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The Glasgow
NataraHst

Including the

Proceedings of the Urban Biodiversity Conference 2010

Volume 25 Part 4 2012

Journal of

THE GLASGOW NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Glasgow Natural History Society

(formerly The Andersonian Naturalists of Glasgow)

The Glasgow Natural History Society is a registered charity (SCO 12586) with approximately 250 members living in
Glasgow, the West of Scotland, throughout the UK and overseas. The Society arranges a full programme of events
throughout the year in Glasgow and district and occasionally further afield. These are at both specialist and popular
level, designed to bring together the amateur and the professional, the expert and the beginner.

The Society has its own library, and provides grants for the study of natural history. Further details about the Society
can be found at www.gnhs.org.uk or by contacting the Secretary, The Glasgow Natural History Society, c/o Graham
Kerr (Zoology) Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, Scotland (E-mail: info@,gnhs.org.uk). The
Society has microscopes and some field equipment that can be used by members. Please contact the Membership
Secretary Mr Richard Weddle at the address above for further details.

The Glasgow Naturalist

The Glasgow Naturalist is published by the Glasgow Natural History Society ISSN 0373-241X. It was first issued in
1908-9 and is a peer reviewed journal that publishes original studies in botany, zoology and geology, with a particular
focus on studies from the West of Scotland. For questions or advice about submissions please contact the Editor: Dr
Dominic McCafferty (E-mail: dominic.mccaffertv@glasgow.ac.uk). Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and
Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Graham Kerr Building, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland. Advice to
contributors is given on the inside cover of this edition. The publication is included in the abstracting and indexing of
the Bioscience Information Service of Biological Abstracts and the Botanical Society of the British Isles Abstracts.
Back numbers of the journal may be purchased by contacting the Society at the address above. Full details of the
journal can be found at www.gnhs.org.uk/gnat.html

Publications of the Glasgow Natural History Society

The Society has published a number of books on the flora and fauna of the West of Scotland. Full details can be found
at www.gnhs.org.uk/publications.html

Front cover

Small tortoiseshell butterfly {Aglais urticae) on the M8 motorway verge, Glasgow. Photo: Cath Scott.

Back Cover

Buff-tailed bumblebee (Bombiis terrestris) in a wildflower meadow in Kelvingrove Park, Glasgow. Photo: Cath Scott.

The Glasgow Naturalist

Volume 25 Part 4
Contents

EDITORIAL

Impacts of television on natural history. D. J. McCafferty 1

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONFERENCE 3

FULL PAPERS

From whaling to whale watching: a history of cetaceans in Scotland. E. C. M. Parsons 53

The moth assemblages of Flanders moss, Stirlingshire. J. T. Knowler 59

Diversity of wild plants in low-maintenance Scottish suburban garden. Then and now - 1986 and 2011. M. O’Reilley 71
The professor Blodwen Lloyd Binns Bequest: its contribution to the development of Glasgow’s Natural History

Society. J. R. Downie, M. McKinnon, P. Macpherson, D. McCafferty & R. Weddle 79

Gartcosh great crested newts: the story so far. D. C. McNeill, J. R. Downie & B. Ross 87

Vegetation and ‘site florulas’ of islands in West Loch Roag, Outer Hebrides. P. A. Smith & J. McIntosh 93

A review of the incidence of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) in surface waters in Scotland including potential effects
of climate change, with a list of the common species and new records from the Scottish Environmental Protection

Agency. J. T. Krokowski, P. Lang, A. Bell, N. Broad, J. Clayton, I. Milne, M. Nicolson, A. Ross & N. Ross 99

Effects of fertilisers on vegetation of ultrabasic ten-aces (1965-2010): Isle of Rum, Scotland. J. A. Gilbert & K. R. Butt

105

Long term dynamics in Scottish saltmarsh plant communities. R. B. Taubert & K. J. Murphy 1 1 1

SHORT NOTES

Interesting Aculeate records from Glasgow, including eight new species records from Lanarkshire, with reflections on

their wider distribution in Southem Scotland. J. Robinson & C. Fiedler 1 19

The Entomology Collection of Dr Clifford Edwards (1913-2009) in Glasgow Museums. J. Robinson 124

Adventures with Amphibians. J. R. Downie 125

The migrant moth, small m?Lxh\Q.d Eublemma parva, in central Scotland 201 1. C. Convei-y, D. Collis & G. Collis 129

The Australian landhopper, Arcitalitrus dorheni (Hunt, 1925), Crtistacea, Amphipoda, in Glasgow. E. G. Hancock . 130

Miscellaneous invertebrates recorded from the Outer Hebrides, 2010. J. H. Bratton 130

A photograph of a teacher-training course in marine zoology at Millport (1914). P. G. Moore 132

CoiTection to the statistical note in ‘Gulliver, R., 2011. Patterns of flowering on continuously-grazed dune and machair

on Colonsay. The Glasgow Naturalist 25 (3) 19-28’. R. Gulliver 133

The most northerly documented record of the green alga HvdrodictyKm reticulatum (water-net) in the UK. A. McManus

’ ’. 134

Hoverfly species (Diptera, Syrphidae) collected near Rowardennan, Loch Lomondside, August, 201 1. E. G. Hancock

135

First record of larval sea lamprey Petromyzon marimis L. in the Endrick Water, Loch Lomond. J. B. Hume & C. E.

Adams 137

A record of the aurochs. Bos primigeiiins, from Morayshire. A. C. Kitchener & J. Doune 1 38

The rare green alga Pediastruin priviim (Chlorophyta, Sphaeropleales) in a Scottish kettle loch: new to British

freshwaters. P. Lang, J. Krokowski, N. Ross & R. Doughty 139

First records of the pygmy sperm whale, Kogia breviceps, in Scotland. A. C. Kitchener, J. S. Hennan, R. .1. Reid & N.

Anderson 142

Scottish Centre for Ecology and the Natural Environment and Glasgow Natural History Society Photographic
Competition 2012 147

OBITUARIES 149

BOOK REVIEWS / ) ^51

PROCEEDINGS 157

The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges, 1

EDITORIAL

Impacts of television on natural history

Dominic J. McCafferty

Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Graham Keir Building,
Glasgow G12 8QQ

E-mail: dominie. mccafferty(@glasgow. ac.uk

Have you noticed how many people discuss natural
history after watching an episode of BBC Springwatch
or following a David Attenborough documentary? For
most people television and digital media now constitute
a substantial source of infonnation about the natural
world. There can be no doubt that television plays a
significant part in our lives as it is estimated that in
Scotland we watch on average 4.2 hours of television
per day (BBC Scotland 2010). Susanna Curtin (In
press) argues that wildlife television programmes shape
the way in which we develop our emotional
relationship with wildlife and indeed influence the
growing trend in wildlife tourism particularly in
Scotland. In ‘The Effect of British Natural Histoiy
Television Programmes: Animal Representations and
Wildlife Tourism’ soon to be published, she highlights
the fact that in the UK wildlife programmes are
watched by over 50% of men and women and natural
histoiy topics are in the top five of favourite television
programmes. It is not suiprising that a third of visitors
to Scotland were influenced in their choice of
destination by wildlife/nature television programmes
such as BBC Springy’atch.

Natural history programmes have grown in popularity
since the 1 960s and therefore for most of us they have
contributed to our knowledge and understanding of
natural history. Are there any UK biologists alive who
have not been influenced by David Attenborough and
many other TV naturalists? Wildlife documentaries are
predominantly associated with large charismatic mega-
fauna, often anthropomoiphising the lives of animals
and focusing on the exciting moments of fighting,
reproduction and predation. There could be a tendency
for broadcasting to bias our knowledge of the natural
world away from the less spectacular aspects of natural
history. Thankfully there appears to be some evidence
that we continue to be fascinated by the less exotic
species we share our cities and gardens with. This
edition of The Glasgow Naturalist features the

Proceedings of the Urban Biodiversity’ Conference that
was held at the University of Glasgow in 2010 which
demonstrated how we value our urban wildlife as well
as the charismatic species found in wild areas of
Scotland and beyond. Indeed many fascinating insights
into the lives of animals and plants have recently been
filmed in the centres of large cities such as Glasgow.

For the first time in its history, papers from The
Glasgow Naturalist have been published online before
appearing in print. Natural histoiy and naturalists arc
certainly moving with the times and as is the case with
many aspects of our lives we cannot ignore the
influence of the media on our knowledge, enjoyment
and relationship with the natural world.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank all the authors and reviewers for
their time and effort which have ensured the high
quality science and scholarship of this journal. Iain
Wilkie took on editorial work for this edition for which
I am extremely grateful. I am indebted to Ruth
Maclachlan for all secretarial work for the journal and
especially her patience with my fonnatting requests.
Thanks to Noniian Tait for photographic work and Bob
Gray for compiling the Book Reviews. Without all
their efforts this volume would not have been possible.

REFERENCES

BBC Scotland, 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ncws/uk-
scotland-1 1024554 Accessed 28/8/12

Curtin, S. (In press). ‘The effect of British Natural
Histoiy Television Programmes: Animal

Representations and Wildlife Tourism ’ In:
Mediating the Tourist Experience: From Brochures
to Virtual Encounters. Channel View Publications.
Abstract at:

http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/19383/

The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges, 3-51

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONFERENCE

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and

Challenges: Introduction

J.R. Downie

President, Glasgow Natural History Society (GNHS)
Professor of Zoological Education, University of
Glasgow

E-mail; Roger.Downie(@glasgow. ac.uk

Early in 2009, GNHS Council discussed how we might
respond to International Year of Biodiversity,
designated for 2010. We quickly agreed that the most
appropriate theme for a city-based natural histoiy
society would be a focus on urban biodiversity: after
all, it is still the case that too many people think of
biodiversity as something you only find ‘out there’ in
the countryside. So we felt that a conference discussing
the range of biodiversity in towns and cities would be
valuable. We were delighted when Jim Coyle of
Glasgow City Council’s biodiversity team gave
immediate support and we soon assembled a steering
group comprising representation from GNHS, RSPB
Glasgow, SWT, Glasgow Museums and GCC’s
Biodiversity team. An early meeting agreed on the title:
‘Urban Biodiversity - successes and challenges’,
because we wanted to describe and celebrate the
successes achieved in conserving and enhancing
biodiversity in Glasgow and other towns and cities, but
also to discuss the challenges we still face in making
further progress.

Timing was easy to decide on. Two factors settled the
final weekend of October 2010. First, the United
Nations Convention on Biodiversity meeting, planned
to achieve agreement on new conservation targets was
scheduled to end in Nagoya, Japan on Friday 29'*’
October. Second, a new book. Co-ordinated by
Glasgow Museums ‘Wildlife around Glasgow’ was due
to be launched during the same week.

We decided early on a two-day meeting and that it
should be over the weekend (the debate between
weekend and weekdays for such a meeting is a tricky
one, but venues are easier at weekends). The plan was
to devote the Saturday to fonnal presentations: these
would deal first with policy issues, achievements and
benefits. We were veiy keen to ensure that the meeting
would highlight the benefits of urban biodiversity to
people. Saturday would also cover case histories,
including single species, groups and unusual habitats,
both by talks and by posters. We also hoped to entice

some high level political presence and were vciy
pleased when Roseanna Cunningham, Minister of the
Environment, agreed to open the conference.

Sunday was to be a more practical, interactive day with
the morning devoted to participative workshops with
choices of topics, and the afternoon to excursions to
interesting biodiversity locations within easy distance:
we realised the riskiness of this in terms of weather and
impending darkness on the last Sunday of October.

Over approximately monthly meetings from October
2009 the programme you see before you came together.
We were very pleased by the response from our invited
speakers: this seemed to be a meeting people wanted to
contribute to.

What of the omens for success? First, ‘Wildlife around
Glasgow’ was successfully launched on the Thursday
before the conference, and a beautiful publication it is.
Many congratulations to Richard Sutcliffe and his
team. Second, despite gloomy reports during the week,
the 190 nations meeting at Nagoya reportedly agreed
on 20 new tough biodiversity targets to be met by
2020. It will be up to all of us to ensure that these are
not just paper commitments. Third, as 1 came through
campus to get ready for the meeting, a fox crossed my
path - now a veiy common sight in the West End of
Glasgow!

I’d like to thank all members of the conference steering
group for their input over many meetings and e-mails;
also, our funders, Glasgow City Council, the
University of Glasgow and the Blodwcn Lloyd Binns
Bequest. 1 also acknowledge the honour bestowed by
the Lord Provost in providing the Civic Reception
which closed the proceedings. Most importantly, I must
thank Richard Weddle whose tireless efforts made this
conference possible.

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: Civic welcome speech

Bailie Nina Baker
Glasgow City Council

Ladies, gentlemen and distinguished guests, it is my
great pleasure to welcome you to this event, on behalf
of the Lord Provost and people of the city of Glasgow.
On the eve of your 160^'’ anniversaiy, the Glasgow
Natural History Society is to be congratulated for
bringing together The University of Glasgow, RSPB,

Glasgow City Council, Culture and Sport Glasgow as
was, now of course known as Glasgow Life, and the
Scottish Wildlife Trust to hold this conference marking
the International Year of Biodiversity.

With the vast majority of our nation’s population living
in urban areas, the quality of urban open spaces can
have a significant effect on their attitudes to the natural
world more generally. Professor Jim Dickson and
others’ ground breaking book on the plants in our city
showed us how even apparently grotty brownfield sites
are oases in otherwise less favourable urban
environments and help the overall biodiversity of the
city. This work has now been complemented by the
recent fauna surveys by the volunteers of the
Biodiversity in Glasgow project. With the continuing
shortage of allotment plots in areas of high demand, the
council’s policy to help so-called Stalled Development
sites become temporary community greenspaces will
be welcome to many and it is to be hoped that the
owners of such spaces see the benefits they can bring.

Your fascinating programme of talks looks at these
wider issues as well as the micro-studies of particular
environments, such as bings and wildlife coixidors and
of particular wildlife such as waterbeetles and epigeal
invertebrates - do I assume this means our good friends
the earthwonns?(Audience response; No, these are
surface-livers like slaters, millipedes and ground
beetles). With more and more of our schools being not
only Ecoschools but also gardening and food growing
schools, 1 am sure our younger generation have a keen
eye for Glasgow’s biodiversity. And here in the
university that enthusiasm is taken to the professional
levels. You will be asked to consider if Glasgow is as
green as its nickname, dear green place, but 1 am sure
with the council staff, professionals and amateur
enthusiasts’ energy represented today, we can look
forward to every effort being put towards improving
the biodiversity in the future. So, 1 am pleased to
provide this civic welcome half-way through your
conference and wish you a successful and interesting
event.

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: Nature in the city

Roseanna Cunningham - MSP

Minister for the Environment - Scottish Government

Urban environments are often thought of as human
environments. After all, our towns and cities are home
to over 80% of Scotland’s population. But urban
environments arc so much more than this. Each town
and city has its own unique mosaic of habitats and
ecosystems. Gardens, parks, allotments, brownfield

sites, industrial sites, rivers, ponds and even graveyards
all provide different niches for the thousands of species
that share our urban landscape.

With all these different habitats on the doorstep it isn’t
suiprising that urban environments are where most
people have the opportunity to experience the natural
world. But while this is obvious to us here today, it is
not always so clear to other people living in urban
environments - less than half of Scots get into the
outdoors at least once a week. This is something that
needs to change.

Being outdoors and around nature brings so many
benefits. It can reduce stress and improve physical and
mental health. In short it improves residents’ quality of
life. It is the Greenspace in our cities that can provide
people with a quick and easy escape from the hubbub
of city life. This is why SNH are promoting the Simple
Pleasures these areas can bring. This is a new
campaign aimed at getting the public out and about in
their cities and introducing them to the wildlife within
it. Over 20% of Glasgow is green space so the
opportunities to experience nature really are on your
doorstep.

As part of the Simple Pleasures campaign SNH have
identified routes and suggested places to visit in and
around Glasgow. Similar materials are being developed
for other cities and I hope they become a useful
resource for those of you working with the public. I
understand that this conference is also linked to the
publication of the book ‘Wildlife around Glasgow’, so
the materials are out there that can help introduce
people to the wonders of nature without the need for
expensive equipment or extensive planning.

Of course, these opportunities only exist if the
networks of green and blue space are properly
managed. The ecological footprint of any city extends
far beyond its boundaries and development pressures
within the city limits can cause conflict. There is no
easy solution to these pressures but planning and
managing urban environments in the right way can
have significant positive impacts. Connecting cities
with the environment around them through habitat
networks and limiting the impact of development on
the surrounding ecosystems are vital parts to this.
Climate change will add new pressures to the urban
environment and working with the biodiversity that
supports our ecosystems is one of the best ways of
adapting and mitigating against its effects. We’re
promoting such policies through initiatives like the
Central Scotland Green Network which is a priority
under the National Planning Framework. This is
already enhancing greenspaces, promoting healthier
lifestyles, greater biodiversity, stronger communities
and economic opportunity.

Many of you will be involved in making this a reality
on the ground in many different ways. For example.
Sustainable urban drainage (SUD) schemes help

mitigate against flooding and provide habitat for a
variety of species. Promoting local food growing
engages local people and helps reduce our overall
carbon footprint. Householders can do their bit too by
growing wildlife friendly plants, avoiding invasive
non-native species and carefully composting what they
can. When the impact of all these different initiatives is
added together we end up with rich urban
environments which benefit all the species that live in
them. Not least the human community.

I’ve briefly touched on a few themes which I know you
will be discussing in more detail over the next couple
of days. As you might know, discussions have also
been ongoing recently in Nagoya, Japan about the UN
Convention on Biological Diversity. I know such high
level debate can often seem far removed from the day
to day delivery of biodiversity conservation and it is
easy to be cynical about the process. But these
discussions included a specific focus on cities and
biodiversity. And while it’s too early to have fully
digested the outputs and what our response will be to it.
I’m sure those aspects of the discussion in particular
will be of interest to all of you.

Unfortunately, due to other commitments, I am not
able to stay for the rest of the conference but from
looking at the agenda and field trips I am sure you will
have an interesting and productive two days.

(This is the fonnal version of the speech that the
Minister delivered at the opening of the Conference).

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: The next generation:
environmental education with the
RSPB

Rebekah Stackhouse' and Jenifer MacCaluim^

RSPB, Scotland Headquarters, 2 Lochside View,
Edinburgh Park, Edinburgh, EH 1 2 9DH

'E-mail: rebckah.stackhouse@rspb.org.uk
^E-mail: jenifer.maccaluim@rspb.org.iik

An RSPB field teaching site was established at
Kelvingrove Museum and Kelvingrove Park in 2007. It
provides sessions for primary schools on woodlands,
urban wildlife, birds, conservation and a sensoiy walk
for infants.

All the sessions are based on the Scottish CuiTiculum
for Excellence and involve active outdoor learning. The
programme is agreed with the teacher before the visit
and the quality of the service is evaluated by users and
by the RSPB Education Officer. The RSPB field
teaching scheme is a holder of the nationally accredited

Learning Outside the Classroom Quality Badge.

Around 2000 children visit the RSPB at Kelvingrove
every year. Learning to appreciate the biodiversity in
local parks encourages children to care for their own
school grounds and gardens. A lack of knowledge
about and experience of seeing wildlife is apparent in
many Glasgow children making field trips a valuable
part of school projects.

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: Biodiversity on bings

Barbra Harvie

University of Edinburgh, Crew Building, King’s
Buildings, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JN

E-mail; barbra.harvie@ed.ac.uk

ABSTRACT

The West Lothian oil-shale bings are important havens
of biodiversity at both a local and a national (UK)
level. They arc examples of true primary succession
and provide a refuge for locally rare species, both plant
and animal, in an urban/ industrial/ agricultural
landscape making them important to conservation and
increased local biodiversity.

THE SITES

The oil shale bings of West Lothian are piles of
industrial waste; a by-product of Scotland’s first oil
industry in the 1850s. Historically they are of great
importance (Harvie, 2010) and given their histoiy it is
perhaps not surprising that Greendykes and Five Sisters
are now protected as designated Scottish Industrial
Heritage Sites. Other bing sites are protected for more
remarkable reasons. Addiewcll North is a Scottish
Wildlife Trust Nature Reserve, Oakbank is part of
Almondell Counti'y Park and all of the bings together
make up a major habitat in West Lothian’s biodiversity
plan (Harvie, 2005a).

THE FLORA

The West Lothian shale bings arc of great ecological
and scientific importance. They are examples of a
distinctive and rare type of post-industrial waste that is
unique within Britain. They are also examples of sites
of primary succession. Primaiy sites are only found
naturally on sand dunes, glaciers and volcanoes; all of
which are very uncommon in Britain. Habitats within
the bings vary from almost bare substrate to semi-
natural grassland, heather scrub and pioneering birch
woodland. Differences in the age and size of the bings,
how they have been managed, available seed sources,
substrate type and soil chemistry all contribute to the
habitats and their vegetation. They provide refuges for
a wide range of animals and plants that arc under
increasing pressure in the surrounding area from

fanning and urban development. The diversity of plant
species on the bings is considerable and the sites are
home to more than 350 plant species (Harvie, 2005b).
This is more than have been recorded on the Ben Nevis
SSSl

Some of the bings support several plant species not
found elsewhere in the county. Buxbaumia aphylla
Hedw. is a rare moss in Britain that has been recorded
in sizeable populations at Addiewell bing for more than
35 years. A small population of the montane lichen
Stereocaulon saxatUe is found on Addiewell bing and
extensive colonies of three related and locally rare
species S. leucophaeopsis, S. nanodes and S. pileatum
are found on Philpstoun bing. Faucheldean bing is
noted for colonies of stag’s-hom clubmoss and alpine
clubmoss {Lycopodium clavatum; Diphasiastrum
alpinum), species that arc more usually associated with
montane habitats, and renowned for a diverse orchid
population including broad helleborine, great butterfly
orchid and early purple orchid {Epipactis helleborine;
Platanthera chlorantha; Orchis mascula). On the
plateaued summit of Greendykes a species poor
calcareous grassland has established from self seeding
species above the bare steep sides of the bing.
Genetically distinct birch (Betula pendula) woodland
has established naturally at the base of the tiny bing at
Mid Breich, complete with many of the associated
ground flora and bryophyte species of long established
native woodlands. There are also exotics in the fomi of
garden escapes that are well established on many bing
sites. Opium poppies (Papavar somniferum) grow in
profusion on more than one bing. Old elder trees
growing on many of the bings are an astounding source
of epiphytic lichen and moss diversity. Almost half of
all the biyophytes that are recorded in Britain are
present in the Lothians and shale bing habitats are
identified as important to the bryophyte flora (Harvie,
2007).

THE FAUNA

Locally rare animals are also often seen, especially on
early morning visits. These include hares, red grouse,
badgers, sky larks and common blue butterflies {Lepiis
eiiropaeus; Lagopus lagopus scotica; Meles meles;
Alauda arvensis; Polyommatus icarus). The bings are
home to foxes {Vulpes vulpes), often seen in family
groups, suggesting that many unobserved smaller fauna
are also inhabiting the sites. Insect records from
Addiewell bing include ringlet butterfly {Aphantopus
hyperantus), very rare in central Scotland, and a first
recording of ten-spot ladybird {Adalia decapimctatd) in
the county. Additional butterfly species recorded at
Faucheldean include green-veined white, small heath
and common blue (Pieris napi; Coenonympha
pamphilus; Polyommatus icarus). Forty seven
species of bird were recorded at Addiewell during
1997, including 30 species with pennanent breeding
tendtories and nine local habitat indicator species, such
as the bullfinch, kestrel and yellowhammer {Pyninda
pyrrhula; Falco tinmmculus; Emberiza citrinella)
(Harvie, 2007).

VULNERABILITY

The destruction and landscaping of shale bings is a
severe threat to some of the rarer plant species, both
locally and nationally. Of the 27 bings extant when
shale extraction ceased in 1962 only 19 remain. Many
of these are slowly being demolished and the
continued, recent loss of sites like Philpstoun (to
industry) and Niddrie (to housing development) can
only be detrimental to the biodiversity of the county of
West Lothian.

REFERENCES

Harvie, B.A. (2005a). West Lothian Biodiversity’ Action
Plan: Oil Shale Bings. Published, on behalf of West
Lothian Local Biodiversity Action Plan partnership,
by West Lothian Council, Linlithgow.

Harvie, B.A. (2005b). The mechanisms and processes
of vegetation dynamics on oil-shale spoil bings in
West Lothian, Scotland, PhD Thesis, The University
of Edinburgh.

Harvie, B.A. (2007). The importance of the oil-shale
bings of West Lothian, Scotland to local and
national biodiversity. Botanical Journal of Scotland,
58(1), 35-47.

Harvie, B.A. (2010). The shale-oil industiy in West
Lothian, Scotland 1858-1962. I: Geology and
History. Oil Shale, 27(4), 354-358.

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: Jupiter Urban Wildlife
Centre

Stephen Owen

Scottish Wildlife Trust, Jupiter Urban Wildlife Centre,
Wood Street, Grangemouth, FK3 8LH

E-mail: jupiteiTanger@swt.org.uk

Scottish Wildlife Trust’s Jupiter Urban Wildlife Centre
is situated in the middle of Grangemouth. The 4
hectares are leased from the chemical company
Calachem. It is a fine example of land reclamation for
nature conservation. In 1989, the chemical giant ICI
approached SWT regarding setting up a demonstration
wildlife garden on an abandoned part of their
Grangemouth site. This area had been a railway siding.
Upon acquisition, it was covered in a mixture of sparse
grassland, scattered scrub and marshy areas. Jupiter
was opened to the public in 1992.

Jupiter can be divided into three areas; wildlife
gardens, habitat creation area and “wilderness
woodland.” The habitat creation area and wildlife
gardens contain complex habitat mosaics often with
unusual combinations of species, due to their
interesting histoiy, with some species having been

present when the area was wasteland, the deliberate
creation of certain habitats and a combination of active
management and natural succession over the
succeeding years.

The wildlife gardens show ideas for creating wildlife
friendly spaces. The habitat creation area consists of a
number of habitats with artificial origins: wetlands,
wildflower rich grasslands and small woodlands. The
regenerated “wilderness” woodland is an excellent
example of the potential of wasteland if allowed to
develop on its own.

Thanks to the rich aiTay of habitats and careful
management work, Jupiter supports a wealth of
biodiversity. Over 360 species of flowering plant have
been recorded and attract many invertebrates. There are
records of over 50 species of bird. Mammals are more
rarely seen, although some species have been recorded.
The ponds support breeding populations of amphibians.

Jupiter is also an important place for people.
Curriculum linked education sessions, public events
programmes, and volunteering are all popular. SWT’s
partner organisation at Jupiter, BTCV Scotland, runs a
Wildflower Nursery and a Green Gym. Secondaiy
schools have been involved in exciting projects,
designing and creating mosaics, murals and an outdoor
classroom.

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: Glasgow’s local
biodiversity - the way forward?

Carol MacLean' and Cath Scotf

Glasgow City Council, Land and Environmental
Services, 231 George Street, Glasgow, G1 IRX

'E-mail: earol.maclean@glasgow.gov.uk
^E-mail: catherine.scott@glasgow.gov.uk

There were 24 attendees at the ‘Glasgow’s Local
Biodiversity - the way forward?’ workshop, where
people were asked to consider the following four
questions:

1. Do you consider that the Glasgow Biodiversity
Partnership is doing enough for biodiversity in the
City?

2. What does your local greenspace need to make it
good for biodiversity?

3. How can the Partnership best communicate and

engage with ‘hard to reach’ groups?

4. What can you personally do to improve and
enhance local biodiversity?

The results of the workshop, combined with a
concuiTent on-line questionnaire about biodiversity
provision in the City (at

www.glasgow.gov.uk/biodiversitv) will help shape the
future direction of the Local Biodiversity Action Plan
(LBAP), which is being updated. Due to time
constraints, only questions 1-3 were considered and as
the first two questions were linked the responses to
them have been eombined. The key responses are
summarised here:

Q. Do you consider that the Glasgow Biodiversity’
Partnership is doing enough for biodiversity’ in the
City’?

Q. What does your local greenspace need to make it
good for biodiversity’?

‘More work needed in city centre areas. Everything
happens north of the river.

Use the Commonwealth Games to showcase
biodiversity to visitors. Need better biological
recording, brownfield sites need surveyed. Need better
co-ordination between conseiwationists and contractors.
Make sure greenspaces are high quality. Push for more
allotments in the City. Provide more awareness of sites
that eommunities can work on. Provide biodiversity
inteipretation in local parks. Combat vandalism by
encouraging community participation and schools
involvement.’

Q. How can the Partnership best communicate and
engage with ‘hard to reach ’ groups?

‘Engage more with local industries and companies and
make better business links overall. Raise biodiversity
profile by establishing a volunteer system linking
various organisations. Target unemployed people at job
centres to encourage volunteering - advertise. Give
youth group talks and activities. Use social media such
as facebook. Think about unusual media like drama
groups, art and music groups - put on a biodiversity
theatre production. Link more with secondaiy schools.
Wider community work with different ethnic groups,
taking ‘whole’ communities out on site. Use radio
shows, places of worship and other venues to promote
biodiversity.’

The update of the LBAP will include the development
of a Community Engagement Plan which will allow
local people and interest groups to help set local targets
for biodiversity, and to consider the topics and queries
above. The programme of Local Nature Reserves
(LNRs) designation and development will help achieve
many of the concerns raised. Linn Park on the south
side, will soon be designated as an LNR. Damley Mill
is a proposed LNR, also on the south side of the City.
There are LNR leaflets which are designed to raise
awareness of biodiversity and the importance of these
sites for people and nature. There are already a number
of volunteers helping at our LNRs and it is hoped these
numbers will increase in the years ahead.

New ideas such as using drama and social media to
raise awareness of biodiversity could add a different
strand of actions to the updated LBAP.

There are clearly a number of issues which have been
raised by discussion within the Workshop and
oppoitunities for these issues to be addressed by the
new LEAP and any related policies and strategies.

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: Connecting habitats and
communities workshop

Eilidh Spence

Froglifc, Room 211, Graham Kerr Building, University
of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 SQQ

E-mail: eilidh.spence@froglife.org

Urban environments are becoming increasingly
valuable habitats for a wide variety of species. As these
areas are associated with large populations of people
there has to be a balance between protecting valuable
habitats and providing suitable housing and related
industiy. Local communities have a considerable
amount to offer and gain from being involved in
improving their local area for wildlife.

Froglife’s Living Waters projects are working in
London and Glasgow to engage with local
communities and help complete habitat creation and
restoration work on standing open water habitats. This
work is being canned out in partnership with Glasgow
City Council and relevant London Boroughs, and is
supported by local volunteer and ‘friends of groups
from different urban parks. To promote sustainability
of habitat work, communities are involved where
possible on site and opportunities are provided to teach
survey and practical conservation techniques.

Froglife designed the workshop ‘Connecting Habitats
and Communities’ to promote the importance of
community involvement and raise awareness of
enhancing habitats and creating essential wildlife
coiridors to increase connectivity between sites.

The workshop commenced with a short presentation
introducing Froglife’s work followed by an interactive
discussion with the audience. Eighteen people attended
the workshop and were split into four groups. The
groups were provided with a map of an urban site
featuring a park, a school, ponds, hedgerows, ditches
and allotments. A role-playing exercise was completed
with each attendee being assigned a role as a different
stakeholder with an interest in the local area. The
character briefs included: a Head Teacher of the local
school, a Council Park Manager/ Biodiversity Officer,
and a representative from each of the following groups:
a Friends of Group, a Local Natural Histoiy Society, a
Wildlife Charity Officer and a Local Allotment foiiim.

The groups held discussions in which each person gave
suggestions from their point of view to provoke
discussion and develop ideas for the area. This
included how they would improve the selected site for
wildlife, a proposed methodology for completing this
work, and suggestions on how to involve members of
the community.

There were many aspects to cover in the session, but
each group was able to provide one suggestion from
their discussion to share with the rest of the audience.
Groups had also written down a number of other ideas.
Some similar themes emerged, as well as new
initiatives for this type of urban site.

Examples provided from the group discussions are
shown below:

• Pond creation and management - connecting and
improving habitats including areas beyond the site
boundary.

• Conducting surveys of flora and fauna and
mapping what is present to improve records.

• Encouraging more local people to assist and gain
new skills.

• Training and sharing knowledge across different
community groups on wildlife friendly gardening,
vegetable growing, pond creation and surveying.

• Working with local groups such as allotment users
to save resources, for example water and tools.

• Improving amenity grassland with wildflower
meadows. Connecting habitats and encouraging
communities to get involved through planting and
enjoying the aesthetic value of wildflower
meadows. Creating more hedgerows to connect
habitats.

• Writing a wildlife column for a local newspaper to
share news e.g. nature diaiy or update community
with recent work completed.

To conclude the workshop the site for which
participants had made their suggestions was revealed as
Foots Cray Meadows in South London. Work
completed by Froglife in the area was also discussed,
including enhancement of one pond and the creation of
eight new ponds. Work is also taking place to improve
the suiTOunding terrestrial habitats not only for
amphibians and reptiles but also wider biodiversity.
Friends of Foots Cray Meadows have been involved
with Froglife and support the habitat improvement
work.

The workshop was presented by Eilidh Spence and
Sam Taylor from Froglife. Eilidh is the Glasgow
Living Water Project Officer and can be contacted by
email at eilidh.spence@froglife.org, or 01413390737.
Eilidh is based at the University of Glasgow in the
Graham Keix Building. Sam is Froglife’s Head of
Communication and deputy CEO and is based at
Froglife’s headquarters in Peterborough. Sam can be
contacted by email at sam.taylor@froglife.org.

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: Excursion to Bingham’s
pond

Shelia Russell' & Eilidh Spence^

'Glasgow City council

^Froglife, Room 211, Graham Kerr building. University
of Glasgow G12 8QQ

'E-Mail: Sheila.russell@glasgow.gov.uk
^E-mail: eilidh. spence@froglife .org

Bingham’s Pond (Fig. 1), situated just off the busy
Great Western Road, Glasgow, was once a popular
skating and boating pond. It became the subject of
complaints by local residents concerning the rundown
state of the pond and swan droppings making the path
slippery and the water dirty. The large numbers of
mute swans were dependent on bread as the pond
supported almost no natural vegetation.

Fig. 1. Bingham’s Pond

In consultation with the local Community Council, it
was decided to naturalise the pond to provide a more
attractive place for the local people to enjoy and to
enhance the biodiversity. It was hoped that by
providing suitable habitat, a pair of breeding mute
swans might be attracted to the pond and so control the
large numbers of non-breeding swans, thus alleviating
the perceived problem of the droppings and water
quality.

A steering group from the local community was set up
to carry the project forward. In February 2003, the
water level was lowered and many of the waterbirds
flew off. 55 swans remained. These were rounded up
and transfeiTed to Hogganfield Loch, NE Glasgow.
Work then started to create two islands and a shallow
shelf area around them and most of the perimeter of the
pond.

Over 7000 plants of over 20 species were planted.
Wildflower mixes were seeded on the islands and the

edge of the pond above the water level. The bulk of
the plants were collected elsewhere in Glasgow. The
plants were therefore of local provenance and
importantly brought in aquatic invertebrates among the
roots, which ‘inoculated’ Bingham’s Pond, thus
enhancing the biodiversity of the site. A frog ramp was
built to enable young common frogs to reach suitable
habitat for feeding and hibernation and interpretation
boards were erected.

In the first year after naturalisation, mute swans,
mallard, tufted duck, moorhen and coot bred. Surveys
of the aquatic invertebrates of the pond before and after
naturalisation, has revealed a large increase in the
number of species present in the pond.

As part of the Urban Biodiversity Conference 2010 an
excursion to Bingham’s Pond was held at 2pm on 3U’
October. This session was attended by 14 people and
blessed with quite good weather. Sheila Russell from
Glasgow City Council led the group around the pond
explaining the enhancement process and work
completed on site.

The excursion was concluded with examples of pond
restoration and creation work in Glasgow through
Froglife’s Living Water Project, provided by Project
officer Eilidh Spence. Examples included restoration
work at Newlands Park, Dawsholm LNR, and
Alexandra Park and also pond creation work at Dams
to Damley Countiy Park and Windlaw Marsh.
Proposed future work and the expansion of the project
into North Lanarkshire were also discussed.

The pond enhancement work at Bingham’s Pond
through Glasgow City Council will continue to be used
as a demonstration site. The aim is to encourage
landowners and stakeholders to care for standing open
waters and contribute towards local biodiversity action
plans to protect these valuable habitats for wildlife.

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: Posters - Bumblebee
Conservation Trust

Nornian Storie

RSPB Scotland, 10 Park Quadrant, Glasgow G3 6BS
E-mail: non'nan.storie@rspb. org.uk

Urban habitats provide valuable nesting opportunities
and forage resources for bumblebees. Six species are
commonly found in gardens, providing a significant,
free, pollination service for fruit and vegetables, and of
course wildflowers. Planting and management of
bumblebee-friendly flowers in parks, gardens, orchards

and other areas helps deliver substantial benefits for
this erueial group of ‘keystone’ pollinators.

The first British record of the tree bumblebee Bomhus
hypmmm was in 2001 on the HampshireAViltshire
border (Fig. 1). A population quickly became
established and since 2007 the range has rapidly
expanded to cover much of England. The species has
not yet been recorded in Scotland. A distinctive species
often found in urban areas, recording by the public is
encouraged to monitor this colonisation event.

Fig 1. Tree bumblebee (Bomhus hypnonmi)
Photo credit: Bumblebee Conservation Trust.

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: Challenges in Glasgow’s
urban woodlands

Peter Wood

Natural Environment Officer (Arboriculture &
Woodlands) Arboriculture & Woodlands Team Natural
Environment Unit Glasgow City Council

E-mail: Peter. Wood(@glasgow.gov.uk

Glasgow’s woodlands are diverse in location from
stand-alone woods to park woodlands and Local Nature
Reserves, yet whilst there a differing types of
woodlands aeross the city many of the mature
woodlands are not diverse in either species or age
structures. Glasgow City Council utilises sustainable
silvicultural management systems to ensure woodland
cover in peipetuity whilst increasing biodiversity
through developing native species elements and age

structures of woodlands. There are many challenges to
successfully meet the woodland management
objectives, including managing woodlands as a social
resource as well as an environmental resource.

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: Local nature reserves in
Glasgow

Jim Coyle MBE

6 Westerlands, Glasgow, G12 OFB

E-mail: j.coylel3@ntlworld.com

INTRODUCTION

The City of Glasgow, commonly known as the 'dear
green place', has seven Local Nature Reserves (LNRs).
What is meant by the temi LNR? Put simply, LNRs
are:

• Statutory designations made under the National
Parks & Access to the Countryside Act 1949.

• Special places which are rich in wildlife, generally

• Generally, readily accessible and suitable for
people to visit and enjoy.

The LNRs - at Garscadden Wood, Dawsholm Park,
Robroyston Park, Hogganfield Park, Cardowan Moss,
Bishop Loch and Commonhead Moss - were declared
by the land owner of all seven sites, Glasgow City
Council (GCC). In declaring these sites, GCC aims to:

• Protect them from unsuitable developments

• Manage and enhance the habitats to help
biodiversity flourish

• Improve public access

• Help people understand and become more aware of
the importance of the LNR

• Encourage community participation and
volunteering.

Description of Glasgow's Local Nature Reserves
All seven LNRs are located north of the River Clyde,
generally on the edge of the city's built-up area, from
Garscadden Wood in the west to Commonhead Moss
in the east (Glasgow City Council 2008). Taking each
in turn:

Garscadden Wood was declared a LNR in 2006. It is
one of Glasgow's oldest semi-natural woodlands in the
city. Its main attractions are its bluebells Hyacinthoides
non-scripla in late spring and the purple hairstreak
butterfly Neozephyrus qiierciis, only one of three
places where they can be found in the city.

Dawsholm Park consists mainly of policy and
plantation woodland and is important for its woodland
bird populations. It was designated as an LNR in 2007.
Robroyston Park, declared in 2006, plays host to
grassland, wetland and woodland habitats. These prove

ideal for amphibians, dragonflies and damselflies and a
host of birds.

Hogganfield Park was the second LNR to be declared,
in 1998. It is a great place to see birds, particularly
wildfowl, with winter visitors such as whooper swan
Cygniis cygniis being a speciality. It is also good for
summer migrants and has a good range of butterflies.
Cardowan Moss, also declared in 2006, consists of
relatively new plantation woodland with a series of
ponds and a relict raised bog. It is good for woodland
birds, damselflies and dragonflies and amphibians.
Bishop Loch, the first LNR in the city (1995), was
established as a direct result of local people protesting
against an open cast coal mining proposal in the
vicinity of the loch. They felt sure it would destroy
what they described as their "local nature reserve". The
planning application for the mining was refused by
GCC and thereafter by the Scottish Office, following
an appeal and public inquiry. Ironically, the area
eventually declared doesn't include any of the actual
loch but does include the marshy areas adjoining the
loch plus a woodland plantation that plays host to
typical woodland birds.

Commonhead Moss, the latest LNR declared in 2009,
includes much of the largest raised bog in the city. It is
particularly important for its butterflies.

It is worth noting that there are a number of other
wildlife sites in the City that are protected and, in some
cases, managed for wildlife, e.g. Fossil Marsh SWT
Reserve. GCC has recognized these sites in its City
Plan (Glasgow City Council 2009).

Management of Glasgow's Local Nature Reserves
(LNRs)

Generally, each LNR has a steering group of officials,
interested agencies and local people. They approve,
monitor and amend the Management Plans that were
prepared as part of the consultation procedure with
SNH. Works on the ground are funded by Council
budgets. Landfill Credits and grants; and are
implemented by council staff, contractors, volunteers
and local people including school children.

Examples of Management Works

Dawsholm Park Local Nature Resen>e
This LNR consists mainly of policy and plantation
woodland and is important for woodland birds.
However, the woodland was being smothered by
rhododendron Rhododendron ponticum resulting in
very little regeneration. This resulted in projects being
developed, with the support of Forestry Commission
Scotland (FCS) and local residents, aimed at bringing
the woodland back to good health for wildlife and
people. Specific projects included:

• Woodland thinned

• Rhododendron removed

• Footpaths improved and a new fence erected

• Wildflower meadows created

• Highland cattle introduced

• Interpretation/information provided

• BBC Autumn Watch and other events held.

Further improvements arc planned, including:

• The planting of thousands of trees.

• The erection of woodcrctc bird nest boxes.

Hogganfield Park

The LNR was declared primarily due to the importance
of Hogganfield Loch, however, a number of works
have been undertaken to widen the scope and range of
habitats and species in the LNR - this is an ongoing
project that was first started to demonstrate what could
be done in the context of the evolving Biodiversity
Plan for the city. Specific projects at Hogganfield Park
LNR include:

• Wetlands/ponds created

• BBC SpringWatch and other events held

• Information/interpretation boards erected

• Wildflower meadows created/managed

• Rhododendron removed

• Bird perching posts and loafing pontoon installed

• Loch edges improved.

Further improvements are planned, including:

• Naturalisation of the loch edge at the existing car
park

• Creation of a bird viewing and feeding platform.

• Enhanced public access.

The works listed above were undertaken by groups
such as BTCV, Scottish Wildlife Trust, Score
Environment, BBC and GCC utilising contractors,
council staff, volunteers and local school children.

Way Forward

With the cuiTent economic crisis and the likely
reduction in public sector funding for LNR type work,
what can be done to ensure that people can continue to
have access to nature on their doorstep?

I would suggest that this can be achieved at both the
macro and micro scale.

Firstly, at the macro scale, partnership working is key.
For example, through partnerships established with:

(i) Local Groups

These include groups such as Froglife, the RSPB
Glasgow Local Group, and BTCV.

(ii) Forestiy Commission Scotland (FCS)

The Council has reached agreement, in principle, for
the FCS to take over the day-to-day management of a
number of woodlands in the City, including 3 LNRs -
Garscadden Wood, Cardowan Moss and Bishop Loch.
(Glasgow City Council 2009).

(iii) Gartloch-Gartcosh Project

This project covers an area stretching from
Hogganfield Park LNR through to Drumpellier
Country Park in North Lanarkshire and includes
Cardowan Moss, Bishop Loch and Commonhead Moss
LNRs. A consultants study (Land Use Consultants
2008), commissioned by a host of agencies, recognised
that the area is potentially of national importance for
wildlife. This Strategy - the Gartloch-Gartcosh Green
Network Strategy - has been well received and a
number of agencies have already progressed a variety
of projects; e.g. see Section 4 in relation to

Hogganfield Park LNR. It is important that the
agencies that commissioned the consultants’ report
continue to commit to its implementation.

Whilst these projects and ideas are crucial to ensure the
future of LNRs at the macro scale, the future of
‘nature’ in the City could be said to be in the hands of
local people. Why local people? At the 'micro' scale',
they already manage a considerable ‘green’ resource -
gardens and allotments. With minor changes to their
management, there could be huge benefits for nature
without any cost to the public purse. As a result, green
coiTidors would be created, just like the large scale
habitat works proposed through the Gartloch-Gartcosh
Project, but on a smaller scale.

Gardens play host to a whole range of wildlife and are
key to engaging with cuiTent and future generations.
Even small spaces can be managed for wildlife and this
in turn could awaken an interest and quest for
knowledge that can only benefit us all. Having
experienced what can be attracted to their garden many
people will take more of an interest in their LNR or
wildlife site. Who here at today's Conference hasn’t
already taken that step? This leads me to my final
point. If you care about wildlife or nature you can all
make a difference. If you care about Glasgow’s
wildlife 1 would ask you to consider whether you
would join or help create a ‘Friends of Glasgow’s
Local Nature Reserves’ whose aim would be to lobby
and raise funds for Glasgow’s wildlife whether at the
macro or micro scale. Thank you and remember
Glasgow’s Wilds Better!

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Much of the work in relation to LNRs in the City is
unlikely to have happened without the support and
dedication of the biodiversity & ecology officers in
Glasgow City Council.

REFERENCES

Glasgow City Council (2008). Glasgow's Local Nature
Reserves (leaflet).

Glasgow City Council (2009). Glasgow City Plan 2.

Policy ENV 7, Part 5 Environment Policies.

Glasgow City Council (2009). Proposed Lease of
Woodlands to Forestry Commission Scotland.
Report by Bailie James McNally, Executive
Member for Land and Environment to, and minute
thereof, GCC Executive Committee 24 September
2009.

Land Use Consultants (2008). Gartcosh Gartloch Green
Network Strategy and Management Plan for
Bishop's Estate; a report to Glasgow City Council,
North Lanarkshire Council, Communities Scotland,
Scottish Natural Heritage, Forestiy Commission
Scotland, Glasgow East Regeneration Agency and
Glasgow and Clyde Valley Green Network
Partnership.

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: Health-promoting
environments = is good greenspace
good enough?

Deryck Irving

Greenspace Scotland, 12 Alpha Centre, Innovation
Park, University of Stirling FK9 4NF

E-mail: deryck. irving(§greenspacescotland. org.uk

In 2009/2010 greenspace Scotland worked with NHS
Health Scotland, Scottish Natural Heritage, Glasgow
City Council and the Dundee Environment Partnership
to develop and publish what is known as an outcomes
framework showing how work to create, maintain and
manage greenspace can contribute to the delivery of
national and local health priorities (greenspace
Scotland, 2010). An outcomes framework is a linked
series of logic models which draw on available
evidence to demonstrate the connection between
planned actions and desired outcomes. This
knowledge and approach can help practitioners to
better make the case for investing time and resources
into greenspace and to improve the planning and
evaluation of what we do ‘on the ground’.

Our research project used eight pieces of greenspace
work and a review of existing research literature. The
work was set in the context of national health priorities
which are expressed and interpreted at a local level.
We considered three outcomes - increased levels of
physical activity; enhanced mental health and
wellbeing; reduced health inequalities - which partners
felt could easily be linked to greenspace. These were a
synthesis of outcomes contained in the Dundee and
Glasgow Single Outcome Agreements.

This work allowed us to draw a series of important
conclusions:

People need to use and/or value greenspace to
derive the maximum health benefits.

Most of the health benefits reported in the research
require either direct interaction with the environment or
some level of positive personal response to the
environment.

Simply creating or preserving greenspace is not
enough.

Not all greenspace is beneficial to health - poor spaces
can be detrimental to mental health and wellbeing and
deter people from taking physical exercise; they can
become the places which communities avoid rather
than the places where they come together. The
potential health benefits of greenspace are only realised
if we have the right distribution and mix of spaces.

Appropriate management is crucial.

The potential for delivering health benefits is

dependent on how we manage the spaces that we have.
Inappropriate or inflexible management approaches can
often exclude people from spaces and fragment
communities.

Promotion of healthy uses of greenspace is also
essential.

All spaces need some fonn of active management and
promotion of use (even if this is as simple as
encouraging local people to adapt spaces to their own
uses) - but it goes further than this. Particularly when
we look at tackling health inequalities, many of our
‘target audience’ do not have a culture of using spaces.
In such cases, it may be necessary to combine
appropriate management of spaces with targeted
support for use (from simple publicity and promotion
through to behavioural change programmes such as
health walks or gardening clubs).

If we are genuine about tackling inequalities, our
resources and actions have to be targeted.

Simply improving greenspace (even in ways that are
designed to provide healthy environments) will not
reduce health inequalities. In practice, what is likely to
happen is that those who are most disposed to use
greenspace will use it more while many of those
experiencing health problems which might be
addressed through greenspace will not. This will
widen health inequalities. There is a need, therefore, to
actively target our actions either on specific
geographical areas; specific communities or people
experiencing specific health conditions.

REFERENCES

Greenspace Scotland (2010) Greenspace and Health
Outcomes Framework. Greenspace Scotland,
Stirling ISBN 978=0-9555092 1 -3-8

www.greenspacescotland.org.uk/healthoutcomes/

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: Glasgow’s water beetles

Garth N. Foster

The Aquatic Coleoptera Conservation Trust, 3 Eglinton
Terrace, Ayr KA7 IJJ

E-mail: latissimus(^btintemet.com

INTRODUCTION

Water beetles are a well-recorded freshwater group in
Britain despite lacking the charisma of dragonflies and
the angling interest of mayflies and the like. The
conference on urban biodiversity held by the Glasgow
Natural History Society in October 2010 provided the
stimulus to assess their status in the area.

Water beetles cannot be precisely excised from beetles
as a whole. Coleoptera are divided into two major

groups, the Adephaga and the Polyphaga. Within the
Adephaga the name “Hydradephaga” has been coined
to distinguish diving beetles and related species from
the ground beetles in the Carabidae. This works fairly
well so long as one ignores the fact that many ground
beetles are confined to aquatic emergent vegetation or
to the water’s edge. The Polyphaga are more difficult,
with even the major family the Hydrophilidae
including some species mainly living in dung, often a
wet habitat but not one usually worked with the pond
net! The problem is acute for the leaf beetles
(Chrysomelidae) and weevils (Curculionidae and
Erirhinidae) that live on wetland plants, as sometimes
the host range is quite diverse and may even include
trees! The acid test applied here is whether the beetles
are more likely to be encountered in the pond net
wielded by an aquatic coleopterist than in a sweep net
swung by a diy-shod coleopterist.

This paper is in two parts, an assessment of the records
available from the national recording scheme and a
description of a survey of sites in and around Glasgow
in 2010.

RECORDING AROUND GLASGOW UP TO 2010
Infomiation was extracted from the national recording
data-base for the twenty 10 km squares NS44 in the
south-west comer to NS87 in the north-east. This
generated 1,644 records of 141 species, the majority
from the vice-county of Lanarkshire, with small
contributions from the vice-counties of Ayrshire,
Renfrewshire, Dunbartonshire, and Stirlingshire. These
beetles belong to fifteen families, dominated by the
diving beetles in the Dytiscidae (Table 1).

Although 24 species have not been recorded in the area
since 1979, 16 were last recorded in the 1980s. Eleven
of the latter are typically associated with running water,
leaving only another eleven running water species in
the list of 101 species recorded from 1990 onwards.
However several water beetles specialising in pond
habitats have become established in the Glasgow area
over a similar period.

The following examples of some species in decline and
some on the increase serve to illustrate the range of
habitats that can be occupied.

Noterm clavicorms (De Geer) This species is usually
referred to as “The Large Noterus" because the name
clavicorms has also been applied to the smaller,
flightless N. crassicornis (Muller), which is very rare
in Scotland. The earliest Scottish record is a little
uncertain but by 1 946 N. clavicorms was in the garden
of the greatest proponent of water beetles, Frank
Balfour-Browne, in Dumfriesshire and it was first
found in Kirkcudbrightshire in 1949. Roy Crowson
(1987) reported it in the Glasgow area in Fossil Loch in
1985, the same year that the author found it for the first
time in Ayrshire. Subsequently it has spread over more
of western mainland Scotland (an early record from
Raasay was spurious) and was in 2010 found for the
first time in the Borders in a well-recorded site in

Roxburghshire. The noterine diving beetles differ from
the dytiscid ones mainly in that their wirewomi-like
larvae live attached to roots and rhizomes of flote-
grasses and bogbean, renewing their air supply through
their posterior spiracles from acrenchymatous plant
tissue, whereas the dytiscids live freely. Consequently
notcrids arc typical of vegetation rafts though N.
clavicornis can be common among vegetation in
ordinary ponds, including in 2010 Durrockstock,
Gartcosh, one of the M77 balancing lagoons at the
Meams Box, the Phoenix Industrial Estate, and
Robroyston.

Agahus congener (Thunberg) This is a scarce dytiscid
diving beetle typically found in small hard-bottomed
pools on peat. It persists in the Glasgow area on Lenzie
Moss having first been reported in the Glasgow area in
Robroyston Bog by the Reverend Hislop (1854).
Rhantus sntnralis (Macleay) The name “supertramp”
has been used for this species (Balke et al. 2009)
respecting its remarkable range, from Ireland to New
Zealand. Its ancestiy, based on mitochondrial DNA,
indicates that about 1.5 million years ago it was an
endemic of New Guinea mountains. Now it can be
found in a great range of still water habitats north to
Caithness. One specimen was found in a newly created
pond at Cardowan in 2010: the only earlier record, and
there is potential confusion over the names it has
received, is from the 19*'^ Ccntuiy (Young 1856).
Hydroporus fernigineus Stephens A major centre of
biodiversity for water beetles is part of the Australian
outback where each isolated pocket of subterranean
water has it own endemic diving beetle species (e.g.
Watts & Humphreys 2009). The northern European
fauna is more restricted with only H. fernigineus being
truly subterranean though, unlike many subterranean
species, it retains eyes. The larva, which is unusually
pale, was described from the Speedwell Cavern by
Alarie et al. (2001). H. fernigineus is often found in
wells and can occasionally be pumped to the surface
(Young 1980). Professor Crowson’s collection, in the
Hunterian Museum, has a specimen of H. fernigineus
found by Mr H.D. Slack at 384, West George Street,
Glasgow in December 1957. This address no longer
exists, most likely lost beneath the motorway, but the
possibility remains that this species survives in spring
systems among the Glaswegian drumlins.

Hygrotus nigroUneatus (von Steven) This beetle was
first found in Britain in a pit used for gravel extraction
in East Kent in 1983 by Ron Carr (1984). It
subsequently spread through England as far north as
Northumberland by 2004. A single specimen was taken
by Craig Macadam in his Glasgow pond survey in May
2010 in a recently excavated pond at Robroyston
(NS629683) (Macadam & Foster 2010). This beetle
lives on an exposed substratum and cannot tolerate the
presence of vegetation.

Helopitonis tuherculatm Gyllenhal This rare species
is 3 mm and black, resembling a fragment of charcoal
(Angus 1992). It lives on wet moorland that has been
burnt, its principal population in Britain being on the
North Yorkshire Moors, where the heather is managed
by burning. Specimens dated from 1910 to 1915, from

Drumpellier, Coatbridge, can be found in many
entomological collections throughout Britain. These
were mainly supplied by W.J. M’Leod, who, according
to Balfour-Browne (1958), visited the site along with
the original discoverer, G.A. Brown, and Anderson
Fergusson in 1911. The near extinction of this species
might be related to the loss of steam power, which
would have ensured frequent burning of moorland
neighbouring railways.

Macroplea appendiculata (Panzer) Most reed beetles
have showy adults living above the water on emergent
vegetation, in particular reeds and bur-reeds: their
larvae, like those of the Noterus, depend on
aerenchyma of aquatic plants for their air supply.
Members of the genus Macroplea are amongst the
most aquatic of all beetles, living below the water in all
stages of the life-cycle unlike the majority of beetles,
which pupate out of the water. The sole record of M.
appendiculata stems from another specimen in
Professor Crowson’s collection, taken by his wife
Betty in Loch Libo, Renfrewshire on 29 April 1967. M.
appendiculata has as its host plants alternate water-
milfoil {Myriophylliiin alternijlorum) and fennel
pondweed (Potainogeton pectinatus). According to
Monahan and Caffrey (1996), working in Irish canals,
this species prefers fennel pondweed when both
potential hosts are available. Further attempts to find
the Macroplea in Loch Libo have been unsuccessful,
and the fennel pondweed, which was plentiful up to
2004, could not be found in 2008, possibly because of
eutrophication. Macroplea appears to have been lost
from Milton Loch, Kirkcudbrightshire, where it was
abundant in 1996, and Loch Leven, Fife, where it was
found in 1933: these lochs have suffered from algal
blooms that would have destroyed suitable host plants.
Erirhiniis aethiops (Fab.) This is a relatively large (5-
7 mm long) black and shining weevil that looks as if it
may have fallen in the water by accident when caught
in the pond net. It lives on bur-reed (Sparganiiun
erectum) and some sedges. Morris (2002) noted that it
is usually rare and found north from north-east
Yorkshire, though not in northem Scotland or on any
of the islands. Pitfall trapping on exposed riverine
sediment has established its presence in Wester Ross,
Morayshire and East Inverness-shire (Eyre et al. 2000).
Crowson (1971) recorded it from Loch Libo, where the
author found it again on 3 1 May 2008.

THE 2010 SURVEY

The author’s 2010 survey of ponds and similar habitats
covered 37 sites generating 426 records of 76 species
(Table 2), adding six species to the overall list. In
Table 1 the other two species recorded in 2010 were
from Craig Macadam’s survey, Hygrotus nigroUneatus,
described above, and Halipliis fulviis.

Apart from the Hygrotus nigroUneatus two other
species are rated as Nationally Scarce on a GB-wide
basis in a recent analysis (Foster 2010). Rhantus
frontalis, represented by one specimen at Cardowan, is
known in Scotland elsewhere from Angus in 1933,

Ayrshire, most recently in 1911, Fife, most recently in
1961, Stirling and West Perthshire in the 19*'’ Centui'y,
West Lothian in 1985, and since 2005 along the
Solway coast. Earlier records for the vice-county of
Lanarkshire are by Magnus Sinelair and the author
from Carstairs Karnes (NS957472) on 8 April 1977 and
by the author from Coalbum (NS8035) on 25 May
1981. The Karnes provided a more typical habitat for
this species, sparsely vegetated water over sand, than
the new Glasgow site in a shaded tussock fen. This
species overwinters out of the water (Galewski 1963)
and probably flies to seek ponds suitable for breeding
in the spring. The other Nationally Scarce species,
Helophorus granularis, was common in the marsh
where R. frontalis occuiTcd. This is a species of “vernal
swamps” (see Balfour-Browne 1958) and occurs,
scattered across the British Isles, in the micropterous
fonn ytenensis Sharp, the wings of which are reduced
in size but possibly not entirely incapable of flight.

On the basis of these GB-nationally Scarce species the
marsh at Cardowan rates as the site with the greatest
conservation status in the suiwey. A system that
assesses conservation quality of the basis of all species
present was developed by Foster & Eyre (1992). It was
based on counts of ten km square records converted to
scores in a geometric series froml for the commonest
species, then 2, 4, 8... etc. up to the rarest species. The
scores for southern Scotland used by Foster & Eyre
(1992) are out-of-date, being based on considerably
less records than are currently available and on a more
limited suite of species than is currently recorded. New
scores were developed (Table 2) based on counts of
each species in the twenty 10 km squares of the search
area used for Glasgow as available in the national
recording scheme data-base, supplemented by records
from the Chrysomelidae atlas (Cox 2007). These
counts were used to assign each species a score from 1
to 5 on an arithmetic scale (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 if geometric)
that then could be used to produce an aggregate quality
score and a mean quality score for each site. The mean
score should be more reliable than the aggregate score
or the total number of species as it reduces the impact
of variable recording effort.

Sites in Table 2 are ranked in order of the mean quality
score. Bingham’s Pond, beside the Pond Hotel on the
Great Western Road, scores highest. This site, a typical
Victorian Park pond with hard edges and many water
fowl, has been improved by planting vegetation from
Frankfield Loch and other Glaswegian sites (pers.
comm. Sheila Russell). These plantings may have
contributed the reed beetles that have raised the site’s
score. The second highest site is one of the few areas of
seepage encountered, in this case the outflow of a
balancing lagoon of the M77 at St. Martin’s. The site
with the greatest number of species, a pool behind the
Phoenix Industrial Estate near to Glasgow Airport,
scored third highest. This pool would appear to man-
made in that it is formed by subsidence. Even the
lowest scoring site, a peat ditch on Lenzie Moss, has

one species of interest, Hydroporiis tristis, but this and
the other species present arc characteristic of acid water
that is still common around Glasgow.

DISCUSSION

There are many species of water beetle in and around
Glasgow, their habitat range is diverse, and some
species are in decline if not locally extinct whilst others
are increasing. Declining species are associated mainly
with peat, with running water and with exposed lake
shores.

Pond species are generally doing well and do not
require further conservation activity except that pond
creation generates public interest and stewardship. The
instant gratification of building a new pond cannot be
denied! However, conservation activists are urged to
avoid damage to existing temporaiy marsh systems in
this process as many beetles require both vegetation
cover and the periodic drought to eliminate prcdatoiy
fish. Moving vegetation locally to soften the hard edge
of a typical park pond has proved effective at
Bingham’s Pond, introducing host plants for showy
beetles and providing marginal refugia for others.

Peatlands still exist in quantity around Glasgow despite
the industrialisation and urbanisation of the area. The
species dependent on a peat substratum will be the next
to disappear unless the loss of peat is halted, preferably
by flooding - so there is still scope for large scale pond
creation. Land developments such as out-of-town
shopping malls and golf courses, and the tidying up of
brownfield sites just for the sake of tidying up could
cause more damage than the industries from which the
city grew.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks firstly go to Richard Weddle for having invited
me to attend the Urban Biodiversity Conference in
sufficient time to pemiit a survey to be done. Along
with Elizabeth Illingworth, of the Friends of Lenzie
Moss, Eilidh Spence, of Glasgow Living Water, and
several members of the ranger services for Glasgow
City Council and North Lanarkshire Council, Richard
proved most helpful in alerting me to sites and their
access. Of the rangers 1 would like to single out
Lindsay Gemmell for escorting me around Pollok
Country Park. My friend Steven Routledge also
accompanied me on part of the survey as did Geoff
Hancock, who should also be acknowledged for
providing access to the collections of the Hunterian
Museum, University of Glasgow. The Balfour Beatty
team is thanked, in particular Dave Allen for
facilitating access to the lagoons along the new trunk
road system and to Grant Kennedy for escorting me
and Geoff to some of the ponds. It will not have
escaped the attention of some that the 2010 survey
conducted by the author did not yield a species new for
Scotland, whereas Craig Macadam’s survey did!
Thanks go to Craig for the chance to examine his
beetle material.

Last record

No. 10 km squares

Quality score

Suborder Adephaga
GYRINIDAE

Gyrinus aeratus Stephens

2008

Gyrimis caspius Menetries

1913

Gyrinus marimis Gyllenhal

1915

Gyrinus ininutus Fab.

1976

Gyrinus substriatus Stephens

2010

Orectochilus villosus (Muller)

1987

HALIPLIDAE

Biychius elevatus ( Panzer)

1910

Haliplus confinis Stephens

2010

Ha/ip/us fiavico/lis Stumi

2010

Haliplus fluviatilis Aube

1983

Haliplus fulvus (Fab.)

2010

Haliplus iminaculatus Gerhardt

2010

Haliplus UneatocoUis (Marsham)

2010

Haliplus lineolatus Mannerheim

2004

Haliplus ohiiquus (Fab.)

2010

Haliplus ruJicoUis (De Geer)

2010

Haliplus sihiricus Motschulsky

2010

NOTERIDAE

Noterus clavicornis (De Geer)

2010

DYTISCIDAE

Agahus qffinis (Paykull)

2010

Agahus arcticus (Paykull)

1976

Agahus biguttatus (Olivier)

1932

Agahus hipustulatus (L.)

2010

Agahus congener (Thunberg)

2010

Agahus guttatus (Paykull)

1989

Agahus lahiatus (Brahm)

1910

Agahus nehulosus (Forster)

2010

Agahus paluclosus (Fab.)

2010

Agahus sturmii (Gyllenhal)

2010

Agahus iinguicularis (Thomson)

2010

Ilyhius aenescens Thomson

1974

llybius ater (De Geer)

2010

Ilyhius fuliginosus (Fab.)

2010

Ilyhius guttiger (Gyllenhal)

2010

Ilyhius montanus (Stephens)

2010

Platambus maculatus (L.)

2008

Colyinbetes fuscus (L.)

2010

Rhantus exsoletus (Forster)

2010

Rhantus frontalis (Marsham)

2010

Rhantus suturalis (Macleay)

2010

Rhantus suturellus (Han'is)

1976

Acilius canaliculatus (Nicolai)

1992

Acilius sulcatus (L.)

2010

Dytiscus marginalis L.

2010

Dytiscus semisulcatus Muller

2000

Graptodytes pictus (Fab.)

1980

Hydroporus angustatus Stunn

2010

Hydroporus discretus Fainnaire

2010

Hydroporus eiythrocephalus (L.)

2010

Hydroporus ferrugineus Stephens

1957

Hydroporus gy’llenhalii Schiodte

2010

Hydroporus incognitiis Shaip

2010

Hydroporus hngicornis Sharp

1990

Hydroporus melanarius Stumi

1998

Hydroporus memnonius Nicolai

2010

Hydroporus morio Aube

1989

Hydroporus nigrita (Fab.)

2010

Hvdroporiis ohscurus Stumi

2010

Hydroporns obsoletus Aube

1968

Hydroporus palnstris (L.)

2010

Hvdroporus planus (Fab.)

2010

Hydroporus puhescem (Gyllenhal)

2010

Hydroporus rufifrons (Muller)

1853

Hydroporus striola (Gyllenhal)

2010

Hydroporus tessellatus Drapiez

2000

Hydroporus tristis (Paykull)

2010

Hydroporus umhrosus (Gyllenhal)

2010

Nebrioporus assimilis (Paykull)

2004

Nebrioporus elegans (Panzer)

2004

Oreodytes davisii (Curtis)

1974

Oreodytes sanmarkii (Sahlberg)

2008

Oreodytes septentrionalis (Gyllenhal)

1987

Stictonectes lepidus (Olivier)

1910

Stictotarsus diiodecimpustu/atus (Fab.)

1984

Hygrotus confluens (Fab.)

1999

Hygrotus impressopiinctatus (Schaller)

2010

Hygrotus inaeqiialis (Fab.)

2010

Hygrotus nigrolineatus (von Steven)

2010

Hygrotus novemlineatus (Stephens)

1911

Hyphydrus ovatus (L.)

2010

Laccophilus minutus (L.)

2010

Suborder Polyphaga

HELOPHORIDAE

Helophorus aequalis Thomson

2010

Helophorus an>ernicus Mulsant

2008

Helophorus brevipalpis Bedel

2010

Helophorus Jlavipes Fab.

2010

Helophorus grandis Illiger

2010

Helophorus granularis (L.)

2010

Helophorus griseus Herbst

2010

Helophorus minutus Fab.

2010

Helophorus obscurus Mulsant

2010

Helophorus tuberculatus Gyllenhal

1915

HYDROCHIDAE

Hydrochus brevis (Herbst)

1853

HYDROPHILIDAE

Hydrophilinae

Anacaena globulus (Paykull)

2010

Anacaena lutescens (Stephens)

2010

Chaetarthria seminulum s. lat.

1987

Enochrus coarctatus (Gredler)

2010

Hydrobius fuscipes (L.)

2010

Laccobius bipunctatus (Fab.)

2010

Laccobius colon (Stephens)

2010

Laccobius minutus (L.)

2010

Laccobius striatulus (Fab.)

1983

Sphaeridiinae

Coelostoma orbiculare (Fab.)

1989

Cercyon marimis Thomson

2010

Cercyon ustulatus (Preyssler)

1985

HYDRAENIDAE

Hydraena britteni Joy

2000

Hydraena gracilis Gennar

2008

Hydraena nigrita Germar

1983

Hydraena riparia Kugelann

2010

Limnebius nitidus (Marsham)

1919

Limnebius tnmcatellus (Thunberg)

2010

Enicocerus exsculptus (Germar)

1987

Ochthebius dilatatus Stephens

2010

Ochthebiiis minimus (Fab.)

2010

SCIRTIDAE

Microcara festacea (L.)

1999

Cyphon hilaris Nyholm

1999

Cyphon padi (L.)

2000

Cyphon variahilis (Thunberg)

2010

ELMIDAE

Elmis aenea (Mtiller)

2008

Esolus paral/elepipedns (Miiller)

1987

Linmius vo/ckmari (Panzer)

1990

Oulimniiis tnherculatus (Muller)

1987

Rioliis cnpreiis (Muller)

1987

Riolus suhviolacens (Muller)

2008

HETEROCERIDAE

Heterocerns marginatns (Fab.)

1853

COCCINELLIDAE

Coccidiila nijci (Herbst)

2010

CHRYSOMELIDAE

Plaieiimaris discolor (Panzer)

2010

Plateiimaris sericea (L.)

2010

Donacia obsenra Gyllenhal

1979

Donacia simplex Fab.

2010

Donacia versicolorea (Brahm).

1992

Donacia vulgaris Zsehach

2010

Macroplea appendicnlata (Panzer)

1967

Galerucella nymphaeae (L.)

2010

1 lydrothassa marginella (L.)

2010

Phaedon armoraciae (L.)

2010

Phaedon cochleariae (Fab.)

2010

Prasocuris phellandrii (L.)

2010

CURCULIONIDAE

Phytobins lencogaster (Marsham)

1994

Bagous a 1 is mat is (Marsham)

1900

ERIRHINIDAE

Erirhinus aethiops (Fab.)

2008

Notaris acridnliis (L.)

1901

Gnpns equiseti (Fab.)

1901

Table 1. Water beetles reeorded in and around Glasgow.

National

grid

reference

Site

Date

No.

spp.

AQS

MQS

Noteworthy spp.

NS5543681 1

Bingham’s Pond

5 June

2.8

Halipliis confwis,

Donacia simple,

D. vulgaris

NS50495149

M77 Meams box

12 May

2.6

Hyclrothassa marginella

NS45286466

Phoenix Industrial Estate

24 April

2.5

Phaedon cochleariae

NS64857181

Lenzie Moss 2

10 April

2.4

Agahiis congener

NS6720672

Gartloch Pool

5 June

2.4

Halipliis confinis,

Cercyon marimis

NS707684

Gartcosh 4

20 March

2.3

Acilhfs sulcatus,

Agahiis iinguicularis

NS651673

Cardowan 1

27 March

2.3

Rhantus snturalis

NS70576838

Gartcosh 6

5 April

2.3

Halipliis confinis.

H. obliqiiiis

NS4566160

Durrockstock pond

1 May

2.3

NS654674

Cardowan 2

27 March

2.2

Rhantus frontalis,
Heloplioriis graniilaris

NS55336220

Pollok Country Park,
marsh

4 May

2.2

NS62806838

Robroyston Park 2

17 July

2.2

Phaedon arinoraciae

NS62776805

Robroyston Park 1

10 April

2.1

NS50495147

M77 Meams box

12 May

2.1

llyhiiis giittiger,

Phaedon arinoraciae

NS707684

Gartcosh 3

20 March

2.0

Hydroporiis tristis

NS653674

Cardowan 3

27 March

2.0

NS52775930

Damley Mill

1 May

2.0

NS60576568

Cathkin Marsh 2

1 May

2.0

NS60325791

Cathkin Marsh 3

1 May

2.0

NS707685

Gartcosh 5

20 March

1.9

Enochriis coarctatiis

NS43926568

Linwood Moss 2

24 April

1.9

llyhiiis giittiger

NS5 1725274

M77 Meams box

12 May

1.9

NS705682

Gartcosh 1

20 March

1.8

NS706687

Gartcosh 2

20 March

1.8

Ochthehius dilatatiis

NS52195380

M77 Junction 5

12 May

1.8

NS54795411

Titwood

12 May

1.8

NS603722

Wilderness Plantation 1

5 April

1.7

NS63466936

Robroyston Road

10 April

1 1

1.7

NS55336220

Pollok Country Park,

The Glade

4 May

1.7

NS52225375

M77 Junction 5

12 May

1.7

NS54565429

Titwood

12 May

1.7

NS43656600

Linwood Moss 1

24 April

1.6

NS55336220

Pollok Country Park,
main pond

4 May

1.6

NS601721

Wilderness Plantation 3

5 April

1.6

NS60576568

Cathkin Marsh 1

1 May

1.5

NS602721

Wilderness Plantation 2

5 April

1.5

NS64787171

Lenzie Moss 1

10 April

1.3

Hydroporiis tristis

Table 2. Summaiy of the 2010 sui'vey. The vice-counties (vc) are 76 Renfrewshire, 77 Lanarkshire, and 99
Dunbartonshire. AQS is the aggregate quality score, i.e. the sum of all the species quality scores. MQS is the mean
quality score, the average quality score value per species.

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Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: Clydebank as a hotspot
for the common pill woodlouse
ArmadilUdium vulgare

Glyn M. Collis

‘Seasgair’, Ascog, Isle of Bute, PA20 9ET
E-mail: g.m.collis(^gmail.com

ABSTRACT

In Scotland, the common pill woodlouse is at the
Northem edge of its range. On the east coast it extends as
far north as Johnshaven. Until a recent discoveiy in
Helensburgh, the northernmost location in the west was
Clydebank, where two sites were discovered by Futter
(1998). An additional four sites have since been
discovered, which is an unusual degree of clustering.
Five of the six Clydebank sites are alongside railways.
Consideration is given to factors pennitting the species to
amive, survive and thrive in railway-side sites, and in
Clydebank.

THE COMMON PILL WOODLOUSE IN
SCOTLAND

The common pill woodlouse ArmadilUdium vulgare is
the most widespread of seven native British species in
the family Annadilliidae, hence the addition of
“common” to its traditional vernacular name. It is one of
the most common of all woodlouse species in southern
Britain, but in Scotland it is more sparsely distributed and
at the edge of its range. The nature of its Scottish
distribution has become more clear as recording coverage
has improved. The first published atlas of woodlice in
Britain and Ireland (Harding & Sutton, 1985) showed
three groupings of records: on the east coast as far north
as Tayside; on the Solway coast; and inland among
horticultural nursery sites in the Clyde valley between
Rutherglen and Lesmahagow (Harding, Collis & Collis,
1980). There was just one west coast record, from Troon
Station by J. Naden in 1976.

By the time data were compiled for a new atlas (Gregory,
2009), increased recording effort had resulted in a good
number of additional records, including some published
in The Glasgow Naturalist (Stirling, 1995; Futter, 1998)
and records from a field meeting of the British Myriapod

and Isopod Group in Ayrshire in 2006 (Collis, 2007),
plus a number of additional records by the author.

Comparison of the two atlases makes it clear that the
difference in numbers of records between the east and
west coasts in Harding and Sutton’s atlas was partly an
artefact of recording effort. However, the tendency for
the species to extend further north in the east than in the
west seems likely to be real, with a 2005 record from as
far north as Johnshaven in the east (Davidson, 2010). In
the west, the northernmost locations shown in the 2009
atlas were Putter’s (1998) two sites in Clydebank, though
in May 2009 the author found a site a little further north
in Helensburgh, NS303820, at the shore end of a footpath
from East Clyde Street.

Gregory’s 2009 atlas also confirms that, in Scotland, the
distribution of the pill woodlouse is predominantly
coastal. Many of the coastal sites are on, or very close to
the shoreline, which might be considered it’s primaiy
natural habitat in most of Scotland. However, care is
needed in this respect. The record from Johnshaven was
among builders rubble deposited above a shingle beach
(Davidson, 2010). The Helensburgh shoreline site could
equally well be regarded as a suburban site with a high
potential for the introduction of small invertebrates
among rubble, garden waste, etc., dumped on the
shoreline. There is a strikingly similar suburban shoreline
site at Boathouse Road, Largs, NS 197607. A site at
Fairlie, NS207541 could also be classified as suburban
shoreline, but with the further complication of a nearby
wholly artificial coastline constructed in the 1970s for the
Hunterston deep-water ore and coal terminal. A railway
line followed the artificial coastline to service a now-
dismantled iron ore reduction plant. Much of the
material for the construction project was obtained locally,
from Biglees Quarry and Campbeltown Farm
(http://www.hunterston.eu/oreterminal), but doubtless
other materials were brought in from further afield.

CLYDEBANK SITES

The first records of the pill woodlouse in Clydebank
were by Putter (1988). In the period 1995-1997, she
located specimens in a suburban garden in Parkhall
Road, NS488718, and around a disused band hall on
Second Avenue, NS495710. I visited these two locations
in June 2007 and found the species in large numbers
(>100) around the band hall and also beside the church
close-by on Second Avenue. On Parkhall Road, instead
of searching gardens, I found the species in small
numbers in public shrubbery areas at NS489718 - close
to Putter’s location.

Two features of the band hall site are that it is
immediately adjacent to a railway line and, like much of
Clydebank, it is on a south facing slope. The pill
woodlouse is believed to favour sunny locations;
unusually for woodlice it is sometimes found in full
sunlight (Gregory, 2009). The band hall is in a very
sunny location, elevated above the railway line on the
other side of which the land falls away sharply to the
south. Having found pill woodlice associated with
railways in England and Wales, and mindful of Cawley’s

( 1 996) observations in Ireland, as and when opportunities
arose I searched railway-side sites elsewhere in
Clydebank. Non-railway habitats were not searched so
thoroughly.

Fig. 1. Sketch map of Clydebank sites for the common
pill woodlouse: 1 Parkhall Road, NS488718; 2 Second
Avenue (derelict band hall) NS495710; 3 Argyle Road
railway bridge, NS501705; 4 John Knox Street
NS504694; 5 Cable Depot Road (abandoned docks line)
NS490705; 6 Clydebank Public Park/Dalmuir Station
NS484714.

In May 2008 I found the species among rubbish at the
base of railings separating railway land from mown grass
at the north-east comer of Argyle Road railway bridge,
NS501705. Like the band hall site, this is on the Singer
line. Subsequently, I discovered a site on the Yoker line
(NS504694, November 2009), among mbble at the base
of a brick wall separating railway land from the site of a
demolished building, accessible from John Knox Street.

The Yoker and Singer lines converge at Dalmuir Station.
Here too I found pill woodlice among mbble at the base
of the railway-side fence where it is accessible from the
southern comer of Clydebank Public Park (NS484714,
June 2010). In the park, I also found it a short distance
away from the railway, where the Park borders the
western end of Regent Street (NS484715). I was unable
to find this species in a search of the glasshouses and
their immediate sumoundings at the western-most comer
of the Park (NS480716), even though glasshouses and
horticultural areas are often favoured by the species. It’s
absence there cannot easily be explained by an ovemse of
pesticides since I easily found the woodlice Oniscis
aseUits, Philoscia muscorum, Porcellio scaher, Porcellio
spinicornis and Trichoniscus piisilhis agg. at this
location. Of course, pill woodlice may yet be found there.

In addition to the Singer and Yoker branches of the
railway network through Clydebank, there are also the
remains of branch lines to the docks. I found pill
woodlice at the foot of the embankment of one such
disused line (NS490705, June 2010), accessed from an
abandoned industrial site on Cable Depot Road.

Conseiwatively, if we consider the two closely adjacent
sites in Clydebank Public Park (Dalmuir Station and end
of Regent Street) as one, and similarly with the two
Parkhall Road sites (suburban garden and public
shrubbery), there are now six known sites for pill
woodlice in Clydebank (Fig. 1). This is a remarkable
cluster of sites within a small area.

There is a similar density of known sites in the Salisbury
Crags/Holyrood Park/Duddingston area of Edinburgh.
Not very far from this cluster, on 16/08/2010 I was able
to locate three new sites along a short stretch of railway
line: at the pedestrian underpass in the University sports
ground at Peffennill, (NT280712); on the cycle path
beside the railway at Bingham (NT297721); and by the
road bridge over the railway at the south-west comer of
Jewel Park (NT304721). I am also aware of two railway-
side sites in Edinburgh located by the late Bob Saville in
May 1994, at (NT2 19724) and (NT226718).

For reasons of more ready access from my home in Bute,
1 have spent far more time on a greater number of
different dates searching the Gourock-Greenock-Port
Glasgow area, including many railway-side sites, and
have not yet found any pill woodlice. It is probably
significant that with the ground rising steeply to the
south, this area is much less sunny than south-facing
Clydebank. It is also possible to make comparisons with
central Glasgow where I spent much time looking for
woodlice in the 1970s (Collis & Collis, 1978) though I
did not examine many railway-side sites. I did not find
any pill woodlice though I was brought specimens from a
now abandoned nursery at Westfield Avenue,
Rutherglen, (NS605612).

DISCUSSION

How might the Clydebank cluster of sites be explained?
To understand the distribution of a species that is not
ubiquitous in an area, we need to consider how it might
arrive at new sites, what conditions are needed in order
for the anivals to breed sufficiently well for the colony to
suiwive, and why the colony is able to thrive so as to
become numerous enough that it will persist through
occasional severe conditions.

For medium-sized flightless invertebrates like pill
woodlice, amval presumably requires it to be earned to a
new site, conceivably in flood debris or driftwood, but
more likely by inadvertent human transport. In the latter
case, there will be a bias toward them arriving in habitats
associated with human activity. It is well understood that
many species of woodlice are particularly likely to be
found in synanthropic sites, but it is not straightforward
to disentangle the relative contributions of anthropic
factors for andval and for survival.

One strong possibility for how they might arrive at
locations throughout greater Glasgow and Clyde area is
through the movement of agricultural and horticultural
produce. Prior to the dominance of motorised transport,
the movement of fodder and bedding for horses is likely
to have been a significant factor in the transport of
invertebrates in urban areas. Several species of woodlice,
including Armadillidimn vulgare, are known to flourish
in horticultural nurseries. They are still present at two
sites in Rothesay where there were once extensive
commercial glasshouses (Collis & Collis, 2008), and the
species is known from various sites with horticultural
connections, including the nursery in Rutherglen,
mentioned above, several nursery sites in the Clyde
valley (Harding, Collis & Collis, 1980), Culzean Castle
gardens and the ‘gardens’ area of the agricultural college
site at Auchincmive (Collis, 2007).

It is well understood that ‘hothouse’ alien woodlice
(Gregoiy, 2009) are transported with plant material
between botanic gardens, and there can be little doubt
that this also applies to commonplace plants used in
domestic gardens and allotments. Maybe the Parkhall
Road colony of pill woodlice became established in this
way. It was once common for allotments to be
established beside railways, but it is not clear whether
this applies to any of the railway side pill woodlouse sites
in Clydebank. There is also the potential for transport in
garden waste discarded onto areas that are regarded as
“waste ground”. Garden waste can include rubble from
paths and rockeries, etc., as well as plant material and
soil. It is often seen dumped on railway land, although
this was not particularly noticeable at the Clydebank
sites. As noted in the introduction, garden waste is also
dumped on suburban shorelines, and on rural shorelines
too, especially near roadside lay-bys.

There is also a strong probability that woodlice,
including A.vulgare, are transported in various
construction materials including quarried stone and
aggregates, especially if the material had some
calcareous content, or topsoil (Cawley, 1996). Other
possibilities are timber, bricks, concrete fabrications,
pipes, and general steelwork, especially if such items
have been stored in the open for long enough for them to
have become colonised by woodlice. Railway track is
normally bedded on hard rock chips, which are typically
non-calcareous, but I have infonnation that it is not
unusual for the foundations to be fomied from softer
calcareous rock. Depending on the source location, it is
easy to envisage lime-loving invertebrates such as pill
woodlice being introduced in such material. In addition
to the basic bed of the track, a wide variety of materials
are involved with railway-associated structures.

Irrespective of how woodlice got to the railway-side
sites, we still need to understand why they have survived
and thrived, especially, it seems, in railway-side sites in
Clydebank. Even if there is no calcareous rock in the
foundation of the trackway, there is likely to be an ample
supply of lime in mortared walls and various line-side
structures. Pill woodlice are much less tolerant of wet
conditions than other woodlice, and the open well-

drained substrate would suit them well, with relatively
large interstices allowing this bulky species easy
movement through spaces to find microsites that are
suitable in a variety of climatie conditions. Clydebank
has the added advantage of a sunny south-facing aspect.

REFERENCES

Cawley, M. (1996). The woodlice (Crustacea: Isopoda)
of Cos Sligo and Leitrim. Irish Naturalists’ Journal
25, 273-277.

Collis, G.M. (2007). Report on the 2006 BMIG meeting
in Ayrshire. Bulletin of the British Myriapod and
Isopod Group 22, 32-35.

Collis, G.M. & Collis, V.D. (1978). Some recent Scottish
records of woodlice (slaters) with particular reference
to the Clyde area. Glasgow Naturalist 19 (5) 385-389.
Collis, G.M. & Collis, V.D. (2008). The pill woodlouse,
Armadillidium vulgare, at one-time horticultural
nursery sites on Bute. Transactions of the Buteshire
Natural Histoiy Society’ 27, 87-88.

Davidson, M. (2010). Northerly extensions of the known
UK ranges of the pill-woodlice Armadillidium
vulgare (Latreille, 1804) and Armadillidium
piilchellum (Zencker, 1798). Bidletin of the British
Myriapod and Isopod Group 24, 36-38.

Putter, S. (1998). Pill woodlouse Armadillidium vulgare
in Clydebank. Glasgow Naturalist 23 (3) 62-63.
Gregory, S. (2009). Woodlice and Waterlice (Isopoda:
Oniscidea & Asellota) in Britain and Ireland. FSC
Publications, Shrewsbury.

Harding, P.T., Collis, G.M. & Collis, V.D. (1980). The
pill woodlouse {Armadillidium vulgare (Latr.))
(Isopoda) in Scotland. Entomologists Monthly
Magazine 1 15, 179-180.

Harding, P.T. & Sutton, S.L. (1985). Woodlice in Britain
and Ireland: distribution and habitat. Institute of
Terrestrial Ecology, Huntingdon.

Stirling, A. (1995). Pill woodlouse records from SW
Scotland. Glasgow Naturalist 22 (5): 528-529.

Urban Biodiversity: Sucesses and
Challanges: Urban tern ecology:
common terns in Leith Docks

Gemma Jennings, Robert Furness', & Derek
McGlashan^

’ Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and
Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, GI2
8QQ

^ School of Social and Environmental Sciences,
University of Dundee, DDl 4HN

E-mail: g.jennings. 1 (a)research. gla.ac.uk

The Imperial Dock Lock, a disused lock wall in Leith
Docks, Edinburgh, supports the largest common tern
{Sterna hirundo) colony in Scotland and was designated

as a Special Protection Area (SPA) for the species in
2004. The SPA lies in a continually changing operational
port and the port owners are keen to understand more
about the terns. Analysis of long-temi count data
suggests that colonisation of this urban environment
occuiTcd as a result of relocation from natural islands in
the Firth of Forth over the past few decades, in particular
Inchmickery, which was fonuerly a regional stronghold
for the species, but was abandoned possibly due to high
numbers of gulls. Field work was performed at the
colony during the breeding seasons of 2009 and 2010.
Foraging studies showed that terns fed primarily in the
Firth of Forth rather than within the docks, and their diet
consisted mostly of clupeids, but also sandeels and small
gadoids. Predation of chicks by herring gulls {Larus
argentatus) and lesser black-backed gulls {L. fuscus) was
observed in both seasons, despite which, high numbers of
chicks fledged from the colony. Observations and
preliminaiy experiments on the terns’ sensitivity to
disturbance at the colony indicated that the birds are
tolerant of routine human activities in the docks and that
they have become well habituated to breeding in this
urban environment. The results of this study combined
with continued monitioring will be useful for the
conservation of this SPA.

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: Human perceptions
towards peri-urban deer in Central
Scotland

Stephanie Ballantyne

c/o Nonnan Dandy, Forest Research, Northern Research
Station, Midlothian, EH25 9SY

E-mail: stephistheone@hotmail.com

Red deer {Cen’us elaphus) have been successfully
breeding in the Scottish highlands for centuries, and
many people have a classic association of herds of deer
roaming over the vast expanding Scottish hills. However,
today species such as roe deer {Capreolus capreolus) arc
increasingly being seen in and around Scotland’s Central
Belt, producing a very different human perception of deer
than in the Scottish Highlands. Roe deer bring benefits
and impacts to peri-urban areas (communities consisting
of urban and rural components) within the Central Belt. It
is not yet known peoples’ perception towards deer in
more urbanised communities, and whether they perceive
deer to be beneficial to the local environment or a
hindrance.

In the UK there is an estimated 3 16,000 red deer,

300,000 roe deer, 128,000 fallow {Dama dama), 128,000
muntjac {Muntiacus reevesi) and 26,600 sika {Cervus
nippon) and 2100 Chinese water deer {Hydropotes

iuermis) (Mammal Society, 2012). Deer abundance for
all red, roe, fallow, sika and muntjae deer species has
been recorded in the Scottish Highlands for 10
consecutive years, (2000-2010) indicating deer densities
to be as high as 30 per km^ in the Perthshire area, just
north of Pitlochry and in the north west area of
Drumnadrochit (SNH, 2012). Furthermore the lowest
deer density of 1-5 deer per knr stretches from
Inveruglas in central Scotland to Cape Wrath in the
north and from the Outer Hebrides to the west side of
Banchory (SNH, 2012). Red deer were recorded
throughout the Scottish Highlands, though not recorded
in the Central Belt and regions to the South East of
Scotland. (NBN, 2012). Roe deer are more widely
distributed than red and are found throughout the whole
of Scotland, except from the Shetland islands and the
Outer Hebrides. (NBN, 2012). Sika deer are more widely
distributed than fallow deer in Scotland, but less so than
red or roe, found widely distributed in the North West
Highlands of Scotland and in Central Southern Scotland
(NBN, 2012). Fallow deer were recorded in over 1 10 10
km" in Scotland with a much more sparse distribution
compared with red and roe deer with pockets of higher
densities in the west and east central Highlands, and in
South West Scotland. (NBN, 2012). Muntjae deer were
noted in 15 10 knr regions in Scotland sparsely
distributed throughout Scotland (NBN, 2012). Deer
abundance in these peri-urban communities is also not
well known. In order to address some of these questions
Forest Research on behalf of the Deer Commission for
Scotland was asked to undertake a social and ecological
study to: A) Examine if deer presence was being felt in
peri-urban communities by members of local
communities in Central Scotland and to highlight the
benefits of possible deer presence, B) Undertake an
ecological study on deer density within Central Scotland
ascertaining whether deer density figures tied in with
peoples’ experience of deer presence in their local
community.

To complete both studies two case study areas were set
up; Ravenscraig in the West of Central Scotland and
Linlithgow in the East of Central Scotland. The two areas
were chosen for their mosaic of urban and rural areas and
were seen as classic peri-urban environments.

For study A, 7 focus groups were conducted in total
between each case study area (6 in Ravenscraig and 1 in
Linlithgow) to examine what people in the loeal
community thought about deer in their local area, and 3
manager focus groups were conducted (2 in Ravenscraig
and 1 in Linlithgow) to examine what professional deer
managers thought about deer in Central Scotland. ‘Deer
manager’ in this ease refers to people who have a higher
level of knowledge about deer management than the
general public, and relates to professional deer stalkers,
forestry officials and members of conservation groups.
At each focus group a series of slides were shown to
partieipants, and a general introduction to each slide was
talked about before the group engaged with the subject.
Managers and community focus group stmetures were
identical. To further facilitate study A, a questionnaire

was sent out to local community groups ranging from
allotment groups, to local sports associations. The
questionnaire like the focus groups asked about local
deer presence in their area and asked partieipants to rate
deer management options in response to hypothetical
deer management situations. In total 415 questionnaires
were sent out and 154 were returned, giving the study a
successful response rate of 37%.

For study B, night time thermal imaging of deer occuiTed
along farm road transects in each case study area using a
Pilkington Lite imager. See Dandy et al. (2009) for full
survey methods. When deer were seen through the
camera, the number of deer, the co-ordinates of their
position and distance from the car guestimated, and noted
down. The results were then placed in a statistical
programme to generate density figures.

For the social study A the participants did show that deer
were in their area agreeing with the general pereeption
that deer are using peri-urban environments:

“It’s made my day when I’ve seen them It makes all

the difference. . .Fantastic difference...” (Community
Group 1 )

“..it’s nice to know that they are around. It just makes
people feel more natural, a more natural environment.”
(Community Group 7)

The general feeling from the community focus groups
was that deer did exist in the community but that they
were not very prevalent, perhaps this relates to the roe
deer’s timid nature and being mainly active very early in
the morning when most people are still asleep. In no way
did any community focus group think that deer were
overabundant in their community.

Study A also highlighted the benefits that deer bring to
their community:

“If you catch sight of the deer, it means the environment
is on a high because they’re in the area. And if you’re not
getting good ecology and good feeding grounds they just
move away, you see less and less of them., it’s letting
you know that the environment and the ecology in the
area is really good” (Community Group 6)

As well as bringing in a human wellbeing factor, deer in
the local community were seen as a sign that the
environment they were living in was healthy. Therefore
deer presence was an indicator of living in a healthy
green community which many residents see as a positive
benefit to where they live. From the questionnaire
participants were asked to rank statements in accordance
to their preference to the question: Tf the number of deer
in the area where you lived increased, which of the
following would be the most important priorities?’
Participants produced the following order of statements
starting with the highest priority:

1 . Preventing road-traffic accidents involving deer

2. Ensuring the welfare of individual deer

3. Maintaining the cultural value of deer in Scotland

4. (Joint) Preventing deer damaging local woodlands

4. (Joint) Preventing deer damaging gardens and other
vulnerable sites

6. Making a living from deer through deer-watching
tourism

7. Obtaining economic income from deer through sport
shooting ‘stalking’

From the ranking exercise the first statement indicated
that if the local deer population was to increase,
preventing direct physical road traffic accidents with deer
would be the highest priority. This statement being first
shows that the community would like to prevent the risk
of a serious accident with deer as it is the only statement
which contains a serious risk to humans of having deer in
the local community. No other statements perceive such
a high risk to humans in particular. It could be seen that
the first statement protects humans and deer from risk. In
the second statement, ‘ensuring the welfare of individual
deer’ it shows that people in general have a high regard
for deer welfare in their area, and would like to prevent
harni being inflicted on local deer populations. The
second statement’s position correlates with the general
findings from the focus groups that people enjoy seeing
deer and therefore want to care for them in some way by
looking after their welfare. Direct damage by deer seen in
the two statements in joint 4* position shows that direct
physical impacts by deer were not of a high concern for
residents. Least concern was the statement relating to
obtaining economic gain from a local deer population via
sport shooting. This con'elates with results from the focus
groups that sport shooting was mainly only done in the
Scottish Highlands and wouldn’t be an activity by people
in Central Scotland. A comment from the focus group
was:

“I couldn’t see them [tourists] coming here and saying
‘while we are in Motherwell and Lanarkshire, we’ll go
and see deer’. But I would think they might think that
way if they were heading for the Glencoe area for
instance or above Stirling. . (Community Group 1 )

Therefore it is perceived that no economic value would
be practically obtained by local people if deer were sport
hunted in their local community.

From study B it was found that deer in Linlithgow had a
deer density estimate of 0.9km^ in open areas and 0.8 km'
^ in forested areas. Ravenscraig had a deer density
estimate of 3.3km'^ in forested areas and 1 .4 km'^ in open
areas. These density estimates are rough estimates as not
all transects could be done due to access issues in 2009,
but the vast majority were completed. Furthermore the
estimates were taken from driving along farm roads at
night and it can be assumed that not every deer can be
seen from farm road positions. Roe deer were
distinguished from other deer by their small to mid size
and by the fact that they were seen in groups of about 2
or 3 individuals. The thermal imaging camera only
showed a bright silouhette of deer so it was reliant on the

observer to fully determine if the deer seen was roe.
However local knowledge and experience of using the
thermal imaging camera before helped to reduce
identification bias. The results however show that deer
densities are relatively low for both case study areas and
show that Ravenscraig has a higher deer density than
Linlithgow, and could be due to the Ravenscraig site
having a higher sampling intensity with 1 88 km^ sampled
compared to 88 km^ in Linlithgow. (This was in part due
to snowfall preventing more sampling being undertaken
in Linlithgow at time of survey). Overall the densities for
each case study are in agreement with focus group
findings that deer exist in the community but are not very
commonly seen by residents.

The study shows through themial imaging surveys,
questionnaires and via focus groups that roe deer are
penetrating into peri-urban environments within Central
Scotland and this is the first study of its kind in Scotland.
The density of deer is low in comparison to mean deer
densities in the Scottish highlands that may be as great as
30km'^ (SNH, 2012), but the landscape and deer species
(red deer) being different are contributing factors for this
difference. The study also highlights the respect the
general public have for deer, and the benefit deer have to
the wellbeing of humans within peri-urban environments,
as with most nature species. In relation to the theme of
connecting communities and nature discussed at the
Glasgow Natural History Society Conference on Urban
Biodiversity, there were several plans to develop green
conidors in urban environments to improve connectivity
of nature. Such ideas were the Integrated Habitat
Networks proposed by SNH, Woodlands In And Around
Towns by the Forestiy Commission, Living Waters
project by Froglife and the importance of bings and
brownfield sites were highlighted by the University of
Edinburgh and Buglife respectively. These schemes
would encourage deer and other species to move into and
around urban and peri-urban environments. This may
help to increase peoples’ perceptions that they are living
in a healthy environment because their local area is
supporting species such as roe deer. Increasing deer
populations in peri-urban environments may raise
important management issues. If deer numbers were to
increase substantially impacts such as deer vehicle
collisions and damage to parks and gardens will need to
be addressed. However from the focus groups and
questionnaire no management was deemed necessaiy by
residents as the deer population was seen as too low to
justify any current management plans. Therefore deer in
peri-urban environments at this moment in time present a
positive factor if seen in local green spaces.

REFERENCES

Dandy, N., Ballantyne, S., Moseley, D., Gill, R. and

Quine, C., 2009. Management of Roe Deer in Peri-

Urban Scotland. Final Report. Forest Research

Publication.

Mammal Society.

www.mammal.org.uk/index.php?option=com conten

t&view=article&id=270:new-population-estimates-

for°british-mammal-populations&catid=52:press-

releases&Itemid=303.

Accessed: 2012.

NBN Gateway.

http://data.i'ibn.org.uk/gridMap/grid]V[ap.isp?al]Ds=l

&srchSpKev=NBNSYS0000005i4.

Accessed: 2012.

NBN Gateway.

http://data.nbn.org.uk/gridMap/gridMap.isp?allDs=l

&srchSpKev=NHMSYS0000080203.

Accessed: 2012.

NBN Gateway.

http://data.nbn. org.uk/gridMap/gridMap.isp?allDs=l

&srchSpKev=NBNSYS0000005 1 44.

Accessed: 2012.

NBN Gateway.

http://data.nbn.org.uk/gridMap/gridMap.isp?allDs=l

&si-chSpKcv=NBNSYS0000005145.

Accessed: 2012.

NBN Gateway.

http://data. nbn.org. iik/gridMap/gridMap.isp?allDs=l

&srchSpKev=NHMSYS0000080204.

Accessed: 2012.

Scottish Natural Heritage.

www.snh.gov.uk/docs/B847683.pdf

Accessed: 21/01/12.

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: Epigeal invertebrate
abundance and diversity on Yorkshire
allotments

S. Turnbull' & G. Scott“

'Ladysmith, Chapel Hill, Portmahomack, by Tain. 1V20
lYH

^Biological Sciences, University of Hull, Cottingham
Road, Hull. HU6 7RX

E-mail: s.tumbull@2004.hull.ac.uk

ALLOTMENTS: FASCINATING HABITATS

After more than half a century of neglect and decline,
allotments are on the brink of a great revival (Foley,
2004). Recent decades in particular have witnessed a
growing demand for allotments, partly linked to the
demand for healthy, pesticide-free food and an escape
from the pressures of modern, busy urban lives. The
image of traditional plot-holders e.g. retired men may be
slowly changing. Allotment plots are increasingly
managed by young women and professional couples keen
to grow organic crops or seek an escape from the daily
grind (Buckingham, 2005; pers obs). In parallel to the
increased interest in the socio-economic, health and
recreational benefits of allotments, there is a growing
interest in the biodiversity value of these unique mosaics
of intensively managed habitat (Gilbert, 1991).
However, to date there has been little published research
which concentrates on them.

Marshall (2009) used a questionnaire-based survey to 'i
assess garden and allotment biodiversity and attitudes to
it. He found that, among other things, having direct ,
contact with plants and wild animals in a garden or
allotment helped foster a wider interest in nature. Thus,
allotments, because they typically involve a cross-section
of a community, can offer an ideal opportunity to engage :
people on an individual or community level and allow
them to take a greater interest in their local wildlife.

The aims of our research were to test any variation in
epigeal (ground-dwelling) invertebrate abundance and I
diversity along an urban-rural gradient, in relation to any '
effects of allotment plot management styles i.e. .
traditional or wildlife-friendly.

GENERAL APPROACH

A questionnaire-based survey was used to detennine :
plot-holder attitudes to allotment management styles and ■
the importance of wildlife on the sites. From these data,
individual plots across allotment sites in east Yorkshire
were identified to sample the epigeal invertebrates. In
addition, plots were assigned as being either ‘traditional’
or ‘wildlife-friendly’ based on self-declaration. A range ;!
of environmental data were collected to detemiine the li;
urban-rural gradient e.g. rural sites were likely to have a i]
high percentage of sunounding farmland whilst urban !
sites were likely to have a high percentage of
suiTounding hard cover. These data were infonued by
the results of the Biodiversity in Urban Gardens in
Sheffield (BUGS) project which examined, among other
things, garden invertebrate biodiversity (Smith e! al,
2006 a,b). Three pitfall traps, pooled per plot, were used
to sample invertebrate abundance and diversity in May i?
and September 2006 on six plots from each of seven ,
sampling sites chosen (N = 6x7x2-10 plots
compromised/vandalized = 74) . These sites represented
an urban-rural gradient and each site contained three
‘traditionally’ managed plots and three organic, wildlife-
friendly plots, as identified from the questionnaires.

BIOLOGICAL DATA |

Pitfall trapping resulted in the collection of 11,718 |j
individual organisms; eight taxa were subject to fiirther 1^
analysis. There was a significant difference in the mean :
number of individuals per allotment site (Fig 1). The -
rural Driffield allotment site contained significantly
lower overall invertebrate abundance compared to the
Newland site in Hull city centre, which had the highest |
abundance. Although none of the other sites were f
statistically different from each other, there was a trend ,
towards an increase in mean abundance moving towards ,■
the city centre. '

Beetles (Coleoptera) constituted 37.95%, woodlice
(Isopoda) 24.03% and spiders (Araneae), 16.93% of the v
catch respectively. Urban sites tended to be dominated (
by woodlice whilst beetles tended to be more common on j
some suburban and rural sites. The results for spiders and
the other five taxa, whose abundance ranged between
0.73% - 8.96% of the total catch, showed mixed
abundance across the urban-rural gradient (Fig 2).

With regard to overall invertebrate abundance in relation
to management styles, the urban wildlife-friendly
managed plots contained significantly higher abundance
compared to all other plots, except the urban traditional
plots. The latter, whilst not statistically significant, did
not contain such high abundance as the urban wildlife
plots. This therefore highlighted a trend towards
increased abundance along the rural, suburban, urban
gradient, especially on those plots managed in a wildlife-
friendly way.

The effects of management style on individual taxa gave
mixed results; different taxa dominated over differing
management styles. Beetles were significantly more
abundant on traditionally managed plots. In contrast, the
woodlice, slugs and snails (Mollusca) were significantly
more abundant on wildlife-friendly managed plots.
Spiders, opilione, millipedes and centipedes (Myriapoda)
showed little difference in abundance in relation to
management style. The most biologically diverse plots
were managed in a wildlife-friendly way, with the
highest diversity found on a rural site at Driffield.
Interestingly, this site also contained the lowest diversity
on the traditionally managed plots.

DISCUSSION

This study has shown that there is considerable interest
from allotment plot-holders in projects that recognize the
value of “their” allotments. Whilst older men still
dominate, there are an increasing number of community
groups, younger families and especially women, taking
on allotments. The latter are also more likely to place a
higher value on the wildlife on their plots and sites, as
shown by their commitment to manage their plots in an
organic, wildlife-friendly way.

The epigeal invertebrate taxa on the seven allotment sites
studied showed a significant variation in both abundance
and diversity along an urban-rural gradient. In contrast
to what may have been expected, the urban sites
contained the highest abundance whilst the rural sites
contained the lowest. Whist urban sites are likely to be
subject to a higher range of anthropogenic pressures,
each allotment site may be a small-scale biodiversity
oasis, due partly to the lack of other suitable suiTounding
habitat patches compared to rural areas.

The composition of the taxa found in the current study
was similar to that of the BUGS studies mentioned
above, but the actual proportions of some of the taxa
were quite different. For example. Smith et al. (2006b)
found that the three most abundant taxa of the pitfall
traps were woodlice (45%), beetles (25%) and slugs
(19%) respectively, whilst in the current study they
constituted 24%, 38% and 9% respectively. The most
abundant taxa, the beetles, dominated the rural, and to
lesser extent suburban, sites. The woodlice, however,
dominated the urban sites, suggesting that they prefer
synanthropic environments. In addition, spiders
contributed 1 7% of the total catch, compared to less than
5% in the BUGS study.

The reasons for these differences are likely to be many

and require further exploration. However, in the case of
the slugs, it is likely that this group would be very
actively discouraged from allotments, due to their
primary raison d'etre as a means of growing food crops.
Slug pellets were the most common pesticide used, as
evidenced in the questionnaires, supporting this
conclusion.

Whilst management style suggests no overall difference
in total invertebrate abundance, the differences at
geographic scale do appear to show some effect. The
higher abundance found on the wildlife-friendly
allotment plots in the city centre may be due to a skewed
effect of the high number of woodlice on these plots, as
discussed above.

Overall, the diversity of the taxa found suggests that
allotments are valuable habitats for epigeal invertebrates.
The highest invertebrate diversity, found at the rural
Driffield wildlife-friendly plots, corresponds with their
low abundance and requires further study to tiy and
explain the reasons. The environmental data gathered
suggests that the high proportion of fannland
surrounding the allotment site may account for some of
the variation. Species arc likely to be able to disperse
readily into the suiTounding habitat, unlike the more
constrained urban habitat patches.

FUTURE WORK

Further work is ongoing to identify the three most
abundant taxa to species level from a rural, suburban and
urban allotment site respectively. Additional analysis of
the questionnaire data, environmental and biological data
will be published separately in due course. This work
will therefore provide some much-needed empirical data
on the epigeal invertebrate communities present on
Yorkshire allotments. This baseline infonnation could
then be used to explore further issues such as biological
control methods or effects of climate change on crop
growing on allotments.

CONCLUSIONS

The increase in popularity of allotments offers a great
opportunity to study the wildlife benefits of such sites,
particularly in urban areas where greenspace is at a
premium. In order to advance these studies, it is
important to engage with individual plot-holders.

The epigeal invertebrate taxa found on these allotments
are similar to those found in garden studies, but the
proportions of dominating taxa vary across the urban-
rural gradient and with management styles. Abundance
was higher on urban plots, especially wildlife-friendly
managed ones, compared to both traditionally and
wildlife-friendly managed plots on mral or suburban
sites. Invertebrate diversity was highest on some
wildlife-friendly rural plots, which also had low
abundance. Future work will help identify the specific
species present and provide further clues to their
ecological role on allotment sites.

■D

300

DR Driffield; HN Hunmanby; CT Cottingham; BV Beverley; BR Bridlington; BD Bude; NW Newland

Fig. 1. Mean number of invertebrates per Yorkshire allotment site (+ SE), based on individual plot totals (N=74),
grouped per urban-rural gradient. (RR=n,iral; SU=suburban; UU=urban.)

1600

□ Driffield □ Hunmanby □ Cottingham □ Beverley H Bridlington e Bude ■ Newland

Fig. 2. Total number of each invertebrate taxon from pitfall-traps on seven Yorkshire allotment sites.

REFERENCES

Buckingham, S. (2005). Women (re)construct the plot;
the rcgen(d)eration of urban food growing. Area,
37, 2, 171-179.

Foley. C. (2004). The Allotment Handbook. New
Holland, London.

Gilbert, O.L. (1991). The Ecology’ of Urban Habitats.
Chapman & Hall, London.

Marshall, T. (2009). Rural gardens, allotments and
biodiversity. British Wildlife, 21,2, 85-95.

Smith, R. M., Warren, P. H., Thompson, K. & Gaston,
K. J. (2006a). Urban domestic gardens (VI):
environmental correlates of invertebrate species
richness. Biodiversity’ and Consen>ation, 15, 2415-
2438.

Smith, R. M., Gaston, K. J., Warren, P. H. &
Thompson, K. (2006b). Urban domestic gardens
(VIII): environmental correlates of invertebrate
abundance. Biodiversity and Consen’ation, 15,
2515-2545.

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challanges: Brownfields: oases of
urban biodiversity

Craig R. Macadam' and Suzanne Z. Bairner“

‘Buglife - The Invertebrate Conservation Trust,
Balallan House, 24 Allan Park, Stirling, FK8 2QG
^ BTCV Scotland Natural Talent Apprentice

E-mail: craig.macadam(^buglife. org.uk

ABSTRACT

Despite their potential to support biodiversity, a strong
negative public image has been attached to brownfield
sites, with the conservation of these sites therefore
lagging behind other habitats. The inclusion of ‘Open
Mosaic Habitats on Previously Developed Land
(OMHPDL)’ as a UK Biodiversity Action Plan
(UKBAP) priority habitat has however resulted in a
renewed focus on brownfields as important wildlife
habitats. The experiences of Buglife - The
Invertebrate Conservation Trust in both the Thames
Gateway and central Scotland have shown that
brownfield sites can support many rare, scarce and
UKBAP priority species, some of which are becoming
increasingly reliant on such sites as their natural
habitats come under threat.

INTRODUCTION

The industrial revolution starting in the eighteenth
century transfonned the scenes of our towns and
countiyside. Central Scotland was at the heart of this
revolution and many heavy engineering works and iron
founders were based there. With the demise of these
industries across the country, their fomier premises
have been left derelict. Many of these ex-industrial

sites have since been reclaimed by nature through
natural succession.

This rich industrial heritage of Scotland has resulted in
over 10,000 hectares of land being listed as vacant or
derelict. These brownfield sites can be incredibly
important for biodiversity, often supporting nationally
important populations of rare and endangered
invertebrates, alongside other wildlife such as birds,
reptiles, plants and lichens. With the loss of natural
habitats in the wider countryside through agricultural
intensification and development, wild areas within the
urban environment have become crucial to the survival
of many increasingly threatened species in the UK. As
a result Open Mosaic Habitat on Previously Developed
Land (OMHPDL) was recently included as a UKBAP
priority habitat.

Brownfields are any site that have been altered by
human activity and are currently not fully in use
(CABE, 2006). They tend to be concentrated in urban
and former industrial landscapes but also include
quaiTies, spoil heaps, old railway lines and disused
airfields (Allan et al. 1997; Bodsworth et al. 2005;
Whitehouse, 2008; Riding et al. 2010). Brownfield
sites provide linkages or ‘stepping stones’ between
more natural areas of habitat and facilitate the
movement and mixing of individuals in a less
favourable urban setting. Lack of management of
brownfields often creates an open mosaic of habitats
such as species rich grassland, bare ground and early
successional habitats (Key, 2000; Bodsworth et al.
2005; Harvey et al. 2008). This, combined with a low
nutrient content of the soil which prevents fast growing
species becoming dominant, provides a continuity of
resources for invertebrates throughout the season
(Harvey et al. 2008). In addition, a mosaic of habitats
provides a home for a wide range of species and allows
many to complete their life cycles within the same site
(Bodsworth et al. 2005).

It has long been recognised that brownfields may have
as many associated Red Data Book (RDB) and
Nationally Scarce invertebrate species as ancient
woodlands (Jones, 2003). At least 194 invertebrate
species of conseiwation importance, including 50 red
data book and 131 nationally scarce species, have been
recorded from brownfield sites in the UK. This
includes 50% of rare solitary bees and wasps and 35%
of rare ground beetles (Bodsworth et al. 2005).
Brownfields also support a suite of UKBAP priority
species. For example, the lack of management on
brownfield sites often provides a secure area for
breeding birds such as skylark (Alauda an’ensis) and
grey partridge (Perdix perdi.x), that are often absent
from land under agricultural management. Many
features identified at long abandoned industrial sites
can no longer be found in the managed and over-
fanned wider countiyside or even in over-tidied parks
(Bodsworth et al. 2005). Loss of natural habitat is
causing many species, including bumblebees, beetles,
butterflies and reptiles, to become increasingly reliant

on brownfield sites.

Despite their potential to support biodiversity a strong
negative public image has been attached to brownfields
due to lack of management and a perceived untidiness
and they are increasingly threatened by development
and landscaping (Key, 2000; Riding et al. 2010).
Restoration of post-industrial sites into greenspace can
destroy much of the existing wildlife interest through
the importation of large quantities of topsoil and tree
planting. Site restoration can also result in the loss of
particular niches at brownfields which will have a
knock on effect on the wildlife found at that site
(Bodsworth et al. 2005). For example, the loss of bare
ground at a site will affect themiophilic (warmth-
loving) invertebrate species such as spiders and ground
beetles as well as species such as mining bees and
solitary wasps that nest in the ground (Key, 2000;
English Nature, 2005; Whitchousc, 2008).

In 2007 Open Mosaic Habitat on Previously Developed
Land was added to the list of priority habitats in the
UK Biodiversity Action Plan (Maddock, 2008). To fit
the UKBAP criteria for OMHPDL the site must be
over 0.25 hectares in size and have a known history of
disturbance (Table 1 ). In addition, there must also be a
mosaic of vegetation on the site comprised of early
successional communities and un-vegetated bare areas.

Criteria

The area of open mosaic habitat is at least 0.25
ha in size.

Known history of disturbance at the site or
evidenee that soil has been removed or severely
modified by previous use(s) of the site.
Extraneous materials/substratcs such as industrial
spoil may have been added.

The site contains some vegetation. This will
comprise early successional communities
consisting mainly of stress tolerant species (e.g.
indicative of low nutrient status or drought).
Early successional eommunities are composed of
a) annuals or b) mosses/livei'worts or c) lichens
or d) ruderals or e) inundation species or f) open
grassland or g) flower rich grassland or h)
heathland.

The site contains un-vegetated, loose bare
substrate and pools may be present.

The site shows spatial variation, fonning a
mosaic of one or more of the early successional
communities a) - h) above (criterion 3) plus bare
substrate, within 0.25 ha.

Table 1. Open mosaic habitat on previously developed
land definition and criteria (Riding et al. 2010).

The conservation of brownfield sites has lagged behind
other important habitats for plants and wildlife. The
term brownfield was first used by the government in
1 998 when they set a national target of 60 % of all new
housing developments to be located on brownfield land
(Bodsworth et al. 2005; Riding et al. 2010). In

Scotland, the National Planning Framework aims to
bring ‘vacant and derelict land’ back into productive
use for housing, for economic purposes and to create
attractive environments however there is potential for
this vision to conflict with the conservation of Open
Mosaic Habitats on Previously Developed Land I
OMHPDL and urban biodiversity. ■

BROWNFIELDS AND BUGLIFE
Buglife was one of the first conservation organisations
to highlight the ongoing loss of brownfield habitats - j
and the serious consequences of this for biodiversity -
and has been working to conserve brownfield wildlife
since 2004. Buglife’s flagship ‘All of a Buzz in the
Thames Gateway’ project in southem England has
mapped and assessed the biodiversity of over 1,000
brownfield sites. This study has identified that although
as many as a third of all brownfield sites support high
levels of biodiversity - in many cases significantly
higher than surrounding ‘greenfield’ agricultural land -
many of these sites are being lost to development as a
result of government targets for new housing.

Brownfield sites in the Thames Gateway are very li
important for the brown-banded carder bee (Bombiis I
Inimi/is) and the shrill carder bee {Bomhiis sylvarum). J:
The East Thames conddor with its large areas of open |
flower rich brownfield grasslands is home to the most |
important remaining metapopulations of these

bumblebees. [i

The streaked bombardier beetle {Brachiinis sclopeta) I
was thought to be extinct in Britain but was :!

rediscovered in 2005 on a brownfield site in London
(Jones, 2006). The site is cuirently being developed j
for housing and as mitigation around 65 beetles have |
been translocated to a nearby site. Invertebrate j

translocations typically have a low success rate,
particularly with species with complex life histories as i'
is the case with the streaked bombardier. It is therefore
highly unlikely that this mitigation will save this
species at this site and it may well become permanently S
extinct in Britain.

The distinguished jumping spider (Sitticiis [|
distinguendus) was discovered during surveys in 2005 I
at West Thurrock Marshes (Harvey, et al., 2005). This |
species is only known from one other site -
Swanscombe Marshes where it is threatened by re-
development proposals. The site at West Thuirock |
cuiTently has planning pennission for warehousing and |
car parking which, if developed, would destroy the 5
habitat of this species.

THE SCOTTISH EXPERIENCE \

Evidence suggests that this issue is as pressing in j
Scotland as elsewhere. In September 2010 Buglife |
launched a new project ‘All of a Buzz Scotland’ as a j
response to this challenge. This project follows in the |
successful footsteps of work completed in the Thames j
Gateway. The first phase of this project assessed 1,522
sites listed as ‘derelict’ on the Scottish Vacant and

Derelict Land Register and identified 393 sites that had
the potential to satisfy the UKBAP criteria for
OMHPDL. The assessment of these sites followed a
remote assessment methodology using aerial
photography to identify features typical of OMHPDL
(Macadam, 2011).

It was noted during this initial assessment that some of
the aerial photography was up to 12 years old and the
sites identified as potentially fitting the criteria for
OMHPDL may no longer qualify as a priority site due
to re-development or succession during the intervening
period. The next phase of this project is therefore to
ground-truth the results from the initial assessment to
ensure that we can have confidence in the findings.
Advice and infonnation on how to assess a site for the
presence of OMHPDL to ensure that Local/Planning
Authorities and Government Agencies can identify
areas of OMHPDL on ‘new’ sites in the future will also
be prepared. Future phases of the project will promote
the management of brownfield sites for biodiversity
and provide guidance on tools for mitigation in
developments such as green and living roofs, and off-
site habitat creation.

The ‘All of a Buzz in Scotland’ project will produce
much-needed evidence and support for planners and
developers, enabling them to plan and implement
developments in an environmentally sustainable way.
It will also promote more natural habitats, native plant
species, and a ‘less tidy’ approach to land management
both within developments and in the wider urban
landscape.

FALKIRK’S BROWNFIELDS

Buglife has recently undertaken a more detailed
investigation of the invertebrate diversity of brownfield
sites in the Falkirk area (Baimer and Macadam, 2011).
An assessment of the habitat on each of the 76 sites in
the Scottish Vacant and Derelict Land Register for
Falkirk was undertaken during May 2010. Details of
each site were recorded using Buglife’s brownfield
habitat assessment fonn and included current activity,
the vegetation type, plant species diversity and
abundance. Photographs were taken on each site for
future reference. Potential invertebrate species
diversity was estimated as low, medium or high for
each site based on plant abundance and plant species
diversity on the site as well as the presence of a mosaic
of habitats, including bare ground, scrub and mixed
grassland and herbs.

From the sites on the register, 1 9 were chosen as being
important for invertebrates.

Invertebrate survey work was undertaken on 14 of
these sites. The remaining sites from the register
fitting the OMHPDL criteria were visited for
assessment purposes but no invertebrate survey work
was possible due to access restrictions. In addition
invertebrate surveys were also undertaken at two other
sites which are not on the vacant and derelict land
register, but have been previously recognised as fitting
the criteria for OMHPDL.

Surveys of brownfield sites in Falkirk commenced in
May 2010, with the majority of field work carried out
between June to October 2010 and March to June
2011. Samples of teiTCStrial invertebrates were
collected using pitfall traps, sweep nets and/or pan
traps. When collected each sample was labelled with
site name, collection method and date and stored in
70% alcohol. Samples were first sorted into different
invertebrate orders and then identified to family, genus
or species by close examination under a high power
microscope with reference to taxonomic books and
keys. Most groups were identified to species, however
in the Diptera, Myriapoda, Acari, Collcmbola and
Mollusca a lower taxonomic precision was used in
some cases.

Of the invertebrate species collected during survey
work 75 have not been recorded from the Falkirk area
before. A number of these species are common and
widespread in Britain including the green tiger beetle
{Cicindela campesths) and violet ground beetle
(Carabus violaceus), the field digger wasp (Mel linns
an>ensis) and maiTam spider (Tihellus mariti/niis).
Results show that 44 of the 72 species of beetle
recorded during survey work have not been recorded in
Falkirk before. The reason why there are no records for
many species, particularly beetles, may be due to the
lack of a local biological records centre for the area,
although there are relatively few active entomologists
in the area.

The diversity of invertebrate species collected clearly
shows the importance of brownfields in Falkirk. As an
example, the brownfield at CaiTon Works (Forge Dam)
is particularly important due to the high diversity of
plants and wildlife, especially the invertebrates that
were recorded. Four invertebrate species collected at
this site are considered rare or scarce in Scotland:

• The comb-footed spider Anelosimus vittatus
(Theridiidae) is widespread and common in
England and Wales although there are only a few
records in Scotland.

• The hobo spider Tegenaria agrestis (Agelenidae)
is a brownfield specialist and was previously only
known from five locations in Scotland (Bo’ness,
Grangemouth, two locations in Edinburgh and
near Dingwall in the Highlands).

• The Nationally Scarce (Notable B) ground beetle
Amara praetermissa (Carabidae) was recorded in
Bo’ness in the 1980s and during field work three
individuals were collected from Can'on Works.
This represents only the second record of this
species in Scotland.

• The rare (RDB3) solitary bee Andrena ruficrus
(Andreninae) has previously not been recorded
from Falkirk.

CONCLUSIONS

Open mosaic habitats with vaiying stages of natural
succession are scarce in the over-managed and fanned
countryside. In an urban setting brownfields can be
used as ‘stepping stones’ to allow movement and

mixing of animals and plants across an area (Macadam,
2011). Due to natural succession at these sites,
brownfields arc transitory habitats and if left un-
managed they have a typical lifespan of between 15
and 20 years (Key, 2000; Bodsworth et al. 2005). This
is not necessarily a problem as new 'brownfield’ sites
are always being created. The transitoiy nature of
these sites means that the extent of this habitat will
fluctuate as a result of succession, redevelopment and
dereliction. The species that inhabit these sites will
colonise and retreat in response to the availability of
the habitat in each local authority area however it is
important that a series of ‘stepping stones’ are provided
as refugia for these species. These ‘stepping stone’
sites should be managed to retain an open mosaic of
habitats for the species that depend upon them.

If properly managed, brownfield sites with high value
for biodiversity can not only deliver suitable habitat for
many species, but can also transfonn themselves into
wild city spaces full of wildflowers that will attract
pollinators and other animals. Such sites are an
important part of the habitat network, providing
coiridors for species to disperse around and through
urban areas. Brownfield sites can also provide valuable
open spaces for local people and are often seen as
being the only truly ‘wild’ city spaces remaining for
the public to enjoy - the ‘unofficial countiyside’.
There is great potential to make many of these sites
more accessible, safe and enjoyable through
imaginative planning and positive management. In
many built-up areas, brownfield sites may be the sole
natural grcenspacc available. If properly managed,
they could help significantly to reduce the number of
areas deficient in accessible open space, and contribute
to the delivery of urban green networks. Improving
access to green spaces will bring attendant quality of
life and health benefits to residents, as well as
economic benefits.

Recommendations made by Bodsworth et al. (2005) for
the management of brownfield sites to maximise their
value for invertebrate conservation include suiweying
sites to identify their wildlife interest and the protection
of sites from development. Researchers also
recommend the management of bare ground,
vegetation structure, floristic diversity and shelter to
maintain biodiversity at a site once its value has been
identified.

The importance of brownfield wildlife in urban areas
must be recognised and valued if it is to be protected
and managed as a vital component of the townscape.
Its long-term survival will depend on the support of the
local people who use and value their local
environment. Developing opportunities for people to
see, enjoy and learn about brownfield invertebrates will
help increase awareness and understanding of the value
of biodiversity in urban areas.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Buglife would like to thank Scottish Natural Heritage

and the Central Scotland Green Network for funding

the first phase of the ‘All of a Buzz Scotland’ project.

We would also like to thank BTCV for the opportunity

to host a Natural Talent apprentice.

REFERENCES

Allan, R. L., Dickinson, G., Dickinson, J. H., Duncan,
H. J., Muiphy, K. J., Pulford, I. D., Rogerson, R.
and Watson, K. (1997). The natural heritage
interest of bings (waste tips) in Scotland: inventoiy
and review. Scottish Natural Heritage. 48.

Bodsworth, E., Shepherd, P. and Plant, C. (2005).
Exotic plant species on brownfield land: their value
to invertebrates of nature conservation importance.
English Nature Resources Report. 650.

Baimer, S.Z. and Macadam, C.R. (201 1). Brownfield
biodiversity in Falkirk. Forth Naturalist and
Historian.

Commission for Architecture and the Built
Environment (CABE). (2006). Making contracts
work for wildlife: how to encourage biodiversity in
urban parks. CABE publications.

English Nature (2005). Management of bare ground.
English Nature report. IN54.

Haiwey, P., Hitchcock, G. and Jones, R. (2008).
Thames Gateway Brownfields; invertebrate
biodiversity and management. Buglife - The
Invertebrate Conservation Trust.

Jones, R.A. (2003). The 2001 Presidential Address -
Part 2. A celebration of urban entomology. British
Journal of Entomology and Natural History 1 6 (2):
109-121.

Jones, R.A. (2006). BrachUms sclopeta (Fabricius) (
Coleoptera) confimied as a British species. The
Coleopterist 15: 29-33.

Key, R. (2000) Bare ground and the conservation of
invertebrates. British Wildlife 1 1 183-191.

Macadam, C. (2011). All of a Buzz Scotland:
Identifying open mosaic habitat in the Central
Scotland Green Network area. Buglife - The
Invertebrate Conservation Trust.

Maddock, A. (ed.) (2008). UK Biodiversity Action
Plan Priority Habitat Descriptions: Open Mosaic
Habitat on Previously Developed Land. BRIG
(Updated July 2010).

Riding, A., Critchley, N., Wilson, L. and Parker, J.
(2010) Definition and mapping of open mosaic
habitats on previously developed land: Phase 1
Final Report. ADAS UK Ltd.

Whitehouse, A. T. (2008). Managing aggregate sites
for invertebrates: a best practice guide. Buglife -
The Invertebrate Conser\>ation Trust.

Urban Biodiversity! Successes and
Challenges: Integrated habitat
networks in our dear green space.

Fiona Stewart

Scottish Natural Heritage, Caspian House, South
Avenue, Clydebank Business Park G8 1 2NR.

E-mail: Fiona.stewart@snh.gov.uk

ABSTRACT

The development of the spatial habitat networks known
as Integrated Habitat Networks (IHN) was developed
with a range of partners using GIS and suite of spatial
analyst tools known as BEETLE. The first habitat
networks were produced for the Glasgow and Clyde
Valley area in 2008. A post was developed to
disseminate the resultant woodland, grassland and
wetland networks to local authorities and to assist them
with the task of utilising these visual networks in
development planning, development management and
Master planning.

It has been used in a variety of trial projects working
with architects, planners, SEPA and SNH and the use
of IHN for production of green networks is slowly
gaining momentum. A hypothetical use of IHN was
illustrated within a presentation at the Glasgow
Naturalist conference to visually demonstrate its use in
land management and to illustrate the very visual use
of the IHN.

INTRODUCTION

In 2009 I started as project officer for the Glasgow and
Clyde Valley Green Network Partnership (GCVGNP)
and SNH. We are very lucky in Glasgow as the
Glasgow and Clyde Valley Structure Plan promotes the
vision of a Green Network and the newly emerging
Strategic Development Plan carries this vision within
its Main Issues Report (MIR). Our area could be
considered pioneers of the green network concept as
we are fortunate in having a GCVGNP team. In 2008
Forest Research were commissioned to produce habitat
networks for the GCV area and to illustrate where these
networks “integrated” thus producing Priority
Enhancement Areas (PEA’s). This was undertaken
using GIS and a suite of spatial analyst tools
collectively given the name BEETLE (Biological and
Environmental Evaluation Tools for Landscape
Ecology).

The Planning etc. (Scotland) Act 2006 resulted in the
previously non-statutory National Planning Framework
(NPF) becoming a statutory document and this is
effectively a spatial plan for Scotland. The Act also
makes provision for the Framework to designate
national developments. Within NPF2 (2009) The

Central Scotland Green Network (CSGN) is one of
these national developments and the location and
design of integrated habitat networks is clearly stated
as one of the matters to be addressed in the creation of
a CSGN. Additionally the national developments
should be included within Strategic Development Plans
(SDP) and Local Development Plans (LDP). The IHN
has been used to assist within the planning process and
small pilot projects have been undertaken in several
areas now. To borrow from the Main Issues Report
(MIR) for the Edinburgh and South East Scotland SDP
(2010) known as SESPlan, the Green Network could
be defined:

“[it] comprises the network of green spaces
within and around our towns and cities, linking
out into the wider countryside, which underpins
the region’s quality of life and sense of place
and provides the setting which high quality,
sustainable economic growth occurs”

SETTING THE SCENE
Spatial tool.

The Integrated Habitat Networks allow us to spatially
see where our efforts can be concentrated. We can
see very visually see where the habitats cluster into
networks and equally we can see where the habitats
sit in isolation (Fig.l). Lastly the modelling process
gives us an indication of the possible spread of
species to surrounding habitat areas by using a
process known as least cost distance analysis and this
gives an indication of the networks that are possible in
the future if there are to be no land use changes.
These are the habitat networks illustrated by
BEETLE.

Fig. 1. Example illustrating woodland habitat
“clustering” and sitting in isolation
© Crown copyright and database right [2010], All
rights reserved. Ordnance Survey Licence
number 100017908

However the question of whether or not to target action
to habitat clusters and also the sensitive subject of
whether or not to concentrate efforts only on these
larger areas capable of forming habitat networks will
depend on a variety of factors outwith that of forming
habitat networks alone. Priorities will vary on an area
to area basis but will include factors such as socio-
economics, sense of place and therefore local

importance as well as that of providing “stepping
stones” for species. The list is not exhaustive.

Uses

To date SEPA and the GCVGN partnership has
commissioned a Clyde pilot study “Ecological
Networks and River Basin Management Plans
(RBMP)” ( Entec 2010) in order to to align the RBMP
objectives with an IHN for this area. Opportunities
have been identified addressing diffuse pollution and
reduction of morphological pressures on watercourses
whilst also enhancing the IHN . It has also been used to
aid the master planning process in Glasgow and South
Johnstone and at development plan level was used in
the Strategic Environmental Assessment for the South
Lanarkshire Minerals Plan.

What does it actually do?

The IHN addresses habitat fragmentation by veiy
visually illustrating the habitats that are in existence
and the concentration is on wetland, woodlands and
grasslands. Using a focal species approach to assess
the functional connectivity of habitat for species
distribution, a limited number of species were used to
map the IHN’s. This generalises the species
requirements for a particular habitat and is widely used
in habitat network modelling. It also removes the need
to carry out a large number of individual species
analyses (Smith 2008). Those used have included
mountain hare Mustela putorim, great crested newt
Tritimis cristatus, red admiral Vanessa atlanta , dogs
mercury Mercurialis perennis and water avens Geum
rivale (Fig. 2). They encapsulate species requirements
for particular habitats. Similar habitats in turn have
been collated to form generalist habitats, woodland,
wetland and grassland (Fig. 3) it is however possible to
separate the network components to show specialised
networks using GIS. Networks such as acid grassland
and ancient woodland can be clearly illustrated for
example and this ability to “drill down” may prioritise
our land management decisions in the future.

The process of habitat network modelling has been
taken a step further near Inverness as part of the
planning process for Tomagrain to try to ensure that
red squirrel strongholds are retained and expanded
using the least cost distance analysis pioneered by
Scottish Natural Heritage and Forest Research. Maps
have been produced to illustrate the existing red
squirrel areas and also the areas that could host red
squin'els. All possible very quickly by computer
modelling.

IHN MODELLING IN GLASGOW
The city of Glasgow is always depicted as the “dear
green place”. The IHN generalist habitat layers allow
us to see where our networks lie and see where there is
habitat fragmentation. Phase 1 data, master map and a
variety of other data sets have been used to calculate
the networks. Note that the habitat networks are not

wildlife corridors. They are a component of the green
network but the habitats within the IHN must fulfil
certain criteria to be part of this so for example amenity
grassland is generally not part of the habitat network.
As mentioned previously it is even possible to further
refine our visual display to show where our areas of
ancient woodland are within the woodland generalist
layer and additionally to use the modelling process to
show how the network could expand (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Data licensed to Scottish Natural Heritage under
the PGA, through Next Perspectives. Glasgow
generalist woodland network (red), ancient woodland
network (pink) and lilac and purple showing the
possibility for expansion of the ancient woodland
network.

To explain the IHN’s possibilities it will be necessary
to set the scene. Imagine that Glasgow has undergone
a population explosion that necessitates the local
authority to consider development of Dawsholm Park.
I use this example because it is an instantly
recognisable area on a map and it is an area valued for
reasons other than that of being a valuable component
of the IHN’s! Fig. 4 shows that within the north west
of Glasgow there is a substantial area of ancient
woodland and also potential for ancient woodland
expansion. However to look at the ancient woodland
network for the whole of Glasgow (Fig 5) it is possible
to see that these areas of ancient woodland are scarce
throughout the city. Equally on a larger scale we can
see at a glance where the habitat networks in Glasgow
integrate and although the ecologists amongst us will
be well aware of these “hotspots” it allows us to
visually show the high habitat value of areas such as
Possil Marsh SSSI which is an important component of
the IHN. It does not sit in isolation (Fig. 5). Where the
habitats networks integrate can be clearly seen as can
areas that could be improved by appropriate land
management can also be identified helping us to
prioritise our habitat management.

Mountain hare Lepus timidus. © Lome Gill

Red Admiral Vanessa alalanta © Lome Gill.

Great crested newts Triturus cristatus © Sue
Scott/SNH.

Dogs mercury Mercurialis perennis. © Lome Water avens Geum rivale © Lome Gill.

Gill/SNH

Fig. 2. Some of the focal species used for IHN analyses.

Woodland © Lome Gill.

Wetland © Lome Gill/SNH

Grassland habitat. Lome Gill/SNH.

Fig. 3. Generalist habitats.

Fig. 5. Data licensed to Scottish Natural Heritage under the PGA, through Next Perspectives. Generalist woodland
networks (red), ancient woodland (pink), grassland including marshlands (yellow and green) and wetland (blue).

WEB BROWSER TOOL

Scottish Natural Heritage is presently working on a
web browser tool to allow all of us with a land
management interest to access the IHN layers to assist
with our land management decisions. It will be
possible to graphically see the effect of development,
land use changes and also to assist land agent with their
Scottish Rural Development Priority applications as
there will be a web browser tool to allow us to add and
for that matter remove land to see the effect on the
habitat networks. The ecological network modelling
will be possible throughout Scotland and access will be
possible via the SNH website, www.snh.org.uk.

CONCLUSION

The IHN is a spatial took which can assist us with our
efforts to plan our green networks in only one area but
also across our various local authorities. There will
always be an element of ground tmthing required but
then the same can be said of any desk top analysis.
Importantly we have the opportunity to strategically
address habitat fragmentation and have a tool to assist
us with the best possible “locations” for expansion of
these networks.

FOOTNOTE

Since the conference in October IHN’s have been
created for the whole of the Central Scotland Green
Network area. Data and further information can be
obtained from the Central Scotland Green Network
Support Unit.

http://www.centralscotlandgreennetwork.org.

REFERENCES

Corbett A, Hislop M, Smith M. (2009) Landscape
Approach to Conservation Management : Glasgow

and Clyde Valley case study. Ecological networks:
Science and Practice Proceedings of the 16"’
Annual (I ALE) UK conference September 2009.
East Lothian Council. SESPlan Main Issues Report
2010.

http://www.eastlothian.gov.uk/site/scripts/downloa

d mfo.php?fileID=3 1 22

Entec (2010) SEP A and GCVGN partnership
Ecological networks and RBMP - Clyde Pilot
Study.

http://www.sepa.ore.uk/water/river basin ulannim

/area advisoiy eroups/clyde.aspx
Smith et al, (2008) Forest Research . Glasgow and
Clyde Valley Integrated Habitat Networks.
http://passthrough.fw-
notifV.net/static/077310/downloader.is
Rehfish A, (2010) Town and Country Planning in
Scotland. SPICe. Scottish Parliament.
http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/business/researc

h/briefings-ll/SBl l-30.pdf
Scottish Government (2009) National Planning
Framework.

http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Built-

Environment/planning/National-Planning-

Policv/npf

Strategic Development Planning Authority for
Edinburgh and South East Scotland (2010) Main
Issues Report SESPlan.
http://passthrougli.fw-

notifV.net/download/987087/http://www.sesplan.go

v.uk/consultation/docs/mir.pdf
Scottish Government

http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Built-

Environment/planning/National-Planning-

Policv/npf

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: The Biodiversity in
Glasgow (BIG) project: the value of
volunteer participation in promoting
and conserving urban biodiversity.

Humphreys, E.M.‘, Kirkland, P.“, Russell, S.^,
Suteliffe, R.'^, Coyle, and Chamberlain,

'BTO Scotland, School of Biological Sciences, Stirling
University, Stirling. FK9 4LA.

■ Butterfly Conservation Scotland, Balallan House, 24
Allan Park, Stirling, FK8 2QG
^Clober Fann, Milngavie, Glasgow G62 7HW
Glasgow Museums Resource Centre, 200 Woodhead
Road, South Nitshill Industrial Estate, Glasgow, G53
7NN

■'’6 Westerlands, Glasgow, G12 OFB
^ Dipartimento di Biologia Aniinale e dell'Uomo,
Universita degli Studi di Torino, Via Accademia
Albertina 13, 10123 Torino, Italy

Conresponding author E-mail: liz.humphreys@bto.org

INTRODUCTION

Glasgow is an ideal city in which to look at urban
biodiversity. Over 20% of the area of Glasgow is green
space including 74 parks, over 30 allotment spaces and
other sites of potential importance to urban biodiversity
such as rivers, woodlands, cemeteries and communal
gardens. In temis of nationally recognised status of
nature conservation, Glasgow holds 5 Sites of Special
Scientific Interest (SSSIs) and 7 Local Nature Reserves
(LNRs). It also has 46 and 49 Sites of Importance for
Nature Conservation (SINCs) at the City and Local
level respectively'. Glasgow City Council (GCC) in a
strategic review of its green spaces identified a
numbers of key actions including: (a) identifying
amenity grass and road verges that could be subject to
less intensive maintenance and; (b) the inclusion of
biodiversity as an integral part of any development
projects (GCC, 2005). GCC also has a programme of
habitat enhancement including the naturalisation of
artificial ponds and creation of further ponds and
wetlands, wildflower meadows and native woodland.
In addition the Glasgow Biodiversity Partnership has
produced a Local Habitat Statement on “Built Up
Areas and Gardens”, as part of the Local Biodiversity
Action Plan (LBAP) which highlighted the need to
raise awareness of urban biodiversity through
promoting access, encouraging public participation and
the use of appropriate management practices^.

'http://www.glasgow.gov.uk/en/AboiitGlasgow/Factsheets/Gl

asgow/Environment.htm.

rtittr)://www. glasgow.gov.uk/NR/rdonlvres/5CF1528F-

ABBC-4F8F-A3CC-AD6CFD8E98CB/0/LBDAPurban.Ddf

The importance of urban biodiversity has also been
highlighted in the Scottish biodiversity strategy, a 25
year plan for the conservation and enhancement of '
biodiversity in Scotland. This document sets out five !
main objectives: halting the loss of biodiversity;
increasing awareness of biodiversity and engaging !
people in conservation; restoring and enhancing |
biodiversity in urban, rural and marine environments;
ensuring that biodiversity is taken into account in all
decision making and; ensuring that existing knowledge
on biodiversity is available to all policy makers and
practitioners (Scottish Government, 2004). The
Scottish Biodiversity Forum, in its implementation
plans for 2005-2008, has also highlighted that urban 5
green spaces are often poorly managed and sometimes :
dominated by non-native invasive species that are
generally of low value for urban wildlife (Scottish |
Government, 2005). Consequently, urban environments
such as green spaces and corridors offer huge potential
for improvement through schemes to conserve and
enhance biodiversity.

The Biodiversity in Glasgow (BIG) project was set up |
as a collaboration between the British Trust for
Ornithology Scotland, Butterfly Conservation Scotland I
and Glasgow City Council and ran from January 2007
to April 2009. The main aim of the project was to carry j
out the largest ever volunteer survey of the birds, »
butterflies and their associated habitats within the green ;
spaces of the city. This information was then used to j
determine which habitats are the most important in !
terms of enhancing bird and butterfly diversity within ’
green spaces. \

METHODS 1

Site allocation and training 1

More than 100 green spaces were surveyed during the t
BIG projeet and full details are provided in Humphreys 1
et al. (20 1 1 ). The term green space, as used here covers |
a wide range of sites (eg. parks, cemeteries, allotments,
urban woodlands, open spaces^) and in over 90% of ;

cases were owned by GCC. Site allocation was based |

on proximity to either where volunteers lived or ?

worked and wherever possible, were chosen by *

volunteers themselves. The size of green spaces used in ;

the BIG project ranged from just under 2 ha to 168 ha ^
(although the largest sites were subdivided for the
purpose of surveying). :j

Although some of the BIG volunteers were highly ^
experienced, many people had never earned out a j-
survey before. Free training in species identification ji
and survey techniques was therefore offered to all
participants. A total of 1 08 and 88 people were trained i
for the bird and butterfly surveys respectively.
Volunteers also received regular newsletters jj

throughout the project which featured interim results, ■

^ The category of open space describes the various
combination of a wide range of possible habitats which are
not intensively managed including: wetland, raised bog,
bums, woodlands, heathlands, pasture and open water.

personal accounts by participants and articles on the
best green spaces in Glasgow to visit.

Bird Surveys

Volunteers were recommended to make a pre-survey
visit in early April in order to estimate the percentage
cover of the different habitats within their site. Three
further visits were then made: mid April to mid May,
mid May to mid June and mid June to mid July. Ideally
survey visits were carried out between dawn and 09:00
but if that was not possible, observers were required to
choose a time of day that was convenient and cairy out
future surveys at this fixed time. Volunteers were
requested to walk a survey route in such a way that
they covered the whole site to within 50m ensuring that
they did not double count any birds eg. either by
zigzagging or using parallel lines. Any bird species
seen were then counted and allocated to the habitat
type in which they were first seen. Species lists for all
sites were checked over by GCC staff to identify
records that were unlikely. In such instances, if these
sightings could not be validated, they were
subsequently removed from the site lists (see
Humphreys et. a! 2011).

Butterfly and day-flying moth Sui-veys
Volunteers were recommended to undertake a pre-
survey visit in early May in order to set up their
transect routes and estimate the percentage cover of the
different habitats within their sites. Transects were
designed to take less than 60 minutes, not exceed 2 km
in length, and cover a fair representation of the habitats
present at the site. A minimum of four monthly visits to
carry out the transects were recommended: mid May-
mid June, mid-June to mid July, mid-July to mid-
August and mid-August to mid-September. Volunteers
were requested to walk at a slow, steady pace counting
all butterflies and any day-flying moths seen within
2.5m either side of the transect line and 5m ahead.
Transects were to be canned out between 10:45 and
15:45 hours BST and ideally in good weather
conditions (eg. minimum temp of 11°C and wind
speeds less than 5 on the Beaufort scale). All records of
butterflies were checked by BC Scotland volunteers
who were able to flag up records which were
questionable (based on location and time of year). In
such instances unless validation was provided the
record was deleted (see Humphreys et. al 2011).

RESULTS

Birds

A total of 91 species of bird was recorded in the city of
Glasgow during the BIG project (with up to 61 species
being recorded at one site alone). As expected, many
birds were relatively abundant species, but what was
surprising was the number with high conservation
value. In total, there were 15 UKBAP and 4 LBAP
birds species recorded along with 47 species of Birds
of Conseiwation Concern (see Eaton et al, 2009, for
definition and Table 1). These key lists included
species that have become synonymous with the urban
environment such as House Sparrow, Swift and
Starling, as well as species that are more commonly

associated with rural habitats including Tree Sparrow,
Skylark and Yellowhammcr.

Analyses were then carried out to look at the habitat
associations of birds (see Humphreys et al., 2011 for
further details). Species richness was most influenced
by the overall size: the larger the green space, the
higher the species richness was likely to be. The
presence of wild areas (unmown rank grass or
wild/weedy areas) had the greatest single effect, with
an average of 5.2 more species in green spaces where
wild areas were present. The presence of a water body
(natural or ornamental) was also found to be important.
Green spaces with a water body had an average of 4.9
more species than those without. Furthermore, sites
with a wetland/marsh area present had on average 2.8
more species than those sites without.

Butterflies and day-flying moths
Seventeen species of butterflies and 9 species of day-
flying moths were recorded in the City of Glasgow by
volunteers despite the relatively wet and cold
conditions, particularly in 2008 when records were
notably lower throughout the whole of the UK. Two
species of butterfly had UKBAP listings: Small Heath
and Grayling (Fox et al., 2006). Exciting records
included Comma, which was the first record for the
city. The Comma is a generalist species that has a
southerly distribution in Britain, although over the past
few decades it has shown northern range expansions,
almost certainly due to climate change (Warren et al.,
2001) and is therefore likely to become much more
widespread in the future. Also of interest were the good
numbers of Ringlets which indicate the rapid rate of
colonisation of Glasgow by this particular species,
which was first reported within the city boundaiy in
2005. There were conspicuously low numbers of the
Common Blue, however, which is consistent with the
documented widespread decline across the UK
(Botham et al., 2008).

Simple analyses were then earned out to compare the
key habitat features of sites in which butterflies were
recorded with those of sites having nil records (there
were too few records for day-flying moths for any
analyses to be meaningful). The mean percentage
covers of wildflower/weedy areas for sites with and
without butterflies were not significantly different.
However, the mean percentage cover of unmown or
rank grass was significantly higher for those sites with
butterflies compared with those without. This suggests
that the area of unmown grass could be an important
determinant of whether butterflies will be present.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GREEN SPACE

MANAGEMENT

Birds

The overall size of the green space was the most
influential factor in detennining species richness for
birds. Larger sites by their very nature however are
more likely to contain a greater number of habitats.
Consequently it is difficult to tease apart the relative
importance of size of green space in relation to greater

diversity of habitats (Chamberlain et ciL, 2007).
Although the size of existing sites eannot be easily
augmented, there may be potential to increase area by
landscaping adjacent land Alternatively there eould be
opportunities to join up existing green space through
the creation or enhaneement of conddors, defined here
as linear features with eontinuous wildlife habitat.
Larger green spaces could be ineoiporated into the
design of new towns.

Wild areas (e.g. patches of unmown rank grass and
wild/weedy habitats) were also important. These
partieular habitats holding important numbers of
invertebrates or being an important resource for seeds,
particularly outside the breeding season. The presence
of water bodies creates opportunities for an additional
water bird community which could otherwise not be
supported e.g. ducks and geese some of which have
conservation listing (see Table 1). Wetland and marsh
areas were also important for overall species richness
and therefore, should accompany the creation of water
bodies. Moreover for existing water bodies, there may
be scope to incoiporate wetland habitat if they do not
already exist (e.g. naturalisation of waterbodies).

Butterflies

Unmown/ rank grass was shown to be an important
factor in detennining the presence of buttertlies. Some
sites, however, had unexpectedly poor numbers of
butterflies despite having a high percentage. In such
cases, the grassland was likely to be of amenity or
agricultural origin and thus of little value to butterflies
and moths as food resource (although it may provide
over wintering habitat). In such instances the creation
of new wildflowcr-rich or semi-natural grassland
should be considered instead.

Consideration should also be given to the frequency of
cutting regimes as nectar sources and cateipillars arc
destroyed by regular mowing. Even annual mowing of
grasslands will cause losses to most butterflies and
moths, except perhaps those that pupate in the soil.
Thus if the site has to be mown, it is always better to
have a variety of cutting regimes so a proportion of the
population has a chance of survival.

CONCLUSIONS AND LESSONS FOR THE
FUTURE

The BIG project was extremely successful in
encouraging new volunteers to go out and survey birds
and butterflies. Volunteers had often previously felt
that they lacked the skills or the confidence to get
involved, so offering targeted training really was key to
the success of the project. The first-time surveyors also
reported taking great satisfaction in developing their
identification skills as the project progressed, which
really reinforces the message that the only way to truly
learn is to get out there and practise!

There was also an issue of people’s perception of green
spaces particularly when volunteers were allocated a
site that was previously unknown to them. A number of
volunteers actually voiced their initial misgivings over

what were seemingly uninviting green spaces in the
spring but by mid summer many of these sites had
transfonned. Participants also expressed their sheer joy
at discovering birds and butterflies found at their site
that would have been potentially overlooked by a
casual visit.

By informing the management of urban greenspace and
promoting the awareness of urban biodiversity, the
BIG project made a significant contribution to the
LBAP process. GCC has gone onto to be involved with
the Glasgow Living Water Project, a partnership with
Froglife which has resulted in the creation of new
ponds across the city and North Lanarkshire. Although
the management of these water bodies is intended to
benefit primarily amphibians, it is likely to enhance
overall biodiversity. In addition, in 2011 the council
started a new partnership project with Buglife called
Glasgow’s Buzzing which will create and enhance
grasslands and meadows for the benefit of bees,
butterflies and other key invertebrates. Although the
BIG project was initially specific to Glasgow, any
generic management advice will have applications for
urban green spaces across Scotland and will therefore
support the objectives of the Scottish Biodiversity
Strategy. Therefore, if lessons from the BIG project are
applied to other cities and towns, then we have
demonstrated how anyone can help contribute to
promoting and conserving biodiversity in Scotland.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly we would like to thank the all the volunteers
who participated in the BIG project. We would also
like thank Glasgow City Council who provided logistic
support in temis of the distribution of promotional
leaflets, free training venues and staff time in giving
support and advice. Funding for the project was
provided by Scottish Natural Heritage, Scottish
Government, Glasgow City Council and the Robertson
Trust.

Species

UKBAP

LBAP

BOCC

Pink-footed Goose

Amber List

Greylag Goose

Amber List

Gadwall

Amber List

Mallard

Amber List

Northern Pintail

Amber List

Common Pochard

Amber List

Tufted Duck

Amber List

Grey Partridge

Red List

Little Grebe

Amber List

Common Kestrel

Amber List

Eurasian Oystercatcher

Amber List

Ringed Plover

Amber List

Northern Lapwing

UKBAP

Red List

Eurasian Curlew

UKBAP

Amber List

Common Sandpiper

Amber List

Black-headed Gull

Amber List

Common Gull

Amber List

Lesser Black-backed Gull

Amber List

Herring Gull

UKBAP

Red List

Stock Dove

Amber List

Common Cuckoo

UKBAP

Red List

Common Swift

LBAP

Amber List

Kingfisher

Amber List

Skylark

UKBAP

LBAP

Red list

Meadow Pipit

Amber List

Grey Wagtail

Amber List

Sand Martin

Amber List

Bam Swallow

Amber List

House Martin

Amber List

Dunnock

Amber List

Whinchat

Amber List

Wheatear

Amber List

Song Thmsh

UKBAP

Red list

Mistle Thrush

Amber List

Grasshopper Warbler

Red List

Whitethi'oat

Amber List

Wood Warbler

Red List

Willow Warbler

Amber List

Spotted Flycatcher

UKBAP

Red List

Starling

UKBAP

Red list

House Span'ow

UKBAP

Red List

Tree Sparrow

UKBAP

LBAP

Red List

Common Linnet

UKBAP

Red List

Lesser Redpoll

UKBAP

Red List

Bullfinch

UKBAP

Amber List

Y ellowhammer

UKBAP

Red List

Reed Bunting

UKBAP

LBAP

Amber List

Table 1. Species of bird recorded in Glasgow as part of the BIG project which had a conservation listing.
BOCC, Birds of Conservation Concern; LBAP, Local Biodiversity Action Plan; UKBAP, UK Biodiversity
Action Plan.

Species UKBAP LBAP

Small Heath UKBAP

Grayling UKBAP

Table 2. Species of butterfly and moths recorded in Glasgow as part of the BIG project which had a
conservation listing.

REFERENCES

Botham, M.S., Brereton, T.M., Middlebrook, 1.,
Cruickshanks, K.L. & Roy, D.B. (2008). United
Kingdom Butterflv Monitoring Scheme Report for
2007. CEH Wallingford.

Chamberlain, D.E., Gough, S., Vaughan, H.,Vickei'y,
J.A. and Appleton, G.H. (2007). Determinants of
bird species richness in public greenspaccs. Ibis 54,
87-97.

Eaton, M.A., Brown, A.F., Noble, D.G., Musgrove,
A.J., Hearn, R., Aebischer, N.J., Gibbons, D.W.,
Evans, A. & Gregory, R.D. (2009). Birds of
Conservation Concern 3: the population status of
birds in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands and
the Isle of Man. British Birds 102, 296-341.

Fox, R., Asher, J., Brereton, T, Roy, D. & Warren, M.
(2006). The State of Butterflies in Britain. Pisces,
Newbury.

Glasgow City Council (2005). Glasgow Parks and
Open Spaces- Strategic Best Value Review and
Implementation Plan. Glasgow City Council,

Glasgow.

Humphreys, E., Kirkland, P. & Chamberlain, D.C.
(201 1). The Biodiversity in Glasgow Project. BTO
Research Report 603.

Scottish Biodiversity Forum. (2005) Scotland's
Biodiversity: It's in Your Hands: Strategy

Implementation Plans 2005-2007 .

Scottish Government (2004). Scotland’s Biodiversity:
It 's in your hands. Scottish Executive, St Andrews
House Edinburgh.

Warren, M.S., Hill, J.K., Thomas, J.A., Asher, J., Fox,

R. , Huntley, B., Roy, D.B., Tclfcr, M.G., Jeffcoatc,

S. , Harding, P., Jeffcoatc, G., Willis, S.G.,
Greatorex-Davies, J.N., Moss, D. & Thomas, C.D.
(2001 ). Rapid response of British butterflies to
opposing forces of climate and habitat change.
Nature 414, 65-69.

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: Bat activity in urban
green space

Kirsty J. Park', Fiona Mochar^ and Elisa Fuentes-
Monteniayor ^

Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of
Stirling, Stirling, Scotland, UK, FK9 4LA

'E-mail: k.j.park@stir.ac.uk

^E-mail: mooha99@hotmail.com

^E-Mail: elisa.fuentes-montemayor@stir.ac.uk

ABSTRACT

Green spaces within urban areas can be important for
ameliorating the impacts of urbanisation on
biodiversity, and can hold relatively rich wildlife
communities. In contrast to some other taxa, relatively
little is known about the ecology of bats in urban
environments, and in this study we aimed to identify
site-specific and wider landscape features that
influence bat foraging activity within areas of urban
green space. Bat activity primarily comprised
Pipistrellus pygmaeus and was detected at 86% of
parks surveyed. The presence of water bodies and
woodland in urban parks increased bat foraging activity
by a factor of 3.2 and 1.7 respectively. Data presented
in this study indicate that, for this species, habitat
within a site may be more important than the level of
urbanisation or woodland cover in the suiTounding
landscape.

INTRODUCTION

Urbanisation and green space

Urbanisation by expanding human populations reduces
native biological diversity by decreasing the amount
and quality of habitat available for wildlife, and by the
fragmentation of remaining habitats (e.g. Marzluff et
ah, 1998). It has been estimated that currently 50% of
the world’s population live in areas classed as urban, a
figure set to increase along with the human population
(United Nations, 2008). Urban development will
therefore continue to grow, resulting in further losses
of natural and semi-natural habitats, and increasing
pressure on remaining habitat fragments which may
suffer increasing isolation and deterioration in quality

(Marzliiff and Ewing, 2001; Chamberlain et ai, 2007).
Green spaces within urban areas (e.g. parks, domestic
gardens) typically consist of small, highly disturbed or
modified patches of vegetation distributed within a
matrix of urban development such as buildings and
associated infrastructure. Whilst several studies have
shown that species diversity for several taxa decreases
along the rural-urban gradient (e.g. Sadler et al, 2006;
Duchamp and Swihart, 2008), green spaces can
nevertheless ameliorate the impacts of urbanisation on
biodiversity, and may hold relatively rich wildlife
communities (e.g. Chamberlain et al., 2007; Davies et
al, 2009). Factors commonly found to influence the
abundance and diversity of several taxa (birds,

mammals, invertebrates) include the size, habitat
quality and stracture of green spaces, although the
quality and proximity of suitable habitat in the wider
landscape can also be important (e.g. Sadler et al,
2006; Baker and Harris, 2007; Chamberlain et al,
2007). Clergeau et al., (2001) and Angold et al, (2006)
argue that appropriate management within areas of
urban green space areas can benefit many avian and
invertebrate species regardless of the sumounding
landscape, and such actions may be far easier to
implement. However, the relative importance of local
habitat versus the wider landscape is likely to vary
markedly between species depending on their
ecological requirements and mobility.

Status and conservation of bats in Europe
There is evidence that many bat species in Europe have
undergone large population declines during the 20*'’
century, driven by the loss of foraging and roosting
habitat. A UK-wide bat survey in the 1990s found that
habitats favoured by foraging bats were undergoing
rapid rates of loss within the UK, and suggested that
this may be limiting bats in some areas (Barr et al,
1993; Walsh et al, 1996). Although it remains the
most abundant and widespread bat genus in the UK,
estimates from the Annual Bat Colony Survey in the
UK suggest a decline of over 60% between 1978 and
1993 for Pipistrellus spp. (Hutson, 1993). The species
Pipistrellus pipistrellus was only recently recognised
as two separate species, P. pipistrellus and P.
pygmaeus (International Commission on Zoological
Nomenclature, 2003), so it is not known whether this
decline has affected both species equally.

In order to sustain bat populations, urban areas need to
provide both roosting and foraging sites, and routes
which allow bats to commute between the two. Some
bat species now commonly use buildings as maternity
roosts, and exploit foraging oppoitunities provided by
man made structures such as streetlamps and sewage
works that are associated with high insect densities
(Rydell, 1992; Altringham, 2003; Park and Cristinacce,
2006). Several studies have suggested that urban
environments may have a positive role to play in
resource availability for bats (e.g. Avila-Flores and
Fenton, 2005; McDonald-Madden et al, 2005; Haupt
et al., 2006), particularly in landscapes dominated by

intensive agricultural land use, which studies have
repeatedly found are avoided by bats (Walsh and
Harris, 1996; Gehrt and Chelsvig, 2003). There appear
to be marked species-specific responses to
urbanisation, however, with other species strongly
avoiding built up areas (e.g. Kurta and Teramino, 1992;
Waters et al, 1999; Lesihki et al, 2000).

Understanding how different species use urban
environments and how habitat management and urban
planning can promote population persistence is critical
to their conservation. The aim of this study was
therefore to identify site-specific and wider landscape
features (e.g. woodland connectivity, urbanisation) that
influence bat activity within areas of urban green
space.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study sites

Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland (UK), with the
Greater Glasgow conurbation covering an area of
369km^ with a population of approximately 1 .2 million
people. Over 20% of the area of Greater Glasgow is
green space; including 74 parks and other potentially
important features such as river comidors, woodlands,
cemeteries and communal gardens (Humphries et al,
2009). Other than two very large sites (>140 ha), green
space areas owned by Glasgow City Council (GCC)
range from 1.5 - 68.4 ha (mean 18.2). A total of 29
sites owned and managed by GCC were surveyed for
bat activity between 31 May and 11 July 2007 (Table
1). Sites were chosen randomly whilst ensuring they
were a minimum of 1km apart and spanned a range of
sizes (mean 24.3 ± 14.9; range 6.2 - 53.2 ha).

Monitoring bat activity

Point counts were used to quantify bat activity. At each
park 10 minute recordings were made at between two
and six locations depending on the size of the park
(across parks, an average of four point counts were
recorded). Each point location was chosen using
randomly-generated xy coordinates but omitting areas
of open water within the park and ensuring a minimum
distance of 30m between points. On each survey night,
one of four geographical areas of Glasgow (NE, NW,
SE, SW) was chosen randomly, and between one and
four parks were surveyed, again in random order, with
each park being surveyed once. Within a night, all
point counts were conducted within 2 h 1 5 minutes of
each other, the first starting 45 min after sunset. At the
start of each count air temperature was measured to the
nearest 0.1 °C and wind speed was estimated using the
Beaufort scale. Counts were only conducted in dry
weather where the temperature at dusk exceeded 1 O^C
and the strength of the wind did not exceed Beaufort 3
(since strong winds influence both insect distribution
and detectability of bat calls).

Sound recording and analysis

A frequency division bat detector (Batbox Duet, Stag
Electronics; frequency response 17- 120kHz) was
connected to a MiniDisc (Sony MZ-R909; frequency

response ± 3dB 20Hz - 20kHz) and a continuous
recording made for each point count onto a recordable
MiniDisc. Frequency division is a broad-band system
that records all frequencies continuously, and is
sufficient for distinguishing between the genera Myotis
and Pipistrellus, and between the Pipistrelhis species
(e.g. Vaughan ef ai, 1997a; see sound analysis). We
analysed recordings using BatSound v3.31 (Pettersson
Elektronik AB, Uppsala, Sweden), with a sampling
frequency of 44.1kHz with 16 bits per sample, and a
512 pt. FFT with Hanning window). One bat pass was
defined as a continuous sequence of at least two
echolocation calls from a passing bat (Fenton, 1970;
Walsh c/ a/., 1996).

Three genera of bat occur in the area where this study
was conducted; Pipistrellus, Myotis and Plecotus
(Richardson, 2000), although Plecotus is rarely
recorded due to its quiet echolocation calls.
Unfortunately, problems with the recording equipment
meant that for all but seven parks (representing 25% of
the point counts) recordings were made in mono
(heterodyne) rather than stereo (heterodyne and
frequency division. Analyses were therefore conducted
on the number of bat passes per point count. Temiinal
feeding buzzes emitted when attempting prey capture
were also counted and provide a measure of foraging
effort.

Habitat availability within, and surrounding, urban
parks

Habitat structure within the parks was fairly simple
consisting largely of a mixture of improved grassland,
mixed woodland and shrubs. All but one park had
some mixed woodland on site, although there was
considerable variation in the amount among parks (0.3
- 45ha). Of the parks surveyed, 21 had still (> 3m
width) or running water (> Im width) present. Habitat
within 30m of each recording point was categorised
according to the presence of woodland and still or
running water. Of 1 1 1 point counts made, 3 1 were
adjacent to water (i.e. within 30m), 50 were adjacent to
woodland, 12 were adjacent to both water and
woodland and 42 were made within grassland with no
water or woodland nearby.

The landscape analysis was perfonned using data from
OS MasterMap Topography Layer (Digimap Ordnance
Survey® Collection). We used ArcGIS 9.2 to create
buffers of 1 km radius around the centre of each park
and reclassify the feature classes from the topography
layers into five categories (hereafter rcfeired to as
habitat classes). These were: 1) urban areas (buildings,
structures, roads and parking areas); 2) urban gardens
(urban land not covered by buildings or structures); 3)
grassland and scrub; 4) woodland (coniferous,
deciduous and mixed woodland, and areas covered by
scattered trees); 5) water (inland and tidal water). A 6'''
category (called “other") included features that didn’t
fall into any of the 5 previously mentioned habitat
classes, but its proportion was less than 4% in all cases.
Because the 1 km radius was taken from the centre of

the park rather than the location of individual points, |
the proportion of the 3.14 km^ circle that lies outside i
the park varies between parks, although this variation is l
relatively small (non-park area: 83-98%). We then used j
the software package Fragstats 3.3 to calculate a (
selection of different landscape metrics for each habitat [
class within the 1 km buffer including the proportion of t
land covered, the number of patches, mean patch area, |

largest patch, total edge density, area-perimeter ratio |

and Euclidean nearest neighbour distance (ENN i
distance is the shortest straight-line distance between 1
the focal patch and its nearest neighbour of the same 1
class; McGarigal et ai, 2002). |

The proportions of different habitat categories within a
1km radius of a park are not independent since all must
sum to 1 . Our puipose for including information about '

the habitat surrounding each park as potential |

explanatoiy variables in the model was to assess how |
bat activity may be influenced by levels of urbanisation I
and proximity of habitats considered important for 5
many bat species, for example woodland. We focused,
therefore on the proportion of urban and woodland '
habitat, and the mean ENN distance among water
bodies within a 1km radius of the centre of each park. !

The size of the park was significantly positively ■

coirelatcd with the proportion of woodland within the 1 I

km buffer (rt? = 2.70, p = 0.012, r = 0.21), and % 1

woodland cover was weakly negatively coirelated with ;

% urban cover {tn = -2.05, p = 0.05, r^ = 0.13) but i

neither of these was sufficiently strong to cause i

problems with multicol linearity. There was no
coiTelation between % urban cover and the size of the !

park {tji = 0.23, p = 0.76, r~ = 0.0019). Percentage i

woodland and urban cover were arcsine square root |

transformed prior to analysis. i

There are many different metrics that can be calculated ^

to assess the composition and configuration of habitat i

patches within a landscape, and therefore potentially a |

great many potential explanatory variables. We !

minimised the number of potential variables describing
the configuration of woodland patches within the
surrounding landscape as the proportion of woodland
within a 1km radius of each park correlated strongly ;

with several measures commonly used to assess |

isolation of that habitat (McGarigal et ai, 2002). For
example, proportion of woodland was strongly |

correlated with both edge density (rt? = 4.51, /; = !

0.0001, r~ = 0.43), and weighted-mean ENN distance
(/27 = -3.78,p = 0.0008,;-- 0.35). I

Data analysis (

All statistical analyses were conducted using the R
computing environment (version 2.8.1, R Development '
Core team, 2008). To assess the influence of habitat =
features and the surrounding matrix on bat activity in ?
urban green space, we fitted a Generalised Linear j
Mixed Effects model with quasi-poisson en’ors using i
the number of bat passes at each location (n=l 11), as f
the dependent variable. The following were included in -
the starting model as potential explanatory variables: ,

the presence or absence of a water body or woodland
adjacent to each point count (within 30m) were
included as fixed factors; the order in which the points
were surveyed (i.e. to account for variation of activity
with time of night), the proportion of woodland and
urban cover, and the mean ENN distance between
water bodies within a 1km radius of the centre of the
park, the size of park, wind speed, temperature (linear
and quadratic terms) were covariates. A two way
interaction between park size and each of the landscape
metrics was also included. Park was a random factor
used as a grouping variable. The model was carried out
in a stepwise fashion, with the least significant of the
explanatory variables being removed at each step in an
effort to detennine which of these variables had the
most significant effect.

RESULTS

Bat activity

A total of 852 bat passes was detected during 18.5
hours of recording during the study. On average, 14.7%
of bat passes had feeding buzzes and evidence of
feeding activity was detected at 62% (18/29) parks.
There was a significant positive coiTelation between
the number of bat passes and feeding buzzes per park
(Spearman rank r s29 = 0.79, p < 0.0001), suggesting
that the use of bat passes is a reasonable measure of
foraging activity.

For the seven parks (28 point count locations) at which
bat passes could be assigned to species level (see
Methods), 128 of 160 (80%) of identified Pipistrellus
passes were attributable to P. pygmaeus. Total bat
activity within urban parks was significantly higher
adjacent to water bodies or areas of woodland; based
on differences in the adjusted median values, the
presence of water bodies and woodland increased bat
activity by a factor of 3.2 and 1 .7 respectively (Table 2,
Figs. 1 and 2). The final model explained 56% of the
variation in activity among point counts. There were no
significant interactions between the size of park and the
surrounding landscape variables (proportion of urban,
proportion of woodland, mean ENN distance between
water bodies within a Ikm^ radius around each park),
and none of the landscape variables had a significant
influence on bat activity on their own.

In this study wind speed correlated positively with bat
activity (Table 2) although this relationship is entirely
reliant on the data point with the highest bat activity
and, if removed, wind speed becomes non-significant.
The remaining variables in the model, however, are all
retained.

DISCUSSION

The presence of both water bodies and woodland in
urban parks resulted in significantly increased bat
activity, with the effect of water being the most
marked. This is likely to be because the majority of bat
passes recorded during these surveys were of P.
pygmaeus which, of the two most common pipistrelle
species in the UK, is particularly associated with

riparian habitats (Vaughan et ai, 1997b; Nicholls and
Racey, 2006; Sattler et al, 2007). The importance of
water bodies within urban green space for birds has
recently been highlighted by the Biodiversity In
Glasgow project, co-ordinated by the British Trust for
Ornithology (Humphries et al, 2009). Between five
and 61 bird species were recorded within urban green
spaces in Glasgow, with sites containing water bodies
having an average of five more species than those
lacking water.

Previous studies have shown the importance of
deciduous or mixed woodland for foraging bats (e.g.
Walsh and Hands, 1996; Johnson et al., 2008), and
areas with higher proportions of well connected
woodland might have been expected to have had higher
levels of bat activity as found by Gehrt and Chelsvig,
2003. In this study, however, although woodland
adjacent to recording sites had a positive effect on
levels of bat activity (largely P. pygmaeus), the amount
and connectivity of woodland at a larger scale did not.

Previous work has indicated that species respond
differently to urbanisation which, given the marked
differences in roosting and foraging ecology among bat
species, is not surprising. Gehrt and Chelsvig (2004)
found positive associations between urban indices and
activity of Eptesicus fusciis, Lasiurus borealis and L.
noctivagans. Other species, however, appear to largely
avoid urban areas (e.g. Nyctalus leisleri - Waters et al.,
1999; Myotis sodalis - Sparks et al., 2005) or are
otherwise sensitive to features associated with
urbanisation such as street lighting (e.g. Rhinoloplms
hipposideros - Stone et al, 2009). Duchamp and
Swihart (2008) identified two groups of bat species
whose populations showed opposite trends along urban
and forest gradients. Species that responded negatively
to urban development were those requiring tree cavities
for roosting and a wing moiphology adapted to flight in
cluttered environments such as woodland (ie. low wing
loading), whereas the opposite was true for species that
responded positively to urbanisation. These predictions
fit well with our findings for P. pygmaeus, the most
frequent species recorded during this study, which is
commonly associated with building roosts and adapted
to flight in relatively open environments. It might be
expected that the two Myotis spp. commonly found in
Scotland would react differently to urbanisation: M.
daubentoni is also associated with riparian habitats but
typically roosts in tree cavities or within the stonework
of bridges, and M. nattereri, also a tree rooster, forages
largely in woodland habitats (Altringham 2003).

Data presented in this study suggests that, for P.
pygmaeus, the habitat within a site may be more
important than the surrounding landscape as Gilbert
(1989) suggested may be the case for highly mobile
species within urban environments. That the size of
park was not an influential factor on P. pygmaeus
activity suggests that even small areas of urban green
space can provide valuable foraging opportunities for
bats able to adapt to urbanised landscapes, provided

there is suitable habitat (ie. water bodies and
woodland) within the site. For other species, however,
a wider landscape-approach, such as increasing
woodland cover both within urban parks and in the
sun'ounding matrix to link foraging areas, is likely to
be necessai7.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many thanks to Sheila Russell (Glasgow City Council)
for providing infonnation on the sites within Glasgow,
Liz Flumphreys (BTO Scotland) for information on the
BIG project, Kevin McCulloch for field assistance and
Mario Vallejo-Marin for statistical advice. This work
was funded by the Carnegie Trust for the Universities
of Scotland.

Site name

Latitude

Longitude

Size

Date

Surrounding habitat

(ha)

surveyed

Mean ENN

urban

woodland

distance

water^

Auchinlca Park

55° 52’ 16.96"

-4° 8’ 1.81"

1 1/07/2007

24.6

5.5

395.0

Cardonald Park

55° 51’ 27.26"

-4° 20’ 55.78"

18/06/2007

32.6

3.3

57.4

Cardowan Moss
Woodland

55° 52’ 48.28"

-4° 9’ 1.09"

10/07/2007

16.2

16.8

57.1

Clcddans Bum

55° 54’ 51.80"

-4° 23’ 9.14"

04/06/2007

14.6

9.4

40.1

Cowlairs Park

55° 52’ 42.12"

-4° 14' 46.12"

06/06/2007

30.7

2.4

5.6

Cranhill Park

55° 51’ 55.55"

-4° 9’ 55.72"

1 7/06/2007

24.2

4.8

2.5

Crookston Woods

55° 50’ 16.15"

-4° 20’ 51.49"

09/07/2007

22.2

8.5

5.4

Dawsholm Park

55° 53’ 48.65"

-4° 18’ 57.62"

04/07/2007

24.3

17.8

8.0

Early Braes

55° 51’ 5.64"

-4° 8’ 9.41"

03/07/2007

20.7

4.6

26.9

Elder Park

55°5r48.5r’

-4° 19’ 19.24"

1 8/06/2007

32.4

3.8

129.0

Garscadden Bum

55° 54’ 30.84"

-4° 21’ 41.44"

19/06/2007

23.8

2.8

8.0

Garscadden Woods

55° 55’ 9.96"

-4° 21’ 26.53"

04/06/2007

16.4

7.1

18.5

Glasgow Green

55° 51’ 5.25"

4° 14’ 34.79"

08/07/2007

36.7

4.9

754.8

Hogganfield Park

55° 52’ 47. 17"

-4° 10’ 4.35"

1 7/06/2007

16.6

12.5

40.7

Househill Park

55° 49’ 13.64"

-4° 21’ 45.20"

09/07/2007

18.2

8.8

5.6

Kelvingrove Park
East

55° 52’ 10.59"

-4° 16’ 56.68"

1 8/06/2007

38.0

3.8

11.9

Kings Park

55° 48’ 55.95"

-4° 14’ 27.34"

08/07/2007

19.9

5.4

517.7

Knightswood Park

55° 53’ 49.48"

-4° 21’ 4.37"

04/07/2007

19.7

1.5

11.8

Linn Park

55° 48’ 19.13"

-4° 15’ 34.17"

11/06/2007

18.1

1 1.4

41.5

Maxwell Park

55° 50' 16.93"

-4° 17’ 18.77"

10/06/2007

24.5

4.4

134.3

Mount Vernon

Park

55° 50’ 33.21"

-4° 8’ 13.38"

03/07/2007

17.4

3.6

25.3

Ncwlands Park

55° 48’ 43.51"

-4° 16’ 56.04"

11/07/2007

23.3

2.0

84.1

Pricsthill Park

55° 48’ 39.19"

-4° 20’ 45.65"

09/07/2007

24.2

7.3

8.0

Queens Park

55° 49' 49.00"

-4° 16’ 13.88"

10/06/2007

30.7

7.2

129.1

Robroyston Park

55° 53’ 24.23"

-4° 1 1’ 44.30"

1 1/07/2007

18.9

2.9

163.4

Sandyhills Park

55° 50’ 5 1.60"

-4° 9’ 11.90"

03/07/2007

22.0

4.0

18.4

Springburn Park

55° 53’ 32.17"

-4° 13’ 22.65"

06/06/2007

22.7

7.8

49.1

Tollcross Park

55° 50’ 56.35"

-4° 10’ 49.95"

03/07/2007

28.1

7.1

23.8

Victoria Park

55° 52’ 29.77"

-4° 20’ 1.99"

04/07/2007

29.8

4.8

170.4

Table 1. Locations and attributes of parks visited and the landscape metrics used in the starting model of bat activity.
Mean Euclidean Nearest Neighbour Distance between water bodies (ENN distance is the shortest straight-line distance
in metres between the focal patch and its nearest neighbour of the same class).

Source

Degrees of

freedom

Parameter estimate

Estimate

Standard Error

t value

Adjacent water

1.699

0.276

6.613 ***

Adjacent woodland

0.383

0.268

1.430 ***

Wind speed

0.389

0.260

1.496 ***

Temperature

-2.098

0.936

_7 242 ***

Temperature^

0.058

0.0288

2 017 ***

Survey order

-0.207

0.103

-2 019 ***

Table 2. Generalised linear mixed-effects model for the effects of habitat and weather variables on bat activity within
urban parks in Glasgow City ( *** p < 0.0001). The sign and size of the parameter estimate (and the error) are used to
assess the relative magnitude of the effects of these variables on bat activity.

Fig. 1. Adjusted total bat passes at ten-minute point counts adjacent (n=3 1 ) and not adjacent (n=80) to water bodies.
Values shown are those corrected for explanatory variables in the final model (Table 2). Tukey box plots are used here
with boxes representing the location of the middle 50 percent of the data and the upper and lower quartiles, and the
whiskers 1.5 x the interquartile range.

(/5

•o

O -

woodland absent

woodland present

Fig. 2. Adjusted values of total bat passes at ten-minute point counts adjacent (n=50) and not adjacent (n=61) to
woodland. Values shown are those coiTected for explanatoiy variables in the final model (Table 2). Tukey box plots are
used here with boxes representing the location of the middle 50 percent of the data and the upper and lower quartilcs,
and the whiskers 1.5 x the interquartile range.

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Angold, P. G., Sadler, J. P., Hill, M. O., Pullin, A.,
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Wadsworth, R., Sanderson, R. and Thompson, K.
(2006). Biodiversity in urban habitat patches.
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Avila-Flores R. and Fenton M. B. (2005). Use of
spatial features by foraging insectivorous bats in a
large urban landscape. Journal of Mammalogy 86:
1193-1204.

Baker, P. J. and Hams, S. (2007). Urban mammals:
what does the future hold? An analysis of the
factors affecting patterns of use of residential
gardens in Great Britain. Mammal Review 37: 297-
315.

Barr, C. J., Bunce, R. G. H., Clarke, R. T., Fuller R.
M., Furse, M. T., Gillespie, M. K., Groom, G. B.,
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Ness, M. J. (1993). Coimtiyside Survey 1990 -
main report. Department of the Environment,
London, UK.

Chamberlain D. E, Gough S., Vaughan H., Vickeiy J.
A. and Appleton G. F. (2007). Detenninants of bird
species richness in public green spaces. Bird Study
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Clergeau, P., Jokimaki, J. and Savard, J. P. L. (2001).
Are urban bird communities influenced by the bird
diversity of adjacent landscapes? Journal of
Applied Ecology! 38: 1 122-1 134.

Davies, Z. G., Fuller, R. A., Loram, A., Irvine, K. N.,
Sims, V. and Gaston, K. J. (2009). A national scale
inventory of resource provision for biodiversity
within domestic gardens. Biological Conseiwation
142: 761-771.

Duchamp, J. E. and Swihart, R. K. (2008). Shifts in bat
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features of human-altered landscapes. Landscape
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939-950.

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Gilbert, O. L. (1989). The ecolog of urban habitats.
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Haupt, M., Menzler, S. and Schmidt, S. (2006).
Flexibility of habitat use in Eptesicus nilssonii:
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Humphries, E., Kirkland, P. and Chamberlain, D.
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Vaughan, N., Jones, G. and Harris, S. (1997b). Habitat
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249:173-180.

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: Parklife; cities for
people and nature

Scott Ferguson
Scottish Natural heritage

Some have argued that suburban gardens are England's
most important nature reserve. Can that be true for
Scotland too? From the butterfly on the buddleia to the
raven nesting on the gas-tower, there is no doubt that
the mosaic of habitats across urban areas support an
amazing aiTay of wildlife - and offer a wealth of
opportunities for people to enjoy, learn about and
celebrate that diversity.

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and
Challenges: Cities deserve
landscape-scale wildlife spectacles

Stuart Housden

Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Scotland

In such uncertain financial times it is heartening to I
recognise that the policy framework for delivering
large scale habitat creation projects in Scotland has j
never been more positive. This is a recognition that
these types of projects have been delivered elsewhere ,
in the UK bringing with them not just a huge boost to
biodiversity but a whole brigade of associated benefits.

Whether you arc interested in education, climate
change, flood alleviation, economic growth, creating a ;j
pleasant environment for people to live and work,
direct employment or improving the social esteem of '
previously marginalised communities there is little ^
doubt that investment in landscape scale environmental /
projects in an urban setting can and should make a /
significant contribution to the future of Scotland. i|

Urban Biodiversity: Successes and |

Challenges: A tactical approach 1;

Malcolm Muir jj

Countryside and Grecnspace Manager, South <
Lanarkshire council |i

The quality of urban open spaces can have a significant
effect on their neighbouring communities. They offer
opportunities for play, healthy recreation, sustainable
transport and biodiversity and may indeed be the key to
effecting a transfonnation in public understanding for
and engagement with the natural heritage in Scotland.

The eco-system approach rightly advocates acceptance I :
of change, decentralisation and the participation of all |j
sectors of society. Greenspaces, largely owned by |
Local Authorities offer the perfect test bed for this |
approach and the opportunity to clearly demonstrate to
policy makers the links between environmental quality, l|
health and economic and social well being. The current
financial “crisis” actually presents a window of
opportunity for this area of work but, despite these |i.
opportunities, real challenges remain; many of them '
linked to fundamental public service processes and
“mind sets”, and these will not be overcome through
legislation alone.

Urban Biodiversity^ Successes and
Challenges: Glasgow’s Freshwater
Fishes - the State of the Cart
(and other urban watercourses)

William E. Yeomans

Clyde River Foundation, Graham Kerr Building,
University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ

The Clyde River Foundation (CRF) is a registered
charity which researches the ecology of the River
Clyde and its tributaries, and promotes environmental
education throughout the catchment. Glasgow’s
freshwater fishes are suiprisingly poorly known,
despite the well-publicised renaissance of the local
watercourses and the iconic nature of the salmon in
Glasgow folklore. Our current knowledge of the fish
communities of the major rivers: the Clyde, Kelvin,
White Cart and North Calder will be described,
together with a summary of the findings from a recent
survey of Glasgow’s bums.

The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 53-57

FULL PAPERS

From whaling to whale watching: a history of cetaceans in Scotland

E.C.M. Parsons' ^

'Department of Environmental Science & Policy, George Mason University, 4400 University Drive, Fairfax, Virginia
22030-4444, USA

^University Marine Biological Station Millport (University of London) Isle of Cumbrae, Scotland.

E-mail: ecm-parsons(^earthlink.nct

INTRODUCTION
Historic Utilization of Cetaceans
Scotland has over a thousand-year history of marine
mammal exploitation dating back to the Stone Age. For
example, cetacean bone was used as a building material
in the wood-impoverished Orkney Islands; whale
mandibles were used as rafters and in walls at the
Neolithic site at Skara Brae in Orkney (Childe 1931).
Spenn whale and bottlenose whale specimens were
found at a Bronze Age site and spemi whale, minke
whale, bottlenose whale and bottlenose dolphin
artifacts have been found at a variety of Iron Age sites
in South Uist (Mulville 2002). There is little evidence
to suggest that these whales were butchered for food,
but rather their bones used as building materials, turned
into tools or utensils, and even burnt as fuel (Mulville
2002). Moreover a lack of harpoons or other tools to
catch cetaceans suggest that these animals were
stranded or very occasional catches rather than actively
hunted (Mulville 2002).

Nordic occupation of the northern and western islands
of Scotland in the early middle ages was particularly
accompanied by marine mammal consumption and
utilisation of stranded and hunted animals (Lindquist
1995) with remains of several cetacean species being
found in Nordic sites in the Western Isles dating from
the 9"’ century (Sharpies 1997) to the 13"’ century
(Brennand, Parker Pearson & Smith 1998). For
example, on South Uist remains of pilot whale,
bottlenose whale, killer whale, minke whale, spenn
whale and even blue whale artefacts have been found at
Norse archaeological sites (Mulville 2002). The larger
number, diversity and probably age (many bones from
young animals have been found) suggest that there may
have been active hunting for cetaceans, although again
there is no archaeological evidence of harpoons, nor
any substantive evidence (from cuts on bones) of
butchering cetaceans for meat (Mulville 2002).

In the northern and western Isles of Scotland,
Norwegian laws on whale ownership and whaling held
sway until at least 1611 (Ryder 1988). For example the

Gulathing (mid llthC) a law imported into Orkney
presumably from Noway, has sections dealing with
stranded whale ownership and distribution (Szabo
2005). In mediaeval Britain (early 14th Century)
cetaceans were made 'Fishes Royale' by Edward 111
and any stranded cetaceans became property of the
crown (Fraser 1977). A similar royal prerogative
extended to Scotland, from at least 1603, but likely
earlier (Erskine 1895). Despite this, local, subsistence,
cetacean consumption continued in this region until at
least the 18th Century as evidenced by this statement
below:

"...about one hundred and sixty’ little whales ran
themselves ashore on the island of Tiree, and the
natives did eat them all” (Martin 1716).

Animals were also driven to the shore (Martin 1716) in
a drive fisheiy akin to those seen today in the Faeroe
Islands. Similar drive fisheries were conducted in the
western and northern islands of Scotland until the early
20"’ century (Evans 1996).

CETACEANS AND SCOTTISH CULTURE

Cetaceans have been culturally significant in Scotland
since at least the Iron Age, evidenced by carvings on
standing stones that are believed to portray dolphins
(Hicks 1996). This so-called “pictish bcasf’, appears
on 44 stones caiwed between 300 and 842AD. Macleod
& Wilson (2001) took the issue one step further and
suggested that the Pictish beast might represent a
beaked whale. The distribution of these stones certainly
coincides with the present day distribution of
bottlenose dolphins in eastern Scotland being found in
areas adjacent to the Moray Firth and along the coast of
northeastern Scotland to Aberdeen.

The famous Scotland-dwelling Saint Columba is said
to have warned monks travelling from the Isle of Iona
to the Isle of Tiree of a “monster of the deep”, which
turned out to be “a whale of extraordinary size, which
rose like a mountain above the water, its jaws open to
show an aiTay of teeth” (Sharpe 1995). This is not the

only link between one of Scotland's most famous
religious figures and cetaceans, it’s been suggested that
due to a mistranslation the famous first recorded
sighting of the Loch Ness monster (much vaunted by
the Scottish tourist board), by said Saint may actually
have been an encounter with a whale near the Moray
Firth (Parsons 2004).

Folklore from the middle ages describes a sea unicorn
from Scottish waters, the BiasJ na Srogaig or beast
with the lowering horn, which is most likely to have
been sightings of nawhals, which could have ranged
into Scottish waters during the cooler climates of the
middle ages and renaissance (Parsons 2004). The
unicorn was the Royal device of the Scottish kings
since Robert 111 and it appears on the Scottish Royal
crest (two unicorns originally, then one of the unicorns
was replaced by a lion when James VI of Scotland
inherited the English crown). Likewise the unicorn
(and a Shetland pony) appears in the coat of arms of
Shetland. It’s been suggested that this heraldic device
was influenced by Scotland’s connection to narwhals
(Buezaki 2002; Parsons 2004), and thus Scotland’s
cultural link to cetaceans is an important, if largely
forgotten, one.

COMMERCIAL WHALING

Commercial whaling started in Scotland in Aberdeen in
1753, expanding to Dundee, Peterhead, Fraserburgh
and Banff, on the east coast (O’ Dell & Walton 1962).
By 1820 there were 15 whaling vessels, but the
whaling fleet then declined with only two vessels in
1838 (O’ Dell & Walton 1962). These whaling
operations were primarily to Arctic waters to pursue
bowhead whales (Watson 2003). In 1882 a risky
expedition was launched from Dundee to investigate
whaling potential in Antarctica, an expedition that not
only discovered Dundee Island (63°30'S 055°55'W),
but also opened the possibilities of whaling in this
region, although any increased industiy was short lived
as whaling from Dundee ended in 1912 (Watson
2003).

In 1903, coastal whaling stations opened in Scotland
itself on Hands and the Shetland Isles - these stations
caught cetaceans from Scottish wasters and operated
until 1925. The HaiTis station was Nowegian owned
until 1 922, then purchased by Lord Leverhulme

"...partly to provide employment, hut also because he
suspected that the Nonvegians were deliberately
contaminating the herring-ground with whale offal to
drive the herring to Nonvav.” (Page 219 in Nicolson
1960)

The Harris station closed shortly after Leverhulme’s
death in 1925. The majority of the whale meat landed
in Scotland was exported to Nomay, although some
was used as animal feed and fertilizer, and some was
intended for export to Africa - there was no local
consumption. The whale oil had been intended for soap
production. The Hands station briefly reopened

between 1950 & 1951, but commercial whaling from
Scottish shores ceased after that. However, over 8,000
animals, from 7 species, were harvested from Scottish
waters during this whaling period (Table 1; Thompson
1928; Brown 1976).

Species

Number taken

blue whales

401

fin whales

6074

right whales

100

humpback whales

sei whales

2214

sperm whales

northern bottlenose whales

Table 1. Cetaceans taken in Scottish whaling
operations (Thompson 1928; Brown 1976).

TODAY - MARINE MAMMAL TOURISM

Today, Scottish cetaceans are still an economic
resource, albeit they are no longer killed - via whale |
watching. The main whale watching areas are currently
western Scotland, especially the Isle of Mull and the
Small Isles, Inverness and the Moray Firth and the J
Orkney and Shetland Islands. Target species are '
predominantly bottlenose dolphins, minke whales and
harbour poipoises (Hoyt 2001; Parsons et al. 2003;
Warburton et al. 2001). In 2000, in a survey marine |
wildlife tour operators, 47% surveyed consider whale-
watching to be important to local economies
(Warburton et al. 2001).

It was estimated that in 2000 the Scottish cetacean
tourism was worth at least £10.7 million (US$18 I
million) (Warburton et al. 2001; Parsons et al. 2003), j
of £7.8 which million was from the West Coast of |
Scotland alone.'' Moreover, in some remote coastal '
areas, cetacean-related tourism may account for as
much as 12% of the area’s total tourism income which
is substantial when one bears in mind that tourism is
Scotland’s number one industiy, is a major employer in
rural areas particular in rural areas, and thus an
important economic activity in these marginal regions
in particular (Parsons et al. 2003).

More recent figures for the total value of the Scottish
cetacean tourism industiy as a whole are not available,
but in the Moray Firth, on the east coast of Scotland,
the value of dolphin-watching has increased

'' For comparison, at the time of the study, Nowegian
commercial whaling worth $6 million (Toolis 2001)
and that value incoiporated heavy subsidising by the
Norwegian govemment.

substantially over the past decade: in 1998 Hoyt
(2001) estimated that in total cetacean tourism in the
Moray Firth attracted generated £0.48 million from trip
expenditure and £2.34 million in total expenditure
(when one includes expenditure on accommodation
etc.); but a more recent study from 2009 (albeit using a
different methodology) estimated that total direct
expenditures related to the dolphin population in the
Moray firth were at least £10.4 million (Davies et al.

20 1 0). One would assume that over the past decade, the
value of cetacean tourism has generally increased
across Scotland, not just in the Moray Firth.

The whale watching industry is generally considered to
be economically viable in the long-tenn (Woods-
Ballard et al. 2003), appears to provide employment
particularly for those working in the declining sectors
of fanning and fishing (Woods-Ballard et al. 2003) and
the industry could have considerable potential for
further development (Howard & Parsons 2006a) if
developed responsibly. Although there are some
concerns, most whale watching operators in Scotland
seem to be accepting of the need to follow whale
watching guidelines or codes of conduct (Parsons &
Woods-Ballard 2003). In fact, it is probably in the best
interests of whale watching operators to be as
responsible and environmentally sustainable as
possible as whale watching tourists tend to be
environmentally motivated, displaying a high degree of
environmental participation (Rawles & Parsons 2004).

Surveys in Scotland’s main cities of Glasgow and
Edinburgh, members of the public seemed to be aware
of the opportunities for whale watching in Scotland,
especially in areas such as the Moray Firth (Howard &
Parsons 2006a). This high level of awareness is
remarkable when one considers that the first
commercial Scottish whale watching trip was in 1 989,
and with only one commercial operator in 1994 (Hoyt
2001; Parsons et al. 2003). Part of the recent surge in
awareness of the whale watching industry may be in
part due to TV nature programmes (such as
Sprmgw’atch and Coimtiyfile) that frequently feature
whale watching and cetaceans, and the marketing
efforts of new operator associations such as Wild
Scotland (http://www.wild-scotland.org.uk/).

PUBLIC AWARENESS OF CETACEANS
There have been several studies in Scotland to ascertain
public awareness of cetaceans and their conservation.
For example, Scott & Parsons (2004) interviewed
members of the public in southwestern Scotland
finding that few people were aware of the diversity of
cetacean species in the waters of this region (24
species; Shrimpton & Parsons 2000), although over
twice as many gave the con'ect answer in rural regions
as opposed to urban areas (4.4% vs. 1 .9% in rural areas
and cities, respectively; Scott & Parsons 2004). When
asked is specific species occun'ed in Scottish waters,
members of the public fared better with 56.7% being
aware of bottlenose dolphins, 50% harbour porpoises,
but 0 22.6% for killer whales, 14.7% for Risso’s

dolphins and only 39.3% knew of the minke whale, the
most common baleen whale species in Scottish waters
(Scott & Parsons 2004). Younger participants (18-30),
residents of the Isles of Mull and Islay (whale watching
areas), people who took part in marine activities and
members of environmental groups scored significantly
higher than other participants (Scott & Parsons 2004).
When asked to identify photographs of common
species, only 17.5% could identify a harbour poipoise
(19% bottlenose dolphins; 10.7% minke whale and
7.1% common dolphin; Scott and Parsons 2004). Those
sectors of the public who were more aware of the
occun'ence of cetaceans also could identify them, but
city dwellers and interestingly workers in fishing,
tourism and education sectors were less able to identify
species (Scott & Parsons 2004).

AWARENESS OF CONSERVATION ISSUES

With respect to threats to cetaceans in Scotland,
members of the public tended to be more concerned
about impacts of factors such as sewage pollution,
marine litter, over-fishing and oil spills, i.e. relatively
visible issues (Scott & Parsons 2005; Howard &
Parson 2006b). A survey of cetacean experts was also
conducted to ground truth the public perceptions and it
was found that these experts were more concerned
about climate change, whale-watching, military
activities and dredging (i.e. issues mostly relating to
noise and disturbance) than the general public, but they
were less concerned about oil spills and sewage
pollution (Howard & Parsons 2006b). In general, the
majority of the public questioned who had an opinion,
stated that they did not think cetaceans were
sufficiently protected in Scotland (Table 2), although
there was a high proportion of those from cities who
stated that they didn’t know whether they did or not
(Scott & Parsons 2005; Howard & Parsons 2006b).

How well are Cetaceans
protected?

Percentage

(South-west)

Percentage
(Major cities)

Don’t Know

25.8 %

60.0 %

Over-protected

0.4 %

0.0 %

Sufficiently protected

28.2 %

7.0 %

Not sufficiently
protected

45.6 %

33.0 %

Table 2. Public attitudes

to how well

cetaceans are

protected in Scotland (Scott & Parsons 2005; Howard
& Parsons 2006b).

However, when asked whether laws should be
introduced specifically for the conservation of

cetaceans in Scotland (e.g., a Cetacean Protection Act
for Scotland): 80% supported such a piece of
legislation. Moreover, when asked if a politician were
to introduce such a law would it make them see the
politician more favourably 40% said yes it would make
them view that politician in a better light (26% were
unsure; Howard & Parsons 2006b). It is interesting to
note that after these surveys were publicized, for the
first time, all of the major political parties speeifically
mentioned cetacean conseiwation in their next election
manifestos.

PUBLIC ATTITUDES TO WHALING

Going from a nation which conducted whaling
historically and also as a commercially for nearly two
hundred years, the public seems to now be greatly
opposed to this activity, with a survey conducted in
2001 finding that 96.4% of the public were opposed to
whaling (75% strongly opposed; 2.4% did not know;
Scott & Parsons 2005). Moreover, 79% of whale-
watchers in Scotland stated in a survey that they would
boycott visiting a country that conducted hunts for
cetaceans, such as Iceland, Japan or Nomay (Parsons
& Rawles 2003), This illustrates a dramatic sea change
in attitudes to cetaceans nearly fifty years after whaling
stopped in Scottish waters, arguably because of the
people of Scotland appreciate the cultural and
economic value of living cetaceans in their waters.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thank you to Norman Meeres for proof reading drafts
of this manuseript.

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Davies, B., Pita, C., Lusseau, D. & Hunter, C. (2010).
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The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 59-69

The moth assemblage of Flanders Moss, Stirlingshire

John T. Knowler

3 Balfleurs Street, Milngavie, Glasgow, G62 8HW
E-Mail: John. knowler(§ntlwoiid. com

ABSTRACT

Moth records derived from an extensive programme of
trapping between 2004 and 2010 have been combined
with older data-sets in an assessment of the moth
assemblage of Flanders Moss. Of the 282 moths
species recorded, 45 are considered rare, scarce or local
in Great Britain. Other species are present that have
dramatically declined in their UK-wide abundance.

INTRODUCTION

The peat dome that forms the raised bog of Flanders
Moss was once part of one of the largest complex of
raised bogs and other wetland habitats found in the
UK. Dotted along the fonner post ice age estuary of the
Carse of Stirling they were subject to clearance and
drainage and today Flanders Moss is only 60% of its
original size while some other raised bogs on the Carse
were completely cleared. Nevertheless, Flanders Moss,
lying between Thornhill to the north and Kippen to the
south, remains the biggest raised bog in the UK and
one of the most important in western Europe. Lowland
raised bogs tend to have a richer fauna and flora than
upland blanket bogs and that of Flanders Moss is of
national importance; hence it has been designated an
site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), Special Area
of Conservation (SAC) and National Nature Reserve
(NNR). This paper presents a compilation of the moth
assemblage of the Moss that is based on an extensive
programme of recording from 2004 to 2010 but also
includes older data-sets.

METHODS

Moth traps were run in various parts of the Flanders
Moss NNR between 2004 and 2010. A Robinson 125w
MV trap and one or two Heath actinic traps were
operated by Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) staff
members, Leigh Marshall and David Pickett. The
author assisted with the identification of the catch. Key
trapping locations were chosen to include the open
moss of the raised bog, habitats dominated by bog
myrtle (Myrica gale) and the fringing birch wood.

The data derived from moth trapping has been
combined with the data-sets of Bland (1988 and 2003);
Christie (1986), Maclaurin (1974), Moms (1991),
Palmer (1986) and a Scottish Entomologists weekend
in 1989. Most, perhaps all, of these came from day-

time obseiwations and were thus dominated by day-
flying moths and species that were identified from their
laiwae or evidence of larval feeding such as leaf-mines.
Other day-time observation records from visitors to the
NNR and Scottish Wildlife Trust (SWT) reserves are
included where these have been submitted to and
validated by the author in his capacity as vice county
moth recorder.

RESULTS

Table 1 lists 282 moth species recorded on Flanders
Moss up to October 2010. The “code” column gives
the UK checklist number (Bradley, 2000). The
“records” column lists the number of times that each
species has been recorded. It is not possible to list the
number of individuals that have been recorded as not
all recorders have collected this data. The status
column indicates the UK national status of each macro
moth species as defined by the Joint Nature
Conseiwation Committee. The categories are as
follows:

Red Data Book species (RDB) - species known
from 15 or less 10km squares in the UK.

Proposed RDB (pRDB) - proposed for inclusion
in the next Red Data Book listing because cuiTcnt
infomiation indicates that the species meets the
criteria.

Nationally Scarce A (Na) - species recorded from
16-30 10km squares since January 1980.

Nationally Scarce B (Nb) - species recorded from
30-100 10km squares since January 1980.

Local - species recorded from 100-300 10km
squares since January 1980.

Common - species recorded from over 300 10km
squares since January 1980
Uncommon on introduced food-plant.

Immigrant.

Rare immigrant.

Import.

Of the moth families collectively known as micros, the
Pyralidae have also been given UK national status
rankings but, of the remaining micro moth families,
only those species worthy of Nationally Scarce or Red
Data Book status have been categorised.

A list of butterflies and moths from Flanders Moss,
published by Maclaurin (1974), included nine larger
moth species not otherwise recorded on the Moss and
not included in Table 1. They are ghost moth (Hepialus
himmli), shaded broad-bar (Scotopteiyx chenopodiata),
yellow shell {Camptogramma bilineata), grey
mountain caipet {Entephria caesiata), juniper caipet
(Thera Jiuiiperata), small yellow wave (Hydrelia
JIammeo/aria), tawny-barred angle (Macaria liturata),
dotted border (Agriopis marguuvia) and Scotch
annulet (Gnophos obfuscaliis). Dotted border flies at a
time of the year when there has been little investigation
of the moth fauna of the Moss and its presence would
not be unexpected. The laiwac of tawny-barred angle
feeds on various conifers and the moth was recorded
when there were more conifers on the Moss. However,
other species on this list, including the nationally
scarce, scotch annulet, would not be expected on
Flanders Moss. Similarly, juniper caipet is unlikely as
its foodplant, common juniper (Junipenis communis),
has never been recorded on the Moss. It appears
possible that Maclaurin may have included a wider
spectrum of habitats in his paper than are considered a
part of Flanders Moss in this assessment (no precise
locations, observational methods or dates arc given in
the paper). It therefore appears safest to exclude these
nine species from the Flanders Moss data-base.

Common rustic (Mesapamea secalis) and lesser
common rustic (Mesapamea didyma) were only
recognised as separate species in 1983 and can only be
separated by examination of their genitalia. This has
not been done on specimens from the Moss so the
records are aggregated as (Mesapamea secalis agg).
Elsewhere in west central Scotland the two species
occur in roughly equal numbers.

The ear moths (Amphipoea) comprise another genus
that can only be unambiguously identified by
examination of their genitalia. In August and early
September, large numbers of Amphipoea come to light
traps on the Moss. All of those that have been dissected
have proved to be large ear (A. hicens); the remainder
have been recorded as Amphipoea oculea agg. Based
on records from elsewhere in the area, almost all of
these will be large ear but low numbers of Crinan ear
(A. crinanensis) might be expected.

DISCUSSION

Of the 282 moths species recorded on Flanders Moss,
45 have received a UK national status of pRDB,
Nationally Scarce or Local.

MOTHS CLASSED AS pRDB
One pRDB moth occurs on Flanders Moss
Lampronia fuscatella - This scarce micro-moth occurs
in widely scattered localities throughout the UK and its
provisional Red Data Book status of 3 indicates that it
is vulnerable. It occurs only in regenerating birch
woodland on raised peat and is characteristic of ancient
birch woodland with a continual history of
regeneration. The larvae fonn galls in the twigs of

downy birch (Betula puhescens), usually at a node of '
twigs that are 3 - 13 mm in diameter and 1.0 to 1.5 m
from the ground on trees less than 10 years old. The
larva within the gall is fully grown in May when it
makes a hole to the exterior which it caps with silk and s
frass. It then pupates in the gall and emerges in June, j

Records from Flanders Moss indicate that the species is *
heavily parasitized. \

(

MOTHS CLASSED AS NATIONALLY SCARCE ■
A (Na)

Two Na moths occur on Flanders Moss
Rannoch brindled beauty (Lycia lapponaria) - The
Rannoch brindled beauty is a moth of boggy acid '
moorland and in the UK its distribution is centred on
the central highlands; particularly Rannoch and upper
Speyside. Flanders Moss is the most southerly known
site for the species and is well separated from other
known locations. Although it has been found to feed on '
a range of moorland plants including heathers (Calluna
vulgaris and Erica sp.), bilbeiTy (Vaccinium
oxycoccus) and eared sallow (Salix aurita), the
occuiTence of the species is strongly associated with its
main foodplant, bog myrtle (Myrica gale). The moth is
most easily found as an adult during late March and
April by daylight searching of fence posts, old tree
stumps and the trunks of trees growing close to bog
myrtle. Both sexes rest on these sites and females lay |
eggs into crevices in them (personal observations of the
author) as well as in the dead corollas of cross-leaved
heath (Erica lelralix) (South, 1908). Using this search
method, males and females can be found on all those
areas of the moss where bog myrtle grows including |
western fragments between the A81 and B8034 ■

(Offerance Moss) that are outside the nature reserve.
Limited data gained by searching the same areas every '
year indicate a fairly stable population of the moth but
more organised observation over many more years ‘
would be necessary to confimi this.

Great brocade (Eurois occulta) - Throughout most of ■
the UK the great brocade occurs uncommonly and
irregularly as an immigrant from northern Europe.
These immigrant moths are predominantly mid-grey in
colouration. However, there is also a scarce resident
fonn of the moth in the central and western highlands I
of Scotland that is blackish, variably marbled with
grey. Occasional records from Flanders Moss appeared
to be of this fonn and in March 2007 the author swept '
larvae from the catkins of bog myrtle proving that the !
species breeds on the moss. Subsequently, a single
Robinson trap placed near the same area of bog myrtle
on 22"^* July 2010 caught five adults, all of which ■
appeared to be freshly emerged. Bretherton el al
(1983) state that resident populations are found close to
growths of bog myrtle; especially where these are
bordered by trees. This exactly fits the location in
which larvae were found on Flanders Moss and where
five adults were subsequently caught in a single
overnight trap. There seems eveiy reason to assume
that there is a resident population on Flanders Moss

MOTHS CLASSED AS NATIONALLY SCARCE
B(Nb)

Nine species of moth recorded on the Moss have Nb
status.

Atemelia torquatella - A northern species in the micro
moth family Yponomeutidae. The larvae fonns blotch
leaf-mines in regenerating birch.

Biselachista serricornis - A leaf-mining species in the
micro-moth family Elachistidae. It has a scattered
distribution that includes central Scotland and it
inhabits boggy areas and damp shady woods where the
foodplant wood sedge (Carex sylvatica) grows. On
Flanders Moss this is largely at the fringes.

Bryotropha boreeila - A rare and local member of the
micro-moth family Gelechiidae that is found on heather
{Callima vulgaris). The single record for this species
on the Moss is hard to assess and requires
confmnation.

Bryotropha galbanella - A local member of the micro-
moth family Gelechiidae that is found in forested areas
and feeds on mosses.

Prolita sexpimctella - A local member of the micro-
moth family Gelechiidae that is found on heaths, moors
and mosses and is often seen flying over burnt patches
of regenerating heather. The larvae feeds within the
spun leaves of heather

Argent and sable {Rheumaptera hastata) - In central
Scotland, the argent and sable is best known from
Flanders Moss where it occurs in most areas of what is
now a fragmented habitat; including Offerance Moss.
It is also regularly recorded from Glen Finglas, was
known historically in the area of Loch Venachar and
probably awaits discovery in other areas where bog
myrtle is abundant. There is considerable confusion
over the various fonns of this moth. Most sources state
that the southern form hastata occurs up to the
southern uplands of Scotland and feeds on young birch
while the smaller, more intricately marked northern
fonn nigrescens feeds on bog myrtle. The moths on
Flanders Moss most resemble the fonn hastata despite
the fact that their larvae are found mainly on bog
myrtle on which they fonn characteristic domed tents
comprising the terminal leaves of young shoots. Most
commonly they are on dense, tall plants (0.8 - 1.2m)
where bog myrtle is the dominant vegetation often
close to birches. There is just one record of a larva
feeding on birch on Flanders Moss. The argent and
sable has UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) status
and is a UK priority species with published action
plans (Department of the Environment, Transport and
Regions 1999, Kinnear and Kirkland, 2000).
Manchester Treble-bar (Carsia sororiata)
Manchester treble-bar is a moth of wet moorland,
mosses and bogs. It is confined to northern England
and Scotland where it is widespread but scarce. On
Flanders Moss it is common and, during July and
August, is readily disturbed from ground vegetation
during the day. It is also recorded in light traps. The
species is much less common elsewhere in central
Scotland with widespread but only occasional records.
The larvae feed on bilberry, crowberry (Empetnim
nigrum) and cranberry (Empetnim oxycoccus) and it

seems likely that the moth will continue to fiourish as
long as its open boggy habitat is preserved.

Silvery arches (Folia trimaculosa) - Although
recorded from heaths and mosses throughout the UK,
the main centres of distribution of silvery arches are the
river valleys of the Spey, Rannoch, Dee and Clyde.
There are only five records from Flanders Moss but
four of these were in a single trap near bog myrtle and
birches on 18*’’ June 2010. The main larval foodplants
are bog myrtle, birches and sallow and the western
parts of the NNR would appear to offer excellent
habitat for this species. Although it comes to light traps
in small numbers it is more strongly attracted to sugar.
The author is unaware of any sugaring on the moss but
it may prove rewarding.

Marsh oblique-barred (Hypenodes humidalis) -
Because it is small and easily confused with a micro-
moth, the marsh oblique-ban'cd is often overlooked. Its
habitat requirements arc bogs, boggy moorland,
swamps, water meadows and marshes and its known
foodplants include cross-leaved heath and sphagnum
mosses. Christie (1986) recorded it as occurring in ‘a
very extensive and very numerous colony on the
Moss’. However, it was only recorded once more
before 2010 when on 1 C’ August, ten were found in a
single overnight trap. It appears likely that the moth
remains much more common than the few records
suggests.

MOTHS CLASSED AS LOCAL
Thirty three moth species classed as local have been
recorded on Flanders Moss. Although they are all listed
below, not all can be regarded as important members of
the Flanders Moss moth assemblage; the species
accounts indicate those that are.

Gold swift (Hepialus hecta) - There are few records
of gold swift from Flanders Moss and it is most likely
to be encountered around its fringes where the larval
foodplant bracken (Pteridium aquilimtm) grows. It
cannot therefore be regarded as a key member of the
moth assemblage.

Map-winged swift (Hepialus fusconebulosa) -
Although nationally local, this species is the most
common member of the genus in west central Scotland
and its presence on Flanders Moss is unremarkable.
Like the above species it is likely to be commonest
around its fringe where the main larval food plant,
bracken, grows.

Pearl-band grass veneer (Catoptria margaritella) -
This species can be abundant on Flanders Moss and is
a part of the resident moth assemblage. Although
classed as local, it can be common on boggy moorland
throughout Scotland.

Orange underwing (Archiearis parthenias) - The
orange undewing is not an easy moth to see in central
Scotland. It flies in sunshine in late March and April
around the tops of birches growing on moorland and
other open environments. Less often it can be seen
feeding on sallow catkins and is sometimes found on
the ground basking or drinking from puddles. It is
never common and persistence is required to see it

well. The mature birches around the edge of Flanders
Moss arc productive places to look for it.

Smoky wave {Scapula ternata) - Although smoky
wave is found on moorland and lightly wooded heath
throughout central Scotland it is particularly abundant
on Flanders Moss. During June and July large numbers
can be disturbed when walking across the more open
parts of the Moss. The larvae feed on heather and
bilben'y.

Plain wave {Idaea straminata) - The habitat
preferences of this uncommon species are open
woodland and scrubby heaths. Despite the fact that it
does not appear ideal for the species, a high percentage
of the historical and recent records from central
Scotland come from Flanders Moss. Care must be
taken with the identification of the species as it is
easily confused with the very common riband wave
{Idea adversata).

Ling pug {Eupithecia ahsinthiata f. goossensiata) -
ling pug is a local, heather-feeding form of wormwood
pug {Eupithecia ahsinthiata) which is a common
polyphagic species. Separation of the two forms is
somewhat subjective but, suiprisingly, there appear to
be no records of womiwood pug from Flanders Moss
and there are just two records of ling pug.

Shaded pug {Eupithecia suhumhrata) - A single
example of this species in a light trap run on the moss
on is'*' June 2010 was the first record from central
Scotland since 1987 and the first known record from
cither Flanders Moss or vice county 87. The normal
habitat of the species is rough grassland and it is most
common in southern England on chalk downs and in
the Brocks. However, it is found locally in parts of
western Scotland (Riley and Prior, 2003) and three
specimens in the collection of the late Iain Christie
were caught at Conic Hill in 1981 and near Gartocham
in 1987. Thus, the species is not unknown in the area
and it is highly desirable to tiy to discover if it is a
resident member of the moth assemblage of Flanders
Moss.

Lunar thorn {Selenia lunularia) - Although never
vei'y common, in central Scotland this species occurs in
woodland, parks and gardens as well more open
habitats like Flanders Moss. It is not therefore one of
the more important members of the moth assemblage
of the site. The larvae feed on the leaves of a range of
broad-leaved trees which on the Moss will be mainly
birch.

Grey scalloped bar {Dyscia fagaria) - This local
species of moors, bogs and mosses should be regarded
as an important member of the Flanders Moss moth
assemblage. All but three of the known records from
central Scotland come from the site. The larvae feed on
heathers and the moth appears to prefer the short
swards that are typical of many open areas of the Moss.
Grey scalloped bar is a UK species of conservation
concern and is the subject of a south-west Scotland
regional action plan (Kinncar and Kirkland, 2000).
Grass wave {Perconia strigillaria) - Although grass
wave has been recorded from several moorland sites in
the Loch Lomond basin, it is only common on raised
bogs and mosses. Like the above species, it is an

important member of the Flanders Moss moth
assemblage.

Small elephant hawk moth {Deilephila parceUus) -
This species has been recorded in increased numbers in
central Scotland over the last 10 years and Flanders
Moss is one of many habitats in which it has been
observed. It is not considered a key member of the
moth assemblage of the site.

Dark tussock {Dicallomera fascelina) - Dark tussock
is regularly recorded on Flanders Moss as adults and
larvae and the species is a part of the resident and
breeding moth assemblage. However, it is also found
on moorland throughout Scotland as heather is the
main larval foodplant.

Round-winged muslin {Thumatha senex) - A single
example of this species in a light trap run on the moss
on 18*'’ June 2010 was the first record from central
Scotland since 1991. Nevertheless, this is a moth of
wet moorland, bogs and flushes and it appears highly
likely that there is a resident if small population on the
Moss. It is clearly desirable to confimi whether this is
the case.

Red-necked footman {Atolmis rubricollis) - During
the first decade of the 2U‘ century, this species has
spread spectacularly northwards through central
Scotland and beyond (Knowler, 2010). Particularly
high numbers are found in association with sitka spmee
(Picea sitchensis) and it is likely that all records on
Flanders Moss are of moths that have come from
neighbouring spruce plantations. The species is likely
to continue to be recorded on the Moss but it is not
considered a key member of its moth assemblage.
Four-dotted footman (Cybosia mesomelia) -
Although the four-dotted footman is widely distributed
on heaths, moorland and bogs, it is particularly
common on Flanders Moss. It is frequently disturbed
from ground vegetation during the day and overnight
catches of up to 66 have been recorded in single light
traps. The laiwa feeds on lichens (Cladonia sp.)
growing on heathers and these are abundant throughout
open areas of the Moss.

Wood tiger {Parasemia plantaginis) - Like the above
species, wood tiger is widespread but local on
moorland and bogs. There is healthy population on
Flanders Moss. Although larvae have been observed on
various herbaceous plants, heathers arc the main
foodplants and this is assumed to be the case on the
Moss. As long as open areas of the moss do not
become overgrown the population of this species is
likely to be secure.

Clouded buff {Diacrisia sannio) - Like the above two
species, clouded buff is strongly associated with
moorland and bogs and there is a particularly strong
population on the Moss. During the flight season,
multiple adults arc likely to be disturbed from the
vegetation during a walk over the moss and up to 20
have been recorded in and around a single overnight
light trap. The larvae feed on heathers and other
herbaceous moorland plants.

Neglected rustic {Xestia castanea) - The neglected
rustic is found on moorland, raised bogs and in
woodland with heather in the understory. The colour

form with buff, pink-edged forewings is regularly
recorded on Flanders Moss. Larvae feed on heather,
bell heather {Erica cinerea) and cross-leaved heath.
UK-wide this species decreased by 82% between 1968
and 2002 (Fox et al., 2006).

Heath rustic {Xestia agathina) - The heath nistic is a
local moth of acid heaths, moorland and bogs but is
particularly common on Flanders Moss. Thus, 77 were
recorded in a single trap on 6*'’ September, 2007. The
larvae feed on heather. UK-wide this species decreased
by 84% between 1968 and 2002 (Fox et a!., 2006).
Beautiful brocade (LacaiwMa contigua) - The
beautiful brocade is an uncommon moth of lightly
wooded moorland and a high percentage of records
from central Scotland come from Flanders Moss. The
larvae feed on birches, oaks and other woody species
so the species is presumably dependent on areas of
birch on the Moss.

Glaucous shears (Papesira Mren) - Although classed
as nationally local, glaucous shears occurs on moorland
throughout Scotland and is an expected part of the
Flanders Moss moth assemblage.

Golden-rod brindle (Lithomoia soiidagims) - Despite
occurring widely on the moorlands of Scotland,
golden-rod brindle is an uncommon moth. Most recent
records from central Scotland are from Flanders Moss.
The larvae have been recorded from heathers, bilberry,
bog myrtle and other moorland plants.

Red sword-grass {Xylena vetusta) - The main habitat
of this uncommon species is moorland and rough
upland grassland and it would be expected to be an
integral part of the moth assemblage of Flanders Moss.
However, it also occurs in damp woodland and
marshes and is regularly recorded in light traps in
parkland and gardens near suitable habitat. Any
specimen should be carefully examined to exclude the
very similar and nationally scarce sword-grass {Xylena
exsolela) which is unrecorded on the Moss but could
occur.

Suspected {Parmtichtis suspecta) - Throughout much
of Scotland, suspected is a widespread but uncommon
moth of fens, car and moorland with birch scrub. It is
an integral component of the Flanders Moss moth
assemblage. The larvae feed on the tenninal shoots of
scrub birch.

Light knot-grass {Acronicta menyanthidis) - An
uncommon moth of the damper parts of moors and
bogs, light knot-grass is typical part of the moth
assemblage of Flanders Moss. As well as coming to
light traps, it is often found resting on fence posts. The
larvae feed on woody moorland plants including bog
myrtle, heathers and bilberry.

Old lady {Mormo mama) - The old lady is an
uncommon moth of riverbanks, marshes, gardens and
hedgerows and the single record from Flanders Moss
was at its edge. Thus, the species should not be
regarded as a typical member of the moth assemblage
of the Moss.

Large ear {AmpMpoea iucem) - Although nationally
local, the large ear is the commonest member of the
genus throughout central Scotland. Single overnight
trap catches of over 50 AmpMpoea sp. have been

recorded on Flanders Moss and all of those
imambiguoiisly identified by examination of the
genitalia have proved to be this species.

Haworth’s minor {Celaena haworthii) - As a moth of
bogs and boggy moorland, Haworth’s minor is an
integral part of the moth assemblage of Flanders Moss.
Its larvae feed on common cotton grass {Eriophorum
angnstifolinm). UK-wide this species decreased by
89% between 1968 and 2002 (Fox et al., 2006).
Crescent {Celaena leucostigma) - Although not as
tied to boggy moorland as the previous species, the
crescent is nevertheless an integral part of the moth
assemblage of Flanders Moss. In this habitat its larvae
probably feed on puiple moor-grass {Molinia
caerulea). UK-wide this species decreased by 82%
between 1968 and 2002 (Fox et ah, 2006).

Lerapke’s gold spot {Plusia putnami gracilis ) - The
common species, gold spot {Plusia festucae), and the
more local Leinpke’s gold spot both occur on the moss
and their separation can be challenging. Lempke’s gold
spot is a more northern species and is not uncommon in
damp habitats throughout central Scotland.

Scarce silver Y {Syngrapha interrogationis) -
Although there is only one record of this uncommon
moorland species from Flanders Moss it appears likely
that it is a scarce breeding resident and therefore an
integral part of the moth assemblage. Its larvae feed on
heather and bilberry.

Pinion-streaked snout {Schrankia costaestrigalis) -
A single specimen in a light trap on 22"'^ July 2010
appears to be the only record of this species from
Flanders Moss. This is surprising as it is a moth of
damp habitats including raised bogs. However, the lack
of earlier records may reflect the ease with which this
micro-like species can be over-looked.

MOTHS OF FLANDERS MOSS THAT HAVE
DRAMATICALLY DECLINED IN THEIR UK
ABUNDANCE

Fox et al. (2006) analysed thirty five years of data from
the UK-wide network of Rothamsted light traps during
the period 1968 to 2002. They examined the data for
337 species of common larger moths and showed that
two thirds (226 species) had declined in abundance and
75 species had decreased by over 70% over the thirty
five years. 14 of these are found on Flanders Moss and
they are listed in table 2 in order of their percentage
change in UK abundance. International Union for
Conservation of Nature (lUCN) categories are based on
rate of decline.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I should like to thank David Pickett for his help and
enthusiasm in compiling the Flanders Moss data-set
and for his valuable comments on early versions of the
manuscript.

103

112

1 16

1 17

129

138

140

141

157

186

216

228

276

300

301

305

324

332

338

347

353

385

391

395

410

41 1

415

418

437

442

443

444

448

452

460

464

493

496

504

541

608

621

626

630

654

663

770

773

First Last

Faxon

Vernacular

Records

Recorded

UK Status

Micropterix aureatella

1991

2005

Hepiahis Inimnli

Ghost Moth

2004

Common

Hepiahis hecta

Gold Swift

1973

1991

Local

Hepiahis htpidinus

Common Swift

2004

Common

Hepiahis fusconelmlosa

Map-winged Swift

1973

2010

Local

Ectoecieiiiia occiiltella

1989

Stigmella sorbi

1989

Siigiiiella iiylaiidriella

1989

Sligiiiella hileella

1989

Siigiiiella lappoiiica

1989

Stigmella coifisella

1989

liiciimiria peclinea

1988

1989

Laiiiproiiia fuscatella

1988

2006

pRDB3

Neiiiatopogoii swamiiierclainella

2005

Neimitopogoii scliwarziellus

1988

Heliozela liaiiiinoiiiella

1989

Psyche casta

1988

1989

Neiiiapogoii cloacelhi

Cork Moth

1986

Moiiopis weaverella

1986

1988

Biicciilatrix deiiiaiyella

1988

Paroriiix logaiiella

1991

Paroniix betiilae

1986

1989

Paroriiix scoticella

1988

Pliylloiioiycter sorbi

1989

Plniloiioiycter coiylifoliella f betiilae

1989

Pliylloiioiycter cavella

1989

Pliylloiioiycter aiulerhlae

1989

1991

Pliylloiioiycter iiliiiifoliella

1988

1989

Aiitlioplilla fabriciaiia

2005

Glypliipterix siiiipliciella

Cocksfoot Moth

2005

Glypbipterix haworthana

1988

1989

A rgyresthia brockeelhi

1988

A rgyrestliia goedarteUa

1986

Argyresthia retiiiella

1986

Argyrestliia coiijtigella

Apple Fruit Moth

1988

Swamiiterdamia caesiella

1988

1989

Cedestis gysseleiiiella

1986

Cedestis siibfasciella

1986

Ociierostoiiia piiiiariella

1986

AtemeUa toixpiatella

1989

Ypsoloplia iieinorella

1983

Ypsoloplia pareiithesella

1986

1988

Phitella xylostella

Diamond-back Moth

1986

1989

Migrant

Coleopbora serratella

1983

2006

Coleopliora milvipeiiiils

1988

1989

Coleoplioro lusciiiiaepeiinella

1988

2005

Coleopliora viiiiinetella

1983

1986

Coleopliora pyrriiiilipeiiitella

1988

1989

Elachista riifocinerea

1991

Elacliista siibalhidella

1988

Biselacliista serricoriiis

1988

Biselacliista albidella

1986

Pleiirota bicostella

1983

1991

Diiiriiea fagella

2007

Carpatolechia proximella

1986

1988

Pseudotelphiisa paripiinctella

1986

1989

780

783

784

794

797

954

968

970

972

986

988

989

1007

1008

1015

1021

1026

1055

1057

1073

1076

1087

1092

1093

1095

1117

1126

1128

1133

1134

1137

1151

1155

1156

1159

1184

1201

1294

1301

1304

1305

1314

1334

1338

1340

1345

1350

1356

1388

1395

1405

1632

1637

1638

1640

1643

Biyotwpha siinilis

1991

Biyotropha boreella

1991

Biyotwpha galhanella

1986

1991

Prolita sexpimctella

1988

Neofacidta ericetella

1986

2005

Eiipoecilia angustana

1986

1991

Cochylis nana

1986

Pandemis cerasana

BaiTed Fruit-tree Tortrix

1986

1988

Pandemis heparana

Dark Fruit-tree Tortrix

1986

Syndemis muscidana

1988

Aphelia viburnana

Bilberry Tortrix

1986

Aphelia paleana

Timothy Tortrix

2005

Capua vidgana

1988

Philedotie gerningana

1991

2005

Eiilia ministrana

1986

1988

Cnephasia interjectana

1986

Exapate congelatella

1986

Acleris hyemana

1986

Acleris rufana

1986

Olethreutes schidziana

1991

2005

Celypha lacunana

1986

Orthotaenia undtdana

1983

1988

Apotomis turbidana

1986

1988

Apotomis betuletana

1986

Apotomis sororculana

1986

Ancylis imguicella

1988

2006

Ancylis badiana

2005

Ancylis myrti liana

1991

Epinoiia bilimana

1988

Epinotia ramella

1986

2003

Epinotia tetraquetrana

1983

1988

Epinotia stroemiana

1986

Epinotia trigonella

1989

2006

Epinotia brimnichana

1986

1991

Epinotia solandriana

1986

1989

Rhopobota naevana

Holly Tortrix

1986

Epiblema scutulana

2006

Eucosma cana

1986

Crambiis pascuella

1986

2005

Crambus lathoniellus

1986

2006

Agriphila straminella

1986

Agriphila tristella

1986

2005

Catoptria margaritella

Pearl-band Grass Veneer

1986

2005

Scoparia ambigualis

1986

2006

Dipleurina lacustrata

1986

Eudonia trmicicolella

1986

Elophila nymphaeata

Brown China-mark

2004

2010

Nympinda stagnata

Beautiful China-mark

2006

2010

Evergestis forficalis

Garden Pebble

2004

Udea lutealis

1989

2007

Udea ferrugalis

Rusty-dot Pearl

1989

Pleuroptya ruralis

Mother of Pearl

2004

2005

Trichiura crataegi

Pale Eggar

1991

Lasiocampa quercus f. callimae

Northern Eggar

1973

2010

Macrothylacia rubi

Fox Moth

1973

2010

Euthrix potatoria

Drinker

1973

2010

Saturnia pavonia

Emperor Moth

1973

2010

Common

Local

Common

Migrant

Common

1645

1648

1657

1659

1661

1666

1677

1694

1702

1713

1715

1722

1723

1724

1725

1727

1737

1738

1752

1755

1756

1758

1760

1762

1764

1768

1769

1773

1775

1776

1777

1787

1 803

1809

1831

1837

1840

1846

1857

1862

1 866

1887

1902

1904

1906

1913

1917

1918

1919

1920

1921

1926

1929

1931

1935

1941

1947

Falccirki lacertiiiaria

Scalloped Hook-tip

1973

2010

Common

Drepana falcalaria

Pebble Hook-tip

1973

2010

Common

Ochropacha duplahs

Common Lutestring

1986

2010

Common

Achlya jlavicornis

Yellow Homed

1973

2010

Common

A rchiearis parlhenias

Orange Underwing

1974

2007

Local

Geometra papilionaria

Large Emerald

1988

2010

Common

Cyclophora alhipimctata

Birch Mocha

1973

2010

Local

Scopitla ternata

Smoky Wave

1973

2010

Local

Idaea hiselata

Small Fan-footed Wave

1986

2006

Common

Idaec! aversala

Riband Wave

1986

2007

Common

Idaea straniinata

Plain Wave

1986

2010

Local

Xanthorhoe designata

Flame Carpet

2010

Common

Xanthorhoe decoloraria

Red Carpet

2004

Common

Xanthorhoe spadicearia

Red Twin-spot Carpet

2005

Common

Xanthorhoe ferrugata

Dark-baned Twin-spot Carpet

2010

Common

Xanthorhoe montanata

Silver-ground Carpet

1973

2010

Common

Epirrhoe tristata

Small Argent & Sable

1973

1998

Common

Epirrhoe alternata

Common Carpet

1973

2010

Common

Cosmorhoe ocellata

Puqtle Bar

1973

2007

Common

Enlithis testata

Chevron

1973

2010

Common

Eiilithis popidata

Northern Spinach

1973

2010

Common

Enlithis pyraliata

Barred Straw

2004

2006

Common

Chloroclysta siterata

Red-green Carpet

2010

Common

Chlorodysta citrata

Dark Marbled Carptet

1973

2004

Common

Chloroclysta truncata

Common Marbled Caipet

1973

2010

Common

Thera oheliscata

Grey Pine Carpet

1973

2010

Common

Thera hritannica

Spruce Carpet

2006

2010

Common

Electrophaes coiylata

Broken-baned Caipet

1973

2010

Common

Colostygia nmltistrigaria

Mottled Grey

1973

2005

Common

Colospgia pectinataria

Green Carpet

1973

2010

Common

Hydriomena furcata

July Highllyer

1973

2005

Common

Rhennuiptera hastata

Argent & Sable

1973

2010

Perizoma alcheinillata

Small Rivulet

1981

2004

Common

Perizonui didymata

Twin-spot Carpet

1973

2005

Common

Eupithecia absinthiata

goossensiata

Ling Pug

1986

1991

Local

Eupithecia suhfuscata

Grey Pug

1986

2005

Common

Eupithecia suhumhrata

Shaded Pug

2010

Local

Eupithecia nanata

Narrow-winged Pug

1973

2007

Common

Eupithecia tantillaria

Dwarf Pug

2010

Common

Gyinnoscelis rufifasciata

Double-striped Pug

1973

2010

Common

Carsia sororiata

Manchester Treble-bar

1973

2010

Lomaspilis marginata

Clouded Border

1973

2010

Common

Petrophora chlorosata

Brown Silver-line

1974

2005

Common

Plagodis dolabraria

Scorched Wing

2010

Local

Opisthograptis luteolata

Brimstone Moth

1973

2010

Common

Ennomos alniaria

Canary-shouldered Thom

1973

2007

Common

Selenia dentaria

Early Thom

1973

2004

Common

Selenia lunularia

Lunar Thom

2005

2010

Local

Selenia tetralunaria

Puiple Thom

2004

Common

Odontopera bidentata

Scalloped Hazel

1973

2007

Common

C rocallis el inguaria

Scalloped Oak

2004

2007

Common

Phigalia pUosaria

Pale Brindled Beauty

1973

2005

Common

Lycia lapponaria

Rannoch Brindled Beauty

1973

2010

Piston hetularia

Peppered Moth

1973

2010

Common

Erannis defoliaria

Mottled Umber

1973

1988

Common

Aids repandata

Mottled Beauty

1973

Common

Ectropis bistortata

Engrailed

2009

2010

Common

1951

1952

1954

1955

1956

1961

1962

1969

1970

1981

1991

1992

1994

1995

1997

2000

2003

2006

2008

2011

2026

2027

2035

2039

2040

2056

2057

2059

2060

2064

2089

2098

2102

2107

2109

2110

2111

2117

2118

2120

2123

2128

2130

2132

2133

2134

2135

2137

2142

2147

2149

2156

2158

2160

2162

2163

2176

Aethalura pimctulata

Grey Birch

1991

2010

Common

Emalurga atomaria

Common Heath

1973

2010

Common

Bupalus pirtiaria

Bordered White

1973

2010

Common

Cabera pusaria

Common White Wave

1973

2010

Common

Cabera exanthemata

Common Wave

1973

Common

Campaea margaritata

Light Emerald

1986

2007

Common

Hylaea fasciaria

Banned Red

1986

2010

Common

Dyscia fagaria

Grey Scalloped Bar

1973

2007

Local

Perconia strigillaria

Grass Wave

1973

2010

Local

Laothoe popult

Poplar Hawk-moth

1973

2005

Common

Deilephila elpenor

Elephant Hawk-moth

2004

2010

Common

Deilephila porcellus

Small Elephant Hawk-moth

2004

2010

Local

Phalera bucephala

Buff-tip

1973

2010

Common

Cerura vinula

Puss Moth

1973

2007

Common

Furcula fiircnla

Sallow Kitten

1973

Common

Notodonta dromedarhis

Iron Prominent

1973

2010

Common

Notodonta zkzac

Pebble Prominent

2005

2010

Common

Pheosia gnoma

Lesser Swallow Prominent

1973

2010

Common

Ptilodon capitcina

Coxcomb Prominent

1973

2010

Common

Pterostoma palpina

Pale Prominent

2004

2010

Common

Orgyia antiqiia

Vapourer

1973

2005

Common

Dicallomera fascelina

Dark Tussock

1973

2005

Local

Thumatha senex

Round-winged Muslin

1970

1991

Local

Atohnis ruhricollis

Red-necked Footman

2005

2006

Local

Cybosia mesomelia

Four-dotted Footman

1973

2010

Local

Parasemia plantagmis

Wood Tiger

1973

2007

Local

Arctia caja

Garden Tiger

2004

2010

Common

Diacrisia sannio

Clouded Buff

1974

2010

Local

Spilosoma lubricipeda

White Ermine

1973

2010

Common

Phragmatobia fidiginosa

Ruby Tiger

1973

2010

Common

Agrotis exclamationis

Heart and Dart

2004

Common

Axylia pntris

Flame

2004

Common

Ochropleura plecta

Flame Shoulder

1973

2010

Common

Noctna proimba

Large Yellow Underwing

1974

2010

Common

Noctiia comes

Lesser Yellow Underwing

2005

2007

Common

Noctua jhnbriata

Broad-bordered Yellow Underwing
Lesser Broad-bordered Yellow

2007

Common

Noctna janthe

Underwing

2005

2007

Common

Eugnorisma glareosa

Autumnal Rustic

2004

2007

Common

Lycophotia porphyrea

Tnie Lover's Knot

1973

2010

Common

Diarsia mendica

Ingrailed Clay

1973

2010

Common

Diarsia rubi

Small Square-spot

2010

Common

Xestia triangulum

Double Square-spot

2004

Common

Xestia baja

Dotted Clay

2005

2010

Common

Xestia castanea

Neglected Rustic

2005

2007

Local

Xestia sexstrigala

Six-striped Rustic

2005

2006

Common

Xestia xanthographa

Square-spot Rustic

2004

2007

Common

Xestia agathina

Heath Rustic

2005

2007

Local

Enrols occulta

Great Brocade

2006

2010

Anaria myrtilli

Beautiful Yellow Underwing

1973

2005

Common

Hada nana

Shears

2004

Common

Folia irimaculosa

Silvery Arches

2004

2010

Lacanobia contigua

Beautiful Brocade

2004

2010

Local

Lacanobia thalassina

Pale-shouldered Brocade

2004

2010

Common

Lacanobia oleracea

Bright-line Brown-eye

2006

2007

Common

Papesira biren

Glaucous Shears

2004

2010

Local

Melanchra pisi

Broom Moth

1973

2010

Common

Cerapteiyx graminis

Antler Moth

1973

2010

Common

2179

Panolis flammea

Pine Beauty

2005

2010

Common

2186

Orlhosia gracilis

Powdered Quaker

2010

Common 1

2187

Orthosia cerasi

Common Quaker

2005

2010

Common

2188

Orlhosia incerta

Clouded Drab

2005

2010

Common

2190

Orlhosia golhica

Hebrew Character

2004

2010

Common

2198

Mylhimmi impura

Smoky Wainscot

1973

2010

Common '

2199

Mylhinina palleits

Common Wainscot

1973

2006

Common i

2225

Brachylomia viminalis

Minor Shoulder-knot

2005

Common

2232

Aporophyla nigra

Black Rustic

2005

Common [

2233

Lilhoinoia solidaginis

Golden-rod Brindle

1973

2007

Local

2241

Xylena veinsla

Red Sword-grass

1973

2010

Local

2250

Blepharila adnsla

Dark Brocade

2004

2007

Common '

2258

Conisira vaccinii

Chestnut

2005

Common i

2266

Agrochola Hliira

Brown-spot Pinion

2006

Common ;

2268

Paraslichtis suspeda

Suspected

2005

2006

Local

2273

Xanihia logala

Pink-barred Sallow

2005

2007

Common

2274

Xanihia icierilia

Sallow

2004

2007

Common

2280

Acronicia leporina

Miller

1986

2010

Common

2286

Acronicia menyanihidis

Light Knot Grass

1973

2010

Local 1

2300

Mormo inaiira

Old Lady

2005

Local

2302

Rusina ferruginea

Brown Rustic

2004

2010

Common

2305

Eupk’xia lucipara

Small Angle Shades

2005

Common

2306

Phlogophora meliculosa

Angle Shades

2004

2006

Common -

2321

Apaniea monoglypha

Dark Arches

2004

2010

Common

2326

Apamea crenala

Clouded-bordered Brindle

2004

2010

Common

2330

Apaniea reniissa

Dusky Brocade

2007

Common

2334

Apamea sordens

Rustic Shoulder-knot

2004

Common .

2340

Oligia fasciimciila

Middle-baned Minor

1973

2010

Common

2343x

Mesapamea secalis agg.

Common Rustic agg.

1973

2010

2345

Pholedes minima

Small Dotted Buff

2004

Common

2350

Chorlodes pygmina

Small Wainscot

1973

2007

Common '

2357

Amphipoea hicens

Large Ear

2005

2010

Local

2360x

Amphipoea ociilea agg.

Ear Moth agg.

1973

2010

2361

Hydraecia micacea

Rosy Rustic

1973

2006

Common 1

2364

Gortyna flavago

Frosted Orange

2005

2007

Coimnon

2367

Celaena hawonhii

Haworth's Minor

1973

2007

Local

2368

Celaena leiicosligma

Crescent

2005

2010

Local ;

2369

Nonagria typhae

Bulrush Wainscot

2006

Common

2422

Psendoips prasinana

Green Silver-lines

2004

Common

2425

Colocasia con'li

Nut-tree Tussock

1986

2010

Common

2434

Diachiysia chiysilis

Burnished Brass

2005

Common ,

2439

Phisia fesliicae

Gold Spot

2004

2006

Common

2440

Phisia piilnami

Lempke's Gold Spot

1998

2007

Local

2441

Aiilographa gamma

Silver Y

1989

2006

Migrant

2443

Aulographa Jola

Plain Golden Y

2005

2006

Common

2444

Aiilographa hraclea

Gold Spangle

2005

2007

Common

2447

Syngrapha inlerrogalionis

Scarce Silver Y

2006

Local

2450

A hroslola Iriparlila

Spectacle

2004

Common

2474

Riviila sericealis

Straw Dot

1986

2010

Common

2477

Hypena prohoscidalis

Snout

1973

2005

Common

2484

Schrankia coslaesirigalis

Pinion-streaked Snout

2010

Local

Nb ;

2485

Hvpeiiodes hnmidalis

Marsh Oblique-barred

1986

2010

Table 1. Moth species recorded on Flanders Moss.

English Name

Scientific Name

UK-wide percentage change over 35 years

lUCN Category

Autumnal Rustic

Eugnorisma glareosa

-92

Endangered

Garden Tiger

Arctia caja

-89

Vulnerable

Haworth’s Minor

Celaena haworthii

-89

Vulnerable

Pale Eggar

Trichiura crataegi

-86

Vulnerable

Small square-spot

Diarsia riibi

-85

Vulnerable

Heath Rustic

Xestia agathina

-84

Vulnerable

Sallow

Xanthia iceritia

-82

Vulnerable

Crescent

Cymatophorima leucostigma

-82

Vulnerable

Neglected Rustic

Xestia castanea

-82

Vulnerable

Dark Brocade

Blepharita admta

-78

Vulnerable

White Ermine

Spilosoma lubricipeda

-77

Vulnerable

Dusky Brocade

Apamea remissa

-76

Vulnerable

Table 2. Moths found on Flanders Moss that declined in their UK-wide abundance by more than 70% between 1968
and 2002.

REFERENCES

Bland, K. P. (1988). List of Lepidoptera recorded on
Flanders Moss on 18.3.1988. Unpublished report,
Scottish Natural Heritage.

Bland, K. P. (2003). Species list from Argent and Sable
Workshop, Flanders Moss NNR, 17'’’ August 2003
unpublished report, Scottish Natural Heritage.

Bradley, J. D. (2000) Checklist of Lepidoptera Recorded in
the British Isles. Fordingbridge.

Bretherton, R. F., Goater, B. & Lorimer R.I. (1983).
Noctuidae. Pp 141 -142 in Heath J. and Emmet,
M. (editors), Moths and Butterflies of Great Britain and
Ireland, Curwen Press, London, Vol 9.

Christie, I. C. (1986). Moths on SWT Reserve Flanders
Moss Summer 1986 unpublished report Scottish Natural
Heritage.

Department of the Environment, Transport and Regions
(DETR) (1999). UK Biodiversity Group. Tranche2
Action Plans Voll Terrestrial and Fresh Water Species
and Habitats. HMSO.

Fox, R., Conrad, K. F., Parsons, M. S., Warren, M. S., &.
Woiwod, I. P. (2006). The State of Britain 's Larger
Moths. Butterfly Conservation and Rothamsted
Research, Wareham, Dorset.

Kinnear P. & Kirkland P. (2000). Regional Action Plan for
Butterflies and Moths of South West Scotland. Butterfly
Conservation, Edinburgh.

Knowler, J. T. (2010). An Annotated Checklist of the
Larger Moths of Stirlingshire, West Perthshire and
Dunbartonshire. Glasgow Natural History Society,
Glasgow.

Maclaurin, A. M. (1974). Butterflies and Moths from
Flanders Moss. Glasgow Naturalist 19, 85-90.

Morris, R. (1991) List of moths obtained from unpublished
report, Scottish Natural Heritage.

Palmer, R. (1986). List of Lepidoptera recorded on
Flanders Moss. Unpublished report, Scottish Natural
Heritage.

Riley, A.M. & Prior G. (2003). British and Irish Pug
Moths: a guide to their identification and biology,
Harley Books.

Scottish Entomologists (1989). Species collected on
Flanders Moss during Scottish Entomologists weekend

3.9. 1989. Unpublished report.

South, R. (1908) Moths of the British Isles (series 2).
Wame, London.

Thr Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 71-77

Diversity of wild plants in a low-maintenance Scottish suburban garden. Then
and now ■“ 1986 and 2011

Myles O’Reilly

Scottish Environment Protection Agency, Redwood Crescent, East Kilbride, Glasgow G74 5PP
E-mail: myles.oreilly@sepa.org.uk

In 1986, prior to the publication of the Wild Plants of
Glasgow (Dickson, 1991), a survey was undertaken of
the native (or naturalised) higher plant diversity of a
large suburban garden in the south side of Glasgow.
The garden harboured over sixty wild plant species,
including a few unusual species for the area. A follow
up survey was undertaken 25 years later in 2011, to
assess how the natural plant community had changed
over the years. Plants were identified with the aid of
Keble Martin (1969), Garrard & Streeter (1983), and
Phillips (1980). Nomenclature has been updated to
match Dickson et al (2000).

The garden located on Newark Drive in Pollokshields
(NS 57225 63075) is moderately large with a footprint
of around 1200m^. The layout comprises, to the front,
a gravel driveway and a lawn with bordering beds with
a few shrubs and mature trees (lime, noiway maple,
sycamore, horse chestnut, holly, common whitebeam,
laburnum and wych elm) (see Fig.l). The side gardens
have an old concrete drive, grass areas, gravel paths
i and small trees (ash, rowan, silver birch, locust tree)
(see Fig.2) and the rear garden has more extensive
grass areas, a concrete garage forecourt, some over-
grown beds, a former vegetable garden and a few
mature trees (lime, alder, wild cherry and apple) (see
I Fig.3). The garden was intensively cultivated in the
1960s with many foimal beds of flowers, neat lawns,
pollarded trees, vegetable patches as well as a large
greenhouse and numerous exterior cold frames. From
the early 1970s the cultivation regime reduced rapidly
to a low maintenance level. Tree pruning ceased, the
greenhouse was dismantled, and many beds and
vegetable patches were converted to grass or simply
became overgrown with weeds. Lawn mowing
continued but bed weeding was minimal, limited to
removal of large saplings with only shrubs and some
hardy perennial garden flowers persisting. The front
driveway was maintained with occasional weeding or
application of weed killer but the concrete drive and
forecourt and other paths gradually became overgrown
with grass and weeds.

[ The initial survey in 1 986 recorded 5 1 species of native
! (or naturalised) flowering plants, five fem species and
I one horsetail (Table 1). Grasses added another, often

hidden, component of higher plant diversity. Mowing
and strimming often limited grass identification but
during the early 1980s ten species of grass (and one
msh) were identified within the garden (Table 2). The
flowering plants included a variety of annual weeds
{eg. thale cress, cleavers, groundsel) and several
pernicious perennial “weeds” - the bane of gardeners -
rosebay willowherb, ground-elder, field horsetail, large
bindweed, Japanese knotweed. The grassy areas had
their own distinctive flora including creeping
buttercup, daisy, self-heal, and thyme-leaved
speedwell. A few shade tolerant woodland species
such as lesser celandine, broad-leaved helleborine and
bluebell were already present under mature trees.

Some species were clearly garden escapes {ie. welsh
poppy, feverfew) and others, although indigenous to
Scotland, are known to have been intentional
introductions into the garden in the 1970s: shining
crane’s-bill from Lennoxtown, bairen strawberry from
Roebank Reservoir, water avens from Dairy
(Ayrshire), great mullein from Dumfries, caper spurge
from the derelict greenhouse of a neighbouring garden,
and bluebell from Pollok Park. Others may have
previously arrived with soil from greenhouse plants.
This is probably the case (indirectly) for the caper
spurge mentioned above and for the greater bumet-
saxifrage which appeared in the early 1 980s in the area
of the dismantled greenhouse. The caper spurge was
introduced in 1974 and persisted by self seeding
around the garden for around 12 years. It is rare in the
Glasgow area, being recorded from only four tetrads
(Dickson et al. 2000). The greater bumet-saxifrage
appeared as a seedling in 1981 and comprised four
large plants by 1986. It is veiy rare in Scotland and
this was the first record for the Glasgow area (Dickson
et al. 2000).

Accidental introduction of some plants with
commercial grass seed mix during conversion of some
fomier flower beds into lawns was also a known amval
route into the garden for at least three unusual species -
black nightshade {Solamtm nigrum) in 1978), small-
flowered catchfly (Silene gallica) in 1980, and field
madder (Sherardia arvensis) in 1981- but none of
these persisted into the following years.

Four species of fern were present in 1986. Male-fem
and lady-fern were scattered throughout the garden.
There were three broad buckler-fern plants -
introduced from Pollok Park and on the garden walls a
single hard shield-fem and a single maidenhair
spleenwort.

The follow-up survey in 201 1 revealed that the number
of wild flower species established in the garden had
increased to 60 and the number of fern species
remained the same at five. Some flower species {e.g.
barren strawbeny, germander speedwell, self-heal,
bluebell) have spread and increased in abundance,
others have decreased (tvg. red campion, american
willowherb, daisy, feverfew). Altogether nine llower
species and two ferns have disappeared and 1 8 new
flower species and two new ferns have arrived.
Mowing and strimming prevented a proper review of
the grass species in 2011.

In addition to the flowering plants and fems found in
2011, a large number of tree (or shrub) seedlings or
saplings were noted sprouting on lawns and old border
beds (Table 3). In spring 2011 nearly thirty lime
seedlings (cotyledon stage) were observed on the lawn
areas. Regeneration of lime is relatively unusual in
Scotland (see Gray, Grist, & Hansen 1999).

Among the absentees in 2011 were several annual
weeds (shepherd’s purse, groundsel, and common
orache) possibly edged out by overgrowth of grasses
and thickets of bramble in some areas. Newly an'ived
weeds included ivy-leaved speedwell, knotgrass,
smooth sow-thistle, curled dock, common nettle, great
willowherb and bramble. Another new weed, blinks,
formed extensive patches on the gravel driveway. The
introduced water avens, greater bumet-saxifrage, great
mullein, and caper spurge have all died out along with
the single bittersweet. The amval of the two-spined
acaena is of interest (Fig. 4). Although this alien
species is still rare as a naturalised plant in Glasgow it
may be spreading.

In the grassy areas greater plantain seems to have
disappeared while a few ribwort plantain have arrived.
The alien fox-and-cubs (“orange hawkweed”) has
invaded the front lawn and, with a low growth habit
resistant to mowing, has become exceedingly abundant
and a garden variety of lady’s mantle has tumed up on
a grassed over driveway. Several cuckooflower have
also appeared in recent years in the grassy areas
although these are more susceptible to mowing and
flowering stalks persist only on untrimmed grassy
borders.

The continued growth of mature (and maturing) trees
has encouraged the development of a woodland flora
under their shade. Lesser celandine has expanded from
a few patches to broad caipcts. The dozen or so native
bluebell introduced in the eighties have now fomied
into two natural “bluebell glades” with over 150 plants.
However non-native Spanish bluebell has also spread

from neighbouring gardens and it appears that they
may already be hybridising with the native bluebell
(see Dickson, 1991, Dickson et al. 2000). Four new
shade-tolerant woodland species have colonised the
garden; wood avens and wild strawberry, both of which
arc already widespread, a patch of enchanter’s
nightshade, and a single flowering plant of ramsons.

Among the ferns the broad buckler-fem and hard
shield-fem have gone but the shade loving hart’s-
tongue has arrived. The single maidenhair spleenwort
on the garden wall has expanded to over 100 plants and
a few plants of wall-rue have established on the same
wall, spread from a new colony of about 50 plants on
an adjacent neighbour’s wall.

Gardens are often overlooked when it comes to surveys
of natural flora. It is evident from the small number
examined in preparation for the Wild Plants of
Glasgow (Dickson, 1991) that suburban gardens,
especially if a little unkempt, can host a suiprising
diversity of natural flora. In well cultivated gardens
the natural flora will be dominated by plants of arable
land (i.e. weeds of flower beds) or grazed pasture {i.e.
weeds of lawns) but where the maintenance is less
strict and where trees are allowed to mature then
woodland species may become established.

Accidental introduction from horticulture via grass
seeding, flower seed packs or potted plants from
garden centres may result in the presence of some
unexpected native species. At Newark Drive
accidental (or intentional) introduction has been the
source of several such arrivals. Mud on tyre treads or
wheel arches may possibly explain the spread of some
driveway weeds such as blinks and knotgrass. Most of
the other plant airivals probably derive from
windblown seeds (or spores). This is undoubtedly the
case for most weed species, for broad-leaved
hclleborine orchids, and for fern species. Others such
as bramble and wild strawbeirics may aixive as seeds
within bird droppings. Wood avens and enchanter’s
nightshade with barbed seeds may perhaps arrive
attached to bird’s feathers or on the fur of foxes or cats.
The spread of the alien two-spined acaena is likely to
be similar.

Colonisation by tree seedlings is mainly by wind blown
seeds from near and far. Two goat willow saplings
noted in 20 1 1 were growing in the house roof gutter,
8m above ground, on a bed of pigeon droppings!
Although only about 30 cm tall they were already
reproducing with catkins. Other trees which produce
berries (rowan, whitebeam, hawthorn, wild cherry,
holly and elder) may be spread via bird droppings.
There is evidence in the fomi of gnawed cheiry stones
secreted in holes that mice may also help distribute the
wild cherry, while grey squiiTels (rare in this area in the
1980s but now common) are a possible candidate for
distribution of horse chestnuts.

Species

creeping buttercup

Ranunculus repens

meadow buttercup

Ranunculus acris

lesser celandine

Ranunculus ficaria

welsh poppy

Meconopsis cambrica

wavy bitter cress

Cardamine flexuosa

cuckooflower

Cardamine pratensis

shepherd ’s-purse

Capsella bursa-pastoris

thale cress

Arabidopsis thaliana

red campion

Silene dioica

common mouse-ear

Cerastium fontamm

blinks

Montia fontana

procumbent peaiiwort

Sagina procumbens

herb-robert

Geranium robertianum

shining crane’s-bill

Geranium lucidum

white clover

Trifolium repens

bush vetch

Vida septum

lady’s mantle

Alchemilla mollis

two-spined acaena

Acaena oval folia

bramble

Rubus fruticosus s.l.

baiTen strawberry

Potentilla sterilis

wild strawbeny

Fragraria vesca

waters avens

Geum rivale

wood avens

Gemn urbanum

rosebay willowherb

Chamerion angust folium

broad-leaved willowherb

Epilobium montanum

american willowherb

Epilobium ciliatum

great willowherb

Epilobium hirsutum

ground-elder

Aegopodium podagraria

greater bumet-saxifrage

Pimpinella major

pignut

Conopodium majiis

enchanter’s nightshade

Circaea lutetiana

common ivy

Hedera helix

cleavers

Galium aparine

daisy

Beilis perennis

feverfew

Tanacetum parthenium

groundsel

Senecio vulgaris

common ragwort

Senecio jacobaea

creeping thistle

Cirsium ai'vense

spear thistle

Cirsium vulgare

cat’s-ear

Hypochaeris radicata

common hawkweed

Hieraceum vidgatum

fox-and-cubs

Pilosella aurantiaca

dandelion

Taraxacum sp.

smooth sow-thistle

Sonchus oleraceus

nipplewort

Lapsana communis

field forget-me-not

Mvosotis aixtensis

large bindweed

Calystegia silvatica

bittersweet

Solanum dulcamara

great mullein

Verbascum thapsus

ivy-leaved toadflax

Cymbalaria muralis

foxglove

Digitalis purpurea

ivy-leaved speedwell

Veronica heder folia

thyme-leaved speedwell

Veronica serpyll folia

germander speedwell

Veronica chamaedrys

selfheal

Prunella vulgaris

greater plantain

Plantago major

ribwort plantain

Plantago lanceolata

1986 status 2011 status

common

one plant

several patches

abundant

common

absent

five plants

a few on paths

absent

common

one plant

one patch on lawn

several on lawn

absent

abundant

common on paths

a few on paths

common

common on lawn

one large patch

four patches

absent

three plants

absent

one plant

absent

abundant

five plants

common

absent

common

15 plants

absent

common

several stands

two stands

common

30 plants

one plant

absent

two stands

abundant

four plants

absent

one on grass

absent

twenty plants

several on walls

common

common on lawns

a few on lawns

common

two plants

common

absent

several

common

four plants

common

two plants

several on lawn

common on lawn

a few on grass

three plants

absent

abundant on lawn

common

absent

two plants

common

common on paths

six plants

common

one plant

absent

one plant

absent

common on walls

common

five plants

absent

three on drive

common on grass

a few on grass border

abundant on grass border

one patch

common

a few on grass

absent

three on grass

common orache

A triplex patula

a few on paths

absent

knotgrass

Polygonum aviciilare

absent

ten plants on drive

Japanese knotweed

Fall opia japonic a

common

common soitcI

Riimex acetosa

common on grass

a few on grass

broad-leaved dock

Ruinex ohtitsifolius

common

curled dock

Riimex crispiis

absent

one plant

caper spurge

Euphorbia lathyris

one plant

absent

common nettle

Urtica dioica

absent

one small patch

broad-leaved helleborine

Epipactis helleborine

four under trees

nine under trees

ramsons

Allium ursinum

absent

one under trees

bluebell

Hyacinthoides non-scriptus

twelve under trees

common

Spanish bluebell

Hyacinthoides hispanica

absent

several clumps

male-fern

Diyopteris fil ix-mas

several

broad buckler-fem

Diyopteris dilitata

three plants

absent

lady-fern

A thyrium fil ix-femina

several

hard shield-fern

Polvstichum aculeatum

one on wall

absent

hart’s-tongue

Asplenium scolopendrium

absent

several

wall -rue

Asplenium ruta-muraria

absent

five on wall

maidenhair splcenwort

Asplenium trichomanes

one on wall

abundant on wall

field horsetail

Equisetum arvense

common

Table 1 . Wild (and naturalised) llowers and ferns 1 986 and 2011.

It is clear from the relative abundances of the tree
seedlings and saplings that, left to itself, this suburban
garden would quickly revert to deciduous woodland
dominated by sycamore and norway maple, neither of
which is native to Scotland (Dickson et al. 2000), with
an under-storey of shade-tolerant woodland plants.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks are due to Alison Moss and Damien Hicks for
assistance with some plant identifications.

Fig.l. Newark Drive - Front garden with border of mature trees.

Fig.2. Newark Drive - Grassed over concrete driveway.

Fig.3. Newark Drive - Rear garden.

Fig.4. Newark Drive - Two-spined acaena.

Species

red fescue

Festuca rubra

perennial rye-grass

Lolium pereune

crested dog’s-tail

Cynosurus cristatus

annual meadow-grass

Poa amma

cock’s-foot

Dactylis glomerata

yorkshire-fog

Holcus lauatus

sweet vernal-grass

Anthoxanthum oderatum

reed canary-grass

Phalaris arundinacea

timothy

Phleum pratense

common couch

Elytrigia repens

field wood-rush

Luzula can^pestris

Table 2. Grass and rush species in the 1980s.

Species No, of seedlings/saplings

wych elm

Ulmus glabra

silver birch

Betula pendula

alder

Alnus glutinosa

lime

Tilia X europaea

goat willow

Salix caprea

wild cherry

Prunus avium

cheiTy laural

Prunus laurocerasus

rowan

Sorbus aucuparia

common whitebeam

Sorbus aria

hawthorn

Crataegus monogyma

broom

Cytisiis scoparius

holly

Ilex aepufolium

horse chestnut

Aesculus hippocastanwn

norway maple

A cer platanoides

100s

sycamore

A cer pseudoplatanus

100s

ash

Fraxinus excelsior

elder

Sambucus nigra

Table 3. Tree (and shrub) seedlings and saplings in 201 1 .
REFERENCES

Dickson, J.H. (1991). Wild Plants of Glasgow.
Conservation in the City and Countiyside.
Aberdeen University Press, 208.

Dickson, J.H., Macpherson, P., Watson, K. (2000).
The Changing Flora of Glasgow. Urban and Rural
Plants through Centuries. Edinburgh University
Press, 402.

Garrard I. & Streeter, D. (1983). The Wild Flowers of
the British Isles. MacMillan, London, 295.

Gray, R.S.K., Grist, N.R. & Hansen, M.H. (1999).
Natural regeneration of Limes (Tilia spp. ) in
Scotland. Wann summers produce an abundance of
ripe seed. Glasgow Naturalist 23(4), 19-25. (plus
Errata Glas.Nat. 23(5), 74).

Keble Martin, W. (1969). The Concise British Flora in
Colour. Ebury Press and Michael Joseph. Second
(revised) edition. 254.

Phillips, R. (1980). Grasses, Ferns, Mosses & Lichens
of Great Britain and Ireland. Pan Books, 191.

The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 79-86

The Blodwen Lloyd Binns Bequest: its contribution to the development of
Glasgow Natural History Society

Roger Downie, Morag Mackinnon, Peter Macpherson, Dominic McCafferty and Richard Weddle
Glasgow Natural History Society c/o Graham Kerr Building,

University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ

ABSTRACT

Professor Blodwen Lloyd Binns (BLB) left a
substantial legacy to Glasgow Natural History Society
on her death in 1991. In her will, the bequest was
‘unconditional’, but she made a number of suggestions
on how the money could be used both in her will and in
additional coixespondence. In this paper, we describe
how the Society has used the income generated by this
generous bequest in the 20 years since BLB’s death.
The paper covers the management of the bequest, the
income generated and expenditure on the Society’s
activities (nearly £214,000). The bequest has supported
the Society’s journal The Glasgow Naturalist and other
publications, biological recording, overseas
expeditions, a lecture series, a multitude of research
projects and the Society’s social activities (one of
BLB’s specific suggestions). It is no exaggeration to
say that the bequest has had a transfomiative effect on
the Society and that, with pindent management, this
effect should continue into the future.

INTRODUCTION

Blodwen Lloyd Binns (BLB) died in her 90*’’ year in
August 1991, having been a member of Glasgow
Natural History Society (initially in its earlier name of
the Andersonian Naturalists of Glasgow: see Sutcliffe,
2001) since 1934. In her will, BLB left the Society a
substantial legacy. Twenty years after her death seems
an appropriate time to appraise the impact that her
legacy has made on the Society’s affairs.

As Macpherson ( 1 992) recounted, BLB was a member
of the Botany Department of Glasgow’s Royal
Technical College (later the University of Strathclyde)
from 1926-62, then Professor of Botany at the new
University of Malawi 1965-72. Her scientific work was
wide-ranging, including fermentation and marine
microbiology. To aid her botanical teaching, she
produced a Handbook of Botanical Diagrams in 1935,
with a second edition in 1949, reprinted seven times. It
was the royalties on this book that made a substantial
contribution to the legacy she was able to leave to the
Society.

BLB’s will was made in 1974 and states “this
bequest... is unconditional but 1 express the hope that

it may enable the Andersonian Naturalists a) to airange
for refreshments and thus encourage fraternising at
their meetings b) to foster interest in their own under-
valued history and achievements including their current
activities in conjunction with and for the Botanical
Society of the British Isles and the Vegetation Atlas”
(quoted from BLB’s will in the Society’s archives).

Although BLB had stated that the bequest was
“unconditional”, she had also conveyed to the Society,
in a series of eight communications to Peter
Macpherson, a number of suggestions as to how the
money might be used: these are listed in Table 1
(abstracted from a document in the Society’s archives).

1 . To complete her biography of Professor Scouler

2. To research a biography of Scott Elliot

3. To research a biography of Roger Hennedy

4. To produce a brochure of the early histoiy of the
Society

5. A publication on the Lost Flora of Glasgow

6. A publication on the Aliens and Adventives in
Glasgow

7. A publication on the Lost Flora of Helensburgh

8. In collaboration with Strathclyde University,
complete the following Herbarium Transcripts:

a) Volume 1 Indigenous flowering plants

b) Volume 2 Exotica

c) Volume 3 Ciyptograms

9. Consider helping Strathclyde University to
catalogue the Herbarium

1 0. Improve the social aspect of the Society

1 1 . Provide a home for the Society

Table 1. Blodwen Lloyd Binns’s suggestions

After initially depositing the legacy in the Society’s
general fund. Council agreed to set up a sub-committee
to administer the bequest. This first met on 4'*’ March
1993 and comprised Prof Norman Grist (President),
Jean Millar (General Secretary), Bob Gray (Treasurer),
Dr Peter Macpherson (Scientific Adviser) and Bruce
Lindsay (Financial Adviser). At that meeting, Nonnan
Grist listed several categories for possible expenditure
of the legacy and Peter Macpherson read the list of

“suggestions” from BLB’s communications to him.
Bruce Lindsay recommended appointment of a broker
to advise on investments: the intention would be to
maintain the capital, allowing for inflation, and spend
the income generated: on the sum initially available -
about £175,000 (a huge sum for a small organisation
like GNHS), income expected could be around £10,500
per annum. At this first meeting, there were three
applications for funding. It was agreed to investigate
each further, and to produce a form for the use of all
future applicants (summarised from the Minute of the
first meeting of administrators of BLB’s Bequest, in
the Society’s archives).

Downie (1998) reported on the first few years of the
Bequest’s use: by the end of 1997, £19,200 had been
spent, 13% of this on the Glasgow Naturalist
(enhancing its production standards, especially through
the inclusion of colour), 15% on equipment, especially
a computer and associated kit to bring the Society’s
work into the modem age, 2% on special lectures, 3%
on social events, 5% on administration of the bequest
and 62% on “projects”. In terms of money spent,
projects were 53% in the UK and 37% abroad, mostly
undergraduate expeditions organised through the
University of Glasgow’s Exploration Society. Downie
( 1 998) hoped that BLB would have approved, given
her personal “histoiy of adventurous botanising in far
countries”. Possibly less to BLB’s taste, projects were
61% zoological, 38% botanical and 1% miscellaneous.
The aim of this paper is to analyse and report on the
various contributions the BLB Bequest has made to
GNHS in the 20 years since BLB’s death.

L MANAGEMENT OF THE BEQUEST AND
CRITERIA FOR FUNDING

The rules for the management of the Bequest are laid
down in the Society’s Constitution. To comply with the
requirements of the Office of the Scottish Charities
Regulator (OSCR), the Constitution was amended in
November 2010. The rules are as follows (summarised
from the Society’s Constitution, available on the
Society’s web-site):

The Bequest is administered by an Executive
comprising the Society’s President, General Secretary
and Treasurer together with scientific and financial
advisers (number not specified) appointed at the
Society’s AGM. The aims of the Executive are to put
into effect the wishes of Professor Lloyd Binns and to
further the aims of the Society. The Bequest is
managed in such a way as broadly to preseiwe its
capital value, allowing for inflation, with awards made
from the income aceming from investments.

It is worth noting that Dr Peter Maepherson has served
as a scientific adviser to the Bequest since its inception,
and that Bruce Lindsay served as financial adviser
from the start of the Bequest until 2009-10.

The BLB Committee now meets three times a year
(September, Januai^ and March) to coincide with

GNHS Council meetings. At these meetings, the
Committee receives an update on the Bequest’s
finances, considers any changes needed in the
investment portfolio, makes decisions on grant
applications, receives reports from work funded by the
Bequest and discusses any modifications proposed to
the way in which the Bequest’s income could be used.

Over the years, a number of activities have become
established as being funded by the Bequest without the
need for specific application. These are:

• A contribution to the social life of the Society.
This funds wine at events like the September
Exhibition, the Christmas Dinner, the BLB lecture
and the Summer Social. It also funds the costs of
pre-talk dinners for speakers. A summary of these
costs is shown in Table 2. The Committee has
taken the view that these contributions fit with
BLB’s express wish to “arrange for refreshments.,
and encourage fraternising at meetings”.

• A contribution to the costs of publication of The
Glasgow Naturalist (see Table 2 and section 4).

• Funding of the BLB Lecture series (see section 9).

The bulk of the Bequest’s income is disbursed
following applications for grants (see section 3). The
Committee has made a number of modifications to the
criteria for support over the years. Cuirently, these are
(summarised from the Society’s web-site: Grant
Infonnation page):

• We assist individuals and groups in canying out
projects of natural history interest.

• Where we have to decide between the merits of
competing applications, preference is given to
Society members over non-members, to local over
distant projects, and to projects likely to generate
future publication. We will not nonnally give
grants towards salaries.

• Limited support for postgraduate students to report
their results at national and international
conferences.

• Support for overseas natural history projects: this
is given for two categories of project a) overseas
natural history expeditions, mainly involving
under-graduate expeditions; b) overseas natural
history research by individuals.

In all cases, upper financial limits are advertised (and
modified by the Committee from time to time). In
addition, since the start of the Bequest it has been
agreed that no grant greater than £2000 will be made
without the approval of the Society’s Council.

2. THE BEQUEST’S FINANCES
Figure la shows the market value of the Bequest’s
investments since 1993. As can be seen, there was a
sharp rise over the first few years when applications for
funding were significantly less than income generated
and surpluses were re-invested, peaking at almost
£316,000 in 1999.

Fig. 1. Financial history of the BLB Bequest
a) Market value; b) Income

Subsequent changes in the market value of the
Bequest’s holdings have essentially followed the
vagaries of the financial markets, especially the recent
slump. Even with the recent fall in value in 2008, the
Bequest is worth substantially more than at the start,
even taking inflation into account. Figure lb shows the
annual income generated by the Bequest’s investments.
The overall policy of the Bequest Committee has been
to hold a substantial proportion of the funds in ‘safe’
lowish interest investments, with a smaller proportion
in carefully chosen stocks with potentially higher
yields. Inevitably this has led to some variation in
income, again generally following changes in the
financial markets, but annual income has never fallen
below £10,000, much in line with the original
expectation and has generated a mean annual income
of £13,327. The Bequest Committee was fortunate in
having Bmce Lindsay’s careful advice on investment
policy over many years.

Table 2a shows the total income generated by the
Bequest (1995-2010), total expenditure and a
breakdown of the expenditure into its main categories.
It is gratifying to note that overall administrative costs
have been low (stockbroking, legal and general 5.5%).
However, the 17-year average disguises some trends.
Following a new arrangement with our stockbrokers,
their fees rose substantially to 1 1 .5% of income over
the years 2007-10. The Committee regarded this as
unacceptably high and a change was made during
2010.

a) Income, expenditure and main expenditure

categories

Total Income

Total Expenditure

- Grants (%)

- Equipment (%)

- Publications (%)

- Social (%)

- Meetings (%)

- Stockbroking - Legal (%)

- Administration (%)

Total (£)

1994-2010

226.559

213.559

£ and (%)
152,386(71.4)

8,223 (3.9)

18,408 (8.6)

8,681 (4.1)

12,502 (5.9)

9,512 (4.5)

2036 (1.0)

b) Grants categories: percentage of total grant

expenditure

(%)

Conferences, exhibitions

6.4

Habitat creation/memorial

2.3

Training courses

1.5

UG expeditions (59)

22.0

UK research

19.8

Overseas research

11.8

Collcctions/recording

8.6

Publications

24.3

Excursions

1.9

Donation (SCENE)

1.3

Table 2. Income generated by the BLB Bequest, and a
breakdown of the main spending streams a) total
income and main spending streams, b) breakdown of
grant categories.

Contributions to social events and meetings average
10% of Bequest expenditure, well fulfilling BLB’s
request that her legacy should contribute to
‘fraternisation’. A matter of concern to the Committee
has been a recent steep rise in room charges imposed
by our host, the University of Glasgow: without the
benefit of the Bequest, the Society would certainly
have had to move, in spite of the benefits of the
Zoology Museum and our libraiy being housed in the
Graham Kerr Building.

Expenditure on equipment has taken up 3.8% of
Bequest income. Most of this was in the early days,
and was largely on computing equipment. Since 2005,
the Society has had the benefit of an additional legacy
(£8000, T.E. Kinsey); this is administered along with
the BLB and is used wholly for the purchase of natural
history equipment.

The second biggest expenditure categoiy has been
publications (8.6%). Initially, the Bequest simply made
a contribution to colour printing in The Glasgow
Naturalist. More recently, as production costs have
risen and additional publications have been produced
(see section 4), there has been substantial expenditure
from time to time, but this is offset by income in some
cases.

By far the biggest expenditure eategoiy has been grants
(71.4%). An aecount of the variety of grants awarded is
given in the next seetion.

3. ACTIVITIES SUPPORTED BY GRANTS

Table 2a gives a breakdown of the way in whieh the
£152k on grants has been alloeated. The four major
items have been Publieations, Undergraduate
Expeditions, UK Research and Overseas Research.
Over the years of the Bequest, there have been some
changes in the procedures for recording expenditure, so
there is a categoiy of Publication in Table 2a as well as
under grants. Most of the grant-aided publications have
been for floras, especially the Changing Flora of
Glasgow (2001), the largest single item funded by the
Bequest at £8459 (as noted in section 8 and in Table 1,
publications on the flora of Glasgow were among
BLB’s specific suggestions). The Bequest also funded
a publication, jointly with Scottish Natural Heritage, on
the flowers of Iona (Millar, 1993). Sec also section 8.
The Undergraduate Expeditions (59) funded by the
Bequest have all involved the University of Glasgow’s
Exploration Society and are discussed in section 7.
Research projects both in the UK and overseas have
been VC17 varied: the Bequest has been valuable as a
supplementary funder for postgraduate research
projects where the consumables and travel budgets
provided by the main grant have been inadequate - in
this way, the Bequest has aided research on the
diversity of sticklebacks in Scotland, the Gartcosh
great crested newt translocation, ovei'wintcring of
common frog tadpoles, local adaptations of common
frogs in Scotland and wolf conservation in Ethiopia.

Collections and bio-recording (8.6% of grants) are
described in section 6 as are the training courses aimed
at improving identification and recording skills (1.5%).
The Bequest has helped fund attendance at conferences
and also the mounting of a number of exhibitions, most
notably the Animal Architecture Company, the
Hunterian Museum’s contribution to Glasgow City of
Design and Architecture (1999). A small proportion
(2.3%) of grant funding has gone to habitat creation
projects, such as wildlife gardens in schools and
Froglife’s Living Waters programme which is creating
amphibian habitats around the country.

An important activity for the Society is the extensive
scries of excursions run each year, spring to autumn.
These are largely self-funding, but a small proportion
of the grant money (1.9%) has helped with these,
especially with transport.

4. JOURNAL AND OTHER PUBLICATIONS
(INCLUDING PRIZES FOR YOUNG AUTHORS)

The BLB Bequest gives financial support for the
publication of The Glasgow Naturalist. The Glasgow
Naturalist was first issued around 1908-9 and is a peer
reviewed journal that publishes original studies in
botany, zoology and geology, with a particular focus
on studies from the West of Scotland. The journal is
published on a 1-2 year basis and further supplements

are produced to publish the proceedings of
conferences. The Society is fortunate in receiving
generous funding from the BLB Bequest to allow the
continued publication of one of the best respected
natural history journals in Scotland. The BLB currently
contributes £l-£2k per edition for printing, materials
and secretarial work.

The BLB prize is awarded for papers submitted for
publication in The Glasgow Naturalist. The subject
area is the natural history of Scotland. The intention of
the prize is to encourage work by younger scientists -
"younger" in the sense of new to scientific
writing. Submitted work should therefore be amongst
the first three papers the writer has submitted for
publication. This prize was first awarded in 2008 and
prizes have been made to:

Jill M. Williams, 2008. Flood meadow vegetation at
Little Lcny Meadows, Callander: comparison of
two adjacent grazed and ungrazed meadows. The
Glasgow Naturalist 25( 1 ): 5 1 -56.

Andrew Kyle. 2009. A comparison of grey squirrel
(Sciurus carolinensi.s) densities between an urban
park and semi-rural woodland in Glasgow. The
Glasgow Naturalist 25(2): 23-26.

Lindsay J. Henderson. 2011. Pine martens, Martes
martes as predators of nestling blue tits, Cyanistes
caeruleus. The Glasgow Naturalist 25{3), 101-2.

The BLB Bequest has also supported publications
written by members of the Society and made
contribution to natural history publications of national
interest. These include Knowler’s (2010) checklist of
the larger moths of Stirlingshire and suiTounding areas;
Dickson et al.'s (2000) book on the flora of Glasgow;
Walker’s (2003) book on useful herbs and Millar’s
(1993) book on the flowers of Iona; and Sutcliffe’s
(2010) book on interesting natural histoi7 sites of the
Glasgow area.

5. CONFERENCES

Prior to the existence of the Bequest, conferences
figured very rarely among the Society’s activities.
Since the Bequest, we have organised four (Table 3) at
2-4 year inteiwals. In all cases, the proceedings have
been published, as sets of edited papers, in The
Glasgow Naturalist, either as supplements or as part of
a regular issue. In addition, the more recent three sets
of proceedings have been published on-line. As shown
in Table 3, conferences have usually been linked to an
event, such as the Society’s 150‘'’ anniversary, and have
often involved a collaboration with other groups, such
as the 2008 Machair conference, organised jointly with
the RSPB and the Aculeate Conservation Group, to cap
a three-year Esmee Fairbaim Foundation - funded
project on the great yellow bumble-bee. Collaborations
have helped to enlarge conference attendance, which
has been excellent in all cases.

The Bequest’s contributions have been a) to under-
write the costs of the conferences; b) to fund research

projects whose results have been presented at the
meetings; and c) to support publications of the
proceedings.

Month, Year

Conference Title

Duration (d)

Occasion

Publication

June, 2001

Alien species: friends or
foes?

Society’s 150'’’

Anniversary

GN 23 Supplement
2001

November, 2004

The natural history of
Loch Lomond and the
Trossachs

Recent opening of
Loch Lomond &
Trossachs National
Park

GN 24 Part 3 2005

December 2008

Machair conservation:
successes and challenges

Culmination of joint
project

GN 25 Supplement
2009

October, 20 1 0

Urban biodiversity:
successes and challenges

International Year of
Biodiversity

Pending

Table 3. GNHS Conferences

Although the conferences have been budgeted to break
even, it has been very helpflil to have the cushion of
the Bequest in case of financial problems; and
membership income alone could simply not have
provided the funds for full-scale publication. In these
ways, the Bequest has been a vital factor in allowing
the organisation of high quality conferences which
have considerably raised the profile of the Society
amongst kindred organisations.

6. RECORDING

Historically the Society has always seen the recording
of the wildlife of the Clyde Area as a priority, and has
maintained organised lists in one fonn or another
showing where various species were to be found
(Weddle, 2001). Since the late 1990s this process has
been considerably enhanced by a series of grants from
BLB for projects aiming to collate or transcribe
existing data for the Glasgow Museums Biological
Record Centre database, and in recent years, financial
support for taxonomic training courses.

As mentioned in section 8, the aspect closest to
Blodwen’s interests is the transcribing of data from the
Strathclyde Herbarium sheets; so far, the British
species - approximately 1484 bryophytes, 335 lichens
and 2,168 flowering plant records - have been gleaned
from a total of some 11,000 sheets. The remaining
specimens are exotic and transcription awaits a suitably
qualified volunteer. Continuing the botanical theme,
we have also transcribed some 450 records from a
‘Flora of Renfrewshire’ compiled by, or under the
auspices of, Morris Young the first Curator of Paisley
Museum (Weddle, 2008).

There are also several hundred records in the
manuscript accounts of field excursions by the
Andersonian Naturalists’ Society; a start has been
made on transcribing these.

Another major project helped by BLB funding is the
transcription of records of beetles from Anderson
Fergusson’s catalogue held by the Hunterian Museum

some 3,050 records spanning the years 1860-1938, not
all collected by Fergusson himself. This was added to
by Roy and Betty Crowson (some 2,670 records
spanning 1954-1998), and a further 10,000 records
from that period were gleaned from Roy Crowson’s
field diaries, work which is still in progress, but which
is expected to bring the total to around 50,000 records.

With the help of BLB funding, the Society has run two
sueeessful hoverfly identification courses in
conjunction with the national Hoverfly Recording
Scheme, the Hunterian Museum and Glasgow
Museums. Recently, in conjunction with BRISC
(Biological Recording in Scotland) the Bequest has
offered bursaries towards the costs of species
identification courses such as those run by the Field
Studies Council.

Grants have also been given for the purchase of the
‘Recorder’ database software by members of the
Society, and for attending training courses in its use.
The software was originally installed on a personal
computer which was also funded by a BLB grant; the
PC is not capable of running the latest version of
Recorder, but was until recently in use by volunteers at
Glasgow Museums Resource Centre for entering
records into spreadsheets ready for transfer to the main
database: its 1 1 years lifetime was pretty good for these
fast-changing times.

7, UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW STAFF-
STUDENT EXPEDITIONS

The University of Glasgow’s Exploration Society has a
long history of organising staff-student expeditions,
some to the UK but mainly overseas. These arc
science-based expeditions and have included projects
in medicine and veterinary medicine, geology,
geography and anthropology, but most have been on
wildlife and conservation. The Exploration Society fell
into inactivity during the period 1975-87, but was then
resurrected, with the first expeditions of the re-
constituted Society occumng in 1989. Raising money
for Expeditions involves a great deal of fund-raising
activities as well as grant applications. No single grant

is likely to fund a complete expedition, so it was vciy
helpful when the BLB Bequest agreed that overseas
expeditions would be a suitable activity to support. The
first expeditions part-funded by the BLB Bequest were
in 1995, and overall 59 expeditions have been
supported (3.7 per year). After some debate, the
Bequest Committee set a maximum of £1000 to be
awarded to an expedition as a whole, not to individual
participants. Awards were initially much less than that,
but over the years, supported expeditions have received
an average of £568.60.

Each expedition is expected to provide the Society with
a report, and these are kept in the Society’s Libraiy. An
on-line archive of expedition reports is in progress, and
will have a link to the Society’s website. For a time
(2001-4) expeditions also produced a short summary
for inclusion in The Glasgow Naturalist but this fits
poorly with the expectation that Naturalist articles
should concern mainly Scottish subjects. Another way
in which expeditions have provided feedback to the
Society has been via talks in the winter programme. As
well as formal reports, expeditions have contributed to
several Ph.D. theses, MRcs and undergraduate final
year project dissertations, and a substantial number of
papers in refereed journals. The Society can be proud
of its contributions to this work, and also to helping
students gain unforgettable experiences of natural
histoiy research abroad.

8. BLB’S REQUESTS

Over the years, the suggestions made by BLB (see
Introduction and Table 1) have been acted on by the
Bequest Committee as thoroughly as possible.

Projects in conjunction with the Botanical Society of
the British Isles (BSBI): As noted earlier, BLB
funding made possible the publication of The Changing
Flora of Glasgow (Dickson et ah, 2000). In addition,
GNHS and BSBI contributed to the publication a
checklist on the flowering plants of Argyll (Rothcro &
Thompson, 1994) and a flora of Tiree, Gunna and Coll
(Pearman & Preston, 2000). Both are committed to
supporting publication of a flora of Renfrewshire, and a
flora of Lanarkshire will soon be under consideration.
GNHS and BSBI also contributed to the costs of
recording in the more remote upland areas of
Lanarkshire for the New Atlas of the British and Irish
Flora (Preston, Pearman & Dines, 2002).

Sconler biography. BLB gave Peter Maepherson (PM)
a copy of a letter she had sent to Professor Ewan, Tulan
University, New Orleans (August, 1975) which read in
part “Scoulcriana is now developing interest. I sec in
the USA, and 1 am hoping that the local Andersonian
Naturalists Society, whose founder president he was in
1 852, may after my demise, work through my papers
so that they make much of the data available to USA. I
propose to dispose some modest funds to them to
encourage this work”. In 1994, PM uplifted from
Strathclyde University (on loan) a box containing the
draft that BLB had typed on the life of Scouler. Over

the next few years, the Bequest Committee discussed
whether to publish a ‘popular account’, based on
BLB’s notes, in The Glasgow Naturalist, or whether a
more detailed biography was desirable. After some
preliminary work, it was appreciated that considerable
research, some of it international, was needed for a full
biography. On the suggestion of Geoff Hancock, Dr
Charles Nelson, then at the National Botanic Garden,
Dublin, and an experienced historian of natural history,
was approached, and he agreed to take on the work.
Charles Nelson worked assiduously on the task,
including obtaining a copy of Scouler’s notebooks
from the United States, and by late 2010 had completed
a manuscript of about 125 pages plus bibliography,
taxa lists and illustrations. The Bequest Committee has
decided to publish this valuable material in book fonn
as a Society publication most likely in 2012. BLB’s
interest in Scouler included the planting of a specially
grown specimen of Scouler’s willow {Salix scouleri) in
the arboretum of Glasgow Botanic Gardens (Fig. 2).

Scott Elliot and Hennedy biographies’. These were
thoroughly researched by Eric Curtis and published in
The Glasgow Naturalist (Curtis, 2009).

Early history of the Society’: This was covered by
Downie (2001) and Sutcliffe (2001) in the volume of
The Glasgow Naturalist celebrating the Society’s 150*'’
Anniversary.

The Lost Flora, Aliens and Adventives of Glasgow:
These featured prominently in The Changing Flora of
Glasgow (Dickson et al, 2000). This 402 page book
received generous financial support from the Bequest.

Lost Flora of Helensburgh : PM made enquiries of the
previous and cuiTent BSBI recorders from
Dunbartonshire, Allan McG. Stirling and Alison
Rutherford. BLB had told the fonner that John Lee had
pressed a sample of eveiy plant in Dunbartonshire and
put them in matching folders. Allan had examined the
herbaria of Kelvingrove Museum and Art Gallery, the
University of Glasgow, and Strathclyde University. He
had found a few Lee specimens but none in matching
folders. PM contacted the Royal Botanic Gardens,
Edinburgh, and ascertained that they held no relevant
material. In the mid 1960s, Robert Mill, whist a
schoolboy at Hermitage Academy, Helensburgh,
surveyed the plants growing wild in the town, and later
published a flora based on this work (1967). Further
work on this suggestion seems unlikely to be fmitful.

Strathclyde University Herbarium Transcripts:
Although this item was on BLB’s list, she infomied
PM that it was “now in production, of interest to the
Society” at Strathclyde University. However, as noted
under Recording, this work is still in progress.

Strathclyde University Herbarium Catalogue: The
main contributors to the herbarium were Hennedy,
Scouler and Scott Elliot. Computerised cataloguing of
Phanerogams was completed by Keith Watson and of

Ciyptogams by J.A. McMullen (Macpherson &
Watson, 1996). Computerisation of the Lichens was
undertaken by Keith Watson in 2007.

Social aspects of the Society: This has been fiilly
achieved. BLB funding has helped enhance excursions,
conferences and other events, especially through
provision of refreshments.

Home for the Society: Since the Bequest began, the
Society has consolidated all operations into the
University of Glasgow’s Graham Kerr Building. The
Bequest funded the provision of locked cabinets for the
Society’s Library, and has helped greatly with the
rental costs of meeting in the Building.

Fig. l.Blodwen Lloyd Binns planting a Scouler’s
willow {Salix scouleri) in the arboretum of Glasgow
Botanic Gardens, 1988. The tree was received as a
cutting from Vancouver Botanic Gardens in 1982.
Present in the upper picture (left to right) are Jim
Dickson, Bill Fletcher, Alex McCaw, Alastair Laurie,
Ewen Donaldson, BLB and Derek Kane. The pictures
were taken by Eric Curtis.

9. THE BLB LECTURE SERIES

Council agree in 2000 that it would be a good use of
BLB Bequest money to fimd an annual lecture series
that would bring together members of the Society and
the staff and students of the University of Glasgow’s
Division of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology
(DEEB) whose Graham Kerr Building provides the
Society’s ‘'home’. The idea was that an endowed series

would attract prominent ecology and evolutionary
biology researchers, the modem natural historians, and
that we would ask them to prepare a lecture that would
interest and be accessible to both professional and
amateur natural historians. The staff of DEEB gave this
idea a warm welcome and the first lecture was given by
Tim Clutton-Brock in October 2001. A full list of the
lectures (the first 1 1 years of the series) is given in
Table 4. The series continues in collaboration with the
recently created Institute of Biodiversity, Animal
Health and Comparative Medicine, successor to DEEB
after the 20 1 0 University of Glasgow restructuring.

The series began literally with a bang, since it
coincided with the disastrous fire that destroyed the
University’s Bower (Botany) Building. Because of the
emergency electrical shutdown of the University’s
main circuit, the lecture had to be moved at very short
notice to the Western Infirmary Lecture Theatre.

Over its 1 1 years, the series has provided an excellent
overview of modem natural history, as can be seen
from the lecturers and their titles, and has consistently
attracted excellent audiences. As a measure of the
quality of the lecturers in the series, three of the first
five were Fellows of the Royal Society, and others in
the series have been elected FRS since.

CONCLUSION

It will be obvious from the foregoing accounts that the
BLB Bequest’s impact on the Society’s activities has
been immense and we are exceedingly grateful to have
been the recipient of this legacy. The additional annual
income of £13,000 has been a huge injection of ftinds
for a small Natural History Society whose annual
subscription income is around £3,000. Subscription
income covers room hire and speakers’ travel expenses
for the winter programme, newsletter costs and a
proportion of the publication costs of The Glasgow
Naturalist: the remainder of the Society’s activities as
described here are funded by the Bequest. We feel that
the income has been used imaginatively and diversely
in accordance with her wishes to benefit natural history
knowledge and activity at home and abroad. With
continued wise management of the Bequest’s
investments, we anticipate that it will continue to be of
benefit for years to come.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We gratefully acknowledge Florence McGarrity’s
assistance in putting together and revising the several
drafts of this paper; Bob Gray for providing copies of
older Society accounts; and Barbara Mable for helpful
comments on the penultimate draft. Ewen Donaldson
kindly provided the photographs for Fig. 2 and the
information about the planting of Scouler’s willow.

Year

Lecturer

Title

2001

Prof Tim Clutton-Brock

Co-operation in mammals

2002

Prof Geoff Parker

Golden flies, sunlit meadows

2003

Prof Bill Sutherland

What is the future of agriculture and farmland birds?

2004

Dr Tracy Chapman

The complex mating systems of insects

2005

Prof Nick Davies

Cuckoos versus hosts: an evolutionary arms race

2006

Dr Mike Majerus

The peppered moth saga

2007

Prof Josephine Pemberton

When evolution and ecology meet: long-tenu studies on red
deer and Soay sheep

2008

Prof David MacDonald

A brush with foxes and some other carnivore tales

2009

Prof Peter Slater

Learning about sound in animals

2010

Prof Roger Downie

Adventures with amphibians

2011

Prof Richard Abbott

Plant speciation in action in the UK: tales of the unexpected

Table 4. The BLB Lectures

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Francis Scott Elliot. The Glasgow Naturalist 25 (2),
49-55.

Dickson, J.H., Macphcrson, P. & Watson, K. (2000).
The Changing Flora of Glasgow. Edinburgh
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Downie, J.R. (1998). Sowing the seed... the first 5
years of the Blodwcn Lloyd Binns Bequest. The
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Downie, J.R. (2001). 150 Years of Glasgow Natural
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61.

Knowler, J.T. (2010). An annotated checklist of the
larger moths of Stirlingshire, West Perthshire and
Dunbartonshire. Glasgow Natural History Society,
Glasgow.

Macpherson, P. (1992). Obituary: Blodwen Lloyd-
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Macpherson, P. & Watson, K. (1996). Strathclyde
University Herbarium-Computerised Database. The
Glasgow Naturalist 23 (1), 7-8.

Mill, R. (1967). Checklist of the Flora of Helensburgh.
Macneur & Biyden Ltd., Helensburgh.

Millar, J.M. (1993). Flowers of Iona. Scottish Natural
Heritage.

Peannan, D.A. & Preston, C.D. (2000). A Flora of
Tiree, Giinna and Coll. Published privately.

Preston, C.D., Peannan, D.A. & Dines, T.D. (2002).
New Atlas of the British and Irish Flora. Oxford
University.

Rothero, G. & Thompson, B. (1994). An Annotated
Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Main Argyll.
The Argyll Flora Project.

Sutcliffe, R. (2010). Wildlife around Glasgow.
Glasgow Museums, Glasgow.

Sutcliffe, R. (2001). Glasgow’s natural history
societies: an update. The Glasgow Naturalist 23 (6),
62-67.

Walker, A. (2003). A garden of herbs: traditional uses
of herbs in Scotland. Argyll Publishing, Argyll.

Weddle, R.B. (2001). The ‘Clyde Cards’: an account of
biological recording in the West of Scotland. The
Glasgow Naturalist 23(6), 88-99.

Weddle, R.B. (2008). Morris Young’s ‘'Flora of
Renfrewshire" (VC 76). The Glasgow Naturalist
25(1), 29-50.

The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, 87-91

Gartcosh great crested newts: the story so far

McNeill, D.C.’ , Downie, J.R.^ and Ross,

School of Life Sciences and Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow,
Glasgow, Scotland, G12 8QQ

‘Kelvin Building, University Ave, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ,

^Graham Ken- Building, University Ave, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8Q0
■^Scottish Natural Heritage, Great Glen House, Leachkin Rd, Inverness, IV3 8NW

'E-mail: deborah.mcneill@glasgow.ac.uk

ABSTRACT

The Gartcosh Industrial Site, North Lanarkshire is
home to the largest known population of great crested
newts {Tritiirus cristatiis,) in Scotland. Economic
development of the site required the translocation of
the great crested newt and four other amphibian species
from existing ponds to a puipose built reserve around
the periphery. Monitoring the effectiveness of
translocation as a mitigation method has shown that in
this case, the breeding adult population is being
maintained at levels comparable with the previous site
although there are indications of possible declines with
other life stages. Longer tenn monitoring is required at
a level more in-depth than cuirently planned. The
aquatic and terrestrial habitat created appears sufficient
to support the population although there are problems
with fragmentation, both within the site and
connections to external locations. There is still pressure
for further development in an area that could affect the
newt population.

KEYWORDS: Triturus cristatus, amphibians,

translocation, mitigation, habitat, Scotland

INTRODUCTION

Great crested newt {Triturus cristatus, GCN)
populations have declined across their range in
Scotland (SNH Trends, 2004) and across the UK
(Langton et al., 2001) at a rate faster than other
common amphibian species throughout their entire
European range (AmphibiaWeb, 2008). Habitat
degradation or destmetion is a significant causal factor
as GCN populations are reliant upon both good quality
terrestrial and aquatic habitat. Terrestrial habitats are
threatened by development, urbanisation and other land
use changes. The resulting fragmented populations are
generally small, isolated and vulnerable to extinction
(Hanski & Gilpin, 1997; Hitchings & Beebee, 1997;
1998). Aquatic habitats are at risk through deliberate
destruction, lack of management and natural
succession. In Scotland, the number of ponds declined
during the 1950s to 1980s by 7%, although numbers
were found to have stabilised during a survey in the
1990s (SNH Trends, 2004).

In the UK, GCN are protected by the Conservation
(Natural Habitats etc.) Regulations, 1994. The
regulations make it an offence to kill, injure or take the
animals and to disturb them in certain circumstances.
Furthennore, the legislation protects breeding sites and
hibemacula. Development is the key pressure to GCN
in the Scottish central belt where the known GCN
populations arc concentrated. Development of land
containing GCN populations is only possible under
licence from the local Government agency (in this case,
Scottish Natural Heritage). Licenses can only be issued
for specific purposes and providing the impacts of the
proposal does not compromise the consei'vation status
of the species. This normally entails the provision of a
mitigation plan to ensure that impacts on individual
newts, populations and habitats arc minimised and, if
appropriate, compensatory habitat is created or existing
habitats enhanced.

The Gartcosh Industrial site in North Lanarkshire is
home to the largest known GCN population in
Scotland, with 1,012 adults present. This was estimated
to be 9-29% of the total Scottish population (McNeill,
2010). Approval for economic regeneration of this
brownfield site meant that in 2003, the Scottish
Executive granted a licence for the largest GCN
translocation in Scotland. However, despite a number
of reviews (Oldham et a!., 1991; Oldham &

Humphries, 2000; May, 1996 unpublished; Edgar &
Griffiths, 2004; Edgar et al., 2005), the question as to
whether or not translocation can be an effective
mitigation method remains unanswered. Some projects
were doomed to failure due to poor design and
implementation. Other projects were inconclusive as it
was not possible to gauge success due to issues such as
a lack of pre or post monitoring.

The Gartcosh translocation offered an opportunity to
undertake an in-depth case study on the effectiveness
of translocation as a mitigation method; what would
constitute a successful translocation and how this could
be achieved within the Scottish context? The research
was carried out by the University of Glasgow in

consultation with North Lanarkshire Council and
Scottish Natural Heritage, which also funded the
research.

Development of the Gartcosh business interchange
Gartcosh former steelworks: site history
The Gartcosh Iron and Steel works was constructed
between 1858 and 1872, with the rolling mill built in
1960. British Steel took over operations in 1962 until
its closure and subsequent demolition in 1986. The site
has since been subject to a long-tenn regeneration plan,
including establishing motorway access, reopening the
railway station and the creation of an industrial park.

Ponds developed naturally within the site and anecdotal
evidence suggests that the GCN population was in
residence from 1972, possibly earlier, although not
known to SNH (Archibald Laing pers. comm.). The site
was also home to populations of Lissotriton vulgaris
(smooth newts), Lissotriton helveticus (palmate newts),
Biifo hiifo (common toad) and Rana temporaria
(common frog).

In 1998, a field survey of the site identified 13 water
bodies, seven deemed suitable for GCN. The original
plan had been to protect the GCN in-situ within the
industrial park. The seven optimal ponds plus a ten
hectare area of land was designated the Amphibian
Conservation Area (ACA), with an additional eight
new ponds dug in 1998 (Fig. 1).

An options appraisal process was then undertaken by
the Gartcosh Regeneration Partnership (members
included North Lanarkshire Council, Scottish
Enteiprise and others from the public and private
sectors). They supported a regeneration ‘masteiplan’
that incorporated economic development of the area
intended as the ACA. As an alternative for the GCN,
the Gartcosh Nature Reserve (GNR) would be created
around the peripheiy of the industrial park and all
captured amphibians moved from the ACA to the
GNR. The GNR was completed in 2003, encompassing
24 ponds within 29 hectares of land (Fig. 2). The site
was divided into three zones: Bothlin Bum (9.1 Ha, 8
ponds), Gamqueen Hill (14.1Ha, 7 ponds) and Railway
Junction (5.4Ha, 6 ponds). There were a further three
‘Stepping Stone’ ponds in the Bothlin Bum area,
intended to aid dispersal.

Pre translocation monitoring: 1998-2003
Heritage Environmental Ltd (HEL) were contracted to
undertake a baseline survey of the ACA for six years
prior to the translocation. Torchlight suii/eys were used
to establish annual adult counts of all five amphibian
species present within the breeding ponds. Peak counts
for four species were observed in 2001 (GCN: 140,
palmate: 148, smooth: 161, toad: 801). The peak count
for frogs (747) was recorded during 2000.

The Gartcosh translocation: 2004-2006
The translocation was undertaken by HEL, with 25%
of the estimated adult GCN population in the ACA (sex
ratio 1 : 1±10%) moved to the Railway Junction zone of

the GNR during 2004 (the population estimate was
based on pre-translocation monitoring). During 2005
and 2006, all GCN captured in the ACA were moved to
the Bothlin Bum and Gamqueen Hill zones of the
GNR. The belly pattern of an adult GCN is as unique
as a fingerprint and can be used to identify individuals
(Oldham & Humphries, 2000). During translocation,
the belly patterns of all adult GCN were photographed
and moiphometric data collected (size and weight).

A total of 1,012 adult GCN were captured and moved
to the GNR alongside 2,800 smooth newts, 2,705
palmate newts, 1,500 frogs and 3,168 toads. Eggs,
laiwae and metamorphs of all species were also
translocated.

Post translocation monitoring
HEL continued to monitor peak adult counts using
torchlight surveys of the breeding ponds. The
University of Glasgow got involved in 2005 to 2009
with a more in-depth monitoring brief looking at key
aspects including population sizes, structure and
assessment of the suitability of newly created habitat to
support amphibian populations.

By 2009, the results of the translocation were
promising. Torchlight surveys indicated that the peak
breeding GCN adult count in the receptor site was
double the peak count in the donor site. This was
supported by the results of a mark-recapture study
undertaken, comparing post-translocation population
size with the known number of adults translocated.
Recruitment to the breeding population was occurring,
but an examination of the juvenile life-stages
highlighted possible future problems, with decreased
production and survival of laiwae and metamorphs
(McNeill, 2010). Further study is required to ascertain
whether this was a natural fluctuation or of greater
concern, linked to the translocation. However this type
of monitoring is not part of the on-going
management/surveying plan.

The provision of good quality aquatic and temestrial
habitat of a quantity comparable to that being lost is
critical to the on-going success of the translocation. For
a review on what is considered ‘good’ habitat, see
McNeill (2010). There has been a significant reduction
in available teiTCStrial habitat when comparing the
original Industrial Site (86Ha) to that made available
for the GNR (29Ha), although only a proportion of the
Industrial site could be considered to have been ‘newt-
friendly’. However, the GNR has a considerably larger
area of good teixestrial habitat if compared directly
with the ACA (lOHa).

There was an increase in the number of ponds created
as part of the GNR but an overall decrease in pond
surface area. This was avoidable, the result of a number
of ponds dug that were below the recommended size
threshold for GCN suitability described as 100 m^
minimum (English Nature, 2001) and 250 m^ as the
optimum (Gent & Gibson, 2003). The entire Railway
Junction zone was of sub-optimal size.

Fig, 1, Amphibian Conservation Area (ACA). Includes six of the seven original ponds, labelled C,D,E,F,G,I. Pond L is
not shown on this map. The eight newly created ponds are also shown, labelled 1-8. Map reproduced with permission
from Ironside Fan’er. Modified to show the location of Pond 1.

GATEW/

MOliSTWAL

SITES

Fig. 2, Map of the Gartcosh Industrial Site. The locations of the donor Amphibian Conservation Area (ACA) and the
newly created Gartcosh Nature Reserve are shown. The reserve by line hatchings, with labels showing the position of
the three zones Bothlin Bum (BB), Gamqueen Hill (GQH) and Railway Junction (RJ). Modified from a map provided
by Scottish Enterprise.

Habitat quality was detemiined using a combination of
measures including the GCN Habitat Suitability Index
(Oldham el al. 2000), aquatic macrophyte sampling,
macroinvertebrate analyses (Biggs el al., 1998) and
interpretation of teirestrial records provided by
Ironside Farrer who undertook the habitat creation
works. Analyses indieated that the GNR habitat was of
good quality, capable of supporting the GCN
population (McNeill, 2010). Notably, the Habitat
Suitability Index scored the GNR higher than the ACA
(McNeill, 2010). This is based on ten metrics
incoiporating data from both the aquatic and terrestrial
habitat. The higher the score, the more suitable a
habitat is for GCN occupation.

The GNR was fragmented for its initial years due to the
provision of ring fencing around each of the individual
zones (MeNeill, 2010). Dispersal throughout the site
remains problematic, with limited migration corridors.
Of particular coneem is the Railway .lunction zone as
only 56 adults were originally translocated there, below
the minimum viable breeding population size described
as 40 females (Halley et al., 1996) or minimum of 100
adults (Shaffer, 1981; Griffiths and Williams, 2000;
2001). Gartcosh remains isolated within a fragmented
landscape. This was not as a result of the translocation.
The nearest known population is in Drumcavel Quan'y,
outwith the range of natural migration and separated by
a motoway. The lack of immigration is a threat to the
long term viability of the Gartcosh population.

CONCLUSIONS

The stoiy so far at Gartcosh is one of short-term
success with further study required to ascertain
whether the population will be self-sustaining in the
long-term. The monitoring brief post-2009 is not
comprehensive enough to provide the required long
term data, consisting primarily of peak breeding adult
counts. While this provides useful information on
annual population fluctuations, it does not detail crucial
infomiation relating to population size, survival and
recruitment.

There is considerable development pressure in the area
around Gartcosh. This development has the potential to
impact directly on the Gartcosh Nature Reserve, but
also more widely on potential movement of newts
through the wider countryside. It is important that the
consideration of any development proposals in the area
take the great crested newt population at Gartcosh into
account and that they are designed to minimise impacts
and even promote free movement of the population.

The decision to relocate to the GNR instead of
protecting the newts in-.situ was taken because of the
economic imperative to develop the ACA along with
the rest of the Industrial Site. The development of the
site has been relatively slow but is now gathering
speed. Great crested newts may still be present in some
areas of the site due for development and it is essential
that their presence is considered as part of this work.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Scottish Natural Heritage, Blodwen Lloyd
Binns trust and the University of Glasgow for financial

assistance; North Lanarkshire Council for help and
advice; Heritage Environmental Ltd and Ironside
FaiTcr for kindly providing data and infonnation;
Scottish Enteiprise for site access. We thank the many
volunteers who helped with fieldwork, particularly
Jonathan Kennedy, Anthony McNeill, Laura Robertson
and Lisa McNeill.

REFERENCES

AmphibiaWeb (2008).

www.amphibiaweb.org/index.html

Accessed: Nov 2008.

Biggs, J., Fox, G., Nicolet, P., Walker, D., Whitfield,
M. & Williams, P. (1998). A Guide to the Methods
of the National Pond Suiwey. Pond Action; Oxford.
Edgar, P.W. & Griffiths, R.A. (2004). An evaluation of
the efficiency of great crested newt Thlurus
cri.statiLS mitigation projects in England, 1990-
2001. English Nature Research Report No. 575.
Edgar, P.W., Griffiths, R.A. & Foster, J.P. (2005).
Evaluation of translocation as a tool for mitigating
development threats to great crested newts
( Thturus cristatus) in England, 1 990 - 200 1 .
Biological Con.sen>aiion 122,45-52. 1 1.

English Nature (2004). An assessment of the efficiency
of capture techniques and the value of difference
habitats for the great crested newt Tritiims
cristatus. English Nature Research Reports, number
576.

Gent, A.H. & Gibson, R.A. (1998). Heipetofauna
Workers' Manual, Joint Nature Conservation
Committee (JNCC), Peterborough.

Griffiths, R.A. & Williams, C. (2001). Population
modelling of great crested newts (Triturus
cristatus). Raiia 4, 239-247.

Griffiths, R.A. & Williams, C. (2000). Modelling
population dynamics of great crested newts
(Triturus cristatus): a population viability analysis.
Herpetological Journal 10, 157- 163.

Halley, J.M., Oldham, R.S. & Amtzen. J.W. (1996).
Predicting the persistence of amphibian populations
with the help of a spatial model. Journal of Applied
Ecology’. 33, 455- 470.

Hanski, L. & Gilpin, M. (1991). Metapopulation
dynamics: brief history and conceptual domain.
Biological Journal of the Linnean Society’ 42, 3-16.
Hitchings, S. P. & Beebee, T. J. C. (1998). Loss of
genetic diversity and fitness in Common Toad
(Bufo biifo) populations isolated by inimical habitat.
Journal ofEvolutionaiy Biologi’ 1 1 , 269-283.
Hitchings S.P & Beebee T.J.C. (1997). Genetic
substructuring as a result of barriers to gene flow in
urban Rana temporaria (common frog)
populations: implications for biodiversity

conservation. Heredity’ 79, 1 17-127.

May, 1996. The translocation of great crested newts, a
protected species, MSc thesis, University of Wales,
Abeiystwyth.

McNeill, D.C. 2010. Translocation of a population of
Great Crested Newts (Triturus cristatus): a Scottish
case study. PhD thesis. University of Glasgow,
Scotland.

Oldham, R.S. & Humphries, R.N. (2000). Evaluating
the success of great crested newt {Triturus
cristatm) translocation. Herpetological Journal 1 0,
183490.

Oldham, R.S., Keeble, J., Swan, M.J.S. & Jeffcote, M.
(2000). Evaluating the suitability of habitat for the
great crested newt {Triturus crislatus).
HerpetologicalJournal. 10, 143-155.

Oldham, Musson & Humphries, (1991). Translocation
of crested newt populations in the UK.
Herpetofauna News: 2, 3-5.

Scottish Natural Heritage (2004). Infonnation. Natural
Heritage Trends. Fresh Waters; Summary.

Shaffer, M.L. (1981). Minimum population sizes for
species conservation. Bioscience 31, 131- 134.

The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4. 93-97

Vegetation and ‘site florulas’ of islands in West Loch Roag, Outer Hebrides

Paul A. Smith' & Jim McIntosh^

^ 128 Llancayo Street, Bargoed, Mid Glamorgan, CF81 8TP, UK
“ BSBI Scottish Officer, Royal Botanic Garden, Inverleith Row, Edinburgh, EH3 SLR

'E-mail: pa.smith@mypostoffice.co.uk ^E-mail: j.mcintosh@rbge.ac.uk

ABSTRACT

Four small, uninhabited islands in West Loch Roag, a
sea loch in the west of the island of Lewis, Outer
Hebrides, were visited in early July 2008, two grazed -
Flodaigh and Campaigh, and two ungrazed -
Bearasaigh and Seana Cnoc. The habitats present and
the interesting species are discussed, and the limited
floras (‘florulas’) of each island are described, with full
species lists. The species recorded for Campaigh are
compared with a visit to the same island 30 years
earlier.

INTRODUCTION

There are many small islands in Loch Roag, a series of
sea lochs in the west of Lewis, Outer Hebrides at
approx 58° 16'N 6° 54'W (NB14 on the British
National Grid). In spite of the draw of islands for
visitors, they have only rarely been visited in the
history of botanical recording in the Outer Hebrides, if
at all. Currie (1981) reports a visit in 1977, when
several islands were circumnavigated, but a landing
was made only on Campaigh (Campay), NB1442. A
list of the plant species was made, and this gives us a
baseline with which to compare.

On 3 July 2008 as part of recording for a projected
tetrad (2kmx2km square) flora of the Outer Hebrides a
visit was made to several of the islands - Flodaigh
(NB1241), Bearasaigh (NB1243), Seana Cnoc (Old
Hill) (NB1143) and Campaigh (NB1442). It proved
impossible to land on two smaller islets, Hairsgeir
(NB14A) and Mas Sgeir (NB1443).

The islands and their vegetation

Two of the four islands visited, Flodaigh and
Campaigh are low-lying with relatively easy access,
and therefore used for sheep grazing. They have short,
well-cropped turf, but there are a few refugia on less
sheep-friendly habitat (coast, rocks, pebbles) where
plants less tolerant of grazing (for example Aster
tripolium (sea aster) on Flodaigh) can grow.
Bearasaigh and Seana Cnoc, by contrast, have steep
rocky sides; they are grazed, but only by geese (which
in places make paths) and therefore at a much lower
intensity than the sheep, and in consequence they have
well-developed tussocks and hummocks, with some
Armeria maritima (thrift) tussocks becoming very large
(Fig. 1). They also have much more cliff habitat and

therefore some different species.

Fig. 1. Large Armeria maritima (thrift) tussocks on the
NW plateau of Bearasaigh.

There are three broad communities on the four islands
visited. Much of the flatter surfaces of the tops is
covered by a plantain sward, containing Pkmtago
coronopus, P. lanceolata and P. maritima (buck’s-
hom, ribwort and sea plantain respectively), and also
with varying amounts of Armeria maritima and
grasses. On the sheep-grazed islands the sward is
grazed very short, but otherwise it grows into tussocks
and forms a maritime peat. In this habitat there are also
occasional species such as Oplhoglossum viilgatum
(adder’ s-tongue fern) (Flodaigh), and where there is no
grazing Silene uniflora (sea campion) (Bearasaigh and
Seana Cnoc). Seana Cnoc has an area dominated by
Rumex acetosa (sheep’s sorrel) forming a turf.

The sides of the islands, whether steep cliffs or smaller,
sloping rocks have a different community, with Aster
tripolium, Ligusticum scoticum (Scots lovage), Silene
uniflora, and Tripleurospermum maritimum (sea
mayweed).

Flodaigh and Bearasaigh both have small, pennanently
wet depressions. On Bearasaigh the edge of the
depression has Ophioglossum vulgatum, and on
Flodaigh there is a small amount of Apium inundatum
(lesser marshwort). Both these islands also have
Ranunculus Jlammula (lesser spearwort) in the damp
areas, but on Bearasaigh there is also the small variety
of this species with veiy round leaves, R. flammula ssp

minimus which is characteristic of damp patches in
very exposed situations near the sea.

The most interesting species, abundant on all four of
the visited islands, was Lychnis flos-cuciili (ragged
robin), which was scattered throughout the turf. This is
a much shorter variety than the usual one of marshy
areas, with the flowers forming a dense cluster at the
top of the short stem and with wide petals, and it is
unclear what the appropriate name for this variety is
(although it may be forma pygmaea Ostenf., see Jonsell
2001, pi 78). It is known from other islands in the
Sound of Harris (Heslop Harrison 1954, 1956). On
Seana Cnoc there were two colour fonns - most
specimens the usual deep pink, with a few much paler
(but not quite white).

The rocks round Flodaigh, Bearasaigh and Seana Cnoc
all have Aster tripolium (sea aster), as var condensatus,
a fleshy-leaved plant of rocky places which looks quite
different from the more usual var tripolium on salt
marshes. On Flodaigh it occurs in small quantity, on
coastal rocks where there is protection from grazing.
On Bearasaigh the absence of sheep has allowed the
Aster to thrive away from the rocks, and it has
colonised in bare peaty pools and hollows, so it is
common on the top of the islands as well as round their
coasts.

Site Floras

The Botanical Society of the British Isles has been
suggesting the concept of site floras, a description of
the plants for relatively small, well-defined sites that
can be visited regularly with a reasonable degree of
coverage (Lockton 2007). It is generally difficult to
define such sites in the Outer Hebrides away from
habitation, but islands form natural sites, though with
small floras (‘florula’). They will generally be covered
by only a single visit, but these visits are much more
likely to be recorded than visits to mainland sites of
comparable size. Since it is sensible to follow up
existing site descriptions, we provide a site florula for
Campaigh, and we also give initial descriptions for the
other islands visited as a baseline for future visits.
Summary infonnation is given in Table 1.

Site florula for Campaigh

Campaigh is approximately 500m long and 250m
across at its widest, and rises to just over 30m above
sea level at its highest. It runs roughly from SW to NE,
with the SW end being lower and shelving to low
rocky sides; the NE end is separated from the rest of
the island by a natural arch, and has some cliffs. The
underlying rock is gneiss (Fettes et al. 1 992), although
the arch is presumably formed by erosion of a softer
dyke. The island is turf-covered away from the rocky
and cliffy edges, and grazed throughout by sheep. The
cliff parts are used by nesting seabirds, and there is
some evidence of eutrophication from their use of the
island. There is no standing water.

A list was published for Campaigh by Currie (1981)
from a visit of “an hour or two” on the evening of 23
June 1977, apparently for bird counting as well as
botany. The authors of the present paper visited for one
hour on 3 July 2008, a very similar time of the year to
the previous visit, and our attentions were more
exclusively botanical. Currie commented that some
species could be added to his list, and although we
have made a nearly complete list, it is likely that a few
species still lurk undetected.

The taxa recorded on 3 July 2008 are listed in Table 2,
with a * denoting that they were also recorded by
Currie

Nine species were recorded in 2008 but not seen during
the visit in 1977; they are generally less conspicuous
species such as the Euphrasia (eyebright) which was in
small quantity as non-flowering plants, and Sagina
maritima (sea pearlwort) which is an annual of bare
peaty patches near the sea. The most obvious of the
species present in 2008 but not recorded in 1977 was
Spergularia rubra (sand spurrey), which was abundant
in barer patches at the western end of the island. It is
interesting to speculate that both the bare patches and
presence of Spergularia are connected with the sheep
grazing, although Currie noted grazing in 1977 too.
Currie additionally recorded Aira praecox (early hair-
grass), Asplenium marimim (sea spleenwort), Carex
panicea (carnation sedge), Festiica ovina (sheep’s
fescue) and Tripleurospermum maritimum. Any of
these could still be present and overlooked, but
particularly Tripleurospermum is very obvious and it
seems likely that this has declined.

Island

Maximum
Dimensions
(length X
breadth x
height) (m)

Approx

area

(ha)

Time spent

recording

(hrs)

Grazing

Taxa

recorded

Taxon
density
(taxa ha’*)

Bearasaigh

400 X 250 X 58

9.8

l'/2

geese

(v light grazing)

5.0

Campaigh

500 X 250 X 30

10.2

sheep

(heavy grazing)

3.3

Flodaigh

450 X 400 X 22

18.6

sheep

(heavy grazing)

3.5

Seana Cnoc

600 X 300 X 90

11.1

l'/4

geese

(v light grazing)

2.5

Table 1. Summaiy information on islands visited on 3 July 2008.

Site Jlomla for Bearasaigh

Bearasaigh (Fig. 2) is a steep-sided island with cliffs
most of the way round. Its summit is 58m, and the top
of island forms a plateau, sloping down slightly to the
north-west, sloping more steeply to around 30m in the
east. Its longest axis runs roughly NW to SE, about
400m long, and it is about 250m wide at its widest.
There is a stac to the SW, Stac an Tuill, but this was
not visited. The underlying rock is gneiss (Fettes et al.
1992). The NW part of the island consists of a tussocky
maritime heath, with very large Anneha tussocks (Fig.
1), and a few boulders, many with temporary pools at
their bases. The SE part is more grassy, with one
permanent pool.

Fig. 2. Bearasaigh looking at the NW end, with Stac an
Tuill to the right, and Flodaigh the lower island behind
the Stac.

Bearasaigh was visited on 3 July 2008 for \Vz hours;
coverage was good at the western end where we
landed, but more rushed at the eastern end, and it is
likely that additional searching will turn up a few extra
species here too. 49 taxa were recorded (see Table 2)

Site florula for Seana Cnoc

Seana Cnoc (Fig. 3) is another steep-sided island,
basically a long ridge running almost E to W, its edges
a combination of cliffs and very steep vegetated slopes.
It is about 600m long, and 300m wide and is the tallest
of the islands visited, with a summit just over 90m. The
underlying rock is gneiss (Fettes et al. 1992). Seana
Cnoc is a dry island without standing water, and
without the peaty pools found on Bearasaigh. It is
predominantly grassy with a mainly Festuca rubra (red
fescue) turf, with abundant Lychnis jlos-cuculi and
Silene uniflora.

Fig. 3. Seana Cnoc, looking at the South side.

Seana Cnoc was visited on 3 July for 1 Va hours. Since
the variety of habitats was smaller than on the other
islands visited, it is likely that a reasonably
comprehensive list was obtained. 28 taxa were
recorded (see Table 2).

Site florula for Flodaigh

Flodaigh (Fig. 2) is a low-lying, sheep-grazed island,
with a variety of habitats. It has an irregular outline
with several geos, and at its largest is about 450m long
and 400m wide. The bay on the south side that faces
the islet of Tamna was fonned by a pebble beach,
partly vegetated, and there was a small permanent pool
in the peatier ground some way to the north of this.
Much of the turf was damp and peaty. The underlying
rock is gneiss (Fettes et al. 1992).

We had a short visit of only y4 hour to Flodaigh on 3
July 2009. This was therefore the least well covered of
the islands discussed here, with nearly all the effort on
the eastern part, and it is likely that several additions
could be made to the species list with a longer visit.
Nevertheless it had the greatest diversity of the islands
visited, with 66 taxa recorded (see Table 2).

DISCUSSION

The limited number of habitats on small islands means
that the numbers of species found was small relative to
the main islands of the Outer Hebrides. 20 species were
common to all four islands, all of them common and
widespread in exposed coastal habitats in the Outer
Hebrides. Additional species are found according to the
different habitats present, and presumably their
occuiTence is also affected by how easily seeds can
reach isolated islands. Some species are likely to have
come in with sheep as they are moved to and from the
grazed islands, and Spergularia rubra may be an
example of this type of translocation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Murray and Hannah of Sea Trek for
their skill in getting us on and off the islands, and to
Mila Teneva and Simon Drysdale for joining us in
island-hopping.

Species

Campaigh

Bearasaigh

Seana Cnoc

Flodaigh

Agrostis stokmifera

Aim praecox

A lopeciirus geniculatus

Anagallis tenella

Angelica svivestris

A nthoxanthum odor at um

Apinin innndatinn

Anneria maritima

Aster tripolium var condensatus

Atrip lex sp.

Beilis perennis

CalUtriche sp.

Calluna vulgaris

Cardamiue pratensis

Carex flacca

C. nigra

C. oval is

C. viridula ssp oedocarpa

C. viridula ssp viridula

Cerastium diffiiswn

Cerastiiun fontanum

Cirsium vulgare

Cochlearia officinalis s.l.

y ^

DacB’lorhiza maculata

Dactylis glomerata

Danthonia decuinbens

Deschampsia cespitosa

Eleocharis palustris

Empetrum nigrum

Erica cinerea

Eriophorum angustifolium

Euphrasia foulaensis

Euphrasia officinalis agg.

Festuca rubra s.l.

Galium aparine

Glaux maritima

y:>.

Holcus lanatus

•/

Hydrocotyde vulgaris

Juncus articulatus

Juncus hufonius s.s.

Juncus hulhosus

Leontodon autumnalis

Lcontodon autumnalis var autumnalis

Ligusticum scoticum

Lotus corniculatus

Luzula multiflora ssp multiflora

Lychnis flos-cucidi

Montia fbntana ssp fbntana

Nardus stricta

Ophioglossum vulgatum

Plantago coronopus

Plantago lanceolata

Plantago maritima

Poa annua

Poa humilis

Poa trivialis

Potentilla anserina

Potentilla erecta

Primula vulgaris

Prunella vulgaris

Puccinellia maritima

Ranunculus acris

V'*

Ranunculus ficaria ssp Jicaria

Ranunculus flammula

Ranunculus flammula ssp minimus

Rumex acetosa

Rumex crispus

✓

•/

Sagina maritima

Sagina procumbens

■V*

Sedum rosea

■/

Selaginella selaginoides

Silene uniflora

■/

Spergularia rubra

✓

Stellaria media

Succisa pratensis

Thymus polytrichus

Trifolium repens

■/

Triglochin maritimum

•/

Tripleurospermum maritimum

■/

Urtica dioica

Viola riviniana

Table 2. Species recorded in the four islands on 3 July 2008; * denotes species also recorded for Campaigh by Cuirie

(1981).

REFERENCES

Currie, A. (1981). Vegetation on islands of West Loch
Roag, Lewis. Hebridean Naturalist 5, 57-58.

Fettes, D.J., Mendum, J.R., Smith, D.l. & Watson, J.V.

(1992). Geology of the Outer Hebrides. Memoirs of
the British Geological Siin^ey Sheet (solid edition)

Lewis & Harris.

Heslop Harrison, J.W. (1954). Botanical investigations
in the Isles of Lewis, Harris, Taransay, Coppay, and
Shillay in 1953. Proceedings of the University of
Durham Philosophical Society 1 1, 135-142.

Heslop Harrison, J.W. (1956). Botanizing in the Outer
Hebrides in 1955 and 1956. Proceedings of the
University of Durham Philosophical Society 12,

141-149.'

Jonsell, B. (ed.) (2001). Flora Nordica 2. Bergius
Foundation, Stockholm.

Lockton, A. (2007). Coordinator’s comer: site surveys.

BSBlNews 104, 79.

The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 99-104

A review of the incidence of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) in surface waters
in Scotland including potential effects of climate change, with a list of the
common species and new records from the Scottish Environment Protection
Agency

J.T. Krokowski, P. Lang, A. Bell, N. Broad, J. Clayton, I. Milne, M. Nicolson, A. Ross & N. Ross
Scottish Environment Protection Agency, 5 Redwood Crescent, Peel Park, East Kilbride, G74 5PP, UK
E-mail: j an. krokowski(^sepa. org.uk

ABSTRACT

Cyanobacteria, commonly known as blue-green algae,
are a ubiquitous component of the freshwater
microflora. Cyanobacteria are capable of producing
toxic compounds that pose a risk to water-users, pets
and livestock, with increased risk when they form
dense growths, termed blooms, which may accumulate
at the leeward shores of water bodies, often fanning
visible scums. The Scottish Environment Protection
Agency receives numerous water samples annually for
algal analyses, including detennining the presence or
absence of cyanobacteria, which are used in the
management of risk to water users by water owners,
local Councils and Health Authorities. The commonest
cyanobacterial taxa recorded over the period 2008-
2010 are detailed, along with new cyanobacterial
records for Scotland. The current scenarios of climate
change predict an overall increase in phytoplankton
biomass, with potential increased dominance of
cyanobacteria including increased intensity and
frequency of blooms.

INTRODUCTION

Cyanobacteria are ubiquitous and contribute to the
natural community of photosynthetic microscopic algae
living in fresh waters. Cyanobacteria are more
commonly refeired to as blue-green algae due to the
colour of the cells, which contain a mixture of
photosynthetic pigments including chlorophyll (green),
phycocyanin (blue) and sometimes phycoerythrin (red).

Excessive growths of cyanobacteria, temied blooms,
have been related to the elevated nutrient status of
water bodies (Reynolds and Petersen, 2000), to a
number of seasonal factors (warmer temperatures,
intensity of water themial stratification) (Reynolds,
2006), to high alkalinities and pH (Shapiro, 1984), and
to a number of physiological adaptations and
mechanisms (Fogg, 1969; Reynolds, 1987; Shapiro,
1990). Carvalho et al. (2011) found that low water
colour and neutral-alkaline conditions were the
significant explanatory variables in dctemiining which
water bodies in the UK were vulnerable to

cyanobacterial blooms, with increasing retention time
and total phosphorus concentrations being borderline
significant explanatory variables.

Certain cyanobacteria are able to form surface blooms
through the regulation of their buoyancy by the use of
gas vesicles, and such blooms may be restricted to the
surface layers of the water. Light winds may
concentrate the blooms to further accumulate and fomi
scums, which may be extremely dense at leeward
shores, bays and inlets, often where members of the
public identify the problem, though when wind speeds
increase the blooms disperse within the deeper water
layers. Consequently blooms may fonn and disappear
rapidly, within hours, due to variable weather
conditions. Blooms arc commonest during the
summer, persisting into late-autumn, and are of
concern to many water users as well as a danger to pets
and livestock when the excessive growths and
concentrations of cyanobacteria result in dense surface
and shore-line scums. This is because cyanobacteria
have the potential to produce toxins, and cyanotoxin
production is much greater where cyanobacteria
accumulate and form surface blooms and scums.

The different types of cyanotoxins produced by
cyanobacteria and their mode of action have been
widely documented (Chorus and Bartram, 1999).
Cyanotoxins include neurotoxins, hepatotoxins,
lipopolysaccharides, and a wide range of other
products leading to enzyme inhibition and skin and
gastrointestinal irritations (Chorus and Bartram, 1999).
The exposure routes of cyanotoxins are diverse, mainly
through ingestion, inhalation and skin contact.
Exposure to cyanotoxins is therefore greatest during
participation in water-based recreational activities.
However, cyanotoxins may also be taken up directly
through food consumption (Funari and Testai, 2008;
Murch el al, 2004). Symptoms produced by
cyanotoxins can be mild (skin iiritations and
gastrointestinal illness), serious (acute poisoning and
potential long-temi illness) or temiinal (death) (Chorus
and Bartram, 1999). Cyanotoxins may also pose an

additional threat due to their carcinogenic properties
(Falconer, 2005). Furthermore, the issue of toxicity is
complicated by the occurrence of both toxic and non-
toxic strains within the same species of cyanobacteria.
However, a high percentage (59%) of all samples are
toxic (Chorus and Bartram, 1999).

Cyanobacterial blooms and associated toxicity have
been reported worldwide over the years (Francis, 1878;
Metcalf and Codd, 2004) and although previously
limited in frequency, in recent decades the frequency,
intensity and reporting of cyanobacterial blooms has
become widespread (Krokowski and Jamieson, 2002;
Camiichael, 2008). There continue to be reports of
animal deaths and skin initation in humans associated
with algal and cyanobacterial blooms and scums
throughout Scotland (Scottish Government, 2007;
Krokowski, 2009), although objective evidence is
difficult to obtain to confinn an association with
cyanotoxin exposure. A number of Scottish freshwater
bodies, however, continue to be perennial ‘hot spots’
containing high concentrations of cyanobacteria
throughout summer and into autumn.

Cyanobacteria are therefore arguably the most visible
symptoms of eutrophication (nutrient enrichment) of
surface waters, and there is growing concern about the
likely increase in the frequency and intensity of
cyanobacterial blooms associated with global warming
(Mooij et a/., 2005).

ASSESSMENT OF CYANOBACTERIA-
RELATED BLOOMS AND SCUMS IN
SCOTTISH FRESHWATER BODIES

Background

A comprehensive inventoiy of standing freshwaters
derived from Ordnance Survey digital map data in
Great Britain identified 25,615 water bodies in
Scotland with surface area larger than 0.0 Ikm^
(Hughes et al., 2004). The majority of these are in
north-west Scotland. The data set contains no water
bodies <0.0002 km", with the numbers between 0.0002
km^ and 0.002 km" almost certainly under-represented
so numbers may be closer to 31,460 standing water
bodies as identified earlier (Lyle and Smith, 1994). It
is therefore impossible to accurately assess the extent
of cyanobacterial blooms and scums in Scottish
freshwater bodies, as there is no comprehensive survey
of all freshwaters. Moreover, a reactive monitoring
strategy has been adopted where samples are received
for analysis from external sources from sites with a
perceived visual algal problem.

In 1997, the Scottish Environment Protection Agency
(SEPA) cairicd out an assessment of a selected number
of lochs (based on size, amenity value and recreational
potential) to assess the degree of eutrophication
through the prevalence of cyanobacterial blooms
(SEPA, 1999). The results are not representative of the
total incidence of blooms across water bodies in
Scotland, but of the 77 lochs monitored, 38 had a

cyanobacterial scum present and an additional 20 lochs
had cyanobacteria present at sufficient levels for bloom
fomiation (this level is taken to be equivalent to more
than 20,000 cyanobacterial cells/ml). A subsequent
assessment of eutrophication in 2005, carried out as
part of statutory review of eutrophication under the
Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive, identified 17
lochs with excessive nutrient levels (primarily
phosphorus) (SEPA, 2005). Although cyanobacteria
were not monitored directly during the 2005
assessment, criteria selected were based on the
exceeding of set thresholds of total phytoplankton
biomass measured as chlorophyll a, as well as the
exceeding of set thresholds for nutrient concentrations
(nitrogen and phosphorus) and other selected attributes
and biota (dissolved oxygen, macrophytes).

Algal and cyanobacterial assessment during 2008-
2010

SEPA, amongst its other duties, continues to carry out
suiweillance monitoring in response to environmental
legislation and is able to provide an analytical service
for the analysis of algae and cyanobacteria. SEPA,
however, does not cany out targeted monitoring and
assessment for frequency and intensity of
cyanobacteria, but relies on others to provide samples
from affected waters that are perceived to pose a risk to
water users.

Samples received by SEPA are nonnally collected
from a point on the downwind shore of the water body
where the concentration of cyanobacteria is greatest. If
the downwind site is inaccessible, the water body is
sampled at the nearest accessible point to the
downwind shore. Details of sampling and location are
provided to SEPA. Algae are sampled at or just below
the water surface, and benthic algae are occasionally
also collected. A full sampling protocol is detailed in
the Scottish Government guidance (Scottish
Government, 2007). Live samples are sent as quickly
as possible to local SEPA laboratories for analysis
(Aberdeen, Dingwall, Perth, Edinburgh, Galashiels,
East Kilbride and Dumfries). Standard operating
procedures are used by SEPA to quantify the type of
cyanobacteria present, and their abundance is reported
against the World Health Organisation guidance levels
(Scottish Government, 2007). Microscopic analysis is
canied out with identification to species level where
possible, and algae and cyanobacteria are identified
with the aid of taxonomic guides and keys (John et al.,
2011; Komarek and Anagnostidis, 1999, 2005).
Results are generally reported the same day.

Infomiation on cyanobacteria samples received from
such assessment over the period 2008-2010 is
summarised in Table 1, with a list of the common
cyanobacteria and new records from Scottish
freshwater bodies detailed in Table 2.

In the period 2008-2010, a total of 422 samples was
received by SEPA and analysed for the type of algae
present and their abundance (Table 1).

100

2008

2009 2010

SEPA

Ecology

laboratory

Total

number

samples

received

Number exceeding
of cyanobacterial

threshold, expressed
as % of the total

Total

number

samples

received

Number exceeding
of cyanobacterial

threshold, expressed
as % of the total

Total number
of samples
received

Number exceeding
cyanobacterial
threshold, expressed
as % of the total

Aberdeen

5 (22%)

12 (41%)

14(52%)

Dingwall

4 (50%)

2 (40%)

4 (50%)

Perth

37 (56%)

11 (31%)

10(42%)

East Kilbride

Edinburgh

and

17(20%)

13 (21%)

31 (69%)

Galashiels

1 (100%)

5 (100%)

4 (67%)

Dumfries

4 (44%)

7 (35%)

All combined

181

64 (35%)

147

47 (32%)

130

70 (54%)

Table 1. Summary of the annual number of samples received by each SEPA Ecology laboratory for algal analysis from
the reactive monitoring programme. Detailed are number of samples exceeding the cyanobacterial concentrations of
20,000 cells/ml (representing a relatively low probability of adverse health effects) and expressed as a percentage of the
total number of samples received.

Order Cyanobacteria taxon Frequency

Chroococcales Aphanocapsa Nageli 1 849 F

Aphanothece \%A9 F

A. miimtissima (W.West) Komarkova-Legnerova et Cronberg 1994 R

Chroococcus Unmeticus Lemmemiann 1 898 O

Coelosphaeriiim kiielzingianiiin 'NageW 1849 O

Gomphosphaeria apoiiina Kutzing 1 836 O

Merismopedia Meyen 1 839 O

M. warmingiana Lagerheim 1 883 R

Microcystis Kutzing 1833 ex Lemmermann 1907 nom.cons F

M. wesenhergii (Komarek) Komarek in Kondrateva 1968 O

Radiocystis geminata Skuja 1948 R

Elenkin 1938 O

S. atomus Komarek et Hindak 1988 N

S. septentrionalis Komarek et Hindak 1988 N

Syrrec/rococaw Nageli 1849 O

Woronichinia naegeliana (Unger) Elenkin 1933 F

W. karelicci Komarek et Komarkova-Legnerova 1 992 N

Oscillatoriales O^c/Y/otom/ (Vaucher 1803) Gomoiit 1892 F

O. tenuis (C.Agardh 1813) Gomont 1892 O

Planktothrix agardhii (Gomont) Anagnostidid et Komarek 1988 F

P. isothri.x (Skuja) Komarek et Komarkova 2004 O

Pseudanahaena Lauterbom 1914-17 F

P. //wneZ/cr/ (Lemmemiann) Komarek 1974 O

Nostocales (Bory 1822) Bomet et Flahault 1886 F

A. qffinis Lemmemiann 1 897 O

A. catemda (Kutzing 1849) Bomet et Flaliault 1886 O

A. circinalis (Rabenliorst 1852) Bomet et Flaliault 1886 F

A. flos-aqiiae ((Lyngbye) Brebisson 1835) Bomet et Flaliault 1886 F

A. spiroides (Klebalin 1895) F

Aphanizoinenon flos-aqtiae ((Linnaeus 1753) Ralfs 1850) Bomet et Flaliault 1886 F

A. gracile Lemnierman 1910 O

Gloeotrichia (J.Agardh 1842) Bomet et Flaliault 1886 F

G. echimdata (J.E. Smith) P.G. Richter 1894 F

Table 2. Cyanobacterial taxa recorded from Scottish freshwaters as part of SEPA’s algal analysis, indicating frequency
- F (frequent), O (occasional), R (rare) and N (new - requiring flirther verification).

101

No clear trend was evident in the incidence and
frequency of cyanobacteria over the three-year period.
The highest numbers of samples were received by East
Kilbride and Perth laboratories, whereas the lowest
numbers of samples were received by laboratories in
Edinburgh and Galashiels. No samples were received
by Dumfries laboratoi'y in 2008.

The proportion of samples analysed and found to
contain cyanobacteria exceeding the threshold
concentration of 20,000 cells/ml also varied between
the laboratories and over the years, but in general over
one third of samples analysed contained cyanobacteria
at concentrations above the threshold value.

In total, 33 cyanobacteria taxa from 17 genera were
recorded from Scottish fresh waters (Table 2), with the
most frequent toxin-producing cyanobacteria genera
recorded as Aphauocapsa, Aphanothece, Microcystis,
Woronidunia, Oscillatoria (Planktothrix), Anahaeiia,
Aphanizomenon and Gloeotrichia (Table 2.).
Cyanobacteria species not previously recorded from
Scotland are also detailed, and include records from
SEPA’s phytoplankton monitoring canied at a number
of lochs (>lkm^) across Scotland over the summer
months (July to September) as required under the
Water Framework Directive (European Commission,
2000). The WFD-related monitoring results are not
detailed here in full, but of note are new records for
Siiowella atonnis, S. septetrionalis and Woroiiichinia
korelica. A number of these records require
confirmation, if possible from live material, due to the
very small dimensions of the cells and colonies and
difficulties in correctly identifying the taxa from
Lugol's iodine preserved material.

DISCUSSION

The 2008-2010 assessment

It is difficult to identify trends in the frequency and
intensity of cyanobacteria across Scottish freshwaters
based on the results presented here, mainly because
they are based on subjective monitoring, since only
sites that have a perceived algal problem are
investigated. Furthennore, sites that have perennial
cyanobacterial problems may not have been monitored
in subsequent years. It is likely that visible warning
signs of the presence of high concentrations of
cyanobacteria in the water may be a deterrent in itself,
and avoid the need to provide samples for analysis.
However, the seiwice provided by SEPA for the
assessment of algae and cyanobacteria is cmcial in
providing an early detection system for the presence of
potentially toxic species enabling appropriate
monitoring and remedial action to be taken, not only
for cyanobacteria (local algal action plan), but also for
other algal groups {Chiysochromulma, Krokowski,
2009).

Empirical evidence indicates a direct positive
relationship between increasing external load of
nutrients and algal biomass, although each water body
is unique (Vollenweider and Kerekes, 1982). In

attempts to control eutrophication and its symptoms
(such as excessive algal and cyanobacterial biomass)
the most widely accepted and employed option is to
reduce nutrient inputs, which has to be part of a long-
temi restoration and management strategy (Sas, 1989).
The long-tenn restoration may also include methods
aimed at reducing in-lake nutrient concentrations,
controlling nutrient sources from sediments, and
controlling in-lake levels of algae and cyanobacteria.
Any future management options to control
eutrophication, and the abundance of potentially toxic
cyanobacteria, should be carefully assessed with a
detailed restoration and management action plan.

Management of the health risks posed by
cyanobacteria

To help provide effective management of the health
risks associated with the exposure of humans and
animals to cyanotoxins, the Scottish Government has
produced guidance for the assessment and
minimisation of risks to public health in inland and
inshore waters (Scottish Government, 2007). Guidance
adopted following equivalent guidance provided by the
World Health Organisation (Chorus and Bartram,
1999) produced guideline values based on
cyanobacterial abundance for recreational waters,
relating them to a relatively low probability of adverse
health effects (cyanobacterial concentrations of 20,000
cells/ml), moderate probability of adverse health
effects (cyanobacterial concentrations of 100,000
cells/ml), and high probability of adverse health effects
(where cyanobacterial scum is present). As an
additional precaution, the guidance adopted in Scotland
is at the lower level of risk, at the limit of 20,000 total
cyanobacterial cells/ml at which bathing should be
discouraged and the hazard investigated further, on-site
risk advisory signs posted, relevant authorities
informed, and mindful watch kept out for scum
conducive conditions.

The Scottish Government guidance includes the
development, implementation and coordination of local
blue-green algae monitoring and action plans involving
a number of organisations and stakeholders, aimed at
identifying, inspecting and monitoring those water
bodies most at risk of cyanobacteria, and providing
remedial and preventative measures as well as
providing infomiation to the public. SEPA is one such
organisation involved in helping to develop local action
plans and able to provide an analytical service to
identify and quantify algae and cyanobacteria from
water samples. SEPA also contributes to the
surveillance of environmental incidents as recorded via
the Scottish Environmental Incident Suiweillance
System.

Potential effects of climate change
Climate change may pose significant and extreme
threats to the phytoplankton community structure and
hence to the ecological status of Scottish freshwater
bodies. Modelled increases in annual air temperatures
(IPCC, 2007) would give rise to increased water

102

temperatures, and with high summer temperatures
predicted there could be prolonged periods of thennal
stratification of relatively deep water bodies. Predicted
increases in rainfall would also increase nutrient mn-
off. Consequently, modelling predicts an increase in
phytoplankton biomass, potentially increased
dominance of cyanobacteria, and increased intensity
and frequency of cyanobacterial blooms (Wagner and
Adrian, 2009). The effects of wanning on increasing
cyanobacterial biomass, and frequency and intensity of
blooms may however be more pronounced in relatively
deeper, stratified water bodies, where there are
relatively fewer macrophytes and where phytoplankton
dominance is established (Moss et a!., 2003).

There are also likely to be expansions of wann-watcr
species at the expense of cold-water species, with
potential expansion of invasive cyanobacteria such as
Cylindrospennopsis raciborskii (Wiedner et ai, 2007).
C. raciborskii has spread from the tropics to temperate
zones over recent decades and is now found in most
northern European water bodies. C. raciborskii has the
potential to produce toxins hannful to animals and
humans (a neurotoxin saxitoxin and hepatotoxin
cylindrospemiopsin). There are currently no known
records of C. raciborskii in Scotland, but if the
succession of warmer summers continues it is likely
that it may be recorded in the British Isles. The new
phytoplankton taxa already recorded in the British Isles
may reflect climate change or the increased sampling
frequency across Scotland that is a consequence of the
statutory WFD monitoring.

In order to be able to understand these complex water
body-specific responses to climate change and to be
able to predict response patterns, understanding of
freshwater ecosystems will be required on a case by
case basis. We therefore need to continue to monitor
the aquatic environment to provide infonnation for
rapid and effective management of algal incidents, and
to develop novel techniques for effective monitoring
and remediation of freshwaters. We also need to
acknowledge that current remedial measures may need
to be considerably adjusted to take into account the
effects of climate change, and that current restoration
techniques may become less effective due to
exacerbated effects of eutrophication brought on by
climate change. It may be that green is the colour of
environmental acceptability, unless it refers to the
colour of water bodies (Reynolds 1997).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to acknowledge SEPA regional
ecologists who helped with data provision and analysis.
The views expressed are those of the authors and not
necessarily those of SEPA.

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Carvalho, L., Miller, C.A., Scott, E.M., Codd, G.A.,
Davies, P.S. & Tyler, A.N. (201 1). Cynaobacterial
blooms: Statistical models describing risk factors
for national-scale lake assessment and lake
management. Science of the Total Environment
409, 5353-5358.

Chorus, I. & Bartram, J. (1999). Toxic Cyanobacteria
in Water: a Guide to Public Health Significance,
Monitoring and Management. WHO, E & FN
Spon/Chapman & Hall, London.

European Commission (2000). Directive 2000/60/EC
of the European Parliament and of the Council of
23 October 2000 establishing a framework for
Community action in the field of water policy.
Official Journal of the European Communities
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Falconer, I. R. (2005). Cyanobacterial Toxins of
Drinking Water Supplies: Cylindrospermopsins and
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Fogg, G. E. (1969). The physiology of an algal
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London, B, Biological Sciences 173, 175-189.

Francis, G. (1878). Poisonous Australian lake. Nature
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Funari, E. & Testai, E. (2008). Human health risk
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Hughes, M., Hornby, D.D., Bennion, H., Keman, J.,
Hilton, J., Phillips, G. & Thomas, R. (2004). The
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IPCC (2007). The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report.
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104

The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 105-1 10

Effects of fertilisers on vegetation of ultrabasic terraces (1965-2010): Isle of
Rum, Scotland

Jackie Anne Gilbert and * Kevin Richard Butt

School of Built and Natural Environment, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PRl 2HE, UK
*E-mail: krbutt@uclan.ac.uk

ABSTRACT

An experiment was set up in 1965 on the Isle of Rum
to detennine the reasons for poor vegetation cover on
an exposed mountain ridge. Suggested hypotheses
related to effects of grazing herbivores, site exposure
or soil infertility. To test one of these, a 100 m"
experimental plot was subjected to a fertiliser regime
over a period of three years with a vegetation survey
and soil analysis conducted at the outset of the research
period (1965), in 1969 and in 1996. Plant cover within
the experimental plot increased from 5 % (1965) to 100
% (1996), and was maintained at this level in a recent
monitoring (2010). A change from acidophilic plants
dominated by heather to a grass/moss assemblage was
also recorded within the plot over the monitoring
period. Within an unfertilised control plot set up in
1996, plant cover had increased from 25 % to 50 %
(2010), although there was little change in composition
of plant species.

Key words: Soil nutrients, plant cover. Inner Hebrides,
grazing herbivores, long-temi trends, ultra-basic
teiTaces.

INTRODUCTION

Higher plants grow where conditions permit, but some
basic requirements must usually be met. A soil, or a
substrate, capable of supporting root structures must be
present, suitable nutrients, light and water need to be
available and prolonged existence must allow for
vegetative or sexual reproduction within acceptable
climatic conditions. In 1965, on the Isle of Rum, Inner
Hebrides, an experiment was set up to determine
potential reasons for poor vegetation cover on an
exposed mountain ridge (Ferreira & Wormell 1971).
These authors suggested that grazing herbivores, red
deer {Cervus elapinis) and feral goats {Capra hircus),
site exposure (at 650 m) or the infertility of the soil
(derived from ultrabasic rocks) might be causal factors.
To test one of these hypotheses, a single 10 x 10m
experimental plot was subjected to a fertiliser regime
over a period of three years. This involved the
following additions: August 1965, N (1125 kg ha"'), P
(500 kg ha"') and K (500 kg ha"'); April 1967 and
1968, N (250 kg ha ') P (235kg h') K (208 kg ha') and
Ca (470 kg ha"'). No reason was given for the use of
only one experimental plot with no control (Ferreira &
Wormell 1971), however the constraints of the site in

temis of altitude, remoteness and effort of transporting
fertiliser to the site may well account for this.

A vegetation survey was conducted at the outset of the
research period (1965) and after a period of four years
(Ferreira & Wonnell 1971). Thereafter, the site
remained almost undisturbed until revisited in 1996
and monitored by Wilson et al. (1998). These authors
also pegged the comers of and set up four additional
plots (each 10 x 10m), close to the original (Wonnell)
plot. The newer plots had single applications of
nitrogen, potassium or phosphorus with a control plot
having no nutrient additions. Documented research on
soil fauna in this location is vciy limited, however.
Butt & Lowe (2004), sampling for earthwonns on
Rum, found a density of 1 7 individuals m'“
(represented by 2 epigeic earthworm species) in the
Wonnell fertiliser plot, compared with an adjacent
(control) area which yielded no earthwonns.

The current investigation, undertaken in 2009 and
2010, revisited the fertiliser plot and suiTounding area
to tiy and establish recent vegetation developments.
Specific objectives were:

• To record plant cover on fertilised and control
plots and compare results with previous findings;

• To sample soils and draw comparisons with
previous findings;

• To use the results, with other data to predict the
cause of vegetation change on the exposed
experimental site.

Site Details

The Isle of Rum lies in the Inner Hebrides, 21 km off
the west coast of Scotland. Since 1957, the whole
island, of 10,650 ha, has been a National Natural
Reserve, and is currently owned and managed by
Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH). The natural and
cultural history of the island is well documented (e.g.
Clutton-Brock & Ball 1987; Magnusson 1997; SNH
2011) but critical details are that domestic grazing
animals are restricted to a herd of Highland cattle (Bos
iaiirus) and a collection of Rum ponies (Eqims
cahallus) (Gordon et al. 1987), kept in lowland areas.
A substantial population of red deer is present on Rum.
Although reduced in recent years, from 1,200-1,700 of
the last centuiy (Clutton-Brook & Guiness 1987),

105

Payne (2003) reported approximately 1,000 animals
and this level has been maintained to date. Feral goats
also graze the upland areas of the island but smaller
grazing mammals such as rabbits and hares are absent
from Rum. However, a study between 1958 and 1970
using controlled plots on the grasslands and heaths of
the island have shown that reduced grazing increases
the plant litter and taller vegetation which reduces the
diversity of vegetation. The management plan of the
island was to maintain the high tloristic diversity of all
vegetation types present which led to the annual cull of
red deer being severely reduced (Ball 1974).

The fertiliser plot experimental site is on the exposed
Barkeval-Hallival ridge (Nat Grid Ref; NM39260
96433) comprised of peridotitc and allivalite igneous
ultra-basic rocks, with many exposed rocks (Ragg &
Ball 1964). The thin soils fonned over these base
rocks have high levels of magnesium, low levels of
calcium and exceptionally low levels of phosphorus;
calcifuge plants often dominate here due to the low
levels of calcium within the soil. There is evidence that
the oceanic climate on Rum, with an annual rainfall
ranging from 1,397 to 3,302 mm (Ragg & Ball 1964),
is warming. The extent of snow cover and sea ice in
the Northern Hemisphere has declined since 1979
(Dei'y & Brown 2007; SeiTcze et al. 2007) leading to
increased plant growth in northern high latitudes
(Myneni et al. 1997). On Rum, the oestrus date and
parturition date in female red deer, and antler cast date,
antler clean date, rut start date and rut end date in
males has advanced between 5 and 12 days across a 28
year study period with the plant growth in spring and
summer (growing degree days) explaining a significant
amount of variation in all six of these phonological
traits. (Moyes 2011).

METHODS

Fertiliser Plots

An initial survey in 2009 (26-29"^ April) sought to
locate the plots set up by Wilson et al. (1998), but
found that many of the metal pegs used to mark out the
more recent treatments had been dislodged/removed
and exact positions could not be deliniated with any
confidence. Surface water was also seen to run from
the location of the potassium-enhanced plot into the
area where the phosphoms plot was positioned. It was
therefore detemiined that it was unsound to survey
these plots, and only work within Wilson et al.'s
(1998) control plot and the original (Wormell) plot was
undertaken. The main investigation of these two plots
was undertaken in 2010 (24-28*'’ May).

Plant Cover.

The 2009 survey of the original (Wormell) and the
control plot was undertaken following the methodology
described by Gilbert & Butt (2009). This made use of
digital photography of vegetation within 0.5 x 05m
quadrats. Although this size of quadrat was different to
the original surveys ( 1 x Im) the area suiweyed was the
same (4m'^). Images were manipulated in Adobe
Photoshop (2000) to produce a ‘squared’ image and the
percentage cover of each plant species was estimated

by means of digital superimposition of a grid on to the
image. In 2010 (24-28’'’ May), a more traditional
vegetation survey of both plots was conducted using a
point quadrat (100 points nW) as described by
Chalmers & Parker (1989). Here, only the first plant
species contacted was recorded per point, to provide an
estimate of mean percentage cover for each species
over the whole plot. This was the same sampling
technique used in earlier (1969, 1996) surveys of this
area and the same area of experiment plot was sampled
(4m^).

Soil Sampling and Analyses

Soil cores (0.05 m diameter) were collected using a
random sampling scheme to a depth of 0. 1 5 m in the
experimental (n=16) and control (n=16) plots, and sub-
divided into samples at 0.05 m depths. Due to the
shallowness of soil only eight of the control plot
sample cores achieved the depth of 0. 1 5 m in contrast
to all experimental plot samples. Each soil horizon
was described by reference to a Munsell soil colour
chart (1992). Soil bulk density was determined after
samples were air dried, sieved to <2 mm and calculated
as mass of air diy soil per unit volume, corrected for
stone content. Soil collection and soil analyses
duplicated as closely as possible that utilised by
FciTeira & Womiell (1971) and Wilson et al (1998).
However, in the cuirent survey nutrient content of soils
was not analysed by the authors, but undertaken at an
accredited laboratory (Macaulay Land Use Research
Institute).

RESULTS

Plant Cover

The 2009 survey using digital photography showed the
fertiliser plot to be completely vegetated, except for
areas covered by a few large rocks that protruded
through the plants. This showed no change since the
survey of 1996. The photographic survey of the control
plot showed a vegetation cover of 48 %, an increase
from 25.2 % in 1996, very similar to the 2010 point
quadrat survey of 50%. Table 1 shows the species list
for plants found in both the fertiliser plot and the
control plot, obtained from point quadrat survey in
2010. Comparative results from previous surveys are
also provided in Table 1. Results from 2010 also
confimied the 2009 photographic survey results that
the fertiliser plot is still 100 % vegetated, an increase
from 5-10 % vegetation cover recorded prior to
fertiliser addition in 1965.

Calcifuges such as Callima vulgaris (L.) Hull (heather)
and Rhacoinitriiim laniiginosum (Hedw.) Brid. reported
in 1998, were not recorded within the fertiliser plot in
the current survey. Grasses and mosses accounted for
the majority of the plant cover within the plot with
Hypninn cupressiforme (Hedw), Rhytidiadelplms
sqiiarrosiis (Hedw.) Wamst. and Festuca vivipara (L.)
offering most of the cover. Anthoxanthum odoratum
(L.) and Taraxacum ofjicinale (Weber.) first obseiwed
in 1996 but not recorded in the survey, accounted in
2010 for 9 % and 0.5 % of the cover respectively.
Peltigera spp was observed for the first time within the
fertiliser plot during the cuiTent survey.

106

Fertiliser Plot - set up in 1965
1965 1969 1996

DA FOR DA FOR %

Control - set up in 1996
2010 1996 2010

% % cover % cover

cover cover

Agwstis capillaris L. Common Bent

cd(I5%)

7.75

2.0

1.46(5.9)

2.5 (5.2)

Alchemilla alpina L. Alpine Lady’s mantle

•

Antennaria dioica (L.) Gaerin. Mountain

•

0.77(3.1)

0.5 (1.05)

Everlasting

Anthoxanthum odoratum L. Sweet Vernal-grass

•

8.75

Arabis pelraea (L.) Lam [Cardaminopsis pelraea

•

(L.) Hiil], Northern Rock-cress

Armeria maritima (Mill.) Willd. Thrift

•

0.5

Barbiila rigidula (Hedw.) Mill.

Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull Heather

0.25

10.62 (42.1)

23.75

Campylopus alrovirens De Not.

(49. 75)

Carex binervis Sin Green-ribbed Sedge

Carex viridiila [demissa] Michx. Yellow-sedge

0.46 (1.8)

12.75

Carex panicea L. Carnation Sedge

0.23 (0.9)

(26. 70)

Carex pilulifera L. Pill Sedge

Cerastium fontanum (holost.) Bailing. Common

0.25

1.0

0.03(0.1)

0.25 (0.52)

Mouse-ear

Cladonia imcialis (L.) Weber

0.25

0.03(0.1)

Cynosurus cristatus L. Crested Dog’s tail

Danthonia decuinbens (L.) [Siegliiigia

decumbens] Heath grass

Deschampsia jlexuosa (L.) Trin.

•

0.20(0.7)

Wavy Hair-grass

Dicramnn scoparium Hedw.

3.75

Euphrasia sp. L. Eyehright

0.25

0.03 (0.1)

Festuca rubra L. Red Fescue

•

Festuca vivipara (L.) Sin. Sheep ’s fescue

cd (15%)

27.75

1.72(6.8)

3.0(6.28)

Hypnum cupressiforme Hedw.

16.25

Jimiperus communis alpine, Celak. Alpine

Juniper

Molinia caerulea (L.) Moeiich. Purple moor-

grass

Nardus stricta L. Mat-grass

0.5

0.33 (1.3)

Oligolricliuin hercynicum (Hedw.) Lam & Cand.

Plantago lanceolala L.

•

Plantago maritima L.

a (5%)

3.00

2.15 (8.5)

2.00 (4.19)

Polygala serpyllifolia Hose. Heath Milkwort

•

0.03(0.1)

Polvtrichiim alpinum Hedw.

5.25

7.5

Polytrichum piliferum Hedw.

Polytrichum urnigeruin Hedw.

Potentilla erecta (L.) Rausch. Tormentil

1.5

0.25

0.72 (2.9)

•

Rhacomitrium lanuginosum (Hedw.)Brid.

0.5

3.36(13.3)

0.75 (1.57)

Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus (Hedw.) Warns!.

18.5

11.75

0.05 (0.2)

0.5 (1.05)

Riibus saxatilis L. Stone Bramble

0.25

0.08(0.3)

Selaginella selaginoides (L.) Beauv. Lesser

•

0.05 (0.2)

Clubmoss

Silene acaulis (L.) Jacq. Moss Campion

•

Solidago virgaurea L. Goldenrod

•

0.21 (0.9)

Succisa pratensis Moench Devil’s-bit Scabious

Taraxacum officinale Weber.

•

0.5

Thymus polytrichus [praecox OpizJ Wild Thyme

./■

11.75

5.25

2.13 (8.5)

1.75 (3.66)

Trichophorum cespilosum (L.) Hartm. Deergrass

0.41 (1.6)

Vaccinium myrtillus L. Bilberry'

•

Viola riviniana Reichh. Common Dog-violet

2.75

0.15 (0.6)

•

Peltigera spp

•

Total plant cover (%)

5-10

100

25.2 (100)

50.25 (100)

Table 1. Plant species recorded in the fertiliser plot and control plot at an altitude of 650 in on the Barkeval-Hallival ridge. Isle of
Rum. Results from previous studies (Ferreira and Wormell 1971; Wilson et al. 1998) also provided. Figures in parentheses are
percentage of total vegetation cover, • denotes species that were observed but not recorded, cd =co-dominant.
(M=Monocotyledonous, B=bryophyte, D=dicotyledonous, P=pteridophyte, L=lichen, G=Gymnospenns, [ ] = former names). English
names (Stace 2010).

107

The vegetation cover of the fertiliser plot changed
considerably since 1965 and contrasts with the control
plot, delineated by Wilson et al. (1998). Overall,
vegetation cover of 50 % was recorded in the control
plot, an increase from the 25 % noted in 1996, the
dominant vegetation was heather with 24 % cover.

Soils

Soil profiles of the untreated (control) plots in 1965,
1996 and 2009 are very similar with approximately
0.03 m of very dark brown organic matter (lOYR 2/2)
above a yellowish-brown mineral horizon (lOYR 5/4).
This profile was not uniform across the control plot in
2009, with the organic horizon ranging from 0-0.1 m,
due to erosion and deposition. The horizon below the
fertiliser plot was vciy different, with a deeper organic
horizon to 0.04 m (lOYR 2/1) and organic staining
( lOYR 2/2) down to 0.08 m, above a similar yellowish-
brown mineral horizon (lOYR 5/4). This was deeper
than records from 1996, when the organic horizon
reached to a depth of 0.03 m with staining to 0.06 m.
Soil bulk density within both the fertiliser plot and the
control plot increased with depth, although both results
recoded were generally lower than those reported by
Wilson et ai (1996) except in the control plot at 10 -
15 cm (Fig. 1).

Fig. 2 provides results from the fertiliser plot before
treatment (1965), in 1996 and 2010. Most
measurements showed an increase over time of;
organic matter, pH and nutrients, which generally
reduced with increasing depth. The exception was
phosphorus, as Wilson et al. (1998) previously
recorded a much higher level. There was also an
increase in magnesium recorded in the upper section of
the soil cores (0 - 0.05 m) extracted from the fertiliser
plot.

Results from the control plot, in addition to the
fertiliser plot before treatment, arc given in Table 2.
Here, within the upper 0.05 m, there has been an
increase in organic content, pH and some nutrients,
although no phosphorous was recorded in 2009. A
much higher level of magnesium (135 mg kg ') was
also recorded.

Although comparison of nitrate content of the plots
was not possible, due to different analyses undertaken,
the results arc presented for possible comparison in
future studies. Fertiliser plot; 0 - 0.05, 0.05 - 0.10, 0.10
- 0.15 m contained 1.65, 4.78, 6.66 mg kg'
respectively (n=16). The control plot contained 18.48
mg kg'' at 0 - 0.05 m (n=16).

DISCUSSION

Results from the original (Wormell) plot suggest that
even after 45 years the fertiliser continues to have an
effect. Acidophiles within the plot continue to decline,
for example, reduced cover of heather was reported by
previous authors but not recorded within the cuiTent
survey. A similar reduction for heather has been
reported on hcathland sites that have received fertiliser

applications (Aerts 1993). Here on Rum, there was no
evidence of an increase in heather, as previously
suggested by Wilson et al. ( 1 998). However, grass and
moss species (F. vivipara and H. ciipressifonne
specifically) dominate the plot. (There is also increased
pH and nutrient content of the soil.)

The ultrabasic rocks, with low plant nutrients, but high
concentrations of magnesium, now appear to have little
effect on the plant species in the area. However, a high
recording of magnesium (675.4 mg kg'') was found in
the upper (0 - 0.05 m) cores from the fertiliser plot.
This may in part be wind-borne material from the
surrounding unvegetated areas, or from the analysis
method used. However, high concentrations of
potentially toxic elements, such as magnesium, have
been shown to have little effect on vegetative growth
(Looney and Proctor 1990).

Vegetation cover within the control plot has increased
from 25 to 50 % (1996-2010) and from (at best) 10 %
in 1965. This, seemingly un-manipulated increase, may
be accounted for by a number of factors. The known
reduction in deer number, particularly in recent years,
may be partially responsible, with less than half the
number of 15 years ago, now grazing on Rum (Payne
2003). This may be particularly important at the
experimental plot site, as this green square at altitude
of 650m must act as an attraction to herbivores. In
addition, enhanced climatic conditions (e.g. Moyes
2011; Myneni et al. 1997) may have led to a prolonged
growth period each year.

The assumption by Wilson et al. (1998) that heather
had influenced pH in the control plot was not
confimied in the cuiTcnt survey. Although cover of
heather had increased (10.6 to 23.7 %), pH had also
increased from 4.9 to 5.7. This may be accounted for
by the increased vegetation cover reducing leaching
with more minerals and nutrients held in the substrate
beneath the plants.

It was unfortunate that the additional (single element)
fertiliser plots set up by Wilson et al. (1998) were
considered unfit for survey. Continued monitoring of
these plots might have led to a clearer understanding of
how specific nutrients affect plant growth at an altitude
of 650m in an exposed environment. However, it docs
demonstrate that experiments of this type on an
exposed mountain ridge need to be robust in their
design and execution.

That earthworms are present in the fertiliser plot (Butt
& Lowe, 2004) is not unexpected, as these animals
require a minimum level or organic matter (as shown
in Fig. 2). Such animals are not uncommon at this
altitude on these rocks/soils but are usually associated
with natural “greens” created through fertiliser addition
from nesting bird faeces (e.g. Fumess, 1991). Further
research in this area is ongoing (Callaham et al., in
press).

108

□ 1996
■ 2009

Depth of core (cm) Wormell
plot

•O

□ 1996
■ 2009

Depth of core (cm) Control
plot

Fig. 1. Bulk density soil measurements from (a) (Wormell) fertiliser plot and (b) control plot.

109

Organic

matter

content

Phosphorous
mg kg ’

Potassium
mg kg '

Magnesium
mg kg '

Fertiliser plot
pre treatment

4.15

5.3

2.0

Control

1996

Plot

4.85

4.9

3.1

Control

2009

Plot

6.4

5.7

0.0

135

Table 2. Soil data derived from control plots over a 45 year period, only results of the upper 5 cm of the core provided.

It is currently difficult to assess the direct influence
brought about by reduced levels of grazing, and/or the
increase in temperature on vegetation growth days on
the fertiliser plot. Increased vegetation cover within the
control plot indicates that there has been some effect,
as this is not directly related to historical fertiliser
addition. Further carefully designed experiments, to
address Wonnell’s original hypotheses may still be
warranted, to fully detemiine limiting factors
associated with plant growth of patchy herb-rich
Calluna heath/grass-dominated swards at altitude on
Rum.

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Callaham M.A. Jr, Butt K.R., Lowe C.N. (in press)
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110

The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 111-118

Long-term dynamics in Scottish saltmarsh plant communities

Rebecca B. Taubert and Kevin J. Murphy

IBAHCM, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, G12 8QQ, Scotland
E-mail; taiibertr@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

In 2011, we conducted a resurvey of saltmarsh plant
communities present at six sites along the mainland
coasts of Scotland, previously surveyed in 2006. Three
sites located on the Isle of Mull (Inner Hebrides) that
were previously studied in 1957 were also resurveyed.
The data, analyzed using TWINSPAN classification
and CCA ordination procedures, suggested that
geographical factors were more important than time in
driving the observed differences in plant community
composition. For example, only at Ardmore Point
(Firth of Clyde), and Aberlady and Skinflats (Firth of
Forth), were there distinct pioneer zones containing
Salicornia europaea found in 201 L All sites supported
recognizable mid-marsh and upper marsh communities.
Overall, this study provides evidence for some degree
of stability in Scottish saltmarsh plant communities,
whether over a short timescale of 5 years or a longer
period of 54 years.

INTRODUCTION

Saltmarshes develop on wave-protected shorelines in
temperate regions worldwide as a result of interactions
between vegetation and tidal action, relative sea level
rise, climatic extremes, and sediment deposition rate
(Harvey and Allan 1998; Beeftink 1977). The
accumulation of sediment, vegetation fragments and
various other suspended materials deposited by the tide
creates a mudflat, which facilitates the settlement of
specialist halophytic vegetation such as Salicornia and
Puccinellia spp. (Farina et al 2009; Steers 1977). This
leads to an increase in the elevation and stabilization of
substrate and ultimately, to the fomiation of creeks,
channels and other conditions favourable for plant
species less tolerant of frequent tidal submergence
(Steers 1977). The change in elevation gives rise to
distinct patterns of vegetation, known as zones, which
typically occur in belts that run parallel to the shoreline
(Adam 1990).

Most established saltmarshes can be divided into three
distinct vegetation zones (species given as examples
here relate to UK saltmarshes, though many of the
saltmarsh plants have rather broad, cosmopolitan
distributions in Europe): (1) a pioneer/low marsh zone
defined by soft sediments, seaweeds and a few
specialist halophytes such as Salicornia europaea and
Puccinellia maritima, (2) an accretion/mid marsh zone

that usually displays a large variety of environmental
conditions and supports common saltmarsh species
such as Festuca rubra, Jimcus gerardi and Agrostis
stolonifera, and (3) a mature/upper marsh zone, which
occurs towards the upper limit of tidal influence and
contains species less tolerant to salt and regular
submergence, such as Elymus pycnanthus.

Saltmarshes offer a plethora of ecosystem services,
including biodiversity preservation, water quality
improvement, flood abatement, shoreline stabilization
and carbon and nutrient sequestration. They also
provide valuable habitat for migratoi'y waterfowl and
young commercially important species of fish (Zedler
and Kercher 2005). Since vegetation plays a crucial
role in the establishment and growth of saltmarshes,
monitoring the changes in the composition of plant
communities over time is one way to detemiine
whether these systems are functioning properly. Such
studies can then provide an indication of any
significant variation occurring and whether these
changes are due to anthropogenic pressures, such as
abnonnal rise in sea level, invasive species or
development (Gedan et al 2009).

Previous long-tenn studies of saltmarsh plant
communities have focused on the effects of sudden and
extreme changes of weather, planned technical
interference, dynamics of vegetational change
(Beeftink 1979) and grazing intensity (Andresen et al
1990) to identify the responses of different species to
environmental disturbances. Studies of the long-tenn
composition of saltmarsh vegetation through the use of
permanent plots (accurately marked plots where
vegetation releves have been sampled repeatedly over a
period of time), have been undertaken at Boschplaat on
the island of Terschelling in The Netherlands, where a
saltmarsh began to form on a sand flat after the
construction of a sand dam in the 1930s (Leendertse et
al 1997; Roozen and Westhoff 1985; Smits et al 2002).

Scottish coasts contain about 15% of the UK’s
44,000ha saltmarsh resource, of which the marshes in
the Solway Firth account for 8% (Hansom and
McGiashan 2004). Saltmarshes in Scotland occur
mainly in estuaries and at the heads of sea lochs
(Harvey and Allan 1998). Two previous studies of
vegetation communities of various saltmarshes in

111

Scotland include Gillham’s 1957 survey of three sea
loch marshes located on the Isle of Mull in the Inner
Hebrides, and Zimmerman and Muiphy’s 2006 survey
of three sea loch and four estuarine marshes on the
east, west and southem mainland coasts.

We were able to obtain the raw plant species
abundance data from both studies, which made it
possible to visit and resurvey these sites in 201 1 in
order to examine the dynamics of Scottish salt marsh
plant communities over a short time scale of five years
at the mainland sites, and a longer period of 54 years at
the sites on the Isle of Mull. In addition to this
comparison of historical and recent vegetation data,
environmental variables such as soil pH, vegetation
height, and soil conductivity were measured in the
cuiTcnt study to assist in detemiining what factors are
responsible for plant community patterns within a
marsh (zonation) and between different marshes
(geographical location).

METHODS

Study Sites

Nine sites from earlier studies were resurveyed (Fig.
1). Three of these were previously surveyed in 1957 by
Gillham and are situated along sea lochs located on the
Isle of Mull in the Inner Hebrides: Loch Guin, Loch
naKeal and Loch Scridain. The other six sites were last
surveyed by Zimmermann and Murphy in 2006 and
included four along the west coast of mainland
Scotland: Port Appin, Loch Etive and Loch Creran
near Oban; and Ardmore Point in the Inner Clyde, plus
two on the east coast: Abeiiady Bay in the outer Firth
of Forth and Skinflats, which is also located in the
Forth, near Falkirk. The tenth site, Powfoulis New
Lagoon, is a newly restored saltmarsh, on previously
reclaimed familand, which is located directly inland
from the Skinflats site: no historic data (prior to
restoration) were available for this site.

These locations were primarily chosen because data
existed from previous years from which to compare
possible shifts in vegetation communities over different
time scales. They are also representative of the
different habitats in (estuaries and sea lochs) and
environmental conditions (West and East coasts; island
and mainland; and lower and higher latitudes) under
which saltmarshes may develop in Scotland.
Zimmerman and Muiphy (2007) also sampled a site in
the Solway Firth (River Cree), but we were unable gain
access to the site late in the season, at the time of the
fieldwork for this study.

Survey Methods

Surveys of the ten sites were done late September
through mid-November 2011. At each site, samples
from three randomly located replicate stations were
collected from each of three sub-sites coiTesponding
with the three distinct vegetation zones: pioneer/low
marsh, accretion/mid marsh and mature/high marsh.
One GPS reading was taken (using a Gamiin Etrex
instrument) to accurately geolocate evei’y sub-site.

Fig. 1. 2011 Survey site locations. AB = Aberlady
Bay, AP = Ardmore Point, LC = Loch Creran, LE =
Loch Etive, LG = Loch Guin, LK = Loch naKeal, LS =
Loch Scridian, PA = Port Appin; SF = Skinflats
(Powfoulis New Lagoon, PNL, also exists at Skinflats,
as a newly-created saltmarsh site behind the seawall).

Plant species abundance was quantified by using a
0.5m X 0.5m quadrat subdivided into twenty-five 0.1m
X 0.1m squares and scoring how many of the twenty-
five squares within the quadrat were occupied by each
species. Vegetation height was recorded at three
randomly chosen points in each quadrat. Plant
community diversity was recorded simply as total
number of species present per sample. A soil sample
was taken from each quadrat to measure pH and
conductivity levels. The pH level was recorded in the
field using a Hanna pH EP4 meter while conductivity
was detennined back at the University with a Jenway
4071 conductivity meter. Grazing pressure and
environmental disturbance were scored on a scale of
one to three with one coiTesponding to areas with a
minimal amount of disturbance and three to more
heavily impacted sites. In total, 99 samples were
collected from the ten sites.

Data Analysis

Species abundance scores from the 2011 survey were
converted by simple multiplication into percentages
(%A). The multivariate classification procedure Two-
Way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN: Hill
and Smilauer, 2005) was then utilized in order to group
together the samples in the 2011 dataset that had
similar assemblages of species. A second TWINSPAN
analysis was done on the complete dataset (1957, 2006
and 20 1 1 data) to compare and contrast past and
present species assemblages. In order to make the year

112

datasets comparable, modifications of the raw data
were required. Raw data scores from the 2006 survey
were averaged and multiplied by four in order to
convert the values to %A values. Data were extracted
from the 1957 paper by detennining percentage
abundance of each species present from individual
sections along the detailed transect diagrams given in
the article.

Prior to pcrfomiing statistical tests in Minitab (version
15), the raw 201 1 environmental data set was tested for
normality by perfonning Ryan-Joiner tests and certain
variables were then loge transformed, where necessary,
in order to nomialize the data. One-way analysis of
variance and Tukey’s mean comparison tests were used
to determine whether there were any significant
differences in mean values for soil pH, conductivity,
vegetation height and plant species diversity, between
the groups designated by TWINSPAN.

Ordination of the 20 1 1 vegetation and environmental
data was done using Canonical Correspondence
Analysis (CCA, utilizing CANOCO: ter Braak and
Smilauer, 1998). CCA is a multivariate procedure,
which can be used to identify patterns of plant species
distribution in the context of the environmental
variables measured. A Monte Carlo test was used to
detennine whether the variation explained by the CCA
results was significant, across the first (major) axis, or
all axes combined for the ordination. Plant assemblages
for each zone at each site were allocated to National
Vegetation Classification (NVC) saltmarsh/maritime
communities using the program TABLEFIT (Hill,
1996).

RESULTS

In total, 37 species were observed in the 201 1 resurvey.
The five most common species were Puccmellia
maritima, Glaiix mavitima, Triglochin mahtima,
Festuca rubra and Juncus gerardi.

TWINSPAN initially divided the 99 sample stations
from 2011 into a large group (n=81) and a smaller
group (n=18) with an eigenvalue of 0.514. At the next
level, both groups were further divided into two groups
each to create four groups in total (Group A: n=13 and
Group B: n=68; eigenvalue = 0.474 and Group C: n=l 1
and Group D: n=7; eigenvalue = 0.770). Analysis
stopped by the third division because eigenvalues
became weaker (0.388 or less), suggesting substantial

overlap between species composition of sample-groups
at this point. ANOVA analyses confimied that there
were significant differences between the four
TWINSPAN groups for mean soil pH {P < 0.027),
mean soil conductivity {P = 0.000) and mean
vegetation height {P = 0.000). There was no significant
difference in mean species diversity among the groups
(Table 1).

Group A was made up entirely of sample stations
located in the pioneer zones of Aberlady, Skinflats and
Ardmore Point. The indicator species listed were S.
europaea and Cladophora spp. This group had the
highest mean conductivity and the shortest mean
vegetation height.

Group B was the largest one classified by TWINSPAN
containing more than half of the total sample stations.
This group contains data from all survey locations and
is composed primarily of mid-marsh sites with pioneer
and high marsh sites that did not display distinct high
marsh (Groups C and D) or pioneer marsh (Group A)
species. The indicators were G. maritima, F. rubra,
and J. gerardi and mean conductivity, pH levels and
vegetation height values were intemiediate compared
to values for the other three groups.

Variable

TWINSPAN sample groups

Paso\ a

Mean

Mean SE

Soil pH

7.16

0.18

6.91 0.07

6.86 0.15

7.54 0.26

P< 0.027*

loge mean soil

conductivity

(pS/cm)

8.76

0.12

7.66 0.10

7.90 0.17

6.69 0.29

P =0.000***

loge mean
vegetation height
(cm)

1.91

0.17

2.04 0.08

3.35 0.18

2.43 0.28

P =0.000***

Table 1. Mean values (±1 standard error) of statistically significant environmental variables compared between the
201 1 TWINSPAN groups. For group A, n = 13; B, n = 68; C, n = 11; and D, n = 7. Stars next to P-values reflect
different levels of significance {* = P < 0.05, ** = P < 0.01, *** = P < 0.001).

113

Groups C and D consist exclusively of high marsh
zone sample stations. Group C included data from
Ardmore Point and Powfoulis New Lagoon (by
Skinflats). E. pycmmthm was the indicator species and
this group had the highest mean vegetation height but
the lowest mean soil pH. Samples from Port Appin,
Loch Creran, Loch Scridain and Loch Na Keal
comprised Group D. Group D’s indicator species were
Cochlearia officinalis and Agrostis Stolonifera. The
average conductivity for this group was the lowest, but
the average sediment pH was the highest.

The CCA ordination of the 2011 survey data,
constrained by environmental variables (Fig. 2),
suggests that several of the environmental factors
measured arc good predictors of saltmarsh plant
community composition for the sites surveyed (Monte
Carlo test for axis \ \ P < 0.002, all axes; P < 0.002).
Mean vegetation height, mean soil conductivity,
longitude and latitude proved to be the significant
environmental variables in predicting saltmarsh plant
community distribution while factors such as soil pH,
environmental disturbance and grazing pressure were
less important. The overlay of the TWINSPAN groups
from the 20 1 1 data shows a strong association between
high mean soil conductivity and Group A and between
mean vegetation height and Group C. Groups B and D
were not associated with any environmental variable in
particular. The location of Group B was not displayed
on the ordination graph because it consisted of
sampling stations that were ubiquitously distributed
across the plot.

Fig. 2. Canonical CoiTespondence Analysis sample
ordination for the 2011 survey data. Approximate
location on the plot of samples making up three
individual TWINSPAN sample groups is indicated for
groups A, C and D. The fourth group (B) had a more
scattered distribution of component samples across the
ordination plot. Lat = latitude; Long = longitude;
Grazpres = grazing pressure score; SoilPH = mean soil

pH; Avgeon = mean soil conductivity; Avgveg = mean
vegetation height; Envdist = environmental disturbance
score.

Table 2 displays the 12 NVC community and sub-
community types assigned to the 30 sub-sites sampled
in 2011. The goodness of fit for the NVC communities
allocated to the sub-sites ranged widely, from 96% and
94% for pioneer/low marsh sub-sites at Powfoulis New
Lagoon and Skinflats, to 49% and 50% for mature/high
marsh sub-sites at Powfoulis New Lagoon and
Ardmore Point.

Another four TWINSPAN groups emerged from the
comparison of the historical and cuiTent vegetation
data;

Group A was composed of samples collected in 2011
only and contains data from Ardmore Point, Port
Appin, Loch Creran, Loch na Keal, Loch Scridain,
Aberlady Bay, Skinflats and Powfoulis New Lagoon.
Species indicators included Phalaris arundinacea, F.
rubra, C. qffinalis and E. pycnanthus.

Group B consisted of samples collected from all three
years and was the largest group defined. At least one
sample from eveiy site from the 2011 survey was
represented except for Powfoulis New Lagoon. The
majority of the samples taken during the 2006 survey
were allocated to this group with sub-sites from
Ardmore Point, Port Appin, Loch Creran, Loch Etive,
Aberlady Bay and Skinflats. All the data points
extracted from the 1957 survey were also included
(samples from Loch Guin and Loch Scridain). The
species indicators were J. gerardi, Plantago maritiina,
G. maritima and Armeria maritiina.

Group C was the smallest and the majority of the
samples were from the 20 1 1 survey at Powfoulis New
Lagoon, with one sample each from Aberlady Bay,
Loch Creran and Skinflats. The rest of the samples
were from the 2006 survey and were located at
Ardmore Point. The indicator species were Aster
tripolium, A. maritima, Plantago maritima and
Spergularia maritima.

Group D very closely resembled Group A from the
2011 TWINSPAN analysis containing sub-sites from
Ardmore Point, Aberlady Bay, Skinflats and Powfoulis
New Lagoon with additional samples from the 2011
survey of Loch na Keal and a sample from Aberlady
Bay that was from 2006. The indicator was
Cladophora spp.

114

Sub-site

NVC Community

NVC Code

Goodness of Fit (%)

AP 1

PuccineUia maritima saltmarsh

None

SM 13

AP2

Festiica rubra saltmarsh - Juncus
gerardi

Juncus gerardi

SM 16b

AP3

Juncus maritimus saltmarsh

None

SM 18

PA 1

Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus
gerardi

Festuca rubra

SM 16d

PA 2

Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus
gerardi

Juncus gerardi

SM 16b

PA 3

Pucinellia maritima saltmarsh

Glaiix maritima

SM 13b

LC 1

Festuca rubra - Armeria maritima
maritime grassland

Typical

MC 8a

LC2

Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus
gerardi

None

SM 16

LC3

Puccinellia maritima saltmarsh

None

SM 13

LE 1

Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus
gerardii

None

SM 16

LE2

Puccinellia maritima saltmarsh

None

SM 13

LE3

Pucinellia maritima saltmarsh

Glaux maritima

SM 13b

LG 1

Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus
gerardi

Puccinellia maritima

SM 16a

LG 2

Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus
gerardi

None

SM 16

LG 3

Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus
gerardi

None

SM 16

LK 1

Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus
gerardi

Leontodon autumnalis

SM 16e

LK2

Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus
gerardi

None

SM 16

LK3

Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus
gerardi

Puccinellia maritima

SM 16a

LS 1

Juncus maritimus - Triglochin
maritima saltmarsh

None

SM 15

LS2

Puccinellia maritima saltmarsh

None

SM 13

LS3

Pucinellia maritima saltmarsh

Glaux maritima

SM 13b

AB 1

Annual Salicornia saltmarsh

None

SM 8

AB 2

Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus
gerardi

Puccinellia maritima

SM 16a

AB3

Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus
gerardii

Juncus gerardii

SM 16b

SF 1

Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus
gerardii

Festuca rubra

SM 16d

SF2

Puccinellia maritima saltmarsh

Limonium vulgare -
Armeria maritima

SM 13c

SF3

Puccinellia maritima saltmarsh

None

SM 13

PNL 1

Elymus pycnanthus saltmarsh

None

SM 24

PNL2

Spergularia marina - Puccinellia
distans saltmarsh

None

SM 23

PNL 3

Puccinellia maritima saltmarsh

None

SM 13

Table 2. National Vegetation Classification (NVC) community designations for sub-sites surveyed in 201 1 . For site
codes see caption to Fig. 1

115

DISCUSSION

In 2011, a classic zoned plant community was present
at every site, but there were differences in the precise
composition of the vegetation communities between
different sites.

Ardmore Point. Aberlady Bay and Skinflats were
grouped together by TWINSPAN as being the only
sites with pioneer zones colonized by 5. eiiropaea. This
group has the highest average mean conductivity and
the shortest average mean vegetation height, which is
reflected in the CCA analysis because its sample
stations are placed among those most positively
associated with high mean conductivity and those most
negatively associated with mean vegetation height. Salt
water contains a high concentration of ions and
halophytes such as S. eiiropaea and PuccineUia
maritima achieve tolerance of high salinity at the
expense of growth (Adam 1990).

The largest TWINSPAN group contained
representatives from all sites and zone types. The
indicators were G. maritima, F. rubra, and J. gerardi,
which are species characteristic of the mid-marsh zone
(Rodwell 2000). The sample stations were widely
distributed about the CCA ordination plot, suggesting
that this group tolerates a large range of environmental
conditions. None of the NVC low-marsh designations
were typical of Loch Guin or Loch naKeal, but a
PuccineUia maritima sub-community was still assigned
indicating a presence of low marsh species. Since
Loch Guin and Loch naKeal are island sea lochs that
are veiy rocky and receive a large amount of rain
compared to the other areas surveyed, this may have
caused a more unifonn plant community distribution.

High marsh sample sites from Ardmore Point and
Powfoulis New Lagoon were associated with E.
pycnanthus and Jimcus maritimus dominant
communities - both typical of upper marshes with soils
of high organic content. A fenced grazing area for
livestock (horses) backs the Ardmore Point marsh, so
runoff from this area may result in nutrient enriched
soils. Since Powfoulis New Lagoon used to be an
agricultural field separated from the site at Skinflats by
a seawall, it is also appropriate that it would be
characterized by a S. maritima dominated community,
which commonly occurs on or behind seawalls and
generally in areas of disturbed soil and variable salinity
(Rodwell 2000). This TWINSPAN group had an
intemiediate mean conductivity and the highest
average vegetation height, which is probably due to the
estuarine nature of the sites and the relatively high
nutrient runoff from familand and urban centres.

The Port Appin, Loch Creran, Loch na Keai and Loch
Scridain upper marsh sites that comprise group D differ
from those in group C (Ardmore Point and Powfoulis
New Lagoon) almost certainly since they are all
located within sea lochs. These sites collectively had
the lowest average conductivity - mainly because of
fresh water influence from inland rivers (the

conductivity of fresh water being much less than sea
water).

PuccineUia maritima, F. rubra, J. gerardi, G. maritima
and T. maritimiim were the five commonest species
observed in 2011. Four out of five of these species
were the same as those from the 2006 survey. The one
exception was that Plantago maritima was much more
abundant than PuccineUia maritima in 2006. Plantago
maritima was also one of the commonest species found
during the 1957 survey of the Isle of Mull sites.
However, this species was only present in the upper
marsh of Loch naKeal in the 20 1 1 survey.

The general absence of Plantago maritima from the
201 1 survey is most likely because it is a herbaceous
perennial plant, which blooms in the spring and
summer months and dies back to the rootstock in
autumn. The sampling for the 201 1 survey was done
in autumn, while sampling in 1957 and 2006 occurred
during the spring and summer months.

The shift in dominance from Plantago maritima to
PuccineUia maritima might also signify retrogressive
succession to an earlier successional stage, which
usually occurs as a result of a decrease in marsh
elevation and increase in sea level rise (Warren and
Niering 1993). Leendertse et al (1997) observed a
change in species dominance from PuccineUia
maritima in 1957 to Plantago maritima between 1967-
1990 in three mid marsh plots during their study.
Increases in elevation and silt thickness coupled with a
decrease in the number of floodings per year were cited
as the causes. This suggests that if elevation and silt
thickness were to decrease while the number of
floodings per year increased, the plant community
dominance might regress from Plantago maritima to
PuccineUia maritima. This could perhaps contribute to
the relative the lack of Plantago maritima observed in
2011 - especially considering the absence of

PuccineUia maritima from Loch Scridain in 1957 and
its abundance of it in 2011. However, historical
measurements of elevation and flooding frequency at
these sites are unavailable to allow further examination
of this point.

Another change we noticed was the appearance of a S.
eiiropaea dominated pioneer zone at Skinflats in 2011
that was absent in 2006. The site at Skinflats was
backed by a sea wall separating it from an agricultural
field (historically reclaimed salt marsh) up until
recently. By the time the present survey was
conducted, the Royal Society for the Protection of
Birds (RSPB) had introduced a regulated tidal
exchange scheme between the field and the suiwey site.
This action is part of a salt marsh restoration
programme with the puipose of creating more
migratory waterfowl habitat and preventing fiirther
erosion of the area. Since the hydrology of the site was
altered as a result of this endeavour, this could account
for a change in the intensity of the wave action,
possibly generating conditions along the shoreline

116

more conducive to the establishment of S. europaea
seedlings.

In addition to these differences, Elymiis. pycnanthus, a
species not commonly observed north of the Solway
Firth, was present at four of the sites surveyed in 201 1 :
Powfoulis New Lagoon, Ardmore Point, Loch Scridain
and Port Appin. The species had been observed at the
Ardmore Point and Loch Scridain sites in previous
years, however, its presence at the Port Appin site had
not been recorded before, to our knowledge. Reasons
for the difference in distribution of this species could
include climate change, seed dispersal through vectors
such as birds, wave or wind action or both, as seed
distributing animals such as birds may alter their
distributions to cope with climate change (Walther et
al. 2002; Howe and Smallwood 1984). At the new
Powfoulis New Lagoon site, the presence of
E. pycnanthus could also be due to the introduction of a
seed mix (normally used to re=vegetate sand dunes) by
RSPB there in order to help vegetate the newly
constructed lagoon banks, which would be likely to
include seed of E. pycnanthus (N. Chambers, RSPB,
pers. comm.).

TWFNSPAN classification of the past and present
vegetation data generated four groups, three of which
contain data from more than one year. One group in
particular (Group B) contained 55% of the sample sites
from 2011, 100% of the samples from 1957 and 91%
from 2006 (Fig. 3). When comparing the plant species
present at each site in 2011 to those species existing
there in the previous survey, 25 - 64% of the species
were the same. Since conditions in the saltmarsh
ecosystem can fluctuate dramatically, the fact that the
sites retained about 45% of the plant species, on
average, that were observed during previous surveys
provides evidence for some degree of vegetation
community stability over time, whether over a short
timescale of 5 years (mainland sites), or a longer period
of 54 years (Isle of Mull sites).

A B C D

Fig. 3. Composition of the TWINSPAN sample
groups (A-D) produced by classification of vegetation
data from all three surveys by year (Black = 2011,
Grey = 2006 and White = 1957)

Resistance and resilience to peiturbations are strong
influences on ecosystem stability (Tilman and
Downing 1994). Long-term stability of saltmarshes is
regulated by interactions between factors such as tidal
inundation, land elevation, primary production and
sediment accretion (Morris et a! 2002). Sea level rise,
invasive species and development are major threats to
saltmarsh stability (Gedan et al 2009). If the level of

the sea rises at a faster rate than the salt marsh can
accumulate sediment and increase its elevation, then
the marsh will be completely submerged, leaving
behind mudflats or open water (Leendertse et al 1997).
Invasions of non-native species and development of the
coast can exacerbate this condition by leading to severe
disraptions in salt marsh plant communities, causing
the marsh to erode (Gedan et al 2009).

For future studies of long-term change in Scottish salt
marsh plant communities, it would be useful to monitor
additional variables such as sediment type, land
elevation, sediment accretion, biomass and tidal height
and frequency, in addition to those looked at in this
survey. This way, if there is a very prominent change
ill the abundance of a certain species, such as the
development of a S. europaea dominated pioneer zone,
we can make inferences based on these measurements
and observations as to whether antliropogenically-
induced threats to salt marsh existence and functioning
(such as sea level rise, development and invasive
species) are the cause or whether natural change in the
species dynamics of salt marsh ecosystems are of
greater importance in explaining and predicting such
vegetation changes.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A special thanks to Nick Chambers of RSPB and John
Hanison of East Lothian District Council for helping
us gain access to the sites at Skinflats and Aberlady
Bay.

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Beeftink, W.G. (1979). The structure of salt marsh
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Ecological responses to recent climate change.
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WaiTen, R.S. & Niering, W.A. (1993) Vegetation
change on a northeast tidal marsh: Interaction of
sea-level rise and marsh accretion. Ecologx’ 74: 96-

103.

Zedler, J.B. & Kercher, S. (2005) Wetland resources:
Status, trends, ecosystem services and restorability.

Annual Review of Environmental Resources 30: 39-
74.

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118

The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 119-147

SHORT NOTES

Interesting Aculeate records from
Glasgow, including eight new species
records for Lanarkshire, with
reflections on their wider
distribution in Southern Scotland

Jeanne Robinson' and Cathy Fiedler“

‘ Jeanne Robinson, Curator of Entomology, Glasgow
Life, Glasgow Museums, Kelvingrove Museum and
Gallery, Glasgow, G3 SAG.

^Cathy Fiedler, Centre for Ecology and Hydrology,
Edinburgh, EH26 OQB.

'E-mail: jeanne.robinson@csglasgow.org
^E-mail: catedl@ceh.ac.uk

INTRODUCTION

With the exception of the bumblebees, there has been a
general lack of recording for the aculeates in south
west Scotland, least of all in urban areas such as
Glasgow. They are a fascinating but intimidating group
for the uninitiated. They can be challenging to identify
and user friendly taxonomic guides are not readily
available; consequently general naturalists tend to shy
away from them when compiling their biological
records. Published articles and our museum collections
reveal more active aculeate recording during the early
part of the 20''’ century (see results), coinciding with
the publication of identification keys, which often help
generate an interest. There are a few members of the
Bees, Wasps and Ants Recording Society (BWARS)
that have been actively recording in Scotland recently,
but there is still much to do to address the gaps in our
knowledge of the current species distribution. This
paper presents interesting records resulting from
fieldwork in Glasgow and from speeimens submitted
for identification in 2009. In addition to this, earlier
local records have arisen from the identification of
undetennined museum specimens. The 2009 records
include six species that have not previously been
recorded from Lanarkshire (VC77) and two species
which were thought to be new but turn out to have
been active here longer than expected. Historical
records compiled from museum collections and
publications are also presented; these records provide a
valuable insight into the wider and historical
distribution of these species in Scotland in relation to
our recent findings.

The principal Scottish aculeate collectors whose
records and specimens were examined to produce this
article include John Russell Malloch and Andrew Adie
Dalglish, who collected and documented the aculeates
for The Fauna and Flora of the Clyde Area (Elliott et
al. 1901) and deposited many specimens with the
Glasgow Museums (GM). James Joseph Francis
Xavier King, whose prolific collecting between 1877
and 1930 has yielded useful information on species
distributions and abundance throughout Scotland, and
provided a substantial reference collection for
researchers. King’s collection is housed at the
University of Glasgow’s Hunterian Museum (HM).
William Evans (Evans 1900, 1901), who recorded and
published his findings about the aculeates in the
Lothians, Clyde and beyond, T. M. McGregor
(McGregor, 1893) for those of Perthshire, James Clark
(Clark, 1909) who, with the assistance of Henry
Thomas did the same for Ayrshire and Arran and A. B.
Duncan, a contemporary collector, who recorded in
many parts of Scotland in the 1970s and 80s; all of
whom have specimens deposited at the National
Museum of Scotland (NMS).

METHODS

Fieldwork was under taken by the authors during wann
sunny days between April and the end of July 2009,
which ensured that insects were active. Specimens
were collected by sweep netting individuals on the
wing or targeting nesting sites in the case of species
nesting in aggregations. Other specimens were
collected directly into a pot whilst foraging on flowers
or at rest on the ground.

Specimens were identified using Else (in prep) and the
Nomada test key (Stubbs, 2007). The voucher
specimens from the fieldwork and identifications for
2009 are housed with cither Glasgow Museums (GM)
or the Hunterian Museum (HM), Glasgow. Previously
unidentified specimens housed at the GM were
identified by Cathy Fiedler as part of her Natural
Talent Hymenopterist apprenticeship with the British
Trust for Conservation Volunteers (BTCV).

Recent species distributions were checked online using
the BWARS database, via the NBN Gateway
(BWARS, 2010 and NBN, 2010) and the Scottish
Aculeates List (SAL, 2010). The Glasgow Species
Audit list 2009 (GSA, 2009) was also examined. The
audit is kept by the Local Records Centre at GM and
details published and submitted floral and faunal
records dating from 1801. Published records from
across Scotland were identified on the Scottish
Invertebrates Records Index (SIRI), which is housed at
the NMS. The collections of the GM, HM and NMS
were inspected for specimens from Glasgow and the

119

surrounding areas. Where Scottish records were
numerous for a species on the NBN or in the museum
collections, only key records arc included in the results
data, which arc generally those from south west
Scotland

The species records that resulted from this study have
been passed on to BWARS for incorporation in their
national recording scheme and to the compiler of the
Scottish Aculeates List for information.

RESULTS

Results below arc from museum collections and
publications. Collections arc referenced if data was
collected directly from a specimen - the name of the
collection the specimens arc housed at are given in
brackets i.e. (GM), (HMj or (NMS). Publications are
referenced as standard and (NBN) indicates data was
from the NBN database.

Andreua clarkella

Renfrewshire, Giffnock, collected by J. R. Malloch pre
1901 (Elliot ct al. 1901); Ayrshire, Craufurdland,
Dalrymple, Ness Glen nr. Dalmellington, collected by
J. Clark, 1907-1909 (Clark, 1909), Iiwinc, collected by
A. Dalglish, pre 1901 (Elliot et al, 1901), Clyde
Islands, Airan, Lamlash, collected by J. Clark, 1908
and Brodick, collected by W. Evans, pre 1909 (Clark,
1909); West Lothian. Drumshorcland, collected by W.
Evans, 1902 (NMS); Midlothian, Inveresk, collected
by W. Evans, 1901 (NMS) and Balerno, various
collectors, 1900-1938 (NMS); Dunbartonshire,
MuiToch Glen, collected by J.R. Malloch pre 1901
(GM); Stirlingshire, Callander, collected by W. Evans
1900 and 1902 (NMS); West Perthshire, Dollar,
collected by W. Evans, 1897, (NMS); Dumfries and
Galloway, Castlehill, collected by A.B. Duncan, 1974
(NMS); Wigtonshire, Southerness and Ton's, collected
by A.B. Duncan, 1981-1983 (NMS).

Bomhiis sylvestris

Midlothian, 2006 (NBN), Balcmo, Anon, 1922 (NMS);
Mid/West Lothian, 2008 (NBN); Dunbartonshire,
Bonhill, collected by J.R. Malloch, cl 900 (GM);
Ayshire, 1995 and 2008 (NBN), Dreghom, Anon.,
1923 (NMS); Wigtonshire, 2005, and
Wigtonshire/Kirkcudbrightshire, 1987 (NBN);
Dumfriesshire, 1975 (NBN), Newlands, collected by
A. B. Duncan, 1929 (NMS); near Kim in Argyll, K. M.
Guichard. 1939 (Guichard, 1940) and more widely
across Scotland including Invemcss-shire (NMS)
Fladday (Guichard, 1940) and Morayshire (HM).

Colletes daviesamis

Lanarkshire, Glasgow, Kelvingrove Park collected by
F.R. Woodward, 4“’ July 1984 (GM); Midlothian,
Musselburgh, collected by W. Evans, 1900 (NMS);
Dumfriesshire (SIRl/NBN); and more widely across
Scotland including Fife (NMS), Perthshire (McGregor,
1893), Morayshire (HM) and supposedly the Hebrides
(SlRl). The Hebrides specimen is however likely to be
a misidentification of C. fJoralis.

Lasioglossum calceatiim

Lanarkshire, Glasgow, Glasgow Botanic Gardens, 12"'
August 1984 and Kelvingrove Park, S'" August 1983,
collected by R. Sutcliffe, (GM); Renfrewshire,
Kilbarchan, F.J. Ramsay, 1944 (NMS); Ayrshire,
Clyde Islands, Arran, Anon., 1900 (NMS);

Dunbartonshire, Loch Lomond, collected by R.

Sutcliffe, 26"’ May 1986 (GM), Bonhill, collected by
J.R. Malloch, 1901 and Anon., 1900 (GM and NMS
respectively); common in the south of Dumfriesshire in
May and Autumn circa 1940 (Murray, 1940), and more
widely distributed records include Perthshire (GM),

Aberdeenshire (HM), Kincardineshire (HM),

Morayshire (HM).

Lasioglossum fratellum

Stirlingshire, Mugdock Wood, collected by J. Cooter,
1976 (GM); Renfrewshire, Kilbarchan, collected by
F.J. Ramsay, 1944 and 1947 (NMS); Ayrshire, Irvine
Moor, Anon., 1900 (NMS), Aman, collected by
Waterston, 1936 and 1937 (NMS) and Corrie, 1939, K.
M. Guichard (Guichard, 1940); Bute, Rothesay, Anon.,
1901 (NMS); East Lothian, Longniddry, Anon., 1895-
1898 (NMS) and Aberlady, collected by W. Evans,
1895 and 1896 (NMS); Dunbartonshire, Bonhill,
collected by J.R. Malloch, 1901 (GM); Argyll, Alt
Broiglechan, Anon., 1988 (GM) and Glen Nant,
collected by J. Cooter, 1978 (GM); and more widely
across Scotland including Perthshire (NMS),
Invemesshire (HM, NMS, Guichard. 1940), Colonsay
(NMS), Aberdeenshire (HM), Morayshire (HM), and
possibly Sutherland (HM).

Lasioglossum smeathmanellum

Ayrshire, Shewalton Pits, collected by J. Robinson,
2009 (GM), Arran, Brodick, 1909 (Clark, 1909),
Kilmarnock, collected by J. Clark, 1908 (Clark, 1909),
the Dean and Fenwick 1907-1909 (Clark 1909), Ness
Glen nr Dalmellington, 1909 (Clark. 1909);
Midlothian, 1995 (NBN); East Lothian, Haddington
1996 (NBN); Dunbartonshire, Bonhill and Cardross,
collected by J.R. Malloch, 1901 (GM), Elliot et al.,
1901); Dumfriesshire, nr Gretna, J. Mumay, circa 1940
(Mumay, 1940) and more widely across Scotland
including Perthshire (McGregor 1893, Carter 1901,
Rothney 1906), North budes (SIRI), Morayshire (HM).

Megachile willughhiella

Renfrewshire, Damley, Waulkmill Glen collected by
E. G. Hancock, 1993 (GM/Hancock, 1994); Ayrshire,
Craufurdland, 1908, (Clark, 1909) nr Kirk Alloway,
1907-1909 (Clark, 1909), Ness Glen, 1907-1909
(Clark, 1909), Kilkeman, collected by Heni-y Thomas,
1908 (Clark, 1909), and Bam, collected by A. Dalglish,
pre 1901 (Clark, 1909); Dumfries and Galloway,
Rockcliffe, collected by R.A. Crowson, 1966 (HM),
Caerlaverock, collected by A. B. Duncan, 1984 (NMS),
nr Dumfries, R. Service, 1879 (Sei'vice, 1879); East
Lothian, Dunbar, collected by W. Evans, 1893 -1900
(Evans, 1901), and more widely across Scotland
including Fife (NMS) and Kirkcudbrightshire(NMS).

120

Nomada niarshamella

Moss, collected by R. Service, 1879 (Service, 1879)
South Dumfriesshire, J. Murray circa 1940 (Mun'ay,
1940); StirlingshireA¥est Perthshire (1983);
Argyllshire, 1988 (NBN), Kintyre, Tayvallich, 1988
(NBN) and more Renfrewshire, Kilbarchan, collected
by FJ. Ramsay, 1944 and 1946 (NMS);
Dunbartonshire, Gartlea, 1985 (NBN), Bonhill,
collected by J.R. Malloch, 1901 (GM) and Milton on

Campsie, collected by J. Cooter, 1977 (GM); Dumfries
and Galloway, Dalskairth and Lochar widely across
Scotland including Perthshire (McGregor, 1893), North
(SIRI) and South Ebudes (NBN).

Species

County

Location

Date

Collected by

Determined

Specimen

held

Andrena

clarkella

Lanarkshire

Glasgow, Bunhouse
Road, NS563663

01/04/2009

E.G.

Hancock

C. Fiedler

Bombiis

sylvestris

Lanarkshire

Glasgow, Provan

Hall, NS669664

30/05/2009

J. Robinson

Colletes

daviesanus

Lanarkshire

Glasgow, Binghams
pond, NS554681

05/07/2009

J. Robinson

Lanarkshire

Glasgow, Binghams
pond,NS554681

26/07/2009

R. Weddle

C. Fiedler

Lanarkshire

Necropolis,

NS605654

07/07/2009

R. Weddle

C. Fiedler

Lasioglossiim

calceatiim

Lanarkshire

Glasgow,

Commonhead Moss,
NS697659

29/05/2009

J. Robinson

Lasioglossiim

fratellum

Lanarkshire

Glasgow,

Commonhead Moss,
NS697659

29/05/2009

J. Robinson

Lasioglossiim
smeathmanel lum

Lanarkshire

Glasgow,

NS599651

10/05/2009

R. Weddle

C. Fiedler

Megachile

willughbiella

Lanarkshire

Glasgow, Binghams
Pond.NS554681

5/07/2009

J. Robinson

Nomada

marshamella

Lanarkshire

Glasgow, Haybum
Lane, NS556676

24/5/2009

R. Weddle

C. Fiedlier

Nomada

marshamella

Lanarkshire

Glasgow, Provan

Hall, NS669664,
on garden wall by
Andrena scotica

nests

30/05/2009

J. Robinson

Table 1, Aculeate specimens collected in Lanarkshire during 2009 fieldwork.

DISCUSSION

Western Scotland experienced mixed fortunes weather-
wise during the summer of 2009, with 60% more rain
than nonnal but warmer temperatures than either 2008
or 2007 (Met Office, 2009). On a number of days, we
were met with ideal field conditions for suiweying
aculeates, of especially warn and diy weather.

Initial searches on the BWARS database, Scottish
Aculeates List and Glasgow Species Audit led us to
believe that many of our finds were new records for
Glasgow and possibly the wider area. Inspection of the
three museum collections and historical documents
revealed that much work has been caiTied out on
aculeates in Scotland during the 20'*’ century, but is not
widely known about or cited. Indeed, many species
that appeared of particular note were recorded
previously, up to a century ago. These new records
contribute to our knowledge of the species’ distribution

over time, and reassuringly for aculeate conservation,
reveals that some populations may have persisted in the
south of Scotland for over a centuiy. A. clarkella, B.
sylvestris, L. fratellum, L. smeathnumelliini, M.
williiglihiella and N. marshamella have not previously
been recorded from Lanarkshire. C daviesainis and L.
calceatiim were thought to be new but turn out to have
been here longer than expected.

Male and female solitaiy bees of the attractive, tawny-
thoraxed A. clarkella were active at the start of April.
They had excavated burrows beneath the scrubby
borders of one the West End’s car parks, adjacent to
the river Kelvin. All the Scottish records, we
examined, are from between early March and April.
Their season in Scotland is February and May. They
are oligolectic on Salix, hence the early season (Pers.
Comm. Murdo Macdonald. October 2011). Although a
new record for Lanarkshire, historically, A. clarkella

121

appears widespread in southwest Scotland. It has
certainly been recorded from the majority of vice
counties that border Lanarkshire over the last centuiy,
so could have been active but undetected in Glasgow
for some time.

A B. sylvesths male, the four-coloured cuckoo bee,
was caught flying in the gardens of one of Glasgow’s
oldest buildings, the Provan Hall on a scorching May
day. Its major host species, Bomhus pratoriim, the
early bumblebee was abundant in the grounds. This
species has also been found across Scotland. It is a first
record for Lanarkshire, although it was recorded from
the adjoining counties of Dunbartonshire, at the
beginning of the last century and Dumfriesshire in
1975. Given this and the abundance of potential hosts,
it is unlikely that this species has only just an'ived in
Glasgow. Cuckoo bees arc often overlooked or
misrccordcd as social bumblebees. The Scottish
records we examined have all been between mid-May
and September. These bees are known to be active in
Scotland between March and October (Pers. Comm.
Murdo Macdonald. October 2011).

C. daviesanus was found foraging once in the
Necropolis and on two separate occasions at
Bingham’s pond in July 2009. Bingham’s pond was an
artificial boating lake with little wildlife interest. Since
2003 the Glasgow City Council’s Biodiversity team
has done extensive work to naturalise and enhance it.
Many C. daviesanus bees, with their blond hairy
thoraxes and banded abdomens, were observed
foraging there on July 5'*’ in the specially planted
wildflower borders (Fig. 1 ). This species was not listed
in the Glasgow Species Audit, so the 2009 sightings
were believed to be new county and city records.
However, when checking older specimens that had
been recently identified in GM collections, a specimen
collected in 1984 from Kelvingrove Park was
discovered, collected by a fomicr member of staff.
These 1984 and 2009 sightings are the first for
Lanarkshire, but there arc scattered records from all
over the countiy. Whilst these bees may have been
exploiting the established green areas such as the
Necropolis and Kelvingrove Park for a number of
years, Bingham’s pond has evidently become a
valuable foraging site. All the Scottish records we
examined were from between the beginning of July and
the beginning of August for this species. This species
may be active as early as June in Scotland (Pers.
Comm. Murdo Macdonald. October 2011).

To the untrained eye, the Lasioglossiim bees do not
appear to be bees at all. Most species are very small
and apparently unhaiiy, although do have patches or
bands of hair on the abdomen on closer inspection. L.
calceatwn was found at Commonhead Moss Local
Nature Reserve. It is one of the larger species of
Lasioglossum. Males are more distinctive than
females, with a naiTow black and orange-red abdomen.
Females have a more rounded abdomen with only
tinges of orange-red colouration. Identification of

museum specimens revealed that Richard Sutcliffe had
collected L. calceatwn from Glasgow Kelvingrove
Park and the Botanical Gardens in 1983 and 1984
respectively, and from Dunbartonshire in 1986.
Murray (1940) described it as common in south
Dumfriesshire at the end of the 1930s. Modem and
historical records reveal that this is a widespread
species across Scotland, and further searching in the
field is likely to reveal even more records.

Lasioglossum fratellum is a small, black bee with
indistinct patches of hair on its abdomen. Modern and
historic records have shown it to be widespread across
Scotland. Our record from Commonhead Moss is the
first for Lanarkshire but it has been found in the
neighbouring counties of Renfrewshire, Stirlingshire,
Ayrshire and Dunbartonshire. It forages on a range of
flower species, such as daisies {Beilis perennis) and
rosebay willowhcrb {Epilobium angustifolium) (Allen,
2006), which are broadly available, contributing to its
wide distribution.

L. smeatlunanellum has a characteristic metallic blue-
green sheen over the thorax and abdomen (Edwards,
2005). Although not scarce or threatened, as it is
common in England, its distribution in Scotland is
more limited, being replaced by a closely related (and
morphologically very similar) species, L. cupromicans
further north (Edwards, 2005). Found in Glasgow’s
city centre, this is a new record for Lanarkshire.
Research has revealed a number of records in nearby
counties of Ayrshire, Dunbartonshire, Dumfriesshire
and Midlothian, and more widely across Scotland.
Clark (1909) described this species as fairly common at
some sites in Ayrshire at the beginning of the 1900s.
So it seems its distribution is more extensive than
initially anticipated.

Like C. daviesanus, M. willughhiella, Willughby’s
leaf-cutting bee, was also obseiwed on July 5''’ 2009
foraging in the wild flowers planted around Bingham’s
pond. There was a published record for this species
from Darnley in the South of the city (Renfrewshire)
from 1993 (Hancock, 1994) but no records since and
nothing previously from Lanarkshire. The south west
of Scotland is devoid of records according to the latest
distribution maps (BWARS 2010, NBN 2010) but in
addition to these recent records, this species has also
been active in the adjoining counties of Dumfries and
Galloway and Ayrshire over the last century. This
species has been recorded between the end of May and
end of August in Scotland so far.

Marsham’s Nomad bee, N. marsbamella was captured
for the first time at the end of May in Haybum Lane, a
small green corridor in Glasgow’s west end. There
was a second record less than a week later, from
Provan Hall in the east of the city, at the same site and
date that the cuckoo bee, B. sylvesths sighting. About a
dozen of these boldly banded, wasp-like bees were
observed investigating entrances to nest burrows of the
solitary bee Andrena scotica (= A. carantonica) in a

122

south facing garden wall. This species is a
cleptoparasite, which parasitizes a few species of
Andrena. The only host cuiTcntly known from Glasgow
(GSA, 2009) is Andrena scotica, which was first
confinned from a residential area in the West End in
2006 from a specimen submitted by Norman Grist
(GM). These are the first records for any species of
Nomad bees in Lanarkshire, however, in addition to the
two Glasgow sightings, N. inarshamella has been
recorded widely across Scotland including from the
neighbouring counties of Dunbartonshire,
Renfrewshire, Stirlingshire and Dumfries and
Galloway. Over 60 years ago Murray (1940)
commented that it was the only Nomada he had met
with in any number in Dumfriesshire. All the records
we examined for this species in Scotland are from
between early May and the end of June. They are
however known to be active between April and July in
Scotland (Pers. Comm. Murdo Macdonald. October
2011).

There are likely to be further interesting specimens in
other museums and at other sites in the south west of
Scotland relevant to this study. The authors would be
interested to hear of them.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank members of the Glasgow
Natural History Society, Richard Weddle and Nonnan
Grist and Glasgow Museums cuiTent and fonner staff,
Richard Sutcliffe, Jonathan Cooter and Fred
Woodward for their contributions of specimens; Geoff
Hancock at the Hunterian museum for specimens,
references and staff at NMS for access to SIRI and
both the fore mentioned for access to their collections.
Many thanks to Carl Clee of National Museum
Liveipool, Mark Pavett of National Museum of Wales,
and Mike Edwards for verification of species
identifications. Thanks to the BWARS for their
records and to BTCV for funding the Natural Talent
Apprenticeship, through which the aculeate specimens
at Glasgow Museums are far more accessible.

REFERENCES

Allen, G. (2006). Lasioglossum fratelliiin, 76-77; in
Edwards, R. and Broad, G. (editors) Provisional
atlas of the aculeate Hymenoptera of Britain and
Ireland: Part 6. Centre for Ecology and Hydrology.
BWARS. (2010). Distribution maps for UK species
available at

http://www.bwars.com/maps bees.htm. Accessed in
Janiiaiy 2010.

Carter, A. E. J. (1901). Aculeate Hymenoptera in
Perthshire. Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine
(1901) 37, 67.

Clark, James. (1909). Notes on the Bees, Wasps and
Ants of Ayrshire and the island of Arran.
Kilmarnock and Glenfield Ramblers Societv Annals
7907-79/0 6, 38-66. '

Edwards, M. (2005). Lasioglossum smeathmanelliim,
pp. 102-103 in Edwards, R. and Broad, G. (editors)
Provisional atlas of the aculeate Hymenoptera of

Britain and Ireland Part 5 Centre for Ecology and

Hydrology.

Elliot, G. F. Scott, Laurie, M. and Murdoch, J. Barclay
(editors). (1901). Fauna, Flora and Geology of the
Clyde Area. Published by the Local Committee for
the Meeting of the British Association.

Else, G. Handbook of the Bees of the British Isles (in
preparation).

Evans, William. (1900). Scottish Aculeate
Hymenoptera: Additions to the list. Entomologist’s
Monthly Magazine ( 1 900) 66 .

Evans, William. (1901). Mimesa dahlhombi and other
aculeates in Scotland. Entomologist ’s Monthly
Magazine ( 1 90 1 ) 37, 301.

Glasgow Species Audit (GSA). (2009). Available
electronically from the Glasgow Museums
Resource Centre, 200 Woodhead Road, South
Nitshill Industrial Estate, Glasgow. G53 7NN
Tel: 0141 276 9330, Fax: 0141 276 9305, E-mail:
biological. records@,csglasgow.org.

Hancock, E. G. (1994). Leafeutter bees Megachile
wilhighbiella Kirby at Waulkmill Glen, Damley
Glasgow. Glasgow Naturalist 22 (4), 430.

Guichard, K, M. (1939). Aculeate Hymenoptera from
the Highlands Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine
(1940) 76,43-44.

Met Office. (2010). UK weather statistics available at
www.metofficc.gov.uk. Accessed in Janiiaiy 2010.

McGregor, T. M. (1893). Notes on the aculeate
hymenoptera, with a list of the wild bees and wasps
collected in Perthshire in 1887. Transactions of the
Perthshire Society of Natural Science ( 1 893)72).

MuiTay, J. A. (1940). Dumfriesshire Aculeate
Hymenoptera. Entomologist ’s Monthly Magazine
(1940)76,60-61.

NBN. (2010). The National Biodiversity Network for
interactive maps of the distribution of British
species available at http://www.nbn.org.uk/.
Accessed in Janiiaiy 2010.

Rothney, G.A. James. (1906). Aculeate Hymenoptera
at St Fillans and the Braes of Balquhiddcr,
Perthshire. Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine
(1906) 257.

Scottish Aculeates List. (2010). List of Aculeates
known from Scotland and their current status
available at

http://www.hbrg.org.uk/SAL/indcx.html. A ccessed
in Janiiaiy 2010.

Service, Robert. (1879). The aculeate hymenoptera of
the district suiTounding Dumfries. The Scottish
Naturalist 5, 63-68.

Stubbs, Alan. (2007). The Nomada test key. See the
BWARS website

http://www.bwars.com/bee test kevs.htm.

Accessed in Janiiaiy 2010.

123

The entomology collection of Dr
Clifford Edwards (1913-2009) in
Glasgow Museums

Jeanne Robinson

Curator of Entomology, Glasgow Life, Glasgow
Museums, Kelvingrove Museum and Galleries,
Glasgow, G3 SAG

E-mail: jeanne.robinson@glasgowlife.org.uk

Fig. 1, Clifford Edwards

Clifford Edwards was born in Bristol in 1913 (Fig. 1).
He worked in insurance before the Second World War
and again on his return from active service. He left the
insurance business to attend Southampton University,
where he was awarded his BSc. He went on to obtain a
PhD before starting as assistant lecturer at the Queen’s
University, Belfast in 1953.

He moved to Scotland, where he lived and worked for
much of his adult life as a professional biologist for the
Scottish Marine Biological Association. He studied the
zooplankton of the Clyde at Millport between 1956 and
1969. He moved to Dunstaffnage in 1969, shortly after
the new marine laboratory opened and worked there
until he retired in 1980.

He was awarded a DSc from the University of London
in 1975 for his work on the life-histories, systematics,
ecology and distribution of British hydroids and
hydomcdusac; the significance for classification of the
Hydroida and histoiy of the study of Hydroida. Whilst
he had not published as much as some DSc applicants,
his work was of such quality he was deemed deserving.
Dr Paul Cornelius, a fellow Cnidarian expert, fomierly
of the Natural History Museum, London described his

publications and the man himself as meticulous and
totally reliable.

Dr Edwards specialised in rearing and describing
hydroids. There was much taxonomic confusion in the
group, with the early and later life stages being given
different species names. With the assistance of Martyn
Harvey, he managed to establish what a number of
these organisms looked like at each stage of
development, clearing up the taxonomy.. He has a
Hydrozoan named in his honour, Sarsia clijfordi
Brinckmann-Voss, 1989. Dr Anita Brinkmann-Voss,
the author, said that she and her Canadian colleagues
had greatly admired his work and refen-ed to him as an
‘outstanding scientist’. Looking at Dr Edwards’
entomology collection it is apparent that he also
brought professional scientific rigour to his ‘amateur’
entomological investigations.

The collection contains over 100 store boxes of
beautifully preserved pinned specimens from the West
of Scotland and beyond (Fig. 2). There are numerous
boxes of Scottish material, including 17 boxes of
Hymenoptera, 7 of Coleoptera and 2 of Diptera. The
remaining boxes arc lepidoptera. Most of the collection
is contemporai7, collected by Clifford Edwards
between the 1930s and the 1980s. He did not drive so
was largely reliant on public transport and his fondness
for cycling to find his specimens; consequently many
come from in and around Oban. There are often a large
number of examples of the same species collected from
different locations and on different dates, including
speckled woods, marsh fritillaries and bumet moths.
Whether this sampling was to support particular
investigations or just reflect his strong collector’s
instinct remains to be established. His colleagues knew
he was knowledgeable about insects, amongst many
other things, but had no idea he actually collected
insects. Dr Edward’s sister said that Clifford was
always a keen insect collector.

In addition to the store boxes there are several boxes of
papered lepidoptera that were collected by Dr Edwards
in the 1970s and 80s, from Ireland. Dorset and
Cornwall amongst others. Dr Edwards regularly took
holidays in the South West of England. There are a
number of more aged tins of unlabelled specimens
wrapped in paper of foreign origin. Several specimens
are wrapped in army stationaiy and one of the tins is
dated 1942, so were probably collected by him during
his military service with the Hampshire Regiment.
There are specimens in a tin labelled with Perugia,
dated the 8''’ August 1945, just over a year after the
Italian town was seized by the British troops. Martyn
Harvey remembers Dr Edwards mentioning that he
worked making maps for the army, following the
invading forces through North Africa and Italy.

Dr Edwards had purchased and collected foreign
butterfly and moth specimens to complement and
enhance his collected material. Between 1970 and
1974, he spent nearly £1000 on specimens. There are

124

examples purchased from Worldwide Butterflies, R. N.
Baxter, the Butterfly Centre, Saruman Butterflies, J. W.
Smale, L. Christie, G. Hanrahan and K. P and D. J.
Tolhurst. There are two specimens labelled as types in
the box of Indian Lycaenid butterflies, which require
some research to determine their authenticity.

Dr Clifford Edwards bequeathed his entomology
collection to the Glasgow Natural History Society
(GNHS) in the winter of 2009. Glasgow Museums
(GM) was given first refusal of the specimens. In
addition to the insect collection, Dr Edwards amassed a
considerable natural history libraiy, which he left to the
Glasgow University Library (GUL). The GUL
contacted GM around the same time to offer the
museum the books that they did not require.

Early in 2010, Jeanne Robinson, Curator of
Entomology went to assess the insect and library
holdings in Dr Edwards’ home. GM subsequently
agreed to take all of the insect collection and a
selection of the books. Scottish insect collections are
few and far between and this collection complements
and enhances GM’s existing holdings in line with the
collecting policy.

Fig. 2. A selection of Scottish bumblebees from
Clifford Edwards’ collection

Thus GM has acquired a large volume of reference
material concerning the taxonomy and biology of
lepidoptera of the world and a select few about other
groups of organisms.

The collection has been accessioned as Z. 2010. 19 and
can be viewed by appointment with the Entomology
curator at the Glasgow Museums Resource Centre
(GMRC). Dr Edward’s books are also housed at
GMRC and a list of these volumes acquired is in
preparation.

Many thanks to May Edwards, Allan Davis, Clive
Craik, Paul Cornelius, Anita Brinkmann-Voss and
Martyn Harvey for providing biographical infonnation
about Clifford Edwards. If you knew Dr Edwards and
have any additional information for inclusion in GM’s
biographical files please contact the author.

Adventures with Amphibians

J.R. Downie

School of Life Sciences, Graham Kerr Building,
University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ

E-mail: roger.downie@glasgow.ac.uk

INTRODUCTION

A retirement lecture gives an opportunity for looking
back and reviewing, and attempting to give coherence
to a career. I can think of scientists who set off early on
a theme and pursued it doggedly throughout their
careers. Mine hasn’t been like that. I began as an avian
embryologist, then got interested in the reproductive
ecology of amphibians. Then, through involvement in
student expeditions overseas, marine turtle life histories
and conseiwation developed as a side interest. Along
the line bioethics and evolution edueation became
research themes too, so there is little eoherence, but
diversity of interests is not such a bad thing for a
biologist.

I’ve chosen to concentrate here on amphibians, and
have called my experiences ‘Adventures’, partly
because amphibian work is often at night, and in the
tropics, night work in swamps can lead to all sorts of
unexpected happenings. ‘Chance encounters might be a
better title, because chance has played a major part in
the research I’ve been able to do. My interest in
amphibians grew out of teaching a course on
reproductive biology, mainly in the vertebrates. In
1982, 1 got the chance to spend five months study leave
in Trinidad. This was quite serendipitous. Robin Bruce,
an ex-student who had been with us on an expedition to
Iceland (1972) obtained his first lecturing post at the
University of the West Indies in Trinidad. He reported
that Trinidad and Tobago were good places to study
frogs, and that his head of department had written the
guide to them (Kenny, 1969). So my family and I went
to Trinidad and I got hooked for life, having now
visited the islands more than 20 times. In recent years,
I’ve become involved in amphibian work in the UK
too, but in this lecture. I’ll concentrate on four themes
from our Trinidad work.

FOUR AMPHIBIAN ADVENTURES
Foam-nesting frogs

My first serious work in Trinidad in 1982 shows the
influence of luck and chance. We arrived in the dry
season with not many frogs around. Then there was
some patchy rain, and puddles began fonning on a
pieee of waste ground on the UWI campus: I passed
these each day. After a heavy shower, I was surprised
to find well developed tadpoles in the puddle as well as
floating foam nests. I was fairly sure there had been no
tadpoles previously. A few dry days and the puddle

125

dried up. Hard luck on these tadpoles and the foam
nests, I thought, but then it rained again, and there were
tadpoles again. What was going on? Next time it dried,
I searched the damp mud at the low point and found,
under dead leaves, an aggregation of tadpoles,
wriggling about in a little heap of froth. A bit more
searching, and in a burrow, under a stone was a white
foam nest, containing early hatchling tadpoles. This
was my first encounter with the whistling frog
Leptodactylus fusciis, and it was a matter of luck
because the ground staff tidied up the area a few years
later and the frog populations disappeared. L. fuscus is
a foam-nesting species, and often shares breeding pools
with another foam nester, the tungara frog
Engy’stomops pustulosiis, which produces the floating
foam.

An aside at this point: one of the real bugbears of
working on tropical amphibians is unstable taxonomy.
This is partly a consequence of colonial times with
French, Dutch, Spanish and British natural historians
giving different names to what turned out to be the
same species, then having to soil out the mess. L.
fuscus has had NINE names: Raua fusca (1799), Rana
typhouia, Rana sihilathx, Leptodactylus typhonius,
Cystignafhus typhonius, Cystignathus fuscus,
Leptodactylus sihilator, Leptodacty’lus sihilatrix,
Leptodactylus fuscus (1983). More recently, molecular
phylogenetics have revolutionised our understanding of
the evolutionai'y relationships of amphibians and
unleashed a continuing spasm of taxonomic revision.
Few of the frog species I first encountered in Trinidad
in 1982 now have the same names. This is a curse, but
also an opportunity: the unravelling of relationships has
generated many opportunities to think again about the
evolution of life histories and other adaptive features,
as we’ll see later.

When I started, the Trinidad tungara frog was
Eupemphix then Physalaennis, now Engy’stomops and it
is now in a separate family, the Leiuperidae, no longer
a leptodactylid. Here are some of the things we found
about these two frogs (Downie & Nicholls, 2004).

Leptodactydus fuscus

• Eggs are deposited in hidden burrows close to
where temporary pools fonn. Buitows are closed
by mud ‘lids’. Most nests are deposited on dry
nights, not after rain. We find them by prodding a
spoon handle into the mud.

• Hatching occurs after 3 days. Tadpoles make a
new kind of foam via oral secretions, and tadpoles
can remain in this, without developing further, up
to 4 weeks.

• If heavy rain falls, the tadpoles - already
developed beyond hatching stage, enter the pool as
the nest opens up - and are capable of eating
newly deposited eggs of other species.

• The longer tadpoles stay in foam, the poorer their
condition, and less able they are to grow
successfully to metamorphosis.

• Burrow nests seem an excellent adaptation to an
unpredictable environment but they do face a
threat: a species of phorid fly, ‘frogflies’, can
deposit their eggs in the foam and become
maggots fast enough to destroy the frog embryos
(this turned out to be a new species that we were
able to describe).

• If the pond dries up, tadpoles can shelter under
leaves or rocks on the damp mud surface and can
survive several days - our original observation.

Engy’stomops pustulosiis

• Floating foam nests are laid after rains. Hatching
occurs after 2-3 days, with some larvae emerging
late from the nest, possibly allowing development
to a more advanced stage.

• Tadpoles have no ability to survive if the pond
dries up.

• In competition with L. fuscus tadpoles, E.
pustulosiis tadpoles fare poorly - taking longer to
reach metamorphosis and at a smaller size.

Conclusion: L. fuscus seems the superior competitor
when pools are temporary and rainfall is unpredictable.
Yet you see E. pustiilosus everywhere: it seems
especially well suited to human-related habitats like
flooded tyre-ruts and must be a very effective colonizer
of disturbed habitats. Perhaps the larger clutch size
(about 100 for L. fuscus; 400 for E. pustiilosus) is
important here.

Phyllomedusa: one of the charismatic poster frogs
Here we have a piece of Glasgow Zoological history
(Downie, 1997). The first generally cited paper on
Phyllomedusa is by J.S. Budgett (1899) - a friend and
colleague of John Graham Kerr’s before Kerr came to
Glasgow. Budgett’s observations of Phyllomedusa
were made on the Gran Chaco (Argentina-Paraguay)
expedition where Kerr collected the lungfish embryos
that were to be his main study. The second widely cited
paper is by Wilfrid Agar (1910): Agar joined Graham
Kerr in the Zoology Department in Glasgow and made
observations on Phyllomedusa during another lungfish
collecting trip in 1907-8 (not accompanied by Kerr).
Agar eventually became Professor of Zoology in
Melbourne, Australia from 1920. Both Budgett and
Agar made important observations on Phyllomedusa
reproduction, and we have recently been able to extend
these.

The Phyllomedusinae are a sub-family of a major
treefrog family, the Hylidae. There are (so far) 60
species of Phyllomedusine frogs, distributed
throughout the neo-tropics, from Argentina through
Central America and into Southern Mexico (Frost,
2011). There are two main genera, Agalychnis
(including the widely-photographed A. callidiyas - the
red-eyed treefrog) and Phyllomedusa. Phyllomedusines
do not deposit their eggs in water. In Agalychnis eggs
are deposited in clumps on open leaves overhanging
water in wet rainforest. Since 1996, Karen Warkentin
has published a large number of studies on Agalychnis

126

based on her original finding that Agalydmis
development shows considerable plasticity: egg
clutches are heavily predated by snakes, but embryos
can detect them and - within limits - hatch prematurely
to escape the snakes, which tend not to swim after
them. There is a classic trade off in operation here:
embryos which develop fully on the leaf before
hatching do better once they reach water than
premature hatchlings: but if snakes attack, all embryos
may be eaten, so premature hatching gives them a
survival chance (Warkentin, 1999).

In comparison, Phyllomediisa incubation and hatching
has been comparatively neglected, with few
publications since Pybum (1980). In Trinidad, we have
Phylloinedusa trwitatis (which also occurs in northem
Venezuela); in Phylloinedusa, eggs are deposited as an
elongated clump on a leaf, but the adults use their
limbs to fold the leaf around the clump, often
managing to enclose the egg clump more or less
completely - with an opening top and bottom. These
openings are plugged by dense masses of jelly.
Throughout the egg clutch are scattered large numbers
of small round jelly capsules. The jelly capsules and
plugs, and the eggs themselves (with thin jelly coats)
are adhesive - so once the leaf has been folded over the
clutch, it sticks in place. Generally, the leaf-nest
overhangs a pool of water, so when the embryos hatch
and emerge from the nest, they drop into the water
below. But it seems not always possible for adults
ready to reproduce to find a suitable leaf or leaves in a
good place. They have two solutions. First, there may
be better leaves a short distance away from the pool:
once hatchlings emerge, they land on the ground, and
are well capable of moving to water by flipping
movements of their already powerful tails. Second,
they can make rudimentary nests even from blades of
grass overhanging a pool: we don’t think these are very
successful, and it would be interesting to investigate
what factors drive frogs to make this choice.

Agar (1910) suggested that the jelly capsules help
hydrate the eggs, since he noticed that during
incubation, eggs swell with fluid and jelly capsules
shrink: the hydration role of jelly capsules has been
confinned (Pybum, 1980). How the frog’s oviduct is
able to make separate secretory releases (top and
bottom jelly plugs, quite complex stmcturally;
scattered capsules; a thin jelly coat round each egg), is
not clear.

What we’ve found (work in preparation);

• Contrary to previous reports, eggs do develop in
aquatic media, the better the later they enter water

and the better if the medium is a dilute balanced
salt solution.

• The covering leaves do not need to be alive:
incubation in cut leaf-nests is as successful as in
live leaf-nests.

• Hatching of individual eggs can be stimulated by
immersion in water, once they are hatching

competent, or by contact with already hatched
larvae, by a kind of chain reaction.

• Emergence from the nest does not occur until the
lower jelly plug has been dissolved - probably as a
result of enzymes released by larval hatching gland
cells.

• Because of the time-lag between individual egg
hatching and nest emergence, we do not think that
premature hatching in response to predator attacks
is relevant in Phyllomedusa. Rather, the leaf-fold
nest and jelly plugs act as effective banders to
many kinds of predators.

• But there is a puzzle, yet to be resolved: how do
Phyllomedusa eggs respire when they arc
apparently completely cut off from the air by leaf
and jelly?

The diversity of embryo-specific surface structures
I’ve been fortunate for some years to have Mohsen
Nokhbatolfoghahai working with me on the diversity
of embryo and larval specific structures such as:

• Surface ciliation

• External gills

• Cement glands

• Hatching gland cells

• Tails

Scanning electron microscopy of these stmcturcs
produces beautiful images (for example,
Nokhbatolfoghahai & Downie, 2005). The example
discussed here is that of the tails of direct-developing
frogs, and luck is again important.

There are several lineages of anurans where a trend
involving egg size increase and incubation on land has
led to the suppression of the tadpole stage, and direct
development to a juvenile frog. Generally, this involves
the deletion from development of several larval
specific stmetures, such as cement glands and external
gills. But the tail is retained in modified form through
the incubation stage, usually being resorbed just before
hatching. We had included some observations on a
Trinidad species Eleutherodactylus urichi in our paper
on surface ciliation (Nokhbatolfoghahai el ah, 2005).

Then Nicola Mitchell (Western Australia) asked us to
look at some direct-developing embryos of the turtle
frog, and we elected to do this as a more detailed
comparison with Eleutherodactylus. However,
molecular phylogenetics had by then sub-divided the
vast neo-tropical genus Eleutherodactylus (800+
species) into three main ancient sub-lineages and given
the whole group super-family status (Hedges et ah,
2008). Our Eleutherodactylus was no longer in that
genus: now Pristimantis, whereas the only other
member of the group whose embryos had been looked
at in detail, the coqui frog of Puerto Rico, remained
Eleutherodactydus coejui. This taxonomic revision
made us look harder, and we discovered a veiy
surprising feature (Nokhbatolfoghahai et al., 2010). In
most direct-developing frogs, the tail is retained, but as
a respiratory organ with highly vascular skin. In the

127

coqui frog and in the turtle frog, this involves some
elongation of the tail fins to inerease respiratoi’y
exehange surface area. But in Pristimantis urichi, we
found that tail surface area expanded not by fin
elongation, but by lateral expansion of skin, blood
vessels and connective tissue. In coqui frogs and turtle
frogs, the tail has well developed muscle, allowing the
tail to move from side to side. In Pristimantis, the
muscle is reduced, so that the tail has become a fixed
respiratory organ, with its outer surface close to the
inner wall of the vitelline membrane - in some ways
reminiscent of the allantois in amniote embryos
(though referees would not allow us to suggest that
analogy!). Will this evolutionaiy innovation be found
in other Pristimantis?

Manna the stream frog

1 talked about our work on Maimopluyne trinitatis,
Trinidad’s only dendrobatid (now aromobatid) in my
2005 Presidential Address (Downie, 2005), so I won’t
go over this in detail again. However, there is a
footnote to the story. M. trinitatis males guard the eggs
on land till they hatch. The male then carries the
tadpoles on his back till he finds a suitable stream to
deposit them into. Our work showed that suitable
streams can be hard to find ~ since the males avoid
leaving tadpoles in streams containing predators such
as Rivulus fish. This is another case of good luck: for
some time. I’d wondered where the males deposited
their tadpoles, because we knew of many streams with
large frog population but no tadpoles (but abundant
Rivulus). Then one trip we chanced on a stream with
hundreds of tadpoles (and no fish). Since each male
only cairics about 12 tadpoles, clearly frogs were
coming to this stream from some distance, to avoid fish
predation. Eventually, 1 realised that these males arc on
a dangerous quest and wrote it up as a children’s story.
We’ve now successfully told it - in the form of a play
- to children’s groups in Scotland and Trinidad. In my
view, we need to develop stories about animals that can
grab the attention of young people and help re-connect
them with nature - if we are to halt the alanning
declines in biodiversity we see everywhere - and in
amphibians in particular.

To give the stoiy ‘human’ interest, Manno the male
stream frog meets a female called Trini, and really
fancies her. Trini is older and a bit bossy and when
Manno suggests that after he’s found a good stream for
their first batch of tadpoles, that they might get
together again “to get to know each other better’’ -
Trini is pretty sharp with him.

I put in the idea of Manno and Trini becoming a
faithful pair to add some human interest, and knowing
that monogamy isn’t supposed to happen in any frogs.
However, a recent report shows that it does, and in a
species of the same general type as M. trinitatis. In the
mimic poison frog Ranitomeya imitator, males
transport tadpoles on their backs to tiny bromeliad
tanks. There is so little water and food per tank that
tadpole growth depends on the female depositing

trophic eggs to feed the tadpoles. The male stays on
guard, and calls the female when more food is needed.
Clearly, they care for the young together - and a
possible hypothesis, yet to be tested, is that if the
parents are successful in their different parental roles, it
makes sense in tenns of Darwinian fitness to remain
together as a pair - for life (Kokko & Jennions, 2010).

CONCLUSION

Most people arc now aware of the serious threat to
amphibian populations around the world. In my view,
we need to do a lot more of the basic natural histoi'y
work I’ve described, in order to understand better the
lives of amphibians. If we don’t, we are unlikely to
devise sensible and effective conservation procedures.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper is the edited text of the Presidential Address
delivered to the Glasgow Natural History Society in
October, 2010. The Address also acted as the 10'*’
Blodwcn Lloyd Binns lecture and as a lecture to mark
my retirement after 40 years on the staff of the
University of Glasgow. I’d like to thank the many
undergraduate and postgraduate students who have
contributed to the work described here. I’d also like to
acknowledge the funders of this work, especially the
Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, the
University of Glasgow and the Blodwen Lloyd Binns
bequest.

REFERENCES

Agar, W.E. (1910). The nesting habits of the tree-frog
Phyllomedusa sauvagii. Proceedings of the
Zoological Society of London 2010, 893-7.

Budget!, J.S. (1899). Notes on the Batrachians of the
Paraguayan Chaco, with observations upon their
breeding habits and development, especially with
regard to Phyllomedusa hypochondrialis Cope.
Also a description of a new genus. Quarterly
Journal of the Microscopical Societ)' (N.S.) 42,
305-33.

Downie, J.R. (1997). Glasgow’s neotropical frog
connection. The Glasgow Naturalist 23(2), 54.
Downie, J.R. (2005). In cold blood: tales of a
heipctologist. The Glasgow Naturalist 24(3), 56-9.
Downie, J.R. & Nicholls, B. (2004). Comparative
breeding ecology of the frogs Leptodactylus fuscus
and Physalaemus pustulosus in Trinidad, West
Indies. Living World 2004, 12-16.

Lrost, D.R. (201 1). Amphibian species of the world: an
online reference. Version 5.5 (31 Januai-y 2011).
Electronic database accessible at
http://research.amnh.org/vz/lieipetologv/amphibia/

American Museum of Natural History, New York,

USA.

Hedges, S.B., Duellman, W.E. & Heinicke, M.P.
(2008). New World direct-developing frogs (Anura:
TciTarana): molecular phylogeny, classification,
biogcography and conservation. Zootaxa 1737, 1-
182.

Kenny, J.S. (1969). Amphibia of Trinidad. Studies on
the fauna of Curac^'ao and other Caribbean Islands

128

29, 1-78.

Kokko, H. & Jennions, M. (2010). Ways to raise
tadpoles. Nature 464, 990-1.

Nokhbatolfoghahai, M., Downie, J.R., Clelland, A.K.
& Rennison, K. (2005). The surface ciliation of
anuran embryos and early lai'vae: patterns, timing
differences and functions. Journal of Natural
History! 39, 887-929.

Nokhbatolfoghahai, M., Mitchell, N.J. & Downie, J.R.
(2010). Surface ciliation and tail structure in direct-
developing frog embryos: a comparison between
Myobatrachus gouldii and Pristimantis (=

Eleutherodactylus) urichi. Herpetological Journal
20, 59-68.

Pybum, W.F. (1980). The function of eggless capsules
and leaf in nests of the frog Phyllomedusa
hypochondrialis (Anura: Hylidae). Proceedings of
the Biological Society’ of Washington 93, 153-67.

Warkentin, K.M. (1999). The development of
behavioural defenses: a mechanistic analysis of
vulnerability in red-eyed tree frog hatchlings.
Behavioural Ecology 10, 251-62.

The migrant moth, small marbled
Eublemma parva^ in central Scotland
in 2011

Carina Convery', Dawn Collis" & Glyn Collis‘

' Upper Flat, Lower Abercom, South Queensferry,
EH30 9SL.

^ Seasgair, Ascog, Isle of Bute, PA20 9ET.

' E-mail: carinaconvery(^yahoo. co.uk
^E-mail: g.m.collis(^gmail.com

The small marbled Eublemma parva is a small noctuid
moth resident in southern Europe and parts of Africa
and Asia. As an immigrant from southern Europe to the
UK, it is most often recorded from the coastal counties
of southern England with the density of records
decreasing northwards. It sometimes produces larvae
and late season adults, but there is no evidence of over-
wintering in the UK. Most UK sources give common
fleabane Pulicaria dysenterica and ploughman's
spikenard Inula conyzae as larval foodplants. Other
foodplants have been noted elsewhere in Europe,
including several species that are on the British list.

In appearance, the small marbled is very small for a
member of the family Noctuidae, and quite likely to be
mistaken as belonging to one of the microlepidoteran
families. The base of the forewings have a washed-out
tan colour, increasing in intensity toward the central
band where there is usually an abrupt change to white,
thus forming a centra! line, followed by a renewed
darkening toward a second crossline which has a shape

that has been likened to a question-mark (when viewed
from the trailing edge of the right forewing). Beyond
the second crossline there is another somewhat diffuse
tan-coloured band which extends toward the wing tip.
According to South (1920) the small marbled (referred
to by South as Thalcopares pan’o) was first noted in
Britain in July 1844 in South Devon. It is widely
reported that there was a particularly dramatic influx in
1953. As far as can be ascertained, the first Scottish
record was by R. Knill-Jones at Parkgate,
Dumfriesshire, VC72, inferred 1km grid reference
NY0287, where it was attracted to mercury vapour
light on 1 0th July 1 982 (Bretherton & Chalmers-Hunt,
1983, pi 49). Bretherton and Chalmers-Hunt noted
(p89) that this was the only record of an adult in that
year though many larvae were found in south Devon in
August and September and adults were reared from
these larvae. The second Scottish record, also in the
south-west, was by R. Meams at Clanyard Mill,
Drummore, Wigtownshire, VC74, inferred 1km grid
reference NX1037, on 20th June 1998 (Skinner &
Collins, 2000, p246). The latter specimen is now in the
National Museums of Scotland in Edinburgh. In

England too, 1998 was a good year for small marbled
with records from seven English vice-counties, from
the Scillies in the south-west to Holy Island in the
north-east, plus a record from the Isle of Man. Larvae
were found in Portland.

In 2011, there were two further Scottish records of
adult small marbled, both in Central Scotland. On the
east coast, the first author, C.C., caught one on 04 July
2011 in an 8W actinic portable Heath trap in her garden
in Abercom, West Lothian VC84, grid ref NT080789.
Subsequently, in the west, D.C. and G.C. caught one on
27 July 2011 in a 40w actinic trap in their garden in
Ascog, Isle of Bute, VC 100, grid ref NS 105639.
Informal reports indicate that 2011 has been a good
year for small marbled in the UK as a whole.

Thus, as far as we are aware, there have now been just
four records of the small marbled in Scotland, in four
different vice counties, the furthest north being the
West Lothian record.

REFERENCES

Bretherton, R. F. & Chalmers-Hunt, J. M. (1983). The
Entomologist's Record and Journal of Variation 95:
89-94, 149-152.

Skinner, B. & Collins, G.A. (2000). The immigration
of Lepidoptera to the British Isles in 1998.
Entomologist’s Record & Journal of Variation,
112:233-251.

South, R.E. (1920). Moths of the British Isles, second
series. Wame, London.

http://www.biodiversitvlibrary.org/page/12260522

Accessed: 07 November 2011.

129

The Australian landhopper,
Arcitalitrus dorrieni (Hunt, 1925),
Crustacea, Amphipoda, in Glasgow

E. Geoffrey Hancock

The Hunterian, Zoology Museum, Graham Kerr
Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ

E-mail: Geoff.Hancock@glasgow.ac.uk

The landhopper Arcitalitrus dorrieni, was found in
Glasgow amongst leaf litter and under wood and
stones in bushes at the southern end of the public car
park, Bunhouse Road, in April, 2009. Landhoppers are
obvious when the surface of the leaf litter is disturbed
or exposed (Figure 1). Their dark brown shiny bodies
can be seen as they jump several centimetres in the air
before burying rapidly back into the dead leaves. This
behaviour is typical of the animal and immediately
recognisable in the field. The population appears to be
established as they have been seen on several occasions
since then. Some specimens were collected and are
preserved in the Hunterian Museum (Zoology). It was
conjectured that the landhoppers might have been
transported to the site during some recent landscaping
at the car park. The City Council maintains a large
depot at Bellahouston Park where shrubs and other
plants are kept prior to use. If plants had been brought
from there which already contained landhoppers in the
soil around their roots this could explain their origin on
a local scale. Searching under bushes around the
entrance to the depot did reveal landhoppers, showing
this was indeed the probable immediate source. These
animals can be transported over long distances by such
means. The original transfer from Australia to Europe
was in plants, probably tree ferns, imported to Tresco
Abbey Gardens in the Scillies, sometime prior to 1924.

Previous occurrences in Scotland are from the three
Scottish Islands of Colonsay (Moore & Spicer, 1986),
Gigha (Cowling, et ah, 2004) and Arran (Brodick
Castle Gardens on 13 September, 2010, unpublished
record from a British Isopod and Myriapod Group field
meeting), plus two mainland localities, Inverewe
Garden, Wester Ross, 29 June 1998 and Loch Laich,
Appin, Argyll, 21 June 2001, on both these occasions
by G.B. Corbet (personal communication). A survey by
questionnaire was conducted by Cowling and her
colleagues using a wide distribution of posters and
questionnaires over the whole of Britain. From this
about 170 negative records were created for Scotland.
Thus, the finding of landhoppers in Glasgow would
seem to be a recent establishment of the species. Added
to a few sites in London where the landhopper has
become resident these seem to be the only known
established urban populations in the British Isles.

Fig. L Australian land hoppers amongst debris,
Bunhouse Road, Glasgow, 2009

REFERENCES

Cowling, J., Spicer, J.I., Gaston, K.J. & Weeks, J.M.
(2004). Current status of an amphipod invader
Arcitalitrus dorrieni (Hunt, 1925) in Britain.
Journal of Natural History 3^: 1665-1675.

Moore, P. G. and Spicer, J.I. (1986). On the status of
Arcitalitrus dorrieni (Crustacea: Amphipoda) on
the island of Colonsay, Inner Hebrides. Journal of
Natural History 20(3): 667-680.

Miscellaneous invertebrates
recorded from the Outer Hebrides^

2010

John H. Bratton

18 New Street, Menai Bridge, Anglesey, LL59 5HN
E-mail: jhnbratton@yahoo.co.uk

While attending the Botanical Society of the British
Isles field meeting on North Uist in August 2010, the
opportunity was taken to collect invertebrates. The
records presented here fall into two categories, being
either the less common species found on North Uist, or
lengthier species lists from two smaller and less well
recorded islands. The three flies recorded from
Hermetray may be the first records of Diptera from this
island (Skidmore, 2009).The species' status are taken
from Foster (2010) for aquatic beetles, Hyman &
Parsons (1992) for other beetles, and Falk (1991) for
flies.

Heteroptera

Halosalda lateralis: 2 in saltmarsh, Claggan Sollas,
NF8 18758, 5 August. A shorebug found in

130

saltmarshes.

Homoptera

Euconomelm lepidus: 1 male and 3 females swept
from moss beside Loch a' Roe, NF69077045, 2 August.
A small plant-hopper associated with rushes, Juncus
spp.

Coleoptera

Chaetarthria simillima: 4 sieved from moss beside
Loch a' Roe, NF69077045, 2 August. A tiny water
beetle, Nationally Scarce, described new to science as a
segregate of C. seminulum in 2003. See Levey (2005)
for how to distinguish the species and Foster (2009) for
distribution maps. C. simillima has been recorded
previously from the southern end of the Outer
Hebrides.

Cercyon littoral is: 2 in beach driftline, Traigh lar,
NFS 16767, 5 August. A small beetle. Nationally
Scarce, found in coastal driftlines.

Gyrinus minutus: 2 males in a small peat pool near
Loch Sgadabhagh, NF87 136725, 3 August. A

Nationally Scarce whirligig beetle.

Silpha tyrolensis: 1 on dunes, Machair Leathann,
NF820772, 1 August; 1 dead on machair, Claggan
Sollas, NF806761, 5 August. A Nationally Scarce
carrion beetle, possibly a predator of molluscs
according to Hyman & Parsons (1992). The specimen
from Claggan Sollas was in a bucket part full of water
which had acted as an insect trap and contained dozens
of dor beetles Geotrupes stercorarius, many of them
decomposing.

Diptera

Nemotelns uliginosus: female in saltmarsh, Claggan
Sollas, NFS 18758, 5 August. A soldierfly which breeds
in saltmarsh.

Gimnomera tarsea: two females swept from moss
beside Loch a' Roe, NF69077045, 2 August. A
Nationally Scarce scathophagid fly which breeds in the
seed heads of marsh lousewort Pedicidoris palustris.
Calliphora walensis: 1 male and 2 females collected
from a group of 10 bluebottles in the porch of
Sheillaidh, Sollas, NF81957536, 11 pm, 4 August; 1
male on beach, Traigh lar, NFS 16767, 5 August. A
boreal blowfly or bluebottle. Red Data Book category
3, Rare, restricted in Great Britain to Scotland, and
mainly coastal (Davies, 1987).

Hymenoptera

Bombus muscorum ssp. liepeterseni: worker dead on
dunes, Machair Leathann, NF820772, 1 August;
worker, machair, Balranald, NF697698, 2 August. We
were told by the Balranald warden Jamie Boyle that the
bumblebee Bombus muscorum is frequent on North
Uist. However, the two collected specimens have black
hairs on the abdomen, which indicates they should be
B. pascuorum according to Edwards & Jenner (2009), a
species not found in the Outer Hebrides. The issue was
resolved by Dr Oliver Prys-Jones who identified them
as this subspecies of muscorum, which does have black
hairs, as explained in his recent book (Prys-Jones,

Corbet & Hopkins 2011). In Britain, it is known only
from the Outer Hebrides.

Hermetray, 4 August

Small pool in valley bog, NF98687412: Agabus
bipustulatus, Hydroporus gyllenhalii, H. pubescens, H.
tristis, Enochrus fuscipetmis (aquatic Coleoptera).
Lake, NF988741: Isclvmra elegaus, Sympetrum
nigrescens det. R. Youngmann (Odonata). Same lake,
NF989739: Mystacides azurea, 2 females

(Trichoptera). Rocky shore, NF99047398: Ligia
oceanica (Crustacea, Isopoda). Driftline of sand and
shingle beach, NF98637367: Fucellia tergina male,
Scathophaga litorea (Diptera). Freshwater spring by
beach, NF98617371: Hydroporus pubescens (aquatic
Coleoptera). Pool above north end of beach,
NF98587371: Gammarus duebeni (Crustacea,

Amphipoda). Bay, NF98557442: Petrobius hrevistydis
(Thysanura), Forficula auricularia (Dermaptera),
Clivina fossor, Ocypus ater (Coleoptera), Eristalimis
aeneus (Diptera), Porcellio scaber (Cmstacea,
Isopoda).

Ronay, 6 August

Seepage, NF88775593: Agabus bipustulatus,
Hydroporus nigrita, Anacaena globulus, Laccobius
bipunctatus (aquatic Coleoptera), Fox moth
Macrothylacia rubi larvae (Lepidoptera). Under litter
on turf, NF887559: Forficula auricularia
(Dermaptera), Philoscia muscorum (Crustacea,
Isopoda). Moorland, NF894558; Knotgrass moth
Acronicta rumicis 2 larvae (Lepidoptera). Moorland,
NF899557: Magpie moth Abraxas grossulariata.
Garden Tiger Arctia caja (Lepidoptera). Small peaty
lake, NF90085566: Sympetrum danae larva (Odonata),
Agabus arcticus, Enochrus fuscipennis (aquatic
Coleoptera). Another small lake, NF89845569:
Hydroporus obscurus, Gyrinus minutus, G. substriatus
(aquatic Coleoptera). Shore of rocky lake,
NF897 15537: Emperor moth Saturnia pavonia larva
(Lepidoptera).

I wish to thank Wendy McCarthy and Martyn Stead for
driving me to and around the island; Paul Smith for
arranging the trips to Heirnetray and Ronay; Rosemarie
MacCuish of Sheillaidh, Sollas, for accommodation;
Dmitri Logunov of Manchester Museum for access to
Silphidae reference specimens; and Dr Oliver Piys-
Jones for solving the bumblebee conundrum.

REFERENCES

Davies, L. (1987). The distribution in Scotland and
Ireland of Calliphora uralensis and its occurrence
with and separation from C. vicina (Insecta:
Diptera). Irish Naturalists' Journal 22, 241-244.
Edwards, M., & Jenner, M. (2009). Field guide to the
bumblebees of Great Britain & Ireland. Revised
edition. Ocelli.

Falk, S. (1991). A review of the scarce and threatened
flies of Great Britain (part I). Nature Conservancy
Council, Peterborough.

Foster, G.N. (2009). Chaetarthria in Britain and

131

Ireland. Latissinius, no. 25, 14.

Foster, G.N. (2010). A review of the scarce and
threatened Coleoptera of Great Britain. Part 3:
water beetles of Great Britain. Joint Nature
Conservation Committee, Peterborough.

Hyman, P.S., & Parsons, M.S. (1992). A review of the
scarce and threatened Coleoptera of Great Britain.
Part 1. Joint Nature Conservation Committee,
Peterborough.

Levey, B. (2005). Some British records of
Chaetarthria simillima Vorst & Cuppen, 2003 and
C. seminiiliim (Herbst) (Hydrophilidae), with notes
on their differentiation. The Coleopterist, 14, 97-99.

Piys-Jones, O.E., Corbet, S.A., & Hopkins, T. (2011).
Bumblebees. 3rd ed. Pelagic Publishing, Exeter.
(Naturalists' Handbooks no. 6.).

Skidmore, P. (2009). A review of the Diptera of the
Western Isles of Scotland. Dipterists Digest, second
series 15 (for 2008), 99-194.

A photograph of a teacher-training
course in marine zoology at Millport
(1914)

P. G. Moore

University Marine Biological Station Millport, Isle of
Cumbrae, Scotland KA28 OEG

E-mail: pmoore(^millport. gla.ac.uk

At a recent members’ evening of Cumbrae Historical
Society, James Peacock showed me an old unused
postcard from his collection featuring a photograph
(Fig. 1) taken at the Marine Station, Millport on 6 July
1914. The photographer, as recorded on the reverse,
was George Keppie, Stuart Street, Millport.' It depicts a
class of school teachers studying junior and senior
courses in nature study (course number 573G; marine
zoology) held during the first fortnight of July 1914.
Few such early Millport class photographs exist.

Fig. 1. A class photograph of school teachers at the
Marine Station, Millport, 6 July 1914, against a

backdrop of the, now ivy-clad, Deil’s dyke. Seated in
the front row (left to right) number 1, Professor L. A.
L. King (St Mungo’s College of Medicine, Glasgow;
incorporated since 1947 into Glasgow University’s
medical faculty); number 3, J. G. Connell; number 5,
Dr J. F. Gemmill. Number 7 may be Mr Frank W.
Young, His Majesty’s Chief Inspector for Schools for
the West of Scotland who reported on the quality of
these classes. One of the walms-moustached, flat-cap-
wearing gentleman (back row, centre) could be John
Peden, the Laboratory Attendant, but which one of the
two such gentlemen shown, I cannot be sure. Miss
Alice Jones is likely to be one of the ladies in the front
row (photograph by G. Keppie).

According to the annual report of the Scottish Marine
Biological Association (SMBA, 1914: 12-13, 73) 18
students attended in July 1914: seven taking the junior
course (Course I) and 1 1 taking the senior course
(Course II). The instmetors on the course were John
Gibson Connell FRMS (c. 1876-1 946) (from Glasgow
Provincial Training College; subsequently to beeome
Jordanhill College, now the Faculty of Education,
Strathclyde University), who conducted the senior
course, and Dr James Fairlie Gemmill (1867-1926)
(Glasgow University), assisted by Miss Alice Jones,
who conducted the junior course: “much work of
excellent character was accomplished, and all the
students received certificates from the Glasgow
Provincial Committee” (SMBA 1914: 12-13): “it is
interesting to note that, while most of the teachers
enrolled in these classes, were from Glasgow and the
West of Scotland, two were from Aberdeen, two were
from Falkirk, and one from India.”

Prizes, as a result of voluntary competition, were
awarded to: Course I, 1. Jessie A. Hutcheon, Victoria
Road School, Aberdeen, 2. William C. Forsyth, BSc,
Glasgow; Course II, 1. Mary D. Currie, MA,
Hutchesons’ Girls’ Grammar Sehool, Glasgow,
2. George Nelson, Northem Public School, Falkirk’.

The students were listed (SMBA, 1914: 73) as follows:
Course I (Annie E. Craib, William C. Forsyth, Jessie
A. Hutcheon, Sara C. Jones, Wilhelmina M. G.
Mackenzie, James Piyde, William Rowatt), Course II
(Isabella Abel, Mary D. Cume,"' Jemima Downie,^
Georgina M’llvain, Lillie A. M’llvain, James Mather,
John D. Milne, George Nelson, Annie M. Russell,''
George Russell, James Shearer).

I have been able to identify only three persons by
comparing Fig. 1 (see caption) with an earlier (1909?)
Millport teachers’ class photograph (Moore, 2008, Fig.
5). Note that over half of the students were women.
Sixty-three percent of the class shown in Millport’s
1909(7) photograph were women (Moore, 2008, Fig.
5). By 1911, nearly three-quarters of teachers in
Scotland were women. ^ Between 1880 and 1914,
Scottish school masters commanded higher salaries
than their English counteiparts, whereas Scottish
school mistresses (higher in number than male teachers

132

across the United Kingdom) were consistently less well
paid than English women teachers, although they were
more highly qualified (Corr, 1997; Hulme, 2011).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to Mr James Peacock, Millport, for
bringing this postcard to my attention.

NOTES

’ Keppie, George (aka George Kippie) [(c.l871-
1917)]. Photographers of Great Britain and Ireland,
1840-1940 (URI., accessed 17 January 2012,
http://www.victorianphotographers.co.uk/index.php/vic

torian-photographers-k/keppie-george-aka-george-

kippie-/p 30356.html).

■ Mary Darroch Currie (1878-1936) graduated MA

from Glasgow University in 1905. Isabella Blacklock
(b. 1869) had been the first female to graduate MA
from Glasgow University, graduating in 1895 (URL,
accessed 13 January 2012,

http://www.universitvstorv.gla.ac.uk/alumni/help/fmdi

ng-graduates/). Women were only pennitted to study
at Scottish universities after 1892.

^ A Jemima Wright Downie (1876-1965) graduated
MA from Glasgow University in 1902.

Annie Russell, 1 know, taught at Kilmarnock
Academy.

^ Knox, W. W., The Scottish educational system
1840-1940 (URL, accessed 12 January 2012,
www.scran.ac.uk/Scotland/pdf/SP2 1 Education.pdf).

REFERENCES

Corr, H. (1997). Teachers and gender: debating the
myths of equal opportunities in Scottish education
1800-1914. Cambridge Journal of Education 27,
355-363.

Hulme, M. (2011). Histories of Scottish teacher
education: sources for research. Scottish
Educational Review 43, 41-55.

Moore, P. G. (2008). The Marine Station at Millport:
the “troubled years” between 1897-1907 and their
continuing resonance. The Linnean 24, 21-36.
SMBA (1914). Annual Report 1914. Scottish Marine
Biological Association, Millport.

Correction to the statistical note in
‘Gulliver, R,, 2011. Patterns of
flowering on continuously-grazed
dune and machair on Colonsay. The
Glasgow Naturalist 25 (3) 19-28’

Richard Gulliver’’"

’ Carraig Mhor, Imeravale, Port Ellen, Isle of Islay,
Argyll PA42 7AL, UK

^ Geographical and Earth Sciences, University of
Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
E-mail : richardlgul 1 i ver@gmail .com

INTRODUCTION

The data analyses in the article on the phenology of
dune and machair communities on Colonsay were
correct. However the statistical note in the Methods
section was incorrect. The author apologises for this
error. A revised set of notes follows.

MAIN TEXT

No overlap hetw’een samples; t, z and U test

When there is no overlap between samples (that is,
where all the values in one sample are greater in
magnitude than all the values in the other) and the data
is parametric (that is, the distribution of sample values
is well approximated by a Normal distribution), the t or
z test should be applied.

For sample sizes of 5 to 20 of non parametric data, and
using the form of Mann Whitney U test where the
lower of the two U values is the test statistic, it is
advisable procedure that a test be applied. However, in
these cases the outcome of operating the test is known
in advance. The lower value of U will be zero.
Reference to the tabulated values of U will show that
significance has been obtained and that the null
hypothesis can be rejected. For sample sizes of above
20 a fonnula exists for converting the lower U value to
z (Campbell, 1974 p61). For non overlapping samples
nl=n2=21, z has a probability of less than 0.1% using
the formula. Hence a very highly significant difference
will be obtained in all cases where both nl and n2 are
above 20 for non overlapping samples.

For the Mann Whitney U test some tabulated values
use the higher of the two U values. Use of the lower
value means there is always the same value of U which
shows the maximum difference between samples i.e. 0.
Use of the upper value means that the values of U
associated with maximum difference between samples
varies with sample size.

Paired data: the case when the trend in every pair of
values is the same throughout; paired t, paired z and
Wilcoxon tests

When the trend in every pair of values is the same
throughout (i.e. the larger value in each pair always
belongs to the same one of the two conditions) for
parametric data (where the differences between the two
values in each pair give a distribution which is well
approximated by a Normal curve), the paired t, or
paired z test should be applied.

Where the trend is the same throughout all the pairs of
values of non parametric data, for sample sizes of 7 to
25, it is advisable procedure that a Wilcoxon test be
applied. However, in these cases the outcome of
operating the test is known in advance. The test
statistic W (T) i.e. the lower value of R+ or R- will be
zero. Reference to the tabulated values of W will show
that significance has been obtained and that the null
hypothesis can be rejected. For sample sizes of above

133

25 a formula exists for converting the lower W (T)
value to z (Campbell, 1974 p66). For pairs of values
when the trend is the same throughout for n=26, z has a
probability of less than 0.1% using the fonnula (n=26
excludes zero differences). Hence a very highly
significant difference will be obtained for all paired
values of n above 26 when the trend is the same
throughout.

Some tabulated values of W (T) use the higher value of
R+ or R-. Use of the lower value means there is always
the same value of W (T) which shows the maximum
difference between the paired replicates i.e. 0. Use of
the upper value of R+ or R- means that the values
associated with maximum difference between the
paired replicates varies with sample size.

Biologists do not always agree on whether data are
paired or not. In case of doubt, assume data are not
paired.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The helpful advice provided by Dr Tim Sparks is
gratefully acknowledged. However, the total
responsibility for the text rests with the author.

REFERENCE

Campbell, R. C. (1974, second edition). Statistics for
Biologists. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.

SUPPLEMENT

The application of a Mann Whitney U test to the case
of non overlap on p21 of Gulliver 2011 results in a
significant difference being generated, as docs the
application of a Wilcoxon test to the case of the trend
being the same throughout in all pairs of values on p22.
NB the median of 23 for 4m^ machair quadrats on p21
& p23 is coiTect, the value in Table 1 should be 23 not
25, author’s eiTor.

The most northerly documented
record of the green alga
Hydrodictyon reticulatum (water-net)
in the UK

Alison McManus

Scottish Environment Protection Agency, 5 Redwood
Crescent, Peel Park, East Kilbride G74 5PP.

E-mail: alison.mcmanus(^sepa. org.uk

Strathclyde Loch is located within Strathclyde Country
Park, Mothewell (NS 73290 56980) and is designated
as a Sensitive Area (Eutrophic) under the Urban Waste
Water Treatment Directive, and of poor ecological

potential under current Water Framework Directive
(WFD) classification. A macrophyte survey of the loch
was carried out in September 2011 by Alison
McManus, Thomas Coy and Jan Krokowski (SEPA).
This was done as part of SEPA’s WFD monitoring and
classification. During the survey the invasive nuisance
green alga Hydrodictyon reticulatum (L.) Bory de
Saint-Vinceiit, 1824 (water-net: Fig. 1) was discovered
at one of the sampling points and is believed to be the
most northerly documented record of this species in the
UK.

Fig. 1. Hydrodictyon reticulatum, Strathclyde Loch,
September 201 1. Scalebars 100 Dm.

This species is known as a nuisance because it can clog
waterways, smother aquatic plants and fauna and
adversely impact boating, fishing, swimming and
tourism. The spread of this alga is believed to be a
response to elevated and extended summer water
temperatures (John et ai, 1998). The species is
confined to downstream sections of waterbodies,
partially due to its nutrient requirements, and
populations of the alga usually only become obvious in
mid-summer, suggesting a need for high temperatures
(Whitton, 2000).

It appears that the water-net has become widely
distributed over the past two decades and is gradually
beginning to colonise more northern waterbodies.
Until 2011 the most northern documented records of
the species were in Dumfries and Galloway, with other
undocumented reports of the species as far north as
Aberdeenshire. There are also anecdotal records of the
species in Castle Semple Loch, Renfrewshire. The
species is well documented in rivers in the Scottish
Borders and northern England, especially the Tweed,
Tyne, Wear and the Swale.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks to Alison Bell, John Clayton, Robin Guthrie
(SEPA) and Professor Brian A. Whitton (Durham
University) for their records of water-net distribution.

REFERENCES

John, D.M., Douglas, G.E., Brooks, S.J., Jones, G.C.,
Ellaway, J. & Rundle, S. (1998). Blooms of the
water net Hydrodictyon reticulatum
(Chlorococcales, Chlorophyta) in a coastal lake in

134

the British Isles: their cause, seasonality and
impact. Biologia, 53: 537-545.

Whitton. B.A. (2000). Increases in nuisance macro-
algae in rivers: a review. Verb. Inf. Verein. LimnoL,
27: 1257-125.

Hoverfly species (Diptera,
Syrphidae) collected near
Rowardennan, Loch Lomondside,
August, 2011

E. Geoffrey Hancock

The Hunterian, Zoology Museum, Graham Ken-
Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ

E-mail: Geoff.hancock(@glasgow. ac.uk

A field outing to the Scottish Centre for Ecology and
the Natural Environment (SCENE) at Rowardennan,
Stirlingshire, followed the Sixth International
Symposium on the Syiphidae (Diptera). It was the final
day of this biennial meeting, held at the Hunterian
Museum, University of Glasgow, during which 72
delegates had debated and discussed the systematics,
ecology and biology of the hoverflies on a worldwide
scale. The field outing on 8‘'’ August was essentially an
oppoi-tunity to relax after three days of being indoors
listening to lectures and viewing poster presentations
on research in progress. A number of the delegates
took the opportunity to record the hoverfly species that
could be seen around the immediate environs of the
SCENE field station buildings on the Ross peninsula.
The following list is the product of this effort and is a
good representation of the expected fauna. The sunny
weather undoubtedly helped in producing a total of 63
species, a few of which are commented on individually
in the following two paragraphs.

During the symposium a new edition of distribution
maps for hoverflies in the United Kingdom was
launched which contains new data on altitudinal and
habitat preferences and phenology. Analyses of trends
have been included for both recording effort and recent
changes in species’ ranges (Ball, et a!., 2011). This
publication is used here to indicate species that deserve
special mention for various reasons. Some are scarce in
the north of Britain such as Cheilosia proximo and C.
vernalis. Species that require good quality wooded
habitat include Arcfophila snperbiens, Ferdinandea
cuprea and Xylota jakiiatorum. Although these three
species have been recorded previously in the area it is
good to know they are still resident. With similar
habitat requirements, but developing as larvae in
woodland fungi, are records of Cheilo.sia longula and
C. scutellata. Generally scarce species of local note are
Didea fasciata, Dasysyrphus pinastri, Helophilns

trivitfatiis, Meli.scaeva compositorwn, M.
umhellatorum and Scaeva pyrastri. One of the more
interesting species is Eriozona syrphoides which
became established in Britain about 40 years ago in
association with spruce plantations. These trees support
an aphid species, Cinara piceae (Panzer), that the
larvae utilise as a food source. There are only thirteen
other lOKm Ordnance Survey grid squares in Scotland
where it has been seen since 2000 (Ball, et al., 2011).

An outstanding addition to Scotland’s fauna as a result
of this meeting is Ferdinandea riificornis. The latest
distributional data show no known records north of
Yorkshire (Ball, et al., 2011). This species is regarded
as rare or even endangered in many areas of mainland
Europe. Like its more common sibling, F. cuprea, the
larvae develop in sap in deciduous trees. Often, but not
exclusively, these are oak trees in which this resource
has been created by the tunnelling activities of the goat
moth (Cossus cossu.s Linn.). The larvae of F. ruficornis
have not been described (Rotheray, 1993) but arc
presumed to be very similar to F. cuprea. Goat moths
are known from Central Scotland but arc rare and have
not been positively recorded on Lochlomondside
(Knowler, 2010). Combined searching for the larvae of
the moth and both species of Ferdinandea in the area
around SCENE is an obvious strategy. More details of
the Lochlomondside finding of F. ruficornis have been
written up (Ricarte, et al., 2011).

Species list in alphabetical order

Nomenclature follows Chandler (1998) with any
changes or species added since then given in Ball et al.
(2011). The asterisk * denotes records that were
provided by Jeroen van Steenis just south of the field
station on 2"‘* August, 2011, within the same NGR
lOKm square as SCENE.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Glasgow Natural History Society,
British Entomological and Natural History Society,
Dipterists Forum, Malloch Society, B&S
Entomological Supplies and the Samuel Wendell
Williston Diptera Research Fund (administered by the
Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC, USA) as
sponsors of the Symposium. Excellent hospitality was
provided at SCENE, and particular thanks to Rona
Brennan, bursar and provider of catering. The compiler
of this list is grateful to all the participants for their
efforts and company on the day.

135

Species

Recorder

Arctophila superbiens (Muller) *

(JvS)

Baccha elongata (Fabricius)

(MR)

Cheilosia antiqua (Meigen)

(ASs)

Cheihsia betgenstammi Becker

(EGH, JvS; WvS)

Cheliosia fratema (Meigen)

(RM)

Cheilosia ilhislrata (Hams)

(JSetal)

Cheilosia kmgula (Zetterstedt)

(WvS)

Cheilosia proxima (Zetterstedt) *

(JvS)

Cheilosia sciitellata (Fallen)

(JvS; WvS)

Cheilosia vemalis (Fallen)

(MR)

Chiysogaster solstitialis (Fallen)

(ASs)

Chiysotoxiim arcuatiwi (Linnaeus)

(ASs; JSet al; WvS)

Chiysofoxiini hicinctum (Linnaeus)

(ASs; JSet al; JvS)

Dasysyrphus albostriatus (Fallen)

(EGH; MM)

Dasysyrphiis pinastri (De Geer)

(KW)

Dasysyrphus tricinctiis (Fallen)

(EGH; JSet al; JvS)

Didea fasciata Macquart

(ASs)

Epistrophe grossulariae (Meigen)

(AR; EGH; KW; WvS)

Episyrplnis halteatus (De Geer)

(ASs; EGH; JSet al; KW; RW; WvS; ZN)

Eriozona syrphoides (Fallen)

(ASs)

Erisfalis ahusiviis Collin *

(JvS)

Eristalis interniptus (Poda)

(RM)

Eristalis intricarius (Linnaeus)

(NJ; JSet al)

Eristalis pertinax (Scopoli)

(AR; ASs; EGH; JSet al; KW; RW; WvS)

Eiipeodes corollae (Fabricius)

(JSet al)

Ferdinandea cuprea (Scopoli)

(MR)

Ferdinandea ruficornis (Fabricius)

(JQ; detemiined by AR & ZN]

Helophiliis pendulus (Linnaeus)

(JSetal; KW; WvS;)

Helophilus trivittatus (Fabricius)

(JSet al)

Leucozoiia hicoriim (Linnaeus)

(JSet al; KW; RW; WvS)

Leiicozona glaucia (Linnaeus)

(AR; ASs; JSet al; KW; WvS; ZN)

Melangyma compositarum (VeiTall)

(AR; WvS; ZN)

Melaugy’ua wnhellatarum (Fabricius) *

(JvS) [a female]

Melanostoma mellinum (Linnaeus)

(ASs, JSet al; WvS; ZN)

Melanostoma scalare (Fabricius)

(ASs; JSet al; KW; RW; WvS; ZN)

Meliscaeva aiiricollis (Meigen)

(ASs; JvS; WvS)

Meliscaeva cinctella (Zetterstedt)

(AR; ASs; JSet al; KW; RW; WvS; ZN)

Myathropa florea (Linnaeus)

(AR; ASs; JSet al; JvS; WvS)

Neoascia podagarica (Fabricius)

(MR; JSet al)

Orthonevra nobilis (Fallen)

(RM)

Platycheirus alhimanus (Fabricius)

(ASs; JSet al ; KW; JvS; WvS; ZN)

Platy'cheirus clypeatus (Meigen)

(ASs; JSet al; MR)

Playcheinis fuliviventris (Macquart)

(RM)

Platycheirus granditarsis (Forster)

(JSet al)

Platycheirus nielseni Vockereth

(WvS)

Platycheirus occultus Goeldlin de T., ct al.

(WvS)

Platycheirus peltatus (Meigen)

(ASs)

Rhingia campestris Meigen *

(JvS)

Riponnensia splendem (Meigen)

(AR; ZN)

Scaeva selenitica (Meigen)

(AR; WvS; ZN)

Sericomyia silentis (Harris)

(AR; ASs; JSet al; KW; RW; WvS; ZN)

Sphaerophoria interrupta (Fabricius) *

(JvS)

Sphegina climipes (Fallen)

(JvS; MR)

Sphegina elegans Schummel

(JvS; WvS)

Sphegina sibirica Stackelberg

(AR; ASs; JSet al; NJ; WvS; ZN)

Syritta pipiens (Linnaeus)

(JSet al)

Syrphus ribesii (Linnaeus)

(AR; ZN)

Syrphiis torvus Osten Sacken

(WvS)

Syrphus vitripennis Meigen

(AR; KW; JSet al; WvS; ZN)

Volucella pellucens (Linnaeus)

(AS; ZN)

Xylota jakatorum Bagachanova

(WvS)

Xylota segnis (Linnaeus)

(AR; ASs; EGH; JSet al; KW; RW; WvS; ZN)

Xylota sylvarum (Linnaeus) *

(JvS)

Recorders

Antonio Ricarte (AR); Alan Stubbs (AS); Axel Ssymank (ASs); Geoff Hancock (EGH); Javier Quinto (JQ); Jeroen van Steenis

(JvS); Menno Reemer (MR); Nigel Jones (NJ); John Smit, Maarten de Groot; Catalina Guitterez-Chacon, Jiri Hadrava (JH), Michael

Mikal, working as a group (JSet al), Miriam Morales (MM); Roger Monis (RM); Richard Weddle (RW); Wouter van Steenis (WvS);

Kenn Watt (KW); Zorika Nedeljkovic (ZN).

136

REFERENCES

Ball, S.G., Morris, R.K.S., Rotheray, G.E. and Watt,
K.R. (201 1). Atlas of the hoverjlies of Great Britain
(Diptera, Syphidae). Wallingford, Biological
Records Centre, pp. 183.

Chandler, P. J. (1998). Checklists of British Insects
(New Series) Diptera, 12. Royal Entomological
Society of London, London.

Knowler, J.T. (2010). An annotated checklist of the
larger moths of Stirlingshire, West Perthshire and
Dunbartonshire. Glasgow, Glasgow Natural History
Society, pp. 143.

Ricarte, A., Nedeljkovic, Z. and Quinto, J. (2011).
Ferdinandea ruficornis (Fabricius) (Diptera,
Syrphidae) new to Scotland. Dipterists Digest 18:
119-120.

Rotheray, G.E. (1993). Colour guide to hoverfly larvae
(Diptera, Syrphidae). Dipterists Digest 9: 1-155.

First record of larval sea lamprey
Petromyzon marinus L. in the
Endrick Water, Loch Lomond

J. B. Hume & C. E. Adams

Scottish Centre for Ecology & the Natural
Environment, Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health
& Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow,
Glasgow, G12 8QQ.

E-mail: j.hume.l(^research.gla. ac.uk

Three lamprey species are known to occur in Scotland:
European river Lampetra fJuviatilis and brook lamprey
L planeri, and the sea lamprey Petromyzon marinus.
Although detailed records of their distribution remain
scarce, lampreys have been sampled from 79 Scottish
regions (ERA 2005). The sea lamprey is the rarest
species in both records and surveys and has been
recorded nationally in just 35 rivers, although their
continuing presence in some is uncertain (ERA 2005).

The Endrick Water drains the South East catchment of
Loch Lomond into its south basin. The river contains
scientifically important populations of brook and river
lamprey, and has been designated a Special Area of
Conservation (SAC) and Site of Special Scientific
Interest (SSSI) as a result (Bond 2003; Hume 2011).
Although several lamprey surveys have been
conducted in recent years (Maitland et al. 1994;
Gardiner et al. 1995; Gardiner & Stewart 1997, 1999;
Forth Fisheries Foundation 2004; Hume 2011; Watt et
al. 2011) adult sea lamprey have been recorded only
very occasionally in the Endrick Water, and they have
not been observed since the 1960s (Hunter et al. 1959;
Maitland 1966). Spawning is believed to be restricted
to the efferent River Leven between the barrage (NS
393 894) and footbridge (NS 394 793) in Balloch

(Maitland et al. 1994; Gardiner et al. 1995). Despite
extensive sampling of larval habitat around the Loch
Lomond basin in recent years, sea lamprey
ammocoetes have until now only been recorded in the
River Leven.

On March 2U* 2012 a single sea lamprey ammocoete
was collected immediately downstream of Drymen
Bridge on the Endrick Water (NS 473 874) in static
traps designed to capture adult lampreys on their
upstream spawning migration. This individual
measured 151 mm in total length and was 4.6 g wet
weight. Positive identification as Petromyzon as
opposed to Lampetra spp. was confirmed from the
following meristic and morphometric characteristics
(Fig. 1): trunk myomeres 71 {P. marinus 61-1 A',
Lampetra spp. 58-64), oral hood fully pigmented
{Lampetra spp. upper/lower lip unpigmented), caudal
fill spade-like {Lampetra spp. typically rounded),
robust head region {Lampetra spp. distinct pre-nostril
region) (Renaud 2011). Sea lamprey larval duration is
typically five years, although it can be as long as 19
years as growth rates vary enormously, so an accurate
age estimate of just one individual is fraught with
uncertainty. Based on typical values from other U.K.
populations this individual is likely to be 3-5 years old,
indicating that spawning took place in the Endrick
Water at sometime between May/June 2007-2009
(Hardisty 1969; Bird et al. 1994).

Fig. 1, P. marinus ammocoete

Throughout Scotland larval Petromyzon are recorded in
very low densities compared with Lampetra spp., even
in rivers known to contain strong adult spawning
populations (APEM 2004; ERA 2004; Watt et al.
2008). There remains the possibility that sea lamprey
spawn in the Endrick Water in small numbers, but; that
adults are not detected because trapping methodology
excludes the larger body size of mature sea lamprey,
and sea lamprey ammocoetes are not detected during
routine surveys due to their inherent scarcity.
Currently, the Endrick Water is a stronghold for
lamprey in Scotland, with both L. fluviatilis and L.
planeri populations being of international conservation
importance (Bond 2003). If indeed this isolated record
of larval P. marinus represents the first indication that

137

the species now maintains a spawning population
within the Endrick Water, there is an implication that
the consei-vation strategy for this river should be
modified to include sea lamprey as a qualifying feature
of the SAC.

REFERENCES

APEM. (2004). Distribution of sea, brook and river
lampreys on the River Tay. Scottish Natural
Heritage Commissioned Report No 032 (ROAME
No. F01AC610).

Bird, D.J., Potter, I.C., Hardisty, M.W. & Baker, B.I.
(1994). Morphology, body size and behaviour of
recently-metamorphosed sea lampreys, Petromyzon
marimis, from the lower River Severn, and their
relevance to the onset of parasitic feeding. Journal
of Fish Biology’ 44, 61-1 A.

Bond, L. (2003). The Endrick Water cSAC
conservation strategy. Conserving Natura 2000
Rivers. English Nature, Peterborough.

Ecological Research Associates (ERA). (2005). A
national lamprey survey of Scotland. Report for
Scottish National Heritage, Clydebank.

Forth Fisheries Foundation (2004). River and brook
lamprey monitoring of the Endrick Water
cSAC/SSSl. Scottish Natural Heritage
Commissioned Report No 057. (ROAME No.
F03AC607).

Gardiner, R., Taylor, R. & Araistrong, J. (1995).
Habitat assessment of survey of lamprey
populations occuiTing in areas of conservation
interest. Report to Scottish Natural Heritage.
Fisheries Research Services, Report No 4/95.
Gardiner, R. & Stewart, D. (1997). Spawning habitat
assessment and survey of lamprey populations
occurring in areas of conseiwation interest.
Fisheries Services Report to SNH.

Gardiner, R. & Stewart, D. (1999). Survey of the Blane
Water. Fisheries Research Sen’ices Report to SNH.
Hardisty, M.W. (1969). A comparison of gonadal
development in the ammocoetes of the landlocked
and anadromous forms of the sea lamprey,
Petromyzon marinus L. Journal of Fish Biology 2,
153-166.

Hume, J.B. (2011). Adult lamprey survey of the
Endrick Water SSSI and SAC 2009-2010. Scottish
Natural Heritage Commissioned Report No. 480.
Hunter, W.R., Slack, H.D. & Hunter, M.R. (1959). The
lower vertebrates of the Loch Lomond District. The
Glasgow Naturalist 18: 84-90.

Maitland, P.S. (1966). The fauna of the River Endrick.
Glasgow, Blackie.

Maitland, P.S., Morris, K.H. & East, K. (1994). The
ecology of lampreys (Petromyzontidae) in the Loch
Lomond area. Hydrohiologia 290: 105-120.

Renaud, C.B. (2011). Lampreys of the world. An
annotated and illustrated catalogue of lamprey
species known to date. FAO Species Catalogue for
Fishery Purposes. No. 5. Rome, FAO, 109pp.

Watt, J., Ravenscroft, N.O.M. & Seed, M. (2008). Site
condition monitoring of lamprey in the River Tay
Special Area of Conservation. Scottish Natural

Heritage Commissioned Report No. 292 (ROAME
No. R07AC606).

Watt, J., Bull, C., Ravenscroft, N.O.M. & Seed, M.

(201 1). Lamprey survey of the Endrick Water
SSSI/SAC 2008. Scottish Natural Heritage
Commissioned Report No. 320.

A record of the aurochs, Bos
primigenius, from Morayshire

Andrew C. Kitchener' & John Doune^

'Department of Natural Sciences, National Museums
Scotland, Chambers Street, Edinburgh EHl IJF
^Damaway Castle, Forres, Morayshire IV36 2ST

E-mail: a.kitchener@nms.ac.uk

In May 2004 two horn cores attached to the frontal
bone of a skull (Fig. 1) were discovered at the
bottom of the main drainage ditch in the northeast
comer of Ardgye Fann, three miles west of Elgin in
Morayshire (Grid Reference NJl 55638). These horn
cores were recovered by Martin Bridges, the Moray
Estates fann manager, and were sent to the National
Museums Scotland for identification and
conservation. Comparison with specimens in the
NMS collection confinned that the horn cores were
from an aurochs. Bos primigenius. From their size
and shape the hom cores were probably from a male.
The left hom core measures 700 mm on the outside
of the curve and 550 cm on the inside of the curve,
whereas the right hom core measures 670 mm on the
outside curve and 570 mm on the inside curve. The
basal circumferences of the hom cores are 350 mm
(right) and 340 mm (left). A bone sample was sent to
SUERC, East Kilbride, where it yielded a
radiocarbon date of 9690 ± 35 BP and a calibrated
date of 1 1,120-1 1,260 BP (SUERC-20754).

Calendar dates are increasingly underestimated by
increasingly earlier radiocarbon dates (Lowe and
Walker, 1997). This is because the amount of
radiocarbon in the atmosphere has not been constant
over time. Uncalibrated dates can be corrected using a
calibration curve that is derived from samples that have
been dated independently with other methods such as
uranium time series, dendrochronology, varves and
deep ocean sediment cores.

The aurochs is widely recorded in Scotland and the rest
of Britain. Yalden (1999) records 30 Scottish sites
ranging from Orkney to Berwick in the south east and
New Galloway in the south west. However, most
records are from the Borders with a few in Perthshire.
Therefore, these hom cores represent one of the most
northerly records in Scotland.

There are few radiocarbon dates for aurochs in

Scotland. Kitchener & Bonsall (1999) give five dates,

138

ranging from 9170 ± 70 BP (10,350-9,980 Cal BP age
- AA18516) for a skull from Newburgh, Fife to 3315
± 55 bp (3690-3390 cal BP - AA- 1 85 1 7) for skull from
Galloway. The latter is one of the most recent dates for
Britain, suggesting that it survived until at least the
early Bronze Age in Scotland (Yalden & Kitchener,
2008). A similar date was recorded for a skeleton from
Charterhouse Warren Farm, Somerset (Burleigh &
Clutton-Brock, 1977). However, the Ardgye Fann
specimen is the oldest recorded post-glacial date for an
aurochs in Scotland, and demonstrates that this species
was an early post-glacial coloniser.

Fig. 1. Dorsal (a.) and ventral (b.) views of the horn
cores of an aurochs, Bos primigenius, from Ardgye
Farm, Morayshire (Neil McLean, National Museums
Scotland).

The horn cores are available for viewing by
appointment at Moray Estates (013096 72213 or
admin(^medco. co.uk).

REFERENCES

Burleigh, R. & Clutton-Brock, J. (1977). A
radiocarbon date for Bos primigenius from
Charterhouse Warren Farm, Mendip. Proceedings
of the University’ of Bristol Speleological Society’
14(3), 225-257.

Kitchener, A.C. & Bonsall, C. (1999). Further AMS
radiocarbon dates for extinct Scottish mammals.
Quaternary Newsletter No. 88, 1-10.

Lowe, J.J. and Walker, M.J.C. (1997). Reconstructing
Quaternajy environments. 2nd editionPrentice Hall,
Harlow.

Yalden, D. (1999). The histojy of the British mammals.
Poyser, London.

Yalden, D.W. & Kitchener, A.C. (2008). History of the
fauna. Pp. 17-31. In: Harris, S. and Yalden, D.W.
(editors). Mammals of the British Isles: Handbook,
4''' edition. The Mammal Society, Southampton.

The rare green alga Pediastrum
privum (Chlorophyta^

Sphaeropleales) in a Scottish kettle
loch: new to British freshwaters

'Pauline Lang, Jan Krokowski, Nicole Ross &
Ross Doughty

Scottish Environment Protection Agency, 5 Redwood
Crescent, Peel Park, East Kilbride, G74 5PP, Scotland,
UK

'E-mail: pauline.lang(^sepa. org.uk

Pediastrum is a widely-distributed genus of green alga
characteristically consisting of disc-shaped colonies or
‘coenobia’, assembled from at least four inter-
connecting cells (Komarek & Jankovska, 2001).

Many species belonging to the genus are common
constituents of lake phytoplankton communities,
though Pediastrum privum (Printz) Hegewald
[=Stauridium privum (Printz) Hegewald in Buchheim
et al., 2005] is notably rare (Komarek & Jankovska,
2001; Tsarenko & John, 201 1). There appear to be no
published records from Britain. Sporadic lake
phytoplankton and sub-fossil sediment finds from
Europe, reflect a sparse scattering of Pediastrum
privum, confined mostly to temperate and sub-arctic
latitudes of the northern hemisphere (Hegewald &
Schnepf, 1979; Komarek & Jankovska, 2001; Geris,
2004; Kowalska & Wolowksi, 2010). By comparison,
the close phylogenetic relative Pediastrum tetras
(Ehrenberg) Ralfs [=Stauridium tetras (Ehrenberg)
Hegewald in Buchheim et al., 2005] displays a
cosmopolitan distribution (Komarek & Jankovska,
2001).

Freshwater phytoplankton communities are important
indicators of the biointegrity of standing waters and are
therefore used by the Scottish Environment Protection
Agency (SEPA) to assess the ecological status of
around 80 freshwater lochs in Scotland. Phytoplankton
samples are collected at varying frequencies, but at a
minimum are taken three times a year between July and
September. Sub-samples of phytoplankton (preserved
in Lugol’s iodine) are examined using an inverted
microscope and analysed according to standard

139

procedures with counts of approximately 400
individuals (Brierley el al., 2007; CEN, 2004 & 2008).

Low abundances (typically 1-5 coenobia, comprising
both four- and eight-cells, per 100 ml sub-sample) of
Pediastrwn privum were found in phytoplankton
samples colleeted from Loch Kinord during 2009-
2011. Loch Kinord is a small kettle lake located in
Aberdeenshire, Scotland (NGR: NO 44150 99388).
The loch, formed by glacial retreat approximately
10,000 years ago, has an area of c. 0.8 km”, is shallow
(mean depth <2 m) and is characterized by relatively
low alkalinity (annual mean 10.7 mg L"' as CaCOs over
2009-11) and mesotrophic water chemistry (annual
mean total phosphorus (TP) concentration 19.9 pg L''
over 2009-11). A palaeolimnological study using
fossil diatoms implied that eutrophication has driven
water quality in Loch Kinord slightly away from its
reference state (Bennion et al., 2004).

Pediastrwn privwn has appeared consistently in the
phytoplankton community of Loch Kinord since 2009.
This is the first known documented record of
Pediastrwn privwn in British freshwaters. Previously,
this uncommon species may have gone unnoticed or
been misidentified due to its ineonspicuous size and
general unfamiliarity to UK taxonomists. The
coenobia of Pediastrwn privwn (Figs la-d)
morphologieally resemble Pediastrum tetras (Figs 2a-
d), in terms of their relatively small diameter (usually
15-25 pm). However, it is possible to separate the two
species by comparison of the outer cell wall structure,
which is weakly concave (central depression) in P.
privwn and distinctly notched (central incision) in P.
tetras (Komarek & Jankovska, 2001; Kowalska &
Wolowksi, 2010; Tsarenko & John, 2011).

Pediastrwn privwn has been recorded mostly from
European waterbodies including Norway (Printz,
1914), Finland (Hegewald & Schnepf, 1979), Poland
(Pelechaty et al., 2007; Kowalska & Wolowksi, 2010),
Russia (Jankovska & Komarek, 2000), Slovakia

Fig. la. Photo-micrograph of Pediastrwn privwn
4-celled coenobium (x630 magnification)
preserved in LugoFs Iodine.

(Hindak & Hindakova, 2008), and the Czech Republic
(Geris, 2004), though the WISER phytoplankton
database (www.wiser.eu) may also contain previously
undocumented localities. Other reports exist from the
USA (Smith, 1920; Prescott, 1962), as well as more
recently from Korea (An et al, 1999), Spain (Negro et
al., 2000) and Canada (Hindak & Hindakova, 2008).
Collectively, observations suggest that Pediastrwn
privwn occurs discretely in oligotrophic and/or
dystrophic freshwaters (Jankovska & Komarek, 2000;
Komarek & Jankovska, 2001). However, some
accounts suggest it is also capable of occupying
nutrient-enriched habitats (An et al., 1999), typically
associated with P. tetras (Komarek & Jankovska,
2001), which makes its restricted distribution difficult
to explain (Kowalska & Wolowksi, 2010).
Morphological plasticity (variation between the 4- and
8-celled life cycle stages) has been related to
environmental nutrient concentrations or zooplankton
predation in Pediastrum tetras (Rojo et al., 2008), and
though fully described (Hegewald & Jeon, 2000) is as
yet inadequately understood for P. privwn. More
research is required to establish the ecological
requirements of Pediastrum privum and the reasons for
its apparent rarity.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks especially to Prof David John (Natural History
Museum London) and Prof Brian Whitton (University
of Durham) for fomially verifying the identity of
Pediastrwn privum. We are grateful to Dr Elizabeth
Haworth (Freshwater Biological Association) for
confinning that no UK records of P. privum pre-existed
in the Fritsch Collection (documented only from
Norway, Europe and North America). We are also
appreeiative to Dr Kevin Murphy (University of
Glasgow) for commenting on an earlier version of the
manuscript.

10 pm

Fig. lb. Illustration of Pediastrum privum 4-celled
coenobium.

140

Fig. Ic. Photo-micrograph of Pediastrum priviim
8-celled coenobium (x630 magnification)
preserved in LugoFs Iodine.

10 pm

Fig. Id. Illustration of Pediastrum priviim 8-celled
coenobium.

10 pm

Fig. 2b. Illustration of Pediastrum tetras 4-celled
coenobium.

10 pm

Fig. 2d. Illustration of Pediastrum tetras 8-celled
coenobium.

141

REFERENCES

An, S.S., Hegewald, E. cS: Jeon, S.L. (1999) Pediastriim
privum (Printz) Hegewald new to Korea, Algae, 14,
83 -85.

Bennion, H., Fluin, J. & Simpson, G.L. (2004)
Assessing eutrophication and reference conditions
for Scottish freshwater lochs using subfossil
diatoms, Journal of Applied EcoIog\\ 41, 124 -
138.

Brierley, B., Carvalho, L., Davies, S. & Krokowski, J.
(2007) Guidance on the quantitative analysis of
phytoplankton in freshwater samples, 24 pp. [In
Carvalho, L., Dudley, B., Dodkins, L, Clarke, R.,
Jones, I., Thackeray, S., and Maberly, S. (2007)
Phytoplankton Classification Tool (Phase 2), Final
Report, Project WFD80, SNIFFER, Edinburgh].

Buchheim, M., Buchheim, J., Carlson, T., Braband, A.,
Hepperle, D., Krienitz, F., Wolf, M. & Hegewald,
E. (2005) Phylogeny of the Hydrodictyaceae
(Chlorophyceae); inferences from rDNA data.
Journal ofPhycolog}’, 41,1 039 - 1 054.

CEN (2004) Water quality - guidance standard for the
routine analysis of phytoplankton abundance and
composition using inverted microscopy (Utermohl
technique), CEN/TC230/WG2/TG3.

CEN (2008) Water quality ~ phytoplankton biovolume
determination bv microscopic measurement of cell
dimensions, CEN/TC230/WG2/TG3.

Geris, R. (2004) Pediastriim privum (Printz) Hegewald
in the Czech Republic, Czech Phvcolog)’, Olomouc,
4, 63 - 66.

Hegewald, E. & Schnepf, E. (1979) Pediastriim privum
(Printz) Hegewald comb, nova, Algological Studies,
22, 24-28.

Hegewald E. & Jeon S.L. (2000) The coenobial
moiphology of Pediastriim privum (Printz)
Hegewald, Algological Studies, 98, 43 - 48.

Hindak F. & Hindakova A. (2008) Moiphology and
taxonomy of some rare chlorococcalean algae
(Chlorophyta), Biologia, 63, 781 - 790.

Jankovska, V. & Komarek, J. (2000) Indicative value
of Pediastriim and other coccal green algae in
palaeoecology, Folia Geobotanica, 35, 59 - 82.

Komarek, J. & Jankovska, V. (2001) Review of the
green algal genus Pediastrunr, Implication for
pollen-analytical research, Bibliotheca

Phycologica, Band 108, 127., Gebriider

Bomtraeger Verlagsbuchhandlung, Berlin,
Stuttgart.

Kowalska, J. & Wolowski, K. (2010) Pediastmm
privum (Printz) Hegewald (Chlorophyceae) in Lake
Male Zmarle, northern Poland, Oceanological and
Hydrobiological Studies, 39, 137 - 143.

Negro, A. I., De Hoyos, C. & Vega, J.C. (2000)
Phytoplankton staicture and dynamics in Lake
Sanabria and Valparaiso reservoir (NW Spain),
Hydrobiologia, 424, 25 - 37.

Pelechaty M., Pelechata A., Pukaez, A. (2007)
Charophyte flora and vegetation against the
background of the trophy state of lakes of Lubuskie
Lakeland (mid-Westem Poland), Bogucki
Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Poznan, 137.

Prescott G.W. (1962) Algae of the Western Great Lake
Area, W.C. Brown Company Publishers, Dubuque,
Iowa.

Printz, H. (1914) Kristianiatraktens Protococcoideer,
Skrifter Utgit av Videnskapsselskapet i Kristiania,
Matematisk-Naturvidenskabelig Klasse, 1913, 1-
121.

Rojo, C., Segura, M., Rodrigo, M.A. & Salazar, G.
(2008) Factors controlling the colonial structure of
Pediastriim tetras (Chlorophyceae), Hydrobiologia,
617, 143 -155.

Smith, G.M. (1920) Phytoplankton of the Inland Lakes
of Wisconsin, Part 1, Bulletin of the Wisconsin
Geological and Natural Histoiy Suiwey, 57, 1 -
243.

Tsarenko, P.M. & John, D.M. (2011) Phylum

Chlorophyta (Green Algae) Order Sphaeropleales p.
461-465 In; John, D.M., Whitton, B.A. & Brook,
A.J., The Freshwater Algal Flora of the British
Isles, 2"'* Edition, Cambridge University Press.

First records of the pygmy sperm
whale, Kogia breviceps, in Scotland

Andrew C. Kitchener', Jerry S. Herman'*, Robert
J. Reid^ and Neil Anderson^

' Department of Natural Sciences, National Museums
Scotland, Chambers Street, Edinburgh EHl IJF
' SAC Consulting: Veterinary Services, Drummondhill
Stratherrick Road, Inverness, IV2 4JZ
^ Houster, Tingwall, Shetland ZE2 9SF

'E-mail: a.kitchener@nms.ac.uk
'*E-mail: j.henTian@nms.ac.uk

The pygmy sperm whale, Kogia breviceps, is a poorly
known cetacean species, which has been recorded
rarely in the British Isles (Leaper and Evans, 2008). It
is an oceanic species that inhabits tropical to wanner
temperate waters worldwide (Caldwell and Caldwell,
1989). In the North Atlantic it strands reasonably
commonly on the coast of the southeast USA (125
strandings between Puerto Rico and Maine 1999-2003
(Waring et al, 2005) as far north as Canada, and in the
eastern Atlantic it has been recorded from the Bay of
Biscay, stranding from Portugal to the western coast of
France with fewer records from the Netherlands and
the British Isles (Evans, 1991; Santos et al, 2006).
Here we record the first strandings of pygmy sperm
whales in Scotland.

Pygmy spenn whales are usually found in small groups
of up to six individuals, but more often they are seen
alone or in pairs; strandings are most often large males,
or mothers and their calves of vaiying ages, or single
females that have recently given birth (Caldwell and
Caldwell, 1989; McAlpine, 2002). They feed mostly on

142

squid (e.g., Brachioteuthis, Chiroteufhis, Chtenoptery^x,
Galitenthis, Gonatm, Histioteuthis, Lepidoteuthis,
Loligo, Mastiogoteuthis, Ommastrephes,

Pholidoteuthis, Taonius, Teuthhowenia, Todarodes),
octopus {Eledona sp., Octopoteuthis) and sepiolids
{Sepiola, Rossia), and also some deep-water fish (e.g.,
Micromesistius spp., Chaiiliodus sloani) and
crustaceans (e.g., swimming crabs, Polybius henslowi,
mysids, Gnathophausia sp.) at or near the bottom of
the sea at a depth of 500-1000 metres on the deep shelf
or slope, although dives may be less than this, because
both squid and fish commonly migrate towards the
surface at night (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989; Evans,
1991; Santos et al, 2006). Females and their well-
grown calves may feed on coastal cephalopod species,
where available.

Pygmy sperm whales grow to about 3.8 m long and
weigh up to 450 kg (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989;
McAlpine, 2002). In recent strandings in Spain and
France body length (from tip of upper jaw to fluke
notch in a straight line) ranged from 1.6 m to 2.75 m
for males (n=9), and 1.47 m to 3.24 m in females (n=8)
(Santos ei al., 2006). Females reach sexual maturity at
about 2.6 metres in length and give birth to a calf of
about 1.2 m after an estimated gestation of about nine
months (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989; McAlpine,
2002).

Pygmy sperm whales strand rarely in the British Isles.
Since formal records began in 1913, there were only
eight strandings on the British coast from 1980 to
2006, mostly in southwest England and Wales (Sabin
et al, 2003). In 1999 an adult female and a calf of
unknown sex stranded at Loch Ryan, Stranraer,
Dumfries and Galloway. Measurements and other
details of these specimens are given in Table 1. The
adult female was in the early stages of pregnancy with
a male foetus 25 cm long. The dead calf floated away,
but was subsequently recovered 1 1 days later after
being buried at a landfill site, by which time it was too
decomposed to determine its sex. Analysis of stomach
contents of the mother and calf have confinned that
their diet comprised mainly oceanic squid, mainly three

species of Histioteuthis, but also 1 1 other cephalopod
species from a total of nine families, as well as
unidentified fish and crustaceans (shrimps) (Santos et
al, 2006). The skeletons of the female and calf are in
the collections of the National Museums Scotland
(NMS.Z. 1999.264. 1-2) and the male foetus is
preserved intact in spirit (NMS.Z. 1999.264.3). A cast
of the head of the adult female was also taken for
future reference. Measurements and characteristics of
the skull and mandible of the adult female
(NMS.Z. 1999.264.1), following Ross (1984), are given
in Table 1 in comparison with similar data from a
specimen that stranded in Ireland, which is also in
NMS’s collection. Both specimens have 13 tooth
alveoli on each side of the mandible, which falls within
the reported range of 11-17 (Best, 2007). There were
no teeth in the maxillae of either specimen.

There were no further records in Scotland until 2007
when one or two pygmy spenn whales were reported
from Shetland (Harvey et al, 2011). An animal was
seen and photographed off the west mainland of
Shetland at Aith on 14*'’ October 2007 (Irene Gray pers.
comm.), although two animals of different sizes were
seen together at Olnafirth, Delting on 15*'’ October
(Gibby Fraser, pers. comm.). On 1 7“’ October a pygmy
sperm whale was photographed at Busta Voe
(HU357679) (Roger Tait, pers. comm.). Later the same
day a young animal was stranded alive at Brae.
Therefore, the two animals seen at Olnafirth may have
been an adult female and a well-grown calf, which
eventually stranded and was euthanased by a vet.

The stranded animal was initially identified as an
Atlantic white-sided dolphin, Leucopleurus acutus, but
by the time it had been correctly identified this
specimen had been irretrievably buried at a landfill site
in Lerwick.

No.

Sex

Age

Length

(m)

Date

Location

SW no

Comments

Adult

2.68

18.10.99

Loch Ryan, Stranraer,
Dumfries and

Galloway

SW1999/185d.l

Pregnant with

25-cm-long foetus

Juvenile

2.08

18.10.99

Loch Ryan, Stranraer,
Dumfries and

Galloway

SW1999/185d.2

Refloated and restranded

1 1 days later

Juvenile

C.2. 1-2.4

17.10.07

Brae, Shetland
(HU355680)

SW2007/207A

Specimen lost at
landfill site

Adult

2.11

6.10.11

Easdale, Seil, Argyll

(NM75231686)

SW20 11/459

Table 1. Strandings of pygmy sperm whales, Kogia breviceps, in Scotland.

143

Fortunately, digital photographs were taken prior to
burial, which allowed correct identification (Fig. 1)
(Ellis Nicolson, pers. comm.), but the loss of this
important specimen demonstrates the importance of
ensuring that identification is confirmed before an
animal is disposed of Cuts on the animal photographed
by Roger Tait, including a distinctive one on the left
side of the spermaceti organ, appear to match those on
the stranded animal (Fig. 1). However, a distinctive cut
on the upper left hand side in front of the dorsal fin,
which can be seen in the photographs by Irene Gray
and Roger Tait, is apparently absent from the stranded
animal and the cut on the spermaceti organ appears to
be longer in the live animal. Closer examination of
Roger Tait’s photographs reveals two whale barnacles
(Family Coronulidae) on the upper left side of the tail
stock (Fig. 2 b,c), which appear to be absent from the
stranded animal (Fig. 2 a). As far as we know this is
the first record of whale bamacles on this species and
genus, but unfortunately the quality of the photograph
does not allow a more specific identification. Roger
Tait estimated that the live animal was perhaps 10 feet
(3 metres) long, whereas the stranded animal,
compared with the wheel barrow, is probably 2. 1-2.4
metres long. Although uncertain, evidence from these
photographs supports the presence of two animals in
Shetland and that it was the younger of these that
stranded.

Fig. 1. Photographs of pygmy spenn whale from
Shetland, 2007. a. Live animal Busta Voe, 1 7 October
2007 (Roger Tait), b. stranded animal prior to disposal
on 17th October 2007 (Ellis Nicolson). Skin lesion
present in the living animal (a., arrow) is not apparent
in stranded one.

Fig, 2. Photographs of pygmy spemi whale from
Shetland, a. No whale bamacles are apparently present
on the tail stock of the stranded animal from Shetland,
but are visible on the live swimming animal (c; arrow).
See close up in b.

On 6“’ October 2011 a juvenile male pygmy spenn
whale stranded at Easdale, Seil, Argyll (Table 1). The
skeleton is preserved at NMS (register no.
NMS.Z. 201 1.97.192) and measurements of the skull
are given in Table 2. A small whale barnacle was
observed on the right side of the dorsal fin of this

144

specimen, but was not recovered. Stomach contents
included fish eye lenses, otoliths, squid beaks and
small fragments of squid tissue, showing that it had fed
recently, but these have not yet been identified.

Measurement (m)

Adult female

Stranraer,

Dumfries and Galloway,
18.10.99

Juvenile male
Easdale, Sell,

Argyll

6.10.11

Subadult male

Beartragh Bay, Co. Mayo,
Ireland, 19.6.99

NMS.Z.2001. 108.28

NMS.Z.1999.264.1

NMS.Z.201 1.97.192

Total (condylobasal) length

372.0

291.0

307.5

Rostnim length

192.3

142.3

156.6

Basal width of rostrum

158.1

140.3

130.9

Width of rostrum at its midlength

103.8

97.0

96.5

Breadth across pre-orbital angles of supra-orbital
processes

302.2

263.3/267.8

264.4

Breadth across post-orbital processes of frontals

324.0

269.8

276.6

Breadth of skull across zygomatic processes of
squamosals

310.0

267.4

262.3

Height of vertex

265.2

201.9

215.9

Width of vertex

49.9

20.9

25.2

Width of supra-occipital at narrowest part between
posterior margins of temporal fossae

236.0

194.2

196.8

Tip rostnim to anterior border of left naris

187.1

137.9

145.7

Height of ventral border of foramen magnum

1 19.9

95.0

99.8

Length maxillary tooth groove, right

153.6

60.0

103.0

Length maxillary tooth groove, left

156.2

(est.) 52.5

1 16.7

Width between outer margins of occipital condyles

81.3

66.5

65.2

Tip of rostrum to hind margin of pterygoids near the
midline

224.5

173.8

191.1

Length of mandible, left side

(est.) 325.0

(est.) 270.6

265.6

Number of alveoli, left

Number of alveoli, right

Height of mandible at coronoid process, left side

92.9

(est.) 74.3

74.4

Length of mandibular symphysis, left side

(est.) 68.2

(est.) 59.3

55.1

Length of tooth row, lower left

(est) 132.6

(est.) 90.4

114.3

Length of tooth row, lower right

(est.) 138.5

(est.) 91 .3

(est.) 1 19.0

Height dorsal border of foramen magnum to vertex

133.5

117.0

121.0

Length, anterior margin mesorostral ossification to
anterior border of left naris

28.9

12.5

24.0

Table 2. Measurements of the skulls of an adult female pygmy sperm whale stranded at Stranraer, a juvenile male from
Argyll and a subadult male from Co. Mayo, Ireland. All specimens in National Museums Scotland. Measurements
follow Ross (1984).

145

These are the first records and strandings of pygmy
spenn whale in Scotland and have coincided with an
increase of other wann water cetacean stranding on the
Scottish coast since the late 1980s, including striped
dolphin, Stenella coeruleoalba, and Fraser’s dolphin,
Lagejiodelphis liosei (Reid et al., 1996; Bones et al.,
1998). Analyses of strandings patterns in Scotland
suggest that these wann-water species may be moving
further north, owing to wanner sea temperatures as a
result of global climate change (MacCleod et al.,
2005). Interestingly, both records appear to be of
mothers and a calf at the same time of the year, which
is consistent with strandings elsewhere. Taking the
foetus length of 25cm as about two months into
gestation (i.e. about 20% of birth length), indicates
conception occuiTed in about August, suggesting the
older calf was about five to six months old. There is a
risk that strandings of pygmy sperm whales might be
confused with large porpoises, but it will be interesting
to see if the trend continues with increasing records of
this species as we have seen already with the striped
dolphin.

REFERENCES

Best, P. (2007). Whales and dolphins of the southern
African subregion. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.

Bones, M., Neill, B. and Reid, R.J. (1998). Fraser’s
dolphin Lagenodelphis hosei stranded on South
Uist: First record in UK waters. Journal of Zoology’,
London 246, 460-46 1 .

Caldwell, D.K. and Caldwell, M.C. (1989). Pygmy
sperm whale Kogia hreviceps (de Blainville, 1838):
Dwarf spenn whale Kogia simus Owen, 1 866. In:
Ridgway, S.H. and Flarrison, R. (eds.). Handbook
of marine mammals. Volume 4: River dolphins and
the larger toothed whales, pp. 235-260. London:
Academic Press.

Harvey, P.V., Anderson, N. and Rushton, D.R.A.
(2011). A pygmy sperm whale, Kogia hreviceps
(de Balinvillc), in Shetland in 2007. Shetland
Naturalist 3(1), 1 8-20.

Lcaper, R. and Evans, P.G.H. (2008). Genus Kogia. Pp.
683-685 In: Hainis, S. and Yalden, D.W. (editors).
Mammals of the British Isles: Handbook 4th
edition. The Mammal Society, Southampton.
McAlpine, D.F. (2002). Pygmy and dwarf sperm
whales. Pp. 1007-1009. In: Pemn, W.F., Wiirsig,
B. and Thewissen, J.G.M. (editors). Encyclopedia
of marine mammals. Academic Press, London.
MacCleod, C.D., Bannon, S.M., Pierce, G.J.,
Schweder, C., Learmonth, J.A., Hennan, J.S. and
Reid, R.J. (2005). Climate change and the cetacean
community of north-west Scotland. Biological
Consen’ation 124,477-483.

Reid, R.J, A Kitchener, H M Ross and J Hennan (1993).
First records of the striped dolphin Stenella
coeruleoalba, in Scottish waters. Glasgow Naturalist
22, 243-245.

Ross, G.J.B. (1984). The smaller cetaceans of the south
east coast of southern Africa. Annals of the Cape
Province Museum (Natural Histoty) 15, 173-410.

Sabin, R.C., Jcpson, P.D., Reid, R.J., Chimonides,
P.D.J., Deaville, R., Patterson, l.A.P. and Spurrier,
C.J. (2003). Trends in cetacean strandings around
the UK coastline and marine mammal post-mortem
investigations for the year 2002. NHM
Consultancy Report ECM 516F00/03.

Santos, M.B., Pierce, G.J., Lopez, A., Reid, R.J.,
Ridoux, V. and Mente, E. (2006). Pygmy spenn
whales Kogia hreviceps in the northeast Atlantic:
New infonnation on stomach contents and
strandings. Marine Mammal Science 22(3), 600-
616.

Waring, G.T., Josephson, E., Fairfield, C.P., Maze-
Foley, K. (eds.). (2005). US Atlantic and Gulf of
Mexico marine mammal stock assessments - 2005.
Pygmy sperm whale {Kogia hreviceps): Western
North Atlantic stock. NOAA Tech memo 194: 50-
54. http://www.ncfsc.noaa.gov/nefsc/tm/tml94/

146

The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 147

Scottish Centre for Ecology and the Natural Environment and Glasgow Natural History Society

Photographic Competition 2012

First Prize. Male palmate newt (Lissotriton helveticus), Ben Lomond April 2011, Anna Muir

Second prize The Dubh Lochan, Loch Lomondside, John Hume

147

The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 149-150

OBITUARIES

OBITUARY

Norman Roy Grist, 1918 -2010

Nonnan Roy Grist was bom in Doncaster on 9th March
1918. His inquisitive mind and love of nature was
evident at an early age. Among his childhood
possessions were astronomy books and a telescope.
When he moved to Glasgow as a schoolboy he lived in
Shawlands where he put the garden to good use; he set
up a den with his Meccano set, created a museum with
a Great Diving Beetle as a central exhibit, and made an
aquarium in a basin with snails, beetles and tadpoles.

At Shawlands Academy he excelled academically,
especially in Science. He expanded his love of music,
made many friends and cycled through the Highlands.
He became Dux of the school, and gained a Bursary to
Glasgow University where he studied for a combined
science and medical career. As a student at the
outbreak of war, Roy volunteered to help man a First
Aid Post in Pollokshaws Baths. He graduated BSc in
1939 and MB, ChB in 1942.

In 1941 he met his future wife Mary. During many
tennis matches, films, theatre visits and dances, they
got to know each other, and they were mamied in 1942.
Wartime duties and university studies kept them apart
for much of the war.

After completing his medical studies, Roy embarked
on military training in Leeds, which led to his
involvement in the D-Day landings as a captain in the
Royal Medical Corps. He went from the beaches of
Normandy through Northern France, Belgium, Holland
and through to the Rhine, enduring many hardships of
war, and later went on to serve in Palestine.

Returning to Glasgow in 1946 he was reunited with
Mary, now discharged from the WAAF, and started
what became an internationally renowned medical
career. His specialism was infectious diseases, at which
he excelled. He pioneered research into influenza at
Knightswood and Ruchill Hospitals in Glasgow which
helped to improve the lives of many Glaswegians.
While his reputation spread internationally he

continued with his love of natural history; for example
taking great delight in pointing out Kestrels nesting in
the tower of Ruchill Hospital.

By 1952 Roy was a lecturer in virus diseases, and
became head of the Regional Virus Laboratory at
Ruchill from 1958 to 1983. He became closely
involved with the World Health Organisation,
travelling abroad giving lectures, some of them in his
fluent French. He became Professor of Infectious
Diseases at Glasgow University in the mid 1960s.
Meanwhile, previous collaboration with other leading
workers in the field led to the formation in 1967 of the
Communicable Diseases (Scotland) Unit, recognised as
a prime example of a national suiweillance centre. He
was honoured by the Spanish Government for his
meticulous study (with others) of the Legionnaire's
Disease outbreak in Benidonn in 1973.

He was part of the virology initiative in creating the
first virus laboratory, was a founder member of the first
university virology department in 1962, and advised
the Western Regional Hospital Board from 1960 to
1974. He was a member of the Expert Advisory Panel
on Virus Diseases to the WHO from 1967 to 2001. He
developed a diagnostic and epidemiological service in
smallpox and polio.

Roy retired in 1983 but never stopped inquiring and
learning. Roy's life with Maiy was central; they shared
many interests and were always together. They
continued various activities into their eighties,
including their cottage in Arran which they shared with
Malay's brother Angus and his family. For 40 years they
lived in their home at Sydenham Court, where they
enjoyed working in the garden and watching wildlife.

They were both keen members of the Glasgow Natural
History Society and this undoubtedly played a big part
in their lives. Roy was President of the GNHS from
1993 to 1996. His almost obsessional interest in natural
history was demonstrated at a medical colleague’s
retirement when he was wearing his slug tie and talked
about slugs in his garage from the starter right through
to the coffee with no problem at all. His passion for
wildlife and knowledge generally was amazing. He
edited the GNHS newsletter for many years until 2004,
when he passed it over in very good shape to his
successor.

Roy and Mary were very sociable, outgoing people,
and it was with great sadness to Roy that Mary passed
away in 2009. Roy's life was appreciated greatly by
many people. He lived a good life and the world was a
better place for his contribution to it. Roy spent his
final year in the Red Cross House at Erskine Care
Home. Even there he had a computer set up with an

149

internet connection and would still send contributions
for the GNHS newsletter!

Roy died on June 7th, 2010 at the age of 92.

David Palmar

OBITUARY

Agnes Walker March 1930 - August 201 1

Agnes had many and varied interests, and as a result
had acquired friends from a variety of backgrounds.
She really loved people and greeted acquaintances so
enthusiastically whenever she met them.

Agnes was the eldest daughter of James and Elizabeth
McDonald. She was educated at Hutchesons' Girls
Grammar School, where she was the first science dux.
Having also passed her music grades to a high standard
she chose science as her future. Her studies at

Glasgow University were interrupted for a year when

she contracted TB, so she settled for an ordinary B Sc.
Her first post was at the National Engineering
Laboratory in East Kilbride. She gave up work to
many Nomian Walker and raise a family - a daughter
followed by three sons. She spent holidays at Nomian's
second home, Abemethy House, which later became a
Christian Outdoor Centre. While there she made

contact with the outdoor centre at Glenmore Lodge,
and used to lead students from Moray House on

expeditions to the Caimgonns to study the plant life.

Her determination to continue her academic studies led
to the breakdown of her marriage. She worked in the
Botany Department of Glasgow University with Dr Jim
Dickson researching the ancient history of bogs and
lochs using pollen identification, and gained an M Sc.
Her PhD was in a different field and at Belvidere
Hospital - the reactions of tumours (in mice) to
hypothermia.

The post of Assistant Keeper of Natural History at
Kelvingrove was an ideal one for Agnes. She focussed
on the botanical side, and set up many exhibitions, one
of the most important being that on the Scottish
Thistle. For this she drove to Blair Castle and was
allowed to transport in the boot of her car a valuable
historic painting in which the thistle is depicted. During
this time she also gave lectures on Botany and Fungi
for the adult education department of Glasgow
University. She joined the Glasgow Natural History
Society in 1969 and was a member of Council from
1990 - 1992. At the time of the Glasgow Garden
Festival, Agnes designed a poster on the Classification
of Flowering Plants, which was published by the
Natural History Museum in London.

Having been a member of the Botanical Society of the
British Isles for some years, in 1989 she was appointed
reeorder for vc 103, Mid Ebudes, which comprises the
islands of Mull, Coll and Tiree. She organised several
recording meetings in these islands, which were
attended by many expert botanists. On Tiree the
outdoor centre which she had hoped to use was not
ready, but Agnes organised a stone bam beside the
guest house to be supplied with electricity and tables
set up with microscopes to help identification of plants
in the evening. On the last night, a ceilidh was held in
the same bam.

After she retired from her job at Kelvingrove, Agnes
took a course on computing, and also acquired a
knowledge of how to computerise music. Her
technical expertise enabled her to work with Dr
Kenneth Elliot who had been for many years restoring
the works of Robert Carver, Scotland’s greatest 16“
Cent. Composer. With the help of others in GU music
department , he succeeded in his ambition and the
eomplete works were published and are being widely
performed.

Through friendship with Mrs Dudgeon of Helmsdale
who started the herb garden at Timespan Museum in
Helmsdale, Agnes developed a great interest in herbs.
She researched the use of herbs in Scotland, for both
medicinal and culinary purposes. This resulted in the
beautifully illustrated book a “Garden of Herbs”. The
illustrations were from Nicolas Culpepper’s Herbal (no
copyright needed) and some by her friend Anita
Peannan. She gave a talk on this subjeet in the Royal
College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow and
was shown a notebook of herbal remedies from 18“
Cent. Scotland. She had transcribed this for issue as a
CD when she suffered the severe stroke which put an
end to her many activities.

Edna Stewart

150

The Glasgow’ Naturalist (online 20 1 2) Volume 25, Part 4, 151-155

BOOK REVIEWS

Blumea - Biodiversity, Evolution
and Biogeography of Plants

Proceedings of the Flora Malesiana Symposium

National Herbarium of the Netherlands. 2009. c.300
pages, colour and black white photographs, softback.
ISSN 0006-5196, £102.

“Flora Malesiana” is a forum for the entire field of
Malesian botany, facilitating the exchange of
infonnation and producing a variety of output fonnats
ranging from identification lists and specimen
databases to monographs, biodiversity assessments and
analysis of spatial patterns of biodiversity. It is hoped
that after the 2007 Symposium the Flora Malesiana
Project will turn into one of the first mnning mega
flora projects to become truly web-based and
interactive. This publication consists of the
presentations given at the 2007 Symposium.

Malesiana is recognised as a floristic region. It
includes the South Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java,
Borneo and Sulawesi and islands to the east as far as
New Guinea. Divisions within the region coirespond
to the geological history. The most famous division is
in a western and eastern sub-region, separated by
Wallace’s Line. Wallace found a distinct boundary
between the Southeast Asian- and the New Guinea-
Australian fauna, located east of the Philippines,
between Borneo and Sulawesi and finally between Bali
and Lombok. (Wallace was the British naturalist who
proposed the Theory of Evolution simultaneously with
Darwin.)

Although this publication is directed towards
professionals, the general reader can find much of
interest. There is an amazing series of scanning
electron micrographs of pollen grains of 21 Phyllanthus
species found in the Philippines as an aid to
classification.

There are wonderful photographs of flowers of the
parasitic Rafflesia - some species of which include the
world’s largest flowers, up to 1.5 m. diameter. New
species are still being discovered, yet the lowland
tropical rain forest which is an important habitat for
many species of Rafflesia is one of the most threatened
forest types in the Philippines and other tropical areas.
Even in protected areas such as the Mt. Kilanglad
Range Natural Park, unsustainable ecotourism
activities can damage Rafflesia plants and the roots of
their host vines. The flowers of some montane species
have been known to be brought down from the
mountains for visitors to see - greatly endangering the
survival of these populations.

Two botanists, C. Pendry and M. Watson based at the
RBG Edinburgh have been working on the Flora of

Nepal. They have a paper in which they argue that
there is a significant overlap of plant species and
genera between Nepal and Malesia, and that it would
be advantageous to workers on the Floras of each
region to cooperate with each other, allowing transfer
of expertise and speeding up the preparation of
accounts.

Throughout this publication and especially under the
heading of Conservation Studies, one is aware of the
rate at which the tropical rain forests arc disappearing
due to logging and mining. As more information on
the flora of this endangered habitat is gathered, perhaps
there will be more effort to save what is left.

Edna Stewart

Mayfly larvae (Ephemeroptera) of
Britian and Ireland: keys and a
review of their ecology

J.M. Elliott and U.H.Humpesch

Freshwater Biological Association Scientific
Publication No. 66, Ambleside, Cumbria. 152 pages,
soft back illustrated with colour photographs, diagrams
and drawings. ISBN 978-0-900386-78-7, £27.00.

From the FBA stable comes another publication which
is only partly an update of an earlier key on mayfly
larvae. The other part is a comprehensive account of
their ecology with a massive bibliography of primaiy
sources. Added information is given on Red Data Book
status and a list of anglers’ names. A pictorial key to
families accompanied by whole habitat drawings of
typical examples with realistic backgrounds give users
a high degree of confidence in correct assignation.

As is often the case with insects, naming ones captured
to species level in several cases requires patience
involving microscope work. The utility of mayflies in
water quality assessment is well known. This requires
accurate species identification and knowledge of their
individual ecologies. This new publication provides for
that process. The discussion of various mayfly studies
in the context of stream drift is of interest. The
principal author pioneered the British side of
investigations into drift, in which the Ephemeroptera
are a prominent part, starting in 1965. All the aspects
covered in this work are comprehensively sourced; one
rather encyclopaedic sentence is accompanied by
references to 60 scientific papers.

E. Geoffrey Hancock

151

Lost Land of the Dodo

Anthony Cheke and Julian Hume

T & A D Poyser, London 2008, 464pp hardback with
numerous figures, illustrations and maps, including a
series of colour paintings of extinct and living species.
ISBN 978 0 7136 6544, £45

The Dodo must be the most famous of all extinct birds.
But it is only the sad flagship for a whole wildlife
community that once existed on the islands of
Mauritius, Reunion and Rodriguez in the Indian Ocean,
and which has been destroyed or severely disrupted by
human settlement. This book is more than just another
account of wildlife on a tropical holiday destination. It
is a major study of the impact and histoiy of human
settlement on island wildlife. The islands were
uninhabited when first discovered and so the
remarkable animals and plants found there had evolved
in the absence of human contact. The islands were also
on a major trading route from Europe to the Far East
and so soon became visited by many passing sailing
ships for water and supplies. Crucially, the first sailors
and settlers to arrive there have left good records of
what they found and saw. So there are better accounts
of what happened to the dozens of species of giant
tortoises, birds and bats which became extinct, and the
habitat changes that man brought about, than for any
other island archipelago in the world.

Darwin visited for a few days in 1836 but already by
then the native species were so rare that Darwin never
saw any - the only animals he found were introduced
species. This will be the definitive account of the
history and fate of wildlife in the Mascarene islands.
One of the authors, Anthony Cheke, has had a lifetime
fascination with the islands and his deep passion and
commitment shine through this book. Both authors are
research scientists but unusually they can convey their
infonnation in a most lively and often amusing way.
This book is a genuine delight to read, always turning
up strange and fascinating stories and facts. It is also a
work of real scholarship. There are no less than 128
pages of appendices and chapter notes. This might
sound profoundly dull but they contain so many
strange and unexpected delights that you soon find
yourself browsing for more. It is not intended as a
holiday guide to the wildlife but anyone taking a
holiday to the islands with a serious interest in wildlife
will find this book infinitely rewarding. It is also not a
totally bleak story. The book contains a chapter by
Carl Jones on the development and successes of the
conservation movement in Mauritius and the many
success stories in species recovery and habitat
restoration. Highly recommended.

David Houston

The Encyclopedia of Birds

Edited by Christopher Perrins

Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2009, 656 pages,
paperback with colour illustrations, distribution maps
and scale drawings. ISBN 978-0-19-956800, £19.99.

This is quite a heavy tome, at 656 quarto pages, printed
on quality paper and full of illustrations. It covers the
bird families of the entire world, and was issued in
paperback form in September 2009. The editor,
Christopher Perrins, is a fellow of Wolfson College,
Oxford, was Professor of Ornithology at Oxford for 10
years and is a Fellow of the Royal Society.

Written by an international team of experts, it reflects
the latest developments in zoology.

Accompanied by a comprehensive index, giving both
common and scientific names, it covers bird families
rather than individual species in detail.

In order to sec what to expect of this book, 1 looked up
a couple of common British species.

The Stoncchat is merely mentioned once, as part of a
treatment of behaviour in thrushes, and is said to
defend its territory vigorously against potential
predators.

Look in the index under Golden Eagle, and you will
find no index entry. Under Eagle, Golden, you are
redirected to Aquila chiysaetoc, rather than the usual
chiysaelos, which is also mentioned elsewhere. Once at
the several pages on the Hawks, Eagles and Old World
Vultures, one learns about the Golden Eagle only that:

• Eagles of the genus Aquila feed on live prey as
well as carrion, and about siblicide in which the
older of two chicks nonnally kills the younger one.

• Home ranges of the Golden Eagle vaiy in size
between 4500 and 7300 hectares.

• Certain nest sites are used for at least a centuiy,
and the nests may grow to an enonnous size.

So, anyone expecting a page or a set of pages about a
particular species will be disappointed. Despite the
capacious nature of this tome, there is, necessarily and
understandably (although also perhaps
disappointingly), no coverage of individual species, but
only of a whole family at a time. Since the scope of the
book is the entire World, this is perhaps hardly
suiprising.

Rather than species accounts, the treatment is themed
within the chapters about Families. It is these themes
(behavioural and conseiwation topics) which make the
book very readable, rather than being a species by
species treatment. Themes to do with Hawks, Eagles
and Old World Vultures include such topics as “Death
on Wings”, “Couples and Colonies”, “Nowhere to
Nest”, “Top Predators at Risk”, or “Preying on
Livestock”. The Factfile which accompanies each
chapter lists the distribution, habitat, plumage, voice,
eggs, diet and conservation status of a Family.

In conclusion, anyone could pick up this book and be
delighted with a readable account of groups of bird

152

species, provided that one is prepared to rest this heavy
tome somewhere convenient. It is hardly a laptop or
bedside reading book! The photographs of
representative species of each family arc stunning, and
the book is good value for its size and comprehensive
nature, and worth having for the photographs alone.

David Palmar

An Odyssey with Animals: A
Veterinarian’s Reflections on the
Animal Rights & Welfare Debate

Adrian R. Morrison.

Oxford University Press, 2009. 288 pages, hardback.
ISBN 978-0-19-537444-5, £19.99

Adrian Morrison is an American veterinaiy surgeon
who is now Professor Emeritus of Behavioural
Neuroscience at the University of Pennsylvania’s
Veterinary Medical School. It was here that he became
widely known for his research into REM sleep using
cats. ( REM is a phase in sleep associated with rapid
eye movement).

In the introduction the author explains how an attack
on his laboratory by animal rights activists in 1990,
was the catalyst which ultimately caused him to write
this most interesting and veiy readable book, which at
first glance appears to be a comparatively slim volume,
but which in content is far from slim. “An Odyssey
with Animals” is exactly what it says on its well
designed dust jacket : “A veterinarian’s Reflections on
the Animal Rights and Welfare Debate”.

In the early part of the book the reader is lead into the
world of the experimental laboratory where the
findings are discussed and explained. That Moirison
loves his work is clear, as is the frustration and
depression that followed the attack on his laboratory.
He describes the Animal Rights Societies in the USA
as being large, wealthy and powerful organisations,
whose extremist members are regarded by the FBI as;
“one of today’s most serious domestic teiTorism
threats.” (page 7).

He admits that at one time, along with other scientists
involved in biomedical research, he was reluctant to
stand up and be counted, such was the perceived threat
from some such organisations. His attitude has now
changed however, as has his acceptance that many
moderate Welfare Societies can be a force for good.

As he reflects on animal welfare as a whole and on the
use of animals in biomedical research in particular,
Morrison makes a strong case for their continued use in
this type of research. It is his contention that medical
knowledge cannot progress without the use of animals
at some stage and he reminds the reader of the huge
benefits there have been to the health of humans and
animals alike, thanks to such research. He goes on to
point out that effective legislation has been in place
since 1985 in the USA to ensure that animal
experimentation is earned out in a humane manner and

in approved laboratories which are regularly inspected
by the authorities. America has in this respect
followed the lead of the UK, which had such laws in
place more than a century before. Efforts are now
made to keep animal experiments to a minimum and to
use analgesics (pain relieving drugs) even when the
animal is showing no overt sign of pain. There can be
no doubt that Mondson loves animals. There are many
references to his pet cat Buster. It is his contention,
and I agree, that animals cannot contemplate their own
death. Were this to be otherwise Moirison says he
could not have conducted the research he did.

The many other uses man makes of animals are
considered as are the ways in which these are viewed.
As someone who spent his boyhood on a farm,
Morrison’s perception of what is or is not good practice
may differ from that of many young people of today,
whose understanding and experience of the countryside
may now be remote. He does express concem that in
the world of food production, commercial
considerations will sometimes take precedence over
that of animal welfare. I agree, and believe that the
poultiy industiy on both sides of the Atlantic may be
an example of this.

In the final part of the Odyssey we return to the
Welfare Debate, this time with the “Philosophers”.
Here the author discusses the views of those with
whom he most strongly disagrees, using quotations
from the writings of many erudite individuals to
support his own arguments. Morrison has by now,
however, modified some of his opinions and, to
illustrate this, tells of how he had even invited a new “
animal rightist” friend (page 221 ) to deliver a lecture to
his students.

This is a most thoughtful and thought provoking book.
It is veiy well written and researched. (There are more
than three hundred references.) 1 recommend it,
in particular to anyone with a scientific background.

Margaret Stead

The World from Beginnings to 4000

BCE

Ian Tattersall

New Oxford World History, Oxford University Press,
Oxford 2008, 143 pp hardback with b & w illustrations
and photographs. ISBN 978 0 19 516712 2 hardback
£10.99 and 978 0 19 533315 2 paperback.

Despite the rather misleading title, this is a book on
human evolution. Yet another. There are so many
books in this field that the first question must be, what
does this one offer thatn the others don't. One answer
is brevity - at only about a hundred pages it offers a
snappy introduction that is also authoritative and
reasonably up to date. The author is a prolific research
scientist on the human fossil record and curator of
Anthropology at the American Museum of Natural

153

History. Perhaps we should also add that it is eheap!
The book is part of an OUP series on World History
and is clearly aimed at the general reader who may be
new to biology. So there are general introductions to
the process of evolution, how fossils are fonned and
how animals are classified. It gives a good summary of
the key stages in human evolution, dealing with
infomiation from DNA and other molecular techniques
as well as the classic fossil and archaeological
evidence. The book is clearly written and docs provide
a handy and accessible introduction to what can be a
rather complicated story.

David Houston

Wildlife Around Glasgow. 50
Remarkable Sites to Explore

Richard Sutcliffe and over 40 other authors

Glasgow Museums, 2010. 176 pages, softback, ISBN
0902752960, £9.99.

This is an excellent and inexpensive book that caters
for a wide range of tastes. Don't be put off by its
initial appearance which may remind you of Glasgow
Corporation and its associated political coiTcctness.
The format resembles “Archaeology Around Glasgow;
50 Remarkable Sites to Visit” also published by
Glasgow Museums. In the wildlife book those
interested in natural history will find a remarkable
depth of knowledge and be continually suipriscd by
new aspects of a wide range of natural history,
including geology and soils, as well as animals, plants,
fungi and trees. If on the other hand you want to know
about green and pleasant places to go for a walk in that
arc reached easily from Glasgow, this book is also
useful.

On Christmas day every year, rather than spend all the
day indoors, I like to go somewhere to take exercise
with my family. It has to be reasonably accessible and
not too rough ground. Reading the book gave a wide
choice of venues and we chose this year to go to
Ardmore Point near Cardross on the Clyde Estuaiy.
This turned out to be a 3km walk around a coastal
promontory with great views on all sides and amazing
sea birds in large numbers. The book describes its
interesting geology but we will have to return on a
warmer day when the rocks are not covered in snow.
The place is suiprisingly wild and natural, including
the thick gorsc that impedes progress at one point in
the walk.

The other site near my home in the book is Loch Libo.
The loch itself is a half mile long and is in the valley,
sun'ounded by trees, just beside Uplawmoor. I thought
I knew about its wildlife (clumps of aspen, tufted
sedges, bogbean, an assortment of ducks, grebes and
Whooper swans), but it turns out there are many other
fomis of life I had not seen (more sedges, a poisonous
plant called cowbane and water voles which arc now
rare in Scotland). The site is owned by Scottish Natural

Heritage and you also have to cross the railway line to
get in to it, which puts many people off, so you are
unlikely to meet anyone except a few fishennen.
Without a guidebook like this you might miss it, which
would be a shame.

An interesting part of this book is the Introduction. It
provides intriguing infomiation about the local history
of Glasgow landscapes since the ice age. I was unaware
that 6,000 years ago our climate went through a period
when it was both hotter and drier than it is now; at that
time it was mainly covered by forest. This is not to be
confused with the medieval period about 1,000 years
ago when there was another, but slightly less
pronounced, warm period compared to the present. The
main changes in plants and animals are described,
some of which arc recent. The large amounts of de-
icing salt put on roads during the winter has given rise
to the presence of salt-tolerant grasses, that otherwise
grow near the sea, along motorways and bus routes.

A Student’s Guide to the Seashore
(third edition)

J D. Fish & S. Fish

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 2011. 527
pages, paperback with 408 line drawings and 32 colour
plates. ISBN 978-0-521-72059-5, £35.

‘Fish & Fish’ has been a successful guide to the
seashore because it meets the needs of a varied
readership. As both an identification guide and a source
of information on the biology of littoral organisms, it
has proved useful to students, secondary and tertiary
educators, and amateur naturalists. The second edition
was “the first choice of students of marine biology in
NW Europe”, according to the publisher. The third
edition, appearing after a 15 year gap, is likely to
maintain this position. It covers more species than did
the previous two editions (over 650, compared with the
second edition’s 600 and the first’s 500), and now
includes introduced species, such as the invasive
wireweed Sargasswn muticinn and caipet sea-squirt
Dideimnim vexiUum (both now present in the Firth of
Clyde); the taxonomy and the biological information
on individual species have been updated; and the book
is “now enhanced” with 32 colour plates.

The general format of the previous editions has been
retained. After a brief introduction to tides and
different shore types, there is an “Illustrated Guide” in
the fomi of an identification key enabling organisms to
be quickly assigned to a phylum and class, which has
been reorganised and made more user friendly. The rest
of the book is a series of chapters, each devoted to a
major plant group or animal phylum and including
dichotomous keys to families (where appropriate) and
species. The diagnostic features of each species are
described and an overview of its biology is provided.

154

Changes in the formatting of the headings, such as all
headings being in a sans serif font and class and sub-
class names being ‘boxed’, are improvements that
make it easier for readers to find their way around the
third edition than the previous two. Most species are
still illustrated with detailed and accurate line
drawings. Although there are a few entirely new
drawings, and some new labelling and insets have been
added to others, the majority remain unchanged, except
that they are now set against a pale grey background.
Whilst no doubt the latter feature has been introduced
to give the book a more contemporary appearance, it
has unfortunately resulted in a slight reduction in the
sharpness of the drawings, which made me wonder
why aesthetic design considerations should have taken
priority over scientific clarity. The first edition
included four colour plates, which were omitted in the
second edition. The return of colour in the fonn of 32
plates (including some photographs carried over from
the first edition) is a welcome bonus, perhaps made
affordable by the economics of digital technology;
some groups, such as the lichens, are illustrated only in
colour photographs, and distinctions between certain
easily confused species, notably limpets, are clarified.
It is regrettable that, as in the previous editions, no
scale-bars are given in any line drawings or
photographs. The authors continue to justify this by
stating that sizes are included in the diagnostic
information. However, this is not always the case (e.g.
there are no indications of size for the majority of
lichens), and to identify some organisms you have to
oscillate between keys, diagnostic infonnation and
drawings all on different pages. The presence of scale-
bars would have eliminated the need for at least some
of this page flipping. This is a minor initation, which
does not detract from the overall usefulness of the
book.

‘Fish & Fish’ is too big and heavy to be practicable as
an aid to identifying specimens in the field, and so, on
this score an5rway, it cannot compete with any of the
currently available pocket-sized identification guides. It
can, however, be recommended unreservedly for
indoor-based identification work and as a preliminary
source of information on the life-cycle and ecology of
individual seashore organisms.

Iain C. Wilkie

155

The Glasgow Naturalist (online 2012) Volume 25, 157-158

Proceedings 2010

The chair, place, lecturer’s name and title of lecture are
given for most meetings. GKB - Graham Kerr
Building. All meetings were well attended.

O* January

Visit to University of Glasgow Library to see natural
history books in their special collection.

IS*** January

Roger Downie, GKB. Lecture from Rosin Campbell-
Palmer, “Re-introducing beavers to Scotland”. Held
jointly with Glasgow University Zoological Society.

9“* February

Roger Downie, GKB. Lecture from Heather McHaffie,
“Scottish plants at the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Edinburgh”.

23’'*’ February

Roger Downie, GKB. 80'*’ AGM followed by a lecture
from Debbie McNeill, “Great crested newts in
Scotland, and the Gartcosh translocation”.

9*** March

Roger Downie, GKB. Members’ photographic night.
Preceded by a tutorial from Jeanne Robinson,
“Orthoptera - grasshoppers and their allies”.

13“* April

Roger Downie, GKB. Lecture held jointly with
Hamilton NHS and Paisley NHS from Mel Tonkin,
“Red squirrels”. Preceded by a tutorial from Eilidh
Spence, “The Glasgow Living Water Project”.

11*** May

Roger Downie, GKB. Lecture from Willie Yeomans,

“Clyde River Trust”.

Excursions

Including the summer social 20 day excursions and 2
weekend excursions were held throughout the year.

14*** September

GKB. Exhibition meeting with wine and cheese.

6th October

GKB. Blodwen Lloyd Binns lecture and presidential
address from Roger Downie, “Adventures with
amphibians”.

30“* and3f‘ October

Weekend Conference on Urban Biodiversity.

9*** November

Roger Downie, GKB. Lecture from Sarah Cleveland,
“Wildlife disease research in Africa: protecting the
health of parks and people”. Preceded by tutorials

from Maggie Reilly and Anne Orchardson on
“Elizabeth Gray’s fossils and Hannah Robertson’s
marine biology”.

IS*** November

Roger Downie, GKB. Lecture from Shanan Tobe,
“Tigers and Leopards and Bears, Oh
My!! Identification of Endangered species in
Traditional East Asian Medicines”. Held jointly with
Glasgow University Zoological Society.

14“* December

Christmas Dinner at Cafe Connect followed by a talk
from David Hawker, “An island
biosphere: Menorca’s plants”.

Officers and Council elected at the 2010 AGM
President

Roger Downie, BSc, PhD

Vice Presidents
John Knowler, PhD
Bob Gray, BSc, MBiol

Councillors
Lindsay Gemmell
Susan Putter

General Secretary
Mary Child, BSc, MEd
Assistants

Lynn Diinnachie Council Meetings
Anne Orchardson Minute Book
Avril Walkinshaw Social
Roger Downie Winter programme

Treasurer

Morag Mackinnon, BA, BSc

Membership Secretary
Richard Weddle, BSc

Librarian

Janet Palmar, BSc, PhD
Pam Murdoch - Assistant

Editor

Dominic McCafferty, BSc, PhD
Newsletter Editor

David Palmar, MA, Dip Ed, Dip Comp Ed

Section Convenors
Richard Weddle Bio-recording
Edna Stewart Botany
Anne Orchardson Excursions

157

David Palmar Ornithology
David Palmar Photography

BLB Executive

President, Secretary, Treasurer

Scientific Advisors Peter Maepherson FRCP. FRCR.

DTDC, FLS and John Knowler

Technical advisor Richard Weddle

Proceedings 2011

The chair, place, lecturer’s name and title of lecture are
given for most meetings. GK.B - Graham Kerr
Building. All meetings were well attended.

1 1"' January

Roger Downic, GKB. Tutorial and lecture from Colin
Wolfe, “Inspired by the natural world”.

February

Paisley Museum. Joint lecture with Paisley NHS.

8*'’ February

Roger Downie, GKB. Lecture from Keith Watson,
“Flora of Renfrew”. Preceded by a tutorial from Zara
Gladman on crayfish.

22"*' February

Barbara Mable, GKB. 8L' AGM followed by a lecture
from Richard Tipping, “Moments of crisis: past
climatic changes and their impacts in Scotland”.

8"' March

Barbara Mable, GKB. Members' photographic night.
Preceded by a tutorial from Tom Prescott,

“Biodiversity and management of aspen”.

12'" April

Barbara Mable, GKB. Lecture from lain Wilkie,
“Autotomy and other animal detachment mechanisms
in the home, garden and beyond”

10'" May

Barbara Mable, GKB. Lecture from Barbara Mable,
“Evolution of plant reproductive systems in changing
environments”. Preceded by a tutorial from Jon Barnes
on intertidal Scottish crabs.

Excursions

Including the summer social 24 day excursions and 2
weekend excursions were held throughout the year.

20'" September

GKB. Exhibition meeting with wine and cheese.
October ll'"

Barbara Mable, GKB. Lecture from Scott Wilson,
“Introduced tree species in Scottish forests: recruits,
renegades or refugees?”. Preceded by a tutorial from
Roy Watling, “In the footsteps of Frederick Klotzch:
fungi and mycologists past and present”.

8'" November

Barbara Mable, GKB. Lecture from Keith Cohen,
“The bats of Scotland and Trinidad”. Preceded by a
tutorial from Crispin Hayes, “Working towards a
revival of the Clyde Valley orchards”.

16'" November

Barbara Mable, GKB. Blodwen Lloyd Binns Lecture
from Richard Abbott, “Plant speciation in action in the
UK: tales of the unexpected”.

13'" December. Christmas Dinner at Cafe Connect
followed by a talk from David Bradley and Emily
Waddell, “A contrast in expedition locations: Iceland
and Peru”.

Officers and Council elected at the 201 1 AGM
President

Barbara Mable BSc MSC PhD

Vice Presidents

Bob Gray BSC MlBiol
Roger Downie BSC PhD

Councillors

Lindsay Gemmcll
Susan Flitter

General Secretary
Mary Child, BSc, MEd
Assistants

Lynn Dunnachie Council Meetings
Anne Orchardson Minute Book
Avril Walkinshaw Social
Roger Downie Winter programme

Treasurer

Morag Mackinnon, BA, Bsc

Membership Secretary

Richard Weddle, BSc

Librarian

Janet Palmar, BSc, PhD
Pam Murdoch - Assistant

158

Editor

Dominic McCafferty, BSc, PhD

Newsletter Editor

David Palmar, MA, Dip Ed, Dip Comp Ed

Section Convenors
Richard Weddle Bio-recording
Edna Stewart Botany
Anne Orchardson Excursions
David Palmar Ornithology
David Palmar Photography
George Paterson Zoology

BLB Executive

President, Secretary, Treasurer

Scientific Advisors Peter Macpherson FRCP. FRCR,

DTDC, FLS and Roger Downie

Technical advisor Richard Weddle

Financial Advisor Bob Gray

159

The Glasgow Naturalist

Advice to Contributors

1. The Glasgow Naturalist publishes articles, short
notes and book reviews. All articles are peer reviewed
by a minimum of two reviewers. The subject matter of
articles and short notes should concern the natural
history of Scotland in all its aspects, including
historical treatments of natural historians. Details of
the journal can be found at
www.gnhs.org.uk/publications.html

2. Full papers should not normally exceed 20 printed
pages. They should be headed by the title and author,
postal and email address. Any references cited should
be listed in alphabetical order under the heading
References. All papers must contain a short abstract
summarising the work. The text should normally be
divided into sections with sub-headings such as
Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion and
Acknowledgements .

3. Short notes should not normally exceed one page of
A4 single-spaced. They should be headed by the title
and author's name, postal and email address. Any
references cited should be listed in alphabetical order
under the heading References. There should be no
other sub-headings. Any acknowledgements should be
given as a sentence before the references. Short notes
may cover, for example, new locations for a species,
rediscoveries of old records, ringed birds recovered,
occurrences known to be rare or unusual, interesting
localities not usually visited by naturalists, and
preliminary observations designed to stimulate more
general interest.

4. References should be given in full according to the
following style:

Pennie, I.D. (1951). Distribution of Capercaillie in
Scotland. Scottish Naturalist 63, 4-17.

Wheeler, A. (1975). Fishes of the World. Femdale
Editions, London.

Grist, N.R. & Bell, E.J (1996). Enteroviruses. Pp. 381-
90 In: Weatherall, D.J. (editor). Oxford Textbook of
Medicine. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

5. An organism’s genus and species should be given in
italics when first mentioned. Thereafter the common
name is only required. Please use lower case initial
letters for all common names e.g. wood avens,
blackbird; unless the comro.on name includes a
normally capitalised proper name e.g. Kemp's ridley
turtle. The nomenclature of vascular plants should
follow Stace, C.A. (1997). The new Flora of the
British Isles, (Second Edition). Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge. Normal rules of zoological
nomenclature apply. When stating distribution, it may
be appropriate to give information by vice-county.

6. All papers, including electronic versions, must be
prepared on A4, double spaced throughout, with
margins of 25mm, with 12 point Times New Roman
font. Tables and the legends to figures should be typed
separately and attached to the end of the manuscript.
The Editor can make arrangements to have hand-
v/ritten manuscripts typed if necessary.

7. Tables are numbered in arabic numerals e.g. Table 1.
These should be double-spaced on separate sheets with
a title and short explanatory paragraph underneath.

8. Line drawings and photographs are numbered in
sequence in arabic numerals e.g. Fig. 1. If an
illustration has more than one part, each should be
identified as 9 (a), (b) etc. They should be supplied as
a high resolution digital image or camera-ready for
uniform reduction of one-half on A4 size paper. Line
drawings should be drawn and flilly labelled in Indian
ink, dry-print lettering or laser printed. A metric scale
must be inserted in photo-micrographs etc. Legends
for illustrations should be typed on a separate sheet.
Photographs are normally printed in black and white,
however the Editor is able to accept a small number of
high quality colour photographs for each issue.

9. Articles should be submitted to the Editor:
Dr Dominic McCafferty by email
dominie. mccaffertv@glasgow.ac.iik either as a single
word processed document or pdf. Photographs and
illustrations should be high resolution with a minimum
of 300 dpi in tif or jpeg format. Please contact the
Editor if you require assistance with photographs as in
some cases suitable photographs can be obtained.

10. When the article is accepted for publication, the
author should return the corrected manuscript to the
Editor as soon as possible. Final proofs should be
returned to the Editor by email / return of post.
Alterations at this stage should be kept to the
correction of typesetting errors. More extensive
alterations may be charged to the author.

1 1 . A copy of the published article will be sent to the
first author as a pdf file. Ten reprints will be supplied
free of charge for full papers only. Additional reprints
required will be charged at extra cost.

12. All submissions are liable to assessment by the
Editor for ethical considerations, and publication may
be refused on the recommendation of the Editorial
Committee.

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