, H. the Regent),
Kéta Lima, Chegar Gilak, and Kota Tampan.

Tin is found almost throughout the valley, but in greatest quantity
near the east bank of the Pérak ond in the Kinta district. The Kinta
district includes the territory watered by the river of that name and its
tributaries, A Collector and Magistrate has charge of it, and resides at
Bitu Gijah on the Kintariver. Other places of importance in the district
are Lahat, Pipan, Ipoh, Péngkilan Pégi, Kita Bharo, Péngkilan Bhiiru
(Sungei Ray), Gdpeng (a large Chinese mining settlement), Kampar, and
Chénderiang.

The Bérnam Easin.—The southernmost district of the state is
that of the river Bérnam, probably the largest river, in regard to
yolume of water, to be found in the Peninsula. It is about two
miles wide at the mouth, and navigable for large steamers for many
miles. Though draining a very different district, ita mouth is less
than twenty miles from that of the Pérak.

Proceeding up the Bérnam, almost due cast, the chief places (thongh
none of them are of any size) are Sitéah, about 20 miles from the mouth ;
Telok Awiéii, about 73 miles from the sea, where the river is still
about 120 yards wide and very deep; Changhat Hertam, 85 miles by river
from the sea, a small rising ground planted with durian trees, and oecu-
pied by a colony of afew Malays. Above this apot stretches an immense
expanse of unhealthy swampy country for miles on both sides of the
river. Through this swamp the Bérnam winds down from Gedengea, 111
miles by river from the sea, where the land again becomes higher. A
series of canals or cuttings, shortening the navigation of the river, and
making it available for steam-launches, have recently been made from this

int, through the Changkat Bértam swamp. The distance for boats is,
t is computed, thus reduced from 111 to about 50 miles.

Awéla Stim, about 130 miles up the river, was formerly the principal
station and the Collectorate of the district. It is situated at the bifurca-
tion of the main stream, where it divides into two branches of similar size

26 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

—the Slim running down from the direction of Pérak in the north-oast,
and the Bérnam from Sélingor in the south-east, A hilly region called
Changkat Léla divides these branches.

Cle Slim lies about 80 miles higher, at the confluence of the Slim
and Géliting. It is described as very picturesque—‘‘it might almost be
in Switzerland.” From here there is a short overland path to the Pérak
waters (river Songkei); and some of the nearest affluenta of the Pahang
river, flowing inte the Gulf of Siam, have their source in the same moun-
tains, which are the source of the Slim branch. The watershed of the river
Bérnam, which flows from the south, is to be found near the Sélingor-
Pahang boundary. At Ulu Slim land has been suceessfully opened up by
English coffee-planters within the last few years. ;

The highest station on the Bérnam river is Olu Bérnam (Tanjong
Malim), a fertile, well-cultivated station at the foot of the dividing range.
The main road to Sélingor and Bérnam passes through Tanjong Malim,
which has quite recently been made the head-quarters of the Bérnam Cal-
lectorate. A trank-road from Kwila Kangsa to this point will soon be
opeved. Here it will join the road recently made by the Sélingor Govern-
mont, thus completing an unbroken highway of nearly 300 miles from
Malacca to Butterworth in Province W ey.

Trade of Pérak.—Thie chief export is tin, amounting, in 1895,
to £400,000; and the abundance of this metal is the most important
economic feature of the State at present. The other exports amount
to £700,000 (including sugar, £61,000); and the whole trade,
imports and exports, now exceed £2,100,000. There is now daily
communication by trading steamers between Pinang und Lérut.
steamer also touches at Dirian Sabitang on her fortnightly voyages
between Singapore and Pinang, and there is a separate service
between Pinang and Téluk Anson. There is also regular steam
communication between Pinang and Bérnam.

Government.—The government is carried on under the RAja
Mida, as Regent, aided and advised hy a British Resident, and a
Council consisting of the Resident and Assistant Resident, and
Native Chiefs of rank and influence.

A military police force of 700 men, mainly Sikhs, is maintained
to secure order, with half a battery of Artillery,

The Collectorutes are at dre; at Périt Buntar ond Sétldma
(for Krinn); Awéle Aeangsar, the seat of the Residency; 7@/ot
Anson (for Perak river); Batu Gajah (for Kinta district); Ulu
Bérnam (for the Bérnam),

Hfistory.—Pirak is one of the oldest States in the Peninsula, and its
history has been maintained with scarcely a break for 300 years, It was
subject to Achin in the days of the Portuguese, and until the close of the
17th century, but otherwise it appears to have maintained its independence
throughout, It was overrun ond ocenpied by Kédah during the Siamese
hostilities in 1821; bunt the invaders were induced to withdraw by agree-
ment with the Pinang Government in 1825. The Dutch had continually

THE MALAY PENINSULA. 27

tried, with varying success, to maintain a trading monopoly of the tin for
140 years, but their attempts to obtain a footing were wisuccessful, and all
Kuropean interference with Pirak ceased until 1518, In consequence of
the cession of Malaoca to the Dutch in that year, the Pinang Government
entered into commercial treaties with Pérak, among other Native States, in
order to forestall any fresh attempts at Dutch monopoly.

This alliance proved useful to Pérak a fow years later, when tho Sinmese
attempted to overrun the country, but were checked by the British
authorities at Pinan

The recent development of events dates from the rise of Lirnt into
importance under Nguh Jafar, in 1852, consequent upon the discovery of
the rich tin deposits there, The Chinese then came in great numbers, and
before long the Malay Government naturally fell to pieces. After some
years of anarchy, Governor Sir Andrew Clarke interfered in January
1874, and the Pangkor Treaty was made, introducing the ** Protected.
States” experiment, The small rising that brought upon Pérak a military
ocoupation, after the assassination of the first Resident, Mr. Hirch (1875),
led to the adoption of the more robust policy under which Pérak has mode
its subsequent rapid advances, Tho Beate has quite recently opened the
first railway in the Peninsula,

Sélangor.—The Protected State of Stangor adjoins Pérak along
its whole southern frontier, It is situnted between the parallels of
3° 45° and 2° 40° N,, with a rather greater extent of coast-line on
the east shore of the Straits than its northern neighbour l’érak.
Area between 4000 and 5000 square miles. Population about 50,000.

Silingor is separated from Pérak by the Bérnam river, which
forms its northern boundary, Its extent along the const is about
100 miles, as far as the river Nipah to the south (aince the 1877
boundary was fixed), and then by a line drawn in 1884 to the north
and east as far as the hills which divide it from Jélébu.

Stlangor is a comparatively recent State, the western part of its
territory having apparently been left unoccupied from time out of
mind, to a greater degree than any other portion of the Peninsula,
The southern division was formerly a separate Stute—Klang (Kélang)
—one of the four original States of the “Négri Sembilan" con-
federation.

Under the name of Stlangor are included four main districts, cach
having a considerable river, named respectively Bérnam, Sélingor,
Klang, and Langat; Bérmam to the north, and the others further
aouth in the order in which they are named. With the exception
of Klang and the mouth of the river Sélangor, the whole territory
of the State was absolutely terra incognita until quite lately. Likut,
now comprised in the Sungei Ujeng frontiers, was formerly part of
Stlingor, Being rich in tin found close to the shore, and being
situated at a distance of only 40 milea from Malneea, this district
was, under a former Raja, the most thriving in Sélngor.

23 _ EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

The ter part of Séliingor is an extremely level country, stretching
inland Bs -te 30 piles in the sath and nearly 30 miles in the north, and
as yet but little cleared and vory thinly inhabited, In its wide versant it

resents a marked contrast to Pérak, its rivers flowing almost due west
instead of southward. In the interior are some high spurs thrown out
from the great mountain chain, especially between Ulu Sélingor and Ulu
Langat, and in the neighbourhood of Kwila Lumpor, the present capital,
These spurs have on altitude of about 2000 feet, with numerous hizh
pees, where they join the chain, reaching to more than 5000 feet. The
ighest is Bukit Téngah (6200 feet), in the Gineng Kali spur.

At Genting Bidei, 23 miles north-east of KRwila Lompor, there isa pase
into Pahang at the junction of two important spurs, one running due
south behind Kewiila Lumpor, the source of the river Klang; the other
trending away inland, leaving a valley which widens to about 10 or 12
miles, down which flows the Ulu Langat, Several of the highest peaks in
this group rise to above 5000 feet,

Further north, the river Sélingor rises among even higher summits in
the central chain, which is here at its nearest point to the river Puhang,
whore tributaries flow down to the east from the same hills. The highest
cong after Bukit Tangah are :—Ginong Hija, 5450 feet; Ginong Chim-

tras, O650 feet; Ginong Péchérns, 6650 feet; ond Bukit Kanching,
from which rises Sungei Bioh, south of Siliingor.

In Sélingor the chief towns are :—

Kiviila Lumpor is, and has been for many years, the centre of the tin-
mining of the country. In 1879 it was made the capital, instead of Klang.
Its distance from the nearest navigable waters (24 miles) is its principal
drawback ; but it is well placed for inland communications. The track
distinctively known aa the “Pahang Road" runs daw east from Kwila
Lumpor, which will soon be connected by rail with Klang. Aveng, the
principal port of the country, 12 miles up the river, former seat of Govern-
ment and the first Residency, It is situnted near the sea, and many miles
from the vicinity of the tin-mines at the foot of the mountains, but is
favoured with a navigable river which, owing perhaps to Kalang island
lying across its mouth, is without the almost invariable bar. S?ldngor,
lying at the mouth of the river Sélingor, The river is shallow and
practicable only for vessels of small burden, The Dutch had formerly an
establishment at Sélingor for the monopoly of the tin ; and a stone fort of
their construction is still a conspicuous object, having formerly been, next
to Malacca, the moat formidable stronghold in these waters, The other
towns of Sélingor are Langa, Bandar Konching, Jugra (where the Sultan
resides), and (iw Langet, This latter lies more inland than any other
part of the State.

A good bridle road is now completed from Berfinang to Uln Bérnam,
connecting Sungei Ujong with Pérak by means of a main road through the
whole length of Sélingor from south to north.

Population, —The native inhabitanta are believed to he the descendanta
ofa colony of Bugis, from Goa, in Celebes, who settled here and at Kwila
Linggi under their Chief, Aron Fassarai, towards the commencement of
the last century. The population about ten years ago had fallen away to
a minimum, in consequence of the incessant quarrels and misrule of its
princes. It has been much increased of late years, both by Chinese settlers
and miners, and by the immigration of Maluys from less prosperous States
in its neighbourhood, including not a few from Jambi and other places in
the east of Sumatra,

THE MALAY PENINSULA, 29

1 eines r produces tin of excellent quality, and the deposits
at Ulu Langat and win Lumpor have proved extremely rich, the latter
under the name of Klang tin having attracted much attention for the last
twenty years, For some years past, it has stood second only to that of
Lirut. The mining is carried on almost entirely by Chinese, “The mines
opened by European ¢ She in 1883-4 have all been unsuccessful except
that at hawang, in Ulu Sélingor. Besides tin, there is little else but
jungle produce, pain important plantations of colfee, pepper, sugar, &e.,
ave been commenced,

Government,—An incessant quarrel, chiefly as to the rights over the tin
duties lavied in Klang and Sélingor, prevailed from 1867 to 1873. At
the time when Governor Sir Andrew Clarke was settling the affairs of
the Native States in 1874, he undertook to assist the Government of
Sélingor. The Government of this State has since been carried on under
the same system aa Perak,

Mention bas been made of a railway to run from Kwila gg to
Klang, and roads will shortly connect Sélingor with Pérak, as it is already
connected with Sungei Ujong and Malacea. It may contidently be ex-
pected that a country with sach mineral resources, and such fine hills and
plains, drained by abundant rivers like the Bérmnam, Klang, Sélingor, and

ugat, will, under a peaceful rule, become populous and wealthy,

Sungei Ujong, the smallest of the three Protected Stutes, lies to
the south of Sélingor, between that State, Jélébu and Rémban, to
the north-west of Malacca. It was one of the four original States
out of which grew the “Négrei Sémbilan."’ Including the districts
of Likut and Sungei Réiya, it has an area of about 500 square miles,
mainly on the north bank of the river Linggi. Sungei Ojong
suffered for many years from the Séldngor disturbances, which
owed their origin to the same cause—to quarrels over the tin-royal-
ties, But Sungei Ujong has always been, especially since the
development of its mines, the leading State of the Négri Stmbian.

The Linggi river, its one large stream (the highway te Sungei Ujong

and much of Rémbau), bad, in 1873, been rendered impassable by constant
border fights between these two States. After Ps Gedy complaints on the
part of the British subjects in Malacca of the violence and extortion that
put a stop to all traffic on the river Linggi, Sir Andrew Clarke,
Governor in 1874, went personally to Sempang on the Linggi river, and
re-opened trade and suppressed disturbance, A Residency was established
in Sungei Ujong shortly after, to prevent further disturbance, and to
protect the large number of Chinese miners working there,
The mountains of Sungei Ujong approach the sea more nearly than
those of Sélingor, the interval being, jcon var, even. more uncleared and
ewampy than in the northern State, In former times, Sungei Ujong seems
to have been a wholly inland State, bat since Residents have been stationed
in Sélingor and Sungei Ujong, the frontier line between them has been
modified ; and now the river Liknt and district, formerly renowned for its
tin, but since 1860 almost deserted, are ineladed in Sungei Ujong, thus
giving it 20 tiles of coast, between Sungei Nipah and Kwila Linge,

The tin workings, and the best inhabited portion of this small State,
lie in a sort of semicircular valley, between the hills Borembun (4000 feet),

50) EASTERN GEOGRAPHY. |

in which the Linggi rises, Tangga (1800 feet), the Jélébu boundary, and
Perhentian Rimpun (2000 feet), at the Séliingor boundary. Mount
Berembun is, in some respects, the key to this State, and, it may be said,
to the whole of this part of the country. On the south side of this moun-
tain flows the Moar, and on the east a feeder of the Pahang river—Triang.

Through « gap called Bukit Piltus, between this mountain and Ginong
Angsi, to the south, is a pass leading to Sri Ménanti and the other Negri
Sémbilan States.

Population, Products, de.—The Malay population is almost entirely

ericultural, and is mostly found near the mountains, as at Pantei, The
whole population is probably below 14,000 souls. Sungei Ujong has
abundance of water, and its land is considered suitable for the cultivation
of coffee, cocoa, cinchona, &c., which are being grown both on the hills
and plains, On the lowest ground, tapioca is now cultivated. Tin-mining
ia still carried on to a considerable extent by the Chinese at Ampangan,
near the Residency, and its neighbourhood. These Chinese miners in
Sungei Ujong, as in Larut, have been the real sinews and wealth-prodacing
power of the country.

A road now connects Séremban with Péngkfilan Kempas, the newly-

opened port near the mouth of the Linggi, and there is regular communi-
cation by steam-launch between Malacca and the Linggi. Not far above
Péngkilan Kempas are Permiitang Pasir, the former inconvenient “ port,”
and Linggi village. The Residency is at Séremban, about 22 miles higher
up the country. Two miles nearer the port is Risa, the Customs’ station
at the bridge over the Linggi river; to which place the stream is, or waa
before this new road was made, navigable and clear for small boats, From
Séromban a road has been made throngh Pantei to Séliingor on the one side,
and Malacca on the other; and upon this the first instalment of the future
road up the Peninsula, Séremban, and Sungei Cjong generally, have a fine
central position.
_ Gorernment,—Tho residential system was introduced here shortly after
its adoption in Pérak and Séliingor (December 1874), and with a short
brenk, at the time of the Pérak war, that form of government has since
been peacefully carried on in the manner already described.

9—THE NEGRI SEMBILAN STATES.

These small States, formerly a kind of confederacy of Nine States,
of which the name alone now survives, occupy about 2000 square
miles of the interior between the Protected States on the north,
Malacca on the west, Johor on the south, and Pahang on the east.

This confederacy has since Sir F, Weld's treaty of 1883 been
under British protection, and roads have been made connecting
Johol and Rémbau respectively with Malacca,

Apart from Klang, which has long formed part of Sé@lingor,
and Sungei Ujong, which, as a separate Protected State, is now
on a different footing, the Négri Sémbilan contain a total population
of not more than 30,000, mostly to be found in Rémbau and Sri
Ménanti,

THE MALAY PENINSULA, ol

Originally there appear to have been four States, whicli were
afterwards broken up and modified as shown below :—

Formerly. Ait present.
Kelang. —
Sungei Ojong. --
Jélébu, JHebu,
: ohol,
nas or Jélei,
si / Ulu Moar or Sri Ménanti.
Jémpol.
Rimban.
(Four States.) (Six States.)

Of these six States, those of sufficient importance to deserve
special description are Jélébn, Johol, Sri Ménanti and Rémbau. They
had their origin most probably in the organisation introduced by
the Ménangkiban tribes, who have emigrated at different times
from Sumatra to this part of the Peninsula, In the days when
Johor was powerful, the Négri Sémbilan were under the Sultan
of Johor; but about 1773, Johor being indifferent about the
fovernment of these remote tribal States, allowed the Dutch to
obtain for them, at their request, a Prince of true Ménangkibau
descent (Raja Melewar), who, as Yang-di-Perthan Bésar, ruled over
the Confederacy, The States were thus formally federated, each
retaining, however, its own Pénghtilu or Dato’, The real power is
vested in the Pénghilu, that of the suzerain being nominal only.

This Sumatran immigration, and the political intercourse of the
independent Princes of Sumatra with those of the Peninsula, deservedly
attracted the attention of scholars like Marsden, Leyden, and Raffles ;
but the whole arrangement was of too artificial a kind to Inst long, and
after five accessions of Ménangkiiban Princes, they ceased to be invited
over (1820), It is noteworthy, however, that even the more civilised
Malays, especially in Rémban, still hold to the tribal organisation : the
very names of many of their tribes, such as “ dna’ Acheh™ (children of
Achin) and “ Sri Linck M®nangkdbau,” betraying their comparatively
recent migration from Sumatra,

Jélébu is a small State lying to the north and east of Sungei
(jong, and containing about 400 square miles, and under 1000
inhabitants. It belongs politically to the west const, though
physically to the enst coast. It has thus a peculiarly central
position in regard to this region of the Peninsula, being situated
at the great water-parting of the southern portion of it, Jélébu
had, until the year 1884, remained unexplored. It lies between

32 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

Sungei Ojong and the valley of the river Pahang, having Sél&ngor
to the north and Jémpol to the south. The country is a succession
of narrow valleys between hills of no great height, except in the
south, where they culminate towards Ginong Berembun. ‘These
hills are the sources of many of the principal rivers on both sides
of the Peninsula—the Linggi and the Moar flowing to the west,
and the Serting and Triang to the “east, both feeders of the Pahang.
Génting Pireh is the boundary towards Sélingor. It is about 28
miles from Ula Langat, and not far from the mining settlement at
Sungei Lui. Bukit Tangga (1800 feet), at the head of the Klawang
vulley, lies between Jélébu and Sung i Ujong, and deserves notice
as the furthest western point of the east coast watershed, Jfwi-
Jiiwi Bétinb, on the Triang, is claimed by Jélé@bu as the eastern
boundary towards Pahang, but this has still to be settled, Mean-
while Sungei Dia has been adopted (1884) as the provisional
boundary, At the point where Sélingor, Sungei Ujong, and Jélébu
meet is the hill Perhentian Rimpun, said to be so named from
the assembly (Berhimpun) of the Chiefs of the old “Four
States,”

Hitherto communication has been maintained chiefly with Sungei Ujong,
a bridle-path connecting Séremban with Jélondong, centre of the mining
districts, Some parts of Jélébu will probably be found most accessible
from Sungei Lui in Sélingor, while others may be more easily approached
from Malocea by way of the valley of the Langkap, one of the headl-
waters of the Win Moar, which runs down the southern side of the
Berembun towards Térichi, The geology and physical geography of this
atate alone are of any present conseq tence.

The only industry, beyond the cultivation of a little rice chiefly in the
Kliwang valley, is some tin-mining carried on by Chinese at Jélondong,
near the Triang and close to the Pénghiilu’s each Kwila Glimi. The
tin-deposits lie on the Pahang side, and are said to be easily worked.

The Triang, of which the hend-waters may almost be sid to form the
State of Jélébu, is an important feeder of the Pahang, and both the main
stream anil its largest tributary (the Kénibui) are deep and navigable for
most of the year. Rico is thus arr easily from I'ahang. The tin-
deposits in Kénibui, Jélondong, and Kwiila Glimi, are unusually rich.

The State has always been one of the Négri Sémbilan, ruled like the
rest by an elective Dato’ Pénghiln, with a Yam Tian whose only function
seems to be to represent the hereditary and monarchical principle. A
Collector and a small detachment of Sungei Ujong police have recently
been established at Jélondong.

Johol, which formerly included the whole country to the interior
of Rémbau, Malaces, and Ségfimat, ia now broken up into the
separate States of Jclei or Inas, Sri Ménanti, and Jémpol.

The four Biting, or aboriginal chiefa, were those of Klang,
Jélébu, Sungei Ujong, and Johol (see p, 31).

THE MALAY PENINSULA, ao

According to the natives, the former boundaries of Johol were
Mount Ophir (Ganong Lédang), and from there Rantau Pait on the
Maur a little above Kuila Pfilong (towards Johor), thence to Libolk
Serampang on the Serting (towards Pahang), thence to the Jélébu
boundary at Jiwi-Jiwi Bétdub on the Triang, and thence to Sungei
Langkap in Ulu Mtar, and along Ganong Brimbfin (towards
Sungei Ujong) to Batu Gijah in the Pabei pass (towards Rémban),

The present State of Johol, which has little political importance,
is an undulating country without either large streams or high hills,
and though known to contain much gold, especially on the Gémas
(Sungei Mas or gold river?), there are no workings at present.
Its chief or Pénghilu resides at Kwala Timang,

One of the principal districts is Inas or Jélei, at one time perhaps
f separate State of the Négri S¢mbilan, with which it may now be
considered to be incorporated.

The Johol and the Inas both flow into the Jélei, which falls into
the Maar, The lower part of the Jélei is claimed by Johol, so thut
it is a sort of little Switzerland, enclosed by Rémbau, Sri Ménanti,
Jobol, and Tampin, ‘The direction is south-east of Sri Ménanti.

Johol has been ruled by ita Péinghilu, Dato’ Eta, for over forty
years, but since the arrangement of 1876 he has been under the
nominal authority of the Yam Tian of Sri Ménanti.

Sri Menanti, as recognised by the British Government in
1876, contains about 300 square miles, and a population of about
8000. It is the old State of Olu Maar with the addition of Jémpol
to the east, The open valleys of Bandul and Tériichi, watered by
the upper Moar, lead from Bukit Patus, the frontier of Sungel
Ujong, to Sri Ménanti, This was formerly the seat of the Yam
Tian or Ménangkibau Prince, whose titular pretensions formed a
bond between the Négri Sémbilan free States.

The country is chiefly flat, with some hilly districts about the
sides of Ganong Pasir and Perientian Zing, which is the natural
boundary towards Rémbau. The pass across it, connecting the two
States, is about 1150 feet high,

Sri Ménanti is tolerabl in all the Négri
Sémbilan, its rice-crops have, Bene stiines baat dabeieat rte 200
Chinese carry on tin-mining at Béting and Kuiila Pilah. Sir F, Weld, who
visited the district in 1885, found the Miiar river at Kuila Pilah, probably
over 150 miles from its mouth, still 20 yards wide, But some obstructions
having been placed in the stream, boats no longer ascend to this place. A
few miles lower down the Mitr is separated only by a narrow space from
the head-waters of the Sungei Hilir Sereting, a head-stream of the Pahan
river. Hence from its central position this district is of great political an
commercial importance,

D

a4 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

If Jéléba is of more consequence in regard to its physical than its
political relations, it is just the opposite with Sri Ménanti, the position
of which is essentially political, It was without a Chief for some years
before the treaty of 1876. But after our military occupation in 1876, and
upon the withdrawal of our troops, the office of Yam Tian, which seems
to have been in abeyance, was re-established. By the treaty of that year,
Tunku Antah obtained the administration of Sri Ménanti, with » general
authority over some of the other small States,

Rembau, originally an offshoot of Sungei Ujong, has an area
of about 400 square miles. It is not only the best known, but is,
In every respect, at present the most important of all these small
States. Physically speaking, Rémbau is but an extension of the
plain of Malacca, with no natural boundaries, except at one or two
points, to separate the two countries. In fact, until fifty years ago,
the portion of Malacca nearest to Rémbau, called Vdning, was itself
an independent State.

The boundaries of Rémbau are not very well defined, Those
with Malacea territory are the places named in the Treaty of the
9th January, 1885, and the Rémbau branch of the Linggi, above
Sempang.

The boundary with Sungei U jong was fixed in 1881 as follows :—
From Sempang to Bukit Mandi Angin, Pérhentian Tinggi, and
Ginong Angsi,

The boundaries with Sri Ménanti are eaid to be Ginong Tijoh,
and Ginong Lipat Kajang, and those with Johol, Batu Gijah and
Giinong Dato’.

The inhabitants ore now mainly of Sumatran race, having
immigrated principally in the 17th century, The almost exclusive
industry of the country has always been padi-planting, for which
its heavy rainfall is an advantage, In recent years, tapioca has
been cultivated by the Chinese, which has materially increased
the prosperity of its people. Tin is known to exist in some
quantity, especially in the river Pédas, but the prejudices of the
people have hitherto prevented mining.

The soil and physical configuration of Rémban generally
resemble those of Nadning. The country is of an undulating
character, the depressions being mostly planted with ‘“siwah,” or
wet padi-fielda, Bukit Bésar is the only mountain, exclusive of
the frontier ranges towards Sungei Ujong, Sri Ménanti and Johol.

Of the towns Sempang deserves first mention. Here the Rémban and
Pénar join and form the Linggi, and a Police Station stands in the angle
thus formed, on some land ceded to Government in 1874. It was formerly
one of the chief places in Rémbau. Kuiila Pélas, a few miles up the
Rémbau on the nght bank, was another; but both these districts have

THE MALAY PENINSULA. BE)

heen deserted. Nor is the capital easy to define, for each successive
Pinghiilu seems to have his own. Bandar Risou was the residence of
the Yam Titan Miida, and latterly of the ex-Pénghilu, Haji Sail. In
1887, Newbold said the Pénghilu resided at Chémbong: the present
Fénghillu resides at Gemayun near Chéngkan.

The Government of Rémbau is the best type of the tribal system to he.
found in the Peninsula, In something like its present form, it probobly
came over with the earliest immigrants from Sumatra, and has since been
maintained with great conservatism among the twelve Soknus or tribes, It
is by and among the Léwldtga, or hereditary chiefs of these tribes, that
the Pénghiilu must be elected. This election follows very minute and
elaborate rules, grafted by the Sumatran immigrants upon the aboriginal
system, of one feature of which the following is a summary :—

*Béduanda is the name of one of the chief aboriginal tribes in the
south of the Peninsula, and two of the chief Kémbau clans bear the same
name—the Béduanda Jawa, and the Béduanda Jakun—from which the
Pénghilu is alternately elected. .

“This alternate election is said to be due to a dispute between the two
branches of the Béduanda, over the right to elect the Pénghila, which waa
settled by the sovereign of Johor giving each the right alternately.

“ At the same time, he gave distinctive titles to the Pénghiilus—to the
one elected from the ‘ Béduanda Jawa’ that of ‘Sédin Raja,’ to him of the
* Béduanda Jakun" that of ‘ Léla Mahirija.""

The office of Léembéiga, or electoral chief, is perenne, descending on
the side of the sister, as in Nining and all the Ménanagkabau States.

3.—PAHANG.

Pahang, between Tringginu and Johor, extends along the eastern
side of the Peninsula from 2° 40° to 4° 35° N., and has about 130
miles of sea-coast on the Gulf of Siam. Ite boundaries are the river
Chérating, with Tringginu; the river Endau, with Johor; and a
line along the eastern frontier of Jélébu, Sélangor and Pérak to the
west. To the north-west the boundary is not defined, but may
be taken as following the watershed of the Ulu Pahang.

lis area probably exceeds 10,000 square miles, and its line of
greatest length, from Ulu Endan to Uln Pérak, approaches 200 miles,
far exceeding that of any other State in the Peninsula, Besides the
territory on the mainland, Pahang includes two chains of islets ron-
ning parallel to its coast, generally at about 25 miles distance. The
State of Pahang, apart from these islands, is almost identical with
the basin of the river of the same name, in an even greater degree
than is the case with Pérak. This river is shallow and, therefore,
not the largest in volume ; yet, as regards its position in the very
centre of the Malay Peninsula, and the extent of country it drains—
from 3° to 5° N.—the river Pahang may fairly be considered the
principal stream in the whole region,

D2

6 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

Pahang is, in many respects, the least known, geographically and
otherwise, of all the the Malay States, and it offers a most interesting
field for exploration, Here are found both the highest mountuins
and the widest extent of lakes and marshes in the Peninsula,

The highest summit in the Peninsula ia believed to be Ginong Tahan,
which has not been ascended, or even seen by Europeans except at a
great distance, but which almost certainly reaches a height of between
10,000 and 12,000 feet. This central chain of the Peninsula at its widest
point, is situated to the east of the upper waters of the Pahang, and can
probably be best reached from the Ulu Temling, 1 feeder of the Pahang,
near Jélei, The geological formation of the hills consists, so far as is
known, of granite, sandstone, shale, and clay, Some of the islands, ns
Tioman and Tinggi, consist partly or entirely of trap rock.

The next highest summit is to be found on the opposite side of the
Pahang valley, in the neighbourhood of Ginong Kija, near the Sélingor
boundary. Other high hills are found in the eastern chain, from which
flows the river Chériting (called the Sérting near its source), the Dingan
in Tringginn, and the Lebik in Kelantan; and the Giinung Chem south
of the Pahang, which is believe to supply the Chéno lakes, Still further
south is the lofty Ginong Gayong, source of the Rumpen.

The Chéna Inkes, and the others in the neighbourhood, as, in fact, the
water system generally, are peculiar to Pahang. The Pohang river drains
a great length of country, and, in its course, receives important foederg
from all directions—from the mountains to the north, south, and west.
The lower of the stream, below Kuiila Bérd, flows for nearly 100 miles
due east, through a very flat and marshy country, The river and its
feeders here become wide and shallow, opening out into spaces like small
lakes, The country between Pahang and Rampen is particularly level,
and the three main tributaries from that region—the bérd, the Chéno, and
the Chéni—are all noted for such Inkes. That of the Bini is the largest
sheet of inland water in the Peninsula, but its shores, like the Chéni,
a only inhabited by Sakei, while the Chéno lakes are inhabited by

ays.

¢ shallowness of the Pahang rivers makes them navigable for small
craft only, except in the rainy season. Unlike those on the west side,
their banks are sandy, often high, and mostly free from mangroves. The
Pahang is formed by the Lipis and the Jélei flowing respectively from the
north-west and north, and uniting a few miles below the Penjum river,
One day's journey lower down the main stream is joined by the copious
Temelin from the north-east, Below the Temelin confluence it takes the
name of Pahang, and before reaching the coast receives several other large
feeders, such as the Semantan, Triang, and Bérd, all from the west and
south-west.

Like moat of the eastern sea-board the coast of Pahang is mainly an
uninhabited forest; but it has the advantage of a fine sandy shore with
numerous An trees (Coswarine fittorea), forming a natural highway,
practicable even during the north-east monsoon. Such a coast route no-
where occurs on the west side, where the muddy foreshore is everywhere
overgrown with dense mangrove jungle.

Pahang is far from being a populous country, even aceording to the low
standard of the Peninsula, althou h there are a gool many flourishing
Malay settlements, especially in the interior, Here the valleys of the

THE MALAY PENINSULA. a7

Raub and Lipis, tributaries of the Pahang from the Ulu Séldngor hills,
together with the Jélei and Temling districts lower down the main
stream, appear to be more thickly inhubited than any other part of the
country.

Pahang owes its chief importance to its rich gold and tin deposits,
which for productiveness and quality are unrivalled in the Peninsula,
The chief gold mines are, or have been, in the Pahang basin at Lipis,
Bemantan, and Lilet: and the same metal is also found as far south as the
Bieri river. A mine of galena is found at Sungei Lembing on the Kwan-
tan, and tin everywhere near the gold-diggings, and in places like the
Triang and Bentong valleys where gold is not worked.

Recent explorations (1855) show the country to be very poor at the
present time. The Litet valley is now almost depopulated, not more than
fifty able-bodied men being found in the whole district. Here there is no
auriferous quartz, although a great deal of surface-mining appears to have
da gaa carried on, traces of extensive Chinese diggings having been
ound.

Of the “mineral” States the Malays rank Pahang first, Kelfintan
next, and Patini third; these territories alone yielding galena as well
as gold and tin. Itis noteworthy that the chief gold-workings lie
almost entirely along a somewhat narrow zone running northwards
from Mounts Ophir and Segamat through the very heart of the
Peninsula to the Kalian Mas (gold diggings) of Patani and Telepin,
The best tin-workings of Pahang lie on the river Bentong, and near
the auriferous district of Jélei, In whiteness and pliancy the tin of
Pahang rivals that of Pérak and S¢langor on the west const.

Pahang is said to crow sufficient rice for its own consumption,
besides exporting a little to Jélébu, It is mostly wet rice, the
buffalo being employed here instead of the bullock as in the north-
ern States. Neither is the elephant here domesticated, so that
Pahang belongs, in these respects, rather to the southern than to the
northern section of the Peninsula, The only other vegetable pro-
ducts are jungle produce and some timber, which has of late years
been exported mainly by the ‘ Pahang road” to Kuala Lumpor.

The capital of the State is Peben, which lies a few miles from the mouth
of the Pohang. Other settlements are Chtno, some way up the main
river; Temerfoh, near the river Semantan ; Tanjong Keser and Penjam on
the river Lipis ; J#lei, centre of the gold industry ; and Temelin, noted for
its carthenware, ;

The inland communications are chiefly by means of the wide-branching
river system, There are no roads, and the jungle tribes are mainly con-
fined to the inland connections with Kélantan and Tringelinu; a path
eressing from Ulu Kwantan through Perim to Ulu Liiet, and another feeti
Ulu Béri throngh Paso te Uln Kerntong, There is alsoa way from Geliting
to the Rt. Lipis, used by Malays passing between Pérak and Pahang. This
has been recently (1884) explored by the Pérak officials, A road has also
been made by the Stlingor Government, connecting the frontier at Ginting
Bidei (2300 feet) with Kuila Lumpor,

38 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

The Government of Pahang is practically independent and arbitrary.
Tt has always looked to the south, formerly to Johor, and of late years to
Singapore, for support and protection, especially against Siam. [ut the
Bendahira, who has recently assumed the title of Sultan, always exercises
despotic power within his jurisdiction. The revenue appears to be small,
the great national wealth of the country being entirely undeveloped.
There are but few Chinese settlers, and the trade is chiefly in the Hered of
the Bendahira,

The local history is obscure, and appears to have been mainly concerned
with invasions and threats from Sinm, ‘To a great extent Pahang escaped
the troubles from which Johor suffered through its Portuguese and Dutch
neighbours. Unlike the Malay States, it has of late years been growing
more rather than leas independent, The present ruler, then styled Wan
Ahmed, obtained possession by force in 1862, when a treaty was made with
Johor under the sanction of the Straits Government, In virtue of this
treaty the long-disputed boundary with Johor at the river Endan was
settled in 1868 by the arbitration of the British Governor, Thus was
created some dependence on the part of Pahang, and on the part of the
colonial Government some obligation of protection and recognition,

4.—JOHOR.

Johor (Jehér), which since 1877 comprises Moar, includes the
whole of the southern end of the Peninsula, from 2° 40° N. lat. to
Cape Romania, together with the adjacent islets, It is surrounded
on three sides by the sea, the inland boundaries being Malacca, Jelol
and the river Endau towards Pahang. Although the area must be
nearly 9000 square miles, the population, chiefly agricultural, is
probably little over 100,000, mostly confined to the districts lying
near Singapore on the one side and Malacca on the other.

The interior, still mainly under virgin forest, and but partially
explored, is on the whole less mountainous than any other part of
the Peninsula, The hills form detached groups or portions of two
interrupted chains running along the west and cast sides, one from
Mount Ophir by Penggailam, and Mount Formosa to Pulei and the
Carimons group, the other from the Segimat Hills and Mount Janing
to the Blimut and neighbouring heights beyond Menhfhak and
Panti.

The Blimut Hills (3300 feet) are the chief mountain range, giving
rise to the river Johor flowing south, to the Sedili flowing east, and
to the Kahang, which runs north to the Sembrong, an affluent of the
Endau, Mount Ophir in Moar (4050 feet) is probably the highest
peak in the State, and was long regarded os the highest in the
Penineaula, Ita shape and position near the sea are remarkable, and
although it gives rise to no large rivers, two of its streams, the
Chohong and Gemas, have some importance as forming the northern
frontiers of Johor towards Malacca and Johol, Ophir was so named

THE MALAY PENINSULA, a)

by the earlier European explorers everywhere in search of the region
whence Solomon obtained his gold.

There are three considerable rivers in Johor, the Endau, Johor,
and Moar, of which the last-named is the largest and most important
in the southern extremity of the Peninsula, It takes its rise in the
Négri Stmbilan territory, and after collecting numerous waters from
the inland uplands flowa from Brimbin (Berembtin), south-west-
wards to the west coast below Malacca, The Endau, which forms
the boundary towards Pahang, runs from the Segamat Hills in a
north-easterly direction to the east coast, while the Johor flows from
Mount Blimat southwards to a wide estuary opposite Singapore.

The majority of the inhabitants of Johor are Chinese, who are
concentrated, as cultivators of gambier and pepper, mainly in the
extreme south over against Singapore, of which Johor has been
called the ‘back country.” From Singapore they cross over to the
mainland; the capitalists for whom they work are Singapore traders,
and their produce, with most of their earnings, finds its way back to
the same place, Of late years European epeculators have begun to
plant sago, tobacco, coffee, tes, and cocoa, on a large scale in Batu
Pahat, and some other districts. The collection of gutta for the
Singapore market, after the discovery of its useful) properties by Dr,
Montgomerie in 1842, was carried on actively till the supply was
exhausted. Saw-mills have also been worked with some success:
hut at present the chief exports are gambier, pepper, tapioca, timber,
rattans, and damar, for which Singapore is the chief outport,

The only mineral found in abundance is iron, which, although
oceurring almost everywhere, is nowhere worked, Gold is known
to exist in one or two places, and tin in several districts, but no tin-
mining is actively carried on except in the Carimons Islands, which
belong geologically to Johor, although now politically separated
from that State, and under the Dutch flag,

The poses capital is Johor Bhdrn, or New Johor, which has taken the
place of Johor Ldma, or Old Johor, situated a few miles up the Johor
estuary. The new town is a flourishing littl: place, lying about 14 miles
north-east of Singapore city, in 1° 26’ N. Int. There are no other towns
properly so called ; but on the south bank of the Moar stand the populous
Villages of Lenga, Bandar Méhardat, and Bukit Kepong. Further south
is the populous Javanese settlement of Padang, which, unlike most places
in the Peninsula, lies not on a river, but on the sea-shore, which is here
open and sandy.

Although the Government is of the usual autocratic character, the
freedom and enlightenment of its administration contrast favourably with
the systems prevailing in most other Malay States. For the last twenty-
five years the country lias been ruled wisely by the Maharija Abubdiker,
k..8.1.,who visited England in 1861, 1878, and 188¢, and who has done

4() . EASTERN GEOGRAPHY,

much to develop the resources of the land. His Chinese subjects, by nature
indifferent to their colers, provided their personal independence is secure,
have hitherto given little trouble to the authorities, even where they are
in a large ae oe This is generally true of other States, with the
exception of disturbances in certain mining districts, such as the troubles
at Lukut in 1834, and Larnut in 1872.

Johor, whose history extends back to the Portuguese days, took an
important part in the 140 years’ struggle over Malacea between the Portu-
guese and the Dutch. <At the beginning of this century, the central
authority having been removed from the mainland to the Linggo and
Riau archipelagos, little cohesion remained among the different foudatories,
and the hereditary princes of Pahang and Bilong beeame virtually inde-

ondent. At the restoration of the Dutch possessions at the peace, all the
ormer dependencics of Johor, including Bilang and the Carimons, were
unfortunately assigned to Holland, the Johor rule being thus henceforth
confined to the mainland and contiguous islets,

Since then the principal changes have heen those resulting from the
establishment of Singapore ; from the Treaty of 1855 with the British
Government, by which the Temenggong's de fecto administrative rights in
Johor were acknowledged ; and lastly, from the restoration of Moar to
Johor in 1877. Since 1665 the ruler has enjoyed the title of Mahiriija, not
previously known in Malaya,

§.—THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS.

The Colony of the Straits Settlements, which comprises Singa-
pore, Penang (with Province Wellesley and the Dindings), anid
Malacca, now contains about 1500 square miles, and nearly 500,000
inhabitants. The settlements were transferred from the control of
the Indian Government to that of the Secretary of State fbr the
Colonies on the Ist April, 1867, by an Order in Council issued under
29 & 30 Vict. c. 115.

The earliest settlement was Penang, which was founded in 1786,
Tts foundation is something more than the commencement of the
Colony, for it marks the beginning of the enormous trade, and was
in some senge the forerunner of all the colonising enterprise, in the
parts beyond India—Malaya, China, and Australasia. It may be
noticed that, within a few months of the time Captain Light first
anchored in Penang harbour, the earliest expedition to Botany Bay
arrived at Port Jackson. When in 1796 Penang became the Penal
Station for India, there was some superficial resemblance between
the two infant settlements and the two enterprises, which have both
developed so enormously daring the present century. The imme-
diate prosperity of Penang, and its superiority to the Company's
trading station at Bencoolen, attracted Chinese traders, and still
more Chinese settlers, and gave an early impulse to the expansion
of its commerce. The troubled times of the great European war,

THE MALAY PENINSULA, 41

which commenced seven years after the foundation of Penang,
brought special opportonities to this outlying station; and at the
close of a single generation the little Settlement had become a
power in Malaya, under the direct and indirect influence of which
the “ Dutch monopoly system” had been completely overthrown.
The British possession of the Straits, after 1795, became secure,
first through our holding Malacca, and when that was given back by
the establishment of Singapore,

The settlements were not formed into one Government till 1826.
But the Straits have, since 1795, been, in every sense, a British
possession, our power being paramount on the western or navigable
shore,

The colony has hitherto been little more than a place of trade;
and though it is now beginning to show some development in other
directions, yet, from its circumstances, trade must always be its
principal feature. As a market alone, it ranks, with Hongkong and
Malta, not only above all other Crown colonies, but with a gross
total of imports and exports which, excluding those two trade
centres only, exceeds that of all other such colonies put together.
For 1884 its total trade was at the extraordinary rate of above £85
a head of the population, a rate exceeding that of the United
Kingdom and its most prosperous colonies in Australia, and prob-
ably of any other country in the world,

The early prosperity of the colony resulted from its central
position as a port of call for European, Indian, and Chinese trade.
The local trade, for which both Singapore and Penang are so well
placed, and which now forms so much more secure a basis of future
prosperity, has taken time to develope, But within the last few
years it has rapidly assumed increased proportions, and already far
exceeds the ocean-going trade.

At the Transfer, the United Kingdom trade with the colony was
£3,476,000, and the local trade (including Netherlands India and
the Malay peninsula), 22,669,000; but now the position is reversed ;
that of the United Kingdom for 1885 amounting to only £5,500,000,
while there is a local trade of nearly £13,000,000,

A similar change has been in progress, on a amaller scale, in the
trade with India, as compared with the essentially local trade with
the Malay Peninsula, With these facts established, there can be
little to fear from any change in ocean routes. The colony will find
its surest guarantee of continuing prosperity in the growing propor-
tions of the trade done with its immediate neighbours, for which its
situation makes it the natural metropolis,

42 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

_ The population of the colony was, according to the cenans of 1881,
423,384 ; in 1856 it was 245,000, and will thus have doubled itself in a

neration. The Chinese and Indian population have greatly increased,

ut can only be maintained at their present figures by immigration, for
the women number bat a fourth of the men, Among the Malaya, the
sexes are almost equal in number ; and the increment, which in their case
amounts to 2 per cent, per annum, is a natural increase, due to a high
birth-rate, and not dependent on immigration,

Vegetable Products—The flora of the colony is very rich in variety of
forms. The number of flowering plants has been estimated at about
5000, and the flowerless kinds at about 300; buta t number of the
flowering kinds produce inconspicuous blossoms, and so are commonly
suppose to be without flowera. The trees producing valuable timber
may be put at 100 kinds, of which the best are the balau, tampinis,
seraya, meranti, daru, kladang, kilim, petaling, rengas, merban,

f native fruits there are about nine varieties in daily use, supple-
mented by about six introduced kinds, including the pineapple and
orange. The riage Sears are chiefly acclimatised Chinese kinds,
Somptring lettuces, ns, radishes, &c, of a much inferior sort to the
similar Ruropean vegetables, The vegetable products which form part of
the exports of the colony are abont 40 in number, of which pepper, sugar,
tapioca, indigo, coffee, cocon-nuts, sago, gutta-percha, caoutchoue, and
canes are the principal, The well-known Malacca cane is not, however,
found in Malacca, Wut only in Sumatra and Borneo,

Gutta percha (tah) deserves special mention, The plants that pro-
duce it, of a commercial standing, are about 20 in number: about ten of
which are trees, and 10 creepers, Géteah Taban, the produce of a tree, being
the beat known,

The Straits sago is chiefly produced by a large palm which grows in
swampy places, from the pith of which sago is e. The kinds of oil
exported are five in number, among which an essential oil, extracted from
the lemon-grass, is the most important, ea, coffee, and chocolate are
not yet produced in any large quantity, but Liberian coffee promises to do
well, Among spices, nutmegs, cloves, pepper, and cinnamon mre ex-
ae the pepper in large quantities, though most of it is mot grown in
the colony,

The stig pre ders is not found native in the colony, and only suceceds
with great difficulty under cultivation. Native vines with clusters rival-
ing those of the grape-vine in beauty, but uneatable, are, however, found in
great plenty.

Of late years, both public and private enterprise have been active in
introducing various foreign plants which yield valuable forcign proditets :
among more recent ones may be exumerited the teak tree of India, the
Prazil-nut tree, and American and African india-rubber-producing trees,
The Queensland nut-bush and nomerous other nseful and European plants
are being tried on the hills, with more or less success.

A curious feature of the vegetation of the colony is the appearance of
many Australian plants on the higher hill-tops, The beautiful Victoria
regia lily of the Amazons grows well, and many other introduced plants
have become acclimatised in gardens and by the way-side ; but owing to
the stimulating nature of the climate, few of them produce flowers or fruit
as freely as in their native Aadbitet, while leaves and branches flourish much
more freely.

Many products, once abundant in the colony, have become compara-

THE MALAY PENINSULA, 45

tively rare, through wasteful habits and the want of any systematic
conservation ; in fact many hove retired considerably beyond the limits of
the Settlements, and the Government of the colony has taken steps to
re-vstablish some of these by growing young plants on waste-lands and
in forest reserves,

AMinerals.—No minerals are found in any workable quantities, except
a little tin in the south of Malacca, This is natural from the situation of
the Settlements, lying as they do a the coast of the Straits. Almost
immediately beyond the frontier it 5 Lt that both in Province Welles-
ley and Malacca valuable tin deposits have been worked, and in the latter
Settlement some gold-diggings also at Chinderas, near Mount Ophir. The
Paleozoic rock oveurring 80 nently throughout the Settlements is
largely charged with iron ores, which under the action of weathering are
aida into a red limonite or laterite, forming a most durable building
material,

Gorerament,—The Government is of the usual type in British Crown
colonies. It is ranked as a “first class" colony, 1. ¢ the Governor's
salary comes within the category ‘* £5000 and upwards.” The Governor
has also general control over the Protected Native States.

The colony's revenue is now about £720,000 a year, and a municipal
revenue of about £106,000 more is collected separately, The rate con-
tributed is thns nearly £2 a head of the population, which, though lower
em the rate in the Australian colonies, stands highest among the Crown
colonies,

SINGAPORE,

SINGAPORE is an island about 27 miles long by 14 wide, containing
an area of 206, or, with the adjacent islets, 223 square miles, situated
at the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula, within &0
miles of the equator, Time, 6 hours, 54 minutes before that
of Greenwich. ‘The island is separted from the continent by a
narrow strait (Sélat Tébrav) about three-quarters of a mile in
width. All the small islands within ten miles of its shores form
part of the Settlement,

The seat of Government, for the whole colony ns well ss the
Settlement, is the town of Singapore, at the south of the island, in
lat, 1° 17° N., and long, 103° 50’ E.

Singapore was occupied by Sir Stamford Raffles, with the
consent of the Governor-General, in February 1819, under an
agreement with the Princes of Johor, In 1823, it was transferred
to the direct Government of Bengal, and in 1626, incorporated with
Penang and Malacca, and placed under the Governor and Council
of the incorporated Settlement. It became the recognised sent of
Government in 1857.

The surface of the island is undulating, nowhere over 500 feet
high, and consisting of laterite resting on sandstone, Granite is
found in a few places, principally to the north and east. Gambier,

44 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

indigo, pepper, and many local fruita and vegetables grow well -
but the Settlement depends for rice on the neighbouring countries
of Java, Camboja, Burma, and Bengal.

PENANG.

Pexano is the name both of an island, and of the Settlement for
which it is the seat of local administration.

The Settlement has altogether an area of about 600 square miles.
The island, officially called Prince of Wales’ Island, is about 15 iniles
long and 9 broad, containing an area of 107 square miles, situated
off the west coast of the Malay Peninsula in 5° N, latitude, and
at the northern end of the Strait of Malacca.

On the opposite mainland, from which the island is separated hy
a channel a few miles broad, lies Province Wellesley, a strip of
territory containing 270 square miles, and forming part of the
Settlement. The province averages 7 miles in width, and extends
45 miles along the const; it includes, since the Pangkor Treaty
(1874), about 25 aquare miles of newly-acquired territory to the
south of the Krian. About 200 square miles of Jand in the Pangkor
Talands and opposite coast are alao comprised in this territory, and
form the so-called Dinding Settlements.

The chief town is George Town, in 5° 24’ N, lat, and 100° 21°
E. long. The local government of the whole Settlement is
administered by a Resident Councillor.

MALAccA,

Matacca is situated about one-third of the way up the western
coast of the Peninsula, between Singapore and Penang, about 110
miles from the former and 240 from the latter, and consists of a
strip of territory 42 miles in length, and from 8 to 25 miles in
breadth, containing an area of 659 square miles.

Tin is found at the Linggi sands and a few other places, and
gold on the slopes of Mount Ophir, Hot springs, noteworthy as
being the only sign of volcanic agency in the Peninsula, occur at
Ayer Panag and near Pulau Sebang, some 20 miles from Malacca,
They are said to possess salubrious qualities.

The principal town, called Malacca, is in 2° 10° N. Jot. and
102° 14° E. long. The local government is administered by a
Resident Councillor,

THE MALAY PENINSULA, 45

STATISTICS,
AREAS AND POPULATIONS,
Area in Sq, Miles, Population,

Malay Peninsula . 75,000 1,200,000 (7)

Siamese Malaya : 40, O00 400 000

British Malaya, . 35,000 800,000
Siamese Division : ;

Ligor and Senggéra. =. 17,000 160,000 @)

Kédah =... , 4,000 120,000 (?)

Patfini States “3 6,000 60,000 to 75,000

Kélantan . n , 7,000 200,000 (7)

Tringginu wi .

Kemiman . 4,000 20000
British Division;

Pérak 8,000 118,000 (1884)

Stlan gor with Klang 5,000 50,000 (1884)

Sunjei Ujong is 600 14,000

Négri Stmbilan ‘ 2,000 30,000

Pahang » 10,000 63,000

Johor 8,500. 100,000
Straits Settlements , P 1,460 over 500,000 (1886)

POPULATION OF THE PRNINSULA ACCORDING TO RACE,

Siamese Division:
Siamese ‘ F : " " > . 100,000
60

Sam-Sams . = rs : : . 00
Malays 2 « . . a 150,000
Negrito Wild Tribes 3 ; - - - 10,000
Chinese - . f . - 90,000
400,000
British Division:

Malays ; , ; : . 850,000
Negrito Wild Tribes ie I's 7 10,000
Chinese : - - . - 000)
Klings (Indians) . : : - er 40,000
Miscellaneous . = z : . » 100,000
800,000

Total Malays .. « »« » « « §&00,000
Total Chinese , ; . 890,000

Malays in the Straits Settleme nts : » 174,526 (1881)
Chinese 1b 13 ue # . 174°397 ar

46

. EASTERN GEOGRAPHY,

KEDAH,
Population (1820) , . « « + over50,000
i 1839 * . »« " 4 son 1,000
“s 1886 00,000 (?)
According to Carl Bock (excessive) 528 000
PATANI,
Population (1786) . 3 ,» « « - 116, 000
x br ag2) wash Ti} 54,000
ss (1886). . 60, 000 to 75,000
a According to Carl Rock... Al
KELANTAN, ,
aliocraeacsah ee . 7 accel re : 60,000
" (1886) : ‘ 200,000

= According to the natives : 600,000
A of KRélantan town , F * 20,000

Annual export of tin Eten ty ey i , 3000 pikuls
TRINGGANT, °
Population (1856) «1 » «. + « 87,800
bi 1886) = = ca 20,000)
si ringginu town igs a4) : ‘ 15,000
1 " Lr] * i 2,000
PERAK,
Malay population Spend » ow fie ve” FO2000
Chinese" ,, 2 oS shar ae

Thaipeng town, pop. , «a Bs ae ei ay oo OOM)
Tin exportéd (1883) . °. ‘ - «+ £400,000

Other exports ,, Z . £700,000
Total imports and exports (1888) » * 22,100,000
Revenue (1884) ; « £306,000
Expenditure (1884) . . . . « £296,000
. - SELANGOR, ‘
Malay population(1886) §. . .«. .» 20,000
Chinese Y » : eee : 30,000
Exports (1884). . . . |. , £400,000

Revenue ,, ‘ i « S27 «4 Saag

SUNGEI UJONG.
Population (1886). . . « + 14,000
Tevenue (1884) . . . ; - «+ £24,000
Expenditure = . Cy oT = oT £28,000

Jélébu, population.

‘On

THE MALAY PENINSULA.

NEcRI sEwniLaN

a

Sri Ménanti

Rémbau

Malay
Saket (Ne

Chinese

Malay population (1886)

Chinese

egritoes)

"

New Johor ,,

Padang

SINGAPORE :

Chinese
Malays

H

*

1

it

PAHANG,
epulaton (1886)

JOHOR.

BT ATES.

©
s
il s
. ry

STRAITS SETTLEMENTE,

Klings (Indians)
Europeans . ‘
Miscellaneous

PENANG :

Chinese
Malays
Klings

Europeans .
Miscellaneous

MALACCA :

Chinese
Malays
Klings

Europeans .
Miseellaneous

thy

i}

nH

Total

Total

Total
Total pop. Straits Settlements (Census 1881)

425,084

estimated 1886 over 500,000

)

47

43

_ EASTERN GEOGRAPHY, ©

Areca,
Bq. Miles,
Singapore , Pe ee er eer ye!
Penang with Dindings aie [eee ah Oe) we eta eee
Malacca " : : : é . 659
Total. 145

Trade and J inance.
Total trade with Gt. Britain (1868) ‘ < 476,000
» local trade 669,000

" iy (1884) nearly 1s 000,000
» trade with Gt. Britain , .

5 » Indian (1868) » «1,968,000

" " »» (IRB4) 1,600,000

Ie 4 Malay Peninsula (1868), ‘B39, 000

i} at + 4 (1884) 2, 900, 000
Lxports to Gt. Britain, —— _ Imports from Gt. Britain,

1880, £3,698,000 £2,269,000

188-4. 4,612,000
pba gate Penang. Malacea. Total.

Imports. eek, £10,872,000 3,534,000 644,000 15,050,000

1884 14,257,000 5,616,000 . 632,000 20,405,000

Exports. tees, 9,779,000 3,554,000 651,000 13,984,000

1884, = =11,676,000 6,450,000 548,000 18,673,000

Shipping (1884).
Foreign vessels entered 5,848 Tonnage 3,634,000
Native ” " AT n 266,000
Foreign ,, cleared 5,759 f 5,576,000
Native " " o, nN 281,
Revenue. Expenditure,
188), £327,000 £335,000
1885, 654,000 648,000

Public debt (1886), £56,000,

PART IL.

INDO-CHINA.

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL BUREVEY—PHYSICAL FEATURES—MOUNSTAIN AND RIVER SYSTEMS
—HEABOARD—ISLAN DS,

Position—Boundaries—Extent.—The term /ndo-China, for
which alternative expressions are /urther India and Transgangetic
Jndia, was originally proposed by Malte Brun for the easternmost
of the three great Asiatic peninsulns, forming the south-eastern
limb of the continent. It thus corresponds in position and some
other respects with the Balkan Peninsula of the European Continent,
and, like it, is continued south and south-eastwards by numerous
insular groups, through which it gradually merges in the Australian
mainland,

Washed on the west by the Bay of Bengal, which here develops
the Gulf of Martaban, on the south and east by the China Sea, with
the corresponding Gulfs of Siam and Tonkin, Indo-China abuts on
its north-west frontier with India, and on the north with China. But
the term Indo-China was suggested not so much by this geograph-
ical position, as by the twofold origin of its religious and social
culture, derived partly from China, but to a much greater extent
from India, Hence the alternative expression Transgangetic India,
strictly correct in a geographical sense, may also be justified on
historic grounds,

Excluding from consideration its extreme southern prolongation
through the Malay Peninsula, which is treated separately in this
series, Indo-China presents a somewhat compact oval form disposed
in the direction from north-west to south-east, and comprised almost
entirely between 10° N, lat.-and the Tropic of Cancer, but projecting
in the extreme south-east to Cape Camboja (9° N, lat.), and in the
extreme north-west to about 27° N. lat. to the Patkoi Mountains here

E

50 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

separating it from Assam. The longitudes of 92° and 109° E. mark
its extreme western and eastern limits on the Bay of Bengal and
China Sea, the total length in the direction from north to south
being about 800 miles, from the Chinese frontier to the Isthmus
of Kra, and 950 at its broadest part, between the Ganges delta and
Gulf of Tonkin, with an approximate area of about 800,000 square
miles.

Mountain Systems.—The salient physical features of this
region present a certain simplicity of outline, as shown especially
in the uniform and nearly parallel disposition of its mountain
ranges and river valleys, which run mainly in the direction of its
long axis from north-west to south-east. Projecting like Southern
China, with which it forms a geographical unit, from the elevated
Tibetan plateau, the peninsula is of an extremely rugged character
in its northern section, where it begina to fall rapidly towards the
' central plains. Here the slope of the land is clearly indicated by
the numerous falls and rapids obstructing the upper courses of the
main streams and their chief affluenta. But the mountain chains
forming the water-partings between these river basins, although
seldom exceeding 7000 or 8000 feet, maintain a mean elevation of
from 500) to 6000 feet throughout their whole course to the Malay
Peninsula.

In the north-west the AnAKAN Yours range, separating the Arakan
coastlinds from Upper Burmah, has several crests from 6000 to 7000 feet
high, culminating in the Malselai Mon or “‘ Blue Mountain” (7100 feet)
in the Lushai country. This range, which terminates at Cape Negrais at
the western angle of the Irawadidy delta, is crossed by several passes, of
which one of the most frequented is that of Ayeng (under 4000 fect)
leading from the coast to Upper Burmah. The prevailing formations are
limestones and sandstones of the chalk and tertiary periods, interspersed
with some eruptive rocks, but no active volcanoes. But - th ‘ const anid
adjacent archipelago aro grouped a large number of mud volcanoes, as
many as fifteen in the island of Ramri alone, all subject to frequent and
violent eruptions,

Parallel and east of the Arakan Yoma is the Prev Yoma range,
forming the divide between thi Irawaddy and Sittang basina, but seldom
exceeding 2000 fect. Southwards it merges in the extensive plain of
Pegu, formed by the united lower valleys and deltas of the Irawaddy and
Bittang, and stretching from Capo Negrais to Martabon west and east.
The Pegu Yoma, one of whose crests, the Puppa or Pappa Ding (3000
fect), presenta the character of an extinct volcano, is continued northwards
by the Suax-Yoma, which separates the waters flowing west to the
Irowaddy and Bittang basins from those aneenine east to the Salwin. This
range, Which rises in the north to over 10,000 feet, and even in the south
has one peak, the Nattung, 8000 feet high, appears to consist mainly of
slaty clays alternating with sandstone, and here and there suming a
basaltic character. Stratified sandstones interspersed with veins of quartz
are also a prevailing feature of the Tenasserim hills, which form a southern

INDO-CHINA. 51

prolongation of the northern ** Yomas" or “‘ Mountains," and which in
aoe Tp attain an elevation of 5000 or 6000 feet. Beyond Tenasserim
the system is continued through the Malay Peninsula as for as the island
of Billiton below the equator.

The general geological structure of Burmah is described by M. R.
Romania as very simple, the chief formations running north and south
in great mountain ranges, The tertiary formations of Pegu reach north-
wards to the great bend of the Irawaddy at Kydnta-lung below Ava, while
the metamorphic rocks of the Martaban hills are continued in the Shan
Yora east of Mandalay, In the sume way the limestone of the Salwin
and Kachin hills corresponds with that of the Dawna range east of
Maulmein, and the general features of the country much resemble those
of the north-west provinces of India,

East of the Burmese and western Siamese ranges the orographic sys-
tem becomes more irregular and less elevated, the central Siameso plains
being broken only by low ond short ridges or isolated eminences, such
as the Kon Sanar east of Shantabiin (2100 feet), the Prabat and Bassne
hills (8800 feet), But the regular and parallel disposition of the Indo-
Chinese ranges reappears farther north and east, in the chain separating
the Mekhong from the Song-koi basin, and in the Cochin-Chineso const
range. North-west of Hué the main range rises to a height of from 6000
to 7000 feet. Further eouth is developed to lofty Sanavan or BoLoven
PLATEAU (about 3000 feet), which is enclosed between the Mekhong and
Don rivers on the west and north-west, and by the Rong on the east and
south-east, This extensive tableland, which has been explored by Thorel,
Harmand, and other French naturalists, presents in some places th » aspect
of a grassy or swampy steppe, and in others is covered with dense forests
of conifers, oaks, chestnuts, intermingled with palms, bamboos, and other
subtropical species. The soil consists of a ferruginous clay resting on
sandstones interspersed with lavas and scorim, which combined with the
presence of hot springs and several cone-shaped crests, show that this
Tegion was formerly the scene of igneous activity.

In the extreme north-east the hills and plateaux merge everywhere in
the Sg plains of Camboja, which are interrupted in the east by the
granitic Troxiar (over 3000 fect) about the sources of the Donnai, in the
west by the Prabat and2Ponsar Hints between the Tonlé-Sap basin and
the Gulf of Siam, culminating in the Elephant Peak (3000 feet) west of
Kampot.

Mineral Wealth.—The Shan uplands and the ranges sepnrating
the Irawaddy and Salwin basins contain rich iron, lead, copper, tin,
and silver deposits, The Shurili river washes down golden sands
from Yunnan; rubies (spinels ?), sapphires, emeralds, topazes, and
other precious stones were for ages collected in the hills to the
north-east of Ava for the royal treasury of Burmah, This is also
one of the few regions containing deposits of jade, which occure
chiefly in the Moging district north of Bhamé, Saline springs and
petroleum are found in great abundance at the eastern foot of the
Arakan Yoma, where over 500 wells have been sunk near Yay-nan-
gyung, on the left bank of the Irawaddy. The yield now exceeds
12,000 tons yearly, some of which is exported to Great Britain.

Ez

a2 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

“This petroleum was one of the royal monopolies, and large
quantities used to be shipped to Rangin to be manufactured into
pageda candles; but the American rock-oil and the development
of the Baku wells (in Caucasia) interfered greatly with the sale.”—
(J. G. Seott, p. 59.) Coal, slaty and bituminous, occurs both in
Tenasserimn, where it has never been worked, and on the lrawaddy,
where it has been long worked by the Burmese, especially at Think-
adaw, some 30 miles above Myin-gyan, at Shin-pagah, midway
between Mandalay and Bhamd, and in the Shan hills east of Manda-
lny. From Payen-tting, 150 miles north of Bhamé, come large
quantities of amber, which is much used for ear-plugs, necklaces,
Buddhist rosaries, and similar objects by the natives. Platinum also
is said to occur near Kanni on the Chindwin river, and iron and
silver tnines were once largely worked, but are now abandoned.

In Siam occur rich deposits of copper, tin, antimony, and magnetic
iron, and in the mountain range between the Mekhon on Red River iron,
tin, copper, silver, and gold. Near the delta of the latter river the
French engineer, M. Tucks, discovered in 1881 an extensive coalfield over
40 square miles in extent. It also seems probable that the valleys of both
head streams of the Song-koi(Red and Black Rivers) abound in all manner
of mineral ores, which, however, cannot at present be utilised, owing to
the unsettled and inaccessible character of the country.

River Systems.—The disposition of the river systems is
marked by even greater uniformity than that of the mountain
ranges. Excluding the smaller streams flowing independently to
the coast in Arakan, Tenasserim, and Annam, the whole of the
peninsula drains to the surrounding waters through five great fluvial
basins, all pursuing a more or less parallel southern or south-
eastern seaward course, Thus going eastward, the Inawappy and
StTTaxG collect in a common delta nearly all the waters of Upper
and Lower Burmah ; the Sanwin takes up all the drainage of north-
east Burmah and the borderlands between Lower Burmah and west
Siam ; through the Menam all the streams of Central Siam find their
way to the Gulf of Siam; the whole of the Lao country (North and
East Siam), Camboja, and Lower Cochin China are comprised in the
basin of the Mexuone (Camposa) river; lastly, the Soxa-xor (Rep
River), with its many-branching delta, carries to the China Sea all
the surface waters of Tonkin.

Two only of these basins, the Irawaddy-Sittang and the Menam,
belong entirely to the peninsula, Of the others the Sabwin and
Mekhong have their source on the Tibetan pleateau far away to the
north-west, while the Song-koi takes its rise on the rugged Yunnan
tableland in south-west China.

INDO-CHINA. 53

Above Bhaméi the Jrewaddy forks off into two hend-streams, the
Myit Gney (‘‘Little River") to the east, and the Myit Gyi (‘Great
River") to the west, both flowing from the still unexplored region about
the Tibeto-Chinese frontier, But so great is the volume of water at
Bhamé (24° N. lat.) that the western branch was long supposed by Eliste
Heclus, Robert Gordon, and others to be identical with the great Sanpo
river of Tibet. This important hydrographic question, however, has at
last been settled by the Indian pandit known as A. K., who has shown
that the Sanpo cannot possibly flow to the Irawaddy, and Mr, J. F.
Needham's still more recent exploration (1885) has identified it beyond all
doubt with the Dihong (Bralinaputra), At the junction of the two forks
the Irawaddy is already 900 yards across, so that one or other of them, as
suggested hy J. G, Scott, ey Ve 4 have its source in some Inrgre in-
land Inke. In any case the lrowaddy is one of the finest streams in the
world, navigable for steamers of considerable size from its delta in the
Gulf of Martaban for over 800 miles to Bhomi, near the Chinese frontier.
But about 20 miles higher wp it passes through a dangerons defile, where
the stream, swidenly narrowing from 1000 to 150 yards, rushes with
grent velocity between sheer rocky walls, and where the whirlpools and
hackwaters render all navigation impossible except for very small eraft.
The Irawaddy has a probable length of 1000 miles, with a mean discharge
of 480,000 cubic feet per seeond in the delta, rising during the floods to
nearly 2,000,000 cubic feet.

The Sittang, which drains an area of over 20,000 square miles in the
quadrangular district formed by the Pegu Yoma and Punglung Hills,
belongs, strictly speaking, to the Irawaddy basin, It flows in exactly the
same direction as the main stream between Bhamé and Mandalay, and
after a course of some 830 miles unites with it in 1 common delta, During
the rainy season this low-lying watery region presents an intricate maze of
channels and backwaters stretching round the Gulf of Martaban from Ca
ee to Maulmain, and here intermingling with the waters of the

win,

Although containing a much smaller volume, the Sulwin has a far
longer course than the [rawaddy. It has been clearly identified with the
fu-Kiong (Lutee-Kiang), which rises on the Tibetan plateau, probably
about 34° N. lat, 92° E. long., flowing thence for hundreds of miles in its
deep and narrow rocky valley between the Irawaddy and Mekhong basing
first south-east, then due south through eastern Burmah to its mouth at
Maulmain on the Gulf of Martaban. Below the Thung-Yang confluence
its lower course is obstructed by dangerous rapids, practically barring oll
navigation for the greater part of the year. Hence, notwithstanding
its great length and depth, the Salwin is of little use as o water high-
why. . It has a mean discharge of from 300,000 to 400,000 cubte feet per
second.

The Menam, or ‘Mother of Waters," stands in the same important
relation to Siam that the Irwaddy dees to Burmah. Throughout the
greater part of its course from the Lao uplands to its mouth at the head of
the Gulf of Siam it is navigable for att craft, while steamers ascond the
main channel with the tide as far as Bangkok, During the roins the
Menam floods its banks for miles in all directions, ever depositing freah
alluvial soil, irrignting the rich paddy fields on the surrounding plains,
and affording a large navigable area for native craft throughout the flooded
tracts. The sedimentary matter thus washed down has already advanced
the shore-line many miles seawards, ond is still continually encroaching

Bo EASTERN GEOGHKAPHY.

on the gulf, where the deep water is separated from the plains of Bangkok
by extensive mud-banks stretching for 60 miles onst and west, and access-
ible to large vessels only at high water.

By far the longest river in the peninsula is the Mekhong, familiarly
known as the Comégje, which under the name of the Laxtsan-Kiang, or
Kinlong-Kiang, has its source on the Tibetan tobleland about 34° N.
lat., 04° E. long. Throughout its upper course it flows in a narrow, deep
defile between the Salwin and Yangtee-Kiang, through an une aay
region inhabited by the Lyssu, Mosso, and other semi-civilisod peoples on
the borderland between Tibet and Chinn, Below the confluence of ita

ait affluent, the Semun from the west, the lower course of the Mekhong
f obstructed by the Khong rapids, which are scarcely surpassed in extent
by those of any other river in the world.

At Pnom-petth about the head of the delta, some 180 miles from the
sea, it receives the overflow of the Tonlé-sap, an extensive sweet-water
reservoir commonly known a4 the *‘Great Lake of Camboja." During the
floods between June and October this lncnustrine basin is nearly 70 miles
long by 15 broad, with o depth of over 40 feet, and on area of about
1000 square miles, At this time the lake is fed by a backwater from the
Mekhong; but at low water the current is reversed, and the lake dis-
charges into the river. It teems with fish, of which about 10,000 tons
are annually cured and exported to the surrounding lands,

Below tigre Sa the main stream rimifies into two channels, the
Han-giang, or “River of Bassac,” in the west, and the Tien-giang in the
east, Which flow in a nearly parallel course for about 120 miles through the
delta. The eastern river develops numerous secon branches, of which
the most important are the Donnai (Dong-nai) and the river of Saigon ;
from the western river soveral channels are also thrown off, some of which
now flow west to the Gulf of Siam. Thus the greater part of Lower
Cochin-China belongs to the Mekhong delta, which has a coast-line of 360
miles, besides shallows and sindbanks stretching for somo 30 milea sea-
wards. It lasa mean discharge of 420,000 cubic feet per second, falling
at low water to 50,000, and rising during the flood to upwards of 2,300,000.

The basin of the Song-tot (Song-kai, Soug-tha), properly Sheng-dui,
that is, the ‘Great River,” the “Red River" of European writers, com-
res with its two chief tributaries, the Song-bo or “ Black River, and the

i-lei-ho, nearly the whole of Tonkin, and a considerable part of south-east
Yunnan. On the Chinese frontier, 360 miles from the coast, it is already
about 1000 yards wide and navigable for boats; but both the main stream
and the Song-bo, which joins it below Hung-hao, also from Yunnan, are
much obstructed by rapids. M. d'Augis, who asconded the Black River
im 1881, counted fifty-four rapids up to Wan-Giom, and at Thac-Keu
found all further canoe navigation arrested by a chaos of rocks and debris
rising 23 feet above the curront. Thus the expectations of the French to
reach Yunnan and establish trading relations with Southern China through
this artery have been doomed to disappointment.

Some 90 miles from the coast the Red River throws off the two main
channels of the delta, both of which again branch off into a vast system of
intricate streams, backwaters, and artificial canals, continually shifting their
beds. From the northern arm, which retains the name of Song-koi, several
channels flow northwards to the still more intricate delta of the Thai-
bith, which descends from Lake Babé in « still unexplored frontier district.
The joint delta has a coast-line of about 90 miles, and a total aren of
probably not less than 6000 square miles of rich alluvial land.

INDO-CHINA. oo

Seaboard,—The Indo-Chinese seaboard develops a far greater
diversity of outline than any other Asiatic region, in this respect also
resembling the corresponding Balkan Peninsula in south-east Europe,
Below Akyab the north-west coast is fringed with several clusters of
islands, including the volcanic Ramri and Cheduba, and presenting
an almost fjord-like appearance, Further down the Irawaddy delta
projects far seawards, terminating at Cape Negrais in the south-west,
and enclosing on the east side the deep bight of the Gulf of Mar-
taban. Below this point the const is again broken into several little
headlands, and diversified with the extensive Mergui Archipelago,
which stretches for nearly four degrees of latitude (10°—14° N.)
from below Tavoi to the Isthmus of Kra. On the enst side Lower
Siam, with Camboja and Lower Cochin-China, forms a secondary
peninsula, projecting between the vast Gulf of Siam and the China
Sea for over 250 miles in a south-easterly direction. Here also the
coastline is broken by several conspicuous headlands, while to the
Gulf of Siam on the south-west corresponds the Gulf of Tonkin in
the extreme north-east, Thus the seaboard, even excluding the
Malay Peninsula, has a total length of considerably over 2000 miles,
which is relatively far more than that of any other maritime region
in Asia, Distinet indications of upheaval have been noticed at
several points, and especially along the coast of Arakan and Lower
Burmah os far as the Irawaddy delta, The movement, centred
about Cheduba island, is continued seawards in the Nicobar group,
although the intervening Andaman Archipelago appears to be the
scene of the opposite phenomenon of subsidence,

CHAPTER II.
CLIMATE—FLORA—FAUXA,

Climate.—Lying almost entirely within the northern torrid
zone, Indo-China has an essentially tropical climate, with two well-
defined seasons determined by the regular succession of the two
monsoons. That of the south-west, prevailing from May to
September, brings the moisture-bearing clouds and heavy storms
from the Indian Ocean, with a rainfall of 200 inches and upwards
on the Arakan coast and in the [rawaddy basin. From September
to March these winds are replaced by the north-east monsoon, which

56 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

is accompanied by dry weather and cool breezes, During the months
of March and April, between these two seasons, the heats are most
oppressive. Yet even at this period the thermometer seldom rises
above 93° F. at Bangkok, usually oscillating between 82° and 86° F.,
and in the dry winter season falling occasionally as low as 54° at
night. At Hué, in Annam, the lowest recorded has been 62°, and at
Saigon 64°, the mean temperature of the latter place being as high
as 80°. Tonkin and the interior of Siam are much cooler, the glass
falling in both regions to 47°, and even 45° in winter. On the other
hand, these countries are subject to more intense heats, so that the
further we proceed north the climate becomes more continental, that
is, presents greater extremes of heat and cold from season to season.

The mean rainfall, heaviest on the west coast (200 to 240 inches),
diminishes to 70 at Saigon and 60 at Bangkok. A great contrast is also
resented between the two slopes of the range separating the Mekhong basin
rom Annam and Tonkin, Mie east side, exposed to the drier north-east
monsoon, is in many places arid and bare of timber, while on the opposite
ere. a rich vegetation is supported by the moist south-western trade
winds.

Flora.—On the whole the Indo-Chinese flora corresponds with
that of India proper, The forests and jungle of Burmah present
the same variety of plants, and yield for human food and industry
nearly the same cereals, fibres, gums, and other essences. Here the
chief cultivated species are rice, of which Burmah is one of the
great store-houses; dani, a kind of palm which yields all the sugar
required for the local consumption; maize, millet, sessamum, pulse,
cotton; bananas and other fruits; tea, coffee, cinchonn, and tobacco,
the cultivation of which is steadily increasing. Whenever the
country is opened up the Burmese forests will yield an inexhaustible
supply of all kinds of useful timber to human industry. Here
flourish the close-grained teak, various plants yielding gums, lacquer,
and oil, and on the coastlands the magnificent Amherstia nobuts,
with ite red and golden flowers.

The Siamese flora, substantially the same as that of Burmah, also
includes a considerable number of Chinese species, thus showing a
gradual transition between the vegetable kingdoms of the northern
and southern regions. In the eastern uplands, between the Mekhong
basin and Annam Himalayan, Chinese and even Japanese varieties
are found intermingled with those of the peninsula, and here are
also met anemones, saxifrages, and violets like those of western
Europe. The flora of Tonkin and Cochin-China is altogether ex-
tremely rich, the botanical explorations organised since the French
Conquest having already discovered over 12,000 species. Pandanes

INDO-CHINA. 57

and various kinds of palms fringe the low-lying constlands, while
paddy fields and garden plots cover the plains stretching inland to
the foot of the hills, which are in many places clothed with dense
forests of teak, ironwood, lacquer, and other gum-yielding species,
ebony and the precious eaglewood, burnt only in the palaces and
temples of the gods. The natives, however, cultivate little except
cotton, maize, bamboo, which is turned to endless domestic and
industrial uses, rice, of which there are some forty varieties, and a
vine, which yields a sour wine.

Fauna.—Most of the Indian animal species reappear in the region
beyond the Ganges. Here elephants are very numerous, especially
in Burmah ; those of the Lao country are noted for their intelligence,
and the natives everywhere display great skill in capturing and
taming them. The rhinoceros also, of which three varieties are
known in Burmah, is sometimes tamed, as in Assam, The tiger,
which roams the Annamese forests, and reaches down to the ex-
tremity of Malaya, is seldom openly attacked, but mostly taken in
snares. The Annamese fauna includes, besides the wild buffalo,
the dzin, a species of ox perhaps allied to the Chinese mithun. The
Burmese breed of horses is highly esteemed, while those of Cochin-
China are too small and weak to serve as pack-animals. In Tonkin,
Annam, and Camboja poultry, ducks, and geese are more numerous
than in Europe, and every house has its pig. In Burmah rats ore
a great scourge, and the insect world is represented by innumerable
species both here and throughout the peninsula. All the rivers and
marine inlets, as well as the great Cambojan lake, teem with fish,
which is a staple of food amongst all the inhabitants of Indo-China,

CHAPTER III.

INHABITANTS OF INDO - CHINA —- DURMESE — TALAINGS — SIAMESE—
ANN AMESE—CAMIMAIANS,

Mongolic Races.—From the anthropological standpoint the great
bulk of the Indo-Chinese people belong to the Mongolic family of
mankind, and more directly to the Tibeto-Chinese sub-division of
that group. Amid a multiplicity of national, historical, and tribal
names, 4 substantial unity both in the physical and linguistic types

58 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

is almost everywhere apparent, and it seems evident that nearly al?
the present inhabitants of the peninsula came originally either from
the Central Tibetan plateau, following the parallel valleys of the
Trawaddy, Salwin, and Mekhong rivers, or élse from China, crossing
the intervening highlands by passes that have been frequented from
pre-historic times. Of the three main groups the western Burmese
still show the closest affinity to the Tibetans, especially in tlicir
apeech, while the Central Stamese and eastern Annamese are more
nearly related to the Chinese both in type and speech. All present
the same fundamental Mongolic characteristics, shown in their low
stature, ranging from 5 to 5 feet 6 inches, yellowish or yellow-brown
complexion (olive, old wax, leathery or cinnamon), long black hair,
round in section, thick on the head, elsewhere very scanty or alto-
gether absent, somewhat flat features, with almond-shaped, oblique
eyes, broad, short, and concave nose, rather prominent check-bones,
small hands and feet, weak lower extremities, head mesaticephalous,
that is, intermediate between the round and long forms.

Languages.—The Indo-Chinese languages belong also to the
same morphological order of speech as the Chinese and Tibetan,
commonly described as monosyllabic or isolating, But the former
designation must be rejected, since it has recently been shown that
monosyllabism is not the original condition, but the result of
phonetic decay in this group. In consequence of this gradual
decay words originally quite distinct in form, and composed of two
or more syllables, have been reduced to words of one sylinble no
longer distinct in form, but in pronunciation distinguished by the
different tones with which they are uttered. Grammatical inflection
has also been mostly rejected, words being thus reduced to the
condition of crude and unchangeable roots standing tolated from
each other, and acquiring their meaning mainly from their position
in the sentence. Hence a better designation for this group would
be that of wolating toned languages. The process has been carried
furthest in Chinese and Annamese, which may be taken as the
typical members of the family, and which have necessarily developed
the greatest number of tones, ranging from four to six, and in some
dialects even to eight or ten. In this respect Siamese occupies un
intermediate position between Annamito-Chinese on the one hand,
and Tibeto-Burmese on the other, having preserved more gram-
matical inflections and developed fewer tones than the former,
while the Burmese, and especially the Tibetan, have retained the
greatest number of grammatical forms, and are consequently spoken
with the least number of tones.

The three dominant Indo-Chinese languages have long been

INDO-CHINA. 59

cultivated—Annamese under Chinese, Siamese and Burmese under
Hindu influences. Hence Annumese has borrowed a large number
of Chinese words, and is written in characters derived directly from
the Chinese hieroglyphic system. In the same way, most of the
Siamese and Burmese loan-words are taken indirectly from Sanskrit
through the Pali, the sacred langunge of the Buddhists, and are
written with alphabets derived from the same source, Here
again we see how completely appropriate to this region is the term
Indo-China.

Non-Mongolic Races,—Besides the Mongolic, recent French
exploration hag revealed the presence of a second element, centred
mainly in Camboja and the Champa country, in the extreme south-
eastern comer of the peninsula, This clement, represented by the
old Camboja (Khmér) stock, by the Chams (Tsiams), Kays, Stiengs,
Charays, and some other semi-civilised aboriginal tribes, ia distin-
guished by physical characteristics approaching the Caucasie type
of Western Asia and Europe. The same Caucasic type occurs
amongst the Lolo, Mosso, and many other aboriginal peoples in the
borderlands between China, Indo-China, and Tibet, possibly indi-
cating the route followed by this stream of Caucasic migration from
Central Asia to the south-eastern extremity of the Continent. The
Kiiys (Khmer-dom, or primitive Cambojans of west Camboja), the
Charays, Stiengs, and other non-Mongolic tribes of this region, are
described generally as above the middle size, often with wavy hair,
light brown or fair complexion, and more or less regular Kuropean
features, in a word, ‘white savages of Caucasian type” (C. E,
Buillevaux), Their untoned speech also is fundamentally distinct
from that of the toned isolating group, in some respects betraying
marked affinities with the Oceanic, or Malayo-Polynesian linguistic
family. This is true especially of the dialects spoken in the
uplands between Annam and the Mekhong basin by the Chams
(Tsiams), Sheveas, Charays, Radéhs, and other tribes whom some
writers regard as scattered fragments of the Champa State, which
formerly comprised most of Cochin-China and the Mekhong delta
region. But whether these peoples represent a comparatively recent
immigration of true Malays from Malaysia, or the original stock
whence the Malays passed from the mainland to the Eastern
Archipelago, is a question which cannot here be discussed.

In the subjoined table are comprised all the Indo-Chinese races
with their chief aub-divisions,

60 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

Mongolic Stock of Toned Speech.

TIDETO-BURMESE GROUP,

RaksanGeTus ( Tungtha |“ Highlanders": Lushai, Shendu, Mro,
(ARAKANESE) ) or Yom J Khyeng, Kuki, Kumi.
| Ayuengthe“ Lowlanders ” Mag, Chakma, &c,, in

or“ River People” the Arnkan lowlands.

Burmese Prorer: Upper Burmah and Lower Burmah.

TaLaines or Mons: Lower Burmah (Pegu), now mostly assimilated
to the Burmese in speech and type.

Six the Aakhyen of the Burmese; N. Burmah south to
C santas Tagoung midway between Bhamé and Mandalay.
(Curncrav) Kiyen and Yau 20° to 24° N, lat.

Salwin basins, from the latitude of Mandalay
to Tenasserim, but chiefly in the Sittang-Salwin,
water-parting.

Kanan| Pe

Highlands between the Irawaddy, Sittang, and
Bghai i

THAI-SHAN GROUF,

Sino-Shan: Chinese or Northern Shana, throughout 5.

Siax f Yunnan and thence to Bhamd,
*) Ngiou : Southern Shans, Kiang-hung, Kiang-tung, and
' other districts N, E, Burmah and N, W, Siam.

Tio Lau-pang-kah ) N. and E. provinces of Siam between the
Lau-pong-dun \ Siamese and Shans.

SIAMESE Prorer: Menam basin and Malay Peninsula south to 7°
N. lat.

PaLusa: Muang-lem and Maing-Kaing districts, and 8.W. Yunnan,
Kuamti; Upper Irawaddy and borderlands towards Assam.
OLA0-EH1 GROUP.

ANKAMESE: Dominant race in Tonkin and Cochin-China.
Moone: Neutral zone between Tonkin and Yunnan,

Mongolic and Non-Mongolic Stock of Untoned Speech.
Mahat

Kumen-pom
pied Compong-Soay (Camboja proper); proves.
(Ruy “ pty Por \ Mulu-Prey a Tonlé-Repan (Siamese
niet) Daa Camboja).

. INDO-CHINA. 61

Kumtr ony to dominant race in the kingdom of
(Cambojans) | Camboja.

CHAM PROPER

STIENG South Cochin China, East Camboja, and intervening
BANNAR uplands,
CHARAY

However interesting to the student of ethnology, none of these
numerous peoples possess much historic importance or political
influence except the three leading Mongolic races—the Burmese of
the Irawaddy basin, the Siamese of the Menam basin, and the
Annamese of the Song-koi basin and Cochin China.

Tur Burmese axp TALAINGS.

The Burmese, all of whom since the close of the year 1885 have
become British subjects, betray 2 curious combination of qualities,
in which, however, the good seems greatly to outweigh the evil
elements. Mr. J. G. Scott, who knows them well, declares that
“their very faults lean to virtue’s side,” and their general indolence,
overweening national vanity, and extreme sensitiveness to real or
imaginary slights, are certainly more than balanced by a remarkably
genial, cheerful, and kindly disposition. These characteristics are
shown not only in their somewhat excessive love of pleasure, but
also in their friendliness and hospitality towards strangers, in their
boundless liberality to their Buddhist priests and teachers, and
especially in the gentle treatment of their women, who enjoy a
degree of personal freedom scarcely to be elsewhere paralleled
amongst Asiatic peoples. Like all genuine Buddhists, the Burmans
are of course slaves to the strangest superstitions, and like the
Chinese, Malays, and other south-eastern Mongolic races, they are
one and all reckless gamblers. But, on the other hand, they are
generally of sober and frugal habits, their innate kindness, good
humour, and consideration for the feelings of others making them
general favourites with all who have any dealings with them.

Edueation, at lenst to the extent of reading the Buddhist texts and
writing their own language, is widespread amongst the men, most of whom
are brought up in the schools attached to the temples. The women also,
thanks to their social freedom, betray an unusual degree of intelligence
and aptitude for business, Hence it is probable that, once for all relieved
from the cruelty and exactions of the capricious and autocratic sovereigns
of the native Alompra dynasty, the Burmese nation will readily accept
European culture, and soon take a prominent part in the diffusion of
western ideas amongst the semi-civilised peoples of the Indo-Chinese

62 EASTERN GROGRAPHY. .

Peninsula. Here they form a compact cernjene! which has long been
dominant throughout all the riverain ey of the upper and middlo
Irawaddy basin, and which has gradually crowded out or absorbed tho
Talaing (Mon) race, now nearly extinct as o separate ethnical element in
Pegu and the Irawaddy-Sittang delta.

The Talaings, who at one time held almost exclusive possession
of this region, from Prome to Maulmein, can no longer be dis-
tinguished physically from their Burmese neighbours. But their
Janguage is totally different from all the surrounding idioms, and
affinities have been sought for it on the one hand in the Kolarian
of Central India, on the other, in the Annamese of Tonkin. The
natives recognise there divisions: the Mon Tine of Pegu, the Mon Di
of Rangtin and Tavoy, and the Mon Myat Lawa of Myawadi. The
term Yalaing is the same os Jelinga (Jelwgqe), pointing at the
Indian origin, not of the race, but of its former rulers.

The Burmese national name, always written Afyammea, and formerly
pronounced Byamme or Lammea, for Brakhme, there being no letter r in
the language, is associated by the natives with the “‘ nine Brahmas,”
from whom they claim descent. Hut it is obviously derived from a root

myo for miro, menning ** people,” men," a term by which some of the
primitive members of the race are still known in the Arakanese highlands,

Tne Sramesk, SANs, AND Laos.

Under a general uniformity of type the Siamese present in
their outward appearance and mental characteristics some marked
differences from their western neighbours. They are on the whole
a less vigorous race both physically and morally, of shorter stature,
and less robust frames, less independent and more subservient to
despotic rule. In Siam slavery, little practised in Burma, is a wide-
spread national institution, and the people, although in some respects
more cultured and refined, are at the same time more effeminate.
These differences may perhaps to some extent be accounted for by
the different origin of the two races, the Burmese coming directly
from the lofty Tibetan tableland, the Siamese from the low-lying
plains of Eastern China. Recent ethnological research has revealed
the fact that the Chinese people are not the primitive inhabitants of
the Yangtse-Kiang basin, which on their comparatively recent arrival
from the north they found already settled by a semi-civilised
agricultural race that has been identified with the modern Shans,

This term Shan is probably the same as Siam, which comes to
us through the intermediate Portuguese form Side. But in any
case there can be no doubt that the Siamese are a southern branch
of the great Shan nation, the transition between the two being

° INDO-CHIN A. 63

effected by the Zao people of the Upper Menam and Middle
Mekhong basins. All affect the general designation of Thai (Tai),
that is, “‘ Free,” “Noble,” and their long contact with the present
inhabitants of the “ Middle Kingdom” is shown by the constituent
elements of the Chineso language, of which fifty per cent. are of
Shan origin. The cradle of the Shan race has even been traced
by Terrien de Lacouperie, with some show of probability, to the
Kiulung highlands north of Sechuen ond south of Shensi in west
and north-west China,

But at present the chief home of the Shans proper are the border-
lands between Yunnan, Barmah, and Siam. East of the Meping (Upper
Menam), and generally in North and East Siam, they are grouped as Laos in
two great divisions—the Lan-Phun-Ham, or “* White-Paunch Lao,” who
do not practise tattooing, and the Lau-Phun-Dam, or “ Black-Paunch
Lao," who, like their Burmese neighbours, cover the body with wonder-
fully intricate tattoo designs, thus giving it a dark or black appearance.
They are an historical people, who were formerly constituted in an ancient
and powerful kingdom, whose capital, Vinh-Khianh (Vien-shan), was taken
and destroyed by the Siamese about the year 1828, The western and
northern Shans have also forfeited their independence to China, Siam, or
Burmah, although the Shan country between North Siam and Yunnan
(20° to 23° N, lat.) is Bantioaly autonomous, They are a semi-civilised
people, engaged chielly in trade and agriculture, with a knowledge of
ettera, and Buddhists, like all the ‘settled populations of Indo-China.
They have domesticated the elephant and buffalo, are peaceful and
industrious, and skilled in the production of lacquered wares, and of
silk and cotton fabrics for local use. Trading relations have long been
estublished with China, Siam, Burmah, and Camboja, with which
countries their ivory, gold dust, tin, gums, lac, benzoin, mw silk, skins,
and sapan-wool are bartered for cotton cloth, chintzes, silk, opium, hard-
ware, and porcelain. At present much of this trade is carried on by
itinerant Shan and Burmese hawkers, who are met everywhere between
the Irawaddy and Mekhong rivers, organised in small caravans, ond
well armed, like the Povindahs of Afghanistan.

meer Wh nominal Buddhists, most of the Shans and Laos, and even
many of the Siamese, are in reality still nature-worshippers, who make
offerings of sticks and stones to the local genii, and guard their homes
against evil spirits by means of brooms, cotton threads, bunches of herbage,
or other curious devices, Some are quite ag savage as the wild tribes, and
although acquainted with the use of fire-arms, still use the national cross-
bow, a formidable weapon, which will kill a buffalo with a simple bamboo
armw at considerable distances, In some districts the confusion of types
anil usages is 50 t that tho true wild tribes can be distinguished from
the Shans and only by the large bone, ivory, or wooden ornaments
worn in the lobe of the ear, as amongst so many of the Oceanic, African,
anil American races. In European accounts of these wild tribes the con-
fasion is increased by the generic designations mistaken for tribal names
applied to them by their civilised neighbours. Such are Jfoi in Cochin-
China, Afwong in Tonkin, Prom (Fonong) in Camboja, Aid in the Lao
districts, Traoin Lower Cochin-China, Lolo on the Yunnan frontier, all
of which terms mean little more than savage, wild, or hill tribe in general,

64 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY, .

and have no ethnical value whatsoever. The wild tribes are exposed to
the constant attack especially of the Lao princes, who organise regular
expeditions against them in order to procure slaves for the Siamese and
Cambojan markets. But apart from the passions fostered by this infamous
traffic, the Laos, like all the Thai-Shan peoples, are an inoffensive, nnwar-
like, and peace-loving race, fond of music, and living chiefly on a dict of
rice, vegetables, fruits, fish, and poultry.

Toe ANNAMESE,

Under the general name of Annamese are now usually comprised
all the settled inhabitants both of Tonkin and Cochin-China. They
constitute essentially one homogeneous people, nowhere presenting
any marked differences in type, speech, usages, or religion, Of all
the civilised nations of Indo-China they are certainly the least
favoured, both physically and morally, presenting s0 many disagree-
able traits that few observers have anything good to say for them,
To the Chinese they have been for ages known by the designation of
Gino-shi (Kino-shi), occurring so carly as the year 2285 p.c., and
supposed to mean “ Bifurcated,” or “Crossed Toes,” from the
abnormal space between the great toe and all the others, a peculiarity
by which they are still distinguished. The Annamese are described
as the ugliest and most ungainly race in the peninsula, with a coarse
dirty yellow skin, broad head, flat, angular features, small snub nose,
thick lips, amall pig eyes, and bow legs, The moral picture is
scarcely more flattering, and the Abbé Gagelin, who lived for years
in their midst, tells us that they are at once insolent and dishonest,
and dead to all the fine feelings of human nature. There is so little
affection amongst them that the nearest kindred never think of
embracing even after an absence of years. The missionaries are not
allowed to fondle the little children, nor is the slightest gesture
tolerated in the pulpit, M. Mouhot, who i# nevertheless inclined to
speak well of them, confesses that “they are headstrong, revenge-
ful, deceitful, thieves and liars, Their dirty habits surpass anything
I have ever seen, and their food is abominubly nasty, rotten fish and
dogs being their favourite diet." Hence on recently noticing the
absence of the Annamese element amongst the highland populations
towards the Chinese frontier, Mr. J. G. Scott not unnaturally ex-
claims: “ This is satisfactory from one point of view. The fewer
Annamese there are the less taint there is on the human race.”

Nevertheless, the same observer tells us that at least in one dnyese the
Tonkinese (Northern Annamese) are almost without rivals, They are
surprisingly skilful in the construction of embankments, and the dykea
built to guard the flat delta of the Song-koi aguinst floods in the rainy
season are moat admirably constructed—as a national work, far more astonish-

INDO-CHINA. 63

ing in the patient labour they imply than the Wall of China, or even than
the Grand Canal itself. Other redeeming features are their love of home
and of their native land, The children also, who are intelligent and fond
of instruction, Nock eagerly to the new French schools opened in Cochin-
China, where most of the rising generation have learnt to read and write
in the Roman character, Their own writing system is based on the
Chinese, and, like their northorn neighbours, they are merely nominal
Buddhists or Confucians, the lettered classea concealing a scoffing spirit
beneath fine moral maxims, tho masses still worshipping the natural forces,
ancestry, and the genii of the cireumambient spaces, Amongst them the
Roman Catholic missionaries had great success, especially during the 17th
century, and notwithstanding subsequent persecutions and the recent
wholesale massacres, there are still considerably over 100,000 Christians in
the country. ;

Although polygamy is legally permitted, it is little practised except
amongst the 3 gaditics anid wealthy classes, On the other hand, divorce
is so common that an interchange of wives may be almost regarded as a
national institution. The Annamese are a short-lived people, a generally
unhealthy climate, poor diet, and indolent habits, combined of late years
with opium-smoking, causing them to age rapidly. Men fifty years old
are already in a decrepit state, and few sexagenarians are met in the
country.

THe CaMporanNs.

The original stock of the Cambojan race are probably the rude
Kuy people of western Camboja (province of Compong Soay) and
south-eastern Siam (Mulu-Prey and Tonlé Repan), to whom the
civilised Cambojans still give the tithe of Kbmér-dom, that is,
“Primitive Cambojans,” The national name Afmer, in Siamese
Kammén, has been identified with the Pali Camaja, an older form
of which is Keampushea, according to M. Aymonier, the original
name of the country. It is explained to mean the land of the Kam
people, and in any case has nothing to do with the Kamboja of
Sanskrit geography, with which it has been wrongly connected.

The Kuy aborigines are distinguished from the surrounding
Mongolic peoples, both by their speech, which is untoned, and by
their physical type, which may be described as almost Cancasic.
The Cambojans proper also speak an untoned, polysyllabic language,
which shows certain affinities with the neighbouring Cham, and with
the more remote Oceanic group. But in their physical appearance
the modern Cambojans have become through intermixture largely
assimilated to the Siamese. They are descended of illustrious
ancestors, who at one time ruled over a great part of Indo-China,
and erected on the shores of Lake Tonlé-sap stupendous Brah-
manic and Buddhist temples and other monuments, such as those of
Angkor-Vat and Indapathaburi, rivalling in size and magnificence
those of Java itself. But the modern Cambojans are a feeble,

F

66 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

decrepit race, unmindful of their past greatness, without national
aspirations for the future, satisfied to accept a present French
protectorate us the only escape from further encroachments on the
part of their Siamese and Annamese neighbours, Although more
honest, they are scarcely less indolent than the Annamese, whom
they also resemble in their unfriendly attitude towards strangers,
and in some other unamiable traits. Onthe other hand, they cultivate
the arts of music and poetry, accompanying their somewhat mono-
tonous songs and duets on simple primitive instruments.

The ancient Cambojan culture, introduced and developed under Hindu
influences, seems never to have penetrated far below the surface. It failed
to eradicate many of the older usages, such as the practice of building the
houses on piles, which still largely prevails. In the different burial rites
are perpetuated the traditions and religious ideas of the several primitive
peoples merged in one nationality during the period of Cambojan pres-
perity. Some, especially of the poorer classes, burn their dead either
immediately, or three days after death ; others first bury and then disinter
the body, burning the bones years afterwards ; others again preserve it for
months and even years in their dwellings, injecting quicksilver, and
allowing the gases to escape through a tube which passes from the coffin to
the roof of the house. Polygamy, although legalised, is mainly confined
to the wealthy classes, and the women enjoy on the whole a considerable
share of respect and independence. They are even described as haughty,
jealous, and vindictive. Instead of ear-rings they often wear wooden, bone,
or ivory plags in the lobe, which thus becomes distended to a monstrous
size. This custom, very general amongst many other primitive peoples in
various parts of the world, has persisted from pre-historic times im spite of
the foreign influences, under which were developed the Cambojan culture
and former political ascendancy in the lower Mekhong basin.

CHAPTER IV,
POLITICAL DIVISIONS—BURMAH, SIAM, ANNAM, CAMBOJA,

Recext events have considerably simplified the political relations
in the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, which has now been brought under
the exclusive sway of one native and two foreign powers. The
three great political divisions thus constituted correspond very
accurately with the main physical divisions of the country. Thus
the British power, supreme in the west, comprises, besides the
coastlands on the Bay of Bengal, the Irawaddy and Salwin basins.
The French in the extreme east hold in the same way the Mekhong
and Song-Koi valleys; while the central region, drained by the

INDO-CHINA, 67

Menam river, constitutes the native State of Siam. Certainly the
boundaries between these political divisions are in many places
ill-defined, or not at all laid down with any claim to accuracy.
Nor do the great river valleys, always excepting the Menam, lie
wholly within the respective territories, their furthest sources and
head streams being found beyond the conventional frontiers, either
on the Tibetan or the Yunnan plateau, But on the whole the tendency
to bring the political and physical relations into complete harmony,
has in recent times manifested itself aa conspicuously in Indo-China
ag in most other quarters of the globe,

Amongst these political systems the peninsula is distributed in
somewhat equal proportions—Burmah, in its widest extent, com-
prising nearly 300,000, Siam probably 290,000, and the French
domain nearly 250,000 square miles. But if the estimated
statistics can be trusted, the bulk of the population would appear
to be concentrated in the eastern division, where the Song-Koi
Valley (Tonkin) is said to contain about 12,000,000 souls, which.
would be more than half of all the rest of the peninsula, if the
usual estimate of 6,000,000 for Siam could be accepted. Little
reliance, however, can be placed on any statistical data, except
from those English and French districts, where regular census
returns are taken,

1. BRITISH DIVISION: BURMAH,

At the beginning of the present century the native State of
Burmah, or Ava, as it was then called, comprised the whole of
Indo-China lying between Siam and the Bay of Bengal east and
west. Since then all the coastlands, including the three separate
provinces of Arakan, Tenasserim, and Pegu, were successively
ceeded to England after the disastrous wars of the years 1825 and
1852, the independent territory being thus reduced to the position
of an inland State. Lastly, towards the close of 1885, all that
remained of the native kingdom was incorporated in the Anglo-
Indian Empire. King Thebaw, last of the native Alompra dynasty,
was deposed, and soon after the sovereign rights over his possessions
of “Upper Burmah" were officially declared to be vested in the
Kaisar-i-Hind.

Thus it happens that Burmah proper, with all its outlying
dependencies, is once more united under one sovercign power,
this political division of Indo-China again comprising exactly the
same limite as it did before the war with England in the year 1825,
The term “ British Burmah," as distinguished from “ Independent"

F2

68 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

or ‘* Upper Burmah,"” has ceased to have any value, and on the
latest maps the red line marking off British territory runs from
Assam slong the western and south-western frontiers of Yunnan
eastwards nearly to Tonkin, and thence along the northern and
western frontiers of Siam southwards to the Malay Peninsula, The
region enclosed between this vast semi-circle and the Indian Ocean
comprises three distinct physical divisions—Burmah proper, embracing
nearly the whole of the Irawaddy and the greater part of the Salwin
basin; Arakan, between Burmah proper and the Bay of Bengal ;
Tenasserim, between Siam and the same waters.

Prrwan PRorer,

Physical Features,—In this division must now be included
both Urrer Burman, that is, the recently annexed native State, and
Lower Burman, that is, the district of Peav, hitherto comprised
with ARAKAN and TeNAssERIM in the provinee of British Burmah.
Between Upper and Lower Burmah there are no natural frontiers,
and since the assimilation of the Talaing inhabitants of Pegu to the
Burmese in speech and physical appearance, both form in all respects
a perfectly homogeneous region, copiously watered by the great rivers
Trawaddy, Sittang, and Salwin, and traversed by the parallel Arakan
Yoma, Pegu Yoma, and Shan Yoma ranges.

Towards the north and north-west it is limited by the rugged and
still little known Patkai highlands, separating it in this direction
from the Brahmaputra basin. Nominally Burmal is here conter-
minous With the British province of Assam. But with the exception
of the somewhat settled territory of Manipur, the intervening hills
are mainly occupied by the Nagas, Lushais, Singpos, Khamtis
(Kamptis), and other unreduced wild tribes or semi-civilised peoples
not yet incorporated in the Anglo-Indian empire. The Patkai range
was recently crossed by Col. Woodthorpe, who reached the settle-
ments of the friendly Bor Khamtis on the western branch of the
Trawaddy, after traversing some districts exposed to the constant raids
of the unruly Singpo tribe, In the territory of the peaceful Kun-
nungs silver mines occur, which supply all the surrounding peoples
with coin and ornaments, Jiut just as the Khamti traders suffer
from the attacks of the Singpos, the Kunnung communities are often
plundered by the neighbouring Singlengs, who carry off the captives
and sell them as slaves to the Tibetans. Near the village of Langdao
the Irawaddy, here crossed by Col, Woodthorpe, was found to be
only eighty-five yards broad and not very deep.

INDO-CHINA. 69

The Singpo and Khamti highlands merge eastwards in the Kak-
hyen (Kachyen) hills, which form the frontier towards Yunnan
(south-west China), and which ure held by the Kachyen wild tribes,
over whom both China and Burmah have always claimed political
pupremacy. Since the annexation of Upper Burmah the rival claims
of the two powers have led to diplomatic negotiations, by which itis
hoped that the boundaries between the two empires may soon be
clearly determined. Towards the west Burmah proper is bounded
by the district of Arakan, and on the south it develops an extensive
coast-line washed by the Bay of Bengal from Cape Negrais to Maul-
main. Eastward it is supposed to be everywhere conterminous with
Siam; but, except in Pegu, the frontiers are not very clearly laid
down, and appear to have frequently shifted with the uncertain
allegiance of the intermediate Shan States,

Within its conventional limits Burmah proper is comprised
between ten degrees of latitude (26°—16° N,), stretching from the
Patkai range for about 700 miles southwards to the Gulf of Martaban,
with a breadth of over 400 miles at its widest part, and a total area
of some 220,000 square miles, Of this space 190,000 square miles
belong to the late kingdom of Burmah (Upper Burmah), and 30,000
to the British district of Pegu (Lower Burmah). The upper or
northern section forms a hilly plateau of moderate elevation traversed
in its entire length by the Irawaddy, and intersected by the lateral
valleys of the Kyen-dwen (Chin-dwin) and Tapeng, the former
flowing from the Manipfiri hills in the north-west and joining the
right bank of the main stream below Mandalay, the latter descending
from the Kachyen highlands to the left bank above Bhamé.

The Pegu or southern section consists mainly of the Irawaddy-
Bittang delta, a vast low-lying alluvial plain intersected by the innu-
merable branches, channels, and backwaters of the Irawaddy and
Sittang, and during the rainy season exposed to frequent and wide-
spread inundations, Since the British occupation extensive works
have been undertaken to protect the plains from these periodical
floods, which attain their greatest height towards the end of July
and in Angust, when the discharge is sixteen or seventeen times
greater than at low water in February and March. The head of the
delta above Henzada, 150 miles from the coast, is now protected by
a semi-cirele of embankments, which skirt the left bank of the
Nawun (river of Bassein), and the right hank of the eastern or main
branch, which retains the name of the Irawaddy. Even above the
delta a dyke 60 miles long follows the right bank of the main stream,
intercepting the torrents from the Arakan-Yoma, and deflecting

ral EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

them to the Nawun branch. But these works have unfortunately
had the effect of raising the bed of the river, and thus increasing the
extent of the inundations, which in 1877 converted into a temporary
lake a tract of some 500 square miles on the east side of the Nawun.

Arts and Industries,—Purmese culture, as represented by the
local arts and industries, has always been far inferior to that of India
and China, The artistic sense has found its chief expression in the
practice of tattooing, which has been developed to an extraordinary
extent, displaying considerable taste in the combinations of colour,
and in the execution of intricate designs covering a large part of the
body. But little progress has been made in the useful arts, which
are restricted chiefly to cotton and silk weaving, pottery, metal work,
and jewellery. The cotton fabrics, woven by the women on looms
of a primitive type, are much inferior to those of India; and the
silks, the raw material for which comes from China and the Lao
country, are of a coarse texture, although certainly strong and
durable, Everybody except the lowest classes wears silk, the finer
qualities of which are imported from China, The earthenware often
combines elegant forms with good quality, and the workers in metal
produce rude cutlery, arms, and various implements, and domestic
utensils in iron, tin, and copper. Gold and silver ornaments are
much worn in all the large towns, but are more remarkable for rich-
ness and solidity than for delicacy of design and execution, A large
government gun foundry, fitted with all modern applinnees, was
founded some years ago in the neighbourhood of Mandalay, but does
not appearto have flourished underits French managers. In Pegn cutch,
used for dyeing purposes, is manufactured for export, and here there
are numerous steam mills for sawing timber and cleansing rice also
forexport. Boat-building employs numerous hands along the river
banks, and in some districts salt and gnapi, a preparation of fish, are
produced in considerable quantities, .A good deal of paper is manu-
factured from the fibre of young bamboos, and the towns of Sillay
and Nyung-a below Pagan are important centres of the lacquer
industry. The Bormese lacquer-ware in some respects rivals that of
Japan, and with improved methods of production would command a
ready sale in the European markets.

Trade.—Hitherto most of the inland trade has been carried on
with China chiefly through Bhamé on the Upper Irawaddy, Chinese
caravans, in Which the camel is replaced by the horse, mule, and ox,
convey large quantities of raw silk and fine silken stuffs from Yunnan
to this emporium, taking in exchange Burmese cottons, besides eome
Indian and British wares. The nearest Chinese station lies some

INDO-CHINA, 71

five or six days’ march beyond Bhamé ; but hitherto all attempts to
establish a regular trade between India and south-west China by this
route have ended in failure, More success may attend these efforts
as soon as Upper Burmah is pacified, and the intervening Kachyen
border tribes reduced, But Col. Woodthorpe’s expedition to the
Khamti country seems to show that the best and most direct trade
routes between the two empires will still be found to lie further
north, that is, from East Assam over the Patkai range directly to
the vast and populous province of Se-Chuen.

The trade of Lower Burmah, which has its chief outlets in the
ports of Bassein, Rangiin, and Maulmain, has acquired great expan-
sion in recent years, Through these ports large quantities of British
and Indian wares are introduced into the Irawaddy basin, and thence
widely distributed throughout the peninsula, The chief articles
taken in exchange are rice and timber (ironwood, teak, and other
valuable woods). But to these staples of the export trade will soon
probably be added the petroleum, rubies, jade, cottons, and other
produce of Upper Burinali.

Geographical and Political Divisions.—For the geographical
and administrative divisions of the late kingdom of Burmah our
chief source of information is still Captain (now Colonel) Henry
Yule’s account of the British Mission of 1855 te the court of Ava.
There are also extant two historical documents of great interest—an
inscription preserved in a temple near Ava, and another inseribed
on the great bell at Rangtin, the former giving a complete list of the
nine royal provinces with their several districts or territories as in
1650, the latter a list of the sixteen provinces with all their sub-
divisions in 1776; that is, after the maritime districts of Tavoy and
Tenaszerim had been added to the empire by Alompra. Col, Yule,
who reproduces the Ava document, enumerates as under the more
important territorial divisions on the right or west side of the
lrawaddy basin :—

Hu-Khong, a rich valley about the upper course of the Kyen-
dwen at the southern foot of the hills towards the Assam frontier.
Here are some amber mines; natives chiefly Kachyens, a branch of
the Singpo family,

Mogung, with a river and ancient city of like name, in the
extreme north-west, beyond Bhamé, between 25°—26° N. lat. This
is the Afongmaorong of the Chinese, peopled by the Kubo (Shan) tribe,

Michobo, Alun Myo, and Dilaien, districts between the Ira-
waddy and the lower Kyen-dwen, due west and south-west of
Mandalay.

72 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

Ka’é Myo, town and district in the Kyen-dwen valley north-
west of the foregoing,

Pakhan, on the Trawaddy, just below the Kyen-dwen confluence.

Yoor Faw, a large canton between the Irawaddy and the Arakan-
Yoma hills, 21° to 22° N, lat., inhabited by the Yauns, of Burmese
stock and speech, itinerant dealera, met everywhere in North
Burmah.

Tsalen, south of the Yau territory.

Malin and Taindah, south of Tsalén as far as the Pegu frontier.

On the opposite or left side of the Irawaddy basin the chief
districts are :

Bhamé, with town of like name, a hilly country towards the
Yunnan frontier, about the lower course of the Tapeng, and in-
habited by Kachyen wild tribes, Burmese and Chinese.

Myading, Tagung, Tsampenago, Tsengu, Madey, districts
following from north to south along the left bank of the Irawaddy
between Bhamé and the capital.

Ava, Tarur, Mio, Pagan, Tsilé, Magaré, Myingun, districts
following along the left bank from the capital to Pegu.

Yemesen, Nyenghyan, Tungdwen, west of the Sittang river as far
as the Pegu frontier.

East of Burmah proper there are altogether about fifteen petty Lao
and Shan States which have hitherto been subject to the crown of Ava,
and which must consequently now be regarded as forming part of
British Burmah, Nearly all lie beyond the Irawaddy basin, being
watered by the Upper Sittang and the.Salwin, and stretching east-
wards along the north frontier of Siam to the Mekhong river,

West of the Salwin are Mohye, Mokme, Mone, Nyung-yové,
Leguya, Thetn-ni, Thibo, Thung-22, and Momeit, administered from
the town of Moné, former residence of the Burmese governor, They
are collectively comprised under the name of Kawmoza (Kawsoza-
TAING), 4 term of Hindoo origin not to be confused with the Cam-
boja of the Lower Mekhong basin.

East of the Salwin are the six States of Maing-leng-ghini, Muang-
ting, Kaing-ma, Liang-hung, Aiang-iung, and Kiang-khen, which
appear to have been comprised amongst the twenty-six royalties said
to have been formerly subject to the kingdom of Pegu. Some have
since transferred their allegiance to Siam, while, according to Carl
Bock and A, R. Colquhoun, others have constituted themselves
autonomous States independent alike of Burmah, Siam, and China,
On the map of Indo-China accompanying Colquhoun’s work,
‘Amongst the Shans’ (1885), the late kingdom of Burmah is reduced

INDO-CHINA. ia

to the Irawaddy basin, the whole region stretching thence between
Siam and Yunnan eastwards to about 103° E. longitude being
indicated as the “Independent Shan Country.” But this appears to
be going back to the thirteenth century, when the extensive Shan
empire embraced all the Kamboza States on the plateau between the
Irawaddy and Salwin rivers, besides many other parts of Indo-China,
And although the statement (p. 321) that “the Burmese Shan States,
which are now independent, contain about 80,000 square miles,”
may be an exaggeration, it seems certain that Kiang-hung and one
or two other Shan States have been independent both of China and
Burmalh at least since the Mohammedan rebellion in Yunnan.

To these must be added the semi-independent territory of the
fTaren-ni, or “ Red Karens,” which forms an enclave between the
Sittang and Salwin on the north-east frontier of Pegu, Like their
kindred in Tenasserim, many of the Karens have accepted the teach-
ings of the Christian missionaries, and will probably prefer the
British administration to the capricious government of their Burmese
rulers, But many of the wilder tribes between Lower Burmah and
Siam still lead nomad lives, and are described as “a frequent cource
of trouble, committing highway robberies on British as well as
Siomese subjects" (C. Bock). Hence the Karen-ni territory, some
50 miles by 30 broad, has hitherto obstructed the regular trade
between Pegu and the Shan country west of the Salwin, Matters
were made worse by a treaty, in which both the Burmese and the
English agreed not to annex the district, the reduction of which
will certainly remove a great obstacle to the development of com-
mercial intercourse between Burmah and the neighbouring Shan
States.

Topography.—EBoth in Upper and Lower Burmah nearly all
the large towns lie in the Irawaddy basin, and generally on the left
bank of that river, In the extreme north the only place of any
importance is Hhamd, just below the Tapeng confluence, a group of
600 or 700 houses protected by a stout bamboo palisade from the
raids of the surrounding Kachyen hillmen. One quarter is occupied
exclusively by Chinese artisans, and nearly all the overland trade
with Yunnan is in the hands of the local Chinese dealers.

Bhaimné is distant some fifty miles to the north of the point, about
22° N. lat., where the Irawaddy bends suddenly westwards, and
where is situated the cluster of royal towns, Sagain, Ava, Améra-
pitra, ond Mandalay, which have been the successive capitals of the
empire during the last 600 years. Nothing is so puzzling in the
history and geography of Burmah as this shifting of the imperial

74 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

residence, a practice which appears to have prevailed ever since the
introduction of Buddhism some 400 years before the Christian era.
During the early period the centre of authority lay far to the south,
gradually moving from Prome through Pe gan and Panya northwards.
to Bagain on the left bank, and thence in 1364 to Ava, at the con-
fluence of the Myitngni at the opposite side of the Irawaddy.

Ava, which often gives its name to the whole country, remained
the metropolis for nearly five centuries (1364—1837), except from
1783—1819, when it was replaced in the royal favour by Améra-
para, which stood five miles further north on the same side of the
river, In 1837 the Court was again removed to Amfraptira, and in
1857 to the present capital, Mandalay, a little further north, but
about two miles from the !bank of the river. The two places are
connected by a long line of houses, magazines, and dockyards, and
both are laid out on the same plan, forming a regular square with
brick walls, and in the centre a second quadrangular space containing
the royal quarter. The mathematical centre of Mandalay is oceupied
by a seven-storied gilded tower marking the spot where stands the
royal throne, representing the sacred Mount Meru of Hindu my-
thology. Malay lies so low that by the bursting of the embankment
in August 1886, it was flooded toa depth of from 10 to 20 feet, It
Js reached by large steamers, while vessels drawing three feet ascend
to the Tapeng confluence above Bhamé,

Below Mandalay there is no town worthy of the name until we
reach Mat Ayan, opposite the Kyen-dwen confluence, in a rich rice-
growing district, and at present the most flourishing trading place in
Upper Burmah, The Kyen-dwen, by far the largest tributary of
the Irawaddy, gives access from this place to the fertile plain of
Manipur, a British vaseal State near the Assam frontier, while ite
furthest head streams penetrate far into the Singpo and Khamti
hills far to the north-west of Bhamé. A few miles below Myi-
Kyan the left bank of the [rawaddy is strewn with the ruins of the
historical city of Pagan, covering o space of over 16 square miles,
and including nearly 1000 pagodas, many still in a good state of
preservation, a statue over 160 feet long, and other objects of great
interest, According to the local tradition the shrines originally
numbered 9999, but some 6000 had to be destroyed in order to
strengthen the defensive works when Pagan was besieged by the
Chinese in 1284, This place, although founded about the year 850;
is sometimes called New Pagan, to distinguish it from the still more
ancient Old Fagan, 210 miles higher np the Irawaddy, which was.
already a royal capital in the second century of the new era,

INDO-CHINA, 7

Below Pagan follow Yenan-gqyong, centre of the petroleum
industry, MenA/a, one of the few places of any importance on the
right bank of the [rawaddy, and Tiayetmyo, just within the former
British frontier,

Facing Thayetmyo is the health-resort of Allan-myo, destined
terminus of the Rangiin railway, which at present stops at Prome
(Promé), one of the oldest cities in Indo-China, Prome, which lies
in an extremely rich agricultural district, is said to have been founded
about 480 B.c., and was already aroyal residence in the third century
before the present era. Although destroyed over 1700 years ago it
soon Tose again from its ashes, and is still the most flourishing place
in Pegu north of the Irawaddy delta,

In the delta itself the chief centres of trade and population are
#assein on the western branch of the Lrawaddy, 75 miles from the
sea, probably the Besynga of Ptolemy, and ARangiin on the eastern
branch, less than half that distance from the coast. Since its ocen-
pation by the British in 1852, Rangin, present capital of British
Burmah, has made rapid strides in material and social progress, and
already ranks as one of the great centres of trade, population, and
general culture in Southern Asia. At that time a mere collection of
wretched bamboo hovels enclosed by a log stockade and fosse, it is
now a stately city of over 200,000 inhabitants, well laid out with
good streets, parks and gardens, fine warchouses, schools, hospitals,
factories, and numerous public buildings, Confident in its future
destinies, and already claiming the prond title of “ Queen of the East,”
it forms the southern terminus of a railway which skirts the left
side of the delta to Prome, and which will doubtless gradually
creep up the Irawaddy basin to Myi-kian and Mandalay, if not to
Bhamé, towards the north-west Chinese frontier ; it is frequented
by large sea-going steamers, and is the centre of an ever-increasing
import and export trade with all the surrounding lands and with
England. The most noteworthy native monument is the famous
pagoda of Shway Dagohn, yearly visited by thousands of pilrims
from the neighbouring Buddhist regions, It is a lofty structure,
whose gilded spire rises to a height of nearly 400 feet above the
ground.

Besides the Prome railway, another line is in course of con-
struction, running from Rangtin north-eastwards to J'wng-nyn, the
chief town in the Sittang basin. The most important intermediate.
station is the once famoys town of Pequ on the Pegu river, which
communicates through separate branches westwards with the Ira-
waddy, eastwards with the Sittang delta. But these channels being

a

76 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

inaccessible to large vessels, most of the local trade has been diverted
to Rangiin, and since its capture and destruction by Alompra in the
last century, this ancient capital of the Talaings has eunk to the
position of an obseure inland town. Its former importance, how-
ever, is attested by the fact that from it the whole of Lower Burmah
dakes the name of Pegu,

ARAKAN,

Physical Features.—The westernmost and second in import-
ance of the three divisions of British Burmah, Arokan constitutes
a clearly-defined geographical region confined east and west by the
Arakan Yoma range and the sea, and stretching from the Chittagong
division of Lower Bengal southwards to the watery plains of the
Trawaddy delta. It thus forms a long narrow maritime zone, skirt-
ing the east side of the Bay of Bengal for 350 miles, from Cape
Elephant, 21° 10° N, Jat., just above the Naf estuary, to Pagoda Point
below Cape Negrais, 16° 2' N. lat. In the north the Arakan Yoma
range, separating it from Burmah, is distant from 80 to 90 miles
from the coast, towards which it gradually approaches southwards,
while diminishing from 6000 to 7000 feet in height in the same
direction, until it menges at last in the Irawaddy delta, within 13 or
14: miles of Cape Negrais. Total area rather over 19,000 equare miles.

Towards the centre the coast is fringed by a large number of
islands, islets, and reefs, of which the largest are the volcanic Ramri
and Cheduba, In the north also the seaboard is indented by several
inlets forming the estuaries of the Myo, Naf, Koladyne, Lemru
(Lemyu), and other streams, flowing in a southerly direction from
the Arakan Yoma, and converging in a network of channels and low
islands, through which the chief branch reaches the sea under the
name of the Arakan river in 20° 5' N. lat. Vessels of considerable
size ascend the Koladyne, Myo, and Lemru for 30 or 40 miles, but
the other coast streams are accessible only to the native craft.

Physically speaking Arakan constitutes little more than the
western slope of the coast range, which forms the water-parting
between the rivers flowing east to the Irawaddy basin, and west or
south-west to the Bay of Bengal. This slope is much broken,
especially in the north, by parallel terraces and deep river gorges
densely clothed with magnificent forests of teak and other valuable
timbers, Near the sea the soil is sandy, but about the Koladyne and
Lemru estuaries the surface is occupied with extensive tracts of
extremely fertile alluvial lands, In the interior also the argillaceous

INDO-CHINA, 77

riverain valleys are found to be highly productive, wherever the and
has been cleared of the dense growth of primeval jungle. But even
since the British occupation in 1825 comparatively little land has
been reclaimed and brought under regular cultivation,

Natural Resources.—Indigo, sugar-cane, and cotton are either
indigenous or have been thoroughly acclimatised, More or less
successful attempts have also been made to lay out tea plantations
on the higher grounds, but rice will always probably form the chief
agricaltural crop in the well-watered lowlands, Melons, cucumbers,
pine-apples, mangoes, and many other fruits thrive well, while
tobaceo promises to become a staple product in the northern districts,
where it yields over 500 Ibs, per acre in a soil so rich as to need no
rotation of crops. Next to agricultural produce the chief resource
of the country is its teak and other forest growtha, which have
developed a large and increasing timber trade, exported chiefly from
Akvab.

Of mineral wealth there is very little, or very little has hitherto
been discovered. Iron probably exists, and mention has been made of
coal, Limestone also abounds, the prevailing geological formations
being chalk and tertiary limestone and sandstone, Old plutonic
rocks occur, but there is little trace of recent igneous action beyond
the already-mentioned mud volcanoes of the Cheduba and Ramri
islands, In this neighbourhood and in the Akyab district further
north petroleum springs bubble up, and it is noteworthy that the
petrolenm region in the Irawaddy basin lies under the same latitude
as Akyab. Here also there is distinct evidence of upheaval, and
Round Island, lying between Cheduba and the mainland, is said to
have been raised several yards during an earthquake in the middle
of the last century.

Inhabitants.—The great bulk of the Arakanese natives belong
undoubtedly to the same stock as their Burmese neighbours, They
epeak a Burmese dialect of a somewhat archaic type, and some of the
tribes bear the common national name of Mro, that is, “Wen,”
a word that has been identified with the Burmese Myamma
(Mramma). In the Burmese chronicles the Rathaintha, as the
primitive inhabitants of the country are collectively called, receive
the title of M’rammikrih, “ Great Mrammas,” or Elder Burmese, and
their traditions point to Rakhaing, that is, Arakan, as the cradle of
their race.

The Rakhaintha are commonly divided into two groups—the
Tungtha, or “ Highlanders,” and the Ahyungtha, or “ River
People,” that is, Lowlanders. The former, comprising the Mros,

78 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

Bangis, Pankhos, Kumis, and many other hill tribes, are still mostly
in a wild state, living by the produce of the chase, and worshipping
the powers of nature as manifested in all outward phenomena. In
this respect, as well as in physical type, they appear to be closely
allied to the Shendus, Nagas, Mishmis, and other wild tribes occupy-
ing the Chittagong and Assam highlands as far as the Tibetan fron-
tier, The Khyungtha, comprising the Mugs (Mags), Khamis, and
other more civilised communities settled on the middle and lower
course of the rivers, constitute the agricultural element. Like the
other cultured people of Burmah, they are chiefly Buddhists; but
the type has become considerably modified by intermixture with
Hindu immigrants from Lower Bengal. Many of these immigrants
belong to the low caste Mug tribe of east Bengal, whence the term
Mug is now commonly but wrongly applied by the Bengalese to all
the lowland or settled inhabitants of Arakan.

These settled populations, amongst whom are a few Moham-
medans originally from Delhi and other parts of the Ganges basin,
are engaged almost exclusively in agricultural pursuits, The local
industries have either been arrested in their natural development or
completely extinguished by the competition of Indian and European
wares introduced from Chittagong, or through the port of Akyab.
At this port are also shipped the rice and timber which form the chief
articles of the export trade. Formerly a large transit trade was
carried on with Burmah along a fine highway constructed by the
King of Ava at the beginning of the present century over the inter-
vening Arakan Yoma range. Along this route silks, cottons, and
other European and Indian goods, besides euch local produce as salt
and bete] nuts, were forwarded in exchange for ivory, silver, copper,
precious stones, and other Burmese products, .A railway constructed
from Akyab along this route to Mandalay would tend to develop the
vast resources of the Irawaddy basin almost more rapidly than a
northern extension of the Rangiin-Prome line,

Administration.—Forming one of the three divisions of British
Burmah as constituted before the recent occupation of Independent
Burmah, Arakan is administered by a commissioner, who exercises
the functions of civil and criminal judge, and controls all matters con-
nected with the revenue, trade, and navigation, Under him are deputy
commissioners in charge of the several districta, Under the native rule
there were four districts, two on the mainland (Arakan proper in the
north and Thandwai or Sandoway in the south), and two for the
islands of Ramri and Cheduba, The number of districts is still the
same, but the distribution is different, there being now three for the

INDO-CHINA, 79

mainland (North Arakan, Akyab, and Sandoway), and one for Ramri
and the adjacent islands,

Topography.—<A rakan, the former capital, now known ly the
name of Wrobwng, or “Old Town,” stood some fifty miles up a main
branch of the Koladyne in a fertile rice-growing district. Butowing
to its unhealthy climate the seat of government has been transferred
to Akyah at the mouth of the Koladyne, which has become the chief
outlet for the trade of the country. Large quantities of rice are
shipped for Europe and India, and a considerable export trade is
also carried on in timber, especially ironwood, much used for railway
sleepers in India. It is a cheerful place, with several public build-
ings, and broad streets lined with fine trees, Since its occupation
by the English in 1827, Akyab, which the natives call J'settwai, has
grown from an obscure fishing village to a large and flourishing
town of over 30,000 inhabitants, Further south sre the small
trading ports of Adgwhk Jf pyn (Ramri), at the northern extremity
of Ramri Island, and Sandoway on the mainland below Cheduba,
both capitals of districts.

There are no other noteworthy centres of population in Arakan,
which, notwithstanding the progress made under British rule, still
continues mostly under dense primmval forest on the slopes of hills,
and in the lowlands under water during the south-west monsoon,
At this period almost the only dry road is the recently constructed
highway running from Sandoway across the hills to Prome in Pegu.
Being exposed to the full fury of the monsoon, with a rainfall never
under 120 and often exceeding 240 inches, Arakan, like the Assam
lowlands, must always depend on water as a chief means of com-
munication throughout all the low-lying districts.

TENASSERIM,

Physical Features.—In its physical constitution, Tenasserim
presents in many respects a striking analogy with the northern
division of Arakan, It comprises the whole of the maritime region,
stretching from Pegu along the east side of the Bay of Bengal for
seven degrees of+latitude (17°—10° N.) southwards to the Isthmus of
Kra, It thus stands in the same geographical relation to Siam on
its eastern border that Arakan does to Burmah ; and as the Arakan
Yoma forms the divide between the Irawaddy basin and the Bay of
Bengal, the Tenasserim coast range separates the streams flowing
east to the Menam from those flowing west to the same marine
basin. The Tenasserim water-parting, however, is less regular and

50 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

aleo lesa elevated, seldom rising above 5000 feet, and approaching at
some points close to the west, at others close to the east coast, that is,
to the Gulf of Siam, The average distance from the Bay of Bengal
varies from 30 to 40 miles, with a coast line of about 500 miles, and
a total area ef nearly 47,000 square miles.

The sea-board is even more diversified than that of Arakan, being
broken by the estuaries of the Salwin, Tenasscrim, Tavoy, and some
other considerable streams, and thickly studded throughout its entire
length by the innumerable islands, rocks, and reefs of the Moseos
and Mergui Archipelagoes, These insular groups which skirt the
coast for over 300 miles, appear to be the scattered fragments of partly
submerged mountain ranges, running parallel with the inland range,
and, like it, consisting of conglomerates, porphyries, and granites,
The inland range itself must be regarded as a northern extension of
the Malayan mountain system, and also abounds in tin, which is now
worked by Chinese miners, Elsewhere stratified snndstones, inter-
spersed with quartz veins, and containing crystals of great beauty,
are a predominant geological feature, replaced in the north by
extensive tracts of rich alluvial soil, and in the lower hills by
laterite. Besides tin, other useful metals, such as lead, iron, copper,
and antimony ocenr in the metalliferous districts of Mergui and
Tavoy. Coal of an inferior quality has also been discovered in the
lower Tenasserim river basin.

Although rising near the coast, the Tenasserim rivers acquire a
considerable development by flowing, not directly to the Bay of
Bengal, but in long valleys disposed mainly north and south parallel
with the backbone of the country. Thus the Atteran flows north to
the Salwin estuary, and the Tavoy winds south for about 120 miles
to its mouth opposite Tavoy Island in the Mergui group, while the
Tenasserim develops a total length of 300 miles during an erratic
course, first north-west parallel with the Tavoy estuary, then south
to the town of Tenasserim, and again north-west to its delta at
Mergui, opposite King Island. The Tenasserim is navigable for
about 100 miles, and the Tavoy estuary affords good anchorage for
shipping,

Being exposed, like Arakan, to the full fury of the south-western
monsoons, Tenasserim has an extremely moist climate, with a rain-
fall seldom less than 120 inches in the year,and often exceeding that
amount, But notwithstanding this excessive moisture, the climate
is not unhealthy on the hills, where the temperature ranges from
70° to 90° F, ; even on the plains the glass seldom rises higher than
98° or 100° F.

INDO-CHINA. 81

The uplands are still covered with dense forest growths, chiefly
of teak, sapan, ironwood, rattan, bamboo, and several species of
gumrmiferous plants, Lower down the alluvial plains are well enited
for the culture of cotton, indigo, tobacco, sugar-cane, rice, and all
kinds of tropical fruits, But owing to the scanty population,
scarcely fifteen per square mile, very little of the land has been re-
claimed, and the primeval jungle still continues to afford a refuge to
the elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, wild boar, and lange numbers of deer.

The great bulk of the lowland population appears to be of
Burmese and Talaing origin, speaking the Burmese language, and
practising Buddhist and Jain rites, There is, however, a large inter-
mixture of natives of India, probably not less than 40,000, who are
in about equal proportions Mohammedans and Hindus, and who
usually speak Bengali, The hills are still occupied bya few scattered
aboriginal communities, mainly of Karen stock, conterminous on the
east side with the Siamese, and reaching northwards to the kindred
tribes in East Pega and the Karen-ni country, Along the coast are
met a primitive race of fishers known as Silongs (Selongs), who also
oceupy most of the Mergui archipelago, encamping during the mon-
soons on the islands, and at other times living in their boats or on
the beach. They appear to be on outlying branch of the Malay race,
in the same low state of culture as the Orang-lant or seafaring
Malays of the pre-Mohammedan epoch.

Topography.—By far the most valuable part of Tenasserimis,
the northern division of Amherst, which bordera on East Pegu, and
comprises the fertile alluvial plain of the Lower Salwin and ita
delta, Here is situated the formerly important but now much
reduced town of Martaban, which gives its name to the neighbouring
gulf. Facing it on the Salwin estuary lies the present capital, Maul-
main, a flourishing seaport, sheltered from the south-west monsoons
by the adjacent island of Belu, or Belugyun (Bhilu-ghaiwon}. The
motley Burmese, Indian, Chinese, and European inhabitants of
Maulmain are mostly engaged in trade, exporting rice, teak, cotton,
and other local products in exchange for European and Indian wares.
Some thirty miles down the coast lies the little health resort and
watering-place of AmAerst, which gives its name to the northern
district of Tenasserim, and affords a refuge to. the rich traders of
Maulmain during the oppressive summer heats,

The only other noteworthy centres of population are the small
inland town of J'enasserim, on the lower Tenasserim, whence both
the river and province take their name, and the small ports of
Mergut, on the delta of the came river, and Tavoy at the head of

Go

82 ‘EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

the Tavoy estuary. Both have steam navigation with Maulmain,
Rangiin, and Calcutta,

Administration.—From the time of its occupation by the
British in 1828 till 1862 Tennasserim was governed by a separate
Commissioner under the Supreme Government. But in 1862 the
three divisions of British Burmah were wnited under a Chief Com-
missioner, dependent on the Government of India, but with full
control over all local departments. Since then Tenasserim, like
Pegu and Arakan, has been administered by a Commissioner and
Deputy Commissioners, subordinate to the central authority at
Rangin, For administrative purposes it forms six districts, with
forty-one sub-divisions.

3.—NATIVE DIVISION. SLAM.

Encircled west, north, and east by the British and French
divisions, the native territory of Siam occupies the very heart of
Indo-China, with a southern seaboard sweeping round the Gulf of
Siam from Malay-land to Camboja. The south-western portion, com-
prising the Isthmus of Kra, and the Siamese section of Malay-land,
and usually spoken of as Lower Sram, has been described in Part J.
Malay Peninsula, of which region it forms a natural geographical
division.

UPrer Stam, or Stam PROPER, comprises the whole of the Menam
basin, and the section of the Mekhong valley lying between Upper
Burmah and Camboja, besides the valleys of the smaller streams
flowing to the left bank of the Lower Salwin. It forms a compact,
irregular square mass stretching from Kiang-tsen on the Mekhong,
across over eight degrees of latitude (20° 15’—12° N.), for 560 miles
southwards to the Gulf of Siam, and for about the same distance
west and cast between the Salwin and Cochin-China, with a total
area of somewhat less than 300,000 square miles. The estimates of
population vary enormously from 7,000,000 to four or five times that
number. Carl Boek, who recently travelled through the most densely
populated part of the country, from Bangkok up the Menam valley to
the Mekhong and Kiang-tsen, is inclined to believe that the 7,000,000
of Pallégoix and others represents only the male adult population,
“women and children underage not being counted,” Mr, Colquhoun
also, a still more recent explorer, clearly shows that the country is far
more densely peopled than is generally supposed, so that the estimate
of 25,000,000 made by the Siamese Ambassador in London may be

INDO-CHIN A. 85

accepted as probably not far from the truth, The constituent ele-
ments are the Siamese proper in the southern provinces, the kindred
Shans and Laos in the north-western and north-eastern districts,
some Cambojans, half-assimilated to the Siamese type, towards the
Cambojan frontier, and the Chinese, who are very numerous, especi-
ally in the capital, and about the lower Menam valley.

Physical Features,—Except in the central parts, watered by
the middle and lower Menam, Siam is essentially an upland region,
everywhere diversified by isolated hills, broken ridyes, or long moun-
tain ranges. <A prominent feature of this irregular and little known
orographic system is the transverse Dong Phriva-fei chain, which
north of Siam proper runs east and west, intersecting the course of
all the streams flowing southwards tothe Menam. Here the Meping,
or Upper Menam itself, traverses a deep rocky channel, which in a
space of about 90 miles between Zimmé (Xieng-mai), and Raheng
is interrupted by over thirty rapids, mostly, however, accessible to
steamers at high water. The elevated land presents the general
aspect of plateaux all disposed north-east und south-west between
the river valleys, but nowhere exceeding 3500 feet in height, except
close to the Yunnan frontier. From the lofty summit crowned by
the city of Xieng-tung the eye sweeps over a boundless prospect of
peaks and domes covering a great part of the Lao country. From
this point branch off two ranges, one running at a height of about
5000 feet between the Menam valley and Burmah southwards to
Tenasserim, the other towards the Battambang and Parsat highlands
hetween Siam and Camboja.

In the southern and eastern Lao country, along the course of the Me-
khong, the relief of the land has been largely caused by the upheaval of
the Devonian system subsequently to the development of the thick triassic
deposits resting on the limestone formations. Further modifications are
due to the eruption of the porphyries cropping out here and there, to post-
triassic denudation, to the erosive action of running waters, and to alluvial
deposits,

The alluvial formation finds its widest development in the great
central plain of Indo-China, which constitutes Siam proper, and
which is abundantly watered by the Menam and its numerous
afiluents from the east and west, Rising in the Shan country, near
the converging point of the Salwin and Mekhong basins, at a height
of some 900 feet above sea-level, the Meping, or western branch,
usually but-wrongly regarded as the true upper course of the
Menam, flows mainly in a southerly direction to Raheng, where it
is joined by the Menam-vang, a large affluent from the north-east.

« Ge -

B+ EASTERN GEOGRAPHY,

The united stream, which now first takes the name of Menam, trends
from this point south-eastwards to Paknam-Po, about 16° N. lat.,
whereits volume is more than doubled by the Menam-yai, or “Great
Menam,” which comes also from the north-east, and which is rightly
regarded by the natives as the true upper course of the Menam, The
Menam-yai, or eastern branch, is described by Colquhoun as much
larger and better navigable than the Meping, or western branch ;
and as its valley lies also in the same direction as that of the lower
Menam, it seems to be in every way entitled to be considered the
main head stream of the great Siamese artery. It rises in an almost
unknown region, enclosed north and east by the great bend of the
Mekhony, und after collecting the waters of the Pré, Nan-kot, and
other unexplored affluents, pursues a winding course through a
fertile and thickly peopled country to the confluence, Beyoml this
poimt the main stream continues its southerly course, meandering
sluggishly through a more open region, which gradually assumes the
aspect of a rich, alluvial, low-lying plain, forming one of the great
rice-growing districts of Further India. But from the banks of the
river itself little is seen of the cultivated paddy-fields, which are in
many places entirely concealed by a tangled growth of palms, bam-
boos, and other tropical vegetation fringing both sides of the stream.

As they approach the Gulf of Siam the united waters of all the
Menams develop an intricate system of channels and backwaters, all
subject to wide-spread floodings during the periodical summer risings.
To these annual inundations the fertility of the soil is mainly due. Even
as far as the Lao States the water rises from eight to ten feet during. the
rainy season, and, as im the Nile valley, an insufficient rise would be
followed in Siam by a rorresponding failure of the rice crop,

Towards the Menam delta converge two large streams, the Me-
klong from the north-west, and the Bang-Pak-Kong from the Korat
highlands in the north-east, both reaching the head of the gulf about
20 miles to the east and west of Bangkok respectively, and both con-
nected with the Menam by artificial or natural canals, The alluvial
character of this region, which in some places contains extensive
permanent swampe or lagoons, often overgrown with tall grasses, and
frequented by numerous herds of wild elephants, is clearly shown
by the borings for a well sunk in Bangkok to a depth of 25 feet
through marine beds abounding in sea-shells and crustaces, The
sea, Which evidently at one time penetrated far inland to the foot of
the Korat hills, has been gradually encroached upon by the sedi-
mentary matter washed down with the numerous streams converging
in the Menam delta, As the movement still continues, the time is

INDO-CHINA. 85

approaching when the narrow inlet at the head of the Gulf of Siam
will be entirely filled in, and when it will be possible to pass over-
land from Mergui in Tenasserim directly eastwards to Shantabun in
south-east Siam,

As seen from the summit of the isolated Mount Patavi some 50
miles north-east of the capital, the eastern section of Siam, draining
towards the Mekhong basins, presents a striking contrast to the level
or slightly undulating plains of the middle and lower Menam yalley.
The view from Patavi, which stands over against Prabat, the sacred
mountain of the Siamese Buddhists, reveals a vast prospect of rugged
highlands to the north and east, and towards the south-cast merging
in the Xong and Pursat coast ranges between Siam and Camboja.
But although crossed at different points by MacLeod, Bastian,
Mouhot, and a few other European explorers, this upland region
between the Menam and Mekhong still continues to be one of the
least known tracts in the peninsula, The forest-elad hills are mostly
occupied by independent wild tribes exposed to the constant attacks
of the more civilised Lao communities, who organise regulur slave-
hunting expeditions to supply the slave-markets of Bangkok and
Camboja.

The seaboard, which, including Lower Siam, develops a vast semi-
circle of about 1000 miles round the Gulf of Siam, is mostly of a mono-
tonous character, destitute of any deep bays, inlets, or other prominent
features, and broken only by the mouths of the Menam, Shantabun, and
a few other streams. Along the coast the depth varies from 40 to 60 feet,
increasing to over 350 in the centre of the gulf, with a current of three
miles an Sie, which sets from south to north during the southern, and
in the opposite direction during the northern monsoun.

Climate,—As in the Malay Peninsula, these alternating mon-
soons determine the distribution of moisture and the general aspect
of the climate, The dry north-easterly trade-winds, prevailing from
October to May, are followed for the rest of the year by the rain-
bearing south-western currents, with a mean annual rainfall of 60
to T0 inches, Owing to the invigorating character of the northerly
breezes, the climate is on the whole fairly healthy, the malaria on
the low-lying coast-lands being less virulent than in the Ganges
delta and other parts of south-eastern Asia. Although in the lower
Menam valley the mean temperature is over 80° F., the heat is seldom
oppressive except in the spring months towards the end of the
northern and beginning of the southern monsoon,

Products and Natural Resources.—Of forest growths the
most valuable are teak, sappan, eaglewood, garcinium yielding the

86 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

gamboge of commerce, two species of cardamom, gutta-percha, lac,
and several other gummiferous varieties. Amonget cultivated plants
the leading place is taken by rice, which supplies the great staple
of food, and of which as many as forty varieties are found. Next in
importance is cotton, which seems to be indigenous in the upland
regions, and which after supplying the native looms is exported to
China, Other economical plants are sugar of excellent quality,
tobacco widely cultivated on the plains, maize, the cocoa-nut and
areca Palms, black pepper in the Shantabun district, the soybean
and ground pea, Fish, a chief article of diet, abound in the rivers
and gulf, and large quantities of ngapi, a favourite dish at every
table, are prepared from fermented fish and shrimps, Much bee’s-
wax comes from Battambang,

The mineral resources are chiefly copper, tin, magnetic iron ‘ores,
and antimony in the Lao country north of the Korat mountains,
Several streams are washed for gold, and rubies, sapphires, and other
precious stones are sent down by the torrents from the Koh-Sabuap,
or “ Mountain of Gems," cast of Shantabun. The gold mines or
auriferous sands of Tu’k Sho in Battambang are also productive.
They are at present worked by two Chinese companies,

Industries—Trade.—In the useful arts of life the Siamese
have scarcely advanced much beyond the somewhat low level of
their Burmese neighbours. From the native cotton they weave
fabrics of coarse and finer texture for the local requirements, and also
prepare their own earthenware, Formerly both the Siamese and
Laos displayed considerable skill in bronze casting for the Buddhist
temples; but at present the smelters and workers in iron appear to
be mainly the resident Chinese. The national taste and in-
ventive faculty have been chiefly exercised in the design and struc-
ture of their sacred edifices and royal palaces, The finest monuments
of past times are found in the ruined city of Ayuthia. But the
group of temples visited by Crawfurd in 1821 still covered a square
of 650 fect on each side, The temples within the enclosure, disposed
round a large central building, contained altogether 1500 images of
Buddha, some of which were of colossal size. The ground storey of
these structures is usually of plain brick and mortar, all ornament-
ation being reserved for the elaborately carved upper portion and
teak roof, richly gilt on both sides, or covered with a coat of bright
vermillion. The etchings also, whether of brass, bronze, or brick,
are usually gilt all over. Some of the large effigies of Buddha stand
beneath lofty pyramidal spires attached to the temples, the most
noteworthy of which still towers to a height of some 400 feet

INDO-CHINA. 87

amid the rank tropical vegetation concealing the silent ruins of
Ayuthia.

Occupying the centre of the peninsula, with a seaboard lying
midway between the Bay of Bengal and the China Sea, Siam is
admirably situated for the purposes of international trade, and when-
ever the Isthmus of Kra is pierced by a navigable canal Bangkok
must become one of the great emporiums of the Asiatic world. <A
considerable traffic has for ages been maintained overland through
the Menam valley and Zimmé with China, apd by water with all
the surrounding insular and peninenlar lands. The chief staples
of export are rice, pulse, cocoa-nut oil, resin, cardamoms, pepper,
gamboge, sappan, dyewoods, teak, eaglewood, indigo, stick-lac, ox
and buffalo hides and liorns, ivory, salt fish, and ealt, The salt is
partly mineral and partly derived from extensive salines at the
mouth of the Meklong. In exchange for these commodities Siam
imports tea, raw and woven silks, paper, earthenware from China ;
opium and cotton fabrics from India; hardware, machinery, arms,
cutlery, glass, woollen and cotton goods from Europe.

The trade of the fertile Shan and Lao districta is with Yunnan to the
north and Cochin-China to the east, to which it sends elephants, precions
stones, gold, musk, ivory, wax, stick-lac, bamboos, cotton, and the so-
called ‘*Pegu ponies," which are really bred in the Shan country. In
exchange ore imported salt, fish, oil, silken stuffs, fire-arms, and gun-
powder. There is also some trade with Burmah to the west, which will

robably be much developed with improved communications, and the
introduction of law and order into that hitherto distracted region.

Communications.—At present the only means of inland com-
munication are the great waterway of the Menam, the trade route
leading thence north to China, and the forest tracks over the hills
east to Camboja, weet to Burmah. Recently, however, the whole
of the Menam valley has been carefully surveyed by Mr. Colquhoun,
who strongly advocates a railway from Bangkok through Rahine
(Raheng), to Zimmé, to be ultimately continued along the historic
“Golden Road” through Zimmé to Esmok, within the Chinese
frontier, and with a branch from Rahine westwards to the Burmese
railway system, The ground has been examined and plans drawn
out for these works, which might be executed as far as Kiang-tsen on
the Mekhong at an estimated cost of about £3,288,000, No engineer-
ing difficulties would be encountered as far as Rahine, and few above
it, as the line would run mainly through a plain studded with villages,
and with a fall of not more than 900 feet for 500 miles from the
north frontier of Siam to the capital, “'The natural richness of the

35 peASTERN GEOC
country,” writes Mr, Colquhoun, “is remarkable, and when the rail-
way from Bangkok to Rahine is built it will certainly be carried on
to Zimmé in a short time. Whoever has not visited this place can
with difficulty estimate the importance which the trade has already
won, and how great its future prospects are, The government of
India and the commercial community of this country are now fully
alive to the importance of the question; and with the cordial nssiat-
ance of the King of Siam, a reconnaissance of North Siam and the
Shan country will shortly be made, as the initial step of this policy.”
Political Divisions.—Like the late kingdom of Burmah, Siam
comprises regions partly administered directly by the central govern-
ment, partly held by the looser tie of vassalage and real or nominal
tribute, To the former category belongs Siam proper, including the
greater part of the Menam valley, and the provinces during the pre-
sent century wrested from the kingdom of Camboja; to the latter
the Shan and Lao States oecupying the northern section of the Menam
basin between 17°—20° N, lat., and the region stretching thence
eastwards to Annam.

Siam 2 comprises forty-one separate provinces, cach governed by
a phya, or functionary of the highest rank, appointed by the central
government. They are distributed os under :—

Northern provinces, five: Sang-Aalok, Phitsanulok, Phirai, Raheng,
and Kampheng Pet.

Eastern provinees, ten: Pechahin, Bua-Xum, Seralueri, Pashin,
Kahin, Nophaburi, Nathou-Nayok, Sasong-Sao (Petrut), Battabong, and
Phantsani-Khom,

Western provinces, seven: Muweng-Sing, Supheneheri, Kon-Shana-
brent (Pak-Phrok, Rarahiri, “Nakhon Xaisi, Sakhonburi (Tha-Shin),
Samul-Songtram (AMfeblang).

Central provinces, nine : Pal-pret, Nonleburi, Potum-mateni, Ayuthia
(Krung-Kao), Ang-Thong, Miuvang-Phrom, Muang-[n, Xainat, Nakhon
Sacer.

Southern provinces, ten; Paklal, Potnam, Pongplasot, iajong, Shan-
taltin, Thung-jai, Pechaburi, Xwmphon, Xaiya, and Xalany.

The Cambojan provinces now under Siamese rule, and also admin-
istered by high Siamese functionaries, are as under :-—

Batiambang, west of the Great Lake, with extensive Buddhist remains
at Basset and other places ; centre of the bees'-wax industry.

Korat, a large and rich district north from Battambang.

Angkor, on the north side of the Great Lake, where stood the ancient
capital of Camboja, whose site is still marked by the stupendous ruins of
Angkor-Vaht.

Siuken, north-west of Angkor, also containing some remarkable ruins,
such aa those of Bantey-Shumar and the great bridge of Stung-Streng,

Suren, a forest country north of Shukan,

Sanken, wooded and hilly districts to the east of Suren and

Kukaw, 'Shukan ; still largely occupied by wild tribes, and very

Melu-prev, | little kuown to Europeans,

Tuly-repu,

INDO-CHINA, 89

The Lao country ia partly ‘tributary, partly divided into provinces
administered directly by Siam, According to Bock, there are at present
six Lao States directly tributary to Siam: Laton, Lampin, Chengneri,
(Miengmuat or Zima), Muang-nan, Mineag-Probing, and Mieeng-Prvi.
These lie chiefly in the north between the Mekhong and Salwin, thus
including all the head waters of the Menam.

Of the Lao provinces ruled by Siam, often through governors chosen
from the ancient royal family, the chief are: Ubon and Basar, whose
rilers bear the title of king; Acmmeratt, Nong-kai, Nicng-bang, Ken-tao,
Aieng-Long, and Nieng-hat,

Administration.—All the Lao States are absolutely independent
of each other, their rulers being autocratic and elected for life,
although the office is not hereditary, but filled by the King of Siam
on the recommendation of the people, Each of these States has two
chiefs, like Siam itself, the first with the tithe of Chow Huang, the
eecond called Chow Operat. The tribute to Siam consista of pre-
sents, such as gold and silver trees, gold and silver betel-boxes, ruby-
etudded vases, and the like, paid triennially.

Although bearing the official designation of Muang-Thai, or
“Land of the Free,” Siam proper is essentially a land of abject
servitude, Theoretically the whole population, from the highest
official to the lowest subject, are slaves of the Crown, whose power
is limited only by custom, A number of distinct classes are, how-
ever, recognised from the nobles and military down to the slaves
properly so-called. ‘The political power is reserved to the nobles,
the highest authority being vested in two kings, one paramount, the
second with the title of Wagna, subordinate and nominal head of
the army. These offices are hereditary within the royal dynasty,
but do not necessarily pass to the eldest son. The present king,
whose full title is Phra Bat Somdeth Phra Paramindr Maha Chula-
lonkern Phra Chula Chom Klao Chow Yu Hua, is the ninth son of
his father and predecessor, King Mongkut, whom he succeeded on
October 1, 1868, in his fifteenth year, He is a wise and enlightened
sovereign, Who has profited by the liberal education which his father
was careful to give him. His earnest desire to elevate the social
condition of his people was shown by the abolition of slavery in his
immediate dominions, an act which began to take"effect in 1872,
The children of slaves are free, and other important social reforms
are in progress,

Topography.—Aanghok, the capital of Siam since the year
1769, lies on both banks of the Lower Menam, about 20 miles from
the sea, in 13° 18° N. lat., 100° 34° E. long., the river being navigable
to this point for vessels of 350 tons, The striking appearance of the

90 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

city, with ite picturesque buildings and large floating population, has
earned for it the title of the “ Venice of the East.” The palace of
the “ First King,” enclosed by lofty white walls over a mile in circum-
ference, forms a group of detached structures, such as temples, public
offices, serazlios, the stalls for the sacred elephant, an arsenal, a
theatre, and accommodation for some thousands of soldiers, cavalry
and infantry. The hall of audience lies in the middle of the chief
court, and in one of the temples is the famous jasper statue of Buddha.
The population, estimated at over 400,000, includes natives of Burmah
and Camboja, Annamese, Malays, Laos, Indo-Portuguese, and Euro-
peans, besides the predominant classes of Siamese and Chinese.
Bangkok is the commercial centre of the whole kingdom, the chief
articles of export being rice, sugar, pepper, forwarded in exchange
for European manufactures, Of late years machinery has been
extensively introduced, and steam-mills set up for various purposes.
Gas is used in the royal palaces, and houses of many of the nobility.
A considerable number of European firms carry on business in the
city, which is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, and the head-
quarters of several Christian missions,

dl ynuthia, the former capital, lies about 45 miles farther up the
river. It was founded in 1350, « date marking the dawn of authentic
Siumese history, and was destroyed by the Burmese in 1766, It is
now partly laid out as an elephant park, round which are strewn the
remains of temples and other monuments embowered in the foliage
of a Tank tropical vegetation, but still attesting its former splendour.

On the coast the chief seaport is Shantalun, some miles south-
enst of the capital, with a mixed Siamese, Chinese, ond Annamese
population, and a considerable export trade in pepper (25 piculs —
3350 Ibs. yearly), precious stones from the neighbouring Xong dis-
trict, some cardamoms, and ivory. The French are endeavouring to
establish a line of steamers between Saigon and Bangkok, touching
at Shantabun,

In the interior are several important places, many of which, from the
reports of the latest explorers, appear to be more extonsive and populous
than had hitherto been supposed. Such are Korat, the largest town in
Siamese Camboja, cast from Mount Patavi, near the source of a weatern
affluent of the Mekhong ; Xieuwg-Kang, Wiueng-Prahang, Xieng-Kong, and
Kieng-teen, on the Mekhong, the last-named being the northernmost town
in Siamese territory ; Raheng in the Menam valley, north from Bangkok,
a probable fuiure centre of railway communication between Siam, Burmah,
and Yonnan ; lastly Zimmd, or Xieng-mat (Cheng-maj), the great capital
of the Siamese Shans, on the Meping, or Upper Menam, 180 miles north
of Raheng, and 500 miles from the capital, Zimmé, which lies on the
right bank of the Meping, about 800 thet above sea-level, is by far the

INDO-CHIN A, 91

largest and most flourishing place in the interior, comprising an inner and
outer town, cach with separate fortifications, and a total population of pro-
bably over 100,000, Like Raheng, it is destined to become a great centre
“of railway traffic in the near future.

Historical Notes.—Siam appears to have no place in recorded
history prior to a.D. 638, and the authentic annals date only from
the foundation of Ayuthia, the old capital, in 1350. The first notice
of the country by European writers occurs in an account of an over-
land expedition against Malacea in 1502. In 1612 an English ship
ascended the Menam as far as Ayuthia, and eight years afterwards
the Portuguese sent thither their first missionaries.

In 1683 Constantine Phaleon, a Cephalonian Greek, became
prime minister, and introduced some knowledge of European culture,
Mutual embassies were exchanged at this period between Siam and
France, Louis XLV, sending in 1685 the celebrated M. de la Loubére, to
whom we are indebted for « graphic description of the country. But
the expulsion of the French in 1690 was followed by a long period
of civil strife and disastrous foreign wars, during which Alompra,
founder of the late Burmese dynasty, seized Martaban, Tavov, and
Mergui, and overran the whole Menam basin. The loss of the
Tenasserim provinces in 1759 was, however, compensated early im
the present century by the extension of Siamese rule over a large
portion of Camboja and the north Malay States of Kedah, Patani
Ligor, and Kelantan.

About the middle of the eighteenth century a Chinese mandarin
succeeded by bribes in obtaining a monopoly of nearly every article of
ecommerce, the result being the almost total extinction of trade, To
remedy this evil, which was severely felt, especially by Great Britain and
France, Sir John Bowring, British plenipotentiary in China, was com-
missioned to the Siamese court to induce the king to grant free trade.
The result of the embassy was a treaty of commerce concluded in 1856
between England and Sinm abolishing all monopolies, opening up the
trade of the country on liberal principles, guaranteeing the security of
European traders, and establishing a British consulate in Bangkok, In
1856 a commercial treaty was also concluded with France, and eince then
more intimate relations have been established with these two rival western
powers, which seem to foreshadow the ultimate partition or extinction of
the ancient kingdom of Siam.

3. FRENCH DIVISION; ANNAM AND CAMBOJA,

General Survey.—The French, or eastern, presents several points
of analogy with the British, or western, division of the peninsula,
Both are overshadowed in the north by the lofty plateaux of southern

09 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

China, from which they project southwards, presenting a coast-line
of from 1000 to 1200 miles, the one towards the Bay of Bengal, the
other towards the China Sea, Both also are traversed by extensive
coust ranges, breaking up each region into several distinet physical
sections, and watered by two great rivers flowing southwards and
terminating in the vast Irawaddy and Mekhong deltas respectively.
This curious parallelism extends even to the ethnical and political
relations, the western Burmese and Talaings finding their counter-
part in the eastern Annamese and Cambojang, all of which elements
have been only quite recently and almost simultaneously brought
under the direct sovereignty of the two powers contending for
absolute supremacy in the Indo-Chinese peninsula. But here the
analogy ceases, or is rather replaced by a violent contrast, for while
British Burmah can be regarded only as a natural and almost. inevit-
able expansion of the adjacent Indian Empire, the French conquest
seems like an aggressive movement, unmotived by any political
urgency, commercial or colonial interests,

As in the weat since the extension of British rule to the whole of the
Trawaddy basin, the distinction between Upper and Lower Burmah has
ceased to have any significance, 80 in the east the French oceupation of the
whole region has much simplified its somewhat intricate geographical and
political nomenclatare, By the forced retirement of the Annamese emperor,
and the king of Camboja's voluntary surrender of his regal functions, the
terms Tonkin anid Cochin-China as opposed to Annan, Lower or French
Cochin-Chine as distinet from Canfas, have ceased to possess much more
than an historical value, and the whole region thus merged in one political
system may now be conveniently treated as a single geographical aren,

Position—Extent—Population.—Tuaken in this comprehensive
sense, ’'nexcu Ixpo-Catna, as it must now be called, describes an
extremely graceful curve in the form of a letter 5 round the China
Sea, the two extremities expanding into the great deltas of the Red
River and Mekhong (see p. 54), while the connecting shaft is formed
by the intermediate coast range, It thus comprises three separate
geographical areas—the alluvial plains of Tonkin and Camboja (with
Lower Cochin-China) in the north and south, and the coast region
of Cochin-China proper in the centre, Bounded on the north by
the Chinese provinces of Kwang-si and Yunnan, on the west by
Siam, and elsewhere by the China Sea, it stretches across fifteen
degrees of latitude (23° 30’'—8° 30°) for about 1000 miles between the
Chinese frontier and Cape Camboja, In breadth it varies enormously,
from over 400 miles in the south (103°—1L09° E, long.) and 280 in
the north (102°—108" E, long.) to little over 50 in the central parts,
where the Siamese frontier advances to a short distance of the China

INDO-CHINA,. 95

Sea. With a coast-line of over 1500 miles, sweeping round from
Cape Paklung on the Gulf of Tonkin to the Siamese frontier on the
Gulf of Siam, it is 0 contracted in the central parts of Cochin-China
that the total area cannot be estimated at much more than 220,000
square miles, with a population of Probably less than 20,000,000,
The great bulk of the inhabitants, say five-sixths altogether, belong
to the Annamese stock, the rest being chiefly Cambojans and Malays
in the lower Mekhong basin, Chinese numerous in all the trading
places, and wild tribes, here collectively known as Moi and Muong,
thinly seattered over all the hilly districts of the interior,

Physical Featuresa.—The carefully cultivated and abundantly
watered alluvial plains of Tonkin, studded with large towns and
populous villages, and everywhere intersected by natural or artificial
canals, present a striking resemblance to the more prosperous pro-
vinees of the Chinese empire about the lower courses of the Hoang-
ho and Yangtse-Kiang. Hence this region, mainly comprised in the
Song-koi and Thai-binh basins, has often been regarded as little more
than a southern extension of China proper, of which it has for ages
formed an outlying tributary or protected State, and to which it has
been indebted for its arts, letters, religion, and general culture.
Nevertheless, Tonkin is completely severed from the Middle King-
dom by an almost unknown highland region, which appears to merge
gradually in the Kwang-si and Yunnan tablelands, but which, in
accordance with the jealous policy of its northern neighbour, has long
constituted a sort of neutral zone between the two States, This is
the home of several semi-civilised Muong tribes, who are com-
missioned by the imperial government to guard the two chief frontier
passes of Tien-Kwong and Nam-Kwan, and otherwise prevent all
regular intercourse between the populations on either side, This
rugged tract, through which the head-streams of the Song-koi flow in
deep rocky beds down to the plains, is also the refuge of the unruly
elements of Southern China, and notably of the famous “ Black
Flags” who figured so conspicuously during the recent military
operations of the French in Annam,

The irregular range of hills skirting the Tonkin plains on the
west at a height of about 5000 feet, branches off from the Yunnan
tableland between the Mekhong and Song-kei basins, and under the
general name of the Cochin-Chinese Coast Range is continued parallel
with the coast southwards between Annam and Siam. It throws off
several advanced spurs terminating in bold headlands on the coast,
which thus becomes disposed in a number of bays and deep inlets,

4 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

including the commodious and well-sheltered harbour of Turane.
One of these spurs to the south of the Song-Koi delta serves as the
natural frontier between the ancient kingdoms of Tonkin and Cochin-
China, But the coast-range itself, which appears to bear no general
native name, comes almost to an abrupt termination towards the
frontier of Lower or French Cochin-China forming part of the Lower
Mekhong basin. Beyond this point its further extension southwards
is indicated only by some isolated eminences, such as the wooded
headland of Cape St. James at the south-eastern extremity of the
mainland, and further seawards by the small Pulo Condor insular

group.

Although now inhabited chiefly by the Annamese race, Lower Cockin-
Chine should more properly be called Lower Camboja, Till its conquest
by the Cochin-Chinese about the middle of the last century it formed an
integral part of the ancient kingdom of Camboja, and it belongs physically
altogether to the same region. It comprises the greater part of the
Mekhong delta, which is iteelf nothing more than a comparatively recent
southern extension of the low-lying alluvial plains of Camboja proper.
The whole region as far as and ineluding Lake Tonldé-sap (see p. 54) con-
stituted, probably within the last 3000 years, a marine basin penetrating
far inland between the Cochin-China coast range on the enst and the Pursat
Hills on the west. The rapid seaward extension of the lnnd in this
direction, by which the “Great Lake" has become a lond-locked basin,
still inhabited by porpoises and other marine animals, is due partly to the
alluvial deposits of the Mekhong, but probably still more to the gradtal
upheaval of the land, 2 movement evidently still going on, as shown by
the acy conversion of the island of Cape St. James into a part of the
mainland.

Both the delta and still more the inland parts of Comboja are
subject to extensive annual floodings, which last from June to Sep-
tember, and-which rise high enough to convert all the low-lying
tracts into a vast inland sea, studded here and there with wooded
islets serving as refuges for the inhabitants and their domestic
animals, Dut after the subsidence of the waters, the whole country
presents the aspect of a boundless sandy plain, diversified with
numerous glittering lakes, and traversed in its entire length by
the various ramifications of the Lower Mekhong fluvial system.
The main stream and the Tonlé-sap emissary converging at Pnom-
peth, present eapital of Camboja proper, again branch off at this
point into two divergent channels, which follow a nearly parallel
course through the half-submerged plains of the delta to their june-
tion near the coast with the no less intricate system of the Donnai, or
“River of Saigon.” The converging point of the four great branches

INDO-CHIN A. 5

of the Mekhong takes the native name of Shaddo Muhk, that is, the
“Four Arms,” or Quatre-Bras of the French.

Beyond the low-lying ares of periodical inundations, Camboja presents
acvaisl elevated lands, chains of hills and isolated eminences concentrated
especially in the region enclosed between the Great Lake and its emissary
on the north-east and the Gulf of Sinm on the south-west. These uplands,
which have not yet been systematically explored, seem to form the southern
limit of the orographic system stretching from the Yunnan tableland south-
wards between the Menam and Mekhong basins. They develop an irregular
series of three somewhat parallel ridges, ranning from the Xong hills above
Shantabun along the Gulf of Siam south-eastwards to the Mekhong delta,
Within the Siamese frontier they are known as the Prabat hills, and in
Camboja take the name of Pursat or Krevant, that is, the Cardamum
Mountains, apparently culminating in the Elephant Monutain (2000 feet),
the Phnom Popok Vil of the natives, one of the highest peaks in Camboja,

Climate,—Aa in other parts of the peninsula, the year is divided
into a wet and dry season, which, especially in Tonkin, succeed each
other very abruptly. Here the monsoon, which arrives in April, is
accompanied by tremendous thunderstorms, and followed by terrific
cyclones, which sweep the Gulf of Tonkin, and often cause wide-
spread ruin on the surrounding plains, In the Song-Koi delta the
moist summer heats are most oppressive even to the natives, while
the marshy fever-stricken districts are almost uninhabitable by
Europeans at this season.

Along the Cochin-Chinese seaboard the north-east monsoon sets
in about the end of October, and the south-west in the middle of
May. The heavy rains which sometimes enuse the coast streams to
overflow their banks, last usually from September to December, The
vlasa, which in Tonkin falls as low as 45° F., seldom records less than
63° PF, at Hué, capital of Cochin-China, rising in the dry season to
102° and 104° F, Yet although it never freezes or snows, the cold
is acutely felt on the elevated lands in the northern provinees above
the 15° N. lat.

Inthe Lower Mekhong basin (Camboja and Lower Cochin-China),
the wet season lasts from June to November, the dry from December
to May. Here the moist sultry atmosphere, especially in the Donnai
district about Saigon, is most enervating for Europeans, who after a
protracted residence become easy victims to ague, anwmia, and other
local ailments.

Natural Resources,—The advanced spurs of the Tonkin moun-
tains, which have alone been explored, contain rich deposits of iron,
tin, copper, coal, and the precious metals, and the whole of these
highlands probably abound in mineral wealth. Gold and silver

Ot EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

mines also occur in the Cochin-Chinese coast range, and here the
mountain streams are washed for gold. Carboniferous limestones
prevail in the central provinces, where coal of a good quality lies in
some Places close to the surface. In Camboja occur mines of gold,
argentiferous lead and copper, besides iron ores in great abundance,
which have been worked for ages by some of the semi-civilised Kuy
tribes in the region to the north-east of Lake Tonlé-sap,

Speaking of the great mineral resources of Tonkin, General W. Mesney
remarks: “ That country ia the centre of vast deposits of coal, in addition
to which the ordinary as well as the precious metals are there abundant,
I know of no less than seventeen districts in which there are flourishin
gold-fields, Silver and copper mining occupy a great deal of native an
Chinese labour, The Chinese are the proprictors of most of the larger and
more productive mines ; but the output of metal by mines surreptitiously
worked in order to avoid payment of the usual royalties is very considerable,
.. + Nearly the whole of these well-known mineral deposits are worked by
purely Chinese companies, mostof the shareholders being Cantonese, many
of whom realise handsome fortunes from their mining speculations. Most
of the men employed in the mines are Kwang-si miners, who of course can
work only in their own primitive way, which reminds one of a hen seratch-
ing up the surface of the ground” (Tongking, Hongkong, 1584, p. 97).

Since the reduction of Tonkin French botanists have been study-
ing its flora, and the collections already forwarded by them to Paris
show that on the uplands the vegetation is of am extremely rich and
diversified character, Both here and in Cochin-China most of the
wild fauna has given place on the plains to a great variety of culti-
vated plants, such as cotton, sugar, rice, indigo, pepper, cinnamon,
pulse, and tropical fruits, besides the areca and cocoa-nut palms,
tea inferior to that of China, and teai, a dye-wood which yields an
excellent emerald green. The forests covering the eastern slopes of
the hills contain several other dye-woods, teak, ebony, and many
other valuable plants,

Still more rich in economic products is Camboja, where the rich allu-
vial plains yield abundant crops of cotton, indigo, tobacco, rice, sesume,
replaced on the uplands by lac and oil-yielding trees, gutta-percha, yanilla,
cardamoms of prime quality, besides numerous cabinet and dye-woods.
Other products of this favoured region are raw silk, ivory, jerked buffalo
and elephant meat, hides and horns of the butlalo, ox, and rhinoceros ;
lastly fish, of which the Great Lake forms an inexhaustible reservoir,

Trade and Industries.—The Annamese are above all an agri-
cultural people, devoting nearly their whole energy to the cultivation
of the soil, and leaving the pursuits of commerce and the arts mainly
in the hands of the Chinese and other foreigners, On the slopes
overlooking the plains to the usual field openitions are added seri-

INDO-CHINA, 7

culture and the preparation of cotton ; but the silk and cotton fabrics
woven With the raw material are much inferior to those of China,
Gold and silver work displaying little taste in the designs is exten-
sively practised, and from the Europeans in the service of the native
princes during the last century some knowledge was acquired of gun-
casting, engineering, and architecture,

In Annam the chief imports are cotton woven goods, salt, dried fishy
tobacco, crockery, and all kinds of nanufactured wares, taken in exchange
for rice, opium, copper, tin, dried fungi, the edible lily, mostly for the
Chinese market. To these must be added pine, largely used for coffins in
China, teak, and other durable timber, eaglewood, and several other species
of fragrant woods, numerous drugs, and cinnamon, regarded by the Chinese
as the finest in the world. “* The tusks, horns, bones, hides, and sinews of
elephants, rhinoceroses, and deer are also in great demand for medicinal
purposes. Honey is scut in considerable quantities to the provinces of

iwang-tung aml Kwang-si, whilst a very large trade item is included
under the head of various reptiles, principally snakes, which are credited
with powerful medicinal properties" (Meany, p. 99).

While the export trade with China, Siam, Singapore, and Europe
is entirely monopolised by foreigners, the local traffic has been but
little developed, owing partly to the indolence of the people, partly
to the absence of highways of communication. In Tonkin inter-
course is carried on mainly by water, and in Cochin-China there
is only one highway, running from the Tonkin frontier slong the
coast through Hué to the Mekhong delta. But even this is kept
in bad repair, and owing to the absence of bridges the rivers
intersecting its track have to be forded or crossed in ferry-boats.
Recently, however (1886), the French Government has invited con-
tracts for the construction of a railway, which it is proposed to run
from Hanoi for twenty-two miles to Bac-Nith, and thence through
the delta to the “Seven Pagodas.”

In Camboja the chief industry is the capture and curing of fish round
the shores of Lake Tonlé-sap and neighbouring waters, or supplying
all the local wants, suflicient of this commodity is left for a yearly export
trade, valued at nearly £300,000, Rice and fish are the staples of food
amongst all the Annamese and Cambojan populations. Sericulture also
forms an important branch of industry, and the Cambojans have long
been noted for the excellence of their cotton and silken fabrics used in the
preparation of the Jangutix, which form the chief feature of the national
costume, Pagodas, where all the children receive their education from
the bonzes, as in most other Buddhist countries, are very numerous in
Camboja, But none of these modern structures can compare in size or
splendour with the grand monuments of the flourishing period of Cambojan
history, whose ruins are scattered over the plains a Pe slopes stretching
round the western and nofthern shores of Lake Tonlé-sap, ;

H

9S EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

Political Divisions.—The whole region, which recent events
have practically converted into French territory, comprises four
distinct political divisions: Toxkis in the. north ; Cocmn-Cama
in the centre ; Lower Cocutn-Carxa and Camposa in the south,
The first two, formerly separate States, have since 1802 constituted
a single kingdom, commonly spoken of as the empire of Annam,
This term Annem (properly An-nan) appears to be a modified form of
Ngan-nan, that is, “Southern Peace,” first applied to the frontier
river between China and Tonkin, and afterwards extended not only
to Tonkin, but to the whole region south of that river after ita con-
quest and pacification by China in the third century of the new era,
Hence its convenient application to the same region since the union
of Tonkin and Cochin-China under one dynasty, and since the
transfer of the administration to France in 1883, is but a survival of
the original Chinese usage, and fully justified on historic grounds. —

Tork (Tongking, Tungking), that is, “ Eastern Capital,” a term
originally applied to Ha-noi when that city was the royal residence,
has in quite recent times been extended to the whole of the north-
ern kingdom, whose true historic name is Yiteh-nan. Under the
native rulers Tonkin was divided into provinces and sub-divisions
bearing Chinese names, and corresponding to the administrative
divisions of the Chinese empire. A native map shows the country
at one time parcelled out into twenty-eight sheng, or provinces, each
sheng being again grouped into a number of faien, or districts, But
this arrangement was subject to frequent modifications by the various
Tonkinese sovereigns, and since its conquest by Cochin-China the
country has been administered im much the same way as the southern
kingdom. From this State Tonkin is separated partly by a spur of
the coast range projecting scawards, partly by a wall built in the
sixteenth century and running in the same direction, After the
erection of this artificial barrier, which lies about 18° N, lat,
hetween Hatinh and Dong-koi, the northern and southern kingdoms
came to be respectively distinguished by the titles of Dang-ngoat
and Dang-trong, that ia, “Outer” and “ Inner Route,”

The term Cocurs-Carva, by which the Inner Rovre is best
known, has no more to do with China than it has with the Indian
city of Cochin, It appears to be a modified form of Kwe-Chen-Ching,
that is, the “Kingdom of Chen-Ching,” the name by which this
region was first known in the 9th century of the new era, from its
capital Chen-Ching. Another although less probable derivation is
from the Chinese Co-Chen-Ching, meaning “Old Champa,” 9 remin-

INDO-CHINA. 9

iseence of the time when the Cham (Tsiam) nation was the most
powerful in the peninsula, their dominion comprising the whole
region between the China Sea and Menam basin. Originally Cochin-
China proper reached very little south of Tonkin, with which it
frequently formed one territory. But according as the Annumese
race spread southwards they gradually absorbed the whole of the
Cham domain as far as the extremity of the peninsula, besides a large
part of the kingdom of Camboja about the Mekhong delta. Henee
before the arrival of the French, Cochin-China comprised the whole
of the coast lands from Tonkin nearly to the foot of the Pursat hills
in South Camboja,

After the occupation of the Mekhong delta district (Lower Cochin-
China) by the French in 1842-67, Cochin-China proper still comprised
three main divisions: Upper, Central, and Southern (Champa) Cochin-
China, which were and still are divided into nine provinces, which going
southwards are as under :—

1. (/tang-binh, separated from Tongkin by the above-mentioned Lui-
Sai, or “Great Wall,

2. Quang-iri, a somewhat inland district.

3. (ueng-due, where is situated the present capital, Hud,

4, QGuang-nam, eee the fine harbour of Turane.

5. Quang-ngei, a ragged hilly district still partly held by wild tribes.

6. Fink-dink (Qui-nhon), one of the finest and most productive pro-
vinees in the kingdom, On the const is the port of Quinhon, one of the
best on the Annamese const,

7. Phu-yen, also a highly-cultivated district yielding large quantities
of rice, sugar, maize, and pulse,

§. Bink-hea, mostly a well-wooded upland district.

9, Hinh-fhuoen, large, low-lying, thinly-peopled district, comprising
with the foregoing the former territory of Champa,

Each of these provinces is sub-divided into twoor three pin, and these
usually into two dwyen, which are again divided into a number of fong,for
groups of villages and ts.

Lower or Fresca Cocutx-Curya comprises the common Me-
khong-Donnai delta, which was wrested by the Annamese from the
ancient kingdom of Camboja between the years 1689—1750, and
which was ceded by the Annamese to the French partly in 1863,
partly in 1867. Before the cession it was divided into six provinces,
which in 1876 were reduced to four administrative circumscriptions,
as under :

1, Saigon in the east, with Saigon on the Donnai river, capital of the
settlement. .
2, Mytho, weat of Saigon, as far as the eastern mouth of the Mekhong.
3. Vinh-long, about both mouths of the Mekhong.
4. Bassac, thenids to the Cambojan frontier.
H2

100 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

Camposa, At one time embracing a great part of Further India
between the China Sea and Gulf of Siam, the ancient and flourishing
empire of Camboja has been gradually reduced by Siamese encrouch-
ments on the north and west, and by Annamese conquests on the
south and east to a territory of scarcely 40,000 square miles on both
sides of the Great Lake and its emissary, with a contracted seaboard
of some 80 miles between the Mekliong delta and Siam. To save
this remnant of his possessions from complete absorption by those
rival States, the feeble deseendant of the royal builders of Ankhor-
Vat was fain to accept the proffered protectorate of France in 18-4,
But this protectorate was practically converted into annexation by
the treaty of 1886, in virtue of which the king constituted himeelf a
pensioner of France, abdicating all his royal functions, and handing
over the administration of the kingdom to the Governor of Saigon.

As constituted at the date of this treaty, Camboja comprised the five
subjoined dey, or historic divisions, which essed no administmtive
charncter, but served rather as appanages for the five ministers composing
the Royal [rivy Council :

1, Compong-Srai, north of the Great Lake and its emissary.

2, Treeng, between the western branch of the Lower Mekhong and
the coast.

3S. Theng-Kimwn, on the Mekhong.

4, fia-Paom, east of the Mekhong.

fi, FPursa!, south of the Great Lake,

These appanages were divided into fifty-six hel, or provinces, cach
administered by a governor who was appointed by the king, and who
pepe selected his own lieutenants, sub-prefects, and other minor
ORCS,

Administration.—The Annamese government has hitherto been

an absolute despotiem, tempered only by a few traditional formulas,
and recently by treaties with France. Finance, war, justice, home
affairs, religion, and public works form so many ministries, with o
president, two vice-presidents, two councillors, and a vice-chancellor,
But over all, overshadowing the throne itself, stand the Chief-Censor,
Ahead of the lettered classes, assisted by two or three vice-censors, for
civil affairs ; and for war the marshall-in-chief, assisted by four mar-

shalls, all these dignitaries forming the “ Columns of State.”

Notwithstanding the absolute character of the central Govern-
ment, Annam enjoys extensive communal rights, and here, as in
China, there is no hereditary aristocracy, all imperial functions being
reserved for successful candidates at the public academy, correspond-
‘ing in some respects to our Civil Service examinations. The whole
population is further grouped in two main divisions: the inscribed,

INDO-CHINA, 101

including all paying a poll-tax, and whose names figure in the sche-
dules of taxation ; and the non-inseribed, including day labourers,
the poor, and all living from hand to mouth. But the native admin-
istration appears to have been practically set aside in 1886, when a-
Resident General with almost absolute jurisdiction was appointed to
control the civil and military affairs of Annam. The first person
chosen to fill this high office was the distinguished French savant,
M. Paul Bert, member of the Academy of Sciences, Soon after his
arrival M, Bert issued a proclamation to the people, assuring them of
his intention to afford them every protection in his power, but giving
them indirectly to understand that the management of affairs had
been transferred from the native to the French authorities, M. Bert
fell a victim to the treacherous climate in November 1886.

The social organisation of the le into two classes has been main
tained! in Freneh Cochin-China, which is under the administration of a
governor assisted by a Privy Council. Since the treaty of 1486, Cam-

oja has been brought within the jurisdiction of the French governor,
whose residence is at Saigon. “The king of that country, now a ponsioner
of France, has finally surrendered all his regal functions, and at his death
Camboja will probably be merged with Lower Cochin-China in one colonial
sottlement, both districts forming part of the same geographical area,

Topography.—There are but few large towns in Annam, where,
the agricultural population is somewhat evenly distributed in rural
villages and hamlets thickly seattered over all the arable lands,
Here the northern capital Hanoi (Ho-nei), first known as Ton-kin,
or the “ Eastern Capital,” stands on the main navigable branch of
the Song-koi, near the head of the delta, and about 100 miles from’
the coast. Hanoi, also called Kesho, was first opened to the trade of
the world by a treaty concluded with France in 1874. But the
expectations that through it an important trade route might be
opened to Yunnan and Southern China along the Song-Kai seem
doomed to disappointment, owing to the numerous rapids obstructing
the main head waters of that river. Hanoi is well built with brick
or stone houses, marble pavements, and a vast citadel nearly four
miles in circumference, built by French engineers at the close of the
last century. The proper outport of Hanoi is Haiphong (Haipong),
also opened to European trade in 1874. It stands at the mouth of a
northern branch of the Song-koi delta, communicating by a navigable
channel with the populous and strongly fortified town of Haidsuong
in the Thai-bitth delta, Near the Chinese frontier lies the important -
strategical post of Lanqson (Lang-shin), memorable for a signal defeat.

102 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

of the French during the recent military operations against the
“ Black Flags,”

Hué (Thua-Thien), present capital of Cochin-China and of the
whole of Annam, lies on the coast some miles north-west of the Bay
of Turane, and, like Hanoi, boasts of a vast citadel constructed by
French engineers early in this century, and comprising barracks,
arsenals, grimaries, and artillery grounds. On a neighbouring hill
stand the glittering domes of the royal mausoleum, containing the
tombs of many kings lavishly ornamented with gema and the pre-
cious metals, Yet in the fourteenth century Hué was still spoken
of as comprised within the limits of the Champa State, showing how
very recent has been the spread of the Annamese race south of its
true home in Tonkin, It is connected northwards with Hanoi, and
southwards through Tourane with Saigon by a postal service along
the imperial highway, with stages at intervals of ten to twelve miles,

Saigon, at the confluence of the Saigon and Donnai rivers a few
miles from the coast, has almost assumed a European aspect since
its occupation by the French in 1859, Although situated in an
extremely hot and unhealthy district, its favourable position on
navigable waters, communicating by adeep channel with the fortified
port of Vink-long and Mytho on the eastern branch of the Mekhong
delta, has caused it to be chosen as the seat of government for all the
French possessions in the Donnai-Mekhong basin. Chawdor, the
chief place on the western branch of the Mekhong within French
Cochin-China, has also the advantage of water communication with
the coast by a navigable canal running southwards to Hatien on the
Golf of Siam near the Cambojan frontier.

Beyond this frontier stands Kampol, the only seaport in Camboja
Proper, with a deep and well-sheltered harbour, which has been
frequented for many ages by Malay and Chinese traders. Within
the last few years the seat of the Cambojan government has been
traneferred from Udeng on the Tonlé-sap emissary to Paom-peh, a
little farther down, at the meeting of the “Four Waters.” But the
still older capital, Angkor, which stood at the north-western margin
of the Great Lake, and which appears to have flourished when that
basin was still the head of a marine inlet, has long been a city of the
dead, whose glorious past is attested only by the ruins of its stupend-
ous monuments, For the ancient Cambojan culture “seems to have
subsided with the subsidence of the waters. The Great Lake with-
drew from Angkor, the marine inlet became gradually filled in, the
surrounding plains were converted into marshes, the population

INDO-CHINA, 103

melted slowly away, and to the busy cities and thronged temples
stieceeded the seattered hovels of a decrepit people, who have lost
the very traditions of a glorious past” (Keane’s Reclws, viii. p. 484).
They have even surrendered the very site of these monuments, a
lacustrine district profusely strewn with the vestiges of cities, tem-
ples, and fortresses, all included within the Siamese frontier by the
treaty of 1864, determining the extremely conventional limits of the
conterminous States.

Historical Notes.—Mention occurs of the Annamese people under the
name of Giao-ahi (Kiao-shi, Chiao-chih), and of the country under that of
Yiteh-nan in the Chinese legendary records as early as 2285 nc. Subse-
quay was known by various other names, such as Lo-yueh-ti, Nan-
eae Lin-liang, &e., until in 1175 An. Av-nem (pro rly An-nan) became
the official name of the whole region by order of the Emperor Hsiao-tsung
of the southern Sung dynasty, The terms Tondin and Cochin-Chdive in
their modern acceptation are of comparatively quite recent origin, just as
the severance of the country itself into two distinct States is a comparatively
recent historic event. It may be assumed that the Annamese domain was
originally restricted to the region of the Song-koi delta, where it was
encireled on the north by China, on the west by the Moi and Muong hill
tries, on the south by the Champa (Tsiampa) territory. Its historic
growth took place almost entirely in a southerly direction along the strip
of low-lying coast-lands hetween the coast range and the China Sea, where
it gradually encroached upon ani finally absorbed the whole of the Champa
domain. “Then the coast-lands became constituted into a separate State
distinct from and independent of the northern kingdom, an artificial
barrier being constructed between them in the sixteenth century, and
separate names, such as Tonkin and Cochin-China, coming gradually into
nee to distinguish the two Annamese kingdoms.

From the remotest times China claimed, and intermittently exercised,
suzerain authority over Annam, whose energies have for ages been wasted.
partly in vain efforts to resist this claim, partly in still more disastrous
warfare between the two rival States. Almost the first distinctly historia
event was tho reduction of Lu-liang, as Tonkin was then called, by the
Chinese in 218 n.c., when the country was divided into prefectures, and a
civil and military organisation established on the Chinese model. On this
occision & large number of Chinese emigrants are said to have settled in
the country, where they amalgamated or became gradually assimilated
with the aboriginal Gino-shi stock, leaving, however, traces of their influ-
ence perceptible to the present day in the mixed character of the Annamese
current speech,

Early in the ninth century of the new ern the term Kwe-Chen-Ching
(Cochin-China) began to be applied to the southern, which had already
asserted its independence of the northern, kingdom, In 1428 the two
States freed themselves temporarily from the Chinese protectorate, and
200 years Inter the Annameso reduced all that remained of the Champa
territory, driving the natives to the Mf eater and settling in the plains,
This conquest was followed about 1750 by that of the southern or maritime
provinces of Camboja since known as Lower (now French) Cochin-China,

In 1775 the King of Cochin-China, who had usurped the throne in 1774,

10+ EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

reduced Tonkin, and was acknowledged sovereign of Annam by the Chinese
emperor, But in 1708 Gia-long, son of the deposed monarch, recovers the
throne with the aid of some French auxiliories, and in 1802 reconstitutes
the Annamese empire under the Cochin-Chinese sceptre. From this time
the relations with France become more frequent, and French preponderance
is firmly established when through the efforts of Pigneau de Béhaine,
Bishop of Adran, effect is “ee to the treaty of 1787, ceding to France the
Bay of Turane and the Pulo Condor isleta, in return for her assistance in
restoring the old Cochin-Chinese dynasty under Gia-long, French officers
are now employed in drilling the native troops, fortifying the royal
pelaces, erecting formidable citadels at Hué, Hanoi, and other important
strategic points, and affording the restored king the moral force by which
he triumphs over all his adversaries.

- Bat after his death in 1820 the anti-European national party acquires
the ascendant, the French officers are dismissed, and! the Roman Catholle
religion, which had made rapid progress during the reign of Gia-long, is
subjectal to cruel and systematic persecution. Notwithstanding the
protests and oceasional intervention of France, this policy is persevered in,
until the execution of Bishop Ding in 1857 iy order of Tu-Duc, third in
succession from Gia-long, calle for more active interference. Admiral
Kigault de Genouilly captures Tourane in 1858, followed next year by the
rout of the Annamese army at the same place, and the occupation of the
forta at the entrance of the Donnai and of Gin-dith (Saigon), capital of
Lower Cochin-China. This virtually established French supremacy, which
was sealod by the troaty of 1862, ceding the three best, and that of 1867 the
three remaining, provinces of Lower Cochin-China. It was further strength-
ened and eitented by the treaty of 1803, securing the protectorate of
Camboja and the important strategical position of ** Quatre-Hras" on the
Mekhong.

Than carne the scientific expedition of the Mekhong (1866-68), which
thissipated the hopes entertained of that river giving aecess to the trade of
Southern China. Attention was accordingly now attracted to the Sang-
koi basin, and the establishment of French interests in Tonkin secured by
the treaties of peace and commerce coneluded with the Annamese Govern-
ment in 1874. This prepared the way for the recent diplomatic compli-
cations with Aunam and China, followed by the military operations in
Cochin-China and Tonkin, which led up to the treaties of 1883 and 1884,
extending the French protectorate to the whole of Annam, and forbidding
the Annamese Government all tipo relations with foreign powers,
China included, except through the intermediary of France. Lastly, the
appointmentin 1886 of a French Resident-General, with full ndministrative
powers, effaced the last vestige of national antonomy, and virtually reduced
the ancient kingdoms of Tonkin and Cochin-China to the position of an
outlying French possession, But here again the commercial speculation
was (loomed to disappointment, the recent exploration of the Song-koi and
its head waters having shown that it is as little suited as the Mekhong for
opening up the trade of Southern China to the political mastersof Annam.

On the other hand, the French nuthorities appear to have already suc-
eéciled in stopping the wholesale massacres of Christians which had broken
out afresh during the late international troubles. Christianity, which was
originally introduced by the Portuguese Jesuits in the seventeenth century,
and which had spread rapidly during the early years of the present century,
will now receive a fresh impetus under the French missionaries, who have

INDO-CHINA. 105,

organised five vicariates under the Missions Etrangéres of Paris, and three

under the Dominicans. The movement is favoured by the anti-religions -

French officials, who are-aware that in the East the native Roman Catholic
is first a Frenchman and then a patriot,
STATISTICS OF INDO-CHINA,
AREAS AND POPULATIONS,
: Area in 3q. Miles, Approx. Pop.
British Indo-China

(Burmah ) . 800,000 8,000,000

Native oa thina 290,000 25,000,000 (1)

French Ind) China
(Annum and Cam- - 223,000 20,000,000 (7)
boja)

Total Indo-China 813,000 53,000,000

APPROXIMATE POPULATION OF INDO-CHINA ACCORDING TO RACE.
Burmese, Talaings, and Karens . 7,000,000
Annamese (Tonkinese and Cochin- -Chinese) 19,000,000
Siamese, Stas anil Laos . -. . , 17,000,000
Chinese, oe ‘ é< 6,000,000
Cambojans . . 1,700,000
Kachyens, Mois, and other wild tribes : 750,000
Malaysand Chams . . ; 60,000

Total 50,500,000

BURMAH.

Are in Sq. Miles. Population.
Upper (late Independent) Burmah 210,000 (1) 4,000,000

British ) Arakan : 4,500 688,000
Burmah > Pegu and Trawaddy ; 26,000 2,323,000
(1881) ) Tenasserim . A : 47,000 826,000
Total 297,500 7,737,000
CHIEF TOWNS OF BURMAH,

Population. Population.

Rangin . 154,000 Thayetmyo . 12,000
Mandalay 70,000 -Allanmyo = 11,000
Maulmain 54,000 Mergni . ' 11,000

Prome . 30,000 - Kyan-ghin . 10,000

106

Population. Population.
Bassein . 24,000 Yandiin : 10,000
Akyah . 25,000 Magwé .. 8,000
Henzada, 18,000 Moné >. . 8,000
Meng-gyi. 17,000 Shwegyeng . 8,000
Myi Kyan 15,000 Pegu - . 7,000
Tavoy . 15,000 Bhamé ; 6,000
Shwe-doung 14,000 Muchabo', S 5,000
Toung-ngu 14,000
Exports, Upper to Lower Burmah Gees . £1,706,000
Imports ,, from ,, 4 Me . 1,826,000
Revenue, Upper Burmah = : 50,000
Expenditure 7 pike te ; 40,000
SLAM.
CHIEF TOWNS,
Population. Population.
Bangkok . 600,000 Nakhon-Savan 12,000
Ayuthia . 50,000 Petrin . : 10,000
Zimmé = 50,000 Meklong . 10,000
Lakhon 25,000 Paklat . . 7,000
ene peas 15, 000 Korat . . 7,000
Pré 15, 000 Paknam . 7,000
Labong 12,000
Bangkok, pepo (1884) . oe) hi £1,145,000
t Exports , . : : . 2,053,000
Total average exports of Siam . : = 6,000,000
1880. Exports to Great Britain, £341,000; Imports £23,000
1884, Hn i} iJ ; Nn 44,000
1884, Bangkok, shipping : 418 vessels of 241 tons,

Mercantile Murine : 60 vessels of 21,000 tons,
Navy : 14 steamers of 5,815 tons, and 51 guns.

Average Revenue of Siam £3,000,000

ANNAM AND CAMBOJA.,

Area in Sq. Miles. Population.*
Tonkin . .. 120,000 (7) 12,000,000 (1)
Cochin-China . 46,000 5,000,000 (7)
Lower Cochin-Chinn 24,000 1,900,000
Camboja . . 33,000 1,020,000
Total 223,000 19,920,000

* Tho

cortainly 1

(ation of Tonkin, usually given at 18 and even 20,000,00), appears
to exceed 12,000,000, Bouinnaia and Pankas (£ n (L'Inlo-Chine Jronpaie,

INDO-CHINA, 107

CHIEF TOWNS,

Population. Population.
Hanoi (Kesho) 130,000 Mytho. . 15,000
Saigon. =. ~Ss 5,000 Udong . 12,000
rf . «60,000 Hakoi. . 10,000
Cholon . Fe 50,000 Song-tai 8,000
Namdiih . 80,000 Turane : 3,000
Haidzuone =, 50,000 Kampot : 2,000

Pnom-Peth . 30,000

POPULATION ACCORDING TO BRACES,

Lower Cochin-China, Camboja.

Annamese . , - 1,710,000 5,000
Cambojans . : i 110,000 600,000
Chinese oe : 60,000 380,000
Chamsand Malays . 10,000 30,000
Hill-men and others . 10,000 5,000

Total 1,900,000 1,020,000

Saigon, Imports, average tj. ‘ Z - £2,750,000

a etprtes ok OG Ue OOOO
is Sta te : 850 vessels of 700,000 tons
» Dritish Shipping; 386 vessels of 284,750 tons
Haipong, Imports (1880), £218,000 ; Exports, £300,000

a Shipping (1880): 458 vessels of 124,000 tons

i British Shipping (1880) : 35 per cent,
Hannoi, Trade with Yunnan by the Red River (1880) £140,000
Lower Cochin China, Revenne (1882) £ 875,000

4 = » Expenditure ,, 100,000
Camboja, Average Revenue . eae 130,000

Exports . . . 200,000

" "
1335) c#timate it roughly at from 9 to 12,000,000, adding that an ex tel idea was
formed of ita density the fact that the delta fs thickly settled, while all the

rest of the country is very thinly led, J.G, Scott aleo states that the population
is probably wot more than 12,000,000.--(Proc. Geo, Soc., April, 1260.) os

PART II.
THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO.

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL SURVEY—DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND WATER—MAIN IN-
BULAR GROUPS—VOLCANIC FORMATIONS—GEOLOGY—EXTENT—
POPULATION.

General Survey.—Like the other great continental masses in
the northern hemisphere, Asia is continued seawards at its south-
eastern extremity by a vast insular region, which is variously known
as the EasTers, the Astaric, the Manay, and even the East [nprian
AncuireLaco. Although now too firmly established to be conveni-
ently set aside, none of these expressions can be accepted as entirely
jdequate, being either too vague, or else implying half truths, or
even suggesting erroneous views. ‘Thus, while “East Indian” can
scarcely be justified at all, it will be seen that“ Asiatic” and “Malay”
are applicable only to one section of this oceanic world ; so that,
notwithstanding its somewhat indefinite character, the title here
adopted seems on the whole the least objectionable,

It was formerly assumed that the Eastern Archipelago constituted
a homogeneous physical region, forming a natural connecting link
between Asia and Australia, or rather representing the remnants of
a continuous tract by which those continents were at one time united,
But George W. Earl and Alfred Russel Wallace, basing their induc-
tions on a more accurate knowledge of the oceanic depths and of the
geology and natural history of the islands themselves, have clearly
shown that they comprise at least two main divisions, a Western, or
*Tndo-Malayan,” and an Eastern, or “ Austro-Malayan,” which may
be safely regarded as respectively forming a southern extension of
the Asiatic, and a northern extension of the Australian continent,
A ship sailing from the head of the Gulf of Siam southwards will

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO, 109

traverse extremely shallow waters, scarcely anywhere exceeding 40
fathoms all the way to Bali, at the eastern extremity of Java, But
here the sounding line plunges suddenly into great depths, which,
beginning with the narrow passage 15 miles wide between Bali and
Lombok, are continued northwards and eastwards through Macassar
Strait and the Celébes Sea to the Pacifie Ocean, Hence the dividing
line is drawn in the same direction between Bali, Borneo, and the
Philippines on the one hand, and Lombok and Celébes on the other,
all the land ta the left or west of this line being assigned to Asia, all
the rest to Australia.

As the western (Wallace's ‘‘ Indo-Malayan") division lies mainly on a
shallow sub-marine plateau, which seldom exceeds 40, and nowhere reaches
more than 100 fathoms, and as ita flora and fauna also correspond on the
whole to those of southern Asia, it seems in every way reasonable to regard
this division as belonging to the Asiatic mainland, whether detached trom
it by subsidence, or loosely attached to it by upheaval in post-miocene
times. Jt comprises the Philippines and the Greater Sunda Islands, that
is, Borneo, Sumatra, and Java, with all the adjacent isles, together with
Bali, westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands, or considerably more than
half of the whole region.

But there are weighty reasons which militate against the view that
assigns the eastern (Wallace's “‘ Austro- Malayan”) division indiscriminately
to Australia, Here many of the islands, notably Celébes and its numerous
dependencies to the east, lie not on a submarine plateau in shallow waters,
but ina very deep inner basin, ranging from some 600 to 4000 fathoms
and upwards. In fact, the Celébes and Banda Seas, north and south of
Celébes, are by fur the deepest of all these inland waters, jointly constitut-
ing « profound abyss, in some parts over 700 miles wide, which flows from
the Indian to the North Pacific Ocean, between the Asiatic and Australian
submarine plateaux west and east, It stretches from Bali eastwards to
Timor, and even to Timor-lant, so that the 100 fathom line indicating the
extreme limits of the Australian submarine plateau runs at a comparatively
short distance from the mainland in this direction. Further east, however,
the Arafura Sea, between Australia and New Guinea, comes entirely within
these limita, and as their fauna and flora aleo largely correspond, New
Guinea and its dependencies must in any case be assigned to the Australian
world. In the same division may further be conveniently included all the
Lesser Sunda Islands except Bali, for although washed by deep seas, this
voleanic and no doubt comparatively recent group has received most of
its animal and vegetable species not from the neighbouring Asiatic, but
from the more remote Australian section. In the Austro-Malayan division
will therefore be comprise] New Guinea, with the adjacent western islands
af Waigiou, Salwatty, Mysol, Aru, &e.; and of the Lesser Sunda group,
Lombok, Sambawa, Floms, Chandana, Timor, Timor-laut, and intervening
islets.

There remains the great island of Celébes, with its immediate and more
remote eastern dependencies, Muna, Bouton, Sula, Burn, Ceram, Jilolo,
Bachian, &e., that is, the Molucea and Banda ee These occupy the

‘very centre of the Eastern.Archipelago midway between the Asiatic and

110 ' EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

Australian worlds, from which they are severed not only by some of the
deepest waters on the globe, but also by a fauna, and to a Inrge extent by
a flora, presenting a surprising number of absolutely independent forms,
Here it will suffice to mention the spices (nutmeg, clove, &c.) of the
Banda Isles, the Babirusa, or Hog-deer, the Sapi-utan (Anon depressicornis),
half ox, half antelope, and the curious maleo, or brush turkey, all peeuliar
to Celébes and adjacent isles. When it is added that Celébes forms the
eastern limit of range for the squirrel and lemur, and the western for the
cuscus, or eastern opossum of the marsupial order, and further that its
geological formation appears to be far older than that of the surrounding
voleanic Sundanese groups, the inference seems irresistible that these
islands form a separate oceanic division independent alike of the Asiatic
and Australian worlds. They appear to be the last eastern fragments of
a vanished miocene continent, to which Selater has given the name of
Lemuria, and whose farthest western extension is indicated by the great
island of Madag . Here have survived certain early organic types,
which were doubtless at one time dilfgsed over a far wider range through-
out a miocene continent, whose subsidence has made room for the more
recontly-appeared voleanic formations in the Eastern Archipelago. ‘The
comparatively modern appearance of these volcanic lands has been noticed
by all careful observers ; amongst others, by H. O, Forbes, who speaks
of fossil plants and of shells (Ostrwa and Tecten) in West Java slot
resembling those in the adjacent seas, ‘and showing that an elevation of
some 200 to 300 feet had taken place hore at a recent period."—
Naturalist's Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago, p. 63,

Volcanic Formations.—These constitute one of the largest and
moet active igneous regions in the world, sweeping in a continuous
chain from near the northern extremity of Sumatra, through Java
and all the Lesser Sunda group, eastwards to Timor and Wetter,
thence curving round to Nila (130° E. long.), and back to Burn, and
thence northwards to Tidor, Ternate, and Jilolo. Here the voleanic
belt shifts suddenly westwards to the northern extremity of Celébes,
whence it is continued northwards through Siao, Sanguir, and the
Philippines to the north end of Luzon, Yet this chain is itself but
a link in o still vaster system, which, through Formosa, Japan,
Kamehatka, the Alentian Islands, and west coast of America, encircles
the whole of the Pacific, and which may be traced at intervals round
the Indian Ocean through Barren Island (Andaman), Ramri, and
Cheduba on the Arabian coast, the submarine volcano off the
Coromandel seaboard, Kenia, Kilima-Njaro, and the Komoro Islands
in East Africa, and neighbouring waters.

In the Eastern Archipelago many of the burning mountains attain
considerable altitudes. In the Philippines and North Celébes none appear
to rise higher than 6000 or 7000 feet; but in Java and Sumatra several
have an elevation of over 10,000, while two even exceed 12,000 feet.
These, however, are not the culminating points of the whole Archipelago,

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 111

ns is generally supposed, for the granitic Kini Balun in North Borneo con-
siderably exceeds 15,500 feet. But by far the highest summits are found
in New Guinea, where some of the Owen Stanley peaks reach 13,000, and
those of the Charles Louis Mountains 17,000 or 18,000 feet above sea-level,
This is the highest land which occurs anywhere between the Himalayas in
tho west, and the Cordilleras de los Andes in the east,

Throughout the whole of the volcanic belt in the Eastern Archi-
pelago, which has a total length of not less than 5000 miles, and
which contains some sixty active and hundreds of extinct volcanoes,
earthquakes of varying intensity are still of almost constant occurrence,
These are at times accompanied by tremendous eruptions, causing
wide-spread ruin over vast spaces, and changing the very aspect of
the land. The most recent, and one of the most memorable of these
outbursts, occurred on Angust 26, 1883, when the island of Krakatao,
in the Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra, was almost blown
to pieces, both sides of the strait wasted far and wide, the surrounding
waters strewn with floating lavas for hundreds of miles, and the
atmosphere filled with such a prodigious quantity of impalpable
dust, that to it were attributed the remarkable crepuscular lights
visible im almost every part of the world for months afterwards,
Although since this event the Javanese volcanoes have been com-
paratively quiet, Smeroc, the highest in the island, and its neigh-
bours, Bromo and Lamonyon, show constant signs of disturbance.
In 1885 Smeroc overwhelmed plantations and villages with eruptive
matter, and lavas are continually flowing from Merapi, in the centre
of Java.—Van Gets,

Geology.—Throughonut the whole of the northern section of the
Archipelago, from Sumatra to the Philippines, the salient geological
features seem to resemble those of the Malayan Peninsula, where an
elevated granite axis is flanked at the base by palwozoic schists and
slates underlying detached masses of crystalline and other limestones,
"The main axis of Sumatra, running in the same direction, appears to
be also granitic, if not stanniferous, like the neighbouring islands of
Biliton, Bintang, and Banca. Im South Sumatra Forbes found
eocene tertiary rocks underlying more recent pumicestone tuffa.
Granitic insular groups, such as the Natunas, are also thickly strewn
in the “sea of the twelve thousand islands” flowing between Sumatra
and Borneo, The latter island presents the first extensive develop-
ment of stratified rocks, carbonaceous of various ages, brown and
yellow sandstones and shales, with intercalated grits and conglomer-
ates, and occasional granitic outliers. Coalfields, some evidently
much older than those of Labuan, and allied, perhaps, to the mesozoic

112 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

carboniferous formations of East Australia, are widely diffused
throughont Borneo, where gold and tin also occur in the Kinebe-
tungen basin, and diamonds in the Landak district on the west coast,

Although Luzon, Mindoro, and some of the other larger islands in the
Philippines are mainly volcanic, there are also some stratified areas with
coral and other marine fossils, probably of miocene and pliocene age, Gold
is found in Mindanao, which also contains limestones and eocene rocks,
In the Culamiane group, between Mindoro and Palawan, limestones akin
to those of the Malay Peninsula are found associated with more recent
eruptive rocks, Here the island of Coron “‘ presents to the sea a magnifi-
cent rampart of limestone cliffs and pinnacles from 600 to 1500 feet, Thi
aspect is grandly picturesque, the blnish-gray rocks, with patches of
brilliant red, yellow, pink, dark and light green, descending precipitously
into forty fathoms of water. The outline of the island is magnificently
rugged and irregular, weathered into needles and pinnacles of the most
fautastic shape, in the recesses of which there is much pale green grass,
with patches of darker jungle."—Tenison-Woods, In general the sub.
stratum of the Philippines appears to be formed of crystalline schists,
above which rise extensive eruptive rocks of an archwic type, in many
places aSteeroaly modified by the action of sulphurona emanations.—
A. F, Kenard.

New Guinea, like Borneo, occupies a quiescent area apparently quite
free from active if not from extinct volcanoes. Crystalline rocks, how-
ever, occur on the north coast, and the Arfak range behind Geelvink Bay
seems to be mainly granitic. But elsewhere stratified formations are the
prevailing finture. Horizontal sandstones weathered into fantastic forms
cover many of the islands along the south-cast coast, where some limestone
hills are found underlying auriferons quartzoge sands,

Gold, ns well os iron, tin, and copper, is also found in several parts of
Colébes, where granitic rocks no doubt largely revail, But the extreme
southern poninsula is traversed by basalt and limestone ranges, while the
extreme north-eastern point is igneous, and oceupied by several active
volcanoes, The clusters of islands at the extremities of the peninsulas,
both in Celébes and Jilolo, evidently at one time formed part of the
mainland, so that the peculiar form of these islands—a central nucleus,
with four limbs radiating to the north, south, and east—is probably due
to subsidence of the eastern valleys, now replaced by deep marine inlets.

Some of the rivers are also washed for gold in Timor, where crystalline
limestones are found interspersed with rough grey erystalline sandstones,
the latter in some places cropping out or embedded in horizontal masses
of sand and small gravel, This black shingly detritus points to a not very
remote time when the whole of East Timor formed the bed of a marine or
lacustrine basin, which was afterwards slowly upheaved, and may still be
rising. —H,. O, Forbes, From this point westwards to Java all the Lesser
Bunda Islands, except, perha totti and Sumba (Sandalwood), are
essentially volcanic, an ales of comparatively recent origin.

Extent—Population.—The Eastern Archipelago is by far the
largest insular group in the world, It contains two islands, Borneo
and New Guinea, each larger than the British Isles and France taken

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO, 1138

together ; three others, Celébes, Java, and Luzon, all as large as
Ireland ; another, Sumatra, about equal to Great Britain ; ‘‘ eighteen
more on an average as large as Jamaica; more than a hundred as
large as the Isle of Wight; isles amd islets of emaller size innumer-
able."—Wallace, Ineluding land and water, it covers a space far
larger than Europe, while the absolute extent of land cannot be
estimated at much less than 1,300,000 square miles, Stretching from
the westernmost point of Sumatra across fifty-six degrees of the
meridian (95°—151° E, long.), eastwards to the furthest extremity of
New Guinea, and from the north end of the Philippines across nearly
thirty degrees of latitude (18° N.—11° 8.) southwarda to Roti, south
of Timor, it has a total length of about 4000 miles from west to east,
and an extreme breadth of over 2000 from north to south. The
population, consisting mainly of Indonesian, Malay, and Papuan
elements, and roughly estimated at some 34,000,000, is most un-
equally distributed, considerably more than half being concentrated
in the rich and highly cultivated island of Java, while of the
remainder rather more than one half are centred in the northern
Philippine group, For the respective areas and populations of the
three great divisions—Asiatic, or Western, Oceanic, or Ceutral, and
Australian, or Eastern—the reader is referred to the Statistical
Tables.

CHAPTER II.
CLIMATE—FLORA—FAUNA,

Climate,—Intersected by the equator, about which most of the
land is disposed in nearly equal proportions between 10° N. and 10°
S. lat., the Eastern Archipelago enjoys, like all equatorial regions, an
essentially tropical climate characterised by great heat and moisture,
Owing to the generally high temperature of the surrounding waters,
and the regular recurrence of the periodical wet north-west monsoona,
these elements prevail more uniformly in this oceanic world than in
any other part of the globe. But the south-east monsoon, which
comes from the arid plains of Australia, and lasts from March to
November, is necessarily of a somewhat dry character. Hence the
islands exposed to its influence, that is, the Lesser Sundanese

I

114 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY,

group, with the eastern extremity of Java, are drier than other
parts of the Archipelago, That this contrast is due to the in-
fluence of the Australian continent appears. evident from the fact,
that here the rainfall increases in abundance according as we proceed
from Timor westwards to Java, the greater part of which island
comes within the range of the wet monsoons from the Indian Ocean.
Fast of Java and Bali very little moisture is precipitated during the
prevalence of the south-eastern trade winds, and “ towards the latter
end of this dry season the drought is so great that many streams dry
up, and most of the trees lose their leaves, The heat is then intense ;
and were it not that the nights are cool and the breeze always blow-
ing, the climate would approach in severity that of Australia itself.”
—Wallace,

In Sumatra also great heats prevail, especially on the extensive
open plains, such as that of Pertibi in the Batta country, which are
exposed for months together to dry seorching winds, raising the
temperature to 95" or 97° in the shade. But in Java the glass seldom
Tises above 90° FY. even at Batavia, while on the uplands from 3000
to 5000 feet it ranges from 50° to little over 70° throughout the year.
Java, however, suffers at times from long droughts, followed by
excessive rains, causing disastrous inundations in one part of the
country, While other places are suffering from an absolute want of
water. This anomaly is attributed to the monsoons, which blow
irregularly, and which cause more anxiety to the Javanese than their
ever restless voleanoes.—Van Getins. At Manilla in the Philippines,
with a heavy rainfall of 98 or 100 inches, the variations of tempera-
ture are limited to 72° and 95° F., the greatest heats oceurring in the
months between April and August. The northern parts of these
islands are exposed to the south-west and to the still more violent
north-east monsoons, the changes in the direction of these winds
being accompanied by terrific typhoons, which are most dreaded in
October, but which never reach further south than about 10° N, lat.
Hence the numerous inner seas separating the various secondary
archipelagocs—the Celébes Sea, |between Mindanao, Borneo, and
Celébes, the Banda Sea, between Ceram and Timor, the Java Sea,
between Java and Borneo, the Arafura Sea, between New Guinea
and Australia—are mostly still-water basins, freely navigated in their
open praus by the Malays, Bugis, Sundanese, and other seafaring
populations,

The climate of North Borneo ia also described by Dr. Walker as
remarkable especially for its equable character and the absence of extremes,

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 115

The temperature, rainfall, winds, natural phenomena generally, and the
disenses, are, for a tropical country, of the most mild and temperate types.
The country is visited by the regular monsoons at the ordinary times ; the
tainfall near the coast ranging from 156 to 101, and averaging 124 inches,
and the temperature lying between 67° and 94° F. As might be expected,
there are neither typhoons nor earthquakes, the only present indication of
volcanic action being a hot spring reported to exist in an islet off the coast,—
North Borneo Herat, July, 1886.

Flora and Fauna.—Thanks to its position in the midst of a vast
sea heated by the tropical sun, the Eastern Archipelago presents almost
everywhere the aspect of a forest region overgrown with a rich and
varied vegetation, from sea-level to the summits of its highest mountain
ranges, ‘This is mainly true of Sumatra, Borneo, the Philippines, the
Moluecas, and New Guinea, as well as Java and Celébes, in all their
unreclaimed districts. The chief exceptions are Timor and the
Lesser Sunda group, where forest tracts are rather the exception than
the rule, a contrast sufficiently explained by the proximity of the
Australian mainland, and the hot, dry south-east winds blowing from
that region for the greater part of the year,

Another and more striking contrast is that presented by the
vegetable forms respectively characteristic of the <Asintic and
Australian divisions of the Archipelago, Here all resemblance and
analogy cease abruptly, a narrow marine channel being sufficient to
separate the two organic worlds in some places, and notably between
Bali and Lombok, where the Asiatic sub-marine tableland suddenly
CensEs,

Nor is the contrast limited to the vegetation, but also extends to
the animal kingdom, and even in some respects to man himeelf.
The elephant and tapir of Sumatra and Borneo, the rhinoceros of
Borneo, and the allied Javanese species are also found in the neigh-
bouring Asiatic lands, pointing to a time when these great islands
still formed part of the continent. These analogies, which extend to
birds and insects, may also be traced as far as the Philippines,
ulthough here longer isolation has greatly diminished resemblances
and intensified divergencies,

But when we pass over to the Australian division all is different,
and the contrasts lecome more marked at every step, Here no
elephants, no members of the canine and feline groups, no urangs,
gibbons, or other apes, no deer, sheep, or oxen, in a word, no large
maminals of any sort; but in their place the lower mammals and
marsupials, or pouched animals, of which the kangaroo is typical,
Here also the lorie and.flying fox, and still more curious ornitho-

Iz

116 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

rhynchus, half bird half mammal, all common to New Guinea and
neighbouring islands, and extending through Timor and the Lesser
Sundanese isles to Bali, where the Australian fauna ceases and the
Asiatic begins,

As already remarked by Wallace, these at contrasts are entirely
independent of climate, which is nearly the same everywhere, The
sudden changes in the organic world must be traced back to former changes
in the distribution of land and water, for they take place without any
corresponding modifications of the present environment. They are even
independent of the volcanic belt, which strikes across both sections without
determining any appreciable differences in their living forms. Borneo and
New Guinea, again, both belong to quiescent or non-voleanic areas, and
both are exposed to the same climatic conditions, Yet the contrast
between their animal and vegetable species is extreme.

Fresh contrasts in the Oceanic division of the Archipelago, where the
plants, and still more the fauna, present numerous types absolutely dis-
tinct from those both of the Asiatic and Australian divisions, Reference
has already been made to the spices of the Moluccas, which, however,
appear at some remote period to have invaded the Indo-Chinese Peninsula.
But there are no counterparts anywhere to be found to the Babirusa, Sapi-
utan, and Maleo of Celébes. In the same island Wallace finds 80 out of
128 species of birds, 11 out of 14 terrestrial mammals, 86 out of 118
buttertlies, and a very large number of beetles quite peculiar, and occurring
nowhere else in the archipelago, ‘* The student of geographical distribu-
tion,” observes this distinguished naturalist, “must see in the extra-
ordinary and isolated productions of Celébes proofs of the former existence
of some continent, whence the ancestors of these creatures and of many
pbs intermediate forms could have been derived."—Malay Archipelayo,
ch. xviii.

CHAPTER III.
INHABITANTS —M ALAYS—INDONESIANS—NEGRITOES—PAPUANS, _

To some extent the distribution of the human races throughout
the archipelago conforms to that of the lower organisms, Thus the
light ‘types, of undoubted Asiatic origin, have their home in the
Asiatic or western, the dark in the Anstralian or eastern, division.
But the former, being more intelligent and enterprising, have some-
what encroached upon the domain of the latter. Hence the dividing
line between the two has been shifted considerably to the east, and
is drawn by Wallace in such a way as to transfer Lombok, Sumbawa,
Celébes, parts of Burn and Jilolo, with Tidore and Ternate, from the

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 117

eastern to the western division. But all along the frontiers of both
worlds there are blendings, overlappings, and intermixtures of all
sorts, While in the Philippines, in other respects mainly Asiatic, the
aboriginal clement was clearly not light but dark. It is obvious that
man appeared much too late on the scene to be affected by the
original distribution of land and water; as, for instance, in miocene
times. Hence the Oceanic division cannot here be taken into
account, and the presence of a dark people so far west as the
Andaman Islands, and till quite recently also in Java, might lead
us to suppose that the whole area was originally the exclusive
domain of this race, On this supposition the light-coloured people
would have to be regarded as everywhere intruders from the Asiatic
mainland, a conclusion which seems also to be justified on broader
anthropological considerations, In general it may be assumed that
the dark is the aboriginal, the light the intrnding clement through-
wut the whole of the Oceanic world, smd consequently also in the
Eastern Archipelago.

It is commonly supposed that this region is at present occupied
by one light and one dark race only—the Matays in the west and
the Parvans in the cast, But more careful observation has recently
shown that these are only the predominant races, and that beneath
them are two others, also respectively light and dark—the Lynone-
SIANS in the west, and the NeGRiTors, now restricted to the Philip-
pines, and perhaps to some parts of New Guinea.

The Malays.—The affinities, general characteristics, and range
of the Malay peoples have been somewhat fully discussed in the first
part of this work, and here it will be sufficient to determine their
position in the Eastern Archipelago. The Orang Maldyu, or typical
Malays, who speak the standard Malay language, and who everywhere
Tecognise themselves as belonging to a distinct nationality, are
centred chiefly in the southern parts of Sumatra. Here alone they
form large and compact communities, such as those of Menangkibau
und Palembang ; here they first rose from the condition of rude and
savage tribes, developing a national culture under Hindu and more
recently under Mohammedan influences; here, therefore, is the
true home of the Oceanic as opposed to the continental Malays, and
from this region they spread with the growth of trade and navigation
to various other parts of the insular world, which from them often
takes the name of the Malay Archipelago. Beyond South Sumatra
they are at present found settled chiefly round the coast of Borneo ;
in Tidore, Ternati, and opposite coast of Jilolo; in Batavia, Singa-

118 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

pore, and all the large seaports of the archipelago ; lastly, at a few
trading stations in Western New Guinea.

The so-called ‘ High” or Standard Malay language has also been the
chief medium of trade and general intercourse throughout the Eastern
Archipelago, at least for the last four hundred years, This was due, not
to any superiority of the Orang Maliyu over other members of the Malay
family, bat partly to the rapid spread in recent times of the Mohammedan
religion through arr traders and missionaries, partly to the softness and
simplicity of the Malay language itself. The adoption of the general
Arabic character, however otherwise unsuitable, was also a point in its
favour, and it thus ultimately superseded the Javanese, Macassar, Bugis,
and all other claimants for supremacy in the archipelago.

It is noteworthy that, with the exception of the Malays proper, all the
cultured Malayan peoples, such as the vainnes of Sumatra, the Javanese,
the Bugis of Celébes, and even the Tagalas of the Philippine Islands, make
use of peculiar writing systems, which are certainly antecedent to the
introduction of the Arabic lotters by the Mohammedans, While peal
greatly in appearance, the alphabets resemble each other in their gene
characteristics, all running from left to right in horizontal lines, and being
somewhat of a syllabic type: This points at a common origin of these
orthographic systems, which have in fact been traced to an Indian source.
The prototype are ey the Buddhist letters as seen espocially on tho
rock inscriptions of King Asoka, dating from about the tied century B.C,

To the same fundamental Malay stock belong several other groupe,
which have had an independent historic evolution, which speak
languages more or less intimately connected with the common Malay
speech, and which in their physical appearance still betray their
common descent from the Mongoloid peoples of Southern Asia, All
stand thos related to cach other much in the same way, for instance,
as the various members of the Aryan family are related one to the
other. They form the bulk of the population in North Sumatra,
Java, the Lesser Sunda Isles as far as Sumbava, Celébes, the Philip-
pine and Sulu Archipelagoes. Thus are constituted altogether five
more or less distinct Malayan groups, whieh may be tabulated as under :

Orang Maldyu (Malays Proper): Menangkibau, Palembang,
and Lampong in Sumatra ; Rhio-Lingga Isles ; Singapore, Bintang,
Lingen, Banca, Biliton, Bornean Seahoard, Tidore Ternate, and
Weet Jilolo, scattered communities in all the trading places through-
out the Archipelago,

Sumatran Group: Atjinese, Rejangs, Passumahs.

Javanese Group: Javanese proper, Sundanese (West Java),
Madurese, Balinese, with the natives of Lombok, who eall themselves
Sasuks,

Celébes Group: Bugis, Mangkassaras, and others in Cel@bes,
Muna, Bouton, Sumbawa, Sula (7).

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 119

Philippine Group: Tagalus, Bisayas, and others of the Philip-
pines, the natives of Palawan and the Sulu Islands,

In all these the distinctly Malay physical decidedly predominates,
They are not, however, to be regarded as subordinate members of the
Malays proper, but rather as independent branches of the common Malay
stock. The Javanese group especially boasts a far older and far higher
civilisation even than that of the Menangkihan Malays, <Althongh now
mostly Mahommedans, they had already adopted some form of Hinduism,

robably three or four centuries before the new era, and under Indian
influences had developed a very advanced state of culture nearly two
thousand years ngo, that is, at a time when the oldest of the Orang
Maliyu were still little removed from the savage state. Under a com-
pletely organised although despotic government, the arts of peace and war
were brought to considerable perfection, and the natives of Java became
famous throughout the East os nccomplished musicians and workers in
mold, iran, and copper, none of which metale were found in the island
iteelf. They possessed; a regular calendar with astronomical eras, and a
metrical literature, in which, however, history was inextricably blended
with romance. Bronze and stone inscriptionsin the hawi, or old Javanese
language, still survive from the 11th or 12th century, and to the same dates
may be referred the vast ruins of Braibanan and the stupendous temple
of Horo-budor in the centre of the island. There are no statues of Hindu
divinities in this temple, but many are found in its immediate vicinity,
and from the various archeological objects collected in this district, and
illustrated by A.B. Meyer of Dresden, it is evident that both the Budd-
hist and Braliniinieal forms of Hinduism were introduced at an early date,
But all came to an end by the overthrow of the chief Hindu power in
1478, after which event Isliim rapidly spread over the whole of Java and
Madura. Brahminiem, however, still holds ite ground in Bali and Lom-
boh, the Inst strongholds of Hinduism in the Eastern Archipelago,

From the Malayan groups must carefully be distinguished —

The Indonesians, who, although usually grouped with the Malay
branch of the yellow Mongolic division of mankind, present rather
the fair or light brown complexion and regular features character-
istic of the Cunensic races, Such are the Battak in North Sumatra ;
the Kubus and Passumahs in Central and South Sumatra ; the Ment-
awey Islanders, west coast of Sumatra; the Baliddpie: of North
Borneo ; probably most of the indigenous inhabitants of Celébes ; the
Gulelas of North Jilolo ; many of the natives of Burn, Ceram, Savu,
and Rotti ; some of the Philippine Islanders, and the red-haired com-
munity recently met by H. 0. Forbes in East Timor. They are
everywhere found in the more inaccessible districts, and oceupy a
uniformly lower state of culture than the Malays, whom they appear
to have preceded in the archipelago. Hence the term “ Pre-Malay ™
applied to them by Dr. Hamy, although “ Indonesian,” originally
suggested in a somewhnt different sense by Logan, seems to be a

120 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

more suitable designation. It serves to connect them with the ©
brown Polynesians of the Eastern Pacific (Samoa, Tahiti, Hawaii,
Tonga, Maori, &e.), who may be regarded as their deseendants.

The relations of these two now widely-severed branches of the light-
coloured Oveanic peoples become more and more evident according as more
accurate knowledge is accumulated regarding them. Typical Indonesians
are the Mentawey islanders, of whom Von Rosenberg remarks, that ‘‘as
regards physical appearance, speech, customs, and usages they stand almost
quite apart, They bear such a decided stamp of a Polynesian tribe, that
one feels far more inclined to compare them with the natives of the South
Sea Islands."—Malay Archipelago, 1. p. 189. These and the other Indon-
esians are described as of a somewhat light ruddy-brown and even fair
complexion, with long wavy or curly hair, black or inclining to a brown
hada: beard often fairly developed, well-modelled torse, large museular
frame, rather above the middle size, dolichoeephalic, or long head, full,
open, and horizontal eyes, high forehead, straight nose, and regular, oval
features. “This description at once separates them from the low-sized,
round-headed, oblique-cyed, lank-haired, short-nosed, yellow Mongoloid
Malays, and seems to affiliate them, on the one hand, to the large, brown,
eastern Polynesians, on the other, to the swarthy or fair and regular-
featured western Caueasie peoples. ‘To secount for these resemblances it is
only necessary to assume a remote migration of the Caneasic race to south-
eastern Asia, of which evidences are not lacking in Camboja and else-
where, and a farther onward movement, first south to the archipelago, and
thence enst to the Pacific, The problem is fully discussed in A. H.
Keane's Helations of tha Jucdo-Chtnese and Jnter-Geeanie Faces ana
Languages,

Negritoes.—The Negritoes, that is, in Spanish, “ Little Negroes,”
are now confined mainly to the Philippines, and even here survive
only in the five large islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Panay, Negros,
and Mindano, numbering altogether probably not more than 20,000
souls, They are collectively known by the name of Aéta, or Ita,
which in Tagala means “ black,” answering to the Malay Hétam,
Their affinities are with the Samangs of the Malay Peninsula, the
Andamanese Islanders, the Karons of New Guinea, and the Badui
and Kalangs of Java, with whom they have in common a dwartish
stature, seldom exceeding four feet six or seven inches, a brachy-
cephalic or round skull, very short frizzly or woolly hair, said to
grow in separate tufts (7), short nose, thickish lips, and generally a
somewhat infantile Negroid expression, Further exploration may
reveal the existence of true Negrito tribes in Celébes, Jilolo, Timor,
and Borneo, although it now appears that none survive in Formosa,
where their presence had long been suspected, De Quatrefages finds
traces of a Negrito element in Southern India, on the slopes of the
HimAlayas, and as far west as Sistan on the Perso-Afehdn frontier,

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO, 121

But in any case their survival at such widely separated points as the
Adamans, the Philippines, and New Guinea seems to justify the
commonly-received opinion that they are the scattered fragments of
an aboriginal dwarfish Negro race, formerly diffused over the Eastern
Archipelago and adjacent Asiatic seaboard, Before the total sub-
sidence of the Lemurian continent, their range may have even
extended to Africa, where dwarfish Negroid peoples, such as the
Akkas, Obongos, and Bushmen also still represent the disjecta
membre of a primitive black pigmy element at one time spread over
4 great part of the African mainland,

Characteristic of the Avtas, as of all.Negrito peoples, is an extremely
low stage of culture, which has never advanced beyond the hunting and
fishing state. They have no fixed abodes, or any dwellings beyond frail
structures of branches and brushwood ; their weapons are the bow and
poisoned arrow; their food the products of the chase, roots, berries, and
vermin ; their costume necklets and armlets of beads and shells, Where
nnaffected by Malay influences, their speech appears to be extremely rude
and undeveloped, broken into as many mutually unintelligible dialects as
there are tribes, and incapable of expressing any abstract ideas. But the
only Negrito language of which we have any adequate Eolas is the
Andamanese, which has been carefully studied by Mr. Man. Religious
notions are restricted to a dread of the surrounding spirits, which are
endowed with human faculties, though more powerful than ordinary
mortals, They lurk in the recesses of the hills, and flitabout in the gloomy
forests, shaking the ground when angry, causing yoleanic outbursts, and
bringing down the lightning from henven. Of an after life there is no
thought, of the past no knowledge, all care being absorbed in the imme-
dinate present.

The Papuans.—The parallelism above suggested between the
African and Oceanic Negritoes applies with even greater force to the
African and Oceanic Negroes. The latter, familiarly known as
Papuans, from the Malay papéiwak = frizzled, in reference to their
characteristic “ mop-heads,” are essentially a negro race, whose diffu-
sion eastwards to the Pacific can also be best explained by the theory
of a Lemurian continent, or at least a chain of Lemurian islands
stretching across the Indian Ocean down to late tertiary times. The
disappearance of these lands, except at the two extremities, Madagascar
and Celé@bes, necessarily broke up the Negro family into two great
sections, and the separation took place ata sufficiently remote epoch
to account for the comparatively slight subsequent divergence of the
Western and Eastern types. This is perceptible chiefly in the nose
and mouth, which in the African have mostly retained the primitive
negro characteristics, but in the Papuan have become somewhat more
shapely and more conformable to a higher standard of physical

13% EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

beauty. The Papnan nose is long, regular, arched or aquiline rather
than concave, and tipped downward at the base rather than upturned.
The nostrils also are narrower, the lips thinner and less protruding
than those of the African Negro. In most other respects the types
are similar, the Papuan having, like his Western congener, a long
head, woolly hatr, medium stature, or rather above the average, con-
siderable muscular vigour, a light, cheerful disposition, and also
unfortunately a decided taste for human flesh,

The preseht Papuan domain stretches across sixty degrees of the merid-
jan (120°—180° E.), from the island of Flores (Sunda group) to the Fijian
Archipelago, and lies mostly between the equator and the Tropic of Capri-
corm. It thus comprises most of the islands east of Celébes, New Guinea,
with all the adjacent groups (Key, Aru, Weiges the Lonisiade Isles,
New Britain, New Zealand, and the whole of Melanesia (Solomon, New
Hebrides, New Caledonin, Loyalty, and Fiji Islands). In the Eastern
Archipelago the dark populations between Flores and New Guinea are
seldom of a pure Papuan type, almost everywhere betraying evidences of
intermixture with the surrounding Malayan and Indonesian pooples.
Hence they are called, '* Negro-Malays" by Crawford, who, however,
unnecessarily regards them, not as the outcome of a fusion of these two
elements, but as on separate race distinet from both. To them many writers
apply the term “ Alfuro,” which is written in « variety of ways (Arfuro,
Arafura, whence the Arafura Sea, &c,), but which has no real ethnological
significance at all, In the mouth of a Malay “ Alfaro" means sina
wild, uncivilised, pagan, hence is indiscriminately applied to all unsettled,
non-Mohammodan tribes at a lower stago of culture than the ordinary
Mulayan standard irrespective altogether of racial differences. The Galelns,
for instance, of Jilolo, are “* Alfuros,” although, so far from being dark,
they are a distinctly fair people of almost Cancasic type.

In the Papuan islands are current a very large number of languages,
many of which also afford clear proof of Malayan influences, The numer-
als and words connected with trale, the arts, and industries are mostly of
Malay origin. But the substratum is certainly distinct, as shown in the
harsher phonetic system, the totally different structure, and the Jar
number of independent terms expressing simple primitive ideas, The
Malayo-Polynesian tongues certainly stretch from Madagnsear across the
two oceans eastward to Faster Island, and are spoken not only by moat of the
Indonesians in the Eastern Archipelago, but aleo by nearly al the Melan-
esians, or Papuans, of the Pacific, But it is not to be supposed, with Mr.
Codrington, that, excluding Australia and the Nogritocs, there are no
other stock languages in this vast watery domain. The exploration of New
Guinea and Bornes, scarcely yet seriously begun, will probably bring to
light many fandamental forms of speech, and enough is known of the idioms
current amongst the Papunn natives of Timor, Aru, Mysol, Nufor (Geel-
wink Bay) to show that several languages radically distinet from Malayo-
Polynesian still survive in the Eastern Archipelago,

The Papuan populations have been carefully studied in recent times,
especially by Wallace, A. 3. Meyer, H. O. Forbes, and Miklukho-Maelay,
From the varying and occasionally even contradictory statements of these
and other observers it is evident that, with a certain general uniformity of

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 1238

physical type and mental qualities, there prevails a considerable diversity
in the appearance, social usages, aml general culture of the various branches
of this race. Such discrepancies are to bo attributed partly to the wide
range occupied by them, but much more to the influence of the Malays,
Polynesians, and other peoples with whom they have been in contact from
the remotest times, especially on the smaller islands and around the sea-
board of New Guinea. Thus it happens that while some are described as
fairly intelligent, skilled hushandmen, endowed with some artistic taste
shown 4 eaigge in their curious wood-carvings, and altogether enjoying o
considerable degree of culture, others appear to be very little or not at
all removed from the purely savage state, land and sea nomads living
entirely on the products of the chase, or on captives taken in the triba

wars, without fixed habitations, and ignorant of the most rudimentary arts.
Miklnkho-Maclay resided some time a few years ago amongst some com-
munitios on the north-west coast of New Guinea, who hod no knowledge
of the metals, all their implements being made of stone, bones, and wood.
They did not even know how to make fire, so that when extinguished in a
hut it had to be brought from another, or from a neighbouring village if
extinguished in all the huts of the tribe at once, Their grandfathers told
them of a time when they had no fire, and ate their food quite raw, They
do not bury their dead, but place them in a sitting position covered with
leaves of the cocoa-palm, the wife keeping a fire close to the corpse for twa
or three weeks till it is quite dried,

But apart from extremes, Wallace's classical description of the average
Papuan may be accepted as fairly aceurate. ‘Tho moral characteristics
of the Papuan appear to separate him as distinctly from the Malay og do
his form and features. He is impulsive and demonstrative in speech and
action. His emotions and passions express themselves in shouts awd
laughter, in yells and frantic leapings. Women and children take their
share in every discussion, and seem little alarmed at the sight of strangers
and Europeans, Of the intellect of this mee it is very difficult to judge,
but I am inclined to rate it somewhat higher than that of the Malays,
notwithstanding the fact that the Papuans have never yet mode any
advance towards civilisation, The Papuan has much more vital energy,
which would certainly greatly assist his intellectual development. Papuan
slaves show no inferiority of intellect compared with Mulays, but rather
the contrary, and in the Moluceas they are often promoted to places of
considerable trust, The Papuan has greater feeling for art than the Malay.
He decorates his canoe, his house, and almost every domestic utensil with
elaborate carvings, a habit which is rarely found among tribes of the Malay
race,"—Malay Archipelago, ch. xl, Forbes also apenks of the high artistic
ability of the Timor-laut Papuans, “very deft-fingered and clever carvers
of wood and ivory, The figure-heads of their outrigger praus, dug out of
single trees, especially attract attention by the excellence of the workman-
ship, carefully and patiently executed, and the elegance of their furnish-
ings ; while the whole length of their houses are also most elaborately
carved with intricate patterns and representations of crocodiles and other
animals, Their appreciation of beauty is # characteristic of them, which,
absolutely wanting in the Malay people, 1 was surprised to find among a
less advanced race."—4 Natwralist's Wanderings, p. 317.

Of foreign nations by far the most numerous and socially influen-
tial are the Cutsese, who are numerous especially in Sumatra, Java,

124 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY,

Borneo, and the Philippines, They find employment as miners and
cultivators in Borneo, as petty dealers and labourers in all the large
coust towns, and as traders and seafarers almost everywhere, But
although a large share of the general commercial movement is in
their hands, and although their relations with the archipelago are of
long standing, they appear to have formed very few settled commu-
nities of a permanent character beyond Singapore and the Malay
Peninsula. Even where alliances of a more or less temporary
nature are formed with the native women, their chief ambition is
to make enough money to retire and spend their remaining years
amongst their friends at home, Even when these hopes are thwarted
by the incurable national vice of gambling, they still endeavour to
leave sufficient to have their bodies brought back for burial in their
native land. Hence the fears at one time entertained that the archi-
pelago might become an Oceanic China are not likely to be realised.

Next in importance are the Kitxes (Telingas) from the Madras Presi-
dency, whose position in the archipelago is somewhat analogous but less
commanding than that of the Banians of Bombay in Zanzibar and the other
trading places round the shores of the Indian Ocean. Some Arab com-
munities are also found at various peints, as in the Sulu Islands, where
M. Montano recently met a small group of nearly pure arabs, but so
long settled in the country that they had lost all memory of their distant
homes.—La Nature, April, 1880. The Europeans, political masters of the
whole region, are nowhere numerous, and nowhere form permanent settle-
ments in these tropical lands. They belong almost exclusively to the
official and military classes, and, like the Chinese, hasten to quit the
country as soon as they become entitled to retiring pensions,

CHAPTER IV.

GCROGRAPHICAL AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS—DOTCH, SPANISH, EXGLISH,
GERMAN, ASD PORTUGUESE TERRITORIES—asIATIC, OCEANIC, AND
AUSTRALIAN NATURAL DIVISIONS.

PorricaLty the whole of the Eastern Archipelago is distributed
amongst the five European States of Holland, Spain, Great Britain,
Germany, and Portugal. Some districts, such as parta of North
Sumatra, Borneo, Celébes, and New Guinea, are no doubt practically
beyond the control of any forcign power; but their autonomy is
scarcely anywhere recognised, so that for administrative purposes
the archipelago must be regarded as a dependency of Europe, The

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 125

distribution, however, is effected in an extremely irregular manner,
for while Portugal claims only a section of the comparatively unim-
portant island of Timor, the preponderance of Holland is so great,
that the expression “ Dutch East Indies” might almost be applied to
the whole region in the same way that “ British India ” is understood
to comprise the whole of the Indian Peninsula. On the other hand,
the political arrangement so completely over-rides all natural or
physical considerations, that it cannot be attended to in any intelli-
gible description of this insular world. To do so, Borneo and Timor,
for instance, would have to be treated under two, and New Guinea
under no less than three separate heads. Hence in the subjoined
detailed account of the archipelago the three geographical divisions—
Asiatic, Australian, and Oceanic, as explained in chapter L, will be
adhered to, political interests being consulted by the full tabulated
statements of the several European possessions, which will be found
in the statistical tables. In supplement to these tables it may here
be stated, in a general way, that to Spain belong exclusively and
solely the Philippine and Sulu groups; to England the northern
section of Borneo, the islet of Laluwan off the North Bornean Coast,
Keeling Islands, and the south-eastern section of New Guinea east of
the 141° E. longitude ; to Germany the north-eastern section of New
Guinea east of the same meridian; to Portugal the eastern and
smaller section of Timor; to Holland all the rest. The relative extent
and population of these possessions are ns under :—

Area in 8q. Miles. Population.
Dutch . ; . 740,000 27,429,000
Spanish ‘ : 115,000 6,636,000
British - ‘ 113,000 291,000
German... 70,000 109,000
Portuguese , : 6,000 300,000

Total 1,044,000 ‘otal — 33,765,000

1. ASLATIC DIVISION.
The Large Sunda Group, with Bali and islands adjacent to Sumatra
—The Philippine and Sulu Archipelagoes.

Tus division, comprising considerably more than half of the
Eastern Archipelago, or about 570,000 square miles, lies mainly in
shallow waters, seldom exceeding 100 fathoms, except towards the
north-east. Here a deep trough in the China Sea, combined with

126 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

other indications, showa that the Philippines were detached from the
Asiatic mainland at a much more remote geological epoch than the
large Sunda group, that is, the great islands of Borneo, Sumatra, and
Java. The shores of these insular masses facing the Malay Penin-
sula and Indo-China are elsewhere washed by shallow inland geas,
which were probably dry land so recently as early pleistocene times.
But on the opposite sides great depths are soon reached, so that the
original Asiatic coastline is indicated by the chain of the Nias and
Mentawey islands running parallel with the west coast of Sumatra,
and thence by a line drawn within twenty miles of the South Javan-
ese and East Bornean seaboards, All the lands enclosed by this
curved line rest upon a submarine plateau with a mean depth of
little over thirty fathoms, so that a slight upheaval of about 200 feet
would suffice again to connect them with the mainland, to which
their geological and biological features also show that they originally
belonged,

BORNEO.

Borneo, the most central and next to New Guinea the largest
island in the Eastern Archipelago, has no general native designation,
althongh by the Malays sometimes called Tanah or Pulaw Kelé-
mantan, “Land or Island of the Mango.” The name by which it
has been known to Europeans since its discovery is merely a corrupt
form of Bréinei (Briinai, Britni), capital of a still existing Malay
State on the north-west coast, which was the first place visited by
the Magellan expedition in 1521, tis nearly bisected by the equator,
lying between 7° N. and 4° 5. lat., 109°—119° E, long,, with the China
Sea to the north and west, Macassar Strait to the east, and the Java
Sea on the south. Its greatest length, 690 miles, is almost exactly
indicated by the 115th meridian running from Point Sampan-Mangio
at Marfidar Bay southwards to Tanjong Selatan near the Banjer
River in the Banjer-Massin Residency. Its greatest breadth, 605
miles, lies in lat, 1° N. between the mouth of the Sambas river below
Sarawak and Point Kanyungan in Macassar Strait, It presents a
somewhat massive quadrangular form unlike that of any other large
island in the world, with a total area of 263,000 square miles as
measured on Brinkman’s large map of 1879, but by other authorities
estimated as high as 290,000 and even 300,000 square miles, The
estimates of the population, based largely on mere conjecture, present
still greater discrepancies, varying from about 1,750,000 to 2,500,000
and upwards.

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 127

With a somewhat irregular coast-line of over 2000 miles, but less
indented than that of most other large islands in the archipelago,
Borneo offers few spacious bays or deep-water havens, except in the
north, where the seaboard is higher and more abrupt. Elsewhere
the shores are mostly fringed by a broad margin of low-lying and
marshy lands from 30 to 50 miles wide, mainly of recent alluvial
formation. New land, as in Landak on the west side, is known to
have been gained from the sea during the last four hundred years,
and the coust-line appears from other signs to be extending seawards,

The generally uniform outlines are relieved chiefly by Datu
Bight on the west; Brunei and Mariidu Bays with Kudat harbour
om the north; Paitun, Labuk, and Darvel Bays with Sandikan
harbour in the extreme north-west ; Adang, Pamukan, and Klum-
pang Bays on the west, and Sampit Bay on the south coast, The
most conspicuous headlands are Capes Datu, Sirak, and Baram on
the east side; Sampan-Mangio and Unsang on the north; Kan-
yungan on the east ; Sungei-Bharu, Malang-Layer, Flat Point, and
Samba on the south.

There are few important islands on the Bornean seaboard, those
which formerly existed having apparently been joined to the main-
land by the process of upheaval, or creation of new alluvial land now
going on, The largest are Pulau Lant, close to the south-east coast ;
Caramata, which gives its name to the channel between the south-
west coast and Billiton ; the Tambilan and Natuna groups far to sea-
ward of the west coast; Banguey (Banggi) and Balambangan, ten
miles from the northern extremity of Borneo. Some historic interest
attaches to Balambangan, where the East India Company made its
earliest settlement in these waters in 1763, over twenty years before
the oecupation of Pinang. Since the recent creation of British North
Borneo, Balambangan has again become British territory.

Of the interior of Borneo a large part still remains to be explored,
60 that of its general configuration little is known beyond the more
salient features. The mountain system seems to be so disposed that,
were the land submerged a few hundred feet, it would present some-
what the same curious outlines as the more westerly islands of Celébes
and Jilolo, From a central nucleus lying much nearer the west than
the east coast there radiate north, east, and south four main ranges,
enclosing three broad plains, or slightly elevated tablelands, corre-
sponding to the three great marine inlets on the east side of Celébes,

Under the various names of Kelingkang (Bayang-Miut), Madi,
and Anga-Anga, the largest and loftiest of these ranges traverses

128 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY,

Borneo from Cape Datu on the west coast to Mount Kina Balu
(13,698 feet 1) in the extreme north-east, which is usually supposed to
be the culminating point of the whole island. But Carl Bock heard
from the Kiitei Dyaks of a great central chain called the Tibang,
which is the common source of the Kapuas, Mahakkam, and other
great rivers, and which may contain peaks higher even than Kina
Balu. ‘This explorer also heard of a Mount Tepu-Puran, “so high
that it is said to be within a trifle of reaching heaven,"— Headd-
Hunters of Borneo, p. 176,

From the central nucleus diverge other ranges, such as Kaminting
southwards, Sakiiru and Meritu towards the south-east, enclosing
wide lowland plains and in some parts rising to a height of 6000
feet. The prevailing rocks are limestone, slate, sandstone conglom-
erates, and on the mountain tops syenitic granite, Of active volea-
novs there is no trace, although the southern and western coasts are
little over 200 miles distant from the great voleanic belt passing
through Sumatra and Java. Many of the Bornean peaks, however,
bear distinct evidence of former igneous activity, and some of the
cones appear to have been regular craters in remote geological times.
They were probably active during the paleozoic and early mesozoic
periods, to which Mr, Tenison-Woods refers the vast coal measures
forming « leading geological feature of the island.

“There are few countries in the world,” says this naturalist, ‘except,
poraps, Fastern Australian, where coal is so extensively developed as in
orneo, Thick seams crop out in innumerable places on the coast and on
the banks of the rivers. In some of the streams of North Borneo | have
secon water-worn and rounded fragments of coal forming the entire shingle
of the channel. In some places, again, there are outerops with scams of
coal twenty-six feet thick. The coal-formation is the one prevail-

ing rock of the coast. It forms the principal outcrop at Sariwak ; at
Labuan, also, no other rock can be seen, AIL the grand scenery of the
entrance to the port of Gaya is made up of escarpment of coal rocks. At
Kirdat it is the same, and so I might go on with a long list of coal-hear-
ing localities."—Nature, April 23,1885. In many places the coal is of
excellent quality, quite bituminous and not brittle, and the mines now
being worked by two Scotchmen in the Brunei district are of great value.
‘Other mineral products are gold, occurring espocially in the weat (Sari-
wak, Sambas, and Pontifinak), antimony found in t abtindance in
Sarawak, mercury and iron, the latter in Kiitei and elsewhere: lastly,
diamonds in Sariwak, Pontijinak, Landak, and Martapira, Borneo is the
only island of the archipelago which has yielded these crystals, the largest
in the world being one of $67 carats, if it be a gennine diamond, belonging
to the Rajah of Matan. The doubt which rests on this famous stone is due
to the fact that its owner will not have it cut, and refuses to submit it to
tho examination of experts. It was found about the year 1787 in the

THE. EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 129

Landak mines near the west coast, which are amongst the oldest and most
productive in the world.

Rivers.—Porneo is abundantly supplied with rivers, which may
be disposed im five main fluvial basins, Of these the least extensive
comprises the north-western slope of the Kelingkang range, draining
the Bronei and Sariwak districts through the Tewfran and Tamp4-
ank rivers, having their sources in Kina Balu; the Limbang (Bru-
nei), Baram, Bintilu, Rejang (navigable for 140 miles), Seribas,
Batang-Lupar, and Sariwak. But by far the largest rivers are
those of the south-western basin, where the Kapfas, rising in 114°
FE. long., reaches the coast between Mempawa and Sukadina, and the
Barito (Banjer-Muasin), the great fluvial artery of the island, flows for
hundreds of miles nearly due south to the Java Sea in 114° E. long.
over against Madura. Both of these streams appear to have a com-
mon source near the unexplored Lake Kutei-Lama.

Next in importance is the Kiitei, or Mahakkam, which rises in
Mount Lasan-Tula, and flows with a rapid course mainly eastwards
to Macasear Strait, which it enters through several mouths, Its
delta, projecting considerably scawards, and embracing 50 miles of
const, presents great difficulties to navigation, although the main
channel is accessible as faras Mitra Pahou (116° E. long.) for steamers
drawing 10 feet of water. According to Carl Bock, the Mahakkam
has a total length of not lesa than 600 miles. North of the Kiitei
basin is that of the Bulangan, which has also an easterly course, with
a delta in the Celébes Sea at the entrance of Macassur Strait. Besides
these there are hundreds of smaller streams reaching the coast in
independent channels, but mostly inaccessible to vessels of heavy
draft.

Lakes.—No large lakes, strictly so-called, are known to exist im
Borneo, those spoken of by travellers being rather temporary lagoons,
or expansions of the rivers in the low-lying or level plains, Even
the existence of the much-disputed Lake Balu, south-east of Kina
Balu, has recently been disproved. Mention, however, is made of a
Lake Danau-Malayu, in 1° 5’ N. lat, 114° 20° E, long,, said to be
over 20 miles long, and 10 or 12 broad, with a depth of 18 feet,

The formation of the Bornean lakes, or ‘‘dannus,” as they are called
by the natives, is thus described by Dr. Schwaner :

“* By danau is to be understood an inland sheet of water in the deepest
part of a marshy district in the immediate vicinity of rivers. Their inode
of formation often msembles that of the canals, such as those of the
Martaptira, and other Pornean streams, which are used for shortening the
water route, and sometimes dug by hand, but mostly formed by the rush

E

150 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

of water during the floods. Channels thus formed eventually expand toa
danau, the water at every food flowing in and enlarging its erat. The
lakes have no determined shores, the ground sinking imperceptibly to its
greatest depth, while the constant shifting of the land surface causes a
corresponding expansion or contraction of the lneustrine area” (Borneo),
Some of the Mahnakkam Iagoons are over 15 miles in length, and figure on
our maps as true lakes of old geological formation,

Climate.—The rainfall is remarkably heavy in most parts of
Borneo, but especially in the north-west, where it averages 180 inches
at Sariwak. The climate, however, owing to the influence of the
sea breezes, is milder and healthier than in most other islands of the
archipelago, although Bock found it very insalubrious in some parts
of the interior, where hot land-winds probubly prevail. The west
coust has no really dry season, being refreshed by heavy and con-
tinuous rain throughout the year, and especially from December to
March, The mean reading of the thermometer is 62° F. at Pontifinak,
where it never exceeds 92°, But in North Borneo, Guillemard
recorded 95°, and found the heat in the Sigaliud valley “almost ns
trying as that of New Guinea or West Africa.” (Cricise of the Marchesa,
ii, p. 95.) .

Flora and Fauna.—Except in some alluvial districts, the soil
of Borneo appears to be less fertile than that of the volcanic islands,
Much of the surface is still covered with a primeval forest growth,
including not only the gigantic timber, such as ebony, ironwood,
sandalwood, &e., which the poorest soil will produce in equatorial
regions, but many of the most useful tropical species, such as benzoin,
camphor, gutta, the sago-palm, and the rattan. The latter thrives
especially in the south-west, the rattan of Banger-Masin having a
higher value than that of any other country in Malaya, The chief
cultivated plants are rice, maize, cotton, opium, pepper, yams, and
indigo, The mangosteen, durian, and many other delicious fruits
abound.

‘The most remarkable feature in the zoology of Borneo is the absence or
rarity of many large animals found in the adjacent islands. Thus the
tiger and leopard of Java and Sumatra are unknown, their place being
sunplied by a smaller species, the Melis Maerosceliz, Scarcely less remark-
able is the abaence both of the elephant and rhinoesros from by far the
greater part of the country. Of large animals, the most interesting are
the orang-outan (next to the gorilla the largest anthropoid ape), the wild
cattle, and the proboscis monkey. Deer, wild swine, and squirrels are
everywhere abundant. Other characteristic mammals, not, however,
peculiar to Borneo, are the honey-bear (Ursus Malayanus), the binturong,
Intermediate between the civet and bear, the tiger-cat (Felis planiceps),
the Kubury, or flying lemur (Taleopithecus volans), the curious silat, or
gobang (Mydans meliceps), a kind of badger with a pig’s snout, and the

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO, 131

scaly ant-cater (MWenis javenien, or tangiling of the Malays), which rolls
up like a hedge-hog. In its birds Borneo agrees very closely with Sumatra,
the peacock being absent, while the arngus.and fire-backed pheasant abound.

Inhabitants.—Of the inhabitants of Borneo probably one half,
or about a million, belong to the aboriginal stock collectively known
as Dyas, and usually regarded as a branch of the Malay race, But
many are of such fair complexion and regular features that they
should perhaps be grouped rather with the Indonesian family. They
are divided into a vast number of tribes, speaking more or less
distinct languages, mostly of the Malayo-Polynesian type ; but they
differ greatly from the Malays in other respects, being much more
lively and active, and of a more trusting disposition, while many
“have, notwithstanding their high cheek-bones and broad noses, a
type of face which is quite in accordance with European ideas of
beauty."—C, Bock. The Dynks of Long Wai, Long Wahou, and
many parts of Kiitei are above the average height, while the Kayans
of the interior, about the headwaters of the Rejang and Bintflu and
elsewhere, present peculiarities distinguishing them both from the
Malays and ordinary Dyaks. They ure supposed to be an intruding
race, Which came originally from Celébes, and penetrated from the
east coast far into the interior, Although considered one of the most
advanced of uncivilised races, they are addicted to head-hunting,
which, however, is prevalent amongst most of the native tribes,
Apart from this propensity, the Dyaks are described as very honest,
respectful, and kind to their women, fond of their children, and of
temperate habits, But some of the tribes in Kiitei and elsewhere
are decided cannibals, and at Muera Pahau Carl Bock made the
acquaintance of Sibau Mobang, chief of a man-eating community,
who had recently slanghtered and devoured seventy victims. He
stated, however, that his people did not eat human meat every day,
that being a feast reserved for head-hunting expeditions. At other
times their food consisted of the flesh of various animals and birds,
rice und wild fruits, to which the ordinary Dyak adds fish and
curry.

Owing to its universality and intimate association with religious rites,
head-hunting is the most distinctive feature, as well as the plague-spot of
Dyak society, Births and ‘‘namings,” marriages and burials, besides many
less important events, are all accompanied by maranding expeditions to
some neighbouring tribe for the purpose of securing a few heads to add
solemnity to the festivity, Henec, in the more inaccessible districts of
the interior, the practice has full sway, and is regarded as a chief cause of
the steady diminution of the population. No youth can be married, or
associate with the opposite sex, until he has taken part in one or mors

K 2

132 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

head-hunting expeditions, and the more heads he can lay at the feet of his
beloved, the more he is admired by her and feared by his fellows, The
ractice is not confined to Borneo, or even to the neighbouring islands,
mt has flourished from remote times among many of the wild tribes in
Further India, and so far attests the continental origin of the “fair” races
in the archiij
Besides the Malays, who are restricted to a few centres near the coast,
several other peoples have settled in Borneo, which, from its central posi-
tion, has naturally been made a resort for all the surrounding lands, That
the Javanese formerly made regular settlernents in the south is shown by
monuments still existing as far north as the Kiitei Valley. The Bugis of
Celébes have long maintained considerable settlements in the southern and
eastern districts. Further north are some communities from the Sulu
Archipelago, who formerly held » considerable tract of country about Cape
Whine: Sontld whose sultan till recently claimed jurisdiction over that part
of the islan

But the most important intruders are the Chinese, who are found
in every centre of population as traders, miners, mechanics, or
agriculturists, They are most numerous in the western districts,
Where gold and diamonds are found, and there are said to be nearly ~
250,000 in the Dutch territories alone, The trade of Pontidinak,
Banjer-Masin, Sarfiiwak, North Borneo, and Labuan is to a great
extent in their hands. But from old records of travel, the north-
eastern districts would seem at one time to have been even more
permanently ocenpied by the Chinese than at present.

Political Divisions.—Politically Borneo is distributed in very
unequal proportions amongst the Dutch, British, and natives as
under ;

Dorce Possessioxs mm Borneo,

The Dutch claim sovereignty over the greater part of the island,
including the whole region south of a line drawn from Sariwnak
north-eastwards to the source of the Sibuko river, about 4° N, lat.,
and thence eastwards to the coast a little above that parallel, Their
possessions are divided administratively into the three residentships,
of Pontiinak, Banjer-Masin, and the semi-independent State of
Kitei, with the usual system of residental government over the coast
districts of the west and south. But probably not more than one-
fifth of this region is under their direct control, a great part of the
interior being unoceupied and even unexplored.

Pontianak,—In this residency are comprised the western dis-
tricts of Sambas, Montrado, Sintang, and Pontiinak proper. The
town of Pontidnak, which lies on the west coast under the equator, is

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO, 133
the oldest trading settlement in Borneo ; but the district still remains
under the nominal rule of a native sultan. Tin, gold, and diamonds
are obtained from the numerous mines of this district worked by the
Chinese. Siatang on the Upper Kapiias river is the seat of an
assistant-resident, whose jurisdiction extends over the numerous
Dyak tribes of the interior.

Banjer-Masin.—This is by fur the largest residency, including
the greater part of Borneo south of the equator, the Kwiin country,
and the sub-residencies of Amuntal and Martapira, with a total
population of about 600,000, mostly Dyaks. The capital, Banjer-
Masin, lies some fifteen miles up the estuary of the Barito river,
which is oecupied by Dutch forts for 200 miles as far as Littontir,
at the Teweh confluence near the equator, Thus the whole of the
extensive Barito basin is securely held, although in many places the
direct authority of the Dutch extends very little beyond the range of
the strategical stations, In the interior, the most important trading
place is Bakompai, one of these stations about sixty miles up the
Barito at the confluence of the Nagara, its great atiluent from the
north-east. Here are collected most of the timber, gold-dust, gutta,
resin, wax, edible birds’-nests, rattans, damar, and other local pro-
duce forwarded for export through Banjer-Masin. To the latter
place the neighbouring district of Martaptira also sends its diamonda,
the chief commodities received in exchange being European wares,
such as coloured prints, cotton cloths, beads, and copper wire,
besides tobacco, opium, salt, gaumbier, and Chinese earthenware.
Although not so populous as Pontiinak, Banjer-Masin is at present
the largest, as well as one of the oldest trading ports in Borneo. On
the south coast the chief seaport is Talunian, not far from the
capital.

Kutei, or Coti, the eastern residency, comprises the extensive
fluvial basin of the Kiitei (Mahakkam) river, with a total area of
little less than 40,000 square miles, There is an assistant-resident
at the Bugis settlement of Tengdrong, thirty miles up the main
stream, and the whole east coast from Sebamban in Tanah Bumbu
to Kanyungan in 1° 3° N. lat. is directly under the Dutch Govern-
ment. Nevertheless, the native Malay sultan, Mohammed Soliman
Kalifat ul Mumenin, who resides at Tengarong, still exercises the
royal functions, and even possesses autocratic jurisdiction over his
Mohammedan and Dyak subjects, While recognising the Dutch
suzerainty, he keeps his own court, surrounds himeelf with various
functionaries, levies tixes, and even inflicts capital punishment in a

154 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

somewhat summary manner on his unruly subjects. Owing to
personal antipathy to the Chinese, he encourages immigration of the
enterprising Bugis from South Celébes, who are slowly developing
the resources of the country. Along the low and swampy east coast
there are no natural havens, so that Samerinda and Tengarong, the
only trading places of any importance in the Kiitei residency, are
both situated somewhat inland above the Mahakkam delta,

BRITISH SETTLEMENTS IX BoRNeEo,

Sariwak.—This territory, which now extends 400 miles east and
west from Mount Milu (9000 ft.) to Mount Poi (6000) with a mean
breadth inland of nearly 100 miles, has a total area of some 40,000
square miles, with a mixed population of 300,000 Dynaks, Dusuns,
Malays, Chinese, and others, It lies on the north-west coast, and is
watered by the Rejang, Baram, Batang-Lopar, and several other
streams, some of which are navigable for a considerable distance
inland.

The government of this territory, which has now lasted over forty
years, and seems firmly established, was acquired from the sultan of
Briinei in 1841 by Sir James Brooke, better known as Rajah Brooke
of Sarawak. In 1861 a ‘second cession of territory was obtained
including all the rivers and land from the Samabaran river to
Kadtirong Point ; and in 1852 a third cession of 100 miles of coast-
lands, with all the riverain tracts between Kadiirong Point and the
Baram, or rather three miles to the north-east of that river. The
present rajah, H. H. Charles Johnson Brooke, who is a nephew of
Sir James, succeeded in May 1968,

The success of this undertaking was shown during the Chinese insurrec-
tion in 1857, when the whole indigenous Dyak and Malay population
rallied round the English Rajah, drove out the unruly miners, and
triumphantly restored his power. By persevering in a liberal and
enlightened policy, the rajah’s government has brought peace and safety
and comparative prosperity in the place of piracy, tribal warfare, and
oppression.

Kitching, the chief town, isa thriving place of some 20,000 inhabitants,
with the ‘* Astana,” or rajah’s palace, and the bishop's house, the
ordinary residence of the Diocesan of Singapore, Labuan, and Sariwak.
It lies about twenty-three miles up the Sariwak river, which has a bar
like other streams, but is accessible to this point for small steamers, The
trade ix chiefly with Singapore, to which it exports gold, silver, diamonds,
antimony, cr emai coal, gutta, india-rubber, canes and rattans, cam-
phos, wax, birds’-nests, sago, tapioca, pepper, gambier, and other local

uce.
The governmant of Sariwak may be termed constitutional, resembling

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 135

in its tonin features that of a crown colony. The rajah is the absolute
head of the State, with full power of spontaneous and independent action,
which, however, he rarely exercises, being usually advised on local matters
by his Legislative Council of two Europeans and five Malay chiefs. <A
general tricnnial assembly of the principal native and European represent-
atives of the several districts is held, and sometimes specially summoned
on urgent occasions, Any important change in the law or modification of
native custom would be referred to this General Council.

The government of tho various districts, outposts, and riverain forts is
mainly entrusted to European Residents, sided by Assistant-Residents,
native, Eurasian, or Chinese clerks, The European staff now numbers
about twenty altogether, Although a mild system of slavery still exists,
the general tendency of the government has been to eel reduce it
within the narrowest limits, with a view to its total abolition, which is now
imminent.

British North Borneo.— Another remarkable experiment in the
administration of uncivilized communities is exemplified in British
North Bornes, or the territory of Sabah, lately acquired by a chartered
trading company from the sultans of Brinei and Sulu. Origin-
ally stretching from the Kumanis to the Sibuco river on the east
coust, with « seaboard of about 500 miles, it has been quite recently
extended towards Briinei, so as to include the river Padas, with
an area of 26,000 square miles, and a mixed population of 200,000
Dusuns (half-caste Chinese and natives), Dyaks, Bajaus, Lanos,
Bilidipies, Sulus, Malays, and Chinese, Occupying the north-
eastern corner of Borneo, between 4° and 7° N, lat.,and 116°—119° E.
long., it is washed on three sides by the China and Celébes Seas, and
bounded southwards by Briinei and Dutch territory ; but not more
than forty or fifty square miles of this extensive region have yet been
settled, chiefly round Sandikan Bay on the cast side. Here is the
town of Sanddkan (Elopitra), present seat of government, other
rising stutions being Awilat on Maridu Bay; bai on Tampasuk
Bay; Fapar, Kiménia, and Gaya on the west coast. The last-
mentioned gives its name to one of the finest natural harbours in the
archipelago, said to comprise ten square miles of good anchorage in
depths of from five to twenty fathoms, It is well sheltered from all
winds, might be easily defended from attack, and oceupies a con-
venient commercial position near the trade route between Honkong
and Singapore, about midway between those great seaports, But at
present most of the export trade is centred in Sandikan Bay, which,
though much shallower than Gaya, is even better sheltered, being for
twenty miles almost completely landlocked,

North Borneo enjoys a much cooler climate than most places so
near the equator, the extreme summer heat rarely exceeding 85° F.

136 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

in the shade, while in the cool season the glass falls to 65°, The country
is well watered by the Segama, Kiménis, Papar, Tampasuk, and many
other streams, and its fertile soil yields good crops of rive, yame, eago,
arrow-root, pepper, betel, and tobaceo, Cacao, coffee, the cocoa, palmyra,
and areca palms, are also cultivated, while the forests abound in
ebony, camphor, bilfan (ironwood), gutta-percha, india-rubber, rattans,
and cinnamon, Although it is less rich in minerals than Sariwak,
gold is reported to abound, especially in the Segama river basin,
while coal appears to exist both on the east and west coasts, Traces
of tin have also been discovered, and several extensive pearl fisheries
are comprised within the company’s boundaries. But at present the
export trade is mainly restricted to camphor, ebony, rattane, sago, and
edible birds’-nests, A powerful saw-muill is now at work at Elopira,
which has become the company’s chief trading place. It stands on
a headland commanding the approach to Sandakan Bay,

In connection with this promising enterprise will always be prominently
associated the names of two persons—Saron Overteck, to whom is due the
first conception of the scheme, and Mr, Alfred Dent, who supplied the
means of carrying it out. The Provisional Company was formed in 1877,
and her Majesty's Charter was signed on November 1, 1881. Three prin-
cipal establishments or residencies have already been organised, on the
north-west coast, on the Papar and Tampasuk rivers, and at Sandikan
Harbour on the east coast, The government is conducted by a governor,
assisted by a council and by residents, the usual administration of a
British Crown colony being adhered to as far as practicable. But although
enjoying a charter, North Borneo has not yet been formally recognised as
a British protectorate,

Labuan.—This island, which was purchased by the British
government from the sultan of Erinei in 1847, lies six miles off the
north-west coast of Borneo in 5° 16° N, lat, 115° 16 E, long, It is
twelve miles long and five or six wide at its broadest part, with an
area of a little over thirty square miles, The settlement was formed
mainly on account of the rich coal deposits, which have nevertheless
proved the ruin of three companies, and are now little worked. The
output fell from 6000 tons in 1876 to 800 in 1882 (Guillemard),

Labuan has a fine port, and has become a market for the produce of the
neighbouring coasts of Borneo and the Sulu Archipelago, such as camphor,

tta, india-rubber, wax, pearls, tortoise-shell, birds'-nests, and tipang,
forwarded mainly to Singapore. To the same place is sent the sago-flour
prepared at three factories in the island from the imported raw material.

Taba is administered by a Governor under the Colonial Office, wha
also acts as Consul-General for Borneo under the Foreign Office.

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO, 137

Native Terarrory in Borneo.

Brinei, which vives its name to the island, is probably the oldest
«and the only surviving native State still enjoying abeolute autonomy.
It isa Malay principality on the north-west coast, bounded east and
west by the British settlements of Sabah and Sarawak, and stretching
from 100 to 150 miles inland, but with little authority beyond the
coust. The natives are mostly Mohammedana, governed by a sultan,
who i# nominally absolute, and who until recent years ruled over the
whole north-west coust from Sarawak to beyond Maridu Bay. On
the east side his territory was limited by the district round Cape
Uneang, over which the sultan of the Sulu Archipelago claimed
jurisdiction. But this potentate is himself now a vassal of Spain,
while the Bornean portion of his territory is incorporated in British
North Borneo, The last sultan of Brinei died in 1884, in his
hundredth year.

The eds ast and only important town in Jtrdmei is the capital of like
name, Which lies fourteen miles up the navigable river Limbang. Brilnei,
described by Sir James Brooke as “a Venice of hovels,” was seized by the
British in 1846, but soon after restored upon the cession of Labuan, The
population, more Malayan than that of other coast towns, was at that time
stated to be 40,000, but had fallen in 1885 to some 25,000,

The State of Brinci has become so disintegrated, that its ruler might
probably be easily induced to surrender his royal prerogatives, and accept
the position of a pensioner under the English Crown. The whole of North
Borneo from Cape Datu to and beyond Cape Unsang might then be con-
veniently consolidated into a single British possession, capable of indefinite
expansion under an enlightened administration. Its posttion on the great
highway of trade between India and China could not fail to secure a per-
qanent market for its abundant and varied natural resources.

Hrstorican Nores,

The growth of European influence in Borneo has been less steady and
more intermittent than was the case in the Straits or in Java. The island
was first visited by Lorenzo de Gomez in 1518, and by Pigafetta with the
ships of Magellan's expedition in 1521, Both named it Brine from the
~sea-port on its north-west coast, where they happened to touch, and this
term, written by the Malays #rieni or Berni, assumed the form of Sorneo
amongst Kuropeans, by whom it was commonly applied to the whole island
in the 17th century, The alternative Malay expression, Tanah Kelamantan,
or * Mango Land,” may perhaps be current especially in the Dutch terri-
tory ; but the native tribes; ave never had any general nome for the
whole island. ;

Commercial relations were soon formed with the natives by the Portu-
guese, at first in Briinei itself, and then in the other maritime States, In
1573 the Spaniards, recently established in Manilla, endeavoured to open a
connection with Brinei, whose sultan had sought their aid, and was rein-
stated by them in 1580. Bit neither Spain nor Portugal ever exerted

138 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

much real inflaence in the island, and the only missionary effort recorded
in the sixteenth century ceased with the death of its promoter, the
Theatine monk, Antonio Vintimigli, |

Early in the seventeenth century the Dutch ond English begin to appear
on the scene, and in 1608 Samuel Blommaert waa appointed Dutch resi-
dent in Landak and Sukadana, The English, who first visited Borneo
about 1600, had a factory at Banjer-Masin in 1706. But from this they
were soon expelled, apparently by the influence of the Duteh, who shortly
after obtained «a monopoly of the trade. The Dutch power became pre-
dominent round the west and south coast, when the rajah of Bantam had
ceded his sovereign rights to their,Company, and eapecially when the sultan
of Banjer surrendered his territory about 1787.

The attention of the English was in the latter part of the eighteenth
eentory turned towards North Borneo, then subject to the sultan of Saln,
from whom, in 1756, Alexander Dalrymple had obtained formal possession
of Balambangan Island and all the north-eastern promontory. But the
Thilitary post stationed here in 1763 was surprised and destroyed in 1775.
by dates, or subordinate native chiefs dissatistied with the cession of their
territory. The Duteh also were overtaken by o series of misfortunes caused
by their own mismanagement, and in 1800 all their settlements were aban-
dened by order of Marshal Daedels. The natives along the coast now
resorted more and more to piracy, rendering legitimate trade so impossible
that the settlement which the English East India Company had again made
at Bolambongan in 1804 was abraptly abandoned within a fow weeks.
But in 1811 an embassy from the sultan of Banjer-Masin to the British
Government then established in Java, secured the appointment of 2 com-
mander and resident. An expedition was at the same time sent against
Sambas, andl « post established at Pontiinnak.

On the restoration of the Duteh possessions in 1816 all these arrange:
ments were cancelled, and until 1842 a free and undisputed tield was left
to the enterprise of the Dutch Government. About half the kingdom of
Banjer-Masin was ceded by the sultan in 1823, followed by further con-
eessions in 1825, On the east coast also the sultan of Kitei acknowledged
for a time the Dutch authority, but soon retracted, and has ever sinee
maintained a semi-independent regal state, About 1830 the Dutch supre-
macy was generally repudiated, their troubles in Java having diverted their
attention from Borneo, On the opening of Singapore nearly all the Bugis
trade, formerly centred in Amboyna, was diverted to the Straits, ancl
direct relations establishel with Sarkwak and Brinei. Then the neces-
sity of suppressing piracy became so urgent that Mr. Brooke, aided by the
British traders, at fast succeeded in procuring the co-operation of English
cruisers for that purpose, This led to political intervention, and in 1846-7
Labuan was ceded by the sultan of Brinei, who also agreed to make no
cession of territory to any nation or individual without British consent.
The Dutch, thus checked in the north, concentrated their attention on
the development of their influence on the south and east consts, In 1844
the sultan of Kittel acknowledged their protectorate, and the area of their
administration has since then steadily increased round the southern sea-
board. At present they have a nominal suzerainty over two-thirds of the
island, although parce f one-tenth appears to be under their direct control
or alministrative influence,

The establishment of an organised government by Sir James Brooke
in Sarawak, followed by the recent occupation of North Borneo by a

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 139

chartered English ing company, secures the exclusive predominance of
British influence throughout all the districts not actually claimed by
Holland. Henceforth these two States will be held jointly responsible for
the material development of Borneo, and the intellectual progress of ita
indigenous populations,

SUMATHA,

Next in size to Borneo of the Great Sunda group, Sumatra
stretches for 1070 miles north-west and south-east between 6° N.—
@ 5S. lat., and 95°—106" EF, long, It is thus, like Borneo, nearly
bisected by the equator, and with an average breadth of over 200
miles, has a total area of about 128,000 square miles, or 8000 more
than that of Great Britain and Ireland together. Washed on the
west by the Indian Ocean, it is separated on the north-east by
Malacea Strait from the Malay Peninsula, and at its southern
extremity by the Sunda Strait from Java.

Islands.—Sumutra is fringed on both sides by numerous islands
and insular groups, all of which appear to have originally formed
part of the mainland, But while on the west Si Malu (Hog), Nias,
Batu, North and South Pora (Mentawey), North and South Pagey
(Nassau), and Engano clearly indicate the primitive Sumatran coast-
line towards the Indian Ocean, on the east side Bintang, Lingga,
Sinkep, Banca, and Biliton belong, on the contrary, to the Malay
Peninsula, of which they form a geological extension southwards.
Bat a slight upheaval of perhaps about 50 fathoms would suffice
again to connect all these groups with Sumatra itself to the Asiatic
Continent, of which they are merely detached fragments.

Bintang and Lingya, with all the circumjacent islands and islets, form
tollectively the Dutch Residency of Riou-Lingea, They are mostly fertile,
and carry on an active trade in pepper and timber through the chief town
Riou, on an islet off the south coast of Bintang, the largest of the grou
Here also resides the sultan of Riou, now a dependent of the Dutch
Government. But of all the Sumatran islands, the largest and moat
important are Banca (150 miles long), separated by the strait of like name
from the south-east coast, and Biliton, of cirenlar form, 40 miles across,
separated from Banea by Caspar Strait. Both of these islands, which
resemble each other in formation, appearance, and inhabitants, form
Dutch Residencies, and are noted for their rich tin mines, which lave
been worked for the Dutch Government chiefly by Chinese miners since
1709, yielding about 10,000 tons of metal yearly. The great tin formation,
which commences in Tenasserim, and extends almost uninterruptedly
through the Malay Peninsula to Banca and Biliton, here comes to an end,

In the extreme south-west, considerably beyond the geographical or
natural limits of the Eastern Archipelago, lies the small but interesting
coralline group of the Neeling or Cocos Islands, now attached to the

140 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

Government of the Straits Settlements, When officially visited in August
1885 by Mr. E. W. Birch, this group, memorable in connection with
Darwin's studies of atoll formations, was found to have already recovered
from the effects of the terrific eyelone of 1875. All the islands (over 20
in number) are thickly planted with cocoa-nuts, and their Malay and
Javanese inhabitants, 516 in 1885, do a brisk export trade in copra, cocon-
nuts, cocom-nut oil, béche-de-mer, and menduku, a bark used for dyeing
purposes.

Physical Features.—In its physical constitution Sumatra has
much in common beth with the adjacent mainland and with Java,
while also presenting some features of an independent character,
Along its west side it is traversed by the Barisan mountain system,
parallel with but much more elevated than the main axis of the
Peninsula. Lying in the line of the great volcanic belt, thia range
contains recent eruptive rocks like those of Jaya, and older plutonic
and crystalline formations like those of the mainland, But Sumatra
differs from both of these regions in the vast development of its
plaing, which mostly stretch from the western uplands right across
the island to the eastern seaboard, In its general configuration it
thus appears to be cast in broad and simple lines, mountainous and
volcanic in the west, elsewhere level, and even low-lying and alluvial.
“One may travel in some parts in a straight line westwards from the
east coast for 150 or 200 miles without reaching an elevation of over
400 or 500 fect, while some 30 miles farther the Barisan peaks may
aseend to over 10,000 feet,"—H. O, Forbes, op, cit,

The culminating point appears to be Mount Kassoumba (15,000 feet fh),
under the equator, other lofty summits being reins Ps (12,255) in
Korinchi ; Lust (11,000) in Achin ; Abong-Abong (10,000); Telamon, or
Ophir (99406); Salamanga (6,825), The volcanic cones are even more
numerous than in Java, ond the recent Dutch explorer, Verbeek, states
that sixty-seven are known to exist, although two only (Merapi, 9640
feet, and Talong or Soelau, 8470) are still active, Other lofty cones are
Kaba (90007) ond Dempo, in Palembang, both ascended in 1851 by
H. 0. Forbes, who determined the elevation of Dempo at 10,562 feet,
This traveller also visited the Besagi and Tengamus volcanoes in the
Lampongs district, both over 7000 feet. Thus the volcanic ares is not
confined to 1 small tract north and south of the equator, as is supposed,
but extends from the extreme north to the extreme south of the island.

The great alluvial plain on the east side, lying not many feet
above sea-level, and often extensively flooded, has a total length of
G00 miles, with an average breadth of 60 to 110, and an area of over
40,000 square miles. Ent although this region is mostly under
primeval forest, the eastern section of Sumatra is by no means of
such uniform aspect as is generally supposed, The plains, table-

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 141

lands, and higher valleys, often of grent extent, differ much in their
natural features, come being forest-clad and extremely fertile, others
arid and destitute of timber. Such especially is the already described
Pertibi plain in the Batta country, the aridity of this and other tracts
being no doubt due to the great clevation of the western highlands,
which are in some places lofty enough to intercept the rain-bearing
clouds rolling up from the Indian Ocean during the south-western
monsoons, As might be expected, the parched lands occur especially
in the north-east, where the mean elevation of the western range is
greatest, and where the uplands of the Malay Peninsula again form
a harrier against the moisture-laden clouds from the China Sea.
Hence, also, in the northern lowlands the intensely heated dry air
becomes rarified and replaced by cooler atmospheric currents, causing
violent local disturbances, and generating those sudden gusts and
equalls known as “Sumuatras,” which are so dangerous to navigation
in the Strait of Malacea,

Rivers.—Owing to the westerly position of the uplands, and a
general easterly tilt of the land, all the large watercourses necessarily
flow in the direction from west to east. On the west side the only
important river is the Singkel, which develops a winding course
through the Achin and Singkel districts to the north-west const over
against the Banyak Islands. But on the opposite side a large number
of considerable streams make their way from the western ranges
across the lowlands eastwards to the China Sea, As the island
broadens perceptibly southwards between 2° N.—4° 8, lat,, eo the
rivers increase in amplitude in the same direction, the largest being
the Siak and Indragiri respectively north and south of the equator,
the Jambi, about 2° 5., and the Palembang (Musi), most voluminous
of all, between 3°—5* S. All are navigable for vessels of considerable
size, although somewhat obstructed by shoals, bars, and intricate
deltas about their lower course. Their numerous headwaters, con-
verging from various points on the main stream, give them a fan-
shaped appearance, and cause extensive floodings of their low-lying
banks during the rainy season. The Siak, one of the most useful for
navigable purposes, is accessible to large vessels for 80, to ships of
200 tons for 100, and to boats for 150 miles from its mouth. But
the Palembang with its great tributaries, the Rawas on its left, the
Lamatang and Ogan on its right bank, presents a far more extensive
water svstem, navigated for some hundred miles, especially by large
bamboo “rakits,” 40 feet and upwards in length, On one of these
rafts Mr. H. O, Forbes in 1881 floated down the Rawas from Pulu-

142 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

Kida, near its source, in 102° E, long., for over 200 miles all the way
to the city of Palembang, still 50 miles from its mouth in Banca
Strait. The trip occupied over three weeks in November and
December during the wet season, when the banks of the main stream
were flooded for some miles in many places to the great depth of 60
or 70 feet. A vast trade with the interior is carried on with these
rafts, which, like those on the Tigris, are broken up and sold for
their valuable material at their destination.

To its numerous eastern watercourses, combined perhaps with a slight
upheaval of the land, Sumatra is indebted for its present ample dimensions,
Originally probably not more than 100 milea broad, it expanded cast-
wards occording as the mountain torrents encroached upon the China Sea,
depositing the detritus of the Barisan highlands in its shallow waters, and
thus gmdually raising the marine bed above sea-level. In this way were
created the great Sumatran alluvial plains, which for 200 miles inland are
seldom over 400 feet high, and which are still constantly advancing
seawards. The time is approaching when the 30 feet of water, now
flowing between the east const and the chain of eastern islands (Lingga,
Sinkep, Banca), must be filled in, and them the east Sumatran seaboard
will fall in a direct line with the southern extension of the Malay Penin-
stla, Thus the Asiatic mainland tends again to gather up its scattered
insular fragments through the action of the Sumatran streams, which
from short impetuous upland torrents have become great navigable arteries,
winding sluggishly through the flat alluvial plains of their own creation.

Lakes.—Sumatra differs from most of the Malayan islands in the
lacustrine character of its upland scenery, It possesses several
romantic mountain lakes, the largest of which are Tobahk in the
Batta Country, about 2000 feet above sea-level, 20 miles long, source
of the Singkel, and itself fed by numerous streams, chiefly from the
north; Singkara, on the Padang plateau, 20 miles by 12 to 15,
source of the Indragiri ; Danau Sapuloh Kotah, or “ Lake of the ten
forests," at the foot of Mount Singalang in the north-west ; Korinchi,
in the Korinchi country, near the Indrapura Peak, unsurveyed ;
Haneu at the foot of the quiescent Siminung volcano, in the
Lampongs, 1700 feet above sea-level. This lake, visited in 1881 by
H. O. Forbes, is of great depth, and teems with fish (one species, the
semah or Leobarbus, as large as the largest salmon), which: often
perish in the hot water of the thermal springs of 127° F, bubbling up
round the margin.

Climate.—The climate, especially on the uplands, is remarkably
2001 and ealubrious, Frost, snow, and hail are unknown phenomena ;
but dense fogs and thunderstorms are of frequent occurrence, In

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO, 145

the southern districts rainy days occur throughout the year, and in
1879 a rainfall of 282 inches was recorded at Padang.

Flora,—Sumatra being largely alluvial and volcanic, most of the
soil is highly fertile, and suited for the growth of most tropical
plants. Large tracts, however; are still held by rude tribes, who
possess little knowledge of agriculture, depending for their existence
nearly altogether on the spontaneous products of nature, The soil
on the west side of the island is a stiff, reddish clay, while extensive
districts, especially towards the south, are still under primeval
forest.

Although still ibis sama little known, the researches of Rafiles, and
more recently of von Kesenberg and H. 0, Forbes, show that the Sumatran
flora abounds in a great variety of tropical and sub-tropical species, on tho
whole more allied to those of Borneo than of Java or the mainland.
Amongst the most useful are rice, sago, camphor, dammar, gutta, benzoin,
dragon's blood, yielded by a species of rattan, bamboos, pepper, and
tobacco, Peculiar to this region is the curious afllesia drnoldi, discovered
hy Sir Stamford Raffles, a parasitic plant, with a flower over three feet in
diameter, with very large brick-red petals, but possessing neither stem nor
leaves, and simply adhering by minute fibres or roots to a species of vine,
Other curious plants described by Forbes are a species of Sambucus,
producing near its florets, little cups full of rich yellow honey, and the
giant Arum (Amorphophallus titannm), with enormous tubers over six feet
round, and forming “*a load for twelve men.” But, notwithstanding the
presence Of Meclastomer and some other beautiful flowering shrubs, the
forest vegetation is remarkable rather for its bright.green, pink, or scarlet,
and autumu-tinted foliage, than for its gay floral adornments.

Fauna.—The Sumatran fanna present far more numerous points
of contact with those of the Malay Peninsula and Borneo than with
the Javanese. Here are represented all the great maminalian forms
of the mainland, such as the elephant, rhinoceros, and tiger, besides
the tapir, the Siamang, a large ape, found elsewhere only in Malaya,
and the Bornean orang-utan ; this last confined to the wooded plains
opposite Malacca, Of large domestic animals the most valuable is
the buffalo, which as live stock takes the place of the European ox,
There are several varieties of the monkey tribe, and Sumatra also
possesses nearly all the beautiful and remarkable forms of birds
common to Malacca and Borneo, besides a few species peculiar to
itself. Very characteristic are the lovely Argus pheasant, which
here takes the place of the peacock in Java; the Rhododytes diardi,
a species of cuckoo, with green bill and velvet scarlet eye-wattle ;
green and black barbets ; scarlet Pieridae, and the Buceros. Butter-

144 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

flies, beetles, and other insects are found in as great variety, perhaps,
as in any other part of the Archipelago, )

Minerals.—Suma.rm is probably rich in minerals, as coal,
naphtha, sulphur, iron, and gold have been found, as well as indica-
tions of copper. The ore is of fine quality, and the iron and steel
produced in Menangkibau have been noted from time immemorial.
Tin also exists, and is worked in Kampar, nearly opposite Malacca,

Trade.—The chief exports are black pepper, shipped in great
quantities for Batavia and Singapore, maize, sago, cocoa-nuta, camphor,
benzoin, dammar, cassia, cotton, gold-dust, and various tropical fruits.
In exchange are taken rice, opium, salt, piece-goods, iron and copper
ware, pottery, Chinese goods, dried fish, &c. The foreign trade of
the country is carried on through the ports of Padang, Palembang,
Beneilen, Serdang, Deli, Muntok, Telok, Betong, Bengkalis, and
Achin, recently taken by the Dutch, Steam communication is
maintained between several of these ports and Singapore, Penang,
Batavia, and other places in the Dutch colonies,

Inhabitants.—Apart from the still undetermined Indonesian
element, both the cultured and uncivilised people belong to the
Malay stock, which, under different names, and with varying lan-
guages, customs, and religions, is found diffused throughout the
whole island, Hence many ethnologists have regarded Sumatra as
the principal home of this race, and in any case 1f must be looked
upon as the chief centre of dispersion for the civilized Malay people
throughout the Archipelago during the last eight or ten centuries.
No dark or woolly-haired race, analogous to the Negritos of Malaya
and the Philippines, has ever been discovered in the island, which
from the remotest times has been entirely oceupied by Malay peoples,
affected, especially in the north, by contact with immigrants from
India, Arabia, and Indo-China. The result of these interminglings
has been a considerable diversity of type and speech, as shown in
the Achinese and Battas of the north, the Menangkihbaus of the westy
and Jambis of the east central districts, the Sarawis, Palembangs,
Rejongs, and Lampongs of the southern regions. Still more divergent
types are those of the Kubus, Lubus, and other rude tribes scattered
over the interior, many of whom should probably be grouped with
the Indonesian family.

The Achinese of the extreme north, who have for many years main-
tained a war of independence against the Dutch, are regarded by Dr. Van
Leent as true Malays with o mixture of Indian blood, presenting affinities
with the natives of the Malabar and Coromandel coasts. Like so many

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 145

other Sumatran peoples, they have developed a local culture, and have
long been Mohammedans, writing their peculiar Malayan dialect with the
Arabic characters. Their southern neighbours, the Saftes (Latta, plural
Battak), also continue to enjoy political autonomy, and are specially remurk-
able as the only known people who, although undoubted cannibals, possess
a written language. They are a semi-civilised pagan nation, whose territory
lies between Achin on the north, and the true Malay lands of Siak and
Menengkiban on the south. Their very peculiar culture seems to have
hod its earliest seat on the table-land of Lake Tubah, and was evidently at
one time affected by Hindu influences, asshown by some Sanskrit elements
in their language, and by the written character, obviously of Indian origin.
Their cannibalism, which is of a mild form, appears to be « survival from
still more ancient times, connected probably with the primitive rites of
their rude ancestry,

Excluding the Awhus and some other little known wild tribes of the
interior, all the other natives may be regarded oa of pure Malay stock, with
an admixture of Javanese blood, especially in Palembang. Those of
Menangkibau on the west coast appear to be the earliest distinctly Malay
people who a ey fot a national culture, and to this district many of the
inhabitants of the Peninsula, of Borneo, and other parts of the Archipelago,
directly trace their descent. The people of Jambi (Indragiri and Jambi
basins), those of Palembang (Musi basin), the Rejongs further south, and
the Lampungs in the extreme south, are also more or less civilised com-
munities, possessing a knowledge of letters with several peculiar writing
systema, and professing the Mohammedan religion, But, like their brethren
in the Peninsula, they seem to attach more importance to the doa, or
national customs having the force of law, than to the precepts of the Qorin.
Beneath an outward aceeptance of Islim, shown especially in their relno-
tant Friday attendance at the mosques, they cherish numerous superstitions
surviving from Hindu and still older Pagan times, and a belief in the
occult powers of nature is still universal, The people of Kissam in Palem-
bang are even said to be still pagans (Forbes), and the richly decorated
“Balai,” or public assembly-room, conspicuous in every Palembang and
Lampung village, is more highly venerated than the mosque itself, In the
Passumah lands further north are some curious relics of a former culture,
huge monoliths carved in the likeness of human fi with strange non-
Malay and non-Hindu features, although doubtfully ascribed by some to
an Indian source. The present inhabitants, who would be quite incapable
of executing such works, know nothing of their true origin, rina
them to certain mythical beings, who wandered over the land, turning
their enemies into stone, They are probably the work of the same for-
gotten race, who executed somewhat similar monuments in Easter Island
and other places in the Pacific Ovean.

Political Divisions.—With the exception of Achin in the
north, and the Batta territory south of it, the whole of Sumatra is
under the direct or indirect control of the Dutch. All the southern
section, as far as the Jambi river, and a broad tract along the west
coast as far as Sinkel, in abont 3° N, lat., are comprised within the
residencies, or organised provinces dependent on the central govern-

: L

146 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

ment of the “ Dutch East Indies." North of the Jambi river are the
native States of Jambi, Indragiri, Kampur, Siak, Assakan, Batu-Bara,
Serdang, Deli, Langkat, and Riah, which acknowledge the suzerainty
of Holland, while the Batta and Achin lands are still unreduced,

The Duteh possessions are administered by a Lieutenant-Governor
resident at Padang, and under his jurisdiction are six separate Residencies,
as under:

1. Papas, on the west coast.

2. The Papaxcse-BovyENLANpen, or ‘* Padang Plateau.”

3. Taraxvil, including Singkel, north-west const.

4. Bexct.es, south-west const.

5. Lamptwos, the southern extremity of the island,

6 PaALEMRANG, with Lambi, east coast,

Chief Towns.— Padang, capital of the west coast government, on
the Padang river, the most important town in Sumatra, was founded
in 1660, when the Portuguese were driven from a neighbouring
factory. It is defended by a fort standing one mile up the river, and
does a brisk export trade in pepper, camphor, benzoin, and coffee,
Padang was first visited by the English in 1649, seized by them in
1781, and restored to Holland at the general. peace of 1814, Palem-
bang, next in importance, and a larger place than Padang, occupies
both banks of the Musi, about fifty miles from its mouth, and
accessible to large vessels. It is the great emporium of the inland
trade, and has a large mixed population of Malays, Javanese, and
Chinese, with some Dutch officials and soldiers, Here are the
Palaces occupied by the native princes before the kingdom of
Palembang was reduced by the Dutch. Siak, a busy trading place
in the north-east, Benciilen, capital of a Dutch Residency, on the
south-west coast, in an unhealthy district at the mouth of the
Benciilen river; occupied by the English from 1685, when they
quitted Batavia, till 1825, when they ceded it to the Dutch in
exchange for Malacca. Although now a «mall place with an exposed
roadstead, it still exports some pepper and camphor, Other seaports
are Achin, Deli, Muntok, Bengalis, Telok Betong, and Tapanuli,

Acnrs (properly Acwh, from the Hindustani Achcha, “ good,” “ fine "),
the northernmost town in Sumatra, gives its name to the independent
Malay State, occupying the northern extremity of the island, whose extent
is variously estimated at from 900 (Veth) to 1200 (Anderson) square miles,
This State rose to great power under Sultan Iskander Muda (1607—1636),
whose sway extended for 1100 miles round the coast from Aru opposite
Malncea to Padang, and whose supremacy was also acknowledged by the
island of Nias, and by the continental Malay States of Johor, Palsy

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO, 147

Kedah, and Pérak. At present its limits are, on the east const, the
Tamiang, 4° 25’ N., separating it from Siak territory ; and on the west, the
frontier of the petty State of Trumon, in 2°48’ N, But Achin proper is
now anaantont: to be limited by a line drawn from Pedir Point on the
north-east to Kwila Lambesi on the west const. The inhabitants, who are
akin to the neighbouring Battas, are chiefly occupied with the cultivation
of rice, pepper, and betel, which they export in exchange for opium,
salt, iron, and copper-ware, piece-goods, pottery, Chinese gooda, dried fish,
fire-arma, and ammunition, The capital lies close to Achin Head at the
northern extremity, and west of the ‘*Golden Mountain,” a volcanic
peak 6000 feet high. Achin was occupied by the Dutch in 1874, two
years after the commencement of the hostilities which still continue, and
which have for their object the complete reduction of this warlike and
io people, Since 1204 a.p. they have been zealous Moham-
medans,

Historical Notes.— Of the ancient history of Sumatra little is
known beyond the fact that many of the natives adopted some form
of Hinduism at an early date, as is sufficiently attested by the
Sanskrit elements present in their languages, and by some of the
local monuments and inscriptions. The Javanese alao seem to have
largely influenced the southern populations, as shown by inscrip-
tions in the Javanese character occurring as far north as Menang-
kibau, and by many purely Javanese names of places both here and
in Palembang.

The most important subsequent event is the comparatively recent
spread of Islim throughout nearly the whole island. In the north it
appears to have been adopted early in the thirteenth century, and in
Mareo Polo's time (about 1360) the people of the eastern seaboard were
already followers of the Prophet. Menangkiiban was the first Mussulman
State that acquired political supremacy, and this district soon became
chief centre for the diffusion of the civilised Malay race and language
throughout the Peninsula and Archipelago. All earlicr migrations must
be referred to Hindu and prehistoric times, the former from Java chiefly,
the latter most probably from the Asiatic mainland, :

Sumatra was first visited by the Portuguese in 1509, by the Dutch in
1600, and two years later by the English, who appeared at Achin with five
merchant ships under Sir James Lancaster, bearer of a letter from Queen
Elizabeth to the Sultan. Tho English continued to establish factories and
settlements in the island during the seventeenth century, but panels
in 1685-6. These settlements were retained till 1825, when they were all
ceded to the Dutch in exchange for Malacca, Since that time the British
have ceased to maintain any diplomatic relations with Sumatra, over
which Holland now claims complete supremacy.

145 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY,

JAVA AND MADURA,

Sixth in size, and by far the richest and most populous of all the
East Indian Islands, Java rivals the most favoured regions of the
world in its fertility, natural beauties, and exuberant vegetation, It
lies between 105° 10'—114" 34° E. long., and between 5° 52’—8° 46°
5. lat., stretching from the Sunda Strait for 622 miles eastwards to
the Bali Strait, with an extreme breadth of 121 miles from Cape
Bugel in Yapara to the south coast of Jokjokarta, and an area of
about 52,000 square miles. Both physically and administratively
Mapura forms a dependency of Java, from which it is separated at
its western extremity by the navigable Surabaya Strait, less than two
miles wide. It is 96 miles by 18, and consists mostly of chalk, the
eretaccous hills on the north side forming a geological continuation
of those of Rembang and Surabaya on the opposite side of the strait,
Hence it seems probable that it formed an integral part of the main-
land before the epoch of the great upheavals, of which Java was the
chief centre. It has some extensive forests, but the soil is generally
poor, yielding insufficient rice for the local consumption.

Other natural dependencies are Palaw Panitaw (Prince's Island), lying
off the westernmost promontory ; Aratafor, in the Sunda Strait, scene of
the memorable eruption of August 26th, 1883; the small Carimon Java

5 ae 60 miles northof Yapara ; Aven, some 60 miles due north of

urabaya Strait; and Deli, Ting, Nusa Kambongen, Sempu, and Nusa
Sarung, off the south coast, making altogether a total area of nearly 62,000
square miles,

Coast-line.—Java, which is washed north and south by the Java
Sea and Indian Ocean, has a coast-line of 1400 miles, diversified by
several open bays on the north side, but with no deep inlets or
natural havens, so that the only commodions harbour is that of
Surabaya, formed by the adjacent island of Madura, The still less
indented south coast has no safe anchorage except under the shelter
of Kambangan, and is moreover exposed to the heavy and dangerous
surge rolling in from the Indian Ocean throughout the year. The
coast-line is otherwise broken by a number of bold headlands with
intervening bays, such as Java Head and St. Nicholas Point at the
southern and northern entrance of Sunda Strait; Wyncoop’s,
Welcome, and Pepper Bays at the west end of the island; Cape
Bugel over against Carimon Java, and Cape Sedano commanding the
northern approach to Bali Strait.

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO, 149

Physical Features.—Java is traversed throughout its whole
length by two mountain ranges, which in some places converge and
again separate, throwing off numerous spurs, which fall gently down
to the coast, Both are thickly set with about forty-six volcanoes,
from 6000 to over 12,000 feet high, twelve of which are still active.
The loftiest is Semeru (12,238 feet), but the largest crater is that of
Tenger (8000 feet), which rivals in size those of Japan and Hawaii.
The highlonds are almost everywhere intersected by lovely valleys
watered by torrents and perennial streams, and mostly overgrown °
with a magnificent tropical vegetation. There ia, however, a singular
absence of lacustrine basins, the only formations of this sort being a
few small but romantic upland lakes in the provinces of Cheribon,
Pasarutan, and one or two other places, The Danew, or “lake,” in
a pre-eminent sense, is now dry, like several others in different parts
of the island,

Voleanoes.—Apart from the cretaceous and more recent alluvial
deposits, the formation is essentially volcanic, Java forming, perhaps,
the most important section of the great igneous zone, which traverses
the whole Archipelago from Sumatra to the Philippines. Hut of all
the larger islands it appears to be the poorest in useful minerals.
Coal or lignite occurs in small “pockets” in many parts both of
Java and Madura, as well as in the neighbouring islets; but all
attempts have hitherto failed to utilise it to any great extent. A
variety of clays suitable for bricks, earthenware, and porcelain ; ampo,
an edible earth, regarded as a delicacy by the natives; good limestone
and marble, petroleum and eulphur, abound in many places, while
salt is obtained from the mud wells of Kudwu and Selo (Samarang),
and saltpetre from Sutyi in the Gresik district.

Thermal wells also nbound, and the volcanoes yield at every eruption
large quantities of sulphur. The crater of Tashem, at the east end,
contains a lakelet one-fourth of a mile long strongly impregnated with
sulphuric acid, whenee flows a stream of acid water so destructive to life
that no fish eau live in the sea near its mouth. The widespread myth of
the deadly ‘‘upas tree" originated probably with the extinct volcano of
Gueve UJ “Vale of Poison"), in the Batar district, whose crater,
about half a mile round, is justly held in horror by the natives. All
living things approaching it » down dead, and the ground is strewn
all round with the remains of deer, binds, and even men, killed by the
carbonic acid gas rising from the bottom of the valley. The mud volcanoes
of the low-lying Grobogan district in Yapara yield « considerable supply
of the muriate of soda useful for culinary purposes. In the neighbourhood
of the Bromo (Tengger) voleano the fire used for cooking is always taken
from the incandescent matter ejected by that venerated mountain during
eruptions, This fire is religiously preserved for years, and whenever it

150 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

goes out is kindled anew from that of the nearest village obtained origin-
ally from the voleano, The fires in use up to the late outburst were all
procured from the Bromo eruption of 1892.—Strais Times, 1886.

Earthquakea are frequent, but seldom violent, and mostly of a local
character. Nor do they now appear to have any intimate connection with
the eruptions ; of 143 recorded by Junghuhn, not more than 24 have been
in any way associated with these disturbances. But the memory survives
of tremendous convulsions formerly accompanying the explosions, such as
that of Ringghit in 1586, when that giant was rent asunder, involving in
the ruins 16,000 persons; and that of Galung-gung in 1822, which awept
away 115 villages with their 4000 inhabitants,

Rivers,—The northern versant of Java differs from the southern
in the great development of its alluvial formation, which in some
places forms plains of considerable extent. Hence the streams
flowing to the Java Sea greatly exceed in length and volume those
falling into the Indian Ocean, none of which are navigable for lange
vessels, Most of the tyi, or“ rivers," as they are called in the western
districts, are, moreover, obstructed by shoals or sandbanks at their
mouths. The largest, and in some respects the most useful, is the
Bengawan, or Solo, which flows by the city of Surakarta for 350
miles eastwards to Surabaya Strait, and is navigable for large boats.
Next in magnitude ia the Brantas, called in its lower course the
Kalimas, and by Europeans the river of Surabaya, which after a
winding course round Mount Arjuna, falls through two mouths into
the same strait. The rapid formation of alluvial deposits at their
mouths gives abundant proof of their disintegrating agency. Similar
aceretions of land are taking place all along the north coust, where
steam-dredges have to be kept at work in all the large harbours.

Owing to their generally rapid course and perennial character, the
innumerable streams and torrents on both slopes of the island are, on the
whole, far more useful for irrigation than for navigation. To the extensive
practice of this art, combined with the rich character of the volcanic and
alluvial soil, are mainly due the magnificent crops which enable Java
to support considerably more than half the population of the whole
‘Archipelago.

Climate,—The Javanese year is divided into a wet and a dry
season, the former lasting from October till March, when the moist
westerly winds prevail, the latter for the rest of the year, when the
cloudless east monsoon predominates. The driest months are July
and August, when the days are hottest and the nights coolest, At
Batavia the glass ranges from 70°—74” F. in the morning, to about
63", and occasionally even 90° at noon, But on the uplands of the

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 151

interior the extremes lie between 60° and 70°, falling to 50° and 62°
onthe hills behind Samarang, and to 27° or 5° below freezing point
on the summit of Mount Sindoro, On all the highlands the climute
tiny be regarded as healthy for Europeans, who become enervated in
the hot and often insalubrious low-lying districts along the northern
seaboard.

Flora.—Rice, the staple of food for all classes, is grown not only
along all the coust-lands, but on all the lowlands and valleys where
water is available, It is replaced on the uplands by coffee, which
has become the chief article of export. During the ten years ending
1875 the average annual produce of the Government plantations was
878,000, that of the private planters, 156,000 picula. The export of
coffee is entirely in the hands of the “ Netherlands Trading Society.”
Other vegetable products are sugar, raised chiefly in the Batavia
district where numerous sugar-mills are now at work ; tobacco,
maize, pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, sago, indigo, tea, and
Pimento. Palms and cocoa-nut trees abound in great variety, and
are distinguished by their luxuriant growth, sometimes reaching the
height of 150 feet. Fruits of exquisite flavour, such as the mangosteen,
durian, rambutan, mango, plantain, guava, pine-apple, are largely
grown, and of late years the cinchona has been successfully cultivated
by the Government, which now possesses 1,680,000 trees, The culti-
vation of tea, begun by Dn Bua, has also attained a considerable
development, the production amounting in 1879 to over 5,700,000 Ibs,

A characteristic forest plant is the far-famed Upes, that is, *' Poison,’
whose sap is fatal to all animal life. Extensive forests of jafi (teak) occur,
especialy between Bamarang and Sidayu, and yield a timber of finer
quality than that of Burmah. The spices thrive well, but are not much
cultivated, and the vine, formerly extensively grown, was stopped by the
old Dutch East India Company for fear of prejudicing the South African
vineyards. In the central and western forests are found many valuable
trees, including as many as sixteen varieties of the onk. But the wood-
lands are everywhere exposed to two destructive agencies—the alang alang
cance, an ineradicable exhauster of the soil, highly injurious to all other
vegetation ; and the upland peasantry, who clear the Jand for tillage in the
most reckless manner. On the lowlands a better method of cultivation

revails, known as the “culture system," introduced by Governor-General
fan den Bosch over 50 years ago. Under this system the great staples of
agriculture have increased wonderfully, and although scarcely more than
one-thinl of the land is under cultivation, Java now produces not only
enough . grin for its own teeming 2a apis but has also become o chief
souree of supply for the whale Archipelago,

Fauna.—The domestic animals are the horse, cattle, sheep, goats,
ewine, and buffaloes, the last-mentioned being almost exclusively

152 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

employed in field operations. The Javanese fauna is in other respects
mainly Asiatic, including the tiger, panther, leopard, jackal, polecat
(mydaus meliceps), Thinoceros, wild ox, deer, two species of wild
hour, the wau-wau gibbon, and other members of the ape family.
But the elephant and tapir are absent, or have long been extinct, if
their range ever extended so far south. Of reptiles the most formid-
able are the crocodile and python, both numerous and of large size,
besides npwards of twenty venomous snakes. The ornithology is
very rich, including the cassowary, peacock, weever, two epecies of
parrot, the minute butterfly hawk, falcon, golden oriole, yellow
crowned bulbul, fairy blue-bird, jungle-fowl, and many other rara
and beautiful species. The rivers also and neighbouring seas are
well stocked, and the fisheries along the coasta highly productive.
But the rivers’ mouths are infested by alligators, and the surrounding
waters by still more voracious sharks,

Inhabitants.—All the natives belong to the Malay stock, speak-
ing three distinct but allied languages: Sundanese in the west ;
Javanese proper in the central and eastern provinces ; Madwrese in
Madura and adjacent parts of the larger island, . In physical appear-
ance they present little differences, except that the Javanese are
somewhat taller and perhaps more refined than most other branches
of the Malay race, All are naturally inoffensive, peaceful, docile, of
frogal habits, truthful and straightforward. They bear the impress
of a people that has long enjoyed the benefits of a stable government,
of social order, and a considerable degree of general culture. Their
husbandry is careful and orderly, and they betray much skill and
taste as workers in wood, iron, and other metals, Their boats and
eanoes are unsurpassed for speed and elegance, their krisses of
excellent temper and graceful design, their woven fabrics of fine
quality, with tasteful patterns and harmoniously blended colours,
derived from a few simple vegetable and other dyes. As musicians
they have always excelled amongst Malay peoples, with whom, how-
ever, they share the love of gambling, of cock-fighting, and some
other characteristic vices.

The Javanese lang .¢ t the greater part of the island, is
derived directly from TN et tly ddveloned teen of Malay sp tg
of which there are inscriptions and records dating from the twelfth cen-
tury. It is written in a peculiarly elegant syllabic charactor, which was
introduced in an older form from India, and-which has held its ground
even after the Hindu religions were supplanted by Islim in the fifteenth

century. Since that time the bulk of the people are reputed Mohammedans,
although really believers in the primitive animism of their forefathers.

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO, 153

Many Brahmanical and Buddhist ideas also survive, and the number of
Ayamps, or spirits, still worshipped is limitless, Every village has its
patron deity, who presided at it# foundation, and to whose beneficent or
malignant influence are ascribed all its fortunes, Under a broad-branching
tree stands the altar, on which the worshipper lays his offering of flowers
and incense, uttering meanwhile in broken Arabic the Moslem formula—
“There is no god but God, and Mohammed is his prophet.” The national
mntheon has aleo been increased by such names as Moses, Jesus, St.
oseph, and others, introduced through European influences, although
their Protestant rulers have hitherto done little to evangelise these
“Mohammedan and Hindu Nature worshippers.” More zeal has been
shown by the Roman Catholic Church, which has a Vicar-Apostolic
resident in Batavia, and subordinate to him many missionaries scattered
over Java and other parts of Netherlands India. At Batavia and Samarang
there are religious establishments for the education of the young on
Christian principles. A spark of the old Hindu religions is still kept
alive by the Jeiina (Badui) hill-men in the Leboh district, Bantam, and
by the more numerous Tengger people, wlio occupy the slopes of the
Tengger volcano,

Government.—The only native princes still retaining a sem-
blance of regal state are the rajas of Surakarta and Jokjokarta, who
are mere pensioners of the Dutch, with no power to levy taxes,
but with absolute jurisdiction in purely religious matters, For all
practical purposes Java and its dependencies are now directly
administered by the Dutch, who have parcelled out this region into
twenty-four Residencies, enumerated in the statistical tables, p. 187.
These Residencies, each of which is governed by a European Resident,
assisted by a secretary and a number of sub-residents, are subdivided
into arrondissements, or “regencies,” so called because entrusted,
especially in police matters, to notive chiefs named “regents.” Over
all stands the Governor-General, who resides at Batavia, and exercises
almost absolute authority over all the Dutch possessions in the
Archipelago, He is Commander-in-Chief of the land and sea forces,
and is assisted by a Secretary-General and a Colonial Council of four
members named by the King of Holland,

Trade,—Java is the centre of a lange and increasing local and
foreign trade, which las been greatly facilitated by an excellent
eystem of roads, and a network of railways connecting all the chief
towns along the north coust with each other, and with several points
of the interior, Regular lines of steamers aleo ply between Batavia
and Europe, Singapore, Padang, and all the chief porta of the
Archipelago. The exports from Java include rice, sugar, coffee,
indigo, tobacco, cotton, pepper, spices, camphor, teak, sago, and edible
birds’-nests. Through. Batavia are also forwarded to Europe many

154 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

other products of the Archipelago, such as gambier, tin, gold-dust,
diamonds, rattans, beeswax, tortoise-shell, nutmegs, cloves, mace,
kajupati, and other oils from the Moluccas, The total yearly exports
now exceed sixteen, and the imports thirteen, millions sterling. The
latter comprise linen, woollen, and cotton goods, provisions, wine,
spirits, hardware, glass from Europe and America; opium from
India; tea, porcelain, and silks from China, All the Government
exports to the Netherlands are forwarded by the “Dutch Trading
Company " established in 1824 at Amsterdam,

Topography.— Batavia, capital of Java, and of all the Dutch
East Indies, occupies a marshy site on the Yakatra, near the head of
the spacious Bay of Batavia, 1t comprises a native and a European
quarter, the latter rivalling Calcutta and Bombay in splendonr, and
containing the residences of all the Government officials, all the chief
hotels, clubs, museums, and theatres, But business is centred chiefly
in the old town, which is intersected by canals, and rendered as
eaulubrious as most tropical cities by the recent drainage works,
Nearly all the import and export trade of Java passes through
Batavia, which has a mixed population of over half a million natives,
Chinese, “ Moors” claiming Arab descent, Dutch, English, Portuguese,
and other Europeans. It was founded in 1619, and oceupied by the
British in 1811, but restored to Holland at the general peace.

About 40 miles south of Batavia, in a healthy district nearly 1000 feet
above the sea, lies the village of Budlenzorg, where the Governor-General
has a fine palace, and many Europeans reside o part of the year. Here is
a famous botanical garden, in which are cultivated all the finest vegetable
products of the Archipelago, Strabaye, next in importance to Batavia,
and the chief port for the export of sugar, stands at the mouth of the Brantas
river, over against the western extremity of Madura, Its harbour is the
finest in Java, and here are situated tho Government dockyards and
arsenals, Tho fertile province of Surabaya sends down a vast quantity of
rive, sugar, and other produce by the river, which is navigable for lw
boats far into the interior. Samerang, at the mouth of the river of like
name, some 220 miles east of Batnvin, enjoys the advantage of railway
communication with the native capitals of Surakarta and Jogjokarta, thns
drawing large supplies of eotton, sugar, coffee, and indigo from one of the
richest districts of the interior, ayer, a fortified town at the narrowest
part of the Sunda Strait, and an important port of call for ships proceeding
to Batavia, Singapore, or Manilla, was totally destroyed by the terrible
Krakatao eruption of August 26-7, 1883. Swrakeria (Solo), capital of the
kingdom of Susuman, the so-called “* Emperor of Java,” is the langest city
still nominally governed by o native prince. He keeps a ceremonial state,
and is aerial by a degree of magnificence searcely surpassed by that
of any Indian raja, Another important native city is Jokjotarta, capital
of a province of like name, and governed by a Javanese sultan.

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 155

Historical Notes.—Like that of India, the early history of Java
lacks all satisfactory chronological data, The first known records, as
well as the oldest monuments, are associated with the ascendancy of
the Hindus through three successive periods of pure Buddhism, an
aggressive Sivaism, and an apparent compromise, Of the various
Hindu States the most powerful was that of Majapahit, with many
tributaries in Java and other parts of the Archipelago. Under
Buddhist and Grahmanical influences the peaceful arts, and especially
architecture and sculpture, attained a degree of almost unparalleled
splendour, as still attested by the aumptuous monuments of Boro-
budor and other places, But Hinduism was almost entirely displaced
in the fifteenth century by Islim, which, as a political power, had in
its turn soon to give way to Christian influences,

Java was first visited in 1511 by the Portuguese, who were followed
in 1595 by the Duteh. For over a hundred years the Dutch East
India Company owned only a few forts and factories at Yakatra
(Batavia) and other places ; but in 1705 they obtained possession of
Preanger by treaty with Mataram, and in 1745 extended their
authority over the whole north coast from Cheribon to Banyuwangi,
In 1755 Mataram was divided into the two States of Surakarta and
Jokjokarta, which still retain a semblance of independence, and in
1808 the kingdom of Bantam was finally reduced, By the British
occupation (1811-18) European ascendancy was strengthened, and
the great Java war (1825-30), in which o last struggle was made by a
native dynasty, resulted in the complete triumph of the Dutch.
Since then the whole island has fallen under their sway, and under

their able administration has rapidly increased in population and
general prosperity. A great military road 600 miles long and other
highways have been opened in every direction, the railway system is
gradually extending to all the great agricultural centres, life and
property are aa safe as in any part of Europe, and the natives are as
contented as any people are likely to be under the rule of an alien
race.

Of the numerous monuments left by the early Hindn conquerors, the
most remarkable is the great templo of Borobodo (Bore-Budur), about § 0
miles west of Brambenam, in the province of Kedu. It crowns a small
conical hill, and consists of a lofty central dome, and seven ranges of ter-
raced open stair regularly built round the hill, with numerous com-
munications by stepa and stairs, Tho dome is 50 feet in diameter, and
the whole building 620 feet square and about 100 feet high, sec er igaer |
an amount of labour as great as that expended on the Great Pyramid, O
minor antiquities the most valuable are the inscriptions on stone and

156 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

copper in a variety of characters, rendering their decipherment a work of
great difficulty. Some of these relics appear to have been removed to the
Kaflles Museum, Singapore.

Bat.

Last of the lands belonging physically to the Asiatic division of
the Archipelago, this westernmost of the Lesser Sunda group. lies
between the shallow Bali Strait now separating it from Java and the
deep Lombok passage, by which it has always been severed from
Lombok and the whole Australasian world, It has a circumference
of about 200 miles, and is mostly hilly and even mountainons, cul-
minating in the north-east with the volcanic Gunong Agung, or Peak
of Bali (11,400 feet), From this and other hills flow numerous
streams in all directions, supplying abundant water to its fertile soil,
which yields rich crops of rice, cotton, and tobacco, The natives,
akin to the Javanese in type and speech, are a finer and a more inde-
pendent race than their neighbours, as shown by their stout resistance
to the Mohammedan invasion. Here the Hindu forms of religion
have found a last refuge in the Archipelago, most of the poople being
sectaries either of Krahmanism or Sivaism, as in India itself. There
are also a few Buddhist communities, but scarcely any followers of
the Prophet except amongst the Malays of the trading places. The
institution of castes even still prevails, and satti, or the immola-
tion of widows on their husband's funeral pyre, has not yet been
suppressed,

The island is divided into eight principalities (Beleling, Karang-asam,
Klong-kong, Tabanan, Bangli, Mangiri, Gyangar, nnd Badong), whose
hereditary rulers retain the title of raja. But since 1849, when Bali was
completely reduced by the Dutch, these potentates enjoy the mere sem-
blance of authority, and the island now forms with Lombok a Residency,
administered by an official stationed at Beleiing on the north coast, the
chief seaport of Bali.

THE FHILIPPISE AND SUL0 ARCHITELAGOES,

General Survey.—The Thilippines oecupy the whole of the
north-eastern section of the Archipelago, with the central parts of
which they are physically connected by three chains of islands—
Palawan with Balabac, running from Mindoro to north-western
Borneo, the Sulu group from Mindanao to north-eastern Borneo, and
Carcarolong with the Talautse (Sanguir) and Siao groups, also from
Mindanao to Celébes. These chains all lie on more or less elevated

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO, 157

marine beds, enclosing the two deep basins of the Sulu and Celébes
Seas, while further north flow the deep waters of the China Sea, now
completely severing the Philippines from the Asiatic mainland.
Again, Palawan and Sulu appear to consist mainly of very old
sedimentary rocks, while Talautse and Sino are exclusively volcanic,
the Philippines themselves partaking of both formations in more
equal proportions than any other section of the Eastern Archipelago.
This twofold aspect, partly oceanic, partly Asiatic, is also presented
by their fauna, flora, and inhabitants, which, moreover, offer many
peculiarities, distinguishing this region from all others in the eastern
seas, Stretching north and south across 15 degrees of latitude
(5°—20" N,), with a total area of 115,000 square miles, it forms, next
to Great Britain and Japan, the largest compact insular group in the
world; and so closely are its various members connected, that they
produce the impression of a continuous mass of land broken into
fragments by the convalsions and subsidence so often aseociated with
igneous disturbances, Thus all the broad features here indicated
scom to point at one conclusion—that the Philippines represent a
vast area at one time contiguous with the continent and with Borneo,
then at a very remote period severed from both, and again partly
united with the Oceanic world through the more recent volcanic
agencies, of which Sanguir and Siao have long been an active scene.

The group comprises, 1. the two great islands of Luson and Mindanao
in the north and south, the former somewhat larger than Java, the latter
one-fifth smaller; 2. the intervening islands of ‘Hindoro, Panay, Negros,
Zebu, Bohol, Leyte, Masbate, and Samer, ranging from 1200 to 6000 square
miles in extent ; 3. the outlying Palawan with the Calamians and Balabac
groups between the Mindoro and Balabac Straits; 4. the Babuyan, Catan-

uanes, Surigao, and other smaller groups, making altogether over 400 in-
habited isles and islets, besides some 600 uninhabited islets and roefs.

Physical Features.—Throughout its whole extent the Archi-
pelago seems to be traversed by two somewhat parallel volcanic
zones, but gradually converging southwards, so that the space of over
100 miles separating them in Luzon is reduced in Mindanao to 55
miles, while both merge in one system towards Sanguir and Siao. Of
the western and less elevated zone the chief cone is that of Taal in
the province of Batangas, rising 530 feet above lake Bombon and
1600 above sea-level. In the eastern zone the most important range
is that of Mayon, terminating at Point Engaio in the extreme north-
east of Luzon, and reappearing in the Babnyan isles. Southwards
this range culminates in Mount Albay, at the south end of Luzon,

158 _ EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

passing thence through Leyte, where there are large deposits ‘of
sulphur, to the volcanic islet of Camiguin off the north coast of
Mindanao, and so on to Apoand the Sarangani mountain and islets at
the southern extremity of Mindanao.

Albay is one of the most remarkable volcanoes in the whole world,
forming a regular cone 9100 feet high, with a circular base 12 miles in
diameter, constantly emitting from its flanks thousands of jets of heated
sulphurous vapour, but without a trace of any true crater. But during the
eruptions of 1767 and 1814 it ejected torrents of lava which swept away
many Villages with all their inhabitants, Further north the voleanie
region is sharply limited by the course of the river Bicol, south of which
nothing occurs except caleareous marls and rich fossiliferous deposits. Hera
the Mayon system is continued north-westwurds through saa Iriga
(4000 feet) and Isarog (6500 feet), whose eruptions appear to have filled
in the channel between the former island of Caramuan and the provinee of
South Caramines. In North Luzon the eastern and western volcanic belts,
which here enclose the Tajo river basin, take respectively the general
names of the Sierra Madre ancl Northern Cordilleras, In Mindanao the
still active Mount Apo, near Davao, was ascended in 1582 by Koch and
Schadenberg, who found the highest of its three peaks to be 11,000 feet,
consequently the culminating point of the whole Archipelago, The more
southern Sarangani lias been quiescent since 1045.

The presence of very old crystalline rocks in both of tho large islands
ia attested by the occurrence of gold in Mindanao, and of suriferona
quartz, lead and copper ores in the southern districts of Luvon. Similar
ormations occur in Masbate, whose streams are washed for gold, in
Zebu, Leyte, and other members of the Archipelago, where igneous and
sedimentary rocks are found almost everywhere intermingled,

Rivers and Lakes,—Few tropical lands are better watered than
the Philippines, which, besides innumerable perennial streams, also
differ from Java and Borneo in the possession of several large and
romantic upland and lowland lakes, Of the Luzon rivers, which
flow mostly to the north and west coast, the largest is the Tajo (Aparri),
which flows from Mount Lagsig for about 200 miles through the
great Cagayan plain to Aparri on the north coast. Further south the
still larger Pampanga plain is traverzed by a large number of streams,
flowing some to the Gulf of Lingayan, some to Manila Bay on the
west coast. Here is presented the somewhat rare phenomenon of a
lake, the Laguna de Canaren, draining in two opposite directions to
both of these inlets. Numerous streams aleo converge from the sur-
rounding hills in the beautiful Lago de EBay, largest of the Luzon
lakes, which sends its overflow through the Pasig river to Manila
Bay near the capital,

Other large sheets of water in Luzon are Lake Cagayan in the extreme
north, the temporary Pinag de Candava, formed during the rainy season

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 159

by the overflow of the Pampanga, and Bombon, a large Inke 15 miles
by 10, out of which rises the Taal voleano, whose deep crater is itself
flooded by a lakelet three miles in circumference. The greater part of
Mindanao is drained by two large rivers—the Butuan, flowing from near
Mount Calalan northwards to Butuan Gulf, and the Rio Grande, which
traverses a series of lakes on its westerly course to Ilana Bay, Between
the two, and in the very heart of the island, lies the extensive but little
known lake Maguindanas, which, like the Laguna de Canaren, is also said
to discharge its surplus waters in opposite directions to loth of thease
river basins. Several other lakes are dotted over the interior of Mindanao,
the largest of which appears to be Malanao, draining to Iligan Bay, on the
north coast.

Climate.—Thiree seasons are distinguished, at least in the northern
section of the Archipelago, which alone is exposed to the terrific
typhoons that sweep with such destructive force over the China Sea.
The cold and dry season, ushered in by the north-east monsoon in
November, is followed by the secar, or period of heat and drought
prevailing from March till June, when the heat on the lowlands is
sometimes almost unbearable, The third, or rainy period, accompany-
ing the south-west monsoon, prevails generally from June till October,
when the typhoons are most frequent and violent, But they extend
no further south than about 10° N. latitude, so that Mindanao and
the Sulu gronp lie beyond the range of theirdevastations. The rain-
fall exceeds 100 inches in many places, and as most of the moisture
is precipitated during the wet period, the lowlands are periodically
flooded by the tremendous downpours of the summer and autumn
months, In the north the greatest heats appear to prevail from
April to July, or August, when the glass rises to 96° or even 100° F,,
while at other times falling to 75" and 72°. Owing to the absence of
storms, the climate is more equable in the south, so that the distine-
tions between the seasons are much less perceptible in Mindanao
than in Luzon,

Flora.—With the progress of exploration the number of indi-
genous forms is constantly imcreased, Thus the 2729 species and
910 genera already recorded in 1879 had risen in 1853 to 4583 species
and 1163 genera. Most of the latter are common to Malacca, Borneo,
and other parts of the Indo-Malayan region, while some belong
to the Australasian world, and a few are indigenous. But owing
to their long isolation, the Philippine: have developed a greater
number of species and varieties than any other insular group in
the Archipelago,

The splendour of the highland scenery, which all travellers describe in
enthusiastic language, is largely duc to the magnificent forests of ebony,

160 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

ironwood, cedar, sapan, teak, and many other valuable species, clothing all
the slopes to a height of some thousand feet. In general the vegetation
from 6000 foet npwards is identical or closely analogous to that of Borneo
at the same altitude. Conspicuous amongst the cultivated plants are the
sugar-cane, of which over twonty varicties are enumerated, tobacco, rice,
hemp, coffee, all of excellent quality and great economic value. The
ainfion, especially the so-called Canayang-tetoo variety, is also of great
importance for the endless social and industrial uses to which this
indispensable graminaceous plant is put,

Fauna.—The Philippine fauna is remarkable especially for the
total absence of rhinoceros, elephant, tiger, tapir, and all the larger
animals common to other parts of the Indo-Malayan world. On the
other hand, amongst the smaller forms special types are met in con-
stantly increasing numbers, These indigenous varieties are in fact
numerous enough to impart a peculiar stamp to the local founa
(Jordana y Morera), Thus the presence of many mammals akin to
those of the adjacent lands shows that the isolation of the Archi-
pelago cannot date from extremely remote geological times, while
the absence of others of the same group may be due to the devasta-
tions cansed by the tremendous volcanic and seismatic convulsions,
as well as by the subsidence and upheavals, of which these islands
have always been a chief centre,

Characteristic animals are the wacacus cynomolgus, a species of “re
spread over the whole group, a small panther, confined to Palawan, a wild
cat, a mouse-deer, and Mying mammals, which aro exceptionally numerous,
including a squirrel, a lemur, and over twenty species of bats. Many kinds
of birds common to other be of Malaya are also wanting, and partl
replaced by a large variety of parrots and pigeons, besides cockatoos an
mound-builders. The reptile class includes crocodiles, lizards, an enormous
python over 40 feet in length, and many other snakes. ‘Some of the
butterflies are remarkable for their intense and variable metallic gloss, and
the Philippines are celebrated above all other eastern countries for the
variety and beauty of their land-shells, of which there are about 400 dis-
tinct species, of varied form, and often of exquisitely delicate colouration "
( ailace).

Inhabitants.—Excluding the already described few surviving
Aetas, or Negrito aborigines (see p, 120), the whole of the native
population belongs fundamentally to the Malay stock, which, how-
ever, here presents a far greater variety of type and speech than in
any other Malay region proper. Besides the larger nations, such as
the Tagalas of Luzon and Mindoro, the PBisayans widely diffused
throughout the central islands, the Bicols of South Luzon and
Masbate, the Mandayas and Manobos of Mindanao, there are many

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 161

other tribes, especially in Luzon, who differ greatly in physical
appearance, usages, language, and general culture. Thus while the
Tagalas and Bisayans possessed] a knowledge of lettera, and rose to
a certain degree of civilisation in comparatively remote times, the
cruel and ferocious Jlongotes of the Caraballo highlands, Luzon,
are described os the most degraded of beinga, destitute of all the
finer sentiments of humanity, and incapable of any generous act,

In Luzon there are no less than fifteen, and in the whole Archipelago some
forty languages, often presenting profound differences, although ultimately
reducible to the common Malayo-Polynesian stock, The cultivated Tagala
and Bisayan are far more highly developed than either the Malay or
Polynesian proper, and have evolved many curious and intricate forms of
speech, which seem to place them in an intermediate state between the
agglutinating and inflecting linguistic families. This surprising diversity
of types and languages must be attributed partly to the long isolation of
the Philippines, attested also by their animal and vegetable forma, partl
to the frequent contact with Asiatics and other peoples to which this
group has been exposed from prehistoric times, and partly to intermixtura
with the Negritoes already in possession of the whole Archipelago before
the arrival of the first Malay intruders. The endless variety of races
resulting from all these causes is well illustrated by the ‘Album of
Philippine Types" issued in 1885 by Dr, A. B. Meyer of Dresden, and
containing about 250 figures, showing every shade of transition from the
pure and half-caste Negrito and Malay to the Hispano-Malayan Mestizo,

A peculiarity of these populations is the resistance they have offered to
the spread of Islim, contrasting in this respect with their susceptibility to
Christian influences, Of the total population about five and a half millions
are Classed as “reduced,” the majority of whom are members of the Roman
Catholic Church subject to the Spanish Government, leaving scarcely more
than 400,000 Negritoes, Chinese, and Jgorrofes, a term common! ¥ applied
collectively to the pagan and uncivilised Malay tribes, in contradistinction
to the /lots, or native Christians. The Christianity, however, of these
llotes ig often purely formal, a mere outward cloak, beneath which heathen
rites and the lower phases of Romanism meet as on common ground.

These remarks do not apply to the Siliis of the Sila Archipelago, who
are of purer Malay descent, although also to some extent affected by
Chinese and perhaps Arab elements. All are zealous Mohammedans, and
were till recently notorious corsairs, a terror to the more peaceful sesfaring
populations of the China Sea, But since the reduction of this group by
the Spaniards in 1876, their piratical expeditions have almost entirely
ceased. while the Stilis long settled in North Borneo have mostly become
orderly British subjects, somewhat indolewt and restless, but on the whole
“well behaved, courteous, and intelligent’ (W. B. Pryer). Palawan
(Paragua) also is partly inhabited by heathen Malays, the Taghanuas, and
Tinitianos, who have many features in common with the Mohammedan
Malays of Mindanao, Further north and-in the neighbouring Calamianes
group live the Bulalacaunos, a ruder people, whose aquiline nose, crisp or
wavy hair, and somewhat full beard, separate them from the Malay stock,
and affiliate them probably to the Galelas and other Indonesians of the

: Mf

162 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

Eastern Archipelago, Palawan is only nominally under the authority of
the Spaniards, who maintain o solitary military establishment at Porto
Princess on the eust coast,

Government.—For administrative purposes the Archipelago is
divided into forty-three departments or provinces, governed by
Alcaldes or Commandantes, under the general control of a Governor-
General and Captain-General, These officials are practically absolute
in their respective jurisdictions, the great bulk of the population
being still unripe for civil or communal rights, A large degree of
authority is also beneficially exercised by the ministers of the Roman
Catholic Church, which here boasts of more numerous congregations
than in any other part of the Asiatic world. The hierarchy com-
prises an archbishop (Manila), three bishops, and nearly 500 parish
priests, supported by a small poll-tax levied on all Christians, and
by the revenue of large landed estates, The public revenue is also
derived to a great extent from a capitation tax, supplemented with
enstom-lues, a tobacco monopoly, an excise on palm-wine, and a few
other sources,

Trade.—In the absence of railways, or even good roads and
bridges, the natural resources of the Archipelago still remain to a
large extent undeveloped. Nevertheless, a considerable export trade
is supported by the produce of the snygar, tobaceo, hemp, and coffee
plantations. Cotton and rice are mostly required for the local con-
sumption, but other articles of export are timber, especially sapan,
indigo, gums, hides, and mother-of-pearl. The chief imports are
cottons, hard-ware, crockery, China goods, and provisions of all sorts,

Topography.—Nearly all the foreign trade of the Archipelago
passes through the capital, Manila, founded in 1571 near the mouth
of the river Pasig, on the east side of Manila Bay, west const of
Luzon. Manila lias extensive commercial relations with China,
Europe, and America, and enjoys telegraphic communication with
the rest of the world through the cable to Hong-kong, laid down in
1880, As the centre of the Spanish possessions, and next to Goa,
the oldest European town in the East, Manila possesses numerous
public buildings, scientific, charitable, and religious institutions,
The climate, although hot (mean temperature 82° F,), is not un-
healthy ; but the place is exposed to terrific hurricanes (typhoons),
thunderstorms, and earthquakes,

Next in importance to Manila is the seaport of J/oifo, on the south

eoast of Panay, the outlet of the best hemp-growing district, Other small
centres of trade and population are Zebu, on the east side of the island of

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 165

like name, where Magellan was killed in 1521 ; Zamboanga, at the western
extremity of Mindanao; Sua!, on the west, and Aperri on the north
coast of Luzon,

Stxt.

This Archipelago, stretching for 200 miles in a gentle curve from
Mindanao to the north-east extremity of Borneo, comprises the three
groups of Basilen in the east, Sila proper in the centre, and Jawt-
Tawi in the west. Until 1876 the whole chain formed an inde-
pendent State under a Mohammedan sultan; but in that year the
Spaniards oceupied Basilan, incorporating it with the Philippines,
and atthe same time compelled Sultan Mohammed-Yamalal-Alam
to aecept their protectorate, He now resides at Matbun, his former
capital, Tianggi, having been destroyed by the Spaniards, and since
replaced by a new station in a more healthy site. The district of
Silt claimed by him in North Borneo now forms part of the British
settlement in that region, his territory being thus reduced to the
insular groups of Sili and Tawi-Tawi. The two largest islands,
both abont 35 miles long, and from 3 to 10 broad, are fertile and
partly covered with teak, sapan, cocoa and areca palma, Tobacco,
recently introduced by the German Borneo Company, thriving well.
(Guillemard.)

BAsHl,

To the Philippines also belongs politically the small Bashi, or
Batanes, group between Babuyan and Formom, Discovered by
Dampier in 1687, it was occupied in 1783 by the Spaniards, who
maintain a small establishment on Grafton islet, There is a con-
siderable Malay population, who cultivate yams, batatas, pineapples,
and other froits of fine flavour, The Dominicans have a station on
Batan, a high pyramidal island, which gives an alternative name to
the whole group,

#

IL OCEANIC DIVISION.

CELEBES—THE MOLUCCA AND BANDA GROUPS,

The reasons for constituting this region, which fills up nearly
the whole space between Borneo and New Guinea, a separate division
of the Eastern Archipelago, distinct both from the Asiatic and

: M2

164 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

Australian sections, are fully set forth at pp. 109, 110, and need not
here be repeated. Whether the lands of which it is composed be
regarded as a remnant of the vanished Lemuria, formerly stretehing
aouth-westwards to Madagascar, or of a submerged Pacifie continent,
which, with the Philippines, extended eastwards and south-eastwards
to the Marshall group and New Zealand (for this theory has also
been advocated), it seems evident that Celébes and the Moluccas
can have formed no part of the Asiatic or Australian mainland, at
least since Miocene times.

CELEDES,

General Survey.—Lying almost exactly in the centre of the
Archipelago, of which it is the fourth largest member, exceeding in
size both Luzon and Java, Celébes stretches two degrees north and
nearly six south of the equator, between 119° and 125° E. longitude.
This strangely-shaped island, roughly resembling a starfish that has
lost one of its rays, consists of a central nucleus, whence radiate north,
east, and south four great limbs, traversed by four mountain-rangea,
and enclosing the three great marine Gulfs of Tomini, Tolo, and
Boni. Owing to this peculiar configuration, paralleled only by its
eastern neighbour Jilolo, no part of is is over 50 miles from the sea,
although it has a total length of about 800 miles, and an area of over
70,000 square milea, with an enormous coastline of over 2000 miles,
All the limbs terminate in islands, or insular groups, such as Salayer
in the south ; Mimaand Bitton in the south-east ; Peling, Bangay, and
further seawards the Sula Group in the east; Tagolando, Sino,
Sanguir, and others in the north-east—all evidently at one time form-
ing partof the mainland, and indicating a former extension of Celébes
towards the Sunda, Molucca, and Philippine Archipelagoes.

Although the interior still awaits systematic exploration, sufficient is
known of its structure to conelnde that it almost everywhere consists of
very old crystalline, carboniferous, and sedimentary rocks, except in the
axtreme north-east. Wore is a remarkable cluster of 11 volcanoes, severnl
of which have been in eruption during the present century, andl one of
which, Klabat, attains an elevation of nearly 7000 fect. Elsewhere there
nore several peaks, ranging from 8000 to 10,000 feet and upwards, such as
Donda (9500 1) at the north entrance of Marassar Strait; Lompobatang
(8200), and Bonthain (apparently about 10,000), at the south end of the
southern limb ; Latimojong, Tikala, Tampoki, and Tjinrana in or near the
central nucleons, Hut although the country is generally mountainous, with
a mean elevation of perhaps not less than 2000 feet above sea-level, ox-
tensive level or slightly rolling plains occupy a large space between the

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO, 165

oplands and the sea, These plains are in some places covered with dense
primeval forest, and elsewhere overgrown with herbs and grass, affording
excellent pasture for horses and cattle, (Temminck.)

Rivers and Lakes.—Owing to its fragmentary character, Celébes
affords no space for the development of great rivers, The largest is
the Sadung, which enters Mandhar Bay on the west coast, after a
southernly course of 160 milea; but the most useful for navigation is
the Chinrana, accessible for good-sized native craftto the large Lake
Luboya, ome 20 miles from its mouth on the west side of the Gulf
of Boni. Besides the Luboya, there are several other lacustrine’
hasins of considerable size in every part of the island, Celébes in this
reapect resembling Sumatra and the Philippines. ‘Tondano in
Minahassa, and Limbotto in the Gorongtalo district further west,
send their overflow to the Celébes Sea and Gulf of Tomini re-
spectively, and moet of the Inkes stand at a considerable elevation in
the midst of wild and romantic scenery,

Climate,—Notwithstanding its equatorial position, Celébes en-
joys a relatively cool and healthy climate, thanks partly to the high
relief of the land, partly to the sea-breezes, by which the tropical
heats are everywhere tempered, But for the violent earthquakes and
yoleanic eruptions of the northern peninsula, this island would be
in every respect one of the most favoured regions in the world.

Minerals,—Iron, salt, and gold are found in abundance, the
latter being widely disseminated throughout the northern districts,
and more extensively exported than from any other island except
Borneo, ‘Tin and copper also oceur, and mines of both are worked
in several places. But although the carboniferous strata are well
developed, they have hitherto yielded nothing but coal of poor
quality,

Flora and Fauna.—The chief vegetable products are maize,
rice, cassava, tobacco, coffee, yams, sugar, and eago, while the forests
contain a great variety of valuable trees, from one of which the well-
known fadean or Macassar oilisextracted. Other useful species are
the ouk, teak, cedar, ebony, sandalwood, pepper, betel, areca, besides
the clove and nutmeg, which grow wild, and the upes or “ poizon”
tree, and bamboos in great abundance.

The Celébes fauna differs from those of Borneo and Java in the absence
of tailed monkeys, feline and canine animals, insectivora, the elephant,
tapir, and rhinoceros, They are replaced by a large black tailless baboon,
two kinds of cuscus (an opoxsum-like marsupial), two rats, five squirrels,
anid the already-described babirusa and sapi-utan, altogether peculiar to this

166 . EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

island. Of the 160 species of land-birds, as many as 90 are also peculiar
to Celébes and adjacent islands, while of the remainder 50 come from the
Asiatic and 20 from the Australian regions. Three remarkable genera of
starlings (Sesilornis, nodes, and Seissorostrum), two indigenous magpies
(Strepto-citfa and Charitornis), and an anomalous kingfisher (Crycopsis), have
no near allies in the Archipelago, and are only remotely connected with
groups now inhabiting the Asiatic or African continents, The insects
also differ largely from those of the Sundas and Moluccas, presenting certain
seculiarities of form and colour occurring nowhere el4e, Thus, the more
ita living organisms are examined in detail, the more it becomes necessary
to detach this remarkable region from the rest of the world.

Inhabitants.—Although usually classed as Malays, the bulk of
the inhabitants, both wild and cultured, seem to belong rather to the
Indonesian group. Not only the “ Alfuros,” a collective term
applied by the Malays to the rude and pagan natives, but also the
civilised people, such a3 the Mangkassars and Bughis of the southern
peninsula, are described as tall, well-proportioned, with regular
features, and comparatively fair and even white complexion, and
altogether resembling the Samoans, Tahitians, and other eastern
Polynesians far more than the Malaya. (Dumont d'Urville,)

In general those described as Alfaros, such as the Galelas, Torajas, Zatli,
and many others, aro heathens at a very low stage of culture, whilo the
civilised communities, numerous Spey in the south, profess a mild
form of Mohammedanism, modified by many local rites and traditions.
The Bughis especially are an intelligent, energetic, and daring race, given
more to trade and seafaring than to agriculture, and renowned throughout
the Archipelago for their commercial qualities, vigour, and enterprise. Long
before the Mohammedan period they had attained a certain degree of culture,
derived probably from the Hindus of Java, and were distinguished by their
courteous habits, hospitality to strangers, and knowledge of lutters. Bork
Mangkassars and Bughis have a peculiar writing system, somewhat resem-
bling that of the Sumatran Rejongs, and doubtless received from the same
common Indian source. Their languages belong fundamentally to the
Malayo-Polynesian family, but posrss many independent forms, ond
foreign or unknown elements, derived probably from an original Indonesian
form of speech, diffused throughout the Archipelago before the arrival of
the Malaya from the Asiatic mainland.

Some of the wild tribes, especially in the central and northern districts,
are head-hunters, and even cannibals, and in other respects betray a marked
as to the Bornean Dyaks, from whom they are probably
descended,

Political Divisions.—Celtbes is claimed entirely by the Dutch,
and is divided by them into the Residencies of Mangkassar (Macassar)
which embraces the southern peninsulas, besides Salayer, Sumbawa,
and part of Floris in the Lewser Sunda group, and Menado, which
comprises the northern peninsulas, with the Sino, Sanguir, and Tulur

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO, 167

islets between Celébes and Mindanao, A third division, extending
ruund the north and west sides of the Gulf of Tolo, is included in the
Residency of Ternate in the Moluccas, The chief Dutch settlements
are at Menado and Gorongtalo in the northern, and at Mangkassar
(Vlaurdingen) at the southern extremity of the south-western penin-
sula; but very little of the country is really occupied, or directly
administered by them, being still mostly held either by unreduced
wild tribes, or by native rajas, who, however, recognise their political
supremacy, Mangkassur is the largest town and chief seaport in
Celébes, its trading relations extending to Java, Singapore, the Aru
Islands, and New Guinea. The district produces abundance of rice,
besides some cotton, with which the native women make large
numbers of “sarongs,” universally worn by Malays of both sexes,
The Dutch Governor resides at Port Rotterdam. Menado, capital of
the Northern Residency, is a small place of scarcely 3000 inhabitants,
near the north-east extremity of the island, On the opposite side of
the peninsula is the station of Kema; and on the same side, but much
further west, the little port of Gorungtulo, almost the only settlement
in the district of like name, which is inhabited by rude tribes under
rajas supervised by a Dutch Assistant-Resident,

The south-western peninsula comprises nine petty Mohammedan States,
constituting a sort of Bughi confederacy, with capital at Boni, near the
head of the gulf of like name, and in allinnce with the Dutch. To the
north-west is the smaller Mendier confederacy of seven Mohammedan
States, comprising the western portion of the island, where it projects into
Macassar Strait, north of Mandhar Bay, The Mandhar people, who, like
their Gughi neighbours, have developed a native culture, are daring trepang
fishers, and enterprising traders.

The large islands of Bilton and Mitna, forming a southern extension of
the south-eastern peninsnla, constitute a Mohammedan State under a sultan
subject to the Dutch. In the same way, the eastern islands of Peling,
Bangay, with the Suila (Xulla) group, belong nominally to the Sultan of
Ternate, who also recognises the supremacy of the Dutch. The inhabitants
of all these islands are Mohammedan Malays, or Indonesians, speaking
several distinct Malayan dialects,

Agriculture, Trade, Industries.—Except where Dutch influ-
ence has made iteelf felt, very little attention has been paid to
husbandry, The soil is much inferior to that of Java in fertility,
and the only part of Celébes yielding surplus corn for exportat-on is
the eastern or volcanic portion of the northern peninsula, Tecently
the culture of coffee and cocoa has been introduced, but the staples of
agriculture are maize, sugar, tobacco, cotton, and especially rice, of

168 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

which three varieties are grown, The inhabitants excel in the
manufacture of the sarong, or national garment, woven by the women,
and together with variegated mats largely exported.

But the chief puranit of the civilised communities is trade and maritime
enterprise. The Bughis and Mangkosears ore at present the most adven-
turous and skilful seafarers in the Eastern Archipelago. With their little
craft of peculiar build, and from 40 to 50 tons burden, they have acquired
a large i of the local carrying trade, making long gonrieys as far east
as New Guinea, and westwards to Sumatra, in the track of the monsoons,
The outward cargoes are chiefly cotton cloths (sarongs), edible birds’-nests,
trepang, colfee, rice, gold-dust, tortoise-shell, sandal-wood, matting, bees-
wax, gomuti cordage, sugar, and cocoa-nut oil In exchange for these
comimnolities, they ship to Batavia, Singapore, and other places, cotton and
silk fabrics, steel and iron ware, China goods, birds of paradise, The
people of Celébes have numerous settlements in Borneo, Sumatra, and
many other parts of the Archipelago,

Mouteca anD Banpa Grovurs,

Under the term Motvecas (Mattcos) or Spice Islands, are now
generally comprised most of the groups lying between Celébes and
New Guinea, and divided politically into the three Dutch Residencies
of Amporywa, Baxpa, and Tsarxare, with a total area of over 20,000
aquare miles. They form two distinct geographical groups: the
Moluccas proper, with Jilolo to the north; the Bandas, with Ceram
and Biri in the south, separated from Celébes, the former by
Molucca Passage, the latter by Pitt Passage, Northwards, the Tulur
islets, lying in comparatively shallow water, serve to effect a transition
to the Philippines, while in the south they are severed by the deep
basin of the Banda Sea, from Timor and Timor Lant. They are
almost exactly bisected by the equator, north and south of which
they extend in Tulur and the Bandas a little beyond the fourth
parallel of latitude,

Physically the two large islands of Jilolo and Ceram appear to consist
mainly of crystalline and old sedimentary rocks, while alt the smaller

cups are essentially igneous, forming an important section of the voleanic
belt, which traverses the whole neblaye Lt from Sumatra to the Philip-
Pines. Many of the volcanoes are still active, and several were in eruption
when these waters were visited by the Challenger expedition in 1874. On
that occasion Ternate, a hnge volcanio mass, with three superimposed
cones, 5600 feet high, was ascended hy Moseley and Balfour, who found
that the neighbouring Tidor, one of the highest points in the whole group,
attained an elevation of 5900 feet, Other conspicuous cones are Metie
(2300), a little north of the equator; Hieri (2200), north of Ternate ; and

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 169

Gineng-Api (1860), in the Banda group, one of the most active in the
whole Archipelago, and the scene of at least seven violent eruptions during
the last two centuries. The outburst of 1825 was accompanied by tremend-
ous earthquakes, which nearly destroyed Great Banda and the neighbour-
ing islet of Neira. Many of the volcanoes are of comparatively recent date,
and it seems evident that for many ages the whole region has been the
scene of continuous disturbances, which have reduced it to its present
fragmentary state. During Eocene, if not even Miovene times, it probably
formed continuous land with Celébes and the Philippines, the natural
history of all these groups having many features in common, which are
also best explained on this supposition,

Fauna and Flora.—Thie fauna of this region is connected with
that of Celébes by the babirusa, found alsoin Biri. Other charac-
teristic forms are the bird of Paradise and monkeys of Bachian,
the civet, bata, and awine, besides the marsupial cuscus and flying
opossum. Of birds, parrots, pigeons, and kingfishers are the pre-
vailing species, including the rare green-fruit dove, and racket-
tniled kingfishera, The crimson lori, ground-thrush, fly-catcher,
cassowary, and mound-builders, are also met. Here, as eleewhere
in the Archipelago, are found butterflies of the largest size and most
vivid hues. The beetles also are remarkable for their size and beauty ;
the long-urmed beetle of Amboyna being one of the giants of the
insect world.

This region is the native home of the nutmeg, clove, and other spices,
which appear to have spread thence to various parts of the Archipelago and
Indo-China. But in the Moluccas proper the clove is no longer produced,
the plant having been extirpated by the early Dutch rulers, who desired
to enhanee the valne of the spices by restricting their cultivation to the
Banda Islands. Other valuable vegetable products are cardamome, the
kanary nut, Cayaput ofl, dammer, pandani, and sago, the Inst-mentioned
forming the staple of food in most of the islands.

Jilolo, properly Halmahera, largest of the whole group, ia of
an extremely irregular form, curiously resembling that of Celébes,
and like it developing three spacious inlets on its east side, The
interior, which still awaits thorough exploration, is generally rugged
and mountainons, culminating in the northern penineola with the
volcanic Gamokonora, said to have been upheaved in 1673. Jilolo,
which has a total length of some 200 miles, with an extreme breadth
of 90, and an area of about 6500 equare miles, is mostly occupied by
peoples of Malay stock, akin to those of the adjacent islands of
Ternate and Tidor. But the northern parts are still held by the so-
called “ Alfuros,” wild tribes betraying both Paptan and Indonesian

170 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

affinities, and representing the aboriginal elements before the arrival
of the intruding Malays from the west.

In the north-west lies the large island of Mortai (Moro), now separated
by Mortai Strait from the northern peninsula, union with which would
greatly increase the resemblance already noticed between Jilolo and Celébes.
But a striking difference is presented by the aspect of the West Coasts,
that of Celébes being destitute of islets, while that of Jilolo is fringed by
the chain of the

Moluccas Proper, stretching from the central nucleus south-
wards to Batyan, which corresponds at the southern with Mortai at
the northern extremity, Taking them in their order, from north to
eouth, the members of this highly volcanic and fertile chain are
Ternate, Tidor, Makyan, with the coralline Awiea, besides some
uninhabited islets and reefa, Still further south is the totally unin-
habited Oby group (Great and Little Oby, &c.), midway between
Sulla and Misol. The natives of the true Moluccas and Bachian are
all Mohammedans of Malay stock, speaking several distinct Malay
tongues, and governed by sultans under Dutch supervision, Great
Oby is 45 miles long and mountainous, with peaks 5000 feet high.

The Sultans of Ternate and Tidor were formerly amongst the most
powerful in the Archipelago, ruling over scattered territories, which com-
pe large tracts in east and north Celébea, Jilolo, west New Guinea, and

ntervening insular groups. But the Dutch are now virtually masters of
both States, with a Resident at the town of Ternate, where is centred all
the trade of the Moluccas in the eastern seas, This trade consists chiefly of
tortoise-shell, trepang, beeswax, massoi-bark, aud birds-of-paradise.

Ceram—E6.— Next in size to Jilolo, and scarcely better known,
Ceram stands in somewhat the same relation to the other islands of
the southern, that Halmahera does to those of the northern group,
Stretching 160 miles east and west, with an average breadth of 35
niles, and an area of nearly 7000 square miles, it fills up much of
the space between Biri and New Guinea, and towards the west is
nearly divided into two unequal parts by deep inlets on the north
and south coast. The surface is very mountainous, the whole island
being traversed by a densely-wooded range running from east to west,
at G000 to 10,000 feet high. The sago-palm, which grows wild,
supplies abundance of food for the local consumption and export,
sago-cake being much used, like our “ sailor's biscuits,” by the native
seafaring populations,

The bulk of the inhabitants are of Papiian type and speech, with a
considerable intermixture of Malay elements, especially on the coust.

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 171

Tiere are a few scattered Mohammedan and Christian settlements ; but
the only place of any importance is Makai, a fortified station on the north
side over against Misol.

Ceram is continued south-eastwards, in the direction of Aru, by a chain
of islands, of which the most important are Ceram Lewt, Goram, Afan-
wolke, Matabello, Teor, und the Ad group (Great and Little Ke), all mostly
unsettled, and inhabited by people of mixed Paptian and Malay descent,
the dark element almost everywhere predominating. In Ké there are
some Mohammedan Malay, or Indonesian communities ; but the majority
of the people are distinctly Paptans in type and speech, and like most
Papiians skilful wood-carvers, They also exeel in boat-building, the
materials boing supplied by the forests of fine timber covering extensive
tracts in this group. Ké may be regarded as the south-eastern extremity
of our Oceanic division, for tomediately beyond it the decp marine basin
terminates at the 100-fathom-line indicating the north-western limits of
the Australian world.

Buri.—Ceram is separated on the weet by Bird Strait from the
large island of Biri, which is 85 miles by 40, with an area of nearly
2000 square miles, Although somewhat sterile, the northern dis-
tricts produce the plant whence is extracted the far-famed Cayaput-
oil, This part of the island is occupied by a people of Malay type,
while in the south the Paptian is the dominant element, Bird con-
sists mainly of old sedimentary rocks, but touches the great voleanic
belt at its western extremity, where Cape Palpettu is dominated bya
lofty cone still active or quiescent, At Cayeli, on the north side, is
a strong-Dutch fort, with a Commandant under the supervision of
the Resident of Amboyna, It exports considerable quantities of
fish, sago, Cayaput-oil, and swine, which, being fed on eago, have a
finer flavour than ‘any other. The island ia divided into several
petty States, whose rajas spend most of their time in Cayeli, under
the influence of opium,

The chief physical feature of Biri is Lake Wakolo, a fine sheet of
water, situated near the centre of the island, some 1900 feet above sen-level,
and surrounded by high hills, except whereit seems to escape through the
Wai Nipe river. Wakolo, which was visited in 1883 b TL 0, Forbes,
looks like a flooded crater, several miles in diameter, and 240 to 300 feet
deep. It is remarkable that no fish except vels live in its waters, which
are — little navigated by the timid or superstitions natives dwelling on

ts shores,

Some recent ethnologists have on somewhat shadowy crounds pointed to
Biri as the cradle of the large brown Polynesian race (Samoans, Tahitians,
Hawaiians, &c.), or at least the land whenee these Indonesians started on
their long migrations from the Archipelago eastwards to the Pacific.

Amboyna,—This historical island, where the Dutch and English
long contended for suprémacy in the eastern seas, lies south from the

172 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

west end of Ceram, and ‘is little over 30 miles long, by 10 or 12
broad, with an area of 210 square miles, The surface is hilly but
fertile, yielding large quantities of cloves, of-which a million pounds
have been exported in favourable years, The clove plant, which
resembles the pear-tree, growa to a height of 40 feet, bearing fruit for
100 seasons after its ninth year, Other products are cinnamon,
cotton, coffee, indigo, pepper, and sago, the latter being the chief food
of the Malayan and Ceramese Mohammedan natives, Amboyna,
like all coraline islands in these waters, is noted for its beautiful
shells, corals, and sponges, which completely carpet the bed of the sea,

The town of Amboyna, capital of the Dutch possessions in the Moluccas,
carries on o brisk trade in cloves, cabinet wood from Ceram, and other
local produce, through the Netherlands Trading ade ec The adjacent
islets of Haruka, Sapurua, and Nuse Lat, also produce cloves, and form
with Amboyna the far-famed clove-gardens of the Dutch Government,
Many of the native Mohammedans have become “Orang Sirani,” that is,
** Nazarens," or Christians, although their new religion “seems to lie on
them like an awesome thraldom." (Forbes.)

Banda.—The small but valuable Banda group, which gives its
name to the neighbouring waters, was long the exclusive nutmeg
gurden of the world, and here this beautiful plant still grows in the
greatest perfection, The islands, which lie some 60 miles south of
Ceram, are all volcanic, one of them forming the superb Gainung
Api (2000 feet), with a still active crater, The gronp consists alto-
gether of twelve islets, with a collective aren of not more than 18
syuare miles, But here is concentrated some of the most enchanting
scenery in the whole Archipelago.

The produce, including sago and cocon-nuts, besides the staple exports,
nutmeg and mace, “ia grown in beautiful bowers, and garnered round its
umbrageous bayleted shores in long, gaudily-painted praus, which are
constantly darting about, propelled by little rowers, who plunge and flash
their paddles in the sun to a buoyant merry tune, The atmosphere is
charged with aromatic exhalations ; its wharfs and streets are the picture
of tidiness, and the very water that Inps its coral shores is brighter and
purer than almost anywhere else in the world.” (Forbes,) But eruptions
and earthquakes are frequent, and often very destructive. The chief town
and centre of trade is Nessa in Banda Neira,

The Perkeniers, descendants of Europeans, settled in this group since
1621, enjoyed a monopoly of the nutmeg trade till 1560,

Political Divisions.—The whole of this region, officially named
the Moluccas, comprises three separate Dutch Residencies as under :—

CW

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 173

1. Amboyna, so named from its central island, embraces all the neigh-
bouring islets, the large island of Biri, and the western portion of Ceram.
lt is one of the oldest Dutch settlements in the East.

2. Banda, includes the western half of Ceram, the Banda group proper,
the Ké and Ara groups, Timor Laut, and the Serwati Archipelago, between
that island and Timor.

3. Ternate, comprises Jilolo, with all the adjacent islands; a part of
Colébes bordering on the Gulf of Tomini, with all the intervening islands ;
Miso], Salawati, Waijiu, and the western section of New Guinea as far as
141° E. longitude.

III, AUSTRALIAN DIVISION,

THE LESSER SUNDAS—TIMOR—TIMOR LAUT—NEW GUINEA.

General Survey.—This division falls naturally into two groupa
—a volcanic and a non-voleanic—the former washed by deep waters,
and comprising all the Lesser Sundas with Timor; the latter com-
prising New Guinea, with Salawati, Waijiu, Misol, Aru, with Timor
Laut, and washed by shallow waters. Exceptions to this symmetrical
disposition are, In the first division, the Sumba group, which appear
to be non-volcanic; and in the second, Timor Laut, which lies beyond
the 100-fathom-line, and consequently in deep water. For reasons
already stated, Bali is here separated altogether from the Lesser
Sundas, and treated in the Asiatic division, a3 in every respect
forming a yeoyraphical dependency of Java,

Of the two groups the non-voleanie belongs beyond all doubt physically
to the Australian mainland, from which it became detached at probably a
not very remote period. On the other hand, the voleanic group is con-
nected with Australia, not physically so much as in its animal and
vegetable forms. It is apparently of recent formation, upheaved through
igneous agency after the subsidence of Lemuria, of which Sumba, Timor,
and Timor Laut may, like Celébes, be possibly surviving fragments.
Hence, in a strictly scientific grouping, these somewhat abnormal islands
should perhaps be treated in our Oceanic division, although more con-
veniontly reserved for this place.

The two groups lie altogether south of the equator, the volcanic mainly
north of the 10th parallel, the non-voleanic occupying the whole space
between the equator and the same parallel, They stretch for over 3000
miles west and east across 45 degrees of longitude (106—151° E.), and
have a collective area of some $65,000 square miles. But this space is
very unequally distributed, over seven-eighths being comprised in the
non-volcanic, and less than one-eighth in the volcanic group,

174 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

Tae Lesser Sonpas, wira Timor axp Totor Lavr,

All the members of this group, except Sumba and Timor Laut,
form so many links in one of the most remarkable chains of voleanic
islands on the globe, stretching from Java and Bali just under the
eighth parallel of south latitude, due enstwards to the islet of Moa,
120° E. longitude, off the eastern extremity of Timor, They are
reparated by the narrow but deep Lombok Strait from Bali, western
limit of the Asiatic world, and like that of Java, their long axis is
disposed in the direction from west to east in all cases except Timor,
which is only partly volcanic, and which runs south-west and north-
east. Owing to the influence of the predominant wind from the
arid plains of North Australia, the climate is much drier than in
most other parts of the Archipelago, and in its animal and vegetable
forms the whole group resembles the same region far more than any
other of the surrounding lands, Here the line is drawn very sharply
between Bali and Lombok, although separated from each other by a
marine passage not more than 15 miles wide,

Lombok, so designated by Europeans from the name of the
southern district, is usually called Seléparin by the Balinese, and by
the Bughis Tanah Sasak, that is, * Land of the Sasaks,” ns its native
inhabitanta are called. It is of rhomboidal shape, 55 miles by 44,
with an area of 2100 square miles, and a population of some 400,000,
all Sasaks (Mohammedans of Malayan stock}, except about 20,000
Hindu Balinese, and 5000 Malays confined to the seaports,

Recent calcareous formations prevail in the south, which is traversed
west and east by a limestone ranges, with an extrome altitude of 1000 feet,
But the north is wholly igneous, with a parallel but much loftier volcanic
range, culminating in the Lombok Peak (Gtinung Renjani), a remarkable
mountain, with four cones encircling a crater, above which rises.a fifth cone,
Api, continually emitting sulphurous vapours. Sangkarejan, the loftiest
of these cones, is 12,460 feet high, and between it and Vayan (6500 feet)
lies the upland Lake Segara, 7900 feet above sea-level. The northern and
southern ranges are connected near the centre of the island by the volcanic
Sessan hills, which are clothed with a dense vegetation of shrubs and
grasses, and which form a waterparting, whenee flow numerous unnavi-
pable but perennial streams, contributing much to the fertility of the
land.

Marking the extreme eastern limit of the Australian animal and
vegetable forms, Lombok lacks the Areng palm, the lontar (ormsns
flabelliformis), and many other characteristic Javanese plants, and 1s also
relatively poor in orchids, ferns, and mosses. Here are no tigers or other
folide, while the @riolus horajiehti, and other binds common to Indo-
Mulaya, are replaced by cockatoos, the tripodorhyncus timoriensis, and

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO, 175

aoveral species of honey-suckers, belonging to the Australian avifauna.
Similar contrasts are presented by the butterflies and beetles of Lombok, as
compared with the Javanese and Balinese insect world.

The natives cultivate rice, which is largely exported, besides maize,
cotton, tobacco, sugar-cane, indigo, and coffee. They also rear numerons
herds of cattle, buffaloes and horses, and occupy themselves with metal-
work, reer eerie d and the manufacture of bambeo and palm fibre
matting. Politically the Balinese ore the dominant class, the Sasaks

resenting a tare instance of » Mohammedan population controlled by

indu masters, But all alike are under the direct supervision of the
Dutch ; Lombok, since 1849, forming with Bali a Residency, with seat of
Government at Meafaram, three miles from the west const. The chief sea-
port is the neighbouring dmpinom, which has a mixed population of
Sasaks, Balinese, Pughis, and Malays, Besides rice it exports coffee,
eotton, hides, and horses ; the chief imports being salt, areng sugar, arar,
opium, palm oil, hardware, and European goods. The Balinese conquest
dates from the first half of the 18th century, and the Brahmanical rajas
were absolutely independent of the Dutch till about 1840.

Sumbawa.—Lying between Lombok and Comodo, from which
it is severed by the narrow straits, Allas and Sapi, Sumbawa is 170
tiles long, varying greatly in breadth from five or six to 50 miles,
with « total area of 5000 square miles, Its peculiarly irregular form
is due to the deep indentations on the north coast, one of which, the
Bay of Bima, penetrates 15 miles inland, thus nearly severing the
island into two parts, It is essentially volcanic, with several cones
over 5000 feet and culminating in Tomboro, or Tambora, 9040,
Tomboro, at the entrance of Dompo Bay, was the scene of a tremend-
ons eruption in 1815, when most of the land was wasted, and 12,000
of the inhabitants involved in the general ruin. The climate is much
drier than that of the more westernly islands, and few of the streams
are perennial, but rather resemble the Arabian wadies, rushing
torrents during the rainy season, waterless sandy river-beds for the
rest of the year, Hence, much of the land is unproductive ; but the
forests yield the valuable sapan und sandalwood, besides teak, which
appears here sporadically, being absent from the islands intermediate
between Sumbawa and Java.

The chief mammals are swine, deer, and a much-prized broed of ponies,
exported to Javaand Manritias. The natives are mainly Malayan Moham-
medans, somewhat resembling the Bughis of Celébes, but spaiking several
distinct languages, and grouped into four petty States (Sunibawa, Dompo,
Sungar, ani Dima), under the control of a Dutch Assistant-Resident,
stationed at Jiimea, on the north-east const, ‘They cultivate rice and
tohaceo ; other articles of export being wax, birds’-neats, gold, pearls,
sulphur, sapan, and sandalwood,

176 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

Floris and Comodo.—The transition from Sumbawa to Floria is
effected by the little uninhabited voleanie group of Comodo, with an
area of about 300 square miles, and separated from Floris by Man-
gerai Strait, Mangerai and Ende are alternative native names for
Floris, a European term unknown to the natives. Floris, which is
about 230 by 30 to 35 miles, with an area of 9200 square miles, is
mainly volcanic, with two active cones and several peaks, ranging
from 6000 to 10,000 feet. Copper ores appear to abound, and sulphur
as well as gold also occur. The soil is fertile on the coasts, yielding
good crops of riceand maize, while cinnamon, sapan, and sandalwood
are amongst the most valuable forest growths. These, with beeswax
and ponies, form the staple of the export trade.

The bulk of the ‘inhabitants ara Papfans, Floris forming the western
limit of this race. On the coast are some Bughis settlements from Colébes,
and the former occupation of the island by the Portugese is still attested
by some half-caste Christian communities in the Larantute district on the
north coast. Here was the Portuguese station, and here now resides the
Dutch administrator, The interior of the country is very little known ;
its resources remain undeveloped, and there is little local and no export
trade.

Floris is continued eastwards to Timor, through a continuous chain of
islets, including-Solor, Adanara, Lomblom, Pantar and Ombai, which are
also under the administrator of Larantuka, himself dependent on the
Resident at Kupang in Timor,

Sumba, or Sandalwood, which lies some 35 miles to the south
of Floris, and beyond the volcanic zone, is 130 miles by 50, with an
estimated area of 5000 aquare miles, With Savu, Rorrt, and Samao,
it forms a loop-line of non-voleanic islands, sweeping round from
the west end of Floris to the west end of Timor, and, like Celébes,
probably representing so many fragmenta of a submerged Miocene
continent.

Lying off the beaten track, and visited only by Bughis traders, the
up is very little known ; but it appears to be inhabited by a fine race of
falayan or Indonesian Mohammoedans, practically independent of the
Dutch, although oceastonally visited by oflicials from Timor. They grow
rice, maize, and tobacco, and have herds of buffaloes, ponies, sheep, and
goats, ‘This group also Cr for exportation sandalwood, birds’-nests,
beeswax, and tortoise-shell, Savu is rocky and mountainons, with an area
of about 200 square miles. Samao, within three miles of Timor, is 20 miles
by seven, with an area of 150 square miles, while Rotti, also close to Timor,
and 60 miles by 38, has an area of over 600 square miles,

Timor,—Physically occupies an intermediate position between
the Lesser Sundas proper and the “ loop-line,” allied to the former

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 177

in its slightly voleanic, to the latter in its more highly developed
sedimentary formations, different from both in the lie of its main
axis, Which is not west and east, but south-west and north-east. The
great prevalence of old rocks, such as schists, slates, sandstones, and
earboniferous limestones, combined with the fact that it lies mainly in
very deep waters, seems to indicate a former connection with the
vanished Lemurian continent, of which it may perhaps be regarded
as the eastern limit in this direction. Timor is the largest of all the
Lesser Sundas, being 300 miles by 60, with an area of over 11,000
square miles, The surface is everywhere rugged and mountainous,
with numerous irregular ridges from 4000 to 8000 feet, and peaks
rising considerably higher, Mount Kabalaki, in the eastern district
of Manufahi, has an altitude of over 10,000 feet (Forbes), while
Ginung Allas, near the south coast, appears to be the culminating
point, with an elevation of 11,500 feet,

Iron, copper, and gold occur in several places, and the uplanils yield
excellent wheat and potatoes, The woodlands, which nowhere develope
into true forests, contain much sandalwood of fine quality, which forms,
with ponies, o chief staple of export,

The substratum of the population appeara to be Tapiian, but inter-
mingled in the most varied proportions with Malayan, Indonesian, and
other elements. They are divided into a Jarge number of more or less
hostile tribes, speaking as many as forty distinct Papiian and Malayan
languages or dinlects, Some of tho tribes are extremely rude, and still
addicted to head-hunting, at least during war, and to other barbarous
practices, In their Uina-Luli, or sacred (taboos) enclosures, rites are
performed resembling those of the South Sea Islanders,

Politically Timor belongs partly to the Dutch, and partly to the Por-
tuguese. The western and larger section is nominally administered by a
Dutch Resident stationed at Knpang, a petty little town, with a mixed
Timorese, Malay, Chinese, and European population, at the western ex-
tremity of the island, It exports sandalwood, beeswax, ponies, and
maize.

The eastern section is ruled by the Portuguese, whose chief settlement
is at Dili, a group of hovels and wretched honses, with a ruined fort, im a
fever-stricken district on the north coast, Its chief exports are wheat,
potatoes, coffee of fine quality, ponies, sandalwood, and beeswax. But
there are a large number of practically independent petty States + 19 many
as forty-seven in East Timor alone, These ‘* Renos," or “ kingdoms,” are
under absolute “* Leoreis,” or chiefs, and subdivided into Sukus, or dis-
tricts, each under a Dato, depondent on the Leorei, and assisted by a Cabo
and Tenente. (Forbes.)

Scattered over the Banda Sea, between Timor and Timor Laut, are
several-islands and insular groups— Wetter, Roma, Moa, the Serwatt islets,
and Sebber—which are mostly volcanic, and consequently form a natural
easturn extension of the Lesser Sundas in the direction of Timor Laut.

Wetter, which is considerably larger than all the rest put together, lies

: i

178 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

49 miles north of Timor, ia 80 miles long, largely volcanic, rugged, and
nearly treeless, and inhabited by a mixed Papian race, akin to the
Timorese, East of it is the lofty island of Roma, and the volcanic Moa,
both occupied by Malayan peoples, These, with Babbar, lying much
farther east, are sometimes regarded og outlying members of the Serwati

troup, Which in its widest sense also includes Aiesa, between Wetter and

foa ; Nileand Serwain the extreme north-east ; Damme, midway between
Nila and Roma; Sermatta, eastof Moa, The natives are partly of Malayan
or Indonesian, partly of Papiian stock, and many are nominal Christians.
All these islands are now included in the Dutch Residency of Banda.

Timor Laut, or Tenimber,—Until recently the very outlines of
this group were unknown. It was figured on all maps os a continuous
piece of land running south-west and north-east, nearly parallel with
Timor, whereas it really consists of three considerable islands ; Yam-
dena in the centre, separated by Wallace Channel from Laraé in the
north, and by Egeron Strait from Selaru in the south, with a cluster
or chain of smaller isleta on the west and north sides. Thus, the con-
jecture made by Captain Owen Stanley in 1841, that “when the island
is properly examined, it will be found to consist of several islands,
separated by narrow channela,” has been fully verified by the sub-
sequent explorations of Mr. Hartog, who first sailed through Eyeron
Strait in 1877, and of Mr, H. O. Forbes, who surveyed Wallace
Channel and the northern districta in 18582,

Timor Laut, i.¢. ‘‘Seaward Timor," is a low coralline group, the land
seldom rising over 100 feet, except at Egeron Strait, where the cliffs are
400 fest, and at Laibobar, ao ntly a volcanic islet on the west coast,
with an extinct crater 2000 feet high. There are no streams, and the poor
soil, covered with atypically coral island flora, yields little beyond maiz
the staple of food, manioc, sweet potatoes, tobacco, some sugar-cane an
cotton, and a little rice. The fauna includes buffaloes in a wild state, a
cuscus (marsupial), some bats, the beautiful scarlet lory, here indigenous,
new or rare varieties of the ground-thrush, honey-eater, and oriole, ‘The
birds seem to have come mainly from New Guinea, the insects from Timor ;
a aks both from ae oe ne et Ae Ney

The aborigines are evidently Papfians, with a language like that of the
Ké islanders rb there isn pee intermingling of Malayan and Indonesian
(Polynesian 1) elements, They are a fine, handsome people, often over six
feet high, noted, like all Papitians, for their high artistic sense, betrayed
especially in their wood and ivory carvings. Im other respects they are
pagans in a low state of culture, mostly divided into hostile communities,
and addicted to piracy. There isa Dutch official (‘ Postholder ") stationed
at itetel, on the west coast of Larat, a trading station of the Bughis from
Celébes.

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 179

KEW GUINEA,

General Survey.—This great island, exceeded in size by Aus-
tralia alone in the eastern hemisphere, lica entirely south of the
equator ; but while almost touching the line at its western, it reaches
at its eastern extremity nearly to 11° South latitude, The main
axis thus lies in the direction from north-west to south-east, stretch-
ing across 20 degrees of the meridian (131°—151' E. long.) with a
total length of some 1500 miles, and area roughly estimated at
325,000 square miles, Owing to ite curiously itregular form, resem-
bling in outline some extinct saurian, with head facing Jilolo and
tail touching the Louisiniles, the breadth varies enormously from
alout 20 miles at the neck to 480 at the widest part of the body,
This greatest width coincides exactly with the 141° E. long. which
divides the island into two nearly equal parts, and which forms the
conventional line separating the Dutch, or western, from the newly=
formed British and German sections. Here the central mass bulges
out southwards in the direction of York Peninsula, northernmost
point of Australia, from which it is separated by the shallow waters
of the island-studded Torres Strait, only 80 miles wide and nowhere
over 20 fathoms deep. From this central mass the head and tail
project north-westwards and eouth-eastwards as two peninsulas, the
former formed by the deep inlet of Geelvink Bay on the north coast,
the latter by the broader bight of Papua Gulf on the south coast,
The western peningula is again disposed in two secondary peninsulas
by MeCluer Inlet running in the opposite direction from Geelvink
Bay, while the eastern tapers gradually towards the Lonisiades. But
here also McCluer Inlet finds its counterpart in Huon Gulf indenting
the coast opposite Papua Gulf. Reeent exploration has also shown
that the central parts of the seaboard are fur less uniform than had
been supposed, being diversifie] by numerous little bays and head-
lands, as well as by the mouths of many streams, whose existence
had not hitherto been suspected.

Islands.—Grouped round the western extremity of New Guinea
are several insular dependencies of the mainland, which they closely
resemble in their physical constitution, natural history, and inhabits
ants. The most considerable are Jobi, Biak, Sak, and Mafor
(properly Nufér) in Geelvink Bay ; Waijiu, Batanta, Salawati, and
Misol, forming a westerly continuation of New Guinea in the direc-
tion of the Molucea and Banda Archipelagoes ; lastly, the Aru group
on the south-west coast, noted for its birda of paradise and pearl

K 2

180 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

fisheries, Here is the port of Dobbo, “the Nishni Novgorod of
Malaysia” (Guillemard), much frequented by Bughis and Chinese
dealers, The large island of Frederick Henry on the south coast almost
forms part of the mainland ; and Torres Strait, further east, is thickly
strewn with numerous islets, partly coralline, partly of old formation,
probably fragments of the miocene land which at this point form-
erly connected New Guinea with Australia. Of these the largest
are Thursday, Banks, York, Darnley, and Murray, which are all
politically attached to the government of Queensland.

The coralline islets of Torres Strait are often wrongly described os a
western continuation of the Great Barrier Reef of East Australia. Between
these groups there flows deep water mostly free of islands, while the
sunken Barrier Reef of south-cast New Guinea, about 140 miles in length,
reaches no further west than Cape Possession near Hall Sound, 146° 20°
E. Here it is arrested by the copious fresh-water streams, which dischange
into st Gulf, and destroy the work of the coral zoophytes, The north
coast of New Guinea east of Geelvink Bay is almost destitute of reefs and
islands; but numerous groups, such as the D’ Exéreersteane and Louisiana
Archipelagoes, are clustered round the south-eastern extremity of the
mainland. Of the north-east coast are the large islands of New Britain
and New Jrelend now occupied by the Germans, and by them re-named
the “Bismark Archipelago.” But all these groups belong rather to the
Pacific insular world, and are most commonly included in the Melanesian
Division of the South Sea Islands.

Physical Features.—Till recently New Guinea was a terra
incognita in the strict sense of the term, and even still by far the
greater part of the interior remains to be explored. Hence any
attempt at a detailed account of its relief would be premature. It
is known, however, to be essentially a highland, partly even an
Alpine region, developing plains, or low-lying tracts, chiefly along
the lower courses of the rivers, and elsewhere traversed by lofty, and
in some places snowy, Tanges running mostly north-west and south-
east in the line of the main insular axis, These ranges appear to
form more or less continuous single chains in the north-west and
south-east, while in the central region they diverge into parallel
systems, at some points approaching close to the seaboard and enclos-
ing extensive plateaux and even low-lying level tracts. The best
known sections are the Arfuk hills (9000 to 10,000 feet) back of
Geelvink Bay in the north-west, and in the south-east the Sir
Arthur Gordon, Albert, Yule, and Owen Stanley ranges, the latter
culminating with the double-crested Mount Owen Stanley (13,205
feet), approached, but not yet ascended, by Chalmers and Forbes,
In the yast unvisited central region other great ranges, such as the

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 181

Charles Louis (17,000 to 18,000 fwet), are traced on the mapa, and
described as towering above the line of perpetual snow by geograph-
era relying on the somewhat inaistinct reports of travellers, At
the same time the existence of such Alpine heightsis rendered highly
probable by the presence of copious perennial streams flowing in
independent channels to the coast, and which are found to be far
more numerous than had till lately been supposed,

Rivers.—The largest river in New Guinea appears to be the
Fly, which enters the west side of Papua Gulf through a large and
intricate delta, and which D'Albertis ascended in 1876 for 500 miles
in a steam-launch, It drains a vast swampy region diversified with
wooded mountains and treeless plains broken by isolated hills, the
scenery in many places presenting an Australian aspect, Another
large river, the Empress Augusta, was discovered so recently as 1866,
on the north-east coast, by Dr. Finsch, and navigated for 40 miles
by Captain Dallman, who reported it navigable for a much longer
distance. Mr. Morris, Dutch Resident of Ternate, also surveyed in
1883-84, several hitherto unknown rivers on the north coast, such
as the Wiriwaai and Witriwaai, apparently two branches of the same
stream, and the much larger Aiberan (Amberno or Mamberan)}, that
is “ Great River,” which he ascended for 60 miles, and found to be
800 yards wide and seven fathoms deep near its mouth, Two large
rivers, the Davadava and Hadava, not marked on any map, also
reach the sea at Milne Bay, the latter with an intricate delta 12 to
16 feet deep, and apparently leading into the heart of the country,
But owing to the action of the south-west monsoons the mouths of
the coast streams are mostly silted up with sand and mud, hence
unnavigable, Altogether it may be anticipated that the more the
interior is opened up the more it will be found covered with
“mountains, north, east, south, and west” (Chalmers), and traversed
by copious perennial streams flowing from the central water-parting
to the northern and southern seaboarda,

Geological Formations.—The salient formations appear to be
a substratum of granite and gneisa cropping out in the Arfak hills
and elsewhere ; stratified clay slates, and both old and recent lime-
stones and calcareous Lower Miocene clays with fossil shells identical
with those of south-east Australia, Quartz, greenstone, and jasper-
olds also oceur on the south-east coast, resembling those of the
Silurian and Devonian series of the New South Wales gold-fields,

Gold will probably be found both here and in the Hadava river-basin
as well as on the uplands and north-east coast, It is usually asserted that

a.

182 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY,

no nective volcanoes, or even any external cones, occur in New Guinea ; but
this is a mistake due to hasty generalization from imperfect surveys, for
the spurs projecting on either side from Mount Owen Stanley contain
several craters said to be formed by recent volcanic action. Pumice, also,
and other igneous matter, cover the slopes of the Finisterre hills, while
earthquakes are of frequent occurrence in many places,

Climate,—On all the low-lying coast-lands and about the river-
mouths the climate is malarious, and unsuitable for European
settlers. On the uplands the tropical heats are tempered by the
marine breezes, which in the northern and western districts accom-
pany the north-west, and in the southern and eastern the south-
east, monsoon, The latter prevails from July to September, and is
often very violent, arresting all navigation in Torres Strait.

The heats are rendered more oppressive by the heavy rainfall, and
Guillemard, who lately visited the north coast, found the climate more
trying than that of any other region except the Persian Gulf in summer.
“Bathed in perspiration trom morning till night and from night till
morning, we woke utterly unrefreshed by sleep. The temperature, which
in a dry climate would not have been unpleasant—for it was rarely above
90° F.—was intolerable. Everything to which damp could cling became
mouldy, and our boots, if put on one side for a day or two, prew o crop of
mildew nearly half an inch in thickness (ii. p. 291).

Flora.—The original vegetation appears to have been mainly
Malayan, which still largely prevails in most districts. But numer-
ous Polynesian, Asiatic, and Anstralian species have also invaded
the island, and all these different floras are found in some places
intermingled. Thus W. Wyatt Gill speaks of taro, yams, gigantic
aroids, the ivory nut-palm, cotton, tobaceo, the oak tree, capsicums,
strawberries, raspberries, and the nutmeg, all occurring in and about
the Laroki valley near Port Moresby on the south-east coast, Else-
where on the same coast, J. Chalmers met during a single stroll, “a
strange profusion of eocoannt, sago, and betel palms, numerous bread-
fruit, and large tamanu trees, dracena, and crotons of various kinds,
ferns in abundance, and mangroves.” The Australian euealypti and
acacias and the Oceanic cocoanut are everywhere familiar sighta
along the south coast, and the immense variety of vegetation is
further attested by the presence of the pandanus with its strange
aerial roots; the costly red cedar (Cefrela Avstralia) ; the potipoti,
growing to a height of 60 feet and yielding a much-prized fruit ; the
Cordyline terminalis, jack fruit, and banana all widely diffused ; the
samin, forming a curious link between palms and ferns ; the Mryth-
rina, Barringtonia speciosa, and other flowering forest trees ; lastly,

”-

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO, 183

the native jute plant, with edible root, and stalk yielding the finest
jute fibre in the world (Gill),

The subalpine flora is represented by oats, rhododendrons, araucarias,
umbelliferm, &e., while “the chief cultivated plants are maize, millet, sugar
cane, taro, rice, pumpkins, yams, and the sago-like sali. The sago palm
ituelf, although yielding o staple of food, appears not to be cultivated,
but to grow wild in the marshy districts. Tho natives till the land with-

reat skill and neatness ; but the few patches thus reclaimed in the more
Revoured localities are of no account compared with the rest of the land
which is still mostly overgrown with dense primeval forests diversified in
some places with grassy and treeless tracts of limited extent,

Fauna,—While the flora is to a large extent Malayan, the fauna
is in some respects essentially Australian, the older marsupials still
everywhere holding their ground against the higher mammals, which
appear to be represented almost exclusively by the pig, the dingo,
mice, the flying-fox, and other members of the bat family. There
are at least three species of cuscus, two of the wallaby, and several
varieties of the true kangaroo and other marsupials, besides three
apecies of the spiny ant-eater, allied to the Australian Echidna,
which, like tne Platypus, are now known to be oviparous, thus
supplying a further link between reptiles and mammalians (W. H.
Caldwell), Of trae reptiles by far the largest and most formidable
is the crocodile, which infesta nearly all the rivera, attaining a length
of over nine feet, and both devouring and is devoured by the natives:
Snakes, which occur in great variety, are also eaten, and even by the
cannibals preferred to pig or any other except human flesh.

The avifanna, which is specially rich and beautiful, presents nearly
500 indigenous species, mostly belonging to Australian genera, besides
many locally-developed varieties. Malxyan formaalso oceur, together with
others common to the whole Oceanic domain, But the special glory of
this avifauna are the birds of Paradise, of which there are at least twenty
species, all restricted to New Guinea and its islands, with the single
exception of the standard-wing found in Jilolo and Bachian, Other more
or less charactoristic forms are the cockatooa, parrots, lories, the spur-
winged plover, kingfishers, monnd-builders, honeysuckers, fycatchers,
crested and other pigeons, comprising altogether sane forty genera of
exclusively Papuan land-birds (Wallace), The gorgeous plumage of the
feathered tribe is rivalled by the resplendent colours bea g metallic Instre
of the numerous local varieties of butterfles and beetles, A curiosity of
the shell world is the kima, a gigantic clam, often measuring 32 inches
by 19 (Gill).

Inhabitants.—The great bulk of the natives belong undoubtedly
to the Papuan stock; but such are the discrepancies presented by

184 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

the different tribes in their physical appearance, mental qualities,
and grades of culture, that D'Albertis and some other observers have
felt inclined to doubt the existence of a Papuan type at all. These
points, together with a general account of the Papuan populations,
have been diseussed at page 123, and need not be further dwelt upon
in this place. As regards New Guinea more particularly, it will
suffice to observe that the numerous and often profound departures
from the normal Papuan standard may be attributed mainly to long
isolation in separate tribal groups, anid to constant crossings with
other peoples, such as the Karons and other Negritoes in the interior,
Malays and “ Alfures” along the western seaboard, and Indonesians
(brown Polynesians) especially on the south-east coast, Dut not-
withstanding these diverse interminglings there is a general preval-
ence of the more salient Papuan characteristies—mop-head, arched
nose, long and high skull, sooty-black complexion—from Misol and
Aru in the extreme west to the Lonisiade Islands in the extreme east,
The same features are found diffused throughout Melanesia in the
Pacific, and as far west o8 Floris in the Eastern Archipelago. Hence
New Guinea has been regarded as the natural, as it certainly is the
geographical, centre of the Papuasian world. But from this it does
not follow that here the type first became specialized, and there is
even reason to suppose that the earliest inhabitants of New Guinea
were not Papuans but Negritoes, This, however, is a point that can
be determined only by further exploration in the interior, where
some Negritoes have already been found (Dr, Hamy). The
general movement of Papuan migration may, consequently, not have
been from New Guinea west and east; but either from Melanesia
westwards, or from the eastern Archipelago eastwards, And so far
as New Guinea is concerned this diffusion of the race must be
referred to a period posterior to the separation from Anstralia, for
the indigenous populations of these two regions belong to totally
different branches of the Negro family. The transition from the
true Papuans of Torres Strait to the trne Australians of the main-
Jand is extremely abrupt, and for this and other reasons it seems
evident that the two great islands were peopled by independent
waves of migration at some time subsequently to the subsidence of
the land now flooded by Torres Strait and the Arafura Sea, Probably
both were uninhabited till very late tertiary or early quaternary
times.

The New Guinea natives have been hitherto carefully studied only at a
few points on the seaboard, such as round the shores of Geelvink Day, at

fe

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO, 185

Humboldt Bay, and expecially along the south-east coast, The result is
on the whole unfavourable, their general social condition appearing to
be much lower than had been supposed. Some of the practices associated
with their treatment of the dead, as alluded to hy the rae missionaries
about Port Moresby and Itedsear Bay, are indescribably revolting, and
seem to pluce these savages at the very lowest stage of human culture.
pete from provocation from Europeans, they are also found to be natur-
ally false and treacherous, of filthy habits, and unclean eaters, devouring
vermin and all things digestible, while giving a decided preference to
reptiles, pig, and man. In some places cannibalism in its most repulsive
form is universally practised, and to attend one of their periodical cannibal
feasts an invitation was sent to the Rev. James Chalmers, who found the
guests strutting about “with pieces of human flesh dangling from their
neck and arms.” Achild destined for this banquet ‘was spared for a
future time, it being considered too small." (Mork and Adventure in
New (winea, 1885.) Needless to say that amongst these communities
Christianity has not made much progress. Some of the north-eastern
tribes are xo backward that they use nothing but shell implementa; they
could hardly be made to understand the purpose of a {eahahawk, and were
seared by a match being struck bya member of Captain Bridge's surveying
party (1884). Yet of good augury for the Juture 1s the fact that both the
true Papoans and the half-caste Polynesians manufacture some articles,
and especially pottery, not only for local use, but for the express purpose
of trading with their neighbours,

Political Divisions.—While most of the country remains in
the hands of the natives, the whole island has since 1885 been nomi-
nally distributed amongst three European powers. The claims of
the Dutch to the western half, as far east as 141° E., long., claims
based on the former rights or pretensions of the Sultan of Tidor, are
now fully recognized. The eastern half is divided im equal propor-
tions between England and Germany, a conventional line drawn from
the Dutch frontier eastwards forming the boundary between the
British protectorate on the south-east and the German on the north-
east const, New Guinea is thus parcelled out in the following pro-
portions amongst these three States ;—

Sq. Miles,
Dutch New Guinea : r : . 148,000
British os 3 : : . 88,500
German ,, : : é . 88,000

Total, 324.500

There is no Dutch settlement in New Guinea, Dorey at the north-
west entrance of Geelvink Bay being only a missionary station, noted
in the records of local exploration as the starting-point of many
expeditions to the interior, ‘The German New Guinea Company has

186 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY,

already founded three small settlements, at Finsch Harbour, Natzfeldt
Harbour (4 24° '5., 145° 9° E.), and Constantine Harbour (5° 30° 5.,
145° 45' E.), while the British posts at Yoile Island, Port Moresby,
and Hedscar Bay continue to be chiefly centres of missionary enter-
prise. The varied mineral and vegetable resources of the country
must remain undeveloped pending the construction of roads along
the coast and to the interior. From the Report of the late Sir Peter
Scratchley, first Special Commissioner to British New Guinea, it
appears that, owing to the unfavourable climate, the development of
these resources will even then have to depend almost exclusively on
coloured labour. No fixed scheme of administration has yet been
adopted, the settlement of this question depending on negotiations
now in progress between the Home Government and the Australian
Colonies, Meantime an attempt will be made to govern as far as
possible throuzh the native chiefs, of whom there are three clastes,
those enjoying a purely personal, a social, or a religious influence,
these qualifications being occasionally vested in the same person,
(Seymour Forbes’ Report on British New Guinea, 1886.)

Historical Note.—-Now Guinea was probably first sighted by A. Dahren
in 1511, and first visited by the Portuguese Don Jorge de Meneses (1526 1)
and the Spaniard Alvaro de Saaverda (1528), receiving its name in 1546
from Ortiz de Retex (Roda), either from the appearance of its negroid
inhabitants, or from a fancied resemblance of the northern seaboard to
that of Upper Guinen on the West Coast of Africa, It was “annexed by
two commanders in the East Indian Company's service in 1793, when the
island of Manasoari in Geelvink Bay was oceupied for some months by
British troops. But in 1814 the English Government admitted the Dutch
claims to the Raja Ampet, or “Four Kingships” of Waijiu, Salawati,
Misol, and Waigamma, including certain tracts on the mainland. As
suzcrain of the Sultan of Tidor, the Dutch also claim the western half
of the island, to the remaining portion of which British and German
protection were extended in the year 1584,

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 187

STATISTICS OF THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO.
AREAS AND POPULATIONS,

Area in Sq. Miles. Pop. (1880.)

Borneo F ; ‘ 290,000 (7) 2,000,000 (Tt)
Sumatra with dependencies 150,000 _ 2,746,000
Java with Madura . 54,000 16,867,000
Banka ; : ; 4,200 62,000
Biliton : - : 2.600 9,000
Lesser Sunda Group . 40,000 2,200,000
Celébes and dependencies 75,000 660,000
Molucea and Banda Groups 25,000 (7) 400,000
ta ines darn pe 116,000 6,100,000

ew Guinea with depend- .

ob: i 325,000 500,000 (7)
Total Eastern Archipelago 1,052,800 30,460,000

DUTCH POSSESSIONS.
JAVA,

Residencies, Area in Sq. Miles, Pop. (1880.}
Bantam . : “ 3,300 : 750,000
Batavia. . ‘ 2,600 962,000

Tavang “ : 2,000 280,000
Cheribon a7 1,240,000
Preanger . . 8,500 1,242,000
Tagal : 1,500 912,000
Pekalongan 700 610,000
Samarang 2,000 1,270,000
Japara . Fi 1,200 832,000
Banjumas , . ss 2,200 992,000
Bagelen . 1,300 1,190,000
Kedu 800 695,000
Jokjokarta 1,200 450,000
Surakarta 2,500 920,000
Rembang . , 3,000 1,010,000
Surabaya . . ; 3,250 1,620,000
Madiiin F 2,600 955,000
Kediri Z 27 700,000
Panuriian . 2,300 652,000
Probolinzo 1,160 435,000
Bestki . . . 1,600 410,000
Banjiwanghi . . 1,800 60,000

MapurRa 2,100 770,000

188 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY.

SUMATRA,
Residencies. Area in 8q. Miles, Pop. (1880.)
West Coast . . 46,200 1,116,000
East Const ; . 16,280 . 162,000
Bencdilen . - . 0,580 148,000
Lampings : ; 9,980 120,000
Palembang , « 61,150 6G20,00%)
Achin : err 6,370 580,000
Sumatra with dependencies, 149,560 2,746,000
Residencies,
Riau-Lingga . - 17,830 93,000
Banka and Biliton . 7,800 87,000
Borneo, West Coast . 58,900 378,000
Borneo, Southand East 145,000 610,000

CELEBES, SUMBAWA, AND BOTON,

Residencies.
Mangkassar =. » 45,150 390,000
Menado . : . 26,600 500,000)

MOLUCCAS, BANDA, AND WEST CELEBES,

Residencies.

Amboyna

Banda 42,500 ° 350,000

minor (pect p

imor 0

Sumba 22,000 250,000

Savu, Rotti

Voces i 4,000 1,360,000

Timor Laut

penn Kat . «5,800 60,000

West New Guinea . 148,000 200,000 (7)
Total Dutch Possessions 727 340 25,941,000

Total population (1884), estimated 27,500,000.

THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO,

JAVA,
Chief Towns. Pop. (1880). preteen
re
Surakarta . » 124000 1853 10,290,000
Surabaya . . 122,000 1861 13,000,000
Batavia . » 97,000 1871 16,452,000
Meester Cornelis . 70,000 1875 18,334,000
Samarang . . 68,000 1880 18,867,000
Jokjokarta . . 45,000 1884 (est.) 20,931,000
Passurian . . 39,000 ,
Pekalongan . =. 31,000
Tuban . : . 21,000
Bangkalan , . 20,000
SUMATRA. cELEBES.
Pop, (1880), | Pop. (1880),
Palembang . 30,000 Mangkassar . 20,000
Achin . . 20,000(7) | Menado. . 2,500
Padang . >» 12,000 | Amboyna . 13,000
Bencilen . 6,000 Ternate. . 9,000

Kupang - 7,000
Population of Java, according to races (1884),

Javanese '
Sundanese 7 P . 20,931,000
Madurese |

Chinese . 7 P . z 214,470
Europeans : , P : 27,680
Arabs and sundries : . 14,000

Average net Revenue, £850,000.

Yearly exports (Java), £10,000,000 to £12,000,000.
Exports to Great Britain (1884), £3,184,000,

Imports from Great Britain, £2,097,000,

Nutmegs exported from Banda (1884), £76,260.
Shipping (1883), 4158 vessels of 2,740,000 tons cleared,
Raitvevd (Java, 1884), 560 miles,
Telegraph Lines (1883), 5760 miles ; messages, 383,500,
Post Offices, 226 ; letters carried (1883), 4,729,650,
Army, 27,000, of whom 11,000 Europeans,

GERMAN POSSESSIONS,

Area in 8q. Miles. Population.
North-east New Guinea 88,000 100,000 (7)
PORTUGUESE POSSESSIONS.
. Area in Sq. Miles, Population.

East Timor 6,300 300,000

189

190 EASTERN GEOGRAPHY,

SPANISH POSSESSIONS.

Districts, Area in Sq. Miles, - Pop. 1882,
PHILIPPINES :
Luzon . : 51,500 3,475,000
Visayas . 7 233,500 2,049,000
Mindanao. 41,000 154,000
i <i Islands 1,500 21,000
ilumianes
and Palawan t 7 oo 61,000
Sulu Islands : 980 102,000
Total 124,130 6,300,000
Manila, Pop. (1880), 270,000.
Total exports to Great Britain (1884), £1,143,000,
» imports from = » 1,120,000.
Telegraph lines (1884), 720 miles.
BRITISH POSSESSIONS.
Area in 8q. Miles, Pop. 1881.
Sariwak . 40,000 300,000
North Borneo . 26,000 200,000
Labuan. . 30 6,000
South-east N, Guinea . 85,500 150,000 (1)
Total 154,530 656,000
Serkwak . . Income (1884) £55,000
Be : A Expenditure us 58,000
” - Imports es 344,000
” » «+ Exports ys 325,000
North Borneo . Income (1886) 26,000
2 . « Expenditure 43,000
as : Imports SE 120,000
" * Exports Hn 80,000
Labuan . Income (1884) 4 600
te : Expenditure 1885) 4,200
" . Imports 1884) 85,000
ea x . Exports 7 56,000

LOADON; FRINTED BY EDWARD STAR FORD, £1, CHARING Choe, 6.

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London: Edword Stanford, 65,Charing Cross, 5.W