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Victorian 
915.694 
C839g 
1852 


Joseph  Earl  and 
Genevieve  Thornton 

Arlington 

Collection  of  19th 
Century  Americana 

Brigham  Young  University  Library 


BRIGHAM  YOUNG  UNIVERSITY 


3  1197  22120  5922 


Source  of  the  Jordan. 


Fountain  of  Nazareth. 


THE 


GEOGKAPHY,     TOPOGRAPHY, 


AND 


NATURAL    HISTORY 


OF 


PALESTINE. 


By  F.  A.  COX,  D.D.,  LL.D. 


IHugtratrti  lig  lEngratrings. 


LONDON : 
PUBLISHED  BY  JOHN  JOSEPH  GEIFEIN  AND  CO. 

53,  BAKER  STREET,  PORTMAN  SQUARE; 

AND  RICHARD  GRIFFIN  &  CO.,  GLASGOW. 
1852. 


PREFACE. 

It  is  no  less  important  to  have  places  and  localities  distinctly 
fixed  in  the  mind,  than  to  be  familiar  with  events.  In  truth,  if 
the  notions  entertained  of  the  former  be  imperfect  or  erroneous, 
the  latter  will  become  enveloped  with  a  degree  of  dimness  and 
uncertainty,  which  will  prevent  their  retaining  a  very  strong  or 
permanent  hold  upon  the  memory.  The  when  and  the  where 
are  essential  accompaniments  to  the  facts  of  History.  We  cannot 
therefore  be  at  too  great  pains  in  the  study  of  Geography  and 
Topography,  as  well  as  Chronology. 

This  consideration  possesses  additional  force  when  we  advert 
to  the  country  of  Palestine.  Not  only  has  it  been  the  scene  of 
those  ordinary  occurrences  which  produce  changes  of  a  more  or 
less  momentous  nature  upon  the  moral  aspect  of  our  globe,  but  it 
is  emphatically  the  Bible-Land.  There  was  the  noblest  of 
ecclesiastical  edifices,  the  possession  of  the  most  extraordinary 
people,  the  dwelling-place  of  men  the  holiest  and  brightest  orna- 
ments of  humanity,  and,  above  all,  the  birth-place  of  Christ,  the 
Son  of  God  and  Saviour  of  the  World. 

With  the  Geography  and  Topography,  in  this  little  volume,  is 
connected  the  Natural  History  of  Palestine,  which,  though  not 


VI  PREFACE. 

given  with  elaborateness  and  minuteness,  such  as  a  large  treatise 
would  have  demanded,  contains  whatever  is  most  desirable  to  be 
known,  especially  by  juvenile  readers.  "While  saved  the  trouble 
of  great  research  themselves,  they  will  assuredly  find  in  these 
pages  much  to  fill  the  mind  with  useful  knowledge,  and,  as  it  is 
earnestly  hoped,  to  induce  Scriptural  inquiry. 


CONTENTS. 


AGE 

Geographical  and  Topographical  Account  op  Canaan. 

Various  Names  of  Canaan  or  Palestine 11 

Divisions  of  Palestine  under  the  Canaanites,  Israelites,  and  Romans         .  14 
Chief  Towns  of  Palestine,  grouped  according  to  the  Roman  Division  : — 

I.  Galilee        .         . .         .         .15 

II.  Samaria 24 

III.  Judaea 30 

IT.  The  Country  East  of  the  Jordan 52 

Syeian  Towns  out  op  Palestine  which  aee  eepeeeed  to 
in  the  sceiptuees. 

Towns  in  Phoenicia  : — 

Sidon 56 

Tyre 57 

Sarepta 57 

Towns  in  Ccelo-Syria : — 

Heliopolis 58 

Abila 58 

Damascus 58 

Towns  in  Palmyrene : — 

Palmyra 59 

Thiphsah 60 

Physical  G-eogeaphy  op  Palestine. 

I.  Mountains: — 

Lebanon •  .61 

Gilead .         .         .         .62 

Gilboa 63 

Hermon 63 

Tabor 63 

Carmel 64 

Olives 65 

Calvary 65 

Moriah 65 

Gihon 65 

Ebal,  Gerizzim,  Sion 65 

Hor 65 

Seir.                 ,        .        ,        . 67 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

II.  Wildernesses,  Deserts,  and  Plains: — 

Wildernesses 69 

Plains 69 

III.  Riyers,  Lakes,  and  Wadys  : — 

The  Jordan 70 

Explorers  of  the  Jordan  and  Dead  Sea 70 

The  Dead  Sea 75 

Waters  of  Merom 79 

Lake  of  Grennesareth 81 

Rivers  and  Brooks 82 

Fountains  and  Cisterns 86 

Natural  History  of  Palestine  :— • 

I.  Plants 87 

II.  Animals  : — 

Quadrupeds 106 

Birds 115 

Reptiles   ■ 116 

Insects 117 

III.  Climate 118 

Winds 120 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 
GEOGRAPHICAL  ILLUSTRATIONS  : — 

1.  Town  and  Sea  of  Tiberias 19 

2.  Nazareth 21 

3.  Buins  of  Samaria 25 

4.  Tillage  of  Shiloah .         .         .         .29 

5.  Jerusalem .         .         .         .         .31 

6.  Holy  Sepulchre 34 

7.  The  Brook  Kidron 37 

8.  Garden  of  Gethsemane — Lynch 39 

9.  Absolom's  Tomb 40 

10.  Tombs  of  the  Kings  in  the  Yalley  of  Jehoshaphat     ....  41 

11.  Bethlehem 46 

12.  Ancient  Ship 50 

13.  Ship  of  the  Age  of  Solomon 56 

14.  Tyre 57 

15.  Baalbec — La  Borde .         . 58 

16.  Damascus 59 

17.  Palmyra,  or  Tadmor  in  the  Desert 60 

18.  Mount  Lebanon  from  the  Sea 61 

19.  The  Summit  of  Lebanon 62 

20.  Mount  Carmel 64 

21.  The  Mount  of  Olives 65 

22.  Mount  Hor 66 

23.  Mount  Sinai 68 

24.  The  Source  of  the  Jordan — Lynch 71 

25.  The  Valley  of  the  Jordan  .....         ...  74 

26.  The  Shore  of  the  Dead  Sea — Lynch 78 

27.  Pillar  of  Salt  at  Usdum  (Sodom)  on  the  Dead  Sea — Lynch       .         .  79 

28.  The  Sea  of  Galilee 81 

29.  Wady  Mojeb,  a  Eavine  of  the  Arnon — Lynch 84 

30.  Fountain  at  Nazareth — Lynch  ....  ^  86 

Natueal  Histoby. 
Plants  : — 

31.  The  Cedar 87 

32.  Timber  of  Lebanon  •-...*..        p  88 


ILLTTSTRATIOIS'S. 


Plants — continued 

33.  Olive-Branch 

34.  Fig-Tree 

35.  Almond   . 

36.  Wine-Press 

37.  Palm 

38.  Date-Palm 

39.  Pomegranate 

40.  Apple 

41.  Balm  of  Grilead 

42.  Box-Tree 

43.  Aloe 

44.  Cinnamon 

45.  Cassia 

46.  Calamus 

47.  Jumper   . 

48.  Hyssop    . 

49.  Tares 

50.  Garlic      . 

51.  Melon 

52.  Cotton-Plant 

53.  Mint 

54.  Coriander 


PAGE 

90 

91 

93 

95 

96 

96 

98 

98 

99 

100 

100 

101 

101 

101 

101 

101 

103 

103 

103 

104 

104 

104 


Animals  : — 

55.  Camel      .      ■ .         .108 

56.  Dromedary 109 

57.  Lion Ill 

58.  Leopard Ill 

59.  Khinoceros 113 

60.  Coney 115 

61.  Ostrich 115 

62.  Lizard 116 

63.  Crocodile 116 

64.  Scorpion 116 

65.  Bee 117 

66.  Locust m 118 


GEOGRAPHICAL  AND  TOPOGRAPHICAL 
ACCOUNT  OF  CANAAN. 


Circumstances  have  contributed  to  affix  a  great  variety  of  various 
names  to  the  country  in  which  the  Israelites  settled.     Its  most  names- 
ancient,  and,  perhaps,  even  still,  its  most  frequent  appellation, 
is  that  of  Canaan,  Xavaav,  \WD,   derived  from  the  grandson  of  Canaan. 
Noah,   of  that  name,   whose  posterity  were   its   inhabitants. 
Palestine  (Palsestina  UaXaiffTipri,  from  fi^nt^S,  <I>uWm*/i,  Jud.  Palestine, 
xiii.  5,  Philistiyim)  is  another  title  derived  from  the  Philistines, 
whom  the    Greeks  and  the   Eomans   called   Palestines,   who 
occupied  that  part  of  the  land  which  bordered  on  the  sea  coasts, 
and  were  long  the  scourge  of  their  Hebrew  neighbours.     After 
Canaan  had  been  conquered  by  the  Jews  under  Joshua,  it  was 
portioned   out   in  twelve   parts  among  eleven   of  the   tribes 
descended  from  Jacob.      From  the  tribe  of  Judah  the  most 
important   of  the  twelve,  which  continued    after  the   disper- 
sion, and  dwelt  in  the  richest  quarter,  it  obtained  the  epithet 
Judcea,  after  the  period  of  the  return  from  the  Babylonish  cap-;  Judaea, 
tivity.     It  has  also  been  termed  the  Land  of  Israel,  obviously  Land  of 
from  that  people  having  subdued  it,  and  the  Land  of  promise,  IsraeL 
with  reference  to  the  remarkable  promise  of  God  to  Abraham,  Land  of 
which  assigned  this  territory  as  in  fee-simple  to  the  descendants 
of  that  illustrious  patriarch.     It  has  derived  the  most  honour- 
able  appellation   of    the  Holy  land,  from  its  having  become;  Hoiv  Land, 
by  the  instituted  worship  of  God,  his  peculiar  dwelling ;  and 
from  its  having  been  subsequently  distinguished  by  the  resi^ 
dence,    actions,   miracles,    sufferings,    and   personal  triumphs 
of  the  "  holy  child  Jesus."     Profane  historians  have  blended  it 
with  the  countries  of  Syria,   Coelo-Syria,   Phoenicia,  and  other 
contiguous  places,  as  forming  in  their  estimation  an  insignificant 
portion  of  them,  and  it  has  been  supposed,  out  of  intentional 
contempt ;  but  this,  if  it  be  indeed  the  fact,  only  evinces  how 
ridiculous  are  the  judgments,  and  how  perverse  the  sentiments 
of  mankind  with  regard  to  what  is  truly  great  and  supremely 
honourable.     The  mighty  scenes  which  have  been  transacted 
within  the  limits  of  the  Holy  Land  country,  are  such  as  could 
derive  no  additional  glory  from  any  circumstance  of  an  exterior 


12 


GEOGKAPHY  AND  TOPOGKAPHY  OP  CANAAN. 


The 
boundaries. 


Extent. 


Fertility. 


nature,  and  would  render  even  a  barren  wilderness,  or  a  solitary- 
rock,  of  more  real  consideration  than  the  most  extensive  region 
upon  the  page  of  history. 

The  northern  boundary  of  this  celebrated  country  was  formed 
by  the  mountains  of  Antilibanus,  or  the  province  of  Phoenicia  ; 
on  the  south  was  Idumsea,  having  on  the  line  of  separation  also 
a  ridge  of  mountains ;  on  the  east,  the  lake  Asphaltites,  the 
river  Jordan,  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  and  the  Samochonite  lake  ;  on 
the  west,  the  Mediterranean  sea.1  The  extent  has  been 
variously  computed,  and  if  we  reckon  the  utmost,  it  must 
appear  comparatively  small,  when  we  recollect  the  descriptions 
we  have  of  its  population  and  natural  opulence.  These,  how- 
ever, are  partly  attributable  to  the  care  with  which  it  was  culti- 
vated, and  partly  to  the  extraordinary  blessing  of  Heaven  upon 
its  soil ;  for  the  general  aspect  of  the  country  presents  only 
barren  hills  with  small  intervening  valleys.  Palaestina,  or  Syria 
Palsestina,  was  sometimes  considered  by  the  ancients  as  a  part 
of  Phcenice,  which  extended  from  Orthosias,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Eleutherus,  in  lat.  34°  42'  N.  to  Pelusium,  or  rather  Gaza, 
lat.  31°  26'  N.  excluding  the  desert  between  Syria  and  Egypt, 
a  distance  of  nearly  200  geographical  miles,  while  Palestine 
Proper,  which  may  be  considered  as  reaching  from  Sidon,  in 
lat.  33°  34'  N.  to  Gaza,  is  only  2°  8',  or  128  geographical  miles 
in  length,  and  not  more  than  105  geographical  miles  in  its 
greatest  breadth. 

Profane  writers  corroborate  the  Mosaic  account  of  its  fertility. 
Hecatgeus,  an  author  of  the  time  of  Ptolemy  I.  mentions  it  as 
an  excellent  and  fruitful  province,  well  peopled.  Pliny  cele- 
brates the  course  of  the  river  Jordan,  the  palm  trees,  and  other 
productions.2  Some  ancient  writers,  however,  as  Strabo,  for 
instance,  and  some  modern  travellers,  have  expressed  an  oppo- 
site opinion,  and  even  poured  contempt  upon  this  land,  as  full 
of  barren  mountains  and  woods  ;  but  if  this  testimony  may  be 
considered  as  enhancing  the  almost  miracle  of  its  natural 
capacities  to  sustain  a  large  population,  it  does  not  contradict 
the  fact  of  its  extraordinary  fertility  in  particular  places  ;  and 
even  some  of  the  writers  themselves,  especially  Jerome,  while 
he  descants  upon  its  rocky  character  in  general,  and  upon  the 
frequency  of  the  drought  that  prevails  there,  remarks  also  upon 
its  productiveness.      The    Jewish  legislator  gives   a   detailed 

1  As  defined  by  Moses  (Gren.  x.  19.)  Canaan  was  a  triangle,  having  Zidon 
for  its  apex,  and  the  country  from  Gaza  eastward  to  the  valley  of  the 
Arabah,  near  Kadish-barnea,  for  the  base.  This  includes  the  lost  cities  of 
the  plain  south  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

2  Hecat.  ap.  Joseph,  cont.  app.  p.  1049.  Pliny,  lib.  5,  cap.  14,  15.  Com- 
pare also  Tacit.  Hist.  lib.  15,  cap.  6. 


TEKTILITY  OF  CANAAN.  13 

account  of  its  fruits,  and  its  oil,  wine,  and  other  produce :  it  is 
said  to  have  exceeded  all  other  countries.  So  rich  was  the  soil, 
that  it  required  no  manure  to  force  or  to  sustain  its  vigour. 
The  corn  was  both  excellent  in  quality,  and  abundant  in 
quantity. 

Under  the  Eoman  domination  Palestine  was  subdivided  into  Roman 
six  parts,  three  on  the  Western  and  as  many  on  the  Eastern  Palestine, 
side  of  the  Jordan ;  the  former  being  Gralilaea,  Samaria,  and 
Judaea ;  the  latter  Itursea,  Persea,  and  Moabitis.  To  the  South 
and  East  of  these  was  Idumsea,  a  mountainous,  and,  for  the 
most  part,  desert  country,  long  hostile,  and  at  last  only  im- 
perfectly subdued  by  the  Jewish  kings.1  The  Canaanites  and 
their  neighbours  in  Moab  and  Edom  (Idumaea)  were  small,  gdoab' 
independent,  pastoral  communities,  probably  subject  to  a  patri-  idumia. 
archal  monarchy.  They  seem  to  have  successfully  resisted  the 
Israelites  as  long  as  they  preserved  that  federal  union  by  which 
they  had  previously  maintained  their  independence ;  in  some 
cases  the  Jews,  in  others  the  Canaanites,  were  driven  into  the 
mountains,  while  their  adversaries  occupied  the  valleys ;  but 
when  the  Jewish  power  was  consolidated  by  the  vigour  and 
enterprise  of  David,  the  Philistines  and  other  Canaanites  to  the 
"West  of  the  Jordan  were  on  one  hand  humbled,  if  not  reduced 
to  a  state  of  dependence,  and  the  mountaineers  to  the  East  of 
that  river,  in  Moab,  Ammon,  and  Edom,  were,  on  the  other 
hand,  either  completely  subdued,  or  so  far  disabled  as  never 
afterwards  to  become  formidable  to  the  Jews. 

The  corresponding  subdivisions  of  Palestine,  at  these  diffe- 
rent periods,  under  the  Canaanites,  Jews,  and  Eomans,  will  be 
seen  at  once  in  the  following  table : — 

1  Edom,  the  Idumsea  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  occupied  all  the 
habitable  country  between  the  Southern  extremity  of  Judaea  and  the  con- 
fines of  Egypt  and  Arabia.  Edom  and  Idumaea  may  be  considered  as 
identical ;  for  it  is  very  probable  that  Idum  was  the  ancient  name  sub- 
sequently pronounced  Edom,  and  therefore  thus  expressed  by  the  Masorites 
when  they,  in  pointing  the  Hebrew  text,  endeavoured  to  preserve  the  pro- 
nunciation then  prevalent. 


14 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CANAAN. 


Corresponding  Diyisions  oe  Palestine  under  the 
(1)  Canaanites,  (2)  Israelites,  (3)  Eomans. 


WEST  OF  THE  JOED  AN. 
1.                                 2.                        3. 

Hivites. 

g      Naphthali. 

m 

<1      Zebulun. 

Gralilsea. 

Canaanites. 

Perizzites. 

Grirgashites. 

Jebusites. 

Issachar. 
ri      Manasseh 
p     (half  tribe.) 

Ephraim. 

Samaria. 

Amorites. 
Hittites. 

d      Benjamin. 
Jj      Judah. 
•"3      Simeon. 

Juda3a. 

EAST  OE  THE  JORDAN. 
1.                         2.                              3. 

Bashan. 

Manasseh 
(half  tribe.) 

T,                  Batansea. 
ltursea.         A         ... 
Auramtis. 

Ammonites. 

Gad. 

p                 Galaaditis. 
Ammonitis. 

Moabites. 

Eeuben. 

Moabitis. 

GALILEE. — JOKDAtf. — THE  SEA  COAST.  15 

I.  Galilee. 

G-alilee,  the   northernmost  of  the  subdivisions   established  Galilee, 
under  the  Asamonean  kings,  and  continued  under  the  Romans, 
received  its  name  probably  from  its  being  on  the  confines ; 
Galil  signifying,  according  to  Kimkhi,   on  Joshua  (xiii.  2),  a 
"boundary."    It  extended  from  the  southern  border  of  Phoenice 
to  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth,  or  Sea 
of  Galilee.     Accho,  or  Ptolemais,  the  '  Akka  of  the  Arabs,  the  Acdio, 
Acri  of  the  modern  Italians,  and  the  Acre  of  English  writers,  Ptolemais, 
was  so  near  the  confines  as  to  be  sometimes  assigned  to  the  or  Acre* 
territory  of  Tyre  and  sometimes  to  Galilee  (Joseph.  De  Bell. 
Jud.  iii.  4).     It  is  a  sea-port  town,  thirty  miles  below  Tyre, 
and  eight  north  of  Mount   Carmel.     It  was  in  the  territory 
assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Asher,  the  key  of  Syria,  standing  on 
an  angular  promontory  jutting  into  the  sea,  and  very  strongly 
fortified.    One  of  its  northern  districts  was  called  Cabul  (Kabul) 
by  Hiram,  King  of  Tyre,  to  whom  it  was  given  by  Solomon 
(1  Kings,  ix.  13).    Csesarea  Philippi  was  in  the  northern  part  of 
Galilee,  near  Mount  Hermon.     Anciently  it  was  called  Paneas 
(Uaveag),  from  a  grotto  sacred  to  Pan  ;  a  name  now  preserved  in 
the  modern  appellation  Banias.     It  is  embosomed  among  moun- 
tains, and  it  stands  upon  a  platform,  or  terrace,  an  hundred 
feet  above  an  extensive  plain.   The  ancient  city  was  surrounded 
by  water,  and  defended  on  all  sides  by  natural  ravines,  except 
on  the   east.     At  present  the  plain  towards  the  north-west, 
wrest  and  south-west,  is  covered  with  columns,  capitals,  and 
foundations,  bearing  testimony  to  its  ancient  size  and  magnifi- 
cence.1    Near   this  place,    to    Uaveiov,  were  the   easternmost  Pamum,  or 
sources  of  the  Jordan.     This  is,  no  doubt,  the  source  visited  by  sources  of 
Burckhardt,  (Syr.  p.  38,)  and  supposed  by  him  to  give  rise  to  the  Jordan, 
one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Jordan.     It  is  very  near  Baniyas  Baniyas  or 
(Paneas).     But  this  was  supposed  by  the  ancients  to  be  the 
issue  of  a  subterranean  outlet  from  a  small  lake  called  Phiala,  Phiala. 
120  stadia  (15  miles)  north-east  of  Paneas,  Uaveag,  afterwards 
called   Caosarea   Philippi.      Its   most  ancient  name  was  Dan  Dan- 
(Gen.  xiv.  14.)     The  river  passing  by  it  is  at  this  day  called 
Dan2  on  the  spot.  (Burckhardt,  Syr.  p.  42.)     Its  position  on 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  Jewish  territory  is  evident  from 
the  proverbial  expression,  "  from  Dan  to  Beersheba."    (Judg. 
xx.  1.)     The  Jordan,  at  a  small  distance  below  Paneas,  passes  thTJordan. 

1  Thompson's  Bib.  Sacra,  p.  187,  188. 

2  Buckhardt,  who  was  occasionally  misled  by  his  ear,  has  perhaps  mis- 
spelt this  name ;  if  Dan  instead  of  Dhan,  it  is  identical  with  the  name 
found  in  Scripture. 


16 


GEOGKAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CANAAN, 


Eastern 
tributaries. 


Hieromax 
or  Jarnkiik. 


Jabbok  or 
Zerka. 
Jaser  or 
Nahr  Sir. 


Arnon  or 

Zerka 

Mo'tn. 


Western 
tributaries : 
Cherith,  &c. 


Sea-coast. 
El  Mujud- 
deh. 


Accho. 


Ptolemais 
or  Ace. 
Belus  or 
No 'man. 


Gaba  or 
Gamala. 
Heifa  or 
Khaifah. 


through  a  larger  lake  called  Hauleh,  the  ancient  Samachonitis 
(Jos.  De  Bel.  Jud.  v.  6),  and  after  running  120  stadia  (15 
miles)  further,  enters  the  Lake  of  G-ennesareth  (».  e.  the  Vale 
of  Nazareth),  otherwise  called  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  or  Lake  of 
Tiberias  (now  Tabariyeh),  from  a  Eoman  town  on  its  western 
side.  After  issuing  from  that  lake,  it  flows  nearly  south,  a 
very  circuitous  course,  with  a  very  rapid  descent,  till  it  enters 
the  Lake  Asphaltites,  or  Dead  Sea.  (Bahr  Zoghar,1  or  Lut.) 

The  principal  tributaries  to  the  Jordan  come  from  the 
Eastern  mountains,  and  are,  1.  The  Hieromax,  a  corruption  of 
Tarmuk  (the  Hebrew  name  still  preserved  by  the  Arabs), 
which  rises  in  Auranitis  (Hauran)  and  flows  into  the  Jordan, 
about  four  geographical  miles  from  the  southernmost  point  of 
the  Lake  of  Tiberias.  2.  The  Jabbok  (Yabok,  now  Zerka), 
which  separated  the  Amorites  from  the  Giieadites.  3.  Jazer, 
(Ta'-zer,  Josh.  xxi.  39),  now  Nahr  Sir,  probably  from  the 
Greek  Jaser  ('Iao^o,  Euseb.  Onomast.  in  voce),  i.  e.  Tasir,  as 
pronounced  in  the  middle  ages.  Into  the  Lake  Asphaltites 
flowed,  4.  the  Arnon  (Zerka  Mo'in),  a  stream  formed  by  a 
number  of  mountain  torrents,  whence  the  expression  used  in 
Scripture  (Numb.  xxi.  15),  "  the  stream  of  the  brooks."  It 
separated  Moab  from  Edom.  On  the  western  side,  the  prin- 
cipal affluents  of  the  Jordan  are,  1.  the  river  Sichem  (Wadi-1- 
Mujeddeh),  probably  the  brook  Cherith.  (1  Kings,  xvii.  15). 
2.  A  stream  from  Mount  Ephraim  (El  Beidan)  ;  and,  3,  the 
river  of  Jericho  (El  Kalil) . 

On  the  coast,  Achzib  (Akzib,  Jos.  xix.  29),  or  Ecchippa, 
nine  miles  north  of  Accho  (Judg.  i.  38),  though  within  the 
limits  of  the  tribe  of  Asher,  was  still  possessed  by  the  Canaan- 
ites,  as  were  most,  if  not  all,  the  cities  on  the  coast :  the 
Israelites  being  a  pastoral  people,  not  disposed  to  venture  on 
the  sea,  and  withheld,  as  it  appears,  by  Providence  from 
establishing  themselves  in  places  where  they  would  have  been 
drawn  into  a  commerce  with  idolatrous  and  distant  nations. 
Ptolemais,  under  the  name  of  Ace,  (vAk^),  was  made  a  Eoman 
colony  under  the  Emperor  Claudius.  (Plin.  Nat.  Hist.  v.  19.) 
Very  near  to  it  the  river  Belus  (Rahman  or  No'man),  which 
rises  in  Mount  Carmel,  enters  the  sea  ;  the  sand  of  that  stream 
was  considered  as  particularly  useful  in  the  manufacture  of 
glass.  Gaba,  or  Gamala  (Joseph.  De  B.  Jud.  ii.  19.  iii.  3). 
at  the  foot  of  Carmel  (Heifa  of  the  Jews,  Haifa  of  the  Arabs), 

1  Not  Zo'ra,  as  in  M.  Jaubert's  version  of  Idrisi  (i.  360).  It  is  much  to 
be  lamented  that  so  little  critical  skill  was  exercised  in  the  preparation  of 
that  version ;  Arden  for  Urduun,  Erikha  for  Riha,  and  Zo'ra  for  Zoghar, 
would  not  have  disfigured  the  work,  had  the  translator  possessed  better 
MSS.,  or  taken  the  trouble  to  consult  other  Asiatic  geographers. 


GALILEE.  17 

was  very  near  Accho  on  the  southern  boundary  of  Asher  and 
Galilee,*  which  Carmel  separated  from  Issachar  and  Samaria. 
On  the  north-eastern  confines,  not  far  from  Hamath,  (Hamah,) 
was  Eehob.  (Josh.  xiii.  21.)    Between  Mount  Hermon  (Jebel-  Rehob. 
el-thelj)  and  Lebanon  was   the  tribe  of    Naphtali,  and    its  Naphtaii. 
northernmost  town  seems  to  have  been  Baal  Gad.  (Josh.  xi.  17.)  Baal  Gad. 
Dan,  anciently  called  Leshem,  (Josh.  xix.  47),  or  Laish,  was  Laish. 
in  the  tribe  of  Naphthali,  and  situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Lebanon.     It  was,  according  to   Eusebius  and  Jerome,  four 
Roman  miles  north-west  of  Paneas,  on  the  Nahr  Hasbani,  in  the 
valley  now  called  Wadi  Sisaban.     Robinson  places  it  at  Tell-et- 
Kady.    Some  identify  it,  but  wrongfully,  with  Paneas.    Kadesh  Kadesh 
Naphthali  (Judg.  iv.  6),  now  Kades,  about  four  miles  further  Naphtah* 
westwards,  was  a  little  to  the  west  of  Hazor,  still  called  Hazur.  Sazoru  th 
Harosheth  of  the  Gentiles  (Judg.  iv.  2),  the  abode  of  Sisera, 
may  be  still  traced  in  a  site  about  two  miles  south-west  of  the 
Lake  Merom  (Hauleh). 

Lower  Galilee,  which  lay  between  Mount  Carmel  and  the  GaHiaea 
Lake  of  Gennesareth,  contained  a  small  portion  of  the  tribe  of Interior- 
Naphtaii,  the  whole  of  Zebulon,  and  the  northern  confines  of  zebuion. 
Issachar.     It  was   separated  by  the  lake  from  Gadara  and 
Gaulonitis  (now  Jaulan).     The  lake  was  anciently  called  the  Lake  of 
Sea  of  Chinnereth  (Numb,  xxxiv.  11),  from  a  town  of  that  Tiberias'  or 
name,  probably  the  same  as  Gennesareth,  of  which  remains  can  Sea  of 
be  traced  near  Meniyeh  at  the  north-western  extremity  of  the 
lake,  or,  if  Jerom  be  right,  the  same  as  Tiberias.  This  place  was 
called  Gennesar,  (VewrirTap),  and  by  the  Greeks  the  country 
round  it  Gennesaritis  (Strabo,  xvi.  p.  755).      Prom  Tiberias 
on  its  south-west  side  it  was  called  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  ;  and  the 
Sea  of  Galilee  is  another  name  by  which  it  is  frequently  men- 
tioned in  the  New  Testament.     "  Its  width,' '    says  Josephus 
(iii.  35),  "  is  40  stadia,  (five  miles,)  and  its  length  140    (17^- 
miles)."      Pliny  (Nat,  Hist.  v.  15)  makes  it  one  mile  broader 
and  a  mile  and  a  half  shorter.     In  shape  it  is  nearly  oval.     Its 
water,  which  is  fresh  and  drinkable,  abounds  with  fish.1     The 
aromatic  reed  and  rush,  and  the  balsam  of  Judaea,  mentioned 
by  Strabo  (loc.  cit.)  as  the  produce  of  its  fertile  shores,  have 
not  been  found  there  in  modern  times,  unless  the  Calamus 
aromaticus  here  named  be  the  well-known  aquatic  plant :  the 
balsam  was  probably  a  species  of  amyris  successfully  cultivated, 
but  not  indigenous,  in  Judaea.     There  were  two  cities  bearing 
the  name  Bethsaida  (house  of  hunting  or  fishing)  ;  one  was  a  Bethsaida. 
city  near  the  desert  of  the  same  name  in  Galilee,  on  the  western 
shore   of  the  lake    Gennesareth.     It  was  the  city   in  which 
Andrew  and  Peter  followed  their  trade  as  fishermen.     It  was 
1  See  further  particulars  under  Section  "  Lakes."' 
C 


18 


GKE0GEAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OP  CAKAAK. 


Cana. 


Julias. 
Betha- 
ramphtha. 
Capernaum, 


Chorazin. 


Land  of 
Gennesar. 


Tarichaea. 
El  Melahah 


Tiberias. 
Tabariyeh. 


also  the  native  place  of  Philip.  Bethsaida  frequently  witnessed 
the  miracles,  and  heard  the  preaching  of  our  Saviour  ;  and  the 
stubborn  unbelief  of  its  inhabitants  drew  down  from  him  a 
bitter  denunciation  of  woe.  (Matt,  xi,  21.)  The  other  town  of 
the  same  name  was  on  the  east  bank  of  Jordan,  near  which 
was  the  wilderness  of  Bethsaida.  There  were  two  Canas  in 
Galilee, — one  in  the  tribe  of  Asher,  near  Sidon ;  the  other  so 
remarkable  as  the  place  where  our  Saviour's  first  miracle  was 
performed,  near  the  northern  extremity  of  the  lake,  a  few  miles 
west  of  Julias,  (Betharamphtha,  improved  by  Herod  the 
Tetrarch,  and  named  in  honour  of  the  wife  of  Tiberius,)  close 
to  the  entrance  of  the  Jordan,  and  about  17  or  18  miles  north- 
east of  Tiberias.  According  to  Dr.  Bobinson,  the  place  called 
Kep  Kenna,  six  miles  north-east  of  Nazareth,  is  not  the  spot 
where  stood  Cana  of  Galilee,  as  most  travellers  imagine,  but 
that  which  is  now  called  Kana-el- Jelil,  about  seven  miles  north 
of  Nazareth.  Capernaum,  (Kafa  Nahum,)  on  the  borders  of 
Zebulon  and  Naphtali,  was  probably  near  the  present  Tell 
Hum,  on  the  edge  of  the  lake,  two  or  three  miles  west  of  the 
entrance  of  the  Jordan.  This  city  was  about  twenty  miles 
north-east  from  Cana,  where  Christ  often  resided,  and  per- 
formed some  of  his  most  wonderful  miracles.  Its  exact  site,  as 
we  have  intimated,  is  uncertain,  though  it  was  once  the 
metropolis  of  Galilee.  Dr.  Wilson  supposes  it  to  have  been  at 
the  head  of  the  lake,  about  five  miles  west  of  the  Jordan, 
where  extensive  ruins  are  found.  Dr.  Bobinson  considers  it  to 
have  been  on  the  spot  now  called  Khan  Minyeh,  near  the 
fountain  called  Ain-el-Tin,  north  of  Tiberias,  and  where,  mid- 
way of  the  coast,  the  hills  retire  in  a  kind  of  arch,  and  form  a 
small  triangular  plain,  four  miles  in  length,  and  two  in  breadth, 
and  is  the  ancient  land  of  Gennesareth.  Near  to  Capernaum, 
and  south  of  Mount  Tabor,  was  the  city  of  Nain,  (Beauh,) 
remarkable  as  the  scene  of  one  of  our  Saviour's  most  wonder- 
ful miracles.  (Luke,  vii.  11 — 15.)  It  is  now  a  Turkish  village. 
About  two  miles  from  Capernaum,  and  near  Cana,  was 
Chorazin,  (Matt.  xi.  21,)  the  precise  location  of  which  is  now 
unknown.  The  low  land  alongside  the  lake  from  the  entrance 
of  the  Jordan  to  Tiberias,  about  four  miles  long  and  two  and 
a  half  broad,  was  called  the  Land  of  Gennesar,  or  Gennesareth, 
and  celebrated  for  its  fertility  and  the  mildness  of  its  climate. 
(Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.  iii.  35.)  Not  four  miles  to  the  south  of 
Tiberias,  on  the  shore  of  the  lake,  was  Tarichaea?,  or  Tarichaea, 
(El  Melahah,)  from  its  salt  fish,  rapixoc,  a  well  fortified  and 
populous  city,  having  upwards  of  38,000  inhabitants  when 
taken  by  Vespasian.  Tiberias,  (now  Tabariyeh,)  the  last  city 
on  the  western  side  of  the  lake,  and  in  the  most  fertile  part  of 


GALILEE.  19 


its  shore,  was  built  by  Herod  the  Tetrarch,  and  so  named  in 
honour  of  his  patron  the  Emperor  Tiberius.  Jerom  (on  Ezech. 
xlviii.  21)  says  that  it  was  anciently  called  Chenereth ;  the 
Talmud  (Meg.  5,  col.  2)  calls  it  Eakkath.  (Josh.  xix.  35.)  Rakkath. 


[Town  and  Sea  of  Tiberias.] 

Tiberias  was  once  famed  as  a  seat  of  Jewish  learning.  It  is 
now  the  rendezvous  of  Jewish  devotees,  who  flock  thither  (it 
being  one  of  the  four  holy  cities)  in  order  to  pass  their  days 
in  praying  for  their  own  salvation,  and  that  of  their  brethren, 
who  remain  in  worldly  pursuits.  It  has  long  been  celebrated  Hot  baths, 
for  its  hot  baths,  one  of  which  is  too  hot  to  bear  the  hand  in 
it.  The  water  issues  from  the  ground,  and  the  taste  is  ex- 
ceedingly salt  and  bitter,  and  has  a  strong  smell  of  sulphur. 
The  city  of  Tiberias  is  nearly  encircled  with  mountains,  and  is 
seated  on  the  margin  of  the  lake,  which  bears  the  same  name. 
Herod  Antipas,  it  is  believed,  erected  the  city  on  the  site  of  an 
obscure  town  or  village  named  Cinnereth,  which  formerly  had 
given  its  name  to  the  lake.  (Joshua,  xix.  35.)  The  Talmud, 
however,  states,  as  already  mentioned,  that  the  town  of  Eakkath 
originally  occupied  its  site.  "Neither  of  these  identifications," 
says  Dr.  Kitto,  "  seems  to  us  open  to  much  objection,  although 
there  appears  no  means  of  deciding  which  of  them  is  entitled 
to  preference."  The  name  of  Tiberias  is  frequently  found  in 
history ;  "  it  was  the  scene  of  some  of  the  most  memorable 
events  recorded  by  Josephus,  and  was,  next  to  Sepphoris,  the 
most  considerable  city  of  Galilee.  It  had  a  university,  and,  University, 
after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  was  the  residence  of  Jewish  patri- 
archs, rabbins,  and  learned  men,  till  the  fourth  century  ;  after 
which  it  gradually  declined  till  it  was  taken  by  the  Saracens 
under  Omar,  in  the  seventh  century.     But  from  its  reputed 


20 


GEOGRAPHY  A3TI>  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CAtfAAK. 


Ham  math. 
Ammaus. 


Migdol. 
Magdala. 
Pons  Jor- 
danis. 

Sepphoris. 

Lower 

Galilee. 


Dircaesarea. 

Safooreh. 

Nazareth. 

Nasarali. 

Cana. 


sanctity,  and  the  celebrity  of  its  baths,  it  continued  to  flourish^ 
and  is  mentioned  in  an  itinerary  of  the  eighth  century,  cited  by 
Eeland,  as  containing  many  churches  and  synagogues.''1  The 
present  town  is  called  Tabariyeh  or  Tubariyeh ;  it  is  walled, 
and  of  considerable  magnitude,  but  overspread  with  ruins  from 
the  earthquake  which,  in  1837,  destroyed  so  many  of  its  in- 
habitants. Before  the  occurrence  of  that  fearful  calamity,  the 
population  was  estimated  at  about  4000^  but  at  present  half 
that  number  is  about  the  maximum.  Tiberias  is  one  of  the 
four  holy  cities  of  the  Talmud,  the  others,  being  Safed,  Hebron, 
and  Jerusalem.  Near  this  city  was  Hammath,  probably  Hamam 
Tabariyeh,  "the  Baths,"  the  Ammaus  (Hammauth)  or  Hot 
Waters  of  Josephus  (Bel.  Jud.  iv.  2),  about  a  mile  to  the  south 
of  Tiberias.  Tiberias  was  30  stadia  (3f  miles)  from  Hippos,  60 
stadia  (7|-  miles)  from  Gadara,  and  120  stadia  (15  miles)  from 
Scythopolis.  Two  miles  to  the  north  of  Tiberias  was  Magdala 
(in  Hebrew,  Migdol,  now  El  Mejdel).  The  ruins  of  the  bridge 
over  the  Jordan,,  which  issues  from  the  lake  a  little  north-west 
of  its  southern  extremity,  are  still  visible. 

The  capital  of  Lower  Galilee  was  Sepphoris  (2€7n£wpie,  Joseph. 
Bel.  Jud.  iii.  3).  Tsephorim  of  the  Talmud  (Esach.  ix.  6),  a 
place  of  great  strength  by  nature  and  art,  fortified  also  by 
Herod  the  Tetrarch.  It  was  in  the  middle  of  Galilee,  nearly 
opposite  to  Mount  Asamon  (Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.  ii.  18,  11)  now 
Jebel  Waber.  According  to  St.  Jerom,  it  was  called  Diocaesarea 
by  the  Greeks.  Its  name  is  preserved  in  the  Safureh  of  the 
Arabs.  About  five  miles  south  by  east  of  Safureh,  is  Nazareth 
(Nasarah),  and  about  two  miles  east  of  each,  Kana  (Cana), 
where  Christ  first  manifested  his  divine  power. 

Nazareth,  now  known  by  the  name  Nassarah,  or  Nasarah, 
is  from  50  to  70  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  six  or  seven 
west-north-west  of  Mount  Tabor,  fifteen  from  the  sea  of  Ti- 
berias, near  the  parallel  of  its  southern  extremity,  and  north  of 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  at  the  head  of  a  valley  which  runs  up 
from  it.  On  all  sides  it  is  surrounded  by  hills  of  considerable 
elevation,  in  the  midst  of  which  it  lies  embosomed.  It  was 
anciently  distinguished  for  its  extreme  wickedness  ;  but  can 
never  cease  to  be  celebrated  as  a  place  which  gave  an  appella- 
tion to  the  Saviour  as  "  Jesus  of  Nazareth,"  and  where  he  spent 
thirty  years  of  his  life. 

"When  we  got  to  the  Wale  Nabi  Ismail,"  says  Dr.  Wilson, 
"  on  the  top  of  the  hill  over  Nazareth,  we  had  on  all  sides  of  us 
a  most  glorious  prospect.  The  sphere  of  observation  is  here  as 
much  enlarged  as  below  it  is  contracted.  To  the  north-west  of 
us i  overlooking  a  part  of  the  country  considerably  wooded,  we 
1  Mansford's  Scripture  Gazetteer. 


GALILEE, 


21 


had  the  hays  of  'Akka  and  Haifa,  with  the  clear  blue  expanse  ^witon's 
of  the  Mediterranean,  or  Great  Sea  of  the  Hebrews,  spreading 
itself  in  the  distance  beyond.     South  of  this,  and  striking  to 
the  south-east,  we  had  the  whole  ridge  of  Carmel  before  us 
which,  though  much  stripped  of  the  glory  of  its  olden  forests, 


still  presents  striking  memorials  of  that  '  excellency'  for  which 
it  was  so  distinguished.     To  the  south  and  south-west  of  us,  Armaged. 
somewhat  circular  in  its  form,  is  seen  here,  bounded  by  the  don' 
picturesque  mountains  of  Samaria,  the  '  great  plain,'  the  battle- 
field of  the  country  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  and 
probably  the  real  or  typical  site  of  the  battle  of  Armageddon. 


22        GEOGRAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CAKAAN. 

Dr. Wilson's  To  the  east  and  south-east  of  us  we  had  the  little  Hermon, 
which,  though  bold  on  its  brow,  has  considerable  vegetation  on 
its  shoulders ;  Mount  Tabor  standing  apart  in  its  own  nobility, 
and,  like  nature's  own  pyramid,  not  commemorative  of  death, 
but  instinct  with  life,  and  clothed  with  luxuriant  verdure  to  its 
very  summit ;  and  the  deep  valley  of  the  Jordan,  and  the  sea  of 
Tiberias,  with  the  agreeable  hills  and  mountains  of  Bashan  and 
Golan  on  its  eastern  side.  To  the  north,  beyond  the  plain  of 
El  Battauf,  we  had  the  hills  and  mountains  forming  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  Lebanon ;  and  to  the  north-west,  those  forming 
the  termination  of  the  Ante- Lebanon,  with  Jabel-ash- Sheikh, 
the  true  Hermon,  the  chief  of  all  the  mountains  of  the  land, 
moistened  with  the  copious  dews  which  descend  from  his  hoary 
locks.  Many  villages,  including  a  considerable  number  men- 
tioned in  Scripture,  were  distinctly  visible." 

"  Besides  Jezreel,  Jenin,  Taanuck,  Mezidde,  and  others,  to 
which  I  have  already  alluded  w^hen  passing  ov^r  the  great  plain, 
we  had  before  us,  beginning  with  Safariyah,  the  Sephoris 
of  Jewish  history,  called  also  Dio-Caesarea,  lying  immediately 
beyond  the  rather  bare  hills  of  .Nazareth,  and  turning  to  the 
right,  Kana-el-Jalit,  or  Cana  of  G-alilee,  which  was  privileged 
to  witness  the  beginning  of  our  Lord's  miracles  ;  Safed,  the 
famous  sanctuary  of  Eabbinism,  and  supposed  to  be  the  '  city 
set  upon  a  hill,'  immediately  before  our  Saviour  and  his  dis- 
ciples during  the  delivery  of  the  sermon  on  the  mount; 
Er.dor,  the  residence  of  the  witch  who  is  noticed  in  the 
history  of  Saul ;  JNein,  or  Nain,  where  the  widow  resided  whose 
son  was  raised  to  life  by  our  Lord.  The  associations  of  the 
scene  were  numerous  and  hallowed,  independently  of  those  im- 
mediately connected  with  Nazareth  below." 
Dr.  Robin-  We  cannot  forbear  quoting  also  the  language  of  Dr.  Bo- 
son's obser-  binson.  "  Seating  my  elf  in  the  shade  of  the  Wely,  I  remained 
for  some  hours  upon  this  spot,  lost  in  the  contemplation  of  the 
wide  prospect,  and  of  the  events  connected  with  the  scenes 
around.  In  the  village  below,  the  Saviour  of  the  world  had 
passed  his  childhood ;  and  although  we  have  few  particulars  of 
his  life  during  those  early  years,  yet  there  are  certain  features 
of  nature  which  meet  our  eyes  now  just  as  they  once  met  his. 

"  He  must  often  have  visited  the  fountain  near  which  we  had 
pitched  our  tents  ;  his  feet  must  frequently  have  wandered  over 
the  adjacent  hills  ;  and  his  eyes  doubtless  have  gazed  upon  the 
splendid  prospect  from  this  very  spot.  Here  the  Prince  of 
Peace  looked  down  upon  the  great  plain,  where  the  din  of 
battles  so  oft  had  rolled,  and  the  garments  of  the  warrior  had 
been  dyed  in  blood  ;  and  he  looked  out,  too,  upon  that  sea  over 
which  the  swift  ships  were  to  bear  the  tidings  of  his  salvation 


vations. 


GALILEE.  23 

to  nations  and  to  continents  then  unknown.  How  has  the 
moral  aspect  of  things  been  changed !  Battles  and  bloodshed 
have  indeed  not  ceased  to  desolate  this  unhappy  country,  and 
gross  darkness  now  covers  the  people ;  but  from  this  region  a 
light  went  forth  which  has  enlightened  the  world,  and  unveiled 
new  climes ;  and  now  the  rays  of  that  light  begin  to  be  reflected 
back  from  distant  isles  and  continents,  to  illuminate  anew  the 
darkened  land  where  it  first  sprang  up." 

Five  miles  south-east  of  Sepphoris  is  Mount  Tabor  (9a/3wp  Mount 
or  Irapvplov,  now  Jebel  Tur),  a  lofty,  pap-shaped  (//acrroficWe,  jeberiroor* 
Polyb.  v.  70),  insulated  mountain,  30  stadia  (nearly  four  miles) 
in  height,  almost  inaccessible  on  its  north  side,  and  having  a 
level  summit  of  26  stadia  (three  miles),  anciently  surrounded 
by  a  wall.     It  was  (Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.  iv.  6),  according  to  the 
Jews,  10  miles1  south-west  of  Capernaum  (Lightfoot,  Chorog. 
Joann.  ii.)     Near  the  base  of  this  mountain,   on   its   north- 
western side,  are  the  sources  of  Kishon  (Kaisun,  or  Nahr-el-  Kishon. 
Mokatta'),  and  two  miles  southward,  in  the  direction  of  Endor,  Kysoun. 
(Handureh)  was  Na'im  (Nam,  Luke,  viii.  11).     Endor  was  in  Endor. 
the  tribe  of  Manasseh,  four  miles  south  of  Tabor ;  and  rather 
more  than  two  miles  west  of  Endor  was  Shunem  (Sonna,  or  Shunem- 
Sunem),  the  site  of  which  can  still  be  traced.     Shunem  was  a 
town  in  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  and  seated   on   an   eminence 
at  the  west  end  of  Little  Hermon,  three  miles  north  of  Jezreel. 
It   is   associated  with  several  important  incidents   of  Jewish 
history  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  4  ;    1  Kings,  i.  3  ;    2  Kings,  viii.  1 — 6). 
It  was  the  place  where  Elisha  often  tarried,    and   where   he 
performed  an  extraordinary  miracle  (2  Kings,  iv.  8 — 37.     It 
was  also  called  Salem,  and  was,  according  to  Jerom  (de  locis), 
five  miles  south-west  of  Tabor,  and  four  miles  from  Zain.     A 
very  strong  city  in  this  neighbourhood,  named  Jotapata,  was  Jotapata. 
entirely  ruined  by  Vespasian  (Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.  iii.  12).     Japha,  Japha. 
a  very  populous  and  powerful  village,  was  very  near  it.    Grabara  Gabara. 
and  Grischala  seem  to  have  been  near  the^outhern  borders  of  Le»10- 
Galilee.     Legio  (now  El  Lejjun,  Abu-lfeda,  p.  227)  was  near  ei  Lejjoon. 
Aphek;  Taanach  (Jos.  xvii.  11)  north-west  of  Shunem:  Me-  3^3^; 
giddo,  near  it  and  the  river  Kishon ;  and  Grath  Hepher  (2  Kings,  Gatn 
xiv.  25)  in  Zabulon,  called  by  the  Greeks  Diocsesarea,  two  miles  HePher- 
from  Sephoris,  was  venerated  on  account  of  the  sepulchre  of 
the  prophet  Jonah  (Jerom  on  Jonah).     The  stronghold  called 
Zabulon,  on  the  western  borders,  was  not  very  far  from  Ptole-  zebuion. 
ma'is  (Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.  iii.  4),  or  Accho  (now  Acri).     Mount  ?£0\?mais- 
Carmel  projects  into  the  sea  between  Ace  (Accho  or  Acri)  and  Acre.  * 
the  tower   of  Strato  (Turris   Stratonis),   afterwards  Csesarea 

1  At  least  15  miles,  if  Capernaum  be  rightly  placed  near  the  north-west 
extremity  of  the  lake. 


24 


GEOGRAPHY  AISTD  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CANAAN. 


Mount 
Hermon. 
Jebel  Da-ee. 


Palaestina,  now  Kaisariyeh  ;  half  way  between  which  and  Mount 
Carmel  was  Dora  (Awoa).  The  cape  terminating  Mount  Carmel 
was  120  stadia  (15  miles)  south-west  of  Ptolemais  (Accho),  and 
that  chain  of  mountains  was  woody,  and  abounded  in  game. 
(Hieronym.  in  Esai.  x.  18;  iElian,  de  Anim.  v.  56).  At  Ec- 
batana,  a  town  on  its  flank,  Cambyses  died,  and  thus  literally 
fulfilled  the  oracle,  which  declared  that  he  should  die  at  a  place 
so  named.  Mount  Hermon  (Ps.  lxxxiv.  13)  is  perhaps  Jebel 
Da'i,  to  the  east  of  Endor,  and  south-east  of  Tabor  ;  but  this  is 
not  the  lofty  mountain  mentioned  by  the  Psalmist.  The 
"  Brook,"  or  torrent,  "  Kishon,"  which  flows  into  the  sea  near 
Hepher  (Haifa)  and  the  Belus  or  Nu'man,  which  discharges  its 
waters  near  Accho,  are  the  principal  streams  in  Galilee  men- 
tioned by  the  ancients. 

The  Great  Plain  (fueya  irtliov,  Jos.  Ant.  xii.  12)  lay  between 
Galilee  and  Samaria,  and  was  therefore  sometimes  included  in 
the  one,  and  sometimes  in  the  other.  It  follows  the  course  of 
the  Kishon  (Nahr  el  Mokatta'),  which  rises  in  Mount  Gilboa 
(Jilbo'),  a  continuation  of  Carmel,  approaching  the  Jordan 
near  Bethshan  (Baisan,  Scythopolis).  This  plain  is  terminated 
westwards  by  the  outskirts  of  Carmel,  through  which  the  river 
forces  its  way  to  the  sea  near  Hepha  (Haifa).  That  river  was 
perhaps  the  common  boundary  of  Galilee  and  Samaria.  Asochis, 
occasionally  mentioned  by  Josephus,  was  in  this  part  of  Lower 
Galilee. 


II.  SAMAEIA. 


Samaria  (fj  ^afxapEtriQ,  Jos.  Bel.  Jud.  iii.  4)  extended  from 
the  village  of  Ginsea  (Jenin)  to  the  district  of  Acrobatene, 
and  consisted,  like  the  rest  of  Palestine,  of  mountains  inter- 
sected by  fertile  valleys.  Its  capital,  Samaria  (Sa^dpfta),  the 
city  from  which  this  central  province  of  the  land  of  Canaan 
derived  its  name,  was  built  on  a  hill  situated  about  forty  miles 
north  from  Jerusalem,  and  not  far  north-west  from  Nablouse 
(Shechem).  It  was  purchased  from  Shemer  (whence  its  name), 
named  Shomerem  after  its  possession,  and  fortified  (1  Kings, 
xvi.  24)  by  Omri,  king  of  Israel,  e.g.  928.  It  withstood  two 
sieges  by  Benhadad,  king  of  Syria,  and  was  utterly  destroyed 
by  Shalmanezer,  king  of  Assyria,  in  the  reign  of  Hoshea,  after 
a  siege  of  three  years  (2  Kings,  xvii.  1 — 6).  This  overthrow 
had  been  foretold  by  the  prophet  Micah  (i.  6),  and  took  place 
210  years  after  its  foundation  (b.o.  718).  The  Cuthsean 
colonists,  established  there  by  the  Assyrian  kings,  restored  it 
so  completely  that  it  was  a  very  strong  city  when  taken  and 
destroyed  by  John  Hyrcanus  (b.c.  131).     It  was  rebuilt  bv 


SAMAEIA. 


25 


Gabinius,  prefect  of  Syria  (b.c.  58),  and  much  enlarged  by 
"Herod  the  Great,  who  called  it  Sebaste  (Augusta),  in  honour  Sebaste. 


[Ruins  of  Samaria.] 

of  Augustus  (B.C.  24),  who  had  given  him  the  city.     He  sur 
rounded  it  with  a  wall  20  stadia  (2i  miles)  in  circumference, 
and  settled  1000  inhabitants  in  it  (Jos.  Bel.  Jud.  i.  14).     The 
ruins  indicate  its  former  magnificence,  though  now  it  is  an 
insignificant  village.     The  situation  of  Samaria  is  extremely 
fine,  and  strong  by  nature.     It  is  on  a  hill,  surrounded  by  a 
broad  deep  valley,  which  is  encompassed  by  four  other  hills, 
cultivated  in  terraces  to  the  top,  and,  like  the  valley,  sown  with 
grain,  and  planted  with  fig  and  olive  trees.     It  exhibits  the 
ruins  of  an  ancient  convent.     Tirzah  (1  Kings,  xvi.  23)   was  Tirzah. 
the  capital  before   the   time  of  Omri.     Three  or  four  miles 
south-east  of  Samaria  was  Sichem  (Sicisma^  Sychem,  or  Sychar,  sichera. 
now  Nabulus),  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Canaan.     The  name  N^bolTioog. 
Sychar  is  Syriac,  signifying  drunkenness  and  falsehood,  applied  Neapoiis. 
to  it  as  a  stigma  by  the  Jews.     It  is  known  also  by  the  name 
of  Neapoiis,  but  is  now  called  JSTablouse  or  Naplouse.     It  lies 
northerly  from  Jerusalem,  at  the  distance  of  between  35  and 
40  miles,  between  Mount  Ebal  on  the  north,  and  Gerizim  on 
the  south.  Shechem,  or  Sichem,  which  was  placed  on  a  gentle  de- 
clivity, as  its  name  implies,  was  destroyed  by  Abimelech  ( Judg. 
ix.  45),  rebuilt  by  Jeroboam  (1  Kings,  xii.  25),  and  restored 


26 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CAK1A1S\ 


Mount  Ebal, 

Mount 

Gerizim. 

Mamortha. 

Hadad 

Rimmon. 


by  the  Romans  under  the  name  of  JNTeapolis,  changed  by  the 
Arabs  into  JNTabulus.  It  lies  between  two  hills :  Ebal  one  mile 
north-east,  and  G-arizim  (Jebel  Hesan)  one  mile  and  a  half 
south-west.  On  the  latter  stood  the  famous  Temple  intended 
to  rival  that  at  Jerusalem,  built  by  Sanballat,  in  the  time  of 
Alexander  (b.c.  331),  and  destroyed  by  John  Hyrcanus  200 
years  afterwards.  Mamortha,  or  Morthia,  was  one  of  the 
names  of  Sichem  (Jos.  Bel.  Jud.  iv.  26,  Plin.  Nat.  Hist.  v.  13, 
and  a  coin  of  Marcus  Antoninus) .  Here  Jeroboam  fixed  his 
royal  residence,  when  he  drew  away  the  Ten  Tribes  from 
Rehoboam,  and  set  up  the  kingdom  of  Israel  (1  Kings,  xii.  25). 
This  city  is  associated  with  memorable  events  of  the  patriarchal 
ages  (Gen  xlix.  29 — 32 ;  1.  13  ;  Josh.  xxiv.  1 — 32  ;  Judg.  ix. 
46 — 49).  It  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Ephraim.  It  is,  more- 
over, distinguished  as  the  place  of  one  of  our  Lord's  most 
interesting  discourses,  the  result  of  which  was  the  conver- 
sion of  several  of  the  Samaritans  (John,  iv.  4 — 42).  The 
modern  town  consists  chiefly  of  two  long  streets  parallel  to 
the  valley.  The  approach  from  the  hills  is  extremely  fine. 
It  appears  embosomed  in  the  most  beautiful  bowers,  half 
concealed  by  luxuriant  gardens  and  stately  groves  of  trees 
encircling  the  vale  in  which  it  stands.  A  mile  from  it,  to  the 
east,  is  the  sepulchre  of  Joseph,  in  the  parcel  of  ground  given 
by  Jacob  to  his  son,  and  300  paces  south-east  is  Jacob's  well, 
a  perpendicular  shaft,  75  feet  in  depth,  and  9  in  diameter,  sunk 
in  the  solid  rock,  and  still  containing  water.  Its  population 
is,  according  to  Mr.  Buckingham,  about  10,000,  who  are  chiefly 
Mahomedans.  Dr.  Clarke  speaks  of  it  as  affording  one  of  the 
finest  views  in  the  Holy  Land.  Another  royal  residence  of 
Jeroboam's  successors  was  Jezreel1  (near  Maximianopolis, 
anciently  Hadad  Rimmon),  in  the  tribe  of  Manasseh,  and  on 
the  borders  of  Issachar,  in  an  extensive  plain  named  from  it. 
Bethshean  (Judg.  i.  27)  (Bqcrdav,  house  of  quiet),  whence'  the 
tribe  of  Manasseh  did  not  expel  the  Canaanites,  afterwards 
Scythopolis,  now  Bisan  or  Bai'san,  near  a  stream  bearing  its 
name,  and  flowing  into  the  Jordan  about  two  miles  north-east 
of  it,  was  the  first  city  south  of  G-alilee.  It  was  the  largest  of 
the  ten  united  under  the  name  of  Decapolis  (Jos.  Bel.  Jud. 
iii.  31).  El  Baisan  or  Beysan  is  a  ruin  exhibiting  many  traces 
of  a  high  antiquity.  The  situation  of  this  town  was  on  the 
west  of  Jordan,  25  miles  south  of  the  sea  of  Tiberias.  Anciently 
it  seems  to  have  belonged  to  the  Philistines,  who  exposed  the 

1  Now  Zara'ein,  about  three  miles  north-east  of  Hadad  Bimmon,  accord- 
ing to  Prof.  Berghaus  ;  the  Jezreel,  which  was  ten  miles  from  Maximiano- 
polis, according  to  the  Jerusalem  Itinerary  (Keland,  Falsest,  p.  892),  was 
Esdraelon. 


SAMAKIA.  27 

body  of  Saul  on  its  walls  after  his  defeat  and  death  at  the 
battle   of  Gilboa  (1  Sam.  xxxi.   10).     On  the  Jordan,  eight 
miles  south  of  it,  was  iEnon,  near  Salim  (Mezar),  where  John  ^non. 
baptized  (Hieron.    de   loc.   Ebra'ic) ;    and    half  way  between  Mezar*. 
them,    Suecoth    (Sukkot).      Tappuah,    or   En   Tappuah    (the  Sucooth. 
Spring  of  Tappuah),  on  the  confines  of  Manasseh,  but  belong-    n  appua  " 
ing  to  Ephraim,  was  near  this  part  of  the  Jordan  (Josh,  xviii.  8). 
Taanath  Shiloh  (Josh.  xvi.  6),  in  the  tribe  of  Manasseh,  was  Taanath 
10  miles  east  of  Sichem  on  the  way  down  to  that  river  (Jerom.)  Shll°  ' 
On  the  coast,  Dor  (Awpa,  Josh.  xvii.  11),  in  the  half  tribe  of  Coast. 
Manasseh,  was  a  few  miles  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Cherseus,  R^r 
the  boundary  of  Phoenice  according  to  Ptolemy  (Geogr.  y.  xv.  Cherseus. 
p.  137),  seven  geographical  miles  south  of  the  tower  of  Strato, 
which  was  an  artificial  harbour,  adorned  and  named  by  Herod, 
Csesarea,  in  honour  of  Augustus  (Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.  i.  16),  now  Turns, 
Kaisariyeh.     It  was  constituted  the  first  Flavian  colony  by  ca-sarea?* 
Vespasian,  and  is  said  by  Pliny  (Nat.  Hist.  v.  13)  and  Ptolemy  Kysarie. 
(v.  16,  p.  140)  to  be  the  northern  boundary  of  Palestine,  189 
miles  from  the  confines  of  Arabia ;   but   the   sacred  writers 
speak  of  Palestine  as  reaching  to  the  borders  of  Tyre.     After 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  when  Judea  became  a  Roman 
province,  this  city  became  the  capital  of  Palestine,  as  Antioch 
was  head  of  Syria  (Tacit.  Hist.  ii.  79).     Apollonia,  probably  a  Apoiionia. 
Macedonian  settlement,  now  Arsuf,  was  near  the  mouth  of  a  Arsoof' 
stream   called   El   Hadr,   rather  more  than   15    geographical 
miles  south  of  Caesarea.     It  was  one  of  the  towns  fortified  by 
Gabinius  (Jos.   Bel.  Jud.  i.  6).      Joppa    (loinrrj,   in   Hebrew  Joppa. 
Tapho,  now  Yafa)  was  17  geographical  miles  further  south,  Yafa.°' 
near  a  bend  in  the  line  of  coast.     Though  possessing  merely  Jaffa- 
an  insecure  roadstead,  it  was  anciently,  as  now,  the  port  of 
Jerusalem.     According  to  the  Greek  mythologists,  it  was  the 
royal  abode  of  Cepheus  before  the  Deluge  (Mela,  i.  11)  ;  the 
rings  on  the  neighbouring  rock,  moreover,  and  the  bones  of  a 
sea-monster  on  the  shore,  were  shown  as  monuments  of  the 
delivery  of  Andromeda  by  Perseus   (Plin.  Nat.  Hist.  v.  13). 
It  is  doubtful  whether  it  lay  within  the  tribe  of  Dan,  but  it 
was  probably  on  its  northern  border  (Josh.  xix.  46).     Joppa  is 
situated  between  Csesarea  and  Gaza.  It  stands  on  a  rocky,  oblong 
hill,  the  houses  and  streets  rising  one  above  another  in  tiers,  30 
or  40  miles  north-west  of  Jerusalem.     To  this  place  Jonah  re- 
paired in  his  vain  attempt  to  escape  the  presence  of  the  Lord. 
It  was  remarkable  as   the   residence   of  Cornelius,  the  first 
Gentile  convert  ta  whom  Peter  was  sent.     In  later  times  it 
became  distinguished  in  the  history  of  the  crusaders,  and  most 
recently  in  the  Egyptian  expedition  of  Napoleon  Buonaparte. 
Sharon  (Saronas),  the  plain  between  CaBsarea  and  Joppa;  but 


28 


GEOGRAPHY  AKD  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CAKAAK. 


Sharon. 
Lydda. 

I^oodd. 
Disopolis. 

Ramathaira. 
Zophim. 


Rama. 
Ramlah. 


Mount 

Ephraim. 

Gezar. 

Gadaris. 

Jazur. 


Antipatris 
El  Bordj. 
Caphar 
Zaba. 


Beth-horon. 
Beththar. 

Galgulis. 
Michme- 
theh. 


Dothan. 
Thebez. 


nearer  to  the  latter,  is  now  called  the  Vale  of  Ramleh.  At  it's 
south-eastern  extremity  was  Lydda  (Lud  in  Hebrew,  now 
Ludd,  called  by  the  Greeks  Diospolis),  on  the  confines  of 
Judea  and  Samaria.  Ramathaim  Zophim  (i.  e.  the  two  B-amahs 
of  the  Zophs),  in  Mount  Ephraim,  only  two  or  three  miles 
west  by  south  of  Lydda,  was  called  Eamleh  by  the  Arabs,  a 
name  corrupted  by  the  Crusaders  into  Kamula.  Earn  a  was  a 
small  town  six  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  on  the  way  to  Bethel, 
and  a  short  distance  west  of  Gribeah,  where  the  Jews  assembled 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuzaradan  (Jer.  xl.  1), 
to  take  their  departure  as  captives  in  a  foreign  land.  Near 
this  place  Rachel  was  buried.  It  is  now  called  er-Ram. 
Ram  ath  aim -Zophim  was  the  place  of  Samuel's  birth,  residence, 
and  burial,  and  where  he  anointed  Saul  as  king.  Rama  or 
Ramathaim,  or  Ramathaim- Zophim  of  the  Old  is  thought  by 
many  to  be  the  Arimathea  of  the  New  Testament,  the  resi- 
dence of  Joseph,  who  begged  the  body  of  Jesus.  Mount 
Ephraim  ran  in  a  north-eastern  direction  from  the  point  of 
Ramula  towards  the  Jordan  near  Neapolis  (Sichem,  now 
Nabulus).  Grezer,  or  Grazer  (Grazam,  Maccab.  II.  x.  32 ; 
Gradaris,  Strabo,  xvi.  p.  159),  (now  Jazur),  in  the  tribe  of 
Ephraim,  on  the  borders  of  Ashdod  (Azotus),  and  a  few  miles 
east  by  south  of  Joppa,  was  a  very  strong  fortress  (Jos.  Ant. 
viii.  2).  Antipatris  (now  El  Borj)  was  built  by  Herod  on  the 
site  of  Caphar  Zaba,  150  stadia  north  of  Joppa  (Josh.  xiii.  23). 
Beth-horon  (Be'ith-Horon),  the  upper  and  lower  built  by 
Sherah,  granddaughter  of  Ephraim  (1  Chron.  vii.  24),  was 
about  nine  geographical  miles  east  of  Lydda,  and  100  stadia  (12^ 
miles)  north-west  of  Jerusalem  (Josh.  xx.  4).  It  was  near  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  13),  a 
mile  or  two  north-west  of  the  present  Beit  el  Mahasin.  Beth- 
thar (Briddrjp),  where  the  Ealse  Messiah,  Ben  Cozba,  was  slain 
in  the  18th  year  of  Hadrian  (a.d.  135),  has  been  confounded 
with  Beth-H  oron ;  but  its  ruins  are  probably  those  four  or 
five  miles  east  of  the  Moyet  el  timsah,  just  below  Arsuf.  Five 
or  six  miles  north-west  of  Antipatris  (El  Borj)  was  Gralgulis, 
opposite  to  the  modern  Kakun.  Michmetheh,  on  the  south 
border  of  Manasseh  and  the  northern  boundary  of  Ephraim, 
was  in  sight  of  Shechem,  probably  a  few  miles  to  the  west, 
near  the  modern  Ajeneid.  Dothan  and  Thebez  (Qrj^g),  where 
Abimelech  was  killed  (Judg.  ix.  50),  lay  probably  10  or  12 
miles  north-east  of  Shechem.  Dothan,  it  may  be  further 
observed,  was  situated  near  Jezreel,  about  12  miles  north  of 
Samaria,  at  a  narrow  pass  in  the  mountains  of  Grilboa.  It  is 
memorable  as  the  place  where  Joseph's  brethren  sold  him,  and 
where  the  Syrian  troops  attempted  to  seize  Elisha  (2  Kings, 
vi.  13—23). 


SAMARIA.  29 

Between  the  western  territory  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  and  Mount 
the  southern  boundary  of  Issachar,  was  Mount  Grilboa  (Grelbue,  jibo*' 
Jos.  Ant.  vi.  15),  now  Jilbo',  running  from  north-east  to  south- 
west, and  joining    Carmel   at   its  western  extremity.     Their 
highest  ridges  near  Zara'ein  (Jezreel)  appear  to  be  separated 
only  by  a  depression  from  Mount  Hermon.     Archi,  celebrated 
as  the  birth-place  of  Hushai,  the  friend  of  David,  lay  on  the 
southern  border  of  Ephraim,  betwreen  Bethel  and  Beth-horon 
the  nether.     Luz,  afterwards  called  Beth-el,  from  Jacob's  mira-  luz. 
culous  dream  (Gen.  xxviii.  19),  was  on  the  southern  side  of Bethel- 
Ephraim,  near  the  boundary  which  separated  it  from  Benjamin 
(Josh,  xviii.  13).     According  to  Eusebius  and  Jerome  it  was 
12  Boman  miles  north  of  Jerusalem  (10  geographical  miles, 
according  to  Berghaus),  and  about  two  miles  west  of  the  road 
to  Neapolis   (Shechem).     Bethel,   now  in  ruins,  is  known  by 
the  name  of  Beyteen  ;  it  is  situated  east  of  a  line  running  from 
Shechem  to  Jerusalem,  and  at  about  an  equal  distance  from 
each,  according  to  Eusebius.     It  was  the  residence  of  a  Canaan- 
ite  king,  and  the  Ephraimites  to  whom  it  wras  assigned  in  the 
division  of  the  land.     The  tabernacle  was  long  stationed  in  this 
place,  and  Jeroboam  fixed  a  golden  calf  there,  from  which  cir-  . 
cumstance  Amos  called  it  Beth-aven,  "the  house  of  idolatry" 
(1  Kings,  xii.  28 — 33).     "  Coming  to  Bethel/'  was  the  prover- 
bial expression  for  idolatry.     About  a  mile  south  by  east  was 


■CSK 

{Tillage  of  Shiloah.] 


30 


GEOGRAPHY  AKD  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CANAAN. 


Shiloh. 


Lebonah. 


Michmash,  overlooking  the  Vale  of  Ajalon,  and  between  two  or 
three  miles  eastward  was  Beeroth,  now  El  bir  (the  well),  with 
a  bridge  over  the  Kahr  el  Farah  (Fara'  ?)  a  stream  which  rises 
at  the  western  end  of  that  valley  and  runs  into  the  Jordan  to 
the  north-west  of  Bethabara.  Bethaven  appears  to  have  been 
twro  or  three  miles  north-east  of  Beeroth ;  and  five  or  six  south- 
west of  Ai  (Josh.  vii.  2),  called  Angaiinthe  Septuagint.  About 
12  miles  nearly  due  North  of  it  was  Acrabata  ('Akrabath, 
Mishnah,  v.  2),  the  capital  of  the  south-eastern  district  of 
Samaria  (Samaritis,  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.  iii.  4).  This  seems  to  be 
the  Acrabim  of  Eusebius  (in  Onomast).  Within  the  limits  of 
Ephraim  also  was  Shiloh,  where  "  the  Oracle  of  God"  was  de- 
livered for  more  than  three  hundred  years.  It  was  probably 
about  15  geographical  miles  north-east  of  Bethel,  and  about 
2  miles  east  of  Lebonah  (Khan  Leban),  12  miles  south  of 
Neapolis  (Nabulus).  Shiloh,  now  called  Seilun  or  Siloun,  was 
about  10  miles  south  of  Shechem,  and  25  north  of  Jerusalem. 
Here  Joshua  erected  the  tabernacle,  and  divided  the  land  of 
promise  by  lot.  It  was  the  place  where  Samuel  began  to  pro- 
phecy, and  where  Abijah  lived. 


II.  JUD^A, 


Judaea. 


Jebus. 


Rods- 
shereef. 


Judaea,  the  third  division  of  Palestine  west  of  the  Jordan, 
a  name  frequently  used  by  ancient  and  modern  writers  with 
greater  latitude  as  synonymous  with  Palestine,  which  was  itself 
often  put  for  the  whole  of  Syria,  comprehended  the  small  tribes 
of  Dan  and  Benjamin,  and  the  large  ones  of  Judah  and  Simeon, 
together  with  the  coast  occupied  by  the  Philistines  and  the 
barren  mountains  of  Edom  (Idumaea),  which  had  been  at  length 
conquered  by  David.  Its  capital  was  Jerusalem  (Ierushalaim, 
Hierosolyma).  It  wTas  called  Salem,  and  was  the  abode  of  Mel- 
chizedek  in  the  time  of  Abraham  (Jer.  xiv.  18),  but  was  after- 
wards named  Jebus,  the  people  of  which  were  the  Jebusites, 
one  of  the  seven  nations  of  Canaan.  "Whence  the  term  Jeru 
was  derived  is  uncertain.  Some  suppose  it  was  from  Jewish 
possession  ;  others  from  Jarah  foundation.  If  from  the  former 
the  whole  word  signifies  "the  possession  of  peace,"  that  is,  a 
peaceful  possession;  if  the  latter,  "the  dwelling  of  peace." 
"  Many  writers,"  says  Lynch,  "have  undertaken  to  describe 
the  first  sight  of  Jerusalem ;  but  all  that  I  have  read  conveys 
but  a  faint  idea  of  the  reality.  There  is  a  gloomy  grandeur  in 
the  scene  which  language  cannot  paint."  Its  citadel,  first  taken 
by  David,  received  the  name  of  Jerusalem  at  an  earlier  period 
(Josh.  x.  1).     It  was  on  the  confines  of  Benjamin  and  Judah, 


JTTD^A. 


31 


and  therefore  assigned  to  each  of  those  tribes.     After  its  final 
destruction  by  Titus,  a  new  city,  called  JElia  Capitolina,  was  m\\& 
raised  by  Hadrian  on  part  of  its  site  :  that  town,  which  after-  Capitolina. 
wards  recovered  its  ancient  name,  is  called  by  the  Arabs  El 
Kods,  or  Beit  el  Makdes  (the  House  of  the  Sanctuary).     Its 


"WW 

[Jerusalem.] 

position,  in  31°  47'  47"  K  and  35°  11'  39"  E.  was  determined 
by  the  indefatigable  but  unfortunate  traveller,  Dr.  Seetzen. 
The  boundaries  of  the  ancient  city,  which,  it  seems,  can  still  be 
traced,1  may  be  considered  as  settling  many  disputed  points 
respecting  the  distribution  of  its  different  parts,  and  the  position 
of  Mount  Sion  with  respect  to  Acra  and  the  Temple. 

The  earliest  reference  to  the  site  is  probably  under  the  ap-  The  site  of 
pellation  of  "the  Land  of  Moriah,"  whither  Abraham  was  Jerusalem- 
commanded  to  go  to  present  Isaac  as  a  burnt-offering,  when  it 
is  believed  the  patriarch  trod  the  very  ground  of  the  future  city. 
It  is  in  the  midst  of  the  central  chain  of  mountains  which  runs 
north  and  south  through  Palestine,  on  the  boundary  line  between 
the  tribes  of  Benjamin  and  Judah,  33  miles  from  the  sea,  and 
24  from  the  Jordan,  and  about  the  same  distance  north  of 
Hebron.  It  occupies  an  irregular  promontory  amidst  a  con- 
fused mass  of  rocks  and  hills.      The  promontory   begins   at 


Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke,  Travels  in  Greece,  Egypt,  &c.  iv.  342. 


32 


GEOGKAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OE  CAtfAAlS". 


Tyropoeon. 
Bezetha  or 
Coenopolis. 


upwards  of  a  mile  from  the  city  to  the  north-west,  at  the  head 
of  the  valleys  of  Jehosophat  and  Grihon. 

On  the  entrance  of  the  tribes  to  Canaan,  it  is  introduced  to 
us  at  once  as  a  royal  city  (Josh,  x.),  at  which  time  its  known 
history  commences,  when  it  was  in  possession  of  the  Jebusites. 
In  the  first  united  opposition  of  the  Canaanites  against  Israel, 
the  leader  was  Adonizedek,  its  king.  Joshua  does  not  appear 
ever  to  have  assailed  it,  and  the  capture  of  it  by  the  tribe  of 
Judah  (Judg.  i.  8),  was  either  partial  or  temporary.  The 
stronghold,  known  afterwards  as  Zion,  continued  in  the  hands 
of  its  former  possessors.  The  Jebusites  still  dwelt  among  the 
children  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  and  Jebus,  situated  on  their 
boundary  line,  was  still  referred  to  as  a  "  city  of  the  stranger, 
that  is  not  of  the  children  of  Israel"  (Judg.  xix.  12),  and  seems 
to  have  remained  for  four  hundred  years  under  the  same  rule 
to  the  time  of  the  kings.  This  is  not  the  proper  place  to  recite 
its  history,  but  we  may  just  add  in  the  words  of  the  author 
of  the  Biblical  Cyclopaedia :  "  Seventeen  times  has  Jerusalem 
been  taken  and  pillaged  ;  millions  of  men  have  been  slaughtered 
within  its  walls.  No  other  city  has  experienced  such  a  fate. 
This  protracted  and  almost  supernatural  punishment  betokens 
unexampled  guilt." 

In  its  most  flourishing  state  it  appears  to  have  had  the  form 
of  an  irregular  oblong,  occupying  the  summits  of  four  hills. 
Sion  on  the  south,  Moriah  on  the  east,  Acra  in  the  centre,  and 
Bezetha  on  the  north-west  side  ;  Acra  being  considerably  lower 
than  Sion,  though  naturally  higher  than  Moriah,  was  lowered 
and  levelled  by  Simon  the  Asamonean  Prince,  in  order  to  make 
the  temple  more  conspicuous.  He  also  filled  up  the  hollow 
called  Cheesemaker's  Valley  (Tyropoeon  Vallis  ;  //  twv  Tvponoi&v 
qapayl.  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.  v.  4),  which  separated  Mount  Sion 
from  Acra,  so  that  it  is  now  scarcely  perceptible.  Beyond  Acra 
was  Bezetha  or  Csenopolis  (t.  e.  the  New  City),  opposite  to  the 
Ajitonian  Tower  at  the  north-west  corner  of  the  court  of  the 
Temple,  but  separated  from  it  by  a  deep  artificial  foss.  Mount 
Sion  alone  was  inhabited  at  first ;  Acra  was  afterwards  added, 
under  the  Asmonean  kings.  Bezetha,  the  walls  of  which 
were  begun  by  Herod  Agrippa  in  the  time  of  Claudius  (a.  d. 
42-55),  but  finished  after  his  death  by  the  Jews,  to  the  height 
of  20  cubits  (50  feet).  "  The  whole  city  was  bounded  by  deep 
and  precipitous  ravines,"  says  Josephus  (Bel.  Jud.  v.  iv.  I), 
"  where  it  was  not  protected  by  strong  walls.  It  was  built  on 
two  hills  (Sion  and  Acra)  facing  each  other  and  separated  by  a 
valley,  towards  which  the  houses  descended  on  each  side.  The 
hill  which  bore  the  upper  city  was  much  higher  and  straighter 


JUD^A.  33 

lengthways  than  the  other  ;  and,  on  account  of  its  strength,  was 
called  a  fortress  by  David,  father  of  Solomon,  first  builder  of 
the  Temple,  and  is  called  the  Upper  Market  or  Forum  (fj  avoj 
ayopa)  by  us."     "  The  other  hill,  on  which  the  lower  city  stood, 
was  in  the  shape  of  the  waning  moon  (a/z$no;prof),  and  was 
Called  Acra  (summit).     Opposite  to  it  there  was  a  third  hill 
(Aocpog),  naturally  lower,  and  formerly  separated  from  the  other 
by  a  deep  ravine  ($apay{)  ;  but  it  was  filled  up  by  the  Asmo- 
nean  kings,  who  wished  to  connect  the  temple  with  the  city, 
and  also  lowered  the  summit  of  Acra  that  the  Temple  might 
overlook  it.     The  northern  wall  of  the  oldest  city  (Sion)  passed 
eastwards  from  the  Hippie  Tower,  by  the  paved  gallery  or 
portico  (Evgtoq)  and  the  senate-house  (BoiA?)),  to  the  western 
gate  of  the  Temple ;  from,  the  same  point  westwards  it  passed 
by  Bethso  to  the  gate  of  the  Essenes,  where  it  turned  south- 
wards above  the  Spring  of  Siloam,  and  thence  bending  towards  Siioam. 
the  east  as  far  as  the  Pool  of  Solomon,  and  passing  by  a  place 
called  Ophlas,  terminated  at  the  eastern  gate  of  the  Temple." 
This  account  places   Mount   Sion  to  the  south-west   of  the 
Temple,  and  Bezetha  to  the  west  and  north-west  of  it ;  but  the 
precise  position  of  the  reservoirs  mentioned  in  Scripture,  which 
were  both  within  and  without  the  city,  is  not  so  easily  deter- 
mined.    The  position  of  Golgotha  is  also  doubtful,  though  the  Goigottu 
arguments  against  its  identity  with  the  site  of  the  church  over 
the  Holy  Sepulchre,  so  urgently  put  by  a  late  learned  and  esti- 
mable traveller,  are  by  no  means  convincing,  when  carefully 
weighed  and  compared  with  the  clear  statements  of  Josephus. 
Without  relying  too  much  on  local  tradition,  as  only  sixty  years 
intervened  between  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  and 
its  re-establishment  under  the  name  of  JElia  by  Hadrian,  it  is 
not  probable  that  it  should  have  been  in  the  interval  so  entirely 
deserted,  especially  by  Christians,  as  to  cause  the  position  of 
Calvary,  the  Temple  and  Mount  Sion,  spots  so  memorable,  to 
be  entirely  lost  sight  of.     A  careful  examination  of  the  traces 
of  the  ancient  walls  would,  it  may  be  hoped,  go  far  towards 
removing  the  doubts  which  have  thus  arisen  as  to  the  places 
where  the  great  events  recorded  in  Scripture  occurred. 

"  One  of  the  most  important  subjects  of  local  investigation,  calvary, 
and  one  of  superior  interest,"  says  Mr.  Mansford,  "  is  the 
situation  of  Calvary  and  the  tomb  of  our  Saviour.  Here  Dr. 
Clarke  stood  long  alone  in  rejecting  entirely  what  he  calls  the 
i  trumpery'  of  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  Trumpery, 
indeed,  much  of  it  doubtless  is  ;  and  the  places,  which  of  all 
others  we  should  wish  to  have  preserved  in  their  original 
character  and  purity,  are  defiled  by  the  admixture  of  idle 
traditions,  and  disfigured  by  the  preposterous  dress  of  meddling 


34 


GEOGBAPHY  ADD  TOPOGRAPHY  OP  CAKAAH\ 


Holy  Sepulchre.] 


"puichre  •    ignorance>  an(l  °f  a  wretched  taste.     But  we  must  pause  before 
we  throw  away  the  satisfaction  arising  from  a  knowledge  of 

these  places,  on  the  authority  of  any 
individual,  however  exalted  for  talent 
or  learning."      "  I  am  convinced/' 
says  the  Countess  Hahn-Hahn,  "not* 
withstanding  Bobinson's  objections, 
that  what  is  called  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre  really  is   so.      I  have  several 
times  visited  the  church,  and  have 
now  gone  round  the  city  walls,  and 
I  am  more  and  more  confirmed  in 
my  opinion.    Those  who  dispute  the 
genuineness  of  the  sites  of  Golgotha 
and  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  bring  forward  arguments  to  prove  that 
the  ancient  walls  enclosed  the  spot  on  which  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
stands,  and  if  that  were  so,  the  real  Golgotha  and  the  real  tomb 
must  be  looked  for  somewhere  else.     Robinson,  who  is  the  most 
diligent  explorer,  has,  however,  not  the  smallest  notion  where 
they  are  to  be  sought  for.     Those  who  maintain  their  genuine- 
ness have  of  course  arguments  in  support  of  their  opinion  ;  for 
instance,  that  the  whole  corner  of  the  city,  to  the  left  of  the 
entrance  of  the  Jaffa  gate,  where  there  is  now  a  piece  of  waste 
ground  with  an  empty  reservoir,  and  further  on,  the  Latin, 
Coptic,  and  Greek  convents,  and  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre, might  very  well  have  been  beyond  the  walls  in  the  time 
of  Christ,  without  in  the  smallest  degree  militating  against  an 
historical  fact.     But  after  all,  it  is  a  fruitless  labour,  and  the 
whole  dispute  about  these  subjects,  which  cannot  be  decided,  is 
its  size  and  unsatisfying  and  unedifying."     "  The  edifice  known  as  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,"  writes  Dr.  Eadie,  "is  distinguished  for  its  size  and 
massiveness.     It  forms  altogether  a  block  of  one  hundred  and 
sixty  feet  long,  and  one  hundred  wide  ;  and  includes  what  are 
called  the  chapel  of  the  crucifixion,  the  church  of  the  sepulchre, 
seven  small  chapels,  a  monastery,  and  cloisters.    The  traditions 
with  which  the  various  apartments  are  associated  are  scarcely 
worthy  to  be  preserved,  and  yet  the  votaries  of  superstition 
have   contrived  to  group  and  connect  them  in  such  a  manner 
as   to    excite    strong  emotions   in   the   mind  of  the  visitor." 
Nevertheless,  according  to  Mr.  Mansford,  "  to  the  church  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre,  with  all  its  profanations  and  absurdities,  we 
are  still  directed  in  our  search  for  the  true  site  of  the  cross  and 
the  tomb  ;  and  if  our  expectations  fail  of  being  realised — if  we 
find  the  monuments  of  the  great  mystery  of  our  religion  dis- 
guised under  those  of  ignorance  and  false  taste — we  must  not, 
while  we  lament  these  effects  of  folly  and  superstition,  suffer 


massive- 
ness. 


JtTD^A.  35 

Our  minds  to  be  closed  to  the  conviction  which  the  testimony 
of  history  irresistibly  enforces  upon  us.  For  although  every 
other  memorable  place  belonging  to  Jerusalem  and  its  history 
had  been  overthrown  and  annihilated,  this  sacred  spot,  un- 
blemished by  the  devastations  of  time,  would  be  too  dear  in  the 
remembrance  of  the  affectionate  Christian — too  often  visited — 
to  be  left  to  sink  in  oblivion."1  In  a  spirit  akin  to  that  of  the  Lynch's 
pious  writer  just  quoted,  writes  one  of  the  American  exploring  account, 
party  under  Lieut.  Lynch :  "  In  one  of  the  streets  we  came  to 
a  low  gate,  passing  through  which,  and  descending  a  long  flight 
of  stairs,  we  entered  upon  an  open  court  in  front  of  the  church 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  an  ancient  and  venerable  building. 
Scattered  about  the  court  were  motley  groups  of  Jew  pedlars, 
Turks,  beggars,  and  Christian  pilgrims.  Just  within  the  door, 
seated  on  a  raised  divan,  two  sedate  old  Muslims  were  regaling 
themselves  with  miniature  cups  of  coffee  and  the  everlasting 
chiboque.  Immediately  in  front  of  the  entrance  is  the  stone  of 
unction,  upon  which,  according  to  tradition,  the  body  of  our 
Lord  was  anointed.  It  is  a  plain  slab  of  Jerusalem  marble, 
slightly  elevated  above  the  floor  of  the  church,  and  enclosed  by 
a  low  railing.  The  pilgrims,  in  their  pious  fervour,  crowding 
forward  to  kiss  it,  prevented  our  near  approach.  Turning  to 
the  left,  we  saw  in  the  centre  of  the  main  body  of  the  church  a 
small  oblong  building,  which  contains  the  sepulchre.  There 
were  different  processions  crossing  and  recrossing  each  other 
with  slow  and  measured  pace,  each  pilgrim  with  a  taper  in  his 
hand;  and  the  numerous  choirs,  in  various  languages,  were 
chanting  aloud  the  services  of  the  day.  The  lights,  the  noise, 
and  the  moving  crowd,  had  an  effect  for  which  the  mind  was 
not  prepared ;  and  with  far  less  awe  than  the  sanctity  of  the 
place  is  calculated  to  inspire,  we  entered  the  sepulchre.  In  the 
middle  of  the  first  apartment  (for  it  is  divided  into  two),  is  a 
stone,  upon  which  the  angel  was  seated  when  he  informed  the 
two  Marys  of  the  resurrection.  This  room  is  about  eight  feet 
square,  and  beautifully  ornamented.  From  this  we  crept 
through  a  narrow  aperture  into  the  inner  apartment,  against 
the  north  side  of  which  is  the  sepulchre  in  the  form  of  a  low 
altar.  It  is  about  the  same  size  as  the  first,  and  between  the 
sepulchre  and  the  southern  wall  there  is  barely  space  to  kneel. 
It  was  brilliantly  lighted  by  rich  and  costly  lamps.  From  the 
sepulchre  we  were  led  to  see  the  pillar  of  flagellation,  visible 
through  a  hole  in  the  wall,  but  we  did  not  credit  the  pious  im- 
position. Thence,  we  ascended  to  the  altar  of  Calvary,  with  Altar  of 
three  holes  beneath,  where  were  planted  the  crosses  upon  which 
the  Saviour  and  the  two  thieves  were  crucified.  The  holes  are 
1  Scripture  Gazetteer,  by  J.  GL  Mansford,  pp.  237,  238. 


36 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CA1STAA3ST. 


Classifica- 
tion of 
visitors  to 
Jerusalem. 


clerical 
eptic. 


cut  through  beautifully  polished  marble,  placed  over  the  natural 
surface  of  the  rock  which  had  been  cut  away  for  its  reception. 
Near  by  is  a  fissure  in  the  limestone  rock, — caused,  it  is  alleged, 
by  the  earthquake  which  closed  the  sad  drama  of  the  crucifixion. 
This  rent  is  certainly  not  an  artificial  one.  Before  leaving  the 
church  we  visited  the  tomb  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  and  the 
place  where  the  true  cross,  it  is  said,  was  found  by  the  Empress 
Helena."  "Visitors  to  Jerusalem,"  says  Lieutenant  Lynch, 
consist,  usually,  of  three  classes  :  the  ignorant  and  credulous, 
who  are  prepared  to  believe  everything ;  the  conceited  and  in- 
tolerant, who  are  equally  determined  to  believe  nothing ;  and 
the  weak  and  indolent,  who  side  with  the  last  because  it  is  easier 
to  doubt  than  to  investigate."  Notwithstanding  that  much 
occurs  in  these  places  calculated  to  shake  the  faith  of  the  unstable 
who  cannot  distinguish  between  what  men  do  and  what  they 
are  enjoined  to  do, — between  what  is  mere  fiction,  and  what  may 
be  corroborated  by  reasonably  conclusive  evidence, — yet  "  there 
a  place,"  adds  the  above-quoted  writer,   "  wThich,  above  all 


is 


others,  should  be  approached  with  humility, — the  Church  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre ;  for  even  the  greatest  cavillers  admit  that,  if 
it  do  not  cover  all  the  sacred  localities  assigned  to  it,  some,  at 
least,  may  lie  beneath  its  roof,  and  none  can  be  very  far  distant 
from  it.  It  is  known  that,  early  in  the  second  century,  the 
pagan  conquerors  of  Jerusalem  erected  a  statue  to  Jupiter,  on 
the  site  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  one  to  Venus,  on  Mount 
Calvary  :  thus  the  very  means  taken  to  obliterate  the  recollec- 
tion of  those  localities  served,  as  has  been  often  remarked,  to 
perpetuate  them.  The  Christians  were  never  absent  from  the 
city,  except  at  its  destruction  by  Titus,  when  they  took  refuge, 
for  a  short  time,  in  Pella.  In  less  than  two  centuries  after  the 
destruction  of  the  Temple,  the  holy  places  were  restored  to  them, 
so  that  they  could  not  have  forgotten  them.  Can  the  Jews 
forget  the  site  of  the  Temple  ?  No  one  should  venture  those 
sacred  precincts  without  learning  thus  much  ;  and  he  who,  with 
this  knowledge,  enters  them  with  a  cavilling  spirit,  is  a  heartless 
scoffer.  Some  of  our  officers  visited  this  church  in  company 
with  a  clergyman.  While  their  minds  were  occupied  with  the 
thoughts  which  such  a  place  is  calculated  to  inspire  in  all  but 
a  perverted  heart,  the  latter  annoyed  them  by  the  frequent 
remark,  'Well,  I  hope  you  will  not  be  offended,  but  I  am  some- 
what sceptical  on  this  point.'  At  length  one  of  the  officers  said 
to  him,  '  Please  reserve  your  doubts  for  discussion  elsewhere  : 
we  do  not  believe  all  that  is  told  us,  but  know  that  not  far  from 
this,  if  not  here,  the  Saviour  died.'  " 

The  dearth  of  water  in  Jerusalem  is  great :  Siloam  (2iXwa/z), 
at  the  south-east  angle  of  the  ancient  city,  near  the  valley  of 


JTJD^A. 


37 


the  Tyropoeon,  was  the  only  perennial  spring  possessed  by  the 
inhabitants.     There  is  now  also  a  reservoir  or  pool  near  the  q^J^ 
south-west  angle  of  the  ancient  city,  which  may  be  the  Pool  of 
Gihon  (1  Kings,  i.  33),  where  Solomon  was  anointed.     Kidron, 


[The  Brook  Kidron.J 

the  only  stream  near  the  city,   commonly  called  the  Brook  Brook 
Kidron  (2  Chron.  xxix.  16),  or  Cedron  (Kefyiov,  John,  xviii.  1),  Kidron- 
is  a  deep  and  rugged  ravine,  through  which  a  torrent  descends 
to  the  Dead  Sea  after  continued  rains.     It  marks  the  eastern 
side  of  the  city,  which  is  separated  by  it  from  the  Mount  of 
Olives  (Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.  v.  8).     Between  it  and  Acra,  to  the 
north-east  of  Mount  Sion,  was  Ophel  ('O0\dc,  Joseph.  Bel  Jud. 
v.  13),  in  or  near  which  was  the  Xystus,  or  paved  portico, 
which  connected  Mount  Sion  with  Moria  (to  Moptov  opog,  Jos. 
Antiq.  i.  14).     On  the  southern  and  south-eastern  side  of  the 
city  was  the  valley  of  Ben  Hinnom  (Josh.  xv.  8),  through  which 
runs  another  torrent,  now  called  the  Brook  Grihon,  perhaps  the 
water  mentioned  in  the  1st  Book  of  Kings  (i.  45).     A  reser- 
voir adjoining  the  north-eastern  angle  of  the  area  in  which  the 
Temple  stood  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  Pool  of  Bethesda  pool  of 
(Beith  Hesda,  i.  e.  the  House  of  Mercy,  John,  v.  2),  and  is  the  Bethesda. 
Struthium  or  Sparrow's  Pool  of  Josephus  (Bel.  Jud.  vi.  12). 

"Modern  Jerusalem,  as  to  general  form,  may  be  called  a 
square,  or  rather  a  rhomboid:  the  north-east  and  south-west 


38       GEOGRAPHY  AST)  TOPOGRAPHY  OP  CAKAAtf. 

fhe  cityf  angles  are  acute,  and  the  north-west  and  south-east  are  obtuse. 
The  east  wall  is  nearly  straight  the  whole  length.  On  the  north 
and  south  sides  the  wall  makes  a  bend  outwardly,  and  on  the 
west  side  it  makes  an  inward  bend,  so  that  it  would  not  be  very 
inaccurate  to  call  the  city  a  heptagon.  There  are  likewise  many 
little  irregularities  in  the  wall. 

Gates.  "  Near  the  bend  on  the  west  side  is  Jaffa  gate,  called  also 

the  gate  of  Bethlehem,  and  the  Pilgrim's  gate,  and  Bab  el 
Khaleel  (the  gate  of  the  beloved,  i.  e.  Abraham).  On  the  south 
side  is  the  gate  of  Sion,  called  also  the  gate  of  David.  On  the 
east  side,  near  the  Pool  of  Bethesda,  is  the  gate  of  Stephen, 
called  likewise  the  sheep-gate,  and  the  gate  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 
On  the  north  side  is  Damascus  gate.  These  four  are  the  prin- 
cipal gates  of  the  city,  and  are  always  open  from  morning  till 
sunset.  There  are  two  other  small  gates,  which  are  opened  only 
occasionally.  One  is  on  the  south  side,  a  little  west  of  Mount 
Moriah.  Maundrell  calls  it  the  Dung  gate.  The  other,  which 
Maundrell  calls  Herod's  gate,  is  on  the  west  side,  and  goes  out 
from  Bezetha.  On  the  east  side  of  Moriah  is  a  seventh  gate, 
or  rather  a  place  where  there  was  one  when  the  Christians 
possessed  the  city,  for  it  is  now  completely  walled  up.  Maun- 
drell calls  this  the  Golden  gate. 

"The  measure  of  the  city  by  paces  gives  the  following  result : — 

Paces. 

From  the  north- west  corner  to  Jaffa  gate     .     .     .     300 )  fr£?0        ,    .  -, 

i.i_b      i  a co  :  768  west  side, 

to  south-west  corner  .     468  ) 

to  Zion  gate     .     .     .  195"" 

to    the   bend  in  the 

south  wall     .     .     .  295  \> 1149  south  side. 

to  the  Dung  gate  .     .  244  | 

to  south-east  corner  .  415  J 

to  the  Golden  gate     .  353  S 

to  St.  Stephen's  gate .  230  >  943  east  side. 

to  north-east  corner  .  360  ) 

to  the  bend  ....  660  ^ 

to  Damascus  gate .     .  150  >  1410  north  side. 

to  north-west  corner .  600  j 

Measure  of  "  The  total  is  4270  paces ;  and  allowing  five  paces  to  a  rod, 
the  city.  .fcj^g  gjves  eight  hundred  and  fifty-six  rods,  or  about  two  miles 
and  a  half,  for  the  circumference  of  the  city.  Maundrell  mea- 
sured the  city,  and  judged  it  to  be  two  miles  and  a  half  in  cir- 
cumference. According  to  Josephus  it  was  thirty-three  fur- 
longs, or  four  miles  and  one-eighth,  in  circumference  before 
Titus  destroyed  it.  Mount  Zion  was  then  included ;  and  the 
city  seems,  from  his  description,  to  have  extended  further 
north  than  it  does  now.  The  wall  of  the  city  is  high,  but  not 
thick.  From  counting  the  rows  of  stones,  the  height  in  diffe- 
rent places  is  supposed  to  be  forty,  fifty,  and  perhaps  sixty  feet. 


JUDAEA.'  39 

Eor  a  little  distance  near  the  north-east  corner  there  is  a  trench 
without  the  wall,  but  now  nearly  filled  up."1 

Two  or  three  scenes  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Jerusalem  Scenes  in 
demand  especial  notice.     "AH  the  time  not  appropriated  to  ofjeraTa-y 
duty,"  says  Lieut.  Lynch,  "  was  spent  in  visiting  over  and  over  lem. 
again  the  interesting  localities  in  and  around  Jerusalem.  Above 
all  others,  the  spot  least  doubted,  and  very  far  from  the  least 
hallowed,  was  the  garden  of  Gethsemane.     It  is  enclosed  by  a 
high  stone  wall,  and  when  we  saw  it  the  trees  were  in  blossom, 
the  clover  upon  the  ground  in  bloom ;  and  altogether,  in  its 
aspect  and  its  associations,  was  better  calculated  than  any  place 
I  know  to  soothe  a  troubled  spirit. 

"  Eight  venerable  trees,  isolated  from  the  smaller  and  less  Gethse- 
imposing  ones  which  skirt  the  base  of  the  Mount  of  Olives,  mane- 
form  a  consecrated  grove. 
High  above,  on  either 
hand,  towers  a  lofty  moun- 
tain, with  the  deep  yawn- 
ing chasm  of  Jehoshaphat 
between  them.  Crowning 
one  of  them  is  Jerusalem, 
a  living  city ;  on  the  slope 
of  the  other  is  the  great 
Jewish  cemetery,  a  city 
of  the  dead.  Each  tree 
in   this    grove,   cankered  [Gethsemane.] 

and  gnarled  and  furrowed  by  age,  yet  beautiful  and  impressive 
in  its  decay,  is  a  living  monument  of  the  affecting  scenes  that 
have  taken  place  beneath  and  around  it.  The  olive  perpetuates 
itself,  and  from  the  root  of  the  dying  parent  stem  the  young 
tree  springs  into  existence.  These  trees  are  accounted  a 
thousand  years  old.  Under  those  of  the  preceding  growth,  its  identity, 
therefore,  the  Saviour  was  wont  to  rest ;  and  one  of  the  present 
may  mark  the  very  spot  where  he  knelt  and  prayed,  and  wept. 
JNo  cavilling  doubts  can  find  entrance  here.  The  geographical 
boundaries  are  too  distinct  and  clear  for  an  instant's  hesitation. 
Here  the  Christian,  forgetful  of  the  present,  and  absorbed  in 
the  past,  can  resign  himself  to  sad  yet  soothing  meditation. 
The  few  purple  and  crimson  flowers,  growing  about  the  roots  of 
the  trees,  will  give  him  ample  food  for  meditation,  for  they  tell 
of  the  suffering  life  and  ensanguined  death  of  the  Redeemer." 

"  That  the  olive-trees  now  growing  in  G-ethsemane,"  says 
Mr.  Eisk,2  "  have  sprung  from  the  roots  of  those  existing  in  our 
Lord's  time,  is,  I  think,  very  probable.  Their  size,  apparent 
age,  and  general  character,  indicate  it.     It  is  likely  that  the 

1  Bib.  Cyclop,  and  Kifcto.  2  A  Pastor's  Memorial,  p.  268. 


40 


GEOGBAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CANAAN. 


The  olive 
trees  in 
Gethse- 
mane. 


Tomb  of 

Absolom, 

&c. 


Valley  of 
Jehosha- 
phat. 


original  trees  were  standing  when,  in  preparation  for  his  siege, 
Titus  cut  down  all  the  timber  around  the  city  ;  but  there  is  no 
reason  for  supposing  that  he  would  be  at  the  labour  and  cost 
of  removing  the  roots  of  trees  felled  for  such  a  purpose.  It  is 
well  known  that  the  bole  of  the  olive  tree,  when  its  trunk  has 
been  felled,  will  in  due  time  send  forth  shoots  or  suckers  in 
great  numbers,  which  grow  up  intertwined,  so  as  to  form  one 
compacted  stem.  Upon  a  careful  examination  of  some  of  these 
venerable  trees,  such  is  their  appearance.  They  bear  upon 
them  the  proof  of  having  grown  in  the  manner  I  have  described. 
Their  roots,  which  are  very  large  and  wide-spreading,  are,  in 
many  parts,  far  above  the  surface  of  the  soil.  They  are  pro- 
tected by  earth  and  stones,  heaped  up  against  them.  At  the 
south-east  corner  is  a  small  space  fenced  off,  which  tradition  has 
marked  as  the  scene  of  Judas' s  act  of  treachery.  It  is  called 
'  terra  damnata.'  Near  that  spot  is  a  ledge  of  rock  on  which 
it  is  said  the  disciples  reclined  when  '  their  eyes  were  heavy.' 
But  I  needed  not  this  attempt  at  identification,  while  I  knew 
that  somewhere  within  the  compass  of  that  small  plot  of  ground, 
the  Saviour  awaited  the  consummation  of  treachery,  and  uttered 
the  mild  remonstrance — Judas,  betray  est  thou  the  son  of  man 
with  a  kiss?" 

Lieut.  Lynch  thus  continues  his  descriptions:  "  On  the 
same  step,  and  a  little  below  Gethsemane,  facing  the  city,  are  the 
reputed  tombs  of  Absolom,  Zechariah,  St.  James,  and  Jehosha- 
phat,  the  last  giving  its  name  to  the  valley.     Some  of  them  are 

hewn  bodily  from  the  rock,  and  the 
whole  form  a  remarkable  group.  That 
of  Absolom  in  particular,  from  its  pecu- 
liar tint,  as  well  as  from  its  style  of 
architecture,  reminded  us  of  the  de- 
scriptions of  the  sepulchral  monuments 
of  Petra.  It  is  eight  feet  square,  sur- 
mounted by  a  rounded  pyramid,  and 
there  are  six  semi-columns  to  each 
face,  which  are  of  the  same  mass  with 
the  body  of  the  sepulchre.  The  tomb 
of  Zechariah  is  also  hewn  square  from 
the  rock,  and  its  four  sides  form  a 
pyramid.  The  tomb  of  Jehoshaphat 
has  a  handsomely  carved  door ;  and  a 
portico  with  four  columns  indicates  the  sepulchre  where  St. 
James,  the  apostle,  concealed  himself. 

"  It  was  in  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat  that  Melchizedeck,  king 
of  Salem,  met  Abraham  on  his  return  from  defeating  the  five 
kings  in  the  vale  of  Siddim.   In  the  depths  of  this  ravine  Moloch 


[Absolom's  Tomb.  J 


JUD^A. 


41 


was  worshipped,  beneath  the  temple  of  the  Most  High,  which 
crowned   the  summit   of  Mount  Moriah.     In  the  village  of 


[Tombs  of  the  Kings  in  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat.] 

Siloam,  the  scene  of  Solomon's  apostacy,  the  living  have  ejected 
the  dead,  and  there  are  as  many  dwelling  in  tombs  as  in  houses. 
Beneath  it,  at  the  base  of  the  Mount  of  Offence,  is  the  great  The  burial- 
burial-ground,  the  desired  final  resting-place  of  Jews  all  over  f^eTewsf 
the  world.     The  flat  stones,  rudely  sculptured  with  Hebrew 
characters,  lie,  as  the  tenants  beneath  were  laid,  with  their  faces 
towards  heaven.     In  the  village  above  it,  and  in  the  city  over 
against  it,  the  silence  is  almost  as  death-like  as  in  the  grave- 
yard itself.     Here  the  voice  of  hilarity,  or  the  hum  of  social  in- 
tercourse, is  never  heard,  and  when  man  meets  his  fellow  there 
is  no  social  greeting.     The  air  here  never  vibrates  with  the 
melodious  voice  of  woman,  the  nearest  approach  to  a  celestial 
sound  ;  but  shrouded  from  head  to  foot,  she  flits  about,  abashed 
and  shrinking  like  some  guilty  thing.     This  profound  silence  is 
in  keeping  with  the  scene.     Along  the  slope  of  the  hill,  above 
the  village,  the  Master,  on  his  way  to  Bethany,  was  wont  to 
teach  his  followers  the  sublime  truths  of  the  gospel.     On  its 
acclivity,  a  little  more  to  the  north,  he  wept  for  the  fate  of 
Jerusalem.     In  the  garden  below  he  was  betrayed,  and  within 
those  city  walls  he  was  crucified.     Everything  is  calculated  to  Awe- 
inspire  with  awe,  and  it  is  fitting  that,  except  in  prayer,  the  '"R*1!11* 
human  voice  should  not  disturb  these  sepulchral  solitudes. 
"From  the  slope  of  the  Mount  of  Olives. projects  a  rock, 


42 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CANAAN. 


pointed  out  by  tradition  as  the  one  whereon  the  Saviour  sat, 
when  he  predicted  and  wept  over  the  fate  of  Jerusalem.  It  is 
farther  alleged  that  upon  this  spot  Titus  pitched  his  camp  when 
besieging  the  city.  Neither  the  prediction  nor  its  accomplish- 
ment required  such  a  coincidence  to  make  it  impressive.  The 
main  camp  of  the  besiegers  was  north  of  the  city,  but  as  the 
sixth  legion  was  posted  on  the  Mount  of  Olives  the  tradition 
may  not  be  wholly  erroneous, 

"  A  little  higher  were  some  grotto-like  excavations,  hypothe- 
tically  called  the  Tombs  of  the  Prophets ;  and  above  them  were 
some  arches,  under  which,  it  is  said,  the  apostles  composed  the 
creed.  Tet  above,  the  spot  is  pointed  out  where  the  Messiah 
taught  his  disciples  the  Lord's  prayer. 


# 


# 


"  Prom  the  summit,  the  view  was  magnificent.  On  the  one 
hand  lay  Jerusalem,  with  its  yellow  walls,  its  towers,  its 
churches,  its  dome-roof  houses,  and  its  hills  and  valleys,  covered 
with  orchards  and  fields  of  green  and  golden  grain ;  while  be- 
neath, distinct,  and  near  the  mosque  of  Omar,  the  Harem  (the 
Sacred)  lay  exposed  to  our  infidel  gaze,  with  its  verdant  carpet 
and  groves  of  cypress,  beneath  whose  holy  shade  none  but  the 
faithful  can  seek  repose.  On  the  other  hand  was  the  valley  of 
Jordan,  a  barren  plain,  with  a  line  of  verdure  marking  the  course 
of  the  sacred  river,  until  it  was  lost  in  an  expanse  of  sluggish 
water,  which  we  recognised  as  the  familiar  scene  of  our  recent 
labours.  The  rays  of  the  descending  sun  shone  full  upon  the 
Arabian  shore,  and  we  could  see  the  castle  of  Kerak,  perched 
high  up  in  the  country  of  Moab,  and  the  black  chasm  of  Zerka, 
through  which  flows  the  hot  and  sulphureous  stream  of 
Callirohoe. 

"  No  other  spot  in  the  world  commands  a  view  so  desolate, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  so  interesting  and  impressive.  The 
yawning  valley  of  Jehoshaphat  immediately  beneath,  was  verdant 
with  vegetation,  which  became  less  and  less  luxuriant,  until,  a 
few  miles  below,  it  w^as  lost  in  a  huge  torrent  bed,  its  sides  bare 
precipitous  rock,  and  its  bed  covered  with  boulders,  whitened 
with  saline  deposit,  and  calcined  by  the  heat  of  a  Syrian  sun. 
Beyond  it,  south,  stretched  the  desert  of  Judaea,  and  to  the 
north  was  the  continuous  chain  of  this  almost  barren  mountain. 
These  mountains  were  not  always  thus  barren  and  unproductive. 
The  remains  of  terraces,  yet  upon  their  slopes,  prove  that  this 
country,  now  almost  depopulated,  once  maintained  a  numerous 
and  industrious  people." 

The  frequent  allusions  to  the  valley  of  the  son  of  Hinnom 
render  it  undesirable  to  pass  it  over  by  a  bare  mention  of  its 
name.     This  valley,  which  lay  near  Jerusalem,  once  belonged  to 


JV3MA.  43 


the  sons  of  Hinnom,  and  formed  part  of  the  boundary  between 
the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin.  It  lay  to  the  south  (Josh, 
xv.  8),  and  also  to  the  east  (Jeremiah,  xiv.  2  ;  Eusebius,  ad  v. 
YaiEwifx)  of  the  Holy  City  (Keland,  Palsestina,  i.  54),  and 
became  infamous  as  the  spot  through  which  the  Jews  passed  Sacrifices 
their  children  through  the  fire  to  Moloch  the  God  of  the  Ammo- t0  Moloch* 
nites.  Hakewill  says  :  "  Thus  Ahaz  made  molten  images  for 
Baalim,  and  burnt  his  children  for  sacrifice  before  the  id  oil 
Moloch,  or  Saturne,  which  was  represented  by  a  man  like  a 
brasen  body  bearing  the  head  of  a  calfe,  set  vp  not  far  from 
Hierusalem,  in  a  valley  shadowed  with  wood,  called  Gehinnon, 
or  Tophet,  from  whence  is  the  word  Gehenna  vsed  for  hell." 
Another  name  by  which  this  valley  was  known,  is  that  of 
Tophet  (nan),  a  drum.  It  was  adopted  because  a  drum  was 
beaten  during  these  abominable  sacrifices,  in  order  to  drown  the 
cries  of  the  victim.  Josiah,  in  2  Kings,  xxxiii.  10,  is  said  to 
have  "defiled"  this  spot;  from  which  simple  expression  the 
commentators  universally  understand  that  he  made  it  the  com- 
mon sewer  of  the  city.  From  Isaiah,  xxxi.  33,  it  appears 
(unless  we  suppose  he  applies  the  word  Tophet  figuratively,  as 
the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  have  done)  that  a  fire  was 
burning  in  it.  This  fire,  the  commentators  also  tell  us,  was 
constant,  and  kept  up  for  the  purpose  of  consuming  carcases  and 
filth.  The  valley  was  called  Gehenna  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour. 
It  occurs  in  twelve  places  in  the  New  Testament,  and  may,  in 
all  of  them,  without  any  violence,  be  rendered  Hell,  as  it  stands 
in  our  translation.  It  is  obvious  how  the  metaphorical  sense 
became  adopted.  - 

Sandys  speaks  of  the  Valley  of  Hinnom  as  lying  in  a  straight 
and  narrow  compass  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Sion.  Upon  the 
south  side  of  it  (Maundrell  says  the  west),  near  its  juncture 
with  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  is  shown  the  Potter 's  field,  the 
Aceldama. 

The   Mount  of  Olives,   separated  by  the   deep   ravine  of  Places  near 
Cedron  from  the  eastern  side  of  the  city,  was  six  stadia  (three-  ^SSto?' 
quarters  of  a  mile)  distant  (Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.  v.  8).     On  its  olives, 
south-eastern  declivity  was  the  tract  called  Bethphage  (Berth-    et  p  iage* 
phaga,  House  of  Unripe  Figs),  and  near  it  Bethany  (Bieth  Bethany. 
Haini,  House  of  Dates),  on  a  rugged  shelf  of  the  mountain, 
15  stadia  (nearly  two  miles)  from  Jerusalem  (John,  xi.  18),  on 
the  road  to  Jericho  (Mark,  xi.  1).     Bethany  is  in  itself  a  poor 
village,  but  rich  in  beautiful  associations  in  Scripture  history. 
It  is  about   two   miles  from   Jerusalem,    on  the   south-east 
declivity  of  the  Mount  of  Olives.     Bethany  was  the  frequent 
resort  of  the  Saviour  of  the  world  in  his  days,  and  the  scene  of 
some  of  the  most  interesting  events  of  his  life.    There  Lazarus 


44 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CANAAN, 


Scopus. 
Tsophim. 

Phasaelis. 


Alexan- 
dreum. 
Aulon. 

Archelais. 
Jericho. 
Eriha,  or 
Riha. 


Quaran- 
tania 


Gilgal. 
Galgala. 


and  his  sisters  resided.  On  the  north  side  of  the  city,  at  the 
distance  of  seven  stadia  (Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.  ii.  39),  was  Scopus, 
called  Tsophim  by  the  Jews,  an  elevation  separated  from 
Jerusalem  by  a  low  tract.     It  is  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin. 

Phasaelis,    about   30   miles    south   by  west  of  Scythopolis 
(Baisan),  near  a  stream  now  called  El  Beidhan,  was  probably 
four  or  five  miles  north-west  of  Corese  (Kopc'cu),  and  between 
thern,  on  a  hill,  lay  the  strong  fortress  called  Alexandreum 
(Jos.  Bel.  Jud.  xiv.  10).    The  valley  (Aulon,  t\  e.  Pipe  or  Tube) 
of  the  Jordan,  in  this  neighbourhood,  was  famous  for  its  palm- 
groves    (Plin.   xiii.   4).      Archelais,   a   small  town,   built  by 
Archelaus,   son   of  Herod    (Jos.  xvii.  4),   was  in  that  valley 
north-west  of  Jericho,  the  city  of  palm-trees  (Deut.  xxxiv.  3). 
(Yerikho  in  Hebrew,  now  Eriha  or  Biha).     It  was  150  stadia 
(nearly  20  miles)   distant  from  Jerusalem,  and  60  stadia  (7^ 
miles)  from  the  Jordan  (Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.  iv.  27),  the  bed  of 
which  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  Judaea  by  sterile  mountains 
stretching  from  the   Dead   Sea  to  the  plain  of  Scythopolis 
(Ibid.  iv.  8.)     Jericho  was  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  the  Holy 
Land :  it  was  situated  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  and  was  next  in 
size    to    Jerusalem.     Immediately   after    the    entrance    into 
Canaan,  it  was  miraculously  subdued,  when  the  inhabitants 
were  all  exterminated,  excepting  Bahab  and  her  family  (Josh, 
ii.    6).      Joshua  pronounced   a  fearful   curse   upon  whoever 
should  rebuild  it,  which  was  executed  520  years  afterwards, 
upon  Hiel  (1  Kings,  xxi.  34).     Before  this  time,  and  almost 
immediately  after  the  death  of  Joshua,  reference  is  made  to  it 
under  the  name  of  the  city  of  Palm-trees,  which  was  captured 
by  Eglon,  king  of  Moab  (Judg.  iii.  13).     In  the  time  of  Elijah 
and  Elisha  it  became  a  school  of  the  prophets,  and  the  resi- 
dence of  Elisha.     In  this  vicinity  Elisha  miraculously  healed 
the  waters,  and  here  subsequently  our  Lord  restored  two  blind 
men,  when  he  lodged  with  Zaccheus.     Herod  the  Great  built 
a  castle,  and  died  there.   At  present  it  is  reduced  to  a  wretched 
hamlet,  called   Bihah  or  Bah.     Some  believe,  however,  that 
this  is  two  or  three  miles  or  more  from  the  site  of  the  ancient 
city.     Messrs.  Bisk  and  King  refer  particularly  to  the  moun- 
tain Quarantania,  where  tradition  says  Christ  fasted,  and  in 
whose   rugged   and    dreary  vicinity  he   was    tempted.      The 
extraordinary  fertility  of  this  well- watered  and  wide  valley,  to 
which  the  mountains  slope  gradually  (Strabo,  xvi.  p.  763),  its 
lofty  palms,  many  houses,  and  splendid  palace,  with  the  far- 
famed  balsam  garden,  rendered  it  as  famous  among  the  ancients 
as  its  connection  with  many  miracles  recorded  in  sacred  history 
have  made  it  an  object  of  veneration  to  the  moderns.     G-ilgal 
(G-algala)  was  10  stadia  (1J  mile)  to  the  south-east.     Ai  or 


JTJDJ3A.  45 

G-hai  (Jos.  vii.  viii.)  was  near  Beth-Aven    (on  the  Nahr-el-  A1>  or  Ghai. 
fareh),  to  the  east  of  Bethel.     Achor  was  a  place  between  Ai 
and  Jericho,  where  Achan  was  stoned.     Grophna  (Ophni,  Jos.  gophpa. 
xviii.  24:  now  Am  Yebneh),  15  miles  from  Jerusalem,  on  the    P  m' 
road  to  Neapolis,  was  capital  of  a  district  under  the  Asmonean 
kings  (Jos.  Bel.  Jud.  iii.  4),  about  six  geographical  miles  north 
of  Gibeah  of  Saul  (Gabath-Saul,  Jos.  Bel.  Jud.  v.  6),  now  Jib'a.  ^ah. 
To  the  west  was  the  valley  of  Ajalon,  and  on  the  heights  on  the    J1  a 
other  side  of  it,  to  the  north-west,  Michmash.     The  village  of  Michmash. 
Ajalon,  which  was  in  the  tribe  of  Dan,  lay  between  Jerusalem  Ajalon. 
and  Ekron,  and  was  distinguished  for  the  miracle  of  Joshua. 
Addida   (Mark,   xiii.    13)    appears   to   have    been    near    the  Addida. 
modern  Genzaleh,  south-east  of  Lydda.     Ono,  and  Modim,  the  Genzaieh. 
birth-place  of  the  Maccabees,  on  the  western  confines  of  Ben-  Modim- 
jamin,  were  very  near  Lydda.     Nob  is  supposed  to  have  been  Nob. 
south  by  west  of  Bamleh  ;  Emmaus,  north-west  of  Jerusalem,  Emmaus. 
near  the  present  Karyet  el  'Aneb ;   Gribeon,  three  miles  east-  Gibeon. 
wards  ;  and  very  near  it  Adummim,  now  Hatrun.     Gribeon  was  Adummim. 
situated  on  the  summit  of  a  hill  in  Benjamin  ;  it  was  a  city  of 
considerable  extent,  inhabited  by  Hivites,  between  five   and 
seven  miles  from  Jerusalem.     At  the  close  of  David's  reign,  the 
sanctuary  was  there.     Near  to  it  was  a  pool,  probably  "  the 
great  waters,"  where  Abner  was  defeated  by  Joab  (Jer.  xli.  12)  ; 
and  "  a  great  stone,"  that  is,  a  monumental  pillar.    In  Josephus 
it  is  called  Grabaon,  now  El  Jib.     There  was  the  wilderness  of 
Gribeon  and  the  valley  of  Gribeon,  celebrated  for  the  victory  over 
five  allied  kings,  and  for  the  miracle  performed  there  by  Joshua 
(Josh.  x.  12).     Aphek  was  a  city  east  of  Jerusalem,  on  the  Aphek. 
borders  of  Judah.     Anathoth,  a  sacerdotal  city  of  the  tribe  Anathoth. 
of  Benjamin,  and  the  birth-place  of  Jeremiah,  was  about  a  mile 
south-east  of  Gibeon,  and  four  miles  nearly  due  north  of  Jeru- 
salem.    Ephrata,  or  Bethlehem  of   Judah,    still  retaining   its  Bethlehem, 
ancient  name,  was  35  stadia  (Justin  Martyr,  Apol.  ii.  75)  south-    p  rdta* 
east  of  the  capital,  and  about  the  same  distance  north-west  of 
Tekoa.    Bethlehem  (called  also  Bethlehem-Judah,  to  distinguish  Tekoa. 
it  from  another  Bethlehem  in  Zebulun,  and  Bethlehem  Ephratah, 
the  fruitful,  and  its  inhabitants  Ephrathites — (Gren.  xlviii.  7; 
Mic.  v.  2)  was  the  scene  of  the  Book   of  Ruth,  the   birth- 
place of  David,  and,  above  all,  of  "the  Saviour,  which  is  Christ 
the  Lord."     Its  situation  is  about  six  miles  a  little  west  from 
south  of  Jerusalem,  on  an  eminence  overlooking  Tekoah,  nine 
miles  distant  to  the  south,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  very  fertile 
district. 

"Every  spot  in  and  near  this  town  is  consecrated"  (rather  it 
should  have  been  desecrated),  says  another  modern  traveller, 
"  by  tradition ;  and  among  other  true  or  false  vestiges  are  still 


i 


46 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OP  CAKAAtf. 


Bethlehem,  shown  the  house  of  Simeon,  the  tomb  of  Rachel,  the  well  for 
the  waters  of  which  David  longed,  the  place  of  the  nativity,  the 
fountains  of  Solomon,  the  cave  in  which  David  cut  off  the  skirt 
from  the  robe  of  Saul,  and  the  wilderness  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist." 


Dr.  Olin's 
description. 


[Bethieliein.J 

Dr.  Olin,  in  his  recent  travels,  says,  "  the  first  appearance  of 
Bethlehem  is  very  striking.  It  is  built  upon  a  ridge  of  con- 
siderable elevation,  which  has  a  rapid  descent  to  the  north  and 
east.  The  width  of  the  town  is  very  inconsiderable,  in  some 
places  hardly  exceeding  that  of  a  single  street.  From  the  gate 
at  the  western  extremity  to  the  convent  which  occupies  the 
eastern,  the  distance  may  be  half  a  mile.  The  first  part  of  the 
way  the  street  descends  rapidly  ;  farther  on,  and  especially  near 

the  convent,  it  becomes  tolerably  level The  environs 

of  Bethlehem  are  beautiful.  The  soil  is  fertile,  but  it  is  en- 
cumbered with  rocks  ;  and  the  hills  and  valleys  are  covered  to  a 
considerable  distance  with  figs,  olives,  pomegranates,  and  vine- 
yards. The  deep  valley  on  the  northern  side  of  the  town, 
which  is  overlooked  by  the  road  leading  to  Jerusalem,  presents 
a"  scene  of  beauty  and  luxuriance  unrivalled,  so  far  as  I  have 
yet  seen,  in  Palestine.  .  .  .  This  delicious  spot  may  perhaps 
be  taken  as  a  specimen  of  the  general  appearance  of  the  hill 
country  in  the  prosperous  days  of  the  Jewish  state,  and 
of  what  it  might  once  more  become  under  the  fostering  care 


tfTTMA.  47 

of  a  good  government,  and  of  an  industrious  and  civilized 
population." 

Tekoa  was  the  native  place  of  Amos  (i.  e.  Thecoe  in  Josephus), 
whence  the  desert  along  the  coast  of  the  Lake  Asphaltites  was  Qveat 
named.     The  whole  of  that  tract,  as  far  as  the  Eed  Sea,  was  an  Desert, 
uninterrupted  waste  in  the  time  of  Jerom  (Comm.  in  Amos). 
"  Tanta  est  eremi  vastitas  quce  usque  ad  Mare  Rubrum  Persa- 
rumque  et  JEthiopum  atque  Indorum  terminos  dilatatur"    North- 
east of  Tekoa,  on  the  shores  of  the  lake,  is  Merjuk,  the  ancient 
Masada ;  and  north* west  of  Tekoa  was  the  Herodeum,  a  splendid  Masada. 
town  and  fortress,  built  by  Herod  in  memory  of  the  victory  Herodeum- 
which  placed  him  on  the  throne  (b.c.  37),  60  stadia  (7^miles) 
from  Jerusalem  (Jos.  Ant.  xiv.  25).     It  appears  to  have  been 
previously   called  Bethulia.     Bethsur    (Be'ith   sur,   now   Beit  Bethuiia, 
Summar)  and  Bezek  (Beit  sani)  were  on  the  road  from  Tekoa  B^Ur' 
to  Hebron  (El  Khalil),  22  miles  south  by  east  from  Jerusalem 
(Eusebius)  :  Aristobulias  lay  three  or  four  miles  to  the  east  of  Aristobu- 
that  road.     Hebron,  originally  called  Kirjath-Arba,  or  the  city  ^as- 
of  Arba,  on  account  of  a  giant  of  that  name  (Josh.  xiv.  15),  and 
by  Moses  called  Mamre,  was  situated  among  mountains,  about 
20  miles  south  of  Jerusalem,  and  at  an  equal  distance  north- 
east of  Beersheba,     It  is  still  known  as  the  flourishing  town  of 
Habroun,  or  El- Khalil,  that  is,  "the  friend  of  the  beloved;"  or, 
according  to  Mr.  Eisk,  the  American  missionary,  Haleel  of 
Khaleel-Bahman,  "the  beloved  of  the  merciful."     It  is  one 
of  the  oldest  cities  in  the  world,  and  was  built  seven  years 
before  Zoan  in  Egypt  (Numb.  xiii.  22).     Hebron  is  associated 
with  some  of  the  most  interesting  passages  in  sacred  history — 
as  the  Valley  of  Eshcol  (Numb.  xiii.   24,  25)  ;   the  Vale  of 
Hebron,  once  the  residence  of  Jacob  (Gren.  xxxvii.  14)  ;  Abra- 
ham's dwelling,  and  his  family  burying-place  (Gen.  xiii.  18  ; 
xxiii.  2,  3,  19;  xxv.  10).     On  the  conquest  of  Canaan  it  was 
assigned  to  Caleb  (Numb.  xiii.  30 — 33),  though  finally  a  city  of 
refuge,  and  among  the  possessions  of  the  priests  (Josh.  xx.  9 ; 
xxi.  11, 13).     It  was  the  residence  of  David  till  Jerusalem  was 
made  the   capital,  and   here  he  was  anointed  king  (2  Sam. 
ii.  1 — 11)  ;  but  at  the  time  of  the  revolt  it  was  among  the  cities 
of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xi.  10).     It  was  the  head  quarters  of  Ab- 
solom's  rebellion  (2  Sam.  xv.),  and  here  Abner  was  assassinated 
by  Joab  (2  Sam.  iii.  27).     Some  have  supposed  that  Zacharias 
and  Elizabeth  lived  there,  and  that  it  was  the  birth-place  of 
John  the  Baptist.     The  plain  and  grove  of  Mamre  was  east,  Mamre. 
and  the  cave  of  Maepela  south  of  Hebron ;  and  Debir  or  Ki-  JfebJj?8' 
ryath  Sephir  four  or  live  miles  west  by  south,  to  the  north-west 
of  which  was  Telaim.     A  small  stream  flows  into  the  Lake  Telaim. 
Asphaltites,  nearly  due  east  of  Hebron,  by  a  place  now  called 


Karmel. 


48  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CANAAN. 

Enpddi.      'Ain  jeddi,  probably  the  ancient  En-gadi  or  Engaddi  Zoara 

Zoar.  "        (Tso'ar  in  Hebrew),  anciently  called  Hazezon-Tamar  (2  Chron. 

Hafezon-     xx*  ^),  s^  marked  by  ruins,  called  Zo'ara1  by  the  Arabs,  a 

Tamar.        few  miles  north-west  of  the  southern  extremity  of  the  lake 

(Journ.  of  Geog.  Soc.  ix.  277).     Engedi  (or  Hazezon-Tamar) 

was  a  town  30  miles  south-east  of  Jerusalem,  and  west  of  the 

southern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea,  over  which  its  rocks  and 

cliffs  tower  aloft.     It  is  situated  in  a  fertile  district  of  palms 

and  vineyards,  to  which  it  gives  its  name.     The  word  signifies 

"Fountain  of  the  Kid;"  and  the  present  Arab  designation  of 

Ain  Jidy,  or  Jeddi,  has  the  same  meaning.    It  is  first  mentioned 

before  the  destruction  of  Sodom,  as  inhabited  by  Amorites. 

Zif.  Zif  and  Karmel,  a  very  few  miles  south-east  of  Hebron,  still 

mark  the  places  mentioned  by  those  names  in  Scripture.     The 

latter  city  is  mentioned  in  the  1st  Book  of  Samuel  (xv.  2),  in 

which  Saul  erected  a  trophy  on  his  conquest  of  Amalek.     This 

was  the  dwelling  of  Nabal,  the  husband  of  Abigail.     It  was. 

situate  on  the  south  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  is  mentioned 

both  by  Jerome  and  Eusebius  as  the  seat  of  a  Roman  garrison. 

Lake  The  Lake  Asphaltites,  or  Asphaltitis,  according  to  Josephus, 

DeadVa!8'  was  580  stadia  (72|- miles)  in  length,  and  150  stadia  (18|  miles) 

in  breadth ;  but  Diodorus  Siculus  (Bib.  Hist.  xix.  98)  reduces 

those  measurements  to  500  stadia  (62  miles)  one  way,  and  60 

stadia   (8  miles)  the   other ;    and  the  nearest   approximation 

obtained  by  recent  travellers,  which  gives  about  40  geographical 

miles  from  north  to  south,  and  10  geographical  miles  in  the 

broadest  part  from  east  to  west,  shows  that  Diodorus' s  measure 

came  nearest  to  the  truth ;  while  Pliny,  who  wrote  nearly  a 

century  later,  almost  doubles  the  size  of  the  lake  each  way.     It 

was  little  visited  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  therefore  the 

subject  of  many  fables  respecting  the  weight  and  destructive 

quality  of  its  waters.     If  Zo'ara  mark  the  site  of  the  ancient 

Sodom.        Zoar,  Sodom  must  have  been  in  the  part  of  the  lake  nearest  to 

it,  since  Lot  reached  Zoar  in  the  interval  between  the  dawn 

and  sunrise  (Gen.  xix.  15,  23),  scarcely  more  than  half  an  hour 

in  that  latitude  (Cellar.  Geogr.  Ant.  ii.  486,  n.) 

Baaia.  On  the  western  side  of  Judah,  Baala  or  Kirjath-jearim  (Josh. 

J^arfm"       xv*  ^)>  ^e  cityof  the  Gibeonites,  was  nine  miles  on  the  road  to 

Bethsh'e-      Lydda.     Beth-shemesh  was  a  city  of  Judah  on  the  borders  of 

mesh.  Dan,  30  miles  south-west  of  Jerusalem,  and  sometimes  called 

Irshemesh,  w^here  the  ark  was  sent  by  the  Philistines,  when  a 

1  This  name  was  spelt  Zoweirah  in  M.  de  Bertou,  in  the  Arabic  character 
given  in  his  original  paper,  and  it  was  thence  inferred  that  it  was  not  iden- 
tical with  *)}^,  So'ar,  as  the  Arabs  would  spell  that  word.  Zoar,  or  Zoghar 
(Zo'ara,  in  M.  Jaubert's  MSS.  of  Idrisi  (i.  360),  seems  to  be  the  place  in 
question,  and  it  is  probable  that  M.  de  Bertou's  assistant  misspelt  the  name 
from  that  traveller's  incorrect  pronunciation  of  it. 


JUD^A.  49 

number  were  swept  off  by  pestilence  for  looking  into  it  (1  Sam. 
vi.  12 — 20).     It  was  the  scene  of  a  terrible  battle  between 
Israel  and  Judah  (2  Kings,  xiv.  11 — 13).     Bethshemesh,  which 
was  12  miles   on   the  way  from   Eleutheropolis  to  Nicopolis 
(Emmaus),  was  about  midway  between  the  latter  place  and 
Jerusalem,  and  three  miles  due  south  of  Emmaus  was  Timneh.  Timneh. 
Eleutheropolis,  a  considerable  town  under  the  Christian  empe-  Eieuthero- 
rors,  the  history  of  which  is  obscure,  was  about  16  miles  west-  P°lis- 
south-west  of  Jerusalem,  and  nearly  the  same  distance  due  west 
of  Bethlehem.     (Jerom  in  Obad.  v.)     The  Antonine  Itinerary 
makes  it  24  miles  from  Ascalon.      Makkeda,   where   Joshua  Makkeda. 
buried  the  five  kings  alive  in  a  cave  (Josh.  x.  1G,  18),  was  eight 
miles  east  of  Eleutheropolis  (Hieron.  de  Locis),  west  of  Seho- 
choh,  north  of  Achzib,  and  north-east  of  Libnah ;  south-west  of 
which,  five  or  six  miles,  was  Lachish,  and  two  or  three  miles  due 
south  of  it  was  Ziklag.     Ashtemoh,  or  Esthemo,  in  the  moun-  Ashtemoh, 
tains  of  Judah,  was  about  as  far  east  of  Ziklag.     These  places  Esthe!110' 
were  in  the  extensive  district  of  Judah,  called  Darom  (Daro-  Darom  or 
mas),  or  the  South.     Gedor,  or  Grederoth  (Gredrus),  was  about  Daromas. 
five   miles   north-west   of  Eleutheropolis.     Jarmuth  was  four  Jaermu'th 
miles,  and  Eshtaol  three  miles  nearly  due  north  of  that  town.  Eshtaoi.  * 
Moreshath,   the   birth-place  of  Micah,  was   about  two  miles 
north-west  by  north  of  Eshtaol.     Keilah  (Ceila),  or  Eglon,  and  Moreshath. 
Grabatha,  were  near  each  other  to  the  west  of  the  road  from  E^ion. 
Jerusalem  to  Hebron,  11  or  12  miles  south-west  of  that  capital,  y^h  °r 
Juttah,  now  Tattah,  is  very  near  Karmel  (Carmelia)  and  Zif,  a 
few  miles  south-east  of  Hebron.     Beersheba,  in  the  tribe  of  Beersheba# 
Simeon,  still  retains  its  ancient  name,  and  its  ruins  are  found  at 
about  27  miles  south-west  of  Hebron.  Beersheba,  which  signifies 
"well  of  the  oath"  (Gren.  xxi.  31),  was  originally  the  name  of  a 
well,  near  which  Abraham,  and  after  him  Isaac,  who  was  born 
there,  resided.     It  was  20  miles  or  upwards  south  of  Hebron, 
at  the  southern  extremity  of  Canaan,  and  afterwards  became  a 
place  of  considerable  importance.     Near  the  supposed  site  of  it 
modern  travellers  have  found  wells  of  water,  and  they  have  dis- 
covered the  remains  of  an  extensive  village.    Robinson  mentions 
two  wells, 55rods  distant  from  each  other;  onel2feet  indiameter, 
and  44^  feet  deep ;  the  other  5  feet  in  diameter,  and  42  deep, 
surrounded  by  drinking-troughs  of  stone,  and  containing  excellent 
water.    "  Here,  then,"  he  exclaims,  "  is  the  place  where  the  patri- 
archs Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  dwelt !     Here  Abraham  dug, 
perhaps,  this  very  well,  and  journeyed  from  hence  with  Isaac  to 
Mount  Moriah  to  offer  him  up  there  in  sacrifice.     From  this 
place  Jacob  fled  to  Padan-aram,  after  acquiring  the  birthright 
and  blessing  belonging  to  his  brother ;  and  here,  too,  he  sacri- 
ficed to  the  Lord  on  setting  off  to  meet  his  son  Joseph  in  Egypt. 

E 


50 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPH Y  OP  CANAAN. 


Beersheba. 


Gerar. 


Eboda  or 

Abde. 

Amd. 

Southern 

boundary-. 


Philistines, 
Allophyli. 


Here  Samuel  made  his  sons  judges  ;  and  from  hence  Elijah 
wandered  out  into  the  southern  desert,  and  sat  down  under  a 
shrub  of  retem,  just  as  our  Arabs  sat  down  under  it  every  day 
and  every  night.  Here  was  the  border  of  Palestine  Proper, 
which  extended  from  Dan  (on  the  extreme  north)  to  Beer- 
sheba (Gren.  xxi.  31 ;  xxii.  19 ;  xxvi.  23 ;  xxviii.  10 ;  xlvi.  1 ; 
1  Sam.  viii.  2  ;  1  Kings,  xix.  3 ;  2  Sam.  xvii.  11).  Over  these 
smiling  hills  the  flocks  of  the  patriarchs  once  roved  by  thou- 
sands, where  now  we  found  only  a  few  camels,  asses,  and 
goats."1  Gerar,  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Canaanites 
(Gren.  x.  19),  25  miles  south  of  Eleutheropolis,  and  not  far 
from  Beersheba,  on  the  confines  of  the  deserts  of  Kadesh  and 
Shur  (Gren.  xx.  1),  may  probably  be  found  nearly  in  31°  N. 
and  34°  26'  E.,  a  few  miles  north-east  of  Eboda  (El  'Abdeh). 
'Arad,  a  city  of  the  Amorites,  on  the  southern  border  of  Judea, 
whose  king  opposed  the  passage  of  the  Israelites,  and  took  some 
of  them  prisoners,  for  which  it  was  destroyed  (Judges,  i.  16), 
was  four  miles  from  Malatis,  and  20  from  Hebron.  The  southern 
limit  of  Judah  is  given  by  Joshua  (xv.  2)  from  the  southern 
shore  of  the  Lake  Asphaltitis,  southwards  by  Maaleh  Acrabbim, 
"the  Ascent  ('Akabah)  of  the  Scorpions,"  Acrabatene  of  the 
Greeks,  to  Zin,  the  desert  so  called,  ascending  on  the  south 
side  to  Kadesh  Barnea,  and  onwards  with  a  sweep  to  the  point 
where  the  river  of  Egypt  (Wadi-l-'Arish  P)  entered  the  Medi- 
terranean; and  this  was  likewise  the  southern  boundary  of 
Daromas  (Darom.) 

The  Jews  were  plainly  not  designed  by  the  Almighty  to  be 
a  maritime  people ;  nor  till  the  time  of  Herod,  perhaps,  were 

they  permanently  possessed  of  any 
part  of  the  coast  south  of  Mount 
Carmel.  The  original  inhabitants  of 
the  country,  the  Philistines,  a  peo- 
ple of  cognate  origin,  and  speaking 
nearly  the  same  language,  retained 
possession  of  all  the  principal 
towns  on  the  coast,  till  the  time  of 
David  and  Solomon,  when  they 
became  tributary ;  nor  were  they 
entirely  subdued  till  the  time  of 
Uzziah  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  6).  They 
were  called  Philistims  by  the  Jews 
($v\iffri£ifi,  in  the  Septuagint  version)  ;  Allophyli,  i.  e.  people 
of  various  tribes,  or  Gentiles  ;  and  Palsestini,  a  name  derived 
probably  from  Philistim,  by  the  Greeks.  They,  with  the 
Caphtorim,  were  descended  from  the  Casluhim,  children  of 
1  Robinson's  Researches,  Vol,  i.  p.  302, 


[Ancient  Ship.] 


JUD^A.  51 


Ham,  and  at  an  early  period  expelled  the  Hivites,  descendants  Philistines, 
of  Canaan,  from  these  tracts  (Gen.  ii.  23)  ;  they  occupied  the 
low  lands  along  the  Mediterranean,  from  the  confines  of  Egypt 
to  the  northern  boundary  of  Judah,  and  formed  five  confederate 
States,   named  from  their  chief  cities,  'Azzah  or  Gaza  (now  Gaza. 
Ghazzah),  which   may  be  said  to  consist   of  three   villages: 
that  in  the  centre,  being  the  castle,  now  in  ruins,  commands  a 
very  extensive  view  over  the  sea  about  a  mile  distant,  and  over 
the  adjoining  country,  which  being  there  flat,  and   in   some 
places  covered  with  palm-groves,  recalls  the  scenery  peculiar  to 
Egypt.     Many  fragments  of  marble  give  evidence  of  its  former 
grandeur.      Notwithstanding  its   productive   soil  and  advan- 
tageous position,  its  population  at  the  close  of  the  last  century 
was  reduced  to  2000  souls.     Cotton  cloths,  and  soap,  were  then 
its  principal   manufactures,  and,   being  the   place  of  transit 
between  Egypt  and  Syria,  a  considerable  traffic  was  maintained 
there    by   the    transit   of  caravans.     'Askalon    ('Askalan),  a  >Askaion. 
"fenced  city,"  and  capital  of  the  five  Philistine  lordships,  was 
situated  12  miles  south  of  Gaza,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean,   and   37   miles  from  Jerusalem.     It   was   the 
birth-place  of  Herod  the  Great.     Ashdod,  called  by  the  Greeks 
Azotus,  lay  on  the  Mediterranean,  15  or  20  miles  north   of 
Gaza,  between  Askalon  and  Ekron.     It  is  built  on  the  summit 
of  a  hill,  and  contained  the  temple  of  Dagon,  in  which  the  Philis- 
tines placed  the  ark.     Ashdod  (Esdud)  is  now  celebrated  for  its 
scorpions.     Gath  or  Geth,  and  'Ekron  (Accaron  in  Josephus,  Gath. 
Ant.  v.  2).     Gath.  which  was  their  capital,  was  included  in  the 
territory  of  Dan,  alii  is  celebrated  as  the  birth-place  of  Goliath. 
It  was  thirty-two  miles  west  from  Jerusalem,  and  appears  to 
have  been  revived  at  the  time  of  the  destruction  of  the  first 
Temple  (b.c.  588).     It  was  probably  not  far  from  Ashdod  and 
Ekron.1     Ekron,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  land  of  the  Ekron. 
Philistines  (Josh.  xiii.  3),  was  also  on  the  confines  of  Judah 
and  Dan  (1  Sam.  vi.  17;  Josh.  xix.  43)  :  its  site,  it  is  supposed, 
is  covered  by  the  present  village  of  Akri,  four  miles  to  the 
south  of  Eamleh,  north-west  of  Gath,  and  north  of  Ashdod. 
Joshua  assigned  it  to  the  tribe  of  Judah.     The  ark  was  sent 
thither  by  the  Philistines  after  Dagon  had  fallen  before  it,  and 
thence  returned  home.     But  the  exact  site  of  these  places  has 
not    yet   been   satisfactorily   ascertained.     Jabna,    or  Jamnia  jabna  0r 
(2  Chron.  xxvi.  6),   and  Joppe  (Yapho,  now  Yafa),  were  also  Jamnia. 
considerable  towns  belonging  to  the  Philistines,  well  known  to  Yafa  o?r 
the  ancients,  and  still  extant,  the  former  under  the  name  of Jaffa- 
Ebneh,  or  Yebneh,  the  latter  as  Jaffa  (Yafa),  the  seaport,  or 

1  Ekron  has  been  strangely  placed  by  Professor  Berghaus  a  mile  or  two 
south-west  of  Azotus. 


52 


GEOGRAPHY  AFT)  TOPOGRAPHY  OP  CA^AAl^. 


Gath-Rim- 
mon. 


Tribe  of 
Simeon. 

Raphia. 

Rhinoco- 

lura. 


River  of 
Egypt. 


Sorek. 


Besor. 

Eshcol. 
Cherith. 


Zaretan. 


rather  roadstead,  of  Jerusalem.  Grath  Bimmon  (Josh.  xix.  45), 
by  some  erroneously  supposed. to  be  the  capital  of  the  Philis- 
tines, was  in  Jerom's  time  a  large  town,  12  miles  from  Dios- 
polis  (Lydda),  on  the  road  to  it  from  Eleutheropolis.  Of  the 
territory  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  which  appears  to  have  been  to 
the  west  and  south-west  of  Judah,  little  is  said  in  Scripture, 
and  less  in  other  ancient  writings.  Raphia  and  Bhinocorura, 
or  Rhinocolura  (El  'Arish),  to  the  south-east  of  G-aza,  were 
not  properly  Syrian  cities,  though  in  the  time  of  Josephus 
(Bel.  Jud.  in  fine)  the  former  was  considered  as  the  first  place 
northwards  beyond  the  boundary  of  Egypt.  At  an  earlier 
period,  the  stream  passing  by  Ehinocolura,  which  seems  to 
have  been  "the  river  of  Egypt,"  was  the  common  boundary  of 
the  Philistines  and  Egyptians  (Josh.  xv.  4).  However,  this 
stream  is  sometimes  called  Shihor  (Josh.  xiii.  3),  a  name  given 
elsewhere  to  the  Nile ;  that  word  is,  therefore,  probably  used 
as  a  significant  epithet,  and  is  translated  "turbid"  in  the 
Vulgate.  The  vale  of  Sorek  (Judg.  xvi.  4)  was  probably  to 
the  east  of  Eleutheropolis,  near  Eshcol,  on  the  stream  which 
joins  that  which  passes  through  the  Vale  of  Terebinths.  "  The 
brook  Besor"  (1  Sam.  xxx.  9)  seems  to  have  been  the  present 
Wadi-serar,  rising  near  due  west  of  El-khalil  (Hebron). 
Eshcol  (Numb.  xiii.  23)  seems  to  have  been  about  midway 
between  Bethlehem  and  Makkedah.  Cherith  (1  Kings,  xvii.  3) 
and  its  stream  is  supposed  to  be  the  modern  El  Fozeiyeh 
joining  the  Jordan  near  the  site  of  Zaretan  (Judg.  iii.  16). 
Zaretan,  Zartanah  or  Zarthan,  or  Zereda,^>r  Zeredathah,  or 
Zererath,  was  a  town  on  the  western  b*k  of  the  Jordan, 
opposite  to  Shiloh,  at  which  place  the  Israelites  crossed  over, 
when  the  waters  were  gathered  into  a  heap  on  either  side.  It 
was  the  birth-place  of  Jeroboam. 


iy._THE  COUNTRY  EAST  OE  THE  JOEDAN. 


Trans- 
Jordan 
Regions. 


Gilead. 


The  whole  tract  East  of  the  Jordan,  from  Arnon  (Mo'jeb)  to 
Argob,  in  the  northern  part  of  Bashan,  was  anciently  called 
Grilead,  a  name  subsequently  restricted  to  a  particular  part  of  it 
(Dent,  iii.  12).  From  Aroer  (Ara'ir)  on  the  Arnon,  to  the 
middle  of  Mount  Grilead,  as  far  as  the  Jabbok  (Deut.  iii.  16), 
the  territory  of  Sihon,  King  of  the  Amorites,  the  whole  was 
Reuben  and  assigned  to  Renben  and  Gad  ;  the  remainder  of  Mount  Grilead 
Gad*  and  Bashan,  the  kingdom  of  Og,  was  given  to  the  half  tribe  of 

Manasseh.    Manasseh.     The  mountainous  country  of  the  Ammonites  was 
separated   from   Moab   by   the    river   Arnon,   and  from    the 
Amorites.     Amorites   by   a   stream   now    called    Zerka   Ma'in,1   and    its 

1  Zerka  Mayn,  Burckhardt  (Syria,  p.  369) .     It  signifies  the  blue,  pure 
water. 


THE  COUNTRY  EAST  OF  THE  JORDAN.  53 

northern  boundary  was  the  Jabbok   (Jobachus,  Joseph.  Ant.  ^i,vfrk 
iv.  5),  which  separated  it  from  Bashan.     The  lower  mountains  jobachus. 
on  the  west,  and  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  which  probably 
formed  the  territory  subsequently  called  Peraea  by  the  Greeks,  Persea. 
were  also  occupied  by  the  Amorites.     The  territory  of  the 
Ammonites,  which  had  been  "  given  to  the  children  of  Lot"  Ammonites. 
(Deut.  ii.  19),  was  never  possessed  by  the  Israelites.     In  later 
times,  the  territory  of  the  latter,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Jordan,  reached  northwards  as  far  as  Mount  Hermon  (now  Mount 
Jebel  esh-sheikh,  or  Jebel  eth-thelj),  an  offset  of  Antilibanus  j^Je™e"h- 
north-east  of  the  source  of  the  Jordan.     Under  the  Romans  theij. 
this  part  of  Syria  was  subdivided  into  Panias,  Itunea,  Gaulo-  divisions, 
nitis,   Batansea,   Auranitis,  and    Trachonitis.      The  first  and 
westernmost  derived  its  name  from  Paneas,  a  town  on  the 
confines   of  Phcenice   and  Galilee,   and,  therefore,  sometimes 
assigned  to  each  of  those  divisions.     Near  to  it  is  the  remark- 
able spring  already  mentioned,  which  was  considered  by  the 
ancients  as  the  source  of  the  Jordan ;  though  that  river,  as  a 
late  traveller  (M.  de  Bertou,  Bulletin  de  la  Soc.  de  Geogr. 
Sept.  1839,  too,  xii.  139)  has  observed,  seems  rather  to  come 
from  the  foot  of  Mount  Hermon,  and  to  be  the  present  Nahr 
el  Hasbani.     The  town  of  Paneas  was  called  Csesarea  Philippi,  Paneas. 
from  Philip  the  Tetrarch,  who  gave  it  that  name  in  honour  of  p^'pi" 
Augustus.     Ituraea  derived  its  name  from  Itur  or  Jetur,  son  of  ituraea. " 
Ishmael  (1  Chron.  i.  31),  and  its  inhabitants  were,  on  the 
first  establishment  of  the  Israelites  in  Canaan,  continually  at 
war  with  their  neighbours,  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  (1  Chron. 
v.  19)..     They  were  famous  archers  and  genuine  Arabs,  dreaded 
on  account  of  their  predatory  habits  (Lucan,  vii.  514  ;  Cic.  ii. ; 
Philip.  44).     They  are  little  noticed  by  ancient  writers,  and 
the  position  of  their  country  could  not  be  easily  conjectured, 
but  for  its  present  name  Jeidiir,  an  evident  corruption  of  the 
Hebrew  Tetur.     The  name  of  Gaulonitis  is  still  preserved  by  Gauionitis. 
the  Arabs  in  the  word  Jaulan,  or,  as  it  is  vulgarly  pronounced,  Joian. 
Jolan  or  Golan,  which  lies  between  the  Lake  of  Tiberias  and 
the   extensive  district  of  Hauran,   the  name   of  which,   pre-  Auranitis. 
served   by   the  Arabs   unaltered  since    the   days  of  Ezekiel  Hauran* 
(xlvii.  16,  18),  is  evidently  the  Auranitis  of  the  Greeks.     To 
the  north-east,  on  the  borders  of  the  Desert,  was  Trachonitis  Trachonitis, 
(now  Ard  el  Leja),  bordering  on  the  Arabian  Desert.  Batansea,  Bashan.' 
the  Bashan  of  Scripture,  and  the  southernmost  of  these  divi-  Batanaea. 
sions,  lay  to  the  east  of  Galaaditis  (Gilead),  and  between  it  Giiead, 
and  Auranitis.     Gilead  seems  to  have  been  the  mountainous  Galaaditis. 
tract  between  the  Yarmuk  of  the  Jews  and  Arabs,  the  Hieromax  Hieromax. 
of  the  Greeks,  and  the  Jabbok  (Jobachus  of  Josephus,  Ant.  i. 
19),  now  the  Zerka  or  Blue  Biver.     To  the   south  of  that 


54 


GEOGKAPHY  AND  TOPOGEAPHY  OP  CAHAAtf. 


Peraea. 
Reuben  and 
Gad. 


Decapolis. 


Canatha. 


Kanawat. 


Ashtaroth, 

Mezarib. 
Edrei. 
Adraa. 
Ed-da'ara. 


Seleucia. 

Gaulon. 
Theil. 


Aere  or 
Ereh. 
Neve  or 
Nowa. 
Gamala. 

Hippos. 


Gadara  or 
Omm  Keis. 


stream  was  the  country  of  Reuben  and  G-ad,  the  Persea  of  the 
Greeks  (Jos.  Bel.  Jud.  iii.  4),  larger  than  Galilee,  and  extend- 
ing lengthwise  from  Machserus,  on  the  Bagiras  (Zirka  ma'in), 
near  Mount  Nebo,  to  Pella,1  near  the  Jabbok ;  breadthwise 
from  the  Jordan  to  Philadelphia.  The  ruggedness  and  height 
of  its  mountains  rendered  them  unproductive ;  but  its  valleys, 
and  particularly  that  of  the  Jordan,  enjoyed  the  warmth  and 
produced  the  fruits  of  tropical  climates. 

Under  the  Romans,  and  in  the  time  of  the  Asmonean  kings, 
there  was  a  confederacy  of  ten  cities,  therefore  called  Decapolis, 
which  either  enjoyed  an  independent  sovereignty  and  formed  a 
confederate  republic,  or  possessed  certain  privileges  in  common. 
Pliny  (v.  18)  says  that  most  writers  named  Damascus,  Phila- 
delphia, Raphana  on  the  Arabian  borders,  Scythopolis,  an- 
ciently called  Nysa,  west  of  the  Jordan,  and  capital  of  this 
confederacy,  G-adara  on  the  Hieromax,  Hippus,  Dium,  Pella, 
Gerasa,  and  Canatha,  as  these  ten  cities.  Of  the  remarkable 
places  to  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  a  few  may  here  be  mentioned. 
Canatha,  the  Kenath  taken  by  Nobah,  son  of  Manasseh 
(Numb.  xxii.  42),  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  modern 
Kuneitarah,  but  more  probably  Kanawat  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Hauran,  as  Kuneitarah  (the  little  bridge)  is  a  significant  term, 
and  can  hardly  be  a  corruption  of  Kenath.  Ashtaroth,  the 
capital  of  Og,  is  Mezarib ;  Edrei  (Josh.  xii.  4),  or  Adraa,  to 
the  north-east  of  Mezarib,  is  still  called  Ed-da'arah2  (Burck- 
hardt,  Syr.  237).  Edrei  was  the  place  where  Og,  king  of  Bashan, 
was  defeated  by  the  Israelites,  and  his  kingdom  assigned 
to  the  half,  tribe  of  Manasseh.  It  was  one  of  the  chief  cities 
of  Bashan,  and  the  ruins  of  it  still  remain  under  the  above 
name,  75  miles  north  of  Bozrah.  Seleucia  was  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Palus  Samachonitis  (Bahr  el  Haiileh) .  Gaulon,  or 
Golan  (Josh.  xxi.  27),  whence  the  province  took  its  name,  is 
supposed  to  be  at  or  near  the  present  Theil,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Tell  Jemii',  about  15  miles  east  of  Dalmanutha,  on  the  Lake  of 
Tiberias,  and  four  or  five  miles  north-west  of  Capitolias.  Aere 
and  Neve  of  the  ancient  Itineraries  are  probably  replaced  by 
the  present  'Ereh  (or  'Areh)  and  Nowa.  Gamala,  in  the 
Lower  Gaulanitis,  may  be  traced  three  miles  east  of  Kherbet 
Samereh  (Hippos),  on  the  south-east  shore  of  the  sea  of 
G-alilee;  and  six  or  seven  miles  south-east  of  Gamala  was 
G-adara,  now  Omm  Keis.  G-adara  was  one  of  the  ten  cities 
called  Decapolis :  it  was  situated  on  the  east  of  Jordan,  near 

1  If  Pella  be  rightly  placed  by  Professor  Eerghaus,  Persea  extended  10 
miles  to  the  north  of  the  Jabbok.  Colonel  Leake  places  it  at  Beit  er  ras, 
24  or  25  miles  north-east  of  M.  Berghaus's  position. 

2  Not  Draa,  as  in  Col.  Leake's  Map,  in  Burckhardt's  Syria. 


THE  COUNTRY  EAST  OF  THE  JORDAN.  55 

the  lake  of  Gennesaret,  eight  miles  above  the  junction  of  the 
brook  Jarmuk  with   the   Jordan.      Gergesa,   or    Geresa,  was 
another  city  in  the   same   neighbourhood.      In  the   time  of 
Josephus,  Gadara  was  an  important  city,  the   metropolis  of 
Persea,  but  is  now  in  ruins.    Its  name  is  Urn  Keiss,  the  Mother 
of  Ruins,    It  is  believed  that  the  demoniac  of  the  gospel  dwelt 
there  upon  wrhom  our  Lord  performed  his  miracle,1    Bethsaida,  Bethsairta 
or  Julias,  seems  to   have  been  on   the  hill   now  called  Tell  or  Juhas 
Tellaniyeh,  to  the   north-east  of  the  point  where  the  Jordan 
enters   the   Lake   of  Tiberias.     Gilead,  in  its   widest  sense,  Mount 
corresponded  with  the  modern  Jebel  'Ajelun  and  Mo'rad  ;  but  ^ilead- 
perhaps  a  particular  mountain  south  of  the  Jabbok,  still  called 
Jebel  Jel'ad,  is  one  of  the  mountains  named  Gilead  in  Scripture. 
This  was  probably  Ramoth  Gilead,  and  was  considered  as  such  Ramoth- 
by  Eusebius.     It  is  now  venerated  as  the  burial-place  of  the  Gllead* 
prophet   Osha'    (Hosea?).     Jabesh  Gilead  was  north  of  the  Jabesh- 
Jabbok,  six  miles  south-east  of  Pella,  says  Jerom  ;  Thisbe,  the  xSe. 
birth-place  of  Elijah,  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  in  this 
part   of  Galilee,   was,  according  to  the  Book  of  Tobit  (i.  2), 
near  Kadesh,  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali.     Eusebius  places  it  in 
Gilead,   probably   from   a  misinterpretation  of    the   Hebrew 
(Reland,  Palsestina,  p.  1035).     At  Jerash  the  ruins  of  Gerasa  Jerash, 
are  still  very  considerable.    Abila,  one  of  the  towns  of  Decapolis,  ^blfa83* 
is  still  called  Abil,  eight  or  ten  miles  north-east  of  Omm  Keis.  Abii/ 
Dium  is  supposed  to  have  stood  on  Tell  Dehanah,  10  or  12  DehTnah. 
miles  north  by  east  of  Gerasa.     Bostra,  still  called  Bosra',  is  Nostra, 
nearly  in  25°  N".  and  36°  40'  E.     Amathus,  now  Amathah,  was  Amathus, 
on  the  Wadi  Rajib,  or  ' Ajelun,  a  few^  miles  above  the  confluence  Amathah. 
of  the  Jabbok  and  Jordan.     In  Persea,  Beth  Nimra  is  replaced  Beth- 
by  Nimrein,  nearly  opposite  to  Bethabara.     Bethabara  was  a  Bethabara. 
town  on  the  east  bank  of  Jordan,  where  there  was   a  ford 
across  the  river,  which  explains  the  name  "  house  of  passage," 
It  is  distinguished  as  the  place  where  John  baptized,  and  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  spot  where  the  Israelites  crossed 
the  river  under  the  conduct  of  Joshua.     The  distance  north- 
east of  Jerusalem  is  about  30  miles.     Salton  is  the  present  Saiton. 
Szalt.  Ja'ezer  (Josh.  xxi.  39)  seems  to  be  marked  by  Sir  at  the  jaezer. 
source  of  the  river  so  called,  four  or  five  miles  east  of  'Amman,  Amman, 
the   Rabboth  Ammon  of  Scripture,  and  Philadelphia  of  the  Rabboth- 
Greeks.     Rabbath,   or  Rabba,   was   the   capital   city   of  the  p^iadef- 
Ammonites,  against  which  severe  judgments  were  pronounced  phia. 
in  several  prophecies  (Jer.  xlix.  1 — 3  ;  Ezek.  xxi.  20  ;  xxv.  5). 
The  modern  town  (Amman)  is  situated  about  twenty  miles 
south-east  of  Szalt,  in  the  mountains  of  Gilead.     The  low  land 
near  the  Jordan  was  the  field  of  Moab.     EFal  is  the  ancient  Eleaiah. 
1  See  Anderson's  Notes  of  a  Visit  to  the  Euins  of  Gadara. 


56 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  TOPOGEAPHY  OF  CANAAN. 


Heshbon. 
Meon. 
Peor. 
Pis^ah. 

Nebo. 
Machserus. 


Elealah ;  Hesban,  Heshbon ;  Ma'in,  to  the  south-east  of  it, 
Baal  Meon,  Two  peaks  on  the  west  of  it,  forming  a  defile 
leading  to  the  Jordan,  are  Mount  Peor  (or  Phegor)  and  Pisgah 
(or  Phasga);  Madebu,  south-east  of  Hesban,  is  the  ancient 
Medaba ;  and  the  Jebel  Afctarus,  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
Zerka.  Ma'in  is  the  ancient  Nebo,  to  the  west  of  which  are 
the  remains  of  Machserus,  The  numerous  remains  of  antiquity 
still  existing  in  this  part  of  Syria,  and  the  many  ancient  names 
still  preserved  by  its  inhabitants,  who  are,  as  they  probably 
always  were,  of  Nabathsean,  i.  e.  Canaanite  origin,  and  still 
speak  the  language  of  their  forefathers,  present  a  large  field 
for  geographical  and  historical  inquiry. 

V,— SYBIAN  TOWNS,  OUT  OP  PALESTINE,  WHICH 
AEE  EEPEEEED  TO  IN  THE  SCEIPTUEES. 

A  few  important  towns,  the  names  of  which  are  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  Scriptures,  and  within  the  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood of  Palestine,  deserve  a  passing  notice.  These  are 
Sidon,  Tyre,  Zarephath,  cities  of  Phoenicia,  Baalbec,  and 
Damascus,  in  Coelo-Syria,  and  "  Tadmor  in  the  Desert,"  in 
Palmyrene. 

Phoenicia. — Sidon  is  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  the 
son  of  Canaan,  and  reached  its  height  of  glory  in  the  time  of 

Joshua.  It  was  si- 
tuated 


on  the  sea 
shore,  and  belonged 
to  the  Phoenicians. 
The  Sidonians  sup- 
plied the  first  navi- 
gators in  the  old 
world,  and  their 
ships  carried  on  an 
extensive  train  c 
with  the  British 
isles,  in  tin  and 
other  commodities. 
They  were  a  very 
ingenious  people, 
and     excelled     in 


[Ancient  Ship.] 


various  manufactures,  and  in  the  working  of  metals,  timber,  and 
stone.  They  had  colonies  in  Africa,  and  settlements  in  Europe. 
The  modern  town  of  Sidon,  now  called  Saida,  is  situated  on 
a  rising  ground,  overhanging  the  sea.  It  is  enclosed  by  a  high 
fortified  wall.  The  most  remarkable  object  is  the  fortress, 
built  on  a  rock  in  the  harbour,  and  connected  with  the  town 


STEIAN  TOWNS.  57 


by  a  causeway  on  arches.  It  is  Saracenic,  and  was  erected  by 
Emir  Fakr  ed  Deen.  There  are  the  remains  of  a  more  ancient 
castle  on  the  north  side,  usually  ascribed  to  Louis  IX.  The 
neighbourhood  presents  to  the  eye  richly  cultivated  gardens, 
and  beyond  are  the  mountains  of  Lebanon,  whose  snows  sup- 
ply a  considerable  stream,  that  flows  into  the  bay.  Tyre  was  Tyre, 
an  important  Phoenician  city.  It  was  situated  on  the  sea- 
coast,  and  formed  the  capital  of  ancient  Phoenicia.  It  was 
built  by  the  Sidonians  after  their  conquest  by  the  Philistines 
of  Askelon,  and  hence  called  in 
Scripture  "  the  daughter  of  Sidon." 
It  had  attained  to  great  distinction 
in  the  time  of  David  and  Solomon. 
The  latter  was  aided  by  Hiram, 
its  sovereign,  in  the  building  of 
the  Temple.  It  was  always  cele- 
brated  for    its    manufactures    and 

commercial  eminence.     Its  glory  is    m,  :.^[^i^^-^y^^ 
vividly   described    by  the    prophet  '  '-^     j*-^^^*—- 

Ezekiel,  but  both  he  and  Isaiah  fore- 
saw its  final  ruin.  Nebuchadnezzar 
first  reduced  it  to   subjection,  and  [Tyre' 

destroyed  it,  after  a  siege  of  thirteen  years.  The  first  city,  or 
Old  Tyre,  was  a  little  inland,  but  most  of  the  inhabitants  Old  Tyre, 
during  the  blockade  betook  themselves  to  an  island  about  half 
a  mile  from  the  shore,  where  they  erected  a  strong  city,  which 
in  fact  soon  equalled  the  first ;  and  Nebuchadnezzar  being  ^ew  Tyre, 
unable  to  subdue  the  new  city,  it  so  increased  and  established 
itself  as  to  outlive  the  Babylonian  and  Persian  empires.  It 
became,  indeed,  tributary  to  Babylon,  who  gave  it  kings ; 
but  the  final  overthrow  was  reserved  for  Alexander  the  Great, 
who  conquered  the  difficulties  of  its  insular  position  by  con- 
structing a  moat  to  connect  it  with  the  main  land.  In  doing 
this  he  used  the  materials  of  the  old  city ;  thus  fulfilling 
sacred  predictions,  "  They  shall  lay  thy  stones  and  timbers  in 
the  dust,  in  the  midst  of  the  waters.  Thou  shalt  be  no  more ; 
though  thou  be  sought  for,  yet  shalt  thou  never  be  found 
again."  (Ezek.  xxvi.  12,  21.)  After  passing  through  various 
fortunes,  it  fell  under  the  Ottoman  dominion  in  1516.  In  its 
present  ruins  it  still  exhibits  massive  remains. 

Near  a  cape  about  one-third  of  the  way  from  Sidon  to  Tyre  |arephath 
was  Sarepta  or  Sarephtha  (Tsarephath,  now  Sarfand),  known  sarfand.°r 
to   the    Greeks   and   Eomans  for  its  wine,  but  to  Jews  and 
Christians  on  account  of  the  stupendous  miracle    performed 
there  by  the  prophet  Elijah  (1  Kings,  xvii.  9,  10). 


58 


OE0GKAPHY  AND  TOPOGKAPHY  OP  CANAAN. 


Heliopolis 


Apliaca 


Abila. 


Damascene. 


Ccelo-Syria. — The  most  remarkable  cities  of  Coelo-Syria 
were  Heliopolis,  Abila,  and  Damascus.  The  first,  which  was 
the  most  northern  and  western  town  in  that  province,  was  said 
to  be  near  the  sources  of  the  Orontes  (Plin.  Nat.  Hist.  v.  22). 
The  magnificence  of  this  much-frequented  city  of  Baal,  or  the 
Sun  (now  Ba'lbik,  which  is  probably  a  corruption  of  its  ancient 
Syrian  name),  is  still  witnessed  by  the  ruins  of  its  great  temple, 
so  well  represented  in  Mr.  Wood's  splendid  work.  It  was  a 
highly  favoured  colony  under  the  Eomans,  and  an  Episcopal 
See  under  the  Christian  Emperors.  Half  way  between  it  and 
Byblus  was  Aphaca,  celebrated  on  account  of  the  worship  of 
Venus,  whose  grove,  sanctuary,  and  temple  were  destroyed  by 


[Wall  of  Baalbec— La  Borde.  | 

Constantine,  having  been  long  an  infamous  school  of  debauchery 
(Eusebius,  Vita  Constant,  iii.  55).  Adjacent  to  it  was  a  mar- 
vellous lake,  in  which  nothing  would  sink  (Seneca,  Quaest.  Nat. 
iii.  26.)  except  what  displeased  the  goddess.  Abila  (erroneously 
Abilla  and  Abella),  the  capital  of  the  Tetrarchy  of  Lysanias 
(Luke,  iii.  1),  was  half  way  between  Heliopolis  and  Damascus. 
That  ancient  capital,  the  Darmeshek  and  Dammeshek  of  the 
Hebrews,  and  Dimeshk  of  the  Arabs,  was  placed  in  a  delightful 
valley,  the  Royal  Defile  or  Damascene  of  the  Greeks,  (the 
Grhutah  of  the  Arabs,)  forming  a  sort  of  appendage  to  Ccelo- 
Syria,  and  connected  with  it  by  an  opening  in  Antilibanus. 
"  Damascus,"  said  the  Emperor  Julian  (Epist.  xxiv.),  "  truly 
deserves  to  be  called  the  City  of  Jove,  and  the  Eye  of  the 
whole  East ;  that  sacred  and  greatest  of  cities,  which  in  the 


SYRIAN  TOWNS. 


59 


beauty  of  its  sanctuaries,  the  magnitude  of  its  temples,  the 

opportuneness  of  its  seasons,  the  limpidness  of  its  springs,  the 

abundance  of  its  rivers,  and  the  fertility  of  its  soil,  surpasses 

all  others."     Its  principal  river,  the  Chrysorrhoas,  also  called  **iverss of 

Bardines  (Steph.  Byzant.  now  Baradi),  was  almost  all  drawn 

off  in  canals  to  irrigate  the  surrounding  tract  (Strabo,  xvi. 

p.  755). 


[Damascus. J 

Palmtrene. — To  the  south  of  Chalcidice,  and  to  the  east  of  Paimyrene. 
Cyrrhestica,  but  separated  from  each  by  a  broad  belt  of  desert, 
was  Pfllmyrene,  or  the  territory  of  Palmyra,  which  under  the  Palmyra, 
care  of  its  patriotic  and  enterprising  sovereigns,  Odenathus 
and  Zenobia,  acquired  the  opulence  which  its  convenient 
position  for  the  commerce  between  Mesopotamia  and  Syria 
afforded,  and  attained  a  degree  of  prosperity  rarely  exceeded, 
as  its  magnificent  remains  still  attest.  Its  cultivable  territory 
then,  no  doubt,  greatly  exceeded  the  bounds  of  the  small  Oasis 
which  is  now  visited  by  travellers  in  Syria ;  and  for  some 
years  before  the  defeat  of  Zenobia,  its  dominion  comprehended 
a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor.  The  Arab  name  Tedmur,  differing 
in  sound  only  from  the  Hebrew  Tadmor,  would  afford  a  strong 
presumptive  evidence  that  this  was  the  city  built  by  Solomon 
"  in  the  wilderness,"  (2  Chron.  viii.  4.)  even  if  we  had  not  the 
express  testimony  of  Josephus  (Antiquit.  Jud.  viii.  2)  to  that 
effect.  Its  north-eastern  boundary  was  the  Euphrates,  at 
some  distance  from  which  was  Eesapha  (Eesafah  of  the  Arabs),  Resapha 


60 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CANAAN. 


Th?pKS*   and  on  its  banks  Sura  (Sliran)  and  Thapsacus,  Thiphsah  of  the 
Ampbipoiis.  Hebrews,  Ampliipolis  of  the  later  Greeks,  and  El  De'ir  (the 


[Palmyra,  or  Tadmor  in  the  Desert.] 

Turmeda.  Convent)  of  the  Arabs.  By  the  Syrians  it  was  called  Turmeda 
(Steph.  Byzant.  de  Urbibus).  The  river,  though  there  half  a 
mile  (four  stadia)  in  breadth,  is  shallow  enough  to  be  at  times 
fordable;  and  when  forded  by  the  infantry  of  the  younger 
Cyrus,  was  not  five  feet  deep  (Xenophon,  Anabas.  i.  4,  16). 
Darius,  however,  made  two  bridges  over  it  (Arrian,  i.  p.  116). 
It  was,  according  to  Strabo,  not  less  than  2000  stadia  (250 

Zeugma.  miles)  from  Zeugma  (Birah  or  Birehjik),  and  it  was  the 
eastern  extremity  of  Solomon's  dominions  (1  Kings,  iv.  24). 


MOUNTAINS. 


61 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  PALESTINE. 

I. — Mountains. 

Among  the  celebrated  mountains  of  Palestine  we  may  par-  Lebanon, 
ticularlj  specify  the  Lebanons,  or  the  Libanus  and  Antilibanus, 
situated  on  the  northern  side.  The  Libanus  or  Lebanon  con- 
sists of  four  ridges  of  mountains,  rising  one  above  another,  of 
which  the  first  and  third  are  the  most  habitable  and  fertile ; 
the  last  is  excessively  cold,  and  covered  with  almost  eternal  snow. 
Libanus  and  Antilibanus  are,  in  fact,  two  ridges ;  the  former 
name  is  applied  to  the  western,  the  latter  to  the  eastern. 
Between  these  ridges  is  Coele-Syria,  or  the  Valley  of  Lebanon 
(Josh.  xi.  17). 


[Lebanon,  from  the  Sea.] 


The  parallelism  of  the  two  great  chains  of  Syrian  mountains  coeio-Syria. 
from  the  southern  bank  of  the  Orontes,  opposite  Antioch,  as 
far  as  the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  which  makes  the  interval  between 
them  a  large  valley  or  defile,  av\wv,  as  the  Greeks  called  it, 
caused  that  part  of  the  country  to  be  called  Coele-Syria 
7]  KoiXrj  2up/a,  "  the  hollow  Syria,"  a  name  applied  differently 
by  different  writers,  some  extending  it  to  the  whole  of  this 
valley  or  series  of  valleys  ;  others,  and  particularly  Strabo, 
restricting  it  to  the  valley  between  Libanus  and  Antilibanus  Libanus. 
properly  so  called ;  each  beginning  at  a  small  distance  from  the 
sea,  and  extending  to  the  mountains  on  the  borders  of  the 


An!  i- 
Libauus. 


62 


GEOGKAPHY  AND  TOPOGKAPHY  OF  CANAAN. 


Lebanon. 
Libanus. 


make  no  distinction  between  the  parallel  chains,  but  call  them 
Desert  near  Damascus.  The  Scriptures,  it  may  be  observed, 
both  by  the  same  name,  Lebanon,  p:nb. 


Hermon. 

Sion. 

£jnana. 


GileacL 


[Summit  of  Lebanon.] 

Some  of  the  eastern  and  north-eastern  branches  of  Lebanon 
were  denominated  Hermon,  Sion,  and  Amana.  The  cedars  at 
present  are  chiefly  at  the  base  of  one  mountain,  about  four 
hundred  in  number,  and  covering  a  space  of  three  quarters  of  a 
mile  in  circumference.  Those  of  the  largest  growth  are  twelve 
in  number  rising  towards  the  summit.  Some  of  them  are  nearly 
a  hundred  feet  high,  and  forty  feet  in  girth.  A  different  tempe- 
rature prevails  in  different  parts  ;  whence  the  beautiful  descrip- 
tion of  the  Arabian  poets — "  the  Sannim  bears  winter  on  his 
head,  spring  upon  his  shoulders,  and  autumn  in  his  bosom,  while 
summer  lies  sleeping  at  his  feet."  The  wine  of  Lebanon  is  still 
celebrated.     Moses  refers  to  that  "  goodly  land  and  Lebanon." 

Mount  Gilead,  or  the  mountains  of  Grilead,  constitute  a 
ridge  which  rises  six  miles  south  of  the  Jabbok,  and  extends  five 
or  six  miles  from  east  to  west.  The  modern  name  is  Dj eland. 
There  was  a  tree  in  Grilead,  the  gum  of  which  possessed  me- 
dicinal properties,  and  hence  called  the  balm  of  Grilead.  Strabo 
refers  to  a  field  near  Jericho  which  was  full  of  such  balsam 
trees.  The  fluid  that  issues,  wrhen  the  bark  is  cut,  by  drops, 
soon  coagulates,  and  has  a  pungent  taste  and  odoriferous  scent. 


MOUNTAINS.  63 


Gilboa  is  a  ridge  of  mountains  west  of  tl^e  plain  of  Jordan,  Gilboa. 
and  south-east  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  memorable  as  the  field 
of  battle  on  which  Saul  and  his  three  sons  fell.     The  present 
designation  is  Djebel  Grilbo. 

Hermon  is  a  mountain  branching  off  south-east  from  Anti-  Hermon. 
Lebanon,  and  running  between  Damascus  and  the  sea  of 
Tiberias,  called  by  the  Sidonians  Sirion,  by  the  Amorites  Shenir 
and  Sison.  Its  present  name  is  Jebel-es-Sheikh,  and  it  is  the 
loftiest  of  all  the  summits  of  Lebanon,  being  about  12,000  feet 
in  height.  Hermon  is  covered  on  its  summit  with  a  crown  of 
snow.  Jerome  says  that  its  snow  was  formerly  conveyed  to 
Tvre  and  Sidon,  to  be  used  in  cooling  liquors.  It  was  once 
celebrated  for  a  temple,  much  resorted  to  by  the  sons  of  super- 
stition. "  Whatever  is  lovely,"  says  a  traveller,  "in  mountain, 
plain,  marsh,  and  lake,  is  before  the  eye,  and  with  surprising 
distinctness.  Old  Jabel-es- Sheikh,  like  a  venerable  Turk,  with 
his  head  wrapped  in  a  snowy  turban,  sits  yonder  on  his  throne 
in  the  sky,  surveying  with  imperturbable  dignity  the  fair  lands 
below  ;  and  all  around,  east,  west,  north,  south,  mountain  meets 
mountain  to  guard  and  gaze  upon  the  lovely  vale  of  Huleh. 
What  a  constellation  of  venerable  names !  Lebanon  and  Her- 
mon, Bashan  and  Grilead,  Moab  and  Judah,  Samaria  and  Galilee ! 
There,  too,  is  the  vast  plain  of  Ccele- Syria,  Upper  and  Lower, 
studded  with  trees,  clothed  with  flocks,  and  dotted  with  Arab 
tents ;  and  there  the  charming  Huleh,  with  its  hundred  streams, 
glittering  like  silver  lace,  on  robes  of  green,  and  its  thousand 
pools  sparkling  in  the  morning  sun!" 

Mount  Tabor,  whose  modern  name  is  Djebel  Tur,  is  on  the  Tabor, 
northern  border  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  50  miles  north  from 
Jerusalem,  and  six  from  Nazareth,  and  in  shape  resembles  a 
cone  with  the  apex  cut  off.  The  level  area  on  the  summit  is  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  in  length,  and  the  eighth  of  a  mile  in  breadth, 
which  seems,  from  the  ruins,  to  have  been  once  enclosed  by  a 
thick  wall  with  bastions  ;  indeed,  Polybius  mentions  a  city 
once  built  upon  it.  Josephus  states  its  height  to  be  30  stadia 
or  furlongs,  but  it  is  variously  estimated  by  modern  travellers 
from  a  thousand  feet  to  three  miles.  Its  declivities  are  covered 
to  the  very  top  with  verdure,  and  clumps  of  trees,  oaks,  olives, 
and  sycamores.1  It  is  described  by  Dr.  Wilson  as  "  standing 
apart  in  its  own  nobility,  and,  like  nature's  own  pyramid,  not 
commemorative  of  death,  but  instinct  with  life,  and  clothed 
with  luxuriant  verdure  to  its  very  summits.  The  prospect 
from  the  top  is  described  as  of  the  most  enchanting  kind.  The 
Mediterranean,  the  plains  of  Esdraelon  and  Galilee,  Carmel, 

1  "A  person  can  walk  round  the  whole  grove  in  twenty  minutes." — 
Dr.  Wilson. 


64       GEOGRAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OP  CANAAtf. 

Tabor.  the  heights  of  Samaria  and  Gilboa,  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  and 
the  peaks  of  Lebanon,  are  all  in  view.  Its  greatest  glory, 
however,  is  derived  from  its  having  been,  as  is  generally  believed, 
the  mount  of  the  Saviour's  transfiguration.  But  it  has  been 
alleged,  that  "  not  only  is  there  no  authority  for  believing  Tabor 
to  be  the  spot,  but  it  has  been  proved  that  both  before,  during, 
and  after  Christ's  time,  the  top  of  the  hill  was  occupied  by  a 
town  and  a  Roman  garrison,  and  therefore  had  neither  the 
requisite  space  nor  seclusion  which  Jesus  enjoyed  on  "  a  high 
mountain  apart"  (Bib,  Cyclop,  edited  by  Dr.  Eadie).  We 
own  ourselves  very  unwilling  to  abandon  this  delightful  tra- 
dition, nor  does  it  seem  necessary ;  for,  granting  what  is  alleged 
respecting  a  town,  it  is  not  said  in  the  sacred  narrative  that 
Christ's  transfiguration  took  place  on  the  summit ;  and  a  moun- 
tain so  richly  covered  with  shady  wroods  might  surely  afford  an 
ample  opportunity  for  the  glorious  manifestation  described. 
"We  are  inclined,  therefore,  on  many  accounts,  to  pay  a  deference 
to  this  hoary  tradition. 

Carmei.  Mount  Carmel  is  situated  on  the  coast,  and  extends  eastward 

to  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  and  to  Csesarea  on  the  south.     Its 


[Mount  Carmel.] 


height,  according  to  Schubert,  is  1300  feet.  A  city  has  like- 
wise been  built  upon  it.  It  is  in  shape  a  flattened  cone,  and 
is  the  most  beautiful  mountain  in  Palestine,  rising  about  1500 
or  2000  feet  above  the  sea  coast.  The  name  it  has  obtained 
seems  derived  from  its  fertility,  the  word  in  Hebrew  signifying 
the  vine  of  God,  and  is  generally  used  in  Scripture  to  denote 
any  very  fruitful  spot.  As  the  residence  of  the  prophet  Elijah, 
who  is  believed  to  have  dwelt  in  one  of  its  caves,  it  has  acquired 
great  celebrity. 


MOUNTAINS, 


65 


Olivet,  or  the  Mount  of  Olives,  is  situated  within  about  a  Olives, 
mile  of  Jerusalem,  and  is  a  ridge  700  feet  in  height,  having 


[Mount  of  Olives.] 

apparently,  as  seen  from  the  west,  three  summits  extending 
from  north  to  south:  from  the  central  part  our  Saviour 
ascended.  The  one  towards  the  north  is  the  most  lofty,  and  is 
usually  called  the  mount  of  Galilee ;  the  other  towards  the 
south  of  the  middle  ridge  is  called  the  mount  of  Corruption  or 
Offence,  a  name  derived  from  Solomon  having  erected  temples 
upon  it  to  the  Ammonitish  and  Moabitish  gods,  out  of  com- 
plaisance to  his  strange  wives,  which  the  people  justly  regarded 
as  a  defilement. 

Mount  Calvary,  or  Golgotha,  stood  anciently  within  the  walls  Calvary, 
of  the  metropolis,  and  was  appropriated  as  the  spot  for  the 
execution  of  criminals.     It  was,  in  fact,  not  properly  a  moun- 
tain, nor  even  a  hill,  but  a  small  elevation  or  rising  ground. 

Mount  Moriah,  on  which  the  temple  was  built,  stood  in  a  Moriah. 
south-eastern  direction  from  Calvary,  and  is  thought  to  have 
been   the   place  where  Abraham  went  to   sacrifice  Isaac,  his 
beloved  son. 

Mount  Gihon  was  west  of  the  city,  and  nearer  Calvary.     In  Gihon. 
this  place  Solomon  was  anointed  king  by  the  prophet  Nathan 
and  the  high  priest  Zadock. 

Besides  these,  were  JEbal,  Gerizzim,  Sion,  the  mountains  of  Ebai, 
the  Desert  in  the  south,  the  mountains  of  Ephraim  and  of  the  siorn?Zlm, 
Philistines  in  the  west,  and  the  central  cluster  spoken  of  in 
Scripture  as  the  mountains  of  Judea. 

Mount  Hor  is  situated  about  half  way  between  the  Dead  and  Hor 
the  Eed  Seas,  on  the  borders  of  Idumsea.     It  is  now  called 

p 


Mount  Hor. 


66 


GEOGKAPHY  AKD  TOPOGKAPHY  OE  CANAAff. 


Jebel  Haroun  or  Aaron's  Mount,  as  the  place  of  Aaron's  burial, 
whose  tomb  is  pointed  out  on  the  summit.  It  rises  above  the 
other  mountains  of  Seir.  "  The  chain  of  Idumean  mountains 
which  form  the  western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  seems  to  run 
on  to  the  southward,  though  losing  considerably  in  their  height ; 
they  appear  from  this  point  of  view  barren  and  desolate.    Below 


[Mount  Hor.] 

them  is  spread  out  a  white  sandy  plain,  seamed  with  the  beds 
of  occasional  torrents,  and  presenting  much  the  same  features 
as  the  most  desert  parts  of  the  Ghor.  Where  this  desert  ex- 
panse approaches  the  foot  of  Mount  Hor,  there  arise  out  of  it, 
like  islands,  several  lower  peaks  and  ridges  of  a  purple  colour, 
probably  composed  of  the  same  kind  of  sandstone  as  that  of 
Mount  Hor  itself,  which,  variegated  as  it  is  in  its  hues,  presents 
in  the  distance  one  uniform  mass  of  dark  purple.  Towards  the 
Egyptian  side,  there  is  an  expanse  of  country  without  feature, 
the  limits  of  which  are  lost  in  the  distance.  The  lofty  district 
which  we  had  quitted  in  our  descent  to  Wady  Mousa,  shuts  in 
the  prospect  on  the  south-east  side ;  but  there  is  no  part  of  the 
landscape  which  the  eye  wanders  over  with  more  curiosity  and 


MOUNTAINS.  67 


delight  than  the  crags  of  Mount  Hor  itself,  which  stand  up  on  t 

every  side  in  the  most  rugged  and  fantastic  forms ;  sometimes 
strangely  piled  one  on  the  other,  and  sometimes  as  strangely 
yawning  in  clefts  of  a  frightful  depth.1" 

A  north-eastern  branch  of  Lebanon  is  also  called  Mount 
Hor,  and  was  part  of  the  boundary  of  the  land  of  Israel  on  the 
north. 

The  term  Mount  Seir,  or  Mountains  of  Seir,  was  applied  in-  Mountains 
definitely  to  that  range  of  mountains  which  extends  from  the  of  Seir* 
southern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  Grulph  of  Akaba, 
and  is  now  called  Djebel  Shera  and  Hasma.  It  forms  one  of 
the  natural  divisions  of  the  country.  The  valley,  or  Grhor, 
extending  in  the  same  direction,  is  supposed  to  have  formed  the 
continual  valley  of  the  Jordan  before  its  waters  were  lost  in 
the  Dead  Sea.  The  mountains  in  question  rise  abruptly  from 
this  valley.  The  plain  to  the  east  is  more  elevated  than  the 
level  of  the  Grhor  on  the  west,  which  diminishes  the  apparent 
elevation  of  the  hills.  On  the  south  the  plain  terminates  in  a 
steep  rocky  descent,  at  the  base  of  which  begins  the  desert  of 
Ned-jed.  To  a  part  of  this  upper  plain,  and  the  mountains 
which  constitute  its  western  limits,  Burckhardt  thinks  they 
anciently  applied  the  name  of  Arabia  Petrssa ;  extending  the 
denomination,  however,  so  as  to  include  the  eastern  plain  with 
the  mountains  which  form  the  eastern  boundary  of  Palestine, 
northward  to  the  river  Jabbok.  "  The  land  of  Seir"  of  the 
patriarchal  times  was  immediately  to  the  east  and  south  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  Mount  Hor,  as  we  have  intimated,  is  one  of  the 
summits  of  Seir. 

The  following  is  a  concise  catalogue,  from  Cruden,  of  the  catalogue 
principal  mountains  mentioned  in  Scripture  : —  °rinc?pai 

Mount  Seir,  in  Idumea.     Gen.  xiv.  6.  mountains. 

Mount  Horeb,  near  to  Sinai  in  Arabia  Petrsea.     Deut.  i.  2. 

Mount  Sinai,  in  Arabia  Petrsea.     Deut.  xxxiii.  2. 

Mount  Hor,  in  Idumsea.     Numb.  xx.  22. 

Mount  Gilboa,  to  the  south  of  the  valley  of  Israel.  2  Sam. 
i.  21. 

Mount  Nebo,  part  of  the  mountains  of  Abarim.  Numb, 
xxxii.  3. 

Mount  Tabor,  in  the  lower  Galilee,  to  the  north  of  the  great 
plain.     Judges,  iv.  6. 

The  mountain  of  Engedi,  near  the  Dead  Sea.     Josh.  xv.  62. 

Mount  Libanus,  which  separates  Syria  from  Palestine. 
Deut.  iii.  25. 

Mount  Calvary,  whereon  Jesus  Christ  was  crucified,  north- 
west from  Jerusalem.     Luke,  xxiii.  33. 

1  Irby  and  Mangles'  Travels,  p.  134. 


68 


GEOGKAPHY  AtfD  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CANAAN. 


Mount  Gerizim,  whereon  was  afterwards  the  temple  of  the 
Samaritans.     Judges,  ix.  7. 

Mount  Ebal,  near  Gerizim.     Josh.  viii.  20. 

Mount  Gilead,  beyond  Jordan.     Gen.  xxxi.  21,  and  xxiii.  25. 

Mount  Amalek,  in  the  tribe  of  Ephraim.     Judg.  xii.  15. 

Mount  Moriah,  where  the  temple  was  built.     2  Chron.  iii.  1. 

Mount  of  Paran,  in  Arabia  Petrsea.    Gen.  xiv.  6 ;  Deut.  i.  1. 

Mount  Gaash,  in  the  tribe  of  Ephraim.     Josh.  xxiv.  30. 

The  Mount  of  Olives,  which  stood  to  the  east  of  Jerusalem, 
and  was  parted  from  the  city  only  by  the  brook  Kidron  and  the 
valley  of  Jehoshaphat.1 

Mount  Pisgah,  beyond  Jordan,  in  the  country  of  Moab. 
Numb.  xxi.  20 ;  Deut.  xxxiv.  1. 

Mount  Hermon,  beyond  Jordan.     Josh.  xi.  3. 

Mount  Carmel,  near  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  between  Dora 
and  Ptolemais.     Josh.  xix.  26. 


[Mount  Sinai-] 


1  A  more  extended  notice  of  Oliret  has  appeared  on  page  337. 


69 


II.  Wildernesses,  Deserts,  and  Plains. 

In  the  Scriptures  we  find  frequent  mention  of  wildernesses  wilder* 
and  deserts.  Of  these  there  were  two  kinds :  namely,  plains  of  ^s^s  and 
barren  sand,  where  scarcely  the  most  scanty  herbage  is  to  be 
found,  and  mountainous  tracts  of  country,  thinly  inhabited, 
pervaded  frequently  by  a  considerable  growth  of  vegetable 
productions,  with  supplies  of  water,  and  adapted  to  the  pas- 
turing of  cattle.  Such  were  the  wildernesses  of  Judah  and  of 
Judaea,  where  John  lived  and  preached.  One  of  the  dreariest 
of  these  lay  between  the  Mount  of  Olives  and  the  Plains  of 
Jericho,  which  for  its  numerous  robberies  was  called  "  the 
Bloody  way." 

The  principal  tracts  comprehended  in  these  designations 
were,  the  wildernesses  of  Jericho,  Judah,  Engedi,  Ziphmaon, 
Beer-sheba,  Tekoa,  Gribeon,  and  Bethaven. 

Between  the  central  ridge  of  mountains  and  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan  there  is  a  desert  a  hundred  miles  in  length,  and  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  in  breadth.  It  abounds  in  naked  limestone 
hills,  separated  from  each  other  by  deep  winding  valleys  and 
narrow  stony  gullies.  The  southern  portion  especially  is  rent 
in  every  direction  by  ravines,  opening  to  view  tremendous 
gorges  along  the  eastern  part  of  the  desert,  bounded  by  high 
precipitous  walls.  Excepting  a  few  olives  and  pomegranates 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jericho,  a  village  in  the  valley  of 
Jordan,  and  a  few  shrubs  here  and  there,  with  small  patches  of 
green  along  the  western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  the  whole 
district  presents  a  scene  of  desolation. 

The  mountains  on  the  west  slope  down  to  a  plain,  which  Plains, 
forms  a  narrow  tract  of  country  to  the  sea.  In  some  parts  it 
is  slightly  undulating,  and  is  occasionally  interrupted  on  the 
coast  by  promontories.  On  the  south  it  spreads  into  a  wide 
plain,  comprising  the  whole  land  of  the  Philistines,  and  the 
western  part  of  Judaea,  and  is  sometimes  called,  by  way  of 
distinction  and  eminence,  the  Plain.  It  terminates  at  the 
mountains  of  Lebanon.  The  soil  is  singularly  fertile,  particu- 
larly Sharon,  lying  between  Caesarea  and  Joppa,  and  is  much 
celebrated  by  the  poets  and  prophets  of  Judah,  though  now 
neglected.  The  central  chain  of  mountains  on  the  north  is 
intercepted  by  the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon,  south  of  the 
parallel  of  the  lower  extremity  of  the  sea  of  Gralilee.  Near  the 
Mediterranean  it  spreads  east  south-east  into  a  fertile  valley, 
with  an  irregular  base  on  the  east,  formed  by  the  mountains  of 
Grilboa,  Hermon,  and  Tabor,  between  which  it  sends  off  three 
branches  to  the  valley  of  the  Jordan.     This  plain  is  about 


70       GEOGRAPHY  AND  TOPOGKAPHY  OP  CANAAN. 

twenty-four  miles  long,  and  ten  or  twelve  broad.  In  Scripture 
it  is  called  the  valley  of  Jezreel,  and  the  plain  of  Meggiddo.  It 
is  full  of  historical  associations,  both  ancient  and  modern,  and, 
from  the  days  of  Deborah,  has  been  the  battle-ground  of 
Assyrians  and  Persians,  Jews  and  G-entiles,  Crusaders  and 
Saracens,  Turks,  Arabs,  and  Pranks.  To  the  north  is  a  broken 
and  hilly  country,  from  which  arise  the  mountains  of  Lebanon, 
at  the  height  of  ten  or  twelve  thousand  feet. 


III.  Biters,  Lakes,  and  "Wadys. 

Rivers  and        The  Jordan. — The  principal  river  of  the  Holy  Land  is  the 
lakes.  Jordan,   the   other   streams   being   scarcely   worthy   of    such 

a  term.  The  primary  source  of  this  river  is  a  fountain 
just  above  Hasbeiya,  twenty  miles  above  Bainas  or  Csesarea 
Philippi,  and  the  ancient  idolatrous  city  of  Dan.  It  divides 
Judea;  its  course  is  chiefly  southward  by  west.  After 
proceeding  a  few  miles  it  runs  through  the  Samochonite 
lake,  then  enters  on  the  north  side  of  the  sea  of  Tiberias, 
and  issues  again  near  the  city  on  the  south  side,  and  at 
length  falls  into  the  lake  Asphaltites.  It  is  deep,  its  waters 
turbid,  and  its  general  course  is  rapid.  Pormerly  it  was  said 
to  be  subject  to  overflowings  about  the  time  of  the  early 
harvest,  or  soon  after  Easter,  owing  probably  to  the  rains  and 
the  melting  of  the  snows ;  but  the  moderns  affirm  that  this 
appearance  has  ceased.  The  plains  on  each  side  are  in  some 
places  exceedingly  beautiful ;  but  from  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  as 
far  as  the  lake  Asphaltites,  or  Dead  Sea,  it  is  dry  and  barren, 
the  heat  being  often  intense. 
Explorers  of  Until  within  a  few  years  there  were  only  two  instances  of 
andJDeadU  ^ur0Peans  having  traversed  the  entire  valley  of  the  Jordan : 
Sea„  namely,  that  of  St.  Wilibald,  first  bishop  of  Aichstadt,  who 

went  as  a  pilgrim  in  the  seventh  century;  and  that  of 
Baldwin  I.  king  of  Jerusalem,  who  was  accompanied  in  his 
journey  by  a  small  body  of  knights,  during  the  period  of  the 
crusades.  So  late  as  1806,  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea  remained  utterly 
unknown.  Burckhardt  disclosed  the  districts  of  Edom  and 
Sinai  in  1812.  Ulrich  Jasper  Seetzen,  in  1806,  discovered  the 
true  sources  of  the  Jordan,  the  eastern  districts  of  its  valley, 
and  the  whole  eastern  coast-line  of  the  Dead  Sea,  penetrating 
towards  the  southern  end  of  that  sea  or  lake  into  the  salt 
valley  of  Zoar,  and  reaching  the  boundary  of  the  Brook  of 
"Willows,  or  Sared,  which  was  once  forded  by  Moses  with  the 
children  of  Israel,  when  proceeding  from  Mount  Sinai,  near 


EXPLORERS  OE  RIVERS  AtfD  LAKES. 


71 


the  Eed  to  the  Dead  Sea,  where  he  first  stood  on  Moabitish 
ground.  Seetzen  could  only  effect  his  purpose  under  the  seetzen. 
protection  of  several  independent  chieftains  of  the  Bedouin 
robbers  who  had  partaken  of  bread  and  salt  with  him  in  their 
tents,  and  were  consequently  bound  to  afford  him  defence. 
He  was  only  able  to  gain  his  point  by  proceeding  on  foot,  in  a 
tattered  garment,  with  a  beggar's  staff  in  his  hand,  divesting 
himself  of  valuables  of  every  kind,  and  carrying  a  skin  of 
flour  or  water  for  his  subsistence.  He  advanced  upon  his 
former  steps  in  a  second  journey  in  1807,  and  hesitated  not  to 
be  alone  for  weeks  in  the  most  dreary  wildernesses.  This  . 
adventurous  traveller  at  length  was  sacrificed  by  some  mur- 
derous and  unknown  hand  while  exploring  Southern  Arabia. 


[Source  of  the  Jordan. — Lynch.'] 


The  British  Board  of  Ordnance  engaged  Lieut.  Symonds,  E.N.  Symonds. 
in  1841,  to  undertake  a  triangulation  and  determining  of  the 
levels  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  and  the  course  of  the  Jordan 
down  to  the  Dead  Sea,  and  to  sound  its  depths.  In  1847,  the 
actual  navigation  of  the  river  was  undertaken  by  Lieutenant 
Molyneux.  At  first  his  success  was  but  partial.  During  Moiyneux. 
eight  days,  and  within  the  distance  of  about  thirty  leagues,  he 
had  to  struggle  against  the  rocks,  shoals,  and  rapids,  which 
were  all  but  impracticable,  as  well  as  the  Bedouins  haunting 
the  banks.  From  these  he  escaped  by  night,  and  by  a  quick 
retreat,  to  the  oasis  of  Jericho.  In  a  few  days,  however,  he 
collected  fresh  forces,  and  in  September  embarked  once  more, 


72        GEOGRAPHY  AFD  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CAKAAtf. 

and  entered  the  Dead  Sea,  on  whose  fearful  waves  he  was 
tossed  by  a  violent  gale  for  two  days;  but  reaching  the 
northern  shore,  whence  he  had  set  out  a  short  time  before,  he 
sunk  under  fatigue  and  exhaustion. 

Lynch  and        One  year  afterwards  the  third  expedition  was  undertaken,  and 

Dale#  conducted  with  admirable  success,  by  the  American  government ; 

a  vessel  having  been  fitted  out  for  the  purpose,  and  placed  under 
the  command  and  scientific  direction  of  Lieutenants  Lynch  and 
Dale,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  very  valuable  and  complete 
information  respecting  the  Jordan,  the  Dead  Sea,  and  their 
respective  vicinities.  Besides  this  we  have  a  very  detailed 
account  of  the  Jordan,  in  its  several  sources  and  progress,  by 

Thompson.  Mr.  Thompson,  an  American  missionary,  which  will  prove 
interesting  to  the  reader.  "The  original  source  is  a  large 
fountain  just  above  Hasbeiya,  20  miles  above  Banias  or  Csesarea 
Philippi,  and  the  ancient  city  of  Dan,  where  again  are  large 
fountains  regarded  as  the  head  waters  of  the  Jordan.  The 
fountain  (Hasbeiya)  lies  nearly  north-west  from  the  town,  and 
boils  up  from  the  bottom  of  a  shallow  pool  some  eight  or  ten 
•  rods  in  circumference.  The  water  is  immediately  turned,  by  a 
N  strong  stone  dam,  into  a  wide  mill-race%  This  is  undoubtedly 
the  most  distant  fountain,  and  therefore  the  true  source  of  the 
Jordan.  It  at  once,  even  in  a  dry  season,  forms  a  consider- 
able stream :  it  meanders,  for  the  first  three  miles,  through  a 
narrow  but  very  lovely  and  highly  cultivated  valley ;  its  margin 
is  protected  and  adorned  with  the  green  fringe  and  dense  shade 
of  the  sycamore,  button,  and  willow  trees,  while  innumerable 
fish  sport  in  its  cool  and  crystal  bosom. 

"  It  then  sinks  rapidly  down  a  constantly  deepening  gorge 
of  dark  basalt  for  about  six  miles,  when  it  reaches  the  level  of 
the  great  volcanic  plain   extending  to   the  marsh  above  the 

The  Huleh.  Huleh.  Thus  far  the  direction  is  nearly  south  ;  but  it  now 
bears  a  little  westward,  and,  in  eight  or  ten  miles,  falls  into  the 
marsh  about  midway  between  the  eastern  and  western  moun- 
tains. Pursuing  a  southern  direction  through  the  middle  of 
the  marsh  for  about  ten  miles,  it  enters  the  lake  Huleh  not  far 
from  its  north-west  corner,  having  been  immensely  enlarged 
by  the  waters  from  the  great  fountains  of  Banias,  Tell  El-Kady, 
El  Mellahah,  Derakit  or  Belat,  and  innumerable  other 
springs. 

"  The  distance  from  the  fountain  of  Hasbany  to  the  lake 
cannot  be  less  than  25  miles,  and  nearly  in  a  straight  direc- 
tion. The  Huleh  may  be  eight  miles  long ;  and  the  river,  after 
it  issues  from  the  lake,  preserves  the  same  southerly  course, 
until  it  falls  into  the  sea  of  Tiberias.  The  great  fountain  of 
Hasbany,  therefore,  has  an  indisputable  title  to  stand  at  tho 


THE  BIYER  JOEDAtf.  73 

head  of  the  springs,  and  fountains,  and  lakes  of  this  very  cele- 
brated and  most  sacred  river. 

"  The  second  source  of  the  Jordan  is  the  fountain  of  Tell  Xel!"el 
El-Kady,  16  or  18  miles  south  of  the  fountain  of  Hasbany. 
This  is  at  the  head  of  the  great  marsh  north  of  the  Huleh,  two 
or  three  miles  west  of  Banias  or  Paneas,  the  ancient  city  of 
Caesarea  Philippi.  The  Tell  itself  marks  the  site  of  the  more 
ancient  city  of  Dan,  recognised  as  the  northern  limit  of 
Palestine  in  the  proverbial  expression  '  from  Dan  to  Beer- 
sheba,'  and  yet  more  notorious  as  the  principal  seat  of  the 
idolatrous  worship  of  the  Jews. 

"  The  Tell  (or  hill)  is  elevated  about  forty  or  fifty  feet,  and 
its  figure  is  circular,  or  rather  oval,  being  longest  from  east  to 
west.  One  part  of  it  is  covered  with  oak-trees,  and  another 
part  with  thick  brush-wood  and  briars.  It  is  evidently  an 
extinct  crater,  about  half  a  mile  in  circumference. 

"  On  the  south-western  side  the  wall  of  this  crater  has 
been  partly  carried  away  by  the  action  of  the  great  fountain, 
which  gushes  out  all  at  once  a  beautiful  river  of  delicious 
water,  several  times  larger  than  the  stream  at  Banias, 

"  The  fountain  in  reality  first  appears  in  the  centre  of  the 
crater.  The  great  body  of  water,  however,  glides  underneath 
the  lava  boulders,  and  rushes  out  at  the  bottom  of  the  Tell  on 
the  west.  But  a  considerable  stream  rises  to  the  surface 
within  the  crater,  and  is  conducted  over  its  south-western 
margin,  and  drives  a  couple  of  flouring-mills,  which  are  over- 
shadowed by  some  magnificent  oak-trees,  and  almost  buried 
beneath  the  luxuriant  vegetation  of  the  place. 

"  The  two  streams  unite  below  the  mills,  forming  a  river  40 
or  50  feet  wide,  which  pushes  very  rapidly  down  into  the 
marsh  of  the  Huleh.  There  were  a  multitude  of  turtles 
sunning  themselves  on  the  rocks  around. 

"The  miller,  with  whom  I  happened  to  be  acquainted, 
pointed  out  to  me  a  clump  of  trees,  about  three  miles  to  the 
south-west,  where,  he  assured  me,  the  stream  from  Banias 
unites  with  this  from  the  Tell.  This  junction  is  in  the  marsh, 
a  short  distance  to  the  north  of  a  huge  mound,  very  similar  to 
the  Tell  El-Kady,  and  which,  in  all  probability,  is  also  an 
extinct  crater. 

^ "  My  informant  had  often  been  there,  and  I  understood 
him  to  say  that  the  river,  after  the  junction,  flowed  along  on 
the  north  of  the  mound,  until  it  fell  into  the  Hasbany,  which  I  Hasbany. 
have  before  mentioned,  as  the  main  stream  of  the  Jordan.  I 
thought  also  that  I  could  trace  the  course  which  he  pointed 
out,  through  the  tall  reeds  of  the  marsh,  down  to  the  point 
where  these  two  main  streams  come  together. 


Course  of 
the  river. 


74 


GEOGEAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OP  CANAAN. 


"  The  fountain  of  Banias  is  nearly  as  large  as  that  of  Tell 
El-Kady,  and  gushes  out  in  a  full  stream  from  the  base  of  a 
mountain  in  the  ruins  of  Csesarea  Philippi.  Several  large 
fountains  discharge  their  waters  on  the  western  side  of  lake 
Huleh  into  the  lake  and  river  above." 

Lieutenant  Lynch  has  supplied  other  important  particulars. 
The  general  course  of  the  river  is  south,  meandering  200  miles*! 
but  in  a  direct  line  only  about  60,  to  the  Dead  Sea.     Its  waters 
are  sometimes  turbid,  sometimes  clear,  its  flow  quick,  six  or 


[Valley  of  the  Jordan.] 

eight  feet  in  depth,  but  at  certain  seasons  fordable,  in  some 
Rapids.  places.  It  has,  moreover,  27  considerable  rapids.  The  channel 
is  deeply  embedded  in  opposite  terraces,  running  nearly 
parallel,  at  the  distance  of  from  three  to  five  miles,  presenting 
sometimes  precipitous  banks,  forming  the  commencement  of 
conical  hills  and  rocks,  which  rise  irregularly  and  in  confusion. 
Between  these  the  river  rushes  through  endless  contortions,  as 
if  struggling  to  get  free  from  its  appointed  limits.  It  proceeds 
more  slowly  towards  the  end  of  its  course,  but  turns  and 
twists  towards  every  point  of  the  compass  within  a  short 
distance. 

"  The  sacred  river !  Its  banks  fringed  with  perpetual  ver- 
dure, winding  in  a  thousand  graceful  mazes  ;  its  pathway 
cheered  with  songs  of  birds,  and  its  own  clear  voice  of  gushing 
minstrelsy ;  its  course  a  bright  line  in  this  cheerless  waste. 


THE  DEAD  SEA.  75 

5Tet,  beautiful  as  it  is,  it  is  only  rendered  so  by  contrast 
with  the  harsh,  dry,  calcined  earth  around.  The  salt- sown 
desert!" 

"The  Jordan,"  says  Professor  Hitter,1  "is  far  from  being,  Ritter's 
like  other  rivers,  the  quickening  artery  of  the  country  through  remarks« 
which  it  flows :  it  has  neither  become  the  first  mover  of  the 
operations  of  the  people  dwelling  near  it,  nor  does  it,  like  our 
EurojDean  rivers,  dispense  blessings  in  being  the  great  line  of 
settlement,  commerce,  and  civilisation.  Here  everything  was 
to  be  different.  Nevertheless,  the  low  level  of  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan  constitutes  the  great  feature  in  the  physiognomy  of 
the  land,  giving  the  country  of  Palestine  quite  a  character  of 
its  own.  For  this  Jordan  is  a  river  like  no  other  upon  earth : 
it  is  unique  in  its  kind :  an  inland  river,  having  no  mouth 
towards  the  sea,  absorbed  in  the  deepest  chasm  of  the  old 
world,  at  a  great  depth  below  the  level  of  the  ocean,  accom- 
panying the  longitudinal  line  of  the  Syrian  mountain  tract, — 
— nay,  running  perfectly  parallel  with  the  neighbouring  coast 
of  the  Mediterranean,  bending  nowhere  towards  it,  as  all 
other  rivers  do  towards  their  respective  seas;  w^hereas  the 
Orontes,  running  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  north,  has 
broken  through  the  Syrian  mountain  chains  towards  the  Medi- 
terranean, near  Antioch.  "Without  having  turned  towards 
that  sea  through  the  shortest  transversal  valley  at  its  southern 
extremity,  it  suddenly  disappears,  leaving  the  continuation  of 
its  longitudinal  valley  towards  the  Red  Sea  to  lie  dry.  Issuing 
from  the  tops  and  caves  of  Mount  Lebanon,  it  forms  three 
lakes  of  different  dimensions  on  the  terraced  steps  of  its  valley 
that  have  been  but  partially  drained — namely,  lake  Merom,  the 
lake  of  Galilee,  and  the  Dead  Sea  ! 

"Thus  its  mixed  hydrographic  system  has  remained  sta- 
tionary at  a  low  stage  of  development  towards  the  condition  of 
a  river  that  dispenses  blessings  of  all  kinds.  Its  valley  not 
having  completed  a  formation  adapted  for  profitable  settlement, 
and  being  but  a  singular  temporary  crevice  between  rocky 
cliffs  or  receding  slopes,  through  which  its  waters  alternately 
rush  impetuously  and  become  stagnant,  it  has  not  arrived 
at  the  continuous,  equable,  regular  course  of  our  European 
rivers." 

The  Bead  Sect,  called  also  the  East  Sea,  the  Sea  of  the  Plain,  The  Dead 
the  Sea  of  Lot,  and  Asphaltites,  is  about  40  or  50  miles  long,  Sea* 
varying  with  the  season  as  the  quantity  of  water  is  discharged 
into  it,  and  from  six  to  eight  miles  wide.     By  a  projection 
from  the  eastern  shore  on  the  south,  it  is  contracted  into  two 

1  Lect.  before  the  Scientific  Union  of  Berlin,  by  Dr.  Carl  Hitter,  Pro- 
fessor of  Geography  in  the  University  of  Berlin.  i 


76       GEOGEAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CANAAN. 

The  Dead     miles  of  breadth.     South  of  this  the  water  is  shallow,  and  in 
Sea»  the  middle  of  summer  is  left  a  marsh.     The  whole  valley  of  the 

Jordan  is  many  feet  below  the  Caspian  or  Mediterranean  sea. 
In  the  basin  of  the  Dead  Sea  it  reaches  the  lowest  level,  which 
is  1382  feet  below  the  Mediterranean,  and  1410  below  the 
level  of  the  Red  Sea.  It  has  no  outlet.  The  waters  south  of 
the  Dead  Sea  flow  northward  into  it  from  some  distance,  which 
shows  that  the  sea  occupied  its  present  bed  before  the  destruc- 
tion of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  unless  the  entire  surface  of  the 
country  has  been  changed  by  volcanic  action,  which  appearances 
render  probable.  The  shores  on  the  east  side  are  formed  by 
perpendicular  cliffs,  rising  into  ragged  splintered  points,  some- 
times receding  a  little  from  the  sea,  and  at  other  times  jutting 
into  it,  and  varying  in  height  from  1600  to  2800  feet.  The 
western  shore  preserves  a  general  outline  of  about  400  feet 
lower.  The  evaporation  is  excessively  great  in  summer,  from  the 
intensity  of  the  heat  in  so  confined  a  basin,  and  the  waters  are 
extremely  saline,  and  pervaded  by  various  infusions  bitter  and 
nauseous.  No  living  thing  is  found  in  them,  though  no  deadly 
miasma  arises,  as  was  formerly  supposed.  The  water  is  trans- 
parent, of  a  dull  green  colour,  and  very  dense  and  buoyant. 
The  specific  gravity  of  the  water  is  found  to  be  1*211, — a 
degree  of  density  unknown  in  any  other,  the  specific  gravity  of 
fresh  water  being  1*000 ;  and  it  holds  in  solution  the  following 
proportions  of  salt  to  100  grains  of  water  : — 

Muriate  of  Lime     .     .  ,       3*920  grains 

„        „     Magnesia  .  .  10*246     „ 

„     Soda     .     .  .  10*360     „ 

Sulphate  of  Lime    .     .  .       0*054     „ 


24*580 


Explorers  of  The  attempt  to  navigate  this  sea  proved  fatal  to  the  Irish 
Sea Dead  traveller,  Costigan,  in  1835,  and  to  Lieutenant  Molyneux  in 
1847  ;  but  Lieutenant  Lynch  has  since  succeeded.  From  him 
we  subjoin  some  interesting  particulars : — "  At  3.25  (April  18, 
1848)  passed  by  the  extreme  western  point  where  the  river 
(Jordan)  is  180  yards  wide,  and  three  feet  deep,  and  entered 

upon  the  Dead  Sea "We  endeavoured  to  steer  a  little  to 

the  north  of  west,  to  mate  a  true  west  course,  and  threw  the 
patent  log  overboard  to  measure  the  distance ;  but  the  wind 
rose  so  rapidly  that  the  boats  could  not  keep  to  wind,  and  we 
were  obliged  to  haul  the  log  in.  The  sea  continued  to  rise 
with  the  increasing  wind,  which  gradually  freshened  to  a  gale, 
and  presented  an  agitated  surface  of  foaming  brine ;  the  spray, 
evaporating  as  it  fell,  left  incrustrations  of  salt  upon  our  clothes, 


s 
arrative : 


THE  BEAD  SEA.  77 

our  hands,  and  faces  ;  and,  while  it  conveyed  a  prickly  sensation  Lieut, 
wherever  it  touched  the  skin,  was,  above  all,  exceedingly  ^rati 
painful  to  the  eyes.  The  boats,  heavily  laden,  struggled  The  sea 
sluggishly  at  first ;  but  when  the  wind  freshened  in  its  fierce-  Party# 
ness,  from  the  density  of  the  water,  it  seemed  as  if  their  bows 
were  encountering  the  sledge-hammers  of  the  Titans,  instead 
of  the  opposing  waves  of  an  angry  sea.         #  #  # 

"  At  times  it  seemed  as  if  the  Dread  Almighty  frowned  upon 
our  efforts  to  navigate  a  sea,  the  creation  of  his  wrath.  There 
is  a  tradition  among  the  Arabs  that  no  one  can  venture  upon 
this  sea  and  live.  Repeatedly  the  fates  of  Costigan  and 
Molyneux  had  been  cited  to  deter  us.  The  first  one  spent  a 
few  days  ;  the  last,  about  twenty  hours,  and  returned  to  the 
place  from  whence  he  had  embarked,  without  landing  upon  its 
shores.  One  was  found  dying  upon  the  shore;  the  other 
expired  in  November  last,  immediately  after  his  return,  of 
fever  contracted  upon  its  waters.  But  although  the  sea  had 
assumed  a  threatening  aspect,  and  the  fretted  mountains,  sharp 
and  incinerated,  loomed  terrific  on  either  side,  and  salt  and 
ashes  mingled  with  its  sands,  and  fetid  sulphurous  springs 
trickled  down  its  ravines,  we  did  not  despair :  awe-struck,  but 
not  terrified ;  fearing  the  worst,  yet  hoping  for  the  best,  we 
prepared  to  spend  a  dreary  night  upon  the  dreariest  waste  we 
had  ever  seen.  At  5.58  the  wind  instantaneously  abated,  and 
with  it  the  sea  as  rapidly  fell ;  the  water,  from  its  ponderous 
quality,  settling  as  soon  as  the  agitating  cause  had  ceased  to 
act.  Within  twenty  minutes  from  the  time  we  bore  away  from 
a  sea  which  threatened  to  engulph  us,  we  were  pulling  away  at 
a  rapid  rate  over  a  placid  sheet  of  water  that  scarcely  rippled 
beneath  us ;  and  a  rain-cloud,  which  had  enveloped  the  sterile 
mountains  of  the  Arabian  shore,  lifted  up,  and  left  their  rugged 
outlines  basking  in  the  light  of  the  setting  sun. 

"  The  northern  shore  is  an  extensive  mud-flat,  with  a  sandv 
plain  beyond,  and  is  the  very  type  of  desolation  ;  branches  and 
trunks  of  trees  lay  scattered  in  every  direction,  some  charred  and 
blackened  as  by  fire ;  others  white  with  an  incrustation  of  salt. 

The  north-western  shore  is  an  unmixed  bed  of  gravel, 

coming  in  a  gradual  slope  from  the  mountains  to  the  sea.  The 
eastern  coast  is  a  rugged  line  of  mountains,  bare  of  all  vegeta- 
tion— a  continuation  of  the  Hauran  range,  coming  from  the 
north,  and  extending  south  beyond  the  scope  of  vision,  throw- 
ing out  three  marked  and  seemingly  equidistant  promontories 
from  its  south-eastern  extremity. 

"  The  shore  party  stated,  that,  after  leaving  the  green  banks  The  shore 
of  the  Jordan,  they  passed  over  a  sandy  tract  of  damp  ravines,  Party* 
where  it  was  difficult  for  the  camels  to  march  without  slipping. 


78        GEOGKAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OP  CANAAN. 

Shore  of  the  Ascending  a  slight  elevation,  they  traversed  a  plain  encrusted 

Dead  Sea.     wfth  ga^  an(j  scarceiv  covered  with  sour  and  saline  bushes, 

some  dead  and  withered,  and  snapping  at  the  slightest  touch 


Sodom. 


[Shore  of  the  Dead  Sea. — Lynch.'] 

given  them  in  passing.  They  noticed  many  cavernous  excava- 
tions in  the  hill-sides,  the  dwelling-places  of  Israelites,  of  early 
Christians,  and  of  hermits,  during  the  time  of  the  Crusades. 
They  at  length  reached  a  sloping  dark-brown  sand,  forming  the 
beach  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  followed  it  to  El-Feshkha.  Our 
Arabs  feared  wild  beasts,  but  there  is  nothing  for  one  to  live 
on  in  these  untenanted  solitudes.  The  frogs  alone  bore  vocal 
testimony  of  their  existence." 

Usdum,  On  the  southern  side  is  the  salt  mountain  of  Usdum  (Sodom), 

rugged  and  worn,  which  Dr.  Robinson  has  described  as  a 
ridge,  varying  from  100  to  150  feet  in  height,  covered  with 
layers  of  chalky  limestone  or  marl,  so  as  to  present  chiefly  the 
appearance  of  common  earth  or  rock ;  yet  the  mass  of  salt  very 
often  breaks  out,  and  appears  on  the  sides  in  precipices  40  or 
50  feet  high,  and  several  hundred  feet  in  length,  pure  crystal- 
lized fossil  salt.  "  The  very  stones  beneath  our  feet  were  pure 
salt.  This  continued  to  be  the  character  of  the  mountain 
throughout  its  whole  length,  a  distance  of  five  geographical 
miles." 

Pillar  of  The  most  remarkable  discovery  in  this  region  is  the  pillar  of 

salt  which  Lynch  descried,  and  describes  as  conspicuous  on 
this  extraordinary  mountain,  consisting  of  a  lofty  round  pillar, 
apparently  detached  from  the  general  mass,  at  the  head  of  a 
deep,  narrow,  and  abrupt  chasm.     Josephus  and  others  have 


salt 


LAKE  MEROM. 


70 


referred  to  it  in  previous  ages ;  but  it  cannot  be  regarded,  Pillar  of 
as  they  have  superstitiously  believed,  in  any  way  connected  sa  t4 
with  the  visible  judg- 
ment of  Lot's  wife.  The 
pillar  is  of  salt,  capped 
with  carbonate  of  lime, 
cylindrical  in  front,  and 
pyramidal  behind.  The 
upper  or  rounded  part 
is  about  40  feet  high, 
resting  on  a  kind  of 
oval  pedestal,  from  40 
to  60  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  It 
slightly  decreases  in  size 
upwards,  crumbles  at 
the  top,  and  is  one 
entire  mass  of  crystal- 
lization. A  prop,  or 
buttress,  connects  it 
with  the  mountain  be- 
hind, and  the  whole  is 
covered  with  debris  of 
a  light  stone  colour. 
Its  peculiar  shape  is 
attributable  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  winter  rains.  LPil]ar  of  Sait  ac  M*»~i**] 

The  bottom  of  the  Dead  Sea  consists  of  two  submerged 
plains,  an  elevated  and  a  depressed  one,  the  former  averaging 
thirteen  hundred  feet  below  the  surface,  the  latter  thirteen. 
Through  the  largest  and  deepest  northern  one,  is  a  ravine 
corresponding  with  the  bed  of  the  Jordan.  "It  is  a  curious 
fact,"  says  Lieut.  Maury,  "that  the  distance  from  the  top  to 
the  bottom  of  the  Dead  Sea  should  measure  the  height  of  its 
banks,  the  elevation  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  difference  of 
level  between  the  bottom  of  the  two  seas,  and.  that  the  depth 
of  the  Dead  Sea  should  be  also  an  exact  multiple  of  the  height 
of  Jerusalem  above  it." 

The  waters  of  Merom,  lake  Hulek,  or,  as  it  is  now  called,  Jj^[*  of 
Bahr-El-Huleh,  is  a  marshy  lake  about  twelve  miles  from 
Tiberias,  in  the  northern  part  of  Judea,  through  which  the 
Jordan  flows.  In  the  spring  freshets  it  expands  to  six  miles  in 
length,  and  three  and  a  half  in  breadth.  In  summer  the  bed 
is  almost  dry  and  overgrown,  with  grass  and  shrubs,  to  which 
wild  animals  retire.  The  greatest  body  of  the  lake  is  to  the 
west  of 'the  emergence  of  the  Jordan.     There  are  no  conside- 


80       GEOGKAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OP  CAKAAtf. 

waters  of     rable  banks  on  the  south  and  west,  so  that  a  small  rise  of  the 
Merom.       waters  would  occasion  a  considerable  overflow.     As  the  lake 
narrows  towards  the  outlet,  the  plain  on  the   west   widens, 
forming  a  beautiful  and  fertile  champain  called  Ard  El-Kail. 
The  water  is  clear  and  swyeet,  but  the  shore  is  often  muddy, 
being  fed  by  several  streams  running  through  a  morass.     Its 
surface  is  covered  with  a  marsh  plant,  having  very  broad  leaves 
and  many  rushes   and   reeds.      Multitudes   of  aquatic  birds 
gambol  upon  it,  while  swallows  skim  above.     The  Arabs  pas- 
ture their  cattle  on  the  northern  part  of  the  marsh,  and  nume- 
merous   flocks   of    white  sheep   and  black   goats   with   their 
shepherds  are  seen  from  the  earliest  dawn  along  the  eastern, 
northern,  and  wrestern  shores.     "  Droves  of  camels,  and  herds 
of  cows  and  buffaloes,  also  enliven  every  part  of  the  plain  ;  whilst 
low  ranges  of  tents  here  and  there  stretch  their  black  curtains 
along  the  reedy  marsh,  and  associate  what  is  every  day  and 
common-place,  with  the  ancient  and  the  patriarchal. "1 
Lake  of  Gen-      The  lake  of  Gennesareth  (in  the  Old  Testament  the  Sea  of 
nesareth.      Chinnereth),  called  also  the  Sea  of  Gallilee,  and  the  Sea  of  Tide- 
rias,  is  ever  memorable  and  illustrious  as  the  scene  of  our 
Saviour's  frequent  visits  and  miracles.     It  is  about  ten  miles 
south  of  the  former,  and  the  Jordan  flows  with  it.     The  Jews 
say  "  Grod  loved  that  sea  more  than  all  other  seas  in  the  world ;" 
nor  is  the  sentiment  without  some  echo  in  the  Christian  mind. 
Its  waters  are  clear  and  pure.     It  produces  five  kinds  of  fish, 
all  good,  namely,  "  The  Musht,  Abu  But,  Huffafah,  Abu  Kisher, 
and  Burbiit.     The  last,  from  some   superstitious  idea,  is  not 
eaten  by  the  Jews.     The  musht,  about  one  foot  long,  and  four 
or  five  inches  wide,  resembles  the  sole.     Burckhardt  mentions 
one  called  Binni,  like  the  carp."2    The  lake  is  about  twelve  miles 
long  and  six  broad.     It  has  its  bed  in  a  valley  distinguished 
by  great  beauty  and  fertility,  and  is  surrounded  by  lofty  hills. 
"  On  the  southern  part  of  the  lake,"  says  Robinson,  in  his 
Researches,  "  and  along  its  whole  eastern  coast,  the  mountain 
walls  may  be  estimated  as  elevated  eight  hundred  or  a  thousand 
feet  above  the  water,  steep  but  not  precipitous.     On  the  east 
the  mountains  spread  off  into  the  high  uneven  table  land  of 
G-aulonitis,  and  on  the   west   into   the   large   plain  north  of 
Tabor ;  rising  indeed  very  slightly,  if  at  all,  above  these  high 
plains.  Along  the  north-west  part  of  the  Lake,  beyond  Magdala, 
the  hills  are  lower,  and  the  country  back  of  them  more  broken : 
they  rise  with  a  gradual  ascent  from  the  shore,  and  cannot  at 
first  be  more  than  from  three  to  five  hundred  feet  in  height. 
The  position  of  this  lake,  embosomed  deep  in  the  midst  of 

1  Thompson,  "  Laws  of  the  Bible." 

2  Lynch. 


LAKE  OF  GENNESARETH. 


81 


higher  tracts  of  country,  exposes  it,  as  a  matter  of  course,  to  Lake  of  Gen- 
gusts  of  wind,  and,  in  winter,  to  tempests.  One  such  storm  is  nesareth- 
recorded  during  the  course  of  our  Lord's  ministry.  In  the  other 
instance,  when  Jesus  followed  his  disciples,  walking  on  the 
waters,  it  is  only  said  the  wind  was  contrary,  and,  as  John  adds, 
great."  We  cannot  here  withhold  Lieutenant  Lynch's  de- 
scription of  the  first  view  he  had  of  it  from  the  western  heights. 
He  "  saw  below,  far  down  the  green  sloping  chasm,  the  Sea  of 
Galilee  basking  in  the  sunlight.     Like  a  mirror  it  lay  em- 


[The  Sea  of  Galilee.] 

bosomed  in  its  rounded  and  beautiful,  but  treeless  hills.  How 
dear  to  the  christian  are  the  memories  of  that  lake  !  The  lake 
of  the  New  Testament !  Blessed  beyond  the  nature  of  its  ele- 
ment, it  has  borne  the  Son  of  God  upon  its  surface.  Its  cliffs 
first  echoed  the  glad  tidings  of  salvation,  and  from  its  villages 
the  first  of  the  apostles  were  gathered  to  the  ministry.  Its 
placid  waters,  and  its  shelving  beach  ;  the  ruined  cities  once 
crowded  with  men,  and  the  everlasting  hills,  the  handiwork  of 
God,— all  identify  and  attest  the  wonderful  miracles  that  were 

G 


82        GEOGRAPHY  AKD  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CANAAN. 

here  performed — miracles,  the  least  of  which  was  a  crowning  act 
of  mercy  of  an  Incarnate  God  towards  his  sinful  snd  erring 
creatures. 

"  The  roadside  and  the  uncultivated  slopes  of  the  hills  were 
full  of  flowers,  and  abounded  with  singing  birds ;  and  there  lay 
the  holy  lake,  consecrated  by  the  presence  of  the  Redeemer  ! 
How  could  travellers  describe  the  scenery  of  this  lake  as  tame 
and  uninteresting  ?  It  far  exceeded  my  most  sanguine  expecta- 
tions, and  I  could  scarce  realise  that  I  was  there.  Nearby  was 
the  field  where,  according  to  tradition,  the  disciples  plucked  the 
ears  of  corn  upon  the  Sabbath.  Tet  nearer  was  the  spot  where 
the  Saviour  fed  the  famishing  multitude ;  and  to  the  left  the 
Mount  of  Beatitudes,  where  he  preached  his  wonderful  sum- 
mary of  wisdom  and  love." 

Rivers.  The  other  rivers  or  brooks  are  principally  the  Jarmach,  in 

the  country  of  the  G-ergesenes,  rising  from  the  mountains  of 
Gilead ;  Kirmion,  near  Damascus,  called  also  Abana ;  Pharphar, 
which  flows  from  Mount  Hermon ;  Kishon,  which  was  in  the 
tribes  of  Issachar  and  Zebulun ;  Arnon,  originating  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Arnon,  and  running  into  the  Dead  sea ;  and  Jabok, 
which  falls  into  the  Jordan.  Though  most  of  the  streams  of 
Palestine  are  dignified  with  the  name  of  rivers,  there  are  few 
among  them,  as  has  already  been  observed,  that  deserve  the 
name.  They  are  chiefly  brooks  which  flow  towards  the  Medi- 
terranean on  the  one  side,  or  towards  the  Jordan  on  the  other. 

Wadys.  They  are  called  Wadys,  an  Arabic  word,  which  signifies  both 
the  vale  itself  and  the  water  that  runs  through  it.  The  proper 
word  for  river  is  Nahr.     Most  of  them  are  winter  torrents,  but 

Litany.  some  are  perpetual.  The  Litany,  probably  the  Leontes  of  the 
ancients,  rises  south  of  Baalbek,  dividing  by  a  deep  ravine  the 
chain  of  Lebanon  and  Antilebanon,  to  th.e  southern  point  of  the 
former,  Jebel-ed-Drus,  and  emptying  itself  a  little  to  the  north 
of  Tyre  into  the  sea,  by  the  name  of  Nahr-el-Kasimiyeh,  which 
signifies  division,  being  the  boundary  line  of  two  districts. 
Many  insignificant  coast  streams  flow  along  the  coast  of  Tyre 

Beius.  as  far  as  Acre.  Below  Acre  is  the  small  river  Belus,  now  called 
Nahr  Na'man,  celebrated  for  the  art  of  manufacturing  glass 
having  been  first  discovered  on  its  banks.  On  the  south  of  the 
plain  of  Acre,  along  the  base  of  Carmel,  runs  Nahr-el-Mukatta, 

Kishon.  or  Kishon,  which  comes  from  the  plain  of  Esdraelon.  Towards 
its  outlet  it  is  a  perennial  stream,  being  supplied  with  springs 
which  issue  from  Mount  Carmel,  or  lie  at  its  base.  The  great 
battle,  in  which  Deborah  and  Barak  defeated  Sisera,  was  fought 
on  the  Kishon.  A  number  of  small  coast  streams  again  flow  from 
the  south-west  declivity  of  Carmel,  and  the  wadys  further  south 
receive  their  waters  from  the  valleys  of  Mount  Ephraim  and 


RIVEBS,  LAKES,  AND  WADYS.  83 

Judea,  and  the  hills  between  these  and  the  plain.     The  small 

river,  Nahr  Arsuf,  has  a  northern  and  southern  branch.     Two  Nahr  Arsuf. 

hours  north  of  Jaffa  flows  the  river  el-Anjeh  to  the  sea,  after  e "  nje 

receiving  the  waters  of  several  wadys,  which  rise  from  the  ridge 

of  Mount  Ephraim.     The  wadys  on  the  western  side  of  the 

ridge  between  Birch  and  Bethlehem,  unite  in  a  large  one  which 

runs  into  the  plain  under  the  name  of  Nahr,  or  Wady  Rubin,  wady 

when  it  takes   the  direction  south-east    to   north-west,   and Rub!n- 

flows  into  the  sea  seven  miles  south  of  Jaffa.     It  is  formed 

by    the  junction   of    three  principal   branches.      Southward, 

at  the  south-east  angle  of  the  Mediterranean  sea,  is  the  great 

wady  el-Arish,  towards  which  all  the  valleys   in   the   south-  wady  ei- 

west  of  Palestine,  and  the  great  southern  desert,  seem  to  in-  Arish- 

cline.     The  wadys  that  proceed  from  the  eastern  declivity  of 

the  great  western  chain  towards  the  Jordan  are  both  shorter 

and  deeper  than  those  of  the  western  slope.     Between  lake 

Huleh  and  the  lake  of  Tiberias  they  are  small.     They  flow  into 

the  Jordan.     Those  which  empty  into  the  sea  of  Tiberias  are 

somewhat  more  important.     A  wady  called  el-Birch,  and  ano-  Birch  and 

ther  which  passes  by  and  takes  the  name  of  Bethshan,  or  Beisan,  Beisan'    c- 

conduct  the  waters  of  the  two  eastern  branches  of  the  plain  of 

Esdraelon  to  the  Jordan.    About  the  medium  distance  between 

the  two  lakes,  and  five  miles  at  their  mouths  from  each  other, 

are   the   wadys   Meleh,    Jamel,  and  Taria,  the  last  of  which 

drains   the  waters  of  the  eastern  declivities  of  Shechem  and 

Samaria.     Wady  Kelt  is  the  great  outlet  eastward  of  all  the  wady  Kelt. 

waters  for  ten  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.     It  enters  the  plain  of 

Jericho  near  Kasr  el- Jehud. 

At  the    south-eastern  corner  of  the  Dead  sea  is  wady  el-  ei-Kurahy. 
Kurahy,  which  rises  near  the  route  of  the  Syrian  pilgrim  caravan, 
and  is  there  called   el-Ahsy.     Between  this  and  wady  Mojib 
are  many  others,  which  flow  from  the  mountains  of  Kerak  ;  the  Kenak  or 
largest  is  wady  Kerak,  or  wady  Derraah,  which  is  never  dry,  Derraah. 
and  flows  towards  the  Dead  sea,  falling  into  the  bay  at  its 
northern  side.     Wady  Mojib  possesses  much  relative  impor-  Wady 
tance.     Its  source  is  near  the  pilgrim  station  at  Katrane.     It  Mojib. 
formed  the  ancient  boundary  between  the  kingdoms  of  Moab 
and  Ammon,  afterwards  between  those  of  the  Ammonites  and 
Moabites,  and  subsequently  it  separated  the  Israelitish  territory 
from  that  of  the  last-named  people.  From  its  rise  near  Katrane 
to  its  mouth,  it  runs  a  circuitous  course  of  at  least  fifty  miles  to 
the  Dead  sea.     It  flows  in  a  bed  of  rock,  the  descent  on  both 
sides  of  which  is  in  some  places  extremely  steep  and  precipitous, 
and  the  distance,  in  a  straight  line  from  the  top  of  one  precipice 
to  another,  varies  from  two  to  three  miles.     Lieutenant  Lynch' s 
description  of  this  celebrated  river  is  worthy  of  transcription : — 


84 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OP  CANAAN. 


Script 

terms. 


ure 


"  We  started  at  1 :  55  p.m.  with  a  light  breeze  from  the  south, 
and  steered  down  the  bay,  along  the  coast  towards  wady  Mojeb, 
the  river  Arnon  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  shore  presented 
the  barren  aspect  of  lofty  perpendicular  clifts  of  red  sandstone, 
and  here  and  there  a  ravine  with  patches  of  cane,  indicating 
that  water  was  or  had  recently  been  there.  At  4 :  45  passed  a 
date-palm-tree  and  some  canes,  their  tops  withered,  at  the  foot 
of  a  dry  ravine  ;  soon  after  saw  an  arch,  twenty  feet  from  the 
water,  spanning  a  chasm  twelve  feet  wide.  At  5  :  25  stopped 
for  the  night  in  a  beautiful  cave  on  the  south  side  of  the  delta, 
through  which — its  own  formation — the  Arnon  flows  to  the  sea. 
The  stream,  now  eighty-two  feet  wide,  and  four  deep,  runs 
through  a  chasm  ninety-seven  feet  wide,  formed  by  high  per- 
pendicular cliffs  of  red,  brown,  and  yellow  sandstone,  mixed  red 

and  yellow  on  the  south- 
ern side,  and  on  the  north, 
a  soft,  rich  red, — all  worn 
by  the  winter  rains  into 
the  most  fantastic  forms, 
not  unlike  Egyptian  archi- 
tecture.    The  chasm  runs 
up  in  a  direct  line  for  150 
yards,  then  turns,  with  a 
slow  and  graceful  curve,  to 
the  south-east."  Proceed- 
ing northward  along  the 
east   coast   of   the  Dead 
sea,    we    come   to    wady 
Zerka  Ma'in,  which  flows 
in  a  deep  vale  through  a 
forest  of  defle  trees .  Zerka 
is    a    small    river    which 
rises   on  the   Syrian  pil- 
grim road,  and  falls  into 
the   Jordan.      Its   shores 
-wady  -Vojeb,  a  liuwue  ot  Lfte  Amon.]  are  steep,  and  overgrown 

with  rushes  and  the  defle  shrub.  The  mountains  are  of  lime- 
stone, with  strata  of  various  coloured  sandstone,  and  blocks  of 
the  black  basalt  of  the  Hauran.  To  the  north  is  wady  Ajhun, 
and  various  small  brooks. 

It  is  often  difficult  to  trace  the  valleys  and  streams  mentioned 
in  Scripture.  The  Old  Testament  employs  destinative  appella- 
tions, which  are  not,  however,  accurately  translated.  The 
Hebrew  word  Nachal  agrees  with  the  Arabic  Wady.  Gai  is  a 
vale  without  regularly  flowing  waters,  Emek  refers  to  depressed 
or  valley  plains.     JBi'/c'  ah  is  a  plain  enclosed  by  mountains.     The 


BITERS,  LAKES,  AND  WADYS.  85 

Nachal,  or  "  brook  of  Egypt,"  was  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Brook  of 
land  (Numb,  xxxiv.  5  ;  Josh.  xv.  4—47  ;  1  Kings,  viii.  65,  &c).  Egypt# 
It  is  called  also  "the  river  of  the  great  sea"   (Ezek.  xlvii.  19; 
xlviii.  28),  and  perhaps   "  the  river  of  the  wilderness"  (Amos, 
vi.  14).     It  is  the  present  wady  el-Arish.     The  valley  of  Eshcol  |*^of 
(Nachal  Eshcol,  grape  valley),  from  which  the  spies  brought  a 
bunch  of  grapes,  is  identified  with  a  valley  on  the  road  from 
Hebron  to   Jerusalem,  near  the  former  place,  where  the  finest 
grapes  are  still  to  be  found.    Nachal  Sorek,  wThere  Delilah  lived,  Nachal 
was  between  Ascalon  and  Gaza.     The  brook  of  Reeds,  Nachal  Nachal 
Kanah,   is  the  same  with   Nahr  Arsuf,  on   the  boundary  of  Kanah. 
Ephraim  and  Manasseh.     The  brook  Cherith,  where  Elijah  was  Brook 
fed  by  ravens,  was  upon  the  eastern  declivity  of  the  mountains  Clienth' 
of  Judea,  towards  the  Jordan.      The  most   southern   on  the 
eastern   side  of  Palestine  is   the   "brook   of  willows."     The  Brook  of 
southern  boundary  of  the  Moabitish  territory  is  wady  el-Ahsy,  W1  OVV55' 
now  forming  the  boundary  between  the  districts  of  Kerak  and 
Jebal.     The  "brook  Zared,"  in  Moab,  is  probably  wady  Kerak. 
Partner   north  the  Arnon,   wady  Mojib  formed  the  southern 
boundary  of  East  Palestine,  and  the  Jabbok,  now  wady  Zerka, 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  Ammonites. 

The  term  Gai,  meaning  the  bottom  of  a  valley,  is  in  Scripture  Gai. 
applied  to — 1.  The  valley  of  Zephathah,  near  Mareshah,  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah.  2.  The  valley  of  Cherashim  (Craftsmen),  be- 
longing to  the  vale  of  Benjamin.  3.  The  valley  of  Zeboiim 
(Hyenas),  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  4.  The  valley  of  Zephthah- 
El,  on  the  northern  border  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulon. 

Emek  includes — 1.  The  valley  of  Rephaim  (Giants)  south-  Emek. 
west  of  Jerusalem,  towards  Bethlehem,  now  wady  el-Werd. 
2.  The  valley  of  Elah  (Terebinth  vale),  where  David  overthrew 
G-oliah,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Soeho ;  the  present  wady  Es- 
Sunt  (Acacias).  3.  The  valley  of  Ajalon,  celebrated  for  Joshua's 
miracle,  now  the  great  valley  plain  of  Merj  iben  Amir,  to  the 
north  of  the  village  of  Jalo.  4.  A  valley  mentioned  with  Gibeon 
in  Is.  xxviii.  21.  5.  The  valley  of  Hebron,  now  wady  el-Khalil. 
6.  A  valley  running  south-east  from  Jerusalem  towards  the 
Dead  sea;  the  valley  of  Blessing  (Emek  hab-Berachah), 
2  Chron.  xx.  26.  7.  The  King's  Dale  (Gen.  xiv.  17  ;  2  Sam. 
xviii.  18),  lying  northward  upon  the  Jordan.  8.  The  valley  of 
Achor,  near  Jericho.  9.  The  valley  of  Succoth,  east  of  the 
Jordan,  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Ghor.  10.  The  valley  of 
Bacah  or  "Weeping  (Emek  hab-Bacah). 

Under  the  term  Bik'ah  are — 1.  The  plain  of  Ono.     The  city  Bik'ah. 
is  mentioned  in  1  Chron.  viii.  12  ;  Neh.  xi.  35,  in  connexion 
with  Lydda.     2.  The  plain  of  Jericho,  in  the  great  valley  of  the 
Jordan.     3.  The  plain  of  the  Mount  Lebanon,  at  the  foot  of 


86 


GEOGKAPHY  AND  TOPOGRAPHY  OP  CANAAN. 


Wells  and 
cisterns. 


Fountain  of 
the  Virgin. 


Jebel-esh-Sheikh,  perhaps  the  Ard  Banias,  where  the  Jordan 
rises. 

The  general  deficiency  of  water  led  to  the  construction  of 
wells  and  cisterns,  usually  having  a  small  round  opening  at  the 
top.  These  were  very  general  in  the  cities,  and  the  remains  of 
many  are  still  observable  along  the  ancient  roads.  Large  reser- 
voirs, or  tanks  of  water,  were  built  in  great  towns  for  public 
use,  as  in  Jerusalem,  Hebron,  Gibeon,  and  many  other  places 
which  are  now  commonly  seen  in  ruins ;  but  as  Robinson  re- 
marks, these  are  the  least  doubtful  vestiges  of  antiquity  in  all 
Palestine;  for  amongst  the  present  race  of  inhabitants  such 
works  are  utterly  unknown. 

One  of  the  most  celebrated  fountains  in  Palestine  is  the  foun- 
tain of  the  Virgin  at  Nazareth,  at  which  travellers  and  pilgrims, 
from  time  immemorial,  have  halted  and  pitched  their  tents.  Dr. 
Clarke  is  of  opinion  "  that  if  there  be  a  spot  throughout  the  Holy 
Land  that  was  undoubtedly  honoured  by  Mary's  presence,  we 
may  consider  this  to  have  been  the  place."  When  this  traveller 
visited  the  place,  "  he  saw  the  women  of  Nazareth  passing  to 
and  from  the  town  with  pitchers  upon  their  heads  ;  and,  calling 
to  mind,"  says  he,  "  the  manners  of  the  most  remote  ages,  we 
renewed  the  solicitation  of  Abraham's  servant  unto  Rebecca." 
Lieut.  Lynch  also  camped  here,  at  which  time  "there  were  a  great 
many  women  and  children  around  the  fountain ;  the  children 
sprightly,  with  intelligent  features,  and  the  women  the  most 
cleanly  in  their  attire,  and  the  most  courteous  in  their  manners  of 
any  he  had  seen  in  Syria." 


Fountain  of  Nazareth  —  Lynch.~\ 


87 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  PALESTINE. 


Solomon  "  spake  of  trees,  from  the  cedar  of  Lebanon  even  unto 
the  hyssop  that  springeth  out  of  the  wall :   he  spake  also  of 
beasts,  and  of  fowl,  and  of  creeping  things,  and  of  fishes;' 
(1  Kings,  iv.  33)  and  the  Scriptures  abound  with  allusions  to 
various  kinds  of  plants  and  trees. 


I. — Plants. 

Among  the  wild  trees,  the  cedar  (m  erez)  *  holds  a  pre-  Cedar-tree, 
eminent  place.  Its  roots  are  very  spreading ;  its  branches 
thick,  numerous,  covered  with  green 
leaves  throughout  the  year,  thick, 
and  almost  horizontal  in  their  growth. 
Its  height  is  very  considerable,  rising 
sometimes  to  70  or  80  feet.  The 
trunk  is  often  of  large  circum- 
ference, measuring  36  feet,  and  more 
than  100  feet  in  the  spread  of  its 
boughs.  The  wood  is  of  a  brownish- 
red  colour ;  odoriferous,  but  bitter  to 
the  taste,  so  that  worms  or  other  in- 
sects are   not    disposed  to  touch  it; 

hence  the  durability  of  the  tree  is  great — a  thousand  or  even  two 
thousand  years.  It  was  therefore  adapted  to  supply  timber 
for  the  most  magnificent  edifices.  Anciently  the  principal 
place  where  the  cedars  grew  was  Mount  Lebanon,  but  few  only 
of  large  dimensions  are  now  remaining,  and  these  on  the  most 
elevated  part  of  the  mountain.  Many  beautiful  allusions  to 
this  stately  production  are  scattered  in  Scripture  (Ps.  xcii.  12 ; 
civ.  16 ;  Ezek.  xxxi.  3  ;  Hos.  xiv.  6 ;  Is.  ii.  13).  Travellers  also 
have  described  it,  but  none  better  than  Lord  Lindsay :  "  Several 
generations  of  cedars,  all  growing  promiscuously  together, 
compose  this  beautiful  grove.  The  younger  are  very  numerous ; 
the  second-rate  would  form  a  noble  wood  of  themselves,  were 
even  the  patriarchal  dynasty  quite  extinct ;  one  of  them,  by  no 
means  of  the  largest,  measures  19J  feet  in  circumference,  and, 


[Cedar.] 


88 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  PALESTINE. 


in  repeated  instances,  two,  three,  and  four  large  trunks  spring 
from  a  single  root ;  but  they  have  all  a  fresher  appearance  than 

the    patriarchs 
and    straighter 
stems,  straight 
as  young  palm- 
trees.     Of  the 
giants  there  are 
seven  standing 
very  near  each 
other  —  all   on 
the  same  hill ; 
three    more    a 
little  further  on, 
nearly  in  a  line 
with  them :  and 
in     a     second 
walk     of     dis- 
covery,      after 
my  companions 
had  laid  down 
to  rest,  I  had 
|    the  pleasure  of 
3    detecting    two 
s    others  low  down 
s    on  the  northern 
;    edge     of     the 
grove — twelve, 
therefore,       in 
all,    of     which 
the  ninth  from 
the  south  is  the 
smallest,      but 
even  that  bears 
tokens    of    an- 
tiquity    coeval 
with  its  breth- 
ren. The  stately 
bearing,       and 
graceful  repose 
of   the    young 
cedars  contrast 
singularly  with 
the  wild  aspect 
andfrantic  atti- 
tude of  the  old 


CEDAR  ATSfD  OAK.  89 

ones,  flinging  abroad  their  knotted  and  muscular  limbs  like  so  Cedars  of 
many  laocoons,  while  others,  broken  off,  lie  rotting  at  their  Lebai,on- 
feet :  but  life  is  strong  in  them  all ;  they  look  as  if  they  had 
been  struggling  for  existence  with  evil  spirits,  and  God  had 
interposed  and  forbidden  the  war,  that  the  trees  he  had  planted 
might  remain  living  witnesses  to  faithless  men  of  that  ancient 
'  glory  of  Lebanon' — Lebanon,  the  emblem  of  the  righteous — 
which  departed  from  her  when  Israel  rejected  Christ ;  her  vines 
drooping,  her  trees  few  that  a  child  may  number  them,  she 
stands  blighted,  a  type  of  the  unbeliever !  ....  We  had  in- 
tended proceeding  that  evening  to  Psherrk,  but  no,  we  could 
not  resolve  to  leave  those  glorious  trees  so  soon — the  loveliest, 
the  noblest,  the  holiest,  in  the  wide  world.  The  tent  was 
pitched,  and  we  spent  the  rest  of  the  day  under  their  '  shadowy 
shroud.'  O,  what  a  church  that  grove  is  !  Never  did  I  think 
Solomon's  Song  so  beautiful,  and  that  most  noble  chapter  of 
Ezekiel,  the  31st.  I  had  read  it  on  the  heights  of  Syene, 
Egypt  on  my  right  hand,  and  Ethiopia  on  my  left,  with  many 
another  denunciation,  how  awfully  fulfilled !  of  desolation 
against  Pathros,  and  judgments  upon  No  !  But  this  was  the 
place  to  enjoy  it — lying  under  one  of  those  vast  trees,  looking 
up  every  now  and  tfyen  into  its  thick  boughs,  the  little  birds 
warbling,  and  a  perpotual  hum  of  insect  life  pervading  the  air 
with  its  drowsy  melody." 

Next,  perhaps,  in  magnificence  Is  the  oak,  called  by  the  Arabs  Oak. 
Butin  (nbtf,  pbtf,  b*tf  ail,  alon,or  alah), which  abounded  in  different 
parts  of  Palestine,  of  which  the  most  celebrated  were  those  of 
Bash  an.  It  was  common  to  choose  the  shadow  of  this  tree  for 
pitching  a  tent,  and  often,  alas,  was  it  made  the  scene  of  idolatry. 
The  eastern  oak  was,  properly  speaking,  the  terebinth,  or  turpen- 
tine tree,  which  had  wide-spreadingbranches  and  abundant  foliage. 
The  turpentine  exudes  from  the  trunk.  It  is  said  to  live  a  thou- 
sand years  ;  and  when  it  perishes,  its  place  is  supplied  by  a  new 
trunk,  which  grows  on  the  spot,  and  to  a  similar  age  :  or  there 
may  be  several  long-lived  shoots.  But  as  oaks  commonly 
flourished  separately,  they  were  often  used  to  designate  par- 
ticular places,  as  the  oak  of  Shechem,  the  oak  in  Jabesh,  &c. 
As  Mamre  was  a  person  of  great  importance,  the  term  oaks, 
or  terebinths  of  Mamre,  was  employed  where  Abraham  lodged. 
Dr.  Robinson  says  it  is  not  an  evergreen,  but  its  small,  feathered, 
lancet-shaped  leaves,  fall  in  the  autumn,  and  are  renewed  in 
the  spring.  The  flowers  are  small,  and  followed  by  small  oval 
berries,  resembling  the  clusters  of  the  vine.  The  oak  which  is 
characteristic  of  Britain,  is  not  found  in  Palestine  or  Syria ; 
but  there  are  other  species  of  oaks.  Alah  is  the  term  for  the 
terebinth-tree,  and  allon  for  the  oak. 


90  NATUEAL  HISTORY  OF  PALESTINE. 

Fir.  The  fir-tree  (urni  berosh)  attains  a  great  height,  and  an- 

ciently grew,  luxuriantly  on  Lebanon  and  Carmel.  It  was  used 
for  ship-building,  for  splendid  edifices,  and  for  musical  instru- 
ments. It  was  very  tall,  and  its  tops  were  occupied  by  the 
storks  (Ps.  civ.  17).  It  is  used  in  Scripture  as  an  emblem  of 
power  or  grandeur. 
Cypress.  Other  trees  also  grew  wild  on  the  mountains  ;  as  the  cypress 

(nrin  tirzah,  and  ")Qi  gopher),  a  tall,  straight  evergreen,  very 
durable,  and  having  an  aromatic  wood.  The  foliage  is  dark, 
and  its  form  pyramidal.  It  was  anciently  used  for  coffins  and 
Gopher.  mummy-cases.  The  Gopher-tree  (^itt)  according  to  Fuller, 
Bochart,  and  other  critics,  is  a  species  of  cypress  :  the  Greek 
name  KvKapcaaog  is  evidently  derived  from  it.  It  was  probably 
the  wood  used  in  the  construction  of  the  ark.  The  cupressus 
sempervirens  is  a  straight  elegant  tree  of  the  cone  family. 
Pine.  The  pine  is  a  well-known  stately  and  flourishing  tree,  referred 

to  as  an  emblem  of  the  prosperous  state  of  the  church.  The 
Seventy  render  p«  oren,  and  our  translators  render  JDttTfy  etz- 
shemen,  and  1»Tifi  tidaher  by  the  same  word — pine.  There  were 
also  on  the  sides  of  brooks,  at  the  foot  of  mountains,  or  on  the 
plains,  the  lindan,  or  teil-tree,  the  alder,  the  poplar,  the  willow, 
the  laurel,  and  the  myrtle. 
Olive-tree.  The  olive-tree  (m  zaii)  is  mentioned  in  Scripture  as  one  of 
the  most  valuable  products  of  the  land,  and  was  cultivated  at  a 
very  early  period :  for  we  read  of  oil  in  the  time  of  Jacob 
(Gen.  xxviii.  18).  It  grows  better  in  Palestine  than  in  any 
other  eastern  country,  though  it  never  grows  into  a  very  large 
tree.  In  elevation  it  seldom  attains  more  than  30  feet.  It  is, 
however,  handsome  and  durable.  The  trunk  is  knotty,  but  the 
bark  smooth,  and  the  wood  hard,  with  wide- spreading  branches ; 
the  wood  of  a  yellowish  colour.  The  leaves  are  lance-shaped, 
like  the  willow,  thick  and  firm,  about  two  inches  and  a  half 

long;  on  the  upper  surface  of  a  dark 
green,  on  the  under  of  a  silvery  hue,  and 
thus  they  continue  throughout  the  year. 
The  blossoms  appear  between  the  leaves, 
enfolding  the  olives  in  the  form  of  an 
oval  berry,  sometimes  as  large  as  a 
pigeon's  egg,  first  green,  then  purple 
and  black,  containing  a  hard  kernel, 
ripening  in  September.  The  fruit  re- 
sembles a  plum.  Sometimes  the  olives 
are  plucked  in  an  unripe  state,  and  put 
into  a  pickle  for  exportation ;  but  they 
Loiive-Branch.]  are  $^fts[  prized  for  the  oil  they  pro- 

duce.    The  oil  is  pressed  out  of  the  unripe  fruit  in  various 


OLIYE  AND  FIG.  91 

ways.  A  full-sized  tree  produces  a  thousand  pounds  of  oil.  oiive-tree. 
The  fruit  of  the  wild  olive-tree  yields  an  inferior  oil,  and  in 
smaller  quantities,  and  the  wood  is  used  for  fuel.  The  fruit  of 
the  olive  is  sometimes  beaten  off  the  tree  with  a  pole  or  long 
stick,  but  the  best  is  that  which  comes  from  a  slight  pressure, 
or  is  gently  shaken.  What  remained  was  to  be  left  to  the 
poor,  as  were  the  grapes  passed  over  in  the  vintage  (Deut. 
xxiv.  20,  21).  The  best  is  obtained  from  unripe  fruit.  Olives 
were  trodden  in  a  particular  kind  of  press.  The  word  Geth- 
semane  means  an  oil-press,  and  the  place  was  so  called  probably 
because  the  presses  were  much  used  there  for  making  oil  from 
the  fruit  that  grew  plentifully  on  the  Mount  of  Olives.  The 
oil  answered  in  a  great  degree  the  purpose  that  butter  does 
with  us,  and  for  lighting  lamps.  It  was  also  used  for  salads. 
Oil  mixed  with  spices  was  used  for  ointment.  To  "  dip 
the  foot  in  oil,"  signifies  to  possess  a  plentiful  and  rich  in- 
heritance (Deut.  xxxiii.  24).  It  is  also  a  common  emblem  of 
gladness  and  of  grace.  The  sacred  oil  for  anointing  the  priests 
and  tabernacle  was  very  precious.  It  had  in  it  four  ingredients 
— myrrh,  cinnamon,  calamus,  and  cassia.  Corn,  wine,  and  oil, 
represent  the  three  great  blessings  of  Canaan. 

The  fatness  of  the  olive  was  proverbial  (Judg.  ix.  8,  9),  and 
is  used  by  the  Psalmist  as  emblematical  of  a  vigorous  and 
beautiful  piety.  "  I  am  like  a  green  olive-tree  in  the  house  of 
God"  (Ps.  lii.  8),  and  the  young  shoots  springing  forth  grace- 
fully from  the  roots,  are  referred  to  by  him  to  represent  "  chil- 
dren round  about  the  table"  (Ps.  cxxviii.  3).  The  olive-branch 
is  regarded  among  all  nations  as  an  emblem  of  peace,  probably 
because  an  olive-branch  was  brought  by  the  dove  to  Noah  in 
the  ark,  which  he  received  as  a  token  of  harmony  between 
heaven  and  earth  after  the  terrible  judgment  of  the  deluge.  It 
is  the  symbol  of  every  kind  of  peace  and  prosperity.  The  oil,  also, 
is  an  emblem  of  gladness,  and  of  the  grace  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

The  fig -tree  (ni^n  teenah)  grows  in  dry  and  sandy  soils  to  Fig-tree. 
a  considerable  height,  and  divides  itself  into  a  number  of  wide- 
spreading  branches,  having  broad  leaves, 
so  as  to  furnish  an  agreeable  shade.    In 
one  species  they  are  said  to  be  four  or 
five  feet  long  and  three  broad.     The  fig- 
tree  grows  abundantly  in  Palestine,  and 
in   some   places   forms   very    extensive 
plantations.     The  fruit  makes   its  ap- 
pearance   before    the    leaves,    growing       ^j*&Br^~- s*^ 
from  the  trunk  and  larger   branches ;       ^"^^^^^^^ 
not,     as    in     other    trees,    from     the 
smaller  shoots:  so  that  a  fig-tree  with  crig-Trcci 


92  KATTTEAL  HISTORY  OE  PALESTINE. 

Fig-tree.  leaves  but  without  fruit  may  be  known  to  be  barren  for  the 
season.  The  blossoms  appear  in  the  middle  of  March  on  the 
old  branches  in  a  pulpy  case  or  husk.  The  fruit  itself  ripens 
at  various  times  in  the  year,  constituting  three  kinds ;  namely, 
1.  The  early  or  first-ripe  fig ,  which  becomes  ripe  about  the  end 
of  June,  delicious  in  taste,  and  easily  dropping  from  the  bough 
if  shaken.  "I  found  Israel,"  says  the  prophet  Hosea,  "like 
grapes  in  the  wilderness  ;  I  saw  your  fathers  as  the  first-ripe  in 
the  fig-tree  at  her  first  time"  (Hosea,  ix.  10),  thus  describing 
the  early  attachment  of  Gk>d  to  Israel.  JSTahum  addresses 
Nineveh,  "  All  thy  strongholds  shall  be  like  fig-trees  with  the 
first-ripe  figs,  if  they  be  shaken,  they  shall  even  fall  into  the 
mouth  of  the  eater"  (JNah.  iii.  12).  2.  The  summer,  or  dry-fig, 
which  appears  about  the  middle  of  June,  and  becomes  ripe  in 
August.  3.  The  ivinter  fig,  which  appears  in  August,  and 
ripens  in  November,  when  the  tree  has  lost  its  foliage.  It  is  of 
an  oblong  shape,  dark,  and  larger  than  the  former. 

It  is  common  to  dry  the  figs  in  the  sun,  and  preserve  them 
in  masses.  These  are  called  cakes  of  figs  (1  Sam.  xxv.  18). 
Fig-trees  sprouting  early  become  a  sign  of  the  approach  of 
summer ;  and  a  failure  of  its  fruit  was  deemed  a  great  calamity 
(Comp.  Matt.  xxiv.  32;  Jer.  v.  17;  Hab.  iii.  17,  18).  The 
"  time  of  figs,"  signifies  the  season  of  plucking  them ;  which 
explains  the  Saviour's  cursing  of  the  fig-tree  (Mark,  xi.  13). 
The  time  to  gather  was  not  come  ;  it  was  therefore  to  be 
expected  some  should  be  found  on  the  tree.  It  had  leaves, 
which  are  not  found  in  the  fig  till  after  the  fruit.  Some  of  the 
leaves  of  this  tree — which  are  of  considerable  width — formed 
the  first  covering  of  the  progenitors  of  our  race,  and  which  was 
contrived  by  twisting  the  stems  of  the  leaflets,  and  otherwise 
fastening  them  together. 

Almond-  The  tree  which  is  the  first  to  blossom  in  the  opening  year, 

before  the  cold  days  of  February,  is  the  almond- tree  (H7,  luz). 
It  is  covered  with  snow-white  flowers,  and  before  the  end  of 
March  the  fruit  is  ripe.  The  rod  of  an  almond  tree,  seen  in 
vision  by  Jeremiah,  denoted  from  this  circumstance  the  rapid 
approach  of  God's  threatened  judgments,  and  the  vigilance 
with  which  he  watched  over  his  word  to  fulfil  it.  "  Thou  hast 
well  seen,  for  I  will  hasten  my  word  to  perform  it  "  (Jer.  i.  12). 
The  leaves  and  blossoms  resemble  those  of  a  peach.  The  fruit 
is  enclosed  in  a  tough  shell,  and  this  within  a  horny  husk. 
The  tree  blossoms  on  the  bare  branches.  It  is  cultivated  at 
the  present  day  in  England,  and  is  well  known.  The  chiefs  of 
the  tribes  had  almond  rods,  emblematical  of  the  vigilance  it 
became  them  to  exercise  ;  and  in  Ecclesiastes  (xii.  5),  allusion 
is  made  to  the  white,  silvery  hair  of  age,  taken  from  the  white 


tree. 


THE  VINE. 


93 


[Almond.] 


flowers    of    this    plant.     The   term,   Tpttf,    shakad,    translated  Almond- 
Almond -tree,    in    Genesis,    xliii.    11;     Numbers,    xvii.    28 ; tree* 
Ecelesiastes,  xx.  5,  and  Jer.  i.  11,  is  sup- 
posed  by  Dr.    T.   M.    Harris  to  be   the 
name  of  the  fruit  or  nut,  while  T\h9  luz,  is 
that  of  the  tree  itself. 

The  Vine  (JS^,  gephen, — a  particularly 
fine  kind,  is  named  pTittf,  shodek).  The 
cultivation  of  the  Vine  seems  to  have  been 
known  in  the  very  earliest  times.  In  the 
Scriptures,  vineyards  are  frequently  men- 
tioned in  distinction  from  the  fields  and 
ordinary  gardens.  They  were  usually 
planted  on  the  sides  of  hills  and  mountains, 
and  sometimes  on  places  so  precipitous 
that  it  was  necessary  to  secure  the  soil  by 
the  inclosure  of  walls.  The  ground  was 
carefully  chosen  on  a  southern  aspect, 
the  stones  gathered  out,  a  press  made 
for  making  wine,  a  tower  raised  where  the  vine-dresser  de-  The  vine 
posited  his  implements,  and  one  or  more  watchmen  sta- 
tioned to  guard  the  spot.  These  were  sometimes  built  in 
an  elegant  manner,  and  became  pleasure-houses,  where  the 
proprietor  repaired  for  the  entertainment  of  his  friends. 
The  process  of  preparing  a  vineyard  is  fully  described  in  Isaiah, 
v.  1 ;  and  the  divine  care  of  the  Jewish  nation  is  beautifully 
represented  bv  allusions  to  such  a  plantation  (Is.  v.  1 — 6 ; 
Ps.  lxxx.  9—13). 

Vines  were  propagated  by  suckers.  The  branches  some- 
times were  allowed  to  creep  on  the  ground,  or  a  post  was 
reared,  with  a  cross  piece  for  support  and  training,  and  fre- 
quently a  trellis-work  was  formed  to  constitute  an  arbour  by 
the  spreading  of  the  branches.  The  Syrian  vines  are  some- 
times trained  upon  trees,  generally  the  fig-tree,  which  illustrates 
the  expression  of  reposing  under  one's  own  vine  and  fig-tree 
in  security  and  peace  (Mic.  iv.  4;  Zach,  iii,  10).  Vines  were 
sometimes  very  large,  and  very  prolific. 

The  vines  were  pruned  several  times  a  year  with  an  instru-  Pruning 
ment  called  a  pruning-hook  or  knife,  which  is  generally  well 
known.  The  law  prohibited  the  Israelites  from  gathering  the 
grapes  of  the  first  three  years,  which  occasioned  a  careful  and 
unsparing  use  of  the  pruning-knife,  by  which  the  vine  was 
greatly  strengthened  (Lev.  xix.  23). 

The  plough  was  driven  through  the  vineyard  once  or  twice 
in  the  year  to  loosen  the  earth  and  subdue  the  weeds,  and 
the    stones   which  might  have   accumulated  were  removed. 


94  NATUKAL  HISTORY  OF  PALESTINE. 

The  vine-dressers,  or  keepers  of  the  vineyard,  formed  a  distinct 
class  of  labourers  (2  Kings,  xxv.  12). 
Vintage.  The  gathering  of  the  grapes,  or  season  of  vintage,  began  in 

Syria  about  the  middle  of  September,  and  lasted  two  months, 
but  ripe  clusters  are  found  in  Palestine  as  early  as  June  and 
July.  The  vintage  was  a  season  of  extraordinary  gladness, 
and  the  Hebrews  celebrated  it  with  more  festivity  than  even 
the  harvest.  The  labourers  collected  the  large  clusters  in 
baskets,  and  made  the  hills  echo  with  their  songs  as  they  carried 
Wine-press,  them  to  the  wine -press.  This  was  formed,  like  a  vat,  by 
digging  into  the  ground,  and  secured  over  the  bottom  and 
round  the  sides  with  stone-work,  plastered  so  as  to  hold  the 
juice.  It  was  often  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  and  consisted  of  two 
separate  vats  close  together :  one  being  sunk  considerably 
lower  than  the  other.  The  grapes  were  thrown  into  the  upper 
department  or  vat,  where  they  were  pressed  by  the  treading  of 
five  or  six  men;  the  juice  running,  as  it  was  pressed  out, 
through  a  small  grated  opening  in  the  side,  close  to  the  bottom, 
into  the  lower  vat.  The  treaders  sung  and  shouted  as  they 
jumped,  and  became  thoroughly  stained  with  the  red  juice  of 
the  grapes.  "  He  shall  give  a  shout  as  they  that  tread  the 
grapes.  Joy  and  gladness  is  taken  from  the  plentiful  field, 
and  from  the  land  of  Moab  ;  and  I  have  caused  wine  to  fail 
from  the  wine-presses.  None  shall  tread  with  shouting.  Their 
shouting  shall  be  no  shouting."  (Jerem.  xxv.  30, '  and  xlviii. 
32,  33). 
Different  Several  terms  are  used  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  denoting 

d^notino-  wine  in  the  different  modes  of  its  preservation  and  use. 
wine  in  Yayin  (p),  is  a  generic  name,  occurring  141  times  in  the 
states.8  Old  Testament,  mostly  signifying  a  fermented  and  intoxi- 
cating liquid.  Sometimes  it  appears  to  mean  the  growing 
fruit  of  the  vineyard  (Deut.  xxviii.  30;  Jer.  xl.  10 — 12). 
Tirosh  (timTi),  is  also  a  general  term,  which  occurs  38 
times  in  the  Old  Testament.  G-esenius  derives  it  from  the 
Hebrew  word  to  possess,  because  it  possesses  the  head,  or, 
in  other  words,  is  intoxicating.  It  is  often  used  with  the 
word  corn,  or  field  produce,  and  oil,  or  the  produce "  of  the 
orchard,  and  appears  frequently  to  mean  the  solid  produce  of 
the  wine.  Our  translators  have  in  six  instances  rendered  it 
"  new  wine,"  and  in  one  instance  "  sweet  wine."  The  Sep- 
tuagint,  Chaldee,  Syriac,  and  Vulgate,  translate  simply  "  wine." 
In  one  place  the  Septuagint  renders  it  "berry"  (Is.  lxv.  8), 
and  in  another  "intoxication"  (Hos.  iv.  11).  The  Vulgate  has 
"must"  in  Mic.  vi.  15  ;  in  four  other  places,  "vintage"  (vin- 
demia).      Ilamer  (ittn),  is  a   word  which  denotes  fermenta- 


THE  VINE. 


95 


tion.  It  is  the  chief  word  in  Arabic  for  wine.  Some  of  its  Wine, 
forms  occur  nine  times  in  the  Old  Testament.  Once  it  is 
rendered  "pure  wine"  (Deut.  xxxii.  14);  in  the  others,  "red 
wine,"  which  is  most  esteemed  in  the  East.  Sobe  (MD)  is 
used  three  times  in  the  Old  Testament.  In  Is.  i.  22,  it  refers 
to  wine  of  a  rich  quality,  which  had  been  diluted  with  water. 
In  Hos.  iv.  18,  the  meaning  is  similar:  "their  drink  (sobe)  is 
sour."  In  JSTahum,  i.  10,  the  prophet  says,  "For  while  they 
be  folden  together  as  thorns,  and  while  they  are  drunken  as 
drunkards,  they  shall  be  devoured  as  stubble  fully  dry."  Sobe 
has  been  thought  to  be  a  species  of  wine  boiled  down,  similar 
to  the  sapa  and  defrutum  of  the  Latins.  Mesech  Cpo),  or 
mixed  wine,  is  frequently  mentioned  by  the  sacred  writers, 
which  was  not,  like  the  former  wine,  weakened  by  dilution, 
but  increased  in  strength,  or  improved  in  flavour  and  colour' 
by  a  mixture  of  drugs,  herbs,  and  spices.  Asis  (d>d^)  is 
rendered  three  times  by  "sweet  wine,"  and  twice  by  "new 
wine."  In  Canticles,  viii.  2,  it  is  applied  to  the  juice  of  pome- 
granates. In  Joel,  i.  5,  it  is  associated  with  drunkenness  ;  and 
in  Is.  xlix.  26,  it  implies  an  intoxicating  quality.     "  A  feast  of 

wines  on  the  lees"  (Is. 
xxv.  6)  denotes  old 
and  pure  wine.  The 
term  lees  refers  to  the 
dregs  of  wine,  and  is 
similar  to  the  French 

^./v/M  /)  M?       ley,     This  sediment  is 
[Ancient  wine-press.]  preserving.       The   ge- 

neral term  for  wine  in  the  New  Testament  is  otvoc.     We  have 
also  "new  wine,"  and  "  sweet  wine"  (Acts,  ii.  12,  13). 

The  palm-tree  (-jon,  tamar),  though  now  comparatively  The  r aim 
rare,  once  abounded  in  Judea,  as  in  Arabia,  Egypt,  and tree* 
the  whole  of  southern  Asia.  Allusions  to  it  in  Scrip- 
ture are  frequent,  and  in  ancient  times  there  were  palm- 
groves  of  even  twelve  miles  in  extent  in  the  district  of  the 
Dead  sea.  On  the  ancient  coins  of  the  Jews  it  is  some- 
times found  stamped,  often  with  a  sheaf  of  wheat  and  a  cluster 
of  grapes,  as  a  symbol  of  their  nation.  After  the  conquest 
of  Judea  it  was  struck  on  the  Eoman  coins.  This  tree  grows 
up  straight  to  a  great  height,  from  sixty  to  a  hundred  feet  in 
sandy  soils,  but  most  luxuriantly  in  valleys  and  by  the  sides 
of  streams  of  water.  The  finest  were  formerly  found  near  the 
Jordan,  near  Engeddi,  by  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  and  especially  on 
the  plains  of  Jericho,  which  was  called  on  that  account,"  the 
"city  of  palm-trees"  (Judges,  iii.  13).     Figures  of  palm-trees 


96 


NATURAL  HISTORY'OF  PALESTINE. 


Palm- 
branches. 


Foliag-p  of 
the  palm. 


I>tes. 


[Palm.] 


were  carved  upon  the  doors  of  the  Temple.  It  was  usual  to 
spread  their  branches  before  kings,  when  on  public  occasions  they 
entered  cities ;  and  hence  it  was  a  mark  of  the  highest  honour 
to  the  Saviour,  when  they  "  took  branches  of  palm-trees  and 

went  forth  to  meet  him"  (John,  xii.  13), 
and  strewed  them  before  him  as  he 
entered  Jerusalem  (Mai.  xxi.  8).  The 
comparison  in  Solomon's  Song  is  most 
expressive.  "  Thy  stature  is  like  to  a 
palm-tree"  (Cant.  vii  7).  Not  less  cha- 
racteristic is  the  language  of  the  psalmist. 
"  The  righteous  shall  nourish  like  the 
palm-tree  ;  he  shall  grow  like  a  cedar  in 
Lebanon"  (Ps.  xcii.  12).  And  in  the 
first  of  those  sacred  poems  of  the  "  sweet 
singer  of  Israel,"  the  allusion  seems  to 
be  to  the  palm :  "  He  shall  be  like  a 
tree  planted  by  the  rivers  of  water,  that 
bringeth  forth  his  fruit  in  his  season  ; 
his  leaf  also  shall  not  wither."  In  the 
Grecian  games,  the  victorious  combatant 
was  often  rewarded  with  a  palm-branch,  which  is  referred  to 
as  the  emblem  of  the  final  triumph  and  joy  of  glorified  im- 
mortals. "I  beheld,  and,  lo,  a  great  multitude  stood  before 
the  throne  and  the  Lamb,  clothed  with  white  robes,  and  palms 
in  their  hands"    (Eev.  vii.  9.) 

The  foliage  grows  thick  and  clustering  at  the  top  of  the  tree, 
where  forty,  fifty,  or  more  leaf-branches  spring  forth,  and  are 
set  round  the  trunk  in  circles  of  six.     The  lower  row  is  of  great 

length,  and  the  leaves  curve  downward. 
The  long  leaves  are  used  for  roofing,  and 
the  others  for  mats,  couches,  bags, 
fences,  the  fibres  for  ropes,  the  shoots 
at  the  bottom  for  sacks,  mats,  sandals, 
&c.  In  February  small  scales,  having  a 
kind  of  bud,  sprout  from  between  the 
junctures  of  the  lower  stalks  and  the 
trunk  :  these  are  contained  in  a  tough, 
leathery  skin.  A  single  tree  will 
bear  a  considerable  number  of  dates 
in  clusters  weighing  several  pounds 
each.  When  ripe,  they  are  plucked 
or  shaken  oif  the  tree.  They  are  then 
spread  on  mats  in  the  open  air,  and  are  fit  for  use  in  a  few 
days.  Some  are  eaten  fresh,  and  others  kept  for  future  use. 
Some  yield  a  rich  syrup,  which,  being  expressed   the  remaining 


[Date  Palm.] 


THE  PALM. — SYCAMORE. — BALM.  97 


husk  is  steeped  in  hot  water,  and  affords  a  pleasant  drink.  The  Palm, 
different  kinds  of  syrup  constitute  the  date  wine,  which  was  so 
highly  valued  and  celebrated  in  ancient  times.  From  the  juice 
of  the  dates,  or  sap  of  the  tree  itself,  was  obtained  what  was 
called  debash  or  dibs,  rendered  honey  in  our  version ;  that  is, 
palm-honey. 

The  palm-tree  lives  upwards  of  two  hundred  years,  and  is 
most  productive  from  the  thirtieth  to  the  eightieth  year. 

The  sycamore-tree,  or  sycamine  (JTiDpttf  shikmot),  is  common  Sycamore, 
in  the  low  lands  of  Palestine  and  in  Egypt.  It  resembles  the 
mulberry-tree.  The  fruit  grows  in  clusters  on  sprigs  like  grape- 
stalks,  shooting  out  from  the  trunk.  It  is  sometimes  called  the 
Egyptian  fig-tree.  The  branches  grow  out  almost  straight.  The 
wood  is  of  a  dark  colour,  and,  being  very  durable,  is  used  in 
building.  The  leaves  are  large,  and  of  a  green  and  glossy  colour. 
The  fruit  is  exceedingly  sweet,  and  is  produced  several  times  in 
a  year,  without  any  particular  regard  to  the  season. 

The  balm-tree,  or  balsam  Ql¥  tzeri),  flourishes  near  the  moun-  Balm, 
tains  of  Grilead,  and  is  celebrated  for  the  resinous  substance 
obtained  from  it.     Erom  want  of  culture  it  is  not  at  present 
found  in  Palestine,  but  it  grows  in  Arabia  and  Egypt.     It  is  a 
native  of  Abyssinia.     There  are  three  kinds ;  one  a  regular  tree, 
two  growing  like  shrubs.     The  balm  of  the  Bible  is  an  article  of 
commerce,  and  a  medicine  made  either  of  the  sap  of  the  tree  or 
the  juice  of  the  fruit.     The  bark  is  cut  when  the  juices  are  in 
most  full  circulation,  and  as  drop  by  drop  issues  from  the  inci- 
sion, it  is  received  into  small  earthen  bottles.     Thence  it  is 
poured  into  larger  ones,  and  corked  up.     About  sixty  drops  a 
day  is  obtained  from  one  tree.     The  odoriferous  scent  of  the 
balm  is  universally  celebrated.     It  was  cultivated  chiefly  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Jericho  and  Engeddi,   and   often   sold  for 
twice  its  weight  in  silver.     The  tree  is  an  evergreen,  growing 
to  the  height  of  fourteen  feet,  and  from  eight  to  ten  inches  in 
diameter.     The  leaves  are  small  and  of  a  bright  green;  the 
trunk  is  smooth,  and   encircled  with  little  protuberances  re- 
sembling a  crown,  covered  with  a  rind,  thick  and  hard,  but 
easily  broken.     The  flavour  of  the  fruit  is  delicious.     Ano- 
ther term  employed  to  designate  the  balsam-tree  is  baalshemen, 
\v&b¥2.      According    to    Mr.    Bruce,    none    of  the   Arabian 
balsam  reaches  this  country,  owing  to  the  smallness  of  the 
produce ;  that  which  occasionally  comes  here  being  obtained  by 
boiling  the  branches  and  leaves  in  water.     It  is  a  whitish,  tur- 
bid, thick,  very  odorous  liquid,  which  resinifies,  and  becomes 
yellow   by   keeping.      "Its   physiological   effects,"    says   Dr. 
Pereira,  "  are  believed  to  be  similar  to  balsam  of  copaiba  and 
the  liquid  turpentines.     The  most  wonderful  properties  were 

h 


98 


KATTTKAL  HISTOEY  OF  PALESTINE. 


Pome- 
granate. 


Apple-tree. 


[Pomegranate.] 


Zukkum. 


formerly  ascribed  to  it.  It  is  rarely  or  never  employed  by 
Europeans  ;  but  the  Asiatics  use  it  for  its  odoriferous  as  well 
as  for  its  medicinal  properties." 

The  pomegranate,  or  granate  apple  (pET)  rimmon),  abounds 
in  the  East,  growing  wild  in  many  countries.  It  does  not  rise 
high,  but  rather,  from  its  multitudinous  branches,  appears  like 

a  large  bush  or  shrub.  It  has  large 
reddish  blossoms  resembling  a  bell  in 
shape,  and  the  fruit  is  very  beautiful, 
about  the  size  of  an  orange,  flattened 
at  the  ends.  The  juice  is  sometimes 
made  into  a  wine  by  itself,  and  some- 
times mixed  with  other  wine  to  give  it  a 
degree  of  pungency.  When  the  fruit 
is  ripe,  in  August  or  September,  the 
rind,  at  first  green,  assumes  a  brown- 
ish red  colour.  The  inside  of  the 
pomegranate  is  of  a  bright  pink,  with  skinny  partitions  like  the 
orange,  with  a  number  of  little  red  and  purplish  white  seeds. 
The  seed  forms  a  good  medicine,  and  the  rind  is  used  in  pre- 
paring fine  leather.  Artificial  pomegranates  were  in  high  esti- 
mation among  the  Jews  as  ornaments.  They  were  worked  in 
the  hem  of  the  high  priest's  robe,  and  on  the  net- work  which 
covered  the  tops  of  the  two  pillars,  Jachin  and  Boaz,  in  the 
temple  of  Solomon  (Exod.  xxviii.  33,  34  ;  1  Kings,  vii.  18). 

The  apple-tree  (m^n  tiphuah),  is  celebrated  in  Scripture, 
and  is  the  same  with  the  citron,  which  is  described  in  the  Song 
of  Solomon  as  very  beautiful,  fragrant,  and 
productive  of  delicious  fruit.  It  is  fur- 
nished with  beautiful  leaves  throughout  the 
year,  affording  a  most  refreshing  shade. 
The  fruit  is  of  a  gold  colour  (Comp.  Prov. 
xxv.  11). 

The  nubk,  or  lotus-tree,  the  spina  christi 
of  Hasselquist,  called  by  the  Arabs  the 
dhom  tree,  has  small  dark-green,  oval- 
shaped,  ivy-like  leaves.  Clustering  thick 
and  irregularly  upon  the  crooked  branches, 
are  sharp  thorns,  half  an  inch  in  length. 
The  smaller  branches  are  very  pliant,  which, 
in  connexion  with  the  ivy-like  appearance 
r Apples.]  0-p  ^e  ieaveS}  sustain  the  legend  that  of 

them  was  made  the  mock  crown  of  the  Redeemer.  Its  fruit 
is  subacid,  and  of  a  pleasant  flavour. 

The  zukkum  is  a  term  applied  by  the  Arabs  to  a  small 
thorny  tree,  with  fruit  of  an  olive  green  colour,  like  a  date ; 


BALM  OF  GILEAD. 


99 


the  bark  of  the  tree  smooth,  the  leaves  thin,  long,  and  oval,  Zukkflm. 
and  of  a  brighter  green  than  the  bark  or  fruit.  It  is  bitter 
and  acrid  to  the  taste,  and  is  declared  by  the  Koran  to  be  the 
food  of  infidels  in  hell.  Dr.  Robinson,  quoting  Maundrell  and 
Pococke,  describes  it  as  the  balsam-tree,  from  the  nut  of  which 
the  oil  of  Jericho  is  extracted,  called  by  the  pilgrims  Zaccheus5 
oil,  from  the  belief  that  the  tree  which  bears  it  was  the  one 
climbed  by  Zaccheus.  Scripture,  as  Dr.  Robinson  states, 
renders  it  with  more  probability  the  sycamore  or  plane  tree. 

To  this  statement  Lynch  adds  the  following  in  a  note : — 
"  Zakkum,  or  zaccoun  of  the 


various    English 

Jericho     plum, 

willow,    oleaster, 

&c.      It  is   the 


Arabs,  has 
names,    as 
Jerusalem 
wild   olive, 

Elcegnus angustifolius  of  bota- 
nists. The  tree  much  re- 
sembles the  olive,  and  has 
been  mistaken  by  many 
writers  for  the  wild  variety 
of  that  useful  tree.  The  re- 
semblance is  close,  not  only 
in  the  leaves,  but  also  in  the 
fruit.  The  last,  however,  is 
larger,  and  more  oblong. 
The  oil  extracted  from  the 
nut  or  kernel  has  been  long 
celebrated  in  Syria  as  very 
efficacious  in  the  treatment 
of  wounds  and  bruises,  and 
is  said  to  be  preferred  to  the 
Balsam  of  Mecca  for  that 
purpose.  It  is  also  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  Myrobalanus 
of  Pliny,  and  Belew  says  that  near  the  Jordan  he  found  '  les 
arbres  qui  portent  les  Myrobalans,  citrins  du  noyau  desquels 
les  habitans  font  de  l'huile.'  Dr.  Boyle  seems  inclined  to 
believe  that  this  oil  is  the  tzeie  (translated  balm  in  our  version), 
mentioned  in  Genesis,  as  it  is  there  noticed  as  a  product  of 
Grilead,  and  which  could  not  have  been  what  is  now  called  Balm  of 
balm  or  balsam  of  Grilead,  as  the  tree  producing  it  is  a  native  Gllead- 
of  Arabia  or  Abyssinia,  and  not  of  Palestine  ;  being  only  culti- 
vated in  one  t)r  two  places  in  the  latter  country,  and  not  until 
a  period  long  after  that  of  Jacob.  From  this,  and  the  evidence 
afforded  in  many  other  parts  of  the  Bible,  it  appears  certain 
that  the  balsam  alluded  to  was  a  production  of  Grilead,  and 
also  that  it  was  used  as  a  medicine,  and  there  is  a  strong  pro- 
bability that  it  was   the  oil  from  the   zakkum.     The   oil  is 


[Balm  of  Gilead.l 


100 


NATURAL  HISTOBT  OE  PALESTINE. 


[Box-tree.] 


extracted  first  by  pressing  the  crushed  nuts,  and  a  further  por- 
tion is  obtained  by  boiling  them." 
Box-tree.         The  box-tree  (llttfNn  teashur),w&s  an  evergreen  of  very  beautiful 

foliage,  and  of  very  perfect  proportions. 
This,  with  two  others,  are  conjoined  in 
Isaiah's  splendid  representation  of  the 
future  state  of  Zion.  "  The  glory  of 
Lebanon  shall  come  unto  thee,  the 
fir-tree,  the  pine-tree,  and  the  box 
together,  to  beautify  the  place  of  my 
sanctuary."  (Is.  lx.  13.) 

The  spikenard  (TO  nard),  was  a  plant 
in  great  estimation ;  but  only  an  in- 
ferior species  grew  in  Palestine.     The 
true   spikenard,   or  nard,  belongs   to 
India,  and  the  more  distant  East.     It  has  a  strong  aromatic 
taste  and  smell.     It  grows  in  large  tufts,  resembling  tall  grass ; 
an  ointment  is  made  of  it,  which  is  very  costly  and  precious ; 
so  that  a  box  of  it,  containing  a  pound,  was  valued  in  the  time 
of  our  Saviour  at  three  hundred  pence,  which,  according  to  the 
present  value  of  money,  would  amount  to  upwards  of  eight 
pounds  (Mark,  xiv.  3).      The   crude  vegetable  wras  worth  a 
hundred  denarii  (nearly  £9.  7s.  6d.)  at  Rome  in  the  time  of 
Christ. 

The   aloe  Q)b$  olar,  and   nibnw,  ahaloth),   is   a  plant  with 

broad  prickly  leaves,  nearly  two  inches 
thick,  which  grows  about  two  feet 
high.  A  bitter  gum  or  juice  is 
obtained  from  it,  which  is  used  as  a 
medicine,  and  was  anciently  used  for 
the  purpose  of  embalming.  Mcodemus 
brought  a  hundred  pounds  of  myrrh 
and  aloes  to  embalm  the  body  of 
Christ  (John,  xix.  39).  Besides 
this,  a  small  plant  of  the  same  name 
is  found  in  India,  called  agallochum, 
the  Lign  -  Aloe,  having  beautiful 
flowers  and  a  fragrant  -wood,  which 
is  used  for  cabinets  and  ornamental 
work. 

[Aloe.. | 

Cinnamon.  The  cinnamon-tree  (pD3p  kinnamon),  is  a  species  of  laurel, 
from  the  inner  bark  of  which  a  well-known  aromatic  is  pro- 
duced. Cinnamon  was  one  of  the  ingredients  of  the  holy  oil 
(Exod.  xxx.  23). 

Cassia.  Cassia  (mp  kiddak),  is  the  bark  of  a  tree  of  the  same  species 

with  cinnamon  and  sassafras,  and  was  used  as  an  ingredient  of 


CALAMUS. — HYSSOP. — JUNIPER. 


the  holy  anointing  oil,  remarkable  for  its  fragrance, 
an  article  of  Tyrian  trade. 


101 
It  was  Cassia. 


[Cinnamon.] 


Another  of  the  ingredients  of  the 
sacred  oil,  and  an  article  of  Syrian 
commerce,  was  the  sweet  calamus, 
(Dtttl  T&\>  kaneh  bosem).  This  plant 
grows  about  two  feet  high,  and  is 
very  fragrant. 

The  hyssop,  (mtK  esob),  is  a  small 
herb,  growing  in  mountainous  places, 
with  bushy  stalks,  about  a  foot  and 
a  half  in  height.  The  leaves  have  an 
aromatic  smell  and  a  bitter  taste. 
It  abounds  on  the  hills  near  Jeru- 
salem. [Calamus.] 

The  juniper  (Dftl  rotheni),i$  a  tree  of  the  cedar  species.     By  Juniper, 
the  term,  in  Job,  is  probably  intended  the  broom,  which  is  still 


Calamus 


[Juniper.] 


[Hyssop.] 


common  in  Arabia.  Elijah  is  said  to  have  slept  under  a 
juniper  tree  (rothem) .  In  seasons  of  scarcity  it  was  used  for 
food,  but  generally  for  fuel. 


102  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  PALESTINE. 

Mustard-  The  mustard-plant  (oivcnn  sinapi),  rises  from  the  smallest  seed 

plant.  in£0  the  likeness  of  a  tree  (Matt.  xiii.  32).     It  presents  a 

remarkable  growth  among  herbs  in  our  own  country,  but  in 
Palestine  it  rises  and  spreads  its  branches  to  a  much  greater 
extent. 
Rose.  The  rose  (nWsn  habetzeleth),  grows  in  Palestine  in  several 

varieties,  as  well  as  in  different  parts  of  the  East,  where  its 
elegance  of  form,  fragrance,  and  colour,  have  always  been,  as 
in  all  other  localities,  admired  and  celebrated.  The  rose  in  the 
Vale  of  Sharon  blooms  in  abundance,  and  was,  in  ancient 
times,  deemed  peculiarly  fine.  It  is  a  kind  of  tulip,  or  narcissus 
(Cant.ii.  1). 
Lily.  The  lily  (fttfW  shushan),  is  also  greatly  distinguished.     Solo- 

mon in  all  his  glory  was  not  arrayed  like  one  of  them  (Matt, 
i.  29).  The  dry  stalks  were  used  as  fuel.  "  It  is  natural  to 
presume,"  observes  Sir  J.  E.  Smith,  "that  the  Divine  Teacher, 
according  to  his  usual  custom,  called  the  attention  of  his 
hearers  to  some  object  at  hand ;  and  as  the  fields  of  the  Levant 
are  overrun  with  the  Amaryllis  lutea,  whose  golden  liliaceous 
flowers  in  autumn  afford  one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  gorgeous 
objects  in  nature,  the  expression,  of  Solomon  in  all  his  glory 
not  being  arrayed  like  one  of  these,  is  peculiarly  appropriate. 
I  consider  the  feeling  with  which  this  was  expressed  as  the 
highest  honour  ever  done  to  the  study  of  plants ;  and  if  my 
botanical  conjecture  be  right,  we  learn  a  chronological  fact 
respecting  the  season  of  the  year  when  the  sermon  on  the 
mount  was  delivered." 

We  conclude  this  part  of  the  natural  history  by  quoting  the 
words  of  Dr.  Kitto1  which  condense  the  statements  of  Schubert, 
Richness  of  Ehrenberg,  and  Eusseger.  "  The  richness  of  the  soil  in  the 
the  soil.  hills,  and  upon  the  high  places,  is  evinced  by  the  presence  of 
the  azerole,2  or  parsley-leaved  hawthorn,  the  walnut  and 
arbutus,  the  laurel  and  laurestinus,  different  species  of  pista- 
chio and  terebinth  trees,  the  evergreen  oak,  also  arboreal  and 
shrubby  species  of  rhamnus  (buckthorn),  the  Spanish  broom,3 
supposed  to  be  the  juniper  of  Scripture,  and  a  few  species  of 
thyme.  Upon  the  woody  heights,  however,  are  many  species 
of  pine  and  fir.  The  sycamore  and  the  carob4  tree,  the  mulberry 
and  the  opuntia  fig,  grow,  but  are  mostly  planted  in  the  vicinity 
of  towns.  Gardens  full  of  oranges  and  citrons  are  found 
mostly  at  Nabulus  or  Shechem.  The  spontaneous  and  abundant 
growth  of  several  kinds  of  grain  in  many  districts  of  the 
country,  and  especially  in  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  and  the  high 
plain  of  Galilee,  is  a  kind  of  wild  succession  of  the  corn  which 

1  Scripture  Lands,  pp.  157,  158.  2  Crategus  Azarolus. 

3  G-enista  Rsetam.  4  Ceratonia  siliqua. 


CUCUMBERS. — MELON". — LEEKS. 


103 


in  former  times  grew  here,  and  now  evinces  what  a  rich  corn  Richness  of 
land  Palestine  was  in  former  days.     Besides  wheat  and  barley,  the  soiL 
rye,    scarcely  now   an   object   of    culture   in   Syria,   may   be 
recognized  amongst  this  wild  growth. 

"  In  the  present  neglected  state  of  agriculture,  attention  is 
mostly  given  to  the  same  species  of  grain  which  are  cultivated 
in  Egypt.  One  sees  entire  and  extensive  fields  cultivated  with 
the  summer  durrah1  ("  durrah  of  the  heat"),  the  common 
durrah,2  and  the  autumn  durrah,3  which  are  all  varieties  of  the 
Holcus  Sorghum  of  Linnaeus.  Maize,  spelt,  and  barley,  thrive 
almost  everywhere.  In  the  marshy  grounds  of  the  Upper 
Jordan,  and  about  the  Lake  Huleh,  rice  also  is  cultivated  ;  and 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jacob's  Bridge,  on  the  Jordan,  may  be 
seen  very  fine  tall  papyrus  reeds  upon  the  banks  of  the  river. 

"  Of  legumes,  the    '  hommus'  or  chick-pea,4  the    '  fuhl'   or  Legumes. 
Egyptian  bean,5  the  hairy-headed  kidney-bean,6   and   the    blue 
chickling  vetch,7  as  well  as  the  '  adas'  or  lentil,  and  the  field 
pea,8  are  largely  cultivated." 


[Tares.] 


[Garlic] 


[Melon.] 


Cucumbers  (D*fcWp  kischyini),  and  various  kinds  of  melons,  were  Cucumbers, 
cultivated  among  the  Jews.  Egypt,  however,  produces  the  finest 
melons.  The  water-melon  especially  is  raised  with  great  advantage  Melon. 
on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  and  furnishes  a  most  agreeable  refresh- 
ment in  the  warm  climate  of  that  country.     Many  poor  people 
live  on  them  almost  entirely  while  they  last.     The  Israelites  re- 
membered them  in  the  wilderness,  as  well  as  the  leeks  and  the  Leeks. 
onions,  with  longing  desire  (Numb.,  xi.  5).     Onions  in  Egypt  are  onions, 
better  than  they  are  anywhere  else  in  the  world,  being  sweet  and 
pleasant  to  the  taste,  without  the  hardness  which  commonly 
makes  them  unfit  to  be  eaten.     The    thistle  and  the  nettle,  Thistle. 


1  Durrah  Kay  dee. 
3  Durrah  dimeeree. 
b_  Vicia  fabia. 
'  Lathyrus  satavus. 


2  Durrah  sayfeh  of  Linnseus. 
4  Cicer  arietanum. 
6  Phaseolus  mungo. 
8  Pisum  arvense. 


104 


KATTTRAL  HISTORY  OF  PALESTINE. 


Tare. 


Pulses. 


Variety  of 
plants  and 
flowers. 


besides  several  kinds  of  thorns  and  brambles,  were  common  in 
the  fields  of  the  Jewish  farmer.  He  was  also  troubled  with  the 
tare.  This  tare  seems  to  have  been  the  same  weed  that  is  now 
called  darnel,  still  known  in  that  country,  as  well  as  in  many 
others.  It  often  gets  among  wheat  and  other  grain,  after  the 
manner  of  cockle  and  other  such  hurtful  plants.  The  bread 
made  of  grain  in  which  much  of  its  seed  is  found  is  very  un- 
wholesome ;  it  creates  dizziness,  drowsiness,  and  headache.  It 
is  all-important,  therefore,  to  separate  it  from  the  crop.  This, 
however,  cannot  well  be  done  while  it  is  growing  in  the  field  ; 
because  its  roots  are  so  connected  with  those  of  the  wheat,  that 
to  pluck  up  the  one  would  materially  injure  the  other"  (Matth. 
xiii.  24—30.) 

"Amongst  the  pulses,  the  most  conspicuous  are  different 
species  of  hibiscus — '  bamia  towilch,'  the  hibiscus  esculentus, 
6  bamia  beledi,'  or  '  wayka,'  the  Hib.  prcecox ;  here  and  there 
the  culture  of  the  potatoe,  called  by  the  natives  'holkas 
franschi,'  is  attempted  by  the  Pranks.  The  'kharschuf,'  or 
artichoke,  is  very  common  in  the  gardens  of  the  monasteries, 
with  the  '  khus  '  or  lettuce  :  in  most  districts  the  water  melon 
and  the  cucumber  are  abundantly  produced.  Hemp  is  more 
generally  grown  than  flax  ;  cotton  is  cultivated  in  some  locali- 
ties, and  some  quantity  of  madder  for  dyeing  is  raised. 


[Cotton  Plant.] 


[Mint.  J 


[Coriander.] 


"  Were  we  to  furnish  a  description  of  all  the  large  variety  of 
the  plants  and  flowers  of  Palestine  which  the  spring  displays,  the 
information  would  form  a  book  of  itself,  for  whoever  follows 
but  the  course  of  the  Jordan  from  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  lakes  of 
Tiberias  and  Huleh,  and  to  the  sources  of  the  river  under 
Antilebanon,  traverses  in  few  days  different  climatic  zones,  and 
finds  in  them  various  principal  specimens  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  which,  in  other  countries  of  the  globe,  lie  hundred  of 
miles  apart. 


KICHNESS  0E  THE  SOIL.  105 

"  One  small  plant  which  the  pilgrims  usually  collect  on  the  Bloody 
Mount  of  Olives,  is  the  Egyptian  bloody  everlasting,1  while  from  everlastm£- 
Carmel  and  Lebanon,  as  a  further  memorial  of  their  pilgrimage, 
they   take   the   large   Oriental  everlasting.2     The  mandrake  of  Mandrake. 
Palestine*    is    sought   with    much    avidity   by   the    Oriental 
Christians,  as  well  as  by  the  Mohammedans  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Jerusalem,  because  they  attribute  peculiar  virtues  to 
this  fruit ;    it  is,  however,  very  scarce  in  that  neighbourhood, 
although   abundant  south  of  Hebron,  as  well   as   on   Mount 
Tabor  and  on  Carmel.     '  Whoever  desires  to  behold  the  per- 
fection of  beauty  and  splendour  in  the  liliaceous  tribe  of  plants, 
as  also   indeed  in  other  bulbous  rooted  plants,  such   as   the 
tulip,  the  hyacinth,  the  narcissus,  and  the  anemone,  should,' 
says  Schubert,  'visit  in  the  summer  some  of  these  districts 
through  which  we  passed.'  "4 

"  From  this  general  survey  of  its  different  productions,  we  Fruitfuiness 
may  learn  how  extremely  fruitful  Palestine  must  have  been,  in  of  Falestine> 
the  days  of  its  ancient  prosperity  and  peace.  Every  variety  of 
soil  had  its  use ;  some  valuable  tree  or  plant  growing  better  upon 
it  than  upon  any  other  ;  so  that  the  poorest  and  the  roughest 
grounds  yielded,  oftentimes,  as  much  as  the  fairest  and  most 
rich.  While  the  different  kinds  of  grain  flourished  on  the  more 
level  and  fertile  tracts,  plantations  of  the  serviceable  olive 
covered  the  barren  and  sandy  hills;  the  low  watery  soils  of 
clay  nourished  groves  of  the  tall  and  beautiful  palm;  the 
steepest  mountain  sides  were  hung  with  the  rich  dark  clusters 
of  the  vine.  By  the  hand  of  industry,  the  naked  rocks,  on 
such  steep  places,  were  covered  with  earth,  and  walls  were 
builded  to  hinder  it  from  being  swept  away  with  the  showers. 
So,  from  the  bottom  to  the  top,  might  sometimes  be  seen, 
rising  one  above  another,  plot  after  plot  thus  raised  by  labour 
and  art,  wThere  the  vine  was  reared  by  the  husbandman's  care, 
and  rewarded  his  toil  wdth  its  plentiful  fruit.  As  every  family  And  general 
had  only  a  small  piece  of  ground  to  till,  every  foot  of  it  that  cultivation, 
could  be  improved  was  cultivated,  and  no  pains  were  spared  to 
turn  it  to  its  best  account.  Hence,  the  land  had  the  appearance 
of  a  garden,  and  yielded  support  to  a  vast  number  of  inhabi- 
tants. The  country  of  Lower  Galilee,  especially,  has  been 
celebrated  for  its  fruitfulness.  According  to  the  testimony  of 
Josephus,  the  Jewish  historian,  who  lived  just  after  the  time  of 
Christ,  that  part  of  it  which  bordered  on  the  lake  of  Gennesa- 
reth,  where  our  Lord  spent  so  much  of  his  time,  was  especially 
remarkable  for  the  great  variety  and  plenty  of  its  productions  ; 
every  plant  seemed  to  thrive  in  it ;  fruits  that  naturally  grow 
in  different  climates  were  raised  with  equal  ease  here ;  so  that 

1  Gnaphalium  sanguineum.  2  Grn.  orientale. 

3  Mandragora  autumnalis.  4  Scripture  Lands,  p.  158. 


106 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  PALESTINE. 


it  seemed,  says  that  writer,  as  if  God  had  taken  a  peculiar 
delight  in  that  region,  and  the  seasons  had  rivalled  each  other 
in  the  richness  of  their  gifts. 

"  But  when  the  traveller  passes  through  Palestine  now,  his 
eye  meets  no  such  scenery  of  fruitfulness  and  beauty,  over  its 
mountains  and  plains.  Large  tracts  of  the  country  seem  a 
barren  waste ;  the  rich  covering  of  the  field  is  gone,  and  the 
hills  are  stripped  of  the  vine  ;  a  thinly  scattered  people  live  in 
comparative  poverty  and  idleness,  where  once  the  many  thou- 
sands of  Israel  and  Judah  found  plentiful  support.  The 
country,  for  more  than  a  thousand  years,  has  been  given  up  to 
be  wasted  by  war  and  crushed  by  oppression.  Its  people  have 
been  driven  away  and  trampled  under  foot,  by  cruel  enemies. 
The  whole  land  is  now  under  the  dominion  of  the  Turks,  who, 
instead  of  encouraging  industry,  leave  it  without  protection  and 
without  profit.  The  farmer  has  no  motive  to  plough  and  sow ; 
his  crops  would  grow  up  only  to  be  plundered  by  wandering 
Arabs ;  and  if  he  could  secure  any  property,  it  would  only 
expose  him  to  danger  from  the  avarice  of  some  tyrant  officer  of 
the  government,  determined  to  seize  it  all  for  himself.  No 
wonder,  then,  that  "  the  fruitful  land  has  been  turned  into 
barrenness."  It  has  been  done,  however,  "  for  the  wickedness 
of  them  that  dwelt  therein,"  and  is  a  wonderful  fulfilment  of 
the  threatenings  of  God,  delivered  even  as  far  back  as  the  time 
of  Moses  (Deut.  xxix.  22 — 28),  and  repeated  by  the  prophets 
that  followed  after."1 

II. — Animals. 


QUADRUPEDS. 

The  horse  (DID  sus),  is  mentioned  in  the  history  of  Jacob  and 
Joseph,  being  then  much  used  in  Egypt,  but  the  Jews  did  not 
employ  that  useful  animal  till  the  time  of  Solomon.  The  law 
of  Moses  expressly  forbids  the  multiplication  of  horses  (Deut. 
xvii.  6).  Joshua  was  commanded  to  hamstring  them  when  taken 
in  war.  In  the  days  of  Solomon  there  was  a  great  trafiic  in  horses, 
which  were  ridden  on  without  a  saddle.  Other  words  besides 
the  common  one  given  above,  are  used  to  denote  this  animal. 

Oxen  (ipn  bakre),  and  cattle  of  that  species,  are  smaller  in 
eastern  countries  than  with  us,  and  have  a  hump  on  the  back, 
over  the  fore  feet.  They  are  particularly  diminutive  in  the 
vicinity  of  Jerusalem,  but  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Jordan 
are  of  better  size,  as  well  as  more  numerous.  The  finest  kind 
are  found  in  the  rich  pastures  of  Bashan,  where  they  are  both 
strong  and  fierce.     They  were  highly  prized  by  the  Jews  for 

1  Nevin. 


ASS. — MULE.  107 

their  usefulness.  Bulls  and  cows  were  both  subjected  to  the  The  Ox. 
yoke,  and  were  employed  to  draw,  and  at  the  plough,  and  to 
tread  out  the  corn.  A  particular  law  was  made  that  the  ox 
should  not  be  muzzled  when  thus  engaged  (Deut.  xxv.  4.)  The 
cow  was  valued  for  her  milk,  which  was  made  use  of  for  drink, 
and  to  make  cheese.  Horns  are  often  referred  to  in  Scripture 
as  the  sign  of  strength  and  power. 

The  ass  (11  DM  chamor)  of  the  East  is  a  very  serviceable,  and  Ass. 
moreover  a  very  spirited  animal.  It  was  employed  in  early 
times  to  carry  burdens,  and  draw  at  the  plough,  like  the  ox, 
and  constituted  a  considerable  portion  of  the  substance  of  the 
opulent.  Sometimes  they  were  so  numerous  as  to  require  a 
special  keeper.  The  food  of  the  ass  is  coarse,  and  his  skin  very 
thick.  Though  usually  of  a  dark  brown  colour,  or  red,  it  is 
sometimes  of  a  silvery  white,  and  is  then  chiefly  appropriated  to 
persons  of  dignity,  as  magistrates ;  "  speak,  ye  that  ride  on 
white  asses ;  ye  that  sit  in  judgment,  and  walk  by  the  way  " 
(Judg.  v.  10).  The  ass  is  remarkably  attached  to  its  owner, 
and  in  this  respect  resembles  the  dog.  The  wild  ass  (nis  para) 
is  a  fleet  and  beautiful  animal,  and  though  ranked  under  the 
same  genus  with  the  domestic  ass,  differs  materially  in  respect 
to  the  freedom  it  enjoys,  its  general  habits,  and  the  place  of 
its  dwelling.  The  description  of  it,  in  the  book  of  Job 
(ch.  xxxix.  5 — 8)  is  most  poetical  and  striking :  "  "Who  hath 
sent  out  the  wild  ass  free  ?  Or  who  hath  loosed  the  bands  of 
the  wild  ass  ?  Whose  house  I  have  made  the  wilderness,  and 
the  barren  land 1  his  dwellings.  He  scorneth  the  multitude  of 
the  city,  Neither  regardeth  he  the  crying  of  the  driver.  The 
range  of  the  mountains  is  his  pasture,  and  he  searcheth  after 
every  green  thing."  This  accurate  and  glowing  description  of 
the  unrestrained  habits  of  the  wild  ass,  harmonise  so  admirably 
with  the  unfettered  and  capricious  movements  of  the  Arabs, 
that  the  propriety  of  the  language  employed  by  the  angel  to 
Hagar,  when  predicting  her  son's  future  condition — "  And 
he  shall  be  a  wild-ass  man,"  is  at  once  perceived  and 
appreciated. 

The  mule  (IIS  pered)  is  a  hardy,  sure-footed  animal,  and,  as  Mule, 
is  familiarly  known,  of  an  obstinate  disposition.  In  comparison 
with  the  horse,  it  is  long  lived.  The  most  distinguished  per- 
sons among  the  Jews  used  them  to  ride  upon.  David  and  all 
his  sons  rode  upon  mules.  Absolom  was  upon  one  of  them 
when  he  was  caught  by  the  boughs  of  an  oak.  The  Jews  are 
not  supposed  to  have  bred,  but  to  have  purchased  them,  be- 
cause such  mixture  of  blood  was  prohibited  in  Lev.  xix.  19. 

1  Heb.  Salt  places.  Salt  was  a  figurative  representation  of  barrenness, 
because  the  plains  bordering  the  lake  of  Sodom,  or  Dead  Sea,  are  the  most 
barren  parts  of  Palestine. 


108 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  PALESTINE. 


I  Camel.] 


Camel.  Camels  (bo:i  gamal)  are  of  two  kinds  ;  one  large  and  strong, 

with  two  protuberances  or  humps  upon  his  back,  known  as  the 

Bactrian  camel;  the  other,  called 
also  the  dromedary,  which  is  com- 
monly referred  to  in  Scripture,  with 
only  one  hump,  smaller  than  the 
other  species,  but  more  fleet.  The 
camel  is  evidently  formed  for  the 
desert.  Its  feet  have  a  tough 
elastic  sole,  which  prevents  sinking 
in  the  sand.  Within  the  body  is  a 
cavity  divided  into  cells,  which  are 
filled  when  the  animal  drinks,  so 
that  he  can  do  for  a  month  without 
any  further  supply,  feeding  only  on 
leaves,  thistles,  briars,  and  the  coarsest  food,  which  he  crops  as 
he  goes.  With  all  this  he  is  capable  of  enduring  constant 
travelling  at  the  rate  of  thirty  miles  a  day,  and  bearing  very 
heavy  burdens  upon  his  hump  or  back, — as  much  as  six  or  eight 
hundred  pounds  weight.  Hence  the  application  of  the  term 
land-ship,  or  ship  of  the  desert.  These  are  placed  upon  him 
while  he  is  made  to  kneel ;  a  procedure,  however,  which  he 
somewhat  resents  in  cries,  or  rather  growlings  of  an  angry 
kind.  The  hair  of  the  camel  is  woven  into  a  kind  of  cloth  of  a 
coarse  kind.  John  the  Baptist  had  "  his  raiment  of  camel's 
hair."  The  flesh  and  milk  are  used  for  food  by  the  Arabs ;  but 
this  animal  was  unclean  to  the  Jews.  The  ordinary  life  of  the 
camel  is  between  thirty  and  fifty  years.  The  poor  fellow  is 
rather  roughly  handled  in  the  pages  of  modern  travelling.  Dr. 
Bobinson  does  not  regard  him  with  any  great  favour,  and  Lord 
its  gait.  Nugent  sets  him  down  severely.  "  The  gait  of  the  beast  is  as 
tiresome  to  the  rider  as  anything  can  be  which  is  not  physically 
fatiguing.  It  is  a  very  proud  and  important-looking  stride,  of 
vastly  slow  progress,  to  every  step  of  which,  regular  as  the 
pendulum  of  a  clock,  the  rider  perched  aloft  on  a  pack-saddle, 
which  is  perched  aloft  on  a  hump,  is  fain  to  bend,  as  it  were,  in 
respectful  acknowledgment.  The  effect  of  this  is  at  first  very 
ludicrous,  even  to  the  performer.  But  after  thus  stalking  and 
bowing  for  a  certain  time  across  the  dead  flat  of  a  desert,  with- 
out a  chance,  exert  himself  as  he  will,  of  mending  his  pace,  it 
becomes  exceedingly  tiresome  to  him,  particularly  oppressed  as 
he  is  in  beginning  his  journey  at  sunrise,  with  the  sense  that 
that  pace  must  continue,  unimproved  and  unvaried,  till  the 
setting  of  the  same.  To  call  the  camel  or  the  dromedary  '  the 
ship  of  the  desert,'  is  a  great  injustice  to  the  ship  of  the  ocean, 
whose  every  movement  carries  with  it  a  feeling  of  life  and  sense, 


Hair  and 
flesh  of  the 
camel. 


CAMEL.— DKOMEDARY.  109 

tempered  by  obedience ;  while  the  gait  and  manners  of  the  other 
leave  a  notion  only  of  the  involuntary  and  mechanical. 

" 1  spoke  a  while  ago  of  the  patient,  long-suifering  expression  Character  of 
of  the  camel's  face ;  but  your  opinion  of  the  camel  will,  I  think, the  camel- 
change,  as  mine  did,  upon  further  and  more  intimate  ac- 
quaintance. The  truth  is,  he  is  but  an  ill-conditioned  beast 
after  all.  What  you  took  for  the  expression  of  patience  be- 
comes one  of  obstinate,  stupid,  profound  self-sufficiency.  There 
is  a  vain  wreathing  of  the  neck,  a  self-willed  raising  of  the  chin 
on  high,  a  drooping  of  the  lack-lustre  eye,  and  sulky  hanging  of 
the  lower  lip,  which,  to  any  who  has  faith  in  the  indications 
of  countenance  and  action,  betoken  his  real  temper.  Then  that 
very  peculiar  roar  of  his,  discordant  beyond  the  roar  of  any 
other  beast,  which  continues  during  the  process  of  his  being 
loaded,  from  the  moment  that  the  first  package  is  girded  on  his 
back  to  when  he  clumsily  staggers  up  on  his  feet  to  begin  his 
lazy  journey,  is  a  sound  betraying  more  of  moral  degradation 
than  any  I  ever  heard  from  any  four-legged  animal ;  a  tone  of 
exaggerated  complaint,  and  of  deep  hate,  which  the  shape  of  his 
open  mouth  well  assorts  with.  The  Dromedary  is  said  to  be  to  Dromedary 
the  camel  what  the  thorough-bred  horse  is  to  the  hack.  But 
he  who  has  ridden  a  dromedary  will  never  again  profane  the 
qualities  of  the  thorough-bred  horse 
by  using  his  name  in  any  such  com- 
pany. The  dromedary,  it  is  true,  is 
lighter  than  the  camel,  and  capable 
of  going  much  faster  ;  but  in  temper 
and  spirit  he  differs  from  him  in 
nothing  but  in  being  even  more 
obstinate.  Though  able  to  go  at  the 
rate  of  ten  or  twelve  miles  an  hour 
(and  some  are  made  to  do  it  by  dint 
of  a  rough  education),  the  dromedary 
who   has   not   been  from   his   early  [Dromedary.] 

youth  in  the  hands  of  a  Tartar,  or  of  an  Arab  of  one  of  those  ui^  ni_ 
tribes  whose  trade  is  war  and  plunder,  cleaves  to  his  favourite  testability 
pace  of  two  miles  and  a  half.  Tou  cannot,  do  what  you  will, 
make  friends  with  him,  or  coax  him  out  of  what  he  seems  to 
consider  as  his  privilege  of  thwarting  and  annoying  his  rider. 
He  always  goes  slow,  and  whenever  he  can,  goes  wrong.  If 
you  strike  him  for  any  misconduct,  he  bellows,  turns  round, 
and  lies  down.  If  you,  as  the  term  is,  <  make  much  of  him,'  he 
behaves  like  an  animal  who  cannot  take  delight  in  anything. 
He  is  never  young.  The  yearlings,  of  whom  you  sec  large 
troops  pasturing  by  the  sides  of  their  dams,  wherever  there  is  a 
patch  of  scanty  verdure  in  the  desert,  never  frisk.     They  have 


His  in- 


110  KATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  PALESTINE. 

the  same  look,  the  same  action,  they  aspire  to  the  same  roar 
with  those  of  the  caravan."1  Burckhardt  observes,  "  No  Arab 
family  can  exist  without  one  camel  at  least ;  a  man  who  has  but 
two  is  reckoned  poor ;  thirty  or  forty  place  a  man  in  easy  cir- 
cumstances ;  and  he  who  possesses  forty  is  rich." 

Goat.  The  goat  (ty  ez),  is  of  two  kinds:   one  a  common  goat;  the 

other  larger,  remarkable  for  broad  ears  that  hang  down  a  foot 
or  a  foot  and  a  half.  The  goat  yields  a  very  sweet  milk,  which 
in  eastern  countries  has  always  been  valued  above  all  others. 
Hence  the  promise  "  Thou  shalt  have  goats'  milk  enough  for 
thy  food,  for  the  food  of  thy  household,  and  for  the  maintenance 
of  thy  maidens"  (Prov.  xxvii.  27).  The  flesh  of  this  animal  is 
also  greatly  esteemed.  The  hair,  long  and  black,  is  made  into 
cloth,  and  is  often  used  to  cover  the  tents  of  the  shepherds. 
The  tabernacle  was  covered  with  goats'  hair  spun  by  the 
Israelitish  women  in  the  wilderness.  Some  goats  have  very 
fine  hair,  out  of  which  stuffs  are  formed.  The  skin  furnished 
bottles  from  the  earliest  times.  Goats  constituted  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  property  of  the  opulent.  They  are  wander- 
ing in  their  habits,  and  feed  on  bark  and  twigs  of  trees  or 
plants.     They  were  a  clean  animal  by  the  Jewish  law. 

Sheep.  Besides  the  common  kind  of  sheep  (nttf  sek,  and  ]&¥  tsan) 

so  well  known  in  Europe,  there  is  a  breed  in  Palestine  larger, 
and  clothed  with  finer  wool.  They  have  large  and  broad  tails, 
in  substance  resembling  marrow  and  fat  intermingled,  and 
considered  a  great  delicacy.  {Sometimes  they  are  used  instead 
of  butter.  In  the  directions  given  for  the  Sacrifice  of  the 
Peace  Offering,  in  which  all  the  fat  was  consumed,  there  is  an 
express  injunction  to  burn  the  tail  upon  the  altar.  Their  flesh 
supplies  food,  and  their  milk  drink,  but  they  are  chiefly 
valuable  for  their  wool. 

stag.  Many   other   animals,  as   the   stag  or   hind    (nV>K    ajalah), 

the  fox  (byw  shual),  &c.  are  too  familiar  to  need  description. 

j]0cr.  Hogs  (mn  chazir)  were  regarded  by  the  Jews  as  peculiarly 

unclean,  and  seem  not  to  have  been  kept  in  Palestine  ;  but  wild 
hogs  abound  upon  Mount  Tabor,  the  lesser  Hermon,  and  in 
the  woods  of  Carmel.  They  are  often  seen  in  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon. 

Lion.  The  lion  (^«  ari,  or  H^iS  arijah)  is  often  denominated  "  the 

king  of  beasts,"  and  is  so  well  known  as  a  wild  and  fierce  ani- 
mal as  to  preclude  the  necessity  of  particular  description. 
Anciently,  it  inhabited  the  marshy  banks  of  the  river  Jordan. 
Figurative  allusions  to  it  abound  in  Scripture.  Besides  its 
majestic  appearance,  its  roar  is  especially  characteristic.  A 
modern  traveller  has  intimated  that  when  uttered  as  he  heard 
1  Lands,  Classical  and  Sacred,  p.  147 — 149. 


LEOPAED. — triSlCORtf. 


Ill 


it,  in  the  stillness  of  the  night,  the  sound  and  the  echoes  were  Lion, 
more  tremendous  than  those  of  thunder.  "  The  lion  has  roared," 
says  the  prophet,  "who  will  not 
fear?"  (Amos,  hi.  8).  It  is  com- 
monly uttered  when  in  sight  of  his 
prey,*  or  in  the  act  of  striking  it 
down.  Since  the  time  of  the  Cru- 
sades, no  decisive  evidence  has  been 
aiforded  of  its  existence  in  Palestine. 
Other  terms  than  those  above  are 
employed  to  denote  the  lion — namely, 
TlJ  gor,  a  lion's  whelp  ;  ^£0  chephir, 
a  young  lion  just  beginning  to  hunt 
prey  for  himself ;  *■}»  ari,    as    given  [Llon] 

above,  a  full-grown  lion  ;  bnttf  shacal,  a  black  lion — one  in  full 
strength  of  age ;  and  wb  laish,  a  fierce  or  enraged  lion. 

The  leopard  (~)E0  nimr)  is  frequently  mentioned  in  Scripture,  Leopard, 
and  allusions  are  made  to  its  pecu- 
liar qualities  and  habits;  as  its 
watching  for  its  prey,  its  fiereeness 
and  cruelty,  its  power  and  fleet- 
ness.  It  is  an  animal  of  the  cat 
tribe,  and  though  not  abounding 
now,  is  found  in  the  mountainous 
districts. 

The   unicorn  (OfcO   reein). — The 
animal  to  which  this  name  is  ap-  [Leopard.] 

plied  in  the  Bible  is  represented  as  a  wild  ungovernable  beast,  Unicorn, 
remarkable  for  the  loftiness  either  of  its  stature  or  of  its  horns, 
and  perhaps  of  both  ;  possessed  of  great  strength,  and  inclined, 
at  times,  to  exercise  it  furiously  and  without  mercy,  even  against 
man.  It  is,  however,  no  easy  matter  to  determine  which,  of  all 
the  animals  that  are  now  known  in  the  East,  has  the  best  claim 
to  be  considered  as  the  unicorn  of  Scripture.  Its  Hebrew  name 
carries  in  its  signification  merely  a  reference  to  that  loftiness 
by  which  it  was  distinguished,  without  any  other  indication  of 
its  nature  or  appearance.  In  the  earliest  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  another  language,  it  was  called  the  unicorn,  or  the 
one-horned  animal.  Under  this  name  the  ancients  have  de- 
scribed a  very  peculiar  beast.  It  is  represented  as  having  the 
legs  and  body  of  a  deer,  with  the  head,  mane,  and  tail  of  a  horse, 
armed  with  a  single  straight  horn  from  the  middle  of  its  fore- 
head, and  presenting  altogether  a  form  and  appearance  of  no 
common  elegance.  But  travellers  have  not  been  able  to  find, 
in  later  times,  any  animal  of  this  sort  in  eastern  countries. 
Animals  with  only  one  horn  have  indeed  been  discovered,  but 


112  FATTJKAL  HISTORY  OF  PALESTINE. 

Unicorn.  none  of  them  suit  the  description  of  the  ancient  unicorn. 
Many  learned  commentators,  however,  have  been  of  opinion 
that  the  rhinoceros  is  intended  by  the  unicorn ;  to  which  the 
principal  objection  is,  that  this  animal  is  now  only  found  in 
countries  very  remote  from  Judea. 

Dr.  Kitto's  disquisition  on  this  animal,  though  somewhat 
extended  for  our  limits,  are  nevertheless  deserving  of  being 
transferred  to  our  pages : — "  No  one  now  seeks  for  the  unicorn 
in  the  heraldic  animal  that  passes  under  the  name,  and  which 
never  had  any  but  an  imaginary  existence.  There  is  nothing  in 
the  Hebrew  word  to  imply  that  the  reern  was  one-horned ;  it  is 
indeed  mentioned  as  horned ;  and  on  referring  to  the  passages  in 
which  the  term  is  introduced,  the  only  one  which  is  quite  distinct 
on  this  point  seems  clearly  to  intimate  that  the  animal  had  two 
horns.  That  passage  is  JDeut.  xxxiii.  17,  '  his  horns  are  like 
the  horns  of  the  '  reem  :'  '  the  word  here  is  singular,  not  plural, 
and  should  have  been  'unicorn,'  not  ^ '  unicorns,'  as  in  our 
version ;  but  it  would  have  been  inconsistent  to  have  said  '  the 
horns  of  the  unicorn' — the  owe-horned,  and  therefore  the  word 
was  put  in  the  plural.  The  second  passage  is  Psalm  xxii.  21 : 
'  The  horns  of  the  unicorns,'  which  affords  no  information. 
The  third  is  Psalm  xcii.  10  QDp  DW1D,  Dim  vattarem 
ki-reem  karni),  literally,  '  But  thou  wilt  exalt,  as  the  reem,  my 
horn.'  If  '  horn '  be  supplied  in  the  parallel,  as  in  our  version, 
1  as  the  horn  of  the  unicorn,'  then  there  would  be  nearly  the 
same  evidence  for  concluding  the  reem  had  one  horn,  as  the  first 
cited  text  affords  for  its  having  two  ;  but  we  should  even  then 
have  to  consider  that  it  is  usual,  poetically  or  in  common  dis- 
course, to  speak  of  '  the  horn  '  of  an  animal  that  has  actually 
two  horns  ;  but  never  of  the  '  horns  '  of  a  creature  that  has  but 
one.  And  as  this  text  now  stands,  requiring  an  addition  to 
make  the  assigned  sense  distinct,  its  authority  for  giving  the 
animal  one  horn  is  not  equal  to  that  of  Deut.  xxxiii.  17,  for 
giving  it  two.  Therefore,  as  a  matter  of  opinion,  we  should 
incline  to  think  a  wild  buffalo,  or  some  such  animal,  is  intended. 
The  present  text  seems  to  countenance  this  idea,  for  it  describes 
the  difficulty  or  impossibility  of  making  the  animal  perform 
just  such  services  as  tame  buffaloes  or  oxen  actually  do 
perform. 

Rhinoceros,  "  If,  however,  a  oue-horned  animal  be  contended  for,  we  may 
take  the  rhinoceros.  This  is  the  usual  determination ;  and  it 
has  the  sanction  of  the  Vulgate,  which  here  gives  rhinoceros  as 
the  equivalent  of  monoceros.  The  horny  projection  on  the 
forepart  of  this  animal's  head  would  entitle  it,  better  certainly 
than  any  other  known  animal,  to  the  title  of  '  one-horned.'  The 
description  '  his  strength  is  great,'  would  apply  with  the  greatest 


KHINOCEKOS.  113 

propriety  to  the  rhinoceros,  the  strength  of  which  is  enormous ;  Rhinoceros, 
being  also  covered  with  an  im- 
penetrable skin,  and  so  bulky, 
that  it  has  been  known  to  require 
eight  men  to  lift  the  head  of  one 
of  the  African  species  into  a  cart. 
One  species  is  a  native  of  India 
{Rhinoceros  Indicus),  and  there 
seem  to  be  at  least  two  in  Africa  ; 
but  their  history  and  distinguish- 
ing characteristics  have  not  been 
sufficiently  investigated.  '^^^SSS^l^itf^^C 

"  To  these  illustrations  we  here  i Rhinoceros.] 

add  that  of  another  animal,  which,  at  least  so  far  as  the  horn  is  unicorn, 
concerned,  seems  to  approach  nearer  than  the  common  rhinoceros 
to  the  monoceros  or  unicorn,  as  noticed  by  the  ancients.  The 
public  is  indebted  for  the  knowledge  of  it  to  the  Eev.  John 
Campbell,  who  thus  speaks  of  it  in  his  '  Travels  in  South 
Africa,'  (vol.  ii.  p.  294.)  While  in  the  Mashow  territory,  the 
Hottentots  brought  in  a  head  diiferent  from  that  of  any 
rhinoceros  that  had  previously  been  killed : — '  The  common 
African  rhinoceros  has  a  crooked  horn  resembling  a  cock's  spur, 
which  rises  about  nine  or  ten  inches  above  the  nose,  and 
inclines  backward ;  immediately  behind  this  is  a  short  thick 
horn.  But  the  head  they  brought  had  a  straight  horn  project- 
ing three  feet  from  the  forehead,  about  ten  inches  above  the 
tip  of  the  nose.  The  projection  of  this  great  horn  very  much 
resembles  that  of  the  fanciful  unicorn  in  the  British  arms.  It 
has  a  small,  thick,  horny  substance,  eight  inches  long,  imme- 
diately behind  it,  and  which  can  hardly  be  observed  on  the 
animal  at  the  distance  of  one  hundred  yards,  and  seems  to  be 
designed  for  keeping  fast  that  which  is  penetrated  by  the  long 
horn ;  so  that  this  species  must  look  like  a  unicorn  (in  the  sense 
'  one-horned ')  when  running  in  the  field.  The  head  resembled 
in  size  a  nine-gallon  cask,  and  measured  three  feet  from  the 
mouth  to  the  ear,  and  being  much  larger  than  that  of  the  one 
with  the  crooked  horn,  and  which  measured  eleven  feet  in 
length,  the  animal  itself  must  have  been  still  larger  and  more 
formidable.  From  its  weight,  and  the  position  of  the  horn,  it 
appears  capable  of  overcoming  any  creature  hitherto  known. 
Hardly  any  of  the  natives  took  the  smallest  notice  of  the  head, 
but  treated  it  as  a  thing  familiar  to  them.  As  the  entire  horn 
is  perfectly  solid,  the  natives,  I  afterwards  heard,  make  from 
one  horn  four  handles  for  their  battle-axes.  Our  people 
wounded  another,  which  they  reported  to  be  much  larger.' 
The  author  adds,  in  a  note,  that  the  head  was  so  weighty,  and 

I 


Bear. 


114  ISTATTJRAL  HISTORY  OF  PALESTINE. 

the  distance  from  the  Cape  so  great,  that  it  appeared  necessary 
to  cut  off  the  under  jaw  and  leave  it  behind.  '  The  animal  is 
considered  by  naturalists,  since  the  arrival  of  the  skull  in 
London,  to  be  the  unicorn  of  the  ancients,  and  the  same  that 
is  described  in  Job  xxxix.'  A  fragment  of  the  skull,  with  the 
horn,  is  deposited  in  the  Museum  of  the  London  Missionary 
Society :  and  a  representation  of  the  head  itself  is  given  in  the 
work  from  which  these  particulars  are  taken." 

The  bear  (m  dob)  also  still  exists.     Ehrenberg  saw  and  de- 
scribes the  species  called  the  Syrian  bear  in  Lebanon.     It  is 
larger  and  lower  than  the  common  brown  bear,  and  of  a  dull 
buff  colour,  often  clouded  with  darker  brown. 
Dog.  The  dog  (p!X2  cheleb). — At  a  very  early  period,  as  we  learn 

from  Job,  dogs  were  trained  by  shepherds  to  guard  their  flocks 
(Job,  xxx.  1).  They  can  be  taught  to  drive  the  sheep  or  goats 
from  one  place  to  another,  to  keep  them  from  straggling  or 
wandering  away,  and  to  manage  them,  in  fact,  with  every  kind 
of  care.  In  their  wild  condition,  however,  they  are  like  the 
wolf, — greedy,  selfish,  impudent,  quarrelsome,  and  savage.  In 
the  East  there  are  multitudes  of  them  in  this  state ;  they  wander 
about,  frequently  in  troops,  hunting  for  prey,  and  often  attack 
the  strongest  and  fiercest  beasts  of  the  forest.  But  they  do 
not  confine  themselves  to  the  wilderness  ;  they  choose  rather  to 
seek  their  living  in  towns  and  cities.  Here  they  are  found  in 
great  numbers,  ranging  the  streets  by  day  and  by  night,  and 
greedily  devouring  the  offal  that  is  cast  into  the  gutters  or 
about  the  markets.  As  they  are  sometimes  reduced  almost  to 
starvation,  they  are  ready  to  consume  human  corpses,  and  in 
the  night,  fall  even  upon  living  men.  Erom  possessing  this 
character,  the  dog,  where  it  has  not  been  trained  for  hunting, 
or  for  watching  flocks,  has  long  been,  in  that  part  of  the  world, 
held  in  great  contempt  and  abhorrence.  Hence,  in  Scripture, 
wicked  men  are  compared  to  dogs  (Ps.  xxii.  16).  "  They  re- 
turn at  evening,"  says  David,  "  they  make  a  noise  like  a  dog, 
and  go  round  about  the  city ;  they  wander  up  and  down  for 
meat,  and  grudge  if  they"  be  not  satisfied."  (Ps.  lix.  6,  15.) 
"  Grive  not  that  which  is  holy  unto  the  clogs."  (Matt.  yii.  6.) 
"  Beware  of  dogs,  beware  of  evil  workers."  (Phil.  iii.  2.) 
"  "Without  are  dogs,  and  sorcerers,"  &c.  (Bev.  xxii.  15.)  To 
Contem  '  call  a  man  a  <%  is  still  exceedingly  reproachful,  as  it  was  in 
tu°ous  usPe'  ancient  times.  (2  Sam.  xvi.  9  ;  2  Kings,  viii.  13.)  The  Jews,  in 
of  the  name  ^  time  0f  our  Saviour,  were  accustomed  to  call  the  Gentiles 
by  this  contemptuous  epithet ;  to  which  Christ  had  allusion, 
when  he  said  to  the  woman  of  Canaan,  in  order  to  try  her 
faith,  "  It  is  not  meet  to  take  the  children's  bread,  and  to  cast 
it  to  the  dogs."  (Matt.  xv.  26.)     In  our  day,  the  Mohammedans 


dog. 


BIKDS. 


115 


in  that  country  still  use  the  same  language  of  contempt  towards 
those  who  differ  from  them  in  religion,  especially  Christians 
and  Jews,  styling  them  Christian  dogs — Jewish  dogs. 

The  coney  (pw  shaphan)  is  an  animal  not  larger  than  a  Coney, 
hedgehog,  and  resembling  a  mouse  and  a  bear.  In  Palestine 
it  is  called  the  bear-mouse,  dwelling 
in  rocks  and  caves.  The  coney  is 
generally  believed  to  be  identical 
with  the  animal  now  known  by  the 
name  ashkoko.  Conies  are  gregarious, 
and  sit  together  about  the  rocky 
holes  and  clefts  in  parties,  They 
seem  to  steal  along,  not  standing  on 
their  feet,  and  with  perpetual  paus- 
ings  in  their  course.    They  are  feeble  rcwy.] 

and  gentle,  easily  tamed.     They  build  in  the  rocks,  in  places 
less   accessible   than  those  of   the    rabbit,   where  they 
greater  security.     They  possess  much  animal  sagacitv. 

Birds. 


enjoy 


The  eagle  (itttt  nisr)  is  frequently  mentioned  in  Scripture  as  Ea&Ie- 
a  powerful  bird,  dwelling  in  elevated  places,  and  soaring  aloft 
in  its  rapid  flight.  "  Doth  the  eagle  mount  up  at  thv  com- 
mand, and  make  her  nest  on  high?"  (Job,  xxxix.  27.)'  Both 
Jeremiah  and  Obadiah  refer  to  the  height  at  which  the  eagle 
builds  her  nest.  The  latter  says,  in  the  noble  language  of 
hyperbole,  "  Though  thou  exalt  thyself  as  the  eagle,  and  though 
thou  set  thy  nest  among  the  stars,  thence  will  I  bring  thee 
down,  saith  the  Lord."  (Obad.  iv.)  The  ostrich  (tiw>  joneh,  and  Ostrich. 
p)T)  ronan),&$  is  well  known,  delights 
the    sandy    desert,    where    she 


m 


deposits  her  eggs,  and,  as  is  generally 

thought,  leaves  them  to  be  warmed 

and  matured  there.     Her   speed  is 

great,   outstripping  the   horse,   and 

sustained  by  a  quivering  of  the  wings. 

The  stork  (rTTDn  chasidah)  occupies 

the   fir  trees,   or  the  summit  of  a 

tower.     She  knows  her  "  appointed 

time,"  in  removing  with  the  change 

of  seasons  to   the   north  or  south. 

(Jer.   viii.    7.)      The  pelican    (n»n 

kaath)  inhabits  marshy  places  and  solitary  lakes    (Ps.  cii.  1). 

The  raven  (rw  oreb),  owl  (DID  cos,  fyc.),  hawk  (p  netz),  dove  Raven 

(iW  jona),   crane    (Toy  ogur),  &c.  are   familiar  to   us.     The  dove,  &c, 


[Ostrich.] 


116 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OP  PALESTINE. 


Peacock. 


peacock  (d^DIM  thoukiim)  was  brought  into  Palestine,  probably 
from  Persia,  in  the  reign  of  Solomon.  The  native  wild  pigeon, 
and  carrion  crow  or  kite,  scarcely  differ  from  our  own. 

Reptiles. 


Dragon. 


Among  reptiles  the  dragon  (jn  than,  §•<?.)  is  often  spoken  of 
in  Scripture,  but  what  animal  is  specially  intended  it  is  not 
easy  to  ascertain.  When  frightful  scenes  of  desolation  are 
described,  called  "  the  habitation  of  dragons,"  the  name  may 
be  used  for  different  kinds  of  reptiles  in  general  which  lurk 
among  rubbish  and  ruins.     The  crocodile  is  called  a  dragon  in 


[Lizard.] 


"  The  great  dragon  that  lieth  in 
xxix.  3.)      Dragons   of  the 


referring  to  the  river  Nile. 

the  midst  of  rivers."  (Ezek.  xxix.  6.)  uragons  oi  tne  sea 
seem  to  mean  various  monsters  of  the  ocean.  Dragon  is  also 
the  name  of  a  large  serpent,  represented  by  ancient  writers  as 
having  bright  red  or  yellow  scales,  of  a  species  still  found  in 
the  East.  It  is  capable  of  crushing  a  stag  or  ox  with  the  folds 
of  its  body  enwrapping  them,  and  it  can  swallow  them  whole. 
The  "  Great  Dragon"  of  John,  in  the  Apocalypse,  appears  to 
be  this  monster ;  and  hence  the  name  of  Satan,  or  the  Devil, 
Cockatrice,  that  "  Old  Serpent."      The  cockatrice  (}#&¥  tsephuon),  the  asp 

(jfi&  pethen),  the  adder  (#S¥ 
tzepha),  and  the  viper  (nySK 
ephoeh),  were  all  of  the  ser- 
pent class,  venomous  and 
dangerous.  The  scorpion 
(mpy  okrab)  also  is  some- 
times joined  with  the  serpent 
on  account  of  its  poison.  It 
has  six  or  eight  eyes,  and 
has  the  poison  in  its  tail, 
which  it  darts  with  malignant 
vigour. 


[Scorpion.] 


INSECTS.  117 


Insects. 


With  regard  to  insects,  the  bee  and  others  do  not  differ 
from  those  of  Europe.  Musquitoes,  and  insects  of  that  tribe, 
abound,  though  much  less  so  than  in  Egypt  and  other  sultry 
countries. 

Bees  (rmm  deburah)  formed  a  special  object  of  care  with  Bees, 
the  Jewish  farmers.     They  abounded  in  their  country  from  the 
earliest  times;  so  that  it  was  called,  by   way  of  description, 
"a  land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey."     These  little  animals 
often  laid  up  their   stores   in  hollow 
trees,  or  in  the  clefts   of  the   rocks 
(Ps.  lxxxi.  16),  but  more  commonly, 
we  may  suppose,  in  hives,  as  with  us. 
Honey  was  very  much  used  at  home, 
but  made  in  such  great  quantities  that 
it  was   also   carried   away  to    supply 
other   countries,    especially   in   traffic 
with  the   Tyrians    (Ezek.   xxvii.    17). 
Butter   or   cream,    and    honey,    were  [Bee] 

esteemed  a  great  delicacy,  and  it  was  a  sign  of  plenty  in  the 
land  when  this  kind  of  food  abounded.  Such  seems  to  have 
been  the  meaning  of  that  promise  to  Ahaz,  that  before  the  child 
that  was  soon  to  be  born  should  be  old  enough  to  know  good 
from  evil,  the  country  should  be  delivered  from  her  enemies, 
and  such  prosperity  restored,  that  butter  and  honey  would  be 
his  common  food  (Isa.  vii.  15,  16).  The  same  taste  still  con- 
tinues in  eastern  countries  :  cream  and  honey  are  accounted, 
especially  among  the  Arabs,  the  richest  luxury  of  the  breakfast 
table.  There  was  also  a  kind  of  wild  honey,  not  uncommon  in 
that  region.  It  was  not  made  by  bees,  but  collected  from  other 
little  insects  upon  the  leaves  of  certain  trees,  so  as  to  drop  down 
quite  plentifully ;  sometimes  all  over  the  ground.  Such  was  the 
honey  which  Jonathan  tasted  in  the  wood  ;  the  honeycomb  into 
which  he  is  said  to  have  dipped  his  rod,  was  merely  a  collection 
of  this  wild  substance  (1  Sam.  xiv.  25 — 27).  The  honey  which 
John  the  Baptist  used  for  food  in  the  wilderness,  might  have 
been,  at  least  in  part,  of  this  sort ;  though  it  is  probable  he 
found  there  much  honey  of  the  common  kind,  as  to  this  day 
very  considerable  quantities  are  laid  up  among  the  rocks, 
through  that  same  region  of  country :  this  might  very  properly 
be  called  wild  honey,  as  well  as  the  other  (Matt.  iii.  4). 

Among  the  insect  tribes  of  the  East,  the  locust  (n^«  arbeh)  Locust, 
may  be  mentioned  as  remarkable.     It  is  frequently  very  large, 
being  six  inches  long,  and  as  thick  as  a  moderate  sized  finger. 
The  head  resembles  that  of  a  horse,  and  it  has  sharp  teeth.  The 


118 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  PALESTINE. 


Locust, 


wings  are  spotted  brown,  the  body  yellow  or  reddish.  Its  food 
seems  to  be  every  green  thing,   and   so  immensely  numerous 

are  the  locusts  that  they  are  not 
inaptly  described  as  armies  or  gather- 
ing clouds  extending  many  miles  in 
length,  darkening  the  air  in  their 
flight,  filling  the  air  with  the  terrific 
sound  of  their  wings,  and  so  com- 
LLocust.]  plet ely  covering  the  ground  when  th  ey 

alight,  as  to  effect  its  entire  desolation.  Their  march  is  north- 
ward, and  nothing  can  arrest  them.  The  language  of  the  pro- 
phet Joel  is  probably  familiar  to  every  reader.  "  The  land  is 
as  the  garden  of  Eden  before  them,  and  behind  them  a  desolate 
wilderness.  Tea,  and  nothing  shall  escape  them.  The  appear- 
ance of  them  is  as  the  appearance  of  horses  ;  and  as  horsemen 
so  shall  they  run.  Like  the  noise  of  chariots  on  the  tops  of  the 
mountains  shall  they  leap  ;  like  the  noise  of  a  flame  of  fire  that 
devoureth  the  stubble;  as  a  strong  people  set  in  battle  array," 
&c.  &c.  (Joel,  ii.  3 — 10.)  Borne  by  the  wind  into  the  sea,  they 
perish ;  but  their  carcases,  driven  to  shore  by  the  action  of  the 
waves  and  the  winds,  the  air  is  rendered  pestiferous  by  their 
decay,  and  disease  not  unfrequently  ensues.  Their  peculiar 
abode  is  Arabia,  whence  "  the  locusts  went  up  through  all  the 
land  of  Egypt"  (Exod.  xvi.  14)  ;  and  the  Mohammedan  armies 
were  in  a  vision  represented  to  John  as  a  swarm  of  locusts 
(Rev.  ix.)  They  are  often  used  for  food,  salted  and  dried  in 
the  smoke,  or  boiled  with  oil  or  butter,  or  toasted  before  the 
fire.  The  palmer- worm,  canker-worm,  and  caterpillar,  are  con- 
sidered to  be  species  of  the  locust. 


III.— Climate. 


Hot  season. 
Seed-time. 


The  year  was  divided  at  an  early  period  into  six  seasons,  each 
consisting  of  two  months.  They  are  distinctly  mentioned  in 
the  promise  of  God  to  Noah,  as  "  seed  time  and  harvest,  and 
cold  and  heat,  and  summer  and  winter"  (Gren.  viii.  22).  The 
Arabs  now  make  the  same  distinctions. 

The  harvest  began  near  the  commencement  of  our  April,  and 
ended  in  the  former  part  of  the  month  of  June.  In  general 
the  temperature  during  that  period  is  agreeable,  but  afterwards 
increases  to  an  unpleasant  degree.  Summer  followed  with 
intense  heat,  so  that  it  was  common  to  sleep  on  the  tops  of  the 
houses  in  the  open  air.  This  is  the  time  of  fruits,  which  lasted 
two  months.  The  hot  season  began  in  the  early  part  of  October ; 
after  the  middle  the  heat  gradually  diminished.  Seed- time  lasted 
from  the  first  part  of  October  to  the  first  part  of  December. 


CLIMATE.  119 

During  this  time  the  weather  is  frequently  cloudy  and  rainy. 
Towards  the  end  of  it  the  snow  begins  to  fall  upon  the  moun- 
tains. Next  to  this  succeeds  winter,  when  snow  frequently  winter, 
falls,  but  this  only  a  few  hours,  excepting  on  the  tops  of  the 
mountains.  The  north  winds  are  cold,  and  thin  ice  is  formed, 
but  soon  melts  away  under  the  powerful  beams  of  the  sun. 
Thunder,  lightning,  and  rain,  often  occur.  The  brooks  are  filled, 
and  torrents  flow  like  rivers  along  the  country.  The  cold  season  Gold  season, 
extended  from  the  first  half  of  February  to  the  first  half  of  April. 
Thunderstorms  frequently  occur,  with  heavy  rain  and  hail 
during  that  period.  Then  the  indications  of  approaching  spring 
soon  present  themselves  in  the  budding  trees,  which  are  speedily 
covered  with  foliage,  the  fields  with  grain,  and  the  gardens  with 
flowers.  Though  it  is  called  the  cold  season,  the  weather  is  pro- 
gressively warm,  and  sometimes  in  its  advance  considerably  hot. 

During  the  months  of  May,  June,  July,  and  August,  there  is  Rain, 
no  rain ;  the  only  moisture  is  from  the  dews,  which,  however, 
as  a  providential  compensation,  fall  most  plentifully.  In  the 
early  part  of  October  a  rain  of  three  or  four  days'  continuance 
descends,  by  which  the  ground  is  prepared  for  ploughing  and 
sowing.  About  twenty  days  of  unclouded  weather  ensue, 
when  the  rains  return.  The  heavy  showers  with  which  the 
rainy  season  commenced  were  called  the  former  or  early  rains ; 
the  rain  that  fell  in  the  spring,  just  before  harvest,  was  called 
the  latter  rain.  Commencing  at  the  beginning  of  April,  it 
brought  forward  the  crops  to  their  perfection.  The  weather  is 
extremely  various  throughout  the  winter.  When  the  sky  was 
red  in  the  evening,  it  was  deemed  a  sign  of  fair  weather  on  the 
following  day,  but  this  appearance  in  the  morning  led  to  the 
anticipation  of  rain  (Comp.  Matt.  xvi.  2,  3).  A  cloud  rising 
from  the  west  gave  warning  of  rain  (Luke,  xii.  54). 

In  conclusion  we  may  observe,  that  the  soil  and  climate  Variety  in 
of  Syria  vary  greatly  in  different  districts,  but  are  on  the  g^?11  of 
whole  salubrious  and  productive.  In  the  valleys,  the  heat  and 
luxuriance  of  a  tropical  region  are  experienced,  while  the  shelving 
terraces  and  summits  of  the  mountains  present  at  the  same 
season  the  mildness  and  vegetation  of  spring,  or  the  ice  and 
snow  of  winter.  Under  a  good  government,  Syria,  notwith- 
standing its  want  of  harbours,  would  be  a  delightful  residence, 
and  might  maintain  a  large  and  thriving  population.  At  present 
the  reverse  is  the  case  ;  and  though  the  vigorous  discipline  and 
active  police  maintained  by  Ibrahim  Pasha  made  the  country 
more  accessible  to  foreigners  and  more  favourable  to  commerce, 
his  merciless  spoliation  of  the  people,  and  avowed  disregard  for 
all  established  titles  to  land,  destroyed  confidence  and  security, 
and  rendered  his  sway  as  hateful  and  oppressive  to  the  natives 


120  tfATTTKAL  HISTORY  OF  PALESTINE. 

as  it  was  convenient  to  foreigners,  who  were  protected  by  the 
power  of  their  governments  at  home.  In  the  interior  of  Syria, 
the  want  of  water  is  often  severely  felt,  as  the  beds  of  the 
mountain  torrents  are  often  dry  in  the  hot  season  ;  but  wherever 
the  stream  is  permanent,  particularly  in  the  valley  of  the  Jordan, 
the  soil  is  abundantly  productive.  In  Palestine  and  much  of 
the  southern  part  of  Syria,  there  is  little  wood ;  but  the  cedars 
and  forests  of  Lebanon  have  been  famous  almost  ever  since  the 
days  of  Solomon  ;  and  there  is  no  want  of  timber  in  the  upper 
branches  of  the  same  chain,  between  Acri  and  Aleppo. 

Winds. — The  winds  are  frequently  mentioned  in  Scripture, 

winds.        witli  references  to  their  peculiar  characteristics.    The  east  wind 

East  winds,  was  the  most  injurious,  and  at  sea  the  most  dangerous.  On  the 
land  it  was  dry  and  hot,  consequently  destructive  to  vegetation. 
In  winter  it  was  cold,  but  without  moisture,  and  producing  a 
blight  on  the  grain.  The  description  of  its  violence  on  the 
ocean  is  striking.  "  Thou  breakest  the  ships  of  Tarshish  with 
an  east  wind"  (Ps.  xlviii.  7).  Every  wind  coming  from  between 
east  and  north,  or  east  and  south,  was  called  an  east  wind. 
Such  was  the  wind  which  caused  the  wreck  of  the  vessel  in 
which  Paul  was  sailing  to  Borne,  called  Euroclydon  (Acts,  xxvii. 

Eurociydon.  14).  In  fact,  it  blows  from  all  points,  and  is  now  known  by  the 
name  of  a  Levanter.  Job  informs  us  that  cold  and  fair  weather 
came  from  the  north,  while  the  south  wind  brought  heat ;  and 
from  this  quarter  generally  sprung  the  whirlwind,  of  whose 
tremendous  power  in  raising  the  sands  of  the  desert  into  pillared 
and  overwhelming  masses,  travellers  furnish  frightful  descrip- 
tions.    The  Sirocco,  or,  in  its  intensest  character,  the  Simoon,  is 

Simoon.  a  hot  gale  that  bears  poison  and  death  on  its  wings.  Its  ap- 
proach is  indicated  by  distant  clouds  slightly  tinged  with  red,  and 
a  general  gloom  in  the  sky.  It  then  assumes  a  hazy  aspect,  re- 
sembling smoke,  coloured  with  a  purple  hue.  The  compen- 
sating goodness  of  Providence  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  this  gale 
or  current  of  air  is  usually  only  a  hundred  feet  broad,  keeping 
about  two  feet  from  the  ground,  not  more  in  elevation  than 
fifteen,  and  so  rapid  in  its  flight  as  not  to  be  felt  more  than 
about  ten  minutes  on  any  one  place.  The  mode  of  escape  from 
it,  therefore,  is  to  do  what  the  animals  are  instinctively  taught 
to  do,  namely,  bury  the  head  for  the  time  in  the  sand,  or  at 
least  keep  it  close  to  the  earth  by  at  once  falling  prostrate. 
Many,  however,  are  overtaken  unawares,  and,  imbibing  the 
suffocating  vapour  in  the  lungs,  they  fall  immediately,  and 
perish.  The  whole  body  soon  becomes  black  with  a  fatal  morti- 
fication. Simom  is  the  Arab  designation;  the  Turks  call  it  Samyel. 


WILSON  AND  OGiLVY,  57,  SKINNEtt  STREET,  SNOWHILL,  LONDON.